NASA SP-

ORIGINS OF 


NASA 


NAMES 


Helen T. Wells, Susan H. Whiteley, 

and Carrie E. Karegeannes 

The NASA History Series 

S<ientifi• and Te<hnhal Information Offi•e 1976 

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION 

Washington, D.C. 
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data 

Wells, Helen T 

Origins of NASA names. 

(NASA SP ; 4402) 


Includes bibliographical references and index. 


Supt. ofDocs. no.: NAS 1.21:4402 


I. United States. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 2. Astronau

3. Aeronautics-United States. I. Whiteley, Susan H., joint author. II. Karegeann

author. Ill. Title. IV. Title: NASA names. V. Series: United States. National Aer

Administration. NASA SP; 4402. 

TL521.312.W45 629.4'0973 76-608131 

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, 

U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 

Price $3.65 Stock Number033-000-00636-5 

Library ofCongress Catalog Card Number 75-600069 
FOREWORD 

This book was started many years ago. From time to time, the w

was interrupted in favor of tasks that seemed more pressing. Meanwhile

number of names generated by NASA continued to grow, and the wo

be done increased. Now it has been brought to completion, and I am h

to offer it to the public. From the number of times the staff has consu

the manuscript to answer telephone queries, the publication should p

useful. 

MONTE D. WRIGHT 

Director, NASA History O

June 1975 

CONTENTS 


P

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

I. Launch Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

II. Satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

III. Space Probes; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

IV. Manned Space Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

V. Sounding Rockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

VI. NASA Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Appendix A. Selected List ofAbbreviations, Acronyms, and Terms. 1

Appendix B. International Designation of Spacecraft. . . . . . . . . . . . 1

AppendixC. NASAMajorLaunchRecord, 1958-1974.......... 1

Appendix D. NASA Naming Committees. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Reference Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

TheAuthors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

v 

PREFACE 


This book was designed to answer questions about the ongms 

NASA-associated names. The impetus for its preparation came from t

Johnson Space Center Historian, James M. Grimwood, who called atte

tion to the need for such a compilation. If, besides answering specific que

tions, the book raises further questions or stimulates the reader to delve fu

ther into the subject of space exploration, it will have served its purpo

well. 

Names given to spaceflight projects and programs have originated fro

no single source or method. Some have their foundations in mythology a

astrology, some in legend and folklore. Some have historic connotation

Some are based on a straightforward description of their mission, oft

resulting in acronyms. (As Webster puts it, an acronym is a "word form

from the initial letters or syllables of the successive parts of a compou

term"; hence, "TIROS" for "Television and Infra-Red Observati

Satellite.") Some grew out of a formal process within NASA under t

NASA Project Designation Committee. Others evolved somewhat casua

and were officially adopted after their use had become widespread. Ma

others, of course, were originated by non-NASA sources when ongoi

projects were transferred to NASA from other agencies. 

Parts I through V list names of launch vehicles, spacecraft, mann

spaceflight programs, and sounding rockets. Some of these were the p

mary responsibility of NASA. Some names apply to projects for whi

NASA shared responsibility or had a major support role-for instance, t

international Alouette satellites. Some names apply to hardware that NAS

purchased from another agency, such as the Air Force Agena launch vehi

stage. Part VI lists NASA field installations and gives the origins of th

names. 

This study is limited to names of approved projects through 1974; 

does not include names of numerous projects which have been or are bei

studied or projects that were canceled or postponed before reaching actu

flight-such as the Nova large launch vehicle. It does not attempt to reco

the history of the listed projects except as it may be related to the nami

process, nor does it attempt to describe the projects and hardware beyond 

vii 
nontechnical statement of mission or function. It does, 

origins of each name, answering as far as possible who 

devised the name, when they adopted it, and what the 

selection. The information about each name is as spe

documentation could provide. Because of the passag

plicity of organizations participating, and the unavail

documentation, it is, we regret, inevitable that some 

credit in the naming processes have been overlooked. 

So many persons have provided information that 

ble to acknowledge each one's contribution. Referen

credit specific assistance on particular points. Specia

historians, their staffs, and historical monitors at NAS

dinated local research, and to Dr. Eugene M. Emme, N

Dr. Frank W. Anderson, Jr., Publications Manager, 

guidance in organizing and editing the manuscript. Ar

the Library of Congress was very helpful in finding 

and NASA Archivist Lee D. Saegesser spent many 

historical photographs of spacecraft and vehicles. S

graphs of mythological figures are listed at the end ofth

Comments and additional information on the ori

will always be welcomed. 

viii 
NOTE 

For consistency and to avoid confusion, the numerical designations 

spacecraft within the text conform to the arabic numeral system. Until196

NASA chose roman numerals to designate successful flight missio

although there were notable exceptions. Italics indicate spacecraft that ha

attained orbit, space probes that have achieved an altitude above 64 0

kilometers, and all manned suborbital flights. Spacecraft launch failures 

tain their preflight letter designations. 

No single system of numbering spacecraft and launch vehicles has be

followed by NASA through the years, and often two or more designatio

have existed for one spacecraft. Usually, however, spacecraft in a series a

given letter designations in alphabetical order before launch and success

launches within a series are numbered consecutively with arabic numerals. 

Many satellites and space probes have followed this pattern and m

launch vehicles have been numbered separately. There were exception

launches that failed sometimes upset the numbering sequence (for examp

Pioneer 3 followed Pioneer 1) and designations for spacecraft within a ser

at times did not appear to follow a given sequence (ATS-B was launch

before ATS-A; OAO 2 was known as OAO-A2 before launch). Laun

vehicle development flights were numbered consecutively, including sub

bital flights (Atlas-Centaur 2; Atlas-Centaur 3, suborbital; Atlas-Centa

4). 

The numbering systems for the first three manned spaceflig

programs-as the new space agency developed approaches in an evolvi

field-were not consistent. In addition to the overall flight number, ea

manned flight had a separate designation, named and numbered in 

quence, for the launch vehicle combination that was employed. Except f

flights in the Mercury program and unmanned flights in the Gemini pr

gram, these secondary designations were not official names, but were us

by NASA for reference (in the Gemini program) or launch vehicle design

tion (Apollo). For example, Freedom 7 was also known as Mercur

Redstone 3 and Friendship 7 as Mercury-Atlas 6. 

In the Mercury program, the choice of the number "7" by the origin

seven Mercury astronauts precluded the use of roman numerals for t

ix 
spacecraft. Project Gemini was the only manned program 

numerals, and even its early unmanned flights were named 

system (Gemini- Titan 1, Gemini- Titan 2). In the Apollo prog

sion was assigned an overall number and each command and 

and lunar module was given a separate number designating 

unit (for example, "CSM-108" and "LM-6" designate

Apollo 12 modules). Each Apollo launch vehicle was as

number that indicated both the vehicle model and the speci

on that mission, such as "AS-201'' and "AS-507." The "20

series referred to Saturn IB and Saturn V launch vehicles; "A

Saturn.'' The 10 Saturn I development flights, on the oth

designated ''Saturn Apollo.'' 

In addition, each spacecraft or piece that separately ente

was given a number and letter designation, according to th

designation system (see Appendix B). Spacecraft that sep

orbit or after leaving earth orbit also were given designation

the Apollo 15 Subsatellite, ejected into lunar orbit from th

mand module, and the Soviet softlanding capsules that de

Martian surface from theMars2 andJ space probes). 

X 
I 


LAUNCH VEHICLES 
Dr. Robert H. Goddard with the world's first liquid-propellant ro

March 1926 at Auburn, Massachusetts. 

LAUNCH VEHICLES 

Launch vehicles are the rocket-powered systems that provide transp

tation from the earth's surface into the environment of space. In the e

days of the U.S. civilian space program the term "launch vehicle" was u

by NASA in preference to the term "booster" because "booster" had b

associated with the development of the military missiles. ''Booster'' now 

crept back into the vernacular of the Space Age and is used interchange

with "launch vehicle." 

In 1971 NASA managed five launch vehicles in the National Lau

Vehicle Program: Scout, Thor-Delta, Atlas-Centaur, Saturn IB, and Sa

V. In 1974 a new combination, the Titan-Centaur, launched its first satel

Performance capability of these vehicles varied greatly, ranging from Sc

which was used to launch small scientific payloads, to Saturn V, w

launched manned Apollo missions into circumlunar flight. Beginning in 

1980s, NASA's reusable Space Shuttle was scheduled to replace many 

pendable boosters for orbiting satellites and manned missions (see Sp

Shuttle in Part IV). 

Names listed in this section include designations of launch vehicles 

major vehicle stages, or sections, that are used or have been used in the 

by NASA. Nearly all the names came from the military services or 

Department of Defense, which traditionally turned to ancient mytholog

selecting names for ballistic missiles and space boosters. 

LAUNCH VEHICLES 


Thor-Able 

ABLE. The Able upper stage was one of several derived in 1958 by the Dep

ment of Defense's Advanced Research Projects Agency, Douglas Airc

Company, and Space Technology Laboratories from Vanguard launch v

cle components. It was used with Thor or Atlas first stages. The n

signified "A" or "first" (from military phonetic communications prac

of stipulating key words beginning with each letter of the alphabet). 1 

Delta.) 
ORIGINS OF 

Thor-Agen

from th

Range, at 

Gemini Ag

as seen f

spacecraf

for rendez

Marchl96

AGENA. An upper-stage launch vehicle used in combination 

first stages, Agena originally was developed for the 

Lockheed Missiles Systems Division (now Lockheed Mis

pany). The Department of Defense's Advanced Resear

(ARPA) proposed to name the stage in 1958 for the sta

stellation Centaurus because the rocket was an upper st

sky." 1 "Agena" first appeared in the Geography of the 

in the 1800s by the "popularizing Connecticut astronom

ritt, and was preserved in American dictionaries as the po

6 
LAUNCH VEHICLES 


star Beta Centauri. 2 Burritt was thought to have coined the name from alp

and gena ("the knee") because he had located the star near the "ri

foreleg" of the constellation. 3 Lockheed approved the choice of the na

since it followed Lockheed's tradition of naming aircraft and missiles a

stellar phenomena-such as the Constellation aircraft and Polaris in

continental ballistic missile. • ARPA formally approved the name in Ju

1959. 5 

Agena A, the first version of the stage, was followed by the Agena 

which had a larger fuel capacity and engines that could restart in space. T

later Agena D was standardized to provide a launch vehicle for a variety 

military and NASA payloads. 6 NASA used Atlas-Agena vehicles to lau

large earth satellites as well as lunar and interplanetary space probes; Th

Agena vehicles launched s<;ientific satellites, such as OGO (Orbit

Geophysical Observatory) and Alouette, and applications satellites, such 

the Echo 2 communications satellite and Nimbus meteorological satelli

In Project Gemini the Agena D, modified to suit the specialized 

quirements of space rendezvous and docking maneuvers, became 

GeminiAgena Target Vehicle (GATV). 

7 
ORIGINS OF 

Launch of Mercur

tronaut John H. G

ship 7 for the first 

spaceflight 20 Febru

At/as (courtesy L
LAUNCH VEHICLES 


Models ofAtlas upper-stage configurations. Left to right: Atlas, 

At/as-Agena, Mercury-At/as, At­

/as-Centaur, At/as-A b/e. 

ATLAS. The Atlas launch vehicle was an adaptation of the U.S. Air Force At

intercontinental ballistic missile. The modified Atlas launched the f

manned orbital flights in Project Mercury and NASA used it with the Ag

or Centaur upper stages for a variety of unmanned space missions. 

Early in 1951 Karel J. Bossart, head of the design team at Convair (C

solidated Vultee Aircraft Corporation) that was working on the mis

project for the Air Force, decided the project (officially listed as MX-15

should have a popular name. He asked some of his staff for ideas and th

considered several possibilities before agreeing upon "Atlas"-Bossar

own suggestion. The missile they were designing would be the biggest a

most powerful yet devised. Bossart recalled that Atlas was the mighty god 

ancient Greek mythology who supported the world on his powerful sho

ders. The appropriateness of the name seemed confirmed by the fact t

the parent company of Convair was the Atlas Corporation. 1 The suggest

was submitted to the Air Force and was approved by the Department 

Defense Research and Development Board's Committee on Guided Miss

in August 1951. 2 

The Atlas-Centaur, a high-energy vehicle for launching medium-wei

spacecraft into planetary or synchronous orbits, could put 4700 kilogra

into 555-kilometer orbit or 1810 kilograms into transfer orbit for a s

chronous orbit. 5 (See Centaur.) 

9 
ORIGINS OF 

BIG JOE. "Big Joe" was the name of a single Atlas booste

Part of Project Mercury, Big Joe tested a full-scale Mer

operational speed for the critical reentry into the earth's 

a key test of the heatshield, in preparation for Mercur

space flights. The name, which developed in 1958, was at

A. Paget, then at Langley Research Center. It was a 

from the previously named Little Joe, a smaller test boo

tion flight tests in Project Mercury. 1 (See Little Joe.) 

Big Joe before launch at Cape Canaveral. 
LAUNCH VEHICLES 


Atlas-Centaur 

CENTAUR. Centaur was known from 1956 to 1958 simply as the "high-en

upper stage'' because it proposed to make first use of the theoreti

powerful but problem-making liquid hydrogen as fuel. The stage was na

in November 1958 when the Department of Defense's Advanced Rese

Projects Agency (ARPA) awarded the initial contract for six research 

development flight-test vehicles to Convair/ Astronautics Division 

General Dynamics Corporation. The Centaur stage was required to incr

the payload capability of the Atlas and to provide a versatile second 

for use in complex space missions. Krafft Ehricke of General Dynam

who conceived the vehicle and directed its development, proposed the n

and ARPA approved it. The name derived from the legendary Centaur, 

man and half horse. The horse portion represented the "workhorse" A

the "brawn" of the launch vehicle; the man represented the Cent
ORIGINS OF 

which, containing the payload and guidance, was in effe

the Atlas-Centaur combination. Eugene C. Keefer of Co

with proposing the name to Ehricke. 1 

NASA, which received management responsibility for 

used the launch vehicle in the Intelsat IV series of comsat

series of space probes. Centaur was also used to launch 

satellites and space probes-such as OAO 2 and 3, ATS 

Mariner and Pioneer space probes-and was mated with t

III for the heavier payloads flown in the mid-1970s. NA

U.S.-German Helios I into orbit of the sun on a Titan II

December 1974. (See also Atlas and Titan.) 

Centaur figures (courtesy ofthe Library ofCongres

DELTA. When NASA was formed in 1958 it inherited from 

Defense's Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA

grams using combinations of Thor or Atlas boosters wit

stages. The first of these upper-stage configuration

"Able." 1 The Delta was similar to the previous Thor-b

and was a fourth-or "D"-version. Milton W. Rosen 

sponsible for the name. He had been referring to th

"Delta," which became the firm choice in January 1959 

required because NASA was signing a contract for the b

was variously called ''Delta'' and'' Thor-Delta.'' 2 

Over the years the Thor-Delta was repeatedly uprated 

modifications. The liftoff thrust of the Thor first stag

1964 by adding three strapped-on solid-propellant rocke

Delta second stage, the launch vehicle was called "thrust-

(TAD). In 1964 NASA undertook upgrading the Delta ca

ing the second-stage fuel tanks. When this more p

12 
Thor-Delta 	 Thrust-augmented im­Straight Eight Thor-

proved Delta with nine strap-on rock

introduced in 1965 and designated "improved Delta"-was used with 

thrust-augmented Thor first stage, the vehicle was called "thrust-augme

improved Delta" (TAID). In 1968 NASA incorporated an elongated 

first stage with added fuel capacity for heavier payloads, and the 

strapped-on motors were uprated. This version, with the improved D

second stage, was called "long-tank thrust-augmented Thor-D

(LTTAT-Delta), or "thrust-augmented long-tank Delta." 3 

The "Super Six" version, with six strap-on Castor rockets for 

thrust, was first used in 1970, and nine strap-ons went into use in 197

more powerful third stage, TE-364-4, was also introduced in 1972, as 

the "Straight Eight" Thor-Delta, with 2.4-meter (8-foot) diameter fo

three stages including the fairing. The wider fairing could accommo

larger spacecraft. • 

In 1960 the Thor-Delta placed 60 kilograms in a 1600-kilometer orbi
ORIGINS OF 

Juno ( courresy ofthe Library 

ofCongress) 

Juno I, above, on the launch 

pad at Cape Canaveral before 

launching Explorer 1 on 31 

January 1958. At right, Little 

Joe launch in a test of the Mercury spacecraft. 

14 
LAUNCH VEHICLES 

the end of 1974, the vehicle could launch a 700-kilogram spacecraft into 

bit for transfer to a 35 500-kilometer synchronous orbit, an 1800-kilog

payload into a 185-kilometer orbit, or 386 kilograms on a trajectory to M

orVenus. 5 

The economical, reliable Thor-Delta, was a workhorse vehicle used f

wide range of medium satellites and small space probes in two-stage or th

stage combinations, with three, six, or nine strap-on thrust-augme

rockets. Among its many credits were meteorological satellites (Ti

TOS), communications satellites (Echo, Telstar, Relay, Syncom, Intels

scientific satellites (Ariel, Explorer, OSO), and the Earth Resources Sate

ERTS 1. The vehicle's first three-satellite launch orbited NOAA 4, OSC

7, andiNTASATon15 November1974. 

JUNO. Juno I and Juno II were early launch vehicles adapted from existing U

Army'missiles by the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA) and the 

Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). The ancient Roman goddess Juno, quee

the gods, was the sister and wife of Jupiter, king of the gods. Since the 

launch vehicle was the satellite-launching version of the Jupiter C (Jup

Composite Reentry Test Vehicle), the name Juno was suggested by 

William H. Pickering, JPL Director, in November 1957. Army officials 

proved the proposal and the name was adopted. 1 

Juno I, a four-stage configuration of the Jupiter C, orbited the first U

satellite, Explorer 1, 31 January 1958. The "UE" painted on the Redst

first stage of that Juno I indicated that the Redstone was No. 29 in a se

of launches. The ABMA code for numbering Redstone boosters was ba

on the word "HUNTSVILLE," with each letter representing a num

after deletion of the second"1" to avoid confusion: 

H

1 

U

2 

N

3 

T

4 

S 

5 

V

6 

I

7 

L

8 

E 

9. 

2 

Later that year, at the request of the Department of Defense's Advan

Research Projects Agency, ABMA and JPL designed the Juno II, which 

based on the Jupiter intercontinental ballistic missile and had the up

stages of the Juno I. Responsibility for Juno II was transferred to NA

after its establishment 1 October 1958. Juno II vehicles launched three 

plorer satellites and two Pioneer space probes. "Juno V" was the e

designation of the launch vehicle that became the Saturn I. 3 

LITTLE JOE. A relatively simple and inexpensive launch vehicle, Little Joe 

designed specifically to test the Mercury spacecraft abort system in a se

of suborbital flights. Based on a cluster of four solid-propellant roc

motors, as conceived by Langley Research Center's Maxime A. Faget 

1
ORIGINS OF 

Paul E. Purser, the booster acquired its name in 1958 a

for the project gradually was adopted. The configurati

added four Recruit rockets, but the original concept w

rocket motors fired two at a time-a pair of twos. "Sin

section drawings showed four holes up, they called the p

from the crap game throw of a double deuce on the dice

ance on engineering drawings of the four large stabiliz

from its airframe also helped to perpetuate the name 

quired.'' Little Joe II was similar in design and was us

1 

Apollo spacecraft abort system. 

REDSTONE. Predecessor of the Jupiter and Juno rockets, R

tlefield missile developed by the U.S. Army and adapted 

as a launch vehicle for suborbital space flights in Project 

ing called various nicknames, including "Ursa" and "M

was officially named ''Redstone'' 8 April 1952 for the 

Redstone Arsenal at Huntsville, Alabama, where it w

name of the Arsenal, in turn, referred to the rock and soil 

On 5 May 1961, the Redstone launched the first U.S. 

Shepard, Jr., into suborbital flight on the Freedom 7 in P

Launch ofMercury-Redstone from Cape 

Canaveral 5 May 1961, carrying Astronaut Alan B. Shepard, Jr., on the first 

U.S. manned spaceflight. 

16 
LAUNCH VEHICLES 


Saturn I being readied for launch from Cape Kennedy with 

boilerplate model oftheApollo spacecraft. 

SATURN I, SATURN m. Evolution of nomenclature for the Saturn famil

launch vehicles was one of the most complex of all NASA-associated nam

On 15 August 1958 the Department of Defense's Advanced Research P

ects Agency (ARPA) approved initial work on a multistage launch veh

with clustered engines in a 6.7-million-newton-thrust (1.5-million-pou

thrust) first stage. Conceived by designers at the Army Ballistic Mi

Agency (ABMA), the vehicle was unofficially known as "Juno V." (J

III and Juno IV were concepts for space vehicles to follow Juno II but w

not built.) 1 

In October 1958 Dr. Wernher von Braun, the Director of ABMA's De

opment Operations Division, proposed the Juno V be renamed "Satur

and on 3 February 1959 ARPA officially approved the name change. 

name "Saturn" was significant for three reasons: the planet Saturn 

peared brighter than a first-magnitude star, so the association of this n

with such a powerful new booster seemed appropriate; Saturn was the 

planet after Jupiter, so the progression was analogous to ABMA's prog

sion from missile and space systems called "Jupiter"; and Saturn was 

name of an ancient Roman god, so the name was in keeping with the U

military's custom of naming missiles after mythological gods and heroes

Throughout the second half of 1959, studies were made of possible up

stages for the new Saturn vehicle. The interagency Saturn Vehicle Eva

tion Committee,* considered many combinations, narrowing the choic

*Chaired by NASA's Abe Silverstein and often referred to as "the Silverstein Committee," the 

mittee was composed of representatives of NASA, ARPA, DOD, and USAF. 

1
ORIGINS OF 

Saturn IB, above, on the 

launch pad at Complex 34 and 

Saturn ofmythology (courtesy 

of the Library of Congress). 

At right, the rollout of Saturn 

V for the launch ofApollo 8 to 

the moon. 
LAUNCH VEHICLES 

design concepts labeled "Saturn A," "Saturn B," and "Saturn C." 

December 1959, following the recommendation of this committee, NA

authorized building 10 research and development models of the first "C

version, or ''Saturn C-1 '' design pcoposal. 5 For the time being the boos

was called ''Saturn C-1.'' 

In the meantime Saturn became a NASA project and also had become 

important link with the Nation's manned lunar program, Project Apollo. 

1962, NASA decided a more powerful version of the Saturn C-1 would 

needed to launch Apollo lunar spacecraft into earth orbit, to prepare a

train for manned flights to the moon later in the 1960s. NASA called t

launch vehicle "Saturn C-1B." 4 In February 1963, NASA renamed th

vehicles. At the suggestion of the NASA Project Designation Committ

Saturn C-1 became simply "Saturn I" and the Saturn C-1B, "Satu

lB." 5 The Saturn IB was composed of the S-IB first stage, a modified v

sion of the S-1 first stage that could develop 7.1 million newtons (

million pounds) of thrust by 1973, and the S-IVB second stage, an upra

version of the S-IV stage that could develop 1 million newtons (230 0

pounds) of thrust. 

On 9 June 1966 NASA changed the name of the Saturn IB to "Upra

Saturn I." The redesignation was suggested to the Project Designat

Committee by Dr. George E. Mueller, NASA Associate Administrator 

Manned Space Flight. "The Committee agreed with Dr. Mueller that 

booster is acutally an uprated Saturn I and should be so called.'' 6 In D

cember 1967, however, NASA decided to return to the use of the simp

term, "Saturn lB." The proposal was made by the Office of Manned Sp

Flight and approved by Administrator James E. Webb. 7 

The Saturn IB launched the first manned Apollo spacecraft, Apollo 7, 

successful flight 11 October 1968 and, after the completion of the Apo

program, launched three missions to man the Sky lab Orbital Workshop 

1973. It was scheduled to launch the American crew in the July 1975 U.

U.S.S.R. Apollo-Soyuz Test Project docking mission. 

SATURN V. In January 1962 NASA initiated development qf the large laun

vehicle for Project Apollo manned lunar flight. The vehicle selected was t

Saturn C-5, chosen after six months of studying the relative merits 

Saturn C-3, C-4, and C-5 designs. 1 These designs were all based on a lar

clustered-engine first stage but with various combinations of upper stag

The numerical designation followed the sequence established with t

Saturn C-1 (see Saturn I, where the origin of the name "Saturn" also is 

plained). 

19 
ORIGINS O

Alternately referred to in 1962 as "Advanced Satu

was renamed early the following year. Nominations w

NASA Project Designation Committee as well as prop

tee members themselves. After considering many a

leading contender for a while was "Kronos"-the C

through Assistant Administrator for Public Affairs Ge

to NASA Associate Administrator, Dr. Robert C. Se

new name be "Saturn V." 2 The recommendation w

new name adopted early in February 1963.8 

The final configuration of the Saturn V comprised 

with 34-million-newton (7.7-million-pound) thrust, th

with 5.1-million-newton (1.2-million-pound) thrust, an

the Saturn lB. 4 

On 21 December 1968 the Saturn V launched Apoll

Apollo spacecraft to escape the earth's gravitational fie

the moon. Saturn V launches through Apollo 17 in D

men into lunar orbit, 12 of them landing on the moon t

On 14 May 1973 the Saturn V orbited the first U.S. ex

tion, the Skylab 1 Orbital Workshop, which was mann

three-man crews during the year. 

SCOUT. The Scout launch vehicle was named in mid-

Stoney, Jr., prominent in development of the vehicl

Aeronautical Laboratory (later NASA Langley Re

thought of the name as a parallel to "Explorer," a n

series of spacecraft. "Scout" seemed appropriate 

payloads performing similar tasks-" scouting the fro

ronment and paving the way'' for future space explorat

Smallest of the basic launch vehicles, Scout was des

reliable, relatively inexpensive launch vehicle for high-

try experiments, and small-satellite missions. Amo

launched were scientific satellites such as Explore

satellites such as the San Marco series. It was the only 

vehicle to use solid propellants exclusively; the stages 

out of the technology developed in the Polaris and M

The Air Force, which used Scout to launch Departme

craft, called its version ''Blue Scout.'' 

Scout usually consisted of four stages and could put 

555-kilometer orbit. 2 The first stage, "Algol," was na

constellation Perseus; the second stage, "Castor," fo

horses" in the constellation Gemini; the third stage, 

20 
LAUNCH VEHICLES 


Scout on the launch pad at W a/lops 

Flight Center, at left. Below, Shotput 

ready at W a/lops. 

brightest star in the constellation Scorpio; and the fourth stage, "Altair

for a star in the constellation Aquila.' In June 1974 a new Scout E, i

corporating a solid-fueled rocket motor in a fifth stage and adaptable f

highly eccentric orbits, launched the Hawkeye 1 Explorer satellite. 4 

SHOTPUT. A special-purpose composite rocket to test balloon-satellite ejectio

and inflation in space, Shotput was used in five launches from Wallops St

tion in 1959 and 1960 in tests of the Echo 1 satellite payload. It was al

21 
ORIGINS O

used to test the Italian San Marco satellite in suborbi

propellant Shotput vehicle consisted of a first-stage Se

by two Recruit rockets and a second stage X-248 rock

as the third stage of the Delta launch vehicle. 1 Shotput 

payload to a 400-kilometer altitude, where the packag

from the vehicle's nose and inflated above the atmosp

named because it "tossed" the Echo sphere up above th

in a vertical trajectory. 2 

THOR. Adapted for use as a launch vehicle in combinatio

stages, Thor was originally developed as a U.S. Air 

range ballistic missile by Douglas Aircraft Compan

came into use in 1955, 1 derived from the ancient No

"the strongest of gods and men." 2 

The origin of the name has been traced back to Joe 

Public Relations at the Martin Company, who was 

names for Martin's new intercontinental ballistic missil

meeting at Air Research and Development Command 

ters. At the meeting were to be representatives of othe

Convair/ Astronautics Division of General Dynami

Douglas Aircraft Company. Of Rowland's list of prop

was the one preferred by his colleagues, with "Thor" 

the ARDC meeting, the first-choice "Titan" was acce

ate name for the Martin Company's project. Through 

Douglas had prepared no name to propose for its mi

"Titan" now firm for his company's project-offered 

to Donald Douglas, Jr. Douglas and his Vice Presiden

agreed it was an attractive name and proposed it to A

officially adopted. 3 

NASA used Thor as a first stage with both Agena an

The Air Force-developed "thrust-augmented Thor" (T

ed solid-propellant rocket motors strapped on the base 

used with both Agena and Delta upper stages. When 

Agena, the configuration was called "thrust-augme

with Delta, the vehicle was known as "thrust-augmen

"thrust-augmented Thor-Delta" (TAT-Delta). 

In 1966 the Air Force procured a new version of the T

gated to increase fuel capacity, for heavier p

tank thrust-augmented Thor'' (LTTA1), sometimes a

LTTAT used with an Agena upper stage was calle

augmented Thor-Agena" or "Thorad-Agena." 5 With 

22 
LAUNCH VEHICLES 


Thor-Delta, above, in countdown 

for the Telstar 1 launch. At right, 

the long-tank Thor-Delta poised 

for launch from the ETR. The 

Norse god Thor at left (courtesy 

ofthe Library ofCongress). 

tank thrust-augmented Thor-Delta." NASA began using the long-tank Th

with the improved Delta second stage in 1968, going to six strap-on rock

for extra thrust in 1970 and introducing nine strap-on rockets in 1972. Co

binations varied according to the performance needed for the mission. (S

Delta.) 

23 
ORIGINS O
LAUNCH VEHICLES 

TITAN. The Titan II launch vehicle was adapted from the U.S. Air Force int

continental ballistic missile to serve as the Gemini launch vehicle in NAS

second manned spaceflight program. Originating in 1955, the name "Tita

was proposed by Joe Rowland, Director of Public Relations at the Mar

Company, producer of the missile for the Air Force. Rowland was assign

the task of suggesting possible names for the project, requested of Martin 

the Air Research and Development Command. Of the list of possible nam

"Titan" was preferred. 1 He took the name from Roman mythology: 

Titans were a race of giants who inhabited the earth before men w

created. ARDC approved the nomination and "Titan" became the offic

name. When the improved version of the missile was developed, the origi

Titan came to be known as Titan I and the second, Titan II. 2 Titan II w

chosen as the Gemini launch vehicle because greater thrust was required 

orbit the three-and-a-half-metric-ton Gemini spacecraft; also its stora

fuels promised the split-second launch needed for rendezvous with the tar

vehicle. 

The Titan III-an improved Titan II with two solid-propellant strap

rockets--was developed for use by the Air Force as a standardized laun

vehicle that could lift large payloads into earth orbit. NASA contracted 

Titan III vehicles for a limited number of missions to begin irt the m

1970s: ATS satellites would require the Titan IIIC vehicles and HEAO sa

lites, the Titan IIID configuration. Interplanetary missions requiring hi

velocity escape trajectories--the Viking Mars probes and Helios so

probes-began using the Titan III-Centaur configuration on completion 

the Centaur integration program in 1974. A Titan IIIE-Centaur launch

Helios 1 into orbit of the sun 10 December 1974. 

In 1974 the Titan IIIC-which launched ATS 6 on 30 May 1974-cou

put an 11 820-kilogram payload into a 555-kilometer orbit or 1500 ki

grams into synchronous orbit. The Titan IIIE-Centaur could launch 51

kilograms into an earth-escape orbit or 3960 kilograms to Mars or Venus. 

Gemini-Titan 1 on the launch pad at 

Cape Kennedy during prelaunch tests 

(far left) and Titan lifE-Centaur. At 

right, Ocean~ one of the Titans of 

mythology (courtesy ofthe Library of 

Congress). 
ORIGINS OF 

Vanguard 
LAUNCH VEHICLES 

VANGUARD. The name "Vanguard," adopted in 1955, applied to the U.S. 

ternational Geophysical Year satellite project as well as to the launch veh

developed to orbit the satellites (see Vanguard under Satellites). Stages 

the Vanguard rocket were later adapted to the NASA Delta vehicle. 

2

II 


SATELLITES 
Full-disc photograph ofthe earth from equatorial orbit, transm

November 1967. A cold front moves eastward over the central 

tropical storm is at bottom center. 
SATELLITES 

Astronomy's traditional definition of a satellite is "a celestial body 

biting another of larger size.'' 1 Through the balance of gravitational attr

tion, velocity, and centrifugal force, the moon revolves around, or orb

the earth; hence, it is a satellite of the earth. Since 1957, man has been us

rocket-powered launch vehicles to place man-made objects in orbit arou

the earth. Because they orbit the earth, these objects are earth''satellites.

Technically, of course, orbiting manned spacecraft also beca

satellites of the earth. Other satellites, in the strict sense of the word, w

the spent rocket stages and uninstrumented pieces of hardware-popula

called "space junk''-placed in orbit incidentally. For purposes of the sp

exploration program, the term "satellite" was applied to man-made, 

strumented objects placed intentionally in earth orbit to perform spec

functions. 

NASA unmanned satellites are divided into two categories: scient

satellites (which obtain scientific information about the space envir

ment) and applications satellites (which perform experiments that will h

everyday usefulness for man on earth). Satellites in the Explorer series w

typical of the scientific satellites, gathering a variety of scientific data a

telemetering it to stations on earth. Examples of applications satell

were Tiros meteorological satellites, designed to provide cloud-co

photographs to aid in forecasting weather conditions, and Relay and la

communications satellites, designed to receive and transmit voice and f

simile communications between distant points on the earth. 

3

SATELLITES 


Artist's concept ofA eros in orbit. 

AEROS. In June 1969 NASA and the German Ministry for Scientific Resea

(BMwF) reached an agreement on a cooperative project that would orb

German scientific satellite designed to investigate particle behavior in 

earth's upper atmosphere. 1 In early 1969 BMwF had named the propo

aeronomy satellite after A eros, ancient Greek god of the air. 2 A eros, 

second U.S.-German cooperative research satellite, was designa

GRS-A-2 by NASA (see also Azur) before launch, assuming its pro

name when successfully launched into orbit 16 December 1972. 3 A eros 2 w

orbited by NASA 16 July 1974. 

("Aeros" also had been used earlier for the Synchronous Meteorologi

Satellite project [see SMS] .) 

33 
ORIGINS OF 

\ 
~, 

Alouette 1, above, before launch, and an 

artist's concept ofANS below. Ariel4, at 

right, was the first satellite in the Ariel 

series to carry a United States experiment. 
SATELLITES 

ALOUETTE. An international satellite program, Alouette was a Canadia

project in cooperation with NASA 1 and was given its name in May 1961 b

the Canadian Defence Research Board. The name was selected because, a

the French-Canadian name for meadowlark, it suggested flight; the wor

"Alouette" was a popularly used and widely known Canadian title; and, i

a bilingual country, it called attention to the French part of Canada's heri

age. 2 NASA supported the Board's choice of name for the topside sound

scientific satellite. 3 

A /ouette I, instrumented to investigate the earth's ionosphere from 

beyond the ionospheric layer, was launched into orbit by NASA from th

Pacific Missile Range 28 September 1962. It was the first satellite designe

and built by a country other than the United States or the Soviet Union an

was the first satellite launched by NASA from the West Coast. Alouette 

was orbited later as part of the U .S.-Canadian ISIS project (see ISIS). 

NASA's Explorer 20, launched 25 August 1964, was nicknamed "Topsi

for "topside sounder"; it returned data on the ionosphere to be compare

with Alouette data, as well as data from A riel I and Explorer 8 and soun

ing rockets. 4 

ANS. In June 1970 NASA and the Netherlands Ministries of Economic Affai

and Education and Science reached agreement to launch the fir

Netherlands scientific satellite in 1974. The satellite was designated "ANS

an acronym for "Astronomical Netherlands Satellite," and an ANS Pro

gram Authority was created by the Ministries to direct the cooperative pro

ect. NASA provided an experiment and the Scout launch vehicle, and th

Program Authority designed, built, and tested the spacecraft and provide

tracking and data acquisition. 1 The satellite-launched 30 August 1974

carried an ultraviolet telescope to study selected stellar ultraviolet source

and instruments to investigate both soft and hard x-ray sources. 

ARIEL. The world's first international satellite, A riel I was a cooperative proj

ect between the United Kingdom and NASA. The sa~ellite was named i

February 1962 for the spirit of the air who was released by Prospero i

Shakespeare's play The Tempest. The name "Ariel"-a traditional name i

British aeronautics-was chosen by the U.K. Minister of Science and en

dorsed by NASA. 1 Other satellites followed in the program. 

Ariel I (UK-1 before orbit), launched from Cape Canaveral 26 Apr

1962, was built by NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center and instrumente

with six British experiments to make integrated measurements in the iono

35 
ORIGINS O

sphere. Arie/2, containing three U.K.-built experimen

bit 27 March 1964. Arie/3, designed and built in the U

launched 5 May 1967 with five experiments. The U.K.

four U.K. and one U.S. experiment into orbit 11 Decem

gate plasma, charged particles, and electromagnetic 

sphere. Arie/5 (UK-5), also British-built, was launche

study x-ray sources. 

The UK-X4 satellite was in a different series from 

added to the prelaunch designation indicated it was exp

orbited March 1974 to test spacecraft systems and sen

was christened Miranda. It was a United Kingdom s

NASA under a contract for reimbursable services, ra

search mission. 2 

The United Kingdom's Skynet satellites belonged to 

The Skynet I and II series of U.K. Ministry of Defe

satellites were launched by NASA, beginning in 1969, u

the U.S. Air Force, which reimbursed NASA for launc

ices. 

ATS. The name "ATS"-an acronym for "Applic

Satellite"-referred to the satellite mission: to tes

periments and techniques for new practical application

The name evolved through several transitions, beginnin

study phase. In 1962-1963, at NASA's request, Hughe

conducted feasibility and preliminary design studies for 

com" satellite. The concept was of a communication

chronous orbit with a new stabilization system and a m

munication capability. Other names in use were "Adv

Orbit Satellite," "Advanced Synchronous Satellite," 

chronous communications satellite.'' 1 

By March 1964 NASA had decided Advanced Sync

test communications technology but also support dev

orological sensing elements, measurements of the sp

various orbits such as the synchronous orbit, and the 

ments on general stabilization systems which apply not 

tions systems but to other systems." 2 As the concept 

changed, so was its name-becoming "Advanced Te

(ATS)." Hughes was selected to build five A TS spacecr

The change to "Applications Technology Satellite

1964. Dr. Homer E. Newell, NASA Associate Adminis

36 
SATELLITES 

ence and Applications, and Dr. John F. Clark, Director of Space Scien

had concluded that the adjectives ''Advanced Technological'' were unde

able because they seemed to conflict with responsibilities of NASA's Of

of Advanced Research and Technology." On 2 October Dr. Newell form

proposed, and Associate Administrator Robert C. Seamans, Jr., approv

the change to "Applications Technology Satellite"-bringing "the nam

the project more into line with its purpose, applications technology, w

retaining the initials A TS by which it' is commonly known.'' 5 

Launched 6 December 1966, ATS 1 took the first U.S. high-qua

photographs of the earth from synchronous orbit, showing the chang

cloud-cover patterns. In addition to weather data, the satellite relayed c

television across the United States and voice signals from the ground to 

craft in flight. ATS 3, launched 5 November 1967, carried advanced c

munications, meteorology, and navigation experiments and made h

resolution color photographs of one complete side of the earth. A TS 6 

launched 30 May 1974 to support public health and education experim

in the United States and India. It was the first communications satellite w

the power to broadcast TV photos to small local receivers. 

ATS 3, at left, suspended during antenna pattern testing. The model of 

ATS 6, below, shows the nine-meter 

reflector deployed. 
ORIGINS OF 

AZUR. A 17 July 1965 memorandum of understanding betw

German Ministry for Scientific Research (BMwF) init

project that would orbit a German scientific satellite 

earth's inner radiation belt. The agreement provided fo

satellite after a successful series of sounding rocket tes

proposed satellite instrumentation. 1 NASA would provi

vehicle, conduct launch operations, provide tracking an

and train BMwF personnel. In June 1966 NASA desi

GRS-A, an acronym for "German Research Satellite

German word for the color "sky blue," was chosen by B

as the name for the satellite, and GRS-A was officially 

NASA after launch 7 November 1969. 2 (See also Aeros.) 

BIOSATELLITE. As the name suggests, Biosatellites wer

space experiments with living organisms, both plant an

logical specimens in orbit underwent prolonged weight

and other conditions of the space environment; scientists 

fects on various life processes. Physiological effects in

form of entire organisms, structure of growth of cells an

biochemistry of the cell. 1 

The NASA Project Designation Committee, asked 

Bioscience Programs in June 1962 to consider an offici

project should it be initiated, devised the name "Biosate

of the phrase "biological satellite." The shorter "Bios

for the new name and occasionally appeared as a substit

But Biosatellite should not be confused with "BIOS

vestigation of Space"), the name of a separate reentry 

1961. The Project Designation Committee reserved the n

for project use, pending approval of the orbiting 

project.' 

In March 1963 NASA contracted for spacecraft feas

"bio-satellite program." After evaluating the results o

obtaining funding for the project, NASA selected the Ge

pany to build the spacecraft and later chose the biologic

flown on ~hem. By early 1964 the project was well unde

"Biosatellite" had been adopted. 

*" GRS-A" became " GRS-A-1 " when an agreement was reached to orbit 

designated "GRS-A-2" (Aeros). (NASA, "Project Approval Document," 15 

38 
SATELLITES 


Cutaway models of the German-built A

at left, and NASA's Biosatellite, below. 

Biosatellite 1 was launched 14 December 1966; it functioned normal

orbital space flight but failed to reenter as it should have three days l

Biosatellite 2, launched 7 September 1967, obtained information on th

fects of radiation and weightlessness on plant and low-order animal 

forms. The program ended with the flight ofBiosatellite 3, launched 28 

1969, which was prematurely terminated after eight and one-half d

Analysis of the death of the pigtailed monkey orbited during that flight 

vided additional information on the effects of prolonged weightlessness 

ing manned flights. 

3
ORIGINS OF 

Echo 1 during inflation tests before launch. 

ECHO. The idea of an inflatable, spherical space satellite 

January 1956 by William J. O'Sullivan, Jr., aerona

NACA's Langley Aeronautical Laboratory (later NASA 

Center), and proposed as an air-density experiment fo

Geophysical Year (1 July 1957 to 31 December 1958). 1 T

was similar to one described by John R. Pierce o

Laboratories in his 1955 article, "Orbital Radio Relay

terested in the orbiting inflated sphere for use as a reflect

and he proposed a cooperative communication 

O'Sullivan's balloon satellite. By early 1959 O'Sullivan

for IGY air-density studies had become NASA's passiv

satellite project. 3 

The word "echo" was often used in the radio and rad

the reflection of ground-transmitted signals from the sur

balloon. The name"Project Echo," derived through info

to the 30-meter inflatable-structure satellite. • O'Sullivan

in a series of Shotput launches and the Echo proje

40 
SATELLITES 

aluminized-Mylar sphere could be carried aloft by a rocket, be inflate

space, and remain in orbit to provide a means of measuring atmosph

density as well as a surface for reflecting radio communications between 

tant points on the earth. 

Echo 1 passive communications satellite, orbited by NASA 12 Au

1960, was the fruition of O'Sullivan's labors. His inflatable-sphere con

also was employed in three air-density Explorer satellites, in Echo 2, an

Pageos 1. 

EOLE. NASA and France's Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES) sign

memorandum of understanding 27 May 1966 providing for developme

a cooperative satelite-and-instrumented-balloon network to collect m

orological data for long-range weather forecasts. 1 "Eole," the French n

for Aeolus, ancient Greek god of the winds, was chosen by CNES as 

name for the satellite project. 2 Known as "FR-2 [see also FR-1] until 

1968-and also as simply "French Satellite" before December 1968

project was redesignated by NASA "CAS-A," an acronym for the first 

series of international "Cooperative Applications Satellite(s)." 3 

satellite was given its permanent name Eole after successful launch into o

16 August 1971. 

Eole, cooperative French and 

U.S. satellite to collect meteorological data for forecasts. 
ORIGINS OF 

ERTS 1 (renamed LANDSAT 1) after prelaunch tests at Gene

ERTS, EOS, SEOS. The name "ERTS"-an acronym for 

Technology Satellite"-was a functional designation; it 

early concepts of an "earth resources" satellite system to 

tion on the environment by using remot~sensing techniq

and 1966, studies of remote-sensing applications were co

NASA and the Departments of Interior and Agriculture a

42 
SATELLITES 


a program of aircraft flights to define sensor systems for remote-sens

technology. The studies indicated that an automated remote-sensing satel

appeared feasible and that a program should be initiated for the devel

ment of an experimental satellite. 1 

In early 1967 NASA began definition studies for the proposed satellite, 

then designated ERTS, and by early 1969 the project was approved. 2 T

satellites, ERTS-A and ERTS-B, were subsequently planned for laun

ERTS-A became ERTS 1 on launch 23 July 1972; it was still transmitt

data on earth resources, pollution, and environment at the end of 1974, 

users worldwide. ERTS-B was scheduled for 1975launch. * 

The early nomenclature for both the program and the proposed satell

was confusing. The "Earth Resources Program" was variously known 

the "Natural Resources Program," the "Earth Resources Survey P

gram," and the "Earth Resources Observation Program." s· The desig

tion "Earth Resources Survey Program" was eventually used to incl

ERTS and remote-sensing aircraft programs, as well as the "Earth 

sources Experiment Package" (EREP) flown on Skylab missions in 19

1974. These programs formed a part of NASA's overall "Earth Obser

tions Programs," which also included the meteorology and earth phy

program.~ 

Before 1967 several names were in use for the proposed earth resour

satellite, including the designation "ERS"- a shortened acronym 

"Earth Resources Survey Satellite"-which was in conflict with an ident

designation for an Air Force satellite project known as the ''Environmen

Research Satellite." 5 Further confusion arose when the Department of 

Interior, which in cooperation with NASA had been studying the appli

tion of remote-sensing techniques, announced the name "EROS"- 

acronym for "Earth Resources Observation Satellite"-for the satel

*NASA announced 14 January 1975 that ERTS 1 had been renamed LANDSAT1 and ERTS-B w

become LANDSAT2 when launched 22 January. Associate Administrator for Applications Charle

Mathews said that, since NASA planned a SEASAT satellite to study the oceans, "LANDSAT" w

appropriate name for the satellite that studied the land. Dr. George M. Low, Deputy Administrat

NASA, had suggested a new name be found for ERTS, with more public appeal. John P. Donn

Assistant Administrator for Public Affairs, had therefore requested NASA office heads and Cente

submit ideas for new names by the end of December 1974. From a number of replies received, the N

Project Designation Committee made its recommendation, and "LANDSAT" was approved. (NA

News Release 75-15; Mathews, ERTS-B Mission Briefing, NASA Hq., 14 Jan. 1975; Howar

Allaway, Public Affairs Officer, NASA, telephone interview, 3 Feb. 1975; and Bernice Taylor, 

ministrative Assistant to Assistant Administrator for Public Affairs, NASA, telephone interview, 12 

1975.) 

43 
ORIGINS OF 

"Galloping,, or surging, glaciers in Alaska identified by U.

scientists on images taken by ERTS 1. Glacier behavior could g

and clues to sources of water supply. 

project. 6 In early 1967, when NASA initiated the definiti

perimental satellite, the name "ERTS" came into use. 7 

In early 1970 the NASA Project Designation Commit
SATELLITES 

new name for the ERTS satellites and several names were suggested

cluding "Earth," "Survey," and "Ceres"-the ancient Greek goddes

the harvest. The Committee favored "Earth" but, after submitting 

name to the other Government agencies in the program and receiving 

favorable responses from some, it dropped the name "Earth," 

"ERTS" was used up through the end of 1974. 8 

EOS. A follow-on to ERTS was to be the Earth Observatory Satellite (EO

given a functional name in NASA. Results from the first Earth Resou

Technology Satellite showed that greater spectral and spatial resolut

were needed for some applications, such as classifying and monitoring 

use of land for urban planners and increasing accuracy in predic

agricultural yield. And since 1970 NASA had seen a need for a multipurp

satellite in low earth orbit to survey the earth and oceans, detect pollut

and monitor the weather. Definition studies were begun in 1974 of a 

cost EOS spacecraft that could be launched, resupplied or serviced, 

eventually returned by the Space Shuttle, but could also be launched 

conventional booster before the shuttle became operational. Modular 

tems for power and different spacecraft functions would permit the Sh

to unplug and replace malfunctioning systems. 9 

EOS-A was tentatively scheduled for 1979launch as a land-and-water

mission, with EOS-B possibly in 1981. 

SEOS. An advanced study also was under way in 1974 of a Synchronous E

Observatory Satellite (SEOS) for experimental meteorological and e

resources observations using a large telescope with improved resolution 

an infrared atmospheric sounder. The geosynchronous orbit would pro

the short intervals needed to detect and warn of natural disasters suc

hurricanes, tornadoes, forest fires, floods, and insect crop damage. 10 

ESRO. The European Space Research Organization (ESRO), a 10-mem

Western European group to conduct scientific space research, came into 

mal existence in March 1964 (the ESRO Convention had been signed 

June 1962). The Organization named its first satellites "ESRO" in hono

its own abbreviation. 1 An 8 July 1964 NASA-ESRO agreement origin

called for two cooperative satellites, ESRO 1 to investigate the p

ionosphere and ESRO 2 to study solar astronomy and cosmic rays. W

development of the scientific payloads, it became apparent that ESRO 1 

a rather narrow launch opportunity and that it was important to launch 

4
European designed and built ESRO 1 was also given the nam

the photo the satellite was being tested at the Western Test Ran

the fall; therefore ESRO 2 was moved up for first la

number designations were not changed. 2 

After launch by NASA on 3 October 1968, ESRO 1 w

name Aurorae by ESRO; it was designed to study the 

related phenomena of the polar ionosphere. Its numeric

became ESRO JA when a duplicate backup satellit

launched 1 October 1969. ESRO JB was designatedBor

ESRO 2A, scheduled to be the first ESRO satellite, fai

May 1967. Its backup, ESRO 2B, was given the name IR

46 
SATELLITES 

''International Radiation Investigation Satellite''-by ESR 0 after s

cessful launch 16 May 1968. 4 

Under the 1964 memorandum of understanding, NASA's participation 

the cooperative venture was to provide Scout launch vehicles, cond

launch operations, provide supplemental tracking and data acquisition se

ices, and train ESRO personneL No funds were exchanged in the project. 5 

Under a 30 December 1966 memorandum of understanding, ESRO 

came the first international space group to agree to pay NASA for laun

ings; it would reimburse NASA for launch vehicle and direct costs of equ

ment and services. The first satellite orbited under this agreement, HE

1-''Highly Eccentric Orbit Satellite''-was launched 5 December 1968. 6 

Later scientific and applications satellites planned by ESRO-and to 

launched by NASA-were given functional names: 7 

Cos-B, scheduled for 1975 launch to study cosmic rays from the g

axy, especially gamma radiation, was to be one of the success

to the TD-JA astronomical satellite launched by NASA 

ESRO in March 1972. 

GEOS, "Geostationary Scientific Satellite" (a different satellite fr

NASA's Geodetic Explorers or Geodynamic Experimental Oc

Satellite), was scheduled for 1976 launch to study cosmic rad

tion over a long period. 

EXOSAT, a high-energy astronomy satellite, was planned for 1

launch for x-ray astronomy. 

METEOSAT, a geostationary meteorological satellite, was planned 

1976 launch. 

OTS, geostationary "Orbital Test Satellite," was to be launched 

1976 or 1977 as a forerunner of the European Communicati

Satellite (ECS; formerly CEPT, for Conference Europeene 

Postes et Telecommunications, or CETS, for Conference 

European Telecommunications Satellite). 

AEROSA T, joint "Aeronautical Satellite" to be developed with 

U.S. Federal Aviation Agency and a U.S. contractor, was to 

launched in 1977 or 1978 for air traffic control, navigation, a

communications. 

MAROT~, "Maritime Orbital Test Satellite," an adaptation of O

funded principally by the United Kingdom, was planned for 1

launch for civil maritime communications and navigation. 

ESRO was also cooperating with NASA in the International Sun-Ea

Explorer (ISEE) program and the International Ultraviolet Explorer (IU

program (see Explorer). 

4
ORIGINS OF 

Engineers check out ESSA 5 in the 

complete coverage ofNorth America 

lower photo, was transmitted5 Febru

ESSA. The ESSA satellites were meteorological satellites i

tional Satellite (TOS) system that were financed and o

vironmental Science Services Administration (ESSA). T

ed by ESSA early in 1966 and was an acronym deriv

mental Survey Satellite"; 1 it was also the abbreviatio

agency. 

Between 1966 and 1969 NASA procured, launched, an

bit the nine ESSA satellites, beginning with ESSA 1, 

1966. 

On 3 October 1970 ESSA was incorporated into the ne

48 
SATELLITES 

and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). After launch by NASA, the s

sequent series of satellites-in the Improved TOS (ITOS) system-w

turned over to NOAA for operational use. The first ITOS spacecraft fun

by NOAA, launched 11 December 1970, was designated NOAA 1 in orb

following the pattern set by the ESSA series. (See also Tiros, TOS, 

ITOS.) 

EXPLORER. The name "Explorer," designating NASA's scientific sate

series, originated before NASA was formed. "Explorer" was used in 

1930s for the U.S. Army Air Service-National Geographic stratosph

balloons. On 31 January 1958, when the first U.S. satellite was orbited 

the U.S. Army as a contribution to the International Geophysical Y

(IGY), Secretary of the Army Wilbur M. Brucker announced the satelli

name, Explorer 1. The name indicated the mission of this first satellite 

its NASA successors-to explore the unknown. 1 

The Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA) had previously rejected a 

of explorer names for the satellite. Jet Propulsion Laboratory, respons

for the fourth stage of the Jupiter C rocket (configured as the Juno I lau

vehicle) and for the satellite, had called the effort "Project Deal" (a lose

a poker game always called for a new deal-and this satellite was the ans

to the Russian Sputnik). On the day of the launch, ABMA proposed 

name "Top Kick," which was not considered appropriate. The list of nam

was brought out again. All the names on the list had been crossed out 

only the heading "Explorers" remained. The late Richard Hirsch, a mem

of the National Security Council's Ad Hoc Committee for Outer Space, s

gested that the first American satellite be called simply "Explorer." 

name was accepted and announced. 2 

When NASA was being formed in 1958 to conduct the U.S. civilian sp

program, responsibility for IGY scientific satellite programs was assigne

NASA. The decision was made by the National Advisory Committee 

Aeronautics (NACA) to continue the name "Explorer" as a generic term 

future NASA scientific satellites. 3 Explorers were used by NASA to st

(1) the atmosphere and ionosphere, (2) the magnetosphere and in

planetary space, (3) astronomical and astrophysical phenomena, and 

the earth's shape, magnetic field, and surface. 

Many of the Explorer satellites had project names that were used bef

they were orbited and then supplanted by Explorer designations once t

were placed in orbit. Other Explorer satellites, particularly the early on

were known before orbit simply by numerical designations. A listing 

some of the Explorers' descriptive designations illustrates the variety 

scientific missions performed by these satellites: Aeronomy Explorer, 

4
ORIGINS OF 

Some ofthe 

to right ab

plorer 11 G

Satellite; an

Satellite. 

Density Satellite, Direct Measurement Explorer, Interp

Platform (IMP), Ionosphere Explorer, Meteoroid T

(MTS), Radio Astronomy Explorer (RAE), Sola

Astronomy Satellite (SAS). 

SAS-A, an X-ray Astronomy Explorer, became 

launched 12 December 1970 by an Italian crew from 

form off the coast of Kenya, Africa. It was also christ

for "Freedom," because it was launched on Kenya's 

The small satellite, mapping the universe in x-ray w

years, discovered x-ray pulsars and evidence of black ho

Geodetic Satellites ( GEOS) were also called ''Geod

lites" and sometimes "Geodetic Earth Orbiting Satel

50 
SATELLITES 


Atmosphere Explorer (above), 

named Explorer 32 in orbit, and an 

artist's drawing of an Interplanetary Monitoring Platform (Explorer 

34) at right. 

plorer 29, launched 6 November 1965) and GEOS, 2 (Explorer 

launched 11 January 1968) refined knowledge of the earth's shape 

gravity field. GEOS-C, to be launched in 1975 as a successor to GEOS 1 

2, was renamed "Geodynamic Experimental Ocean Satellite" to empha

its specific mission in NASA's earth and ocean physics program whil

taining the GEOS acronym. GEOS-C was to measure ocean currents, ti

and wave heights to improve the geodetic model of the earth and knowl

5
ORIGINS 

of earth-sea interactions. (The European Space Rese

Geostationary Scientific Satellite-also called GEOS

launch-was not a part of the Geodetic Explorer series. 

The 52nd Explorer satellite was launched b

1974-Hawkeye 1, also called Explorer 52, a Univ

spacecraft. The University's Injun series had begun wit

1961, to study charged particles trapped in the earth's 

first three lnjuns were launched by the Air Force (Injun 

bit; Injun 3 was orbited 13 December 1962). NASA lau

adding the Explorer name. Hawkeye 1 originally ca

designation "Injun F" but this was discarded; the Haw

proved by the NASA Project Designation Committee 

4, 21 November 1964, was also named Explorer 25; Inj

wasExplorer40.) 6 

Two International Sun-Earth Explorers, !SEE-A 

"Mother") and ISEE-B (sometimes called "Daughter

dual launch in 1977, to be followed by ISEE-C ("Hel

The joint NASA and European Space Research Orga

earlier called the International Magnetosphere Explor

was to investigate sun-earth relationships and solar phen

An International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE; originall

in the Small Astronomy Satellite series) was scheduled 

cooperative NASA, United Kingdom, and ESRO sate

resolution ultraviolet data on astronomical objects. 8 

An Applications Explorer, the Heat Capacity Mappin

was planned for 1977 launch. A "small, dedicated sa

was to be a simple, low-cost spacecraft with one sens

making thermal measurements of the earth's surface 

States. Measurements would map kinds of rocks and so

resources, and show whether geothermal energy source

spacecraft. 9 

FR-1. FR-1 was the designation of the French satellite 

December 1965 in a cooperative U.S.-French prog

very-low-frequency electromagnetic waves. The name 

when NASA and France's Centre National d'Etude

agreed, after preliminary sounding rocket experiments, 

satellite project. 1 CNES provided the satellite and desig

"France" or "French" satellite number one. 2 The f

52 
·SATELLITES 


FR-1 in testing at the Western Test Range. 

Artist's concept ofHEAO. 

designated "FR-IA" and the backup unit, "FR-IB." The sec

U.S.-France cooperative satellite, "FR-2," was later renamed "Eol

(See Eole.) 

HEAO. In September 1967 NASA established the Astronomy Missions Board 

consult the scientific community and submit for consideration a long-ra

53 
ORIGINS OF 

program for the 1970s. The Board's X-Ray and Gam

pleted its report in September 1968, recommendin

spacecraft with a larger payload capability, designated "

the Panel and "Heavy Explorer" in other sections o

paper. 1 The spacecraft was alternately referred to as th

but all three names were later dropped because of the u

tion of their abbreviations ("HEX" and "SEX"). The n

acronym for "High Energy Astronomy Observatory

June 1969 and was officially adopted as the concep

evolved to that of an observatory-class satellite. z 

HEAO was originally planned to be the largest unm

bited by the U.S., weighing almost 10 metric tons and 

the larger instruments required to investigate high-ene

radiation from space-including x-rays, gamma rays, 

mic rays. The first satellite in the series, HEAO-A, was 

Titan HIE launch vehicle in 1975. 

In January 1973 the project was suspended becaus

scaled-down project was substituted in FY 1975, calling 

instead of four, to be launched by an Atlas-Centaur v

Titan HIE, in 1977, 1978, and 1979. With the smaller la

was revised to carry fewer instruments and weigh about 

first mission was to make an x-ray survey, the second d

and the third a gamma and cosmic ray survey of th

spacecraft from NASA's Space Shuttle after 1980 woul

ma and cosmic ray experiments to complete the scientifi

HEOS. The name of the HEOS satellite, built and named by 

Research Organization (ESRO), is an acronym for "Hi

Satellite.'' 1 HEOS 1 was launched 5 December 196

terplanetary magnetic fields and study solar and cosmic 

the magnetosphere. Nine scientific groups in five cou

periments on board the satellite. Under a 30 December 

of understanding and an 8 March 1967 contract with ES

the first cost-reimbursed NASA launch of a foreign 

HEOS 2, the second satellite in the series, was laun

January 1972, to continue the study of the interplanetar

ESRO.) 

INTASAT. NASA and Spain signed a memorandum of un

1972 on a joint research program in which NASA would 

54 
SATELLITES 


HEOS 1, at left, in preparation for i

30 December 1966 launch with exper

ments from five countries. INTASAT

below, was launched as Spain's fir

satellite 15 November 1974. 

satellite. The Spanish Space Commission-Comision Nacional de Invest

ci6n del Espacio (CONIE)-named the satellite "INTASAT," an acron

for the Instituto Nacional de Technica Aeroespacial (INTA), the gov

ment laboratory responsible for development of the satellite. Designed 

developed in Spain to measure the total electron count in the ionosphere 

ionospheric irregularities, /NTASA T was launched pickaback in a th

satellite launch (with NOAA 4 and OSCAR 7) on 15 November 1974. 

15-kilogram satellite was to beam data to 25 to 30 scientists around 

world from its sun-synchronous, polar orbit for two years. 1 

5
ORIGINS OF 

An Intelsat IV series comsat jettisons its nosecon

drawing. The Centaur stage ofthe launch vehic

INTELSAT. Intelsat satellites were owned and operated b

Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTEL

launched and tracked, on a reimbursable basis, by NAS

cations Satellite Corporation, the U.S. representative 

INTELSAT. INTELSA T's method of designating its sa

numerous changes as new satellites were launched, 

names for the same satellite and varying the numbering 

The first of the INTELSAT satellites, Intelsat /, was 

because it was the satellite in the "early capability prog

to obtain information applicable to selection and desi

mercial system and to provide experience in conduct

56 
SATELLITES 

satellite operations. 1 Early Bird, the world's first commercial comsat, w

launched by NASA 6 April1965 and placed in synchronous orbit over 

Atlantic Ocean. 

Intelsat II-A, also called "Lani Bird," was the first communicatio

satellite of the Consortium's Intelsat II series. Lani Bird was launched in O

tober 1966 to transmit transpacific communications, but failed to achie

synchronous orbit. It was named by the Hawaiian press; "Lani" me

"bird of heaven." 2 Intelsat li-B, or Pacific 1, the second in the Intelsa

series, was launched in January 1967 and placed in orbit to prov

transpacific service. 5 Intelsat li-C (later redesignated Intelsat-li F-3 

flight 3 in series II), or Atlantic 2, * was the second INTEL SAT satellite 

provide transatlantic service. • It was placed in synchronous orbit over 

Atlantic in March 1967. 

Subsequent satellites followed the same sequences: Intelsat li-D, 

Pacific 2, was launched in September 1967 and later renumbered Intelsa

F-4; Intelsat III-A (later Intelsat-III F-1) failed to achieve orbit 

September 1968; Intelsat-lii F-2, or Atlantic 3, was launched in Decem

1968. 5 

Satellites in the Intelsat IV series were numbered according to a differ

system, beginning with Intelsat-IV F-2, launched 25 January 19

Although Intelsat-IV F-2 was the first in the series to be launched, 

"F-2" referred to the second "fabrication"-the second satellite bui

rather than the second "flight" in the series. 6 Other satellites in the ser

followed this pattern, with Intelsat-IVF-8launched into orbit 21 Novem

1974. 

Each successive series of satellites increased in size and communicatio

capacity: satellites in the Intelsat II series were improved versions of Ea

Bird; Intelsat III satellites had 5 times the communications capacity of the 

series; and Intelsat IV satellites not only had an increased capacity-mo

than 5 times that of the III series-but also were nearly 10 times as heavy. 

IRIS. "IRIS," an acronym for "International Radiation Investigat

Satellite,'' was designed, developed, and built by the European Sp

Research Organization (ESRO). ESRO assigned the name toESTRO 2B

backup satellite to ESRO 2A, which had been launched 29 May 1967 

had failed to achieve orbit. 1 Under an agreement with ESRO, NA

*UPI nicknamed it "Canary Bird" because of the association with the Canary Islands earth stat

''Canary Bird'' appeared widely in the press as its designation, but was not adopted by INTELSA T. 

57 
ORIGINS OF 

launched IRIS 1 on 16 May 1968, to study solar astron

particles. (See also ESRO.) 

(NASA also briefly used a sounding rocket with the n

ISIS. ISIS was a cooperative satellite project of NASA 

Defence Research Board to continue and expand ionosp

the Alouette 1 topside sounder satellite. The name wa

1963 by John Chapman, project manager of the Canad

Anderson, NASA Office of International Affairs; and o

topside sounder Joint Working Group. They selected "

the name of an ancient Egyptian goddess and an acr

tional Satellites for Ionospheric Studies." 1 

The first ISIS launch, known as "ISIS-X," was ach

when NASA launched A /ouette 2 and Explorer 31 from 

with a single Thor-Agena B booster. The Canadian top

U.S. Direct Measurement Explorer were designed t

other's scientific data on the ionosphere. Both ISIS 1 (

1969) and ISIS 2 (launched 31 March 1971) carried exp

the cooperative investigation of the ionosphere. 

In 1969 the Canadian government proposed the su

perimental communications satellite for the last of 

spacecraft (ISIS-C). 2 The satellite was redesigna

acronym used by NASA to denote an international "C

tions Satellite." 3 In April 1971 a memorandum of 

signed by NASA and the Canadian Department of C

viding for the launch of CAS-C, which later was 

"CTS-A," an acronym for "Communications Tech

CTS-A was scheduled for 1975launch. 

LAGEOS. In 1971 NASA was considering the possibility o

satellite, "Cannonball," on a Saturn launch vehicle l

program. Definition and documentation were complet

sequently the Office of Applications began defining a s

satellite as a new project to begin in Fiscal Year 1974. T

was given the functional name "Laser Geodyna

''LAGEOS.'' LAGEOS was to be the first of a serie

within NASA's earth and ocean physics applications p

including spacecraft launched on unmanned vehicles in 

later ones on the Space Shuttle. 1 

58 
SATELLITES 


ISIS 2, at left, carried 

ionosphere experiments in

orbit 31 March 1971. Belo

technicians complete the fin

assembly ofthe LAGEOS s

ellite structure, which was 

carry 426 precision opti

laser retroreflectors into or

in 1976. 

Approved as a "new start" for Fiscal Year 1974, with a 1976 launch d

the terrestrial reference satellite was to be a very heavy ball-weighing 

kilograms although less than a meter in diameter-covered with laser ref

tors to permit highly accurate measurements of the earth's rotational m

ments and movements of the earth's crust. The orbit and the weight of 

5
ORIGINS OF 

simple, passive satellite were planned to provide a stable 

decades. The high, 5900-kilometer orbit would permit s

urements by laser ranging from earth stations a continen

be used in earthquake prediction and other applications. 2 

NIMBUS. The meteorological satellite Nimbus was named 

logical term meaning "precipitating clouds" (from the 

or "cloud"). The satellite name was suggested in late 

Cortright, Chief of NASA's Advanced Technology Prog

the formation of NASA's meteorological satellite program

bus and Tiros. 1 Nimbus was a second-generation research 

the first meteorological satellite series, Tiros. Nimbus 

August 1964 and provided photographs of much high

those of Tiros satellites until it ceased transmission 23 Sep

bus 2 (1966) and 3 (1969) operated a few years, followed 

in April 1970 and December 1972, to continue provid

data and testing a variety of weather-sensing and measuri

NOAA. From 1970, ITOS meteorological satellites launched 

nanced and operated by the National Oceanic and Atmos

tion (NOAA), which was established 3 October 1970 an

Environmental Science Services Administration (ESSA). 

tradition of using the agency's acronym for the satellite n

was named NOAA. NOAA 1 (ITOS-A-following afte

Tiros-M, which had become ITOS 1 on launch 23 J

launched 11 December 1970 to begin the new operationa

and TIROS, TOS, and ITOS.) 

OAO. The first satellite proposed for the "Orbiting Obser

astronomy satellite, was called the "Orbiting Astronomic

early planning documents. It retained its original de~ig

years, with the abbreviation OAO used as a short title. T

Astronomical Observatories" was first mentioned in wr

E. Kupperian, Jr., in a December 1958 draft project o

project officials approved this name as a working desig

tion of a new name arose in March 1959 when NASA was 

official project document. The long name had been sho

usage to "OAO." The NASA officials-Dr. Kupperian, 

and Dr. Nancy Roman-decided to keep the long title w

60 
SATELLITES 

Nimbus 1, at right, and the photograph it 

returned of Hurricane Alma on 11 September 1964. At bottom OAO 3 being 

checked out at Kennedy Space Center. 
ORIGINS OF 

title. The intent at the time was to keep a meaningful na

short, descriptive, and professional. 2 

The first satellite of the program, OA 0 1, was lau

perfect orbit 8 April1966, but its power supply failed. 

December 1968, took the first ultraviolet photographs 

data previously unobtainable. OAO 3, launched 21 Augu

the largest telescope orbited by the U.S. to that date. It 

tional name Copernicus after launch in honor of the Po

part of the international celebration of the SOOth annivers

OFO, the 

lith spac

adaptabil

balance m

lessness. 

/

/ 

010. 	"OFO" was an acronym for "Orbiting Frog Otolit

fused with similar acronyms describing the Orbiting Ob

spacecraft. The name, derived through common use, 

description of the biological experiment carried by the 

referred to the frog's inner-ear balance mechanism). 1 

The Frog Otolith Experiment (FOE) was developed 

Gualtierotti of the University of Milan, Italy, when he w

Ames Research Center as a resident Research Associat

National Academy of Sciences. 2 The experiment was de

adaptability of the otolith to sustained weightlessness, t

tion for manned space flight. Originally planned in 1966 

an early Apollo mission, the experiment was deferred wh

62 
SATELLITES 

canceled. In late 1967 authorization was given to orbit the FOE when a 

porting spacecraft could be designed. 3 The project, part of NASA's Hu

Factor Systems program, was officially designated "OFO" in 1968. • Af

series of delays, OFO was orbited 9 November 1970. 

OGO. An acronym for "Orbiting Geophysical Observatory," the name 

derived from NASA's concept for an observatory-class satellite. In late 

and early 1960, the concept evolved from that of a larger general-purp

scientific satellite (as opposed to the special-purpose Explorers), w

would be a standardized spacecraft housing a variety of instruments t

flown regularly on standardized trajectories. "Orbiting Observato

became the term used for this class of spacecraft, and "Orbi

Geophysical Observatory'' developed as a functional description for 

particular satellite. 

The names "EGO" and "POGO" also were developed during this pe

to apply to OGO satellites in particular orbital trajectories: highly eccen

(Eccentric Geophysical Observatory) and polar orbit (Polar Orbi

Geophysical Observatory). 1 Between 1964 and 1969 NASA orbited six O

satellites and results from the successful OGO program included the 

global survey by satellite of the earth's magnetic field. 

OSO. An acronym for "Orbiting Solar Observatory," OSO evolved from 

NASA concept for larger, general-purpose spacecraft for scientific 

Artist's concept ofan OGO spacecraft in orbit. 
ORIGINS OF 

OSO 3 undergoing spin-balance tests before la

periments (see OGO). The name was a functional descrip

indicating it was of the orbiting-observatory class of sa

pose was to measure phenomena of the sun. 1 OSO 1, 

1962, was the first satellite in the "Orbiting Observatory" 

in orbit. OSO 7 was launched 29 September 1971. 

The OSO satellites were designed to provide observati

ing most of its 11-year cycle. Results included the first fu

of the solar corona, the first x-ray observations from a sp

ning solar flare and of solar "streamers"-structures i

the first observations of the corona in white light and extr

PAGEOS. The acronym for "Passive Geodetic Earth Orbitin

into use among project officials and found its way into 

common use. 2 "PAGEOS" paralleled the name "GEO

the active (instrumented) geodetic satellites in the Explor

1964 NASA approved Langley Research Center's propos

project. Pageos 1, a balloon 30 meters in diameter-si

balloon satellite-achieved orbit and inflated 23 June 1

mented (passive) satellite reflected sunlight and, photog

stations around the world, provided a means of prec

earth's surface. 3 

64 
SATELLITES 


PAGEOS 1 inflation test, above, and 

Pegasus satellite with wings outsprea

in an artist's drawing. 

PEGASUS. The outstanding feature of the Pegasus satellites was their h

winglike panels, 96 meters tip to tip, sweeping through space to determ

the rate of meteoroid penetrations. The program office said when choo

from proposed names that the spacecraft, to be the heaviest yet orbi

would be "somewhat of a 'horse' as far as payloads are concerned" 

6
ORIGINS OF 

there could be "only one name for a horse with wings"-P

of the winged flying horse of ancient Greek mythology. 1 

The original suggestion for the name had come from a

spacecraft contractor, Fairchild Stratos Corporation. Th

the concurrence of the NASA Office of Space Vehicle R

nology and Marshall Space Flight Center, had held an in-

in 1963 to select a name for the project. From more than 

Fairchild Stratos employees, the NASA program office 

name "Pegasus" to the Project Designation Committee. T

proved the selection in July 1964 * and NASA announ

August. 2 

A Relay satellite, below; and San Marco 

1, at right, in checkout at Wallops. 

'D 

*The NASA Project Designation Committee originally agreed on "Project 

the experiments before launch. The satellites were to be supplanted with an Exp

(Julian W. Scheer, Assistant Administrator for Public Affairs, NASA, memo

Bisplinghoff, Associate Administrator for Advanced Research and Technol

Robert C. Seamans, Jr., Associate Administrator, 6 July 1964.) 

66 
SATELLITES 


Three Pegasus satellites were placed in orbit, all by Saturn I laun

vehicles: Pegasus 1 on 16 February 1965, Pegasus 2 on 25 May 1965, a

Pegasus 3 on 30 July 1965. 

RELAY. NASA's medium-altitude, activ{}-repeater communications satel

was formally named "Relay!' in January 1961 * at the suggestion of A

Silverstein, NASA's Director of Space Flight Programs. 1 • The name w

considered appropriate because it literally described the function of 

activ{}-repeater comsat: the satellite received a signal, amplified it within 

satellite, and then relayed the signal back toward the earth. 2 Relay 1, orbi

13 December 1962, and its successor Relay 2, orbited 21 January 1964, bo

demonstrated the feasibility of this kind of communications satellite. Af

its research role was completed, Relay 2 was turned over to the Departm

of Defense to assist in military communications over the Pacific. 

SAN MARCO. The Italian space program was conceived in 1960 by Profes

Luigi Broglio, Professor Carlo Buongiorono, and Dr. Franco Fiorio. 1 

1962 they and their colleagues had decided that an ocean platform in nont

ritorial waters should serve as the base for launching their satellite boost

ENI, Italy's stat{}-owned oil industry, made available a suitable platfor

which happened to be named "San Marco" (Saint Mark). The name "S

Marco" grew into the designation for the entire cooperative space projec

including preparatory phases not associated directly with the sea-bas

launch site. Professor Broglio was particularly pleased to adopt the na

for the project because Saint Mark was the patron saint of Venice, his bir

place. Saint Mark was also the patron of all who sailed the sea. 2 

The San Marco project Was a cooperative effort of NASA and the Ital

Space Commission, with NASA providing launch vehicles, use of its fac

ties, and training of Italian personnel. On 15 December 1964, the San Mar

Scout 1 booster, launched from Wallops Station by an Italian crew, orbi

the Italian-designed-and-built San Marco 1 satellite. The launch was the fi

satellite launch in NASA's international cooperation program that was co

ducted by non-U.S. personnel and was the first Western European satel

launch. San Marco 2 was launched into equatorial orbit 26 April1967 fro

*Eight months earlier, Lloyd E. Jones, Jr., a member of the NASA Ad.Hoc Committee to NameS p

Projects and Objects, had suggested to the Committee a group of names for applications satellites. 

Committee approved the name "Relay" for an active comsat 19 May 1960. (NASA Ad Hoc Commi

to Name Space Projects and Objects, minutes of meeting 19 May 1960.) 

67 
ORIGINS OF 

the San Marco platform in the Indian Ocean. San M

April1971, was the third satellite orbited from the platf

been NASA's Explorer 42, launched 12 December 1970

launched from the platform 18 February 1974. 

The San Marco satellites were scientific satellites desi

density experiments using a variety of instruments; in ad

and 2 measured ionospheric characteristics related 

transmission. 

SEASAT. The name of the "sea satellite"-"Specialized Ex

tions Satellite," shortened to the acronym "SEASAT"

the program was officially established. A 1969 confere

representatives from the National Oceanic and Atmo

tion, Department of Defense, NASA, other Governmen

ties, and scientific institutions met at Williams Coll

Massachusetts, to review activities needed in the earth 

fields. The conference identified a number of activitie

projects. SEASAT and LAGEOS (see LAGEOS) wer

names growing out of the thinking of a number of the 

1 ting the tasks of the satellites within NASA's earth an

plications program (EOPAP). 1 

After studies and definition of requirements in 

numerous Government agencies and private institu

SEASAT User Working Group, NASA introduced S

start" in its Fiscal Year 1975 program. The new satelli

1978 launch, following technological evolution of equi

and GEOS-C missions; it would be the first devoted 

the oceans. SEASAT was to circle the globe 14Y2 tim

weather and sea conditions of all the earth's oceans w

wave devices. Information 1was to be distributed to a la

for predicting weather, routing shipping, and issuing dis

first satellite in the program was to be a proof-of-co

later operational missions. 

SIRIO. In March 1970 NASA and the Italian National Re

signed a memorandum of understanding providing f

NASA launch of Italian scientific spacecraft. 1 The first 

launch under this agreement was SIRIO-an acronym fo

Ricerche Orientate (Italian Research-Oriented Satel

68 
SATELLITES 


I. 

An artist's concept ofSEASAT, a satellite to study oceans. 

scheduled for launch in 1975, SIRIO would conduct telecommunicatio

technology, and scientific experiments from synchronous orbit. 

SMS. An operational satellite system that could provide continuous observat

of weather conditions from a fixed position above the earth had been un

study since the first weather satellites were launched in the early 196

Studies of the requirements for a stationary weather satellite were begun 

early 1960 and the proposed project was named for Aeros, ancient Gr

god of the air. 1 Conceived as the third phase of a program consisting 

Tiros and planned Nimbus satellites, Aeros would be a synchronous satel

in equatorial orbit that could track major storms as well as relay cloud-co

photographs of a large portion of the earth. 2 

6
ORIGINS OF 

The second SMS satellite, erected atop its Delta 

vehicle at Kennedy Space Center's Launch Complex 1
SATELLITES 


By late 1962 the name A eros had been dropped in favor of the more f

tional designation "SMS," an acronym for "Synchronous Meteorolo

Satellite." 3 Meanwhile, studies were being made of a Tiros space

("Tiros-K") that could be modified for a near-synchronous orbit t

termine the capability of an SMS. 4 Tiros-K was subsequently cancel

1965 as development plans for the ATS satellites permitted the inclusi

experiments to test the proposed instrumentation for the SMS. 5 

After the successful photographic results of A TS 1 and 3, two ex

mental SMS satellites were approved and tentatively planned for lau

SMS-A and SMS-B, funded by NASA, would be prototypes for the 

operational satellites funded by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

ministration (NOAA). Following launch and checkout by NASA, both 

ellites were to be turned over to NOAA for use in the National Operat

Meteorological Satellite System (NOMSS). * Successive satellites in the s

would be designated "GOES"-an acronym for "Geostationary Op

tional Environmental Satellite''-by NOAA. 6 An operational system o

or more SMS satellites and a single ITOS spacecraft could provide 

coverage required for accurate long-range weather forecasts. 

SMS-A became SMS 1 on launch into orbit 17 May 1974 and suppo

the international Global Atmospheric Research Program's Atlantic Tro

Experiment (GATE) before becoming part of NOAA's operational sy

late in the year. SMS-B and GOES-A (SMS-C) were scheduled for 

launch. The European Space Research Organization, Japan, and 

U.S.S.R. were planning to launch their own geostationary satellites du

the decade to complement the SMS system for global use. 7 

SPHINX. Planned as one of NASA's smallest scientific satellites, the 

kilogram SPHINX took its name from the acronym for "Space Pla

High Voltage Interaction Experiment." It was to be launched pickabac

the proof flight of the newly combined Titan III-Centaur launch veh

along with a dynamic model of the Viking spacecraft. The planned y

long mission was to measure effects of charged particles in space on h

voltage solar cells, insulators, and conductors. Data would help determi

future spacecraft could use high-voltage solar cells, instead of the pre

low-voltage cells, to operate at higher power levels without added weig

cost. The Centaur stage failed on launch 11 February 1974, however, 

the satellite was destroyed. 1 

*NOMSS was also known by NOAA as the National Operational Environmental Satellite System
ORIGINS OF 

Flight model of the FrenchGerman Symphonie above. A 

Syncom fires its apogee motor 

in orbit in the photographic 

composite. 

SYMPHONIE. The experimental Franco-German Symphoni

satellites were designed and built in Europe for launc

launch vehicles and services paid for by France and West G

Two satellites were developed by the joint Consortium 

Allemand pour le Satellite Symphonie (CIFAS) under th

French space agency Centre National d'Etudes Spatiale

West German space agency Gesellschaft fiir Weltraumf

The three-axis stabilized satellites were to test equipme

radio, telephone, telegraph, and data transmission from s

35 900 kilometers above the equator. They were planned 

72 
SATELLITES 

French Guiana on the Europa II launch vehicle, but when the Euro

Launcher Development Organization (ELDO) canceled its vehicle pr

the countries turned to NASA. The contract for NASA launch service

signed in June 1974. 1 

In 1967 France had a stationary (synchronous) orbit communica

satellite, SAROS (Satellite de Radiodiffusion pour Orbit Stationnaire), i

design stage and West Germany was about to begin designing its Oly

satellite. The two nations agreed in June 1967 to combine their program

a new joint effort. Participants in the 1967 discussions in Bonn-the Fe

Republic of Germany's capital on the Rhine River-sought a new nam

the joint satellite just before the agreement was signed. Gerard Die

technicaldirector of the French program, was reminded of the Ge

composer Robert Schumann by the name of French Minister Ma

Schumann, negotiator for France. The new accord in the Rhine Va

Dieulot suggested, was a "symphony by Schumann." "Symphonie,

French spelling of the word coming originally from the Latin and G

"symphonia," "harmony" or "agreement," was adopted when 

Franco-German satellite agreement was signed in June. 2 

NASA launched Symphonie 1 (Symphoni~A before launch) into 

from Eastern Test Range 18 December 1974. Symphoni~B was sched

for September 1975 launch. 

SYNCOM. A word coined from the first syllables of the words "synchro

communications," "Syncom" referred to communications satellites in 

chronous earth orbit. The name was devised by Alton E. Jones of N

Goddard Space Flight Center. Early in August 1961, when he was wo

on the preliminary project development plan, he decided that a name w

quired before the plan could go to press the next day. He invented the n

"Syncom." 1 Before the end of August, NASA Headquarters officials 

approved the preliminary plan and NASA had issued a press release u

thename. 2 

Three Syncom satellites were developed and launched. After a launc

success but communications failure with Syncom 1 (14 February 1963), 

com 2 was launched 26 July 1963, into the first synchronous orbit and 

com 3, launched 19 August 1964, was put into the first truly statio

orbit. The Department of Defense participated in Syncom research 

development, providing ground stations and conducting communica

experiments. Early in 1965, after completing the research and develop

program, NASA transferred use of the two Syncom satellites to the De

ment of Defense. 
ORIGINS OF 

Structural model ofTD

the telescope, suspended 

tion test (ESC photo). A

lite Anik I in productio

Co. photo); below a co

ofthe Telstar I spacecraf
SATELLITES 

TD. 	"TD," an abbreviation for the U.S. Thor-Delta launch vehicle, was 

name given to a satellite project by the European Space Research Organi

tion (ESR0). 1 TD-JA, a solar astronomy satellite designed to carry a va

ty of instruments including a large telescope, was launched by NASA 

March 1972. Under a 1966 memorandum of understanding with ESR

NASA was reimbursed for the launch. 2 

Proposals for the satellite, then unnamed, had been discussed at 

astronomy colloquium soon after the formal establishment of ESRO 

March 1964. 3 By 1965, ESRO had planned a series of TD satellites and 

1967, after several program delays, signed a contract with NASA for 

launch of two satellites, TD-1 and TD-2.• In April1968, however, ES

announced the cancellation of both satellites because of problems in fina

ing. The project was later reinstated and a second contract for a sin

Thor-Delta launch was signed with NASA in June 1970. The satellite w

subsequently redesignated "TD-1A" because it differed from the t

earlier configurations and combined the TD-2 design with several 

periments originally planned for TD-1. 5 

TELESAT. In early 1969 the Canadian Ministry of Communications propo

plans for a satellite system that could be used entirely for domestic co

munications. 1 The system would be managed and operated by Tele

("Telecommunications Satellite") Canada, a new corporation supported 

industry, government, and public investment. The first two satellites in 

system, Telesat-A and B, would be launched into synchronous equatorial 

bit and be capable of relaying TV, telephone, and data transmissi

throughout Canada. Under an agreement with Telesat, NASA would p

vide the Thor-Delta launch vehicles and be reimbursed for the satel

launches. 2 

In orbit each Telesat satellite would be designated "Anik," the Eski

word for "brother." 3 Anik 1 was launched into orbit 9 November 1972 a

Anik2 on20 April1973. Anik 3 was scheduled for 1975. 

TELSTAR. A contraction of "telecommunications" and "star," the na

"Telstar" designated the active communications satellites developed 

American Telephone & Telegraph Company. In November 1961, at the

quest of AT&T's Bell Telephone Laboratories, NASA endorsed the sel

tion of "Telstar" as a name for the project. 1 NASA was responsible 

launching, tracking, and data acquisition for the A T&T-built satellites o

cost-reimbursable basis. Telstar 1, the first active-repeater communicatio

satellite, was the first privately funded satellite and relayed the first l

transatlantic telecast after 10 July 1962launch. It was followed by the equ

ly successful Telstar 2, 7 May 1963. 

75 
ORIGINS OF 

ITOS-B being checked out before launch

TIROS, TOS, ITOS. The Tiros meteorological satellite, whi

data from high above the earth's cloud cover, was gi

scribed its function. In mid-1958, the Department of 

Research Projects Agency (initiator of the project) requ

poration of America (contractor for the project) to su

satellite. RCA personnel concocted the name "TIRO

rived from the descriptive title "Television and Inf

Satellite." The name eventually came to be written "T

1 

in other acronyms. 

76 
SATELLITES 


In April1959 responsibility for the Tiros research and development p

gram was transferred from the Department of Defense to NASA, and o

April1960 Tiros 1 was launched into orbit. Meteorologists were to rece

valuable data-including more than 5 000 000 usable cloud pictures-fr

10 Tiros weather satellites. 2 By early 1964 NASA had orbited Tiro

through Tiros 8 and the U.S. Weather Bureau was making operational 

of the meteorological data from them. These satellites were able to pho

graph about 20 percent of the earth each day. 

On 28 May 1964 NASA and the Weather Bureau announced a plan for 

operational meteorological satellite system based on Tiros research 

development. They called the system "TOS"-an acronym for "Ti

Operational Satellite." In accordance with the NASA-USWB agreem

Tiros 9 was a NASA-financed, modified Tiros satellite, orbited to test 

new "cartwheel" configuration on which the TOS would be based. Tiros 

was a USWB-financed, Tiros satellite similar to Tiros 9, orbited to conti

testing the TOS concept. Early in 1966 NASA orbited the two operatio

satellites in the TOS system-financed, managed, and operated by 

Weather Bureau, by then an agency of the new Environmental Science Se

ices Administration (ESSA). Upon their successful orbit, ESSA designa

the TOS satellites ESSA 1 andESSA 2-ESSA in this case being an acron

for "Environmental Survey Satellite." 3 These two satellites provided c

tinuous cloud-cover pictures of the entire sunlit portion of the earth at l

once daily. 

In 1966 NASA announced plans for a design study of an improved T

spacecraft that would be twice as large as the previous TOS satellites. T

spacecraft would be able to scan the earth's nighttime cloud cover 

would more than double the daily weather coverage obtained in the T

series of ESSA satellites. 4 The first satellite in the Improved Tiros Ope

tional Satellite (ITOS) series, ITOS J-launched 23 January 1970-wa

joint project of NASA and ESSA. With the exception of ITOS 1, spacec

in the ITOS series would be funded by ESSA. 5 

On 3 October 1970, ESSA was combined with the major Federal p

grams concerned with the environments of the sea and air; programs fr

four departments and one agency were consolidated to form the Natio

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in the Departmen

Commerce. The first operational ITOS spacecraft funded by NOA

designated NOAA 1 in orbit-was launched 11 December 1970. NOAA 

(ITOS-G) was put into orbit 15 December 1974 to join the still orbit

NOAA 2 and 3 (launched 15 October 1972 and 6 November 1973) in obta

7
ORIGINS OF 

ing global cloud-cover data day and night and global m

earth's atmospheric structure for weather prediction. 

VANGUARD. The name "Vanguard" applied to both the 

undertaken by the United States and to the launch vehic

the satellites. In the spring of 1955, scientific interest in 

earth satellite for International Geophysical Year (

December 1958) was growing. Several launch vehicle p

oped for placing a U.S. satellite in orbit. The propos

Vanguard 2 atop its satellite launch vehic
SATELLITES 

1955 to be the U.S. satellite project for the IGY was the one offered by t

Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), based on Milton W. Rosen's concept 

a new launch vehicle combining the Viking first stage, Aerobee seco

stage, and a new third stage. 1 Rosen became technical director of the n

project at NRL. 

The name "Vanguard" was suggested by Rosen's wife, Josephine. Ros

forwarded the name to his NRL superiors, who approved it. The Chief 

Naval Research approved the name 16 September 1956. 2 The word denot

that which is "out ahead, in the forefront." 

Vanguard 1, a 1.5-kilogram scientific satellite, was orbited 17 Mar

1958, although ironically it was not the first U.S. satellite (Explorer 1 h

been launched into orbit by the Army 31 January 1968). The NRL proje

Vanguard team was transferred to NASA when the space agency was esta

lished 1 October 1958. Vanguard 1 was followed in 1959 by Vanguard 2 a

3. Scientific results from this series included the first geodetic studies 

dicating the earth's slightly "pear" shape, a survey of the earth's magne

field, the location of the lower edge of the earth's radiation belts, and 

count of micrometeorite impacts. 

WESTAR. Westar satellites were commercial communications satellites own

and operated by Western Union Telegraph Company and launched 

NASA under a contract, to form the first United States domestic commun

cations satellite system. 

As early as 1966, Western Union petitioned the Federal Communicatio

Commission for permission to build a domestic satellite system to rel

telegraph traffic. The FCC was then making a detailed study of the need f

such a system in response to requests from several organizations. When t

FCC decided in 1970 to invite applications, Western Union was the first 

respond, proposing a high-capacity multipurpose system to serve all 

states. 1 The company won approval in January 1973 to build the first U.

system, with authorization for three satellites. Hughes Aircraft Compa

was to build the comsats (or ''domsats,'' as the press began to call them

and NASA signed a contract with Western Union in June 1973, agreeing 

provide launch services, with reimbursement for the Thor-Delta laun

vehicles and costs. 2 

Western Union asked its employees to suggest a name for the new sat

lites. From the suggestions, "Westar" was chosen-combining part of t

company's name with "star," a reference to a body in space, or satellite. 3 

Westar 1 ("Westar-A" before launch) was orbited 13 April 1974 a

began commercial operation 16 July. As a new postal service, Westar 

relayed the first satellite "Mailgrams" in 1974, from New York to L

79 
ORIGINS OF 

W estar 1 bei

payload shro

launch vehic

Center's Laun

Angeles at the speed of light. Westar 2 was launched 

W estar-C was held as a spare. In synchronous orbi

satellite could relay 12 color TV channels, up to 14 40

circuits, or multiple data channels. 

80 
III 


SPACE PROBES 
Whirlpool-shaped galaxy. 
SPACE PROBES 

Unmanned instrumented probes obtain scientific information about t

moon, other planets, and the space environment. Probes are differentiat

from sounding rockets in that they attain at least 6400-kilometer altitude

When a probe is launched on an escape trajectory-attaining sufficie

velocity to travel beyond the earth's gravitational field-it becomes, in 

fect, a satellite of the sun. The Lunar Orbiter probes, however, were se

into orbit around the earth's natural satellite, the moon. 

First serious consideration of the concept of a space probe can be 

tributed to Dr. Robert H. Goddard, American rocket pioneer. As early 

1916, Goddard's calculations of his theoretical rocket and his experimen

with flash powders led him to conclude that a rocket- borne payload e

ploding on the moon could be detected from earth. 1 On 20 September 1952 

paper entitled "The Martian Probe," presented by E. Burgess and C. 

Cross to the British Interplanetary Society, gave the term "probe" to t

language.z 

In May 1960-at the suggestion of Edgar M. Cortright, Assistant D

rector of Lunar and Planetary Programs-NASA adopted a system of nam

ing its space probes. Names of lunar probes were patterned after land e

ploration activities (the name "Pioneer," designating the early series 

lunar and related space probes, was already in use). The names of planeta

mission probes were patterned after nautical terms, to convey "the impre

sion of travel to great distances and remote lands.'' Isolated missions to 

vestigate the space environment were "assigned the name of the missi

group of which they are most nearly a part." This 1960 decision was t

8 

basis for naming Mariner, Ranger, Surveyor, and Viking probes. 

83 
ORIGINS O

U.S.-German Helios 1 solar probe 

on the spin table for system test and 

checkout before mating to the Titan 

III launch vehicle. 

HELlOS. In June 1969 NASA and the German Ministry fo

(BMwF) agreed to a joint project for launching two 

1975, to study the interplanetary medium and explore t

The probes would carry instruments closer to the su

spacecraft, approaching to within 45 million kilometers

The project was designated "Helios," the name of t

of the sun, by German Minister Karl Kaesmeier. The 

gested in a telephone conversation between Minister 

dard Space Flight Center's Project Manager, Gilbert W

1968. 2 NASA had previously used the name for the 

Solar Observatory (AOSO), canceled in 1965, which w

similar experiments. 8 The Helios probes were to be 

III-Centaur vehicles. 

NASA launched West German-built Helios 1 into 

December 1974. Helios-B was scheduled for 1976launc

LUNAR ORBITER. The name "Lunar Orbiter" was a lite

mission assigned to each probe in that project: to attai

it would acquire photographic and scientific data abo

Orbiter supplemented the Ranger and Surveyor prob

84 
SPACE PROBES 

lunar data in preparation for the Apollo manned landings and the Surve

spacecraft softlandings. 1 

The name evolved informally through general use. NASA had had un

consideration plans for a Surveyor spacecraft to be placed in orbit aro

the moon. This Surveyor was called "Surveyor Orbiter" to distinguis

from those in the lunar-landing series. When the decision was made to b

a separate spacecraft rather than use Surveyor, the new probe was refer

to simply as "Orbiter" or "Lunar Orbiter." 2 

Five Lunar Orbiter flights launched in 1966 and 1967 made more t

6000 orbits of the moon and photographed more than 99o/o of the lunar 

face, providing scientific data and information for selecting the Ap

manned landing sites. Tracking data increased knowledge of the moo

gravitational field and revealed the presence of the lunar mascons. 5 

Scale models of a Lunar Orbiter spacecraft and the moon in the top photo 

demonstrate the approach to within 48 kilometers of the lunar surface. Below, a 

portion ofthe first closeup ofthe lunar crater Copernicus, taken 23 November 1966 

by Lunar Orbiter 2. 
ORIGINS OF 

Mariner 9 spacecraft with thermal 

retro engine at top. Nix Olympic

mountain on Mars, photograph

January 1972, above. Mariner 1

densely cratered surface ofMercur

at 18 200 kilometers/rom the plane
SPACE PROBES 


MARINER. The space probes to investigate the vicinities of the ear

planetary neighbors, Venus and Mars, and eventually Mercury, Jupiter, 

Saturn, were designated the "Mariner" series. The name was adopted 

May 1960 as part of the Cortright system of naming planetary missi

from nautical terms. 1 

Mariner spacecraft made a number of record-setting missions, from 

early years of the project. On 14 December 1962 NASA's Mariner 2 ca

within 34 900 kilometers of Venus, climaxing a four-month space flight t

provided new scientific data on interplanetary space and Venus. On 14 J

1965, after seven months of interplanetary flight, Mariner 4 took the f

close look at Mars from outside the earth's atmosphere, returning hi

quality photographs and scientific data. 

·On 19 October 1967 Mariner 5 flew within 4000 kilometers of Venus, 

taining additional information on the nature and origin of the planet and 

the interplanetary environment during a period of increased solar activ

During 1969, Mariner 6 and 7 continued the investigation of the Martian 

mosphere, flying within 3500 kilometers of the planet. Following the uns

cessful Mariner 8 launch attempt,* Mariner 9 was launched 30 May 1

and put into orbit around Mars on 13 November 1971-the first man-m

object to orbit another planet. Mariner 9 photographed the moons of M

mapped 100 percent of the planet, and returned data proving it was g

logically and meteorologically alive. 

Mariner 10, launched 3 November 1973, flew past Venus in February 1

to a March 1974 encounter with Mercury, for the first exploration of 

planet. The spacecraft's trajectory around the sun swung it back for a 

ond encounter with Mercury in September 1974 and would return it fo

third in March 1975. Venus data gave clues to the planet's weather syst

suggested the planet's origin differed from the earth's, and confirmed 

presence of hydrogen in its atmosphere. Mercury data revealed a str

magnetic field, a tenuous atmosphere rich in helium, a cratered crust, 

possibly an iron-rich core; it brought new insight into the formation of 

terrestrial planets. 

Two Mariner Jupiter-Saturn probes were planned for launch in 1977 

study the environment, atmosphere, and characteristics of those planets. 

*Mariner H was designated Mariner 8 by NASA Associate Administrator John E. Naugle becau

pressure from the press for easier identification. This designation was a departure from past precede

assigning a number to spacecraft only after a successful launch. (NASA, Mariner Mars 1971 Projec

fice, telephone interview, 4 June 1971.) 

8
ORIGINS OF 

Pioneer 

checkout 

launch v

before l

spot and 

moon lo 

cloud st

graphed 

Decembe

PIONEER. "Pioneer" was chosen as the name for the fir

Pioneer 1, launched 11 October 1958, as well as for th

lunar and deep space probes. The Pioneer series had b

International Geophysical Year by the Department of 

Research Projects Agency (ARPA), which assigned ex

the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division (AFBMD) and 

Missile Agency (ABMA). Upon its formation in Octo

herited responsibility for-and the name of-the probes

Credit for naming the first probe has been attrib

Saliga, who had been assigned to the Air Force Orienta

Patterson AFB, as chief designer of Air Force exhibit

briefing, the spacecraft was described to him as a ''lu

with an infrared scanning device." Saliga thought th

lacked theme for an exhibit design. He suggested "Pion

88 
SPACE PROBES 


the probe since "the Army had already launched and orbited the Explo

satellite and their Public Information Office was identifying the Army 

'Pioneers in Space,' " and by adopting the name the Air Force wo

"make a 'quantum jump' as to who really [were] the 'Pioneers 

Space.' " 2 

The first series of Pioneer spacecraft was flown between 1958 and 19

Pioneer 1, 2, and 5 were developed by Space Technology Laboratories, In

and were launched for NASA by AFBMD. Pioneer 3 and 4 were develop

by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and launched for NASA by ABMA. 

1960 Pioneer 5 transmitted the first solar flare data and established a co

munications distance record of 36.2 million kilometers. 

With the launch of Pioneer 6 (Pioneer A in the new series) in Decem

1965, NASA resumed the probes to complement interplanetary data 

quired by Mariner probes. Pioneer 7, 8, and 9, second-generation spacecr

89 
ORIGINS OF 

launched between 1966 and 1968, continued the investi

planetary medium. 

Between 1965 and 1967 NASA had been studying the 

probe known as the "Galactic Jupiter Probe," or "A

Probe," that would investigate solar, interplanet

phenomena in the outer region of the solar system. 3 By 

cluded the probe in the Pioneer series, designating two s

FandG.' 

Pioneer 10 (Pioneer F), launched in March 1972

spacecraft to cross the Asteroid Belt. It flew by Jupiter 

returning more than 300 closeup photos of the planet an

well as data on its complex magnetic field and its atmo

by Jupiter's gravity, the probe was to reach the orbit of 

the orbit of Uranus in 1979; it was expected to becom

spacecraft to escape the solar system. 

Pioneer 11 (Pioneer G), launched in April1973, crosse

skimmed by Jupiter three times closer to the planet than P

was thrown by Jupiter's gravity toward Saturn. The spac

first photos of Jupiter's poles and information on th

equator regions, and the moon Callisto. On the night o

when Pioneer 11 set its new course for Saturn, NASA 

Pioneer Saturn. 5 It was to pass close by Saturn in the fall 

Two Pioneer Venus spacecraft, an orbiter and a mult

to gather detailed information on the atmosphere and 

1978. The lander was to release four probes to the planet

RANGER. A probe series to gather data about the moon, R

its name in May 1960 because of the parallel to ''la

tivities." 1 NASA had initiated Project Ranger-t

December 1959, when it requested Jet Propulsion Labora

spacecraft design and a mission to "acquire and transm

ages of the lunar surface." 2 In February 1960 Dr. Wi

JPL Director, recommended that NASA Headquarters 

"Ranger" used by JPL for the project. The name had 

the JPL program director, Clifford D. Cummings, who 

on a camping trip that his pick-up truck was called "R

liked the name and, because it referred to "land explorat

gested it as a name for the lunar impact probe. By May 

mon use. 3 

90 
SPACE PROBES 


Ranger 7 before 28 July 1964 launch to 

the moon, at left. The television picture of 

craters on the lunar surface was taken by 

Ranger 9 before impact 24 March 1965. 

The first U.S. spacecraft to hit the moon was Ranger4, launched 23 A

1962. Ranger 7, 8, and 9, flown 1964-1965, provided thousands of close

photographs of the moon before crashing on its surface. They were the f

of the unmanned space probes-Surveyor and Lunar Orbiter were la

ones-to provide vital planning information about the lunar surface for 

Apollo manned lunar landing program. 

91 
ORIGINS OF 

:.. : ~i .. '{;

... r 

f 

, ~ _.

- The Surveyor spacecraft, designed to make a softlanding on 

alpha-backscattering instrument, in the lower photo, analy

tion ofthe lunar surface after the 10 September 1967 landing. 

92 
SPACE PROBES 

SURVEYOR. "Surveyor" was chosen in May 1960 to designate an advan

spacecraft series to explore and analyze the moon's surface. The designa

was in keeping with the policy of naming lunar probes after "land expl

tion activities" established under the Cortright system of naming sp

probes. 1 Following the Ranger photographic lunar hardlanders, Surve

probes marked an important advance in space technology: a softlanding 

the moon's surface to survey it with television cameras and analyze 

characteristics using scientific instruments. 

Five Surveyor spacecraft-Surveyor 1 in 1966; Surveyor 3, 5, and 

1967; and Surveyor 7 in 1968-softlanded on the moon and operated on 

lunar surface over a combined time of approximately 17 months. T

transmitted more than 87 000 photographs and made chemical and mech

ical analyses of surface and subsurface samples. 2 

VIKING. The name "Viking" designated the planned first U.S. softland

probes of the planet Mars.* The successor to Project Voyager, which 

Viking spacecraft model in simulated flight. 

*"Viking had been previously used in the U.S. as the name for the early single-stage sounding r

that later became the prototype for the first stage of the Vanguard launch vehicle. See Milton W. R

The Viking Rocket Story (London: Faber and Faber, 1956) and Constance MeL. Green and M

Lomask, Vanguard-A History, NASA SP-4202 (Washington: NASA, 1970). 

9
ORIGINS OF 

An artist's conception of the Viking Mars lande

touchdown on the Martian surface at Chryse. The pa

the left background carries the aeroshe/1 from which 

detaches. 

canceled in 1968, the Viking program was to se

spacecraft-each consisting of an orbiter and lande

scientific measurements of the Martian surface, and se

of life forms.* The two Viking spacecraft, planned fo

Titan III-Centaur launch vehicles, were to reach Mars in 

The name had been suggested by Walter J acobowski i

grams Office at NASA Headquarters and discussed at a 

held at Langley Research Center in November 1968. 1 It 

the meeting that "Viking" was a suitable name in that 

of nautical exploration in the same manner as "Marine

Cortright system of naming space probes. 2 The name w

to the NASA Project Designation Committee and appro

*Project Voyager was terminated because of the projected high cost of 

which was related to the planned use of Saturn V launch vehicles. 

94 
IV 


MANNED SPACE FLIGHT 

View ofthe moon from Apollo 8. 
MANNED SPACE FLIGHT 

NASA's first four manned spaceflight projects were Mercury, Gem

Apollo, and Skylab. As the first U.S. manned spaceflight project, Proj

Mercury-which included two manned suborbital flights and four orb

flights-" fostered Project Apollo and fathered Project Gemini.'' 1 The 

ond manned spaceflight project initiated was the Apollo manned lunar 

ploration program. The national goal of a manned lunar landing in 

1960s was set forth by President John F. Kennedy 25 May 1961: 

... I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goals, before 

this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to 

earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, 

or more important for the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so 

difficult or expensive to accomplish .... But in a very real sense, it will not be 

one man going to the moon-if we make this judgment affirmatively, it will be 

an entire nation. 2 

The interim Project Gemini, completed in 1966, was conducted to p

vide spaceflight experience, techniques, and training in preparation for 

complexities of Apollo lunar-landing missions. Project Skylab was origin

ly conceived as a program to use hardware developed for Project Apoll

related manned spaceflight missions; it evolved into the Orbital Works

program with three record-breaking missions in 1973-1974 to man 

laboratory in earth orbit, producing new data on the sun, earth resourc

materials technology, and effects of space on man. 

The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project was an icebreaking effort in inter

tional cooperation. The United States and the U.S.S.R. were to fly a jo

mission in 1975 to test new systems that permitted their spacecraft to d

with each other in orbit, for space rescue or joint research. 

As technology and experience broadened man's ability to explore 

use space, post-Apollo planning called for ways to make access to sp

more practical, more economical, nearer to routine. Early advanced stud

grew into the Space Shuttle program. Development of the reusable sp

transportation system, to be used for most of the Nation's manned and 

manned missions in the 1980s, became the major focus of NASA's progr

for the 1970s. European nations cooperated by undertaking developmen

Spacelab, a pressurized, reusable laboratory to be flown in the Shuttle. 

9
ORIGINS OF 

Apollo 11 command and 

readied for transport to t

Building at Kennedy Space 

Apollo 11 Astronaut Edwin 

setting up an experiment on 

lunar module. Opposite· th

(courtesy ofGeorge Washing
MANNED SPACE FLIGHT 


APOLLO. In July 1960 NASA was preparing to implement its long-range p

beyond Project Mercury and to introduce a manned circumlunar mis

project-then unnamed-at the NASA/Industry Program Plans C

ference in Washington. Abe Silverstein, Director of Space Flight Deve

ment, proposed the name "Apollo" because it was the name of a god in 

cient Greek mythology with attractive connotations and the precedent 

naming manned spaceflight projects for mythological gods and heroes 

been set with Mercury. 1 Apollo was god of archery, prophecy, poetry, 

music, and most significantly he was god of the sun. In his horse-dr

golden chariot, Apollo pulled the sun in its course across the sky each d

NASA approved the name and publicly announced "Project Apollo

the July 28-29 conference. 3 

Project Apollo took new form when the goal of a manned lunar land

was proposed to the Congress by President John F. Kennedy 25 May 1

and was subsequently approved by the Congress. It was a program of th

man flights, leading to the landing of men on the moon. Rendezvous 

docking in lunar orbit of Apollo spacecraft components were vital te

niques for the intricate flight to and return from the moon. 

The Apollo spacecraft consisted of the command module, serving as 

crew's quarters and flight control section; the service module, contain

propulsion and spacecraft support systems; and the lunar module, carry

9
ORIGINS OF 

two crewmen to the lunar surface, supporting them on 

turning them to the command and service module in l

designations came into use in 1962, when NASA made b

flight mode (lunar orbit rendezvous), the boosters, and 

Project Apollo. From that time until June 1966, the luna

"lunar excursion module (LEM)." It was renamed by 

Designation Committee because the word "excursion" 

the moon and this vehicle did not have that capab~lity

flights, beginning with Apollo 15, carried the lunar rovin

''Rover,'' to provide greater mobility for the astronauts 

of the moon. 

Beginning with the flight ofApollo 9, code names for 

and service module (CSM) and lunar module (LM) w

astronauts who were to fly on each mission. The code 

9-"Gumdrop" (CSM), "Spider" (LM); Apollo 10

(CSM), "Snoopy" (LM); Apollo 11-"Columbia" (CS

Apollo 12-"Yankee Clipper" (CSM), "Intrepid

13-"0dyssey" (CSM), "Aquarius" (LM); Apollo 

(CSM), "Antares" (LM); Apollo 15-"Endeavour" 

(LM); Apollo 16-"Casper" (CSM), "Orion

17-"America" (CSM); "Challenger" (LM). 

The formula for numbering Apollo missions was alt

astronauts scheduled for the first manned flight lost thei

during launch rehearsal27 January 1967. In honor of A

Grissom, Edward H. White II, and Roger B. Chaffee, t

was given the name "Apollo 1" although it was not lau

prelaunch designation AS-204 for the fourth launch in t

series, the mission was officially recorded as "First ma

flight-failed on ground test." 

Manned Spacecraft Center Deputy Director George 

consideration of the request from the astronauts' widow

tion "Apollo 1"-used by the astronauts publicly an

insignia-be retained. NASA Headquarters Office of M

therefore recommended the new numbering, and the NA

nation Committee announced approval3 April1967. 

The earlier, unmanned Apollo Saturn IB missions AS

AS-203 were not given "Apollo" flight numbers and 

named "Apolio 2" and "Apolio 3." The next missi

Saturn V flight (AS-501, for Apollo Saturn V No. 1), 

100 
MANNED SPACE FLIGHT 


LunarRoverparked on the moon during the Apollo 15 mission. 

and 3 to become Apollo 4 after launch into orbit 9 November 1967. Sub

quent flights continued the sequence through 17. 5 

The Apollo program carried the first men beyond the earth's field 

gravity and around the moon on Apollo 8 in December 1968 and landed 

first men on the moon in Apollo 11 on20 July 1969. The program conclu

with Apollo 17 in December 1972 after putting 27 men into lunar orbit 

12 of them on the surface of the moon. Data, photos, and lunar samp

brought to earth by the astronauts and data from experiments they left 

the moon-still transmitting data in 1974-began to give a picture of 

moon's origin and nature, contributing to understanding of how the e

had evolved. 

APOLLO-SOYUZ TEST PROJECT (ASTP). The first international man

space project, the joint U.S.-U.S.S.R. rendezvous and docking miss

took its name from the spacecraft to be used, the American Apollo and 

Soviet Soyuz. 

On 15 September 1969, two months after the Apollo 11lunar landing m

sion, the President's Space Task Group made its recommendations on 

future U.S. space program. One objective was broad international p

10
ORIGINS OF 

The Apollo spacecraft approaches t

in orbit, in the artist's conception 

Aleksey A. Leonov and Astronau

check out the docking module in a 1
MANNED SPACE FLIGHT 

ticipation, and President Nixon included this goal in his March 1970 Sp

Policy Statement. The President earlier had approved NASA plans for 

creasing international cooperation in an informal meeting with Secretar

State William P. Rogers, Presidential Assistant for National Security Af

Henry A. Kissinger, and NASA Administrator Thomas 0. Paine aboard 

Force One while flying to the July Apollo 11 splashdown. 1 

The United States had invited the U.S.S.R. to participate in experim

and information exchange over the past years. Now Dr. Paine sent So

Academy of Sciences President Mstislav V. Keldysh a copy of the U

post-Apollo plans and suggested exploration of cooperative programs

April1970 Dr. Paine suggested, in an informal meeting with Academi

Anatoly A. Blagonravov in New York, that the two nations cooperate 

astronaut safety, including compatible docking equipment on space stat

and shuttles to permit rescue operations in space emergencies. Fur

discussions led to a 28 October 1970 agreement on joint efforts to de

compatible docking arrangements. Three working groups were set 

Agreements on further details were reached in Houston, Texas, 21-25 J

1971 and in Moscow 29 November-6 December 1971. NASA Deputy 

ministrator George M. Low and a delegation met with a Soviet delegatio

Moscow 4-6 April 1972 to draw up a plan for docking a U.S. Ap

spacecraft with a Russian Soyuz in earth orbit in 1975. 2 

Final official approval came in Moscow on 24 May 1972. U.S. Presi

Nixon and U.S.S.R. Premier Aleksey N. Kosygin signed the Agreem

Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space 

Peaceful Purposes, including development of compatible spacecraft do

ing systems to improve safety of manned space flight and to make j

scientific experiments possible. The first flight to test the systems was t

in 1975, with modified Apollo and Soyuz spacecraft. Beyond this miss

future manned spacecraft of the two nations would be able to dock w

each other. 3 

During work that followed, engineers at Manned Spacecraft Ce

(renamed Johnson Space Center in 1973) shortened the lengthy "j

rendezvous and docking mission" to "Rendock," as a handy project na

But the NASA Project Designation Committee in June 1972 approved 

official designation as "Apollo Soyuz Test Project (ASTP)," incorpora

the names of the U.S. and U.S.S.R. spacecraft. The designation 

sometimes written "Apollo/Soyuz Test Project," but the form "Apo

Soyuz Test Project" was eventually adopted. NASA and the So

Academy of Sciences announced the official ASTP emblem in March 1

The circular emblem displayed the English word "Apollo" and the Rus

10
ORIGINS OF 

word "Soyuz" on either side of a center globe with 

silhouette of the docked spacecraft. 4 

Scheduled for July 1975, the first international man

would carry out experiments with astronauts and cos

together, in addition to testing the new docking systems 

three-module, two-man Soviet Soyuz was to be la

U.S.S.R.'s Baykonur Cosmodrome near Tyuratam on 15 

later the modified Apollo command and service module w

module and a three-man crew would lift off on the Apollo

launch vehicle from Kennedy Space Center, to link up w

cylindrical docking module would serve as an airloc

crewmen between the different atmospheres of the two spa

days of flying joined in orbit, with crews working togeth

would undock for separate activities before returning to th

GEMINI. In 1961 planning was begun on an earth-orbital re

to follow the Mercury project and prepare for Apollo 

proved or "Advanced Mercury" concept was designate

II" by Glenn F. Bailey, NASA Space Task Group Contra

John Y. Brown of McDonnell Aircraft Corporation

spacecraft was based on the one-man Mercury capsule, e

capable of longer flights. Its major purposes were to dev

of rendezvous in space with another spacecraft and to ex

time. 

NASA Headquarters personnel were asked for prop

propriate name for the project and, in a December 1961 

dustrial College of the Armed Forces, Dr. Robert C. S

NASA Associate Administrator, described Mercury Mark 

fer of a token reward to the person suggesting the name f

member of the audience sent him the name ''Gemini.'' M

Nagy in NASA's Office of Manned Space Flight al

"Gemini." Dr. Seamans recognized both as authors of the 

"Gemini," meaning "twins" in Latin, was the name 

stellation of the zodiac, made up of the twin stars Cast

Nagy it seemed an appropriate connotation for the two-m

vous mission, and the project's relationship to Mercury. 

tion of the mythological twins was that they were con

patron gods of voyagers. 3 The nomination was selected f

in NASA Headquarters, including "Diana," "Valiant,

104 

MANNED SPACE FLIGHT 


The Gemini 7 spacecraft was 

photographed from the window of 

Gemini 6 during rendezvous 

maneuvers 15 December 1965. 

Castor and Pollux, the Gemini of 

mythology, ride their horses 

through the sky (courtesy of the 

Library ofCongress). 

from the Office of Manned Space Flight. On 3 January 1962, NASA 

nounced the Mercury Mark II project had been named "Gemini. " 4 

After 12 missions-2 unmanned and 10 manned-Project Gemini en

15 November 1966. Its achievements had included long-duration s

flight, rendezvous and docking of two spacecraft in earth orbit, 

travehicular activity, and precision-controlled reentry and landing 

spacecraft. 

The crew of the first manned Gemini mission, Astronauts Virg

Grissom and John W. Young, nicknamed their spacecraft ''Molly Brow

The name came from the musical comedy title, The Unsinkable M

Brown, and was a facetious reference to the sinking of Grissom's Merc

1
ORIGINS OF 

Redstone spacecraft after splashdown in the Atlantic O

"Molly Brown" was the last Gemini spacecraft with a n

Gemini 3 mission, NASA announced that "all Gemini f

official spacecraft nomenclature a single easily rem

nounced name.'' 5 

Astronaut EdwardH. White IIfloats in space, secured to the G

MERCURY. Traditionally depicted wearing a winged cap 

Mercury was the messenger of the gods in ancient Roma

Greek mythology. 1 The symbolic associations of this nam

Silverstein, NASA's Director of Space Flight Developme

it for the manned spaceflight project in the autumn 

November 1958 Dr. T. Keith Glennan, NASA Administra

106 
MANNED SPACE FLIGHT 


Full-scale mockups oftheMercury and Gemini spacecraft. 

L. Dryden, Deputy Administrator, agreed upon "Mercury," and o

December 1958 Dr. Glennan announced the name for the first time. 2 

On 9 April1959 NASA announced selection of the seven men chosen t

the first U.S. space travelers, "astronauts." The term followed the sema

tradition begun with "Argonauts," the legendary Greeks who traveled 

and wide in search of the Golden Fleece, and continued 

"aeronauts"-pioneers of balloon flight. 5 Robert R. Gilruth, head of 

Space Task Group, proposed "Project Astronaut" to NASA Headquart

but the suggestion lost out in favor of Project Mercury "largely becau

[Project Astronaut] might lead to overemphasis on the personality of 

man.'' • 

In Project Mercury the United States acquired its first experience in 

ducting manned space missions and its first scientific and enginee

knowledge of man in space. After two suborbital and three orbital missi

Project Mercury ended with a fourth orbital space flight-a full-day 

sion by L. Gordon Cooper, Jr., 15-16 May 1963. 

In each of Project Mercury's manned space flights, the assigned astro

chose a call sign for his spacecraft just before his mission. The choic

1
ORIGINS OF 

"Freedom 7" by Alan B. Shepard, Jr., established the t

meral "7," which came to be associated with the team 

astronauts. When Shepard chose ''Freedom 7, '' the num

cant to him because it appeared that "capsule No.7 on bo

be the first combination of a series of at least seven flight

into space." 5 The prime astronaut for the second mann

Grissom, named his spacecraft "Liberty Bell 7" because 

Americans almost synonymous with 'freedom' and sym

of the continuous teamwork it represented.'' 6 

John Glenn, assigned to take the Nation's first orbita

Mercury spacecraft ''Friendship 7. '' Scott Carpenter cho

said, "because I think of Project Mercury and the open m

are conducting it for the benefit of all as a light in the 

Astronaut John H. Glenn, Jr., is hoisted out of the Friendsh

splashdown in theAtlantic20February 1962. The god Mercury, 

right (courtesy ofthe National Gallery ofArt). 
9 

MANNED SPACE FLIGHT 

means dawn-in this case the dawn of a new age. The 7, of course, sta

for the original seven astronauts." 7 Walter M. Schirra selected "Sigma 

for what was primarily an engineering flight-a mission to eval

spacecraft systems; "sigma" is an engineering symbol for summation

selecting "sigma," Schirra also honored "the immensity of the enginee

effort behind him." 8 Cooper's choice of "Faith 7" symbolized, in 

words, ''my trust in God, my country, and my teammates.'' 

SKYLAB. Planning for post-Apollo manned spaceflight missions evolved dir

ly from the capability produced by the Apollo and Saturn technologies, 

Project Skylab resulted from the combination· of selected program ob

tives. In 1964, design and feasibility studies had been initiated for miss

that could use modified Apollo hardware for a number of possible lunar 

earth-orbital scientific and applications missions. The study concepts w

variously known as "Extended Apollo (Apollo X)" and the "Apollo 

tension System (AES)." 1 In 1965 the program was coordinated un

the name "Apollo Applications Program (AAP)" and by 1966 had 

rowed in scope to primarily an earth-orbital concept. 2 

Projected AAP missions included the use of the Apollo Telescope Mo

(ATM). In one plan it was to be launched separately and docked with an 

biting workshop in the "wet" workshop configuration. The 

workshop-using the spent S-IVB stage of the Saturn I launch vehicle 

workshop after purging it in orbit of excess fuel-was later dropped in fa

of the "dry'' configuration using the Saturn V launch vehicle. The extra 

carried by the S-IVB when used as a third stage on the Saturn V, for m

launches, would not be required for the Skylab mission, and the stage co

be completely outfitted as a workshop before launch, including the ATM

The name "Skylab," a contraction connoting "laboratory in the sk

was suggested by L/C Donald L. Steelman (USAF) while assigned 

NASA. He later received a token reward for his suggestion. Although 

name was proposed in mid-1968, NASA decided to postpone renaming 

program because of budgetary considerations. "Skylab" was later refe

to the NASA Project Designation Committee and was approved 

February 1970. 4 

Sky/ab 1 (SL-1), the Orbital Workshop with its Apollo Telescope Mo

was put into orbit 14 May 1973. Dynamic forces ripped off the meteo

shield and one solar array wing during launch, endangering the entire p

gram, but the three astronauts launched on Skylab 2 (SL-2)-the 

manned mission to crew the Workshop-were able to repair the spacec

and completed 28 days living and working in space before their safe ret

10
ORIGINS OF 

Skylab Orbital Workshop photographed from the Skylab 2 co

ing fly-around inspection. The Workshop's remaining solar 

second wing was ripped off during launch, is deployed below 

rays. The emergency solar parasol erected by the astronauts i

part ofthe spacecraft. The cutaway drawing shows crew quarte
MANNED SPACE FLIGHT 

They were followed by two more three-man crews during 1973. The Skyla

crew spent 59 days in space and Skylab 4 spent 84. Each Sky lab mission 

the longest-duration manned space flight to that date, also setting distan

in-orbit and extravehicular records. Skylab 4, the final mission (16 Nov

ber 1973 to 8 February 1974) recorded the longest in-orbit EVA (7 hou

minute), the longest cumulative orbital EVA time for one mission (22 ho

21 min in four EVAs), and the longest distance in orbit for a man

mission (55. 5 million kilometers). 

The Sky lab missions proved that man could live and work in space for 

tended periods; expanded solar astronomy beyond earth-based obser

tions, collecting new data that could revise understanding of the sun and 

effects on the earth; and returned much information from surveys of ea

resources with new techniques. The deactivated Workshop remained in 

bit; it might be visited by a future manned flight, but was not to be inhabi

again. 

SPACE SHUTTLE. The name "Space Shuttle" evolved from descrip

references in the press, aerospace industry, and Government and gradu

came into use as concepts of reusable space transportation developed. 

early NASA advanced studies grew into a full program, the name came i

official use.* 1 

From its establishment in 1958, NASA studied aspects of reusable lau

vehicles and spacecraft that could return to the earth. The predecessor 

tional Advisory Committee for Aeronautics and then NASA coopera

with the Air Force in the X-15 rocket research aircraft program in the 19

and 1960s and in the 1958-1963 Dyna-Soar (''Dynamic-Soaring'') hyp

sonic boost-glide vehicle program. Beginning in 1963, NASA joined 

USAF in research toward the Aerospaceplane, a manned vehicle to go i

orbit and return, taking off and landing horizontally. Joint flight tests in 

1950s and 1960s of wingless lifting bodies-the M2 series, HL-10, and ev

tually the X-24-tested principles for future spacecraft reentering the 

mosphei:e. 

Marshall Space Flight Center sponsored studies of recovery and reuse 

the Saturn V launch vehicle. MSFC Director of Future Projects Heinz 

Koelle in 1962 projected a ''commercial space line to earth orbit and 

*In Janu·ary 1975, NASA's Project Designation Committee was considering suggestions for a 

name for the Space Shuttle, submitted by Headquarters and Center personnel and others at the reque

Dr. George M. Low, NASA Deputy Administrator. Rockwell International Corporation, Shuttle p

contractor, was reported as referring to it as "Spaceplane." (Bernice M. Taylor, Administrative Assi

to Assistant Administrator for Public Affairs, NASA, telephone interview, 12 Feb. 1975; and Avia

Week& Space Technology, 102 [20 January 1975], 10.) 

11
ORIGINS OF 

The Space Shu

ist's conceptio

1980s, at left, 

and tank jetti

quence as the o

and its mission

moon," for cargo transportation by 1980 or 1990. Le

MSFC published a 1963 description of a winged, fly ba

studies of "logistics spacecraft systems," "orbital ca

"reusable orbital transports" followed throughout the 

Department of Defense, and industry. 

112 
MANNED SPACE FLIGHT 


As the Apollo program neared its goal, NASA's space program object

widened and the need for a fully reusable, economical space transporta

system for both manned and unmanned missions became more urgent

1966 the NASA budget briefing outlined an FY 1967 program including 

vanced studies of "ferry and logistics vehicles." The President's Scie

Advisory Committee in February 1967 recommended studies of m

economical ferry systems with total recovery and rescue possibilities. 3 

dustry studies under NASA contracts 1969-1971 led to definition o

reusable Space Shuttle system and to a 1972 decision to develop the Shutt

The term "shuttle" crept into forecasts of space transportation at leas

early as 1952. In a Collier's article, Dr. Wernher von Braun, then Dire

of the U.S. Army Ordnance Guided Missiles Development Group, e

sioned space stations supplied by rocket ships that would enter orbit 

return to earth to land "like a normal airplane," with small, rocket-powe

"shuttle-craft," or "space taxis," to ferry men and materials betw

rocket ship and space station. • 

In October 1959 Lockheed Aircraft Corporation and Hughes Airc

Company reported plans for a space ferry or "commuter express," 

"shuttling" men and materials between earth and outer space. In Decem

Christian Science Monitor Correspondent Courtney Sheldon wrote of 

future possibility of a "man-carrying space shuttle to the nearest planets

The term reappeared occasionally in studies through the early 1960s

1963 NASA contract to Douglas Aircraft Company was to produce a c

ceptual design for Philip Bono's "Reusable Orbital Module Booster 

Utility Shuttle (ROMBUS)," to orbit and return to touch down with 

11
ORIGINS OF 

like the lunar landing module's. Jettison of eight strap

for recovery and reuse was part of the concept. 6 The pr

European discussions of Space Transporter proposals an

Aerospaceplane, NASA contract studies, USAF STAR

and the joint lifting-body flights-referred to "shuttle" 

orbital shuttle transport,'' and ''space shuttle'' forerunn

In 1965 Dr. Walter R. Dornberger, Vice President fo

tron Corporation's Bell Aerosystems Company, publis

of the Future: The Aerospaceplane" in Bell's periodi

July Dr. Dornberger gave the main address in a Univ

Space Institute short course: "The Recoverable, 

Shuttle." 7 

NASA used the term "shuttle" for its reusable transp

ficially in 1968. Associate Administrator for Manned S

E. Mueller briefed the British Interplanetary Society in 

with charts and drawings of "space shuttle" operation

November, addressing the National Space Club in Was

Mueller declared the next major thrust in space sh

shuttle. 8 

By 1969 "Space Shuttle" was the standard NASA de

some efforts were made to find another name as studies 

"Space Shuttle" was given an agency-wide code numbe

Steering Group and Space Shuttle Task Group were 

tember the Space Task Group appointed by President N

post-Apollo space objectives recommended the U.S. 

economic space transportation system including a shut

feasibility study results were presented at a Space Sh

Washington. Intensive design, technology, and cost stud

and 1971. 10 

*The Defense/Space Business Daily newsletter was persistent in referring t

and lifting-body tests as "Space Shuttle" tests. Editor-in-Chief Norman L. B

first tried to reduce the name "Aerospaceplane" to "Spaceplane" for that p

that to "Space Shuttle" for reusable, back-and-forth space transport concepts 

was suggested to him by the Washington, D.C., to New York airline shuttle fl

22 Apri11975.) 

Application of the word" shuttle" to anything that moved quickly back an

shuttle train and the verb "to shuttle") had arisen in the English language fro

instrument that passed or "shot" the thread of the woof from one edge of 

English word came from the Anglo-Saxon "scytel" for missile, related to the 

tle, the Old Norwegian "skutill" for harpoon, and the English "shoot." (W

tionary, ed. 2, unabridged.) 

114 
MANNED SPACE FLIGHT 

On 5 January 1972 President Nixon announced that the United Sta

would develop the Space Shuttle. 

The Space Shuttle would be a delta-winged aircraftlike orbiter abo

the size of a DC-9 aircraft, mounted at launch on a large, expenda

liquid-propellant tank and two recoverable and reusable solid-propell

rocket boosters (SRBs) that would drop away in flight. The Shuttle's car

bay eventually would carry most of the Nation's civilian and milit

payloads. Each Shuttle was to have a lifetime of 100 space missions, car

ing up to 29 500 kilograms at a time. Sixty or seventy flights a year w

expected in the 1980s. 

Flown by a three-man crew, the Shuttle would carry satellites to orb

repair them in orbit, and later return them to earth for refurbishment a

reuse. It would also carry up to four scientists and engineers to work in 

pressurized laboratory (see Spacelab) or technicians to service satellit

After a 7- to 30-day mission, the orbiter would return to earth and land l

an aircraft, for preparation for the next flight. 

At the end of 1974, parts were being fabricated, assembled, and tes

for flight vehicles. Horizontal tests were to begin in 1977 and orbital te

in 1979. The first manned orbital flight was scheduled for March 1979 a

the complete vehicle was to be operational in 1980. 

SPACE TUG. Missions to orbits higher than 800 kilometers would require 

additional propulsion stage for the Space Shuttle. A reusable "Space Tu

would fit into the cargo bay to deploy and retrieve payloads beyond the 

biter's reach and to achieve earth-escape speeds for deep-space exploratio

Under a NASA and Department of Defense agreement, the Air Force was 

develop an interim version-the "interim upper stage (IUS)," named 

the Air Force the "orbit-to-orbit stage (OOS)," to be available in 19

NASA meanwhile continued planning and studies for a later full-capac

Space Tug. 11 

Joseph E. McGolrick of the NASA Office of Launch Vehicles had us

the term in a 1961 memorandum suggesting that, as capabilities and busin

in space increased, a need might arise for "a space tug-a space vehi

capable of orbital rendezvous and . . . of imparting velocities to ot

bodies in space.'' He foresaw a number of uses for such a vehicle and s

gested it be considered with other concepts for the period after 19

McGolrick thought of the space tug as an all-purpose workhorse, like 

small, powerful tugboats that moved huge ocean liners and other craft. T

name was used frequently in studies and proposals through the years, and 

September 1969 the Presidential Space Task Group's recommendation fo

115 
ORIGINS OF 

new space transportation system proposed developm

chemically propelled space tug, as well as a shuttle and a 

LARGE SPACE TELESCOPE. Among Shuttle payload

Spacelab and satellites like those launched in the p

boosters-was the Large Space Telescope (LS1), to be 

an international facility for in-orbit research controlled 

ground. The LST would observe the solar system an

above the earth's atmosphere. On revisits, the Shuttle w

biting telescope, exchange scientific hardware, and-se

return the LST to the earth. 

LONG-DURATION EXPOSURE FACILITY. Another p

placed in orbit for research into effects of exposure 

manned, free-flying Long-Duration Exposure Facility 

pose a variety of passive experiments in orbit and wou

for refurbishment and reuse. 

SPACELAB. A new venture in space flight made possible b

Spacelab was to be a reusable "space laboratory" in w

engineers could work in earth orbit without spacesuits or 

training. The program drew the United States and 

cooperation in space efforts. 

The name finally chosen for the space laboratory w

European developers. It followed several earlier names u

gram developed toward its 1980s operational goal. In 19

a contract for preliminary design of "Research and App

(RAMs) to fly on the Space Shuttle. A family of manne

payload carriers, the RAMs were to provide versatile 

for research and applications work in earth orbit. Late

pected to be attached to space stations, in addition to 

operating attached to the Shuttle. The simplest RAM 

''Sortie Can'' at Marshall Space Flight Center. It was a l

pressurized laboratory to be carried on the Shuttle orbite

missions into space. 1 In June 1971 the NASA Project 

mittee redesignated the Sortie Can the "Sortie Lab," 

name. 2 

When the President's Space Task Group had origin

development of the Space Shuttle in 1969, it had also r

international participation in the space program, and g

cooperation was one of President Nixon's Space Policy 

March 1970. NASA Administrator Thomas 0. Pain

116 
MANNED SPACE FLIGHT 


A Spacelab module and pallet fill the payload bay ofa scale-model Space Shuttle orbiter. The laboratory module is nearest the cabin. 

capitals in October 1969 to explain Shuttle plans and invite European 

terest, and 43 European representatives attended a Shuttle Conferenc

Washington. One area of consideration for European effort was deve

ment of the Sortie Lab. 3 

On 20 December 1972 a European Space Council ministerial mee

formally endorsed European Space Research Organization developmen

Sortie Lab. An intergovernmental agreement was signed 10 August 1973 

ESRO and NASA initialed a memorandum of understanding. The me

randum was signed 24 September 1973. Ten nations-Austria, Belgi

Denmark, France, West Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, S

zerland, and the United Kingdom-would develop and manufacture 

units. The first unit was to be delivered to NASA free in the cooperative 

gram, and NASA would buy additional units. NASA would fly Spacela

the Shuttle in cooperative missions, in U.S. missions, and for other co

tries with costs reimbursed. 4 

In its planning and studies, ESRO called the laboratory "Spacel

And when NASA and ESRO signed the September 1973 memorandum 

cooperation NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher announced 

NASA's Sortie Lab program was officially renamed "Spacelab," adop

the ESRO name. 5 

1
ORIGINS OF 

Spacelab was designed as a low-cost laboratory to 

to users for a wide variety of orbital research and applic

the civilian Space Shuttle payloads were expected to fl

1980s. It was to consist of two elements, carried togethe

Shuttle orbiter: a pressurized laboratory, where scientist

only brief flight training could work in a normal envir

strument platform, or "pallet," to support telescopes, 

equipment exposed to space. 

Reusable for 50 flights, the laboratory would re

hold, or cargo bay, while in orbit, with the bay door

periments and observations in space. Seven-man missi

joint missions with U.S. and European crew membe

three-man Shuttle crew and four men for Spacelab. Up 

work in the laboratory at one time, with missions lasting 

end of each flight, the orbiter would make a runw

laboratory would be removed and prepared for its next 

periments would be prepared in the home laboratories o

for installation in Spacelab for flight and then removal o

One of the planned payloads was NASA's AM

Magnetospheric, and Plasmas-in-Space) laboratory, 

Spacelab for missions in space. 7 

At the end of 1974, life scientists, astronomers, atm

and materials scientists were defining experiment pay

The first qualified flight unit was due for delivery in 197

European might be a member of the first flight crew. 8 

118 
v 


SOUNDING ROCKETS 
L 

High- gain antenna at Wallops Flight Center receives telemetr

periments launched on sounding rockets. 
SOUNDING ROCKETS 

Sounding rockets are rockets that carry instruments into the upper 

mosphere to investigate its nature and characteristics, gathering data f

meteorological measurements at altitudes as low as 32 kilometers to data 

ionospheric and cosmic physics at altitudes up to 6400 kilometers. 1 Sou

ing rockets also flight-test instruments to be used in satellites. The t

"sounding rocket" derived from the analogy to maritime soundings m

of the ocean depths. 2 

Sending measurement instruments into the high atmosphere was on

the principal motives for 20th century rocket development. This was 

stated purpose of Dr. Robert H. Goddard in his rocket design studie

early as 1914. 3 But it was not until 1945 that the first U.S. Governm

sponsored sounding rocket was launched-the Wac Corporal, a projec

the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and U.S. Army Ordnance.• 

Sounding rockets played an important role in the International G

physical Year (IGY), an 18-month period (1 July 1957 to 31December 19

coinciding with high solar activity. The IGY was an intensive investiga

of the natural environment-the earth, the oceans, and the atmosphere

30 000 participants representing 66 nations. More than 300 instrumen

sounding rockets launched from sites around the world made signifi

discoveries regarding the atmosphere, the ionosphere, cosmic radiat

auroras, and geomagnetism. 5 

The International Years of the Quiet Sun ( 1 January 1964 to 31 Dec

ber 1965), a full-scale follow-up to the IGY, was an intensive effor

geophysical observations in a period of minimum solar activity. Ins

mented sounding rockets again played a significant role in the investiga

of earth-sun interactions. By the end of 1974, some 20 countries had joi

NASA in cooperative projects launching more than 1700 rockets f

ranges in the United States and abroad. 6 

Sounding rocket research gave rise to three new branches of astro

my-ultraviolet, x-ray, and gamma ray. Experiments launched on roc

have characterized the main features of the earth's upper atmosphere 

contributed the first recognition of the geocorona, knowledge of io

spheric chemistry, detection of electrical currents in the ionosphere, and 

12
Aerobee 150A, top, in assembly area. At left below, Aerobee 35

first full flight test, 18 June 1965. At right below, Astrobee 1500 e

flight test, 21 October 1964 
SOUNDING ROCKETS 

scription of particle flux in auroras. One of the earliest discoveries was of 

solar x-rays originating in the solar corona. 7 

Because higher performance sounding rockets were not economical for 

low-altitude experiments and lower performance rockets were not useful for 

high-altitude experiments, NASA used a number of rockets of varying 

capabilities-including Aerobee and Astrobee, Areas, Argo D-4 (Javelin), 

Nike-Apache, Nike-Cajun, Nike-Hawk, Nike-Malemute, Nike-Tomahawk, 

Terrier-Malemute, and Black Brant. A high-performance rocket, the Aries, 

was under development in 1974. Vehicles could economically place 5 to 900 

kilograms at altitudes up to 2200 kilometers. Highly accurate payload pointing and also payload recovery were possible when needed. 8 

AERO BEE, ASTROBEE. Development of the Aero bee liquid-propellant sou

ing rocket was begun in 1946 by the Aero jet Engineering Corporation (la

Aerojet-General Corporation) under contract to the U.S. Navy. The A

plied Physics Laboratory (APL) of Johns Hopkins University was assig

technical direction of the project. James A. Van Allen, then Director of 

project at APL, proposed the name "Aerobee." He took the "Aero" fr

Aerojet Engineering and the "bee" from Bumblebee, the name of 

overall project to develop naval rockets 1 that APL was monitoring for 

Navy. The 18-kilonewton-thrust, two-stage Aerobee was designed to carr

68-kilogram payload to a 130-kilometer altitude. 

In 1952, at the request of the Air Force and the Navy, Aerojet underto

design and development of the Aerobee-Hi, a high-performance version 

the Aero bee designed expressly for research in the upper atmosphere. 2 

improved Aerobee-Hi became the Aerobee 150. The uprated Aerobee 

was named "Astrobee.'' Aero jet used the prefix "Aero" to design

liquid-propellant sounding rockets and "Astro" for its solid-fue

rockets. 3 Some of the Aero bee and Astrobee models employed by NA

were: 4 

Sounding Rocket 

Payload 

Weight 

(kg) 

Nominal 

Altitude* 

(km) 

Aerobee 150 and 150A•• .... . ... . ........ . . . 68 

227 

270 

110 

Aerobee 170 and 170A........... . ......... . 113.5 

227 

250 

150 

Aerobee200 and200A..................... . 113.5 

227 

310 

290 

123 
ORIGINS OF 

Sounding Rocket 

Payloa

Weigh

(kg) 

Aerobee 350 ............................ . 136 

454 

Astrobee 1500 ........................... . 45 

136 

AstrobeeF..... ... . ... . . ........ .. ...... . 91 

454 

•sea level launch at 85°launch elevation. 

**The"A" designation indicated the rocket had four fins instead of thre

APACHE. The Apache solid-propellant rocket stage was use

stage. Identical in appearance to the Nik~Cajun, the 

reach higher altitudes because the Apache propellan

longer (6.4 seconds versus Cajun's 4 seconds). It coul

payloads to an operating altitude of210 kilometers or 1

kilometers. 1 

Technicians ready a Nike-Apache on 

board the USNS Croatan, Wallops 

Flight Center mobile range facility. 

124 

SOUNDING ROCKETS 


The name "Apache," from the name of the American Indian tr

followed Thiokol Chemical Corporation (later Thiokol Corporation) tr

tion of giving Thiokol-developed stages Indian-related names, which 

begun with Cajun. 2 

ARCAS. A small solid-propellant sounding rocket, Areas was named in 195

its producer, Atlantic Research Corporation. The name was an acronym 

"All-purpose Rocket for Collecting Atmospheric Soundings." 1 It wa

tentional that the first three letters, "A-R-C," also were the initials o

Atlantic Research Corporation. 2 An inexpensive vehicle designed specif

ly for meteorological research, Areas could carry a five-kilogram payloa

an altitude of 64 kilometers. 3 Later versions were the Boosted Ar

Boosted Areas II, and Super Areas, all of which NASA used. 

Two other sounding rockets developed by Atlantic Research were 

briefly by NASA. The Arcon was named by the Corporation and the 

was named by Eleanor Pressly of Goddard Space Flight Center, w

managed the rockets. • 

Areas being loaded into its launch 

ARGO. The name of a series of sounding rockets, "Argo" was from the n

of Jason's ship in the ancient Greek myth of Jason's travels in search of 

Golden Fleece.* The first sounding rocket in this series, developed by 

Aerolab Company (later a division of Atlantic Research Corporation), 

called "Jason." Subsequent vehicles in the series were given names 

* Jason named his ship after its builder, Argus. See Thomas Bulfinch,Mythology, Edmund Fulle

(NewYork: Dell Publishing Co., Inc., 1959), p.108. 

12
Javelin in horizontal position on the launc

checks during prelaunch operations. 

\ 

Journeyman 

beginning with the letter "J": The Argo D-4 and Arg

"Javelin" and "Journeyman." The "D-4" and "D-

ferred to the number of stages-"D" for "four"-

revision-fourth and eighth. 1 

126 
SOUNDING ROCKETS 


Argo D-4 (Javelin) was designed to carry 40- to 70-kilogram payloads 

800- to 1100-kilometer altitudes. Argo D-8 (Journeyman) could carry 20- 

70-kilogram payloads to 1500- to 2100-kilometer altitudes. 2 Javelin was s

used by NASA in 1974, but Journeyman was discontinued in 1965. 3 Jave

was also mated to the Nike first stage for heavier payloads. 

ARIES. NASA in 1974 was working with the Naval Research Laborato

Sandia Laboratories, and West Germany to develop a new sounding rock

the Aries, using surplus second stages from the Department of Defen

Minuteman intercontinental ballistic missiles. The rocket, which had flo

three.test flights by December 1974, would lift larger payloads for long

flight times than other rockets-in astronomy, physics, and space proce

ing research projects. 1 

The Aries would have greater volume for carrying experiment instrume

than provided by the Aerobee 350 sounding rocket and would carry 180- 

900-kilogram scientific payloads to altitudes that would permit 11 to 

minutes viewing time above 91 440 meters, appreciably longer than t

viewing time of the Aerobee 350 and the Black Brant VC. (The first t

flights had carried 817 kilograms to 270.7 and 299 kilometers.) 2 It also w

expected to give 11 to 8 minutes in weightless conditions for materia

processing-experiment payloads of45 to 454 kilograms. 3 

When the project was first conceived, the new vehicle was called "F

Albert" after the television cartoon character, because its short, fat a

pearance contrasted with that of other rockets. The Naval Resear

Laboratory asked Robert D. Arritt of its Space Science Division to choos

more dignified name. Arritt and a group of his colleagues chose "Aries"

was the name of a constellation (the rocket would be used for astronom

projects) and it was "a name that was available." It also was Arritt' s zod

sign. 4 

ASP. The name of the solid-propellant sounding rocket"Asp" -:.vas an acrony

for "Atmospheric Sounding Projectile." Designed to carry up to 36 ki

grams of payload, the Asp was developed by Cooper Development C

poration for the Navy's Bureau of Ships; the first prototype was launch

27 December 1955. 1 NASA used Asp as an upper stage in the Nike-A

briefly: it was test flown several times in 1960, but a need for the vehicle d

not develop. 2 

127 
ORIGINS OF 

A scientist makes final adjustments to the Nike-Asp payload b

launch from Wallops Flight Center. 

Black Brant VC 

BLACK BRANT. The Black Brant series of sounding rocke

Bristol Aerospace Ltd. of Canada with the Canadian go

rocket was launched in 1939. By the end of 1974 close 

128 

SOUNDING ROCKETS 

had been launched and vehicles were in inventories of research agencies 

Canada, Europe, and the United States, including the U.S. Navy, U.S. 

Force, and NASA. 1 

The Canadian Armament Research and Development Establishm

(CARDE) selected the name "Black Brant" for the research rocket, tak

the name of a small, dark, fast-flying goose common to the northwest co

and Arctic regions of Canada. The Canadian government kept the na

with the addition of numbers (I through VI by 1974) for different memb

of the series-rather than giving a code name to each version-to emphas

that they were sounding rockets rather than weapons. 2 

NASA took Black Brants into its sounding rocket inventory in 1970 a

was using the Black Brant IV A and V C in 1974. The Black Brant IV A use

modified upper stage and a more powerful engine than previous models, 

boost it to 900 kilometers. The Black Brant V series consisted of th

43-centimeter-diameter sounding rockets with all components int

changeable. 

The Black Brant VA (or "BBVA") used stabilizer components with 

BBII's engine and carried 136-kilogram payloads to 160 kilometers, to fi

need for that altitude range. The BBVB, using an engine giving rocket p

formance double that of the BBII, was designed to meet requirements 

scientific investigations above 320-kilometer altitude. 

The Black Brant VC was used by NASA to support the 1973-1974 Sky

Orbital Workshop missions by evaluating and calibrating Workshop 

struments. The three-fin solid-fueled Black Brant VB was converted to 

four-fin model suitable for launching from White Sands Missile Range a

permitting recovery of the rocket payloads. The changes decreased p

formance somewhat but increased stability and allowed greater variations 

payload length and weight on the VC. NASA launched the Black Brant V

on two flights during each of the three manned missions to the Sky

Workshop.3 

The performance range of NASA's Black Brant sounding rockets (with 

85 "launch angle) in 1974 was: 4 

Gross Payload Altitude 

Model We~ht(kg) (km) 

Black Brant IV A 40 900 

100 530 

Black Brant VC 200 305 

129 
ORIGINS OF 

f

' 

Nike-Cajun in launch position. 

The new Haw
SOUNDING ROCKETS 

CAJUN. The Cajun solid-propellant rocket stage was designed and develo

under the Pilotless Aircraft Research Division of the National Advis

Committee for Aeronautics' Langley Laboratory (later NASA's Lang

Research Center). The project's manager, Joseph G. Thibodaux, 

formerly of Louisiana, suggested the new motor be named "Caju

because of the term's Louisiana associations. It was the name of person

that region reputed to be of mixed Acadian French and Indian or Ne

blood. Allen E. Williams, Director of Engineering in Thiokol Chem

Corporation's Elkton (Md.) Division, agreed to the name, and later 

Elkton Division decided to continue giving its rocket motors Indian-rela

names. 1 

Design of the Cajun motor was based on the Deacon motor, begun dur

World War II by Allegany Ballistics Laboratory for the National Defe

Research Council. NACA purchased Deacon propellant grains from A

gany to propel its aerodynamic research models. Deacon was used with 

Nike first stage. In 1956 Langley contracted with Thiokol to develop the 

proved Deacon, named ''Cajun.'' 2 

The Nike-Cajun, lifting 35-kilogram instrumented payloads to a 1

kilometer altitude, was one of NASA's most frequently used sound

rockets. 3 

HAWK. NASA was developing a low-cost sounding rocket in 1974-1975 u

surplus motors from the Army's Hawk antiaircraft missiles. The resea

rocket inherited the Army's name, an acronym for "Homing All the W

Killer," although the new uses would be far removed from the purpose

the weapon system. 1 

To be flown as a single-stage Hawk or in two-stage combination as 

Nike-Hawk, for a variety of research projects, the 35.6-centimeter-diam

rocket would provide a large volume for payloads. Both stages of the N

Hawk would use surplus Army equipment (see also Nike). Developm

testing was proceeding under Wallops Flight Center management. 

December 1974, two flight tests of the single-stage Hawk sounding roc

had been launched, the first one lifting off successfully 29 May 1974. 

first flight test ofthe Nike-Hawk was planned for mid-1975. 2 

The single-stage Hawk could carry a 45-kilogram payload to an 

kilometer altitude or 90 kilograms to 57 kilometers. Engineers were work

toward a performance capability of 45 kilograms to 210 kilometers or 

kilograms to 160 kilometers for the Nike-Hawk. 3 

131 
The winged goddess Nike (

the Library ofCongress). 

Nik~Malemute lifts off. 

Nik~ Tomahawk poised for flight. 
SOUNDING ROCKETS 

MALEMUTE. The Malemute, a rocket second stage, was developed in 1974 

an interagency program with NASA, Sandia Laboratories, and the 

Force Cambridge Research Laboratories as sponsoring agencies. Desig

to be flown with either the Nike or the Terrier first stage, the Malem

began flight tests in 1974. It was named for the Alaskan Eskimo people 

the contractor, Thiokol Corporation, in Thiokol's tradition of us

Indian-related names (see Cajun). 1 

The Nike-Malemute sounding rocket would be able to lift a 90-kilogr

payload to 500 kilometers; the Terrier-Malemute would lift the sa

payload to 700 kilometers. The new vehicles were intended to replace 

Javelin and Black Brant IV rockets in the NASA inventory. 2 

NIKE. The Nike, a solid-propellant first stage, was an adaptation of the N

antiaircraft missile developed, beginning in 1945, by the Hercules Pow

Company for U.S. Army Ordnance. 1 The name ''Nike'' was taken from 

cient Greek mythology: Nike was the winged goddess of victory. In NAS

sounding rocket program, Nike was used with Apache, Cajun, Tomahaw

Hawk, or Malemute upper stages, as well as with the Aerobee 170, 200, a

350. 2 

TERRIER. The Terrier, a rocket first stage used by NASA, was developed 

Hercules Powder Company as the first stage of the Navy's Terrier antia

craft missile, and NASA inherited the name. NASA used it with 

Malemute second stage, as the Terrier-Malemute. 1 

TOMAHAWK. The Tomahawk, a sounding rocket upper stage used with 

Nike booster stage, was named by Thiokol Corporation for the Ind

weapon, in Thiokol's tradition of giving its motors Indian-related nam

(see Cajun). 1 The Nike-Tomahawk could lift 27-kilogram instrumen

payloads to a 490-kilometer operating altitude or 118 kilograms to 2

kilometers. 2 

133 

VI 


NASA INSTALLATIONS 

AMES 


RESEARCH 


CENTER 


JET 


PROPULSION 


LABORATORY 


WHITE SANDS 


TEST 


FACILITY 


JOHNSON 

SPACE ASSEMBL

FACILITY 

CENTER 
NASA INSTALLATIONS 

The 11 NASA "field installations" and the contractor-operated Jet 

Propulsion Laboratory each had a unique history. Many were named for 

prominent Americans. 

Five of the installations were existing facilities of the National Advisory 

Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), which in October 1958 became the 

nucleus of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. These were 

Ames Research Center, Flight Research Center, Langley Research Center, 

Lewis Research Center, and Wallops Flight Center. 

Three installations-Goddard Space Flight Center, Kennedy Space 

Center, and Marshall Space Flight Center-and the Jet Propulsion 

Laboratory began their association with NASA as transfers from the U.S. 

military space program. 

Two installations were created to fill special needs of the U.S. civilian 

space program. Electronics Research Center joined the research Centers until 1969 and Manned Spacecraft Center, later renamed Johnson Space 

Center, was added to the manned spaceflight Centers. National Space 

Technology Laboratories, designated a permanent field installation in 1974, 

grew out of cooperative activities with other agencies in earth resources and 

environmental research at an MSFC test facility. 

137 
ORIGINS OF N

Aerial view of Ames 

above. Dr. JosephS. Am
NASA INSTALLATIONS 

AMES RESEARCH CENTER (ARC). Congress on 9 August 1939 authoriz

the construction of a second National Advisory Committee for Aeronauti

(NACA) laboratory for urgent research in aircraft structures, as World W

II began. Ground was broken for the laboratory at Moffett Field, Califo

nia, 14 September 1939. The NACA facility began operations as the Moff

Field Laboratory in early 1941. 1 

NACA named the facility "Ames Aeronautical Laboratory" in 1944 

honor of Dr. Joseph S. Ames, leading aerodynamicist and former preside

of Johns Hopkins University, one of the first NACA members in 1915 a

serving to 1939. He was NACA Chairman from 1927 to 1939. When D

Ames retired as NACA Chairman, he was cited by President Roosevelt f

his ''inspiring leadership in the development of new research facilities and 

the orderly prosecution of comprehensive research programs.'' 2 

On 1 October 1958, as a facility of the NACA, the laboratory became p

of the new National Aeronautics and Space Administration and was 

named ''Ames Research Center.'' 3 

Mission responsibilities of ARC focused on basic and applied research 

the physical and life sciences for aeronautics and space flight. The Cen

managed the Pioneer and Biosatellite space projects, as well as providi

scientific experiments for other missions. It contributed to development 

experimental tilt-wing and fan-in-wing aircraft and solutions to high-spe

atmosphere entry problems. 

ELECTRONICS RESEARCH CENTER (ERC). NASA's Electronics Resear

Center was formally activated 1 September 1964 in Cambridg

Model ofElectronics Research Center. 
ORIGINS OF N

Massachusetts. ERC absorbed the NASA North Eastern O

14 August 1962 to administer contracts and act as liaison 

northeastern states. 1 The name "Electronics Research Cen

installation's mission responsibility. As the focal point o

search in this field, the Center organized, sponsored, and 

prehensive programs of basic and applied research in space 

electronics. 

On 29 December 1969, NASA announced its decisio

because of budget reductions. The facility was transferre

ment of Transportation for use in research and developmen

renamed the Transportation Development Center. 2 

FLIGHT RESEARCH CENTER (FRC). On 30 September 19

instrument technicians, and technical observers were sent o

from the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics' 

tory to assist in the rocket-powered X-1 flight-research pr

Force's Muroc, California, test facility. Called the "NAC

Test Unit," this group was the beginning of what was to b

Research Center. 1 In 1949 NACA redesignated the unit-w

been permanently assigned at Muroc-the "High Speed 

Station." Muroc Air Force Base itself became Edwards Air 

February 1950. In 1954 the NACA unit moved into new, 

ties on 175 acres leased from the Air Force at Edwards a

changed to ''High Speed Flight Station.'' 2 

When the National Aeronautics and Space Administrati

October 1958, the High Speed Flight Station-as a facility 

became part of NASA. NASA renamed it "Flight Rese

September 1959, • consistent with its mission responsibilit

the Center included investigation of all phases of aeronauti

and landing for space flight, and problems of manned 

beyond the atmosphere. It was best known for its cond

rocket aircraft flight research program, . followed by X

research, supercritical wing tests, and research into other 

development. 

*On 8 January 1976, NASA announced that FRC was renamed "Hugh L. 

Center" in "recognition of the unique contributions" of Dr. Dryden, aeronautic

first NASA Deputy Administrator. Dr. Dryden had been Director ofNACA from 

was established in October 1958; he served as NASA Deputy Administrator fro

December 1965. He was internationally recognized for his work in fluid mechan

phenomena. (NASA, Special Announcement, 8 Jan. 1956; NASA, News Release7

140 

--

NASA INSTALLATIONS 


__..,.. "' 

Aerial view of Flight Research Center, above, 

and a modified X-15 experimental aircraft with 

externalfuel tanks. 
ORIGINS OF N

Dr. Robert H. Goddard at w

Roswen New Mexico, October 

Mrs. Robert H. Goddard). 

GODDARD SPACE FLIGHT CENTER (GSFC). In Augu

NASA officially opened for business, Congress authorized 

NASA "space projects center" in the "vicinity of Washing

site selected was in Maryland on land then part of th

Agriculture's Beltsville Agricultural Research Center. On 

NASA designated four divisions of NASA Headquarter

Space Center." Project Vanguard personnel, transferr

Order of the President from the Naval Research Labora

December 1958, formed the nucleus of three of the four di

of the Center. 2 On 1 May 1959, NASA renamed the facility 

142 
NASA INSTALLATIONS 


A erial view ofGoddard Flight Research Center. 

Flight Center" in honor of the father of modern rocketry, Dr. Robert H

Goddard (1882-1945). 3 Rocket theorist as well as practical inventor, D

Goddard's list of "firsts" in rocketry included the first launch of a liquid

propellant rocket March 1926. 4 

Goddard Space Flight Center was responsible for unmanned spacecra

and sounding rocket experiments in basic and applied research; it operate

the worldwide Space Tracking and Data Acquisition Network (STADAN

which later became Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network (STDN); and 

managed development and launch of the Thor-Delta launch vehicle. 

GODDARD INSTITUTE FOR SPACE STUDIES (GISS). A center for theo

retical research was established in 1961 as the New York office of th

Theoretical Division of Goddard Space Flight Center. In July 1962 it wa

separated organizationally from the Theoretical Division and rename

"Goddard Institute for Space Studies. " 5 It worked closelv with academ

scientists in the New York area. 

JET PROPULSION LABORATORY (JPL). Students at the Guggenhei

Aeronautical Laboratory of the California Institute of Technolog

(GALCI1), directed by Dr. Theodore von Karman, in 1936 began desig

143 
ORIGINS OF 

Jet Propulsion Laboratory from the air. 

and experimental work with liquid-propellant rocket 

World War II the GALCIT Rocket Research Project de

liquid-propellant units to assist the takeoff of heavily l

began work on high-altitude rockets. Reorganized in No

the name "Jet Propulsion Laboratory," the facility 

research and development on tactical guided missiles, 

broad supporting technology for U.S. Army Ordnance. 2 

JPL participated with the Army Ballistic Missile Agen

ment and operation of the first U.S. satellite, Explorer 1, 

plorer missions, and the Pioneer 3 and 4lunar probes. On 

shortly after NASA came into existence, the function

JPL were transferred from the U.S. Army to NAS

Government-owned facilities, JPL remained a laborator

contract to NASA.* It has managed projects in NASA

*Public Law 92-520, signed 21 October 1972, carried a rider changing the n

Smith Jet Propulsion Laboratory'' effective 4 January 1973. The House Comm

amended a bill for construction of a civic center as a memorial to President Dw

ing a proposal to honor a number of members of Congre~s by renaming pu

them, including Rep. H. Allen Smith (R-Calif.). Retiring Rep. Smith said he w

repeal the JPL name change, to avoid confusion, and Public Law 93- 215, sig

cluded an amendment restoring JPL's name. Jet Propulsion Laboratory neve

name. (U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Dwight D. Eisenhower Me

144 
NASA INSTALLATIONS 


The 64-meter Goldstone antenna ofthe Deep Space Network. 

and planetary exploration program such as Ranger, Surveyor, and t

Mariner series, conducted supporting research, and founded and operat

the worldwide Deep Space Network (DSN) for communication with lun

and planetary spacecraft. 

Center Act, House Rpt. 92-1410, 19 Sept. 1972 [Washington: 1972], pp. 5, 9; U.S. Public Law 92-5

86 Stat. 1022, 21 Oct. 1972, p. 4; Wall Street Journal, 24 Nov. 1972; Pasadena, Calif., Star-News, 

Dec. 1972; Gerald J. Mossinghoff, Deputy Assistant Administrator for Legislative Affairs, NAS

memorandum for the record, 15 Jan. 1973; Congressional Record-House, 8 Feb. 1973, p. H932, an

Dec. 1973, pp. H10468-H10469; General Services Administration, National Archives and Records Se

ice, Office of the Federal Register, Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents, 10, No. 1 [7 J

_1_974], p. 15.) 

145 
ORIGINS OF N

Johnson Space Center s

the top photo, with the M

Control Room on the 

Apollo 8 lunar orbit mis

monitor shows the ea

283 000 kilometers awa

don B. Johnson at left. 
NASA INSTALLATIONS 

JOHNSON SPACE CENTER (JSC). On 3 January 1961 NASA's Space Task 

Group-an autonomous subdivision of Goddard Space Flight Center tha

managed Project Mercury and was housed at Langley Research Center

was made an independent NASA field installation. Following congressiona

endorsement of President Kennedy's decision to accelerate the U.S. manned 

spaceflight program, Congress in August 1961 appropriated funds for a new 

center for manned space flight. On 9 September 1961 NASA announced th

"Manned Spacecraft Center" (MSC) would be built at Clear Lake, nea

Houston, Texas, 1 and on 1 November 1961 Space Task Group personne

were told that "the Space Task Group is officially redesignated the Manned 

Spacecraft Center." 2 

Known as Manned Spacecraft Center for 11 Y2 years, the Center wa

responsible for design, development, and testing of manned spacecraft

selection and training of astronauts; and operation of manned spac

flights-including the Mercury, Gemini, Apollo, and Skylab programs and 

the U.S.-U.S.S.R. Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. It was lead Center fo

management of the Space Shuttle program. 

Following the 22 January 1973 death of former President Lyndon B

Johnson, leader of support for the U.S. space program from its earlies

beginnings, Senator Lloyd M. Bentsen (D-Tex.) proposed that MSC b

renamed the "Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center." Senator Robert C. Byrd 

(D-W. Va.) introduced Senate Joint Resolution 37 on Senator Bentsen'

behalf 26 January and House joint resolutions were introduced in the nex

few days. 3 Support from NASA Headquarters and Manned Spacecraf

Center was immediate. 4 The Senate and House acted 6 and 7 February and 

President Nixon signed the resolution 17 February 1973. 5 

As Senator, Johnson had drafted and helped enact legislation that created 

NASA. As Vice President he had chaired the National Aeronautics and 

Space Council during the early years of the space program, when the deci

sion was made to place a man on the moon. As President he continued 

strong support. 6 

Signing the resolution renaming MSC, President Nixon said, "Lyndon 

Johnson drew America up closer to the stars, and before he died he saw u

reach the moon-the first great platform along the way." 7 

WHITE SANDS TEST FACILITY. In June 1962, Manned Spacecraft Cente

reached an operating agreement with the U.S. Army's White Sands Missil

Range for the establishment of an Apollo propulsion development facility 

and NASA announced selection of the site. 8 The facility was called "Whit

Sands Operations." NASA renamed the facility the "White Sands Tes

147 

ORIGINS OF 

A Saturn V test vehicle is transported from the Kennedy Spa

Assembly Building toward Launch Complex 39. 

President John F. Kennedy 

148 
NASA INSTALLATIONS 

Facility" 25 June 1965. 9 White Sands was notable in U.S. rocket history 

the site for test-firing the German V-2 rockets after World War II. 

KENNEDY SPACE CENTER (KSC). Formally named "John F. Kenne

Space Center, NASA," the installation at Cape Canaveral (named Ca

Kennedy 1963-1973) evolved through a series of organizational changes a

redesignations. 

In 1951 the Experimental Missiles Firing Branch of the Army Ordnanc

Guided Missile Center in Huntsville, Alabama, was established to supervi

test flights of the U.S. Army's Redstone intermediate-range ballistic missi

at the Long Range Proving Ground at Cape Canaveral, Florida. In Januar

1953, when its responsibilities were expanded, the Army facility was r

named "Missile Firing Laboratory." 1 

On 1 July 1960 the Missile Firing Laboratory became part of NASA

Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC)-the nucleus of which was th

Laboratory's parent organization at Huntsville-and it was absorbe

organizationally into MSFC's Launch Operations Directorate. 2 The oth

basic element of the Launch Operations Directorate was a NASA un

known as "AMROO" (Atlantic Missile Range Operations Office

AMROO had functioned as NASA's liaison organization with the military

operated Atlantic Missile Range (formerly Long Range Proving Ground) 

Cape Canaveral. Together, the Missile Firing Laboratory and AMRO

formed MSFC's Launch Operations Directorate. 3 

The Launch Operations Directorate was discontinued as a component o

MSFC on 7 March 1962 and Launch Operations Center was established as 

separate NASA field installation, officially activated 1 July 1962. 4 On 2

November 1963, a week after the death of President John F. Kennedy

President Lyndon B. Johnson renamed the Launch Operations Center th

"John F. Kennedy Space Center," saying that President Kennedy ha

"lighted the imagination of our people when he set the moon as our targ

and man as the means to reach it" and that the Center was a "symbol of ou

country's peaceful assault on space.'' 5 

Adjacent to Cape Canaveral was the 324-square~kilometer Merritt Island

In the autumn of 1961 NASA had selected it for launches in the Apoll

manned lunar program. 6 On 17 January 1963 the Launch Operations Cente

became the executive agent for management and operation of the "Merri

Island Launch Area" (usually called "MILA"). 7 Headquarters of Kenned

Space Center moved to new facilities on Merritt Island 26 July 1965, an

NASA discontinued the ''MILA'' designation, calling the entire NAS

complex the Kennedy Space Center. 8 The Center was responsible for overa

NASA launch operations at the Eastern Test Range (formerly Atlant

149 
ORIGINS OF 

Missile Range), Western Test Range, and KSC itself, inc

satellites, probes, manned space missions, and the Space S

NASA DAYTONA BEACH OPERATIONS. The Daytona B

established at the General Electric Company in Daytona B

June 1963 as liaison between NASA and GE; it was an in

Launch Operations Center (later Kennedy Space Center). 9 

WESTERN TEST RANGE0 0PERATIONS DIVISION. T

originated 27 October 1960, when NASA established the 

fice at the Pacific Missile Range (PMR) for liaison betwe

military-operated PMR. The Test Support Office came u

tion of MSFC' s Launch Operations Directorate. NASA 

Test Support Office 7 March 1962 and established th

Operations Office at PMR as an independent field instal

tober 1965 the Pacific Launch Operations Office and th

tions Division of Goddard Space Flight Center at the W

(formerly Pacific Missile Range) were combined to form 

Range Operations Division of KSC. 11 

LANGLEY RESEARCH CENTER (LaRC). Construction of 

station began at Langley Field near Hampton, Virginia, 

1920, President Wilson concurred with NACA's sugge

cility be named "Langley Memorial Aeronautical Labo

of Dr. Samuel P. Langley (1834-1906). 1 Dr. Langley was 

of the Smithsonian Institution, "inventor, brilliantly luc

turer on science, original investigator in astrophysics an

physics of the sun, pioneer in aerodynamics.'' He was ''a

His persistent investigation of mechanical flight led to su

his steam-powered, heavier-than-air "aerodromes" in 18

model made two flights, each close to 1 kilometer long, an

his aerodrome achieved a flight of more than 1.2 kilomete

The facility was dedicated 11 July 1920, marking "the 

NACA' s own program of aeronautical research, conducte

in its own facilities." 8 It was the only NACA laborator

October 1958 the laboratory, as a NACA facility, becam

the National Aeronautics and Space Administration a

"Langley Research Center." ~ 

The Center conducted basic research in a variety of field

and space flight and had management responsibility for 

and Viking projects and the Scout launch vehicles. The 

an improved airfoil, was developed at Langley. 

150 
NASA INSTALLATIONS 


Facilities ofLangley Research Center 

Samuel P. Langley (courtesy Smithsonian Institution) 
ORIGINS OF 

Lewis Research Center 

LEWIS RESEARCH CENTER (LeRC). Congress aut

propulsion laboratory for NACA 26 June 1940, and 

laboratory began operations adjacent to the Cleveland

Airport. 1 It was known as the "Aircraft Engine Resea

On 28 September 1948 NACA renamed it "Lewis 

Laboratory" in honor of Dr. George W. Lewis (1882-19

only was a leading aeronautical engineer, whose work in 

been termed "epochal contributions to aeronautics," 3 

mark as an administrator, serving as NACA's Direct

Research from 1919 to 1947. He was responsible for the 

ing of the new flight-propulsion laboratory which wa

name.• 

Upon the formation of the National Aeronautics and 

tion 1 October 1958, the facility became "Lewis Resea

Center's research and development responsibilities conc

advanced propulsion and space power systems. It had m

sibilities for the Agena and Centaur launch vehicle stages

152 
NASA INSTALLATIONS 


Dr. George W. Lewis 

PLUM BROOK STATION. On Lake Erie near Sandusky, Ohio, Lewis Research 

Center's Plum Brook Station was a test facility for aerospace propulsion 

research and development. The site, formerly a U.S. Army Ordnance plant

was acquired from the Army through a gradual process beginning in 1956 

and completed in 1963. The name "Plum Brook Station" derived from the 

Army's name of the former ordnance facility, "Plum Brook Ordnance 

Works," after a small stream running through the site. 6 It had a nuclear 

research reactor and a wide range of propulsion test facilities. 

Nuclear propulsion program cutbacks to adjust to NASA budget reductions in 1973 brought a decision to phase down most of the Plum Brook 

facilities. The Space Power Facility-one of the world's largest space environment simulation chambers, equipped with a solar simulation system

instrumentation, and data-acquisition facilities-was kept in operation for 

use by other Government agencies. The Air Force, Navy, National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration, and Energy Research and Developmen

Administration indicated possible interest in using the facilities. 

By the end of June 1974, agencies already using the facilities at the station 

included the Army, Ohio National Guard, and Department of the Interior

Instrumentation for a large experimental wind generator was being installed 

in the cooperative NASA and National Science Foundation program to 

study full-scale wind-driven energy devices. 7 

153 

ORIGINS OF 

Three-building headquarters complex ofMarshall Space 

MARSHALL SPACE FLIGHT CENTER (MSFC). In Ap

Army established its team of rocket specialists headed by 

Braun as the Ordnance Guided Missile Center at Redston

ville, Alabama. This Center was the origin of what even

George C. Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC). On 1 

Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA) was formed at 

ABMA was a merger and expansion of existing agencies 

scientists formed the nucleus of the Development Operatio

NASA came into existence on 1 October 1958. Early 

Eisenhower submitted a request to Congress for the tra

space missions to NASA, including certain facilities and 

the Development Operations Division. The transfer be

March 1960 and NASA set up its "Huntsville Facility" 

formal establishment of the field center later that year. 2 

March, President Eisenhower proclaimed the NASA facili

"George C. Marshall Space Flight Center." 3 The name h

Marshall, General of the Army, who was Chief of Staff 

154 

NASA INSTALLATIONS 

II, Secretary of State 1948-1949, and author of the Marshall Plan. Gener

Marshall was the only professional soldier to receive the Nobel Peace Prize

awarded to him in 1954. 

MSFC officially began operation with the formal mass transfer of person

nel and facilities from ABMA 1 July 1960. 4 The Center's primary missio

responsibility was development of the Saturn family of launch vehicles, use

in the Apollo manned lunar-landing program, in the Skylab experiment

space station program, and in the U.S.-U.S.S.R. Apollo-Soyuz Test Proj

ect. MSFC also held responsibility for development of the Skylab Orbit

Workshop and Apollo Telescope Mount, as well as integration of the Sky la

cluster of components. It was responsible for three major elements of th

Space Shuttle: the solid-fueled rocket booster, the Space Shuttle mai

engine, and the external tank. 

MICHOUD ASSEMBLY FACILITY. On 7 September 1961 NASA selected th

Government-owned, then-unused Michoud Ordnance Plant at Michoud

Louisiana, as the site for industrial production of Saturn launch vehic

stages under the overall direction of Marshall Space Flight Center. NAS

called the site "Michoud Operations." 5 On 1 July 1965 Michoud Opera

tions was redesignated "Michoud Assembly Facility" to "better reflect th

mission" of the facility. 6 

Following construction of the first stages of the Saturn IB and Saturn 

launch vehicles for Apollo, Skylab, and ASTP missions, Michoud wa

Gen. George C. Marshall receives the 1953 Nobel Peace Prize fro

Norwegian Nobel Prize Committee President Gunnar Jahn at Os

University, 10 December 1953. 
ORIGINS OF N

Final touches are added to engines of the firs

S-IC stage, assembled at Michoud Assembly Fa

selected in 1972 as the site for the manufacture and fina

Space Shuttle's external propellant tanks. 

MISSISSIPPI TEST FACILITY (MTF). NASA announced 2

had selected southwestern Mississippi as the site for a larg

test facility under the direction of MSFC. Pending offic

site,* NASA encouraged use of "Mississippi Test Facilit

to have been already in informal use. On 18 Decembe

"Mississippi Test Operations" was officially adopted, bu

widely called "Mississippi Test Facility," particularly by 

MSFC offices concerned in the installation's development

MSFC announced the official redesignation, "Mississipp

The change was said to "reflect the mission of the facility" 

MTF test stands were put into standby status 9 Nove

more than four years and the test-firing of 13 S-IC first s

second stages of the Saturn V. 9 With the close of Saturn p

approaching end of the Apollo program, NASA had est

*For about a month there was no standardized designation and "Pearl River T

See NASA, Circular 188. 

**Perhaps a moreaccurate reason would be that this was the name most wide

Test Operations" never had stuck. 

156 

NASA INSTALLATIONS 

Resources Laboratory at MTF in September 1970, stressing applications 

remote-sensing data from aircraft and satellites. A number of other Gover

ment agencies, at NASA invitation, moved research activities related 

resources and the environment to MTF to take advantage of its facilities

And on 1 March 1971 NASA announced that MTF had also been select

for sea-level testing of the Space Shuttle's main engine. 11 

On 14 June 1974 Mississippi Test Facility was renamed "National Spa

Technology Laboratories" and became a permanent NASA field install

tion reporting directly to NASA Headquarters, ''because of the growing im

portance of the activities at NSTL . . . and of the agencies taking a

vantage of NSTL capabilities." 12 (See National Space Technologic

Laboratories.) 

NATIONAL SPACE TECHNOLOGY LABORATORIES (NSTL). Establish

as an independent NASA field installation 14 June 1974, 1 the Nation

Space Technology Laboratories' varied activities had their beginnings in t

Mississippi Test Facility (MTF), formed in 1961 as part of Marshall Spa

Flight Center to test Saturn launch vehicle stages (see Mississippi Test Faci

ty). The facility at Bay St. Louis in Hancock County, Mississippi, tested t

Test stand A-1 at National Space Technology Laboratories was modified 

for testing the Space Shuttle main engine. 

I 
ORIGINS OF N

Saturn V first and second stages throughout that program

for the Apollo and Skylab missions. With the shift of em

tional space program from manned exploration to prac

after the successful Apollo JJlanding on the moon 20 Jul

last lunar exploration missions were made 1970-1972, c

given to other uses for the MTF plant. Increasing awa

portance of the earth's natural resources and environmen

and sharpening focus on energy shortages in 1973-sugges

facilities available at MTF might be put to use in meeti

problems. 

MTF test stands were put on standby as of9 November 

ah;eady established an Earth Resources Laboratory at t

September 1970 and had invited other Government agenci

on the 570-square-kilometer site for research. 5 In 197

selected for development testing of the main engine for NA

tle, designed as a reusable, economical space transportati

1980s. • 

By June 1974 a number of other agencies had establishe

tivities at NSTL: the Department of Commerce, Departme

Department of Transportation, Department of the Arm

vironmental Protection Agency, the State of Mississippi

state and university elements from Mississippi and Louisi

technical activities were primarily related to earth resource

ment. NASA's Earth Resources Laboratory compleme

Goddard Space Flight and Johnson Space Centers and em

tions of data gathered by remote sensing from aircraft and 

NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher announced t

status of National Space Technology Laboratories 14 June 

the success of the experiment in collocating "mutuall

tivities" had led him to decide that "NSTL will have a 

NASA's space applications and technology programs." 

courage location at NSTL of other Government activities 

contribute to the capabilities there. 6 

WALLOPS FLIGHT CENTER (WFC). The National Adviso

Aeronautics (NACA) established a test-launching facilit

Laboratory on Wallops Island, Virginia, 7 May 1945. A u

was named the "Auxiliary Flight Research Station." On 

unit became a division of Langley's Research Departmen

"Pilotless Aircraft Research Division (PARD)." The phr

158 

NASA INSTALLATIONS 


Aerial view ofWallops Flight Center main base. 

craft" was then used by the Navy's Bureau of Aeronautics and the Arm

Air Forces to denote all guided missiles. PARD was formally organized 

August 1946, with four sections; the Wallops facility was placed und

PARD's Operations Section and named "Pilotless Aircraft Research St

tion." Its employees called the station simply "Wallops." 1 

When the National Aeronautics and Space Administration absorbe

NACA in 1958, NASA continued the name long in popular use, "Wallop

Station'' (WS). WS first was carried on organization charts as coming und

the proposed Space Flight Research Center, but on 1 May 1959 the statio

became an independent field installation. 2 

The island-and hence the installation (which in July 1959 acquired add

tional property on the mainland, known as Wallops Main Base 3)-wa

named for the 17th-century surveyor John Wallop, who began patentin

land on Virginia's eastern shore in the 1660s. In 1672 he received a Crow

Patent of the 13-square-kilometer island from King Charles II, and in h

will John Wallop referred to "my island formerly called Keeckotank." (

was also known as Accocomoson or Occocomoson Island.) It has borne th

name "Wallops Island" for more than 260 years.• 

Effective 26 April 1974, Wallops Station was renamed "Wallops Flig

Center'' as ''more descriptive of the mission and operations'' of the install

159 
ORIGINS OF N

tion. The only rocket flight-test range owned and ope

Wallops launched Scout boosters and sounding rocket exp

strumentation developed by scientists and engineers throu

States and the world. By the spring of 1974 more than 800

taken place from WFC, including the orbiting of 17 satellit

cluded advanced aeronautical research and participation in 

Bay Ecological Test Program, with remote sensing of the 

and satellite. 5 

160 
APPENDIX A 

SELECTED LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS

AND TERMS 

This highly selective list includes designations of flight hardware su

systems and components as well as designations of nonflight hardware us

in NASA's aeronautics and space research. Many of these terms are comp

nents of the projects listed in Parts 1-V of the text; others fall outside t

project names. Not listed are subsystems of most launch vehicles. 

ACS Attitude control system 

AD Air density satellite (Explorer) 

AE Atmosphere Explorer satellite 

AEROSAT Joint F AA-ESRO Aeronautical Satellite 

AIMP Anchored Interplanetary Monitoring Platform (Explorer) 

ALFMED Apollo light-flash moving-emulsion detection 

ALSEP Apollo lunar surface experiments package 

AM Airlock module (Sky lab spacecraft component) 

AMPS Atmospheric, Magnetospheric Plasma-in-Space laboratory (Space Shut

payload) 

AMU Astronaut maneuvering unit 

Anik Canadian Telesat domestic telecommunications satellite 

ANNA Army-Navy-NASA geodetic satellite 

APS Ascent propulsion system (Apollo LM component); also auxiliary propu

sion system 

APT Automatic picture transmission 

ASTP Apollo-Soyuz Test Project 

ATDA Augmented target docking adapter 

ATM Apollo Telescope Mount (Skylab spacecraft component) 

AVCS Advanced vidicon camera system 

BBIVA,BBVC Black Brant IV A, Black Brant VC sounding rockets 

BE Beacon Explorer satellite 

BIC Barium-ion-cloud experiment 

BIOCORE Apollo 17 medical experiment (using mice) 

BIOS Biological Investigation of Space (suborbital flight experimen

sometimes also used as short name for Biosatellite 

CAS Cooperative Applications Satellite (CAS-A was Eo/e) 

CEPE Cylindrical Electrostatic Probe Experiment (orbital experiment attach

to Delta second stage) 

161 
CM 

Cos 

CRISP 

CSM 

CTS 

DAD 

DFBW 

DME 

DPS 

DSN 

EASEP 

Ecs' 

EGO 

EOPAP 

ERAP 

EREP 

EVA 

EXAMETNET 

EXOSAT 

FIRE 

GATV 

GEOS 

GOES 

GRS 

GTS 

HAPPE 

Hawkeye 

HCMM 

HET 

HL-10 

IE 

IME 

IMP 

Injun 

IRLS 

ISEE 

IU 

IUE 

IUS 

Kiwi 

LC 

Command module (Apollo spacecraft) 

ESRO cosmic ray satellite 

Cosmic Ray Ionization Pro~ram 

Command and service module (Apollo spacecraft, 

andSM) 

Communications Technology Satellite 

Dual Air Density Explorer satellite 

Digital fly-by-wire program 

Direct Measurement Explorer satellite 

Descent propulsion system (Apollo LM component) 

Deep Space Network 

Early Apollo scientific experiments package (Apollo 

Environmental control system 

Eccentric (orbiting) Geophysical Observatory 

Earth and ocean physics applications program 

Earth resources aircraft program 

Earth resources experiment package (Skylab experim

Extravehicular activity 

Experimental Inter American Meteorological Rocket 

ESRO high-energy astronomy satellite, for x-ray astr

Flight Investigation of the Reentry Environment (ree

Gemini Agena Target Vehicle 

Geodetic Satellite (Explorer); also its successor, Ge

tal Ocean Satellite, and ESRO's Geostationary Sci

Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite 

German Research Satellite (GRS-1 was Azur; GRS-

Geostationary Technology Satellite 

High Altitude Particle Program Experiment 

Scientific satellite (Explorer; follow-on to Injun serie

Heat Capacity Milpping Mission Explorer 

Health/education telecommunications experiment (o

Lifting-body research vehicle 

Ionosphere Explorer 

Interplanetary meteoroid experiment 

Interplanetary Monitoring Platform (Explorer) 

Scientific satellite (Explorer) 

Interrogation, recording, and location system 

International Sun-Earth Explorer 

Instrument unit 

International Ultraviolet Explorer 

Interim upper stage for Space Shuttle (called orbit-to

by Air Force; interim version of Space Tug) 

Ground-test reactor for nuclear propulsion research 

Launch complex 

162 
ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS 


LDEF 

LES 

LEM 

LLRV 

LLTV 

LM 

LOI 

LOR 

LRV 

LST 

Luster, Project 

M2-F2 

MAROTS 

MCC 

MDA 

MDS 

MESA 

METEOSAT 

MET;METS 

MSFN 

MTS 

NERV 

NERVA 

NOAA 

NOMSS 

oos 

OSCAR 

OTS 

OWL 

ows 

PAET 

Phoebus 

PLACE 

PLSS 

POGO 

Prometheus 

PS 

QUESTOL 

RAE 

RAM 

RAM, Project 

RAM C-1, etc. 

Long-Duration Exposure Facility (satellite) 

Launch escape system 

Lunar excursion module (renamed LM) 

Lunar landing research vehicle 

Lunar landing training vehicle 

Lunar module (Apollo lunar-landing spacecraft) 

Lunar orbit insertion 

Lunar orbit rendezvous (Apollo lunar-landing mode) 

Lunar roving vehicle (Rover) 

Large Space Telescope (satellite) 

Sounding Rocket experiment to capture interplanetary particles 

Lifting-body research vehicle 

ESRO Maritime Orbital Test Satellite 

Midcourse correction; also Mission Control Center 

Multiple docking adapter (Skylab spacecraft component) 

Meteoroid Detection Satellite (Explorer) 

Modularized equipment stowage assembly (Apollo LM component) 

ESRO geostationary meteorological satellite 

Mobile equipment transporter; modularized equipment transport system 

(for Apollo lunar landing missions) 

Manned Space Flight Network 

Meteoroid Technology Satellite 

Nuclear Emulsion Recovery Vehicle (high-altitude radiation experiment) 

Nuclear engine for rocket vehicle application 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration meteorological satellite (successor to ESSA satellites) 

National Operational Meteorological Satellite System 

Orbit-to-orbit stage (see IUS) 


Orbiting Satellite Carrying Amateur Radio 


ESRO Orbital Test Satellite 


Rice University scientific satellite (Explorer) 

Orbital Workshop (Skylab space station) 

Planetary Atmosphere Experiment Test (suborbital flight experiment) 

Ground-test reactor for nuclear propulsion 

Position location and communications experiment (on A TS 6) 

Portable life support system 

Polar Orbiting Geophysical Observatory 

Sounding rocket for lightning research 

Payload shroud 

Quiet, experimental, short takeoff and landing aircraft 

Radio Astronomy Explorer 

Research and Applications Module (Spacelab forerunner) 

Radio attenuation measurement (reentry communications blackout research) 

Suborbital spacecraft in Project RAM 

163 
RBV 

RCS 

RM 

RMU 

Rover, Project 

RPRV 

RTG 

S-I 

S-IB 

S-IC 

S-II 

S-IV 

S-IVB 

SAS 

Scanner, Project 

Scramjet 

scs 

SE 

SERT 

SEVA 

SHAPE 

SIM 

SITE 

SLA 

SM 

SNAP 

SPAN 

SPANDAR 

SPED 

SPS 

SRB 

SRM 

SSME 

sss 

SST 

STA 

STADAN 

STDN 

STOL 

STS 

TETR 

TLI 

TOPS 

Return-beam-vidicon camera 

Reaction control system 

Radiation/Meteoroid satellite 

Remote maneuvering unit 

NASA-AEC research and development program o

pulsion for rockets 

Remotely piloted research vehicle 

Radioisotope thermoelectric generator (spacecraft po

Saturn I booster first stage 

Saturn IB booster first stage 

Saturn V booster first stage 

Saturn V second stage 

Saturn I second stage 

Saturn IB second stage; Saturn V third stage 

Small Astronomy Satellite (Explorer); also solar arra

bital Workshop component) 

Horizon definition experiment (sounding rocket) 

Supersonic combustion ramjet engine 

Stabilization and control system 

Solar Explorer satellite 

Space Electric Rocket Test(SERT 1 was suborbital; S

Surface extravehicular activity (lunar exploration

travehicular activity 

Supersonic High Altitude Parachute Experiment 

Scientific instrument module (Apollo SM component

Satellite instructional television experiment (on A TS 

Spacecraft-lunar module adapter; also spacecraft lau

Service module (Apollo spacecraft component) 

Systems for nuclear auxiliary power (nuclear-elec

supply) 

Solar Particle Alert Network 

Space and range radar 

Supersonic Planetary Entry Decelerator (suborbital f

Service propulsion system (Apollo SM component) 

Solid (fueled) rocket booster (for Space Shuttle) 

Solid (fueled) rocket motor 

Space Shuttle main engine 

Small Scientific Satellite (Explorer) 

Supersonic transport aircraft 

Shuttle training aircraft 

Space Tracking and Data Acquisition Network (see a

Spacecraft Tracking and Data Network (formerly ST

Short takeoff and landing aircraft 

Space transportation system 

Test and Training Satellite (MSFN training satellite; 

Translunar injection (insertion into trajectory for the 

Thermoelectric outer planets spacecraft 

164 
ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS 


Topsi 

TIS 

V/STOL 

VTOL 

X-15 

X-24 

XB-70 

Topside sounder satellite 


Test and Training Satellite (MSFN training satellite; see also TETR) 


Vertical or short takeoff and landing aircraft 


Vertical takeoff and landing aircraft 


High-altitude, high-speed, experimental rocket research aircraft 


Lifting-body research vehicle 


Experimental supersonic aircraft 


165 

APPENDIX B 

INTERNATIONAL DESIGNATION OF SPACECRAFT 

COPY OF THE TEXT OF A NEWS RELEASE ISSUED 31 DECEMBER 1962 


BY THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES-NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL 


Beginning on January 1, the international system for designating satellites and space 

probes for scientific purposes will be changed; as of the new year, Arabic numerals will supplant Greek letters in the satellite designation system. 

Prior to January 1, satellites were named in the order of the letters of the Greek alphabet, 

beginning anew ~ach year: the first satellite launched (Sputnik I) was 1957 Alpha, the first 

1958 satellite (Explorer I) was 1958 Alpha, the second (Vanguard I) was 1958 Beta, and so 

on. The first satellite or space probe in 1963 will be 1963-1, the second will be 1963-2, etc. 

The numbering will also begin anew each year; for example, the fifth space vehicle of 1964 

will be 1964-5. 

Usually the launching of a satellite places more than one object in orbit. Sometimes two or 

more satellites are carried into space where they are separated and ejected into separate orbits. Moreover, the burned-out rocket casing also goes into orbit. The new system provides 

that the suffix A will identify the main satellite or space probe (i.e., the one carrying the principal scientific payload), and that B, C, etc., as needed, will be used first for any subsidiary 

scientific payloads in separate orbits, and then for inert components. Thus, under the old 

system the navigation satellite, Transit 11-A, its piggyback companion, Greb, and the spent 

rocket which injected them into orbit, were called 1960 Eta 1, 1960 Eta 2, and 1960 Eta 3, 

respectively. If the new scheme had been in effect, they would have been called 1960-7A, 

1960-7B, and 1960-7C, respectively. 

The new system was agreed upon by all national members of the Committee on Space 

Research (including both satellite-launching nations) at its meeting in Washington, May 

1962. The Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) was established by the International 

Council of Scientific Unions to facilitate international cooperation in space research. U.S. 

membership in COSPAR is effectuated through the National Academy ofSciences. 

In the United States, the new system will be adopted by the National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration and the Department of Defense. It will also be used in registering U.S. 

satellites and space probes with the United Nations. 

167 

APPENDIX C 

NASA MAJOR LAUNCH RECORD, 1958-1974 

This list is a compilation of launches by NASA of (1) payloads that went 

into orbit or that achieved an altitude of at least 6400 kilometers and (2) major suborbital flight tests or experiments. Included are U.S. launches conducted by the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA) and the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) before the establishment of NASA, 1 October 

1958. Not listed are launch failures or sounding rocket launches. 

Name International 

Designation* Launch Date•* Launch 

Vehicle*** 

Explorer 1 1958 Alpha 1 31 January 1958 Juno I 

(ABMA) 

Vanguard 1 1958 Beta2 17 March 1958 Vanguard 

(NRL) 

Explorer3 1958 Gamma1 26 March 1958 Juno I 

(ABMA) 

Explorer4 1958 Epsilon 1 26 July 1958 Juno I 

(ABMA) 

Pioneer 1 1958 Eta 1 11 October 1958 Thor-Able I 

Pioneer3 1958 Theta 1 6 December 1958 Juno II 

Vanguard2 1959 Alpha 1 17 February 1959 Vanguard 

Pioneer4 1959 Nu 1 3 March 1959 Juno II 

*For simplicity, manned Apollo flights are represented in this list by single designations (lunar orbital 

and landing missions have separate letter designations in the international system for lunar module and 

S-IVB stage). Suborbital flights are not assigned international designations. 

**Date given is determined by local time at the launch site. 

***Thor-Delta launch vehicle configurations are abbreviated as follows: Thor-Delta (Thor-Delta, 

Thor-improved Delta), TAT-Delta (thrust-augmented Thor-Delta), TAID (thrust-augmented Thorimproved Delta), LTTAT- Delta (long-tank, thrust-augmented Thor-improved Delta), TATAgena(thrust-augmented Thor-Agena). 

169 
Name International 

Designation• Launch Date•• 

Explorer6 1959 Delta 1 7 August 1959 

Big Joe (suborbital) 9 September 1959 

Vanguard3 1959 Eta 1 18 September 1959 

Little Joe 1 (suborbital) 4 October 1959 

Explorer? 1959 Iota 1 13 October 1959 

Shotput 1 (suborbital) 28 October 1959 

LittleJoe2 (suborbital) 4 November 1959 

Little Joe3 (suborbital) 4 December 1959 

Shotput2 (suborbital) 16 January 1960 

Little Joe4 (suborbital) 21 January 1960 

Shotput3 (suborbital) 27 February 1960 

PioneerS 1960Alpha 1 11 March 1960 

Shotput4 (suborbital)' 1 April1960 

Tiros 1 1960 Beta2 1 April1960 

Shotput 5 (suborbital) 31 May 1960 

Echo1 1960 Iota 1 12 August 1960 

Scout2 (suborbital) 4 October 1960 

ExplorerS 1960 Xi 1 3 November 1960 

Little Joe 5 (suborbital) 8 November 1960 

Tiros2 1960 Pi 1 23 November 1960 

Mercury­ (suborbital) 19 December 1960 

Redstone1A 

Mercury-Redstone 2 (suborbital) 31 January 1961 

Explorer9 1961 Delta 1 16 February 1961 

Mercury-Atlas 2 (suborbital) 21 February 1961 

Little Joe SA (suborbital) 18 March 1961 

Mercury­ (suborbital) 24 March 1961 

RedstoneBD 

Explorer 10 1961 Kappa 1 25 March 1961 

Explorer 11 1961 Nu 1 27 April1961 

Little Joe 5B (suborbital) 28 April1961 

170 
NASA MAJOR LAUNCH RECORD 


International Name Designation• 

Freedom 7 (suborbital) 

(MercuryRedstone3) 

Tiros3 1961 Rho 1 

Liberty Bell 7 (suborbital) 

(MercuryRedstone4) 

Explorer 12 1961 Upsilon 1 

Ranger 1 1961 Phi 1 

Explorer 13 1961 Chi 1 

Mercury-Atlas 4 1961 Alpha Alpha 1 

Probe A (P-21) (suborbital) 

Saturn-Apollo 1 (suborbital) 

(SA-l) 

Ranger2 1961 Alpha Theta 1 

Mercury-Atlas 5 1961 Alpha Iota 1 

Echo (suborbital) 


(AVT-1) 


Ranger3 1962 Alpha 1 


Tiros4 1962 Beta 1 

Friendship 7 1962 Gamma7 


(Mercury-Atlas 6) 


Reentry 1 (suborbital) 


OS01 1962 Zeta 1 


Probe B (P-21A) (suborbital) 


Ranger4 1962 Mu 1 


Saturn-Apollo 2 (suborbital) 

(SA- 2) 

Ariel1 1962 Omicron 1 

Aurora 7 1962 Tau 1 

(Mercury-Atlas 7) 

Tiros5 1962 Alpha Alpha 

Te/star 1 1962 Alpha 

Epsilon 1 

Launch Date•• 

5 May 1961 

12 July 1961 

21 July 1961 

15 August 1961 

23 August 1961 

25 August 1961 

13 September 1961 

19 October 1961 

27 October 1961 

18 November 1961 

29 November 1961 

15 January 1962 

26 January 1962 

8 February 1962 

20 February 1962 

1 March 1962 

7 March 1962 

29 March 1962 

23 April1962 

25 April1962 

26 April1962 

24 May 1962 

19 June 1962 

10 July 1962 

Launch 


Vehicle••• 


Redstone 

Thor-Delta 

Redstone 

Thor-Delta 

Atlas-Agena B 

Scout 

AtlasD 

Scout 

Saturn I 

Atlas-Agena B 

AtlasD 

Thor 

Atlas-Agena B 

Thor-Delta 

Mercury-Atlas D 

Scout 

Thor-Delta 

Scout 

Atlas-Agena B 

Saturn I 

Thor-Delta 

AtlasD 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

171 
Name International 

Designation* Launch Date•• 

Echo (AVT -2) (suborbital) 18 July 1962 

Mariner2 1962 Alpha Rho 1 27 August 1962 

Tiros6 1962 Alpha Psi 1 18 September 1962 

Alouette 1 1962 Beta Alpha 1 28 September 1962 

Explorer 14 1962 Beta Gamma 1 2 October 1962 

Sigma7 1962 Beta Delta 1 3 October 1962 

(Mercury-Atlas 8) 

Ranger5 1962 Beta Eta 1 18 October 1962 

Explorer 15 1962 Beta Lambda 1 27 October 1962 

Saturn-Apollo 3 (suborbital) 16 November 1962 

(SA-3) 

Relay 1 1962 Beta U psi! on 1 13 December 1962 

Explorer 16 1962 Beta Chi 1 16 December 1962 

Syncom1 1963-4A 14 February 1963 

Saturn-Apollo 4 (suborbital) 28 March 1963 

(SA-4) 

Explorer 17 1963-9A 2 April1963 

Telstar2 1963-BA 7 May 1963 

Faith 7 1963-15A 15 May 1963 

(Mercury-Atlas 9) 

Tiros 7 1963-24A 19 June 1963 

Syncom2 1963-31A 26 July 1963 

Little Joe II (suborbital) 28 August 1963 

Explorer 18 1963-46A 26 November 1963 

Atlas-Centaur 2 1963-47A 27 November 1963 

Explorer 19 1963-53A 19 December 1963 

Tiros8 1963-54A 21 December 1963 

Relay2 1964-3A 21 January 1964 

Echo2 1964-4A 25 January 1964 

Saturn-Apollo 5 1964-5A 29 January 1964 

(SA-5) 

172 
MAJOR NASA LAUNCH RECORD 


Name International 

Designation• 

Ranger6 1964-7A 

Arie/2 1964-15A 

Gemini-Titan 1 1964-18A 

FIRE 1 (suborbital) 

Apollo (A-001) (suborbital) 

Transonic Abort 

Apollo-Saturn 101 1964-25A 

(SA-6) 

Atlas-Centaur 3 (suborbital) 

SERT1 (suborbital) 

Ranger 7 1964-41A 

Reentry4 (suborbital) 

Syncom3 1964-47A 

Explorer20 1964-51A 

Nimbus] 1964-52A 

OGOJ 1964-54A 

Apollo-Saturn 102 1964-57A 

(SA-7) 

Explorer21 1964-60A 

Explorer22 1964-64A 

Mariner 3 1964-73A 

Explorer23 1964-74A 

Explorer24 1964-76A 

and 

Explorer25 1964-76B 

(lnjun4) 

Mariner4 1964-77A 

Apollo Maximum (suborbital) 

QAbort 

Atlas-Centaur 4 1964-82A 

SanMarcol 1964-84A 

Explorer26 1964-86A 

Launch Date** 

30 January 1964 

27 March 1964 

8 April1964 

14 April1964 

13 May 1964 

28 May 1964 

30 June 1964 

20 July 1964 

28 July 1964 

18 August 1964 

19 August 1964 

25 August 1964 

28 August 1964 

4 September 1964 

18 September 1964 

4 October 1964 

9 October 1964 

5 November 1964 

6 November 1964 

21 November 1964 

28 November 1964 

8 December 1964 

11 December 1964 

15 December 1964 

21 December 1964 

Launch 

Vehicle••• 

Atlas-Agena B 

Scout 

Gemini-Titan II 

Atlas D 

Little Joe II 

Saturn I 

Atlas-Centaur 

Scout 

Atlas-Agena B 

Scout 

TAT-Delta 

Scout 

Thor-Agena B 

Atlas-Agena B 

Saturn I 

Thor-Delta 

Scout 

Atlas-Agena D 

Scout 

Scout 

Atlas-Agena D 

Little Joe II 

Atlas-Centaur 

Scout 

Thor-Delta 

173 
Name International 

Designation• Launch Date•• 

Gemini-Titan 2 (suborbital) 19 January 1965 

Tiros9 1965-4A 22 January 1965 

OS02 1965-7A 3 February 1965 

Pegasus 1 1965-9A 16 February 1965 

and 

Apollo-Saturn 103 1965-9B 

(SA-9) 

Ranger8 1965-IOA 17 February 1965 

Ranger9 1965-23A 21 March 1965 

Gemini3 1965-24A 23 March 1965 

(Gemini-Titan 3) 

Early Bird 1 1965-28A 6 April1965 

Explorer27 1965-32A 29 April1965 

FIRE2 (suborbital) 22 May 1965 

Pegasus2 1965-39A 25 May 1965 

and 

Apollo-Saturn 104 1965-39B 

(SA-8) 

Explorer28 1965-42A 29 May 1965 

Gemini4 1965-43A 3 June 1965 

(Gemini-Titan4) 

Tiros 10 1965-51A 2 July 1965 

Pegasus3 1965-60A 30 July 1965 

and 

Apollo-Saturn 105 1965-60B 

(SA-10) 

Scout 1965-63A 1 0 August 1965 

(SEV-A) 

Centaur-Surveyor 1965-64A 11 August 1965 

(Atlas-Centaur 6) 

Gemini5 1965-68A 21 August 1965 

(Gemini-Titan 5) 

0002 1965-81A 14 October 1965 

Explorer29 1965-89A 6 November 1965 

(GEOS1) 

174 
NASA MAJOR LAUNCH RECORD 


Name 

Explorer30 

Alouette2 

and 

Explorer31 

Gemini7 

(Gemini-Titan 7) 

FR-1 

Gemini6 

(Gemini-Titan 6) 

Pioneer6 

Apollo (A-004) 

Intermediate 

Altitude Abort 

ESSAJ 

Reentry 5 

Apollo-Saturn 201 

ESSA2 

Gemini-Agena 

Target Vehicle 8 

GeminiS 

(Gemini-Titan 8) 

Centaur-Surveyor 

(Atlas-Centaur 8) 

OAOJ 

Nimbus2 

Explorer32 

Surveyor 1 

Augmented Target 

Docking Adapter 

Gemini9 

(Gemini-Titan 9) 

0003 

PAGEOSJ 

Explorer33 

International 


Designation• 


1965-93A 

1965-98A 

1965-98B 

1965-100A 

1965-101A 

1965-104A 

1965-105A 

(suborbital) 

1966-8A 

(suborbital) 

(suborbital) 

1966-16A 

1966-19A 

1966-20A 

1966-30A 

1966-31A 

1966-40A 

1966-44A 

1966-45A 

1966-46A 

1966-47A 

1966-49A 

1966-56A 

1966- 58A 

Launch Date•• 


18 November 1965 


28 November 1965 


4 December 1965 

6 December 1965 

15 December 1965 

16 December 1965 

20 January 1966 

3 February 1966 

9 February 1966 

26 February 1966 

28 February 1966 

16 March 1966 

16 March 1966 

7 April1966 

8 April1966 

15 May 1966 

25 May 1966 

30 May 1966 

1 June 1966 

3 June 1966 

6 June 1966 

23 June 1966 

1 July 1966 

Launch 

Vehicle••• 

Scout 

Thor-Agena B 

Titan II 

Scout 

Titan II 

TAID 

Little Joe II 

Thor-Delta 

Scout 

Saturn IB 

TAID 

Atlas-Agena D 

Titan II 

Atlas-Centaur 

Atlas-Agena D 

TAT-AgenaB 

Thor-Delta 

Atlas-Centaur 

Atlas D 

Titan II 

Atlas-Agena B 

TAT- AgenaD 

TAID 

175 
Name International 

Designation* Launch Date** 

Apollo-Saturn 203 1966-59A 5 July 1966 

Gemini-A gena 1966-65A 18 July 1966 

Target Vehicle 10 

Gemini 10 1966-66A 18 July 1966 

(Gemini-Titan 10) 

Lunar Orbiter 1 1966-73A 10 August 1966 

Pioneer7 1966-75A 17 August 1966 

Apollo-Saturn 202 (suborbital) 25 August 1966 

Gemini-Agena 1966-80A 12 September 1966 

Target Vehicle 11 

Gemini 11 1966-81A 12 September 1966 

(Gemini-Titan 11) 

Surveyor2 1966-84A 20 September 1966 

ESSA3 1966-87A 2 October 1966 

Centaur-Surveyor 1966-95A 25 October 1966 

(Atlas-Centaur 9) 

Inte/sat-1/ F-1 1966-96A 27 October 1966 

(lnte/sat II-A) 

Lunar Orbiter 2 1966-100A 6 November 1966 

Gemini-Agena 1966-103A 11 November 1966 

Target Vehicle 12 

Gemini12 1966-104A 11 November 1966 

(Gemini-Titan 12) 

ATS1 1966-110A 6 December 1966 

Biosatellite 1 1966-114A 14 December 1966 

Inte/sat-IIF-2 1967-1A 11 January 1967 

ESSA4 1967-6A 26 January 1967 

Lunar Orbiter 3 1967-8A 4 February 1967 

OS03 1967-20A 8 March 1967 

Inte/sat-1/ F-3 1967-26A 22 March 1967 

ATS2 1967-31A 5 April1967 

Surveyor3 1967-35A 17 April1967 

176 
NASA MAJOR LAUNCH RECORD 


Name 

ESSA5 

SanMarco2 

Lunar Orbiter4 

Arie/3 

Explorer34 

Mariner5 

Surveyor4 

Explorer35 

0004 

Lunar Orbiter 5 

Biosatellite2 

Surveyor5 

Inte/sat-1/F-4 

OS04 

RAMC-1 

ATS3 

Surveyor6 

Apollo4 

(Apollo-Saturn 501) 

ESSA6 

PioneerS 

and 

TTSJ 

Surveyor? 

Explorer36 

(GEOS2) 

Apol/o5 

(Apollo-Saturn 204) 

0005 

Explorer37 

Apol/o6 

(Apollo-Saturn 502) 

International 

Designation• 

1967-36A 

1967-38A 

1967-41A 

1967-42A 

1967-51A 

1967-60A 

1967-68A 

1967-70A 

1967-73A 

1967-75A 

1967-83A 

1967-84A 

1967-94A 

1967-100A 

(suborbital) 

1967-111A 

1967-112A 

1967-113A 

1967-114A 

1967-123A 

1967-123B 

1968-1A 

1968-2A 

1968-7A 

1968-14A 

1968-17A 

1968-25A 

Launch Date** 

20 April1967 

26 April1967 

4 May 1967 

5 May 1967 

24 May 1967 

14 June 1967 

14 July 1967 

19 July 1967 

28 July 1967 

1 August 1967 

7 September 1967 

8 September 1967 

27 September 1967 

18 October 1967 

19 October 1967 

5 November 1967 

7 November 1967 

9 November 1967 

10 November 1967 

13 December 1967 

7 January 1968 

11 January1968 

22 January 1968 

4 March 1968 

5 March 1968 

4 April1968 

Launch 

Vehicle••• 

TAID 

Scout 

Atlas-Agena D 

Scout 

TAID 

Atlas-Agena D 

Atlas-Centaur 

TAID 

TAT-AgenaD 

Atlas-Agena D 

TAID 

Atlas-Centaur 

TAID 

Thor-Delta 

Scout 

Atlas-Agena D 

Atlas-Centaur 

Saturn V 

TAID 

TAID 

Atlas-Centaur 

TAID 

Saturn IB 

Atlas-Agena D 

Scout 

Saturn V 

177 
Name International 

Designation• Launch Date•• 

Reentry6 (suborbital) 27 April1968 

IRIS/ 1968-41A 16 May 1968 

Explorer38 1968-55A 4 July 1968 

Explorer39 1968-66A 8 August 1968 

and 

Explorer40 1968-66B 

(lnjun5) 

ATS4 1968-68A 10 August 1968 

ESSA 7 1968-69A 16 August 1968 

RAMC-2 (suborbital) 22 August 1968 

Aurorae 1968-84A 3 October 1968 

Apollo 7 1968-89A 11 October 1968 

(Apollo-Saturn 205) 

Pioneer9 1968-100A 8 November 1968 

and 

TETR2 1968-100B 

HEOSJ 1968-109A 5 December 1968 

OA02 1968-llOA 7 December 1968 

ESSAB 1968-114A 15 December 1968 

Inte/sat-IIIF-2 1968-116A 18 December 1968 

Apollo8 1968-118A 21 December 1968 

(Apollo-Saturn 503) 

OS05 1969-6A 22 January 1969 

ISISJ 1969-9A 30 January 1969 

Inte/sat-IIIF-3 1969-11A 5 February 1969 

Mariner6 1969-14A 24 February 1969 

ESSA9 1969-16A 26 February 1969 

Apollo9 1969-18A 3 March 1969 

(Apollo-Saturn 504) 

Mariner? 1969-30A 27 March 1969 

Nimbus3 1969-37A 14 April1969 
NASA MAJOR LAUNCH RECORD 


Name 

Apol/oJO 

(Apollo-Saturn 505) 

Intelsat-IIIF-4 

OG06 

Explorer41 

Biosatellite 3 

Apol/oll 

(Apollo-Saturn 506) 

Intelsat-IIIF-5 

0806 

and 

PAC 

AT.S5 

Boreas 

Azur 

Apol/o12 

(Apollo-Saturn 507 

SkynetA 

Intelsat-I/IF-6 

ITOSJ 

and 

OSCAR5 

SERT2 

NATOSAT 1 

Nimbus4 

Apollo13 

(Apollo-Saturn 508) 

Intelsat-I/IF-7 

Intelsat-IIIF-8 

Skynet B 

RAM C-3 

International 


Designation* 


1969-43A 

1969-45A 

1969-51A 

1969-53A 

1969-56A 

1969-59A 

1969-64A 

1969-68A 

1969-68B 

1969-69A 

1969-83A 

1969-97A 

1969-99A 

1969- 101A 

1970-3A 

1970-8A 

1970-8B 

1970-9A 

1970-21A 

1970-25A 

1970- 29A 

1970- 32A 

1970-55A 

1970-62A 

(suborbital) 

Launch Date** 

18 May 1969 

21 May 1969 

5 June 1969 

21 June 1969 

28 June 1969 

16 July 1969 

25 July 1969 

9 August 1969 

12 August 1969 

1 October 1969 

7 November 1969 

14 November 1969 

21 November 1969 

14 January 1970 

23 January 1970 

3 February 1970 

20 March 1970 

8 April1970 

11 April1970 

22 Apri11970 

23 July 1970 

19 August 1970 

30 September 1970 

Launch 


Vehicle*** 


Saturn V 

LTTAT-Delta 

LTTAT-AgenaD 

TAID 

LTTAT-Delta 

Saturn V 

LTTAT-Delta 

LTTAT-Delta 

Atlas-Centaur 

Scout 

Scout 

Saturn V 

LTTAT-Delta 

LTTAT-Delta 

LTTAT-Delta 

LTTAT-AgenaD 

LTTAT-Delta 

LTTAT-AgenaD 

Saturn V 

LTTAT-Delta 

LTTAT-Delta 

LTTAT-Delta 

Scout 
Name International 

Designation • Launch Date•• 

OFO 1970-94A 9 November 1970 

and 

RM 1970-94B 

NOAA I 1970-106A 11 December 1970 

and 

CEPE 1970-106B 

Explorer42 1970-107A 12 December 1970 

Inte/sat-IVF-2 1971-6A 25 January 1971 

Apollol4 1971-8A 31 January 1971 

(Apollo-Saturn 509) 

NATOSAT2 1971-9A 2 February 1971 

Explorer43 1971-19A 13 March 1971 

ISIS 2 1971-24A 31 March 1971 

SanMarco3 1971-36A 24 April1971 

Mariner 9 1971-51A 30 May 1971 

PAET (suborbital) 20 June 1971 

Explorer44 1971-58A 8 July 1971 

Apollol5 1971-63A 26 July 1971 

(Apollo-Saturn 510) 

Eo/e 1971-71A 16 August 1971 

OS07 1971-83A 29 September 1971 

and 

TETR3 1971-83B 

Explorer45 1971-96A 15 November 1971 

Arie/4 1971-109A 11 December 1971 

Intelsat-IVF-3 1971-116A 19 December 1971 

Inte/sat-IVF-4 1972-3A 22 January 1972 

HEOS 2 1972-5A 31 January 1972 

Pioneer 10 1972-12A 2 March 1972 

TD-JA 1972-14A 11 March 1972 

Apollol6 1972-31A 16 April1972 

(Apollo-Saturn 511) 

180 
NASA MAJOR LAUNCH RECORD 


International Name Designation• 

Intelsat-IVF-5 1972-41A 

ERTS1 1972-58A 

Explorer46 1972-61A 

OA03 1972-65A 

TriadOI-1X 1972-69A 

Explorer47 1972-73A 

NOAA2 1972-82A 

and 

OSCAR6 1972-82B 

Anik1 1972-90A 

Explorer48 1972-91A 

ESR04 1972-92A 

Apollo 17 1972-96A 

(AS-512) 

Nimbus5 1972-97A 

A eros 1972-100A 

Pioneer 11 1973- 19A 

Anik2 1973-23A 

Skylab1 1973-27A 

Skylab2 1973-32A 

Explorer49 1973- 39A 

Skylab3 1973- 50A 

Intelsat-IVF-7 1973-58A 

Explorer 50 1973-78A 

NNSS0-20 1973- 81A 

Mariner 10 1973-85A 

NOAA3 1973-86A 

Skylab4 1973-90A 

Explorer 51 1973-101A 

Skynet IIA 1974-2A 

Launch Date•• 

13 June 1972 

23 July 1972 

13 August 1972 

21 August 1972 

2 September 1972 

22 September 1972 

15 October 1972 

9 November 1972 

16 November 1972 

21 November 1972 

7 December 1972 

1 0 December 1972 

16 December 1972 

5 April1973 

20 April1973 

14 May 1973 

25 May 1973 

10 June 1973 

28 July 1973 

23 August 1973 

25 October 1973 

29 October 1973 

3 November 1973 

6 November 1973 

16 November 1973 

15 December 1973 

18 January 1974 

Launch 

Vehicle••• 

Atlas-Centaur 

LTTAT-Delta 

Scout 

Atlas-Centaur 

Scout 

LTTAT-Delta 

LTTAT-Delta 

LTTAT-Delta 

Scout 

Scout 

Saturn V 

LTTAT-Delta 

Scout 

Atlas-CentaurTE-M-364-4 

LTTAT-Delta 

Saturn V 

Saturn IB 

LTTAT-Delta 

Saturn IB 

Atlas-Centaur 

LTTAT-Delta 

Scout 

Atlas-Centaur 

LTTAT- Delta 

Saturn IB 

LTTAT-Delta 

LTTAT-Delta 

18
Name International 

Designation• Launch Date•• 

SanMarco4 1974-9A 18 February 1974 

Miranda (UK-X4) 1974-13A 8 March 1974 

Westar 1 1974-22A 13 April1974 

SMSJ 1974-33A 17 May 1974 

ATS6 1974-39A 30 May 1974 

Hawkeye I 

(Explorer 52) 

1974-40A 3 June 1974 

Aeros2 1974-55A 16 July 1974 

ANS 1974-70A 30 August 1974 

Westar 2 1974-75A 10 October 1974 

Arie/5 

(UK-5) 

1974-77A 15 October 1974 

NOAA4 

and 

1974-89A 15 November 1974 

OSCAR7 1974-89B 

and 

INTASAT 1974-89C 

Inte/sat-IVF-8 1974-93A 21 November 1974 

Skynet/IB 1974-94A 23 November 1974 

Helios 1 1974-97A 10 December 1974 

Symphoniel 1974-101A 18 December 1974 L 
APPENDIX D 

NASA NAMING COMMITTEES 

The first "naming committee" established within NASA Headquarters 

was the Ad Hoc Committee to Name Space Projects and Objects. Meeting 

informally during 1960, the Committee sought to establish procedures for 

submitting and selecting names and proposed specific mission categories as 

a step toward defining a clear-cut pattern of NASA names. Precedent had 

been set for the continuation of a "series approach" to names by Explorer 

and Pioneer spacecraft. The Committee emphasized that flight names 

should be suggestive of the mission and reflect the series of which they were 

a part. This emphasis was the basis for the decision to use the "Cortright" 

system for naming space probes, as described in the introductory section on 

space probes in the text (Part Ill). 

On 9 January 1961, NASA Management Instruction 4-3-1, by the Committee, prescribed policy and procedure for assigning names to major 

NASA projects. A new committee, the Project Designation Committee, 

would be appointed to review and recommend specific project names. The 

NMI stated in part: 

Each project name will be a simple euphonic word that will not duplicate or be 

confused with other NASA or non-NASA project titles. When possible and if appropriate, names will be chosen to reflect NASA's mission. Project names will 

be serialized when appropriate, thus limiting the number of different names in 

use at any one time; however, serialization will be used only after successful 

flight or accomplishment has been achieved. 

The Project Designation Committee met to consider specific names and 

solicited suggestions from NASA field centers as categories for future mission names were defined. Names chosen were "reserved" for the appropriate missions. The committee recommendations were not always approved and the selection of a name for a particular mission occasionally was 

postponed for lack of an acceptable substitute. Many approved names were 

never used, as the projects themselves were redesigned or later canceled. 

The influence of the committee waned after 1963 as some projects were 

deferred or canceled and ongoing series required no new names. Fewer new 

183 
projects were approved and recommendation and approv

often came after the fact; names already in common use 

were adopted. Revived in 1970, the committee mee

specific requests for official project names. 

184 
REFERENCE NOTES 

PART 1: LAUNCH VEHICLES 

ABLE 

1. Milton W. Rosen, Office of Defense Affairs, NASA, telephone interview, 16 Feb. 1965. 

AGENA 

1. W. F. Whitmore, "AGENA-The Spacecraft and the Star," Lockheed Missiles & 

Space Co. research paper, 16 Jan. 1969; and Dick Bissinette, Andrews AFB, letter to Judy 

Gildea, NASA, 27 March 1963. 

2. Ibid.; and R. H. Allen, Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning (New York: Dover 

Publications, Inc., 1963), p. 154. The Dover edition is an unabridged and corrected 

republication of the work first published by G. E. Steckert in 1899 under the title Star-Names 

and Their Meanings. 

3. D. H. Menzel, footnoteinAllen, Star Names, p. 154; and Whitmore, "AGENA-The 

Spacecraft and the Star." 

4. R. Cargill Hall, Lockheed Missiles & Space Co., letter to Historical Staff, NASA, 26 

Aug. 1965. 

5. Robert F. Piper, Historical Office, Air Force Space Systems Division, letter to 

Historical Staff, NASA, 31 Aug. 1965. 

6. Hall, "The Agena Satellite" (unpublished essay), November 1966. 

ATLAS 

1. John L. Chapman, Atlas: The Story ofa Missile (New York: Harper & Bros., 1960), p. 

62; and R. T. Blair, Jr., Convair Division, General Dynamics Corp., letter to Historical 

Staff, NASA, 10 Sept. 1965. 

2. Robert F. Piper, Historical Office, Air Force Space Systems Division, letter to 

Historical Staff, NASA, 31 Aug. 1965; BIG D. N. Yates, Director of Research and Development, Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Development, Hq. USAF, memorandum to 

the Chairman, Committee on Guided Missiles, Research and Development Board, DOD, 30 

July 1951; S. D. Cornell, Acting Executive Secretary, Committee on Guided Missiles, 

memorandum to BIG D. N. Yates, 6 Aug. 1951; and Yates, memorandum to Commanding 

General, Air Research and Development Command, 27 Aug. 1951. 

3. NASA. News Release75-19. 

185 
NOTES TO 

BIG JOE 

1. Loyd S. Swenson, Jr., James M. Grimwood, and Charles C. 

Ocean: A History ofProject Mercury, NASA SP-4201 (Washington: 

and Paul E. Purser, Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC), handwritten n

wood, Historian, MSC [October 1963]. 

CENTAUR 

1. Frank Kerr, Astronautics Division, General Dynamics Corp., tel

Manley, Lewis Research Center (LeRC), 10 Dec. 1963; and Lynn Man

Staff, NASA, 11 Dec. 1963. 

DELTA 

1. L. B. Norris, Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC), letter to H

10 Dec. 1963; and Robert L. Perry, "The Atlas, Thor, Titan, and M

M. Emme, ed., The History ofRocket Technology (Detroit Wayne 

1964), p. 160. 

2. Milton W. Rosen, Office ofDefense Affairs, NASA, telephone i

3. NASA, News Releases 64-133 and 67-306; NASA, program of

tions Satellite Corp., Press Kit INTELSAT III [1968]. 

4. NASA, News Releases 70-2, 72-206, and 74-77K; Robert J. Go

provements" in Significant Accomplishments in Technology, procee

Goddard Space Flight Center, 7-8 Nov. 1972, NASA SP-326 (Wash

11-13. 

5. NASA, News Releases 60-237, 60-242, 74-77K, and 75-19. 

JUNO 

1. William H. Pickering, Director, Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JP

MIG John B. Medaris, Commanding General, ABMA, 18 Nov. 1

message to Gen. James M. Gavin, Chief of Research and Developme

1957; and Wernher von Braun, "The Redstone, Jupiter, and Juno," 

ed., The History ofRocket Technology (Detroit: Wayne State Unive

107-121. 

2. R. Cargill Hall, JPL, letter to Eugene M. Emme, Historian, NAS

3. Von Braun, "The Redstone, Jupiter, and Juno." 

LITTLE JOE 

1. Loyd S. Swenson, Jr., James M. Grimwood, and Charles C. 

Ocean: A History of Project Mercury, NASA SP-4201 (Washingto

123-124; Paul E. Purser, MSC, handwritten note to James M. Grim

[October 1963]; and Robert W. Mulac, Langley Research Center (LaR

Staff, NASA, 10 Dec. 1963. 

REDSTONE 

1. Wernher von Braun, "The Redstone, Jupiter, and Juno," in E

The History ofRocket Technology(Detroit Wayne State University P

186 
NOTES TO PAGES 16-20 

2. David S. Akens, "Historical Sketch of Marshall Space Flight Center" (MS), n.d. 

Redstone Arsenal was so named 26 Feb. 1943, having been designated "Redstone Ordnance 

Plant" since 6 Oct. 1941. From 4 Aug. 1941 to 6 Oct. 1941 it was called "Huntsville 

Arsenal." 

SATURN I, SATURN IB 

1. Wernher von Braun, "The Redstone, Jupiter, and Juno," in Eugene M. Emme, ed., 

The History ofRocket Technology (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1964), p. 119. 

2. A. Ruth Jarrell, Historical Office, Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFq, letter to 

Historical Staff, NASA, 16 Dec. 1963; B/G J. A. Barclay, Commander, ABMA, memorandum to M/G John B. Medaris, Commanding General, Army Ordnance Missile Command, 

15 Oct. 1958; Medaris, teletype message to Gen. James M. Gavin, Chief of Research and 

Development, Hq. USA, 15 Oct. 1958; and MSFC, Historical Office, Saturn Illustrated 

Chronology, MHR-4 (Huntsville: MSFC, 1965), p. 5. 

3. Silverstein eta/., "Report to the Administrator, NASA, on Saturn Development Plan 

by Saturn Vehicle Team," 15 Dec. 1959; and MSFC, Historical Office, Saturn Illustrated 

Chronology, pp. 8-9. The C-1 configuration was composed of three stages: S-1-the first 

stage, with 6.7-million-newton (1.5-million-pound) thrust-and S-IV and S-V 

liquid-hydrogen-powered second and third stages. The S-V stage was eliminated in May 1961. 

4. MSFC, Historical Office, Saturn Illustrated Chronology, p. 56; and MSFC, Historical 

Office, History of the George C. Marshall Space Flight Center: January J~June 30, 1962, 

MHM-5, 1 (Huntsville: MSFC, 1962), 28. The decision to develop the C-1B was announced 

11 July 1962, but the name had been in use since early 1962 in design and feasibility studies. 

5. George L. Simpson, Jr., Assistant Administrator for Public Affairs, NASA, memorandum for the Associate Administrator, NASA, 7 Jan. 1963; and MSFC, Historical Office, 

Saturn Illustrated Chronology, p. 69. 

6. Julian W. Scheer, Assistant Administrator for Public Affairs, NASA, memorandum 

from Project Designation Committee to Public Information Director eta/., NASA, 9 June 

1966. 

7. Robert C. Seamans, Jr., Deputy Administrator, NASA, memorandum for George E. 

Mueller, Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, NASA, 6 Jan. 1967; Willis H. 

Shapley, Associate Deputy Administrator, NASA, memorandum for Mueller et al., NASA, 

2 Dec. 1967; and Scheer, memorandum to 0. B. Lloyd, Jr., Public Information Director, et 

a/., NASA, 15 Jan. 1968. 

SATURNV 

1. MSFC, Historical Office, History ofthe George C. Marshall Space Flight Center: July 

1-December 31, 1961, MHM-4, I (Huntsville: MSFC, 1962), 33. 

2. George L. Simpson, Jr., Assistant Administrator for Public Affairs, NASA, memorandum for the Associate Administrator, NASA, 7 Jan. 1963. This memo recommended name 

changes for all three Saturn vehicles--for Saturn I, Saturn IB, and Saturn V. 

3. MSFC, Historical Office, Saturn Illustrated Chronology, MHR-4 (Huntsville: MSFC, 

1965), p. 69. 

4. NASA, News Release 72-220K. 

SCOUT 

L William E. Stoney, Jr., MSC, letter to Historical Staff, NASA, 13 April1965. 

2. NASA, NewsRelease75-19. 

187 
NOTES TO 

3. NASA, Wallops Station, Open House Program, 29-30 Sept. 196

4. NASA, News Release 74-138; and Paul E. Goozh, Scout Prog

telephone interview, 17 June 1974. 

SHOTPUT 

1. NASA, News Releases 60-158 and 60-186. The second stage of 

an Allegany Ballistics Laboratory X-248 rocket, originally designed 

Thor-Able vehicles. 

2. William J. O'Sullivan, Jr., Head of the Space Vehicle Group

Murray, 29 Sept. 1960. 

THOR 

1. W. C. Cleveland, Director of Public Relations, Douglas Missile 

sion, letter to Historical Staff, NASA, 27 Aug. 1965. 

2. Thomas Bulfinch, Mythology, Edmund Fuller, ed. (New York

Inc., 1959), p. 243. 

3. Lloyd Malian, Peace Is a Three-Edged Sword (New York: Pre

190-192. 

4. NASA, News Release 68-84. 

5. Ibid.; USAF, News Release 205.65; and NASA, program office. 

TITAN 

1. R. L. Tonsing, Director of Public Relations, Aerospace Divi

Corp., letter to Historical Staff, NASA, 26 Sept. 1965; and Lloyd Ma

Edged Sword(New York: Prentice-Hall [1964)), pp. 190-192. 

2. Thomas Bulfinch, Mythology, Edmund Fuller, ed. (New York

Inc., 1959), p. 15. 

3. NASA, NewsRelease75-19. 

PART II: SATELLITES 

1. See Webster's Third New International Dictionary (unabridged)

Heflin, The Second Aerospace Glossary(Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air Univ

AEROS 

1. NASA, News Release 69-91. The memorandum of understandi

1969. 

2. Lloyd E. Jones, Jr., Office of International Affairs, NASA, 

June 1971. 

3. NASA, "Project Approval Document," 27 Feb. 1970; NASA, pr

ALOUETTE 

1. See Jonathan D. Caspar, "The Alouette (S-27) Program: A Case 

national Cooperative Activities," HHN-42, 1964 (commented.) and 1

188 
NOTES TO PAGES 35-38 

2. N. W. Morton, Dept. of National Defence, Canadian Joint Staff, letter to Arnold W. 

Frutkin, Director of International Programs, NASA, 27 April1961. 

3. Robert C. Seamans, Jr., Associate Administrator, NASA, letter toN. W. Morton, 11 

May 1961; and NASA, Announcement312, 24 May 1961. 

4. NASA, News Release 64-207; and Wallops Station, News Release64-77. 

ANS 

1. NASA, News Release 70-91. 

ARIEL 

1. D. J. Gerhard, Office of the Scientific AttacM, U.K. Scientific Mission, Washington, 

D.C., letter to Arnold W. Frutkin, Director of International Programs, NASA, 15 Dec. 

1961; Frutkin, memorandum to Robert C. Seamans, Jr., Associate Administrator, NASA, 

15 Dec. 1961; and Boyd C. Myers II (Chairman, NASA Project Designation Committee), 

Director, Program Review and Resources Management, NASA, memorandum to Seamans, 2 

Feb. 1962, with approval signature of Dr. Seamans. 

2. NASA, News Release 74-36; NASA program office; UN Document 

AIAC.105/INF.289, 18 Apri11974. 

ATS 

1. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences, Hearings. 

NASA Authorization for FY 1964, Pt. 1, April 1963 (Washington: 1963), pp. 8, 143, 

433-434. 

2. Homer E. Newell, Associate Administrator for Space Science and Applications, 

NASA, in U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences, Hearings 

. . NASA Authorization forFY1965, Pt. 2, March 1964 (Washington: 1964), p. 559. 

3. NASA, News Release64-50. 

4. Robert F. Garbarini, Director of Engineering, Office of Space Science and Applications, NASA, memorandum to Director, Communication and Navigation Programs Division, NASA, 11 Sept. 1964. 

5. Newell, memorandum to Robert C. Seamans, Jr., Associate Administrator, NASA, 2 

Oct. 1964, with approval signature of Dr. Seamans. 

AZUR 

1. ''Memorandum ofUnderstanding between the German Ministry for Scientific Research 

and the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration," attachment to 

NASA, News Release69-146. 

2. Charles F. Rice, Jr., GSFC [former AZUR Project Coordinator at GSFC], telephone 

interview, 2 June 1971 . 

BIOSATELLITE 

1. NASA, News Release 66-312. 

2. 0. E. Reynolds, Director of Bioscience Programs, NASA, memorandum to Harold L. 

Goodwin (Member, NASA Project Designation Committee), Director, Office of Program 

189 
NOTES T

Development, NASA, 4 June 1962; and Jack Posner, Office of Sp

tions, NASA, telephone interview, 10 Aug. 1965. 

3. NASA Project Designation Committee, minutes of meeting 9 J

ECHO 

1. William J. O'Sullivan, "Notes on Project Echo" (MS), n.d.; a

61-252. 

2. John R. Pierce, "Orbital Radio Relays," Jet Propulsion, 25 (A

3. E. W. Morse, "Preliminary History of the Origins of Project S

4. Robert W. Mulac, LaRC, letter to Historical Staff, NASA, 10 

EOLE 

1. NASA, News Release66-156. 


2.. Ibid. 


3. NASA, "Project Approval Document," 7 Dec. 1966; NASA, 

ment: Cooperative Effort/Flight" [FY 1969 Project Approval Docu

NASA, News Release 70-222. 

ERTS 

1. John Hanessian, Jr., "International Aspects of Earth Resour

grams," Journal ofthe British Interplanetary Society, 23 (Spring 19

2. Although development funds were not approved until FY 19

proval Document was dated 7 Jan. 1969. 

3. Eldon D. Taylor, Director of Program Review and Resourc

memorandum to Chief, Management Issuances Section, NASA, 7 

Boone, Assistant Administrator for Defense Affairs, NASA, m

Jaffe, Director of Space Applications Programs, NASA, 22 July 196

4. John E. Naugle, Associate Administrator for Space Science a

prepared statement in U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, C

Astronautics' Subcommittee on Space Science and Applications, H

Authorization, Pt. 3, March 1971 (Washington: 1971), pp. 156-157. 

5. Jaffe, memorandum to Julian W. Scheer, Assistant Administ

NASA, 10 Jan. 1967. 

6. Department of the Interior, Office of the Secretary, release, "

Studied from Space," 21 Sept. 1966. 

7. NASA, Program Review and Resources Management Office, 

Earth Resources Program," 13 Dec. 1971; and George J. Vecchie

ment, NASA, memorandum to Philip N. Whittaker, Assistant Ad

Affairs, NASA, 14 Oct. 1968. 

8. James A. Long, Assistant Executive Secretary, NASA, notes 

Committee meeting, 17 Feb. 1970; and Long, telephone interview, 15 

9. U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Committee on Sc

Subcommittee on Space Science and Applications, Hearings . .. 19

Pt. 3, February and March 1974 (Washington: 1974), pp. 50, 91; N

Document, Encl. 27 to61-600-SA, 14 Jan. 1974; and NASA, News 

10. Hearings . .. 1975 NASA Authorization, Pt. 3, p. 50. 

190 
NOTES TO PAGES 45-52 

ESRO 

1. NASA, News Release 64-178; and Ellen T. Rye, Office of International Affairs, 

NASA, telephone interview, 20 April1967. 

2. "Memorandum of Understanding between the European Space Research Organization 

and the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration," attachment to 

NASA, News Release 64-178; and NASA, News Release, "Press Briefing: ESRO II and 

NASA International Cooperative Programs,'' 19 May 1967. 

3. NASA, program office; and NASA, News Release 68-158. 

4. NASA, program office. 

5. ''Memorandum ofUnderstanding.'' 

6. NASA, News Releases 66-332 and 68-204. 

7. European Space Research Organization, Europe in Space, March 1974, pp. 20-41; and 

A. V. Cleaver, Spaceflight, 16, No.6 (June 1974), 220-237. 

ESSA 

1. NASA-ESSA, ESSA 1 Press Kit, ES66-7, 30 Jan. 1966. 

2. NASA, program office. 

EXPLORER 

1. A. Ruth Jarrell, Historical Office, MSFC, letter to Historical Staff, NASA, 16 Dec. 

1963. 

2. R. Cargill Hall, Project Ranger: A Chronology, JPL/HR-2 (Washington: NASA, 

1971), p. 46; Eugene M. Emme, Historian, NASA, memorandum for the record (after conversation with Richard Hirsch, National Aeronautics and Space Council Staff), 26 Feb. 

1970. 

3. Robert W. Mulac, LaRC, letter to Historical Staff, NASA, 10 Dec. 1963. 

4. NASA, News Release 70-203; NASA Headquarters Preliminary Results Press Briefing 

(transcript), 28 Dec. 1970; American Institute of Physics, News Release, 28 April1971; John 

R. Holtz, Manager, Explorers, NASA, telephone interview, 20 March 1975. 

5. NASA Facts, III, No.4 (Washington: NASA, 1966); NASA, News Releases 65-333, 

65- 354, 68-16, 70-108; U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Committee on Science 

and Astronautics' Subcommittee on Space Science and Applications, Hearings ... 1975 

NASA Authorization, Pt. 3, February and March 1974 (Washington: 1974), pp. 104-107, 

189-190,318. 

6. John P. Donnelly, Assistant Administrator for Public Affairs, NASA, memorandum 

to Dr. John Naugle, Associate Administrator for Space Science, NASA, 8 June 1972; NASA 

program office; Henry L. Richter, Jr., ed., ln~truments and Spacecraft, October 

1957-March 1965, NASA SP- 3028 (Washington: NASA, 1966), pp. 182,236, 376, 522; and 

NASA, Historical Division, Astronautics and Aeronautics: Chronology on Science, 

Technology, and Policy, 1968, NASASP-4010(Washington: NASA, 1969), p.182. 

7. NASA, News Release 75-19; and European Space Research Organization, Europe in 

Space, March 1974, pp. 20-22. 

8. Donnelly, memorandum to Naugle, 8 June 1972; and NASA, News Release 75-19. 

9. James C. Fletcher, Administrator, NASA, "The NASA FY 1975 Budget," statement 

for 4 Feb. 1974 release; NASA, Fiscal Year 1975 Budget Briefing (transcript), 2 Feb. 1974; 

U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Committee on Science and Astronautics' Subcom191 
NOTES TO 

mittee on Space Science and Applications, Hearings ... 1975 NAS

February and March 1974 (Washington: 1974), pp. 5-7, 259-268

Budget Briefing(transcript), 1 Feb. 1975. 

FR-1 

1. NASA, News Release 63-49. The program was initiated b

Understanding signed by NASA and CNES 18 Feb. 1963. 

2. John R. Holtz, Office of Space Science and Applications, NAS

5 April1967. 

3. Homer E. Newell, Associate Administrator for Space Scie

NASA, memorandum to NASA Headquarters and Field Centers, 24 

was prepared for Dr. Newell's signature byFR-1 project manager Joh

HEAO 

1. NASA, Office of Technology Utilization, A Long-Rang

Astronomy, NASA SP-213 (Washington: NASA, 1969), pp. 16-26. 

2. Richard E. Halpern, Acting Director, Project HEAO, Office of 

plications, NASA, telephone interview, 14 May 1971. 

3. NASA News Releases 73-40 and 74-240. 

HEOS 

1. ESRO, Communique No. 41, 8 March 1967; Ellen T. Rye, Off

fairs, NASA, telephone interview, 20 April1967; and NASA, News R

2. ESRO, Communique No. 41; and Oscar E. Anderson, D

Organizations Division, Office of International Affairs, NASA, mem

Emme, Historian, NASA, 20 Dec. 1968. 

INTASAT 

1. GSFC, Goddard News, 20, No.6 (September 1972), 1; NASA

and 75-19; and program office. 

INTELSAT 

1. ComSat Corp., Prospectus(Washington: ComSat Corp., 1964), 

2. Larry Hastings, ComSat Corp., telephone interview, 21 April 

News Release 67-45; and NASA, program office. 

3. Hastings, telephone interview; and ComSat Corp., News Rele

Press sources have erroneously referred to the satellite as "Lani Bird I

4. Hastings, telephone interview; ComSat Corp., News Release 6

gram office. 

5. ComSat Corp., News Releases 67-48 and 69-53; NASA, New

69-6; and NASA, program office. 

6. ComSat Corp., Public Relations Office, telephone interview, 22 

program office. 

192 
NOTES TO PAGES 57-62 

IRIS 

1. NASA, program office. 

ISIS 

1. Ellen Thompson, Office of International Affairs, NASA, telephone interview, 31 July 

1965. 

2. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences, 

Hearings ... NASA Authorization for FY 1972, Pt. 1, March and April 1971 

(Washington: 1971), p. 561. 

3. NASA, NewsRelease71-72. 

4. E. Sherrell Andrews, Office of International Affairs, NASA, telephone interview, 28 

June 1971. 

LAGEOS 

1. Eberhard Rees, Director, MSFC, memorandum to Dale D. Myers, Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, NASA, 25 Jan. 1973. 

2. Ibid.; U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Committee on Science and 

Astronautics' Subcommittee on Space Science and Applications, Hearings .. . 1975 NASA 

Authorization. Pt. 3, February and March 1974 (Washington: 1974), pp. 104-106; NASA 

FY 1974 Budget News Conference (transcript), 23 Jan. 1973; and MSFC, News Releases 

73-184 and75-49. 

NIMBUS 

1. Robert F. Garbarini, Director of Applications, Office of Space Science and Applications, NASA, letter to Historial Staff, NASA, 30 Dec. 1963; and William K. Widger, Jr., 

Meteorological Satellites (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1966), p. 153. 

OAO 

1. James E. Kupperian, Jr., Office of Space Flight Development, NASA, draft project 

outline, December 1958, with approval indicated by Gerhardt F. Schilling, Chief, Astronomy 

and Astrophysics Programs, Office of Space Flight Development, NASA; and Kupperian, 

letter to Historical Staff, NASA, 18 Nov. 1963. 

2. NASA, "Proposed National Aeronautics and Space Administration Project" [first official OAO project document], 12 March 1959; and Kupperian, letter to Historical Staff, 

NASA, 18 Nov. 1963. 

3. NASA, News Releases 72-141 and 72- 156. 

OFO 

1. Robert W. Dunning, Office of Manned Space Flight [former OFO Experiment Program Manager, Office of Advanced Research and Technology], NASA, telephone interview, 

14 May 1971. 

2. NASA, program office. 

193 
NOTES T

3. Ibid. 

4. Dunning, telephone interview, 14 May 1971; and NASA, progr

OGO 

1. Jack Posner, Office of Space Science and Applications, NA

10 Aug. 1965; and U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Aeronau

Hearings ... NASA Scientific and Technical Programs, Feb

(Washington: 1961), pp. 236-239. 

oso 

1. Jack Posner, Office of Space Science and Applications, NAS

10 Aug. 1965; and U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Aeronaut

Hearings ... NASA Scientific and Technical Programs, Feb

(Washington: 1961), pp. 240-242. 

PAGEOS 

1. NASA, NewsRelease66-150. 

2. Jack Posner, Office of Space Science and Applications, NAS

10 Aug. 1965. 

3. NASA, News Release 66-150. 

PEGASUS 

1. Raymond L. Bisplinghoff, Associate Administrator for A

Technology, NASA, memorandum to Julian Scheer, Chairman, Pr

mittee [and Assistant Administrator for Public Affairs], NASA, 23 D

2. Ibid.; Milton B. Ames, Jr., Director, Space Vehicle Divisio

Research and Technology, NASA, letter to Edward G. Uhl, Pres

Corp., 21 July 1964; and NASA, News Release64-203. 

RELAY 

1. Abe Silverstein, Director, Office of Space Flight Programs, N

Robert C. Seamans, Jr., Associate Administrator, NASA, with ap

Seamans. 

2. Robert Warren, Communication and Navigation Programs, 

and Applications, NASA, letter to Historical Staff, NASA, 11 Dec. 1

SAN MARCO 

1. Franco Fiorio, NASA Liaison for the Italian Space Commission

Aug. 1965. Professor Broglio later became Chairman of the Italian 

San Marco Project General Director and Test Director; Professor 

Project General Director; and Dr. Fiorio, NASA Liaison. 

2. NASA, News Release 64-301; and NASA, Wallops Station, New

194 
NOTES TO PAGES 68-73 

SEASAT 

1. Francis L. Williams, Director of Special Programs, Office of Applications, NASA, 

telephone interview, 9 June 1975; U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Committee on 

Science and Astronautics' Subcommittee on ' Space Science and Applications, 

Hearings . .. 1975 NASA Authorization, Pt. 3, February and March 1974 (Washington: 

1974), pp. 3-4, 270-271; and NASA, News Release 75-1. 

SIRIO 

1. NASA, News Release 70-42. 

2. Barbara A. Goetz, Office of International Affairs, NASA, telephone interview, 7 July 

1971. 

SMS 

1. NASA Ad Hoc Committee to Name Space Projects and Objects, minutes of meeting, 19 

May 1960. 

2. U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Committee on Science and Astronautics, 

Hearings . .. National Meteorological Satellite Program, July 1961 (Washington: 1961), 

p. 32. 

3. Michael L. Garbacz, Earth Observations Programs, Office of Space Science and Applications, NASA, telephone interview, 17 June 1971; NASA, News Release 63-18; and U.S. 

Congress. Senate, Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences, Hearings . . . NASA 

Authorization/orFY1964, Pt. 1, April1963 (Washington: 1963), pp. 438-439,441,447. 

4. NASA, Historical Office; and Garbacz, telephone interview, 17 June 1971. 

5. Robert C. Seamans, Jr., Associate Administrator, NASA, letter to J. Robert 

Hollomon, Assistant Secretary for Science and Technology, Dept. of Commerce, 20 May 

1965. 

6. Garbacz, telephone interview, 11 June 1971; and NOAA, Space: Environmental Vantage Point, NOAA/PI 70033 (Washington: 1971), pp. 34-35. 

7. NASA, News Releases 74-95, 74-154; NASA, program office. 

SPHINX 

1. NASA, NewsRelease74-25; NASA, Photo74-H-92. 

SYMPHONIE 

1. NASA, News Release 74-316; European Space Research Agency, Europe in Space, 

March 1974, pp. 75- 77; NASA, program office, 13 Dec. 1974; and Ed Arnone, Today, 27 

Nov.1974. 

2. Jean-Pierre Pujes, Scientific Attache, French Embassy, Washington, D.C., telephone 

interview, 9 May 1975; Aviation Week& Space Technology, 8 May 1967, p. 24; Webster's 

New International Dictionary, ed. 2 (unabridged). 

SYNCOM 

1. Alton E. Jones, GSFC, letter to Historical Staff, NASA, 7 April 1964; and GSFC, 

"Syncom Preliminary Project Development Plan," 5 Aug. 1961. 

195 
NOTES T

2. Robert C. Seamans, Jr., Associate Administrator, NASA, me

Office of Space Flight Programs, NASA, 17 Aug. 1961; and NASA, N

TD 

I. George D. Baker, Delta Project Office, GSFC, telephone intervi

2. NASA, News Release 66-332. TD was the second reimbursable 

ment (HEOS 1 was the first). 

3. R. Liist, "The European Space Research Organisation," Scien

394-396. Negotiations for the purchase of U.S. launch vehicles we

agreement was signed in 1966. 

4. Baker, telephone interview; and "Europeans Reviewing Spac

1970's," Aviation Week& Space Technology, 82 (14 June 1965), 200

5. John L. Hess, "European Communication Satellite Seems 

Times, 28 April1968, p. 24; and Baker, telephone interview. 

TELESAT 

1. "Canadian Satellite," Washington Post, 16 Aprill969, p. A17. 

2. NASA, NewsRelease71-85. 

3. Ibid. 

TELSTAR 

\ 1. David Williamson, Jr., Office of Tracking and Data Acquisi

dum to Boyd C. Myers II (Chairman, NASA Project Designation 

! !Program Review and Resources Management, NASA, 18 Oct. 1961

dum to Robert C. Seamans, Jr., Associate Administrator, NASA, 

proval signature of Dr. Seamans, 2 Nov. 1961. 

TIROS, TOS, AND ITOS 

I. Robert F. Garbarini, Office of Space Science and Applica

Historical Staff, NASA, 30 Dec. 1963. 

2. NASA-ESSA, ESSA 1 Press Kit, n.d. 

3. Ibid. I 

4. NASA, News Release 66-115. 

5. NASA, News Release70-2. 

6. NASA, program office. 

VANGUARD 

1. Milton W. Rosen, Office of Defense Affairs, NASA, let

Lockheed Missiles & Space Co., 28 Aug. 1963. 

2. Ibid.; Rosen, telephone interview, 16 Feb. 1965; and Chief of 

Director, Naval Research Laboratory, 16 Sept. 1955. 

WESTAR 

I. Western Union Telegraph Co., Communicator, Summer 1973, 

Union Proposes Satellite Telegram System," New York Times, 8 N

196 
NOTES TO PAGES 79-88 

program office; and Dow Jones News Service, "Western Union Files Domestic Satellite 

Plan," WashingtonEveningStar, 31 July 1970, p. A14. 

2. AP, "Satellite Relay for U.S. Approved," New York Times, 5 Jan. 1973, p. 1; "The 

Day of the Domsat," Time, 29 April1974, p. 2; and NASA, program office. 

3. Frances Shissler, Western Union Telegraph Co., McLean, Va., telephone interview, 2 

April1975. 

PART III: SPACE PROBES 

1. Milton Lehman, This High Man: The Life ofRobert H. Goddard (New York: Farrar, 

Straus and Co., 1963), pp. 81-82. 

2. William R. Corliss, Space Probes and Planetary Exploration (Princeton: Van Nostrand 

Co., 1965), p. 10. 

3. Edgar M. Cortright, Assistant Director of Lunar and Planetary Programs, NASA, 

memorandum to NASA Ad Hoc Committee to Name Space Projects and Objects, 17 May 

1960; and NASA, Ad Hoc Committee to Name Space Projects and Objects, minutes of 

meeting, 19 May 1960. 

HELlOS 

1. NASA, News Release 69-86. The memorandum of understanding was signed 10 June 

1969. 

2. Lloyd E. Jones, Jr., Office of International Affairs, NASA, telephone interview, 31 

July 1969. 

3. NASA, Historical Staff, Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1963: Chronology on Science, 

Technology, and Policy, NASA SP-4004 (Washington: NASA, 1964), p. 73; and 

Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1965, NASA SP-4006 (1966), p. 554. 

LUNAR ORBITER 

1. U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Committee on Appropriations' Subcommittee on Independent Offices, Hearings . .. FY 1966 Independent Offices Appropriations, 

Pt. 2 (Washington: 1965), p. 858. 

2. Jack Posner, Office of Space Science and Applications, NASA, telephone interview, 10 

Aug. 1965. 

3. NASA, News Release 68-23. 

MARINER 

1. Edgar M. Cortright, Assistant Director of Lunar and Planetary Programs, NASA, 

memorandum to NASA Ad Hoc Committee to Name Space Projects and Objects, 17 May 

1960; and NASA Ad Hoc Committee to Name Space Projects and Objects, minutes of m~ting 19 May 1960. 

2. NASA, News Release 75-19. 

PIONEER 

1. David S. Akens, Historical Origins of the George C. Marshall Space Flight Center, 

MHM-1 (Huntsville: MSFC, 1960, p. 51, fn. 28; Eugene M. Emme, Aeronautics and 

Astronautics: An American Chronology of Science and Technology in the Exploration of 

197 
NOTES TO 

Space, 1915-1960 (Washington: NASA, 1961), pp. 102-103; and 

Launchings," enclosure to letter, 12 May 1960. 

2. M/G Reginald M. Cram, Adjutant General, State of Vermont

Saliga, Visual Aids Chief, NASA, 6 Feb. 1970; and Saliga, memor

Emme, Historian, NASA, 13 April 1972. M/G Cram was comma

Orientation Group at the time. 

3. John F. Clark, Director, GSFC, "Galactic/Jupiter Probes," ad

dard Memorial Symposium (AAS meeting), 14 March 1967; and Tho

of Space Science and Applications, NASA, telephone interview, 14 Jun

4. U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Committee on Scie

Hearings . .. 1969 NASA Authorization, Pt. 3, February 1968 (W

207-208,239-243. 

5. George M. Low, Deputy Administrator, NASA, "Letter from 

Activities, 5 (15 Dec. 1974), 3; and Peter W. Waller, Public Inform

telephone interview, 27 Feb. 1975. ARC Director Hans Mark had chos

gestions made by several persons in the Pioneer project and the Public 

6. NASA, News Release75-19. 

RANGER 

1. Edgar M. Cortright, Assistant Director of Lunar and Planeta

memorandum to NASA Ad Hoc Committee to Name Space Projects 

1960; and NASA Ad Hoc Committee to Name Space Projects an

meeting, 19 May 1960. 

2. Oran W. Nicks, Director of Lunar and Planetary Programs, NA

House of Representatives, Committee on Science and Astronautics, Su

Oversight, Hearings. . . Investigation ofProject Ranger, April1964 (

56. 

3. William H. Pickering, Director, JPL, letter to Abe Silverstein, D

Programs, NASA, 6 May 1960; anc~ Muriel M. Hickey, Secretary to J

Historical Staff, NASA, 18 July 1967. 

SURVEYOR 

1. Edgar M. Cortright, Assistant Director of Lunar and Planeta

memorandum to NASA Ad Hoc Committee to Name Space Projects 

1960; and NASA Ad Hoc Committee to Name Space Projects an

meetings, 19 May 1960. 

2. NASA, Office of Technology Utilization, Surveyor Program R

(Washington: NASA, 1969), pp. v-vii. 

VIKING 

1. Walter J akobowski, Office of Space Science and Applications, N

view, 16 July 1969. 

2. Peter F. Korycinski, Office of the Director, LaRC, memorand

sion, NASA, 4 Sept. 1969. 

198 
NOTES TO PAGES 97-104 

PART IV: MANNED SPACEFLIGHT 

1. Loyd S. Swenson, Jr., James M. Grimwood, and Charles C. Alexander, This New 

Ocean: A History ofProject Mercury, NASA SP-4201 (Washington: NASA, 1966), p. 105. 

2. John F. Kennedy [Special Message to the Congress, 25 May 1961], General Services Administration, National Archives and Records Service, Office of the Federal Register, Public 

Papers ofthe Presidents ofthe United States: John F. Kennedy, 1961 (Washington: 1962), p. 

404. 

APOLLO 

1. Merle G. Waugh, Office of Manned Space Flight, NASA, letter to James M. Grimwood, Historian, MSC, 5 Nov. 1963. The precedent of Mercury's name had been given consideration in NASA as early as 16 May 1960, when the Ad Hoc Committee to Name Space 

Projects and Objects "tentatively decided that the manned space flight programs will be 

named after the gods and heroes of mythology, thus continuing in the present class begun by 

'Mercury.' " (NASA Ad Hoc Committee to Name Space Projects and Objects, minutes 

of meeting, 16 May 1960.) 

2. Thomas Bulfinch, Mythology, Edmund Fuller, ed. (New York: Dell Publishing Co., 

Inc., 1959), pp. 17, 40ff. 

3. Abe Silverstein, Director, Office of Space Flight Programs, NASA, memorandum to 

Harry J. Goett, Director, GSFC, July 25, 1960. 

4. Julian W. Scheer, Assistant Administrator for Public Affairs, NASA, memorandum 

from Project Designation Committee, 9 June 1966. 

5. George E. Mueller, Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, NASA, 

memorandum to Robert C. Seamans, Jr., Deputy Administrator, NASA, 9 Feb. 1967; 

Scheer, memorandum to Seamans, 17 Feb. 1967; Mueller, memorandum to Scheer, 28 March 

1967; George M. Low, Deputy Director, MSC, letter to Mueller, 30 March 1967; Scheer, 

memorandum to distribution, 3 April1967; and Mueller, TWX to KSC, MSFC, and MSC, 

Apollo and AAP Mission Designation, 24 March and 24 April1967. 

ASTP 

1. The Post-Apollo Space Program: Directions for the Future, Space Task Group report 

to the President; General Services Administration, National Archives and Records Service, 

Office of the Federal Register, Weekly Compilation ofPresidential Documents, 5 (22 Sept. 

1969), 1291, and Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Richard Nixon 

(Washington: Government Printing Office, 1971), pp. 250-253; and Thomas 0 . Paine, 

"Man's Future in Space," 1972 Tizard Memorial Lecture, Westminster School, London, 14 

March 1972. 

2. Paine, "Man's Future in Space"; NASA, News Release, "Text of US/USSR Space 

Agreement," 24 May 1972, and News Release72-109. 

3. NASA, News Release, "Text," and News Release 72-109. 

4. "Washington Roundup." Aviation Week& Space Technology, 96 (15 May 1972),13; 

Richard D. Lyons, "Chief Astronaut Foresees Further Cuts in the Corps," New York Times, 

28 May 1972, 1; John P . Donnelly, Assistant Administrator for Public Affairs, NASA, 

memorandum to Dale D. Myers, Associate Administrator for Space Flight, NASA, 30 June 

199 
NOTES TO PA

1972; and Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, Project Approval Document, Office 

Flight, NASA, 19 Dec. 1972 and 6 Oct.1973. 

5. NASA, News Release 7 5-9. 

GEMINI 

1. Glenn F. Bailey, MSC, interview, 13 Dec. 1966, reported by Jam

Historian, MSC, 23 May 1968. 

2. Alex P. Nagy, Office of Manned Space Flight, NASA, memorand

Low, Office of Manned Space Flight, NASA, 11 Dec. 1961; D. Brainerd H

Manned Space Flight Programs, NASA, memorandum to Associate Adm

16 Dec. 1961; Holmes, memorandum to Associate Administrator, NA

Robert C. Seamans, Jr., Secretary, USAF, letter to Eugene M. Emme, H

June 1969; and desk calendar of Seamans, Associate Administrator, NA

Nagy's memorandum to Low proposing the name "Gemini" was dated 

before Dr. Seamans' speech, but Dr. Seamans received his proposal 

member of the audience at about the same time. 

3. Thomas Bulfinch, Mythology, Edmund Fuller, ed. (New York: De

Inc.•, 1959), pp. 130-131. 

4. Holmes, memorandum to Associate Administrator, NASA, 16 Dec. 

"NASA Photo Release 62-Gemini-2," 3 Jan. 1962. 

5. Grimwood, Project Mercury: A Chronology, NASA SP-4001 (Wa

1963), p. 133; Loyd S. Swenson, Jr., Grimwood, and Charles C. Ale

Ocean: A History of Project Mercury, NASA SP-4201 (Washington: N

491-492; and Seamans, Associate Administrator, NASA, memorandu

Mueller, Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, NASA, and 

Assistant Administrator for Public Affairs, NASA, 4 May 1965. 

MERCURY 

1. Thomas Bulfinch, Mythology, Edmund Fuller, ed. (New York: De

Inc., 1959), p. 18. 

2. Loyd S. Swenson, Jr., James M. Grimwood, and Charles C. Ale

Ocean: A History of Project Mercury, NASA SP-4201 (Washington: N

131-132. 

3. Ibid., p. 160. The earliest written record of the word "astronaut

writings ofFrench poet Cyrano de Bergerac (1619-1655). 

4. George M. Low, Chief, Manned Space Flight, Office of Space 

NASA, memorandum to Abe Silverstein, Director, Office of Space Flight P

12 Dec. 1958; and Swenson, Grimwood, and Alexander, This New Ocean, p

5. Swenson, Grimwood, and Alexander, This New Ocean, p. 342. 

6. Ibid., p. 368. 

7. Ibid., p. 446. 

8. Ibid., p. 470. 

9. Ibid., p. 492. 

SKY LAB 

I. John H. Disher, Deputy Director, Skylab Program, NASA, teleph

Oct. 1971; NASA, Historical Staff, Astronautics and Aeronautics, 196

200 
NOTES TO PAGES 109-114 

Science, Technology, and Policy, NASA SP-4005 (Washington: NASA, 1965), pp. 145, 363; 

andAstronauticsandAeronautics, 1965, NASASP-4006(1966), p.174. 

2. Disher, telephone interview, 19 Oct. 1971; U.S. Senate, Committee on Aeronautical 

and Space Sciences, Hearings . .. NASA Authorization/or FY 1967, February and March 

1966 (Washington: 1966), pp. 163-166, 238-239; and NASA, Historical Staff, Astronautics 

andAeronautics, 1965, pp. 418,429. 

3. NASA, News Releases 69-105 and 69-164. 

4. L/C Donald L. Steelman, USAF, telephone interview, 12 Oct. 1971; and James A. 

Long, Assistant Executive Secretary, Office of the Administrator, NASA, notes of T"l.eeting 

of Proiect Designation Committee, 17 Feb. 1970. 

SPACE SHUTTLE 

1. LeRoy E. Day, Deputy Director of Space Shuttle Program, NASA, telephone interview, 2 April 1975; David Williamson, Jr., Assistant Administrator for Special Projects, 

NASA, telephone interview, April 1975; Ralph B. Jackson, Historical Monitor, Flight 

Research Center, telephone interview, 16 April1975; and Norman L. Baker, Editor-in-Chief, 

Defense/Space Business Daily, telephone interview, 22 April1975. 

2. " Commercial Moon Flights Predicted within 30 Years," Birmingham Post-Herald, 9 

Nov. 1962, report ofKoelle's October paper for the American Rocket Society; and GeorgeS. 

James, "New Space Transportation Systems-An AIAA Assessment," unpublished draft 

paper [December 1972]. 

3. NASA, News Release, "Background Material and NASA Fiscal Year 1967 Budget 

Briefing," 22 Jan. 1966; and The Space Program in the Post-Apollo Period, report of President's Science Advisory Committee (Washington: Government Printing Office, February 

1967), p. 37. 

4. Wernher von Braun, "Crossing the Last Frontier," Collier's, 129, No. 12 (22 March 

1952),24-29, 72-74. 

5. "Space Technology Highlights," Astronautical Sciences Review, October-December 

1959, pp. 6-8, 29; and Courtney Sheldon, "Shuttle to Planets Awaits Development," Christian Science Monitor, 8 Dec. 1959. 

6. Douglas Aircraft Co., "Summary Report and Rombus Systems Definition," Vol. 1, 

Douglas Report SM-42969, April1963. 

7. Walter J. Dornberger, "Space Shuttle for the Future: The Aerospaceplane," Rendezvous, 4, No. 1 (1965), 2-5; and Dornberger, " The Recoverable, Reusable Space Shuttle," 

Astronautics& Aeronautics, November 1965, pp. 88-94. 

8. Robert F. Frietag, Director, MSF Field Center Development, NASA, "Space Shuttle 

Name," note for George E. Mueller, Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, 

NASA, 13 June 1969. 

9. Mueller, briefing charts for address before British Interplanetary Society meeting, London, 10 Aug. 1968; and Mueller, prepared text, address before National Space Club, 26 Nov. 

1968. 

10. R. J. Wisniewski, Deputy Director for Programs, Programs and Resources Division, 

Office of Advanced Research and Technology, NASA, memorandum to OART Division 

Directors and Manager, SNPO, 10 Nov. 1969; Howard M. Weiss, Reliability and Quality 

Assurance Office (KR), NASA, memorandum to KR/Space Shuttle File, 19 Nov. 1969; 

NASA, News Release 69- 70; NASA, Space Shuttle Conference Agenda, Washington, D.C., 

16- 17 Oct. 1969; and The Post-Apollo Space Program: Directions for the Future, Space 

Task Group report to the President, September 1969. 

20
NOTES TO PA

11. NASA, News Release 74-211; U.S. Congress, House of Represe

on Science and Astronautics' Subcommittee on Manned Space Flight

NASA Authorization, Pt. 2, February and March 1974 (Washington: 1

Space Shuttle, February 1975. 

12. Joseph E. McGolrick, Manager for Advanced Programs and Tech

fice of Space Science, NASA, telephone interview, 19 May 1975; McGolr

Programs, NASA, memorandum for LV (Files), 5 Jan. 1961; and The 

Program: Directions for the Future. 

SPACELAB 

1. NASA, News Releases 71-6 and 71-67; MSFC, News Releases 71

U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Committee on Science and As

mittee on Manned Space Flight, Hearings . .. 1973 NASA Authorizat

and March 1972 (Washington: 1972), pp. 238-245. 

2. John P. Donnelly, Assistant Administrator for Public Affairs, N

to Dale D. Myers, Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, NA

3. NASA, News Release 73-191; and Astronautics and Aeronauti

Science, Technology, and Policy for 1969, 1970, 1971, and 1972, NAS

SP-4017 (Washington: NASA, 1970, 1972, and 1974). 

4. NASA, News Release 73-191; and JSC, Space Shuttle (Washingt

1975). 

5. James C. Fletcher, Administrator, NASA, memorandum to Admin

Administrators, Assistant Administrators, and Directors of Field Centers

6. Office of Manned Space Flight, NASA, Spacelab/CVT Program A

(PAD), 4 Dec. 1974; NASA, News Releases 73-191 and 74-198; ESR

June 1974; ESRO, Europe in Space, March 1974, pp. 42-47; and Fletch

address before the National Space Club, Washington, D.C., 14 Feb. 1974

7. NASA, News Release 75-28. 

8. Douglas R. Lord, Director, Spacelab Program, NASA, prepared 

ings, FY 1976 NASA Authorization, before House Committee on Scien

Subcommittee on Space Science and Applications, 20 Feb. 1975; NA

73-191; andESRO, News Releases, 4 Sept. 1974 and21 Feb. 1975. 

PART V: SOUNDING ROCKETS 

1. See Homer E. Newell, ed., Sounding Rockets (New York: McG

Inc., 1959), pp. 1-2; and Space: The New Frontier, NASA EP-6 (W

1966), pp. 37-41. 

2. Meteorological Satellites and Sounding Rockets, NASA EP-27 (W

[1965]), p. 17. 

3. Robert H. Goddard, "A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitu

Miscellaneous Collections (Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 19

Newell, "The Use of Rockets for Geophysical and Solar Research," C

Rockets, p. 28. 

4. Eugene M. Emme, Aeronautics and Astronautics: An American Ch

and Technology in the Exploration ofSpace, 1915-1960 (Washington: N

and Newell, "The Use of Rockets for Geophysical and Solar Research," 

ing Rockets, p. 28. 

202 
NOTES TO PAGES 121-125 

5. See Wallace W. Atwood, Jr., The International Geophysical Year in Retrospect, Dept. 

of State Publication 6850 (Washington: Dept. of State, 1959), from Department of State 

Bulletin, 11 May 1959. 

6. GSFC, Sounding Rocket Division, The United States Sounding Rocket Program, 

X-740-71-337 preprint (Greenbelt, Md.: GSFC, July 1971), p. 1; and NASA, News Release 

75-19. 

7. GSFC, The United States Sounding Rocket Program, pp. 2-3, 36. 

8. Ibid., p. 38; John R. Holtz, Manager, Explorers, Sounding Rockets and Balloons, Office of Space Science, NASA, telephone interview, 16 Dec. 1974. 

AEROBEE 

1. Peter T. Eaton, Office of Space Science and Applications, NASA, letter to Historical 

Staff, NASA, 2 May 1967; and James A. Van Allen, Eleanor Pressly, and John W. Townsend, Jr., "The Aero bee Rocket," Chap. IV in Homer E. Newell, ed., Sounding Rockets 

(New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1959), p. 57. 

2. John W. Townsend, Jr., Eleanor Pressly, Robert M. Slavin, and Louis Kraff, Jr., "The 

Aero bee-Hi Rocket," Chap. V in Newell, Sounding Rockets, p. 71. 

3. GSFC, Encyclopedia: Satellites andSounding Rockets ofGoddard Space Flight Center, 

1959-1969 (Greenbelt, Md.: GSFC [1970)), p. 321; William R. Corliss, NASA Sounding 

Rockets, 1958-1968: A Historical Summary, NASA SP-4401 (Washington: NASA, 1971), 

pp. 79-80; and Herbert J. Honecker, Advanced Vehicles Section, Flight Performance 

Branch, Sounding Rocket Division, GSFC, memorandum to John H. Lane, Head, Flight 

Performance Branch, 10 Jan. 1975. 

4. GSFC, Sounding Rocket Division, The United States Sounding Rocket Program, 

X-740-71-337 preprint (Greenbelt, Md.: GSFC, July 1971), pp. 38, 47; and Edward E. 

Mayo, Flight Performance Branch, Sounding Rocket Division, GSFC, information sent to 

Historical Office, NASA, 30 Jan. 1975. 

APACHE 

1. Alfred Rosenthal, Venture into Space: Early Years of Goddard Space Flight Center, 

NASA SP-4301 (Washington: NASA, 1968), pp. 127-129; Space: The New Frontier, NASA 

EP-6 (Washington: NASA, 1966), p. 38; Vehicles Section, Spacecraft Integration and 

Sounding Rocket Division, GSFC, telephone interview, 19 March 1970; and GSFC, Sounding Rocket Division, The United States Sounding Rocket Program, X-740-71-337 preprint 

(Greenbelt, Md.: GSFC, July 1971), pp. 38,47. 

2. R. Gilbert Moore and John M. McGarry, Astro-Met Plant, Thiokol Corp., joint 

telephone interview, 21 May 1975; and John H. Lane, Head, Flight Performance Branch, 

Sounding Rocket Division, GSFC, information sent to Historical Office, 30 Jan. 1975. 

ARCAS 

1. Atlantic Research Corp., Announcement released by U.S. Army Missile Support Agency, 26 Jan. 1959. 

2. Peter T. Eaton, Office of Space Science and Applications, NASA, letter to Historical 

Staff, NASA, 2 May 1967. 

3. W. C. Roberts, Jr., and R. C. Webster, Atlantic Research Corp., "Areas Rocketsonde 

System Development," 3 Sept. 1959; and GSFC, Encyclopedia: Satellites and Sounding 

20
NOTES TO PA

Rockets ofGoddard Space Flight Center, 1959-1969 (Greenbelt, Md.: G

4. John H. Lane, Head, Flight Performance Branch, Sounding Rock

information sent to Historical Office, NASA, 30 Jan. 1975. 

ARGO 

1. Peter T. Eaton, Office of Space Science and Applications, NASA

Staff, NASA, 2 May 1967. 

2. Alfred Rosenthal, Venture into Space: Early Years of Goddard S

NASA SP-4301 (Washington: NASA, 1968), pp. 127-129. 

3. John H. Lane, Head, Flight Performance Branch, Sounding Rock

information sent to Historical Office, NASA, 30 Jan. 1975; Eaton, lette

tion, News Release71-12. 

ARIES 

1. U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Committee on Scienc

Subcommittee on Space Science and Applications, Hearings . .. 1975 NA

Pt. 3, February and March 1974 (Washington: 1974), pp. 117,456, 560-5

Manager, Explorers, Sounding Rockets and Balloons, Office of Spa

telephone interview, 16 Dec. 1974; and John H. Lane, Head, Flight Pe

Sounding Rocket Division, GSFC, information sent to Historical Office, 

2. Holtz, telephone interview. 

3. Hearings . .. 1975 NASA Authorization, Pt. 3, pp. 116-117. 

4. William H. Conway, Space Science Division, Naval Research Labor

terview, 16 Dec. 1974; and Herbert J. Honecker, Advanced Vehicles 

formance Branch, Sounding Rocket Division, GSFC, memorandum to Jo

Flight Performance Branch, 10 Jan. 1975. 

ASP 

1. Robert B. Cox, "Asp," in Homer E. Newell, ed., Sounding R

McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1959), p. 105. 

2. Peter T. Eaton, Office of Space Science and Applications, NASA, 

Staff, NASA, 2 May 1967. 

BLACK BRANT 

1. A. W. Fia, Vice President, Rocket and Space Division, Bristol Aero

dian Sounding Rockets: Their History and Future Prospects," Canadi

Space Journal, 20, No.8 (October 1974), 396-406. 

2. Fia, letter to Historical Office, NASA, 27 Dec. 1974. 

3. Fia, "Canadian Sounding Rockets"; and NASA, sounding rocket la

1974. 

4. Fia, "Canadian Sounding Rockets"; and Richard H. Ott, Jr., F

Branch, Sounding Rocket Division, GSFC, information sent to Historica

Jan. 1975. 

204 
NOTES TO PAGES 131-133 

CAJUN 

1. William J. O'Sullivan, Jr., "Deacon and Cajun," Chap. VI in Homer E. Newell, ed., 

Sounding Rockets (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1959), pp. 100-101; Peter T. 

Eaton, Office of Space Science and Applications, NASA, letter to Historical Staff, NASA, 2 

May 1967; and R. Gilbert Moore and John M. McGarry, Astro-Met Plant, Thiokol Corp., 

joint telephone interview, 21 May 1975. 

2. O'Sullivan, "Deacon and Cajun," pp. 96-97, 100-101. 

3. Alfred Rosenthal, Venture into Space: Early Years of Goddard Space Flight Center, 

NASA SP-4301 (Washington: NASA, 1968), pp. 127-129; and GSFC, Sounding Rocket 

Division, The United States Sounding Rocket Program, X-740-71-337 preprint (Greenbelt, 

Md.: GSFC, July 1971), p. 38. 

HAWK 

1. Bobby J. Flowers, Hawk project engineer, Wallops Station, telephone interview, 7 Jan. 

1975. 

2. Ibid.; and John H. Lane, Head, Flight Performance Branch, Sounding Rocket Division, GSFC, telephone interview, 17 Dec. 1974. 

MALEMUTE 

1. William J. Bolster, Flight Performance Branch, Sounding Rocket Division, GSFC, information sent to Historical Office, NASA, 30 Jan. 1975; and R. Gilbert Moore and John 

M. McGarry, Astro-Met Plant, Thiokol Corp., joint telephone interview, 21 May 1975. 

2. Bolster, information sent Historical Office. 

NIKE 

1. Eugene M. Em me, Aeronautics andAstronautics: An American Chronology ofScience 

and Technology in the Exploration ofSpace, 1915-1960 (Washington: NASA, 1961), p. 49; 

and Peter T. Eaton, Office of Space Science and Applications, NASA, letter to Historical 

Staff, NASA, 2 May 1967. 

2. Edward E. Mayo, Flight Performance Branch, Sounding Rocket Division, GSFC, information sent to Historical Office, NASA, 30 Jan. 1975. 

TERRIER 

1. Edward E. Mayo, Flight Performance Branch, Sounding Rocket Division, GSFC, information sent to Historical Office, NASA, 30 Jan. 1975. 

TOMAHAWK 

1. R. Gilbert Moore and John M. McGarry, Astro-Met Plant, Thiokol Corp., joint 

telephone interview, 21 May 1975. 

2. GSFC, Sounding Rocket Branch, The United States Sounding Rocket Program, 

X-740-71-337 preprint(Greenbelt, Md.: GSFC, July 1971), pp. 38, 47. 

205 
NOTES TO PA

PART VI: INSTALLATIONS 

AMES 

1. Jerome C. Hunsaker, Forty Years ofAeronautical Research, Smith

4237, reprint from Smithsonian Report for 1955 (Washington: Smith

1956), p. 261; and Robert L. Rosholt, An Administrative History of N

NASA SP-4101 (Washington: NASA, 1966), p. 21. 

2. Hunsaker, Forty Years, pp. 255, 265-266. 

3. Eugene M. Emme, Aeronautics and Astronautics: An American Chr

and Technology in the Exploration ofSpace, 1915-1960 (Washington: NA

ERC 

1. NASA, News Release 64-219; NASA, Announcement 64-189; and 

320 and 321. 

2. NASA, News Release 69-171; General Services Administration, Nat

Records Service, Office of the Federal Register, Weekly Compilati

Documents, 6, No. 13 (30 March 1970), 446; and Department of Tran

6870. 

FRC 

1. Eugene M. Emme, Aeronautics and Astronautics: An American Chr

and Technology in the Exploration ofSpace, 1915-1960(Washington: NA

2. Forty-second Annual Report of the National Advisory Committe

1956 (Washington: NACA, 1957), pp. 6-9; and "A Brief History of 

Research Center," enclosure in Jack Fischel, FRC, letter to Manley H

Director, ARC, 2 Feb. 1968. 

3. Emme, Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1915-1960, p. 113. 

GSFC 

1. Public Law 85-657, 14 Aug. 1958, in Robert L. Rosholt, An Admin

NASA, 1958-1963, NASA SP-4101 (Washington: NASA, 1966), p. 79. 

2. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, Executive Order No. 10783, 1 Oct

Beltsville Space Center, General Notice No. 1, 15 Jan. 1959, in Alfred R

into Space: Early Years of Goddard Space Flight Center, NASA SP-4

NASA, 1968), Appendix H. 

3. Rosenthal, Venture into Space, p. 29. 

4. See Milton Lehman, This High Man: The Life of Robert H. Go

Farrar, Straus and Co., 1963). 

5. Rosholt, Administrative History, p. 124; NASA, News Release 61-

Venture into Space, pp. 59-60. NASA announced plans 2 Jan. 1961 for e

New York office and formal operations began in May of that year. 

JPL 

1. Eugene M. Emme, Aeronautics and Astronautics: An American Chr

and Technology in the Exploration ofSpace, 1915-1960 (Washington: NA

206 
NOTES TO PAGES 144-150 

2. Ibid., p. 48. 

3. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, Executive Order No. 10793, 3 Dec. 1958, in Robert L. 

Rosholt, An Administrative History of NASA, J~j8-1963, NASA SP-4101 (Washington: 

NASA, 1966), p. 47. 

JSC 

1. Robert L. Rosholt, An Administrative History ofNASA, 1958-1963, NASA SP-4101 

(Washington: NASA, 1966), pp. 124, 214. 

2. Loyd S. Swenson, Jr., James M. Grimwood, and Charles C. Alexander, This New 

Ocean: A History ofProject Mercury, NASA SP-4201 (Washington: NASA, 1966), p. 392. 

3. Congressional Record-Senate, 26 Jan. 1973 (Washington: 1973), p. S1344; Congressional Record-House, 29 Jan. 1973, p. H553; 7 Feb. 1973, p. H77. 

4. Christopher C. Kraft, Jr., Director, Manned Spacecraft Center, letter to Sen. Frank E. 

Moss, Chairman, Senate Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences, 1 Feb. 1973; James 

C. Fletcher, Administrator, NASA, letter to Rep. Olin E. Teague, Chairman, House Committee on Science and Astronautics, 5 Feb. 1973; Gerald J. Mossinghoff, Assistant General 

Counsel for General Law, NASA, telephone interview, 28 June 1974; Congressional 

Record-Daily Digest, 2 Feb. 1973, p. D71. 

5. Congressional Record-Senate, 6 Feb. 1973, pp. S2229-2230; Congressional 

Record-House, 7 Feb. 1973, pp. H838-839; Congressional Record-Daily Digest, 20 Feb. 

1973, p. D117; NASA Notice 1132, 17 Feb. 1973. 

6. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Aeronautics and Space Sciences, Tenth Anniversary, 1958-1968, S. Doc. 116, 19 July 1968 (Washington: 1968), and Statements by 

Presidents of the United States on International Cooperation in Space, S. Doc. 92-40, 24 

Sept. 1971 (Washington: 1971), pp. 55-90; and JSC, transcript, "Dedication of Lyndon B. 

Johnson Space Center," 27 Aug. 1973. 

7. White House Release, Key Biscayne, Florida, 19 [17] Feb. 1973. 

8. MSC, Weekly Activities Report, 24-30 June 1962; James M. Grimwood, Historian, 

MSC; MSC, Message7-02, 2 July 1962. 

9. MSC, Announcement 65-86, 25 June 1965; and Grimwood. 

KSC 

1. Frank E. Jarrett, Jr., and Robert A. Lindemann, Historical Origins ofNASA's Launch 

Operations Center to July 1, 1962, KHM-1 (Cocoa Beach: KSC, 1964), pp. 21-22, 32. The 

Long Range Proving Ground was operated by the Air Force and activated 1 Oct. 1949, at 

what had been the Banana River Naval Air Station. 

2. Ibid., p. 68; and Robert L. Rosholt, An Administrative History ofNASA, 1958-1963, 

NASA SP-4101 (Washington: NASA, 1966), p. 123. 

3. Jarrett and Lindemann, Origins ofLOC, p. 54. 

4. NASA, Circular 208, in Jarrett and Lindemann, Origins ofLOC, Appendix A. 

5. President Lyndon B. Johnson, Executive Order No. 11129, 29 Nov. 1963, in Angela C. 

Gresser, Historical Aspects Concerning the Redesignation ofFacilities at Cape Canaveral, 

KHN-1 (Cocoa Beach: KSC, 1964), p. 15. 

6. Rosholt, Administrative History, pp. 214-215. 

7. Gresser, Redesignation ofFacilities, p. 9. 

8. KSC, Announcement, 26 July 1965. 

9. NASA, Circular 267- A. 
NOTES TO P

10. Rosholt, Administrative History, p. 124; and NASA, Circular 

Lindemann, Origins ofLOC, Appendix A. 

11. KSC Organization Chart, in NASA Management Instruction 11

and NASA, Weekly Bulletin, 1-65, 15 Nov. 1964, pp. 1-2. 

LaRC 

1. Jerome C. Hunsaker, Forty Years ofAeronautical Research, Smi

4237, reprint from Smithsonian Report for 1955 (Washington: Smi

1956), pp. 250-251. John F. Victory's Day Book states that ground w

Field 17 July 1917. 

2. Bessie Zaban Jones, Lighthouse of the Skies: The Smithsonian A

atory: Background and History, 1846-1955, Smithsonian Publication 

Smithsonian Institution, 1965), pp. 105, 155-158. 

3. Hunsaker, Forty Years, p. 251. 

4. Eugene M. Em me, Aeronautics and Astronautics: An American C

and Technology in the Exploration ofSpace, 1915-1960(Washington: N

LeRC 

1. Jerome C. Hunsaker, Forty Years ofAeronautical Research, Smi

4237 , reprint from Smithsonian Report for 1955 (Washington: Smi

1956); and Robert L. Rosholt, An Administrative History of NASA

SP-4101 (Washington: NASA, 1966), p. 21. 

2. Michael Keller, author of "Thirty-Year History of Langley Resea

lished, interview, 24 Aug. 1966. 

3. VI A Emory S. Land, "George William Lewis: An Address," in G

Commemoration Ceremony [program] (Cleveland: NACA Lewis 

Laboratory, 28 Sept. 1948). 

4. Hunsaker, Forty Years, plate2 (caption), and p. 242. 

5. Eugene M. Emme, Aeronautics and Astronautics: An American C

and Technology in the Exploration ofSpace, 1915-1960(Washington: N

6. Hugh W. Harris, LaRC, letter to Historical Staff, NASA, 2 M

Research Center, Plum Brook Station (fact sheet), March 1967. 

7. NASA, News Release 73-3; LeRC, News Release 73-10a; Hugh W

formation Office, LeRC, telephone interview, 24 June 1974; U.S. 

Representatives, Authorizing Appropriations to the National Aerona

ministration, Rpt. No. 93-983, 10 Apri11974 (Washington: 1974); and 

Office, LeRC, "Response to Queries" [June 1974]. 

MSFC 

1. David S. Akens, Historical Origins of the George C. Marshall 

MHM-1 (Huntsville: MSFC, 1960); and Frank E. Jarrett, Jr., and Ro

Historical Origins of NASA's Launch Operations Center to July 1, 19

Beach: KSC, 1964), p. x. 

2. Robert L. Rosholt, An Administrative History ofNASA, 1958-19

(Washington: NASA, 1966), p. 120. 

208 
NOTES TO PAGES 154-160 

3. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, Executive Order 10870, 17 March 1960, in Akens, 

Origins ofMSFC, p. 77; and Rosholt, Administrative History, p. 120. 

4. Akens, Origins ofMSFC, p. 81; cf. Rosholt, Administrative History, pp. 118-123. 

5. NASA, News Release 61-201; and Robert C. Seamans, Jr., Associate Administrator, 

NASA, letter to MSFC, in MSFC, Historical Office, History of the George C. Marshall 

SpaceFlight Center: July 1-December 31, 1961, MHM-4 (Huntsville: MSFC, 1962}, I, 38. 

6. MSFC, News Release 65-167. The new name was instituted in a new organization chart 

signed by NASA Administrator James E. Webb 28 May 1965, but not issued as of 1 July 

1965. 

7. NASA, News Release 61-236; Robert P. Young, Executive Assistant, Office of the Administrator, NASA, letter to Army Chief of Engineers, 29 Nov. 1961; NASA, Circular 188; 

Seamans, letter to MSFC, in MSFC, Historical Office, History ofMSFC, p. 38; and L. L. 

Jones, Historical Office, MSFC,letter to Historical Staff, NASA, 26 Aug. 1966. 

8. MSFC, News Release 65-167. 

9. NASA, News Release 70-98; and MSFC, Marshall Star, 10 Nov. 1970, pp. 1, 4. 

10. NASA, News Release 70-147; Leonard Jaffe, Associate Administrator for Space 

Science and Applications, memorandum to Deputy Associate Administrator for Space 

Science and Applications (Applications}, NASA, 6 May 1970; Jaffe, memorandum for the 

record, "Use of the Mississippi Test Facility (MTF}," 11 June 1970; S. M. Smolensky, 

Special Assistant for Policy, NASA, to J. Cramer, Legislative Affairs Officer (OMSF), 

NASA, 7 April1971; and NASA, News Release74-159. 

11. NASA, News Releases 71-30 and 72-167. 

12. NASA, NewsRelease74-159. 

NSTL 

1. NASA, NewsRelease74-159. 

2. NASA, News Release 70-98; and MSFC, Marshall Star, 10 Nov. 1970, pp. 1, 4. 

3. NASA, News Releases 70-98, 70-114, 70-141, and 70-147 . 

4. NASA, News Releases 71-30 and 72-167. 

5. NASA, News Releases 74-159 and 70-147. 

6. NASA, NewsRelease74-159. 

WALLOPS 

1. Joseph A. Shortal, "History of Wallops Station," Part 1: "Origin and Activities 

through 1949" (commented.}, July 1967, pp. 47, 49, 50. 

2. Robert L. Rosholt, An Administrative History ofNASA, 1958-1963, NASA SP-4101 

(Washington: NASA, 1966), pp. 48, 81, Figs. 3-1, and Appendix B. 

3. NASA, News Release, 24 Jan. 1959. 

4. LaRC, Air Scoop, 22 July 1960. The Air Scoop credits the Accomac, Va., Peninsula 

Enterprise newspaper for this information. 

5. NASA, Special Announcement, 25 April1974; Wallops Station News Release 74-2. 

PHOTOGRAPHS OF MYTHOLOGICAL FIGURES 

Atlas, sculpture in the National Museum, Naples. Cosmos Pictures Co., New York, from 

the Library ofCongress Prints and Photographs Department. 

209 
ACKNOW

Centaur. Reproduced by the Library of Congress from Richard P. Knig

Language of Ancient Art and Mythology, Alexander Wilder trans. (

Bouton, 1892). 

Juno, in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence. From the Library of Congress 

graphs Department. 

Saturn. Reproduced by the Library of Congress from Bernard 

L'Antiquite Explique et Representee en Figures, Vol. 1, Lex Dieux 

Romaines, ed. 2 (Paris: 1722). 

Thor, statue by B. E. Fogelberg. Reproduced by the Library of Congre

MacKenzie, Teutonic Myth and Legend (New York: William H. Wise & C

Ocean, a Titan. Reproduced from de Montfaucon. 

Apollo, fourth century sculpture in the Vatican Museum, Rome. Photo

Washington University Department of Art. 

Castor and Pollux, the Gemini, in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 

from the collections of the Library of Congress. 

Mercury, bronze by Giovanni Bologna in the Mellon Collection, Natio

Washington, D.C. Photograph from the National Gallery. 

Winged Nike (Victory of Samothrace) in the Louvre, Paris. The Per

ed., from the Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Department. 

210 
AAP (Apollo Applications Program), 109 


Able (launch vehicle upper stage), 5 il., 9 il., 12 


ABMA. See Army Ballistic Missile Agency. 


Ad Hoc Committee to Name Space Projects and 


Objects, 67 n., 183, 199 


Advanced Mercury(Gemini program), 104 


Advanced Orbiting Solar Observatory (AOSO), 


84 


Advanced Planetary Probe, 90 


Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), 5, 


6, 11, 12, 15, 17, 76, 88 


Advanced Saturn (Saturn C-5; renamed Saturn 


V),20 


Advanced Synchronous Orbit Satellite, 36 


Advanced Synchronous Satellite, 36 


Advanced Syncom (synchronous communica­


tions satellite), 36 


Advanced Technological Satellite, 36 


AE (Atmosphere Explorer, scientific satellite), 


51 il. 


Aeolus (mythological Greek god), 41 


Aero bee (sounding rocket), 122-124 


Aerobee 150 and 150A, 122 il.-123 


Aerobee 170 and 170A, 123, 133 


Aerobee200 and200A, 123, 133 


Aerobee 350, 122 il., 124, 127, 133 


Aerobee-Hi, 123 


Aerobee(Vanguard launch vehicle stage), 79 


Aerojet Engineering Corp. (later Aerojet­


General Corp.), 123 


Aerolab Co. (later division of Atlantic Research 


Corp.), 125 


Aeronaut (balloon pioneers), 107 


Aeronautical Satellite (AEROSA 1), 47 


Aeronomy Explorer (scientific satellite), 49 


Aeros(GRS-A- 2; aeronomy satellite), 33 il. 


A eros 2 (Aeros-B), 33, 38 n. 


A eros (mythological Greek god), 33, 69 


Aeros (Synchronous Meteorological Satellite 


project), 33, 69-71, 79 


AEROSA T (Aeronautical Satellite), 47 


Aerospaceplane, 111- 114 


AES (Apollo Extension System), 112 


INDEX 


AFBMD (Air Force Ballistic Missile Division), 


94 


AFCRL (Air Force Cambridge Research Labora­


tories), 133 


A gena (Beta Centauri; star), 6-7 


Agena (launch vehicle upper stage), 6 il.-7 il., 9 


il.,22, 152 


AgenaA, 7 


AgenaB, 7 


AgenaD, 7 


Agreement Concerning Cooperation in the Ex­


ploration and Use ofOuter Space for Peaceful 


Purposes, 103 


Agriculture, Department of, 42-45, 142 


Air Density Satellite (Explorer), 48 


Air Force Ballistic Missile Division (AFBMD), 


88- 89 


Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories 


(AFCRL), 133 


AirForce One(aircraft), 103 


Air Research and Development Command 


(ARDC), 22, 25 


Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory, NACA 


(renamed Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory 


Sept. 1948), 152 


Aldrin, Edwin E., Jr., 98 il. 


Algol (Scout first stage), 20 


Algol(star), 20 


All-purpose Rocket for Collecting Atmospheric 


Soundings (sounding rocket). See Areas. 


Allegany Ballistics Laboratory, 131, 188 


Alouette (topside sounder satellite), 7, 35 


A /ouette 1, 34 il., 35, 58 


A/ouette2, 35,58 


Altair (Scout fourth stage), 21 


Altair (star), 21 


AMB (Astronomy Missions Board, NASA), 52 


America(CSM-114, onApollo 17), 100 


American Indian, 125,131,133 


American Telephone & Telegraph Co. (A T&l), 


75 


Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc., 40, 75 


Ames, JosephS., 138 il., 139 


211 
Ames Aeronautical Laboratory, NACA (became 


Ames Research Laboratory, NASA, Oct. 


1958), 139 


Ames Research Center (ARC), 62, 137, 138 il., 


139 


AMPS (Atmospheric, Magnetospheric, and 


Plasmas-in-Space) laboratory, 118 


AMR (Atlantic Missile Range, USAF; formerly 


Long Range Proving Ground; now Eastern 


Test Range), 149-150 


AMROO (Atlantic Missile Range Operations Of­


fice, MSFC), 149 


AMSAT OSCAR 7 (Orbiting Satellite Carrying 


Amateur Radio), 15, 55, 


Anderson, 0 . E., 58 


Anik (Canadian Telesat telecommunications 


satellite), 7 5 


Anik 1 (Telesat-A), 75 


Anik 2 (Telesat-B), 75 


Anik 3 (Telesat-C), 75 


ANS (Astronomical Netherlands Satellite; also 


Netherlands Astronomical Satellite), 34 il. 


ANS Program Authority, 35 


Antares(LM-8, on Apollo 14), 100 


Antares (Scout third stage), 20 


Antares (star), 20 


AOSO (Advanced Orbiting Solar Observatory), 


84 


Apache(American Indian tribe), 125 


Apache (sounding rocket upper stage), 124 


il.-125, 138 


APL (Applied Physics Laboratory), 126 


Apollo (manned space program; Project 


Apollo), 62, 97,98-101, 109,113 


launch vehicle, 3, 18-20, 58, 155-158 


planning for, 85, 91, 104 


program names, ix-x, 99-101 


Center responsibility, 147, 149, 155-158 


Apollo (mythological Greek god), 98 il., 99 


Apollo (spacecraft), 16, 19, 98 il.-101, 102 il.­

104, 111 


Apollo 1 (AS-204), 100 


Apollo 4 (AS-501), 100-101 


Apollo 7 (AS-205), 19 


Apollo8 (AS-503), 18 il., 20, 101 


photo by, 96 il., 146 il. 


Apollo 9 (AS-504), 100 


Apollo 10 (AS-505), 100 


Apolloll (AS-506), 98 il.,100,101, 103,158 


Apollo 12 (AS-507), x, 100 


Apollo 13 (AS-508), 100 


Apollo 14 (AS-509), 100 


Apollo15(AS-510),100 


ORIGINS OF N

Apollo 15 Subsatellite

Apollo16(AS-511),100 

Apollo 17 (AS-512), 20, 

Apollo Applications Progr

Apollo Extension System (

Apollo Saturn (AS; Apo

flight), X 


Apollo Saturn IB 


AS-201, x, 100 


AS-202, 100 


AS-203, 100 


AS-204 (Apollo 1), 10

AS-205 (Apollo 7), 19 

AS-210(ASTP),19, 9

Apollo Saturn V 


AS-501 (Apollo4), 10

AS-503 (Apollo 8), 1

146 


AS-504(Apollo9),10

AS-505 (Apollo 10), 1

AS-506 (Apollo 11), 

158 


AS-507 (Apollo 12), x

AS-508 (Apollo 13), 1

AS-509 (Apollo 14), 1

AS-510 (Apollo 15), x

AS-511 (Apollo 16), 1

AS-512 (Apollo 17), 2

Apollo-Soyuz Test Proje

101-102 il.-104, 147, 155 

Apollo Telescope Mount 

109-110 il., 155 


Apollo X (Extended Apollo

Applications Explorer (sate

Applications Technology S

25, 30, 36-37 il., 71 


Applied Physics Laborator

Aquarius(LM-7, onApoll

Aquila (constellation), 21 


ARC. See Ames Research C

Areas (sounding rocket), 12

Boosted Areas, 125 


Boosted Areas II, 125 


Super Areas, 125 


Arcon (sounding rocket), 1

ARDC (Air Research and 

mand), 22, 25 


Argo (mythological Greek 

Argo (sounding rocket), 12

Argo D-4 (Javelin), 123, 

Argo D-8 (Journeyrnan)

Argonaut (Greek mytholog

Argus (builder ofArgo, my

212 
INDEX 

Ariel (ionospheric research satellite), 15, 35-36 


Ariel I (UK-1), 35 


Arie/2 (UK-2), 36 


Arie/3 (UK-3), 36 


Arie/4 (UK-4), 34 il., 36 


Arie/5 (UK-5), 36 


Ariel (spirit ofthe air), 35 


Aries (constellation), 127 


Aries (sounding rocket), 123, 127 


Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA), 15, 17, 


49,88-89,144,154-155 


Development Operations Division (transferred 


to MSFC March 1960), 17, 154-155 


ARPA. See Advanced Research Projects 


Agency. 


Arritt, Robert D., 127 


AS. See Apollo Saturn. 


Asp(soundingrocket), 127, 128 il. 


Asteroid Belt, 90 


ASTP (Apollo-Soyuz Test Project), 19, 97, 


101-102 il.-104, 147, 155 


Astrobee (sounding rocket), 122-124 


Astrobee 1500, 122 il., 124 


Astrobee F, 124 


Astronaut, derivation ofterm, 107 


Astronaut, Project (proposed name), 107 


Astronomical Netherlands Satellite (ANS; also 


Netherlands Astronomical Satellite), 34 il., 35 


Astronomy Missions Board (AMB), NASA, 


53-54 


X-Ray and Gamma-Ray Panel, 54 


AT&T (American Telephone & Telegraph Co.), 


75 


Atlantic 2 (lntelsat 11-C; lnte/sat-11 F-3), 57 


Atlantic3 (lnte/sat-111 F-2), 57 


Atlantic Missile Range, USAF (AMR; formerly 


Long Range Proving Ground, now Eastern 


Test Range), 149-150 


Atlantic Missile Range Operations Office 


(AMROO), MSFC, 149 


Atlantic Research Corp., 125 


Atlas (intercontinental ballistic missile), 9 


Atlas (launch vehicle first stage), 5, 6-7, 8 il., 9 


il., 10, 11-12 


Atlas (mythological Greek god), 8 il., 9 


Atlas-Able (launch vehicle), 5, 9 il. 


Atlas-Agena, 6-7, 9 il. 


Atlas-Centaur, 3, 9 il., 11 il.-12, 54 


Atlas-Centaur 2 (development flight), ix 


Atlas-Centaur 3, ix 


Atlas-Centaur4, ix 


Atlas Corp., 9 


ATM (Apollo Telescope Mount), 109-110 il., 


155 


Atmosphere Explorer (AE; scientific satellite), 


51 il. 


Atmospheric, Magnetospheric, and Plasmas-in­


Space(AMPS) laboratory, 118 


Atmospheric Sounding Projectile (sounding 


rocket). See Asp. 


A TS (Applications Technology Satellite), 25, 


36-37,71 


ATS 1 (ATS-B), ix, 37,71 


A TS 2 (ATS-A), ix 


ATS3 (ATS-C), 37 il., 71 


photo by, 30 il. 


ATS5(ATS-E), 12 


A TS 6 (ATS-F), 25, 37 il. 


Aurora 7(Mercury-Atlas 7), 108-109 


Aurorae(ESROIA satellite), 45-46 il. 


Austria, 117 


Auxiliary Flight Research Station, NACA (fore­


runner of Wallops Flight Center), 158 


Azur (GRS-A; German Research Satellite-A; 


later renumbered GRS-A-1), 38, 39 il. 


Bailey, Glenn F., 104 


Baker, Norman L., 114 n. 


Baykonur Cosmodrome, Tyuratam, U.S.S.R., 


100 


Belgium, 117 


Bell Aerosystems Co., Textron Corp., 114 


Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc., AT&T, 40,75 


Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, 142 


Beltsville Space Center, NASA (renamed Goddard Space Flight Center May 1959), 142 


Bentsen, Sen. Lloyd M., 147 


Beta Centauri (star), 7 


Big Joe(launch vehicle), 10 il. 


Bios. See Biosatellite. 


BIOS (Biological Investigation of Space; reentry 


spacecraft), 38 


Biosatellite (biological satellite), 38-39 il., 139 


Biosatellite 1, 39 


Biosatellite2, 39 


Biosatellite 3, 39 


Black Brant (goose), 129 


Black Brant (sounding rocket), 123, 128-129 


Black Brant II, 129 


Black Brant IVA, 129, 133 


Black Brant VB, 129 


Black Brant VC, 128 il.-129 


Blagonravov, Anatoly A., 103 


Blue Scout (launch vehicle), 20 


BMwF (German Ministry for Scientific. 


Research), 33, 38, 84 


Bono, Philip, 113 


Boreas(ESRO IB satellite), 46 
 213 
Bossart, Karel J., 9 


Bristol Aerospace Ltd., Canada, 128 


British Interplanetary Society, 83, 114 


Broglio, Luigi, 67, 188 


Brown, John Y., 104 


Brucker, Wilbur M., 49 


Bumblebee(USN rocket project), 123 


Buongiorno, Carlo, 67, 188 


Bureau of Ships, USN, 127 


Burgess, Eric, 83 . 


Burritt, ElijaH., 6-7 


Byrd, Sen. Robert C., 147 


Cajun (a Louisiana people), 131 


Cajun (sounding rocket upper stage), 125, 130 


il., 131, 133 


California Institute of Technology (Caltech), 


143-144 


Callisto(Jovian moon), 90 


Caltech (California Institute of Technology), 


143-144 


Canada,35,58, 75,129 


Canadian Armament Research and Development 


Establishment (CARDE), 129 


Canadian Defence Research Board, 35, 58 


Canadian Department of Communication, 58, 


75 


"Canary Bird" (nickname for Intelsat Il-C; 


Atlantic2), 57 n. 


Canary Islands earth station, 57 n. 


Cannonball (proposed passive satellite), 58 


Cape Canaveral (Cape Kennedy 1963-1973), 16 


il., 17 il., 35, 149 


Cape Kennedy. See Cape Canaveral. 


CARDE (Canadian Armament Research and 


Development Establishment), 129 


Carpenter, M. Scott, 108 


CAS (Cooperative Applications Satellite), 41, 58 


CAS-A (Eo/e), 41 il., 53 


CAS-C (renamed CTS-A), 58 


Casper(CSM-113, onApollo 16), 100 


Castor (mythological Greek twin), 20, 104, 105 


il. 


Castor (Scout second stage), 20 


Castor (strap-on rocket motor), 13, 15 


Centaur (launch vehicle upper stage), ix, 3, 9 il., 


11 il.-12, 54, 56 il., 71, 152 


name, 11-12 


Centaur(mythological man-horse), 11-12 il. 


Centaurus (constellation), 6 


Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES; 


French National Center for Space Studies), 41, 


52,72 


ORIGINS OF 

CEPT (Conference Eu

Hlecommunications 

ECS), 47 


Ceres (mythological G

satellite name), 45 


CETS (Conference on 

cations Satellite; also 

Chaffee, Roger B., 100 

Challenger(LM-12, on 

Chapman, John, 58 


Charles II, King ofEngl

Charlie Brown (CSM-10

Chesapeake Bay Ecolog

Christian Science Monit

CIFAS (Consortium Ind

pour le Satellite Symp

Clark, John F., 37 


CM (command modul

service module. 


CNES (Centre Nationa

52, 72 


CNR (Consiglio Nazion

National Research Co

Collier's magazine, 113 

Co/umbia(CSM-107, o

Comision Nacional de I

(CONIE), 54 


Command and service 

99-100, 104 


CSM-104 (Gumdrop; 

CSM-106 (Charlie Br

CSM-107 (Columbia; 

CSM-108 ("Yankee 

100 


CSM-109 (Odyssey; A

CSM-110 (Kitty Haw

CSM-111 (ASTP), 10

CSM-112 (Endeavour

CSM-113(Casper;Ap

CSM-114 (America; A

Command module (CM

service module. 


Commerce, Departmen

Committee on Space Re

Communications Satelli

Communications Techn

Conference Europeene 

munications Satellite 

Conference on Europ

Satellite(CETS; also 

Congress, U.S., 99, 1

House, 147 


Committee on Publ

214 
INDEX 

Senate, 147 


CONIE (Comision Nacional de Investigaci6n del 


Espacio, Spain), 55 


Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR; Na­


tional Research Council of Italy), 68 


Consolidated Vultee Aircraft Corp. (Convair; 


later Convair/Astronautics Division, 


General Dynamics Corp.), 9, 11-12, 22 


Consortium lndustriel France-Allemand pour le 


Satellite Symphonie (CIFAS), 72 


Constellation (aircraft), 6 


Convair (Consolidated Vultee Aircraft Corp.; 


later Convair/Astronautics Division, Gen­


eral Dynamics Corp.), 9, 11-12, 22 


Cooper, L. Gordon, Jr., 107, 109 


Cooper Deyelopment Corp., 127 


Cooperative Applications Satellite (CAS), 41, 


53,58 


Copernicus (astronomer), 62 


Copernicus (lunar crater), 85 il. 


Copernicus (OAO 3, Orbiting Astronomical 


Observatory), 12, 61 il., 62 


Cortright, Edgar M., 60, 83, 87, 93, 94, 191 


COS-B (Cosmic Ray Observation Satellite), 47 


COSPAR (Committee on Space Research), 167 


Cross, C. A., 83 


CSM. See Command and service module. 


CTS-A (Communications Technology Satellite; 


formerly ISIS-C and CAS-C), 58 


Cummings, Clifford D., 90 


"Daughter" (ISEE-B International Sun-Earth 


Explorer), 52 


Daytona Beach Operations, NASA, 150 


Deacon(rocket motor), 131 


Deal, Project, 49 


Deep Space Network (DSN), 145 


Defense/Space Business Daily (newsletter), 114 


n. 


Defense, Department of (DOD; see also Ad­


vanced Research Projects Agency, Naval 


Research Laboratory, U.S. Air Force, U.S. 


Army), 3, 5, 6, 20, 67, 68, 73, 76-77, 112, 


115, 131, 167 


Research and Development Board, Committee 


on Guided Missiles, 9 


Saturn Vehicle Evaluation Committee, 


represented on, 17 n. 


Delta (launch vehicle upper stage), 3, 12-13 il., 


15, 22-23 il., 27, 75, 79, 80 il., 143 


name, 22-23 


Denmark, 117 


DFRC (Dryden Flight Research Center; new 


name for Flight Research Center), 140 n. 


Diana (proposed name for Gemini program), 104 


Dieulot, Gerard, 73 


Direct Measurement Explorer (DME; scientific 


satellite), 50, 58 


DME (Direct Measurement Explorer; scientific 


satellite), SO, 58 


DOD. See Defense, Department of. 


Donnelly, John P., 43 n. 


Domberger, Walter R., 114 


Douglas, Donald, Jr., 22 


Douglas Aircraft Co., S, 22, 113 


Dryden, Hugh L., 106-107, 140 n. 


Dryden Flight Research Center (DFRC; new 


name for Flight Research Center), 140 n. 


DSN (Deep Space Network), 145 


Dyna-Soar (hypersonic boost-glide vehicle), 111 


Eag/e(LM-5, on Apollo 11), 98 il., 100 


EarlyBird(lntelsat 1), 56-57 


Earth, full-disc photo, 30 il. 


Earth(proposed satellite name), 45 


Earth and ocean physics applications program 


(EOPAP), 51, 58,68 


Earth Observations Programs, 43 


Earth Observatory Satellite (EOS), 45 


Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP), 


43 


Earth Resources Laboratory, MTF (NSTL after 


Junel974), 156-158 


Earth Resources Observation Program, 43 


Earth Resources Observation Satellite (EROS), 


43 


Earth Resources Program, 43 


Earth Resources Survey Program, 43 


Earth Resources Survey Satellite (ERS), 43 


Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS; 


renamed Landsat), 15,42 il.- 45 


Eastern Test Range, USAF (ETR; formerly At­


lantic Missile Range; earlier Long Range Prov­


ing Ground), 73, 149-150 


Eccentric Geophysical Observatory (EGO; satel­


lite), 63 


Echo (passive communications satellite), IS, 


40-41 


Echo 1, 21-22, 40 il.-41 


Echo2, 7, 41 


ECS (European Communications Satellite), 47 


Edwards Air Force Base (Muroc AFB before 


Feb. 1950), ·140 


215 
EGO (Eccentric Geophysical Observatory satellite), 63 


Ehricke, Krafft, 11-12 


Eisenhower, President Dwight D., 144 n., 154 


ELDO (European Launcher Development Organization), 73 


Electronics Research Center (ERC), 137, 139 


il.-140 


Endeavour(CSM-112, on Apollo 15), 100 


Energy Research and Development Administra­


tion(ERDA), 153 


ENI (Ente Nazionale ldrocarburi; state-owned 


oil agency, Italy), 67 


Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 158 


Environmental Research Satellite(ERS), 43 


Environmental Science Services Administration 


(ESSA), 48-49, 60, 77 


Environmental Survey Satellite (ESSA), 48 


il.-49, 60, 77 


Eole (CAS-A; FR-2; meteorological satellite), 


41 il., 53 


EOPAP (earth and ocean physics applications 


program), 51,58,68 


EOS (Earth Observatory Satellite), 45 


EOS-A,45 


EOS-B,45 


EPA (Environmental Protection Agency), 160 


ERC (Electronics Research Center), 137, 139 


il.-140 


ERDA (Energy Research and Development Ad­


ministration), 1 S3 


EREP (Earth Resources Experiment Package), 


43 


EROS (Earth Resources Observation Satellite), 


43 


ERS (Environmental Research Satellite, USAF), 


43 


ERS (Earth Resources Survey Satellite), 43 


ERTS (Earth Resources Technology Satellite; 


renamed Landsat), 42-45 


ERTS 1 (ERTS-A; Landsat 1), 15,42 il.-43 


photo by, 44 il. 


ERTS-B (Landsat B), 43 


Eskimo tribe, 133 


ESRO. See European Space Research Organization and ESRO satellites. 

ESRO (European Space Research Organization 

satellite), 45-47 


ESRO 1A (Aurorae), 45-46 il. 


ESRO 1B (Boreas), 46 


ESRO 2A, 45-46, 57 


ESR02B(/R/S 1), 46-47, 57-58 


ESSA (Environmental Science Services AdminisORIGINS OF N

tration), 48-49, 60,77 


ESSA (Environmental Su

60,77 


ESSA 1, 48, 77 


photo from, 48 il. 


ESSA 2, 77 


ESSA 5, 48 il. 


ETR (Eastern Test Ran

Atlantic Missile Range

Proving Ground), 76, 15

Europa II (European laun

Europe, Western, 67, 72, 9

European Communication

European· Launcher Deve

(ELDO), 73 


European Space Council, 

European Space Research 

45-47,51,52,54,57-58

EXOSAT (x-ray astronom

Explorer (balloon), 49 


Explorer (scientific satelli

63, 66 n., 144, 183 


Aeronomy, 49 


Air Density, 41, 49-50 


Applications, 52 


Atmosphere(AE), 51 il. 

Direct Measurement (D

Geodetic(GEOS), 47, SO 

Heat Capacity Mapping 

Heavy, 54 


High Energy, 54 


International Magnetos

International Sun-Earth 

International Ultraviole

Interplanetary Monito

50,51il. 


Ionosphere(IE), 35, SO 


Meteoroid Technology 

Radio Astronomy (RAE

Small Astronomy Satell

Solar, SO 


Super, 54 


X-ray Astronomy, 50 


Explorer 1, 14 il., 15, 49, S

Explorer 2 (ionosphere dir

lite), 35 


Explorer 11 (gamma ray a

il. 


Explorer 20 (IE-A; "To

plorer), 35 


Explorer 25 (Injun 4; Air 

Explorer 29 (GEOS 1; GE

lite), 50 il.-51 

216 
INDEX 

Explorer 31 (DME-A; Direct Measurement Explorer), 58 


Explorer 32 (AE-B; Atmosphere Explorer), 51 il. 


Explorer 34 (IMP-F; Interplanetary Monitoring 


Platform), 51 il. 

Explorer 36 (GEOS 2; GEOS-B; Geodetic Satellite), 51 


Explorer40 (Injun 5), 52 


Explorer42 (Uhuru; SAS-A), 50,68 


Explorer 52 (Hawkeye 1), 21, 52 


Extended Apollo (Apollo X), 109 


FAA(Federal Aviation Administration, 47 


Faget, MaximeA., 10, 15-16 


Fairchild Stratos Corp., 66 


Faith 7 (Mercury-Atlas 9), 109 


Falcon (LM-10, on Apollo 15), 100 


"Fat Albert" (sounding rocket), 127 


FCC (Federal Communications Commission), 79 


Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), 47 


Federal Communications Commission (FCC), 79 


Fiorio, Franco, 67, 188 


Fletcher, James C., 117,158 


Flight Research Center (FRC; renamed Dryden 


Flight Research Center, 1976), 137, 140, 141 


il. 


FOE (Frog Otolith Experiment), 62 


FR-1 (FR-1A; French Satellite No. 1), 52-53 il. 


FR-1B, 53 


FR-2. See Eole. 

France,41,52-53, 72-73,117 

FRC (Flight Research Center; renamed Dryden 

Flight Research Center, DFRC, 1976), 137, 


140, 141 il. 


Freedom 7 (Mercury-Redstone 3), ix, 16 il., 


107-108 


French Guiana, 73 


"French Satellite. " See Eo/e. 


"French Satellite No.!." SeeFR-1. 


Friendship 7(Mercury-Atlas6), ix, 8 il., 108 il. 


Frog Otolith Experiment (FOE), 62 


Galactic Jupiter Probe, 90 


GALCIT (Guggenheim Aeronautical Labora­


tory, Caltech; forerunner of Jet Propulsion 


Laboratory), 143 


GALCIT Rocket Research Project, 143-144 


GARP (Global Atmospheric Research Project), 


71 


GATE (GARP Atlantic Tropical Experiment), 

71 


GATV (GeminiAgena Target Vehicle), 7 il., 25 


Gemini(constellation), 20, 104 


Gemini (manned space program; Project Gemi­


ni), ix-x, 7, 25, 97,104-106, 147 


program names, ix-x, 104-106,200 


Gemini (mythological Greek twins), 104-105 


il.-106 


Gemini(spacecraft), 25, 104-106, 107 il. 


Gemini3("MollyBrown"), 106 


Gemini4, 106 


Gemini 6, photo from, 105 il. 


Gemini 7, 105 il. 


GeminiS, photo from, 7 il. 


GeminiAgena Target Vehicle(GATV), 7 il., 25 


Gemini- Titan 1, x, 24 il. 


Gemini-Titan2, x 


General Dynamics Corp., Convair/ Astronau­


tics Division, 11, 22 


General Electric Co., 38 


Geodetic Earth Orbiting Satellite. See GEOS 


(NASA). 

Geodetic Explorer Satellite. See GEOS (NASA). 

Geodetic Satellite. See GEOS (NASA). 

Geodynamic Experimental Ocean Satellite 

(GEOS-C, NASA), 47, 5!-52, 68 


Geography ofthe Heavens (book), 6 


GEOS (ESRO Geostationary Scientific Satellite), 


47,52 

GEOS (NASA Geodetic Satellite; Geodetic Ex­


plorer Satellite; Geodetic Earth Orbiting 


Satellite), 47, 50-52, 64 


GEOS 1 (Explorer 29), 50 il.-51 


GEOS2 (Explorer 36), 51 


GEOS-C (NASA Geodynamic Experimental 


Ocean Satellite), 47, 51-52,68 


Geostationary Operational Environmental 


Satellite (GOES), 71 


Geostationary Scientific Satellite (GEOS, 


ESRO), 47, 52 


German Ministry for Scientific Research 


(BMwF), 33,38, 84 


German Research Satellite ( G RS) 

GRS-A (GRS-A-1). SeeAzur. 

GRS-A-2. SeeAeros. 

Germany, West (Federal Republic of Germany), 


12, 33, 38-39, 72-73, 84, 117' 127 


Gesellschaft filr Weltraumforschung (GFW; 


West German Space Agency), 72 


GFW. See Gesellschaft fUr W eltraumforschung. 


Gilruth, Robert R., 107 


GISS (Goddard Institute for Space Studies), 143 


Glenn, John H., Jr., 8,108 il. 


Glennan, T. Keith, 106-107 


Global Atmospheric Research Program 


(GARP), 71 


217 
Goddard, Robert H., 2 il., 83, 121, 142 il., 143 


Goddard Institute for Space Studies(GISS), 143 


Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC), 35, 73, 


84, 124, 137, 142-143 il., 158 


Launch Operations Division, 150 


name, 142-143 


Theoretical Division, 143 


Space Task Group, 104, 107, 147 


GOES-A (SMS-C; Geostationary Operational 


Environmental Satellite), 71 


Golden Fleece(Greek mythology), 107, 125 


Goldstone antenna, 145 il. 


Greb(DOD satellite), 167 


Grissom, Virgil!., 100, 105, 108 


GRS-A (GRS-A-1). SeeAzur. 


GRS-A-2. SeeAeros. 


GSFC. See Goddard Space Flight Center. 


Gualtierotti, Torquato, 62 


Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory, Caltech 


(GALCIT; forerunner of Jet Propulsion 


Laboratory), 143 


Gumdrop(CSM-104, onApollo9), 100 


Hawaii, 57 


Hawk (antiaircraft missile), 131 


Hawk(soundingrocket), 130il., 131,133 


Hawkeye 1 (Explorer 52), 21, 52 


HCMM (Heat Capacity Mapping Mission; Ap­


plications Explorer satellite), 52 


HEAO (High Energy Astronomy Observatory); 


54 


HEAO-A,54 


Heat Capacity Mapping Mission (HCMM; Ap­


plications Explorer satellite), 52 


Heavy Explorer. See High Energy Astronomy 


Observatory. 


"Heliocentric" (ISEE-C; International Sun­


Earth Explorer), 52 


Helios (mythological Greek god), 84 


Helios (Advanced Orbiting Solar Observatory, 


AOSO), 84 


Helios (solar probe), 25, 84 


Helios 1, 12, 25, 84 il. 


Helios-B, 84 


HEOS (Highly Eccentric Orbit Satellite), 54 


HEOS 1, 47, 54- 55 il. 


HEOS2, 54 


Hercules Powder Co., 133 


Hermes (mythological Greek god), I06 


HEX (Heavy Explorer; High Energy Explorer; 


proposed names), 54 


High Energy A. See High Energy Astronomy 


Observatory. 


ORIGINS OF 

High Energy Astrono

25, 53 il.-54 


High Speed Flight R

(High Speed Flight S

NASA, Oct. 1958; 

Sept. 1959; Dryden 

Jan. 1976), 140 


Highly Eccentric Orbi

55 il. 


Hirsch, Richard, 49 


HL-10 (lifting body), 

Homing All the Way 

missile), 131 


Hughes Aircraft Co., 

Human Factor System

Huntsville Facility (

Flight Center March 

Hurricane Alma, 61 il. 

IE (Ionosphere Explor

50 


IGY (International G

49,78-79,88, 121 


IME (International 

program, 52 


IMP (Interplanetary M

plorer satellite), 50, 

Improved Tiros Opera

60, 71,76-78 


India, 37 


Industrial College of th

Injun 1 (scientific satel

lnjun2, 52 


Injun3, 52 


Injun 4 (Explorer 25

Injun 5 (Explorer40

Injun F (redesigna

52), 52 


Instituto Nacional d

(INTA), 55 


INTA (lnstituto N

Aeroespacial), 55 


INTASAT (Spanish 

satellite), 15, 54-55 

INTELSA T (Internati

Satellite Organizat

Feb. 1973), 56-57 


Intelsat (communicatio

Intelsat I (Early 

satellite), 56-57 


Intelsat IIseries, 57 


Intelsat II- A (Lani B

Intelsat li- B (Pacifi

218 
INDEX 

Intelsat II-C(Intelsat-IIF-3; Atlantic2), 57 


Intelsat II-D (Intelsat-IIF-4; Pacific2), 57 


Intelsat III series, 57 


Intelsat III-A (lntelsat-III F-1), 57 


Intelsat-IIIF-2 (Atlantic 3), 57 


Intelsat IV series, 12, 56 il., 57 


Intelsat-IVF-2, 57 


Intelsat-IVF-8, 57 


Interim upper stage (IUS; for Space Shuttle), 115 


Interior, Department ofthe, 42-45, 153, 158 


International Council ofScientific Unions, 167 


International Geophysical Year (IGY), 27, 40, 


49,78-79,88,121 


International Magnetosphere Explorer (IME) 


program, 52 


International Radiation Investigation Satellite 


(IRIS 1; ESR02B), 46-47, 57-58 


International Satellites for Ionospheric Studies 


(ISIS), 35, 58, 59 il. 


International Sun-Earth Explorer (!SEE; scien­


tific satellite), 47, 52 


International Telecommunications Satellite 


Organization (Consortium before Feb. 1973; 


INTELSAT), 56-57 


International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE; 


originally SAS-D), 47, 52 


International Years ofthe Quiet Sun, 121 


Interplanetary Monitoring Platform (IMP; Explorer satellite), 50, 51 il. 


Intrepid(LM-6, on Apollo 12), x, 100 


Io(Jovian moon), 89 il. 


Ionosphere Explorer (IE; scientific satellite), 35, 


50 


Iowa, Univ. of, 52 


Iris(sounding rocket), 58, 125 


IRIS 1 (ESRO 2B; International Radiation In­


vestigation Satellite), 46-47, 57-58 


!SEE (International Sun-Earth Explorer; scientific satellite), 47, 52 


!SEE-A ("Mother"), 52 


ISEE-B ("Daughter"), 52 


ISEE-C ("Heliocentric"), 52 


Isis (ancient Egyptian goddess), 58 


ISIS (International Satellites for Ionospheric 


Studies) project, 35, 58 


ISIS 1, 58 


ISIS 2, 58, 59 il. 


ISIS-C. See CTS-A. 


ISIS-X (launch), 58 


Italian National Research Council (Consiglio 


Nazionale delle Ricerche, CNR), 68 


Italian Research-Oriented Satellite (SIRIO). 


68- 69 


Italian Space Commission, 67, 188 


Italy, 62, 67-68, 117, 188 


ITOS (Improved Tiros Operational Satellite), 49, 


60, 71' 76-78 


ITOS 1 (Tiros-M), 60, 77 


ITOS-A (NOAA 1), 49, 60, 77 


ITOS-B, 76 il. 


. ITOS-D (NOAA 2), 77 


ITOS-F (NOAA 3), 77 


ITOS-G(NOAA 4), 15, 55,77-78 


IUE (International Ultraviolet Explorer), 47, 52 


IUS (Space Shuttle interim upper stage), 115 


Jacobowski, Walter, 94 


Jahn, Gunnar, 155 il. 


Japan, 71 


Jason (Greek mythology), 125 


Jason(sounding rocket), 125 


Javelin (Argo D-4; sounding rocket), 123, 126 


il.-127' 133 


Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 15, 49, 89, 90, 121 , 


137' 143-145 


name, 143-145 


Johns Hopkins University, 123, 139 


Johnson, President Lyndon B., 146 il., 147, 149 


Johnson Space Center (JSC; Manned Spacecraft 


Center before 1973), 103, 137, 146 il., 147, 158 


Mission Operations Control Room, 146 il. 


name, 147 


Jones, Alton E., 73 


Jones, Lloyd E., Jr., 67 n. 


Journeyman (Argo D-8; sounding rocket), 126 


il.-127 


JPL. See Jet Propulsion Laboratory. 


JSC. See Johnson SpaceCenter. 


Juno(launch vehicle), 14-15, 16 


Juno I, 14 il., 15,49 


Juno II, 15, 17 


Juno III (concept), 17 


Juno IV (concept), 17 


Juno V, 15, 17 


Juno (mythological Roman goddess), 14 il., 15 


Jupiter (intercontinental ballistic missile), 15, 16, 


17 


Jupiter C (Jupiter Composite Reentry Test 


Vehicle), 15, 17, 49 


Jupiter (mythological Roman god), 15 


Jupiter(planet), 17, 87, 89 il. , 90 


Kaesmeier, Karl, 84 


Keefer, Eugene C., 12 


Keldysh, Mstislav V., 103 


219 
Kennedy, President John F., 'n, 99, 147, 148 il., 


149 


Kennedy, Cape. See Cape Canaveral. 

Kennedy Space Center (KSC), 105, 137, 148 il., 


149-150 


Launch Complex 34, 18 il. 


NASA Daytona Beach Operations, 150 


Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB), 98 il., 148 


il. 


Western Test Range Operations Division, 150 


Kenya, Africa, 50 


Kissinger, Henry A., 103 


Kitty Hawk(CSM-110, on Apollo 14), 100 


Koelle, Heinz H., 111 


Kosygin, Premier Aleksey N. (U.S.S.R.), 103 


Kronos (p;oposed name for Saturn V), 20 


KSC. See Kennedy Space Center. 

Kupperian, James E., Jr., 60 


LAGEOS (Laser Geodynamic Satellite), 58-59 


il.-60, 68 


Landsat (Earth Resources Technology Satellite, 


new name; see also ERTS) 


Landsat 1 (formerly ERTS 1), 43 n. 


Landsat 2 (formerly ERTS-B), 43 n. 


Langley, Samuel P., 150, 151 il. 


Langley Aeronautical Laboratory, NACA 


(Langley Memorial Aeronautical Labora­


tory 1920-1948; Langley Research Center, 


NASA, Oct. 1958), 20, 40, 140, ISO 


Auxiliary Flight Research Station, IS8 


Pilotless Aircraft Research Division (PARD), 


131, 158 


Station, 159 


Langley Research Center (LaRC), 10, 15, 94, 


131, 137, 140, 147, 150, 151 il. 


name, ISO 


LaniBird(lntelsat 11-A), 57 


LaRC. See Langley Research Center. 


Large Space Telescope(LST), 116 


Laser Geodynamic Satellite (LAGEOS), 58-59 


il.-60 


Launch Operations Directorate, MSFC (became 

Launch Operations Center March 1962; 

Kennedy Space Center Nov. 1963), 149 

Test Support Office, IS2-153 

LDEF (Long-Duration Exposure Facility; satellite), 116 


LEM (lunar excursion module), 100 


Leonov, Aleksey A., 102 


LeRC. See Lewis Research Center. 


Lewis, George W., 152, IS3 il. 


ORIGINS OF 

Lewis Flight Propuls

(became Lewis Rese

1958), 152 


L,ewis Research Center 

Plum Brook Station

Liberty Bell 7 (Mercu

108 


Little Joe(launch vehic

Little Joe II, 16 


LM. See Lunar module

Lockheed Aircraft Cor

Lockheed Missiles 

Lockheed Missile

Long-Duration Exposu

Long Range Proving 

Missile Range, then 

Low, George M., 43 n.

LRV (lunar roving veh

LST (Large Space Tele

LTTAT (long-tank thr

22-23 il. 

LTTAT-Delta (long

Thor-Delta), 13, 22-

Lunar excursion modu

Lunar module(LM), 9

LM-3 (Spider; Apol

LM-4 (Snoopy; Apo

LM-5 (Eagle; Apoll

LM-6 (Intrepid; Apo

LM-7 (Aquarius; Ap

LM-8 (Antares; Apo

LM-10 (F,alcon; Apo

LM-11 (Orion; Apo

LM-12 (Challenger; 

Lunar Orbiter (space 

150 


Lunar Orbiter2, pho

Lunar roving vehicle (L

M2 (lifting Body), 111 


McDonnell Aircraft Co

McGolrick, Joseph E., 

MAF (Michoud Assem

Mailgram, 79 


Major (missile), 16 


Malemute (sounding 

il., 133 


Manned Spacecraft Ce

Space Center. 


Mariner (interplanetar

14S 


Mariner 2 (P-38), 87 

220 
INDEX 

Mariner4 (Mariner D), 87 


Mariner 5 (Mariner E), 87 


Mariner 6 (Mariner F), 87 


Mariner 7 (Mariner G), 87 


Mariner 8 (Mariner H), 87 


Mariner 9 (Mariner 1), 86 il., 87 


photo by, 86 il. 


Mariner 10 (Mariner J), 87 


photo by, 86 il. 


Mariner Jupiter-Saturn, 87 


MAROTS (Maritime Orbital Test Satellite), 47 


Mars(planet), x, 15, 25, 87,93-94 


Mars2 (U.S.S.R. space probe), x 


Mars3, x 


Marshall, Gen. George C. (USA), 154-155 il. 


Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC), 66, 


111-112,116, 137, 149, 154 il.-157 


Launch Operations Directorate, 149, 150 


Atlantic Missile Range Operations Office 


(AMROO), 149 


Missile Firing Laboratory, 149 


Test Support Office, 150 


name, 154-155 


"The Martian Probe" (symposium paper), 83 


Martin Co., 22, 25 


Mathews, Charles W ., 43 n. 


Mercury (manned space program; Project Mer­


cury), ix-x, 9, 10, 16, 97, 99, 104, 106-107 


il.-109, 147, 199 


Advanced Mercury (Gemini), 104 


Mercury Mark II (Gemini), 104-105 


program names, ix-x, 106-109, 199 


Mercury(mythological Roman god), 106, 108 il. 


Mercury(planet), 86 il., 87 


Mercury(spacecraft), 10, 14 il., 15, 104-106, 107 


il.-108 il. 


Mercury-Atlas 6 (Friendship 7), ix, 8 il., 108 il. 


Mercury-Atlas 7(Aurora 7), 108-109 


Mercury-Atlas 8 (Sigma 7), 109 


Mercury-Atlas 9 (Faith 7), 109 


Mercury-Redstone 3 (Freedom 7), ix, 16 il., 


107-108 


Mercury-Redstone 4 (Liberty Bel/7), 105-106, 


108 


Merritt Island Launch Area (MILA), NASA, 149 


Meteoroid Technology Satellite (MTS; Explorer), 50 


METEOSA T (meteorological satellite), 47 


Michoud Assembly Facility (MAF), 155-156 il. 


Michoud Operations (renamed Michoud Assembly Facility July 1965), 155 


Michoud Ordnance Plant, 155 


MILA (Merritt Island Launch Area, NASA), 149 


Milan, University of, 62 


Minuteman (intercontinental ballistic missile), 


20, 127 


Miranda (UK-X4; experimental satellite), 36 


Mississippi Test Facility (MTF; became National 


Space Technology Laboratories June 1974), 


156-157 il.-158 


Mississippi Test Operations (renamed Mississippi 


Test Facility July 1965), 156 


Moffett Field Laboratory, NACA (forerunner of 


Ames Research Center), 137 


"Molly Brown" (Gemini3), 105-106 


"Mother'' (ISEE-A; International Sun-Earth 


Explorer), 52 


MSC (Manned Spacecraft Center). See Johnson 


Space Center. 


MSFC. See Marshall Space Flight Center. 


MTF (Mississippi Test Facility), 159-161 


MTS (Meteoroid Technology Satellite; Ex­


plorer), 50 


Mueller, George E., 19, 114 


Muroc Air Force Base (Edwards AFB after Feb. 


1950), 140 


Muroc Flight Test Unit, NACA (forerunner of 


Flight Research Center), 140 


Muroc test facility, USAF, 140 


MX-1593 (USAF Atlas project), 9 


NACA. See National Advisory Committee for 


Aeronautics. 


Nagy, Alex P., 104, 200 


NAS (National Academy of Sciences), 62 


NASA/Industry Program Plans Conference, 99 


NASC (National Aeronautics and Space Council), 147 


National Academy of Sciences (NAS), 62, 167 


National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics 


(NACA), 20, 40, 49, 111, 132, 139, 140, 150, 


152, 158-159 


National Aeronautics and Space Council 


(NASC),l47 


National Defense Research Council, 131 


National Geographic Society, 49 


National Launch Vehicle Program, 3 


National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra­


tion(NOAA), 48-49,60,68,71, 77, 153 


National Operational Environmental Satellite 


System, 71 n. 


National Operational Meteorological Satellite 


System(NOMSS), 71 


National Science Foundation, 153 


221 
National Security Council, Ad Hoc Committee 

on Outer Space, 49 


National Space Club, 114 


National Space Technology Laboratories 


(NSTL; Mississippi Test Facility before June 

1974), 137, '157 il.-158 


Natural Resources Program, 43 


Naugle, John E., 87 n. 


Naval Research Laboratory(NRL), 79, 127, 142 


Netherlands, 35, 117 


Ministry of Economic Affairs, 35 


Ministry ofEducation and Science, 35 


Netherlands Astronomical Satellite (Astronomical Netherlands Satellite, ANS), 34 il., 35 


Newell, Homer E., 36-37 


Nike (antiaircraft missile), 133 


Nike (mythological Greek goddess), 132 il., 133 


Nike (sounding rocket first stage), 124 il., 127, 


128 il., 130 il., 131, 132 il., 133 


Niko-Apache(sounding rocket), 123, 124 il., 133 


Niko-Asp, 127, 128 il. 


Niko-Cajun, 123, 124, 130 il., 133 


Niko-Hawk, 123, 131, 133 


Niko-Javelin, 127 


Niko-Malemute, 123, 132 il., 133 


Niko-Tomahawk, 123, 132 il., 133 


Nimbus (meteorological satellite), 7, 60 


Nimbus 1 (Nimbus A), 60, 61 il. 


Nimbus 2 (Nimbus q, 60 


Nimbus 3 (Nimbus B-2), 60 


Nimbus 4 (Nimbus D), 60 


Nimbus 5 (Nimbus E), 60 


Nix Olympica(Martian mountain), 92 il. 


Nixon, President Richard M., 103, 114-115, 116, 


147 


NOAA. See National Oceanic and Atmospheric 


Administration and NOAA satellites. 


NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration satellite), 49, 60, 77 


NOAA 1 (ITOS-A), 49, 60, 77 


NOAA 2 (ITOS-D), 77 


NOAA 3 (ITOS-F), 77 


NOAA 4 (ITOS-G), 15, 55,77-78 


Nobel Peace Prize, 155 


NOMSS (National Operational Meteorological 


Satellite System), 71 


North Eastern Office, NASA, 140 


NRL(Naval Research Laboratory), 79, 127, 142 


NSTL (National Space Technology Laboratories), 137, 157 il.-158 


OA (Office ofApplications, NASA), 43 n., 58 


ORIGINS OF 

OAO (Orbiting Astr

60-62 


OAO 1 (OAO-A1), 6

OA 0 2 (OAO-A2), ix

OA 0 3 (Copernicus; 

OART (Office of Adva

nology, NASA), 37 


Ocean(a Titan, Roman 

Odyssey(CSM-109, on 

Office of Advanced R

(OART), NASA, 37 


Office of Applications (

Office of International 

Office of Launch Vehic

Office of Manned Spac

19, 100, 104-105 


Office of Space Sci

(OSSA), NASA, 36-3

Office of Space Vehicl

ogy, NASA, 66 


OFO (Orbiting Frog Ot

OGO (Orbiting Geophy

il. 


Ohio National Guard, 1

Olympia (proposed We

OMSF (Office of Mann

19, 100, 104-105 


OOS (Space Shuttle orb

Orbit-to-orbit stage (O

115 


"Orbital Radio Relays" 

Orbital Test Satellite (O

Orbital Workshop. See 

Orbiter. See Lunar Orb

tle, Viking(Mars prob

Orbiting Astronomical 

12, 60-61 il.-62 


Orbiting Frog Otolith ( O

Orbiting Geophysical O

il. 


Orbiting Observatory se

Orbiting Satellite Ca

(OSCAR), 15, 55 


Orbiting Solar Observa

Orion (LM-11, on Apol

Orpheus (proposed nam

104 


OSCAR (Orbiting Sat

Radio) 


OSCAR 7(AMSATO

OSO (Orbiting Solar Ob

oso 1 (S-16), 64 


222 
INDEX 

OSO 3 (OSO-E), 64 il. 


OSO 7 (OSO-H), 64 


OSSA (Office of Space Science and Applications, NASA), 36-37 


O'Sullivan, William J., Jr., 40-41 


OTS (Orbital Test Satellite), 47 


Ousley, GilbertW., 84 


Pacific 1 (Intelsat II-B), 57 


Pacific 2 (lntelsat /1-D; Intelsat-1/ F-4), 57 


Pacific Launch Operations Office (PLOO), 


NASA, 150 


Pacific Missile Range, USAF (PMR; now 


Western Test Range), 35, 150 


Test Support Office, Launch Operations 


Directorate, 150 


P AGEOS (Passive Geodetic Earth Orbiting 


Satellite) project, 64-65 


Pageos 1, 41, 65 il. 


Paine, Thomas 0 ., 103, 116-117 


PARD. See Pilotless Aircraft Research Division. 


Passive Geodetic Earth Orbiting Satellite 


(PAGEOS), 41,64-65 il. 


Pearl River Test Site (early designation for 


Mississippi Test Facility), 156 n. 


Pegasus (meteoroid satellite), 65 il.-67 


Pegasus 1, 67 


Pegasus2, 67 


Pegasus3, 67 


Pegasus (winged horse, Greek mythology), 66 


Perseus (constellation), 20 


Pickering, William H., 15,90 


Pierce, John R., 40 


Pilotless Aircraft Research Division (PARD), 


Langley Aeronautical Laboratory, 131, 


158- 159 


Pilotless Aircraft Research Station (became 


Wallops Station, NASA, Oct.1958), 159 


Pioneer (space probe), 12, 15, 83, 88-90, 139 


Pioneer 1, ix, 88-89 


Pioneer2, 89 


Pioneer3, ix, 89, 144 


Pioneer4, 89, 144 


Pioneer 5 (F-3), 89 


Pioneer 6 (Pioneer A), 89 


Pioneer 7 (Pioneer B), 89-90 


PioneerS (Pioneer q, 89-90 


Pioneer 9 (Pioneer D), 89-90 


Pioneer 10 (Pioneer F), 90 


photo by, 89 il. 


Pioneer 11 (Pioneer G), 88 il., 90 


Pioneer Saturn. See Pioneer 11. 


Pioneer Venus, 90 


Planetary Programs Office, NASA, 94 


PLOO (Pacific Launch Operations Office, 


NASA), 150 


Plum Brook Station, LeRC, 153 


Space Power Facility, 153 


PMR (Pacific Missile Range, USAF; now 


Western Test Range), 35, 150 


POGO (Polar Orbiting Geophysical Observ­


atory), 63 


Polar Orbiting Geophysical Observatory 


(POG0),63 


Polaris (intercontinental ballistic missile), 7, 20 


Pollux(mythological Greek twin), 104, 105 il. 


Pollux (rocket motor), 16 


Pressly, Eleanor, 125 


Project Designation Committee, NASA, 183-184 


launch vehicle names, 19,20 


manned space flight names, 100, 103, 109, 111 


n., 116 


satellite names, 38, 43 n., 44-45, 52, 66 


space probe names, 94, 183-184 


Purser, Paul E., 16 


Radio Astronomy Explorer (RAE; scientific 


satellite), SO 


Radio Corporation ofAmerica(now RCA 


Corp.), 76 


"RAE (Radio Astronomy Explorer; scientific 


satellite), 50 


RAM (Research and Applications Module; 


Spacelab forerunner), 116 


Ranger (lunar probe), 83, 84,90- 91 , 93, 145 


Ranger4 (P-35), 91 


Ranger 7 (Ranger B), 91 il. 


RangerS (Ranger q, 91 


Ranger 9 (Ranger D), 91 


photo by, 91 il. 


Ranger (program; Project Ranger), 84, 90- 91 , 


145 


Ranger(truck), 90 


RCA Corp., 76 


"The Recoverable, Reusable Space Shuttle" (ad­


dress), 114 


Recruit (rocket), 16, 22 


Redstone (intermediate-range ballistic missile), 


16, 149 


Redstone (launch vehicle first stage), ix, 15, 16 


il., 105-108 


Redstone Arsenal, 16, 154 


223 
Relay (active repeater communications satellite), 


15, 31,66 il. 


Relay 1 (A-15), 67 


Relay2 (A-16), 67 


Rendezvous (periodical), 114 


"Rendock" (rendezvous and docking mission), 


103 


Research and Applications Module (RAM; 


Spacelab forerunner), 116 


Reusable Orbital Module Booster and Utility 


Shuttle (ROMBUS), 113 


Rockwell International Corp., Ill n. 


Rogers, William P., 103 


Roman, Nancy G., 60 


ROMBUS (Reusable Orbital Module Booster 


and Utility Shuttle), 113 


Roosevelt, President Franklin D., 139 


Rosen, Josephine(Mrs. Milton W.), 79 


Rosen, Milton W., 12, 79 


Rover(lunar roving vehicle; LRV), 100, 101 il. 


Rowland, Joe, 22,25 


S-I (Saturn I first stage), 19, 187 


S-IB (Saturn IB first stage), 19, !55 


S-IC (Saturn V first stage), 20, 155-156 il.-158 


S-II (Saturn V second stage), 20, 156-158 


S-IV (Saturn I second stage), 19, 187 


S-IVB 


Saturn IB second stage, 19, 20, 109 


Saturn V third stage, 20, 109· 


S-V (Saturn C-1 stage), 187 


Saint Mark, 67 


Saliga, Stephen A., 88 


San Marco launch platform, 50, 67-68 


San Marco (U.S.-Italy satellite project), 20, 22, 


67-68, 188 


San Marco 1 (Italian satellite), 66 il., 67-68 


San Marco2, 67-68 


San Marco 3, 68 


San Marco 4, 68 


Sandia Laboratories, 127, 133 


SAROS (Satellite de Radiodiffusion pour Orbit 


Stationnaire), 73 


SAS (Small Astronomy Satellite; Explorer), 50, 


52 


SAS-A (Explorer42; Uhuru), 50, 68 


SAS-D (International Ultraviolet Explorer; 


IUE), 47, 52 


Satellite de Radiodiffusion pour Orbit Station­


naire (SAROS), 73 


Satellite Italiano Ricerche Orientate (SIRIO), 


68-69 


ORIGINS OF 

Saturn (launch vehicle), 

Advanced Saturn(see 

Saturn A, 19 


Saturn B, 19 


SaturnC, 19 


C-1 (see also Satur

C-!B (see also Satu

C-3, 19 


C-4, 19 


C-5 (see also Satur

Saturn I, x, 15, 17 il., 

Uprated Saturn I (s

Saturn IB, x, 3, 17-18 

Saturn V, x, 3, 18 il.

111-112, 148 il., 15

Saturn(mythological R

Saturn(planet), 17, 87,9

Saturn Apollo, x 


Saturn Vehicle Evalua

stein Committee), 17-

Schilling, G. F., 60 


Schirra, WalterM., Jr., 

Schumann, Maurice, 73 

Schumann, Robert, 73 


Science Advisory Comm

Scorpio (constellation), 

Scout (launch vehicle), 

150, 160 


Blue Scout, 20 


San Marco Scout I, 6

ScoutE, 21 


Seamans, Robert C., Jr

SEASAT (Specialized 

tions Satellite), 43 n., 

SEASAT User Working 

SEOS (Synchronous 

Satellite), 45 


Sergeant (launch vehicl

Service module (SM). S

module. 


SEX (Super Explorer, p

Sheldon, Courtney, 113 

Shepard, Alan B., Jr., 1

Shotput (launch vehicle

Sigma 7 (Mercury-Atlas 

Silverstein, Abe, 17 n., 

Silverstein Committee 

tion Committee), 17-

Simpson, George L., Jr

SIRIO (Satellite Italia

68-69 


Skylab (Orbital Work

Skylab), 19, 43, 68

224 
INDEX 

155, 158 


name, 109-111 


Skylab 1 (SL-1; Orbital Workshop), 20, 97, 


109-110 il.-111, 129,155 


Sky/ab 2 (SL-2; manned mission), 19, 109 


Sky/abJ(SL-3), 19,111 


Sky/ab 4 (SL-4), 19, 111 


Skynet (U.K. military communications satellite), 

36 


Skynet I series, 36 


Skynet II series, 36 


SL- 1, SL-2, etc. See Sky /ab 1, etc. 


Slayton, Donald K., 102 il. 


SM (service module). See Command and service 


module. 


Small Astronomy Satellite (SAS; Explorer), 50, 52 


Smith, Rep. H. Allen, 144 n. 


Smith, H. Allen, Jet Propulsion Laboratory 


(proposed name), 144 n. 


Smithsonian Institution, 150 


SMS (Synchronous Meteorolgical Satellite), 33, 


69- 71 


SMS 1 (SMS-A), 71 


SMS-B, 70 il., 71 


SMS-C(GOES-A), 71 


Snoopy (LM-4, on Apollo 10), 100 


Solar Explorer (scientific satellite), 50 


Sortie Can (Spacelab forerunner), 116 


Sortie Lab. See Spacelab. 


Soviet Academy ofSciences, 103 


Soyuz(Soviet spacecraft), 101-102 il.-104 


Space Flight Research Center (proposed), 159 


Space Plasma High Voltage Interaction Experiment satellite (SPHINX), 71 


Space Shuttle, 3, 45, 54, 58, 97, 111-112 il.-113 


il., 118, 147, 150, 155- 158 


Conference, 114, 117 


name, 111-114 


Steering Group, 114 


Task Group, 114 


"Space Shuttle of the Future: The 


Aerospaceplane" (article), 114 


Space Task Group, NASA (forerunner of 


Manned Space Center), 104, 107, 147 


Space Task Group, President's, 101, 114, 115, 


116 


Space Technology Laboratories, Inc., 5, 89 


Space Tracking and Data Acquisition Network 


(STADAN; nowSTDN), 143 


Space Transporter (European proposal), 114 


Space Tug, 115- 116 


Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network (STDN; 


formerySTADAN), 143 


Spacelab, 97, 115, 116- 117 il.- 118 


Spaceplane(proposed name), Ill n., 115 n. 

Spain, 54-55, 117 


Specialized Experimental Applications Satellite 


(SEASAl), 43 n., 68-69 il. 


SPHINX (Space Plasma High Voltage Interaction Experiment satellite), 71 


Spider(LM-3, onApollo9), 100 


Sputnik 1(U.S.S.R. satellite), 49, 167 


STADAN (Space Tracking and Data Acquisi­


tion Network; now STDN), 143 


START (USAF reentry program), 114 


STDN (Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network; 


formerly STADAN), 143 


Steelman, Donald L., 109 


Stoney, William E., Jr., 20 


Super Explorer. See High Energy Astronomy 


Observatory. 


Survey (proposed satellite name), 45 


Surveyor (lunar probe), 12, 83, 84-85, 91, 92 il., 


93, 145 


Surveyor 1 (Surveyor A), 93 


Surveyor 3 (Surveyor q, 93 


Surveyor 5 (Surveyor E), 92 il., 93 


Surveyor6 (Surveyor F), 93 


Surveyor 7 (Surveyor G), 93 


Surveyor Orbiter, 85 


Switzerland, 117 


Symphonie (Franco-German communications 


satellite), 72 il.- 73 


Symphonie 1 (Symphonie-A), 72 il., 73 


Symphonie B, 73 


Synchronous Earth Observatory Satellite 


(SEOS), 45 


Synchronous Meteorological Satellite (SMS), 33, 


69-70 il.- 71 


Syncom (synchronous communications satellite), 


15, 72 il., 73 


Syncom 1 (A- 25), 73 


Syncom 2 (A-26), 73 


Syncom 3 (A- 27), 73 


TAD (thrust-augmented Delta). See Thor-Delta. 

TAID (thrust-augmented improved Delta). See 

Thor-Delta. 

TAT (thrust-augmented Thor). See Thor and 

Thor-Delta. 

TAT-Delta. See Thor and Thor-Delta. 

TD (ESRO Thor-Delta solar astronomy satellite) 


project, 75 


TD-1 (satellite), 7 5 


TD-2, 75 


TD-IA, 47,74 il., 75 


TE-364- 4 (Thor-Delta third stage), 13 


225 
Telesat (Canadian telecommunications satellite), 

75 


Telesat-A (Anik 1), 74 il., 75 


Telesat-B(Anik2), 75 


Telesat-C(AnikJ), 75 


Telesat Canada (corporation), 75 


Television and Infra-Red Observation Satellite 


(TIROS, later Tiros; meteorological satel­


lite), vii, 7, 15, 31, 48, 69,76-78 


name, vii, 76-78 


Telstar (active repeater communications satel­


lite), 15, 75 


Telstar 1 (A-40), 23 il., 75 il. 


Telstar 2 (A-41), 75 


The Tempest(play), 35 


Tennessee, University of, Space Institute, 114 


Terrier (antiaircraft missile), 133 


Terrier (sounding rocket first stage), 133 


Terrier-Malemute(sounding rocket), 123, 133 


Textron Corp., Bell Aerosystems Co., 114 


Thibodaux, Joseph G., Jr., 131 


Thiokol Chemical Corp. (later Thiokol Corp.), 


125, 133 


Elkton Division, 131 


Thor (intermediate-range ballistic missile), 22 


Thor (launch vehicle first stage), 5 il., 6 il., 7, 


12-13 il., 15,22-23 il. 


name, 22-23 


thrust-augmented(TAT), 12, 13 il., 22 


long-tank thrust-augmented (LTTAT, or 

Thorad), 13, 22-23 il. 


Thor (mythological Norse god), 22, 23 il. 


Thor-Able (launch vehicle), 5 il., 12, 188 


Thor-Agena, 6 il.-7, 22, 58 


thrust-augmented, 22 


Thor-Delta, 3, 12-13 il., 15,22-23 il., 75, 79, 143 


name, 12-13, 22- 23 


long-tank thrust-augmented (L TTAT- Delta), 


13, 22-23 il. 


Straight Eight, 13 il. 


Super Six, 13 


thrust-augmented(TAD), 12,22 


thrust-augmented improved (TAID), 13 il. 


Thorad (long-tank thrust-augmented Thor). See 

Thor. 


Thorad-Agena, 22 


Tinnan, Leonard M., 112 


Tiros (originally TIROS; Television and Infra­


Red Observation Satellite), vii, 7, 15, 31, 48, 


60,69, 76-78 


name, vii, 76- 77 


Tiros 1 (A-I) through Tiros8 (A-53),77 


Tiros 9 (Tiros-1 [eye]), 77 


ORIGINS OF 

Tiros10(0T-I), 77 


Tiros-K, 71 


Tiros-M (ITOS 1), 60 

Tiros Operational Satell

satellite), 15, 48, 49,7

Titan (giant, Roman my

Titan (intercontinental b

Titan I, 25 


Titan II, 25 


Titan (launch vehicle), 2

Titan II, 24 il. 


Titan III, 12, 25 


IIIC, 25 


IIID, 25 


IIIE, 12, 24 il., 25, 

Titan-Centaur (launch v

Titan IIIE-Centaur, 1

Tomahawk (sounding r

il., 133 


Top Kick (proposed sate

"Topsi" (Explorer 20; 

plorer), 25 


Topside sounder (ionosp

TOS (Tiros Operation

76-77 


Improved TOS. See IT

Transit II-A (DOD satel

Transportation, Departm

Transportation Develo

Electronics Research C

UE(RedstoneNo. 29), 1

Uhuru (Explorer 42; Sm

A), 50,68 


UK-I though UK- 5. See 

UK-X4 (Miranda), 36 


United Kingdom, 35-36, 

Ministry of Defence, 3

United Nations, 167 


The Unsinkable Molly B

105 


Uranus (planet), 90 


Ursa(missile), 16 


U.S. Air Force, !53 

Air Research and D

(ARDQ, 22, 25 


Ballistic Missile Divisi

Cambridge Research 

133 


Edwards Air Force Ba

launch vehicles and m

22,25 

226 
INDEX 

Muroc Air Force Base (Edwards AFB after 


Feb. 1950), 140 


satellites and probes, 35-36, 43, 52, 88-89 


sounding rockets, 123, 129, 133 


Space Shuttle, 111-114, 115 


U.S. Army (see also Army Ballistic Missile Agen­


cy, ABMA), 15, 16, 49, 89, 131, !53, !58 


Ordnance, 121, 133, 144, 155 


Guided Missile Center, !54 


Experimental Missiles Firing Branch, 149 


Missile Firing Laboratory (transferred to 


MSFC, 1960), 149 


Plum Brook Ordnance Works, !53 


U.S. Army Air Forces, !59 

U.S. Army Air Service, 49 


U.S. Navy (see also Naval Research Laboratory), 


123, 129, 133, 153 


Bureau ofAeronautics, !59 


Bureau ofShips, 127 


U.S. WeatherBureau(USWB), 77 


USNS Croatan, 128 il. 


U.S.S.R. (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics), 


x, 19,49, 71,97,101-104 


USWB (U.S. Weather Bureau), 77 


V-2 (German rocket), 149 


VAB (Vehicle Assembly Building, KSC), 98 il., 


148 il. 


Valiant (proposed name for Gemini program), 


104 


Van Allen, James A., 123 


Vanguard (launch vehicle), 5, 12, 26 il.-27, 78, 


79, 188 


Vanguard (program; Project Vanguard), 27, 


78-79, 142 


Van guard 1 (scientific satellite), 79, 167 


Vanguard2, 78 il.-79 


Vanguard3, 79 


Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB), KSC, 98 il., 


148 il. 


Venus(planet), 15, 25, 87,90 


Viking (launch vehicle first stage), 79,93 n., !50 


Viking(Mars probe), 25, 71, 83,93 il.-94 


Viking (Navy sounding rocket), 93 n. 


von Braun, Wernher, 17, 113, 154 


von Karman, Theodore, 144 


Voyager, Project, 93, 94 n. 


Wac Corporal(sounding rocket), 121 


Wallop, John, 159 


Wallops Flight Center (WFC; Wallops Station 


before April 1974), 21 il., 67, 131, 137, 


158-159 il.-160 


high-gain antenna, 120 il. 


name, 158-160 


Wallops Main Base, !59 


Wallops Station (WS). See Wallops Flight 


Center. 


Webb, James E., 19 


Westar (Western Union communications satellite), 79-80 


Westar 1 (Westar-A), 79-80 il. 


Westar 2 (Westar-B), 80 


Westar-C, 80 


Western Test Range (WTR; formerly Pacific 


Missile Range, USAF), 58, !50 


Western Union Telegraph Co., 79-80 


White, Edward H., II, 100, 106 il. 


White Sands Missile Range, USA, 129, 147-149 


White Sands Test Facility, NASA (White Sands 


Operations before June 1965), 147-149 


Williams, Allen E., 131 


Williams College, 68 


Wilson, President Woodrow, !50 


Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, 88 


WS (Wallops Station). See Wallops Flight Cen· 


ter. 


WTR (Western Test Range; formerly Pacific 


Missile Range, USAF), 58, !50 


X-I (rocket research aircraft), 140 


X-15 (rocket research air-craft), 111,140, 141 il. 


X- 24 (lifting body), Ill, 140 


X-248 (launch vehicle upper stage), 22, 199 n. 


X-ray Astronomy Explorer (scientific satellite), 


50 


Yankee Clipper (CSM-108, on Apollo 12), x, 


100 


Young, John W., 105 


227 

THE AUTHORS 

Helen T. Wells, editor in the NASA History Office from 1962 to 1967, 

came to NASA Headquarters from two years in the Historical Office of Marshall Space Flight Center, an office which she helped establish. She has also 

served as editorial information specialist in the Historical Office of the 

Army Ballistic Missile Agency, Redstone Arsenal, Alabama. A graduate of 

Mary Washington College of the University of Virginia, Mrs. Wells took her 

B.A. degree in English literature. 

Susan H. Whiteley, writer in the NASA History Office 1971-1972, 

previously was an editorial assistant with the Association for Childhood 

Education International and an associate editor of the American University 

literary magazine, the American. The American was voted the best U.S. collegiate magazine in 1968 by the national professional journalism fraternity. 

Carrie E. Karegeannes, editor in the NASA History Office since 1968, has 

been research analyst, writer, and editor for the nonprofit research corporation Analytic Services Inc., the Central Intelligence Agency, and the U.S. 

Economic Cooperation Administration's European Headquarters. Earlier 

she was a reporter for United Press Associations and newspaper reporter 

and editor in South Carolina and Paris, following receipt of her B.A. degree 

in English and journalism from Baylor University. 

NASA HISTORICAL PUBLICATIONS 

HISTORIES 

Frank W. Anderson, Jr., Orders of Magnitude: A History of NACA and NASA, 1915-1976, NASA 

SP-4403, 1976, GPO. • 

William R. Corliss, NASA Sounding Rockets, 1958-1968: A Historical Summary, NASA SP-4401, 

1971, GPO. 

Constance MeL. Green and Milton Lomask, Vanguard-A History, NASA SP-4202, 1970; also 

Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1971. 

Barton C. Hacker and James M. Grimwood, On the Shoulders of Titans: A History ofProject Gemini, 

NASA SP-4203, in press. 

Edwin P. Hartman, Adventures in Research: A History ofthe Ames Research Center, 1940-1965, NASA 

SP-4302, 1970, NTIS. •• 

Mae Mills Link, Space Medicine in Project Mercury, NASA SP-4003, 1965, NTIS. 

Alfred Rosenthal, Venture into Space: Early Years of Goddard Space Flight Center, NASA SP-4301, 

1968, NTIS. 

Robert L. Rosholt, An Administrative History ofNASA, 1958-1963, NASA SP-4101, 1966, NTIS. 

Loyd S. Swenson, James M. Grimwood, and Charles C. Alexander, This New Ocean: A History ofProject Mercury, NASA SP-4201, 1966, NTIS. 

REFERENCE WORKS 

The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology, NASA SP-4009: Volume I, 1969, NTIS. Volume II, 1973, GPO. 

Volume Ill, in press. Volume IV, forthcoming. 

Astronautics and Aeronautics: A Chronology ofScience, Technology, and Policy, annual volumes from 

1961, with an earlier summary volume, Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1915:...1960. Early volumes 

available from NTIS; recent volumes from GPO. Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1973, NASA 

SP-4018, 1975. . 

Katherine M. Dickson (Library of Congress), History ofAeronautics and Astronautics: A Preliminary 

Bibliography, NASA HHR-29, NTIS. 

Project Gemini Technology and Operations: A Chronology, NASA SP-4002, 1969, NTIS. 

Project Mercury: A Chronology, NASA SP-4001, 1963, NTIS. 

Project Ranger: A Chronology, JPL/HR-2, 1971, NTIS. 

Skylab: Preliminary Chronology, NASA HHN-130, May 1973, NTIS. 

Jane Van Nimmen and Leonard C. Bruno, NASA Historical Data Book, 1958-1968, Vol. I, NASA 

Resources, NASA SP-4012, 1976, NTIS. 

*GPO: Available from Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 

20402. 

••NTIS: Available from National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia22161. 

1r U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1976 0-200-370 

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conducted so as to contribute . . . to the expans

edge of phenomena in the atmosphere and space

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of information concerning its activities and the 

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