NASA SP-4020 

ASTRONAUTICS 

AERONAUTICS, 1 

A Chronology 

by Nancy L. Brun 

and 

Eleanor H. Ritehie 

The NASA History Series 

Scientific and Technical Information Branch 1979 

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION 

Washington, D.C. 
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 

Washington, D.C. 20402 (paper cover) 

Library of Congress Catalog Number 6540308 
Preface 

Users of this series will notice that the current volume, the 15th, is more 

condensed than earlier volumes in the series, a trend started with the 1974 

volume. This is attributable more to staff limitations than to any reduction 

in the historical significance of the subject matter. Fewer non-NASA activities have been included this year. The annual summary has been eliminated, riot without regret. More material has been presefited in tabular 

form for economy in both preparation and use. The staff of the History 

Office expects to produce one volume per year of Astronautics and Aeronautics with approximately the coverage and detail of the present volumeand with greater regularity than in the past few years. 

Note that the errata section, introduced in the 1974 volume, has been 

continued. We want this series to be a reliable reference work, and the 

reader can help us in this. Let the History Office staff know of any errors 

that you detect in this or previous volumes, so that corrections can be 

published. 

Text for the first ten months of the presbht volume’s coverage was 

written by Nancy L. Brun, who has since transferred to the NatioQal 

Institutes of Health. The volume was completed by her successor, Eleanor 

H. Ritchie, formerly of the Goddard Space Flight Center. 

May 1979: Arnold W. Frutkin 

Associate AdrriiniStrrttor for External Relations 

... 

111 

Contents 

Preface .................................................. 

January .................................................. 

February ................................................. 

March ................................................... 

April .................................................... 

May ..................................................... 

June .................................................... 

July ..................................................... 

August .................................................. 

September ............................................... 

October ................................................. 

November ............................................... 

December ................................................ 

Appendix A: Satellites, Space Probes, and Manned Space 

Appendix B: Major NASA Launches, 1975 ................... 

Appendix C: Manned Space Flights, 1975 ................... 

Appendix D: NASA Sounding Rocket Launches, 1975 ......... 

Appendix E: X-24B Lifting-Body Flights, 1975 ............... 

Appendix F: Abbreviations of References ................... 

Index and List of Abbreviations and Acronyms ............... 

Errata in Earlier Volumes .................................. 

NASA Associate Administrator Arnold W . Frutkin 

Flights, 1975 ......................................... 

PAGE 

111 

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57 

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99 

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301 

327 

V 
January 1975 

4 January: Funding in the FY 1976 budget for a third Earth Resources 

Technology Satellite (ERTS) was in doubt, Walter Sullivan said in a 

New York Times article. Despite worldwide enthusiasm for continuing 

the program, which was developing remote-sensing techniques for 

monitoring and managing earth‘s resources, doubts about funding 

approval were appearing within the Office of Management and 

Budget. Factors that would influence OMB’S decision included the 

reported existence of far more detailed information from secretly 

launched intelligence satellites. Although scientists would probably 

prefer a system free from intelligence links, some argued that the 

information needed by agencies such as the Bureau of Census and 

Dept. of Agriculture could be extracted from imagery from these 

satellites. Another reason to delay immediate funding was that a more 

effective system would eventually become feasible. Scientists argued 

against this reasoning, saying that the lack of fine detail in ERTS 

images was not a serious impediment but that lack of continuity would 

be. (Sullivan, NYT, 4 Jan 75, 17) 

8 January: Twenty-five spacecraft on twenty-four vehicles were scheduled for launch by NASA during 1975, NASA announced. The 25 spacecraft included 14 for NASA programs, 10 for other organizations, and 1 

as a cooperative program with a foreign government. Highlighting the 

year would be the 15 July launch of an Apollo spacecraft carrying 

Thomas P. Stafford, Vance D. Brand, and Donald K. Slayton as the 

U.S. contribution to the joint U.S.-U.S.S.R. Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. 

Apollo would rendezvous and dock with Soyuz 19-launched 7 hr 

earlier than Apollo and carrying Aleksey A. Leonov and Valery N. 

Kubasov-allowing both crews to exchange visits and perform joint 

scientific experiments. 

The two sets of Viking spacecraft, scheduled for 11 and 21 

August launches, would journey through space for a year before 

arriving in the vicinity of Mars. There each set of spacecraft would 

separate into an orbiter and a lander to make orbital and surface 

investigations of the Martian environment. 

Other ‘NASA spacecraft would include ERTS-B Earth Resources 

Technology Satellite and SMS-B Synchronous Meteorological 

Satellite, in January; GOES-C Geodynamic Experimental Ocean 

Satellite, in March; OSO-1 Orbiting Solar Observatory, Nimbus-F 

experimental meteorological satellite, and Explorer 53 (SAS-C Small 

Astronomy Satellite), in May; GOES-A Geostationary Operational 

Environmental Satellite, in June; Explorers 56 and 57 Dual Air 

Density Explorers, on a single booster in July or August; Explorer 54 

(m-D Atmospheric Explorer), in September; and Explorer 55 (A&-E), 

in December. 

The 10 spacecraft to be launched by NASA for other organizations 

included 5 comsats for Communications Satellite Gorp. : Intelsat1 
January ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

IV F-1 in February, Intelsat-IVA F-1 and F-2 in July and October, 

and Marisat A and B in April and July. Other reimbursable launches 

would include Telesat-C (An& 3) for Canada in March, COS-B 

Celestial Observation Satellite in July for the European Space 

Agency, Symphonie-B experimental comsat in September for France 

and West Germany, RCA-A (RCA-satcom 1, in orbit) comsat in 

December for RCA Corp., and ITOS E-2 Improved TIROS Operational 

Satellite in late 1975 for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration. 

Helios-B would be launched late in 1975 as a cooperative effort 

with West Germany. The schedule called for 18 of the 24 launches to 

be made from Kennedy Space Center, 5 from Western Test Range, 

and 1 from San Marco. For the launches NASA would use a Saturn IB, 3 

Titan-Centaurs, 5 Atlas-Centaurs, and 15 Thor-Delta launch vehicles. (NASA Release 75-5; KSC Release 180-74) 

0 The Department of Defense announced the award of a $1 500 000 costplus-incentive-fee contract to General Dynamics Corp. for launch 

services for the Atlas E and F vehicles at Vandenberg Air Force Base. 

(DOD Release 8- 75) 

9 January: Sea Satellite (SEASAT)-a new program, approved in the 

FY 1975 NASA authorization, to monitor the oceans and provide 

continuous weather and sea condition reports-was announced by 

NASA. SEASAT-A, a proof-of-concept mission scheduled for 1978 

launch, would carry sensors to measure wave heights, current 

directions, surface wind directions, and surface temperatures. 

Objectives of the initial mission were to disseminate these data to 

users concerned about weather predictions; to route shipping to avoid 

storms, adverse currents, and ice fields; and to provide coastal 

disaster warnings. 

SEASAT-A would also accumulate scientific data on the curvature 

of the oceans; ocean circulation; transport of mass, heat, and 

nutrients by surface currents; and the interaction between air and 

sea. 

SEASAT would be managed by Jet Propulsion Laboratory with 

Langley Research Center, Goddard Space Flight Center, Wallops 

Flight Center, and JPL each having responsibility for one of the four 

sensors-off-the-shelf NASA or Air Force spacecraft to which a sensor 

module would be attached. Existing tracking facilities and support 

hardware would also be used. Cost of the SEASAT-A mission, as currently planned, was $58.2 million. (NASA Release 75-1) 

0 McDonnell Douglas Corp., working under contract to NASA, began 

flight and static tests of the refanned engine to demonstrate NASAdeveloped noise-reduction techniques. More than 2 yr of work at 

Lewis Research Center; Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Div. of United 

Aircraft Corp.; Boeing Co.; United Air Lines, Inc.; and American 

Airlines, Inc., had been spent in modifying a JT8D engine to reduce 

irritating high-frequency noise. When installed on the McDonnell 

DC -9, the new engine was expected to reduce by 60% the ground area 

exposed to excessive noise levels. Similar results were expected with 

the engine installed on Boeing’s 727 and 737 aircraft. During the initial 

test phase, McDonnell Douglas would fly fm 90 hr a DC -9 outfitted 

with the modified engine, to evaluate noise characteristics and flight 

performance. The second phase of testing would begin in mid-January 

when Boeing would flight-test it in a 727. (NASA Release 75-4; LeRC 

Release 75-2) 

2 
ASTRONAUTICS AND mRONAUTICS, 1975 January 

11 January: The 38 000-kg second stage from the Saturn V booster that 

placed the Skylab 1 orbital workshop in orbit 14 May 1973 reentered 

the atmosphere over the Atlantic Ocean just before 3 am EST. NASA reported that radar tracked one large chunk that survived the fiery 

plunge through the atmosphere and fell into the ocean at 34’ north 

latitude, 19” west longitude, about 1600 km west of Gibraltar. Smaller 

pieces might have scattered over an area several kilometers to the 

. northwest and southeast of that point and some charred debris might 

have fallen on the Sahara Desert, but NASA received no report that any 

fragments had caused damage or injury. (NASA PAO, interview, 30 

June 1976; Reuter, W Post, 12 Jan 75, A14; AP, W Star-News, 12 Jan 

75, Al; UPI, NYT, 12 Jan 75, 55) 

11 January-9 February: The U.S.S.R. launched Soyuz 17, carrying cosmonauts Lt. Col. Aleksey A. Gubarev and Georgy M. Grechko, 

from Baykonur cosmodrome at 2:43 am local time (4:43 pm EST 10 

Jan.) to rendezvous and dock with the Salyut 4 space station launched 

26 Dec. 1974. Soyuz 17 entered orbit with a 249-km apogee, 186-km 

perigee, 88.9-min period, and 51.6” inclination. Tass announced that 

the mission would carry joint experiments with Salyut 4, including a 

comprehensive checkout of the spacecraft’s onboard systems in 

various flight conditions. 

After an orbital correction that raised the spacecraft’s orbit to 354- 

km apogee, 90.7-min period, and 51.6” inclination, Soyuz 17 docked 

with Salyut 4 on 12 Jan. Gubarev and Grechko entered the station, 

switched on the power and radio transmitters, and inspected the 

scientific equipment. 

During their nearly 30 days aboard Salyut 4, the cosmonauts 

studied solar phenomena, x-radiation from celestial bodies, and 

earth‘s radiation. They also studied the effects of weightlessness on 

the human body, made earth-resources observations, and studied the 

earth‘s upper atmosphere. They resprayed two telescope mirrors 

dulled by exposure to space; carried out biological “Oasis” experiments using insects, microorganisms, tissue cultures, and plants; and 

recycled water, condensed from the cabin’s atmosphere, for drinking 

and food preparation. 

The crew began preparations to return to earth on 9 Feb., reboardingsoyuz 17 and undocking from the space station at 11:08 am 

Baykonur time (1:08 am EST). Soyuz 17 softlanded in- the U.S.S.R. 110 

km northeast of Tselinograd, Kazakhstan, “in complex meteorological conditions” after 29 da 13 hr 20 min in space. 

On-the-spot and subsequent medical checks showed the cosmonauts to be in good health. The Soyuz 17 cosmonauts broke the 

previous 23-day 18-hr 22-min Soviet record for time in space, set by 

the Soyuz 11 crew (6-30 June 1971) before they were killed during 

reentry. (GSFC SSR, 28 Feb 75; Tass, FBIS- SOV, 13 Jan- 13 Feb 75;SF, 

April75,144-5, June 75,235; UPI,NYT, 16 Jan 75,14;SBD, 14 Jan 75, 

62; LC S&T News Alert 2645) 

12 January: The communications satellite business was becoming one of 

the fastest growing businesses on earth, Thomas O’Toole said in a 

Washington Post article. The huge dish-shaped antennas used as 

telephone and television links between earth and the dozen or so 

orbiting comsats had sprouted up in the suburbs of Moscow and 

Peking, in Brazilian jungles, in the mountains of Iran, and in the 

deserts of Algeria. In addition, Algeria was building 14 antennas; 

3 
January ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Indonesia, 60; and Brazil, 2000. More than 90 countries were currently communicating by satellite, most using the seven Intelsat satellites orbited by the 89-country consortium, the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization. Worldwide Intelsat traffic 

was growing by 20% a year. In addition to the Intelsat comsats, the 

Soviet Union, Canada, France, and West Germany, and Western 

Union already owned their own comsats. Japan would have one by 

1977, and Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Indonesia were each planning to 

orbit their own. 

Besides making it easier to communicate around the world, 

satellites were responsible for cutting the cost of overseas conversations. In 1947, a 3-min phone call from New York to London cost $12. 

The same call in 1975 cost $5.40. (O’Toole, W Post, 12 Jan 75, 1) 

13 January: Dr. John L. McLucas, Secretary of the Air Force, announced 

the selection of the General Dynamics Corp. YF-16 prototype for fullscale engineering development as the Air Force’s F- 16 air combat 

fighter. A‘ $417 904 758 fixed-price-incentive contract to fabricate 15 

engineering development F- 16 aircraft was awarded to General 

Dynamics, which had been in competition with Northrop Corp. and its 

YF-17 lightweight fighter prototype during flight-test evaluations at 

the Air Force Flight Test Center. Dr. McLucas said the decision in 

favor of General Dynamics had been based on cost and technical 

engineering proposals submitted by the companies. The Air Force 

planned to introduce a minimum of 650 F- 16 aircraft into the active 

inventory by the early 1980s. 

The Air Force also awarded a $55 500 000 fixed-price-incentive 

contract to United Aircraft Corp’s Pratt 8.1 Whitney Div. to produce 

the FlOO engine used in the F- 16. (DOD Release 16-75) 

0 Marshall Space Flight Center plans for the FY 1975 reduction-inforce had been revised, MSFC announced. The target date for issuance 

of RIF notices to MSFC employees had been delayed from mid-January 

to 29 Jan. with an effective date of 14 Mar. The 2-wk delay resulted 

from the need for an additional decrease in the end-of-FY 1975 

personnel ceiling, from 4145 to 4113. This further reduction was 

MSFC’S share of the government-wide reduction of 40 000 employees 

called for by President Ford in 1974. (MSFC Release 75-6) 

0 Marshall Space Flight Center announced the award of a $59950 

contract to Abbott Laboratories for living human kidney cells to be 

used by u.S. astronauts in the German electrophoresis experiment 

during the July U.S.-U.S.S.R. Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. Abbott 

Laboratories would provide the cells as part of an experiment to find a 

way to isolate effectively the one kidney cell in 20 that produced the 

enzyme urokinase, an enzyme capable of dissolving blood clots. 

Because gravity made such separations difficult on earth, scientists 

hoped to develop new technology in the zero-g environment of space. 

The experiment was being developed, built, and tested by West 

Germany’s Messerschmitt-Boelkow-Blohm Gmbtt. (MSFC Releases 

75-7, 75-13] 

13 -21 January: Preparations for U.S. participation in the joint u.s.- 

U.S.S.R. Apollo-Soyuz Test Project mission in July continued at 

Kennedy Space Center. After removal from environmentally protected shrouds, poststorage inspection, and installation of eight 

stabilizing fins, the Saturn IB booster, SA-210, was stacked on the 

4 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 January 

mobile launcher inside the Vehicle Assembly Building on 13 Jan. 

Engineers began electrical and mechanical systems tests on the first 

stage and installed flame curtains and panels to shroud the outboard 

engines. The Saturn IVB second stage was mated to the booster 14 

Jan. and the instrument unit added to the stack 16 Jan. A boilerplate 

unit simulating the Apollo command module was added 17 Jan. The 

boilerplate would be removed and replaced with the actual spacecraft, and the rollout of the entire vehicle to the launch pad was 

scheduled for March. 

The docking system and docking module were mated 17 Jan. after 

combined systems tests. The complete unit would be placed into the 

spacecraft adapter in February. Swing-arm launch-control center 

integration was completed 21 Jan. (KSC Release 165-74; MSFC 

Release 75- 19; Spaceport News, 23 Jan 75, 3; 6 Feb 75, 3; Marshall 

Star, 2 Jan 75, 2) 

14 January: NASA's Earth Resources Technology Satellite, ERTS, had been 

renamed Landsat, NASA Associate Administrator for Applications 

Charles W. Mathews announced at a Landsat-B prelaunch press 

briefing in Washington, D.C. Erts 1, launched 23 July 1972, would be 

called Landsat 1; ERTS-B, scheduled for launch 19 Jan., would be 

designated Landsat 2 once in orbit. Mathews said that, since NASA 

planned a SEASAT to study the oceans (see 9 Jan.), Landsat seemed a 

more appropriate name for a satellite that studied the land. 

Landsat Program Manager Harry Mannheimer said that Landsat- B would be launched into the same orbital plane as Landsat 1 but 

180" out of phase. Between them the two satellites would retrace the 

identical ground track every 9 days rather than the 18-day interval of 

one satellite. The additional coverage would enable scientists to study 

dynamic phenomena more effectively. Mannheimer said that a 

significant improvement over Landsat 1 was Landsat- B's increase in 

command storage, adding flexibility in commanding the various 

instruments while the spacecraft was out of view of a ground station. 

James R. Morrison, Landsat Resources Survey Program Manager, 

said that, whereas the emphasis of the Landsat 1 mission was on 

experimentation, the emphasis for Landsat-B would be on fewer but 

larger scale applications of remote-sensing information to real 

resource problems. Of the 120 investigators-compared with 320 

investigators during the Landsat 1 mission-57 were US.-sponsored 

and 52 were from foreign countries. During the rigorous selection, 

preference had been given to investigations that included direct 

participation and cost-sharing by bona fide users in both the public 

and private sectors. 

New with Landsat- B were the Applications Systems Verification 

Tests (ASVT), based on results of Landsat 1, to further develop, 

demonstrate, and document Landsat results. The ASVTs were larger 

in design and scope than earlier investigations, essentially beyond the 

capability of any one investigator to manage. ASVTs for Landsat-B 

included a large-area crop inventory experiment (LACE), ice-warn 

program, snow-cover and snow-melt prediction program, natural 

resources information system, and environmental information system. (Text) @ Apollo-Soyuz Test Project crew members Thomas P. Stafford, Donald 

K. Slayton, and Vance D. Brand participated in a 9-hr exercise at 

5 
January ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Kennedy Space Center to test the Apollo spacecraft's internal systems, earth-landing systems, and instrument packages. The astronauts climbed into the Apollo, which was inside a huge altitude 

chamber, to test the systems at simulated altitudes of up to 61 000 m 

while cabin pressure was maintained at 34 474 newtons per sq m. 

Pressure inside the cabin was also lowered to zero to test the integrity 

of the astronauts' space suits. On 16 Jan. the U.S. backup crew for the 

mission, Alan L. Bean, Ronald E. Evans, and Jack R. Lousma, 

participated in a similar exercise. (NASA Activities, Feb 75, 11; KSC 

Release 5- 75) 

0 Flight Research Center was investigating the use of TV to provide visual 

information to pilots of future aircraft and spacecraft, NASA announced. TV might enhance target visibility for pilots of high-performance aircraft that might have to approach and land at high angles 

of attack with reduced window area, and for unmanned remotely 

piloted research vehicles that would augment flight instrumentation 

with visual. For testing, FRC had installed a TV camera on top of a 

Piper PA-30 aircraft with a 12.5- by 17.5-m TV screen installed on the 

instrument panel. A curtain would restrict the test pilot's view 

through cockpit windows with a safety pilot riding in the right seat of 

the aircraft. Besides demonstrating use of TV for approach and 

landings, the first phase of the program would evaluate the pilot's 

ability to judge altitude using TV. The second phase would aim at 

optimizing the TV system for landing maneuvers. (NASA Release 

75- 11) 

14-1 7 January: NASA and Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratory 

launched 10 rocket-borne experiments to study the upper atmosphere 

as a follow-on to the June 1974 Atmospheric Layering and Density 

Distribution of Ions and Neutrals program (Project ALADDIN "74). Two 

experiments on the Ute-Tomahawk rockets released chemical clouds 

into the atmosphere to measure winds and temperature and diffusion 

coefficients. The first, launched 15 Jan., released aluminum vapor at 

160-km altitude, creating a blue-green glowing cloud visible along 

much of the eastern seaboard. A second, launched 17 Jan. after a 1-day 

postponement, released trimethylaluminum in puffs 10 sec apart from 

180 km down to 90 km. Five single-stage Super-Lokis carried 

instruments to measure density, temperature, and wind, and instrumentation aboard two Paiute-Tomahawks measured the atomic 

oxygen density profile. A prelaunch performance test of a UteTomahawk was made 14 Ja'n. (WFC Releases 75-1, 75-2; NYT, 16 

June 75, 29) 

15 January: President Ford signed Executive Order 11834 establishing the 

Energy Research and Development Administration-under Administrator Dr. Robert C. Seamans, Jr.-and the Nuclear Regulatory 

Commission-under Chairman William A. Anders-effective 19 Jan. 

Establishment of the two new agencies was provided for in the Energy 

Reorganization Act of 1974, signed into law on 11 Qct. 1974 by 

President Ford, which abolished the Atomic Energy Commission and 

reassigned its responsibilities. ERDA would take over AEC's research 

and development programs including the development of fossil, 

nuclear, solar, and geothermal energy to meet present and future 

needs. ERDA would also take the lead in energy R&D programs 

transferred from the Dept. of the Interior, National Science 

6 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 January 

Foundation, and Environmental Protection Agency. NRC was 

assigned me's licensing and regulatory responsibilities. (PD, 20 Jan 

75, 54; ERDA Release 75- 1; ERDA Fact Sheet) 

16 January4 February: U.S. and u.S.S.R. Apollo-Soyuz Test Project working groups held their last major meeting in the US. before the 

scheduled July launches. The five working groups included 80 Soviet 

aerospace specialists led by Academician Boris N. Petrov and ASTP 

Technical Director for the U.S.S.R. Konstantin D. Bushuyev. Working Group 3, Soviet specialists in dockingsystems, arrived 16 Jan. and 

went directly to Rockwell International Corp. in California for joint 

tests of the docking system alignment pin and socket. Following the 

tests, the group returned to JSC to review the results of those tests and 

others made earlier in Moscow. 

NASTRAN to analyze Space Shuttle structures. Recipients of the 

awards included 12 NASA and 12 contractor employees. (NASA Release 

75- 13) 

16 January-8 February: U.S. and U.S.S.R. Apollo-Soyuz Test Project working groups held their last major meeting in the U.S. before the 

scheduled July launches. The five working groups included 80 Soviet 

aerospace specialists led by Academician Boris N. Petrov and ASTP 

Technical Director for the U.S.S.R. Konstantin D. Bushuyev. Working Group 3, Soviet specialists in docking systems, arrived 16 Jan. and 

went directly to Rockwell International Corp. in California for joint 

tests of the docking system alignment pin and socket. Following the 

tests, the group returned to JSC to review the results of those tests and 

others made earlier in Moscow. 

On 20 Jan. a portion of Working Group l-for experiments, 

trajectories, and contingencies plans-arrived at JSC to prepare 

for joint simulations scheduled for March. Group 4, for communications systems, also arrived to review the results of independent 

U.S. and Soviet tests of the flight communications system. The 

latter group-accompanied by Dr. Glynn S. Lunney, U.S. ASTP 

Technical Director, and Prof. Bushuyev-then traveled to Kennedy 

Space Center 3 Feb. to make electromagnetic radio and TV compatibility tests. 

The remaining Soviet specialists arrived in the U.S. on 27 Jan. 

Working Group 2, for control systems and docking targets, prepared 

contingency-control modes for the mission, and Working Group 5 

prepared the final report on the compatibility of ASTP life-support 

systems. Group 5 also certified the equipment to be transferred between the two spacecraft. 

Although a portion of Group 1 would remain in the U.S. through crew 

training scheduled for 11 Feb., most of the Soviet contingent returned 

to the Soviet Union 8 Feb. The next major meeting for the working 

groups was scheduled for mid-May in Moscow. (JSC Release 75-02; 

Spaceport News, 6 Feb 75, 3) 

17 January: A request for proposals for integrated electronic assemblies 

(EA) for the Space Shuttle’s solid-rocket boosters had been issued by 

Marshall Space Flight Center, MSFC announced. The roposals would 

assembly of 33 EAs. The Space Shuttle would carry two refurbishable 

EAs, one forward and one aft, to route commands from the Orbiter to 

the thrust-vector control system to release the nosecap and frustum, 

be for design, development, test and evaluation, P abrication, and 

7 
January ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

jettison the solid-rocket motor nozzle, detach parachutes, and turn on 

the recovery aids. (MSFC Release 75- 11) 

18January: New members of the House of Representatives Committee on 

Science and Technology, led by Committee Chairman Olin E. Teague 

@-Tex.), made an orientation tour of Kennedy Space Center. In 

addition to visits to Launch Complexes 36 and 39, the KSC industrial 

area, and the Visitors Information Centet, the committee members 

viewed the Apollo spacecraft being readied for the July U.S.-U.S.S.R. 

Apollo-Soyuz Test Project and the Viking lander being prepared for 

the August twin mission to Mars. The members also received special 

briefings on Center activities: (KSC Release 11-75) 

20 January: The appointments of four senior European Space Research 

Organization directors became, effective. The appointments were 

Professor of Engineering Massimo Trella (Italy) as Technical Operator, Bernard Deloffre (France) as Director of the Spacelab program, 

Walter Luksch (West Germany) as Director of the Communications 

Satellite Programme, and John Hawkes (United Kingdom) as Head of 

Development and Technology at ESRO’S Space Research and 

Technology Center (ESTEC) in the Netherlands. (ESRO Release, 20 Jan 

75) 

0 An interagency agreement between NASA and Department of Interior to 

use NASA technology for mineral extraction was announced by 

Secretary of the Interior Rogers C. B. Morton. Funded and directed 

by DO1 and combining efforts of NASA and contractor scientists, the 

project would apply NASA experience in developing of systems for 

manned and automated operations in hostile environments to 

demonstrate new coal-mining technology. NASA has designated 

Marshall Space Flight Center as the lead NASA Center. (NASA Release 

75- 17) 

21 January: The current fleet of supersonic transports-including the 16 

Anglo-French Concordes and 14 Soviet Tu-144s flying or scheduled 

for service-would cause minimal damage to the ozone layer, Dr. Alan 

J. Grobecker, Director of the Dept. of Transportation’s Climatic 

Impact Assessment Program, announced at a press briefing. Citing a 

3-yr DOT study, “The Effects of Stratospheric Pollution by Aircraft,” 

Dr. Grobecker said it would require 125 Concordes flying 4.5 hr daily 

to cause a minimally detectable change in the ozone layer. However, 

the study concluded that future expansion of stratospheric jet fleets 

should be carefully monitored. 

Recommendations made by the study included development of 

engines to meet specific nitrogen oxide-emission standards, development of low-sulfur aviation fuels, and establishment of stratospheric 

air-quiility standards and engine-emission regulations. (AP, NYT, 22 

Jan 75, 33; Robinson, Av Wk, 27 Jan 75, 16-17) 

22-25 January: NASA launched Landsat 2 (Landsat- B), formerly called 

Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS-B), from Western Test 

Range ,at 9:56 am PST on a two-stage Thor-Delta booster supplemented by nine strap-on rockets. The satellite entered a near-polar 

orbit with a 918.23-km apogee, 912.89-km perigee, 103.32-min 

period, and 99.09“ inclination. Primary objective of the mission was to 

acquire multispectral imagery over the U.S. and foreign countries in 

quantity sufficient to improve remote-sensing interpretative techniques and to further demonstrate the practical application of Landsat 

a 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 January 

data. Secondary objectives were to acquire sufficient multispectral 

coverage over the U.S. to supply data requirements for the 

Applications System Verification Tests for at least 1 yr, to acquire 

multispectral coverage for at least 2 yr over the major agricultural 

areas of the world to illustrate further applications of Landsat imagery 

for crop inventory, and to demonstrate successful operation of the 

Data Collection System. 

A 3-day delay in the launch changed the initial orbital phasing of 

Landsat 2 relative to Landsat 1 (launched as Erts 1 on 23 July 1972) 

into a 12- to 6-day repeat cycle instead of the planned 9-day cycle. 

However, an orbital correction maneuver beginning 27 Jan. and ending 6 Feb. altered phasing to a 9-day repeat cycle. The payload 

separated from the launch vehicle 50 min 3 sec after launch, followed 

by solar-panel deployment and earth acquisition using the attitudecontrol system. The command system was turned on automatically, 

permitting activation of the payload by ground stations. During the 

night of 22-23 Jan. the mechanical integrity of the wideband video 

tape recorder was verified, Data-Collection System (DCS) activated, 

and data-collection platform experiment data transmitted. By 12:OO 

pm EST 23 Jan. all spacecraft systems were operating and by 25 Jan. 

the wideband transmitter, wideband video tape recorder, multispectral scanner (MSS), and return-beam vidicon (BV) were turned 

on, and operating normally. 

Teaming up with Landsat 1, the 953-kg Landsat 2 would provide 

repetitive coverage of almost the entire earth to demonstrate the 

practical benefits of resources management from space for NASA in 

cooperation with the Dept. of Agriculture, National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration, Dept. of the Interior, Environmental 

Protection Agency, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and various state, 

local, and foreign organizations. Experiments included the cooperative NASA-DOA-NOAA Large Area crop Inventory (LACIE), which 

combined crop-acreage measurements derived from Landsat data 

with meteorological information from ground stations and NOAA 

satellites to assess crop yields and make production forecasts. During 

the first yr of operation, LACE would concentrate on US.-grown 

wheat, but the experiment would later be expanded to other crops and 

other regions. 

Other experiments included land-use survey and mapping; mineral 

resources, geological, structural, and land-form surveys; water 

resources studies; marine and ocean surveys; meteorological and 

environmental studies; and interpretative techniques development. 

Data were being transmitted to three NASA tracking and dataacquisition facilities at Fairbanks, Al.; Goldstone, Calif.; and 

Greenbelt, Md. In addition, Canada and Brazil operated Landsat 

ground data-acquisition stations and Italy and Iran were constructing 

similar facilities. Data received from the satellite were sent to the 

NASA Data Processing Facility at Goddard Space Flight Center where 

1300 images, covering 45 million sq km, could be processed each 

week. The data would then be forwarded to the Federal Data Center 

and made available to the public. 

The Landsat mission was part of a U.S. program to develop remotesensing methods for improved management of earth's resources. In 

addition to Landsat 1 and 2, the program included remote-sensor 

9 
January ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

instrument development; data-analysis research using data from 

spacecraft, aircraft, and ground-truth sites; low-, intermediate-, and 

high-altitude aircraft flights; and Earth Resources Experiment 

Package @REP) experiments completed during the 1973 manned 

Skylab missions. (NASA MORS, 9, 23 Jan 75; NASA Releases 74-329, 

75-31) 

22 January: NASA's Os0 5 Orbiting Solar Observatory began its 7th yr in 

earth orbit. Launched 22 Jan. 1969 to study the sun and its influence 

on earth's atmosphere, Os0 5 had completed more than 34 000 orbits. 

It was the fifth of eight spacecraft launched in the OS0 program to 

observe the sun during most of its 11-yr solar cycle. Os0 5 had been 

shut down 3 yr after launch but was reactivated in July 1974 after 

decay of the orbit ofOso 7 (launched 29 Sept. 1971). Os0 5, which had a 

planned lifetime of 6 mo, was obtaining data on the frequency and 

extent of eruptions on the sun's surface. (NASA Release 75-46) 

23 January: The Air Force's prototype B- 1 strategic bomber successfully 

completed its second flight test at Air Force Flight Test Center. 

Primary objectives of the 3-hr 21-min flight included evaluation of the 

aircraft's wing sweep control system, flying qualities in the initial 

climb, and power approach configuration. The auxiliary power unit 

was also evaluated and air-start tests were made. 

Following takeoff, the B-1 climbed to 3050 m, where its landing 

gear, flaps, and slats were retracted. After flying at low speeds with 

the wings in the full forward 15" position, the wings were swept 25", 

and the aircraft climbed to 4900 m and conducted air-start tests at 

mach 0.7. The prototype then slowed to 463 km per hr and its speed 

brake was checked in a descent to traffic-pattern altitude. The B- 1 

then landed safely at AFFTC. (AFSC Newsreview, March 75) 

The Federal Communications Commission approved a plan for 

International Business Machines Corp. and Communications Satellite Corp.'s Comsat General subsidiary to form a domestic satellite 

company with a third company as long as no partner owned less than 

10% or more than 49% of the stock. However, a plan in which IBM 

would replace Lockheed Aircraft Corp. and MCI Communications 

Corp. as Cornsat's partner and own 55% was rejected. The FCC stated 

that this plan would give IBM too much power over the specialized 

communications business. 

Other alternatives suggested by the FCC included a plan whereby 

IBM and Comsat could independently enter the communications 

satellite business or Comsat could join another consortium without 

IBM. Another alternative was that Comsat, which was not permitted to 

deal directly with the public, could lease space communications 

circuits to IBM under an arrangement similar to the one Comsat had 

with American Telephone & Telegraph Co. 

Whatever the arrangement, FCC ruled, IBM must establish a 

separate corporation for its satellite operations. (FCC Memorandum 

Opinion and Order 75- 156; FCC Release 46281; DJ, W'Post, 24 Jan 75, 

D7; W Star-News, 24 Jan 75, F21) 

0 Ground was broken for Marshall Space Flight Center's x-ray telescope 

test facility for the High Energy Astronomy Observatory (HEAO) 

program. The facility, which would cost $4 million including 

equipment, would be used to test instruments for the HEAO program 

as well as'to calibrate rocket payloads for x-ray stellar studies and 

10 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 January 

make advance telescope calibrations. The HEAO program included 

three unmanned scientific satellites to be launched into low earth 

orbit between 1977 and 1979 to study the invisible light of x-rays, 

gamma rays, and cosmic rays. (Marshall Star, 29 Jan 75, 4) 

24 January: Studies of the heavy particle cosmic-ray exposure received by 

the astronauts during the nine Apollo lunar orbital missions revealed a 

significant variation in exposure as a function of the amount of 

shielding and the phase of the solar cycle, Science magazine reported. 

The command module pilot, who remained in the spacecraft while the 

two other crew members landed on the moon, had received the least 

exposure. The ankle, the least shielded part of the body, received a 

higher exposure than the chest, which had greater shielding. A sharp 

rise in exposure had been evident beginning with Apollo 14 when 

mission times increased. Observed variations in flux from mission to 

mission-the flux during Apollo 16 and 17 was 2.4 times higher than 

Apollo 8 through 12was attributed to solar modulation of the 

primary cosmic ray beam. 

Data obtained during the Apollo missions would be used for 

planning long-range missions and for estimating expected biological 

damage. (Benton et al., Science, Vol. 187, 263-5) 

The U.S.S.R. commanded the retrorockets aboard Salyut 3 (launched 

25 June 1974) to fire, putting the orbital workshop on a descent 

trajectory. After 7 mo in space, it reentered and burned up over the 

western part of the Pacific Ocean. After a 16-day visit to Salyut 3 in 

July 1974 by a two-man crew aboardsoyuz 14, a second crew launched 

26 Aug. 1974 aboard Soyuz 15 had failed, in several attempts, to dock 

with the station and returned to earth after 48 hr in space. (Tass, 

FBIS-SOV, 24 Jan 75, U1) 

27 January: NASA Black Brant VC sounding rockets would be used to carry 

materials-processing experiments as a low-cost way of expanding 

observations made during the 1973- 1974 Skylab missions, NASA 

announced. Three flights a year aboard the sounding rockets were 

planned from 1975 through 1980 to provide a better understanding of 

material behavior during melting, solidification, and heat treatment 

without the effects of gravity. Although the sounding rockets would 

provide only 6 min of low gravity-one ten-thousandth of the gravity 

on earth-rocket missions were the only way to get low-gravity 

materials-processing data between the July 1975 manned ApolloSoyuz Test Project and the Space Shuttle flights in the 1980s. (NASA 

Release 75- 12) 

0 Dr. James 6. Fletcher, NASA Administrator, and New York City mayor 

Abraham D. Beame met in New York to review NASA-developed 

safety standards for handling liquefied natural gas. Following a 1973 

gas storage tank fire that killed 40 persons, New York officials had 

asked NASA to use its experience in handling highly volatile rocket 

fuels to help the city establish a comprehensive risk-management 

plan to design, construct, and operate natural gas facilities. The plan, 

developed at Kennedy Space Center and incorporated into New York 

City Fire Department operating procedures, identified liquid gas 

risks, controlled the risks through redundant fail-safe techniques, and 

set up criteria for discussions to eliminate or accept certain risks. 

Also discussed was the new fiberglass and aluminum breathing 

system developed at Johnson Space Center and being tested by 

11 
January ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

firefighters in New York, Houston, and Los Angeles. Results to date 

indicated that the new unit-which was 30% lighter than conventional 

systems and featured a high-pressure, longer duration air tank and a 

face mask allowing better vision-was superior to old-style units. The 

new system was expected to be introduced commercially later in the 

year. (NASA Release 75-25) 

0 Sen. Edward M. Kennedy (D- Mass.) introduced S. 397 to authorize the 

Secretary of the Interior to acquire and maintain for future 

generations the site in Auburn, Mass., on which Dr. Robert H. 

Goddard launched the first liquid-propelled rocket on 16 March 1926. 

(CR, 27 Jan 75, S884) 

27 January-13 February: A joint conference of technical directors for the 

U.S.-u.S.S.R. Apollo-Soyuz Test Project met at Johnson Space 

Center. Participants in the conference, held while U.S. and Soviet 

working groups also met at JSC (see 16 Jan.-8 Feb.), reviewed the 

progress of ASTP preparations and published the necessary documentation. 

A joint communique issued 13 Feb. stated that discussions and 

agreements were completed on technical questions relating to the 

development of new spacecraft equipment and design improvement, 

mission ground-support equipment, and publication of technical 

documentation. 

The communique also stated that communication lines between 

U.S. and U.S.S.R. centers fully guaranteed the flow of information 

necessary to conduct the joint mission. Both docking systems were 

carefully checked and were ready for flight, with final checkouts 

scheduled at the respective launch sites. Crew training was 

proceeding satisfactorily (see 7-26 Feb.) with the final joint training 

session scheduled for April in the U.S.S.R. 

Soviet ASTP Technical Director, Professor Konstantin D. Bushuyev, had informed U.S. officials that Soyuz 16 (launched 2 Dec. 1974) 

had successfully completed a full test of basic flight phases planned 

for ASTP as well as performance of spacecraft systems and interaction 

with U.S.S.R. ground kontrol systems. Joint U.S.-U.S.S.R. tracking 

activity during the flight had shown that the precision of tracking 

information was satisfactory. 

During a 13 Feb. press conference at JSC, Professor Bushuyev said 

that, in addition to changes in the Soyuz life-support systems and the 

addition of the docking apparatus, other design changes on the Soyuz 

spacecraft included the installation of a transporter for the Apollo and 

related antennas, a new interspacecraft communications system, an 

optical target to permit Apollo to target the approach and rendezvous, 

and some flashing beacons and orientation lights. (Joint communique 

text; JSC press briefing transcript, 13 Feb 75) 

28 January: Lee R. Scherer assumed the duties of Director of Kennedy 

Space Center, succeeding Dr. Kurt H. Debus, who retired in October 

1974. Scherer had been Flight Research Center Director since 1971 

and, before that, Assistant Director for Lunar Programs and manager 

of the Lunar Orbiter program at NASA Hq. (KSC Release 17-75) 

0 Marshall Space Flight Center announced the award of three contracts, 

part of a program to design, fabricate, test, and demonstrate a lowcost aesthetically appealing solar collector for residential heating and 

cooling. Chamberlain Manufacturing Corp. was awarded $72 621 and 

12 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 January 

Honeywell, Inc., was awarded $104 255 to deliver a low-cost collector 

based on existing technology and the requirements of the solar heating 

and cooling demonstration. A third contract was awarded to PPG 

Industries which would furnish collector panels from off-the-shelf 

hardware at essentially no cost. (MSFC Release 75-22) 

29 January: NASA’s basic goal in the U.S. stratospheric research program 

was to determine the normal makeup of the upper atmosphere with 

emphasis on understanding the dynamic processes occurring and the 

perturbations caused by natural and man-made events, Dr. James C. 

Fletcher, NASA Administrator, said at a hearing before the Senate 

Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences. NASA’s current highaltitude program was being carried out by conventional and special 

purpose aircraft such as the U-2, instrumented packages placed on 

commercial aircraft, instrumented balloons, sounding rockets, and 

computer modeling techniques. Satellites still provided the best 

potential for continuing repetitive global observations of the upper 

atmosphere. The Nimbus satellites had measured properties 

affecting the ozone and had made vertical profiles of the upper 

atmosphere. Atmospheric Explorer (m) satellites had made coordinated investigations of photochemical processes in the upper 

atmosphere caused by solar ultraviolet radiation. 

Dr. Fletcher said that NASA would continue these efforts and had 

plans for new atmospheric studies. In addition to payloads planned for 

launch on the Space Shuttle, NASA would use instrumented aircraft, 

balloons, and sounding rockets to study the effects of chlorofluoromethanes, or Freon, on atmospheric ozone. (Transcript) 

Reduction-in-force and reduction-in-grade notices were sent to 213 Civil 

Service employees at Marshall Space Flight Center as a result of the 

reduction in the end-of-N 1975 personnel ceiling. In addition to the 93 

persons separated and the 120 persons reduced in grade, 191 MSFC 

employees received reassignments as part of a reclassification survey 

conducted during the summer of 1974. (MSFC Release 75-24) 

30 January: NASA’s Office of Space Science announced assignment to 

Marshall Space Flight Center of overall responsibility for a definition 

study of the Airnospheric, Magnetospheric and Plasmas-in-Space 

(AMPS) Spacelab payload, to fly on the Space Shuttle. AMPs would be a 

manned laboratory equipped to study the dynamic process of ;he 

atmosphere and magnetosphere, using active and passive probmg 

techniques. (NASA Release 75-28) 

31 January: An unexpected and sudden drop in the total number of 

ionospheric electrons within 1000 km of the burning Saturn V secondstage engines had been noted during the 15 May 19731auhch ofskylab 

1, Science magazine reported.The probable cause of the electron loss 

was the large number of hydrogen (HA and water vapor molecules 

added by the engines to the ionospheric F-region of the atmosphere. This initiated a recombination process between ionospheric positive 

ions and ambient electrons, causing the removal of ion-electron pairs. 

The Saturn’s first-stage engines, which burned kerosene in an oxygen 

environment, cut off at 88 km and, therefore, had little effect on the 

ionosphere F-region. 

Similar changes in ionospheric chemistry had not been noted in 

association with Saturn V vehicles launched before Skylab 1 because 

alI their final parking orbits (and therefore their second-stage burns) 

13 
January ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

had been below 190 km, where the ionospheric chemistry is different. 

(Mendillo et al., Science, 31 Jan 75, 343-5) * Marshall Space Flight Center announced the award of two contracts to 

Martin Marietta Corp. for further studies on the Earth Orbiting 

Teleoperator System (EOTS). Under a $246 570 contract Martin would 

design EOTS, an unmanned remotely controlled spacecraft, to operate 

in earth orbit near the Space Shuttle Orbiter. The spacecraft would 

carry a TV camera for close-up inspection, have docking capability, 

and be propelled by cold-gas expulsion. Under a $64 000 contract 

Martin would develop a complete set of requirements for the control 

and display station, a unit in the Orbiter that would contain control 

equipment common to all experiments requiring a teleoperator 

system. (MSFC Release 75-29) * NASA had awarded a $152 565 000 cost-plus-award-fee contract to 

Martin Marietta Corp. for the design, development, and test of the 

Space Shuttle external tank, Marshall Space Flight Center announced. The contract, which covered the first increment of the 

external tank project for 1 Sept. 1973 to 30 June 1980, called for a 

maximum production rate of 24 tanks per year and delivery of major 

ground-test articles and 6 flight-model tanks. The work would be done 

at Michoud Assembly Facility under the direction of MSFC. (MSFC 

Release 75- 28) 

During January: Opportunities and Choices in Space Science, 1974, a 

report published by the Space Science Board of the National 

Research Council, recommended that NASA undertake the Large 

Space Telescope as the only new space research start in FY 1976. The 

telescope should be followed by a series of permanent national and 

international observatories in orbit. The report also recommended 

that, budget permitting, NASA undertake in 1977 a lunar- polar 

mission, a Pioneer- Jupiter orbiter, a Mariner- Jupiter- Uranus 

mission, and a solar maximum mission. However, NASA should 

compare the importance of the Pioneer- Jupiter orbiter with the 

Mariner- Jupiter- Uranus mission if current FY 1977 budget estimates would not support both missions. Other recommendations 

included an immediate reevaluation of strategy for missions to explore 

the outer solar system during the next decade and for returning a 

Martian surface sample to earth instead of landing an unmanned 

laboratory to perform analyses as current plans propose. 

The report strongly endorsed the High Energy Astronomical 

Observatories (HEAO), Pioneer-Venus mission, and MarinerJupiter- Saturn mission as vital to the nation's space science efforts. 

(Text) * Contracts involving $25 000 or more awarded by Marshall Space Flight 

Center during the month totaled nearly $200 million. Among them 

were awards to Lockheed Missiles and Space Co., Inc., for $67 500 to 

develop the capability of predicting radiant heating at the base region 

of the Space Shuttle, and for $49 971 to continue a two-phase study of 

flow effects on Space Shuttle plume simulation. Lockheed also had 

received $59 740 to continue analyses of Apollo Telescope Mount data 

obtained during the Skylab mission. A $29 945 contract had gone to 

Northrop Services, Inc., to continue studies on Space Tug recovery of 

a spinning satellite. 

The u.S. Army Engineer Div., Ala., had received two contracts. A 

$2-million contract had been awarded for construction at MSFC of the 

14 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS January 

structural test facility for the Solid Rocket Booster and a $2.93-miUion 

contract has been awarded for construction and modifications to the 

Dynamic Test Facility for vibration testing of the Space Shuttle in the 

vertical positions. The contracts also included a $152.6-mdlion award 

to Martin Marietta Corp. for the design, development, test, and 

evaluation of the Space Shuttle external tank, including six flight units 

and test hardware. 

MSFC had awarded the Dept. of Commerce $60 000 for an 

atmospheric measuring program. Bendix Corp. had received $99 736 

for a Skylab control-moment gyro anomaly investigation, and the 

University of New York had received $36 253 to continue data 

analysis of a Skylab zodiacal light experiment. (MSFC Release 75- 39) 

15 

February 1975 

2 February: High-speed computer techniques were producing profiles of 

giant red stars, in a NASA-sponsored research project conducted by 

California Institute of Technology scientist Dr. Juliana ChristySackmann at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. 

Analyzing high-resolution infrared data on successive star 

flashes representing from a fraction of a year to a million years in the 

evolution of a red giant, Dr. Christy-Sackmann found that the violent 

combustion of helium in the heart of the stars, releasing heat up to 260 

million'c, produced a predominance of carbon. She stressed the 

convective role of helium and hydrogen in fueling the stellar fires: A 

convective tongue of helium was driven through layers of burning 

shells toward the outer envelope of hydrogen. Hydrogen might also 

drop down to overlap, giving extra energy to an old star. The release of 

energy from the interior of the stars varied, apparently because of 

convective zones that seemed to come and go. Although each flash 

produced extreme interior disruption, surface changes in most cases 

were minor. 

The length of time required for computation had prevented 

previous investigators from following and analyzing more than a few of 

the hundreds of successive flashes occurring in a star; using the new 

computer technique, Dr. Christy-Sackmann planned to analyze 

hundreds. (JPL Release, 2 Feb 75) 

3 February: President Ford sent a $349.4 billion FY 1976 budget request to 

Congress, an increase of $45.0 billion over the FY 1975 request. The 

recommended deficit of $51.9 billion was a peacetime record high 

designed to help revive the Nation's sagging economy. In his budget 

message to Congress, the President said that his recommendations 

provided for fiscal policy actions to increase purchasing power and 

stimulate economic revival; a major new energy program to hold down 

energy use, accelerate development of domestic energy resources, 

and promote energy research and development; an increase in outlays 

for defense to maintain preparedness and preserve force levels in the 

face of rising costs; a 1-yr moratorium on new Federal spending 

programs other than energy; and a temporary 5% ceiling on increases 

in pay for Federal employees and on individual benefits tied to 

changes in consumer prices. Proposals included a one-time 816-billion 

tax cut- $12 billion for individual taxpayers and $4 billion for 

business-to stimulate economic recovery. 

Energy: The President specifically requested that no new Federal 

spending programs be initiated in FY 1976 except in the field of energy, 

which had a total recommended budget authority set at $2.491 billion. 

Federal energy functions were divided into three broad categories: 

general operating programs (analysis and development of energy 

policy), regulatory programs, and research and development programs. General operating programs, with a recommended budget 

authority of $548 million, would be administered by the Federal 

17 
February ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Energy Administration (FEA), Dept. of the Interior, and the new 

Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA). Federal 

energy regulation, with a recommended budget authority of $178 

million, was managed by EEA, Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), 

and Federal Power Commission. Although the new budget called for 

support from NASA and the National Science Foundation (NSF) for 

energy R&D, ERDA would have the major responsibility. 

The proposed energy program called for an increased fee on 

imported oil and an excise tax on domestically produced petroleum 

and natural gas. The proposal also called for decontrol of oil 

prices-coupled with a windfall profits tax-and deregulation of 

prices on new natural gas. 

Energy 

(in millions of dollars) 

Outlays 

1974 1975 1976 Recommended budget 

Program or agency aetual estimate estimate authority for 1976 

Energy: 

General operating programs Regulation 

Research and development 

Total energy 

223. 152. 498. 90. 171. 164. 

--- 739. 1131. 1577. 

548. 

178. 

- 1764. 

606. 1454. 2240. 2491. 

The Federal government had further expanded its research and 

development program to provide new and improved technologies 

necessary to increase domestic energy resources. Outlays for energy 

R&D would be $1.7 billion in FY 1976, an increase of 36% over FY 1975 

and 102% over 1974. Budget recommendations continued a vigorous 

nuclear R&D program and accelerated non-nuclear energy R&D, 

particularly in coal and solar energy. 

General Science, Space, and Technology 

(in millions of dollars) 

Outlays 

1974 1975 1976 Recommended budget 

Program or agency actual estimate estimate authority for 1976' 

Space research and technology: 

Manned space flight 

Space science, applications, and 

Supporting space activities 

technology 

Subtotal 

General science and basic research: 

National Science Foundation 

Energy Research and Development Administration 

Geological Survey 

Eaah Sciences: 

Dednctions for offsetting receipts 

Total 

1473 

1168 

- 322 

2963 

647 

369 

178 

-3 

4154 

- 

1538 1705 1782 

1040 1127 

-- 327 351 1119 - 324 

2905 3183 3225 

649 720 757 

393 414 438 

m 2% 18 -3 -3 -3 

4183 4581 4686 

-- - 

'Compares with budget authority of $3874 million in 1974 and 54299 million in 1975. 

18 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 February 

Requested funding totaling 

billion for gene space, and technology-not 

including energy or Dept. of Defense programs-was highlighted by 

the buildup in the development and production of the Space Shuttle; 

continued development of spacecraft to explore the sun, planets, and 

universe; continued research, development, and experimentation in 

the application of space technology for surveying natural resources 

and improving weather forecasting; and increased support for basic 

science. 

Agencies receiving the major portions of the general science, 

space, and technology funds were NASA, NSF, ERDA, National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration, and Geological Survey. 

Air Transportation and Nonmilitary Aeronautical Research: In the 

field of transportation, for which the recommended FY 1976 budget 

authority was $5.568 billion, air transportation accounted for $2.660 

billion. The Administration would propose major legislation in aviation development, and revenues providing for continued long-term 

Federal development of the airway system, substantial restructuring 

of the airport grant program, and more equitable structuring of airtransportation user fees. 

NASA would spend $316 million in FY 1976 on its broad program of 

research and technology to support civilian and military aeronautical 

objectives. Major aims of the program: to reduce aircraft noise and 

exhaust pollution, reduce fuel Lconsumption, and improve aircraft , 

performance, reliability, and safety. 

ral Science and Techno 

Air Transportation 

(in millions of dollars) 

Outlavs 

Program or agency 1974 1975 1976 Recommended bndget 

actual estimate estimate authority for 1976 

Air transportation: 

Airways and airports 1870 2092 2288 2285 Air carrier subsidies 73 67 66 61 Aeronautical research and technology --- 

292 304 316 - 314 

Total, air transportation 2236 2464 2670 2660 

Defense Research, Development, Test, and Evaluation: Total 

obligational authority of $103 billion for military defense included a 

$10.236-billion estimate for RDT&E to permit continued engineering 

development of the B- 1 strategic bomber, of the Trident submarine 

missile system, of long-range and intercontinental ballistic missiles, 

and of the command, control, and communications of strategic forces. 

Also funded under the RDT&E function were military astronautics 

programs to improve space technology for military applications and to 

develop space vehicles for specific military missions. Efforts would be 

increased on development of a missile early warning system, 

communications satellite system, NAVSTAR global positioning system, 

and uses of NASA’s Space Shuttle for launching military space 

payloads. ’ 

19 
February ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Military Research, Development, Test and Evaluation 

Programs 

(in millions of dollars) 

Budget plan Obligations 

1974 1975 1976 1974 1975 1976 aetnd estimate estimate actual estimate estimate 

Summary of programs by activities: 

1. Military sciences 

2. Aircraft and related equipment 3. Missiles and related equipment 4. Military astronautics and related equipment 5. Ships, small craft, and related equipment 

6. Ordnance, combat vehicles, and related equipment 7. Other equipment 8. Promamwide manage- ment and support 

Total direct 

427 346 

1 667 463 

2 123 007 

5w 028 

633 990 

426 630 1 594 571 

731 938 

8 194 973 

432 586 

1 615 499 

2 107 534 

523 757 

665 301 

464 607 1 844 160 

962 068 

8 615 513 

4a.s 8% 

2 123 267 

2 488 503 

625 451 

664 3% 

569 941 2 195 680 

1083 513 

10 236 600 

ua 092 

1 660 347 

2 471 245 

585 187 

647 832 

432700 484393 

1 620 520 2 113 520 

2 126 370 2 477 253 

524 130 622 214 

668026 664146 

469429 564245 1850 172 2 186 443 

-- 

%0709 1081407 

a 652 056 io 193 ai 

Defense Procurement: Out of a total FY 1976 recommended defense 

procurement budget authority of $24.420 billion, $8.015 billion was 

designated for aircraft and $3.306 billion was designated €or missiles. 

Defense Procurement 

(in millions of dollars) 

1974 actual 1975 estimate 1976 estimate 

Aircraft 5 938.2 6 081.9 8 014.8 

Ships 3 508.4 3 174.6 5 446.0 Missiles 2 681.8 2 544.8 3 305.6 

Combat vehicles, weapons, and torpedoes 575.5 708.4 1314.6 Other 4 763.5 4 846.0 6 338.5 

Total 17 467.4 17 355.7 24 419.5 

- - - 

(PD, 10 Feb. 75,128-136; OMB, Budget of the U.S. Govt., FY 1976 

and appendixes) 

Dr. James C. Fletcher, NASA Administrator, released the budget 

statement he had given at a 1 Feb. press briefing. The FY 1976 NASA 

budget called for the authorization of $3.539 billion and net outlays of 

$3.498 billion for the 12-mo period beginning 1 July, and additional 

NASA Budget Plan, FT 76 

. 

(in millions of dollars) 

FY 1974 N 1975 N 1976 

Research and Development 2310.9 2323.3 2678.4 Construction of Facilities 101.1 142.7 84.6 Research and Program 

Management 744.0 765.2 776.0 

Total 3156.0 3231.2 3539.0 

- - - 

20 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 February 

amounts of $958.9 million in authorizations and $905.6 in net outlays 

for the 3-mo transition period beginning 1 July 1976. 

Dr. Fletcher said the new budget was “lean but manageable.” For 

the first time since 1961 the budget provided no new program starts. 

In accordance with President Ford’s request to hold FY 1975 and FY 

1976 expenditures to a minimum, NASA, in FY 19’75, had deferred 

obligations of $72 million and optlays of $70 million, reduced civil 

service employment by 300, and made program adjustments to stay 

within the total m1975 and 1976 budgets. Further adjustments might 

be necessary if the inflation rate continued to grow, 

Although NASA’s FY 1976 budget was up $300 million from the 

previous year, $200 million of this increase was specifically 

anticipated in last year’s budget to carry forward commitments built 

into programs approved in FY 1975. Therefore, NASA had received an 

effective increase of only $100 million, or about 3%. This, along with 

the nation’s current 9% inflation rate, was a “good indicator of the 

leanness of NASA’s FY 1976 budget.” 

The budget would permit NASA to proceed with current major 

programs as planned: The Space Shuttle, scheduled €or a first 

manned orbital flight in mid-1979, and Landsat- C, scheduled for a 

fall 1977 launch, would continue on schedule. Reduction of fuel use in 

aircraft remained a principal focus in NASA’s aeronautics research 

and technology. NASA was also continuing stratospheric studies, 

including the effects of pollutants on the environment, with significant 

contributions coming from NASA meteorological and atmospheric 

satellites, sounding rockets, and balloons and high-flying aircraft. 

Although there would be no new starts, NASA would continue its 

study and advanced technical development for science, applications, 

and aeronautics projects to be started in future years, including 

preliminary work for payloads to fly on the Space Shuttle and 

Spacelab. 

The 1975 calendar year launch schedule was one of the most 

ambitious in U.S. history with 28 launches scheduled, including the 

joint U.S.-U.S.S.R. Apollo-Soyuz Test Project in July and the two 

Viking missions to Mars scheduled for August. 

Although NASA’s legal responsibilities for energy research and 

development-designated under the Solar Heating and Cooling Act of 

1974-had been transferred to the Energy Research and Development 

Administration, NASA would work closely with ERDA in various 

aspects of solar research and development. 

Dr. George M. Low, NASA Deputy Administrator, said at the press 

briefing that the largest budget increase was for manned spaceflight, 

where the increase for the Shuttle was partially offset by reduced 

spending for the rest of manned spaceflight. The small increase for 

space science did not tell the whole story: If funds for the Viking 

program were subtracted, the budget for the rest of science had 

increased $170 million from FY 1974 to FY 1976. Although 

applications, aeronautics, and space technology programs each 

showed small increases, funds for tracking and data acquisition 

decreased slightly despite increased maintenance costs for tracking 

stations, because NASA was beginning to close down tracking stations, 

preparing for the time when tracking and data relay satellites would be 

available. 

21 
February ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

NASA Budget Plan 

(in millions of dollars) 

N 1974 N 1975 N 1976 

Manned space flight 

Space science 

Applications 

Aeronautics and space technology 

Tracking and data acquisition 

Energy programs 

Technology utdization 

Total Research and Development 

Constructron of Facihties Research and Program Management 

Total budget plan 

999.9 

664.5 

159.0 

234.3 

244.0 4.7 

4.5 

2310.9 

- 

1110.3 

174.5 

248.0 

4.4 

5.5 

2323.3 

542.8 

237.8 

- 

1414.6 

175.0 

250.3 

26.0 5.9 

7.0 

582.6 

101.1 142.7 84.6 744.0 765.2 776.0 - 

3156.0 

- 

3231.2 3539.0 

- 

William E. Ldy, NASA Comptroller, said that, of the $84.6 million 

budgeted for construction of facilities, $47.2 million was to continue 

the buildup of Space Shuttle facilities, mostly for launch and landing 

facilities at Kennedy Space Center. The remaining funds were for 

normal rehabilitation and modification of existing facilities, with 

smaller amounts for minor construction and for faciIities planning and 

design. 

Civil service manpower was expected to continue at the same level 

for FY 1976 with 24 316 employees. However, the number of support 

service contractors-excluding mission or stage contractors-would 

decrease from 18 637 in N 1975 to 17 811 in fl1976. The estimated 

125 000 persons working on NASA programs during N 1975 was 

expected to increase by 6000 to 7000 by the end of FY 1976. 

Distribution of funds to the Centers would change: An increase of 

$224.3 million would go to Johnson Space Center for the Shuttle 

program. A decrease of $37.3 million for KSC reflected a decrease in 

funding for the construction program. Goddard Space Flight Center 

Estimated Distribution of Total NASA Budget 

(in millions of dollars) 

Increase or N 1975 N 1976 Decrease 

Johnson Space Center John F. Kennedy Space Center, NASA Marshall Space Flight Center National Space Technology Laboratories Goddard Space Flight Center Wallops Flight Center Jet Propulsion Laboratory Ames Research Center Flight Research Center Langley Research Center Lewis Research Center NASA Headquarters Undetermined 

922.6 

275.9 

428.7 

10.0 

493.1 

31.9 

180.9 

34.6 

285.5 

218.1 

159.1 

22.0 

168.2 

1146.9 

541.2 

10.9 

461.1 

31.3 

193.0 

40.3 

249.4 

253.3 

166.4 

238.6 

188.1 

18.5 

224.3 

-37.3 

112.5 

0.9 -32.6 

-0.6 

7.2 

32.0 

5.7 -36.1 

35.2 

7.3 

-- - 

-3.5 

Total 3231.2 3539.0 307.8 

22 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 February 

was down $32.6 million, largely because of a decrease in funding for 

Delta vehicles. (OMB, Budget of US. Gout., FY 76 and Appendix; 

NASA FY 76 budget briefing, 1 Feb 76, transcript; NASA Release, FY 

76 budget briefing background material; Fletcher budget statement, 

3 Feb 76, text) 

0 The Federal Council for Science and Technology, a committee of 

officials representing major research and development agencies, 

released “Report on the Federal R&D Program-FY 1976,” a summary 

of 17 R&D agencies’ efforts in applying science and technology to 

national issues. The report stated that the FY 1976 budget included 

$21 billion for R&D programs, a 15% increase over the FY 1975 R&D 

budget of $18.8 billion. Of this, approximately $7.4 billion was 

planned for civilian programs including energy, health, education, 

agriculture, environment, urban problems, and transportation. Approximately one-fourth the civilian R&D budget was planned for 

energy, with the largest share of that-$1.55 million-going to the 

Energy Research and Development Administration. Nine other 

government agencies would receive increases in R&D budgets, with 

NASA’s FY 1976 budget estimate increasing to $3.539 billion, up from 

$3.231 billion in F” 1975, an increase of more than $300 million. 

Space R&D would continue with projects to explore Mars, Venus, 

and outer planets, as well as the sun. Satellites would continue to be 

used for earth resources assessment, weather prediction, and surveys 

of potential geothermal energy sources. 

The Federal Aviation Administration would receive increases for 

air traffic safety, and Dept. of Defense increases would support 

development of the B- 1 manned strategic aircraft, Trident missile 

systems, and Navy and Air Force air combat fighters. (Text; OMB, 

Budget of the U.S. Gout., FY 1976) 

NASA management had permitted inflight use of “undesirable components” in the electrical system of the Thor-Delta launch vehicle to 

preserve the program’s schedule, Aviation Week & Space Technelogy 

reported. At least two Thor-Deltas had been launched with the same 

electrical-system contamination failure potential that “probably 

caused the loss” of the U.K.’s Skynet ZZ A military communications 

satellite 18 Jan. 1974. Av Wk reported that, although NASA officials 

considered the policy undesirable, they had used the components 

until they could be recycled or replaced, in the belief that the risk had 

been acceptable. On 18 Dec. 1974 the French-West German 

Symphonie 1 was almost lost when an apparent electrical contamination problem occurred in the Thor-Delta s second stage. Av Wk said 

that Symphonie program management had not been aware of the 

vehicle’s electrical-system failure potential. (Av Wk, 3 Feb 75, 44) 

0 A 9.6-gram finely powdered lunar sample arrived at Marshall Space 

Flight Center where scientists would measure in a vacuum the 

sample’s thermal conductivity, a fundamental property governing 

heat flow through the surface of the moon. The data, correlated with 

data obtained from previous studies on simulated lunar samples, 

would be used to develop a thermophysical model of the moon, 

helping scientists better to understand the moon’s origin, history, and 

relationship to the earth. (MSFC Release 75-41) 

0 Kennedy Space Center awarded a $79 991 contract to the Univ. of 

Florida’s Institute of Food and Agriculture Sciences for research on 

23 
February ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

fi-eeze-terklperature prediction. Under the terms of the contract, a 

follow-on of a 1973 contract to study the feasibility of using remotesensing devices for temperature measurement and evaluation, the 

zfniv. of Flodda would receive satellite and aircraft data from Ksc and 

the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration that would 

provide actual measurements of leaf and ground temperatures at 

specific times and places. Following calibration, the data would be 

combined irlto a temperature-prediction model. Then, using known 

variables such as current temperature, humidity, time, cloudcover, 

add wind velocity, the user could accurately forecast where freezing 

tenipdratures would occur. (KSC Release 21- 75) 

3-11 February: A delegation representing the U.S.S.R. Communications 

Administrdtipn met in Washington with representatives of the 

International Telecommunication Satellite Organization (INTELSAT) 

to discuss preliminary arrangements for the U.S.S.R. to use INTELSAT 

satellites for communications between the Soviet Union and the U.S., 

Canada, and Mexico. According to preliminary agreements, INTELSAT 

would provide the U.S.S.R. with “occasional use” of space segment 

capacity in the INTELSAT system for preassigned voice-grade 

services,, television relays, and digital transmission. The U.S.S.R. 

Communications Administration was constructing an earth station to 

work with the INTELSAT system beginning in mid-1975. (INTELSAT 

release4 28 Feb 75) 

4 February: Air Force Systems Command’s Aeronautical Systems Div. 

announckd plans to begin flight evaluation of €an blades constructed 

of itdvdnced composite materials. The new blades, made of an 

aluminum alloy matrix enforced by silicon carbide-coated boron 

filaments, would be flown on an F- 111 aircraft over a 2- to 3-yr period 

at the Air Force Flight Test Center in California. The composite 

blades, 44% lighter than convehtional titanium blades, were expected 

to increase operating efficiency by reducing rotating mass, increasing 

tip* speeds, and eliminating part-span shrouds. (AFSC Release OIP 

301.74) 

0 Edward N. Cole, retired president of General Motors Corp., was 

designing a freight carrier, called the Huskie, twice the size of the 

Boeing 747, the Christian Science Monitor reported. Cole, whose plan 

was still cin the drawing board, efivisioned a fleet of 300 Huskies 

carding height around the world, ,each aircraft flying 15 hr a day. 

Because fast loading and ufiloading was critical to the plane’s 

economic success, an automated modular loading and unloading 

system was also being designed to permit the craft to take off again 

within 30 min of landing. With the price tag for the fleet estimated at 

$913 billiofi, Cole was counting on government interest to bolster his 

plans. CSM repotted that Dept. of Defense officials were interested in 

a fleet of privately built cargo planes-with government-insured 

mortgage-that could be commandeered by the military in an 

emkrgency. (AP, CSM, 4 Feb 75, 5B) @ NASA announced that General Counsel R. Tenney Johnson would leave 

NASA to become general counsel of the Energy Research and 

Development Administration, effective 16 Feb. Johnson had been 

with NASA since May 1973. NASA Deputy General Counsel S. Neil 

Hosenball had been named acting General Counsel. (NASA Release 

75-32) , 

24 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 February 

0 Academician Anatoly A. Blagonravov, one of the Soviet Union’s leading space scientists, died in Moscow at the age of 80. Blagonravov, 

chairman of the Soviet Academy of Sciences’ Commission for Space 

Research and head of the State Research Institute of Engineering 

Studies, was one of the key scientists responsible for launching 

the world’s first satellite, Sputnik 1, 4 Oct. 1957. Blagonravov had 

begun his career in the military and much of his early work was on 

the development of automatic infantry weapons. He later turned 

to the development of spacecraft, making major design contributions 

to the Soviet Union’s Lunik I, launched 2 June 1959, as the first 

man-made object to fly by the moon. Blagonravov also represented 

the U.S.S.R. in many international organizations: He had been vicepresident of the International Space Research Committee, permanent U.S.S.R. representative on the United Nations Scientific 

and Technical Subcommittee for the Peaceful Use of Space, 

and permanent deputy Soviet representative on the U.N. Space 

Committee. 

In 1962 Blagonravov held discussions with Dr. Hugh L. Dryden, 

Deputy Administrator of NASA, during which details for exchange of 

satellite data were worked out. (Moscow Domestic News Service, 

FBIS~SOV, 7Feb 75, U1; WPost, 7 Feb 75, C8; McElheny, NYT, 6 Feb 

75, 34) 

5 February: Bills were introduced in the Senate (S. 573) by Sen. Frank E. 

Moss (D-Utah), and in the House of Representatives (H.R. 2931) by 

Rep. Olin E. Teague (D-Tex.), “to authorize appropriations to the 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration for research and 

development, construction of facilities, and research and program 

management, and for other purposes.” Bill S. 573 was referred to the 

Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences. BiU H.R. 2931 was 

referred to the Committee on Science and Technology. (CR, 5 Feb 75, 

H659, 61430) 

0 NASA’s new Low Cost Modular Spacecraft (LCMS), a recoverable 

compartmented spacecraft being considered for use aboard the Space 

Shuttle, was. demonstrated at a news conference at Rockwell 

International Corp.’s Space Division. The LCMS consisted of an 

instrument and spacecraft assembly joined by a transition ring. 

Scientific instruments or earth-resources sensors could be attached to 

the LCMS for specific missions. Designed by Goddard Space Flight 

Center engineers, the LCMS would fit into the 5- by 18-m payload bay 

of the Orbiter and also could serve as a platform for as many as 14 

satellites. The system could be placed in orbit by the Shuttle and later 

serviced or recovered and returned to earth for needed repairs. Dr. 

Robert 6. Wilson, Director of Advanced Payload Analysis at NASA 

Headquarters, said that a recoverable modular satellite system such 

as LCMS could save as much as $100 million anhually over the cost of 

nonrecoverable satellites. (JSCRoundup, 14 Feb 75,3; GoddurdNews, 

Feb 75, 8) 

6 February: NASA launched Sms 2 (SMS-B Synchronous Meteorological 

Satellite) into transfer orbit from the Eastern Test Range at 5:04 pm 

EST. Launched for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the three-stage inertially guided Thor-Delta booster placed 

the satellite in an orbit with a 36 810-km apogee, 197-km perigee, 

651.0-min period, and 23.9” inclination. Originally scheduled for 30 

25 
February ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Jan., the launch had been delayed to replace the Inertial Measurement Unit of the launch vehicle's flight-control system with a newer 

more reliable unit. The spacecraft performed normally during the 

transfer orbit, and attitude and reorientation maneuvers were 

performed as planned. The apogee boost motor was fired on second 

apogee at 9:43 am EST 7 Feb. placing Sms 2 in a synchronous orbit; 

orbital parameters were 36 685-km apogee,. 35 680-km perigee, 

1456.4-min period, and 1.1" inclination. By 10 Feb. the spacecraft was 

drifting westward at 6" per day toward the final operational station of 

115" west longitude. Over several days beginning 10 Feb., the onboard 

auxiliary propulsion system was fired to place the spacecraft into 

proper attitude for operational use. First photos were transmitted 11 

Feb. 

NASA objectives-to launch the spacecraft into a synchronous orbit 

of sufficient accuracy to enable the spacecraft to accomplish its 

operational mission requirements, conduct an in-orbit evaluation and 

checkout of the spacecraft, and turn operational control over to 

NOM-were met, and the mission was adjudged successful 22 April. 

NASA turned over control of Srns 2 to NOAA 10 March. 

The 628-kg cylindrical spacecraft carried five instruments to 

provide high-quality day and night cloudcover data; take radiance 

temperatures of the earth's atmosphere; measure proton, electron, 

and solar x-ray fluxes, and magnetic fields; transmit processed data 

from central facilities to regional stations; and transmit environmental 

information to NOM from the thousands of manned and unmanned 

data-collection platforms on land, rivers, lakes, and the sea. 

Sms 2, together with its sister craft Srns 1 (launched 17 May 1974), 

provided continuous coverage of the Western Hemisphere, transmitting weather photos every 30 min. SMS photos would be made into 

film loops of clouds moving over oceans and land masses to help 

meteorologists determine what types of cloud formations and weather 

conditions might cause the destructive tornadoes and hurricanes that 

frequently occur over the eastern U.S. 

Sms 2 was the second in a series of two operational prototypes and 

one operational spacecraft (SMS-C, to be called Goes 1 in orbit) 

developed and funded by NASA to meet the requirements of the Dept. 

of Commerce's Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite 

(GOES) system. Under aNASA-DOC agreement, NASA was conducting a 

program to develop improved sensors and techniques-based on 

technology developed in its Tiros, Nimbus, and Applications 

Technology Satellite programs-for DOC'S operational program. 

Follow-on GOES spacecraft were being planned. Goddard Space Flight 

Center, which managed the SMS program under the direction of 

NASA's Office of Applications, also had responsibility for the ThorDelta launch vehicle. (NASA MORS, 9 Jan, 10 Feb, 23 April 75; NASA 

Releases 75-6, 75-27; GSFC Wkly SSR, 6- 12 Feb 75) 

0 DOD announced the award of a $3.6-million contract to Aerojet 

Electrosystems Co. for design, development, and delivery of one 

prototype and one flight microwave temperature sounder to be used 

on military meteorological satellites between 1977-1980. Under the 

contract, Aerojet would build and test one mechanical-thermal 

simulator and associated ground equipment for calibration and 

26 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 February 

testing, and would develop a software data package to convert 

satellite data to temperature profiles. 

The microwave sounder would be designed to measure atmospheric 

temperature from the surface of the earth to altitudes above 30 km 

without regard to cloudcover. (AFSC Release OIP 028.75) 

France launched Starlette, a passive geodetic satellite, from Kourou, 

French Guiana, on a Diamant WP.4 1auncher.The satellite entered 

orbit with a 1137-km apogee, 804-km perigee, 104.5-min period, and 

49.8“ inclination. Starlette, with an inner core of uranium 238 to give it 

a high mass and reduce gravitational effects on the spacecraft, would 

reflect laser emissions directed at it from ground stations to study the 

earth‘s gravitational field, elasticity of the earth, and moments of the 

earth‘s poles. 

The launch was the first for the Diamant booster developed by the 

Centre National de Recherches Scientifiques. (GSFC Wkly SSR, 6- 12 

Feb 75; Av Wk, 9 Dec 75, 55; 17 Feb 75, 19) 

7 February: NASA had issued a request for proposals for the procurement of 

telecommunications services provided by a Tracking and Data Relay 

Satellite System (TDRSS) developed and operated by industry to meet 

NASA requirements, NASA announced. TDRSS, consisting of two 

specialized relay satellites in synchronous earth orbit and a U.s.-based 

ground terminal, would relay nearly continuous data and voice 

commands to and from mission spacecraft and the ground control 

center. The network could support all earth-orbiting spacecraft below 

5000 km, including the Space Shuttle and Spacelab, and provide 85% 

coverage, compared with the current 15% coverage by the 

conventional ground tracking system. (NASA Release 75- 37) 

0 An A- 7D aircraft with a DIGITAC digital flight-control system-first of 

its kind to be flight-tested by the Air Force-made its first flight at Air 

Force Flight Test Center. DIGITAC was part of a program to investigate 

the feasibility of installing digital flight-control systems in current and 

future tactical fighter aircraft. 

The system, featuring a pilot-selectable control mode, would 

increase flight-control reliability with its component self-test capability, improve combat effectiveness by permitting multimode aircrafthandling qualities, and cost less because of the system’s inherent 

flexibility and the general availability of its digital components. (AFSC 

Release OIP 057.75) 

0 Dr. Hertha Firnberg, Austrian Minister of Science and Research, and 

Roy Gibson, Director General of the European Space Research 

Organization (ESRO), signed an agreement in Vienna permitting 

Austria to participate in individual European space programs-including Spacelab-without obligation of membership. (Spacelab 

Newsletter 75- 1) 

A decrease in the amount of ozone in the stratosphere would cause an 

increase in skin cancer in white (the most susceptible) Americans, 

Walter Sullivan wrote in a New York Times article. The findings were 

based on the combined results of a 1974 NASA study that used 

instrumented aircraft to profile ozone and nitrogen oxide in the 

stratosphere, the National Cancer Institute’s 1974 Third National 

Cancer Survey, and the Dept. of Transportation’s 3-yr study “The 

Effects of Stratospheric Pollution by Aircraft” [see 21 Jan.]. 

27 
February ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

The NASA study, which used high-altitude U-2 aircraft, confirmed 

that atmospheric ozone increased from the equator to the poles and 

was also influenced by regional and seasonal variations. Ozone molecules above the latitude of Houston were only three fifths as plentiful 

as above the latitude of Minneapolis. Correspondingly, the Cancer 

Institute survey showed an annual incidence of nearly 400 skin-cancer 

cases per 100 000 whites in Dallas, Tex., and less than half that figure 

in the Minneapolis area. 

These data, when combined with the DOT study, indicated that the 

number of skin-cancer cases in the U.S. would increase by 6000, or 

I%, a year if 120 supersonic transports operated in the stratosphere 

for 4 hr daily, thus depleting the zone by 0.5%. (Lowenstein et al., 

Journal of Atmospheric Sciences, Nov 75,2185- 90; Sullivan, NYT, 7 

Feb 75, 11) 

7 February-1 March: The eight prime and backup Soviet cosmonauts 

training for the July Apollo-Soyuz Test Project joined with U.S. prime 

and backup astronauts in the U.S. to continue training for the joint 

mission. The cosmonauts-Aleksey A. Leonov, Valery N. Kubasov, 

Anatoly V. Filipchenko, Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov, Vladimir A. 

Dzhanebekov, Boris D. Andreyev, Yury V. Romanenko, and 

Aleksandr S. Ivanchenkov-arrived in Washington, D.C., 7 Feb. and 

traveled to Kennedy Space Center the following morning. 

The group toured KSC 8 Feb. giving the cosmonauts their first 

glimpse of the U.S. launch complex. Col. Leonovcommented that the 

pad from which Alan B. Shepard was launched in 1961 “is a very 

simple launch stand compared to the ones we use now.” 

Following a tour of Disney World in Florida 9 Feb., the cosmonauts 

spent 10 Feb. inspecting the Vehicle Assembly Building, where the 

Apollo would be stacked on the Saturn IB launch vehicle; the Launch 

Control Center firing room, from which the rocket would be 

controlled; and Launch Complex 39 Pad B, from which the Apollo 

spacecraft would be launched. Press coverage of the first Soviet visit 

to KSC noted that previous invitations for Soviet officials to visit KSC 

had been turned down,apparently because of Soviet unwillingness to 

reciprocate with invitations to Baykonur Cosmodrome. But in May 

U.S. astronauts would return the visit by going to the Soviet launch 

site. 

The astronauts and cosmonauts flew to Johnson Space Center to 

begin a 2-wk training period that included exercises in command and 

docking module simulators and mockups; joint language-training 

sessions; briefings on experiments, contingencies, and mission rules; 

and practice run-throughs of the planned joint activity days. Following 

a press conference at which U.S. and Soviet ASTP crew members were 

introduced to JSC employees, the Soviet cosmonauts returned to the 

U.S.S.R. in two groups, on 28 Feb. and 1 March. (NASA Release 

75-34; JSC Release 75-07; NASA ASTP Status Report No. 7;Spaceport 

News, 21 Feb 75; JSC Roundup, 28 Feb 75,l; McElheny, NYT, 10- 17 

Feb 75) 10 February More than 19 000 aerospace workers struck McDonnell 

Douglas Corp. facilities in Missouri, California, and Florida, saying 

that their demands for increased wages and benefits had not been 

met. In McDonnell’s St. Louis plant, where the Defense Dept.’s F-4 

Phantom jets and F- 15 Eagle fighters were built, 12 000 employees 

28 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 February 

walked off the job. The press quoted company officials as saying that 

the strike would slow, and perhaps stop, production. Only the few 

aircraft ready for final assembly and flight testing would be 

completed. About 7000 workers walked out of California facilities, 

including Vandenberg Air Force Base. At Kennedy Space Center, 200 

McDonnell Douglas employees struck, causing postponement of the 

Telesat- C launch scheduled 6 March on a McDonnell-built Delta 

launch vehicle. (C Trib, 11 Feb 75; NASA PIO, interview, 14 Feb 75) 

Formation of a Federal interagency group-the Federal Interagency 

Task Force on Inadvertent Modification of the Stratosphere 

(1MOS)-to investigate the relationship of freons (fluorochlorohydrocarbons) to ozone reduction in the stratosphere was announced by the 

Chairman of the Council on Environmental Quality, Dr. Russell W. 

Peterson, and the Chairman of the Federal Council for Science and 

Technology, Dr. H. Guyford Stever. The group included representatives from NASA; the Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, 

Defense, Justice, and Transportation; Dept. of Health, Education, and 

Welfare; Energy Research and Development Administration; Environmental Protection Agency; National Science Foundation; and Interdepartmental Committee for Atmospheric Sciences. 

IMOS would prepare a report summarizing atmospheric, medical, 

and ecological information on the freodozone relationship. The report 

would also evaluate possible economic impacts and alternatives to 

industry, consider what Federal action could be taken, and propose a 

Federal program to resolve the issues. (Fed Council for Sci and Tech 

Release 1) 

11 February: Dr. John F. Clark, Goddard Space Flight Center Director, 

and Dr. James W. Smith, president of Greenbelt Homes, Inc., signed 

a cooperative agreement to install experimental solar heating units in 

four four-family housing units in Greenbelt, Md. During the first 

phase of the project, all four of the units would be instrumented to 

measure heat loss and fuel-consumption characteristics, and two of 

the four would be fully insulated. Based on the cost-effectiveness of 

the first phase, the two insulated buildings would be equipped with 

solar heating units designed to augment existing hot-water radiator 

systems. The remaining two units would serve as control for 

comparison. The solar units, which would be designed at GSFC, would 

be installed in time for the 1975-1976 heating season. (Goddard News, 

March 75, 1-2; GHI manager’s ofc, interview, 5 Oct 1976) @ The first airborne terminal for an Air Force communications satellite 

system was being installed in a C- 141 aircraft as part of a flight-test 

program to develop a system for transmitting high-priority messages 

throughout the world via Air Force repeater satellites. In addition to 

the C- 141 terminal, the system included six additional airborne and 

four ground terminals. Results of the 6-mo test would help DOD decide 

whether the terminals should be produced in quantity. (MSc Release 

OIP 303.74) 

12 February: Water vapor was detected for the first time deep in the atmosphere of Jupiter in October 1974 by a group of Univ. of Arizona 

scientists aboard NASA’s C- 141 Airborne Infrared Observatory, 

Ames Research Center announced. The data, combined with data 

gathered by the Pioneer 10 and 11 flybys of the planet in 1973 and 

1974, added to the speculation that organic compounds being formed 

29 
February ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

in Jupiter’s atmosphere might account for the red, brown, and orange 

coloring of the planet’s clouds. 

The discovery was made with a 91.5-cm infrared telescope, newly 

installed aboard the C- 141, which was flying above virtually all the 

water vapor in the earth‘s atmosphere. Scientists would use the new 

data to predict Jupiter’s temperature and pressure, develop a 

structural model of the planet’s atmosphere, and determine Jupiter’s 

character at the time of its formation. (ARC Release 75-3; ARC 

Airborne Astronomy Prog Mgr, interview, 26 July 76; Larson et al., 

Astrophysical Journal, 1 May 75, L137-40) 

0 Communications Satellite Corp. released its 1974 annual report: earnings during 1974 had increased to a record $44 918 000, or $4.49 per 

share, up from $36 299 000 or $3.63 per share in 1973. 

In his “Message for the Shareholders,” ComSatCorp President 

Joseph V. Charyk attributed the growth to the continued increase in 

communications traffic over ComSatCorp’s global network. Excluding the u.S. mainland-Hawaii service, the number of half-circuits 

leased by ComSat to U.S. international carriers increased during the 

year by about 20%, from 2933 at the end of 1973 to 3510 at the end of 

1974. 

Responding to the increased demand for service, ComSatCorp and 

its partners in the International Telecommunications Satellite 

Organization had continued to improve and expand the system during 

1974. A sixth Intelsat IV satellite, Zntelsat ZV F8, had been launched 

21 Nov. Three higher capacity Intelsat IV-As were scheduled for 

launch during 1975, and three additional Intelsat IV-As were 

scheduled for launches beginning in 1977. Even higher capacity 

Intelsat V satellites were being planned for use in the 1980s. 

The ground network had been expanded to a year-end total of 104 

antennas at 84 earth station sites in 60 countries. Construction of 

additional antennas was begun at ComSatCorp-operated stations in 

Maine and West Virginia. (ComSat Release 75-7; ComSatCorp 1974 

Annual Rpt, 3 March 75) 

14 February: High-temperature core reactors, fueled by fissioning uranium plasmas, could be used to “burn up” or eliminate radioactive 

wastes produced in the fission process, NASA announced. In a NASAsponsored program to develop advanced nuclear-powered rocket 

propulsion, scientists had found that long-lived radioactive wastes 

could be transformed into harmless materials by bombarding them 

with neutrons. The uranium-compound fuel could be circulated and 

returned to the reactor to burn up the materials produced in the fuel. 

Computer analyses showed that a gaseous fuel reactor could establish 

a balance in rates of production and elimination of the waste produced 

after 3 yr of operation; once this equilibrium was established, no 

additional long-lived radioactive wastes would be produced. The 

gaseous fuel reactor also could be designed to burn wastes from 

conventional nuclear-fission reactors. (NASA Release 75- 44; Schneider et al., Nuclear Technology, Sept 75, 34-50) 

0 Marshall Space Flight Center announced the award of a 10-mo $149 325 

contract to Econ, Inc., to study the technical and economic feasibility 

of two different solar power plants, both in space and on the ground, 

and compare them with conventional terrestrial plants expected to 

exist ih the future. The first system was an orbiting system which 

30 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 February 

would generate electrical power from the sun and transmit it to 

industries and cities on earth. A second kind of solar-power 

generating system, located on a remote area of the earth, could 

transfer power via an earth-orbiting satellite to users thousands of 

kilometers away. Econ, Inc., would use results from earlier concept 

studies to define requirements for payload packaging, development 

and checkout, and resupply for launch on the Space Shuttle. (MSFC 

Release 75- 37) 

@ The government of Indonesia selected Hughes Aircraft Corp. to build a 

satellite communications system linking 120 million residents of the 

Indonesian islands. Under the $23.6-million contract signed in 

Jakarta, Hughes would build two satellites, a master control system, 

and -~ nine earth stations. Thirty additional stations would be built to 

Hughes specifications by two other U.S. firms. The satellites were 

tentatively scheduled for launch in fall 1976. (LA Times, 16 Feb 75) 

14 February-17 June: Flight Research Center flew 16 flights using an 

instrumented B-57 to gather detailed information on jet streams, 

thermal turbulence, and mountain waves over the western U.S. as 

part of the Measurement for Atmospheric Turbulence program. Onboard instruments measured velocity and acceleration in the various 

samples as the B-57 flew through the turbulence for 10 min on a 

straight-line course at altitudes up to 15 000 m. Langley Research 

Center, which had been making similar flights over the eastern U.S. 

since March 1974, would analyze the data for use in making future 

aircraft safer in turbulent air. (FRC Release 4-75) 

15 February: The Indonesian government concluded a $120.6-million (4.6 

billion Belgian francs) agreement with the General Bank of Belgium to 

finance construction of two communications satellites, a satellite 

control station in Jakarta, and 39 comsat network stations throughout 

the Indonesian islands. (Jakarta Domestic Service, FBIS-Indonesia, 

19 Feb 75, N1) 

The U.S. could land men on Mars in 10 yr if a commitment similar to 

President Kennedy’s pledge in 1961 to make a moon landing were 

made, Dr. Wernher von Braun, former NASA Deputy Associate 

Administrator, said in a speech at the Johns Hopkins Univ. Applied 

Physics Laboratory. Dr. von Braun, vice president for engineering 

and development at Fairchild Industries, Inc., said that nuclearpowered command ships could be sent to orbit the planet while a 

lander traveled to the Martian surface. The cost of the program would 

approximate the near-$25 billion cost of the Apollo program. (B Sun, 

16 Feb 75, B16) 

0 Soviet and American fraternizing at Cape Canaveral and Florida’s Disney World in recent weeks were evidence of how much the world had 

changed since the 1950s, a New York Times editorial said. “What was 

once a ferociously pursued race in space has given way to detente in 

space,” with the preparations for the joint Apollo-Soyuz Test Project 

in July. Skeptics, complaining that Moscow would be the “big net 

gainer” in the project, were correct only from a narrow intelligence 

point of view. They missed the main point for detente in space. 

Neither the u.S. nor the Soviet Union had resources sufficient for 

fruitful human activity in space for decades ahead. “It is simply 

enlightened selfishness for Washington and Moscow to work together 

in space.” And this was only a start. What was needed even more was 

31 
February ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

“broadly based cooperation in space efforts embracing the personnel 

and talents of all nations for the benefit of all humanity.”(NYT, 15 Feb 

75, 28) 

18 February: U.S.S.R. and India signed a 5-yr agreement on scientific 

exchange and cooperation between the Soviet Academy of Sciences 

and India’s Dept. of Science and Technology. The agreement provided for wider cooperation between the two countries in various 

fields of science and technology, and for the exchange of delegations 

and information. (Tass, FBIS-SOV, 6 March 75, J1) 

19 February-19 March: Hairline cracks were discovered in the holddown fittings on the fins of the Saturn IB launch vehicle scheduled 

to launch the Apollo spacecraft in the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project in 

July. After an earlier routine inspection at Michoud Assembly Facility 

had turned up one crack, a more detailed inspection at Kennedy 

Space Center 19 Feb. revealed 25-cm cracks on the fittings of two of 

the eight fins. A decision was made to replace the two fins. The 

cracks would not affect flight, but were in an area carrying the weight 

of the vehicle as it sat atop the mobile launcher. During a later inspection, cracks also were found in the remaining six fins, making it 

necessary to replace all eight. 

Replacement work began 11 March. Engineers strengthened the 

cracked areas by placing compressive stresses in the surface of the 

material, by pneumatically pounding it with a small bundle of rods. Six 

of the fins were replaced by 15 March. 

The spacecraft was placed atop the Saturn IB on 17 March and 

replacement of the remaining two fins was completed by 19 March. (KSC 

Release 27-75; NASA Release 75-50,75-57; Marshall Star, 19 March 

75) 

0 The Air Force System Command’s Materials Laboratory had successfully 

static-tested a full-scale F- 15 aircraft wing constructed of advanced 

composite materials, AFSC announced. The wing had withstood a 

maximum load 45% greater than expected during actual flight, before 

giving way at the point where the titanium rear spur flange and upper 

skin were bolted together. The composite wing, 18% lighter than an allmetal wing, was made of a brown epoxy thin honeycomb sandwich 

material reinforced with graphite-epoxy stiffeners. The ribs were 

graphite-epoxy and the spurs were metal. The wing, the largest 

aircraft wing ever built of advanced composite materials, was 4.9 m 

wide at the root chord and 1.5 m wide at the tip chord, and had a 4.3-m 

span. 

The program had begun in May 1971 with an $8.2-million contract 

award to McDonnell Douglas Corp. for development of the wing, 

which was expected to reduce fuel requirements by increasing range, 

speed, and maneuverability. (AFSC Release OIP 021.75) 

Despite the immediate need for aircraft noise-abatement regulations, 

little or nothing had been done, Sen. John V. Tunney (D-Calif.) said 

in a speech on the floor of the Senate. The Federal Aviation Administration was considering proposals to curb jet-fleet noise by retrofitting 

engine nacelles of JT-3D and JT-8D aircraft with sound-absorbing 

material. Delay had come in part from industry, which favored an 

alternate NASA refan program costing five times that of retrofit and not 

technologically feasible for several years. In addition, the NASA 

program could not quiet the JT-3D aircraft-the Boeing 707s and 

McDonnell Douglas DC- 8s-which made up the noisiest fourth of the 

32 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 February 

nation’s jet fleet. Sen. Tunney said that the potential benefits of the 

NASA program did not justify waiting until the technology was ready at 

a cost five times greater than retrofitting. If FAA was to prove 

responsible in the area of aircraft noise abatement, it could not 

Cbsuccumb to industry pressure against retrofit.” A retrofit regulation 

should be put into final form at the first available opportunity. (CR, 19 

Feb 75, S2160) 

20 February: Some “very heavy” influential politicians had been rallying 

around NASA’s “little known and unglamorous” Earth Resources 

Technology Satellite [renamed Landsat 14 Jan.] program, inducing 

President Ford to overrule his budget advisers and provide money for 

a third spacecraft in 1977, Arlen J. Large said in the Wall Street 

Journal. It wasn’t only NASA but “the ERTS community-geographers, 

foresters, pollution fighters and land-use planners” that lobbied for a 

third satellite to continue the work of Landsat 1 and 2 (launched 23 

July 1972 and 22 Jan. 1975). The Office of Management and Budget 

had wanted to delay funding until NASA developed cameras with 

better resolution, but the “lobbying blitz” convinced President Ford 

to overrule OMB; money for the satellite was included in the FY 1976 

budget. (Large, WSJ, 20 Feb 75, 44) 

Zntelsat IVF4 communications satellite was destroyed by a NASA range 

safety officer 415 sec after launch from Eastern Test Range when the 

Atlas-Centaur test vehicle tumbled out of control. Lifting off at 6:35 

pm EST, the mission had been normal to Atlas booster-engine cutoff at 

138 sec. Then telemetry data indicated several malfunctions, including electrical problems and loss of altitude. After destruction, the 

vehicle impacted in the Atlantic Ocean 800 km downrange from the 

launch site. An investigation of the failure was begun under the 

direction of Lewis Research Center and the mission was officially 

judged unsuccessful 6 March. The failure was the first for an AtlasCentaur since May 1971, when a circuit problem in the Centaur ended 

the launch of the Mariner 8 Mars probe. 

The 1400-kg Intelsat ZV F-6, launched by NASA on a cost-reimbursable basis for the Communications Satellite Corp. on behalf of the 

89-member-nation International Telecommunications Satellite Consortium, was intended to be the primary spacecraft over the Indian 

Ocean region, withzntelsat IV FA, launched 13 June 1972, becoming 

the backup. The failure of Intelsat IV F-6 would have no immediate 

effect on Intelsat global communications; Intelsat N F-5 could provide the primary function and Zntelsat IZI F-3, launched 6 Feb. 1969, 

was still capable of providing limited backup. 

The Zntelsat ZV F-6 mission had been scheduled originally for 

launch in February 1973 but experienced a series of delays from problems in both the satellite and the launch vehicle. (NASA MORS, 26 Feb 

75, 13 March 74; PAO, interview, 21 Feb 75; NASA Releases 73-83, 

75-7, 75-47; NASA “Note to Editors,” 3 May 73, 27 June 75; SBD, 

24 Jan 75, 127) 

21 February: The unexplained loss of calcium by astronauts during prolonged manned missions “seems to be a slow persistent loss,” Dr. 

David L. Winter, NASA Director for Life Sciences, said during a press 

briefing. Data indicated calcium had been lost in space at the rate of 

0.5% a month, a rate that showed “no evidence of leveling off.” Bones 

tended to lose calcium at varying rates, weakening selective bones. 

33 
February ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Scientists were studying various ways, including diet management, to 

compensate for the calcium loss. 

Dr. Winter said that the observed decrease in red blood cells during 

the Skylab missions was not because of red-cell destruction but rather 

a slowdown of the red-cell production. “We seem to have stumbled on 

a way in which red blood cell production is suppressed.” This 

mechanism, unknown before, would be a very interesting and 

important process to study. 

Physical criteria for the selection of astronauts for the Space 

Shuttle would vary according to function, Dr. Winter said. Pilots 

would be selected using very rigid criteria; these would not be imposed upon astronauts, i.e. mission specialists, whose function would 

be primarily scienti-fic. Because the objective for Shuttle missions 

would be to get the best qualified scientists, it would be impossible to 

predict what size, shape, age, or sex these scientists would be. The 

purpose of the Shuttle was to permit anyone with a legitimate need to 

go into space; therefore, NASA’s approach would be to broaden the 

selection criteria as much as possible. (Transcript) 

0 Dr. Philip Handler, 18th president of the National Academy of Sciences, 

had been elected for a second 6-yr term, NAS announced. Dr. Handler 

had served as NAS president since 1 July 1969. Before that he had been 

chairman of the Department of Biochemistry at Duke Univ. Medical 

Center. 

NAS, established in 1863 by an act of Congress, was a private 

organization of over 1000 scientists and engineers frequently called 

upon to advise the Federal government on policy questions related to 

science and technology. (NAS Release, 21 Feb 75) 

0 DOD announced the award of a $3 500 000 firm-fixed-price contract to 

TRW, Inc., for software support of the Space Shuttle. (DOD Release 

83- 75) 

24February: Design and fabrication of the first Space Shuttle Orbiter was 

progressing well, with all major structural elements-forward 

fuselage, tail, wings, mid fuselage-scheduled for final assembly in 

mid-1975, NASA Deputy Director of the Space Shuttle LeRoy E. Day 

told the Canadian Science Writers Association in Toronto, Canada. 

The main rocket engine, the most difficult development item, was 

being built on a 10-yr technology base in which government and 

industry had invested nearly $100 million. During 1974, initial component engine firings had been made, and firings of the first integrated 

subsystems test bed engine were scheduled for July. 

The emphasis for the expendable external tank had been on simplified low-cost production. An inexpensive spray-on insulation had 

been developed to protect the aluminum skin from excessive temperatures during ascent. 

In summary, NASA and its contractors were making steady 

progress, holding within cost and schedule commitments. The first 

Orbiter would be rolled out in 1976, with its first captive flight on the 

back of the Boeing 747 aircraft scheduled for the second quarter of 

1977. The first approach and landing tests, in 1977, would be made by 

separating the Orbiter from the 747 at about 8500 m, permitting the 

Orbiter to glide down and land on the runway at Edwards Air Force 

Base. The second Orbiter would be used for the first orbital flight in 

1979, with six developmental flights scheduled before the Space 

Shuttle became operational in 1980. (Transcript) 

34 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 February 

0 The recent detection of water vapor, and therefore oxygen, on Jupiter by 

Univ. of Arizona scientists aboard NASA’s C- 141 Airborne Infrared 

Observatory [see 12 Feb.] could stimulate additional support for a 

probe mission to obtain more detailed information, Aviation Week and 

Space Technology reported. Scientists had already known that the 

proportions of helium and hydrogen on Jupiter were approximately 

the same as on the sun. The additional information that oxygen existed 

on Jupiter would strengthen the belief that the planet’s composition 

was similar to that of the sun, and that the sun and the planet had been 

formed from the same raw material. The conclusion was important to 

many scientists who believed that earth‘s atmospheric composition 

had evolved from one similar to Jupiter’s. If this were true and if 

Jupiter’s atmosphere had changed little from its primitive state, then 

the Jovian atmosphere could serve as a laboratory for studying the 

evolution of life on earth. This new information could influence NASA 

scientists charged with making recommendations for new starts. (Av 

Wk, 24 Feb 75, 58) 

0 Tokyo Univ.’s Institute of Space and Aeronautics launched Srats 

(Taiyo )-Solar Radiation and Thermospheric Structure Satellitefrom Uchinoura Space Center at 2:25 pm local time after a 10-day 

delay because of faulty instrumentation. The three-stage MU3C 

liquid-fueled launch vehicle placed the 86-kg spacecraft into an orbit 

with a 3130-km apogee, 247-km perigee, 120.2-min period, and 31.5” 

inclination. The purpose of the satellite was to observe solar and 

cosmic phenomena. By 25 Feb. the satellite was reported to be functioning normally, with two NASA tracking stations-one in Ecuador 

and one in Chile-reporting signals from Srats. (Kyodo, FBIS-Japan, 

18-26 Feb 75) 

24-27 February: The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics 

held its 11th annual meeting and technical display in Washington, 

D.C. “Frontier Technology and Shuttle Country” was the theme of 

the session chaired by Grant L. Hansen of General Dynamics Corp. 

An Aerospace Day was observed 27 Feb. 

Sessions were held in four areas: transportation efficiency, national 

defense, space applications, and frontier technologies. The more than 

500 attendees of the technical sessions listened to papers on computers in aerospace, short-haul aircraft systems, advanced communications, and satellite technology. 

Harris M. Schurmeir, Jet Propulsion Laboratory’s manager of the 

Mariner Jupiter- Saturn 1977 project, delivered the von Karman 

Lecture 24 Feb., “Planetary Exploration: Earth’s New Horizon.” 

Schurmeir said that, despite American virtuosity in the unfolding 

drama of solar-system exploration, the never-abating high launch rate 

of the Soviet Union would make them competitors if the U.S. failed to 

exercise its mission options in the late 1970s and 1980s. 

On 25 Feb. Hans E. W. Hoffman, managing director of West 

Germany’s ERN0 Raumfahrttechnik GmbH, said that the development of Spacelab was exactly on schedule, with a complete engineering model to be delivered to NASA in April 1978. The first flight unit 

would be delivered 1 yr later. 

The first mission of the Spacelab would be a joint U.S. -European 

venture. A call for ideas for experiments had netted 243 proposals, 

from which a selection would be made; the selection process for 

European payload specialists would begin in 1975. 

35 
February ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Dr. James C. Fletcher, NASA Administrator, addressed the gathering 26 Feb. He noted that, although aerospace technology had been 

one of the “key drivers” in retaining the U.S. lead in world technology, 

a feeling of the importance of technology was “not universally 

shared.” A decline in the national emphasis on technology “has much 

to do with the decline in productivity in this country.” The increasing 

cost and complexity of applying new technology had become a vexing 

national problem. Finding new ways to reduce costs was a key management task that the aerospace business must face. 

Caspar W. Weinberger, Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare, said in an address 26 Feb. that satellite-delivered services in 

Alaska had been so successful that the Alaskan Federation of Natives 

-a highly representative broad-based grassroots organization-had 

made them the organization’s top priority. The goal was to achieve an 

operational satellite service for health, education, and other communications needs. 

The formation of the Public Service Satellite Users Consortium, 

consisting of health and educational organizations, represented the 

first effort to organize a market of small independent users sufficient 

to attract private investment capital for large-scale technology to meet 

their collective needs. HEW was investigating the possibility of a 

“social service satellite” to meet the needs of various public and social 

service communities by means of an inexpensive ground receiver. 

The satellite could dramatically reduce the cost of such servioes while 

greatly increasing the quality. 

At the Honors Night Banquet 26 Feb., Chairman Hansen was 

installed as the 13th president of the AIM. The 19 newly elected 

fellows included Hans M. Mark, Director of Ames Research Center, 

and William H. Phillips of Langley Research Center. Other awards 

presented at the banquet included: 

Recipient 

(Mition) Citation 

Goddard Award (for contributions in propulsion 

energy conservation) 

Robert M. Losey Award (for contributions to 

meteorology as applied 

to aeronautics) 

G. Edward Pendray Award (for contributions to 

aeronautical and astronauti- cal literature) 

Sylvanus Albert Reed Award (for contributions to 

aeronautical engineering 

design or aeronautical sciences) 

deFlorez.Award (for improvement in aerospace, 

aviation, or astronaut training) 

Louis W. HP Award (for enterprise and ingenuity in art and sqience of space flight) 

Gordon F. Holbrook 

George Rosen 

Paul W. Kadlec 

(General Motors Corp.) 

(United Aircraft Corp.) 

(Continental Air Lines, Inc.) 

Prof. William R. Sears W. of Arizona) 

For leadership in development of turbo-propeller propul- sion systems 

For identifying factors iodicat- ing clear air turbulence and publications on meteorological features of high atmosphere 

For contributions to aeronauti- cal and astronautical literature since 1938 

Prof. Antonio Fem (New York U.) For advances in air-breathing propulsion and airplane design 

Prof. Hugh H. Hurt, Jr. For contributions to flight safety 

by development of military and civilian texts and training pm- grams 

For contributions to space tlight 

(NASA) technology while Director of 

KSC during last 6 Apollo missions 

(U. of Southern Calif.) 

Dr. Roeco A. Petrone 

36 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 February 

Award Recipient citation @um4 (Affiliation) 

John Jeffries Award Col. Malcolm C. Lancaster For clinical research in aero- (for contributions to aerospace (USAF) space medicine medical research) 

Spacecraft Design Award For conceptual design of spin- 

(for advancement io spacecraft, (TRW, tnc.) stabilized Pioneers 6-21 using launch vehicle, reentry vehicle, high-gain antennas and com- or missile design) munications link for attitude 

Dr. Herbert A. Lasseo 

reference 

Space Science Award (for achievements in studies of physics of atmospleres of celestial bodies and dynamics and energy) 

Lawrence Speny Award (for contributions to advance- ment of aeronautics) 

Dr. Murray Dryei 

(NOAA) For contributions to understand- ing of interplanetary shock phenomena generated by solar disturbances 

Jan R. Tulinius For development of advanced theoretical aerodynamic design methods (Rockwell Int’l Corp.) 

(A&, Feb 75, April 75; AIAA Releases 10-20 Feb 75; AIAA Bulletin, 

Aug 74; Fletcher speech, text) 

26 February: Press briefings on the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project were held at 

Johnson Space Center. ASTP participants would be conducting 

experiments in space sciences, life sciences, and applications, ASTP 

Project Scientist Dr. Thomas Giuli said at an experiments briefing. 

The five space-science experiments included a soft x-ray experiment 

to study radiation by scanning across the celestial mode, pointing at 

known discrete sources in the soft part of the spectrum from 2 kev to 

0.1 kev, and investigating 10 specific x-ray sources known to emit only 

in regions below 2 kev. A helium-glow experiment would investigate 

temperature and density of the interstellar medium in the vicinity of 

our solar system by observing two special frequencies of extreme 

ultraviolet light emitted from the sun after they traveled into 

interstellar space, hit the interstellar medium, and were reflected 

back again. Other space-science experiments included a study of the 

sun’s outer atmosphere during an artificial eclipse created by 

maneuvering the Apollo spacecraft. During the “eclipse,” the Soyuz 

crew would photograph the sun’s corona. 

Among the earth environmental and applications studies was an 

experiment to measure neutral atomic oxygen and neutral atomic 

nitrogen of the earth‘s upper atmosphe-re. Another experiment would 

try to devise a simple means of monitoring the aerosol content of the 

earth‘s atmosphere. A water-resources management experiment, 

planned and coordinated with the government of India, would photograph the Himalayan area to map drainage patterns and waterreservoir locations. 

Life-science experiments included a study to observe optical sensations from cosmic rays experienced by the crew, an investigation of 

mutation in cells grown in space, and studies of the effect of space 

flight on the ability of microbes to infect humans and of changes in the 

human immunity system to resist infections under space flight conditions. 

At a mission profile briefing, Kenneth A. Young of JSC’S Mission 

Planning and Analysis Div. said that plans called for a 9-day Apollo 

37 
February ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

mission beginning 7.5 hrs after the launch of Soyuz by the U.S.S.R. 

The planned rendezvous period would be 2 days, with docking 

scheduled for the 30th inertial orbit, or third day in flight, of the Apollo 

spacecraft. Following much negotiation, u.S. and Soviet mission 

planners determined that the two spacecraft would dock over Soviet 

territory, providing real-time telemetry coverage for the Soviet Union, 

but at a location where NASA’s Ats 6 communications satellite could 

provide communications coverage to the U.S. The first handshake 

would take place over Spain. 

The spacecraft would undock on the 5th day and perform several 

joint experiments while separated. Soyuz was scheduled to land the 

following day. Apollo would continue unilateral experiments in orbit 

before landing at the end of the 9th day in space. 

Astronaut Richard H. Truly said, during a joint crew activities 

briefing, that while the Apollo and Soyuz were docked, all communications would be conducted in the language of the listener regardless 

of the nationality of the speaker. (Transcript) 

Both the Soviet and u.S. Apollo-Soyuz Test Project crews had reached a 

level of language proficiency where “we can speak to each other,” 

commander of the Soviet crew Aleksey A. Leonov said in anzzvestiya 

interview. Leonov said that the crews’ first meeting had been “merely 

a glance” and “we wondered whether we would come to like each 

other.” In preparing for the mission, the Soviets and the Americans 

had not only come to treat each other “as crew member to crew member” but had also developed a degree of comradeship. It would be 

impossible to work without this. In the event of some emergency, if ‘‘I 

have to carry him on my shoulders or he has to carry me, how could I 

do this unless I respect him and value him as a comrade? For we are 

virtually candidates of the whole world. Despite the difference of our 

social formations, despite the contradictions which have existed and 

continue to exist to this day, we have found points of contact.” 

(Kondrashov, lzvestiya, FBE- Sov, 28 Feb 75, U1) @ NASA announced the signing of a memorandum of understanding with 

Zaire to build the first African ground station designed to receive 

earth-resources data from Landsat 1 (launched as Erts 1 23 July 1972) 

and Landsat 2 (launched 22 Jan.). Zaire’s new station would produce 

both computer tapes and photographic imagery that would include 

data on the African continent from Chad to South Africa and from 

Kenya to the Ivory Coast. Currently, data from that area had been 

stored by onboard tape recorders for transmission to U.S. ground 

stations. (NASA Release 75-53) 

28 February: The preliminary design review of Space Shuttle Orbiter 102 

for the first manned orbital flight was completed on schedule. (NASA 

Gen Mgmt Rev Rpt, 17 March 75, 39) * Energy Research and Development Administration announced the 

award of a $2 612 000 contract to Hughes Aircraft Co.’s Hughes 

Research Laboratories to develop a new mercury valve for use in highvoltage direct-current transmission. The liquid-metal plasma valve 

was a spinoff from a spacecraft ion engine developed by Hughes for 

NASA. The valve, a single-anode device that fired a vacuum arc on 

signal, would be used to convert between alternating current and 

direct current at the terminals of high-voltage direct-current transmission lines. (ERDA Release 75-25) 

38 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 February 

0 Soviet and French scientists had completed the “Araks” study of the 

earth’s magnetically interlinked points, Zzvestiyu reported, by observing what happened when a bundle of electrons was artificially 

injected into the magnetosphere. French Eridan sounding rocketsequipped with electron accelerators, plasma generators, and instruments for measuring and recording wave radiation and particle 

streams-were launched on 26 Jan. and 15 Feb. 1975 from Kerguelen 

Island. During the ascent the accelerator emitted electron impluses at 

various angles to the line of magnetic force while the plasma generator 

emitted a stream of cesium plasma to compensate for the positive 

charge of the rocket. 

At the same time Soviet and French specialists in Arkhangelsk 

Oblast made optical observations using supersensitive TV installations, photometers, and electron optical-image intensifiers. Radar 

and radio spectrographs in Kostroma and Vologda Oblasts observed 

the dispersal of radio waves and radio emission in the area where the 

electrons penetrated the dense strata of the atmosphere. 

From the Araks data, Scientists hoped to determine the true 

position of the magnetically interlinked spot and to learn more of the 

interaction between the electron bundle and its medium. (Zzvestiyu, 

FBIS-SOV., 13 March 75, E2) 

Aerodynamically designed wind-flow aids could reduce wind resistance 

to tractor-trailer trucks by up to 24%, NASA announced. In a series of 

tests conducted in 1974 at Flight Research Center, NASA and the 

Department of Transportation evaluated performance gains of a 15-m 

trailer outfitted with five different commercially available dragreduction devices and two different trailer-cab spacings. The tests 

had been conducted without and then with the devices, at speeds from 

45 to 30 km per hour, to evaluate changes in fuel economy resulting 

from reductions in air drag. (NASA Release 75-39) 

During February: NASA biochemist B. C. Walverton began planting large 

quantities of water hyacinths as part of a study to determine the 

plant’s ability to absorb and concentrate toxic metals and to metabolize various other chemical pollutants. Scientists at NASA’s National 

Space Technology Laboratories had been experimenting since 1971 

with vascular aquatic plants, which are equipped with a system of 

vessels to carry nourishment from the roots to the leaves. Results of 

the experiments were so promising that NASA, in cooperation with 

Mississippi state officials and the city of Bay St. Louis, had installed a 

special system using water hyacinths as a final filtration to remove 

nitrates, phosphates, and other chemical pollutants from the 245-sqkmBay St. Louis, Miss. sewage lagoon. The water hyacinths would be 

harvested and analyzed to determine the amounts and kinds of 

impurities assimilated; saturated plants would then be recycled, using 

one of two methods being developed by NASA, into a mixed 

hydrocarbon fuel similar to natural gas. (NASA Release 74-332) 

39 

March 1975 

1 March: A Baltimore Sun editorial discussed “Distorted Priorities in the 

R&D Budget.” The President’s R&D budget for N 1976 had little 

chance of passage in its existing form because of the hostility of much 

of the 98th Congress to some of its proposals. Defense-related R&D 

would be reduced, the energy proposals would be juggled to give more 

to solar and geothermal energy, and the proposed large cuts in 

biomedical research would be restored. 

Congress might be more sympathetic to NASA. Once seen by 

congressional critics as a quasi-military organization or at least ‘‘2 

space circus that siphoned dollars away from more pressing needs, 

NASA was “beginning to prove itself a valuable scientific tool” in such 

valuable areas as environmental monitoring. That the Office of 

Management and Budget had not, as once threatened, scrapped funds 

for the Landsat- C satellite “may reflect an effort to make NASA more 

attractive by further pushing the agency into the areas that have 

gained humanist and environmentalist approval.” (BSun, 1 March 75, 

A18) 

2-7 March: A meeting at Goddard Space Flight Center of US. and 

U.S.S.R. officials to discuss a cooperative meteorology program 

recommended that in May- July 1976 each country, within a single 27- 

day solar rotation, launch two series of sounding rockets-one under 

quiet magnetic conditions, the other under disturbed magnetic 

conditions. In 1977 the two countries should hold a rocket-data 

comparison test in the vicinity of Wallops Island, Va. Both countries 

should launch more meteorological rockets during atmospheric 

warming periods. In 1976- 1978 both countries should research 

radiation transfer as a factor in temperature sensing from satellites. 

From 1975- 1978 joint remote-sensing experiments using microwave 

were proposed, along with exchange of information on frequencies 

and data format to be used with direct-broadcast equipment. (NASA 

Gen Mgmt Rev Rpt, 17 March 75) 

3 March: NASA’s Remotely Piloted Research Vehicle (RPRV) was being 

equipped with landing gear to enable it to land under control of a pilot 

on the ground, Flight Research Center announced. Previously 

helicopters and parachutes had been used in midair recovery of the 

vehicles. 

Developed by.FRC, the RPRV-a scale-model airplane up to 9 m 

long-was an economical and safe way to test advanced aircraft. After 

air launch of the WRV, a test pilot in a ground-based cockpit used 

flight controls and instruments to “fly” the RPRV through maneuvers, 

while a camera provided visual information. First application of the 

landing gear would be for a spin test of a 318-scale model of the Air 

Force F- 15 fighter. (nc Release 3- 75) 

0 In NASA’s 5-10 yr Global Air Sampling Program (GASP), a second 

instrumented, Boeing 747 jumbo aircraft began sampling flights 

41 
March ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

monitoring pollution in the earth‘s atmosphere. GASP data on carbon 

dioxide, ozone, water vapor, and particles larger than 0.3 microns 

would help determine whether the amount of ozone was being altered, 

whether vapor trails from jets contributed to cloud cover, and the 

amount of pollution caused by aircraft. 

The first GASP-instrumented 747 began flights in December 1974. 

Four aircraft-one each from United Airlines, Pan American, Qantas 

Airways, and Scandinavian Airlines-would be instrumented for 

global sampling. (NASA Release 75-60) e For coating solar collectors that heat and cool homes and buildings, 

black chrome had been demonstrated by a Lewis Research Center 

scientist to be some 20% more efficient than current coatings. Being 

“solar selective,” black chrome allowed absorption of sunlight but 

prevented the ensuing heat from radiating out of the collector. Because of this, black chrome would raise the temperature of water in 

the system as much as 5°C (40°F) over the 95°C (200°F) provided by 

current coatings. A system with hotter water would require fewer 

collectors to heat or cool an area. (NASA Release 75-55) 

0 Sen. William Proxmire (D- Wis.) had said that NASA’s Space Shuttle 

program “might be on the verge of a financial breakdown,” the 

Washington Post reported. Citing a General Accounting Office report, 

Sen. Proxmire warned that the risk of cost overruns had increased and 

that Congress should look for “cheaper alternatives.” (AP, W Post, 6 

March 75) 

6 March: NASA announced early findings of the 3 Dec. 1974PioneerZZ flyby 

of Jupiter. Data returned-by Pioneer ZZ (launched 5 April 1973, and 

renamed PioneerSaturn following the flyby) suggested that Jupiter’s 

magnetic field might be created by a large ring current and many 

eddies deep within the planet. Earlier measurements from Pioneer 10, 

launched toward Jupiter on 2 March 1972, had indicated only a simple 

magnetic envelope with a single “ring current” much like earth‘s. The 

more complex magnetic field could explain the Jovian field’s highenergy particle pattern as well as the bursts of intense radio energy 

observed emanating from the planet. Jupiter’s magnetic field 

stretched across 14 million km in some places and shrank in volume 

by three-fourths or more in others; inside this pulsating field were 

belts of intense radiation with trapped electrons 10 000 times more 

intense than those in earth‘s Van Allen belts. 

Pioneer had experienced peak intensities of high-energy electrons 

that were moderately higher than those found by Pioneer IO, 

encountering 10 times as many electrons as predicted by earth-based 

studies. Peak intensities of very high-energy protons were 100 times 

stronger than predicted but concentrated in small shallow regions. 

Other early findings of Pioneer 11 included the observation that 

Jupiter’s cloud tops were substantially lower at the poles than at the 

equator and were covered by a thicker transparent atmosphere. Also, 

the clouds at the planet’s south pole were lower than those at the north 

pole. Although Pioneer 11 found much less evidence of rapid 

circulation at the poles than at the equator, the polar areas showed 

many small convective cells dwarfing similar earth disturbances such 

as thunderstorms. “Blue sky”-attributed to multiple moleculescattering of light by gases of the transparent atmosphere-was 

visible at the poles. 

42 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 March 

Pioneer 11 accurately determined, for the first time, that the mass 

of Jupiter’s moon Callisto was 15 times that of earth‘s moon. Seen for 

the first time was an extensive white south polar cap on Callisto. (NASA 

Release 75- 49) 

0 A fleet satellite communications-system simulator developed for the Air 

Force by TRW Systems Group had been delivered for testing, Air 

Force Systems Command announced. The simulator would be a lowcost means of testing compatibility between FLTSATCOM-an 

operational near-global satellite communications system for Air Force 

and Navy Communications-and preproduction terminals for the Air 

Force Satellite Communications (AFSATCOM) system, which provided 

reliable worldwide satellite communications for command and control 

of d DOD forces. 

The simulator contained all the communications channels that the 

actual satellites would have, but used cheaper off-the-shelf components instead of high-reliability electronic parts. (Wsc Release OIP 

022.75) 

Rep. Olin E. Teague (D-Tex.) and Rep. Charles A. Mosher (R-Ohio) 

introduced H.R. 4461 “to establish a science and technology policy for 

the u.S. to provide for scientific and technological advice and 

assistance to the President, to provide adequate administrative 

organization to assure effective Federal support and utilization of 

research and development, to amend the National Aeronautics and 

Space Act of 1958, to amend the National Science Foundation Act of 

1950, and for other purposes.’’ The bill was sent jointly to the 

Committees of Science and Technology and on Government 

Operations. 

The legislation proposed the establishment of a new cabinet-level 

Dept. of Research and Technology Operations to bring together 

Federal research-related activities through a unified and efficient 

governmental structure; a five-member Council of Advisors on. Science 

and Technology to help form and implement policy at the highest 

levels of government; and a Science and Technology Information and 

Utilization Corp. to assure the widest possible dissemination of 

scientific and technological information. 

The proposed legislation would administratively relocate NASA, 

Energy Research and Development Administration, National Bureau 

of Standards, National Science Foundation, and National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration within the new department, but 

would not alter the basic mission and purpose of each agency. (CR, 6 

March 75, H1464; House Com of Sci & Tech Print 48-694) 

7 March: Approximately 31 000 contractor personnel in 47 states were 

current at work on the development of the Space Shuttle, NASA 

announced. That number was expected to increase to 34 000 by June 

and to reach a maximum of 50 000 persons within 2 yr. (NASA Release 

9 March: West German Federal Research Minister Hans Matthoefer said, 

in an interview with the West German news agency (Deutsche Presse 

Agenturf, that West German and French officials had withdrawn their 

own candidates and agreed that United Kingdom’s Roy Gibson would 

become secretary of the European Space Agency (ESA). This 

agreement removed substantial obstacles to the establishment of ESA. 

Gibson, who had been administrative director of the European Space 

75- 63) 

43 
March ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Research Organization (ESRO), was currently acting Secretary 

General until the organization merges into ESA, possibly in April. 

Another important agreement specified that two of the five 

directorships would go to West Germans, two to French, and one to a 

Belgian. (DPA, FBIS-FRG, 11 March 75, 56) 

10 March: NASA signed a contract with Italy’s Consiglio Nazionale delle 

Ricerche (National Research Council) to launch the SIR10 experimental communications satellite. The contract-signed by Dr. James 

C. Fletcher, NASA Administrator, and Prof. Alessandro Faedo, CNR 

President-provided for the launch of the microwave propagation 

satellite aboard a Thor-Delta launch vehicle in the fall of 1976. (NASA 

Release 75- 67) 

0 NASA announced the selection of Goodyear Aerospace Corp. for 

negotiations leading to a $1 000 OOO contract to provide a specialpurpose processor to support the Large Area Crop Inventory 

Experiment (LACE) at Johnson Space Center. (JSC Release 75- 17) 

0 Orders for US-manufactured commercial iet transport aircraft at the 

11 

13 

end of 1974 totaled 564, valued at $7 587 000 000, the Aerospace 

Industries Association reported. The aircraft total was down from 573 

aircraft, valued at $7 252 000 000, on order at the end of 1973. The 

orders included 210 aircraft from Boeing Co., 178 from Lockheed 

Aircraft Corp., and 176 from McDonnell Douglas Corp. (AIA Release, 

10 March 75) 

March: Kennedy Space Center announced the award of a 10-mo 

$30 000 contract to the Univ. of Miami for preliminary design of a laser 

system capable of penetrating water to a depth of 100 m to measure 

factors affecting water quality. The use of lasers to provide remote 

sensing of the ocean depths had been proved feasible during a NASA 

contract awarded to the school in 1974. The system, which would 

provide continuous information on temperature, salinity, and 

backscatter turbidity, would be tested first in alaboratory, then from a 

ship, and finally from an aircraft. (KSC Release 35-75) 

March: The Soviet Union’s Tu-144 supersonic transport made its 

inaugural scheduled flight from Moscow to Alma-Ata in a little more 

than 1.5 hr. Alma-Ata is capital of the Kazakh Republic, in South 

Central Asia bordering the Caspian Sea. The aircraft, designed by 

Aleksey A. Tupolev, flew at an altitude of 17 400 m and a speed of 

2300 km per hr. (Alma-Ata Domestic Service. FBIS-SOV. 14 March 

75, R1) * 

0 A scientific conference of Soviet scientists and officials was being held 

in Zvenigorod, near Moscow, to discuss the study of the earth from 

outer space, Tass reported. Tass quoted Academician Roald 

Sagdeyev, Director of the Space Research Institute, as saying that the 

main task of the conference was to work out unified scientific 

principles and methods for exploring earth resources from outer space 

and for organizing a systematic control over the environment with the 

help of artificial earth satellites. To date, scientists had made progress 

in certain lines of research such as meteorology, but in other areas had 

received only bits of information. The task was to move from 

individual discoveries to a qualitative geological study of the planet as 

a whole. The task called for combined effort by geologists, soil 

scientists, foresters, and hydrologists. 

44 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 March 

Sagdeyev said that the study of earth from space was becoming an 

important aspect of international relations because man’s active 

influences on the environment went beyond national bohdaries. 

(Tass FBIS-Sov, 18 March 75, Ul) 

14 March: The House Committee on Science and Astronautics favorably 

reported out H.R. 4700 authorizing FY 1976 appropriations for NASA. 

Changes recommended by the Committee would increase the total 

NASA authorization by $46.9 million, to $3.586 billion. [See also 3 Feb.] 

Recommended Changes in the FY 1976 NASA Authorization 

by the House Committee 

Differenee Reeonnuended Purpose for Program from Submission Authorization Reeonnuended (millions) (millions) Change 

Research and Development 

Space Shuttle Space Flight Operations 

Advanced Missions 

Physics and Astronomy 

Lunar and Planetary 

Launch Vehicle PmcureSpace Applications 

Exploration 

ment 

Aeronautical Research and 

Space and Nuclear Research 

Technology 

and Technology 

Enerp Technology Applications Trac mg and Data Acquisition 

Technology Utilization 

0 

-4.0 

f1.5 

+ 1.0 

- 1.0 

0 

+6.5 

0 

+2.0 

0 

-2.2 

+2.0 

12w.o 

203.1 

3.0 

156.8 

258.9 

166.9 

181.5 

175.4 

16.9 

5.9 240.8 

9.0 

R&D Totals 

Research and Program Management 

Basic submission* 

R&PM Totals’ 

Construction of Facilities 

Modification of 11- by 11-ft transonic wind tunnel at ARC 

Modification of 40- by Wft suhsonic wind tunnel at ARC 

Addition to lunar sample curatorial facility at JSC Addition for composite model 

and metal finishing shops at LaRC Construction of transonic re- search tunnel at LaRC 

+5.8 

0 

0 

0 

+ 12.5 

-2.5 

0 

+27.5 

2 684.2 

776.0 

776.0 

2.7 

12.5 

0 

1.9 

27.5 

Accepted as presented. To decrease development, test, and mission-operation activities. 

To increase studies of large space 

structures, manned orbital systems 

concepts, and in-orbit maintenance. To increase stratospheric re- search. 

To decrease funding for the Lunar Research Program. 

Accepted as presented. 

To increase emphasis on weather and chmate research, earth re- sources surveys, advanced com- munications research, datamana ement techniques, and Space 

Shut& payload definition and early 

fight tests. 

Accepted as presented. 

To accelerate high pressure hydrogen propulsion systems tests and high temperature composites re- search. 

Acce ted as presented. To &crease operations and ad- vanced missions activity. 

To accelerate effort of NASA TU teams to work with the public and increase space benefits analysis documentation. 

Accepted as presented. 

Accepted as presented. 

To repower tunnel. Not in original 

request. 

Deleted from funds. 

Accepted as presented. 

Construction of high Reynolds number transonic wind tunnel. Not in original request. 

45 
March ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Recommended Changes in the FY 1976 NASA Authorization 

by the House Committee (continued) 

Difference Reeommended Purpose for 

(millions) (millions) Change Program from Submission Authorization Recommended 

Construction a/ fiocilures (cont.~ 

Space Shuttle facilities -0.9 

Rehabilitation of facilities 0 

Minor construction of new 0 

facllities or additions to old Facility planning and design +4.5 

C of F Totals Grand Totals" 

46.3 Deferment of modifications of two 

hypergohc checkout and refurbish- ment facilities and construction of 

facilities to house microwave scanning beam landing system. 16.0 Accepted as presented. 

5.0 Accepted as presented. 

13.8 For planning and design work asso- ciated with construction and modification of two wind tunnels mentioned above. 

+41.1 

+43.7 125.7 3 585.9 

'Does not include a supplemental request for pay increases, considered separately as H.R. 13172 and signed into P.L. 94-303 1 June 1976. 

In addition, for the transition period 1 July to 30 Sept. 1976, the 

committee recommended decreasing NASA's total budget request of 

$958 900 000 to $922 450 000. One specific recommended reduction 

was in the C of F request, from $14 500 000 to $8 050 000, which would 

allow construction to continue at the same rate as during FY 1976; the 

committee recommended reduction of the $730 600 000 request for 

R&D to $700 600 000. The committee allowed NASA management 

flexibilitv in apportioning the reductions. (H.R. Com of Sci & Tech -- I 

Rpt 94 -63) 

15 Murch: Helios 1, the U.S.-West German solar probe launched 10 Dec. 

1974, passed within 0.309 AU (46 million km) of the sun at 5:13 am 

EDT, closer than any previous spacecraft had come to the sun. During 

the perihelion, while traveling at 238 000 km per hr, Helios 1 measured the solar wind, magnetic fields, solar and galactic cosmic rays, 

electromagnetic waves, micrometeoroids, and zodiacal light. Although the spacecraft encountered a heat load from the sun 10.5 

times that encountered on earth, good data were obtained and the 

spacecraft continued to operate well. Helios 1 was in a solar elliptical 

orbit with a 0.985-AU aphelion, 0.3095-AU perihelion, 190.15-day 

period, and 0.02" inclination. It would reach a second perihelion 21 

Sept. 

Helios 1, built by West Germany in cooperation with the U.S., carried 10 experiments, 7 of them West German. Spacecraft operations 

were controlled from the space operations center near Munich. 

Goddard Space Flight Center was responsible for U.S. participation. 

A second spacecraft, Helios-B, was scheduled for launch in early 

1976. (NASAMORs 16 Jan 76,11 April 76; Powers, GSFC Helios thermal 

control mgr, interview, 21 Sept 76) 

0 NASA announced establishment of the Office of Program Assurance 

under the Office of the Associate Administrator. Responsibilities and 

personnel of the former Reliability and Quality Assurance Div. and 

the Systems Safety Branch of the Office of Safety and Reliability and 

Quality Assurance were being transferred to the new office. George 

46 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 March 

C. White, who had been director of the Office of Safety and Reliability 

and Quality Assurance, had been appointed director of the new office. 

(NASA anno) 

16 March: Mariner 10 made its last and closest flyby of Mercury at a distance of 327 km at 6:39 pm EDT. To prepare for the flyby, the trajectory 

had been corrected on 30 Oct. 1974 and 13 Feb. 1975. An additional 

correction 7 March was to reduce the probability of Mariner 10’s 

impacting the surface of Mercury from 30% to 1%, targeting Mariner 

10 to approach the planet from the sunlit side, then loop around 

behind it. 

One last-minute problem was navigational difficulty in locking onto 

the star Canopus so that the spacecraft would point in the proper 

direction for data collection. Because a commanded roll search for 

Canopus would expend all remaining attitude-control gas, Mariner 10 

had to be maneuvered using solar-radiation pressure on the solar 

panels and high-gain antenna. The problem was intensified because 

of the tandem demands of Helios 1 and Mariner 10 on the antennas of 

NASA’s deep-space tracking network. However, the primary usersWest German scientists tracking Helios 1-gave receiving time to the 

Mariner 10 flight controllers, who obtained Canopus lock in time for 

the encounter. 

Major objective of the third encounter was to determine whether 

Mercury had an intrinsic or induced magnetic field. In a press briefing 

17 March, Dr. Norman F. Ness, principal investigator of the magnetic 

fields experiment, said that Mercury did have an intrinsic magnetic 

field, encountered on the incoming trajectory at precisely the time 

predicted from the first Mercury pass. Mariner 10 had measured the 

field to be a maximum of 400 gamma. Plasma science experiment data 

supported the presence of the field; Dr. Ness observed that the 

interface between the solar wind and Mercury’s magnetic field appeared to be a scaled-down version of the interaction between the 

solar wind and the magnetic field of earth. 

The spacecraft returned about 300 TV pictures of the planet’s surface between 12 and 17 March, with best resolution at 100 m obtained 

from quarter-frame near-encounter pictures. All photos were transmitted in real time and at 22 kilobits per sec, instead of the planned 

117, because of overheating of the spacecraft. (NASAMORs, 10 March 

75, 7 April 75; NASA Releases 75-58, 75-59; NASA Activities, April 

75, 12-13; Av Wk, 24 March 75, 24-25) 

17 March: Vanguard 1, oldest satellite still in orbit, completed its 17th year 

in space. The 1.5-kg 16.5-cm solar-powered spacecraft, which had 

revealed that the earth was slightly pear-shaped, had circled the earth 

more than 67 000 times since its launch in 1958. The satellite, fourth 

to orbit earth following two Soviet sputniks andExplorer 1, was one of 

3304 man-made objects tracked by the North American Air Defense 

Command. (A&A 1915-1960; A&A 1968; Miles, LA Times, 18 March 

75) @ NASA announced the award of a $334 100 contract for the design, fabrication, delivery, installation, and checkout of an optical bench and 

alignment system for an x-ray telescope test facility at Marshall Space 

Flight Center. The facility would be used to test x-ray verification and 

47 
March ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

to calibrate x-ray mirrors, telescope systems, and instruments for 

NASA’s High Energy Astronomy Observatory (HEAO) program. The 

HEAO program was to launch between 1977 and 1979 three unmanned 

scientific satellites into low circular earth orbit to study black holes, 

neutron stars, quasars, and supernovae. (MSFC Release 75- 50) 

European spending for space programs would rise significantly during 

1975 as major projects begun in the past reached a maximum pitch, 

Aviation Week and Space Technology reported. Most space spending 

was reflected in the European Space Research Organization (ESRO) 

budget which had jumped 50%, from $220 million in 1974 to $350 

million in 1975. Two programs-the Ariane launch vehicle and the 

Spacelab for use on the Space Shuttle-accounted for half the ESRO 

budget for 1975. 

Av Wk reported that officials of France’s Centre National d’Etudes 

Spatiales (CNES), prime contractor for the Ariane, had estimated that 

the booster would be used to orbit between 20 and 39 geostationary 

satellites during the 10-yr period from 1980 to 1990. 

Other European space programs under way included the Orbital 

Test Satellite (OTS), a test bed to evaluate equipment and concepts 

planned for a European comsat to be launched around 1980; Aerosat, 

a Canadian-ESRO-U.S. comsat program, with the first of two 

satellites scheduled for launch in 1978; Marots, a maritime comsat 

planned for launch in 1977; and Exosat, an x-ray astronomy satellite to 

be launched in 1979. 

All ESRO programs would be reviewed in the spring to resolve any 

pending disagreements, and to obtain approval of a 3-yr financial plan 

that called for a budget of $410 million in 1976 and $415 million in 

1977. (Av Wk, 17 March 75, 65-68) 

“A significant influence on NASA’s ability to maintain viable programs in 

the face of possibly unstable funding will be the extent to which 

commercial and foreign government users participate in the development and financial support of future payloads,” Aviation Week and 

Space Technology reported. Av Wk interviewed the Director of Mission and Payload Integration in NASA’s Office of Manned Space 

Flight, Philip E. Culbertson, who said that it would be better, in the 

long term, to move into a position where more organizations outside 

NASA were sponsoring and paying for missions and payloads. The 

agency was encouraged by the interest of industries in flying and funding Space Shuttle missions involving a wide range of basic scientific 

and technical operations. 

Foreign reimbursable payloads, already an important part of NASA 

launch operations, were seen as an even larger factor in Shuttle payloads development. Japan, already holding discussions with NASA to 

lay the groundwork for a viable national space program, was considered a serious Shuttle customer; Japan would like to develop both 

scientific and earth applications programs in the communications, 

navigation, and weather satellite fields.. Canada’s interest in positioning domestic communications satellites over its territory would continue into the Shuttle era. Even individual Soviet scientists had made 

inquiries into the possibilities of flying payloads on the U.S. Shuttle. 

Culbertson pointed out that, unlike earlier NASA manned space 

programs that included scientific funding in overall program budgets, 

NASA in-house Shuttle payload development was the sole responsi48 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 March 

bility of the specific NASA disciplines themselves. NASA’s FY 1976 

budget request contained from $50 to $100 million for various efforts 

that could evolve into Shuttle payloads, and the budget for FY 1977 

would markedly increase payload funding. However, with the budget 

crunch, funding for Shuttle payloads would compete directly with 

other programs and the payload proposals “will have to stand on their 

own merit.” Culbertson also said that major decisions would have to 

be made on how long to keep which expendable launch vehicles in the 

program. 

In another interview, NASA Spacelab Program Director Douglas R. 

Lord said that upcoming major decisions concerning Spaceiab included a follow-on procurement plan for Spacelab hardware and 

priorities on how often ESRO (Ehropean Space Research Organization) 

and other crews and experimental hardware would fly on ShuttleSpacelab missions. 

Lord said that operations of overall Spacelab functions would 

probably be maintained separately from payload operations: Johnson 

Space Center was the logical place to handle overall operations, and 

Marshall Space Flight Center was the leading candidate for the 

Spacelab payload operations center. Goddard Space Flight Center 

had expressed interest in handling operational needs of the highenergy experiments on Spacelab pallets. (Covault, Av Wk, 17 March 

75, 59-60) 

18 March: “The expertise and facilities of LeRC [Lewis Research Center], 

as well as other NASA centers, are being considered by ERDA [Energy 

Research and Development Administration] as part of its overall 

definition of a total institutional structure required to carry out the 

nation’s energy R&D program,” Dr. James C. Fletcher, NASA Administrator, and Dr. Robert C. Seamans, Jr., ERDA Administrator said 

in a letter to Representative Charles A. Mosher (R- Ohio). The letter 

was a reply to correspondence from members of the Ohio 

congressional delegation and Cleveland businessmen and industrialists to President Ford calling for increased use of LeRC talent to meet 

the nation’s energy crisis. 

Dr. Fletcher and Dr. Seamans noted that the newly established 

ERDA was the lead Federal agency for managing national energy R&D. 

ERDA intended to use the expertise and facilities of other Federal 

agencies where it was feasible and in the national interest with respect 

to cost, timeliness, and program management. 

LeRC, NASA’s lead center for aerospace propulsion and power, was 

already involved in ERDA-sponsored projects in solar heating and 

cooling, wind energy, and topping cycles to increase the efficiency of 

coal-fueled steam plants. But LeRC would continue its main task to 

work on propulsion technology, conducting energy research in support of ERDA “when it was consistent with the requirements of its 

principal mission within NASA.” (Text, letter to Mosher from Fletcher 

and Seamans, 18 March 75) 

0 A New York Times editorial commented on Mariner 10. Men had become so blasB that even near-miracles were taken for granted. 

Consider Mariner 10, which had traveled nearly a billion miles since 

its launch in 1973: The spacecraft had taken the first close-up photos 

of Venus and provided us with sharp pictures of a large part of 

Mercury’s surface during its three flybys of that planet. “In a world 

49 
March ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

where so much that is manufactured is shoddy, faulty in conception, 

or the end result of workers who could not care less, it is worth 

remembering that men can also build durable, reliable and 

trustworthy mechanisms like Mariner 10 whose historic contribution 

to knowledge has substantially enhanced man’s understanding of the 

solar system.” The Jet Propulsion Laboratory of the California 

Institute of Technology and its contractors, responsible for Mariner 

10 and its superlative performance, have every reason for pride in 

their creation, the Times said. (NET, 18 March 75, 36) 

0 NASA announced establishment within the Office of Center Operations 

of the Office of Safety and Environmental Health under the acting 

directorship of Reuben P. Prichard. The new office, which would 

have agency-wide functional responsibility for all safety matters, 

except systems safety, and for environmental health, would also be 

the focal point for agency coordination on policy and program matters 

pertaining to the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970. 

Transferred to the new office were environmental health functions 

formerly assigned to the Office of Occupational Medicine and 

Environmental Health. (NASA anno, 18 March 75) 

19 March: NASA announced that lunar samples would be available to 

colleges and universities for teaching purposes. Under a new NASA 

program, a “thin-section educational package,” consisting of several 

0.03-mm slices of representative lunar material plus brief descriptions, could be borrowed for several months by institutions offering 

undergraduate or graduate work in the geosciences. The purpose of 

the program was to broaden the use of NASA’s lunar sample collection. 

(NASA Release 75- 76) 

19-20 March: A special conference at Lewis Research Center, “Selected 

Technology for the Gas Industry,” discussed how NASA-developed 

technology could aid the u.S. gas industry in ways such as satellite 

search for fossil fuels, turbine machinery and compression technology, heat transfer, fluid flow and fluid properties, safety, 

technology for liquefied natural gas, instrumentation, materials and 

life prediction, and reliability and quality assurance. 

Addressing a conference dinner 19 March, Dr. James C. Fletcher, 

NASA Administrator, said, “In an age when space research and 

technology was measured by its immediate value in the marketplace, 

studies of the planets often are considered little more than an exercise 

in curiosity. Nothing could be farther from the truth.” When spacecraft were developed to meet the specialized needs of space travel and 

planetary exploration, technology was advanced. “NASA cannot lay 

claim to the development of the electronic computer, but it can take a 

large credit fox spurring a revolution in the electronics industry.” The 

need for lightweight components in spacecraft led to electronic 

microminiaturization. The IUiac 4 computer, developed at the Univ. of 

Illinois for DOD and now operated jointly by DOD and NASA, could 

perform 300 million calculations a second and store 1 trillion bits of 

information at a time, more than the entire surviving output of the 

Greek and Roman civilizations. Operational since 1973, Illiac’s speed 

and refinement allowed scientists to simulate and study global climate 

changes, study long-range effects of pollution on the atmosphere, 

distinguish between earth tremors from natural sources and 

underground nuclear blasts, develop seismic pictures of the earth‘s 

50 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 March 

outer shell, and enhance medical x-rays so that tumors could be 

discovered in earliest stage of development. Illiac 4 has helped solve 

problems that had eluded scientists for decades. 

Other space technology was being used effectively to preserve and 

manage the earth‘s resources and enhance the quality of life for all its 

inhabitants. Communications satellites were making global communications a reality. Meteorological satellites had advanced the 

science of weather forecasting on land and sea. Sensors, smgical 

instruments, biological isolation garments, lenses, portable cardiac 

care systems, and eye switches were just a few examples of space 

technology used in the medical field. New alloys and materials 

developed to withstand the rigors of space were being used for longerlasting automobile and aircraft engines; temperature-resistant 

lubricants and fireproof materials added to the safety of homes and 

buildings. 

“The fast-growing list of things that are and will be as a result of our 

venture into the cosmos is almost beyond imagination. Everyone who 

lives will be affected by them. And because of them, the world a 

decade or so hence will be quite different from the world we now 

know.” (LeRC Release 75- 11; Fletcher speech, text) 

20-28 March: U.S. and U.S.S.R. flight controllers and crews for the 

Apollo -Soyuz Test Project participated in simulations of phases of 

the joint mission to check out the interaction of control-center 

personnel under actual flight conditions, using voice, teletype, 

datafax, and TV communications. Beginning with rendezvous of 

Apollo and Soyuz, the simulations were conducted with Houston and 

Moscow control centers fully manned-including some specialists 

from the other nation-and U.S. and Soviet crew members were in 

simulators in their respective countries; events simulated were the 

launches, undocking, Apollo separation, 2nd and 3rd crew transfers, 

and joint activities. Further simulations were scheduled for May, 

June, and early July. (NASA Release 75-77; Tass, FBIS-SOV, 19 

March 75, U1) 

21 March: Dow Jones and Co.’s Wall Street Journal signed a 7-yr contract 

with American Satellite Corp. for the design and construction of earth 

stations and provision of high-speed communications that would 

permit a Florida-based WSJ printing plant to receive, via satellite, full 

printed pages for facsimile reproduction. Full pages would be 

transmitted, at an average rate of 3 min a page, from WSJ’s 

Massachusetts printing plant to a receiving antenna in Florida. The 

antenna would connect to printing equipment in the Florida plant, 

which would transform the communications signal into printed pages 

again. (AmSatCorp Release, 25 March 75; AmSatCorp Marketing 

Services Mgr., interview, 30 Nov 76; Jones, W Post, 1 April 75) 

22-23 March: The International Association of Machinists continued its 

strike against McDonnell Douglas Corp. after turning down a contract 

offer. Although the union said it would return to the bargaining table to 

try to resolve the impasse, NASA announced that all Delta launches in 

the near future-including Telesat- C, Marisat- A, Nimbus- F, and 

oso-~-would be postponed. (NASA PA0 audio news recording, 24 

March 75) 

24 March: Radio transmissions from Mariner 10 ceased after attitudecontrol gas was depleted and flight controllers at Jet Propulsion 

51 
March ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Laboratory sent the command for the spacecraft to stop operations at 

820 am EDT. Before shutdown, spacecraft engineering tests were 

conducted to try to open the stuck door on the plasma science 

experiment, rotate the solar panels to various positions, stow the scan 

platform at 18@, operate the stuck tape recorder, and provide data for 

future spacecraft design. 

During its more than 16 mo in heliocentric orbit, Mariner 10 

(launched 3 Nov. 1973) had traveled more than 1.6 billion km and 

made four planetary encounters, one of Venus and three of Mercury. 

It had passed within 5800 km of Venus 5 Feb. 1974, and transmitted to 

earth the first closeup photographs ever taken of the cloud-shrouded 

planet. 

Mariner 10 had confirmed the high-speed circulation of Venus’ 

upper atmosphere and revealed circulation patterns that swirled from 

the equator toward the poles. It had also revealed a long tail of charged 

particles trailing behind the planet and away from the sun; verified the 

presence of a bow shock wave created by the solar wind acting upon 

the dense atmosphere; detected hydrogen, helium, and argon in the 

Venusian atmosphere; and discovered temperature-inversion zones 

suggestive of deeper stratiform cloud layers. 

First spacecraft to use the technique, Mariner 10 used the gravity of 

Venus to speed it on toward Mercury. The probe flew by that planet 

three times, on 29 March and 21 Sept. 1974 and 16 March 1975. At 

Mercury, Mariner 10 photographed a highly cratered lunar-like 

surface with large scarps hundreds of kilometers long and over 1.6 

kilometers high. Mariner 10 data also revealed the existence of a 

chemically differentiated light crust, lunar-like near the surface and 

earth-like at its interior, and an unexpected magnetic field 100 times 

smaller than earth’s. A slight but measurable atmosphere was found, 

in addition to streams of high-energy electrons and protons on the 

planet’s dark side. On its last encounter with Mercury [see 16 March] 

Mariner IO came within 327 km of Mercury to take the closest 

photographs ever made of another primary planet. (NASAMOR, 7 April 

75; NASA Activities, April 75, 12-13; NASA Release 75-59; A&A 

1974) 

The Saturn IB scheduled to launch the Apollo spacecraft for the ApolloSoyuz Test Project in June left the Vehicle Assembly Building on its 

crawler to begin the 5-km journey to Launch Complex 39 Pad B. 

Witnessed by 6000 people, the rollout was completed at 3:15 pm, 

followed by a ceremony attended by the ASTP astronauts and KSC 

Deputy Director Miles Ross commemorating this as the last Saturn IB 

and Apollo rollout. Then the slow journey was resumed. (NASA PA0 

audio news service, 24 March 75; KSC Release 48-75) 

0 Assembly of the first main engine of the Space Shuttle had been completed by Rockwell International Corp.’s Rocketdyne Div. 1 mo ahead 

of schedule, NASA announced. After assembly the engine was automatically checked out-for the first time in history-by the engine’s 

internal controller and integral digital computers for functional, 

electrical, and mechanical operations. Known as the Integrated Subsystems Test Bed, this engine was not built for flight but for static 

firing tests at the National Space Technology Laboratories. 

The Space Shuttle would use 3 of the liquid-hydrogediquid-oxygen 

engines. Designed to perform at high internal pressures for greater 

52 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 March 

specific impulse, each engine would produce more than 2.1 million 

newtons thrust and would be used for up to 55 missions before overhaul, with between-mission maintenance comparable to techniques 

used by commercial airlines. (NASA Release 75-83; Rocketdyne 

Release RD- 7) 

25 March: The computer aboard Landsat 2 (launched 22 Jan.) was the most 

advanced of its type ever flown on an unmanned NASA satellite, 

NASA announced. Able to handle up to 55 ground-station commands 

controlling spacecraft operations for up to 24 hrs, the compact digital 

computer was a forerunner of the NASA Standard Space Computer 

that will be used in a wide variety of unmanned missions. Managed 

by Goddard Space Flight Center, the standard space computer program was part of an agency-wide program to develop standardized 

satellite components, both to reduce costs and to increase reliability. 

The program also covers other spacecraft hardware such as nickelcadmium batteries, transponders, attitude-control thrusters, pyrotechnic initiators, silicon solar cells, and tape recorders. (NASA 

Release 75-85) 

0 Two solid rockets on the Space Shuttle acoustic model accidentally 

escaped from the test stand during a captive static firing. The 

model's liquid-propellant rocket engines had operated normally for a 

few seconds when the two solid rockets ignited on schedule. Both 

solid rockets then separated from the test stand. One was propelled 

north for 1.2 km, landing in a pine thicket; a brush fire caused 

by the rocket was quickly extinguished and no one was injured. A 

nine-member board was appointed to investigate the cause of the 

accident, determine the amount of property damage, investigate 

the adequacy of safeguards to prevent further incidents, recommend 

corrective measures, and assure containment of facilities and surrounding areas in case of recurrence. 

Although the test stand was damaged, the Orbiter and external 

tank of the model were not. The model would be returned to operation with the replacement of some wiring and instrumentation. 

(Marshall Star, 2 April 75, 2) 

0 The new Soviet 100-seat jet airliner, Yak 42, was being air-tested 

in the Soviet Union, Tass reported. The aircraft was expected to 

replace outdated airliners on Aeroflot's medium-distance routes. 

(Tass, mrs-Sov, 26 March 75, U1) 

26 March: Langley Research Center was flight-testing a new-generation 

light twin-engine Piper PA-34 Seneca aircraft-alled ATLIT (Advanced Technology Light Twintfitted with several improvements 

using NASA advanced aerodynamic technology. One important new 

component, the GAW -1 (General-Aviation-Whitcomb) airfoil, was 

27% smaller than the original wing but was expected to be safer and 

more efficient, and to reduce fuel consumption by as much as 10%. 

(NASA Release 75 -84.) 

The Japanese National Space Development Agency announced the 

award of a contract to the Mitsubishi Electric Corp. to design two 

experimental stationary communications satellites for launch in Fy 

1978. Design was expected to be complete by 20 Sept. Each 130-kg 

satellite, to be launched by a Japanese N rocket, would be used 

to study technology for launching stationary satellites, satellitetracking technology, and attitude-control techniques. (Kyodo, FBISJapan, 3 April 75, 62) 

53 
March ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

27 March: Soviet scientists told U.S. scientists and journalists touring 

Soviet scientific facilities that they had successfully used! a rocket 

engine and gigantic magnets to produce large amounts o less expensive electricity with less pollution than other method I . Called 

magnetohydrodynamics and first proved feasible in the u:S. in the 

early 1960s, the new system was one of the cooperative programs 

between the two countries. 1 

A recent test that produced 12.4 mw of power for 1.5 hr wab the first 

time the system had achieved that power and duration. Based on the 

knowledge .that electricity could be generated by passing a charged 

gas through a magnetic field, the Soviet experiment burned 55 kg per 

sec of natural gas with oxygen-enriched air into which a potassium 

compound was injected to create a plasma of positive and negative 

particles; when passed between the poles of a great magnet, the 

charges separated onto electrodes and created large voltages. The 

Washington Post later reported that the Soviets were committed to 

building, by 1981, a 1000-mw magnetohydrodynamic plant with 

expected conversion efficiency of 50%. Conventional steam-turbine 

plants using oil or coal for fuel operate at 40% efficiency, those using 

nuclear fuel at 33%. (Toth, LA Times News Service, W Post, 28 March 

75, A3) 

0 Canada’s de Havilland Dash 7 four-turboprop short-takeoff-and-landing 

(STOL) transport made its first flight test near Ontario, Canada. 

The first of two preproduction prototypes of the 50-passenger aircraft got off the runway in 274 m. During the 2-hr 10-min flight, 

Dash 7 reached 2896 m altitude and a maximum speed of 204 km per 

hr. Purpose of the first flight was to perform power-on and poweroff tests of longitudinal and latitudinal stability. (Av Wk, 7 April 

75, 18) 

Langley Research Center announced the appointment of Robert E. 

Smylie as Director for Space, replacing Eugene S. Love, who was 

retiring. Smylie had been in NASA Hq as Deputy Associate Administrator for Space, Office of Aeronautics and Space Technology. 

In his new position he would direct Langley’s work in space systems, 

space applications and technology, environmental quality programs, 

and the Scout launch vehicle. (LaRC Release 75-11) 

0 NASA Hq announced the disestablishment of its Office of Organization 

and Management. All personnel and responsibilities were assigned 

to other offices within NASA Hq. (NASA anno, 2 April 75) 

31 March: Boeing Co. scientists were studying a way to cut aircraft fuel 

consumption as much as 40%, according to the Baltimore Sun.The 

technique involved cutting many tiny holes in the aircraft wings and 

applying suction from within. This would control the laminar flow 

of the airstream, preventing drag-producing turbulence from being 

created by the change in pressure as the air flows over the wing 

surface. In the 1960s Northrop Corp. had built the Air Force a plane 

incorporating the concept but technical problems had discouraged 

further development. Rising fuel costs and recent improvements 

in structural materials and manufacturing techniques had sparked 

new interest in the method. (AP, B Sun, 31 March 75, A7) 

During March: NASA’s Ats 6 (Applications Technology Satellite, launched 

30 May 1974) was the means for coordinating long-distance emergency operations of ships near the Azores Islands during search 

54 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 March 

and rescue tests conducted by Goddard Space Flight Center. The 

tests evaluated the effectiveness of Ats 6 functioning as a communications relay between a ship in distress and a coordination center 

thousands of kilometers away. 

In the tests, a “stricken” ship dropped a buoy equipped with a 

position-indicating radio beacon into the ocean. Ats 6 picked up the 

signals and transmitted the ship’s identification and position to a 

NASA ground station, which relayed .them to the Coast Guard’s New 

York Rescue Coordination Center. The rescue center then sent the 

information to rescue aircraft and ships. As they neared the area, 

they could home in on the buoy’s signals. Within 2 hr of the time 

the buoy was dropped, the ship and the buoy were located. 

The search and rescue communications tests were part of continuing joint L-band experiments using Ats 6 and conducted by GSFC 

and the Depts. of Commerce and Transportation, as well as by the 

European Space Agency and the Canadian Dept. of Communications and Ministry of Transport. (GSFC Goddurd News, Oct 75, 3) 

0 Preparations continued at Kennedy Space Center for the launch of two 

Viking spacecraft to Mars. Lander 1 was mated with its Orbiter 

on 8 March to test compatibility. The Lander and Orbiter were mated 

with the Centaur launch vehicle shroud and moved to Launch Complex 41 on 27 March to undergo a flight-events demonstration, 

Orbiter and Lander precountdown tests, and terminal countdown 

demonstration with the complete vehicle. 

During a complete 18-hr plugs-out test of Lander 2 on 13 March, 

data were transmitted to Jet Propulsion Laboratory to provide training for the Viking flight-control team. (KSC Spaceport News, 6 March 

75, 6; 20 March 75, 5) 

55 

April 1975 

1 April: NASAcommemorated the 15th anniversary of the launch of Tiros 1 

(Television Infrared Observation Satellite), the world’s first weather 

satellite. Since its launch 1 April 1960 at Cape Canaveral on a ThorDelta booster, 30 experimental and operational weather satellites 

of increasing complexity had been launched to provide continuous 

information on earth’s environment. Over the 15-yr span the weather 

satellites had taken more than 2.2 million photographs while traveling 

through 12.1 billion km of space. Not a single major hurricane or 

storm had gone undetected or untracked. 

President Ford issued a statement in recognition of the Tiros 1 anniversary: “More accurate daily weather forecasts. . .have had an 

immeasurable impact in making the lives of millions more pleasant, 

productive, and secure. No major storm anywhere goes undetected by 

NASA or NOAA [National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration] 

satellites. We can be proud that people everywhere can benefit from 

this practical application of U.S. space science and technology.” 

(NASA Release 75-73; NASA Activities, April 75) 

A prototype of a flexible tunnel to connect the Space Shuttle airlock 

with the forward end of the Spacelab was being tested at Marshall 

Space Flight Center. The tunnel would provide a pressurized passageway for crew members and scientists to move to and from the orbiting 

laboratory without spacesuits. The flexible circular tunnel, built by 

Goodyear Rubber Corp., would accordion-fold to 0.6 m and extend to 

a length of more than 4.3 m. Made rigid by steel rings, the tunnel 

was constructed of layers of aluminum foil, Capran film, and nylon 

cloth covered by a spongy meteoroid shield. 

MSFC engineers were testing the tunnel, which would be exposed to 

the space environment when the Orbiter bay doors were opened, for 

structural strength, airtight integrity, and materials compatibility. 

(MSFC Release 75 -63) 

Marshall Space Flight Center had issued a single-source request to 

Sunstrand Corp. to submit a proposal for the design, development, 

manufacture, test., and delivery of the auxiliary power unit for the 

Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster’s thrust-vector control subsystem. The APU would include a gas generator, turbine, gearbox, 

fuel pump, electrical controls, control valves, instrumentation, 

mounting system, and the mechanical and electrical connections 

required to interface with other SRB subsystems. 

Two APUs would be used during prelaunch and ascent phases 

of flight to provide hydraulic power to the thrust-vector control system of each booster. (MSFC Release 75-62) 

e The Air Force was again studying the feasibility of a nuclear-powered 

aircraft twice the size of the C-5, the Washington Star reported. 

In an interview with the Star, Dr. Lawrence W. Noggle, rogram 

manager for nuclear aircraft-propulsion technology at &right - 

57 
April ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Patterson Air Force Base, said that nuclear power could be used as 

an alternative power source for large subsonic aircraft. Other potential fuels under study were liquid methane, liquid hydrogen, and coal. 

A nuclear-powered aircraft, which would require larger engines to 

carry a larger cargo, could use conventional fuel for takeoff and 

landing and then switch to nuclear power at cruise speed. The Star 

quoted Dr. Noggle as saying, “We could use modified jet engines. . . with the reactor totally isolated from the engine through containment,” He predicted that nuclear-powered aircraft could fly for days 

without refueling. (IT’ Star, 1 April 75, A4) 

e NASA announced publication of the Skylab Earth Resources Data 

Catalog (JSC 09016), containing 35 000 photographs taken on 

1973-74 Skylab Orbital Workshop missions. The volume described 

in detail the earth-resources equipment and techniques used aboard 

the station; explained how the photos could be used in disciplines 

related to land-resource management, marine resources and management, land surveys and mapping, and environmental applications; 

and supplied a detailed index for finding space photographs, as well 

as instructions on locating data available through other government 

agencies. (NASA Release 75-92) 

0 NASA executed a $3.65-million supplement to a cost-plus-award-fee 

contract with Serv-Air, Inc., to continue to provide aircraft for 

earth-observation and astronaut-proficiency training at Johnson 

Space Center. Contract provisions also called for maintenance, 

modification, and related ground support of the JSC aircraft; maintenance and ground support of transient aircraft; engineering, design, 

fabrication, and installation of electronic and mechanical systems, 

subsystems, components and equipment; and related logistic functions. 

This agreement provided for the third and final year of the contract which had an estimated total value of $7.57 million. (JSC Release 75-23) 

1 -4 April: In Montreal, the 89-nation International Telecommunications 

Satellite Organization held its third ordinary meeting of signatories in 

conjunction with the 25th anniversary of the Canadian signatory, 

the Canadian Overseas Telecommunications Corp. 

Significant accomplishments of the meeting included agreement 

that domestic services provided for Chile by INELSAT would be 

considered on the same basis as international services, thus increasing Chile’s voting representation on the board of governors; 

that any signatory owning shares in INTELSAT totalling 1.25% or 

more would be entitled to representation on the board of governors; 

and that the capital ceiling of $500 million for payments and contractual commitments for development of Intelsat V satellites, 

planned for launch in the late 1970s, would have to be increased 

by from $200 to*$41)0 million. (INTELSAT Release, April 75) 

3 April: Robert 6. Strom, Univ. of Arizona Lunar and Planetary Laboratory scientist, was quoted by the Baltimore Sun as saying in a 31 

March interview that 75% of the 500 photographs taken during 

Mariner 10’s third and final pass of Mercury [see 16 March] “did 

not turn out.” Because of a receiver malfunction at the Canberra, 

Australia, tracking station, Mariner 10 could not be maneuvered 

quickly enough to photograph all the desired area. However, Strom 

58 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 April 

emphasized that Mariner 10’s third pass was ‘‘actually a bonus” and 

the mission had been a complete success. (B Sun, 3 April 75, A8) 

4 April: NASA had awarded a $1 388 498 firm-fiied-price contract to Goodyear Aerospace Corp. to produce a special-purpose processor to augment existing computing capability for NASA’s Large Area Crop Inventory Experiment (LACE), Johnson Space Center announced. The 

contract included design, fabrication, delivery, and installation of the 

processor and any associated system software. LACE, a cooperative 

program shared by U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration, and NASA, aimed at improving wheatproduction forecasts by use of satellite earth-resources data. (JSC 

Release 75- 20) 

0 The testbed aircraft for the Air Force Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS) was deployed to Europe for a series of exercises 

with North Atlantic Treaty Alliance (NATO) ground, air, and sea 

forces. The Air Force was developing AWACS as an airborne surveillance command and control center to detect and track airborne 

targets at any altitude, at long ranges, and over all types of terrain 

and water. 

During the test exercises the aircraft, topped by a 9-m-diameter rotating radome assembly, would work in the United 

Kingdom with British naval forces and with the u.S. Navy’s sixth 

fleet, and in West Germany with the NATO and U.S. air defense 

ground environment system and with Hawk defense missile batteries. 

NATO Hq in Brussels would provide ground static displays for NATO 

officials. 

During all exercises AWACS would coordinate with ground, sea, and 

air forces through a time-division multiple-access data link. 

This was the second deployment of AWACS to Europe. Since 1973, 

when the system had been demonstrated there, it had been equipped 

with additional major elements including communications, dataprocessing, navigation, display, and identification instrumentation. 

(Msc Release OIP 99.75) 

NASA announced the appointment of Kenneth L. Woodfin as Assistant 

Administrator for Procurement, replacing George J. Vecchietti who 

had retired. (NASA Release 75-94) 

5 April: A Soyuz spacecraft, launched by the U.S.S.R. from Baykonur 

Cosmodrome and carrying Cosmonauts Vasily Lazarev and Oleg 

Makarov, was returned to earth shortly after launch when the launch 

vehicle failed to perform normally. Tass reported, “On the third-stage 

stretch the parameters of the carrier rocket’s movement deviated 

from the preset values and an automatic device produced the command to discontinue the flight under the program and detach the 

spacecraft for return to earth.” Tass also reported that the purpose 

of the mission had been to continue experiments aboard the Salyut 

4 space station (launched 26 Dec. 1974). The Soyuz softlanded southwest of Gorno-Altaisk in Western Siberia. The search and rescue 

service brought the cosmonauts, both in good condition, back to 

the cosmodrome. 

During a telephone conference on 8 April, Prof. Konstantin D. 

Bushuyev, U.S.S.R. technical director for the Apollo-Soyuz Test 

Project, told his U.S. counterpart, Glynn S. Lunney, that the launch 

vehicle that failed was not the version of the booster that would 

59 
April ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

be used for the July ASTP launch. He promised to provide Lunney 

with additional details on the failure after they became available. 

(Tass, FBIS-SOV, 7 April 75, u1; NASA Release 75-97; w Star, 7 

April 75, A4) 

7 April: Thor-Delta launch operations at the Eastern and Western Test 

Ranges had resumed on a limited basis despite the continuing strike 

by employees of the launch vehicle’s manufacturer, McDonnell 

Douglas Corp. [see 10 Feb.and 22-23 March], Aviation Week and 

Space Technology reported. With supervisory personnel at the company’s plant completing the hardware in the place of striking workers, 

McDonnell Douglas hoped to finish 10 of the 12 launch vehicles 

scheduled for delivery to NASA launch sites by the end of 1975. 

NASA’s GEos -C Geodynamic Experimental Ocean Satellite and 

Canada’s Telestar -C communications satellite, both originally 

scheduled for March, had been rescheduled for April and May launch 

on Thor-Delta vehicles delivered before the strike began. Other 

launch dates would depend on the buildup and checkout of booster 

hardware at the launch site, and on availability of hardware still 

at the plant. 

Other scheduled launches affected by the strike included NimbusF experimental satellite, OSO- 1 Orbiting Solar Observatory, and 

Communications Satellite Corp.’s Marisat- A maritime communications satellite. (Av Wk, 7 April 75, 17) 

9 The European Space Research Organization (ESRO) announced the 

award of a $4.4 million f3.5 million accounting units] contract to a 

European consortium to provide software for ESRO’S Meteosat 

meteorological satellite, scheduled for launch in April 1977. Under the 

terms of the contract the consortium, consisting of companies in 

France, United Kingdom, West Germany, Belgium, Italy, and 

Sweden, would provide data-acceptance capability, image processing, operational mission support, data archiving, analysis and dissemination of image data, and monitoring of the overall data-processing system. 

Meteosat, ESRO’S first applications satellite, would record and 

transmit data for more accurate weather forecasting. (ESRO Release, 7 

April 75) 

0 The relationship of the scientific community to any White House advisory panel should be the “same as for any other pressure group,” 

Haywood Blum said in a letter to the editor of the New York Times. 

Based on past performance, “it seems to be unlikely for the scientific 

community to agree on any substantive issue; witness the ABM 

[antiballistic missile], SST [supersonic transport], National Cancer 

Institute, underground nuclear testing, use of DDT and breeder 

reactor development fights, to name only a few.” Further, the wisdom 

and perspective of the scientific establishment “remain in doubt.” 

One example was in scientific training in a time of the over-production 

of Ph.D.s: Dwindling funds were being used not to develop young 

scientists but to support “the Grant Swinger,” who flew from place to 

place around the world “making contacts while recent graduates were 

squeezed out of their disciplines.” The President needed counsel but, 

because the scientific community could not provide truly objective. 

and balanced advice, “would it not be better for [this] advice to be 

exposed to public scrutiny?” (NYT, 7 April 75, 30) 

60 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 April 

9 April: TherHouse of Representatives, by a vote of 318 to 72, passed H.R. 

4700, the bill authorizing NASA $3 585 873 000 in funds for FY 1976 and 

$922 60 000 for the transition period 1 July through 30 Sept. 1976. 

The bill was passed as reported out of the House Committee on 

Science and Astronautics 14 March. (CR, 9 April 75, H2549-75) 

0 NASA would store $900 million worth of surplus Apollo-Saturn hardware 

instead of scrapping it as planned earlier, Dr. James C. Fletcher, NASA 

Administrator, said in a letter to Rep. Olin E. Teague, Chairman of 

the House of Representatives Committee on Science and Technology. 

The flight hardware would be stored in a manner to minimize costs 

and to permit restoration, if required, to flight condition. Dr. Fletcher 

also wrote that, as Space Shuttle launch-readiness schedule and 

program costs required, NASA would convert Launch Complex 39 and 

its supporting facilities to handle the Space Shuttle. 

As requested by the Committee during a 25 March meeting with 

Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight John F. Yardley, 

NASA would supply the Committee with a summary of options for 

missions that could be flown using the remaining Apollo-Saturn flight 

hardware. 

Dr. Fletcher also stated that, because of the “considerable cost” to 

the government of storing the equipment, NASA would like to discuss 

the matter with the committee once again during the FY 1977 authorization hearings. (Text, letter Fletcher to Teague, 9 April 1975; UPI, 

NYT, 17 April 75, 7) 

0 TheHelios 1 (launched 10 Dec. 1974 by NASAfor West Germany) mission 

objectives-to investigate the fundamental solar processes and solar 

terrestrial relationships by the study of the solar wind, magnetic and 

electric fields, cosmic rays, and cosmic dust-had been accomplished and the mission was adjudged successful. (NASAMOR, 11 April 

75) 

0 NASA announced that Dr. Rocco A. Petrone, Associate Administrator, 

would leave NASA in May to join the National Center for Resource 

Recovery as president and chief executive officer. Dr. Petrone, who 

in 1960 was assigned on loan from the Army to Kennedy Space Center 

as Saturn project officer, later became Apollo program manager 

responsible for planning, developing, and activating all launch facilities for the Apollo program. Upon retirement from the Army he 

served at KSC as director of launch operations from 1966 to 1969, when 

he was appointed Apollo program director. In 1972 he was assigned 

additional responsibilities as program director of the NASA portion 

of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. In Dec. 1972 he was appointed 

Director of Marshall Space Flight Center, a position he held until 

his appointment in 1974 as Associate Administrator. (NASA Releases 

69-124, 75-98) 

0 Sen. William Proxmire (D-Wisc.) said in a speech on the Senate floor 

that he had asked the Central Intelligence Agency to assess the safety 

of Soviet manned space technology. “The inlaunch failure of another 

Soviet manned satellite last Saturday [7 April1 reinforces my deep 

concern that the upcoming joint Apollo-Soyuz experiment may be 

dangerous to American astronauts. . . . The history of the Sovietmanned program shows an appalling lack of consistency. As soon as 

one severe problem is solved anotheroccurs.” (CR, 9 April 75,55527) 

61 
April ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

0 Johnson Space Center announced the award to Martin Marietta Corp. of 

a 10-mo $373 000 study contract to investigate current technology and 

develop several conceptual designs of a manned maneuvering unit. 

When the most promising concept was selected, Martin would 

execute a detailed design and high-fidelity mockup of the unit and its 

support station. The contract also called for Martin to design and build 

a prototype hand controller for the unit. 

Themaneuvering unit, a direct spinoff from the “Buck Rogers” unit 

that successfully demonstrated on 1973- 74 Skylab missions the 

precision and control with which an astronaut could maneuver in zerog, would allow Space Shuttle crew members to maneuver outside the 

Shuttle for maintenance, inspection, repair, retrieval, assembly, and 

photography. (JSC Release 75-24) 

9-22 April: NASA launched &os 3 Geodynamic Experimental Ocean 

Satellite from Western Test Range at 4:50 pm PDT on a two-stage 

Thor-Delta 1410 launch vehicle. The satellite entered orbit with an 

844-km apogee, 837-km perigee, 101.9-min period, and 115.0“ 

inclination. Forty-one investigators would participate in the mission, 

whose primary objective was to perform an in-orbit radar altimeter 

experiment demonstrating the feasibility and utility of mapping the 

sea surface with a 1- to 2-m precision. Geos 3 would also measure wave 

heights and contribute to the development of technology for future 

satellite radar altimeter systems. Other objectives included support of 

the calibration of NASA and other agencies’ ground C-band radar 

systems; demonstration of a satellite-to-satellite tracking experiment 

withAts6 (launched 30 May 1974); comparison of new and established 

geodetic and geophysical measuring systems; support investigations 

in solid-earth dynamic phenomena such as polar motion, earth 

rotation, earth tides, and continental drift; and further definition of 

orbit determination techniques using precisior, tracking systems such 

as lasers and doppler ground stations. 

All spacecraft subsystems were checked out 9- 10 April with telemetry indicating normal performance. Gravity-gradient stabilization 

maneuvers were also begun with the firing of the squibs that released 

the end mass and extended the boom to 0.7 m. Additional boom 

extension and retraction maneuvers were carried out 11 April with the 

maximum extension of 6 m occurring that day. 

The momentum wheel was energized, providing additional threeaxis stabilization; the desired pitch damping of * 1” was achieved by 

20 April. 

By 22 April ground controllers activated doppler and C-band transponders and began tracking. Solid acquisition of return-pulse data 

was occurring on all passes, and the radar altimeter had operated in 

the high-intensity mode twice over the Atlantic Ocean. Engineering 

tests of the Ats 6-Geos 3 satellite-to-satellite tracking experiment 

were completed. Calibration of radar altimetry began on 21 April and 

would continue until 20 May. 

First of its kind, the satellite-to-satellite tracking experiment by 

Geos 3 and Ats 6 was expected to provide orbit information more precise than that obtainable by ground observations. From its geosynchronous orbit Ats 6 tracked &os 3 for more than half its orbit 

while Geos 3 radioed ranging signals through its S-band transponder to 

Ats 6, which relayed the signals to ground stations. 

62 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 April 

Geos 3 carried an array of quartz reflectors that permitted laser 

ranging measurements accurate to 10 cm. A laser beam sent to the 

satellite would be reflected, and then received back at the originating 

ground site, one of a network of laser ranging stations which would 

track Geos 3 during its mission lifetime. 

Powered by 16 solar cell panels, the 34&kg, 8-sided spacecraft was 

the third in a series of GEOS spacecraft designed to gain knowledge of 

the earth’s shape and dynamic behavior as part of the National 

Geodetic Satellite Program (NGSP). The NASA-managed program, 

begun in 1964 with the cooperation of the Depts. of Defense and 

Commerce and several universities and international organizations, 

was initiated to generate a unified world-survey network and to develop a more precise mathematical model of the earth‘s gravitational 

field. 

Geos 1 (Explorer 29, launched 6 Nov. 1965) and Geos 2 (Explorer 36, 

launched 11 Jan. 1968) had demonstrated that the U.S. could make 

most observations using one satellite and that errors in any system 

could be discovered and corrected by reference to other systems. 

Other missions in the NASA geodesy program included Explorer 22 

(launched 10 Oct. 1964), Explorer27 (launched 29 April 1965), Pageos 

1 (launched 1 July 1966), and the Earth Resources Experiment 

Package @REP, launched 15 May 1973 aboard Skylab 1). 

The Geos 3 program was managed by Wallops Flight Center under 

the direction of the Office of Applications at NASA Headquarters. 

Mission operations and the Thor-Delta launch vehicle were managed 

by Goddard Space Flight Center. The spacecraft, designed and built 

by the Applied Physics Laboratory of Johns Hopkins Univ., cost about 

$12.5 million. (NASA MORS, 8 April 75, 22 April 75; Wkly SSR, 3-9 

April 75; NASA Release 75-88) 

10 April: The first ground-test hardware for the Space Shuttle, a hydraulic 

actuator for the main engine, had arrived at Marshall Space Flight 

Center for functional checkout, MSFC announced. Each of the Orbiter’s 

three main engines would use two of the actuators to gimbal the engine 

for steering control. After checkout the actuator-one of 8 to be 

tested-would be sent to the National Space Technology Laboratories 

where the main engines would be tested. (MSFC Release 75-68) 0 Dust storms had been observed on the moon every sunrise and sunset 

by a three-axis microparticle detector left on the moon by Apollo 17 

astronauts during their December 1972 mission, a Nature magazine 

article reported. The article, based on a report by scientists at 

Goddard Space Flight Center, said the GSFC scientists suspected that 

the dust was being lifted from the lunar surface and then driven away 

from the rising or setting sun by electrostatic fields associated with 

the transition from day to night, or vice versa. 

The finding supported a theory advanced 20 yr ago by Dr. Thomas 

Gold of Cornell Univ., who had suggested that electrostatic forces 

transported dust from lunar highlands to lowlands, accounting for the 

smooth appearance of the lunar seas. Although the Apollo landings 

had shown that those seas had been formed by lava flooding rather 

than deep dust accumulations, their surface was covered with very 

fine dust. Also, because neither wind nor rain existed on the airless 

moon, some other process must have been responsible for the evident 

erosion. Electrostatic levitation was being suggested as one possible 

63 
April ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

explanation. Because the lunar vacuum acted as an insulator, the dust 

cloud hugged the surface, reaching only between 20 and 30 cm high, 

explaining why it had been detected from a low angle by instruments 

on the lunar surface but never by orbiting astronauts or earth-based 

equipment. (Hughes, Nature, 10 April 75, 481 -2) e The Air Force’s new B-1 bomber broke the sound barrier for the first 

time while making its sixth flight test, from Vandenberg Air Force 

Base. During the 6-hr 23-min mission, the B-1 also took on fuel from 

a KC- 135 tanker for the first time and opened its weapons-bay doors. 

(AP, W Star, 11 April 75, 4) 

11 April: President Ford, in a White House ceremony, presented the 

National Space Club’s Dr. Robert H. Goddard Memorial Trophy to 

Skylab 4 Commander Gerald P. Carr on behalf of the nine astronauts 

who inhabited the Skylab Orbital Workshop (launched 14 May 1973) 

during periods in 1973 and 1974. The astronauts were cited for their 

“exceptional accomplishments in the Skylab program . . . . When the 

entire mission was jeopardized the first crew, through uncommon 

ingenuity, saved the mission. The scientific content of the program is 

of extraordinary significance, in all disciplines. The demonstration 

that men can live and work in space for extended periods sets the 

stage for future exploration of space.” 

At the Space Club’s 18th annual Goddard memorial dinner, the 

following awards were presented 

Award Recipient 

(Affiiation) Citation 

Dr. Robt. H. Goddard Memorial Trophy 

Astronautics Engineer 

Award 

Nelson P. Jackson Aerospace Award 

Hugh L. Dryden Memorial 

Fellowship 

Dr. Robt. H. Goddard Scholarship 

Dr. Robt. H. Goddard Historical Essay 

Nat’l Space Club Press Award 

NASA Skylab Astronauts Chdes P. Conrad Joseph P. Kemin Paul J. Weitz Alan L. Bean Owen K. Garrioti Jack R. Lonsma Gerald P. Cam Edward G. Gibson William R. Pogue 

John M. Thole (NASA) 

NASA-Fairehild Industries Ats 6 team 

Dr. Bruce F. Smith (NASA) 

Alice K. Babcock (Georgetown Univ.) 

James E. Oberg (USA0 

Roy Neal (NBC) 

For their exceptional accomplishments in Skylab program 

For direction of the OS0 and ATS pro- gams 

For demonstration of a significant ad- vance in space communications 

For demonstrated abilities in addressing, 

theoretically and experimentally. a broad range of astrophysical problems 

To continue higher scientific education 

For essay, “Russia Meant to Win the Moon Race?” 

For resourcefulness in reporting the U.S. space effort 

(PD, 14 April 75, 372; program) 

e NASA’s Apollo-Soyuz Test Project Director Chester M. Lee said at a 

NASA Headquarters press briefing that a number of modifications had 

been made on the Apollo command and service modules to accommodate the special requirements of the July US.-U.S.S.R. ASTP 

mission. 

64 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 April 

Changes to the command module included a modified umbilical 

to accommodate docking-module functions, an additional TV camera 

and recorder for coverage of joint activities, modified controls and 

displays for new equipment and experiments, additional equipment 

for communications and TV coverage via Ats 6 (Applications Technology Satellite, launched 30 May 1974), modified stowage, added 

intervehicular intercom, and additional VHF-FM communications 

capability at the U.S.S.R. frequency. 

Changes in the service module included added heaters and insulation of propellant systems for solar inertial attitude, added propellant 

storage module for increased attitude-control and backup deorbit 

capability, and deletion of the unused main propellant tank. 

The docking module would be carried in the same position in which 

the lunar module had been during lunar landing missions. It would 

be extracted in the same manner, by separating the CSM from the 

booster once in orbit, turning around, and pulling out the docking 

module with the nose of the CSM. 

In response to questioning, Lee said that the U.S. cost of the ASTP 

mission would fall within the 8245-mdion congressional authorization. Although the Soviets had not quoted a specific amount, Lee 

believed that the launch of the two unmanned Soyuz spacecraft to 

check out modifications made for MTP, the launch of a manned 

mission, and the preparations for two complete spacecraft and crews 

would indicate that the Soviets were investing "at least the equivalent" in resources. (Transcript) 

14 April: Flight Research Center pilots began flight tests as part of a 

cooperative industry-government program to measure noise levels of 

five business-class jet aircraft during various landing approach 

maneuvers. Object of the tests was to define noise characteristics 

for this class of aircraft and the effectiveness of alternate landingapproach procedures in reducing community noise levels. Using a 

Rockwell Sabreliner, Grumman Gulfstream 11, Gates Learjet, 

Beech-Hawker 125 provided by the National Business Aircraft 

Association, and Lockheed Jet Star provided by NASA, FRC pilots 

flew four landing approaches over a microphone array. A normal 

3" approach provided baseline information; a 3" decelerating approach with engines at reduced power, a 4" approach with normal 

power, and a two-segment approach starting with 6" angle and 

shallowing into a 3" approach provided additional data. (NASA Release 

75 - 103) 

14-30 April: U.S. Apollo-Soyuz Test Project flight crews, accompanied 

by 32 members of Working Group 1, met in the U.S.S.R. with their 

Soviet counterparts for the final training session in Soviet Russia 

before the scheduled July launch. US. astronauts included prime 

crew members Thomas P. Stafford, Vance D. Brand, and Donald K. 

Slayton; backup crewmen Alan L. Bean, Ronald E. Evans, and 

Jack R. Lousma; and support crewmen Karol J. Bobko, Robert L. 

Crippen, and Eugene A. Cernan. 

During practice sessions similar to those held in the u.S. 7 Feb.- 

1 March, the participants practiced communications skills, transfer 

procedures, joint activities, and contingency situations, using the 

Soyuz simulator at the Gagarin Cosmonaut Center in Star City. 

65 
April ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

On 19 April the crews visited the mission-control center at Kaliningrad and, on 28 April, became the second group of Westerners to visit 

the Baykonur cosmodrome (French President Charles de Gaulle had 

been the first western visitor when he witnessed the launch ofcosmos 

122 on 25 June 1966). At Baykonur the U.S. crewmen saw the actual 

flight hardware as well as the primary launch pad 2 km away, and the 

prime and backup crews each spent an hour in the Soyuz spacecraft. 

The astronauts later reported to the press that they had found no 

significant differences between the actual spacecraft and the 

simulators used during training. (Ezell et al., The Partnership: A 

History of the ApolloSoyuz Test Project, 278-280; JSC Releases 

75-22,75-25; W Post, 30 April 75, A21; SBD, 18 April 75,273;A&A 

66, 223) 

15 April: The Council of the European Space Research Organization 

met and approved appointment of directors proposed by ESRO’S Committee for the soon-to-be-established European Space Agency. When 

ESA became operational at the end of May, the new directorate would 

include Roy Gibson (United Kingdom) as Director General, Andre 

Lebeau (France) as Director of Planning and Future Programs, Dr. 

Ernst Trendelenburg (West Germany) as Director of Scientific and 

Meteorological Programs, and George Van Reeth (Belgium) as Director of Administration. 

Directors already in office who would continue after the establishment of ESA were Bernard Deloffre (France), Director of the Spacelab 

Program; Prof. Gianni Formica (Italy), Director of the European 

Space Operations Center; Ove Hammarstrom (Sweden), Director of 

the European Space Research and Technology Center; Dr. Walter 

Luksch (West Germany), Director of Communications Satellite Programs; and Prof. Massimo Trella (Italy), Technical Inspector. (ESRO 

Release, 21 April 75) * Flight Research Center announced the award of a 30-mo cost-plusfixed-fee contract, valued at $13 million, to Rockwell International 

Corp. to design and build two subscale model aircraft for NASA’s 

Highly Maneuverable Aircraft Technology Program. The two-phase 

contract called for an initial 60-day effort for detailed program planning; upon satisfactory completion of phase 1, NASA would approve 

the final design and fabrication. 

The two vehicles were scheduled for delivery to FRC late in 1977 for 

flight-testing, using the Remotely Piloted Research Vehicle test 

technique [see 3 March] developed by FRC. Air-launched from a 

carrier aircraft, the vehicles would be flown through maneuvers by a 

ground-based pilot using TV, telemetry, and radar. (FRC Release 

7- 75) * The Air Force Systems Command announced the award of a $100 000 

contract to Aero Co. to study the feasibility of using parafoils half the 

size of a C-5 aircraft’s wing to recover remotely piloted vehicles 

(RPVs). RPVs were currently retrieved by recovery helicopters, a reliable but expensive system affected by weather conditions. The parafoil, part of an AF effort to find cheaper ways to land RPVs, was a high 

glider which, when deployed like a parachute, would take on an airfoil shape and descend at a rate of 1 m forward for each 0.3-m loss in 

altitude. Under the terms of the contract Aero would design and build 

two 12- by 24-m parafoils for testing scheduled to begin in May. (AFSC 

Release OIP 81.75) 

66 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 April 

16 April: The U.S.S.R. was planning to flight-test the SLX-14, a launch 

vehicle larger than the Saturn 5, from Tyuratam during the summer 

of 1975, Kenneth W. Gatland reported in the Christian Science Monitor. Launch preparations, observed by the Air Force's Big Bird 

reconnaissance satellites, had been under way since 1974. Gatland 

reported that the project had been delayed for more than 5 yr when a 

previous prototype caught fire and exploded during a 1969 fueling 

test. Two others had failed in flight, in 1971 and 1972. After considering cancellation of the project, Soviet officials ordered a drastic 

design review and the program continued with increased emphasis on 

systems reliability and ground testing. (Gatland, CSM, 16 April 75, 1) 

18 April: NASA announced the appointment of David R. Scott as Director 

of Flight Research Center to replace Lee R. Scherer, who had become 

Director of Kennedy Space Center. Scott had been an astronaut on 

Gemini 8 (16 March 1966), on Apollo 9 (3-13 March 1969), and on 

lunar landing mission Apollo 15 (26 July-7 Aug. 1971). After leaving 

the astronaut corps in 1972, Scott served as technical assistant to the 

Apollo Program Manager at Johnson Space Center, and as special 

assistant for mission operations and government-furnished equipment in the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office. (NASA anno, 18 April 75) 

19 April: The U.S.S.R. launched Aryabhata, India's first scientific satellite, from Kapustin Yar in the Soviet Union. The satellite entered 

orbit with a 611-km apogee, 568-km perigee, 96.5-min period, and 

50.7" inclination. The Delhi Domestic News Service said that the 

360-kg satellite, named for a fiith-century Indian astronomer and 

mathematician, carried instruments to measure x-rays from celestial 

sources, look for neutrons and gamma radiation from the sun, and 

measure ionospheric parameters. Ground tracking stations in India 

and the Soviet Union reported the instrumentation was functioning 

normally. 

Aryabhata, designed and built by scientists at India's Space Research organization with technical assistance from Soviet scientists 

and specialists, was completed under an agreement for joint IndianSoviet collaboration signed on 10 May 1972. The press reported the 

estimated cost of the project to be $6 million. (Delhi Dom News Ser, 

FBIS-India, 22-24 April 75; Weintraub, NYT, 21 April 75, 49; GSFC 

Wkly SSR, 17-23 April 75; educ'l attache, Indian Embassy, Wash 

DC, interview, 18 Nov 76) 

21 April: West Germany was studying the possibility of purchasing a 

Spacelab pressurized module for use on the u.S. Space Shuttle, 

Aviation Week and Space Technology reported. The German Spacelab 

would be configured for research in space processing, a field of considerable interest to Germany. Its missions on Spacelab, launched 

by NASA aboard the Space Shuttle on a cost-reimbursable basis, would 

be separate from missions conducted by the European Space Research organization. (Av Wk, 21 April 75, 27) 

0 The Air Force Aero Propulsion Laboratory and NASA Lewis Research 

Center had begun a joint research program to determine the feasibility of using synthetic fuels to power military and commercial jet 

aircraft, the Air Force Systems Command announced. As part of the 

10-yr $&million study, Exxon Corp. had been awarded a contract to 

study the refining processes like hydrogenation required to produce 

fuels from coal and oil-shale synthetic crudes, and to compare the 

chemical and physical properties of these fuels with those of petro- 

-. 

67 
April ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

leum derivatives. Costs ofprocessing the synthetics would depend on 

definition of engine and fuel-system needs. 

The decision to begin research on synthetic fuels was part of an Air 

Force conservation effort. U.S. aircraft, military and commercial, 

accounted for 8% of U.S. petroleum consumption; fuel costs for military jets alone had more than tripled in the previous 18 mo. The cost 

of fueling a C -5 cargo aircraft had risen from $6780 in April 1973 to 

$22 400 in April 1975. (MsC Release OIP 070.75) 

A NASA-sponsored research program at Massachusetts Institute of 

Technology had demonstrated that ultraviolet liiht could convert 

water into a hydrogen fuel, NASA announced. MIT researchers placed 

a titanium dioxide crystal and a piece of platinum connected by a wire 

into a beaker of water in which inert ionic substances were dissolved to allow an electric current to flow. The titanium dioxide and 

platinum acted as electrodes, establishing electrical contact with the 

water. When ultraviolet light from a laser illuminated the titanium 

dioxide, application of electrical potentials as low as 0.2 volts produced hydrogen and oxygen gases. 

The process thus far was inefficient, only 1% of the light energy 

being converted into chemical energy. Researchers were experimenting with different electrodes and reaction temperatures to find 

methods that would decompose water using low-energy visible light 

instead of high-energy ultraviolet light, which was only a small fraction of the liiht available from the sun. (NASA Release 75-106) 

21-24 April: The National Academy of Sciences held its 112th annual 

meeting and the National Academy of Engineering held its 11th 

annual meeting, in Washington, D.C. The state of the sciences and 

their potential contribution to the solution of national problems were 

discussed. During one session Dr. J. Herbert Holloman, Massachusetts Institute of Technology professor and former Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Science and Technology, said that the u.S. “no 

longer dominated the world’s technological process. We have now become the strongest nation among many.” Dr. Holloman said that the 

growth of productivity in the U.S. during the last 15 yrs had been 

“the lowest of any industrial nation in the world with the exception 

of the United Kingdom.” 

Dr. Michael Boretsky, Dept. of Commerce analyst, agreed, saying 

that the productivity decline could be attributed in part to the “relative decline in. the overall rate of the United States technological 

advance.” Since the mid-l960s, output per man-hour had been growing at half the average rate of the previous 100 yr, while productivity 

gains had been speeding up in other countries. Funds that could 

correct this situation by supporting the development of new technology had instead been channeled into social commitments. 

Dr. Ralph Landau, chemical engineer and president of Halcon, 

Inc., said that, because labor costs in the U.S. and leading foreign 

nations were virtually equal, it was no longer advantageous for u.S. 

companies to sell licenses to foreign enterprises to use American 

patents. Instead pressures existed to keep the technology at home, 

creating jobs in the U.S., and to sell US.-made goods abroad. 

During the business meeting on 22 April, 84 new members were 

elected to NAS “in recognition of their distinguished and continuing 

achievements in original research.” NAE elected 86 U.S. engineers to 

68 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 April 

its membership, including Dr. Kurt H. Debus, former Kennedy Space 

Center Director; Dr. Rocco A. Petrone, NASA Associate Administrator; and Dean R. Chapman, Ames Research Center scientist. (NAS 

Release, 22 April 75; NAE Release, 1 April 75; joint NAS-NAE Release, 

9 April 75; McElheny, NYT, 27 April 75, 15) 

23 April: NASA marked the 60th anniversary of the first meeting of NASA’s 

predecessor institution, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) Established by a law signed by President Woodrow 

Wilson 3 March 1915, NACA had 12 presidentially appointed members from the military and scientific communities “to supervise and 

direct the scientific study of the problems of flight, with a view to 

their practical solution” and “to direct and conduct research and 

experiments in aeronautics.” 

During its nearly half-century of operation, NACA was responsible 

for the technical proficiency of U.S. aviation. Early NACA wind-tunnel 

research yielded the unique NACA cowling and wing shapes that would 

dominate aeronautics into the 1940s. NACA’S fundamental research 

and its direct application to industrial, military, and civil aviation 

helped create the world‘s greatest commercial air transportation network before World War I1 and the world’s strongest air forces during 

that conflict. In 1947, it was the NACA-Air Force X-1 aircraft that 

broke the sound barrier. 

The agency had remained small in size and budget through 1939 

when 523 persons worked with $4.5 million in funds. By the mid-1940s the 

staff had grown to 6800 and its budget to an annual $40 million. In 

1958 the National Space Act dissolved NACA, transferring its 8000 

workers and “all functions, powers, duties and obligations” to the 

new National Aeronautics and Space Administration. (NASA Release 

75-86; Anderson, Orders of Magnitude, 1-3) 

NASA announced the award of a $11-million cost-plus-fixed-fee contract 

to Cutler-Hammer, Inc., AIL Div., for acquisition of the Microwave 

Scanning Beam Landing System ground stations for the Space Shuttle 

Orbiter. AIL would perform the research and development necessary 

to build the ground stations for the Shuttle landing sites. Groundstation hardware would be able to transmit localizer and glide slope 

signals to the Orbiter and respond to distance-measurement interrogations from the Orbiter. (JSC Release 75-32) 

24 April: NASA announced the award of a $2 376 400 contract to Reinhold 

Construction Co. for phase 2 of the Space Shuttle landing facility, 

including the landing aids control building, Orbiter landing instrumentation facilities, and related communications and utility systems. 

Phase 2 was scheduled for completion by the end of 1976. 

Phase 1, which began in April 1974 as a $21 812 737 contract with 

Morrison Knudsen Co., included construction of the 4570-m-long, 

91-m-wide runway, towway apron, and towway. Site preparation was 

nearing completion and the paving with nearly 200 000 cu m of cement 

would begin in July. Phase 1 was scheduled for completion by the 

summer of 1976. (KSC Release 62-75) 

25 April: NASA announced the selection of Sperry Rand Corp. for the 

negotiation of a fixed-price $&million contract for a Space Shuttle 

mission-simulator computer complex at Johnson Space Center. 

Sperry would design, develop, fabricate, test, and deliver a computing complex and all associated hardware for the Shuttle mission 

simulator. (JSC Release 75- 37) 

69 
April ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

28 April: NASA announced the beginning of a broad program of stratospheric research to determine the effects of natural and manmade 

pollutants on the earth’s ozone shield. In a cooperative effort with 

other Federal agencies, universities, and private industry to assess 

the threat posed by Freon, a trade name for gases used as refrigerants 

and in aerosol spray cans, NASA would use high-altitude U-2 aircraft, 

balloons, sounding rockets, and satellites to measure amounts of 

these compounds and their decomposition products already in the 

upper atmosphere. These data combined with data obtained in laboratories would help to determine the validity of predictions of Freoninduced ozone depletion in the stratospheric layer. Some scientists 

feared that a serious reduction of the protective ozone and a resulting 

increase in the amount of ultraviolet light striking the earth could increase the incidence of skin cancer and could change the average temperatures of the earth‘s atmosphere. 

The NASA program, managed by the Office of Space Science, emphasized basic research needed to understand the physical and 

chemical processes occurring in the atmosphere; this understanding 

was necessary to the assessment of changes caused by human activity. 

(NASA Release 75 - 124) 

29 April: NASA was inviting scientists to propose experiments for a 1979 

mission that would fly by Jupiter in 1981 and then travel to a mid-1985 

encounter with Uranus. Although the mission was not yet approved, 

NASA officials wanted to select flight investigations early to initiate 

necessary science planning and development. (NASA Release 75 -127) 

30 April: The fiist set of wings for NASA’s Space Shuttle Orbiter began an 

18-day land and water journey from Grumman Aerospace Corp.’~ 

facility in New York to Palmdale, Calif., for final assembly with the 

Orbiter. The two wing panels, each 9 m long from tip to fuselage and 

18 m wide at the fuselage edge, would travel aboard transporters specially designed to be pulled by a truck-at 16 km per hr-or loaded 

onto an ocean-going container ship. From New York the wings would 

make a 13-day trip through the Panama Canal to Long Beach, Calif., 

and then travel overland to Palmdale. 

The double-delta aluminum wings had been designed, manufactured, and tested by Grumman under a $40 million subcontract 

awarded by the prime Space Shuttle contractor, Rockwell International Corp., in March 1973. (JSC Release 75-38) 

0 NASA announced the appointment of Dr. John E. Naugle, Deputy Associate Administrator, to be Acting Associate Administrator until a 

replacement was named for Dr. Rocco A. Petrone. (NASA anno, 30 

April 75) 

During April: Soviet spending for research and development had risen 

50% between 1968 and 1973, representing an increase of from 2.5% to 

3.8% of the Soviet gross national product, the Air Forces Journal 

International quoted a Dept. of Commerce report as saying. During 

the same period, outlays for U.S. R&D had fallen from 3% to 2.4% of 

the GNP. The number of Soviet scientists and engineers working in 

R&D functions nearly doubled in the period, from 594 000 to 1 069 000; 

by contrast, the U.S. tec6nological pool had risen from 454 000 to 

531 000. The growth stemmed from a Soviet decision, announced in 

1968, to increase Soviet expenditures for science and technology by 

more than 60%. The report estimated that 90% of the Soviet technical 

70 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 April 

workforce was in the military and space fields. (AF Journ Znt, April 

75, 20) 

NASA’s flying laboratory Galileo ZI, an instrumented Convair 990, 

participated in a month-long cooperative investigation of the Arctic 

seas. Researchers from NASA, the U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. 

Army, U.S. Navy, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and several Canadian agencies hoped to find methods of measuring critical changes in the Arctic environment that would help 

environmentalists find out how best to manage Arctic resources. 

A major objective of the program was an experiment-called the 

AIDEX, the Arctic Ice Dynamics Joint Experiment-to investigate the 

relationship among ice motion, weather, and ocean conditions. 

Combined data from aircraft- and ground-based investigations would 

be used to interpret satellite data obtained at the same time. 

BESMEX, the Bering Sea Marine Mammal Experiment, would study 

the migration patterns of marine mammals and the relationship between mammal population, migration, and sea-ice conditions. 

In a third experiment, scientists would measure microwave emission characteristics of polar ice, hoping to find a key to global monitoring of ice distribution by climate and size. This information would aid 

in predicting the survival rate of offshore drilling rigs. (ARC Release 

75-11) 

Goddard Space Flight Center awarded a $20 000 research grant to the 

University of Florida to establish the feasibility of the electromagnetic 

wave energy-conversion (EWEC) concept. The EWEC converter used 

electromagnetic antennas to absorb the sun’s electromagnetic radiation into an array of insulated components and then convert it directly 

to electricity. The absorber operated similarly to insect antennae and 

the retina of the eye: Insects communicated by the reception of infrared and other electromagnetic radiation or energy, using their 

antennae tuned to the proper frequency by nature’s design. Once 

received, the energy was converted into electrical impulses. (NASA 

Release 75 - 102) 

During April -May: NASA conducted Atmospheric Variability Experiment IV and Atmospheric Variability Severe Storms Experiments I 

and I1 in cooperation with the U.S. Air Force, Army, National Weather Service, and several universities. Coordinating data collected over 

the eastern two-thirds of the U.S. by satellites, aircraft, radar, and 

weather balloons, participants hoped to develop new techniques for 

predicting where and when tornadoes might strike. The data collected, including information on thunderstorms, updrafts, and wind 

and cloud data, would be compared with ground-truth observations to 

determine the relationship between severe storms and their environment. Participating in the experiments were 41 radiosonde stations, 18 radar stations, 7 instrumented aircraft, and 5 meteorological 

satellites. (MSFC Release 75 - 102) 

71 

May 1975 

1 May: A decision had been made to designate Viking Lander 2 and 

Orbiter 2 as Viking Spacecraft- A, Kennedy Space Center’s Spmeport News reported. Lander 1 and Orbiter 1 would become Viking 

Spacecraft-B. The change had been made to permit early sterilization of Lander 2 to meet the 11 Aug. launch date. (Spaceport 

News, 1 May 75, 2) 

0 Dr. Noel W. Hinners, Nk3A Associate Administrator for Space Science, 

and Major General Soehardjono, Director General of Posts and 

Telecommunications for the Republic of Indonesia, signed an agreement for the July 1976 launch of Indonesia’s first communications 

satellite on a NASA Thor-Delta rocket. The new comsat, in synchronous 

equatorial orbit over Indonesia where its signal could be transmitted 

to 40 ground receiving stations, would permit Indonesia to begin 

development of a national communications network. (NASA Release 

75 - 134) 

A telescope aboard NASA’s Oao 3 Orbiting Astronomical Observatory 

(named Copernicus and launched 21 Aug. 1972) was observing three 

nearby stars---epsilon Eridani, tau Ceti, and epsilon Indi-for signs of 

other civilizations that might be trying to contact earth with laser 

beams. 

The telescope had scanned the first star in November 1974 for 14 

orbits while the spectrometer scanned the ultraviolet spectrum for 

potential laser signals to earth. The data were being analyzed and 

scientists were planning to scan tau Ceti and epsilon Indi again during 

the summer and fall of 1975. (NASA Release 75-130) 

0 Under an agreement with the Air Force, Flight Research Center pilots 

would fly the YF-17 aircraft-contender for selection as the Air 

Force combat fighter-in a research program to acquire flight data of 

a high-performance aircraft for comparisons with wind-tunnel tests 

and other analytical methods, FRC announced. The comparisons 

would be used to update prediction techniques required for the design 

of future highly maneuverable aircraft. During the 25 flight hrs, pilots 

would measure performance and stability at high angles of attack at 

both high and low altitudes, and perform maneuverability tests and 

pilot physiological studies during sustained high acceleration levels. 

(FRC Release 11-75) 

0 An overactive sun and excessively bright moon had caused brief shutdowns of instruments aboard Intelsat (International Telecommunications Satellite) communications satellites, the New York Times reported. Showers of particles during solar flares on 11 March and 13 

Oct. 1974 had built up excess electrical charges on satellite surfaces 

that had not been electrically grounded. Noise from the resulting 

electrical discharges confused readings of which way onboard antennas were pointing, causing the antennas to point away from the earth 

and temporarily cut off communications. 

73 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

A similar problem occurred 27 March when a spinning comsat interpreted infrared light from an exceptionally bright moon as coming 

from earth. Because of this, the satellite’s controls were receiving an 

earth indication twice as often as usual, thus commanding the 

pointing system to compensate by despinning at twice its normal rate. 

Communications were blacked out because the antennas were spinning relative to the earth rather than remaining stationary and pointing toward earth. 

The NYT quoted Communications Satellite Corp. engineers as 

saying that these occurrences pointed out the need for more knowledge about the exact behavior of Intelsat satellites in space so that 

changes could be made in the design of future satellites. The solarparticle problem had led to more thorough electrical grounding aboard 

the newest Intelsat satellites. (McElheny, NYT, 1 May 75, 83) 

2 May: Dr. John F. Clark, Director of Goddard Space Flight Center, and 

Daniel J. Fink, Vice President of General Electric Corp. Space Div., 

were awarded the National Aeronautic Association’s Robert J. Collier 

Trophy for individual accomplishment in making the Landsatformerly the Earth Resources Technology Satellite-program the 

outstanding aerospace event of 1974. The presentation was made at a 

dinner in Washington, D.C., jointly sponsored by the NAA and the 

National Aviation Club. Choice of the two officials as representative 

of the NASA-industry team “which abundantly proved during 1974 the 

value of remote sensing to space” was the unanimous decision of the 

selection committee of 26 distinguished leaders and authorities. The 

committee also paid particular tribute to Hughes Aircraft Co.’s 

Aerospace Group and RCA’S Government and Commercial Systems 

Group for their roles in the earth-resources and environmental 

surveys by Landsat. (NAA Release, 6 March 75; NASA Activities, April 

75; Goddard News, June 75) * President Ford presented the Harmon Aviation Awards, given €or outstanding feats of individual pilot skill, worthy of international recognition, and contributing to the art and science of flight. 

The 1974 Astronauts’ Trophy was awarded to the Skylab 2 crew 

who, during their 25 May to 23 June 1973 mission, became the first 

astronauts to successfully accomplish major repairs on a spacecraft in 

space. Skylab 2 commander Charles Conrad, Jr., accepted the award 

on behalf of himself and crewmembers Paul J. Weitz and Joseph P. 

Kerwin. 

President Ford presented the 1974 Aeronauts’ Trophy to the son 

of Malcolm S. Forbes for the latter’s series-of 21 flights in a hot-air 

balloon that took him 4000 km across the U.S. from Coos Bay, Ore., 

to Gwynn Island, Va. 

The 1974 Aviators’ Trophy went to Col. Edward J. Nash, Deputy 

Chief of Staff for Operations of the 21st Air Force, for his 21 000-km 

round-trip airlift mission in a C -5 aircraft from the U.S. to Israel, and 

for his direction of continuous C-5 and C-141 operations from the 

U.S. to the Azores and on to Israel between 14 Oct. and 14 Nov. 1973. 

The 1973 Aviators’ Trophy was awarded to L/C Edgar L. Allison for 

piloting an HC-130H aircraft of the Air Force 57th Aerospace 

Rescue and Recovery Squadron nonstop on 20 Feb. 1972 from Taiwan 

to Scott Air Force Base, Ill., a distance of 14 053 km, without 

refueling. This established a record for the longest straight-line nonstop flight in a turboprop aircraft. (PD, 5 May 75, 480-481) 

74 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 May 

5 May: The Senate Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences 

favorably reported out H.R. 4700 authorizing FY 1976 appropriations 

to NASA. Changes recommended by the committee would raise the 

NASA authorization by $5.7 million to $3.545 billion. 

Recommended Changes in the FY 1976 NASA 

Authorization by the Senate Committee 

Difference Recommended Purpose 

(millions) (millions) Program from Submission Authorization 

Research and Deuelopment: 

Space shuttle 

Space flight operations 

Advanced missions 

Physics and astronomy 

Lunar and planetary 

Launch vehicle procureSpace applications 

exploration 

ment 

Aeronautical research and technology 

Space & nuclear research & 

technology 

Energy technology 

applications 

Tracking & data acquisition 

Technology utilization 

R&D Totals: 

Research and Program Management: 

Basic submission 

R&PM Totals: 

Construction oflihcilitcees: 

ft transonic wind tunnel at ARC 

Addition to Lunar Sample Facility at JSC 

Addition for composite model and metal finish- ing shops at LaRC 

Modiiication of 11-by-11- 

0 

-4.0 

-1.5 

C7.0 

0 

0 

+8.9 

0 

n 

0 

-2.2 

0 

+8.2 

0 

0 

0 

-2.5 

0 

1206.0 

203.1 

0 

162.8 

259.9 

166.9 

183.9 

175.4 

74.9 

5.9 

240.8 

7.0 

2686.6 

776.0 

776.0 

2.7 

0 

1.9 

Accepted as presented 

Allocation of reduction left todiscretionofNASA 

Recommended deletion of this item; activities to he integrated with simdar and related functions in other programs 

To increase knowledge of u per atmosphere, i&ntifylng problems 

and developing new technology for 

dealing with them 

Accepted as presented 

Accepted as presented 

To increase emphasis on weather research, 

LACE proaam, ad- vanced communications research and Space Shuttle payload definition 

Accepted as presented 

Accepted as presented 

Accepted as presented 

To seek economies in the 

progr.am 

Accepted as presented 

Accepted as presented 

Accepted as presented 

Deleted from funds 

Accepted as presented 

75 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Recommended Changes in the FY 1976 NASA 

Authorization by the Senate Committee (continued) 

Differenee Reeommended Purpose 

(millions) (millions) 

Program from Submission Authorization 

Construction of Facilities: (coni.) 

Space Shuttle facilities 

Rehabilitation of facilities at various 

locations 

Minor construction of 

new facilities or additions to old 

facilities 

Facility planning and design 

C of F Totals: 

Grand Totals’ 

0 47.2 Accepted as presented 

0 16.0 Accepted as presented 

0 5.0 Accepted as presented 

0 

- 

9.3 Accepted as presented 

-2.5 82.1 - 

i-5.7 3544.7 

‘Total does not include a supplemental authorization for increased pay costs introduced and considered as H.R. 13172. 

For the transition period 1 July to 30 Sept. 1976, the committee 

recommended decreasing NASA’s total budget request of $958 900 000 

to $929 900 000. The requested $730 600 000 for research and 

development was reduced to $704 600 OOO, leaving NASA management 

to apportion the $26 million reduction. The committee reduced funds 

requested for construction of facilities from $14 500 000 to $11 500 OOO 

in a series of minor economies. (Sen Com on Aero & Space Sci Rpt 

94 - 103) 

0 The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project was “one of the few tangible survivors of 

that champagne-bubble atmosphere of detente along with the badly 

tarnished SALT [Strategic Arms Limitations Talks] agreements,” Aviation Week and Space Technology said in an editorial. From the Soviet 

viewpoint the goals were obvious: to tap into the mainstream of u.S. 

technology, to blur the international image of u.S. superiority with the 

appearance of parity by flying a joint manned mission, and to develop 

the technical base for international space rescue capability. U.S. 

goals remained obscure. The mission would provide the answers to 

some experimental questions: Could the U.S. and U.S.S.R. work together in a joint space program? Could an international rescue capability be developed? Could the ASTP experience be expanded to future 

joint space ventures? 

That ASTP had survived to the final countdown was a tribute to the 

flexibility, stamina, and in enuity of the technical working groups of 

both countries. A formifable series of technical, philosophical, 

linguistic, and operational problems had been solved and the investment by both countries had been substantial. 

ASTP had been “partially worth the effort. . . to have a sizable group 

of NASA and industry technicians get some practical hard-headed 

experience in working with their Soviet counterparts and acquiring a 

realistic view of their technical capabilities and philosophy. We think 

the rest of the value of the mission will come from determining just 

76 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 May 

how serious the Soviets are about future joint ventures in space and 

how much they really want to give and how much they want to take.” 

(Hotz, Av Wk, 5 May 75, 7) 

5 -22 May: Representatives from the five Apollo-Soyuz Test Project 

Working Groups, including 55 NASA employees, met in Moscow to 

conclude preparations for the scheduled 15 July launch date. Part of 

the U.S. contingent left for the Soviet Union on 5 May and the final 

group, led by NASA Deputy Administrator George M. Low, departed 

16 May. 

U.S. communications equipment checkout and docking target 

alignment tests were completed at the Baykonur cosmodrome by midMay, in time for Dr. Low and a group of NASA officials to take an 

inspection and orientation tour of the cosmodrome. The group visited 

the launch pad from which the ASTP Soyuz spacecraft would be 

launched and the Soviet equivalent of Kennedy Space Center’s 

Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) where the group inspected the prime 

launch vehicle and prime backup Soyuz spacecraft. 

At the 22 May flight readiness review (FRR) chaired by Dr. Low and 

Vladimir A. Kotelnikov, acting president of the Soviet Academy of 

Sciences replacing the ailing Mstislav V. Keldysh, Soviet and U.S. 

space officials signed the report indicating that the “Apollo-Soyuz 

Test Project was proceeding in accordance with the agreed schedule 

and ready to proceed toward the launching planned for July 15,1975.” 

Before the signing, U.S. ASTP Technical Director Glynn S. Lunney 

and his Soviet counterpart Konstantin D. Bushuyev gave a 5-hr review 

of the technical histories of their respective spacecraft. Reporting 

that no major problems remained, Lunney and Bushuyev said that 133 

documents had been negotiated and signed and only the postflight 

review remained to be prepared. 

Working Group chairmen made their final presentations indicating 

that all major tasks had been completed. (NASA Release 75 -156; Ezell 

et a1 ., The Partnership: A History of the ApolloSoyuz Test Project, 

285-301; Reuters, NYT, 23 May 75, 33) 

6 May: President Ford announced the recipients of the 1974 Presidential 

Management Improvement Awards, given annually as the highest 

recognition for outstanding contributions in improving the effectiveness and economy of government operations. Among the recipients 

was NASA’s Mariner-Venus 1973 management team at NASA Headquarters and Jet Propulsion Laboratory. (PD, 12 May 75, 504) 

Detente, while relaxing tension between the U.S. and Soviet Union, had 

produced ‘ba technology drain from the United States to the Soviet 

Union that has cost the United States millions of dollars, thousands of 

jobs and some valuable scientific secrets,” Jack Anderson and Les 

Whitten reported in a Washington Post article. Soviet technology, 

which lagged years behind the US. in fields including computers and 

space science, had little to offer and much to gain from the technological exchange. With official government encouragement U.S. firms 

had exported or were planning to export millions of dollars worth of 

technical information and products including aircraft and advanced 

computers. 

Anderson and Whitten reported that the Soviets often put finished 

products to military use. They were using detente and some advanced 

U.S. computers to catch up in their 10-yr lag behind the U.S. in 

computer science, a key to the US’S overall technological superi77 
May ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

ority. One u.S. firm, Control Data Corp., had signed preliminary 

agreements to help the Soviet Union build plants to manufacture 

computers and peripheral equipment. 

The Soviets were also eager to catch up with the U.S. in the production of wide-bodied jets. Holding out possible contracts, the U.S.S.R. 

had obtained detailed plans for wide-bodied jets from Boeing Co., 

Lockheed Aircraft Corp., and McDonnell Douglas Corp. (Anderson 

et a1 ., W Post, 6 May 75, B13) 

Astronomers in the People's Republic of China said they had discovered two minor planets between Mars and Pluto, reported a British 

press delegation visiting Nanking Observatory. The press quoted the 

Chinese as saying that the planets, observed in January, were rarely 

visible because of their position in the solar system. The Chinese had 

named the planets Purple Mountain One and Purple Mountain Two, 

for the name of the mountain on which the Nanking Observatory was 

located. (Reuter, W Post, 7 May 75) 0 Rockwell International Corp., holder of the prime contract with NASA to 

build the Space Shuttle Orbiter, announced that more than $109 million in subcontracts for the Space Shuttle main engine had been 

awarded by the Rocketdyne Div. since work on the engine began 3 

yr ago. Figures to date showed that firms in 4@ states were participating in the Space Shuttle program. 

Rockwell re orted that Space Shuttle develo ment would funnel 

an estimated billion into the u.S. economy \y 1978 and create 

employment for approximately 50 000 workers. (Rockwell Int'l 

Release RO -9) 0 Canada would develop the remote manipulator system (Ms) for NASA's 

Space Shuttle to permit astronauts inside the Shuttle Orbiter to 

deploy or retrieve payloads in space, NASA announced. Canada would 

fund the $30 million project, providing the first flight unit to NASA 

without charge in 1979. Canada would also supply flight units for 

follow-on Orbiters. Costs for these units would not include charges 

for Canada's research and development. (NASA Release 75-135) 

7 May: An Italian launch crew launched Explorer 53 @AS-C) Small 

Astronomy Satellite for NASA from San Marco launch platform, 

located in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Kenya, at 6:45 pm EDT 

(1:45 am local time 8 May) on a Scout launch vehicle. The spacecraft 

entered near-equatorial orbit with a 523.35-km apogee, 502.18-km 

perigee, 94.88-min period, and 2.995" inclination. 

Primary objectives of the Explorer 53 mission were to measure the 

x-ray emission of discrete extragalactic sources, to monitor the 

intensity and spectra of galactic x-ray sources from 1.0 kev to 50 kev, 

and to monitor the x-ray intensity of the star Sco X- 1. 

During a preliminary in-orbit checkout, controllers noticed that a 

stuck nutation damper was causing the spacecraft nutation, or 

coning, angle to be 4" rather than the planned 0.2". Energizing the zaxis coil reduced the coning angle to 0.5". Although the damper could 

not be freed despite repeated attempts, the nutation could be kept 

within reasonable limits so that scientific objectives could be 

achieved. A committee would evaluate the problem. 

Other spacecraft anomalies included intermittent operation of the 

spinning digital solar-aspect detector, and irregular and noisy operation of the spacecraft star sensor. Neither problem was expected to 

seriously degrade the mission. 

78 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 May 

The 195-kg satellite was designed to extend and complement the 

capabilities of Explorer 42 (Uhum, launched 12 Dec. 1970 as the first 

satellite dedicated entirely to the study of x-ray sources in space) and 

Explorer 48 (launched 16 Nov. 1970 to study galactic and extragalactic 

gamma radiation). Explorer 53, with its broad spectral range, provided 

higher energy resolution than previous satellites and permitted a study 

of physical conditions near an x-ray source. The spacecraft’s quasithree-axis stabilization system allowed much longer continuous 

observation of sources. Data from Explorer 53 would provide the basis 

for the more detailed x-ray studies to be made by High Energy Astronomy Observatories A and B scheduled for launch in 1977 and 1978. 

The experiment aboard Explorer 53 was designed and built by the 

Center for Space Research of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The spacecraft control section was designed by the Applied 

Physics Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins Univ. Goddard Space Flight 

Center managed the program for the Office of Space Science. Langley 

Research Center was responsible for the Scout launch vehicle. Italy 

was responsible for the assembly, checkout, and launch of the Scout 

on a cost-reimbursable basis. (NASAMORS 6 May 75’15 May 75; NASA 

Releases 75- 101, 75- 121) 

9 Canada’s Anik 3 (Telesat- 3) domestic communications satellite was 

launched by NASA at 7:35 pm EDT from Eastern Test Range on a threestage thrust-augmented Thor-Delta launch vehicle. Originally scheduled for March, the launch had been postponed because of a strike by 

McDonnell Douglas Corp. workers [see 10 Feb.1. The satellite was 

placed in the planned highly elliptical transfer orbit with a 35 945-km 

apogee, 231.4-km perigee, 634.3-min period, and 24.75’ inclination. 

Ground control fired the spacecraft’s apogee kick motor at 1:30 pm 

EDT on 10 May, circularizing the geosynchronous orbit at 38 000 km; 

the spacecraft was drifting toward its final operational location at 

approximately 104’ west longitude. 

Anik (Eskimo word for brother) 3 was third in a series of Canadian 

domestic comsats; Anik 1 (launched 9 Nov. 1972) andAnik2 (launched 

20 April 1973) were operating at 114’ and 109” west longitude, providing TV and telephone service to the most remote areas of Canada. 

Built by Hughes Aircraft Co., Anik 3 was 1.8 m in diameter and 3.3 m 

high, weighing 544 kg at launch and 272 kg in orbit. With power from 

23 000 solar cells and enough battery capacity to maintain full service 

during a solar eclipse. Anik had 13 channels that could transmit up to 

10 color TV transmissions or 9400 telephone circuits or analog or 

digital data. 

The NASA- Telesat Canada contract defined the NASA mission 

objective as the placement of the satellite in a synchronous transfer 

orbit of sufficient accuracy to allow onboard propulsion systems to 

place the spacecraft into a stationary orbit with enough residual 

stationkeeping propulsion to meet mission-lifetime requirements. 

This objective was met and the mission was adjudged successful on 20 

May. 

NASA would be reimbursed for launch hardware, services, and DOD 

range support. The project was managed by Goddard Space Flight 

Center under the direction of the NASA Office of Space Science. (NASA 

MORS, 25 Apd 75, 20 May 75; GSFC Wkly SSR, 1-7 May 75; NASA 

Releases 75- 113, 75- 131) 

79 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

0 NASA, in cooperation with the Dept. of Transportation, was investigating 

aircraft wake vortices-turbulent air trailing from an aircraft’s wingtips and swirling at velocities up to half the flight speed of the aircraft. 

Safety required an aircraft to travel far enough behind a preceding 

airplane to permit the vortices to dissipate, adding to congestion at 

already busy airports. NASA’s objective was to develop methods to 

reduce the intensity of the vortices and render them harmless 3 km 

behind the aircraft. This would decrease the amount of fuel wasted 

and the pollution produced when aircraft were subjected to holding 

patterns and waits to taxi to a runway, and would permit aircraft to 

land and take off at a faster rate. 

Engineers and scientists at Ames and Flight Research Centers 

were investigating the vortices by flying an instrumented Learjet and 

a T-37 jet trainer through wakes created by larger aircraft. Data 

collected during these flights, checked against wind-tunnel data, 

suggested several possible ways of alleviating the wake-vortex problem, including tailoring the lift across the aircraft wings, modifying 

engine placement, and adding wing spoilers and drag devices. (NASA 

Release 75- 136) 

8 May: A new antireflection-coated metal oxide semiconductor (AMOS) 

solar cell developed by Jet Propulsion Laboratory scientists might 

have potential use in the nation’s solar energy program, JPL scientist 

Richard J. Stern reported at a Photovoltaic Specialists Conference in 

Phoenix. The solar cells, made from oxidized gallium’arsenide with an 

extremely thin nearly transparent film of gold on the surface, had 

demonstrated an efficiency of about 15% in terrestrial sunlight, better 

than the average silicon solar cell now in standard use. The new cell 

also had superior resistance to radiation, promising a longer lifetime 

in space. Dr. Stern said that the technology was potentially adaptable 

to very low-cost polycrystalline thin fiims, with only a modest reduction in efficiency. (NASA Release 75- 133) 0 The International Telecommunications Satellite Organization announced 

the award of a $99 894 15-mo contract to the Research Foundation of the State Univ. of New York for a study of radiationinduced defects in solar cells. The Foundation would develop an information base for predicting electron damage to silicon solar cells 

over a wide range of parameters for the materials from which the cells 

were made. (INTELSAT Release 75-32) 

II May: Employees of McDonnell Douglas Corp. ratified a new contract 

by a 4609 to 2796 vote, ending a 13-wk strike [see 10 Feb.]. The 

contract agreement called for a 31% across-the-board wage increase 

during the first year and 3% boosts during the second and third years. 

The strike of 19 000 McDonnell aerospace workers, including 200 at 

Kennedy Space Center, had delayed all NASA’s scheduled Thor-Delta 

launches. (W Post, 12 May 75, A16) 

12 May: The Senate passed by voice vote H.R. 4700, the NASA Authorization Bill for Fy 1976 and the transition quarter. Reported out of 

the Senate Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences 5 May, 

the Senate version of the bill authorized $3.545 billion for NASA in FY 

1976, an increase of $5.7 million over the original request, and $930 

million for the transition period 1 July 1976 to 30 Sept. 1976, a 

decrease of $29 O00 million from the request. (CR, 12 May 75, 

S7890-96) 

80 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 May 

Soviet officials ave western newsmen their first glimpse of a Soviet 

space center d uring a tour of the main Soviet flight-control center 24 

km from Moscow. The Washington Post reported that the group led by 

the center’s technical director, Dr. Alberty V. Militsin, toured a 5-yrold six-story brick and sandstone building acknowledged by Dr. 

Militsin to be one of several space facilities near Moscow. The 

operations room, which was similar to the control room at Johnson 

Space Center, contained five rows of consoles, each with telephones 

and closed-circuit TV screens. Mission Control Director Aleksey S. 

Yeliseyev told the newsmen that the consoles were staffed during 

missions by from 15 to 24 officials and technicians. An illuminated world map on the wall showed tracking stations and the orbital 

paths of spacecraft. Electronic screens flashed flight information. 

Other support consoles, communications systems, and computers 

were located elsewhere in the building. 

Dr. Militsin said that the center had contact with Soyuz spacecraft 

insach orbit for 5 to 25 min, depending on the orbit. 

The newsmen also visited the three-room suite near the main 

operations room assigned to nine US. technicians for the July ApolloSoyuz Test Project. (Osnos, W Post, 13 May 75, A10) 

0 Rockwell International Corp. Space Div. announced the award of an 

estimated $1 million subcontract to the United Technologies Corp. 

Hamilton Standard Div. to build the flash evaporator subsystem, a 

part of the Space Shuttle Orbiter’s environmental control and lifesupport system. The evaporator would use excess heat generated by 

Orbiter subsystems to turn water from the spacecraft’s three powerproducing fuel cells into steam vented into space, handling as much as 

60 kg of water per hr. (United Aircraft became UTC in May.) 

Rockwell held the prime contract with NASA to build the Orbiter and 

integrate the complete Space Shuttle system. The evaporator subsystem contract was the third of three contracts totaling more than $27 

million awarded to Hamilton. Under previously awarded subcontracts, Hamilton was also developing the Orbiter’s atmospheric 

revitalization subsystem, Freon coolant loop, water boiler hydraulic 

thermal-control unit, and ground-support equipment hydraulic oart. 

(Rockwell Int’l Space Div Release SP-17) 

13 May: The Air Force Systems Command reported that researchers at 

the Air Force Avionics Laboratory were testing fiber optics-thin 

strands of glass that transmit light-to transmit avionic signals from 

one point to another in an aircraft. Fiber-optics data transfer began 

with an electronic signal that was converted into light by a transducer; 

the light traveled through glass strands and was reconverted at the 

other end into electrical signals, with minimal loss of energy. AFSC 

quoted Avionics Lab researchers as saying that, unlike the usual 

copper wire, fiber optics were unaffected by static from nearby electrical equipment and were immune to lightning, nuclear radiation, 

electrical sparking, fires, and grounding problems. Because extensive 

lab testing was nearly complete, the next step would be a low-cost 

flight-test program, perhaps on a remotely piloted vehicle (RPV). 

The Avionics Lab also had awarded contracts to develop passive 

optical couplers, a fiber-optics data bus, and a wideband fiber-optics 

system that would handle large data rates. The proposed Air Force 

Advanced Development Program could put a total fiber-optics system 

81 
May ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

on manned and unmanned aerospace vehicles by 1980. (AFSC Release 

OIP 087.75) 

9 Communications Satellite Corp. Chairman Joseph H. McConnell told a 

stockholders’ meeting that ComSatCorp was finalizing a contract with 

Exxon Corp. for five shipboard terminals for use with ComSatCorp’s 

Marisat maritime communications satellite scheduled for launch in 

summer 1975. McConnell also said that ComSatCorp had agreed to 

lease one shipboard terminal to Seagap, an oil exploration consortium 

led by Phillips Petroleum Co. Marisat would make available, for the 

first time, reliable voice, data, teletype, and facsimile communications to ships at sea and to offshore drilling rigs. McConnell said that 

the success of the Marisat program would depend on the Navy’s use of 

the system and on ComSatCorp’s ability to develop a substantial 

market in the commercial shipping industry. (Snider, W Star, 14 May 

75, F1) 

13 -14 May: More than 500 representatives from government, industry, 

and universities attended a 2-day conference at Lewis Research 

Center to review progress in aerospace propulsion. Aviation Week 

and Space Technology reported that high-speed performance was no 

longer the top priority among the propulsion researchers, emphasis 

having switched to quiet, clean, and fuel-conserving engines. Presentations and panel discussions included aircraft noise-reduction 

technology, fuel-conservative engine technology, upper-atmosphere 

pollution-measurement programs, and engine systems and component technology. 

LeRC’s John B. Whitlow reported that new technology generated 

by NASA’s supersonic cruise airplane research (SCAR) would develop 

an engine far different from the afterburning supersonic turbojet that 

was to have powered the first U.S. supersonic transport. A potential 

new engine might be a duct-burning turbofan with features such as a 

variable-geometry fan that allowed the engine to move as much as 

possible between straight turbojet and straight turbofan operational 

cycles. Other objectives for future NASA-developed SST propulsion 

systems included a 7400-km range with outstanding economy at 

speeds from mach 2.2 to mach 2.7, good subsonic cruise characteristics, good hold endurance and economy, and low takeoff noise. 

Whitlow stressed that, because of noise limitations, future SSTs 

would not be straight turbojets, and SCAR researchers were concentrating on low-bypass-ratio turbofans. As bypass ratio also affects 

engine weight, fuel consumption, drag, and cost-effective performance, no single bypass ratio of a conventional engine could meet 

all desired goals simultaneously. Thus SCAR researchers were developing variable-cycle engine technology that could tailor the bypass 

ratio and perhaps the fadpressure ratio for optimum performance. 

Candidate engines included a mini-bypass turbojet, a variable-bypass 

supersonic turbofan, a duct-burning turbofan, and a rear-valve 

variable-cycle engine. (LeRC Release 75- 19; Yaffee, Av Wk, 14 July 

75, 46-49) 

13-20 May: The second in a series of flight simulations between flight 

controllers and Apollo-Soyuz Test Project crew members in Houston 

and Moscow was completed in preparation for the July mission. The 

first of the three simulations scheduled for the session began at 6:20 

am CDT 13 May, 1 hr before Soyuz launch time, and continued for 

82 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 May 

25.5 hr into the simulated mission. With both Soviet and US. crewmen participating in simulators in their respective countries and control centers fully manned, the Apollo and Soyuz spacecraft were 

“launched” and put through various maneuvers. Communications 

between the two control centers included voice, teletype, datafax, and 

TV. During the simulation, a technical problem prevented observers 

in Houston from hearing the two Soviet cosmonauts; NASA officials 

said later that that problem should not happen during a real flight. No 

other major problems were reported. 

A second simulation begun at 6:30 am CDT 15 May and continuing 

for 56 hr rehearsed Apollo-Soyuz rendezvous, docking, crew transfers, and undocking and final separation. A third simulation, begun at 

6:30 am CDT 19 May, was cancelled when the command module 

simulator in Houston did not work properly. The simulation, a 9-hr 

rehearsal of rendezvous and docking, was successfully completed 20 

May. 

Final simulations by Houston and Moscow control centers and 

crewmen were scheduled for 30 June and 1 July. (NASA Release 

75-141; Tass, FBIS-SOV, 16 May 75, U1; Ezell et al., The Partnership: A History of the ApolloSoyuz Test Project, 285; UPI, hWT, 14 

May 75, 69) 

14 May: The U.S.S.R.’s Baykonur cosmodrome, located in the city of 

Leninsk near Tyuratam, was three to four times as big as Kennedy 

Space Center, U.S. Apollo-Soyuz Test Project commander Thomas 

P. Stafford said at an ASTP press briefing at Johnson Space Center. 

ASTP astronaut Vance D. Brand said that 50 000 persons inhabited the 

launch complex. The briefing followed the crew’s return from the 

Soviet Union where they had participated in the final training session 

before the scheduled July launch [see 14- 30 April]. 

The astronauts said that at the Soviet spaceport they had been 

shown “everything we had a requirement to see,” the launch pad, 

spacecraft, test and checkout facilities, automatic checkout equipment (ACE) rooms, and crew quarters. The one “drastic difference” 

between the tour received by the Soviet cosmonauts in the U.S. and 

that of the American astronauts in the U.S.S.R., said Stafford, was 

“we didn’t go to Disneyland over there.” 

Astronaut Donald K. Slayton described the launch pad as “relatively simple.” The spacecraft, assembled on top of a railroad car, 

was hauled to the pad about 4 days before launch. The stacked vehicle 

was jacked up and set on the pad; after checkout, the vehicle was 

rotated to the proper launch azimuth. The booster was held to the pad 

by four support arms which were popped out of the way by 

counterweights once the vehicle started to move. 

Stafford said that Leninsk was a new city built in a desert. The 

continued construction activity indicated that the Soviets “are not 

slowing down orie bit in their space program.” The Soviets had told 

their U.S. counterparts that they would continue to have several 

manned flights a year operating in low earth orbit. (Transcript) 

Marshall Space Flight Center had issued a request for proposals for a 10- 

mo study of a space-based power-conversion and power-relay system, 

MSFC announced. The proposed study would examine alternate means 

for generating electrical power in space, with emphasis on 

83 
May ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

identification and delineation of problem areas and new technology 

required for these power systems. (MSFC Release 75-90) 

0 Fifteen years ago the launch of two U.S. satellites on the same day would 

have “blasted the top off of Page One,” Ernest B. Furguson said in 

a Washington Star article. But when it happened 7 May-Explorer 

53 and Anik 3-it “drew less coverage than two swallows returning 

to Capistrano.” At a total cost of $44 million, to be shared by NASTA 

and foreign friends, Explorer 53 Small Astronomy Satellite would 

study x-ray sources within and beyond the Milky Way, and Anik 3 

would transmit communications back and forth across Canada. 

The NASA space budget for FY 1975 was nearly $3 billion. “Considering inflation, that seems a bargain.” The current space budget 

was “not quite 12 times what the.President has asked to handle the 

Vietnamese refugee effort for each of two years. You are free to say 

for yourself where the two programs stand on the relative scale of 

things.” (Furguson, W Star, 14 May 75, A17) 

15 May: The National Science Foundation marked the 25th anniversary 

of its establishment at a dinner at the Dept. of State in Washington, 

D.C. Dr. Norman Hackerman, chairman of the National Science 

Board, presided at the dinner hosted by the 25-member board, the 

policy-making body of NSF. Among those present were many former 

board members, including the six charter members appointed by 

President Truman in 1950, and representatives of the scientific 

community, industry, and the executive and legislative branches of 

government. 

President Ford sent a message saluting NSF: “In. the last quarter 

century the National Science Foundation has become the Nation’s 

principal agency for the support of basic research and education 

in all fields of scientific endeavor. The creation of the National 

Science Foundation represented a culmination of our national understanding of the role of science in our society. In the last two and a half 

decades, the Foundation has built a prestigious reputation for sound 

scientific exploration to improve the quality of life for all.” 

Dr. H. Guyford Stever, NSF Director, announced plans to establish 

an Alan T. Waterman Award for research and advanced study in the 

mathematical, physical, medical, biological, engineering, social, and 

other sciences. Dr. Waterman had been the first NSF Director. (NSF 

Release PR75-47) * NASA had awarded a definitive $141) 577 924 contract to Thiokol Corp. 

Wasatch Div. for solid rocket motors for the Space Shuttle, MSFC 

announced. A previous letter contract issued 26 June 1974 had given 

Thiokol authority to proceed with the work which included design, 

development, test, and evaluation of the solid rocket motor. The contracts also called for Thiokol to provide support equipment, tooling and support parts, systems-integration support and special 

studies, and data and documentation. (MSFC Release 75-91) 

The National Science Foundation and the Univ. of Wyoming announced 

plans for construction of a 213-cm infrared telescope near Laramie, 

Wyo. To cost $1.6 million and be operational in late 1977, it would 

be the largest of its kind in the continental u.S. and one of the 

largest in the world. 

To be used for study of objects in our galaxy and beyond and for 

study of the more distant stars, the instrument would be a Cassegrain 

84 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 May 

telescope mounted on a ring 3 m high and housed in a building with a 

14-m dome capable of operating automatically in subzero weather. 

The facility would also contain equipment for infrared detection systems and a laboratory-dormitory for observers. 

The state of Wyoming had committed $975 000 for construction 

and NSF was committing $625 000. Operating costs would be shared 

by the state and users. (NSF Release PR75-42) 

0 Kennedy Space Center announced the selection of Modular Computer 

Systems, Inc., for final negotiations on a $6.7-million fKed-price 

contract for equipment associated with the Space Shuttle launchprocessing system. The company would provide minicomputers and 

their associated equipment, software, maintenance, spares, and engineering support. The launch-processing system now under development at KSC would provide automatic test, checkout, launch control, 

and operational management for NASA’s Space Shuttle program. 

(KSC Release 69-75) 

Kennedy Space Center had issued $7.5 million in awards and contracts 

to small businesses during the first 9 mo of N 1975, bringing the total 

awarded to small businesses since N 1970 to $61 million. The KSC setaside program required that all procurement requests exceeding 

$2500 be reviewed by the center’s small-business specialist to determine if they could be set aside exclusively for small businesses. In 

addition, KSC had successfully participated in a program aimed at 

awarding contracts to minority-owned firms, with $7 million in awards 

made since the program began. (KSC Release 70-75) 

15-16 May: u.S. and European scientists met at a Goddard Space Flight 

Center symposium to discuss the importance of a never-before-flown 

space mission out of the ecliptic plane, the pancake-like plane in 

which all planets orbit the sun. Symposium chairman Dr. Leonard 

A. Fisk said, “A view of the solar cavity [the region dominated by 

the sun through the flow of the solar wind] from outside the ecliptic 

plane is expected to expand greatly man’s knowledge of interplanetary physics, solar physics, and plasma processes in the 

universe. To place a spacecraft in such an orbit brings expectations that we will witness new and exciting phenomena that we could 

neither observe nor predict from our present vantage point in the 

ecliptic plane.” 

The scientists agreed that the missions under consideration could 

be undertaken jointly by NASA and the European Space Research 

Organization: ESRO would have primary responsibility for the spacecraft, and NASA would provide the launch vehicle. (NASA Activities, 

June 75) 

16 May: Marshall Space Flight Center had issued a request for proposals 

for an x-ray source system for the x-ray telescope facility being 

constructed at MSFC for use in the High Energy Astronomy Observatory (HEAO) project, MSFC announced. The proposed contract would 

include design, fabrication, assembly, preliminary in-plant checkout, 

installation, and verification. The contractor would also have the 

option of building a cover for the system. Under the terms of the contract, the x-ray source system would be installed on a 4.6-cm-by39.3-cm steel flange by 20 Feb. (MSFC Release 75-93) 

0 Flat conductor cable developed by NASA for rocket and spacecraft 

wiring was being installed in Marshall Space Flight Center’s experi85 
May ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

mental solar house, MSFC announced. The surface-mounted cable 

was being considered for commercial and residential applications, 

to provide a wiring system that was lower in cost, easier to install, 

adaptable to all types of wall construction, and as safe as or safer 

than conventional roundwire electrical systems. Flat conductor cable 

could be routed under all paneling, tile, and carpet, and the lowvoltage flat cable for lights and receptacles could be routed under 

wallpaper or simply painted. The cable had already been installed 

successfully in an MSFC conference room and in six apartments in 

Yonkers, N.Y., as a joint effort between NASA and the New York State 

Urban Development Corp. (MSFC Release 75 -94) 

17 May: France launched two satellites, Castor and Pollux, on a single 

Diamant BP-4 booster from Kourou, French Guiana. It was the first 

time France had orbited two satellites on a single booster. Castor 

entered orbit with a 1269-km apogee, 273-km perigee, 100.3-min 

period; and 30“ inclination; Pollux entered orbit with a 1283-km 

apogee, 270-km perigee, 100.4-min period, and 30“ inclination. The 

press reported that Castor carried an accelerometer to measure 

changes in the earth‘s atmosphere for a 5-to-6-yr period. Pollux carried a micrometer for experiments in satellite propulsion. (GSFC Wkly 

SSR, 15-21 May 75;SF, Nov 75,406; Agence France-Presse, Today, 

18 May 75) 

18 May: Equipment aboard U.S. reconnaissance satellites could photograph a pack of cigarettes or monitor a radio conversation between 

foreign pilots from an orbit of 130 km, the Philadelphia Inquirer 

reported. Satellites could also instantly detect the launch of an intercontinental ballistic missile and determine where it was going. 

Early reconnaissance satellites were of two types: SAMOS (satellite and missile observation system) satellites carried wide-area 

cameras to determine ground targets of interest; film was processed 

on board and imagery radioed to ground. Discoverer satellites from 

lower orbits used high-resolution cameras for closeups; the satellite 

ejected its film, which parachuted down for midair recovery by Air 

Force aircraft. 

These satellites were replaced, in the 1970s, by the 11 340-kg 

“Big Bird” spacecraft. The Inquirer reported that technical experts 

believed that Big Birds carried TV cameras which allowed human 

monitors to maintain continuous watch on ground; if they saw something of interest, they could order immediate photographs by the 

satellite’s high-resolution cameras. The experts also believed that 

Big Bird carried side-looking radar to penetrate cloudcover and 

equipment sensitive enough to distinguish between old and new grass. 

Resolution was no longer measured in meters but in centimeters. 

The Inquirer also reported that other satellites carrying infrared 

and other detectors were used to monitor missile launches, detect 

hidden heat sources such as underground powerplants, and spot the 

warmth of buried missile silos. (Coughlin, P Inq, 18 May 75, 5E) 

19 May: The unemployment rate for scientists and engineers, which had 

been 1.1% in 1970, rose to 1.9% in 1972 and then fell to 1.1% again 

in 1974, the National Science Foundation reported. Of the employed 

engineers and scientists, only 0.5% were not working in their field 

because of a lack of available positions. Business and industry was 

by far the largest employer, with 60% of all the employed engineers 

86 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 May 

and scientists throughout the 1970-74 period. Educational institutions employed about 13%; Federal and state and local governments employed about 10.5 and 8%, respectively. Between 1972 and 

1974 the proportion of engineers in the group had increased from 62% 

to 64%. Physical scientists constituted 12% of the science and engineering workforce. Environmental scientists were the smallest group, 

making up 2.5% of the science and engineering workforce. (NSFHighlights, 19 May 75) 

20 May: NASA’s Ats 6 Applications Technology Satellite (launched 30 May 

1974 into geosynchronous orbit) began a 6-wk move from its position 

35 900 km over the Pacific Ocean west of the Galapagos Islands to a 

new location above Lake Victoria in eastern Africa. The satellite, 

which was expected to reach its new location by 1 July, would be 

checked out in time to participate in the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project in 

mid-July. During that mission Ats 6 would track the Apollo and Soyuz 

spacecraft and relay TV and data from the two spacecraft to earth, 

marking the first time a satellite had been used to relay TV from a 

manned spacecraft. 

The new location also would bring Ats 6 within range of India for 

the 1-yr Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) 

scheduled to begin 1 Aug. During the experiment-a cooperative 

effort by NASA and the Indian Space Research Organization-the 

Indian government would relay daily educational TV programs to 5000 

villages and cities throughout India. After the experiment, the 

satellite would be moved back to a position within range of the U.S., 

where it would be used for further experimentation. (NASA Release 

75-153) 

8 Two U.S. Air Force communications satellites, launched from Eastern 

Test Range, failed to reach orbit when the third stage of the Titan IIIC 

launch vehicle malfunctioned and tumbled out of control. United 

Press International quoted an Air Force spokesman as saying the two 

satellites, valued at $57 million, were to have been placed in geostationary orbits, one over the Pacific Ocean and the other over the 

Indian Ocean. The 544-kg comsats-designed to handle as many as 

13 000 telephone calls or to relay televised or printed messages 

without danger of jamming or eavesdropping-would have completed 

the worldwide military communications network begun in 1973. 

Officials believed that a power problem was responsible for the 

failure. @PI,NYT, 21 May 75, 40) 

8 Frank Briscoe Co., Inc., and Santa Fe Engineers, Inc., were the 

apparent successful bidders on two major Space Shuttle contracts 

which would be awarded by Kennedy Space Center, KSC announced. 

Frank Briscoe Co. had bid $8 733 300 on a contract for the construction of the Orbiter processing facility, Orbiter towway, and 

associated site work and utilities at KSC. It was in the processing 

facility that the Orbiters would be safed, serviced, and maintained 

after returning from flights into space and then prepared for their next 

mission. Phase 1 of the construction-scheduled for March 1977 

completion-included a 5000-sq-m building with a low bay area 88 m 

long, 30 m wide, and 8 m high and two high bay areas 61 m long, 46 m 

wide, and 29 m high. 

Santa Fe Engineers had bid $3 567 567 on a contract to construct 

the Shuttle approach and landing test facilities at Flight Research 

87 
May ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Center. The contract would include site preparation, construction of a 

maintenance hangar and shops, Shuttle Orbiter mating structure 

area, hypergolic fuel and oxidizer area, fire protection pump station, 

concrete towway and service aprons, parking area and road paving, 

and necessary utilities. The project was scheduled for completion in 

September 1976. (KSC Release 73- 75) 

0 Air Force Systems Command Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory 

scientists were studying changes in human body weights and sizes as 

part of a NASA-requested anthropometric study to help engineers 

design cockpits and crew stations for future use. NASA engineers who 

wanted to lay out the Space Shuttle work station were concerned that 

body sizes of the pilots might change before the station was used. The 

scientists performing the study, using both current data and data that 

went back as far as the Civil War, estimated that in 1985 a pilot would 

average nearly 2 kg heavier and 1.5 cm taller than in 1967, when he 

had weighed 78.5 kg and was 177 cm tall. 

In addition to statistics, NASA requested drawing board manikins 

for designing the Shuttle’s work areas. The study had produced two 2- 

dimensional manikins like cardboard dolls with movable joints; each 

manikin was articulated in nine places to represent typical ranges of 

body movement. A 95% manikin represented a person 189.0 cm tall; a 

5% manikin, representing a 168.3-cm astronaut or pilot, was designed 

so that only 5% of the 1985 pilot-astronaut population would be 

smaller. An engineer using both manikins could design a crew station 

or cockpit that would accommodate 90% of all astronauts and pilots. 

(AFSC Release OIP 072.75) 

21 May: NASA’s Airborne Infrared Observatory, a four-engine 6- 141 jet 

transport equipped with a 91.5-cm infrared telescope, was dedicated 

to the memory of Dr. Gerard P. Kuiper, the founder and former 

director of the Univ. of Ariz. Lunar and Planetary Laboratory. The 

Kuiper observatory, based at Ames Research Center, would fly at 

altitudes up to 13 500 m with the telescope operating through a cavity 

in the aircraft’s fuselage. 

Dr. Kuiper, who had died in 1973, had been one of the foremost 

authorities on lunar science. He had played an active role in NASA’s 

Ranger and Surveyor programs and, as head of the Ranger scientific 

team, had directed the photographic analysis to select landing sites 

for the Apollo astronauts. He also had participated in the Mariner 10 

mission, launched 3 Nov. 1973 to Venus and Mercury, and the Pioneer 

10 mission, launched 2 March 1972 toward a December 1973 

encounter with Jupiter. (NASA Release 75- 149; A&A 73, 350) 

NASA announced the appointment of Robert E. Smylie as Deputy 

Associate Administrator for Aeronautics and Space Technology, effective immediately, and the return of J. Lloyd Jones, Jr., to Ames 

Research Center as Chief of the Planning and Analysis Office. 

Smylie had been Deputy Associate Administrator (Space), OAST, 

since July 1974. From October 1973 to July 1974 he had been Deputy 

Associate Administrator for Technology after serving as chief of the 

Crew Systems Div. at Johnson Space Center. 

Jones had come to Hq. in 1972 as director of the Aerodynamics and 

Vehicles Systems Div. in the Office of Aeronautics and Space 

Technology, a position he held until appointed Deputy Associate 

88 
ASTRONAUTICS ANI) AERONAUTICS, 1975 May 

Administrator (Aeronautics), OAST, in July 1974. (NASA anno, 21 May 

75) 

0 The Energy Research and Development Administration had awarded a 

45-mo $17 736 000 contract to General Electric Co. Space Div. to 

provide nuclear generators for NASA's two Mariner- Jupiter- Saturn 

missions scheduled for launch in late 1977. GE would build seven 

radioisotopic thermoelectric generators for use during the mission; 

three of the nuclear generators-each providing 150 wattnwould be 

used for each spacecraft, and the seventh would serve as a spare. 

(ERDA Release 75- 79) 

Marshall Space Flight Center had issued a request for proposals for a 

study of alternative means for generating electrical power in space 

and relaying the power to earth, with emphasis on problem areas and 

new technology, the Marshall Star reported. Previous studies had 

defined concepts for the use of large solar-cell panels to generate 

power in geosynchronous orbit and transmit it to earth via microwaves; also studied had been the transmission via an orbital microwave system of power generated at a remote location on earth and 

transmitted long distances to the user location. (Marshall Star, 21 

May 75, 1) 

22 May: NASA successfully launched Intelsat IV F-1 for the Communications Satellite Corp., as agent for the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization, from Easteni Test Range at 6:04 pm EDT. 

The 1400-kg satellite entered the desired synchronous transfer orbit 

with a 35 870-km apogee, 534-km perigee, 10-hr 40-min period, and 

26" inclination. ComSatCorp successfully fired the apogee motor at 

6:45 pm EDT on 24 May, placing the satellite in synchronous orbit over 

the Indian Ocean (36 184-km apogee, 35 704-km perigee, 24hr 4-min 

period, and 0.5" inclination) with a final operational position to be at 

61" east longitude. When it became operational in June, it would 

replace Intelsat IV F-5 as the primary operating satellite in the 

Indian Ocean area in the global 6-active-satellite Intelsat network; it 

would be able to transmit 3500 two-way telephone conversations or 12 

TV channels. 

The launch was the second recent attempt to place an Intelsat IV 

satellite over the Indian Ocean; on 20 Feb., the first attempt failed and 

Intelsat IV F-6 had to be destroyed when the Atlas-Centaur launch 

vehicle tumbled out 6f control. 

INTELSAT launched its first comsat, Intelsat I F- 1 (Early Bird), on 6 

April 1965. Between 1967 and 1970 12 Intelsat I1 and 111 satellites 

were launched before the Intelsat IV launches began in 1971. (NASA 

MORS, 16 May 75, 25 Sept 75; NASA Release 75-125; NASA Audio 

News, 23 May 75; GSFC Wkly SSR, 25-28 May 75; Salmanson, Atlas 

mgr., NASA Hq., interview, 25 May 77) 

A @ant 283 200-cu-m balloon carrying a Marshall Space Flight Center 

gamma ray detector was launched from Palestine, Tex., by the 

National Center for Atmospheric Research. The balloon reached 

an altitude of 40 km and traveled 800 km before touching down near 

Ft. Stockton, Tex., 23 hrs later. The purpose of the fight was to detect 

the sources and determine the nature of sudden bursts of gamma 

rays coming from various directions in space. (MSFC Release 75- 

100) 

89 
May ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

0 Landsat 2 (launched 22 Jan.) was monitoring water resources in Miss. 

and the effects of pollution on the water system, Marshall Space Flight 

Center announced. As part of the NASA earth resources program, 

three data-collection buoys placed in the Pearl River were 

transmitting water-quality data to Landsat 2, which relayed the data 

to a tracking station at NASA’s National Space Technology Laboratories (NSTL) for processing. Processed data on water temperature, 

dissolved oxygen, aciditylalkalinity, and conductivity were received 

in the Miss. Air and Water Pollution Control Commission, where state 

investigators could identify a pollution source within 15 min of a 

satellite pass over the buoys. 

A similar experiment was being conducted in Mobile Bay by NASA 

and the Marine Environmental Sciences Consortium. Data from the 

experiments would help evaluate the usefulness of the system and 

suggest improvements. (MSFC Release 75- 97) 0 President Ford told a group of eight congressmen at a White House 

meeting that he would work to reestablish the Office of Science and 

Technology as a permanent part of the White House organization, the 

New York Times reported. The office had been abolished by President 

Nixon 1 July 1973. The Times quoted Director of the Domestic Council 

James Cannon as saying that President Ford would propose 

legislation creating the post of science advisor with a staff of 10 to 15 

persons and an annual budget of $1 million to $1.5 million. (WT, 23 

Mav 75, 14) 

Rockwell International Corp. announced that its Electronics Research 

Div., under a contract awarded by NASA on 18 Feb. 1974, had 

developed a single-chip bubble-domain memory element with a 

capacity of 102 400 bits, believed to be the largest capacity memory 

device ever built. The new data recorder-a major milestone in 

NASA’s continuing program to develop an all-solid-state data recorder 

for future U.S. spacecraft-was one-third the size and one-half the 

weight of current equipment. It was expected to use half the power 

and have 10 times the life expectancy of present recorders. Objective 

of the effort was to demonstrate the feasibility of fabricating highcapacity memory elements with reasonable yield and operating 

margins. (Rockwell Int’l Release Em-1; LaRC proj off, interview, 18 

22 

Jan 77) 

May-7 June: The U.S. and Peru launched more than 40 sounding 

rockets and balloons in a joint project, called Antarqui for the Inca god 

of flight, to study the earth‘s atmosphere and ionosphere from Chilca 

Launch Range in Peru, a location on the magnetic equator where the 

earth‘s magnetic field is horizontal. Instruments aboard the rockets 

and balloons measured the composition of the neutral and ionized 

atmosphere, density and temperature, wind shear, and turbulence. 

The measurements would be compared with data from Explorer 51 

(Atmosphere Explorer-Cy launched 15 Dec. 1973) and the groundbased Jicamarca and Huancayo Observatories. The overall mission 

included the launch of 4 Nike-Tomahawks, 8 Nike-Apaches, 7 Super 

Arcas, and 10 Super Lokis, as well as two balloons measuring 36 m in 

diameter and 12 ozonesonde balloons. 

Project htarqui was a continuation of a NASA sounding-rocket 

program conducted during the 1964-65 International Quiet Sun Year 

90 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

when 77 sounding rockets had been launched during the first 4 mo of 

1965 from a sea-going launch platform, the USNS Croatan. 

Wallops Flight Center managed the program for NASA; the Instituto 

Geofisico del Peru arranged for the use of the range, supplied range 

operation and logistics support in Peru, correlated ground-based 

measurements from Jicamarca and Huancayo, assisted in recovery 

operations, and performed some preliminary work at the range. 

In addition to WFC, Goddard Space Flight Center, Dudley Observatory, Univ. of Pittsburgh, Univ. of Ill., Penn. State Univ., Univ. of 

Denver, and GCA Corp. supplied scientific payloads for the sounding 

rockets and balloons. (WFC Release 75-6;NASA Activities, June 75, 

14; WFC proj mgr, interviews, 11-12 Jan 75) 

24 May-26 July: The U.S.S.R. launched Soyuz 18, carrying cosmonauts 

Pyotr Klimuk and Vitaly Sevastyanov, from Baykonur cosmodrome at 

7:58 pm local time (10:58 amI?DT). According to the Tass news agency, 

the spacecraft entered orbit with a 247-km apogee, 193-km perigee, 

88.6-min period, and 51.6” inclination. Tass announced that the 

purpose of the mission was “to conduct further experiments with the 

orbital research station ‘Salyut-4,’ started on January 12, during the 

joint flight of the delivery spaceship ‘Soyuz-17’ and the station 

‘Salyut-4’ as well as to test individual elements and systems of the 

spaceship in various modes of flight.” 

During the first day in orbit Klimuk and Sevastyanov checked out 

essential spacecraft and life-support systems and prepared for orbital 

maneuvering. The crew switched on the main engines twice on 25 May 

to raise the spacecraft’s orbit in preparation for rendezvous and docking withsalyut 4. On 26 May Soyuz 18 approached the station by an 

automatic control system. At a distance of 100 km the crew took over 

control and manually docked the spacecraft with the Salyut 4 station 

in pitch darkness. After docking, the crew switched on the station’s 

lights and began activation and checkout of the onboard systems. The 

crew transferred equipment and boarded the station where they found 

a “Welcome to our common home” sign left by the station’s previous 

tenants, Soyuz 17 cosmonauts Aleksey Gubarev and Georgy Grechko. 

The cosmonauts reported that all systems were operating normally 

and that they themselves were in good health. By 28 May the station 

and spacecraft were in an orbit with a 349-km apogee, 338-km perigee, 91.4-min period, and 51.6” inclination. 

During their 63 days in orbit, the cosmonauts studied the sun, 

planets, and stars in various bands of the spectrum of electromagnetic 

radiation using several x-ray telescopes, including one called “Filin”; 

investigated geological-morphological objects on the earth’s surface, 

photographing the U.S.S.R. in the medium and southern latitudes; 

studied physical processes in the earth‘s atmosphere and in space; 

performed medical and biological research with particular emphasis 

on the impact of weightlessness on the human organism; and tested 

the station’s design and onboard systems. The cosmonauts also raised 

a garden of onions and peas as a forerunner of providing self-sufficient 

food supplies in space. Tass reported that, for the first time during a 

space flight, the polar lights were investigated using integral 

photography and spectrography methods. 

Twice during the mission Klimuk and Sevastyanov spoke with 

cosmonauts Aleksey A. Leonov and Valery N. Kubasov who were also 

in orbit participating in the joint U.S.-U.S.S.R. Apollo-Soyuz Test 

Project begun 15 July. 

91 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

By 23 July the cosmonauts were preparing the space station for 

automatic operation. On 26 July at 3:56 pm Baykonur time (6:56 am 

EDT), Soyw 18 and its crew undocked from Salyut 4. They softlanded 

56 km northeast of Arkalyk in Kazakhstan at 7:18 pm Baykonur time 

(10:18 am EDT). 

Tass reported that by27 July the cosmonauts’ slight pulse and blood 

pressure fluctuations noted immediately after landing had returned to 

normal. Decreases in erythrocytes and increases in leucocytes 

disappeared after a few days, and in 1 or 2 wk orthostatic stability and 

resistance to functional tests had almost reached preflight baselines. 

Both Klimuk and Sevastyanov had lost some weight- 3.8 kilograms 

and 1.9 kilograms respectively-during the mission. 

The Soyuz 18 crew’s 62-day 23-hr 40-min mission broke the previous 29-day 13-hr 20-min Soviet record for time in space set by the 

Soyuz 17. The current world’s record for time in space was held by the 

Skylab 4 astronauts for their 84-day l-hr 16-min mission, 16 Nov. 1973 

to 8 Feb. 1974. 

Salyut 4, which had been visited by the two crews of Soyuz 17 and 

18, was the fourth space station orbited by the U.S.S.R. Salyut 1 had 

been launched 19 April 1971. A three-man crew, launched on Soyuz 

10, docked with the station on 24 April but returned to earth without 

entering. The Soyuz 11 crew, launched 6 June 1971, boarded the station and conducted experiments for 24 days but were killed during a 

reentry accident. Salyut 2 was launched 3 April 1973 but an explosion 

of wildly firing thrusters sent the station out of control, tearing off the 

solar panels and making the station uninhabitable. Salyut 3 was 

orbited 25 June 1974 and a two-man crew, carried bySoyuz 14, lived 

and worked aboard the station from 3- 19 July 1974. A second crew, 

launched 26 Aug. 1974, returned to earth in 48 hr after an unsuccessful attempt to dock with the station, which itself reentered the earth‘s 

atmosphere 26 Sept. 1974. (Tass, FBIS- Sov, 24 May- 28 July 75; GSFC 

Wkly SSR, 22-28 May 75; AP, BSun, 27 July 75, A3; Lib of Congress, 

“S&T News Alert,” No 2600, 19 Sept 75) 

27-28 May: The Saturn IB launch vehicle scheduled to launch three u.S. 

astronauts into orbit in July as part of the joint U.S.-U.S.S.R. ApolloSoyuz Test Project underwent flight-readiness tests at Kennedy 

Space Center. During abort tests on 27 May, automatic checkout 

equipment was connected and the mobile service structure placed 

around the vehicle. Saturn IB heavy ordnance and the spacecraft’s 

launch escape system were installed but not connected. Two abortprocedure rehearsals were held. After a 28 May simulated countdown 

sequence, including propellant loading, umbilical ejection, ignition, 

holddown arm release, and liftoff, a 6-hr simulated mission was held. 

The launch team and a crew of astronauts conducted post-orbital and 

insertion checks, launch-vehicle guidance tests, computer updates, 

simulated burns of the spacecraft’s engine, deorbit, reentry, and 

splashdown. (KSC Release 74-75; Spaceport News, 30 May 75, 1) 

27 May-14 June: A one-third-scale model of the Space Shuttle Orbiter 

was tested in Awes Research Center’s 40- by 80-ft wind tunnel, to 

gather low-speed flight data in support of approach and landing tests 

of the first full-scale Orbiter at Flight Research Center in 1977. In 

addition, data were gathered to calibrate the vehicle’s air data probes. 

The model, built by Shuttle prime contractor Rockwell International 

May 

92 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 May 

Corp., was 13.1 m long and weighed 20 NO kg. Additional windtunnel tests were scheduled for November 1975 and February 1976. 

(qstrogram, 5 June 75, 1; Young, JSC aerodynamic subsystems mgr, 

interview, 21 April 77) 

28 -29 May: More than 200 persons from 30 countries participated in an 

observance of “European Space Days,” a demonstration of Europe’s 

space capability held at the European Space-Research and Technology Center (ESTEC) in Noordwijk, Netherlands, by the European 

Space Research Organization [scheduled to become the European 

Space Agency on 30 May]. 

In a speech, Secretary General of the International Telecommunications Union M. Mili said ITU encouraged Europe’s intention to play 

an important role in the peaceful uses of outer space; the programs of 

ESRO-ESA offered a particularly well chosen range of satellites for 

research and applications. Y. Demerliac, Secretary General of Eurospace-Groupement Industriel Europken D’Etudes Spatiales-reminded the audience that 

since 1962 Europe had developed 43 satellites, including four communications satellites. In addition, European industry had built 36 of 

the 104 ground stations or antennas in the network of the International 

Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT). More than 

two-thirds of these had been sold to non-European countries. 

Director General of ESRO Roy Gibson (United Kingdom) said the 

creation of ESA was of more significance than a mere change in name: 

the convention of the new agency gave it a specific mandate to work 

toward a rationalization of Europe’s space program which its predecessors ESRO and ELDO (European Launcher Development Organization) did not have. He hoped that the 3-day presentation of ESROESA and other European programs would give the visitors an impression of the total competence and capability of Europe’s up-to-date, 

rather dispersed space effort. (ESRO Release 28 Ma 75) 

engine with reduced propellant requirements that would permit payload increases of up to 20% on future spacecraft, NASA announced. 

The ion-thruster propulsion system used solar cells to convert solar 

energy into electrical power, tailored to the current and voltage necessary for the ion thruster. The propellant-mercury, cesium, or relatively stable gas-was ionized in the engine and electrically exhausted 

to produce thrust. 

During the tests the NASA version of the engine had become the 

first electric propulsion system to exceed 10 000 hr of operation. LeRC 

was continuing the testing toward an endurance goal of 15 000 hr. 

The engine was the second of its kind to be tested by NASA. The first 

had experienced internal sputtering and erosion which had degraded 

performance. Testing had been stopped at 9715 hr for modifications. 

(NASA Release 75 - 150) 

0 Kennedy Space Center announced the selection of General Electric 

Co.’s Space Div. and Martin Marietta Corp. for competitive negotiation of a contract to check out, control, and monitor subsystem hardware for the Space Shuttle launch processing system. The contractor 

would design, develop, build, test, and install the hardware. The 

launch processing system would use modern industrial automation 

techniques, applied to a modular concept, to meet maintenance and 

29 May: Lewis Research Center was testing a version o P an ion-thruster 

93 
May ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

refurbishment requirements for turn-around and launch of the Space 

Shuttle. The other candidates for the contract had been Grumman 

Aerospace Corp. and Aeronutronic Ford Corp. (KSC Release 94-75) 

30 May: Both Viking Landers were 1 wk behind schedule because of an 

electrical interface problem between two onboard power control units, 

Kennedy Space Center’s Spaceport News reported. (Spaceport News, 

30 May 75, 2) 

0 A team of Federal and university scientists were using three instrumented aircraft and an elaborate ground network to construct a threedimensional map of the atmosphere’s electrical fields around Kennedy 

Space Center and to determine the conditions under which a launch 

penetrating these fields would trigger a lightning strike. By July the 

team hoped to be able to predict what the electrical conditions would 

be at the launch pad 10 to 20 min before liftoff. The project, directed 

by the Dept. of Commerce’s Environmental Research Laboratories 

and furided by NASA, included scientists from NASA, National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration, Naval Research Laboratory, N. 

Mex. Inst. of Mining and Technology, and Univ. of Ariz. The experimenters would conduct a month of aircraft flights under and around 

various convective clouds, measuring electrical fields and making 

penetrations of frozen cloud anvils-cirrus clouds swept off the tops of 

thunderstorms by upper level winds. In addition, data from the 

mapping ground network-24 electrical-field-measuring stations 

installed around KSC by NOAA in 1973-were fed into a computer 

whose video component displayed a map of the area and ground 

stations, total electrical activity in nearby storms, weather radar contours of precipitation, electrical-field contours, and the positions of 

lightning strikes. 

The project was a continuation of one begun for NASA by NOM after 

the Apollo 12 launch on 12 Nov. 1969 when lightning struck the 

spacecraft, shutting off the spacecraft’s electrical power and setting 

off numerous alarms. The spacecraft automatically switched to backup battery power while the crew restored the primary power system. 

(NOAA Release 75-91; A&A 69, 372-378) 

0 Scientists believed that light flashes observed by Skylab 4 crew members during their 16 Nov. 1973 to 8 Feb. 1974 mission as they flew 

through the South Atlantic Anomaly-a slight asym etry in the 

usually low over Brazil-were a previously unsuspected form of 

radiation, Science magazine reported. The radiation seemed to consist of atomic nuclei heavier than hydrogen which, when stripped of 

electrons, would carry multiple positive electric charges. 

The astronauts had seen the flashes when the spacecraft cabin 

was dark and they were preparing for sleep. Scientists suspected 

that the flashes were stimulated within the retina of the eye by the 

high-energy cosmic-ray particles. Normally earth was shielded from 

cosmic rays by the magnetic field, but strong penetrating cosmic rays 

could reach as far into the field as the Skylab orbit. 

Because the magnetic-field shielding of the earth weakened toward 

the geomagnetic poles, it was possible to predict variations in cosmicray exposure as Skylab moved away from the poles. During two test 

periods, light-flash observations of Astronaut William R. Pogue 

showed a close correlation with exposure variations. (Pinsky et al., 

Science, 30 May 75, 928-930; Sullivan, NYT, 29 May 75, 10) 

earth’s magnetic field where the Van Allen radiation be T t dipped un94 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 May 

30-31 May: The Convention of the new European Space Agency was 

formally adopted and opened for signing at a conference of plenipotentiaries held 30 May in Paris and resided over by French Minister 

of Industry and Research Michel 30rnano. Under the terms of the 

Convention, ESA came into de facto operation 31 May. The convention was signed by the 10 member-countries of the former European 

Space Research Organization-Belgium, Denmark, France, West 

Germany, Italy, The Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and 

United Kingdom-and would remain open for signature by other 

countries until 31 Dec. 1975. Ireland, which had had observer status 

in ESRO, had indicated its intention to sign. 

The new space agency’s symbol was a rounded “eyYy for European, 

on a globe representing earth, with fine lines suggesting both orbit 

and axis and a white dot representing a satellite in space. (ESRO -ESA 

Releases 20 May 75, 23 May 75, 2 June 75) 

30 May-8 June: The 31st Annual Paris Air Show was held at Le Bourget 

Airport in France. New restrictions on flight demonstrations by highperformance aircraft, imposed by the French government after the 

1973 Air Show crash of the Soviet Tu-144 supersonic transport, had 

placed the show’s emphasis on displays of the latest aerospace hardware and technology from throughout the world. Aviation Week and 

Space Technology reported that the general turndown in the economy 

throughout the western world had caused a decline of 20% in exhibitors 

from the 1973 show. 

France emphasized the cooperative nature of its major programs, 

displaying the French-British Concorde SST, the French-German 

Alpha Jet trainer-attack aircraft, the French-British Jaguar closeair support aircraft, and the multinational A-300B twin-engine widebody transport. 

The U.S. pavilion reflected the changing environment at the show, 

reserving 66% of its floor space for company exhibits restricted to 

industry visitors; the remaining 33% contained exhibits open to the 

general public. In 1973 60% was exhibitor space and 40% for the 

general public. 

Boeing Co. and McDonnell Douglas Corp. displayed aircraft that 

were potential replacements for the Boeing 707 and McDonnell DC- 8 

on commercial airlines. The Boeing aircraft, a three-engine member 

of the 7x7 family, incorporated the NASA-developed supercritical 

wing. 

“Blue Planet” was the theme of the public section of the U.S. pavilion which emphasized technological fallout and practical uses on 

earth of space technology. Included were full-scale models of the 

Viking spacecraft scheduled for launch to Mars later in the year, and 

of Martin Marietta Corp.’s large space telescope. 

The 80 participating British companies emphasized their country’s 

capability in avionics and equipment and aerospace technology. 

Among the new aircraft exhibited by the British were the BN2 Islander, a floating aircraft for service between islands; the Lockspieser LDA- 1, for cargo and agricultural uses; and a new version of 

the BAC 111 fighter aircraft. 

West Germany’s display stressed its participation in international 

consortiums as a major hope for continuing growth. Messerschmitt - Boelkow-Blohm GmbH pointed out in its display that 70% of its rev95 
May ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

enues in 1974 had been derived from multinational projects. (Av Wk, 

2 June 75, 14-20; 9 June 75, 12-17) 

31 May: President Ford’s announcement that he intended to regtore the 

White House Office of Science and Technology was discussed in a 

Washington Post editorial: most scientists were heartened by President Ford’s announcement. They had unanimously deplored President Nixon’s decision to abolish the office, believing that it was vital 

to the nation’s well-being for the President to get the most objective 

possible scientific assessment of new weaponry, as well as of medical, 

economic, and environmental policies. However, scientists also felt 

that the establishment of the office and the possible appointment of 

National Science Foundation Director Dr. H. Guyford Stever as its 

head would not solve the problem. A report drafted by a committee 

of 13 leading scientists had spelled out what was needed establishment of a Council for Science and Technology that would carry the 

same weight as the Domestic and Economic Councils and could hold 

its own with the Office of Management and Budget and DOD. 

Any serious candidate for the top science job would want to consider whether the President ‘‘really intends to make constructive use 

of a science adviser. Past experience tells us that the best mechanism 

for advice from the scientific community is of no avail if the President isn’t listening.” (W Post, 31 May 75, A12) 

During May: Preparations continued for late summer launches of the two 

Viking spacecraft to Mars. A Lander 1 plugs-out test was completed 

8 May, 2 days later than planned, because of a grounding problem. 

By 26 May all flight equipment, except for the gas chromatograph 

mass spectrometer, had been installed on Lander 1. Lander 2 was 

mated with its protective aeroshell on 28 May. 

Orbiter 1 was undergoing final mechanical assembly as the flight 

subsystems became available after individual reworking. By 31 May 

all temperature-control louvers, protective covers, and thermal 

blankets had been installed. Initialorbiter 2 system testing was completed 5 May, and Orbiter block validation tests were begun. All solar 

panels for both Orbiters had been assembled and swing-tested, and 

were awaiting buildup of the low-pressure gas system. 

On 13 May a major hardware review of both landers was held at 

Kennedy Space Center with 100 NASA and industry participants. The 

review was the final chance to discuss modifications in the spacecraft 

before closure of the bottom plates and sterilization. Following the 

review, Langley Research Center’s Viking Project Manager James S. 

Martin, Jr., said, “Everything is going just great and right on schedule.” (Viking launch and mission operations status bulletins 4, 5, 6; 

NASA Activities, June 75) * The vertical tail assembly for the Space Shuttle arrived at Rockwell 

International Corp., in Palmdale, Calif., after being shipped by Shuttle subcontractor Fairchild Republic Co. The tail unit, more than 8 

m high, had a root chord of nearly 7 m. (FRC X-Press, 6 June 77, 2; 

Spaceflight, Jan 76, 25) * NASA Life Sciences Director, Dr. David L. Winter, issued an invitation 

to scientists to help plan NASA’s future life sciences program in space. 

The invitation, sent to 30 000 biological scientists in the US, said 

that NASA was considering a series of manned laboratories staffed by 

scientists, engineers, and technicians to be launched aboard the 

96 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 May 

Space Shuttle. One entire lab devoted to life-science experimentation would be launched every 6 mo. Other small highly automated life-science experiments could be performed during Spacelab 

and Space Shuttle missions dedicated to other disciplines; NASA 

estimated that as many as 200 life-science flight experiments could 

be conducted in space during the 1980s. 

The invitation stated that “in order to take maximum advantage of 

future research opportunities, NASA intends to involve a large cross 

section of the Life Sciences community in shaping scientific program 

objectives, in selecting spacecraft laboratory equipment, and in the 

planning and execution of Flight Experiments. ” 

NASA estimated that approximately 200 scientists could participate 

as principal investigators of future flight experiments and that 50 of 

those could perform their research in space as crew members. 

As part of the first phase of the life-science program, NASA requested that interested scientists suggest general topics for future 

research and identify equipment needed to carry out life-science 

investigations. (Winter letter, text; NASA Release 75-140; UPI, NYT, 

9 May 75, 7) 

0 The launch of Skylab 1 on 14 May 1973 had torn a temporary “hole” in 

the ionosphere, Physics Today reported. The journal said scientists 

speculated that the hole, a depletion of the total electron count, was 

caused by molecular hydrogen and water vapor from the exhaust of the 

Saturn V engines which had continued to burn well into the lower 

region of the ionosphere. The exhaust caused the oxygen atoms in the 

ionosphere to recombine, losing one electron each; the electrons were 

removed faster than could be replenished by the sunlight, thus the 

hole. The sun did replace the electrons, patching up the hole within 

3 hr after the spacedraft passed. 

The electron loss triggered by the Skylab launch was similar to ones 

caused, on a larger scale, by magnetic storms. Because the launch 

occurred on the second day of such a storm, scientists found it difficult to trace any radio interruptions-typical during decreases in the 

electron content of the ionosphere-to Skylab. (Physics Today, May 

75, 17-18) 

0 The Air Force Systems Command Newsreview reported that the Air 

Force had awarded an estimated $17 649 042 contract to McDonnell 

Douglas Corp.’s Douglas Aircraft Co. for the development, manufacture, and testing of a wide-body cargo aircraft fuselage segment using 

adhesive bonding instead of conventional riveting of the primary 

structures. Either the Yc-14 or the YC-15, advanced mediumshort-takeoff-and-landing transport prototypes, would be used as the 

engineering baseline against which the technology could be developed 

and evaluated. The contract was X'S primary adhesively bonded 

structure (PABST) portion of the advanced metallic structures (AMS) 

program to improve structural integrity and durability of future aircraft while minimizing weight and costs of acquisition and maintenance. (MSC Newsreview, May 75, 4) 

0 Flying magazine discussed “Relevant Research” at NASA: NASA had 

often been accused of neglecting aeronautics research in favor of 

space. But the $6.2 million for general aviation, of NASA’s total $3.5 

billion budget, was “a lot of money, even for a Government agency, 

and if used wisely. . .can make significant contributions in the many 

areas where technology advancements are sorely needed.” 

97 
May ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

NASA was particularly well suited to investigate stalls and spins 

and weather prediction-two of the most prominent factors in general 

aviation accidents-as well as to develop simple autopilots and flightcontrol systems. 

With the aircraft industry becoming increasingly competitive, 

NASA was “one place to seek help” to produce a technically superior 

product. NASA was responding to the need, allocating manpower and 

dollars to relevant general aviation research programs. 

More important was the new attitude of NASA and industry toward 

communicating about capabilities and needs. In the past NASA did its 

research “in a vacuum, oblivious to the needs of the aviation community and to the unique conditions that constrained the industry’s 

ability to apply NASA research results.” But recently NASA initiated a 

series of workshops between key industry technical experts and their 

NASA counterparts, designed to coordinate industry technological 

problem areas and NASA research programs. Also, in 1974, NASA established the General Aviation Technology Advisory Panel and gave 

it equal stature with the committees and panels that constituted the 

influential NASA Research and Technology Advisory Council. 

The atmosphere for effective communication and relevant research 

was improving. “While the threat of bureaucratic inefficiency and 

self-serving growth seems ever-present in Government endeavors, 

we see a conscientious effort on the part of NASA to apply their 

resources to the needs of general aviation.” (Flying magazine, 

May 75) 

98 
June 1975 

2 June: The Netherlands, Denmark, and Norway had signed preliminary 

contracts and memorandums of understanding with the U.S. to purchase 348 General Dynamics Corp. F-16 fighter aircraft for a total 

of $2.1 billion, Aviation Week and Space Technology reported. The 

countries were part of a four-nation consortium-with Belgium-to 

evaluate the F- 16, French Dassault-Breguet Mirage FlE, and 

Sweden’s Saab Viggen as possible replacements for the Lockheed 

Aircraft Corp. F-104 operated by these countries. The preliminary 

contract was contingent on a full commitment to the F-16 by all four 

countries by 15 June. 

Aviation Week reported that Belgium had requested a two-week 

delay in making its choice but then announced its selection of the 

F-16 on 7 June after the countries had received assurance that the 

consortium would be permitted to produce, in Europe, 10% of all parts 

for the F-16. In addition, the four countries would produce 15% of 

the aircraft for sales to third world countries as well as 40% of the 

components for the aircraft bought by the consortium. (Av Wk, 2 June 

75, 21; 16 June 75, 17; AFsc Release 280-75) 

e Private industry and government agencies in the US. and in Europe 

were investing money in designs and prototypes of giant dirigibles 

that could carry cargo and passengers more cheaply than conventional aircraft, Newsweek reported. In May a 9-m-wide heliumfilled prototype dirigible named Skyship, shaped like a flying saucer, 

had been flight-tested at a Royal Air Force station in England; a flight 

model was expected to go into commercial operation within 3 yr. 

Shell Oil Co. had spent more than $1 million studying the possibility 

of developing dirigibles to transport natural gas, Newsweek said. 

The U.S. Air Force was investigating dirigibles as a means of ferrying missiles from silo to silo, and the Navy was studying their ability 

to track submarines. 

A reason for the resurgence of interest in lighter-than-air craft was 

the energy crisis. Airships require hardly any fuel to get aloft and use 

very little for propulsion, and they also produce less noise and less 

atmospheric pollution. 

New designs for dirigibles included the substitution of inert helium 

for highly flammable hydrogen as the lifting gas, and the replacement 

of the familiar cigar shape with other configurations to do away with 

the problem of instability near the ground. (Newsweek, 2 June 75) 

e U.S. helicopter manufacturers were increasing production to capitalize 

on heavy worldwide demand for helicopters, Aviation Week and Space 

Technology reported. In 1974 U.S. manufacturers exported 420 helicopters at a value of $124 million, an increase of $39 million over 1973 

sales and double 1971 sales. (Av Wk, 2 June 75, 114) 

e Luna 22, launched 29 May 1974 by the u.S.S.R., had been in lunar orbit 

more than a year. Tass reported that, after 3296 orbits of the moon, 

99 
June ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

the planned program for a comprehensive exploration of the moon and 

near-moon space had been fully carried out and additional exploration was continuing. All systems aboard the spacecraft were functioning normally. (Tass, FBIS-SOV, 18 June 75, U1) 

2-7 June: Three NASA scientists and two Europeans conducted a Spacelab 

simulation mission aboard NASA’s Galileo I1 airborne laboratory. The 

series of five night flights was designed by NASA and European Space 

Agency representatives to permit Spacelab mission planners to evaluAte experiment techniques and operations. The simulations, part of a 

study program called the Airborne Science Spacelab Experiments 

System Simulation (ASSESS), would provide valuable information on 

the interaction between scientific investigators on the ground and 

experiment operators aboard Spacelab and would aid in estimating 

the training needed by Spacelab experiment operators. 

Experiments flown in the simulation mission included infrared 

observations of the earth‘s upper atmosphere, Venus, stars, and other 

celestial features, and ultraviolet measurements of planetary atmopheres. (NASA Release 75-177; ESA Releases, 27 May 75,18 June 75) 

3 Jue: Explorer 49-Radio Astronomy Explorer B, launched 10 June 1973 

into lunar orbit to measure galactic and solar radio noise at frequencies below ionosplieric cutoffs and beyond terrestrial background 

interference by using the moon for obcultation, focusing, or aperture 

blocking for increased resolution and discrimination-had completed 

nearly 2 yr of successful operation and was adjudged successful. 

Explorer49’s lunar orbit, away from the noisy environment of earth, 

had increased the effectiveness of the instrumentation. The spacecraft had been able to detect very weak solar-noise bursts up to 13 

mhz and as low as 25 khz. Its predecessor, Explorer 38-Radio 

Astronomy Explorer A, launched 4 July 1968-had been able to observe relatively intense solar-noise bursts only in the 200 khz to 9 mhz 

range because of its orbit within the earth‘s magnetosphere. Explorer 

49 also was able to observe and follow solar bursts out of the ecliptic 

plane. 

Data from Explorer 49 had verified two major magnetospheric 

noise regions, one on the morning side of the earth and the other on 

the evening side. In addition, spacecraft data showed that intense 

noise occurred in the 8 to 12 pm time zone with less intense noise in 

midmorning. The intense late-evening noise was generated within 

10 000 to 12 000 km of the earth‘s surface, and the dayside emission 

seemed to come from an altitude of less than 4000 km. (NASA 

MOR, 3 June 75) 

3-6 June: A Kennedy Space Center team tested a parachute system designed to lower an instrumented probe through the dense atmosphere 

of Venus to its surface. The tests-made for Ames Research Center 

in preparation for a Pioneer mission to Venus in 1978-were conducted in KSC’s Vehicle Assembly Building, an ideal wind-free testing 

facility. Full-scale 3.7-m parachutes with simulated pressure 

vessels weighing 204 kg were dropped 13 times from heights of up to 

137 m to the floor of the VAB with impact cushioned by a honeycomb 

cardboard impact arrester. The performance of the parachute system 

was monitored photographically during the drop to determine the 

aerodynamic trim characteristics of the parachute. 

100 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 June 

The 1978 Pioneer-Venus mission would include the launch of two 

separate spacecraft toward Venus. The first would orbit the planet 

collecting data for about 250 days; the second would carry one large 

probe, which would use the parachute to descend to the surface, and 

three small probes decelerated by aerodynamic drag only. The parachute on the largest probe would be used to separate an instrumentbearing pressure vessel and stabilize it for a seees of critical scientific 

measurements as it passed through the Venusian cloud layer. None of 

the probes was designed to communicate with earth after impact. 

(KSC Release 98-75; Lockyer, Public Affairs Office, interview, 6 

Oct 75) 

FY 1976 

NASA Budget Authorization 

Congressional Adjustments 

(millions) 

Budget House Senate Conference Total Conference 

Reauest Changes Changes Changes Recommendation Program 

- 

Research & Developmen6 

Space Shuttle 1206.0 Space Fliiht Operations 207.1 Advanced Missions 1.5 Physics & Astronomy 155.8 Lunar & Planetary 259.9 

Launch Vehicle 166.9 

Space Applications 175.0 Aeronautical R&D 175.4 

Exploration 

Procurement 

Space & Nuclear R&D 74.9 Energy Technology 5.9 

Tracking & Data 243.0 Applications 

Acqui%tion Technology Utilization 7.0 

R&D Totals - 2678.4 

Research and Program Management 

Basic Submission' 776.0 

R&PM Totals* 776.0 

- 

Construction of Facilities 

Modification of 11- by 2.7 11-ft Transonic Tunnel 

(ARC) Modification of 40- by 

80-A Transonic Tunnel 

(ARC) Addition to Lunar Sample Facility 

(JSC) Addition to Composite Model & Metal 

0 

2.5 

1.9 

Facilities 

Design 

Mior Construction 5.0 Facility Planning & - 9.3 

C of F Totals 84.6 

'Grand Totals' - 3539.0 

0 

-4.0 

+1.5 

+1.0 

-1.0 

0 

+6.5 

0 

+2.0 

0 

-2.2 

+2.0 

C5.8 

- 

0 

0 

0 

+12.5 

-2.5 

0 

+27.5 

-0.9 

0 

0 

- +4.5 

C41.1 - 

+4f.9 

0 

-4.0 

-1.5 

+7.0 

0 

0 

+8.9 

0 

0 

0 

-2.2 

0 

+8.2 

- 

0 

0 

- 

0 

0 

-2.5 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

- 0 

- -2.5 ._ 

0 

-4.0 

+OS 

C7.0 

0 

0 

+6.5 

0 

0 

0 

-2.2 

+1.0 

+8.8 

- 

0 

1206.0 

203.1 2.0 162.8 

259.9 

166.9 

181.5 

175.4 

74.9 

5.9 

240.8 

8.0 - 

2687.2 

776.0 

0 

0 

t12.5 

-2.5 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

- +4.5 

- +14.5 

.. +5.7 +23.3 

776.0 

2.7 

12.5 

0 

1.9 

0 

47.2 

16.0 

5.0 * 

99.1 

- 

- 

3562.3 

*Does not include a supplemental rcquest for pay increases introduced as H.R. 13172 and signed into P.L. 94-303 on 1 June 1976. 

101 
June ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Transitional Period 

NASA Budget Authorization 

Congressional Adjustments 

(millions) 

Budget House Senate Conferenec Conference 

Request Changes Changes Changes Recommendation Program 

Research & Development 730.6 -30.0 -26.0 -30.0 700.6 Reseamh & Program 213.8 0 0 0 213.8 

Construction of 14.5 -6.5 -3.0 -3.7 10.8 

Totals 958.9 -36.5 -29.0 -33.7 925.2 

Management 

Facilities --- - - 

4 June: A House of Representatives and Senate conference committee 

reported out H.R. 4700, the FY 1976 and transitional-period NASA 

authorization bill, after resolving the disagreeing votes of the two 

Houses. 

In addition, for the transition period 1 July through 30 Sept. 1976, 

the conference committee recommended a total authorization of 

$925 150 000. (H.R. Comm. Rpt 94-259; CR, 4 June 75, H4874-77) 

0 The Central Intelligence Agency reported to the Senate Appropriations 

Committee on its secret monitoring of the Soviet space program and 

on the safety risks that might exist during the Apollo-Soyuz Test 

Project mission, the Wushington Post reported. Details of the report, 

which was requested by Sen. William Proxmire (D-Wisc.), would 

be made public by the committee within a few weeks. (AP, W Post, 

5 June 75, A3) 

e A new medical diagnostic system known as time-delay spectrometry, 

using high-frequency sound waves, had been developed by scientists 

at Jet Propulsion Laboratory. The new technique passed continuous, 

varying high-frequency sound waves through the body; the waves 

were received and digplayed as pictures on a cathode-ray-tube 

screen. Existing ultrasound systems had operated less effectively, 

sending into the body a pulse of sound waves and timing the echo after 

the waves were reflected from the body’s various internal organs. 

A picture from the JPL system looked like an x-ray and took shape 

in 2 to 4 min. Bones, muscles, organs, and differences in soft 

tissue could be clearly seen. The varying pitch of the sound waves 

and the differences in frequency response and absorption properties 

of various body tissues would aid the diagnostician in discriminating 

between, for example, a cyst and a tumor. 

JPL researchers were planning to evaluate the system’s usefulness 

in hospital applications, first by demonstrating its ability to detect 

and identify tumors in the female breast. (NASA Release 75-162) 

0 Marshall Space Flight Center announced the selection of Bendix Corp. 

Guidance Systems Div. for negotiations leading to a contract for integrated electronic assemblies for the Space Shuttle solid rocket 

booster. The cost-plus-incentive-fee contract would cover design, 

development, test and evaluation, and fabrication of assemblies and 

assorted test equipment for the first 6 Shuttle flights. The initial 

contract would call for 33 units, including flight articles, spares, and 

development and test versions, with delivery to begin in 1976. 

102 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 June 

Each solid rocket booster would have two assembly units, one 

forward and one aft. Ignition commands would route from the Orbiter 

through the aft assembly to the forward assembly. During launch, 

the aft assembly would route commands from the Orbiter to the 

thrust-vector control system. The forward assembly would release 

the nose cap and frustum, jettison the solid rocket nozzle, detach 

the parachutes from the solid rocket booster, and turn on recovery 

aids. (MSFC Release 75-106) 

0 The Christian Science Monitor quoted Dr. H. Guyford Stever, National 

Science Foundation Director, on the future role of science: Dr. Stever 

said that scientists should stop looking back to days when research 

money flowed freely and science was valued for its own sake. Scientists must face the fact that ‘‘ ‘the social environment in which science 

is performed has changed.’ ” Scientists were bewildered as they 

watched research support tightening and jobs dwindling, and public 

questioning of the values of basic research grants. Yet science would 

become involved, as never before, in the economic success or failure 

of this country and the world. Society wanted research effort devoted 

to solving mankind’s problems of food, energy, and environment. Dr. 

Stever noted that the era was long gone when the scientific community 

could conduct its affairs as “ ‘a pure search for truth apart from 

serious considerations of its human consequences.’ ” From now on “ ‘the drive to understand nature. . .must be seen to be carried on in 

the public interest and not merely to satisfy the private curiosity of an 

intellectual elite.’ ” (Cowen, CSM, 4 June 75, 25) 

5 June: The U.S.S.R. launched comsat Molniya I-30 and France’s Sret 2 

on a single booster from Plesetsk. Molniya I-30 entered elliptical 

orbit with a 39 876-km apogee, 448-km perigee, 712.2-min period, and 

62.8” inclination. Sret 2 entered orbit with a 40 824-km apogee, 

512-km perigee, 737.8-min period, and 62.8” inclination. 

Tass reported that Molniya 1-30 would ensure long-range telephone, telegraph, and radio communications as well as transmit TV 

programs to Orbita network stations in extreme northern Siberia, 

the Far East, and central Asia. 

Sret 2 (Satellite de RBcherches et d’Environment Technique), according to Tass, would study the efficiency of a radiation system of 

thermal protection in outer space. It was the second of three spacecraft in a program of Soviet-French cooperation. Sret 1, launched 

4 April 1972, had studied the characteristics of solar batteries for 

space operations and the degeneration of solar cells from cosmic-ray 

exposure in the Van Allen Belt. (GSFC Wkly SSR, 5-11 June 75; Tass, 

FBIS-SOV, 17 June 75, U1; A&A 1972, 128) 

6June: The establishment of a science advisory office in the White House, 

when it has to be urged on the President rather than conceived by 

him or his close associates, “is virtually irrelevant to the workings of 

the White House,” Daniel S. Greenberg said in a Washington Post 

article. Greenberg pointed out that the President already had National 

Science Foundation Director Dr. H. Guyford Stever, whose office 

was assigned a pared-down version of the presidential advisory function when President Nixon dispensed with in-house science advice in 

1973. Although Dr. Stever possessed all the right qualifications and 

was eager to serve, “Mr. Ford has had more conversations with golf 

pros over the years than he has had with Mr. Stever.” 

The science community had agitated for the return of a science 

103 
June ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

adviser by appealing to Congress and appointing committees of distinguished scientists who duly certified that the President suffered 

from the absence of a science adviser close at hand. 

Although President Ford decided in favor of the appointment, still 

unresolved was whether a science office would be more useful than 

the NSF-based operation. Past Presidents had mot often used their 

science advice. “The bookshelves of the Executive Office Building 

bear innumerable aging reports of early warnings by scientiists concerning problems of energy, food, resources, pesticides,. pollution, 

drug safety, and so forth, but few [Presidents] chose to hsten.” 

Science advice was a valuable resource for a President do chose 

to employ it, “for as grating as they often are with their contentions 

of superior wisdom, scientists do possess experience and talent that 

can be put to good political use.” President Ford’s move had little 

significance as far as the Ford administration was concerned, and it 

would “add up to nothing more than a cosmetic device” if the new 

science office had no jurisdiction over military research and development, a function sliced away from the advisory role under President 

Nixon’s reorganization. 

“But if a science office is in place at the White House, the next 

administration can get good service from it if it chooses to do so. The 

sad history of the matter is that, with rare exceptions, Presidents 

have not made that choice.” (Greenberg, W Post, 6 June 75, A28) 

e During recovery operations of the U.S. Apollo-Soyuz Test Project 

astronauts, the Apollo spacecraft would not be retrieved by helicopter 

as usual on Apollo missions, Dr. Donald E. Stullken, chief of Johnson 

Space Center’s Mission Support Branch, said during a press briefing. 

Instead, the recovery ship would steam up alongside the command 

module and haul it aboard using the ship’s boat and aircraft crane. 

Navy personnel would open the hatch and the crew would step out on 

the ship’s deck. 

Arnold D. Aldrich, deputy manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office at JSC, said that the most extensive modification required 

for the ASTP mission was redesigning the Soyuz spacecraft to accommodate the newly added docking system. The front end of the Soyuz 

had been modified with respect to structural configuration, thermal 

design, and the requirement to fit all the new system under the launch 

shroud that covered the entire Soyuz during the boost phase. 

John E. McLeaish, JSC Public Affairs Officer, said that NASA would 

provide U.S. and Soviet air-to-ground communications, air-to-air 

communications, and US.- and U.S.S.R.-originated commentary for 

newsmen during the mission. All Russian would be translated simultaneously into English, using a “voice-over” technique; a few communication lines would transmit raw Russian with no translation. The 

U.S.S.R. would provide an interpreter to assist newsmen in the U.S. 

with interpretation or explanation, if necessary. 

Questioned about the political significance of the ASTP mission, 

U.S. crew member Donald K. Slayton replied, “I think we’d be naive 

to assume that this program is going to end all conflicts between our 

two societies, certainly. I think . . . it’s a step in that direction, but 

there’s little doubt in my mind that we’re going to continue to have 

conacts in many different areas. However, if we can kind of break the 

ground and get at least one area where we continue to work con104 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 June 

structively on sometFn , we’re certainly not going to end up in any 

major confrontation. (franscripts) 

0 Marshall Space Flight Center issued a request for quotations for a proposed study contract to design, build, test, and deliver a full-scale 

solar-array wing for solar electric propulsion and Space Shuttle payload applications. The selected coQtractor would establish design 

requirements and develop techniques for low-cost fabrication and 

testing incorporating all -previoudy developed tecfmology. (MSFC 

Release 75- 109) 

7 June : Rockwell International Corp. Rocketdyne Div. successfjlY conducted the first ignition test of the Space Shuttle’s integrated Subsystem Test Bed engine at the National Space Technology Laboratories. The test, conducted for Marshall Space Flight Center, lasted for 

0.8 sec. It was first of a series of 8 ignition tests leading up to the firipg 

of the Space Shuttle main engine. ’Initial evaluation of data indicated 

that all the test parameters were satisfactory and that the test 

objective was achieved. All ignition tests would be of short duration, 

none reaching full engine thrust. (Roundup, 20 June 75, 4; Marshalt 

Star, 11 June 75, 4) 

8 June: If NASA had unlimited funding, “I would move fairly guickly on a 

manned station because that will become an important outpost for 

anything that we do in space,” Dr. George M. Low, NASA Deputy 

Administrator, said in an interview with theSan Diego Unioh. Dr. Low 

added that he would move quicker in launching a space telescope and 

bringing back soil samples from Mars, “both enormougly important 

from a scientific point of view.” 

Dr. Low expressed concern that “we really aren’t being inventive 

enough. We haven’t discovered a new propulsion system.” All NASA’s 

rockets so far, including the Space Shuttle, had used conveqtional 

means of propulsion, and with it man was limited. Dr. Low said that 

the moon landing “was enormously difficult because we are tied to 

chemical propulsion systems.” NASA was experimenting with solar 

electric propulsion but to date no one had invented a fission or antigravity system. (Sun Diego Union, 8 June 75) 

8-17 June: The U.S.S.R. launched Venera 9 and 10 to continue Soviet 

exploration of the planet Venus. Venera 9 was launched on 8 June at 

7:37 am local time (10:37 pm EDT 7 June) from Baykonur 

Cosmodrome, near Tyurataq, on course for a rendezvous with Venus 

in October. Tass announced the purpose of the mission was “to carry 

on scientific research on the planet of Venus and the surrounding 

space, which is carried out by means of an automatic craft.” Tass also 

said that, on the earth- Velius flight path, the probe would study the 

physical characteristics of interplanetary space including magnetic 

fields, solar winds, and ultraviolet radiation. Tass said that Venera 9 

was the heaviest in the u.S.S.R.’~ Venera series and had “certain 

distinguishing design features .” 

On 14 June at 9:30 am local time (12:30 am EDT) Yenera 10 was successfully launched toward Venus from Baykonur Coemodrome. Tass 

reported that “in design and purpose it is analogous to the ‘Veneru-9’ 

station launched on June 8” and that all spacecraft systems were functioning normally. Venera 10 was also expected to reach Venus in 

October. 

In an interview 17 June with the Christian Science Monitor, Boris N. 

Petrov, chairman of the U.S.S.R. Council of International Coopera105 
June ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

tion in the Study and Exploration of Outer Space, revealed that the 

Venera mission called for a landing rather than just a flyby. (GSFC 

SSR, 30 June 75; FBIS-SOV, 8- 17 June 75; Pond, CSM, 17 June 75,l; 

W Post, 8- 17 June 75; NYT, 8- 17 June 75) 

9June: The House of Representatives, by voice vote, agreed to the conference report on H.R. 4700, the NASA authorization bill for FY 1976 and 

the transitional period 1 July through 30 Sept. 1976. [See also 4 June.] 

The conference committee authorized a total of $3 562 310 000 for FY 

1976, an increase of $23 310000 over the budget request, and 

$925 150 000 for the transition period, a decrease of $33 750 000 from 

the budget request. (CR, 9 June 75, H5106-08) 

0 President Ford transmitted to both Houses of Congress proposed 

legislation to create, within the Executive Office of the President, an 

Office of Science and Technology Policy headed by a director who 

would also serve as presidential science and technology advisor. 

In his letters of transmittal to Speaker of the House of Representatives Carl Albert and President of the Senate Vice President Nelson 

A. Rockefeller, President Ford said that the new director would 

“identify new opportunities for using science and technology to improve our understanding of national problems and to contribute to 

their solution. He will also chair the Federal Council on Science and 

Technology, and I expect him to provide advice on the scientific and 

technological considerations in Federal policies, programs, and budgets.” 

The President said that the director and deputy director would be 

presidential appointees. The office would draw extensively on the 

nation’s scientific and engineering community for advice and assistance, and the director and staff would also call upon Federal agencies 

for assistance in carrying out their responsibilities. (PD, 16 June 75, 

610) 

President Ford transmitted to Congress the Aeronautics and Space 

Report of the President: 1974 Activities. The President said that the 

“Nation’s activities in aeronautics and space continued to produce 

significant benefits, to experiment with and develop new applications, 

to increase scientific knowledge, and to advance technology.” He 

cited the continued expansion of international communications 

satellites; testing of earth-observation satellites for crop surveys, 

water resource management, and pollution management; completion 

of the successful Skylab manned space-station missions; continued 

planetary exploration, with successful missions to Jupiter, Venus, 

and Mercury; continued development of new aeronautical technology 

including the reduction of energy requirements, noise, and pollution, 

and modernization of the traffic-control system; and milestones in 

military aircraft development, including the rollout of the B-1 

bomber and delivery of the F-15 fighter aircraft. (CR, 9 June 75, 

H5106) 

e The Paris Air Show [30 May-8 June] reflected the international trends 

in aerospace with a depth and clarity far beyond what the most intensive study by individual nations could yield, an Aviation Week and 

Space Technology editorial said. Among trends evident at the 1975 

show at LeBourget Airport was the “tremendous resurgence of the 

helicopter market, particularly in the commercial field where sales 

were now approaching parity with the traditional military market and 

106 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 June 

promise to outstrip them during the next few years.” Helicopters had 

been found particularly useful in the exploration, development, and 

production of oil and minerals. 

Other expanding markets included the executive jet and short 

rugged-field transports for both military and civilian duty. 

Within the military market, fighter aircraft had moved into a new 

era of technology with a new emphasis on weapons for both air-to-air 

and air-to-ground operations. “It is evident that they [fighter aircraft] 

must serve as platforms for new generations of weapons and advanced 

delivery systems that can produce a degree of military efficiency commensurate with their high cost.” 

The American presence was strong at LeBourget and the “U.S., 

through the performance of its new stable of fighters-F-14, F-15, 

and F-16. . .-and its current generation of advanced technology 

transports is demonstrating what a truly tough competitor it can be.” 

The Europeans were going to have to streamline their management, 

better organize their resources, and cut through national bureaucracy 

if they were to have any hope of keeping pace. “Europe cannot continue at the same glacial development pace of the Concorde and MRCA 

[multirole combat aircraft] and expect to produce products that are 

technically competitive in the global market.” However, its success 

with helicopters, tactical missiles, small transports, and the Airbus 

was indicative of what could be accomplished. 

Noteworthy at’LeBourget was the evidence of the “slow pace of 

Soviet civil aviation caused by a series of development difficulties 

across their whole spectrum of transports and helicopters.” The most 

visible evidence was the Tu-144 supersonic transport, which appeared in the fifth version off the assembly line, only the third such 

aircraft produced by the Soviet Union in the previous 2 yr. Av Wk 

quoted an expert as saying there was an estimated 1-yr slippage in 

Aeroflot plans to begin regular supersonic service. (Hotz, Av Wk, 9 

June 75, 7) 

10 June: The Senate, by voice vote, agreed to the conference report 

on H.R. 4700 authorizing NASA $3 562 310 000 in funds for FY 1976. 

[See also 4 June.] The authorization was $23 310 000 more than the 

budget request. In addition, the conference committee authorized 

$925 150 000, a decrease of $33 750 000 from the request, for the 

transition period 1 July through 30 Sept. 1976. The House of Representatives had agreed to the conference report on 9 June. (CRY 10 

June 75, 510157) 

The U.S.-represented by Dr. James R. Schlesinger, Secretary of 

Defense-signed a memorandum of understanding with Belgium, 

Denmark, the Netherlands, and Norway that finalized selection of the 

General Dynamics Corp. F-16 air combat fighter as the four 

countries’ replacement for the F-lO4G. The U.S. and the four 

countries entered into a co-production agreement under which the 

Europeans planned to produce up to 348 aircraft-at a value of $2.1 

billion-for their own use. The proposal permitted aircraft manufacturers in these countries to share in the manufacture of aircraft and 

parts for U.S. and third world sales, which could more than offset their 

initial investment [see 2 June]. The Europeans would share logistics, 

maintenance, and training facilities in Europe. 

107 
June ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

The agreement would help enable the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and allied forces to standardize their weapon systems. 

The U.S. Air Force had announced earlier plans to procure at least 

650 F-16.5, with a large number of these deployed to European bases. 

(AFSC Release 280 -75) 

11 June: Pioneer 10 (launched 2 March 1972), on its way out of the solar 

system 1.2 billion km from earth and halfway between the orbits of 

Jupiter and Saturn, was making unexplained orientation changes, 

Ames Research Center announced. The spacecraft’s axis of rotation 

was changing by 1” every 2 wk. Project officials had said that the 

changes could be caused by a slight malfunction or by some interplanetary phenomenon, but evidence was contradictory. Further tests 

were planned to find the cause of the change. (ARC Release 75-30) 

0 Rep. Olin E. Teague (D-Tex.) and Rep. Charles A. Mosher (R-Ohio) 

introduced H.R. 7830, the President’s bill [see 9 June] “to strengthen 

staff capabilities for providing advice and assistance to the President 

with respect to scientific and technological considerations affecting 

national policies and programs.?’ The bill was referred to the Committee on Science and Technology. 

H.R. 7830 called for establishing an Office of Science and Technology with a director wb would be the Presidential science adviser, 

a deputy director, and a 15-member staff. The office would have a 

budget of $1.5 million. 

H.R. 7830 was the second bill concerning Presidential science 

advice introduced by Reps. Teague and Mosher; H.R. 4461 had been 

introduced 6 March to establish a national science and technology 

policy. It also included provisions for a council of science advisers and 

a cabinet-level Dept. of Research and Technology. (CR, 11 June 75, 

H5346; 6 March 75, H1464) 

@ Marshall Space Flight Center announced the award of a $3.2-million 

contract by Space Shuttle prime contractor Martin Marietta Aerospace Co. to Avco Corp. Aerostructures Div. to manufacture the 

intertank section of the shuttle’s external tank. The intertank would 

provide support between the liquid-oxygen tank and the larger liquidhydrogen tank. The disposable external tank, 47 m long and 8.4 m in 

diameter, would carry liquid propellant for the Space Shuttle’s three 

main engines. (MSFC Release 75 - 116) 

12 June: NASA launched Nimbus 6 on a thrust-augmented Thor-Delta 

booster from the Western Test Range at 1:12 am PDT after a 6-min 

delay to clear a ship from the jettison trajectory of the Delta’s solid 

rockets. The spacecraft entered sun-synchronous polar orbit with a 

1103-km apogee, 1094-km perigee, 107-min period, and 99.96’ inclination. Separation of the spacecraft from the launch vehicle was 

normal, at 59 min into the flight. The solar panels were deployed and 

the attitude-control system quickly acquired earth. A wheel control 

provided three-axis stabilization. Checkout of the power system, telemetry? command links, and tape recorder was completed on the first 

day of operation. 

At 7 hr after launch, a cryogenic vent valve associated with the 

limb-radiance inversion radiometer was pyrotechnically actuated as 

planned. This caused unexpected high torques and excessive controlgas usage. Nimbus 6 was put into a safe wideband gravity-gradient 

mode to conserve gas, and an investigation was begun to find the 

108 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 June 

cause of the problem and determine possible remedies. By % June 

the 9 experiments and all spacecraft systems had been checked out 

and all instrumentation, except for 2 tape recorders, was working 

normally. 

The primary objective of the Nimbus 6 mission was to contribute to 

the Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP) by refining and 

extending the capability of vertically sounding the temperature and 

moisture of the atmosphere, with particular regard to altitude resolution and intet-ference effects of clouds. GARP, a cooperative worldwide 

weather program, was established to improve understanding of 

meteorological atmospheric processes in the tropics and to improve 

observation and computing systems for weather prediction and 

analysis. Nimbus 6 would also monitor environhiental conditions such 

as sea ice and rainfall and would measure the earth's radiation budget 

with a precision never before attained. 

Secondary objective of the mission was to demonstrate the ability 

to track and relay data from a low-altitude polar-orbiting spacecraft using a geosynchronous satellite as a communications relay. 

Ats 6, the Applications Technology Satellite launched on 30 May 1974, 

would be the relay comsat. 

A data-collection, processing, and relay-to-earth system was also 

on board to collect data from approximately 300 balloon-borne platforms, designed to float at an altitude of 20 km, and a large number of 

earth- and sea-based data platforms. Nimbus 6, unlike previous 

spacecraft, could receive and process up to eight incoming signals at 

a time. 

The satellite carried nine new instruments to extend measurements 

of atmospheric parameters to significantly higher altitudes than had 

previously been possible: the tracking and data-relay (T&DR) experiment; a high-resolution temperature sounder (HIRS) and a scanning 

microwave spectrometer (SCAMS) to take temperature soundings in 

the atmosphere outside the tropics; a tropical wind-energy conversion 

and reference level experiment (TWERLE) to provide data on tropical 

areas; a limb-radiance inversion radiometer (LRIR) and a pressuremodulated radiometer (PMR) to provide high-altitude temperature 

soundings; an earth radiation budget (Em) experiment to establish the 

earth's atmospheric radiation balance; an electrically scanning microwave radiometer to map the liquid-water content of the clouds, 

ocean rainfall, and distribution and variation of sea-ice cover; and a 

temperature/humidity infrared radiometer (THIR) to provide data on 

cloud cover, ground temperatures, and water-vapor distribution. 

Nimbus 6 was next to last in a planned series of seven experimental 

meteorological satellites. Nimbus 1 (launched 28 Aug. 1964) and 

Nimbus 2 (launched 15 May 1966) achieved all their objectives. 

Launch of the third Nimbus, on 19 May 1968, failed when the launch 

vehicle malfunctioned; an identical spacecraft launched 14 April 1969 

successfully functioned as Nimbus 3. Nimbus 4 and 5 (launched 8 

April 1970 and 10 Dec. 1972) had both completed all mission objectives and were still operating. 

General Electric Co. was the prime contractor responsible for 

Nimbus 6 integration and test, stabilization control, control-subsystem integration, and spacecraft structures and antennas. Seven US. 

and two British companies, in addition to the Jet Propulsion Labora109 
June ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

tory, provided the nine instruments. Goddard Space Flight Center 

managed the Nimbus program under the direction of the NASA Office 

of Applications and was also responsible for the Thor-Delta launch 

vehicle. (NASA MORS 21 May 74,12 June 75,24 June 75; NASA Release 

75 - 145) 

0 An Apollo-Soyuz Test Project flight readiness review at Kennedy Space 

Center was attended by Dr. George M. Low, NASA Deputy Administrator; ASTP Program Director Chester M. Lee; and top management 

from NASA Headquarters and Marshall, Johnson, and Kennedy Space 

Centers. 

During the meeting Lee said that “ASTP is on schedule and ‘go’ for 

launch on July 15.” Top management had reviewed and closed out all 

aspects of flight preparations. ASTP Technical Director Glynn S. Lunney reported that no hardware problems remained that might interfere 

with an. on-time launch. 

MSFC Saturn Program Manager Ellery B. May reported that the 8- 

yr-old Saturn IB launch vehicle had been carefully checked out and 

dl components were being monitored by periodic inspections; during 

one of these inspections corrosion cracks had been discovered in the 

fins, requiring them to be replaced [see 19 Feb.-19 March]. May 

reported that the vehicle was ready to fly. 

William H. Rock, manager of the Sciences and Applications Project 

Office at JSC, said that modifications, including a larger, more effective lightning rod on the launch tower, had been made to the launch 

pad to minimize the hazards from lightning strikes. Jesse R. Gulick, 

KSC meteorologist, said that thunderstorm probability for launch day 

was 23% and that the probability of a tropical storm or hurricane 

winds was less than 3%. Based on previous years’ data, chances were 

good that, even if bad weather postponed the primary launch date, the 

Apollo spacecraft could be launched within 4 days. (MSFC Release 

75-119; KSC Release 104-75; Marshall Star, 18 June 75, 1; Ezell 

et a1 ., The Partnership: A History of the ApolloSoyuz Test Project, 

310-12) * Viking Lander 1 would undergo a critical milestone in its development, 

terminal sterilization, beginning 13 June, Robert S. Kramer, NASA 

Director of Planetary Programs, said at a Viking news conference in 

Washington, D.C. The Lander would remain in the oven for 2.5 days 

and then be removed and checked out. Past missions had failed because “maybe we knew how to sterilize a spacecraft but we didn’t 

know how to make one work after it was sterilized,” Kramer said. 

However, “we think we know a lot more now than we did 15 years 

ago. We believe we have developed the techniques to be fully reliable, 

but when we complete that test along about next Tuesday morning, 

then we are going to find out for sure.” 

A. Thomas Young, Viking Mission Operations Manager at Langley 

Research Center, said that plans called for launch of Viking 1 on 

11 Aug. and launch of Viking 2 on 21 Aug. Mission planners had 

deliberately arranged for the first Viking to arrive at Mars on 18 June 

1976, after 10 mos of travel, and Viking 2 to arrive on 7 Aug. 1976, 

about 1 yr after it was launched. Both spacecraft would spend about 

17 days in orbit examining landing sites “to assure ourselves that they 

continue to be safe.” The sites, which had not been examined since 

1971, must be checked again because Mars was a dynamic planet. 

110 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 June 

Lander 1 was scheduled to begin its descent 4 July and start black-andwhite photography immediately upon landing. Color photography would 

begin 18 hr later. The first soil sample would be collected on the eighth day. 

Analysis of the sample would take 12 days to complete, and 20 days would 

be required to complete one cycle of all surface science. Young noted 

that, to avoid confusion during the mission, Martian days would be 

called “sols” because they were a half-hour longer than earth days. 

During surface operations, the Orbiter passing overhead once a day 

would remain synchronized with the Lander; on the pass, the Orbiter, 

acting as a communications satellite, would relay information from 

the Lander to earth. When the Lander completed its work, the 

Orbiter would perform observations of its own, studying Martian surface features, including the proposed Lander B landing site, from 

orbit. (Transcript) 

e A theory that the moon was actually a piece of the earth broken away 

early in the planet’s formation 4.5 billion yrs ago was presented in a 

paper by Dr. John A. O’Keefe, a Goddard Space Flight Center scientist, and Professor Harold C. Urey, Nobel Prize winner from the 

Univ. of California. The paper, presented by Dr. O’Keefe at a meeting 

of the Royal Society in London, stated that although the moon had 

little, if any, metallic core, data from Apollo lunar-landing missions 

and earlier unmanned lunar flights had provided chemical evidence 

that lunar rocks were once a part of a mass that had included a considerable portion of molten iron. 

The higher proportion of molten metal in the earth supported the 

theory that, before the split, the iron in the earth had sunk to the 

center, drawing with it the gold, platinum, and other rare metals found 

in molten rock originally mixed with the iron. According to the theory, 

the moon was pushed to its present distance from the earth by interaction with the tides of the body of the earth. 

Other theories about the formation of the moon included the possibility that the moon had been captured by the earth‘s gravitational 

field when it passed near the earth, or that it had been formed simultaneously with the earth. Neither of those theories explained the 

moon’s lack of a substantial metallic core. (NASA Release 75- 171) 

e S. Neil Hosenball, NASA’s Deputy General Counsel, had been appointed 

General Counsel, effective immediately, replacing R. Tenney Johnson, who had been named General Counsel of the Energy Research 

and Development Administration in February. 

Hosenball, who had been Deputy General Counsel since 1967, had 

been Assistant General Counsel for Procurement from 1966 to 1967 

and previously had served for 4 yr as Chief Counsel at Lewis Research Center. (NASA Release 75- 173) 

14 June: France would begin deactivating its space center at Kourou, 

French Guiana, in September, the New York Times reported. A space 

center spokesman was quoted as saying, “We’ll have to put the space 

center to sleep for a while because of lack of funds.” 

The deactivation did not mean that the French were abandoning 

their ambition to achieve independence from the u.S. in space operations but that it would take longer than originally thought. The 

European space program at Kourou would resume with launches of 

several experimental rockets scheduled in 1979 and a satellite launch 

planned for the 1980s. 

111 
June ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Since its estqblishment in April 1968, the Kourou center had 

launched more than 225 balloons, satellites, and sounding rockets. 

Its location 5" north of the equator made Kourou especially suitable 

for equatorial launches. The largest of its disappointments had been 

the failure of the Europa 2 launch vehicle in 1971, a program finally 

abandoned in 1973 in favor of the Ariane booster. (Howe, NYT, 14 

June 75) 

15 -1 7 June: The first [VLC 2; see 1 May] of 2 Viking Landers scheduled 

for launch in August underwent more than 47 hr of sterilization at 

Kennedy Space Center. Preliminary electrical testing indicated that 

all subsystems survived the process, including 30 hrs at the mqximum 

chamber temperature of 112" 6. Additional tests would check o make 

sure that the onboard science experiments were in good horking 

condition. (Daspit, LaRC Viking Proj Off, interview, 21 June 7; Viking Proj Off Rpt M75-155-0-1; Viking Status Bulletin 7, 723 June 

75; NASA Release 75-181) 

16 June: Western Union Telegraph Co. announced that after Westar 1 and 

2 (launched 13 April 1974 and 10 Oct. 1974) began video transmission, 

users would save up to 66% of the cost of land-based transmissions. 

Rates of the new system, filed with the Federal Communications 

Commission, were scheduled to go into effect 14 July. The multipoint reception capability of the Westar system would attract a variety 

of broadcast applications, including independent networks and links 

to cable systems. 

Savings by users of the satellite system would depend on the type of 

service and the route selected Westar offpeak video service between 

Los Angeles and New York would cost $715 for the first hour, a savings of 61% over the $1832 charged for a landline transmission. For 

each additional hour the Westar rate drops to $620, areduction of 66% 

over landline transmissions. 

Initially, cities with earth stations-New York, Los Angeles, 

Chicago, and Dallas-would receive the service, which could be 

extended beyond those cities via connecting carrier. (WU release, 

16 June 75) 

0 Scientists at Itek Corp. had developed a new telescope optical system 

that would dramatically reduce atmospheric distortion, the Baltimore 

Sun reported. The new system, which could improve viewing resolution 10- or 20-fold, used mirrors and a computer to cancel out distortions so that observers could get a clearer image of celestial objects. 

In the system, a shearing interferometer and a detector measured 

the amount of distortion in the light entering the lens; the computer 

calculated the amount of correction needed in the light to cancel out 

the distortion, and a special mirror that changed its shape when electric charges were applied corrected the light before the viewer saw it. 

Itek was manufacturing a prototype that would be tested on a working telescope in 1976. (AP, B Sun, 16 June 75, A3) 

17 June: Kennedy Space Center announced the award of a $1 612 948 

extension to a $600 000 contract to Reynolds, Smith, and Hills Co. for 

Space Shuttle architectural and engineering services. The contract, 

which would run until June 1977, provided for modification to Pad A 

and Mobile Launcher 3 at Launch Complex 39, both being reconfigured for the Space Shuttle. (KSC Release 109-75) 

18 June: Western Union Telegraph Co. and RCA Global Communications, 

Inc., had been selected for negotiations leading to phase-one con112 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 June 

tracts to provide detailed systems-design proposals for the Tracking 

and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS), NASA announced. TDRSS, to 

be developed and operated by industry to meet NASA service requirements, would consist of three or more specialized satellites in synchronous orbit to continuously relay tracking information and data 

and voice commands to and from NASA satellites. 

Western Union and RCA would both provide a technical, cost, and 

business proposal for leased services to be provided in the phase-two 

operational period. The proposals would be evaluated and a single 

contract for phase two would be awarded. The selected contractor 

would provide tracking, command, and data-acquisition services for 

essentially all spacecraft orbiting below 5000 km, including the Space 

Shuttle and Spacelab, as well as automated spacecraft to be orbited 

by the Space Shuttle, for a 1- to 10-yr period beginning in 1979. TDRSS 

spacecraft and ground stations would be the property and responsibility of the selected contractor. (NASA Release 75- 176) * Scientist Herbert F. Wischnia was using Oao 3 (Copernicus, Orbiting 

Astronomical Observatory launched 21 Aug. 1972) satellite and its 

onboard optical telescope to look for possible flashes of an ultraviolet 

laser from another world, the Christian Science Monitor reported. 

Although radio signals would be a better way to communicate once 

contact was established, Wischnia believed that an optical telescope 

could pick up a whole spectrum of frequencies at a glance. A radio 

telescope required years to cover a significant band of frequencies because of the complex data processing necessary; an optical signal, 

once detected, would probably indicate which radio frequency would 

provide further information. The biggest difficulty was making the 

initial contact. 

CSM reported that Wischnia was looking at three stars likely to 

have planets, all older than the sun and about 11 light yr distant. 

(Cowen, CSM, 18 June 75, 25) * Marshall Space Flight Center announced award of two contracts for 

parallel studies on space-processing equipment for Space Shuttle and 

Spacelab missions. TRW Systems Group was awarded $299 981 and 

General Electric Co. was awarded $284 974 to provide preliminary 

designs for equipment that could be used to process various materials, such as metals and crystals, in space. (MSFC Release 75-125) 

19 June: President Ford signed Public Law 94-39 (H.R. 4700, the NASA 

Authorization Act for FY 1976 and the transition period 1 July 1976 

through 30 Sept. 1976). P.L. 94-39 authorized NASA $3 562 310 000 

for FY 1976 and $925 150 000 for the transition period. (PD, 23 June 

75, 664) * The House of Representatives’ Committee on Appropriations reported 

out H.R. 8070, the Dept. of Housing and Urban DevelopmentIndependent Agencies Appropriations Bill for FY 1976. 

The committee proposed the continuation of the Space Shuttle and 

Viking projects; various planetary, weather, and scientific satellites; 

and further development of a strong aeronautics program. No new 

starts were proposed. The committee also directed deferral of the 

Pioneer-Venus mission for 1 year to permit a budget-priority decision 

in 1977 between the Large Space Telescope and Pioneer-Venus. 

The committee recommended reducing the $57 600 000 requested for 

Pioneer-Venus to $9 200 000 to maintain a management capability 

during the 1-yr deferral. 

113 
June ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

NASA I;'y 1976 Budget 

Comparison of Request, Authorization, and HouseRecommended Appropriations 

(millions) 

H.R. Appropriationa 

Budget Authorization Committee Item Request (diff. from res.) (diff. from req.) 

Research & Development 2678.4 2687.2 (+8.8) 2629.0 (-49.4) 

Construction of Facilities 84.6 99.1 (+14.5) 82.1 (-2.5) Research & Program Management* - 776.0 776.0 (0) 775.5 (-0.5) 

Totals 3539.0 3562.3 (+U.3) 3486.6 (-52.4) 

*Does not include a supplemental request for pay mcreases, introduced as H.R. 13172 and signed mto P.L. 94- 303 on 1 June 1976. 

The committee also recommended denial of $1 000 000 of the 

$5 000 000 request for continued studies of the LST, and reduction to 

$2 000 000 of the $3 000 000 requested for the transition period. The 

remaining amounts were judged sufficient to complete LST studies. 

Within the Construction of Facilities category, the committee 

denied funds requested for construction of the Lunar Curatorial Facility. No funds were to be used for modifying the 40- by 80-ft wind 

tunnel at Ames Research Center until the committee had reviewed 

a formal budget request. 

Reduction in the Research and Program Management request reflected a 10% reduction in the payment of General Services Administration space-rental charges. The committee also recommended 

language in the bill to permit the replacement of five older aircraft 

with more modern aircraft for greater efficiency and safety. This 

would reduce operating costs by $1 300 000 annually. The committee recommended a total appropriation of $925 028 000 

for the transition period 1 July through 30 Sept. 1976. This total was 

$33 872 000 under the total budget request and $122 111 less than the 

authorization. 

NASA Transition Budget 

Comparison of Request, Authorization, and HouseRecommended Appropriations 

(millions) 

Item 

H.R. Appropriations 

Budget Authorization Committee 

Request (diff. from req.) (diff. from req.) 

____ 

Research & Development 730.6 700.6 (-30.0) 700.6 (-30.0) 

Construction of Facilities 14.5 10.8 (-3.8) 10.8 (-3.8) Research & Program Management - 

213.8 213.8 (0) 213.7 (-0.1) 

Total 958.9 925.2 (-33.8) 925.0 (-33.9) 

(H.R. Com Rpt No. 94-313; Budget Chron Hist FY 1976, NASA Ofc of 

Budget Operations, 16 June 75) 

0 The first radar probes of Jupiter's moon Ganymede had been made by 

Dr. Richard M. Goldstein of Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA an114 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 June 

nounced. Ganymede, at the time some 600 million km distant from 

earth, was found to have a rougher surface than the inner planets 

Mercury, Mars, or Venus. Dr. Goldstein scanned Ganymede three or 

four times on each of six nights in August 1974, using the 64-m antenna 

at JPL’S Goldstone station of the Deep Space Network; the radar employed a 400-kw microwave beam at a frequency of 12.6 cm. 

Writing in Science magazine, Dr. Goldstein and co-investigator 

George A. Morris said the most likely surface of Ganymede was rocky 

metallic material imbedded in a matrix of ice. Such a surface could be 

smooth with a top layer of ice rubble but would appear rough to the 

radar because the ice would be transparent to the microwave beam. 

The theory was particularly interesting in view of the finding by the 

Pioneer 10 and 11 flybys (3 Dec. 1973 and 3 Dec. 1974) that Jupiter 

itself seemed totally gaseous, with no solid surface to produce a radar 

echo. The JPL scientists theorized that Ganymede was probably 

meteoritic in origin. (NASA Release 75- 170; Goldstein et al., Science, 

20 June 75, 1211-1212) 

0 Flight Research Center announced the award of a $146 000 cost-plusfixed-fee contract to LTV Aerospace Corp.’s Vought Systems Div. to 

study the possibility of flight-testing the oblique wing on an F-8 jet 

aircraft. LTV would investigate technical and mechanical problems in 

modifying the test aircraft and would estimate the cost of modifications. 

The oblique wing, developed by Dr. Robert T. Jones of Ames Research Center, was a conventional straight wing mounted on top of an 

aircraft so that it could be swiveled around a central pivot point. The 

wing could be fixed at zero degrees-perpendicular to the fuselagefor takeoff and landing, and moved to various sweep positions at different speeds for the best performance. Wind-tunnel tests had indicated the new design could operate with maximum efficiency over a 

wide range of flight conditions, offering either increased speed or significant fuel savings. (FRC Release 17-25) 

20 June: Dr. Harold Brown, President of California Institute of Technology, announced the appointment of Dr. Bruce C. Murray as Director of Jet Propulsion Laboratory, succeeding Dr. William H. Pickering who was retiring after 21 yr in the position. 

Dr. Murray, a Caltech professor of planetary sciences for 15 yr, 

had also been a researcher on JPL space missions for more than 10 

yr. He was completing scientific descriptions of Venus and Mercury 

from Mariner 10 data, gathered during a February 1974 encounter 

with the planet, and comparing the surface histories of Mercury, 

Venus, Mars, and the moon with the history of the earth. 

Dr. Pickering had been with JPL since 1944 and had served as its 

Director since 1954. As Director, Dr. Pickering led JPL in designing 

and building the first orbiting U.S. satellite, Explorer 1 (launched 31 

Jan. 1958). Also’under his leadership, JPL had designed the Ranger, 

Surveyor, and Mariner spacecraft that were launched to gather information on the moon and nearby planets. (NASA Release 75-179) 

0 Sen. Frank E. Moss (D-Utah) introduced, for himself and Sen. Barry 

Goldwater (R- Ariz.), S. 1987, the President’s biU[see also 9 June] to 

“strengthen staff capabilities for providing advice and assistance to 

the President with respect to scientific and technological considerations affecting national policies and programs.” The proposed bill 

115 
June ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

would create an Office of Science and Technology Policy within the 

Executive Office of the President. 

The bill was referred jointly to the Senate Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences, Committee on Commerce, and Committee on Labor and Public Welfare. S. 1987 was similar to H.R. 

7830 introduced 11 June by Rep. Olin E. Teague (D-Tex.) in the 

House of Representatives. (CR, 20 June 75, Sl1117) 

0 Marshall Space Flight Center announced the formation of a solar heating and cooling task team to support requests made by the Energy 

Research and Development Administration (ERDA). The task team, 

under the leadership of Donald R. Bowden, would direct MSFC’S role 

in ERDA’S program to demonstrate heating and cooling applications 

of solar energy. The team would acquire examples of existing solar 

heating and cooling systems and would direct additional development 

of these systems to increase efficiency and lower costs. 

ERDA had authorized ap roximately $50 million to MSFC for work 

which would cover 5 yr anti use 100 persons at MSFC. (MSFC Release 

75- 130). 

0 Indecision and lack of a national policy had prevented the U.S. from 

having its own domestic communications satellite system after 9 yr 

of planning, a Washington Star article quoted Communications Satellite Corp. President Joseph V. Charyk as saying. In less than 10 yr a 

global comsat system developed under U.S. leadership was carrying 

more than two-thirds of the world’s transocean communications. 

Canada had had its own since 1972. The problem, Charyk said, was 

that, after the success of the global system, “everybody wanted in.” 

Companies, including American Telephone & Telegraph Co., 

Western Union Telegraph Co., Hughes Aircraft Co., RCA Corp., and 

Fairchild Industries, Inc., expressed interest in developing a domestic system. The Federal Communications Commission, whose job it 

was to decide who would operate such a system, seemed only intent 

upon keeping ComSatCorp and AT&Tfrom dominating the field. Quoting Charyk, the Star said the net effect of this lack of a positive policy 

by the White House, Congress, and the regulatory agencies was that 

all the U.S. had to date were two or three earth stations using reproductions of the Canadian system. 

Despite the problems, Charyk said that two of ComSatCorp’s 

domestic programs were nearing operational stages: Marisat, a maritime comsat planned for a summer 1975 launch, and Comstar 1, 

scheduled for launch in 1976. ComSatCorp would also participate 

with several European countries and Canada in the Aerosat program 

to test the use of comsats for aircraft navigation. 

However, Charyk said that, under the “open skies” policies of the 

FCC, ComSatCorp had no guarantees of permanent service. “It is 

hard to get customers with these rules in effect.” (Snider, W Star, 20 

June 75, D7) 

0 A digital Stoland navigation, guidance, control, and display system in an 

augmentor wing aircraft (a modified C-8A Buffalo) guided the aircraft to an automatic landing at the short-takeoff-and-landing (STOL) 

test facility at Crows Landing, near Patterson, Calif. The automatic 

landing, first for a STOL aircraft, was a milestone in the flight acceptance of the Stoland system being developed by Sperry Flight Systems 

under contract to Ames Research Center. The system would be tested 

on other SmL aircraft. (ARC Astrogram, 17 July 75, 2) 

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ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 June 

0 A Science magazine article detailed some early findings from the 

Atlantic Tropical Experiment (GATE) of the Global Atmospheric 

Research Program (GARP). GATE, a 72-nation research effort during 

the summer of 1974 to gather meteorological information on the 

tropics, found very few cumulus clouds. Clouds in weather disturbances tended to be grouped in patterns, usually in roughly linear 

bands. Prior to GATE the only visible indicators of these weatherdisturbance patterns were cloud clusters seen on satellite photographs, but the details were unknown; GATE demonstrated that these 

clusters were high cirrus clouds that formed above the weather disturbance and might persist long after the rainclouds themselves had 

dissipated. The organization of active rainclouds then came under 

intensive study as the essential feature of atmospheric convection. 

Although scientists had previously thought that cloud bases formed 

at a given level in the atmosphere, clouds in the GATE area were found 

to form at many different altitudes; many did not reach the heights 

often associated with tropical cumulus clouds until the latter part of 

the summer. The strength of weather disturbances intensified during 

the experiment, indicating that the tropical atmosphere probably 

altered over the course of the summer as its moisture content and convection increased, causing the clouds to grow taller as higher and 

higher levels of the atmosphere were warmed. 

GATE scientists also investigated the air layer between the cloud 

bases and the sea surface, finding that the subcloud layer was profoundly altered by the passage of a cloud. Warm moist air taken up 

into the cloud to fuel the convection was replaced by cooler drier air 

from higher in the atmosphere. Scientists believed that the resulting 

mix might explain cloud spacing and lifetime, and might indicate a 

continually changing subcloud layer in marked contrast to conditions 

prevailing in fair weather. GATE experiments documented the existence of atmospheric waves in the tropics and showed that weather 

disturbances developed near the low-pressure portion of the wave. 

Scientists also discovered a peculiar rapid meandering of the 

equatorial undercurrent-an intense eastward flowing stream 100 m 

below the sea surface at the equator-that shifted north and south 

about 1" in latitude on either side of the equator with an apparent 

period of 16 days. (Hammond, Science, 20 June 75, 1195-98) 

0 Kennedy Space Center announced the award of a $6 473 074 fixedprice indefinite-quantity contract to Modular Computer Systems, 

Inc., for minicomputers and associated equipment and services for 

the Space Shuttle. The contract included $4 226 646 in hardware and 

services already ordered and $2 246 428 in additional hardware. 

Modular Computer Systems would supply minicomputers, peripheral 

equipment, special interface devices, associated software, engineering and maintenance support, spares, and documentation. (KSC Release 114-75) 

21 June: NASA successfully launched Os0 8 Orbiting Solar Observatory 

at 743 am EDT from Eastern Test Range on a thrust-augmented ThorDelta booster, after a 1-day delay because of an electrical malfunction 

in the launch vehicle. The spacecraft entered a near-perfect circular 

orbit with a 560-km apogee, 544-km perigee, 95.74-min period, and 

32.94"inclination. By 23 June Os0 8 was stabilized and was accurately 

tracking the center of the sun as planned. All spacecraft systems were 

117 
June ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

operating normally. By 27 June all eight experiments had been activated and were acquiring data. 

Primary objective of the Os0 8 mission was to investigate the sun’s 

lower corona and its chromosphere, and their interface in the ultraviolet spectral region, to better understand the transport of energy 

from the photosphere into the corona. Secondary objective was to 

study solar x-rays and earth-sun relationships and to investigate the 

background component of cosmic x-rays. 

The 1064kg spacecraft had two sections: A rotating cylindrical 

bottom section-the wheel-accommodated experiments that did not 

require solar reference pointing or that scanned the celestial sphere. 

The nonspinning rectangular sail section mounted on top of the wheel 

accommodated experiments that required stable pointing at the sun. 

The spacecraft carried eight experiments. The two on the sail section were a Univ. of Colo. high-resolution ultraviolet spectrometer t 

and their variation with time and position, and a spectrometer and a 

cassegrain telescope that would observe the solar ch omospheric 

from different levels in the sun’s atmosphere. This experiment was 

provided by France’s Laboratory for Stellar and Planetary Physics 

under a cooperative agreement between NASA and the French Centre 

National de la Re‘cherche Scientifique. 

Other experiments-all on the wheel portion of the spacecraft and 

supplied by u.S. universities, industry, and government agenciesincluded a high-sensitivity crystal spectrometer to monitor the sun’s 

emission in the 2- to 8-kev range, obtain a complete spectrum of 

the sun every 10 sec during flares, and obtain high-resolution spectra 

of many celestial x-ray sources; a mapping x-ray heliometer to measure location, spectrum, and intensity of intermediate-energy x-rays 

from individual solar-active regions and to acquire data on extrasolar 

x-ray sources; an investigation of soft x-ray background radiation 

using proportional counters; a cosmic x-ray spectroscope to 

determine the spectra of sources and the diffuse cosmic x-ray background in the energy range of 2 to 60 kev, and to measure intensity 

variations and identify possible emission lines of discrete x-ray 

sources; a high-energy celestial x-ray experiment to measure the 

spectrum of all point x-ray sources observable in the energy range of 

0.01 to 1 megaelectron volts, and to search for temporal variations in 

the intensity and spectrum of the point sources detected; and a study 

of extreme ultraviolet radiations from earth and space, to determine 

the behavior of atoms such as hydrogen and neutral and ionized 

helium in the earth‘s atmosphere by measuring the intensity and distribution of solar radiation resonantly scattered by these atoms. 

Os0 8 was the ninth, and last, in a series of spin-stabilized orbiting 

solar observatories designed to gather new knowledge of the sun, the 

earth‘s atmosphere, and sun-activated terrestrial phenomena over a 

broad range of the electromagnetic spectrum not detectable by 

ground-based equipment. Of the eight os0 launches that began with 

Os0 1 on 7 March 1962, only one, oso-c, was unsuccessful, because 

of a launch-vehicle failure. Discoveries made by OS0 spacecraft 

included gamma-ray emissions from the galactic center; a previously 

unknown isothermal plateau in the chromosphere of the solar atmosmeasure solar-ultraviolet line profiles in the range of 1050 to 2300 1 

structure simultaneously in six lines from 1000 to 4000 a originating 

118 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 June 

phere; differences in the structure of the extreme ultraviolet corona 

above quiet and active regions on the solar disk; evidence that the 

corona above the solar poles was significantly cooler than nonactive 

coronal regions near the equator; and synoptic observations of 

“holes” in the corona that survived several solar rotations. 

Os0 8-built by Hughes Aircraft Co.-was managed by Goddard 

Space Flight Center under the direction of NASA’s Office of Space 

Science. GSFC was also responsible for the Thor-Delta launch vehicle. 

(NASAMORs, 4 June 75,23 June 75,27 June 75; NASA Release 75-158) 

23 June: NASA and the Energy Research and Development Administration 

signed an interagency cooperative agreement to enhance the national 

energy effort. ERDA and NASA management would identify specific 

program tasks that could be undertaken by NASA centers in support 

of ERDA programs. ERDA would use NASA’s basic and applied research 

capabilities in areas including solar heating and cooling systems, gas 

turbines, fuel cells, hydrogen technology, ground-propulsion technology, bearings, seals, combustion, automatic control systems, and 

materials and structures technology. 

NASA would submit proposals and plans to ERDA for specific technology developments including testing, evaluation, and demonstration of projects or hardware; ERDA would also call upon NASA for 

specific short- and long-term technical and administrative expertise 

such as technical review boards, evaluation groups, and other assessment techniques. 

The agreement would establish an ERDA-NASA program committee 

to annually review NASA research and development work in support 

of ERDA. (NASA Release 75-182; ERDA Release 75-99) * NASA was conducting design studies and component testing for an experimental laser-energy system using a nuclear-fission reactor fueled 

with gaseous uranium or a gaseous uranium compound such as hexafluoride, Dr. Karl Thom said in an article released by NASA. Whereas 

conventional laser power used various processes of energy conversion that required costly equipment and resulted in net loss of 

energy, a nuclear system could produce large amounts of high-grade 

power very cheaply and efficiently. 

Some scientists were using various nuclear-powered lasers for 

experiments, but most used systems that transferred energy from 

external reactors to the laser gas within the laser tube. NASA, with its 

interest in gaseous fuel reactors as high-performance space power 

and propulsion systems, was looking at a more efficient system in 

which the fission fragments that energize laser gas were energized 

within the laser tube itself creating, at fission, a powerful chain reaction. 

Dr. Thom said that, in combination with the research on nuclearpumped lasers, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory scientists were 

testing gaseous fuel reactors using components, reflectors, and controls salvaged from the nuclear rocket program. If the system proved 

practical “a new era of nuclear energy utilization will begin, in space 

and on Earth.” Space engineers could create a nuclear-powered laser 

station in earth orbit to beam power via lasers to various customers in 

space, to other space probes for propulsion, to lunar bases for their 

power needs, and to earth for clean and abundant energy. (NASA 

Release 75- 169) 

119 
June ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

24 June: The House of Representatives, by a vote of 391 to 25, passed 

H.R. 8070, the Dept. of Housing and Urban Development and Independent Agencies Appropriations Bill for FY 1976 and the transitional 

period from 1 July 1976 through 30 Sept. 1976. The bill-appropriating for NASA $3.489 billion for FY 1976 and $925.0 million for the 

transition period-was passed as reported out by the House of Representatives Committee on Appropriations on 19 June. (CR, 24 June 

75, H6003 - 12) 

24 June: Apollo-Soyuz Test Project crew members Thomas P. Stafford, 

Vance D. Brand, and Donald K. Slayton began a 3-wk preflight 

medical isolation at 12 pm CDT. Called the flight health stabilization 

plan, the isolation limited the astronauts to specific working and training areas at Johnson Space Center. In offhours they were being 

housed in special mobile homes. Only previously screened personnel, 

wearing surgical face masks, could come into face-to-face contact 

with the astronauts. (JSC Release 75 -59 Ezellet al., The Partnership: 

A History of the ApolloSoyuz Test Project, 313) 

0 Rockwell International Corp. Rocketdyne Div. successfully test-fired 

the main chamber of the Space Shuttle main engine for the first time, 

at NASA’s National Space Technology Laboratories. Initial evaluation of ignition-test data indicated that all test objectives were achieved. 

During a second firing the engine’s high-pressure fuel pump reached 

a maximum speed of almost 7000 rpm, 19% of full power. The test was 

seventh in a planned series of 10 to 15 short-duration ignition tests that 

began 11 June and would culminate in the operation of the engine at 

20% of maximum thrust level of 2 090 664 newtons (470 000 lbs). 

Subsequent tests would attempt higher mainstage thrust levels to 

evaluate engine-starting characteristics and performance. 

The Space Shuttle main engine, the most advanced liquid-fueled 

rocket engine ever built, was the first to use an electronic digital computer for automatic control. Three of these engines, designed for reuse up to 55 times, would power the Space Shuttle Orbiter. (Marshall 

Star, 2 July 75, 1; Rocketdyne Release RD-15; MSFC Release 

75- 115) 

0 The Air Force System Command’s Arnold Engineering Development 

Center was developing a technique to study, under flight conditions, 

the physical behavior of the spray-on insulating material proposed for 

the Space Shuttle, AFSC announced. Using procedures similar to 

those used in analyzing aerial photographs, a series of reference lines 

was projected onto the original surface and photographed before 

wind-tunnel testing. The same pattern was then projected onto the 

surface during the testing. The shift in the apparent position of the 

projected lines as the surface eroded from the position shown on the 

original photograph allowed analysis of the behavior of the materials. 

(MSc Release OIP 157.75) 

24-25 June: At its first meeting, the council of the European Space 

Agency (ESA) elected Wolfgang Finke (West Germany) as chairman 

for 1 yr. General Luis de Azcarraga (Spain) and Jan Stiernstedt 

(Sweden) were elected vice chairmen. (ESA Release, 27 June 75) 

25 June: Marshall Space Flight Center announced the award of two 9-mo 

contracts for parallel design studies of a biological holding facility for 

Spacelab. 

Lockheed Missiles and Space Co. received $242 640 and McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Co. received $177 360 to develop 

120 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 June 

conceptual designs of habitats for live biological specimens supporting life-sciences space flight research programs. The habitats-consisting of the structure and the environmental-control, food and 

watering, waste-management, lighting, and instrumentation systems-were to be suitable for a wide variety of specimens with 

emphasis on the adult rhesus monkey and the adult laboratory rat. 

(MSFC Release 75- 133) 

25 June-3 July: The countdown demonstration test, a step-by-step dress 

rehearsal for the July Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, was successfully 

completed at Kennedy Space Center. The rehearsal culminated in 

actual fueling of the Saturn IB and a simulated launch of the Apollo at 

3:50 pm EDT on 2 July. The cryogenic propellants loaded for the “wet” 

portion of the test were off-loaded and the final portion of the count 

repeated with crew members Thomas P. Stafford, Vance D. Brand, 

and Donald K. Slayton aboard the spacecraft. A second simulated 

ignition and liitoff occurred at 2 pm EDT on 3 July. 

During the test, a leak detected in Brand’s spacesuit was traced to 

one of the pressure-sealing slide fasteners. Modifications were made 

and the spacesuit was successfully retested. (Spaceport News, 26 June 

75,l; KSC Release 115-75; Ezellet al., The Partnership: A History of 

the ApolloSoyuz Test Project, 314) 

27 June: The European Space Agency announced the appointment of 

Hans Hinterman (Switzerland) as director of the European Space 

Research and Technology Center (ESTEC), effective in September. 

Hinterman would replace Ove Hammarstrom who was leaving to 

accept a post in industry. Hinterman was director of research of the 

Laboratoire Suisse de RBcherche Horlogeres in Switzerland. @SA 

Release, 27 June 75) 0 Most of the 40 participants at a space-food exhibition banquet in Zvezdny 

Gorodok, U.S.S.R., found the meal tasty but not very filling, the 

Washington Post reported. Presiding over the affair, cosmonaut 

Aleksey A. Leonov, Soviet commander for the scheduled July ApolloSoyuz Test Project, said that after the third day of spaceflight, when 

an astronaut’s appetite improved, he could consume four meals a day. 

The banquet menu included fruit juices, coffee, borsch, cabbage 

soup, bite-sized bread, and a compote of cucumber, chicken necks, 

and kidney. 

During the dinner Leonov revealed that the Soyuz 18 cosmonauts 

Pyotr Klimuk and Vitaly Sevastyanov, launched 24 May and in orbit 

aboard the Salyut 4 space station, would continue in orbit during the 

ASTP mission and would probably remain in orbit for another month. 

(Piper, W Post, 27 June 75, A2) * U.S. airlines carried more than 207 million passengers during 1974, an 

increase of 2.6% over 1973 and a new record, the Air Transport 

Association announced. In addition, U.S. lines carried 4.9 billion tonmiles of freight, an increase of 3.2% over 1973. Total operating 

revenues in 1974 were $14.7 billion, up from $12.4 billion for 1973. Net 

profit rose by 41.9%, from $226.7 million in 1973 to $321.6 million in 

1974. (ATA Release, 27 June 75) 

28 June: When commercial communications via satellite began with the 6 

April 1965 launch of Early Bird 1, the u.S. was expected to be the 

prime user of the new global communications system, a New York 

Times article said. Experts assumed the system would be used chiefly 

for occasional live events such as sports, state affairs, space missions, 

121 
June ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

etc. However, these uses had actually accounted for only a fifth of 

transglobal comsat TV volume. A number of poor and developing 

countries had come to depend heavily on the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization’s seven Intelsat comsats. Although 

major events were still the subject of much global TV traffic, the most 

extensive and consistent use of commercial comsats was for daily 

news. 

News packages were sent from one country to another. U.S. networks used almost daily satellite news reports from correspondents in 

various parts of the world. Spain and Mexico were linked full time by 

satellite. Madrid also transmitted 15 min of daily news to Argentina, 

Brazil, Chile, Colombia, and Venezuela. When events warranted, 

these countries transmitted news to Spanish TV. France transmitted 

daily news to Israel, Iran, Jordan, and Martinique as well as several 

North African countries. News from London was transmitted daily to 

Australia. 

The NYT quoted officials of Communications Satellite Corp., U.S. 

manager of the Intelsat system, as saying that in 1965 the comsats 

carried about six TV transmissions a month for a total of less than 6 

hours of programming; in 1975, the Intelsat system was handling 400 

transmissions a month, more than 200 hrs of programming not including the 200 hrs a month carried on the Spain-Mexico channel. 

(Brown, NYT, 28 June 75, 43) 

29 June: Final joint U.S.-U.S.S.R. simulations for the Apollo-Soyuz Test 

Project crews and flight controllers began at Johnson Space Center 

and at the Moscow Mission Control Center at 6:30 am CDT. The 

simulations picked up the count at 47 hrs 10 min into the mission and 

continued for 56 hrs, covering the joint portion of the mission 

including rendezvous, docking, crew transfers and joint activities, 

and undocking of the Apollo and Soyuz spacecraft. U.S. and Soviet 

crewmen participated in simulators in their respective countries while 

both flight-control centers were fully staffed. The U.S. crew would 

also participate in the countdown demonstration test at Kennedy 

Space Center on 3 July. (JSC Release 75-61; Ezellet al., The Partnership: A History of the ApolloSoyuz Test Project, 314) 

30 June: NASA’s permanent employment level decreased by 521, or 2.1% 

during FY 1975, NASA’s Office of Personnel reported in “The In-House 

Work Force.” Average age of NASA employees had risen 0.3 yr to age 

43 and the average executive age fell 1.3 yr to age 49.6. Average 

grade of permanent employees remained at GS-11, constant since 

FY 1973. 

New hires and separations were down by 4.4 and 6.5%, respectively. Marshall Space Flight Center had had the only NASA reductionin-force, resulting in 76 separations. The 62 intercenter professional 

transfers were down from 72 in FY 1974, and the 789 retirements were 

30% below the FY 1974 level, although disability retirements continued to rise, totaling 220 in FY 19’75-a 147% increase over FY 1970. 

(Off of Personnel Rpt, “The In-House Work Force,” 30 June 75) 

0 The Skylab program was closed out at Marshall Space Flight Center and 

personnel assigned to the program had been reassigned, the Marshall 

Star announced. Responsibility for the deactivated offices, including 

storage of hardware and phaseout of remaining contractual and documentary activities, was assigned to the Administration and Program 

Support Directorate’s Logistics Office. (Marshall Star, 2 July 75, 4) 

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ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 June 

0 “After spending some $1.5 billion over more than 10 years, the United 

States, through the loss of its will to go forward in space, gave up on 

this next generation of rockets even though the nuclear technology 

worked,” Gary L. Bennett said in a letter to the editor of the Wushington Star. Noting that u.S. basic rocket technology was close to 40 yrs 

old, Bennett wrote, “We have shown no inclination to develop new 

rocket concepts despite the fact that these concepts have definite 

terrestrial advantages in terms of energy and employment. It’s sad to 

think that we came so close to realizing our destiny in space and then 

we gave it all up for a senseless enervating policy of introspection.” (W Star, 30 June 75) * NASA announced the award of a $287-million contract to Air Products 

and Chemicals, Inc., to supply liquid hydrogen for the government’s 

East Coast requirements over a 12.5-yr period beginning 1 July 1975. 

The liquid hydrogen would be used primarily in Space Shuttle engine 

testing at the National Space Technology Laboratories and for Space 

Shuttle launches. (NASA Release 75- 192) 

During June: Activities continued at Kennedy Space Center in preparation for the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project launch in July. During the week 

of 2-6 June, KSC engineers and technicians checked the Apollo 

spacecraft for propellant leaks, filled the liquid-oxygen storage tank at 

the pad, loaded oxygen and nitrogen onto the docking module, and 

installed conax valves on the Saturn IB first stage. 

Spacecraft ordnance was installed 9-13 June and the command 

module was checked for leaks and prepared for hypergolic loading. 

Also during the week the liquid-hydrogen tank was filled. 

Prime crew members-Thomas P. Stafford, Vance D. Brand, and 

Donald K. Slayton-and backup crew members-Jack R. Lousma, 

Alan L. Bean, and Ronald E. Evans-arrived at KSC on 10 June for 

command and docking-module crew compartment fit and functional 

checks. The crew also familiarized themselves with stowage arrangements. (Spaceport News, 12 June 75, 5; 26 June 75, 3) 

9 Development of the Spacelab by the European Space Agency for NASA’s 

Space Shuttle continued. 

An annual Spacelab status review 4-5 June attended by Dr. James 

C. Fletcher, NASA Administrator, and Roy Gibson, ESA Director 

General, established schedule milestones, determined readiness for 

the preliminary design review, and discussed arrangements for the 

first Spacelab flight. They also discussed plans for the instrumentpointing system and the first Spacelab payload, follow-on Spacelab 

procurement by NASA, and terms and conditions for use of the Space 

Shuttle- Spacelab system. 

On 6 June, the recommendations of 10 teams-which had met at 

Marshall Space Flight Center in May to discuss Spacelab systems, 

avionics, structures, environmental control and life support, software, test and integration, and payload operations and accommodations-were presented to the NASA Office of Manned Space Flight for 

concurrence. At the same time ESA was preparing similar recommendations at the European Space Research and Technology Center 

Beginning on 9 June, combined NASA-ESA teams met in Noordwijk 

to consider the 1772 review-item discrepancies prepared by both 

agencies and, after 2.5 days, had processed all of them. (Spacelab 

Newsletter 75-2, 3 July 75) 

(ESTEC). 

123 
June ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Goddard Space Flight Center’s Goddurd News reported that the John C. 

Lindsay Memorial Award, given annually to a GSFC employee in 

recognition of an outstanding contribution to science and technology, 

had been presented to Dr. Norman F. Ness. Dr. Ness had received the 

award for his pioneering work in the investigation of magnetic fields of 

planetary bodies and the interaction of the solar wind with these 

magnetic fields. Dr. Ness, who had been a participating scientist on 

the Explorer Interplanetary Monitoring Platform (IMP) satellites and 

Mariner 10, and Pioneer satellites, spearheaded the first measurements of the earth’s distant magnetic fields and magnetic tail. He was 

also the first to explore the moon’s magnetic field. On theMuriner 10 

flybys of Jupiter, Dr. Ness made the surprising discovery of a small, 

but measurable, intrinsic magnetic field. (Goddurd News, June 75, 1) 

The Air Force continued its development of the remotely piloted vehicle 

(RPV), the Air Force Systems Command’s Newsreview reported. The 

Air Force awarded three 1-yr firm-fixed-price contracts for definition 

studies of an advanced remotely piloted vehicle and associated 

elements. Rockwell International Corp. received $699 684; Boeing 

Aerospace Co., $646 750; and Northrop Corp., $499 614, to produce 

designs of an RPV for use in the 1980s. The system was expected to 

provide an improved cost-effective capability of carrying out 

electronic warfare, reconnaissance, and strike missions. The three 

companies would define the vehicle and its avionics, options of launch 

and recovery, ground-support elements, and systems maintenance to 

permit rapid mission turnaround. 

The Newsreview reported the award of a $100 000 contract to Aero 

Co. to study the feasibility of using parafoils, half the size of a C -5 

aircraft wing, to recover RPVs returning from missions. Aero co. 

would design and build for flight testing two 12- by 24m parafoilshigh-glide parachutes that, when deployed like a parachute, take on 

airfoil characteristics, descending at a rate of 1 m forward for 

each 0.3-m loss in altitude. (MsC Newsreview, June 75, 1) 

124 
July 1975 

1 July: Marshall Space Flight Center observed the 15th anniversary of the 

transfer of personnel, facilities, and responsibilities from the Department of Defense’s U.S. Army Ballistic Missile Agency to NASA. The 

center had been formally dedicated at a ceremony 8 Sept. 1960 

attended by President Dwight D. Eisenhower; Dr. T. Keith Glennan, 

NASA Administrator; Alabama Governor John Patterson; MSFC Director Dr. Wernher von Braun; and Mrs. George C. Marshall, widow of 

the statesman, soldier, and Nobel Peace Prize winner for whom the 

center was named. 

With the transfer had gone responsibility for continued development of the Redstone and the Saturn I; soon to come would be the 

Saturn IV and V launch vehicles that would carry u.S. astronauts into 

earth orbit and, eventually, to the moon. More than 100 000 employees 

in 12 000 companies across the U.S. worked during the peak of developing the Saturn family and its 31 launches with 100% launch success rate. MSFC developed the Lunar Roving Vehicle that carried 

moon-based astronauts several km from the landing site across rug- - ged lunar terrain. 

MSFC was also responsible for the Skylab 1 Orbital Workshop. 

Launched into earth orbit 14 May 1973, Skylab 1 carried other MSFC 

developments including solar-observation bstruments, the docking 

adapter, and many experiments. Three three-man crews occupied 

the space station for a total of 171 days. 

To date, as the last Saturn booster was preparing to carry three U.S. 

astronauts to an earth-orbital rendezvous with two Soviet cosmonauts 

for the joint Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, MSFC was heavily involved in 

development of the Space Transportation System, including the 

Space Shuttle, Space Tug, Spacelab, and related payloads. MSFC 

employees were also working on the development of solar heating and 

cooling systems and other applications projects. 

In a message to MSFC Director Dr. William P. Lucas, President 

Gerald R. Ford said that “From its inception, the Marshall center has 

continued in the forefront of this Nation’s tremendous advancement 

in the exploration of space. We look forward to more vital contributions . . . from the Marshall center in the years ahead as the United 

States continues to lead the way in using space for the benefit of all 

mankind.” (MSFC Releases 75-131, 75-140; Historical Origins of 

The George C. Marshall Space Flight Center, MSFC Historical Monograph No. 1, Dec 1960) @ Rockwell International Corp. Space Div. was studying the economic 

and technical feasibility of using a rotating flywheel for electrical storage in commercial, utility, and transportation applications. The 9- 

mo study for the Energy Research and Development Administration was based on technology developed for a prototype spacecraft 

energy-momentum flywheel that Rockwell had built for NASA’s 

125 
July ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Langley Research Center. The small prototype spinning at speeds up 

to 35 000 rpm could provide 2500 w of electrical power as well as 

spacecraft attitude control. 

In the flywheel concept, electric motor generators would spin up 

specially constructed flywheels which kinetically stored energy by 

their rotation. When electrical power was needed, the rapidly spinning flywheels would drive generators. A significant application of 

the flywheel would be to store energy for electric utility companies; 

the flywheels, spun up during off-peak hours, would drive powerproducing generators during peak-demand periods. (Rockwell Int'l 

Release SP- 18) 

0 NASA announced award of a $6.8-million cost-plus-award-fee contract 

to International Business Machines Corp. for developing and testing 

the Space Shuttle avionics software system. IBM would design, 

develop, test, and maintain the avionics software for the dataprocessing system on the Shuttle Orbiter that would include electric 

and electronic systems for guidance, navigation, and control capability; communication; computation; displays and controls; instrumentation; and electrical power distribution and control for the orbiter, 

external tank, and solid-rocket boosters. (JSC Release 75 -63) 

2 July: Ats 6 Applications Technology Satellite arrived at its new operating station at 35" east longitude over equatorial East Africa where it 

would relay communications from the docked Apollo and Soyuz 

spacecraft during the July Apollo-Soyuz Test Project mission. Upon 

completion of ASTP, Ats 6 would be used by India to transmit educational TV programs to several thousand remote villages. 

The satellite had experienced a malfunction in a drive circuit of one 

of the three momentum wheels used to control spacecraft attitude. A 

group of hydrazine gas thrusters was being used as a backup system 

for stabilization while ground controllers at Goddard Space Flight 

Center were analyzing the problem and developing remedies. (NASA 

Release 75 - 194) 

0 Prof. Hyron Spinrad, Univ. of Calif. astronomer, had photographed a 

galaxy 5 to 10 times larger than the Milky Way. Prof. Spinrad photographed the galaxy, designated 3C123, using the 120-in telescope at 

Lick Observatory and a new device that filtered out backlighting. The 

huge galaxy was moving away from earth at a speed of about 4.3 

trillion km per year. (AP, B Sun, 2 July 75, A3) 

0 Three high-speed F- 104G aircraft formerly belonging to the German 

Air Force arrived at Flight Research Center to be used for research 

purposes. FRC had been flying F-IOBAs, an early version of the same 

aircraft, but replacement parts were becoming scarce. Parts for the 

F-104G would be available through the 1980s. The three aircraft left 

Jever Air Force Base in West Germany on 27 June and made stops in 

Scotland, Iceland, Greenland, and Labrador before arriving at FRC. 

@-Press, 18 July 75, 4) 

3 July: The Washington Post reported that NASA had turned down a 

request by Sen. William Proxmire (D-Wisc.) to postpone the ApolloSoyuz Test Project (scheduled for launch on 15 July) until the U.S.S.R. 

brought back the twoSoyuz 18 cosmonauts who had been docked with 

the orbitingSalyut 4 space station since 26 May 1975. Sen. Proxmire 

said that the Soviet Union would be unable to maintain ground control 

of two manned missions simultaneously. He had based his judgment 

126 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 July 

on closed-door testimony given him as chairman of the Appropriations Subcommittee by Carl Duckett, deputy director for science and 

technology at the Central Intelligence Agency. The Post quoted Proxmire as saying that the Soviet command center would be strained to 

handle two manned flights, particularly if one were in trouble in 

space. Sen. Proxmire said that it would be a simple matter to deorbit 

the two Soyuz 18 cosmonauts and bring them home. 

In a telephone interview with the Post, ASTP Technical Director 

Glynn S. Lunney said that the Soviet Union had two mission-control 

centers, one managing the Salyut flight, the other managing ASTP. 

Lunney said NASA had calculated that the two Soviet spacecraft 

would cross over the same Soviet tracking stations only twice: One 

overlap might last as long as 30 sec and the other 90 sec. Soviet officials had assured NASA that ASTP communications would have priority 

during these two short passes. (O’Toole, W Post, 3 July 75, A33) 

0 NASA was inviting U.S. and foreign corporations, universities, and 

government organizations to propose experiments for the Ats 6 Applications Technology Satellite (launched 30 May 1974) after it completed its year of service to India [see 2 July]. After the Indian experiment, Ats 6 would be moved westward to the west coast of South 

America where it would operate within range of North and South 

America and adjacent ocean areas. NASA’s announcement of experiment opportunities for the cornsat’s third year of operation invited 

proposals in the fields of societal, communications, or technological 

disciplines. (NASA Release 75 -187) 

0 The Energy Information Center at the Univ. of N. Mex. had compiled for 

NASA a bibliography, Wind Energy Utilization. The 496-page volume 

included foreign and domestic literature on wind-power plants, windower generators, wind machines, and wind-energy storage facilities. 

!he center at Albuquerque, established in 1974 as a cooperative effort 

between the university and NASA, had also published comprehensive 

bibliographies on hydrogen and solar thermal energy. (NASA Release 

75-186) 

7 July: NASA had begun a demonstration of hydrogen-injection technology, 

a technique that could help reduce fuel consumption in large aircraft 

engines by 20 to 25% and lower emissions of pollutants from generalaviation engines. 

Working with the Federal Aviation Administration and industry, 

NASA was studying minor engine modifications that would reduce 

characteristic engine emissions. A separate NASA-industry program 

was investigating emission reduction and fuel efficiency by means of 

more extensive changes in the basic design of aircraft engines. In a 

third program, NASA was investigating both the noise and the emission 

characteristics of small general-aviation engines. (NASA Release 

75 - 198) 

9 July: Action by the House of Representatives to defer for 1 yr the 

funds budgeted for the Pioneer-Venus project [see 19 and 24 June] 

would “jeopardize the possible success of Pioneer-Venus,” Sen. 

John V. Tunney (D-Calif.) said in a letter to Sen. William Proxmire 

(D -Wisc.), chairman of the Senate Appropriations Committee. The 

House recommended the delay to permit a budget decision in 1977 

between the Large Space Telescope and the Pioneer -Venus mission. 

Sen. Tunney’s letter said that the probe was timed for the 19781aunch 

127 
July ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

window when earth and Venus would be in unusually favorable relative positions; the next favorable window would not appear for almost 

2 yr, during 1980, and Venus would be considerably further away 

from the earth at that time than it would be during 1978. A delay in 

funding would postpone the program for at least 18 mo, would require 

design changes, and might cost $50 million more than original estimates. 

Sen. Tunney said that the case for continued funding was a strong 

one. Most scientists felt that investigation of the Venusian atmosphere 

would provide valuable meteorological information that might substantially enhance weather-prediction capabilities. 

Another reason for continuation of the program is that, in an era of 

high unemployment, few sectors had suffered more devastating setbacks than the aerospace industry. The Pioneer -Venus program 

had created more than 1500 jobs, which would be threatened by termination or delay of the program. 

Curtailment of an ongoing scientific concept like Pioneer-Venus 

would severely reduce credibility of the government’s long-term commitments, with added time, difficulty, and cost for future projects as 

private contractors would seek to protect themselves. 

Sen. Tunney pointed out that the House’s juxtaposition of 

funding for Pioneer-Venus with funding for the Large Space 

Telescope was inappropriate; the programs were not competing, but 

complementary. Pioneer- Venus would provide information on our 

closest neighbor, whereas LST would collect deep-space data of 

unprecedented scope and detail. “Cutting one program for the sake of 

the other would mean sacrificing a distinguishable body of scientific 

knowledge which would not be replaceable.” (Text, letter, Tunney to 

Proxmire, 9 July 75; CRY 26 July 75, 513882-83) 

0 The rocket-powered M2- F3 lifting body-a wingless vehicle that 

derives aerodynamic lift from its body shape-arrived for display at 

the Smithsonian Institution’s National Air and Space Museum in 

Washington, D.C. In a flight program beginning in 1963 and ending in 

1972, the three versions of the M-2 vehicle had demonstrated that a 

manned reentry vehicle could reenter from space, maneuver through 

the atmosphere, and safely make a deadstick landing. 

M2-F3 was the thjrd version of Ames Research Center’s M-2 

lifting-body design. The first, M2-F1, was a lightweight plywood 

glider towed to altitude by a C-47 and released, whereupon the pilot 

guided the craft to a landing. A heavier version, M2-F2, was 

launched from underneath the wing of a B- 52 aircraft. After nearly a 

year of testing the unpowered vehicle, an XRL- 11 rocket engine was 

installed in preparation for rocket-powered flight; on the second glide 

flight after engine installation, the vehicle crashed, badly damaging 

the vehicle and injuring the pilot. The lifting body was rebuilt, incorporating modifications, and designated M2- F3. The M2- F3 

made more than 37 glide and powered flights with a jet reactioncontrol system that successfully demonstrated the feasibility of using 

a single system from orbit to landing. 

A lifting body design that had been considered for the reentry 

vehicle in the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo programs was rejected in 

favor of a ballistic reentry design. The use by Space Shuttle of the 

maneuver-to-a-deadstick-landing concept was possible largely be128 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 J~Y 

cause of the confidence level built up by 9 yr of lifting-body flight tests. 

(NASA Release 75- 199; A&A 62 through A&A 74) 

Marshall Space Flight Center announced award of two contracts for 356 

aluminum hand forgings for Space Shuttle solid-rocket boosters. A 

$465 935 contract went to Aluminum Co. of America and $62 900 

went to Weber Metals & Supply Co. for forward-skirt thrust post 

fittings, inboard aft-skirt actuator support brackets, aft-skirt splice 

fittings, and aft-skirt holddown posts. (MSFC Release 75- 151) 

11 July: NASA announced the appointment of Donald P. Hearth as Director of Langley Research Center, effective in September. Hearth, 

Deputy Director of Goddard Space Flight Center since 1970, would 

replace Dr. Edgar M. Cortright, who is leaving NASA to pursue other 

interests. 

Prior to being at GSFC, Hearth had served 3 yr as Director of 

Planetary Programs at NASA Hq. He came to NASA in 1962 from the 

Marquardt Corp. where he managed research on hypersonic propulsion and flight systems. Before that, he had been an aeronautical 

research scientist at Lewis Aeronautical Laboratory of NASA’s predecessor, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics. (NASA anno 

11 July 75) 

0 Didier Ratsiraka, President of the Supreme Council of Revolution of the 

Malagasy Republic, said in a radio broadcast to Malagasy citizens that 

his government would ask the u.S. to close its satellite tracking 

station there if the U.S. did not “raise concrete and satisfactory proposals before July 14.” Ratsiraka said that “TO avoid possible maneuvers of sabotage, the government has taken necessary measures to 

place the station under control of the armed forces from this day.” 

People’s Republic of China’s Hsinhua news agency quoted Ratsiraka 

as saying that the U.S. was reluctant to fulfill its obligations under the 

agreement signed in October 1963 by the U.S. and Malagasy governments, being in “flagrant violation of the written engagements.” 

0 NASA announced the beginning of a cooperative NASA-universityindustry program to flight-test a low-cost flight-control system that 

would improve ride quality, reduce pilot workload, and improve flight 

safety. The control system-developed and ground-tested by the 

Univ. of Kansas-was being installed on a Beechcraft 99 commuter 

airliner for a flight-test program under the direction of NASA’s Flight 

Research Center. Nearly a third of the aircraft’s control surfaces were 

controlled by the new automated avionics system, with two-thirds 

remaining under direct control of the pilot. Any failures in the automated control system could be easily overridden by the pilot, eliminating the need for redundancy in the attitude-control system and permitting mechanization at a much lower cost. 

With automated controls off, the separate surfaces responded to 

the pilot’s commands and the control system was essentially that of 

the Beechcraft airplane. The flight-test program would include functional tests, envelope expansion, system optimization, and quantitative and qualitative evaluation by the three test pilots. (NASA Release 

75-207; FRC Release 22-75) 

0 The Senate passed resolution, S. Con. Res. 47, setting aside the week of 

16-22 July as “United States Space Observance Week.” (CR, 11 July 

75, S12438) 

(FBIS-PRC, 15 July 75, A3) 

129 
July ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

0 Marshall Space Flight Center announced award of a $5 768 612 costplus-incentive-fee contract to Sperry Rand Corp. for design, development, test, and delivery of 37 multiplexer-demultiplexers (MDM) for 

the Space Shuttle rocket boosters. The MI)M, an electronic device that 

permitted sending or receiving more than one message, signal, or unit 

of information on a single communication channel, was housed in the 

solid rocket boosters’ integrated electronics assembly. It would 

process signals for such functions as ignition, thrust vector control, 

release of nose cap and frustum, jettison of solid rocket motor nozzles, 

detachment of parachutes, and turn-on of recovery aids. (MSFC Release 75- 154) - 

Q The midwest’s Central Telephone and Utilities Corp. Cengas Div. 

surveyed heat loss from hbmes and commercial buildings in five 

Nebraska and South Dakota communities using an aerial technique 

developed with NASA support. In the survey-taken on cold clear 

nights during winter 1974-75-an aircraft equipped with a thermalinfrared scanner flew at 488 m, making successive runs over strips 

three city blocks wide. The scanner surveyed the roof-surface temperatures, which were recorded on magnetic tape. After the flight, 

ground-based equipment converted the data to strips of fiim for 

printing on photographic paper. The resulting imagery, called 

thermograms, were silhouettes of individual buildings in which warm 

roofs appeared in light tones and cool roofs in dark tones. Property 

owners were notified of the results. (NASA Release 75-201) 

12 July: Kuwait’s Communications Minister Sulayman Hammud alKhalid signed a contract with Siemens AG, a West German company, 

to import and install Kuwait’s second ground station for satellite communications. (AR-RA’Y AL-’AMM, FEHS- Arabian Peninsula, 18 July 75, 

c 1) 13 July: Preparatory work was nearing completion on the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE), a joint India- NASA program 

to broadcast educational TV via the Ats 6 Applications Technology 

Satellite launched 30 May 1974. Installation of 400 TV sets had been 

completed, and the buildings to house them had been wired for 

electricity. (Delhi Domestic Service, FBIS- India, 18 July 75, U2) 

14 July: Soviet cosmonauts Aleksey A. Leonov and Valery N. Kubasov, 

relaxing on the eve of their launch for the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, 

viewed the fdm White Sun of the Desert. The film, following a tradition 

set by the cosmonauts’ predecessors in space, was a Russian action 

movie set during the civil war after the Bolshevik revolution in 1917. 

(Wren, NYT, 16 July 75, 1) Q Sen. William Proxmire (D- Wisc.) inserted into the Congressional 

Record a summary of the Central Intelligence Agency’s report on the 

Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. The summary indicated that “although 

the Soviet have experienced many space problems the prospects for a 

successful mission are good.” The report continued that the Soviet 

preparations were more extensive and thorough than for previous 

efforts, and that past failures had occurred at a phase during the mission which would not jeopardize U.S. astronauts should there be a 

recurrence. The report did point out that the Soviets had encountered 

severe problems in space. (CR, 14 July 75, 512511) Q NASA closed its tracking station on Madagascar after the agency was 

unable to reach agreement with the government of the Malagasy 

130 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 JdY 

Republic for continued operation of the station. Functions of the station would be taken over by the Ats 6 Applications Technology Satellite launched 30 May 1974. 

The Madagascar station had opened in 1964 under an agreement 

that called for station operation by NASA and Malagasy personnel. 

Data collected by the station were made available to the Malagasy 

Republic. The agreement had not called for an exchange of funds 

between the cooperating governments. The agreement expired in 

December 1973, and a new one could not be reached when Madagascar 

claimed rent for the station retroactive to 1964. (AP, NYT, 15 July 75; 

NASA Release 63-279; NASA Contracts Div., Phillips, interview, 2 

Aug 77) 

e The U.S.S.R. had turned down a U.S. invitation to participate in another 

joint manned space mission in 1976, Thomas O’Toole of the 

Washington Post reported a U.S. space official as saying. O’Toole 

reported that in 1974 NASA Deputy Administrator Dr. George M. Low 

had suggested to Soviet Academy of Sciences President Vladimir 

Kotelnikov that two Soviet cosmonauts and three American astronauts dock with a Soviet Salyut space station and work together in 

earth orbit for up to 2 wk. However, the Soviets had replied that they 

would undertake a repeat of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (scheduled 

for 15 July launch) but could not prepare to fly an Apollo-Salyut in any 

reasonable length of time. The Post quoted Dr. Low as saying, “Any 

second American-Russian space flight will have to wait until the 

1980s.” 

The Post also quoted Dr. Low as saying that NASA had suggested an 

Apollo-Salyut mission as early as 1971, but the Soviets had requested 

a change back to an A 0110-Soyuz mission during a presummit 

meeting in April 1972 just iefore President Nixon’s Moscow visit. Dr. 

Low said that the Soviets had said that it was too expensive to modify 

Salyut to accept both a Soyuz and an Apollo spacecraft at the same 

time. (O’Toole, W Post, 14 July 75, Al) 

e NASA announced award of a $150 000 10-mo study contract to The 

Boeing Co. to determine the basic design, costs, and environmental 

impact of potential power-generating satellite systems in space. 

Boeing’s Aerospace Co. would investigate solar and nuclear families 

of space-based power generators, studying two different energy converters for each; define the satellites; study their cost; and determine 

potential environmental effects. One converter was to be a thermal 

engine converter like a steam turbine that transformed heat into a 

usable form of energy. The other, a thermionic converter, would 

produce electrically charged particles to power a passive electricalgeneration system. Power generated by either method would be transformed into microwaves and beamed to earth for reconversion into 

electricity. (MSFC Release 75- 156) 

15-24 July: The joint U.S.-U.S.S.R. Apollo-Soyuz Test Project was 

successfully completed when NASA’s Apollo spacecraft, carrying 

three American astronauts, and the Soviet Soyuz 19, carrying two 

cosmonauts, docked in orbit for 2 days and performed joint scientific 

investigations. The two crews also shared meals and exchanged 

mementoes of their flight. 

Soyuz Launch: Soyuz 19, carrying cosmonauts Aleksey A. Leonov 

and Valery N. Kubasov, was launched into sunny skies from Baykonur 

131 
J~Y ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Cosmodrome at 5:20 pm local time (8:20 am EDT) 15 July. The spacecraft entered orbit with a 221.9-km apogee, 186.3-km perigee, 88.5- 

min period, and 51.8‘ inclination. 

Foreign correspondents, barred from the launch site, watched the 

launch on color TV sets in a Moscow press center. The first Soviet 

launch to be televised live, it was transmitted to viewers throughout 

the Soviet Union, the u.s., and eastern and western Europe. President Ford watched from a U.S. State Dept. auditorium with Soviet 

Ambassador to the U.S. Anatoly P. Dobrynin and NASA Administrator 

James C. Fletcher, before Dr. Fletcher and Ambassador Dobrynin 

flew to Kennedy Space Center to watch the Apollo launch. 

On the third orbit the Soyuz 19 crew established contact with U.S. 

mission control in Houston, putting into operation the global 

Moscow -Houston-Soyuz-Apollo communications system. On the 

fifth orbit the cosmonauts made the first of two maneuvers to place 

Soyuz 19 into a circular docking orbit. New orbital parameters were 

231.7-km apogee and 192.4-km perigee. The spacecraft was spinstabilized at 3” per sec with all systems operating normally. 

Apollo Launch: At 3:50 pm EDT 15 July-7 hr 30 rnin after theSoyuz 

launch-a Saturn ZB flawlessly lifted the Apollo spacecraft from 

Kennedy Space Center’s launch complex 39, carrying Apollo commander Thomas P. Stafford, command-module pilot Vance D. 

Brand, and docking-module pilot Donald K. Slayton. The spacecraft 

entered orbit with a 173.3-km apogee, 154.7-km perigee, 87.6-min 

period, and 51.8‘ inclination. The spacecraft’s launch-vehicle adapter 

was jettisoned at 9 hr 4 min ground elapsed time (9:04 GET, counted 

from theSoyuz 19 launch) and the crew maneuvered the Apollo 180“ to 

dock with the adapter and extract the docking module. These events 

were videotaped and transmitted to earth later via Ats 6 (NASA’s 

Applications Technology Satellite launched 30 May 1974). A 

maneuver 2 hr later at 7:35 pm circularized the orbit at 172 km. The 

Saturn S-ZVB stage was deorbited into the Pacific Ocean 1 hr 30 min 

later. 

A secondSoyuz 19 circularization burn of 18.5 sec at 8:43 am EDT 16 

July placed that spacecraft in a circular orbit of 229 km, with all 

systems functioning normally. 

Rendezvous and Docking: A series of Apollo maneuvers, with the 

final braking maneuver at 8:51 am EDT 17 July, put the Apollo spacecraft in a229.4-km circular orbit matching the orbit ofSoyuz 19. A few 

minutes later Brand reported, “We’ve got Soyuz in the sextant.” 

Voice contact was made soon after. “Hello. Soyuz, Apollo,” Stafford 

said in Russian. Kubasov replied in English, “Hello everybody. Hi to 

you, Tom and Deke. Hello there, Vance.” All communications among 

the five crew members during the mission were made in the language 

of the listener, with the Americans speaking Russian to the Soviet 

crew and the Soviet crew speaking English to the Americans. Contact 

of the two spacecraft 51 hr 49 min into the mission (12:09 pm 17 July) 

was transmitted live on TV to the earth, and Stafford commented, “We 

have succeeded. Everything is excellent.” “Soyuz and Apollo are 

shaking hands now,” the cosmonauts answered. Hard docking was 

completed over the Atlantic Ocean at 12:12 pm-6 min earlier 

than the prelaunch flight plan-watched by millions of TV viewers 

worldwide. “Perfect. Beautiful. Well done, Tom. It was a good show. 

We’re looking forward to shaking hands with you in board [sic] 

132 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 July 

Soyuz,” Leonov said. Tass later reported that Kubasov told Moscow 

ground controllers that “we felt a slight jolt at the moment of docking” 

but that all went according to plan. 

Joint Activities: At 3:17 pm hatch 3 opened; Apollo commander 

Stafford and Soyuz commander Leonov shook hands 2 min later. 

“Glad to see you,” Stafford told Leonov in Russian. “Glad to see you. 

Very very happy to see you,” Leonov responded in English. “This is 

Soyuz and the United States,” Slayton told TV viewers around the 

world. Both Soviet Communist Party General Secretary Leonid I. 

Brezhnev and President Ford congratulated the crews and expressed 

their confidence in the success of the mission. Stafford then presented Leonov with “five flags for your government and the people of 

the Soviet Union” with the wish that “our joint work in space serves 

for the benefit of all countries and peoples on the earth.” Leonov 

presented the U.S. crew with Soviet flags and plaques. The men 

signed international certificates and exchanged other commemorative items. After nearly 4 hr of joint activities, including a meal aboard 

the Soyuz, the Americans returned to the Apollo and the hatch was 

closed at 6:51 pm. 

An integrity check of the hatches indicated an atmospheric leak 

on the Soviet side. Ground controllers later attributed the indication 

to temperature chapges in the sealed docking module that were 

detected by the sensitive Soviet instrumentation. Future integrity 

checks of the hatches would be more rigorous, however. 

Following a sleep period, the crews prepared for another day of joint 

activity. Kubasov described the mission to Soviet TV viewers while 

the rest of the crews erformed experiments in their respective spacecraft. At 5:05 am 18 fuly Brand entered the Soviet spacecraft; Leonov 

joined Stafford and Slayton in ApoUo, greeting them with “Howdy 

partner.” Kubasov gave American TV viewers a tour of his Soyuz, and 

Stafford followed with a tour of the Apollo. Then both Kubasov and 

Brand videotaped scientific demonstrations for transmission to earth 

later. Kubasov and Brand ate lunch in the Soyuz while Leonov ate with 

Stafford and Slayton in Apollo. 

During a third transfer, Stafford and Leonov went into the Soyuz 

and Kubasov and Brand joined Slayton in Apollo. Brand gave Soviet 

viewers a Russian-language tour of the eastern U.S. as seen from 

space. Further speeches and exchanges of commemorative items 

were made for both U.S. and Soviet viewers before the final handshakes at 4:49 pm EDT 18 July, when the crews returned to their 

respective spacecraft. The hatches were closed after Brand told 

Leonov and Kubasov, “We wish you the best of success. I’m sure that 

we’ve opened up a new era in history. Our next meeting will be on the 

ground.” Total time for all transfers and joint activities was 19 hr 55 

min. Stafford had spent 7 hr 10 min aboard Soyuz; Brand, 6 hr 30 

min; Slayton, 1 hr 35 min. Leonov spent 5 hr 43 min in the Apollo, 

Kubasov 4 hr 57 min. During nearly 2 days of joint activities, the five 

men carried out five joint experiments. 

Undocking and Separation: The Apollo and Soyuz spacecraft 

undocked at 95:42 (XT (802 am EDT 19 July). While the spacecraft 

were in station-keeping mode, the crews photographed them and the 

docking apparatus, transmitting the pictures live on TV to earth. The 

Apollo spacecraft then served as an occulting disk, blocking the sun 

from the Soyuz and simulating a solar eclipse-the first man-made 

133 
July ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

eclipse. Leonov and Kubasov photographed the solar corona as the 

Apollo backed away from the Soyuz and toward the sun. The two 

spacecraft then redocked at 834 am EDT with the Apollo maneuvering 

and the Soyuz docking system active while good quality TV was 

transmitted to earth. The second docking was not as smooth as the 

first because a slight misalignment of the two spacecraft caused both 

to pitch excessively at contact. 

Final undocking-also with the Soyuz active-went smoothly and 

was completed at 11:26 am. As the spacecraft separated, the two 

crews performed the ultraviolet atmospheric absorption experiment, 

making unsuccessful data measurements at 150 m and then moving to 

a distance of 500 and 1000 m, where data were successfully collected. 

The Apollo maneuvered to within 50 m of Soyuz and took intensive 

still photography of the Soyuz. Separation maneuvers to put the two 

spacecraft on separate trajectories began at 2:42 pm with a reactioncontrol system burn. With the maneuvers completed, Leonov told the 

Apollo crew, “Thank you very much for your very big job. . . . It was a 

very good show.” Brand answered, “Thank you, also. This was a very 

good job.” 

Soyuz Orbit and Landing: Soyuz 19 remained in orbit nearly 30 hrs 

after the undocking. The cosmonauts conducted biological experiments with microorganisms and zone-forming fungi. At 239 am EDT 

21 July the Soyuz crew closed hatch 5 between their orbital vehicle 

and descent module and began depressurizing the orbital module. 

Braking burns of the descent engines began at 606 am when the 

spacecraft was 772 km from the Apollo. The 194.9-sec burn 

slowed the spacecraft to 120 km per sec. After another burn to 

stabilize the spacecraft, the orbital and descent modules separated 

over Central Africa. While Soviet viewers watched the first landing of 

a Soviet spacecraft televised in real time, the main parachute 

deployed at 7 km and jettisoned before the soft-landing engines fired. 

Soyuz 19 landed about 11 km from the target point northeast of 

Baykonur Cosmodrome at 651 am EDT 21 July, after a 142-hr 31-min 

mission. The rescue helicopter approached the capsule immediately 

and specialists opened hatch 5. Kubasov stepped out waving to 

rescue-team members, followed by Leonov, both cosmonauts in 

apparent good health and spirits. The cosmonauts returned to 

Baykonur for medical checks and debriefings. 

Apollo Postdocking Orbital Activities: Apollo remained in orbit 

while its crew continued u.S. science experiments begun during 

predocking. Searching for extreme ultraviolet radiation, the ASTP 

crew marked the birth of a new branch of astronomy when they found, 

for the first time, extreme ultraviolet sources outside the solar system; 

some scientists had believed that such sources could never be found. 

One of the newly discovered sources turned out to be the hottest 

known white dwarf star. The Apollo detector also revealed the 

existence of the first pulsar discovered outside the Milky Way. About 

200 OOO light years from earth’s galaxy, in the Small Magellanic 

Cloud, it was the most luminous pulsar known to astronomers, 10 

times brighter than any discovered so far. After repairing some 

malfunctioning equipment, the astronauts also mapped x-ray sources 

throughout the Milky Way. 

134 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 J~Y 

The crew completed nearly all the 110 earth-observation tasks assigned. Coordinated investigations had been made simultaneously by 

six groups of scientists on the ground, on ships at sea, and in aircraft. 

The astronauts looked at ocean currents, ocean pollution, desert 

geography, shoreline erosion, volcanoes, iceberg movements, and 

vegetation patterns. 

On 23 July the command-module tunnel was vented and the crew 

put on spacesuits to jettison the docking module. The command and 

service module undocked from the DM at 3:45 pm EDT, and a 1-sec 

engine firing put the CSM into a higher orbit (232.2-km apogee, 219.0- 

km perigee) so that the DM could move ahead. A second maneuver put 

the CSM in a 223.2-km by 219.0-km orbit. Deorbit began at 438 p.m. 

The command module and service module separated, the drogue and 

main parachutes deployed normally, and the Apollo splashed down at 

22458 GET (518 p.m. EDT 24 July) in the Pacific Ocean 163”W and 

22”N, 500 km west of Hawaii. This was the last ocean landing planned 

for U.S. manned space flights; future flights on the Space Shuttle 

would be wheeled touchdowns at land bases. 

The CM landed in “stable 2’’ position (upside down) 7.4 km from the 

prime recovery ship, U.S.S. New Orleans. After swimmers from the 

rescue helicopter righted the spacecraft and attached a flotation collar, the Apollo was lifted by crane on to the deck of the recovery ship 

and Stafford, Brand, and Slayton stepped out to the cheers of the 

ship’s crew. President Ford telephoned congratulations. During the 

welcome, the crew was evidently experiencing eye and lung 

discomfort; subsequent conversations and spacecraft data revealed 

that, during reentry, the earth landing system had failed to jettison the 

apex cover and drogues as scheduled and had had to be fired 

manually, without first disabling the reaction-control system 

thrusters. With the CM oscillating, the thrusters began firing rapidly to 

compensate, and combustion products -including a small amount of 

nitrogen tetroxide- entered through the cabin-pressure relief valves. 

As soon as the RCS system had been disabled, fresh air was once again 

drawn into the cabin. The crew members told flight officials that they 

had put on oxygen masks once the spacecraft had landed, and then 

activated the postlanding vent system. 

Because of the crew’s discomfort, further shipboard ceremonies 

had been canceled and the crew had been sent to sick bay and then to 

Tripler Hospital in Hawaii for observation until 8 Aug. 

Primary ASTP mission objectives were to evaluate the docking and 

undocking of an Apollo spacecraft with a Soyuz, and determine the 

adequacy of the onboard orientation lights and docking target; 

evaluate the ability of astronauts and cosmonauts to make intervehicular crew transfers and the ability of spacecraft systems to 

support the transfers; evaluate the Apollo’s capabilit of maintaining 

maneuvers; measure quantitatively the effect of weightlessness on 

the crews’ height and lower limb volume, according to length of 

exposure to zero-g; and obtain relay and direct synchronous-satellite 

navigation tracking data to determine their accuracy for application to 

Space Shuttle navigation-system design. The objectives were 

successfully completed, and the mission was adjudged successful on 

attitude-hold control of the docked vehicles and per P orming attitude 

135 
J~Y ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

15 Aug. (NASA MORS M-966-75-01, 7 July 75, 15 Aug 75; mission 

transcripts 15 to 24 July 75; change of shift press briefing tr nscripts 

15 to 24 July 75; W Post, 14 to 25 July 75; NYT, 14 to 24 July 75; 

FBIS-SOV, 14 t6 25 July 75; NASA Release 75-118; NASA ApolloSoyuz Test Project: Information for Press, 1975; Froelich, ApolloSOYUZ, NASA EP- 109; Ezell, et al. , The Partnership: A Histo of the 

ApolloSoyuz Test Project; NASA SP- 4209, 317- 49) 

15 July: President Gerald R. Ford sent a prelaunch message to 0th the 

U.S. and U.S.S.R. crews of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project: “ n a few 

short hours, you will be opening a new era in the exploration of space. 

Although others have goae before you, you will be blazing a new trail 

of international space cooperation.” In the less than 2 decades since 

Yuri Gagarin and John Glenn orbited the earth, realizing the dreams 

of those early rocket pioneers who had believed firmly that man could 

fly in space, spaceflight had expanded considerably our knowledge of 

earth, moon, planets, and universe. “Your flight represents ahother 

stage in man’s efforts to further his understanding of his environment. 

It has already demonstrated something else-that the United States 

and the Soviet Union can cooperate in such an important endeavor. 

Since the Apollo-Soyuz project was agreed to 3 years ago, crews, 

scientists, and specialists of both countries have worked diligently 

and productively, and in a spirit of cooperation, to bring us where we 

are today. I am heartened by the example of dedication dnd 

cooperation you have displayed. I am confident your efforts and 

example will lead to further cooperation between our two countries.” 

(PD, 21 July 75, 750) 

0 Western Union Corp.’s Westar satellite system, which included Westar 

1 and 2 (launched 13 Apr. 74 and 10 Oct. 74), began commercial video 

service with the transmission of ApoUo-Soyuz Test Project mission 

coverage from Houston to Chicago. TVN Independent Newservice, the 

first customer, used a transponder on Westar 1 to transmit coverage 

for 75 clients in the u.S. and Canada. The two satellites, in synchronous orbit, were linked to earth statibns near major cities. (WU Release, 15 July 75) 0 The upper stage and instrument unit of the Saturn IB rocket that carried 

the U.S. astronauts into orbit for the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project reentered the earth’s atmosphere at 945 pm EDT. The 14 100-kg stage 

and instrument unit, empty of 320 cu m of liquid hydrogen and liquid 

oxygen, broke into pieces as they reentered over the Pacific Ocean. 

Reentry was activated by ground commands; excess fuel was dumped 

through the engine, slowing the stage and ensuring that disintegration 

came in a remote ocean area. (MSFC Release 75-160) 

0 The Washington Post reported that, after launch of the Apollo-Soyuz 

Test Project, more than 1800 persons would lose their jobs. With the 

liftoff came the end of the Apollo and Saturn programs which had begun 25 May 1961 with President Kennedy’s request for anational commitment to a lunar-landing program. Layoffs would cut the Kennedy 

Space Center workforce to less than 8500, down from a peak of 28 000. 

Of those who would lose their jobs, 1100 worked for NASA contractorsRocketdyne Division pf Rockwell, Boeing Co., Chrysler Corp., and 

McDonnell Douglas Corp.-who built and mated the stages of the 

Saturn launch vehicle to the Apollo spacecraft. Another 700 worked for 

contractors such as International Business Machines Inc., TRW Inc., Grumman Corp., Aerojet General Corp., and Rockwell International Corp. 

r 

136 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 July 

Only 100 launch-operations contract employees would remain to 

help plan the launches of the Space Shuttle. The Shuttle launch force 

would begin to increase in size in 1977, but would never reach the size 

of the Saturn team because of increased automation. (O’Toole, W 

Post, 15 July 75, A9) @ NASA awarded a $5.5 million cost-reimbursable contract to the Univ. of 

. Hawaii for construction of an infrared telescope facility on the summit 

of Mauna Kea, an extinct volcano on Hawaii Island. The contract 

covered the second part of a $6-miJlion two-phase project covering 

design, construction, installation, and assembly of the facility. 

The 3-m infrared telescope, scheduled for 1977 completion, would 

be the world’s largest. The Univ. of Hawaii would operate it in support 

of NASA’s planetary exploration programs, particularly the 1977 

Mariner mission to Jupiter and Saturn. The facility would provide a 

national capability of observing interstellar dust, exploding galaxies, 

and galactic nuclei in the middle and far infrared portions of the 

electromagnetic spectrum. (NASA Release 75-209) 

16 July: At a Moscow exhibition of space art to commemorate the joint 

U.S. -U.S.S.R. Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, Soviet art glorified man’s 

role in space, whereas US. art emphasized technology, the Baltimore 

Sun reported. 

U.S. artists, commissioned by NASA and the National Gallery of 

Art to record the space program, showed basically factual treatments 

of blastoffs, launch towers, and mazes of steel gridwork. Artist Alden 

Wicks depicted Kennedy Space Center’s Vehicle Assembly Building 

as “The New Olympus.” Men played subordinate roles in U.S. art; 

they swarmed through control centers or, as in Jamie Wyeth‘s “Firing 

Room,” sat by the dozens in front of individual TV monitors. Engineers ministered to launch vehicles like priests before an idol. Even 

in the pen-and-ink drawings of individual astronauts, faces were 

diminished by the detailed minutiae of spacesuit and life-support 

paraphernalia. 

By contrast, man dominated the Soviet art. Artist Anatoly Yakushin 

depicted pioneer rocket theoretician Konstantin Tsiolkovsky against 

a geometric maze, but man controlled the idea. A painting by Boris 

Okorokov showed a young flight controller commanding abstract 

equipment, in contrast to Wyeth’s passive TV-monitor watchers. 

The irony of the two artistic visions was that they “reverse the technological visions of the nations’ manned space programs,” the Sun 

said. In reality, U.S. flights left muchof the flying up to the astronauts, 

while the Soviets had kept their cosmonauts as passive as possible. 

Also included in the exhibition were paintings by Apollo-Soyuz 

Test Project cosmonaut Aleksey A. Leonov, the only one of the artists 

who had seen outer space. He painted cosmic scenes in brilliant 

colors: His deep space was not a flat black, but a composite of black 

and indigo, streaked with magenta and stars with violet coronas. 

The Leonov earth as seen from space was deep marbled blue with 

atmospheric sheaths surrounding it in hard-edged layers, pale hues 

close to the planet, darkening in stages to the night of space. (B Sun, 

16 July 75, ALE) 

0 Department of Defense said the Navy had understated the long-term 

cost of building the new F- 18 carrier aircraft by at least $1.6 billion, 

the Washington Star reported. TheStar said the Navy Bad chosen the 

F-18 under pressure from DOD and Congress, after the Air Force 

137 
MY ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

selected the F- 16 for its low-cost fighter instead of the fighter version 

of the F- 18. At the time the Navy estimated the cost of each F- 18 as 

$7.8 million, or $2.6 billion to develop and produce the first 128 

F-18s; however, the Star reported, a DOD analysis found the 5-yr 

costs would be closer to $4.3 billion. 

The future of the program was under discussion. One alternative would be to raise projected Navy budget to accommodate the increased costs of the F-18. Another would be for the Navy to drop 

F-18 and go back to industry to design and develop a lower cost 

fighter that would fit into the original budget and, in the interim, to let 

the Navy buy fighter-bombers from McDonnell Douglas to meet its 

fleet-modernization needs in the early 1980s. (Finney, W Star, 17 

July 75, A16) 

17 July: Pioneer 10, launched 2 March 1972 and traveling out of the solar 

system at 43 200 km per hr, was operating normally despite a report 

that the spacecraft was making unexplained orientation changes [see 

11 June]. The apparent changes were caused when, during a routine 

change in spacecraft orientation on 6 May, the spacecraft’s star 

sensor made an undetected shift in its lock from the star Betelgeuse 

to the star Sirius. This shift twisted the frame of reference for measuring direction, and for changing the direction of spin-axis pointing. As 

a result, onboard and ground computers had recorded a gradual northward shift of the spin axis relative to the earth‘s motion around the 

sun. Also, when the thrusters were fired to move the spin axis with 

the earth‘s east-west course, “southward” impulses were necessary. 

No loss of data had occurred, and techniques were being designed 

to verify star reference during intervals when the star sensor was 

used. (ARC Astrogram, 17 July 75, 1) 

0 Two Ames Research Center research aircraft would be stationed in 

Hawaii for scientific research missions. 

A U- 2 earth-resources survey aircraft would probe the stratosphere up to 20 km to measure the distribution and extent of ozone, 

nitric oxide, and aerosol particles in the area between the equator and 

4V N latitude. Conducted by ARC to aid a national study, the sampling 

program was part of a semi-global study of the effect of ozone and 

nitric oxide on the world’s climate over a long period of time. Similar 

missions had been flown over higher latitudes and polar regions. 

Another objective of the U-2 flights was to collect remotely sensed 

data on the Hawaiian Islands in support of several investigations, 

including one of the decline and die-back of Ohia and Manami trees in 

the forested areas of Hawaii. 

NASA’s Kuiper Airborne Observatory, a C-141 jet aircraft 

equipped with a 91.5-cm infrared telescope, would make 16 flights to 

collect previously unobtainable data from the region of the galactic 

center, a highly complex intense source of infrared emission. (ARC 

Astrogram, 17 July 75, 1) 

0 The International Telecommunications Satellite Organization’s board 

of governors had authorized issuance of a request for firm fixed-price 

proposals for design, development, manufacture, and test of seven 

Intelsat V satellites, with options for up to eight additional satellites. 

In 1979 Intelsat V satellites would replace the Intelsat IV- A series 

to be deployed in September 1975. Intelsat V satellites would have 

increased capacity by a fourfold use of the 614 ghz frequency band, use 

138 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 July 

of both antenna-beam separation and dual-polarization concepts; 

introduction of the 14/11 &z band for limited coverage in high-traffic 

regions; and a maximum effective bandwidth of 2280 mhz. A single 

satellite design would be used in all three ocean regions of the Intelsat 

global systems. Intelsat V satellites were expected to have a capacity 

of 12 000 two-way voice circuits plus one color TV channel. (INTELSAT 

Release 75- 8) 

0 Lewis Research Center had awarded a contract to Rockwell Lnternational Corp. Rocketdyne Div. for a laser-heated rocket thrust chamber for spacecraft. The concept included transmitting laser energy 

from a ground laser-generating station to a spacecraft; propellant 

carried aboard the spacecraft would convert laser energy into propulsive thrust. The potential improvement in performance included a 

400% increase in payload capability for a Space Tug. 

Rockwell would build an experimental thruster, to be powered by a 

10-kw laser beam and tested at LeRC using an in-house carbon-dioxide 

laser system, and would provide a preliminary design for a 5000-kw 

thruster. (Rocketdyne Release RD- 16) 

0 NASA announced appointment of Gerald D. Griffin as Deputy Associate 

Administrator for Operations in the Office of Manned Space Flight, 

effective 1 Aug. In his new position Griffin would plan for the most 

economical and flexible operation of the Space Shuttle and Spacelab. 

Griffin, who was Assistant Administrator for Legislative Affairs before this appointfnent, would be replaced by Dr. Joseph P. Allen, an 

astronaut assigned to the Astronaut Office at Johnson Space Center. 

(NASA anno 17 July 75) 

18 July: The Los Angeles Times discussed the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project 

mission in an editorial: At the instant the Apollo and Soyuz docked, 

“the two ships ceased to be two and became one. And at that moment, 

the common fate of the five adventurers was indissolubly linked for 

the next 44 hours, symbolic of the shared destiny of the 4 billion 

passengers on the mother spaceship 140 miles below.” That the 

passengers were from two different countries was of no significance. 

“They communicated in each other’s language, and they saw the 

lovely blue earth across the vistas of space through the same eyes, 

with the same perception. It is a vision that is desperately needed by 

earthbound statesmen.” (LA Times, 18 July 75) 

19 July: Japan’s National Space Development Agency and NASA signed a 

contract for launch of three Japanese geosynchronous satellites in 

1977 and 1978. NASA would launch the satellites on a Delta launch 

vehicle on a cost-reimbursable basis. 

The satellites-GMS, a meteorological satellite; CS, an experimental 

medium-capacity comsat; and BS, an experimental medium-scale 

broadcast satellitewould participate in the worldwide Global 

Atmospheric Research Project (CARP) sponsored by the United 

Nations World Meteorological Organization. (Kyodo, FBIS- Japan, 22 

20 July: The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project docking system functioned well 

even though “conditions were not too favorable in the second docking,” spacecraft designer Vladimir Syromyatnikov said at a Moscow 

press conference. Although he said he was not yet familiar with all the 

details, Syromyatnikov said there had been a great deal of pitch 

between the two craft. “We know that the Soyuz system, after capJuly 75, c3; NASA MOR M-492- 101-77-01, 12 July 77) 

139 
July ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

ture, is turned off, while the manual operation of the Apollo ship. . . should have been turned into a different mode.” At point of capture 

Soyuz began to turn on its axis at approximately 3” per sec, and the 

shock absorbers on the Soyuz “were very strained in order to absorb 

this strain.” All the pitch was “quelled” after about 40 sec, 

Syromyatnikov added. 

When a reporter asked why this happened, flight engineer Sergei 

Tsibin said, “We know that at one moment on the Apollo there was a 

folding of the gyroscopic system. We also know that at the moment of 

locking and latching the Apollo and Soyuz were rolling at approximately 1 degree a second. This should not have taken place.” 

The Los Angeles Times reported on 21 July that the Russians were 

worried about a pressure drop in Soyuz and had voiced concern over 

possible damage to the Soyuz by the hard docking. However, the 

Times quoted NASA officials in Moscow as saying that the docking had 

been within prescribed limits though conceding that “it may have 

been a little harder” than the first one. (USSR press briefing transcript, 

20 July 75; Toth, LA Times, 21 July 75) 

0 Pope Paul VI told a crowd of 5000 at the papal palace near Rome that 

he was enchanted by the unique encounter of the Apollo and Soyuz 

crews in space [see 15-24 July]. He said, “We too, our eyes dazzled 

by sky light or wide open toward the depths of nighttime space, will 

shout out, long live the heroic men of such a fantastic feat. Man has 

won and we cannot refrain from foretelling more wonderful advances 

in the dominance of nature beyond the heavenly sphere. Man will 

win.” (ASTP air-to-ground transcripts, 20 July 75) 0 The fierce rivalry between the U.S. and U.S.S.R. was not confined to 

ground, air, and sea, but extended to space, the People’s Republic 

of China’s The People’s Daily said in an article entitled “Competition in Space and Hardship on Earth.” Both superpowers had invested 

huge amounts of money, manpower, and materials to turn cosmic 

space into an arena for arms expansion and war preparations as well 

as espionage. U.S. and U.S.S.R. military satellites, which accounted 

for most satellite launchings, were used mostly to spy on each other. 

In recent years their rivalry in space had become more and more 

acute, disturbing tranquillity in space. (Peking NCNA, FBIS-PRC, 21 

July 75, Al) 

21 July: The 14-nation Arab League, joined by 6 other African and MidEastern states in a 20-nation satellite organization, had finished 

initial technical and economic feasibility studies for an Arab satellitecommunications network and were beginning to define specific technical requirements for the system, Aviation Week and Space Technology reported. 

Program goals were to meet telecommunications requirements of 

Arabic-speaking states in North Africa and the Middle East for police 

work, weather broadcasting, civil aviation communications, and shipping, and to expand Arab technology into space. The Arab States 

Broadcasting Union estimated immediate need of 15 radio channels 

for direct broadcast of educational and cultural programs to remote 

areas, and 2 TV channels each for general and educational broadcasting. Estimated need of the Arab countries by 1976 would be as many 

as 1060 telephone, teletypewriter, and telegraph channels, and up to 

6200 channels for this traffic by mid-1984. 

140 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 J~Y 

Av IVk reported that, although the first satellites and initial ground 

stations would be bought from Western countries, the long-term goal 

was to shift operation and control to Arab nationals after 6 mo. 

The system, which would provide communications and broadcast 

coverage for 95% of the Arab world, would include a main orbiting 

satellite, a standby orbiting satellite to replace the prime satellite in 

case of failure, and a reserve satellite ke t on the ground ready for 

75, 56-59) * A recommendation by Dr. James C. Fletcher, NASA Administrator, to 

transfer Skylab backup hardware to the Smithsonian Institution was 

agreed to by Rep. Olin E. Teague (D-Tex.), Chairman of the House 

Science and Astronautics Committee. In a letter to Dr. Fletcher, 

Teague said he understood the transfer would “in no way affect the 

status of the Saturn launch vehicles and Apollo spacecraft being retained for possible use.” Teague said he shared a “belief that to display the Skylab hardware to the public will foster a better appreciation and increasing support for our national space program.” 

Other equipment was being stored to permit restoration if additional space missions should become desirable [see 9 Apr.]. (Letter, 

Teague to Fletcher, 21 July 75) * Cosmic rays-the most energetic particles in the universe-probably 

originated in supernovas within our own galaxy, Dr. Floyd W. Stecker, 

Goddard Space Flight Center scientist, wrote in an article in Physical 

Review Letters. Dr. Stecker had based his conclusions on data from 

NASA’s Explorer 48 (Small Astronomy Satellite-B, launched 16 Nov. 

1972). 

Scientists had been speculating on the source of cosmic radiation 

since its discovery at the turn of the century, when it was thought to be 

identical with gamma rays. With the advent of radio astronomy and 

the rapid development of new experimental techniques and instrumentation, supernovas had been considered a possible source of 

cosmic rays; however, other scientists believed cosmic radiation had 

extragalactic origins, such as quasars. Explorer 48, measuring 

cosmic-ray intensity without interference from earth‘s atmosphere, 

had been able to obtain the gamma-ray information needed to complement ground-based radio-astronomy data. 

The SAS-B scientific team at GSFC had measured a large amount 

of gamma radiation coming from the Milky Way galaxy, the most intense coming from the center of the galaxy. As gamma rays resulted 

primarily from collisions of cosmic rays with interstellar gas, and the 

detailed Explorer 48 data had identified the direction from which 

most of the gamma rays came, Dr. Stecker could pinpoint an area 

of intense activity midway between the galactic center and the earth. 

The active area was a region containing numerous interstellar gas 

clouds-but not enough to account for all the gamma-ray production-as well as a large number of supernova remnants. Dr. Stecker 

deduced that cosmic rays were to be found in the same regions as 

supernova remnants and in proportion to their number. (Stecker, 

Physical Review Letters, 21 July 75, 188-90; NASA Release 75-221) 

22 July: The National Research Council’s Space Applications Board, 

directed by the National Academy of Sciences and a NASA contract, 

released a report entitled ‘‘Practical Applications of Space Systems,” 

quick launch in case of satellite failure. ( d opelewski, Av Wk, 21 July 

141 
July ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

with particular emphasis on approaches to socioeconomic benefits. 

The report stated that present institutional arrangements were “not 

adequate” to encourage future applications of space technology to 

promising areas such as natural resource exploration and management, telecommunications for education and health care, and longrange weather and climate forecasting. The report added “There 

exists at present no institutional mechanism that permits the large 

body of potential users. . .to express their needs and to have a voice in 

matters leading to the definition of new systems.” 

Recommendations by the board included establishment of a 

national space applications council to direct policies affecting nonmilitary space applications; to set priorities for meeting user needs; to 

provide for exchanges between users and providers of space technology; and to encourage non-Federal investment in the application of 

space systems. The council could operate as an interagency group, 

with representation from state and local governments. 

To meet the launch needs of future applications satellites, the board 

recommended that plans for the Space Shuttle provide an early opportunity to orbit payloads in either polar or geosynchronous orbits. 

The Shuttle-launched payloads would have applications in hazardous 

weather warnings and long-range weather and climate predictions; 

land-use planning; agriculture, forest, and range management; exploration for food, water, energy, and mineral resources; and environmental monitoring. 

Other specific recommendations included lower cost, more accessible ground data-collection and readout stations; long-term observations of climatic factors-such as albedo, heat control of mixed layer 

in ocean, cloud distribution, and climatically significant changes in 

vegetation, land use, and snow and ice cover-to help provide a sound 

basis for long-range weather prediction; a resolution of 3 to 10 m for 

land-use applications; greater emphasis on Federal research and development programs for spaceborne sensors of water resources; 

continued development of earth physics techniques, including a system to measure relative displacement of tectonic plates within 3 cm; 

and vigorous continuation of the SEASAT-A and Nimbus- C programs. 

The board had based its findings on the deliberations of 110 potential users of space-derived information and services who had attended 

a July 1974 study group in Colorado. The participants represented 

Federal agencies, state and local governments, industrial and business communities, and educational institutions. (“Practical Applications of Space Systems,” NAS publ, July 75) 

e Although more than 26 million Americans watched the Apollo-Soyuz 

Test Project handshake in space, TV coverage was “adequate without 

being particularly outstanding,” TV critic Lee Winfrey said in the 

Philadelphia Inquirer. Two obstacles were insurmountable. NASA “is 

doggedly efficient, it got us to the moon first and it did the job again 

this time. But it is as colorless as a pane of glass and invariably capable 

of making the highest excitement look like the dullest routine.’’ NASA 

had an unshakable air of the 1950s about it: all white, all male, 

crewcut, and straight-shouldered. 

The second obstacle was that the mission was “another goodie that 

Richard Nixon drearned up for us. Which means it was all show and 

no substance.” The U.S. paid $250 million for an aerial handshake. 

1 42 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 J~Y 

“Nixon made us buddies with Brezhnev and so, through shadow 

shows like Apollo-Soyuz, we are supposed to remain.” (Winfrey, P Znq, 22 July 75) 0 Jackson M. Balch, director of NASA’s National Space Technology 

Laboratories (NSTL)-formerly the Mississippi Test Facility-announced plans to retire. As head of the test facility for 10 yrs, Balch 

managed testing of Saturn V rockets for both the Apollo and Skylab 

programs. (NASA anno, 22 July 75) 

22-23 July: Nearly 200 NASA managers, engineers, and scientistsheaded by Dr. Edgar M. Cortright, Langley Research Center 

Director, and Viking Project Manager James S. Martin, Jr.-met at 

Kennedy Space Center for the Viking launch-readiness review. 

Those attending-including Dr. John E. Naugle, NASA Deputy 

Associate Administrator, and Dr. Noel Hinners, Associate 

Administrator for Space Science-heard status reports on the launch 

vehicle, spacecraft, and launch and tracking preparations. Everything was “in excellent shape” for the 11 Aug. launch of the nation’s 

first mission to land unmanned spacecraft on Mars, said Martin. “We 

still have three weeks of work ahead, but time to do it in an orderly 

fashion, and no significant open items.’’ 

Viking- A would be mated with the Titan- Centaur launch vehicle 

on 28 July, followed by specialized tests, including an operational 

readiness test 6 Aug. during which the entire NASA and contractor 

Viking team would go through the countdown and several hours of 

simulated flight. 

Problems discussed during the review included the x-band radio on 

the Viking-B Orbiter in which a defective coaxial cable had been 

replaced. A leak discovered in the Viking- A gas chromatograph 

mass spectrometer after sterilization was found to be so small0.000864 cubic centimeters per day-that it would not affect the 

mission. (NASA Releases 75- 210, 75-216; KSC Release 156- 75) 

24 July: The Senate Committee on Appropriations reported out H.R. 

8070, the Dept. of Housing and Urban Development -Independent 

Agencies Appropriations Bill for FY 1976. 

NASA FY 1976 Budget 

Comparison of Request, Authorization, and Senate 

Recommended Appropriations 

(millions) 

Budget Authorization Senate Appropriations 

Request (diff. from req.) Committee (diff. fromreq.) Item 

Research & 

Development 2678.4 2687.2 (+8.8) 2685.4 (+7.0) 

Construction of 84.6 99.1 (+14.5) 82.1 (-2.5) Facilities 

Research & Program 776.0 776.0 (0) 775.5 (-0.5) 

Totals* 3539.0 3562.3 (+23.3) 3543.0 (+4.0) 

Management* - 

*Does not include a su lemental request for pay increases, introduced as H.R. 13172 and slgned mto public law P.L. 94-303 on 1 June %6 

143 
July ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

The committee appropriation allowed for no new starts but did 

permit an increase of $400 million in funding for the Space Shuttle. 

The committee supported manned NASA activities such as an international cooperative space-docking mission built on the successes of 

Apollo and Skylab programs, and the development of the Space Shuttle as an economical, versatile transportation system to give a wide 

variety of users access to space. The committee also endorsed a space 

science flight program furthering knowledge of the earth, atmosphere, moon, sun, planets, interplanetary space, and stars; a research and development program to identify and demonstrate useful 

applications of space techniques in areas such as weather and climate, 

pollution monitoring, earth-resources survey, earth and ocean 

physics, communications, and space processing; U.S. leadership in 

aeronautics and space programs; worldwide tracking and data acquisition support for NASA’s manned and unmanned programs; a program to assist in the development of national energy self-sufficiency; 

and a technology utilization program to speed dissemination of technological and engineering information gained during NASA programs 

to government, industry, and other users. 

The committee restored $48.4 million for the two-spacecraft Pioneer- Venus mission scheduled for launch in 1978; the House had cut 

the funds requested by NASA in the original budget. The Senate 

agreed with NASA that the project had high scientific priority, and that 

delaying it to a less opportune launch window when Venus was further 

from the earth would require redesign of the spacecraft and would 

cost $50 million more than originally planned. 

The committee also restored $1 million cut by the House from the $5 

million requested for definition studies and advanced technological 

development of the Large Space Telescope. The study was necessary 

for NASA to define an optimum design at minimum cost. 

The committee added $7 million to the $7 million NASA request for 

research and development to help understand and monitor physical 

and chemical processes in the upper atmosphere, emphasizing the 

need for studies of the depletion of stratospheric ozone. 

Because some committee members had had reservations about the 

high cost and safety hazards of the joint U.S.-U.S.S.R. Apollo-Soyuz 

Test Project, the committee said it would like to be notified well in 

advance of any future joint space mission to permit an accurate assessment of potential benefits and costs. 

The committee’s recommendation of $82.1 million for construction 

of facilities, $25 million less than the request, would allow continuation of previous work including Space Shuttle facilities, facility 

rehabilitation and modification and minor construction, and facility 

planning and design. Not only did the committee, agreeing with the 

House action, cut the $2.5 million requested for an addition to the 

Lunar-Sample Curatorial Facility at Johnson Space Center, it also 

agreed with the House in denying funds to modify the 40- by 80-ft wind 

tunnel at Ames Research Center-not included in the original request 

but authorized by Congress-until the committee had had an 

opportunity to review the necessary funding in a formal budget 

request. 

The recommendation of $775.5 million for research and program 

management, the same amount approved by the House, was $0.5 

144 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 JdY 

million less than NASA’s request. The reduction reflected a 10% cut in 

General Services Administration rental charges. 

The Senate committee recommended a total of $925 028 000 in 

funds for the transitional period 1 July-30 Sept. 1976. 

NASA Transitional Budget 

Comparison of Request, Authorization, and 

House-Recommended Appropriations 

(millions) 

Budget Authorization H.R. Appropriations 

Request (diff. from res.) Committee(diff. fromreu.) Item 

Research & 

Development 

Construction of 

Facilities 

730.6 700.6 (-30.0) 700.6 (-30.0) 

14.5 10.8 (-3.8) 10.8 (-3.8) 

Research & Program 213.8 213.8 101 213.7 (-0.1) 

Management* - TOTALS* 958 9 925.2 (-33.8) 925 0 (-33.9) 

*Does not include a supplemental request for pay raises introduced as H.R 13172 and slgned into P L 94-303 on 1 June 76 

Recommended funding was $33 872 000 below the total budget 

request and $122 111 less than the authorization. (Sen Com Rpt 94- 

326; Budget Chron Kist FY 1976, NASA Off of Budget Operations, 16 

June 75) 

0 “We have just witnessed another flawless Apollo splashdown and the 

successful completion of the world‘s first international [manned] 

spaceflight,” Dr. James C. Fletcher, NASA Administrator, said at an 

ASTP postrecovery press briefing. “At this time it is difficult, if not 

impossible, to assess the full significance of the ASTP mission, or even 

its ultimate influence on international affairs.” However, “to a world 

beset by tension and suspicion it must, indeed, be a heartening sign to 

see Russians and Americans cheering each other. . . . By going into 

space together, we have shown a sometimes skeptical world that 

perhaps there is a real chance of world unity.” (ASTP Transcript 

0 The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project reflected the “progress made in the 

relations between our two nations and . . . the successes of the policy 

of peaceful coexistence, and promotes a further improvement of the 

international situation, and the strengthening of mutually rewarding 

contacts,” Acting President of the Soviet Academy of Sciences 

Vladimir Kotelnikov said at a press briefing. 

General Vladimir Shatalov, head of cosmonaut training, told the 

newsmen, “While placing great emphasis on the importance of this 

joint flight, the Soviet Union also attaches great importance to its 

national space program, which at present centers on the establishment of long term manned orbital stations of the Salyut type.” He said 

that the success of ASTP along with that of Salyut 4 “testifies to the 

maturity of the Soviet space program, to the fact that it is able to man 

and launch several spacecraft at the same time and control their 

flight.” 

PC - 55) 

145 
July ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

ASTP cosmonaut Aleksey A. Leonov, who had been promoted from 

Soviet Air Force colonel to major general, said he had thought language would be the biggest problem during the joint session but “we 

understood each other very well.” He added, “we didn’t have problems during our joint operation.” 

When asked about future joint projects, Willis Shapley, NASA 

Associate Deputy Administrator, said, “For the future I see accomplishments in two directions. . . . On one hand we must jointly plan 

and execute furtherjoint technical projects. At the same time we must 

further develop the areas of political understanding and cooperation 

between our two countries. . . . Preliminary discussions are already 

underway between specialists. . . from both sides.” (Soyuz crew press 

conf. transcript, Apollo news center, Houston, 24 July 75) 

0 Walter Cronkite, U.S. broadcaster who had covered the space program 

from its beginnings to date, reminisced about the space program 

during an interview with Kennedy Space Center’s Spaceport News. 

Cronkite recalled that news coverage in the early 1950s was done from 

the beach with very little official information. “All we had were tips 

from engineers and others we met in bars.” By Alan B. Shepard’s 5 

May 1961 launch, things had improved only slightly; coverage took 

place from the back of a station wagon with a microphone, monitor, 

and very little incoming information. Later launches had seen drastic 

changes. “We’ve got so much information today that it’s the traffic 

cops’ job to take care of the flow, whereas before it was more imagination and fill-in-the-blanks.” 

Asked if he would be interested in riding aboard the Space Shuttle, 

Cronkite said, “I think newsmen will go on the Shuttle. . . . Just as 

soon as we prove out the equipment. . . . I would guess that somehow 

or other we’re going to see that a pool man gets aboard, and I hope it’s 

me.” 

Regarding the apparent apathy of the American public toward ihe 

space program, Cronkite stated that it would be difficult in this age to 

sustain the “high intensity of feeling about the space program, the 

race to the moon, [and] landing on the moon. . . . We don’t have an 

attention span in the modern world, with so much going on, that permits us to remain at that high level of excitement.” (Spaceport News, - 

24 July 75, 6) 

0 A terrestrial solar-energy recording system now installed at Marshall 

Space Flight Center would provide accurate data on sunfall for use in 

developing solar-energy measuring systems, MSFC announced. Designed and built by International Business Machines Corp. as part of 

the center’s earth-based solar-power activities, the monitor would use 

a sun tracker and stationary sensors to measure and record solar 

energy. The 203-cm by 178-cm instrument included a pyrheliometer 

to measure energy coming directly from the solar disc and 2 pyranometers to measure direct and scattered energy from any direction in its 

hemispheric field of view. The system could also evaluate the ability 

of developmental devices to convert or reflect solar energy. Collected 

data were recorded on tape for computer analysis. (MSFC Release 

0 NASA announced completion at Lewis Research Center of one of the 

largest indoor echo-free chambers in the US. The 1416-cu m 

chamber-called the Engine Fan and Jet Noise Facility-would aid 

75- 168) 

146 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 July 

the center’s research into jet-aircraft noise by permitting engineers to 

test noise characteristics of quiet fans for advanced aircraft engines 

and to evaluate new ways of reducing the rumble of jet nozzles. All 

surfaces of the 16-m wide, 17-m long, 5-m high facility had been 

treated with anechoic (echo-free) 76-cm fiberglass wedges that absorb 

sound. Acoustic tests had shown that the facility could absorb 

essentially all the sound in the region of interest for aircraft-engine fan 

models up to 51 cm in diameter, or jet nozzles up to 10 cm in diameter. 

Engineers could study noise coming from either the front or the rear of 

the fan. The facility’s control room was linked directly to LeRC’s 

central computer, permitting instant analysis of much of the data. 

(NASA Release 75-212) 

25 July: At an Apollo-Soyuz Test Project crew-status briefing, Richard S. 

Johnston, Director of Life Sciences, told reporters that Houston control could not make voice contact with the crew during Apollo reentry 

[see 15 -24 Julyj. The first medical bulletin on the astronauts’ condition, received at Houston several hours later, had informed Houston 

officials of the crew’s eye and lung irritation. After splashdown, astronauts Thomas P. Stafford and Donald K. Slayton had noticed that 

fellow crewman Vance D. Brand had passed out. He had revived after 

about 1 min when Stafford adjusted his oxygen mask and ensured a 

proper flow of oxygen. 

Johnston also said that preliminary diagnostic procedures had indicated that the crew did not have “any apparent medical problem at 

that time” but that x-rays had shown increased hylar markings originating from the center of the chest. The doctors elected to move the 

crew to sick bay and keep them under observation. The astronauts 

had been given cortisone to decrease the inflammation of their lung 

tissue and relieve the symptoms of cough and substernal discomfort. 

During the briefing, word came that the astronauts had arrived at 

Tripler Hospital in Hawaii where they would enter the intensive care 

unit. “They walked in smiling and they looked happy,” said JSC 

Public Affairs Officer Robert V. Gordon. (ASTP Transcript PC- 56) 

The House of Representatives’ $48-million cut in NASA’s PioneerVenus program [see 19 June] had taken the agency by surprise, a 

Science editorial reported. “Not only had the program been scrutinized and endorsed by House and Senate authorization committees, 

but construction of the spacecraft, for which planning began 4 years 

ago, is now well advanced.” The potential loss was even more bitter 

because it was the “child of the scientific community.” 

Although the House action was intended not to eliminate PioneerVenus altogether but rather to delay it, to consider the relative 

priority between the project and the Large Space Telescope, “they 

are not in any way comparable in their scientific objectives.” The 

House Appropriations Committee’s action seemed to be based on “a 

misunderstanding of the physical constraints of launching a spacecraft to Venus.” Once the 1975 launch window had passed, the next 

o portunity would be in 1980, when the relative position of the two 

would call for a larger retro-propulsion motor and more fuel. These 

requirements would reduce the scientific payload, necessitate 

redesign, and waste much of the 40 million already spent. 

The subcommittee’s decision seemed to have been made abruptly 

without any real attempt at investigating the consequences.” The 

p P anets would require spacecraft approach at higher velocities that 

<b 

147 
J~Y ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

subcommittee staff had never asked NASA whether the mission could 

be delayed. 

Even more remarkable, said Science, was the motivation given 

for the action in the committee report: ‘‘Some astronomers have been 

critical of NASA’s Space Science Program because they contend that a 

disproportionate level of NASA dollars have been used on planetary 

astronomy missions, while little or no funds have been allocated to 

deep space astronomy which is the principal mission of the Large 

Space Telescope.” The public bickering over funds among scientists tended to give “the budget cutters . . . a field day.” 

To many space scientists, the deferral raised questions about the 

credibility of the long-range planning process for large science projects. Scientists argued that “cutting the mission after it has already 

been approved by Congress and after money and considerable talent 

have been committed to its development may jeopardize efforts to 

design efficient spacecraft and plan a logical program of planetary 

exploration.” (Hammond, Science, 25 July 75, 270-71) 

0 NASA announced the development of an improved inorganic paint, a 

potassium silicate zinc-rich coating with a silicon additive that could 

provide long-term protection from salt spray, fog, heat, and rapid 

temperature changes. Produced at Goddard Space Flight Center as 

an anticorrosion coating for use in the space program, the paint had 

shown no deterioration after 5300 hr of continuous exposure to a 3% 

brine spray. The paint had also been applied to a 2-m panel mounted 

under the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisca for further testing. 

(NASA Release 75-213; Newsweek (int’l ed), 18 Aug 7.5) 

0 Comsat General Corp. of the Communications Satellite Corp. announced its intent to pay MCI Communications Corp. and Lockheed 

Aircraft Corp. $1.5 million each for their common stock in the CML 

Satellite Corp. Restructured in 1972 by Comsat General Corp. and 

with thirds owned by Comsat, Lockheed, and MCI, CML was to have 

entered the domestic-communications-satellite business but had 

stopped short because of the financial difficulties of MCI and Lockheed. 

On 3 July 1974, Comsat and International Business Machines 

Corp. had announced plans to buy out the shares in CML owned by 

Lockheed and MCI, subject to approval by the Federal Communications Commission. Restrictions imposed in a 23 January 1975 ruling 

by the FCC-concerned that the combination of the two companies 

would create a monopoly-required that no one partner own less than 

10% or more than 49% of the stock. Under this “balanced CML” ruling, 

Comsat and IBM were seeking a third partner; to that end, Comsat was 

acquiring all of the stock so that it could be reapportioned in the proposed new structure. (Comsat General Release 75-45) 

26 July: By a vote of 73 to 7, the Senate passed H.R. 8070, the Dept. of 

Housing and Urban Development- Independent Agencies’ Appropriations Bill for FY 1976, as reported out by the Appropriations Committee on 24 July. NASA was provided a total of $3.543 billion for FY 

1976, and $925 million for the transition period from 1 July to 30 Sept. 

1976. (CR, 26 July 75, 513863-98) 

0 The lung condition of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project astronauts, who had 

inhaled nitrogen tetroxide fumes during Apollo reentry [see 15- 24 

July] , had improved, NASA Flight Surgeon Dr. Arnauld Nicogossian 

148 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 J~Y 

told reporters at a crew-status briefing. The astronauts had been 

transferred from the intensive-care unit of Tripler Hospital to other 

hospital quarters. Astronaut Donald K. Slayton’s x-rays showed a 70 

to 80% improvement in the condition of his lungs; astronauts Vance D. 

Brand and Thomas P. Stafford had improved, but not as much. (ASTP 

Transcript PC- 58) 

0 The Senate passed a resolution, S. Res. 222, congratulating NASA and 

the Soviet Academy of Sciences on the outstanding success of the 

joint Apollo-Soyuz Test Project [see 15-24 July]. (CR, 26 July 75, 

S13914) 

0 People’s Republic of China launched its third satellite into an earth 

orbit with a 455-km apogee, 182-km perigee, 90.9-min period, and 

69.0” inclination. PRC’s Hsinhua news agency reported 27 July that 

the satellite had been launched “under the guidance of Chairman 

Mao’s [Tse-tung] proletarian revolutionary line . . . promoting production and other work and preparedness against war.” Hsinhua 

also reported that the instruments on board the satellite were operating normally. 

The satellite was PRC’s first in 4 yr. Baltimore Sun correspondent 

Edward K. Wu attributed the apparent slowdown in the PRC space 

program to an estimated 25% cutback in military spending. PRC’s first 

two satellites had been successfully launched 24 April 1970 and 

2 March 1971. (Wkly SSR, 25-30 July 1975; FBIS-PRC, 28 July 75, 

El; Wu, B Sun, 28 July 75, A4; W Post, 28 July 75, A14; A&A 70; 

A&A 71) 

27 July: The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project crew was making “excellent 

progress” recovering from lung ailments that developed when the 

crew inhaled nitrogen tetroxide during Apollo reentry [see 15-24 

July], Johnson Space Center Director of Life Sciences Richard S. 

Johnston told a crew-status press briefing at JSC. Johnston told reporters that, if the crew continued to progress, they would be released 

from Tripler Hospital on 29 July. However, their activities would be 

restricted for an additional 10 days to protect them from undue exposure to large crowds, to ensure continued improvement, and to avoid 

respiratory complications. (ASTP Transcript PC-59) 

28 July: Soviet engineers had been working on a “spaceplane” to carry 

cosmonauts to and from orbit as part of along-term project to establish 

a major space platform in the 1980s, the Christian Science Monitor 

reported. Western observers had expected the reusable spacecraft to 

be launched by an expendable booster, but CSM reported that the 

rumored aim was to fly it from the back of a ramjet-powered boost 

vehicle that would return to base. The project was thought to be linked 

with development of a large multiman modular space station that the 

Soviets expected to assemble in orbit before 1980. CSM reported that 

U.S. Air Force reconnaissance satellites had noted preparations at the 

Baykonur Cosmodrome to retest the huge SLX- 14 booster, scheduled 

to launch the station. The SLX- 14 had been delayed for 5 yr by a series 

of mishaps: Two launch complexes had been built for the SLX- 14, one 

of which burned during a 1969 fueling test. Intelligence reports 

indicated it had been rebuilt. 

In an August 1975 issue of Sputnik magazine, reprinted from the 

Soviet Nauka Z Zhin, U.S.S.R. Chief of Cosmonaut Training Vladimir 

A. Shatalov confirmed Soviet interest in a reusable space vehicle. 

149 
July ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Although “the future of cosmonautics is largely connected with longterm orbital stations,” he said, the fact that carrier rockets were 

extremely expensive and could be used only once was “becoming a 

serious brake on the development of cosmonautics and relevant 

research.” Neither the airplane nor the spaceship had proven capable 

of flying into orbit and then reentering. But there is every reason to 

believe that in the not-so-distant future aviation and cosmonautics 

would “draw appreciably closer together.” Shatalov said Soviet and 

U.S. scientists had already made important high-altitude and highspeed experiments. Shatalov visualized “a new-type spaceship” 

consisting of a smaller one launched from a larger one after reaching 

required speed. The carrier craft would return to a landing field, and 

the smaller craft would orbit, accomplish its mission, and then land. 

“Creation of an apparatus with greater orbital maneuverability would . . . make it possible . . . to deliver satellites on orbits in the 

spacecraft’s freight compartment, serve and repair them in space and 

bring back to earth samples of explorations and observations and even 

the satellites themselves if they go out of order.” Although “creation 

of this new type of space apparatus” posed a host of technical 

problems, “modern science and technology can solve them” and “the 

time was not far off when such a Dlane would make its maiden flight.” 

29 

(Gatland, CSM, 28 July 75, 11;?3putnik, “Plane for Outer Space,” 

Aug 75, 68-71) 

July: Dr. James C. Fletcher, NASA Administrator, and Donald P. 

Hearth, Deputy Director of Goddard Space Flight Center, gave in 

their testimony before the Subcommittee on Space Science and 

Applications of the House Committee on Science and Technology 

a preview of the new NASA report “Outlook for Space.” The report 

had been submitted to NASA by a 21-member study group established by Dr. Fletcher in June 1974 to develop an unconstrained listing 

of desirable and practical civilian space activities; to group these 

around goals, objectives, and themes; to define R&D tasks required 

by potential commercial and operational uses of space; to identify 

social and economic challenges that could benefit from spacereported data; and to relate space goals and objectives to national 

ones. 

All space objectives defined by the study group were evaluated 

in terms of their contribution to national interests, which included 

expansion of human knowledge, physical benefits to the u.S. and 

humanity, contribution to the vitality of the nation, exploration of 

the unknown, national prestige and self-esteem, and international 

cooperation. 

The report suggested categorizing space missions as either earthoriented or extraterrestrial. Earth-oriented programs for the rest of 

the century should help increase food production by improved weather 

and water-availability forecasting, improved crop forecasting, 

improved detection and monitoring of diseases and infestations in 

vegetation. The consequent economic benefits and stabilization of the 

commodity market could gain hundreds of millions of dollars per 

year. 

Other earth-oriented space programs should emphasize improved 

forecasting of seasonal and climatic trends, to aid in the managing 

of food and energy resources and associated transportation require150 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 J~Y 

ments. Benefits from improved climate forecasting could reach hundreds of millions of dollars annually. 

The space program should also address itself to the challenge 

of the unknown by adding to man’s knowledge of cosmic and human 

evolution and destiny. Spacecraft could take instruments above the 

“dark and dirty glass” of earth‘s opaque atmosphere, and should 

continue to carry instruments to other planets, setting up laboratories 

there as well as bringing samples back to earth for analysis. Extraterrestrial missions should include textural, chemical, and isotopic 

planetary studies and comparisons of atmospheric trends for all 

planets and their satellites. 

Plans should also continue for human activities in space, using both 

the space shuttle and free-flying laboratories to repair and maintain 

orbiting spacecraft systems and perform research in space. Although the study panel had found it difficult to assert that manned 

orbiting or planetary bases should be undertaken in the next 25 yrs, it 

found that man was an integral and necessary part of the more creative 

space-exploration programs. If the US. was to avail itself of the 

potential benefits of space, the next logical step for NASA’s manned 

program could be development of a permanent space facility in which 

crews could work for extended periods. (H.R. transcript) 0 Communications Satellite Corp. had received initial orders to lease 

terminals on tankers and other commercial vessels for communications via the Marisat maritime-satellite system. Exxon International Corp. had ordered five shipboard terminals to provide communications with Exxon tankers at sea. The US. Maritime Administration had ordered terminals for six U.S.-flag ships as part of a 

cooperative cost-sharing program between USMA and the vessel 

owners. 

The Marisat system, scheduled for commercial service later this 

year, would provide high-quality telex, data, and telephone communications 24 hrs a day to ships and offshore facilities. (ComSatCorp 

Release 75-48) 

30 July: Rep. Olin E. Teague (D-Tex.) and Rep. Charles A. Mosher 

(R-Ohio) introduced H.R. 9058, a revised bill to establish national 

science policy and organization, incorporating the most promising 

features of H.R. 4461 [see 6 March] and the Administration bill H.R. 

7830 [see 9 and 11 June]. 

The proposed bill included a statement of national policy similar 

to that in H.R. 4461, but with language recommended during an 

earlier 3 wk of hearings. The proposal to establish an Office of 

Science and Technology Policy was based on the Administration bill 

with three major changes: First, H.R. 9058 would give the President 

the power to appoint up to four assistant directors, giving him the 

potential of a three- to five-man council as he chose; this would give 

later Presidents more flexibility of organization. Second, the President-appointed Director and assistants would be subject to confirmation by the Senate. Third, H.R. 9058 described the duties and functions of the new office more precisely than had the Administration 

bill. 

H.R. 9058 would establish, within the Executive Office of the 

President, a Federal Science and Technology Survey Committee to 

survey the Federal science effort, including missions, goals, person151 
July ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

nel, funding, organization, facilities, and general activities. The 5 to 

12 committee members would report findings and recommendations 

to the director of the new advisory office, with particular attention 

to organizational reform, science information systems, technology 

innovation and transfer, Federal-state and Federal-industry liaison 

and cooperation, and improved science budgeting process. Upon 

completion of the report, the committee would cease to exist. (CR, 30 

July 75,3421265) 

0 NASA announced selection of Martin Marietta Aerospace for a $22.8 

million cost- lus-award-fee contract for checkout, control, and monitoring of sdsystem hardware for the Space Shuttle launch processing system (LPS). Martin would design, fabricate, test, and install 

hardware for the subsystem, composed of hardware assemblies communicating directly with computers and with flight and ground equipment of the Space Shuttle. The LPS was designed to use automated 

and modular techniques to meet Space Shuttle launch, maintenance, 

and refurbishment requirements. (NASA Release 75-219) 

0 At the Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory’s 50 mw open-jet wind 

tunnel, engineers had been able to more precisely measure the 

material and shape endurance of model nosetips for spacecraft and 

missiles. Using a newly developed flared nozzle with a smoothly 

decreasing pressure field, and a new technique for reentry simulation, engineers could gradually bring the sample nosetip up to the 

nozzle mouth, simulating the transition from moderate to maximum 

temperature and pressure. Previous techniques could show only 

variations between distinctly different materials; use of the new 

nozzle could detect subtle differences between very similar materials. 

(AFSc Release OIP 172.75) 

During July: The world’s news media commented on the joint u.s.- 

U.S.S.R. Apollo-Soyuz Test Project [see 15-24 July]. 

A 15 July article in West Germany’s Frankfurter Allgemeine said 

that “technically the Apollo-Soyuz enterprise will show nothing 

much.” The reason for the mission had been political since it was 

agreed upon in 1972. It was “fully in line with the detente and rapprochement policy of the two superpowers.” The astronautic field was 

particularly useful for propaganda because it could mark the “beginning of an intellectual and scientific exchange of opinion of advantage 

to both sides.” However, “if one looks. . .at rapprochement in other 

fields, such as SALT. . . , one must remain skeptical regarding ‘atmospheric’ - - __ improvements to be achieved outside the atmosphere of 

the world.” 

Milika Sundic, a Yugoslavian commentator, said concerning ASTP, 

“Nobody doubts its success, or. . .the good intentions and will of the 

two superpowers.” The technical aspect of the mission was least 

important, and the political side “constitutes its essence.” The joint 

undertakings both on earth and in space reflected the superpowers’ 

belief in a “full equilibrium of forces rather than trust in one another.” 

This lack of trust was the consequence not only of different systems 

but different interests which went beyond national borders. The fact 

that the U.S. and U.S.S.R. were leaders of two military alliances could 

not lead to greater trust between them. But, “without blocs and 

without ambitions going beyond national borders, the situation would 

be. . .more favorable both for the superpowers and for the rest of the 

152 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 J~Y 

world.” One hoped that nobody intended to divide up space along bloc 

lines and that nobody would misuse it for solving this world’s problems. “Third World countries may not be present at today’s rendezvous in space, but they have a claim on the part played by science in the 

Soviet-American undertaking.” Regarding their rights on the earth, 

“the Third World has no intention of renouncing them, and even less 

of abandoning the fate of peace to the big powers, for peace is indivisible both on earth and in space.” 

Hungary’s 15 July issue of Nepszabadsag said the joint space flight 

was a scientific undertaking inseparable from “normalization” between the two states and reflecting the advance of peaceful coexistence. The joint cosmic attempt called attention to the vast possibilities inherent in dynamic scientific cooperation between the two 

countries in other, no less important, areas. 

Bulgaria’s 15 July Rabotnichesko said in an editorial that ASTP not 

only would mark “a new stage in the development of space research 

and will open up new prospects for cooperation between the U.S.S.R. 

and U.S.A. but will also be a telling example to be followed by all other 

states and peoples on the earth. . . .” 

A 26 July commentary by a Peking correspondent in the People’s 

Republic of China said that the U.S.-U.S.S.R. handshake in 

space-despite the show and all the money spent to advertise itcould not “cover up their fierce struggle on earth.” In fact, the two 

superpowers “regard each other as the enemy in space. They have 

been contending for military superiority in space ever since the first 

satellite was launched.” The handshake was but a contention with 

“each trying to cheat and outwit the other.” 

Finland’s Karjalaimen called the joint mission “historic” from the 

point of view of both space technology and world politics. The superpowers had found it necessary to begin together to regulate the world’s 

conflicts to prevent a world conflagration or wars that could endanger 

the interests of the superpowers. ASTP was one of the public symbols 

of this policy. (NCNA, FBIS-PRC, 28July 75, AI; FBIS-Bulgaria, 16 July 

75, c1; FBIS-Hungary, 16 July 75, F1; FBIS-Yugoslavia, 16 July 75, 

11; FBIS-Finland, 16 July 75, P1) * Preparations continued for August launch of the two Viking spacecraft. 

Following the mating of Viking Lander-Capsule 2 (VLC-2Gwith Orbiter 2 (v0-2)-to become the Viking-A spacecraft-cabling connections between the two were made and precountdown test was run on 3 

July. Propellants were loaded on 9- 10 July and final encapsulation 

inside the shroud was completed on 11 July. Viking-A was mated to 

the Titan IIID launch vehicle on 28 July. 

The Lander (VLC -1) and Orbiter (VO - 1) of Viking-B were mated 

on 21 July and the spacecraft was encapsulated on 24 July, to be kept 

in a planned holding mode until it was ready for mating with its launch 

vehicle. (Viking status bulletins 8 & 9, 8 July 75, 29 July 75) 

The Air Force had announced operational concepts for Space Shuttle 

launches at Vandenberg Air Force Base. Construction, planned to 

begin in mid-1978, would cost $50 million less than original estimates 

through maximum use of existing facilities such as Space Launch 

Complex No. honstructed in the 1960s for the Air Force’s manned 

orbiting laboratory cancelled in June 1969-and existing roadways 

and railroad tracks. An “integrate on the pad” concept and modifica153 
July ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

tion of surplus Saturn IB rocket transporters to move the Orbiter and 

external tanks to the launch pad had eliminated the need for a new 

highway and railroad system. A study coordinated with the Navy 

showed that the solid-rocket booster that dropped off the main tank 

into the ocean could be successfully recovered with a minimum of new 

facilities by using an existing Navy dock and large stationary crane. 

Operations facility requirements would be programmed in two 

phases: Phase one, construction of a complete ground-support system, would allow the DOD to operate Space Shuttle missions from 

Vandenberg by December 1982. Phase two called for completion of a 

second launch pad in late 1986. (AFS~ Newsreview, July 75, 16) 

0 The Space and Missile Systems Organization had announced award of a 

$2 059 000 contract to Raytheon Co. Equipment Div. for a selfrepairing onboard satellite computer system. The 11-kg computer 

would carry two or more spares for each of its basic subunits, and a 

configuration-control unit (ccu) to monitor the computer’s operating 

subunits and diagnose problems; if a subunit failed, the CCU would 

diagnose the problem and switch to a spare. The computer would also 

perform satellite housekeeping including power control, antenna positioning, temperature control, attitude control, and navigation, jobs 

normally performed by a computer on the ground. (AFS~ Newsreview, 

July 75) 0 Arnold Engineering Development Center was studying the feasibility of 

the secondary burning-called external burning-of fuel-rich exhaust 

to increase the efficiency of solid rocket motors. The concept called 

for the diversion of the exhaust of burning propellant through ports 

that ring the rear end of the motor casing, and its injection at right 

angles into the airstream. Miniature nozzles in each port would accelerate the exhaust gas to sonic speed. Turbulent mixing of the fuel-rich 

sonic gas and the supersonic airflow would cause a secondary combustion, increasing pressure at the base of the motor and overall thrust 

of the propulsion system. (NSC Newsreview, July 75, 12) 

Potential propellants for the Space Shuttle had been tested at an underground facility at Arnold Engineering Development Center, the Air 

Force Systems Command reported. Testing was part of a selection 

process to find a compatible propellant for the auxiliary motors that 

would separate the Orbiter from the two solid-rocket boosters. 

Three candidate propellants were tested at a simulated altitude of 

40 000 m. Reusable ballistic test-evaluation system motors, each 

loaded with 45 kg of propellant, were fired seven times, burning for 2 

sec and generating 53 400 newtons of thrust. Exhaust plumes 

were directed at 15- by 15-cm tiles of thermal protective material at 

various distances and angles; after the tests, the tiles were checked for 

erosion of the surfaces and edges. Pressure and temperature were 

measured in the rocket plumes, and surface temperatures and heating 

rates were measured on 21 selected material samples. All data and 

samples were sent to Marshall Space Flight Center for analysis. (AFSC 

Newsreview, July 75, 3) 

0 NASA awarded a 1-yr contract to Boeing Co. to study a proposed Large 

Lift Vehicle (LLV) made up of Space Shuttle engines, fuel tanks, and 

avionics. Launched without the Space Shuttle Orbiter, the LLV could 

carry tons of freight into space, or could rocket to the moon with a 

second stage attached. It would be less expensive than the Saturn V 

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ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 July 

because the avionics package could be retrieved in orbit and the twin 

boosters were recoverable. In a 1974 interview with the Huntsville 

Times, John H. Disher, NASA Director for Advanced Programs, had 

said that no definite mission for the LLV was planned, but that NASA 

was looking to the future. (Casebolt, Huntsville Times, 12 Aug 74; 

NASA Hq Adv Progs Off, Fero, interview, 10 Aug 75) 

155 

August 1975 

1 August: The Indian Space Research Organization began transmitting 

instructional programs to inexpensive ground receivers in more than 

2400 isolated villages throu hout India, using NASA’s Ats 6 Applications Technology Satelliteqaunched 30 May 1974. As part of the 

1-yr satellite instructional television experiment (SITE), the transmissions would stress improved agricultural techniques, family planning and hygiene, and school courses pertinent to Indian villagers’ 

needs. After the experiment, Ats 6 would be repositioned over the 

western hemisphere. 

During its first year in operation, Ats 6 had transmitted medical and 

educational programs to remote communities in Alaska, the Rocky 

Mountains, and Appalachia. During the 15-26 July Apollo-Soyuz 

Test Project mission, the satellite had helped relay communications 

from the Apollo spacecraft to ground stations, increasing coverage 

from the usual 17% to 55% for each orbit. (NASA Release 75-221; 

NASA MOR M-966-75-01, 7 July 75; Borders, NYT, 3 Aug 75, 10) * Sen. William Proxmire (D-Wisc.), a critic of the joint U.S.-U.S.S.R. 

Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, reported that the Soviet Union had bugged 

the conversations of U.S. astronauts and technicians at the Moscow 

space center before the July space flight. Using information received 

from two sources and confirmed through official channels, Sen. 

Proxmire said that the bugs were discovered while the astronauts and 

technicians were watching a televised Soviet hockey game. Wanting a 

closer view of the game, U.S. astronaut Robert F. Overmyer moved 

his chair nearer the TV screen, causing a wire leading from the chair 

into the floor to snap. The Washington Post quoted a spokesman for 

NASA as confirming the incident, but saying there was no evidence the 

wire “had anything to do with a listening device.” (AP, W Post, 2 Aug 

75; Av Wk, 11 Aug 75, 17) 

Kennedy Space Center announced award of a $5 137 000 contract to 

Mayfair Construction Co. to modify the Vehicle Assembly Building 

(VAB) for Space Shuttle operations. The contract provided for modifications to High Bay 3’s extensible work platforms, installation of new 

checkout cells in High Bay 4, and’modifications to the north door of the 

VAB transfer aisle and related support facilities. (KSC Release 160-75) 

2 August: Landsat 2, launched 22 Jan. 1975, developed a noise problem 

with one of its two image tape recorders, Aviation Week & Space 

Technology reported. The satellite’s mission was not in danger because the backup recorder was functioning properly. (Av Wk, ll Aug 

75, 13) 

3 August: Space expenditures resulted in tangible economic benefits, 

according to a report, “The Economic Impact of NASA R&D Spending,” being prepared for NASA by Chase Econometric Associates, Inc., 

the Philadelphia Inquirer reported. Using methods developed for 

regular national economic forecasts, Chase predicted that, if NASA’s 

research and development budget were increased by $1 billion for the 

157 
August ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

1975-84 period, the U.S. gross national product (GNP) would swell by $23 billion or 2% over the normal rate of growth. Labor productivity in 

the nonfarm areas of the economy would rise more than 2% over the 

normal growth rate, and more than one million jobs would be created, 

reducing the unemployment rate by nearly 0.4% by 1984. 

According to Chase, the key to NASA’S domestic economic importance was in the agency’s widespread technological advances that 

benefited a wide range of industries. Although the technological benefits were readily visible, NASA’s influence on the nation’s economy 

was more subtle, taking about 5 yr to work its way through the 

system. (Text, NASA Final Rpt, CR 144351, April 76; Holland, PInq, 3 

Aug 75) @ Appointment of Dr. S. Ichtiaque Rasool, special assistant to the NASA 

Deputy Associate Administrator, to be the Deputy Associate Administrator for Space Science became effective. In that position Dr. Rasool 

would be primary adviser to Dr. Noel W. Hinners, Associate Administrator for Space Science. He would also serve as chairman of the 

Space Science Steering Committee, responsible for drawing skills and 

resources of the nation’s scientific community into NASA programs. 

Dr. Rasool had joined NASA in January 1965 as senior research scientist at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies; in 1971 he was named 

Deputy Director for Planetary Programs, serving until 1974 when he 

became special assistant to the Deputy Associate Administrator. 

(NASA anno, 22 Aug 75) 

3 August-6 November: Ariel 5, a U.S.-U.K. cooperative satellite launched 

15 Oct. 1974 to study galactic and extragalactic x-rays, detected weak 

cosmic x-ray emissions from the constellation Orion on 3 Aug. The 

emissions, subsequently confirmed by NASA’s Explorer 53 (SAS 3 

Small Astronomy Satellite launched 7 May 1975), steadily increased 

in intensity until they were five times greater than any observed to 

date. New York Times reporter Walter Sullivan quoted Dr. Terry 

Matilsky, Massachusetts Institute of Technology scientist, as saying 

that when the emissions were first observed “we couldn’t believe it.” 

Sas 3-operated by Goddard Space Flight Center-was able to 

pinpoint the location of the emissions to within 1 or 2 arc-min. 

With this clue scientists hoped to explain the phenomenon using 

ground-based optical and radio telescopes. Observataries around the 

world had been alerted and were trying to pinpoint the source. 

The Philadelphia Inquirer reported MIT’S Dr. Saul A. Rappaport 

as speculating that the emissions probably had been caused by 

masses of material falling from a large star into an extremely dense 

neutron star or black hole. The falling matter would heat up enough 

to emit bursts of x-rays and visible light. 

Dr. Noel Hinners, NASA Associate Administrator for Space Science, 

reported 6 Nov. to the House Committee on Science and Technology’s 

Subcommittee on Science and Applications that the Explorer 53 

observations had identified the optical counterpart of the x-ray 

emissions as a faint, otherwise normal-looking star that had brightened 

100 times over previous observations. Dr. Hinners repeated Dr. 

Rappaport’s theory and told the subcommittee that, because a similar 

brightening of this star had been observed in 1917, it was being 

classified as a recurrent nova. (1977 NASA authorization hearing 

transcripts, vol 1, part 1; Sullivan, WT, 17 Aug 75, 21; AP, P Inq, 

31 Aug 75) 

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ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 August 

4 August: NASA announced completion of a program conducted by Jet 

Propulsion Laboratory to measure the constituent gases of the stratosphere to help determine the effects on the earth‘s ozone layer of 

gases released from aerosol spray cans. Using a Fourier interferometer onboard a U-2 aircraft, JPL scientists had measured the distribution of hydrogen chloride molecules at altitudes between 10 and 

21 km during 6 separate flights in May. Hydrogen chloride-produced 

by the breakdown of aerosol gas molecules in the upper atmosphere 

and released naturally, in small amounts, from the ocean surface and 

volcanic eruptions-was one of several trace gases thought to play a 

major role in controlling the equilibrium of the protective ozone layer. 

JPL had found traces of the chloride beginning at 15 km, and reaching 

a maximum of almost 1 part per billion at 20 km. Although the results 

did not represent a direct effect of aerosol gas, or Freons, on stratospheric ozone, JPL scientists recommended continuing measurements to detect any future buildup. 

The ozone measurements, part of NASA’s Stratospheric Research 

Program, had begun when a JPL-designed instrument was flown on 

the Anglo -French Concorde supersonic transport in 1973. Data 

collected on these flights included the first detection of nitric oxide, 

along with new information on the geographic and vertical distribution 

of water, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and methane, and 

furnished a base for the 1975 study. (NASA Release 75-223; Miles, 

LA Times, 21 Aug 75) 0 The Vertical Motion Simulator (ms), an aeronautical facility designed 

to reproduce up-and-down and sideways motions of aircraft during 

takeoff and landing, was being built at Ames Research Center, NASA 

announced. Costing about $3.5 million, the VMS would move as much 

as 18 m in height and 12 m sideways, accurately simulating flare and 

touchdown. Practice in the simulator would enable pilots to cope 

better with the complexities of flying sophisticated aircraft such as 

short takeoff and landing (STOL) and vertical takeoff and landing 

(VTQL) types. (NASA Release 75 -224) * Michael Collins, Director of the Smithsonian Institution’s National Air 

and Space Museum, and Santiago Astrain, Secretary General of the 

International Telecommunications Satellite Organization, signed an 

agreement to transfer three early Intelsat communications satellites 

to the Museum as part of its 1976 inaugural display. INTELSAT was 

providing the museum with a backup model of the INTELSAT’S Early Bird 1, launched 6 Apr. 1965 as the first commercial comsat. A backup model of the second-generation Intelsat II and an engineering 

model of third-generation Intelsat I11 satellites would also be sent for 

display. Fourth-generation satellites would not be represented because 

they were too large for display. 

The new Air and Space Museum, located in Washington, D.C., was 

scheduled to open 4 July 1976. (INTELSAT Release 75-9) 

Westar communications satellites would soon be used for communications to and from offshore oil drilling platforms and exploratory 

vessels in waters adjacent to the continental U.S., Western Union 

Telegraph Co. announced. The offshore facilities previously had 

depended for communication on microwave relay networks and 

cabling, methods that had become increasingly expensive and impractical as the facilities were moved farther and farther off shore. 

(Westar news release, 4 Aug 75) 

159 
August ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

0 “Technology will be available for manned €lights well before the year 

2000, allowing even better research of the planet’s [Mars’] composition,” Dr. George Sands, associate Viking Project scientist at 

Langley Research Center, stated in an interview with the Newport 

News Times Herald. “The Viking missions [scheduled for August 

launch] ate just the prelude of things to come.” Dr. Sands continued, 

“The results of [the] probe to Mars this month will be very significant for the future of planetary exploration and additional trips to 

Mars.” (Biggins, Times Herald, 4 Aug 75) 

0 Marshall Space Flight Center was seeking industry proposals for procurement of parallel definition studies of the atmospheric, magnetospheric, and plasmas in space (AMPS) payload, a reusable research 

facility to be integrated with Spacelab. The proposed 12-mo studies 

were to define an overall AMPS program with special emphasis on 

ground- and flight-support systems and subsystems, systems engineering and integration, and groundorbital operations with the Space 

Shuttle and Spacelab. 

AMPs, a single laboratory system flown with the Space Shuttle, 

would perform experiments and observations in atmospheric science, 

magnetospheric physics, and plasma physics. (MSFC Release 75 -172) 

4-6 August: The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, at 

its 1975 aircraft systems and technology meeting in Los Angeles, 

Calif., presented the following aerospace awards. 

Award Recipient Purpose 

(affiliation) 

Aircraft Design Walter E. Fellers For 30 yr of outstanding achieve- ment in design and development of 

fighter aircraft to meet rapidly 

changing requirements 

manned space flight and scientific 

research. Using the most 

sophisticated instruments ever flown m space, crew performed scores of scientific experiments and observations vastly expanding man’s knowledge and enhancing 

quality of life on earth 

38th Annual Wright Henri Ziegler Topic: International Cooperation Brothers Lecture (Airbus, France) in Aerospace Projects: cooperation 

hetween European industries and between Europe and United States 

(Northrop Corp.) 

Octave Chanute Alan L. Bean For outstanding contrihutions to Jack R. Lousma Dr. Owen K. Garriott 

(NASA Skylab 3 astronauts) 

(AIM Release, 22 July 75) 

5 August: The Saturn IB, used to launch three U.S. Apollo-Soyuz Test 

Project astronauts into space [see 15-24 July], had experienced no 

unscheduled holds whatever during countdown, making it the most 

perfect launch of the Saturn series, Ellery B. May, manager of the 

Saturn Program Office at the Marshall Space Flight Center, said. 

Saturn 210, manufactured in 1967, was 10th of the IB series and had 

the oldest engine used. All Saturn launches had been successful and 

had met their objectives; although some had anomalies, such as leaks 

or faulty wiring, no major configuration cha 

impact on technology would continue. “Space Shuttle main engines (Ssm) are an outgrowth of technology from Saturn engines,” May 

explained. The major difference between the two was that the Shuttle 

es were ever necessary. The ASTP mission marked the end of T t e Saturn series, but its 

160 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 August 

must have much higher pressure systems than ever before required 

and must be reusable. (MSFC Release 75-174) 

e The wingless unpowered X-24B lifting body had made its first landing 

on a concrete runway at Edwards, Calif., to demonstrate maneuver 

and safe landing of an unpowered reentry vehicle on a conventional 

runway. After launch from a B -52 aircraft flying at 14 000 m, test pilot 

John N. Manke, chief Flight Research Center got for the X-24B 

speed of 1381 km per hr and altitude of 18 300 m. Manke then shut off 

the engine and glided to a perfect 300-kph landing on the 4600-m 

runway. 

The 11.3-m-long X-24B was a part of a joint NASA-Air Force program to study transonic flight characteristics and landing ability of a 

vehicle designed for hypersonic speeds. (FRC Release 24-75; LA 

Times, 6 Aug 75) 

e Sen. John Tunney (D-Calif.) defended the nation’s space program 

during a tour of Space Shuttle facilities at Rockwell International 

Corp. in Downey, Calif. According to Sen. Tunney, the most important justification for the space program was to provide new technology 

in weather mapping and control, to help increase the amount of land 

available for food production, and to locate additional stocks of natural 

resources in this country. Sen. Tunney stated, “I quite frankly think 

without a space program. . .mankind is going to have a rendezvous 

with destiny which would be catastrophic. . . .” But with this kind of 

program, a world food supply and adequate resources can “keep this 

country going indefinitely. ” (Pasadena Star News, 6 Aug 75) 

An Ames Research Center wind tunnel used primarily for testing the 

Space Shuttle had been shut down after a steel flange failed, setting 

off a high-powered explosion of compressed gas. The blast scattered 

hundreds of hot aluminum oxide pebbles over a wide area, causing 

several fires but no serious injuries. Space Shuttle testing had been 

postponed until the facility, which generated pressures up to 126 

kg/cm2 (1800 psi) in testing models at 14 times the speed of sound, 

could be declared operational again. An investigation board was 

formed to determine the cause of the accident and recommend actions 

to prevent recurrence. (ARC Astrogram, 14 Aug 7.51; ARC Experimental Fluid Dynamics Br, interview, 27 June 77; UPI, W Post, 7 Aug 75, 

A17) 

0 Two Boeing Co. scientists had proposed construction of a 64-million-kg 

solar power satellite, with 57 sq km of mirrors, to collect and concentrate solar energy, together with thermal engines to convert solar 

power into electricity, the Christian Science Monitor reported. A 

microwave transmission system would convert the electricity to a 

form suitable for transmission to earth. CSM quoted Boeing as saying 

that within 2 decades “Powersat” could provide up to 10 000 mw of 

useful power, twice the hydroelectric capacity of Grand Coulee Dam. 

(AP, CSM, 6 Aug 75, 7) 

Kennedy Space Center announced award of an $18 749 million contract 

to Blount Brothers Construction Co. for modification of Launch Complex 39 Pad A, to accommodate all early Space Shuttle missions. The 

complex had been the site of all but one of the historic Saturn V 

launches; Pad B, from which the Skylab Orbital Workshop was 

launched, would be modified later. The contract included conversion 

of the mobile launcher for Shuttle operations. (KSC Release 164-75) 

project, had ignited a small rocket engine, prope P ling the X-24B to a 

161 
August ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

7 August: Marshall Space Flight Center announced selection of United 

Technologies Corp. for negotiation of a fiied-price contract of $1.775 

million for solid-propellant booster separation motors (BSM) for use on 

the first 6 development flights in the Space Shuttle program, beginning in 1979. The BSMs would separate the two reusable solid rocket 

boosters (Smhach SRB requiring eight BSMs, four forward and four 

aft-approximately 110 sec after launch. (MSFC Release 75- 175) * European Space Agency announced a postponement in the launch of 

COS-B, scheduled for a 6 Aug. 6:56 pm PDT launch from Western 

Test Range, because of hydraulic-valve failure in a telemetry aircraft 

needed to monitor third-stage ignition of the launch vehicle. The 

launch had been rescheduled to 8 Aug. at 6:48 pm PDT. COS-B would 

be ESA’S first satellite launch since the new agency’s establishment on 

30 May. (ESA Release, 7 Aug 75) 

Scientists were calling for names for the thousands of mountains, craters, and chasms being found on planets faster than they could be 

named, the Christian Science Monitor reported. The two Viking 

spacecraft scheduled to reach Mars in 1976 and the two Soviet Venera 

spacecraft scheduled to approach Venus in October would no doubt 

uncover a host of new unnamed features. Names for known features 

on Venus, Mars, and the moon would be officially chosen at the August 

1976 meeting of the International Astronomical Union (IAU), world 

clearinghouse for solar-system nomenclature. (Jones, CSM, 7 Aug 

75, 2) 

8 August: NASA launched CosB scientific satellite for the European 

Space Agency at 3:48 pm PDT from Western Test Range on a threestage thrust-augmented Thor-Delta booster. Launch had been delayed for 2 days because a telemetry aircraft was grounded with 

hydraulic-valve failure. The satellite entered the planned highly elliptical polar orbit with a 99 886-km apogee, 344-km perigee, 36.7-hr 

period, and 90.13” inclination. NASA’s objective for the launch was to 

place Cos-B into a highly elliptical near-polar orbit with sufficient 

accuracy to allow the satellite to conduct its planned scientific experiments. 

Purpose of the Cos-B mission was to study extraterrestrial gamma 

radiation in the energy range 25 mev to 1 gev in order to establish the 

intensity of the average gamma-ray flux; examine large-scale anisotropy of the radiation over angular regions corresponding to galactic 

features; study quasars, x-ray, and radio sources of small angular size 

in supernova remnants; measure energy spectra of various galactic 

radiations; and study time variations of radiation from pulsars, x-ray, 

and radio sources. 

On 11 August, ground controllers sent low-voltage commands from 

ESA’S space operations center (ESOC) in West Germany to check out 

spacecraft and experiment performance. After a second switch-on at 

high voltage, a series of inflight tests further validated all onboard 

systems and experiment performance. On 15 Aug. a complete review 

of spacecraft operational status showed all air and ground systems 

were operating normally; by 19 Aug., the first data had been returned 

to earth. 

Cos-By first satellite launched for the newly organized ESA, was the 

eighth developed by ESA’s predecessor, the European Space Research 

Organization [see 30-31 May]. Under the direction of the European 

162 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 August 

Space Research and Technology Center (ESmC) and prime contractor 

Messerschmitt-Boelkow-Blohm GmbH, CosB had been designed and 

built by organizations in 7 of the 1OESA member countries. The single 

experiment-a 115-kg spark chamber-had been assembled from five 

primary and two subsidiary experiment units supplied by six institutes 

in four European countries. After separating from the launch vehicle, 

CosB transmitted data in real time to ground stations of the European 

Space Tracking Network with central control at the European Space 

Research Operations Center in West Germany. 

For NASA, Goddard Space Flight Center had the responsibility for 

the Thor-Delta launch vehicle under the direction of the Office of 

Space Science. GSFC also had responsibility for limited tracking support. (NASA MOR S-492-301-75-01, 22 July 75, 10 Sept. 75; NASA 

Release 75-214; Releases 7-19 Aug 75) 

Science magazine reported that U.S. scientists had reprogrammed 

NASA’s Landsat 1 earth resources satellite (formerly called Erts 1, 

launched 23 July 1972) to photograph large areas of the Soviet Union, 

although not specifically requested to do so by Soviet officials. The 

magazine reported that the intent of the u.S. scientists was to aid 

Soviet scientists, after discussions at a series of 1972 joint working 

group meetings4onvened for geological studies of comparable land 

sites in each country-indicated that the Soviets had nothing available 

to them equivalent to this kind of satellite imagery. Because the Soviet 

government was sensitive about u.S. satellites flying over the 

U.S.S.R., the Soviet scientists who were to benefit had never been 

directly informed about the reprogramming decision. Resulting images had never been directly handed over to the Soviet scientists lest 

doing so should violate the 1972 joint space agreement signed by both 

countries. Science quoted Goddard Space Flight Center’s Dr. WiUiam 

Nordberg, scientist responsible for the reprogramming, as saying, 

“They knew where they could buy them.” Science also reported that 

the Soviet scientists had ordered the Landsat images from the U.S. 

Geological Survey’s Sioux Falls distribution center. Dr. Nordberg 

denied that any of the reprogrammed imagery had been done for bL economic espionage.” (Science, 8 Aug 75, 444-2) * Photographs from Landsat 1 (launched 23 July 1972 as Erts 1, Earth 

Resources Technology Satellite) indicated that a continental collision 

had been in progress between India and Eurasia, pushing China 

eastward at the rate of 2.54 centimeters a year, Massachusetts Institute of Technology scientists reported in Science. This eastward 

movement could account for China’s unusual pattern of 

earthquakes-widespread instead of along narrow fault lines, the MIT 

geologists suggested. Despite the current theory that the Indian subcontinent was sliding under Eurasia, the MIT scientists had concluded 

that rigid Indian plates of rock were causing China to be pushed into 

the Pacific. (Molnar et al., Science, 8 Aug 75,419-425; NYT, 10 Aug 

75, 49) 

10 August: During a panel discussion at a 4-day meeting of the Astronomical Association of Northern California, scientists rejected the idea 

that inhabitants of other planets would send manned spacecraft or 

unidentified flying objects to establish contact with earth. Such a 

venture would require enormous expenditures of energy and funds. 

The Washington Star quoted Ames Research Center scientist John 

Billingham as saying, “The most logical way to establish contact is 

163 
August ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

radio communication.” Billingham was devoting 2 yr to the subject 

of intelligent extraterrestrial life, and how to reach it if it existed. He 

said that several persons around the globe had been constantly trying 

to make radio contact with outer space by aiming a radio telescope at a 

suitable star, hoping that an inhabited planet might be orbiting. (UPI, 

W Star, 11 Aug 75, A16) 

0 Contrary to the impression of peaceful cooperation created by the 

U.S.-U.S.S.R. Apollo-Soyuz Test Project docking mission [see 

15 -26 July], both countries had increasingly emphasized the military 

potential of manned space flight, the Philadelphia Inquirer reported 

the Center for Defense Information as saying. The Center, a private 

organization critical of defense spending, charged that the 1967 

United Nations treaty which reserved outer space for peaceful uses 

had not prevented either country from exploiting space for military purposes. Although the Pentagon had listed its space spending at 

$2.25 billion, it had acknowledged the existence of another $667 million in Air Force “miscellaneous” requests for secret space programs. 

The Center said that, although the Soviet Union’s space program was 

15 yrs behind the U.S., frequent launches indicated that they were 

attempting to catch up. The Center concluded that, contrary to the 

spirit of the outer space treaty, space technology and systems were 

being developed that had the potential for new confrontations between the superpowers. (UPI, P Znq, 10 Aug 75) 

0 Launch of the Viking-A spacecraft to Mars was postponed because of 

a faulty thrust-vector control valve found in the solid booster stage of 

the Titan-Centaur launch vehicle during countdown tests. The launch 

team decided to remove and replace the valve, rescheduling the 

launch for 14 Aug. (Viking Status Bulletin No 10,20 Aug 75; O’Toole, 

W Post, 12 Aug 75; McElheny, NYT, 12 Aug 75) 

0 Dr. Harrison H. Schmitt, Assistant Administrator for Energy Programs 

since May 1974, would resign effective 30 August. Previously, Dr. 

Schmitt had been chief of the Astronaut Office, Science and Applications Directorate, at Johnson Space Center. Selected as a scientistastronaut by NASA in 1965, he had been the lunar module pilot on 

Apollo 17 (7-19 Dec. 1972) and the only civilian scientist to walk on 

the moon. Dr. Schmitt planned to return to his home state of N. Mex. 

to pursue geological consulting and personal activities. (NASA anno, 

11 Aug 75) 

Westar I, first US. domestic commercial communications satellite 

(launched by NASA for Western Union Telegraph Co. 13 April 1974), 

had transmitted its first live sports event-the Milwaukee Brewers vs. 

Texas Rangers baseball game-within the 48 contiguous states, wu 

announced. WU Vice President Dow C. Pruitt noted that the low-cost 

transmission reflected “the power of technology to change basic living 

patterns.” (Westar News, 11 Aug 75) 

12 August: In the general purpose laboratory (GPL) at Marshall Space 

Flight Center, investigators from MSFC and Johnson Space Center 

were conducting experiments in high-energy cosmic-ray astronomy, 

superfluid helium, optical x-ray astronomy, and life sciences. The 

objective of the experiments, designated concept verification test 

(CVT) 5, was to verify operational and integration concepts for their 

applicability to Spacelab, the reusable manned space laboratory being 

built by the European Space Agency as a payload for the Space 

Shuttle. 

164 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 August 

The purpose of the high-energy astronomy experiment was to demonstrate the use of minicomputers for experiment operation, control, and data management, and the real-time interaction of payload 

specialists with experiment operations. The superfluid helium experiment examined characteristics of helium droplets at temperatures 

near 2.2 K (-512T), which would help in developing cryogenic 

techniques for use in Spacelab. The optical astronomy experiment, 

which demonstrated remote experiment operation by obtaining data 

from a Ferson 40.6-cm telescope 9.2 kilometers away, gave practice in 

investigator-experiment interaction and helped in developing computer control techniques, display requirements for telescope operation 

and data management, and astronomy training requirements for crew 

members. The four life-sciences experiments included studies of 

sporophore formation, the vestibular function, a clinical diagnostic 

system, and muscle-like contractile protein. Investigators also participated in an experiment to demonstrate the use of a computer in 

real-time mission planning, scheduling, and applications. 

By involving investigators in the CVT simulations, NASA would be 

able to plan the most cost-effective use of Spacelab. (MSFC Release 

75 - 178) * The development of space law, which had begun about the time of the 

launch of U.S.S.R.’s Sputnik 1 in 1957, was a unique process. “The 

problems are both literally and symbolically out of this world,” NASA 

General Counsel Neil S. Hosenball said in an interview with the 

Orlando Sentinel Star. Does any state have the right to claim the 

natural resources of celestial bodies? Were earth‘s criminal and civil 

laws applicable in space? What was the difference between 

establishing a planetary base and planting a nation’s flag? Which 

court would rule on extraterrestrial squabbles? These were some of 

the questions lawyers and politicians would have to consider in the 

space age. Few precedents existed, and no judge had yet heard a case 

in a legal dispute originating outside the earth‘s atmosphere. In fact, a 

world court, recognized by all major powers, did not exist. 

In 1962, a United Nations ad hoc committee on peaceful uses of 

outer space had developed principles later incorporated into the 1967 

Outer Space Treaty. These included a ban against military activity in 

outer space and against any nation’s claiming a section of space or a 

planet as its own. Other treaties dealt with specific points such as the 

rescue of astronauts and the registration of spacecraft and space 

stations. Hosenball stressed that most charters and treaties were 

drawn up ahead of time in anticipation of problems likely to occur as 

space exploration expanded. The Sentinel quoted G. P. Zhukov, chief 

legal counsel of the U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences, as saying that 

detente between the U.S. and U.S.S.R. had been assisted by the 

success of “legal regulation in space. . . . Man’s foot had not yet 

stepped on the surface of-the moon and we had already formulated 

what man could and could not do on the moon. The law was ahead of 

science.” (Orlando Sentinel Star, 12 Aug 75) 

9 NASA commemorated the 15th anniversary of the 12 Aug. 1960 launch of 

Echo 1, world’s first communications satellite. Visible to millions 

around the world, the 30-m gas-inflated mylar (0.0013-cm thick 

aluminum-coated plastic) balloon served as a passive radio reflector in 

space, bouncing signals from one point on earth to another. Its first 

transmission sent the recorded voice of President Eisenhower from 

165 
August ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Goldstone, Calif., to Holmdel, N.J.; during its first year in orbit, it 

served in approximately 150 experiments, including voice, teletype 

and facsimile communications. Echo 1’s large size, small mass, and 

extreme sensitivity to solar radiation pressures and aerodynamic drag 

helped scientists confirm orbital behavior theory. 

Despite its original 1-yr life expectancy, Echo 1 remained in orbit for 

nearly 8 yr until, leaking gas through its skin bombarded by 

meteorites, it reentered the atmosphere and burned up 23 May 1968. 

(NASA Releases 61-177, 75-217; A&A 68, 23 May) 

13 August: Dr. Wernher von Braun-German-born rocketry pioneer and 

former Marshall Space Flight Center Director and NASA Deputy 

Associate Administrator-had undergone successful surgery at Johns 

Hopkins University Hospital in Baltimore for removal of a malignant 

tumor, the Washington Post reported. (AP, W Post, 13 Aug 75) 

The launch of Viking A had been postponed for the second time [see 11 

Aug.] when Jet Propulsion Laboratory technicians discovered that the 

batteries had dropped from their normal charge of 37 volts to 9 volts. 

The batteries had been drained because a motorized rotary switch 

that should have remained off until 7 min before launch had 

accidentally turned on. The dangerously low voltage decided officials 

to remove the entire spacecraft from the launch vehicle and return it 

to the spacecraft assembly and encapsulation facility for troubleshooting. At the same time, the Viking-B spacecraft, in a planned 

holding mode before mating with its launch vehicle, would be moved 

to the launch complex to replace its ailing sistercraft and become the 

Viking-A mission. The launch had been rescheduled for 20 Aug., with 

the launch window opening at 5:22 pm. (Viking Status Bulletin No 10, 

20 Aug 75; NASA Audio News, 14 Aug 75; O’Toole, WPost, 14 Aug 75, 

A23; McElheny, NYT, 14 Aug 75) 

14 August: A team of four physicists-Dr. Paul B. Price and Dr. Edward 

K. Shirk of the Univ. of Calif., and Dr. Weyman A. Osborne and Dr. 

Lawrence S. Pinsky of the Univ. of Houston-reported finding 

evidence of a particle with only one magnetic pole. The discovery of 

the monopole, if confirmed, could have a major impact on physics, 

with practical applications such as new medical therapies, new 

sources of energy, extremely small and efficient motors and 

generators, and new particle accelerators of much higher energy than 

any yet built. 

The monopole, representing the basic indivisible unit of magnetism, would exist in two forms of opposite polarity, the north pole and 

the south pole. This would be analogous to the basic electric charge, 

the electron, which existed in the positive and negative charges, the 

proton and electron. Existence of the monopole had been predicted in 

1931 by Paul Dirac, Fla. State Univ. professor. 

The four physicists detected tracks of the particle that had apparently penetrated a sandwich of more than 33 layers of plastic and 

emulsion photographic film suspended from a balloon floating at 

39 600 m. (Sullivan, NYT, 15 Aug 75, 1; AP, B Sun, 15 Aug 75, A3; 

Joffee, W Post, 15 Aug 75, B1) 

0 U.S. intelligence reports indicated that the Soviet Union had fired 22 

missiles and orbited 9 satellites in July, making it one of the most 

active months in Soviet space history, the Baltimore Sun reported. In 

an impressive display on 2 July, the Soviets fired 11 ballistic missiles 

166 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 August 

from four different sites within an hour, launched eight SSN-6 

submarine-based rockets at &see intervals, and launched an SS-7, 

SS-8, and SS-11 all within 2 min. Other tests included submarine 

missile launchings by northern and far eastern fleets, medium- and 

intermediate-range missile firings from Kapustin Yar, and a test fl’ ht 

of the new SS-17 missile which could carry four warheads. ?he 

month’s only failure was the malfunction of the second stage of a 

ss-19 missile, a vehicle believed to be capable of delivering six 

nuclear warheads to separate targets over ranges of 9260 km. 

The nine satellite launches included six Cosmos satellites, a 

Molniya communications satellite, a Meteor meteorological satellite, 

and the manned Soyuz 19, the Soviet spacecraft participating in the 

joint Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. (Corddry, B Sun, 14 Aug 75, A2) 

The first 10 automatic landings of a powered-lift short-takeoff-andlanding (STOL) aircraft equipped with a STOLAND automatic flightcontrol system had been completed by Ames Research Center 

personnel at the Naval Auxiliary Landing Field in Calif. The STOLAND 

system, a versatile onboard digital computer, provided the pilot with 

navigation, guidance, and control information. Automatic controls, 

including control of the aircraft’s lift with automatic flaps and 

augmenter nozzles, permitted steeper climbouts, approaches, and 

landings, offering potential relief for airport traffic congestion. Half 

the aircraft’s lift was provided by engine thrust, permitting flight att 

much lower speeds than conventional aircraft. 

The STOLAND system was developed by Sperry Flight Systems for 

use in the joint NASA-Dept. of Transportation operating experiments 

program and the augmentor-wing handling qualities and flight-control 

programs. (NASA Release 75-226) 

15 August: Flight Research Center pilot Einar Enevoldson, in a groundbased instrumented cockpit, guided the remotely piloted research 

vehicle (RPRV) to its first unpowered landing, at FRC. Following airlaunch from a B-52 aircraft flying at 14.6 km, the 7.3-ti threeeighths-scale vehicle performed maneuvers to measure control 

effectiveness during spinning flight. The spin was continued until 

4.6-km altitude when Enevoldson deployed the landing geav and 

performed a series of stability and control maneuvers. He initiated 

final approach at 1524m altitude. The RPRVlanded on the dry lakebed 

using small steel skids individually mounted on the ends of three 

conventional automobile shock absorbers installed inside the aircraft’s fuselage. 

The RPRV had been developed by FRC to provide a more economical 

and far less hazardous means of flight-testing new vehicles. Earlier 

versions of the RPRV had been recovered in midair using a parachute 

and helicopter. (FRC Release 26-75; FRC Proj Off, Rezek, interview, 

12 Sept 75) 0 Kennedy Space Center deactivated its hyperbaric decompression 

chamber after 6 yr of operation. The chamber had never been used for 

its intended purpose-to save the lives of astronauts in the event of a 

malfunction during atmospheric chamber tests-but had treated 12 

local civilian divers for the bends, a painful crippling illness caused by 

formation of nitrogen bubbles in the bloodstream when a diver moves 

too quickly from high-pressure water depths to the surface. 

167 
August ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

The $100 000 chamber intended for the manned space program had 

been opened to public use by the center director. With the end of the 

Apollo program and the next manned flight 4 yr in the future, the 

decision was made to deactivate the chamber. The Orlando Sentinel 

Star quoted Russell P. Lloyd, KSC engineer in the Support Operations 

biv., as saying the possibility existed that the chamber would be 

reactivated for the Space Shuttle program, but for the time being it 

would remain closed. (Lloyd, interview, 19 Sept 77; Upchurch, 

Orlando Sentinel Star, 17 Aug 75) * NASA and the U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences had agreed on a joint tour 

of the U.S. and the Soviet Union by the 5 crew members of the ApolloSoyuz Test Project mission [see 15-26 July]. U.S. astronauts Thomas 

P. Stafford, Vance D. Brand, and Donald K. Slayton would join Soviet 

cosmonauts Aleksey A. Leonov and Valery N. Kubasov on 21 Sept. in 

Moscow for a 2-wk tour of the U.S.S.R. Plans for the U.S. tour were 

not disclosed. (NASA Release 75-230) 

18-20 August: A workshop on “Operational Applications of Satellite 

Snowcover Observations” was held at Lake Tahoe, Nev., to discuss 

recent progress in extracting meaningful snowcover information from 

satellites. Albert Rango, Goddard Space Flight Center scientist, 

reported that, with the cooperation of nine Federal and state agencies, 

NASA had developed an applications systems verification test 

(ASVTtusing data from satellites and instrumented aircraft, conventional ground information, and prediction models-to quantitatively 

determine the usefulness of remote-sensing technology in an 

operational applications system. 

In another paper Rango reported that low-resolution meteorological 

satellite data and high-resolution earth-resources satellite data had 

been used to map a snow-covered area over Wyoming mountains. 

Predictions based on satellite data of the April through June 1972 

streamflow were within 3% of the actual total. Also, composite results 

from 2 yr of data over the mountains indicated that Landsat snowcover 

observations could be useful in predicting runoff and seasonal 

s treamflow . James C. Barnes of Environmental Research and Technology, Inc., 

reported that the earth resources experiment package @REP) flown 

aboard the 1973-74 Skylab Orbital Workshop missions had provided 

the first opportunity to examine reflectance characteristics of snowcover in several spectral bands from the visible to the near infrared. 

Results indicated that near-infrared methods could distinguish 

between snow and water droplet clouds and could detect areas of 

melting snow. (NASA Hq WB, 28 Feb 76, 2; NASA SP-391, text) 

18-21 August: Evidence of a 10th planet existing in earth‘s solar system 

16 million yrs ago was presented at the 146th annual meeting of 

the American Astronomical Society in San Diego by Dr. Thomas 

C. Van Flandern, U.S. Naval Observatory astronomer. Studying the 

orbits of 60 long-period comets, including 1974‘s Kohoutek, Dr. Van 

Flandern had concluded they had shared a common origin 16 million 

yr agoThe evidence was consistent with calculations made in 1971 by 

Canadian astronomer Dr. Michael W. Ovenden. Dr. Ovenden’s 

studies of irregularities in the orbits of planets, especially Uranus and 

Neptune, suggested that a major disruptive event had occurred in the 

168 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 August 

solar system approximately 16 million yrs ago. He had arrived at this 

time by age-dating carbon-bearing meteorites that had fallen to earth, 

and theorized that the event could be explained by the explosion of a 

huge planet 90 times the size of earth. 

During the meeting Dr. Stuart Bowyer, Univ. of Calif. astronomer, 

surprised the 740 astronomers attending the meeting by reporting that 

a Univ. of Calif. telescope flown aboard the Apollo spacecraft during 

the joint U.S. 4J.S.S.R. Apollo-Soyuz Test Project [see 15-26 July] 

had picked up the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) radiation of a star. EuV, a 

small segment of the spectrum between normal ultraviolet and x-rays, 

had been considered by astronomers as practically invisible because 

of probable absorption by interstellar dust and gas. Dr. Bowyer said 

that the had come from a white dwarf star 300 light yrs away in the 

constellation Coma Berenices. (NASA Gen Mgmt Review Rpt, 18 Aug 

75, 9; Alexander, LA Times, 26 Aug 75) 

19 August: The Soviet Union might attempt to land an automatic microbiological laboratory on Mars before the U.S. Viking spacecraft, 

whose twice-delayed launch is now scheduled for 20 Aug., could 

arrive, the Christian Science Monitor reported Finnish astronomer 

Heikka Oja as telling the British Interplanetary Society. By launching 

a probe between 17 Sept. and 3 Oct. and using higher speeds and 

shorter trajectories, the Russians could reach Mars in May 1976,2 mo 

before the scheduled Viking arrival. Between 1971 and 1973 the 

Soviets had made 4 attempts to land probes on Mars; only Mars 3 

(launched 28 May 1971) succeeded in softlanding a capsule (on 2 Dec. 

1971). Landing in a dust storm, it ceased transmitting after 20 sec. 

Oja said the Soviets hoped to repeat this experiment, this time in a 

region near the south polar cap of Mars where the thin, mostly carbon 

dioxide atmosphere might contain moisture. (Gatland, CSM, 19 Aug 

75) 

0 Marshall Space Flight Center announced the award of a $1.9-million 

firm-fixed-price contract to the Martin Marietta Corp. for fabrication, 

acceptance testing, and delivery of 322 pyrotechnic-initiator controllers (PIC) for the Space Shuttle solid rocket boosters. (MSFC Release 75- 182) 

20 August: Viking 1 was successfully launched at 5:22 pm EDT from Eastern Test Range’s Launch Pad 41 on a Titan III-Centaur launch 

vehicle. The launch, first scheduled for 11 Aug., had been postponed 

until 14 Aug. to replace a faulty thrust-vector control valve on the 

launch vehicle [see 11 Aug.]. A second delay had occurred when the 

spacecraft’s internal batteries had discharged to 9 volts, well below 

safe limits [see 13 Aug.]. The spacecraft, Viking A, had been removed 

from the launch vehicle and replaced by Viking B. The range safety 

officer had issued a waiver of standard procedures and permitted 

removal and installation of the spacecraft without detanking and 

depressurizing the launch vehicle, thus allowing the launch to be rescheduled for 20 Aug, 

Viking 1, consisting of a 2360-kg orbiter attached to an 1180-kg 

lander, was placed in a trajectory to Mars within the designed 3-sigma 

limits. Nearly 35 min after trajectory insertion, the Centaur stage 

separated from the spacecraft. The solar panels were deployed and 

oriented toward the sun, and the biocap-a container used to hermetically seal the lander while in earth‘s atmosphere-was jettisoned. On 

169 
August ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

27 Aug. at 2:30 pm EDT a trajectory-correction maneuver targeted the 

spacecraft to its Mars orbital insertion point. By 28 Aug. all systems 

aboard the spacecraft were operating normally and in a cruise mode. 

Travel time to Mars was estimated at 10 mo, with a possible Mars 

landing on 4 July 1976, the height of the U.S. Bicentennial. A second 

spacecraft, Viking B, had been scheduled for a 1 Sept. launch to 

arrive at Mars in 12 mos. 

The Viking missions supported NASA's planetary program goals of 

exploring the solar system and gaining knowledge of its origin and 

evolution, and of the origin and evolution of life and of the dynamic 

processes that shaped man's terrestrial environment. Specific purpose of the two Viking missions was to increase knowledge of Mars by 

making observations from Mars orbit and by direct measurements in 

the atmosphere and on the surface, with particular emphasis on 

biological, chemical, and environmental data on past or present existence of life on the planet. 

Viking 1 was targeted to land in the Martian equatorial region, in a 

very low area resembling the fluvial plain of a dry river bed-an ideal 

site to search for organic material. Alternate sites for both Viking 

landers had been selected and there would be some flexibility until 

insertion into Mars orbit, after which the available band of landing 

sites would be narrowed by orbital geometry. Once in orbit, the orbiter 

would survey prospective landing sites; when the decision on where to 

land had been made, retrorockets would separate the lander from the 

orbiter and the lander would descend to the surface, sequentially 

braked by its aeroshell's drag, by a parachute, and finally by its 

retrorockets. After landing, the science instrumentation would be 

activated and exploration would begin; data would be transmitted 

back to earth by the lander radio or through a radio-relay link with the 

orbiter. 

The orbiter's main body, an octagonal ring 46 cm high with alternating 140- and 51-cm sides, consisted of 16 modular compartments. 

The entire structure was 10 m across the tips of the extended solar 

panels and 3.3 m high from the lander attachment points to the launch 

vehicle. Besides propulsion, navigation and control, communications, 

power, computer, and data-storage subsystems, the orbiter carried its 

science instrumentation mounted on a scan platform that could move 

with 2 degrees of freedom. The three science instruments were twin 

high-resolution, slow-scan TV cameras; an infrared atmospheric 

water detector; and a high-resolution infrared thermal mapper for 

detecting surface-temperature variations. 

The lander was a six-sided aluminum and titanium box 46.2 

cm deep and enclosed top and bottom by cover plates; it measured 

3 m wide and 2 m high from the footpads to the top of the S-band 

antenna. The six sides measured 109 cm and 56 cm alternately, with 

the three landing legs attached to the three narrower sides. The 

three retrorockets were mounted at 120" intervals on the lander; 

generating up to 2838 newtons (638 lbs) thrust, they would be 

ignited at an altitude of 1220 m to slow the lander's descent from 

222 kph to 9 kph at landing. Four small engines provided attitude 

control. 

In addition to subsystems for thermal control, power, and communications, the lander carried six instruments: twin scanning TV 

170 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 August 

cameras, a sophisticated biology laboratory, a gas chromatograph 

mass spectrometer, an x-ray fluorescence spectrometer, a meteorology instrument, and a seismometer. Used with numerous temperature, pressure, and magnetic sensors, the instruments would perform 

entry, landed, and radio experiments. 

NASA’s investigation of Mars had begun in 1964 with the launch of 

Manner 4. That spacecraft’s flyby on 15 July 1965 had revealed the 

planet to be moonlike with a dry, barren, cratered surface showing 

little evidence of wind or water erosion and no magnetic field. The 

better instrumented Mariners 6 and 7 that flew by the planet during 

the summer of 1969 reported a chaotic view of jumbled ridges and 

valleys unlike anything found on the earth or moon. The spacecraft 

also showed wide featureless expanses where craters had been somehow eroded, suggesting that Mars had been geologically active. 

Mariner 6 and 7 photographs showed a thin layer of snow-probably 

carbon dioxide-and instruments measured a thin atmosphere of 

mostly carbon dioxide. 

High-quality photographs from Mariner 9, placed in Martian orbit 

on 13 Nov. 1971, provided evidence of fluid erosion, glacial action, 

and volcanoes. The Viking missions had continued the Mariner explorations of Mars. 

Viking was managed by Langley Research Center under overall 

direction of NASA’s Office of Space Science; LaRC also had management responsibility for the lander system designed and built by Martin 

Marietta Corp. Jet Propulsion Laboratory designed and built the 

orbiter system. The Titan-Centaur launch vehicle was the responsibility of Lewis Research Center; LaRC managed launch and flight 

operations executed by Martin Marietta, Kennedy Space Center, and 

JPL. Goddard Space Flight Center was responsible for tracking and 

data systems, and JPL managed the mission control and computingcenter system. (NASA MORS S-815-15-01/02, 1 Aug 75,28 Aug 75, 

16 Sept 75; NASA Release 75- 183; LaRC Launch and Mission Operations Status Bulletins Nos 9-11; Viking: Mission to Mars (NASA 

* Doctors had rechecked x-rays of Apollo-Soyuz Test Project astronaut 

Donald K. Slayton’s lungs taken before the 15 July launch and found 

that they also had shown a shadow revealed by postflight x-rays, Dr. 

Arnauld E. Nicogossian, NASA’s ASTP physician, said at a Johnson 

Space Center press briefing. Dr. Nicogossian said that the spot had 

not been noticed before because the x-rays were difficult to read and 

the spot had been covered by normal vasculature and bony structure. 

Only a 6 Aug. tomogram [see 25 Aug.] had verified that the shadow 

was a lesion. Dr. Nicogossian said the nitrogen tetroxide inhaled by 

the ASTP astronauts during reentry [see 15-26 July] had not been 

shown to have caused or increased the size of the lesion. 

Dr. Nicogossian added that, if cancer were diagnosed during the 

surgery, the usual medical procedure was to remove a part of the lobe, 

but he did not think that would prevent Slayton from flying in the 

future. 

Slayton said that he felt “pretty damn lucky” that the lesion had 

been discovered when it was. “This thing could have been discovered 

before the flight. . . . And I could have easily gotten jerked off the 

flight, so that would have been bad. Secondly, if we hadn’t had the gas 

SP-334); W Post, 18-22 Aug 75; NYT, 18-22 Aug 75) 

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August ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

in the cockpit on reentry, . . . [the doctors] could very easily not have 

picked this thing up until my next annual physical which is 6 or 8 

months off.” Then it would have been a “lot tougher” to fix. 

Slayton, one of the seven original U.S. astronauts, had been 

grounded in 1962 because of an erratic heart rate, first detected in 

1959, but had been returned to flight status March 1972 in time for 

assignment to ASP. He told the briefing that he hoped to be out of the 

hospital within 7 days and back to work in 2 wk, and on flight status 

again within a month. (Transcript, ASTP PC-63, 20 Aug 75) 

NASA announced that the U.S. tour by the five Apollo-Soyuz Test Project crewmembers had been postponed to 13 Oct. because of astronaut 

Donald K. Slayton’s scheduled lung surgery. The crew’s tour of the 

U.S.S.R., scheduled to begin 22 Sept., would continue on schedule 

[see 15 Aug.]. (NASA Release 75-236) 

0 Lt. Col. Michael Love successfully completed the 28th flight of the 

X-24B lifting body, making its second and final runway landing [see 

5 Aug.] at Flight Research Center. The purpose of the flight was to 

land on a concrete runway, survey body pressure, study a lefthand 

fin tuft, check out the thermal protection system, and perform 

stability and control maneuvers with the rudder bias at 5” toe-out. 

Launched from a B-52 aircraft at 13 700 m, Col. Love ignited the 

vehicle’s rocket engine and the X-24B reached a speed of mach 1.53 

and an altitude of 21 900 m before engine shutdown and unpowered 

glide and landing. - 

Flights of the 11-m delta-shaped vehicle were part of a joint NASAAir Force program to study transonic flight characteristics of an aerodynamic shape that could be the forerunner of future hypersonic 

cruise vehicles. (X-24B flt rpt, NASA Prog off; FRC Release 25-75) 

0 The Large Area Crop Inventory Experiment (LACE), a low-budget cooperative NASA- Department of Agriculture- National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration program designed to assess U.S. wheatcrop yields and to forecast production, could develop into a worldwide 

crop program, J. F. ter Horst reported in the Los Angeles Times. If 

elevated in status and budget priority by President Ford, LACIE could 

accurately measure a worldwide grain feast or famine each year, 

identifying regions of big harvests and potential shortages, vital in 

allocating world food supplies to meet the needs of growing world 

population. Ter Horst quoted an advisor of President Ford as saying 

that, if the LACE system were in worldwide operation, “we would 

know what the Russian grain crop was likely to be, what they would be 

buying, and just how much of our crop we could afford to sell them.” 

Ter Horst added that intelligence sources indicated the Russians 

had already measured U.S. crops by satellite. “If true, that could 

explain the confidence of Russian grain-purchasing moves this year. 

It also indicates an accelerated U.S. political need to play catch-up in 

this phase of the space race.” (ter Horst, LA Times, 20 Aug 75) @ A Today editorial had commented on the planned Viking flight to Mars: 

“Success of the Viking flight could mean additional Congressional 

support for more sophisticated flights in the future. . . . It will be almost another year before we will have the answers to the Viking experiments. . . .At that time, we will be celebrating the 200th birthday 

of our country-and what better way to celebrate the birth of one 

nation than with the discovery of another?” (Today, 20 Aug 75) 

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ASTRONAUTIC5 AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 August 

21 August: The Titan-Centaur launch vehicle for the Viking- B had been 

moved to the ad at Launch Complex 41 ‘ust 24 hr after the successful 

launch of Vifing 1. Technicians would mate the spacecraft to the 

launch vehicle on 27 Aug., preparing for the scheduled launch on 1 

Sept. (KSC Release 174-75) 

0 The Space Shuttle was, in many ways, the “ultimate recycling program,” Robert Anderson, president and chief executive officer of 

Rockwell International Corp. said on Transportation Day at the 

Canadian National Exhibition in Toronto. Anderson said that the 

Shuttle program, with its international scope and emphasis on reusability, was the first major step toward economical and effective use 

of space. 

More advanced Shuttle-launched satellites would benefit the world 

by aiding crop control; locating new sources of minerals and fossil 

fuels; monitofing weather, pollution, and localized disasters such as 

oil slicks ahd forest fires; mapping oceans and urban areas; and improving communications. “For the job of transportation is not just to 

move people and goods from point to point-it is to also move history 

forward by enabling the pioneers to explore the new frontiers and by 

enabling society to capitalize on their discoveries.” (Text; Rockwell 

Intl Release R-42) 

0 NASA announced appointment of Herbert J. Rowe, chairman of the 

board of PEMCOR, Inc., as Associate Administrator for External Affairs. Rowe would coordinate activities of the Office of Industry 

Affairs and Technology Utilization and the Office of Public Affairs, 

the offices that oversee NASA interactions with external organizations 

and individuals and disseminate information about NASA programs. 

(NASA anno, 26 Aug 75) 

0 NASA announced retirement from military service of NASA Skylab 4 

(16 Nov. 1973-8 Feb. 1974) astronauts Gerald P. Carr and William R. 

Pogue effective September 1. Carr, a Marine Corps colonel, would 

remain with NASA as a civilian astronaut. Pogue, an Air Force colonel 

and an astronaut since April 1966, would leave NASA to become a vice 

president of High Flight, an interdenominational evangelistic foundation founded by former astronaut James R. Irwin. As crew members 

on Skylab 4 Pogue and Carr, along with Dr. Edward 6. Gibson, share 

the world record for individual time in space of 2017 hr 15 min 32 sec. 

Pogue’s departure would reduce the number of NASA astronauts to 31. 

(NASA Release 75- 233) 

0 The Knights of Columbus, a U.S. Catholic fraternal organization, had 

agreed to pay for worldwide satellite coverage of three live 90-min 

Vatican events, the WashingtonPost reported. Four Intelsat satellites 

would telecast the midnight mass at Christmas, the Stations of the 

Cross from the Roman Colosseum on Good Friday, and the Pope’s 

Easter Sunday message. Each broadcast would cost an estimated 

$25 000. (W Post, 21 Aug 75) 

22 August: Defense, space, and energy accounted for most of a record 

increase in Federal research and development funding in Fil1976, the 

National Science Foundation’s report An Analysis of Federal R & D 

Funding by Function, Fiscal Years 1969- 76 stated. The largest dollar 

increase, $1860 million, was for national defense; the second and third 

largest increases, $343 million each, were for space and energy. 

173 
August ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Relative increases in N 1976 were largest for education, 102%; 

energy, 37%; national defense, 20%; and space, 13%. 

Total Federal obligation for R&D in the 1976 budget of $21.7 billion 

was a record high. The $2.7-baon increase over F’Y 1975 was also a 

record increase for any one year, enough to indicate a real rise in R&D 

activity, allowing for a reasonable inflation factor. The upward change 

contrasted with an average annual decline of 2.7% in constant dollars 

over the period 1969-75. (NSF Highlights, 25 Aug 75, 1) 

0 NASA announced selection of McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Co. for 

negotiation of a $14.8-million fixed-price incentive contract to 

develop, build, and deliver Space Shuttle solid rocket booster (SRB) 

structures, and to design and build the tooling necessary to produce 

them. The SRB structures would support the Space Shuttle on the 

launch pad, transfer thrust loading to the Orbiter and external tank, 

and provide structural support for the SRB recovery system, electrical 

components, and thrust-vector control system. (NASA Release 

75- 238) 0 A group of 2% scientists, engineers, sociologists, and economists concluded a 10-wk (16 June-22 Aug.) NASA- Stanford University study at 

Ames Research Center by recommending that the U.S. adopt a space 

colonization program using available technology. The “city in space” 

envisioned by the study group could be a 1.5-km-wide wheel-shaped 

habitat for 10 000 persons positioned on the moon’s orbit at a point 

385 000 km from both earth and moon. Costing an estimated $100 

billion, the 454-million-kg wheel, or torus, would rotate around its hub 

at 1 rpm to simulate earth‘s gravity. The rim would house inhabitants 

as well as shops, schools, light industry, and closed-loop agriculture; 

heavy industry could be located outside to take advantage of 

weightlessness and high vacuum in space. 

A major commercial activity of the first colony would be to construct 

solar-power satellites. Placed in geosynchronous orbit above the 

earth, the satellites would collect and convert sunlight into energy and 

beam it to earth as low-density microwaves. 

The space colony would have several advantages that might make it 

self-supporting: weightlessness for manufacturing and transportation, massive use of lunar minerals, and continuous natural sunlight 

for increased agricultural productivity. The study group had considered social, cultural, safety, and ecological difficulties of a space 

colony, but had found “no unsurmountable problems that would prevent humans from living in space.” (NASA Releases 75-229,75-249; 

ARC Release 75-41; Dunstan, W Post, 23 Aug 75) 

0 The press commented on the mission of the Viking spacecraft to Mars 

[see 20 Aug.]. The Washington Post said that the essence of the space 

program had been “to provide mankind with new knowledge, not in 

hopes that this knowledge will be useful immediately here on Earth 

but in hopes that it will expand our understanding of the universe in 

which we live and . . . enable us to reach better solutions to our 

philosophical and political, as well as practical, problems.” The 

Viking missions had opened a new era in which the search for knowledge was to be done largely by machines; the rewards promised to be 

rich, beyond measure in strictly monetary terms. 

The Christian Science Monitor agreed, commenting that Viking 

represented “an opportunity for mankind‘s self-awareness to take a 

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ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 August 

greater stride away from earth-centered thinking than was afforded by 

Neil Armstrong’s historic step on to the moon.” Discovering organic 

life on Mars would strengthen the conviction that life existed 

abundantly throughout the universe and that we were not alone. Some 

had questioned whether the U.S. should spend a billion dollars on 

such aprogram when resources were hard pressed on earth, but anew 

discovery, that life was not a meaningless chance but part of a grand 

design, could give new inspiration to humanity’s efforts to deal with 

earthly problems. 

Here was a challenge for the architects of dAtente, the Monitor 

asserted. The U.S. and Russia had been needlessly duplicating scientific efforts, their cooperation amounting to little more than “arm’slength information exchange.” The two countries had much to share. 

By abandoning costly competition for a truly joint program, the two 

countries could gain from each other’s capabilities, minimize the cost 

to each of them, and pursue this cosmic outreach on behalf of all mankind.” (W Post, 22 Aug 75, A24; CSM, 22 Aug 75, 28) 

23 August: An editorial in the Washington Star commented on the Viking 

mission to Mars: “Perhaps the most miraculous thing about the Viking 

spacecraft . . . is that the American people, pinched as they are by 

hard times, would more or less cheerfully dispatch a billion dollars on 

a one-way . . . journey into the trackless void.” Still, enough might 

have been learned in the making of this remarkable vehicle to “constitute fair recompense for all the money it represents,” and whatever it 

discovered at journey’s end might be worth twice the cost. (WStar, 23 

Aug 75) 

24 August: A planet’s size and bulk might be more important than its location in the solar system in determining whether it can support life, Dr. 

Robert Jastrow, Director of NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space 

Studies, said in a New York Times article. Conventional scientific 

thought had always been that the chance of life’s evolving on a planet 

was narrowly restricted by the planet’s distance from its parent star. 

However, planetology-the study of comparative geology of the 

planets, made possible by space probes such as Pioneer, Mariner, and 

Viking-provided evidence for the newer theory. 

The most important single factor in the geology of earth-like planets 

was the amount of internal heat left over from their birth. Planets as 

large as earth conserved heat, losing it very slowly through volcanic 

action over long periods of time. Molten volcanic material carried 

gases, including water vapor, that had been trapped below the 

planet’s surface; the vapors condensed into oceans, other gases 

formed an atmosphere, and life began. Mariner’s photos of Mars had 

confirmed the existence of volcanoes; but, because of the planet’s 

relatively small size, these exhausted their internal heat supply and 

died out rapidly about 100 million yr ago. During its active period, 

Mars must have had in its atmosphere large volumes of volcanic 

gases, including water vapor; Manner photos had shown what were 

apparently dry river beds. When the volcanoes became extinct, the 

water and atmosphere leaked away into space and the small planet 

was left dry and nearly airless. Any life forms found on Mars by Viking 

or future space probes would probably be fossils. 

The study of lunar material added another example to the comparative geology of earth-like planets: The moon rocks brought back by 

(6 

175 
August ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Apollo astronauts had revealed volcanic activity on the moon: because 

the moon was smaller than Mars, this activity had stopped even earlier 

and the gases and moisture escaped even more quickly, leaving 

another dry, airless, and lifeless body. 

Scientists concluded that Mars was cold and lifeless not because it 

was farther from the sun than earth but because it was smaller and 

geologically inert. If the earth were moved out to the orbit of Mars, the 

average temperature of the earth would drop somewhat but its insulating atmosphere, continually replenished by volcanic gases for some 

billions of years longer, would maintain a livable temperature over 

large areas of the surface. (Jastrow, NYT, 24 Aug 75, E7) 

0 Soviet ground controllers altered the trajectory of Luna 22, the unmanned lunar probe launched 29 May 1974, bringing it closer to the 

moon’s surface. Resulting parameters were 1286-km apogee, 100-km 

perigee, 3-hr period, and 21” inclination. Tass reported 3 Sept. that all 

onboard systems were operating well and that the spacecraft was 

continuing to transmit to earth information about the moon’s surface. 

(Tass, FBIS-SOV, 3 Sept 75, U1) 

25 August: ApoUo-Soyuz Test Project astronaut Donald K. Slayton 

entered Texas Medical Center to undergo exploratory surgery for a 

small lesion on his left lung. NASA physicians had discovered the 

lesion in x-rays taken during the astronaut’s postflight recovery from 

gas inhdatkn [see 25 July]. Slayton’s x-rays had shown a complete 

clearing of lung infiltrates but revealed a 4-mm discrete shadow. 

Specialized x-rays, called tomograms, taken 6 Aug. had confirmed 

that the shadow was indeed a lesion and not a part of the normal lung 

structure. NASA physicians, conferring with chest specialists at the 

Texas Medical Center, recommended surgery; all the doctors agreed 

that the lesion had not resulted from the gas inhalation. (JSC Release 

75- 69) 

0 The People’s Republic of China had confirmed that its three satellitesChina 1, launched 24 April 1970; China 2, launched 3 March 1971; 

and China 3, launched 26 July 1975-had earth-observation capability, Defense Space Business Daily reported. Although the PRC’s 

People’s Daily had published cloud photos taken by one of the satellites, and the implication was that the satellites were forerunners of 

meteorological satellites, their performance suggested the development of higher resolution observation-reconnaissance satellites. All 

three satellites had been placed into orbits with perigees at reconnaissance altitudes sufficient to cover all targets of interest to the PRC. 

(SBD, 25 Aug 75, 290) e NASA’s use of the firefly s two light-producing chemicals, luciferin and 

luciferase, to test for the chemical presence of adenosine triphosphate 

(ATP), an energy-storage compound present in every living cell, had 

increased interest in luminescence as a tool for medical research, the 

New York Times reported. Research done in 1948 by Johns Hopkins 

Univ. scientists had demonstrated that ATP was the third essential 

ingredient-along with luciferin and luciferase-necessary for the 

firefly’s glow, and that the amount of light generated was directly 

proportionate to the level of ATP present. The Hopkins scientists had 

also developed a simple test for life itself, since luciferin and 

luciferase added to any living matter could reproduce the firefly’s 

glimmer. NASA applied this information, with more sophisticated lightI 76 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 August 

detection instruments, to develop a test for life on Mars for use aboard 

the Viking spacecraft (launched 20 Aug.) 

NASA scientists working with the firefly chemicals at Goddard 

Space Flight Center had developed many applications, including a 

method of detecting bacteria in water; this permitted speedy diagnosis of urinary infections, as well as testing the effect of various antibiotics on particular infections. 

Univ. of Calif. scientists continued the research, adapting the techniques for related work in measuring creatine phosphokinase (CPK) in 

the bloodstream. CPK, present in all human blood, was produced in 

abnormally high quantities during muscle-cell degeneration that 

accompanied cardiac arrest or muscular dystrophy. CPK could be 

treated to produce ATP and, with the application of firefly chemicals, 

to produce a glow proportionate to the amount of CPK in the bloodstream. Researchers had used the measurements as aquick blood test 

to tell whether a patient had suffered a heart attack. (NYT, 25 Aug 75) 

26 August-3 September: NASA launched Symphonie 2, France end West 

Germany's second experimental communications satellite at 9:42 pm 

EDT 26 Aug. from Eastern Test Range. A three-stage thrustaugmented Thor-Delta launch vehicle boosted the spacecraft into a 

synchronous transfer orbit with a 37 974-km apogee, 413-km perigee, 

678.3-min period, and 13.2" inclination. On 29 Aug. at 11:48 am EDT, 

ground controllers activated the onboard liquid-fueled apogee motor 

to circularize the orbit at geosynchronous altitude. By 31 Aug. 

Symphonie 2 was in an orbit with a 35 870-km apogee, 35 364-km 

perigee, 23-hr 47-min period, and 0.0" inclination. NASA's primary 

objective for the mission-to launch the Symphonie 2 into a 

synchronous transfer orbit with sufficient accuracy to enable the 

satellite to accomplish its operational mission-had been successfully 

completed, and the mission was adjudged successful on 3 Sept. 

When finally positioned at 11.5" west longitude over the equator, 

the 402-kgsymphonie 2 would provide 1200 telephone, 8 voice, and 2 

TV channels for experimental communications between Europe and 

the African and South American continents. 

Second of two experimental comsats developed by the FrenchWest German Consortium Industriel France-Allemand pour le 

Satellite Symphonie (CIFAS), under the direction of Germany's 

Gesellschaft fur Weltraumforschung GFW and France's Centre 

National $Etudes Spatiales (CNES), Symphonie 2 would expand the 

French-West German experimental satellite TV and telegraph 

communications program begun with the launch ofsymphonie 1 on 18 

Dec. 1974. 

In October 1973 NASA had agreed to provide the launch vehicle and 

services on a cost-reimbursable basis, and in June 1974 had signed a 

launch services contract with the consortium. Estimated cost of hardware and services was $12 million. Goddard Space Flight Center, 

under the direction of the Office of Space Science, was responsible for 

the launch vehicle and for limited tracking during initial activities. 

When the satellite separated from the vehicle third stage, the Symphonie Project Operations Group in France and West Germany would 

assume operational responsibility. (NASA MORS s- 492- 204- 75- 02, 

25 July, 3 Sept; GSFC SSR, 31 Aug 75; GSFC Wkly SSR, 21-27 Aug 75; 

NASA Release 75- 234) 

177 
August ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

0 A prototype of the Yc- 15 advanced medium short-takeoff-and-landing 

(AMST) cargo transport successfully completed its first flight. Airborne 

for 2 hr 26 min, the Yc-15 was flown from Long Beach municipal 

airport to Edwards Air Force Base, Calif., achieving a peak altitude of 

5500 m and a top speed of 485 kph. During the flight the pilots 

evaluated the aircraft’s flight controls, handling and slow-speed-flight 

qualities, and speed advance to the assigned maximum. 

Built by McDonnell Douglas Corp. for the Air Force, the YC- 15 was 

the first large transport aircraft to include both the NASA-developed 

supercritical wing for improved flight performance and reduced fuel 

consumption, and externally blown flaps for powered lift. This aircraft 

and a second nearing completion would be evaluated, during a 12-mo 

flight-test program, against established Air Force performance goals 

and against two YC- 14 prototype AMSTs built by Boeing co. (Fink, Av 

Wk, 11 Aug 75,18-20; NYT, 27 Aug 75,58; AFSC Newsreview, 16 Oct 

75, 16) 

27August: Astronomers had picked up microwave signals that dated back 

10 billion yrs to the creation of the universe, Sir Bernard Lovell, 

director of the Jodrell Bank radio telescope station, told the 137th 

annual meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of 

Science. First picked up accidentally by equipment testing space 

communications, and later monitored by a sounding rocket, the 

signals apparently had originated in the cataclysmic explosion-the 

“big bang”- caused when a single primeval fireball exploded to form 

the universe. The observed radiation was “a relic of the high-temperature phase of the universe,” Lovell stated, “perhaps within a second 

or so of the beginning of the explosion.” 

Lovell urged scientists to reexamine their responsibility to society 

during their quest for knowledge of the universe and life on other 

planets; he questioned whether man could “survive for long the 

consequences of the probing of scientists,” saying that the search 

might produce answers too overwhelming for the mind of man to comprehend. He warned that extensive military involvement might lead to 

great human disaster, recalling how man’s quest for knowledge had 

led to the development of nuclear weapons. (AP, W Star, 28 Aug 75) 

0 NASA announced that astronaut Thomas P. Stafford would leave the 

NASA astronaut corps effective 1 Nov. to become commander of the 

Air Force Flight Test Center at Edwards Air Force Base, Calif. 

Serving as a NASA astronaut since September 1962, Stafford made the 

first rendezvous in space when he flew the Gemini 6 mission (launched 

15 Dec. 1965) to meet the already orbiting Gemini 7 crew. He also 

commanded Gemini 9 (3-6 June 1966), which rendezvoused with the 

previously launched augmented target docking adapter. Stafford was 

commander ofApoZZo 10 (18- 26 May 1969), first lunar-orbital mission 

to use the complete Apollo spacecraft; during the mission he and crew 

member Eugene A. Cernan flew the lunar module to within 15 km of 

the surface while John W. Young orbited the moon in the Apollo 

spacecraft. In July Stafford headed the three-man Apollo crew for the 

joint U.S.-U.S.S.R. Apollo-Soyuz Test Project mission (15-24 July 

1975); he had accumulated a total of 507 hr 43 min in space and flown 6 

space missions. (NASA Release 75-241) 

Field operations of an ocean bathymetry 

expedition sponsored jointly by NASA and the Cousteau Society had 

27 August-7 September: 

178 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 August 

been successfully completed in the Central Bahamas. Objective of the 

expedition was to evaluate the usefulness of Landsat satellite sensors 

for measuring water depth in shallow seas and for improving the 

accuracy of mapping ocean-bottom features. Thirteen satellitesincluding NASA’s Landsat 1 and2, Sms 1, and Ats 3 ; National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration’s Noaa 3 and 4 and Essa 8; and six 

satellites of the Navy’s Transit Navigation System, plus two research 

vessels-cousteau Society’s Calypso and the Johns Hopkins University’s Beayondan-recorded bathymetric data at selected sites. 

Scuba divers measured ocean floor reflectivity and water transparency with sophisticated underwater instruments. 

Participating in the expedition were Cousteau Society head Jacques 

Cousteau and his son Philippe; NASA Project Manager Dr. Enrico P. 

Mercanti and science monitor Ross McCluney, both of Goddard 

Space Flight Center; and Dr. Fabian Polcyn of the Environmental 

Research Institute of Michigan. NASA Director of User Affairs Russell 

L. Schweikart coordinated the project. Also participating was President Gerald R. Ford’s son Jack, who accompanied the expedition for 

the first phase, assisting with several underwater and onboard experiments. (NASA Releases 75- 24, 75- 257) 

28 August: The Air Force announced successful test flight of an F-111D 

equipped with a turbofan jet engine having all-composite third-stage 

fan blades 40% lighter than conventional titanium blades. This was 

the first military operational evaluation of a rotating structural engine 

component made of composite materials. (AFSC Release OIP 214.75) 

0 A red-tide detection program had been approved by Goddard Space 

Flight Center and the Florida Department of Natural Resources 

(FDNR). Caused by an ocean-borne phytoplankton, Gymnodinium 

breve, “red tide” had left thousands of dead fish rotting on beaches in 

coastal estuaries. Ocean-color scanners-mounted on Landsat 1 and 

2 (launched 23 July 1972 and 22 Jan. 1975) and on NASA’s U-2 research 

aircraft-could detect subtle color variations in coastal waters, to 

warn of changes in concentration and species of marine phytoplankton populations and indicate possible red-tide invasions. Research 

vessels would verify the findings by on-site sampling. Program 

managers hoped the data would lead to the development of an early 

warning system that would allow crews to combat effects of the red 

tide. (NASA Release 75- 242) 

29 August: Successful lung surgery performed 26 Aug. on Apollo-Soyuz 

Test Project Astronaut Donald K. Slayton revealed no evidence of 

malignancy, the Johnson Space Center Roundup reported. During the 

2.5-hr surgery, doctors at the Texas Medical Center removed a 

triangular wedge that included the 4-mm nodule detected during 

postflight x-rays [see 20 Aug.] plus a small amount of normal 

surrounding tissue. Adjacent lymph nodes were biopsied and found 

normal; doctors found no signs of any other lesions. Slayton would remain in the hospital for 7 to 10 more days. (JSC Roundup, 29 Aug. 75,l) 

A backup Skylab Orbital Workshop and an airlock module and multiple 

docking adapter would be shipped by barge to Washington, D.c., for 

display at the Smithsonian Institution’s National Air and Space 

Museum. Stripped of all equipment that could be used for future programs, the workshop would be cut into three sections for transport; 

179 
August ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

two dciors would be added and the floor strengthened to accommodate 

the flow of tourists. The museum was scheduled to open 4 July 1976. 

(MSFC Release 75- 189) 

0 Rockwell International Corp., prime contractor for the Space Shuttle, 

announced selection of Consolidated Controls for a $l.5-million contract to provide high- and low-pressure helium valves for the Shuttle 

Orbiter reaction-control system (RCS). The valves would control 

helium output in the RCS propellant tanks, serving as a manifold 

shutoff valve in the vernier engine and as a low-pressure helium 

shutoff valve. (Rockwell Release SP-29) 

31 August: Communications Satellite Corp., U.S. representative in the 

International Telecommunications Satellite Consortium, transmitted 

its twelfth annual report to the President, covering the activities of 

ComSat from 1 July 1974-30 June 1975. 

Two more Intelsat IV satellites had been orbited, Intelsat IV F-8 

21 Nov. 1974 over the Pacific Ocean and Intelsat IV F- 1 22 May 1975 

over the Indian Ocean. A third satellite, Intelsat IV F-6, failed to 

achieve orbit when the launch vehicle malfunctioned. 

By 30 June 1975 a network of 112 antennas-27 more than last 

year-at 88 earth stations was providing 379 ComSat pathways, with 

107 countries leasing satellite services, an increase of 7 over the 

previous year. 

Comsat General Corp., a subsidiary, had entered into a joint 

venture with the European Space Agency and the Government of 

Canada on 3 Dec. 1974 to provide satellite capacity for an Aerosat 

(aeronautical satellite) communications test and evaluation program. 

Comsat General and International Business Machines Corp. had 

notified the Federal Communications Commission that they would 

seek to enter the domestic satellite business with one or more partners. ComSat’s earth stations in Connecticut and California neared 

readiness for Marisat (maritime satellite) communications services in 

the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean areas. 

ComSat reported a net income of $44 918 000, or $4.49 per share, 

up from $36 299 000 or $3.63 per share in 1973. (Text) 

During August: “The importance of space to our defensive military effort 

can only increase in the future,” Gen. Samuel C. Phillips, retiring 

commander of the Air Force Systems Command and NASA’s Apollo 

Program Director from 1964-69, said in an interview. Gen. Phillips 

speculated that aircraft, including the B- 1 bomber under development by the U.S., would be an important part of the military force “for 

as many decades ahead as anyone cares to project.” However, he saw 

energy scarcities increasing the need for training simulators and 

alternative aircraft fuels. (AFSC Newsreview, Aug 75, 1) 

180 
September 1975 

1 September: NASA’s Small Astronomy Satellite (Sas 2, launched as Explorer48 16 NOV. 1972) had observed a pulsar in the Vela constellation 

that generated two bursts of gamma rays for each burst of radio waves, 

theAstrophysica1 Journal reported. No other pulsar had been found to 

exhibit such properties. The new observation indicated that pulsarssmall, dense, rapidly spinning stars thought to be remains of a huge 

stellar explosion or supernova-were much more complex than had 

been believed. 

Detection of gamma rays from Vela meant that pulsars were a likely 

source of cosmic rays. Many astrophysicists had believed that only 

very young pulsars could produce cosmic energies, but the Sas 2 

observations cast doubt on this conclusion: Scientists believed that the 

Vela pulsar was more than 10 000 yrs old. (D.J. Thompson et al., 

Astrophysical Journal, 1 Sept 75; GSFC Release G- 75-20) 

0 Appointment of Lt. Gen. William J. Evans as commander of the Air 

Force Systems Command became effective. Gen. Evans, who had 

been deputy chief of staff for research and development at Air Force 

Hq, was replacing retiring Gen. Samuel 6. Phillips. AFX had been 

responsible for developing Air Force aerospace technology. (AFSC 

Newsreview, Aug. 75) 

2 September: Marshall Space Flight Center announced the award of a 

$4 4@9 000 cost-plus-incentive-fee contract to Bendix Corp. for design, development, test and evaluation, and fabrication of integrated 

electronic assemblies (EA) for Space Shuttle solid rocket boosters on 

the first six Shuttle developmental flights. Each booster would require 

two EAs: The forward EA would initiate release of the nose cap and 

frustum, jettison the solid-rocket-motor nozzle, detach the parachute, 

and turn on recovery aids. The aft EA would interface with the 

Orbiter, the forward EA, and other avionic systems. Delivery of the 

IEAs would begin in 1976 and continue through 1 Apr. 1979. (MSFC 

Release 75 -190) 

3 September: Jet Propulsion Laboratory scientists had released “Automobile Power Systems Evaluation Study,” urging adoption of a 

billion-dollar program to mass-produce, by 1985, a fuel-saving 

pollution-free replacement for the standard internal combustion engine, Richard Witkin reported in the New York Times. Funded by a 

$500 000 grant from the Ford Motor Co. with the understanding that 

the study would be independent and unbiased, JPL’S report recommended accelerated, parallel development of the Brayton gas turbine 

and Stirling external combustion engine until a clear choice could be 

made between them. The study found that either engine not only was 

virtually pollution-free and cut fuel consumption by 30 to 4% but also 

could be mass-produced at acost differential small enough to be easily 

recovered through fuel savings by the first owner. 

181 
September ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

The JPL engineers defined the fuel economy, emissions, and costs of 

vehicles powered by nine other engines as well as by improved versions of the conventional internal combustion engine. Six sizes of cars 

were analyzed, covering the range of consumer preferences. Electric 

and hybrid power systems were also evaluated. 

Aside from development of the Brayton and Stirling engines, the 

report recommended other programs to reduce fuel consumption 15 to 

35% by improved vehicle packaging, weight reductions, and transmission improvements. The report also recommended that the U.S. work 

in the interim to improve the fuel economy and emissions level of 

conventional car engines. (JPL Laboratory, 197515, 21; Witkin, NYT, 

4 Sept 75, 18) 0 Marshall Space Flight Center was requesting proposals-due 22 

Sept.-from the aerospace industry for a study leading to design and 

development of an Atmospheric Cloud Physics Laboratory (ACPL) as a 

payload aboard Spacelab, MSFC announced. ACPL experiments would 

give scientists a knowledge of weather processes important for longrange weather prediction and weather modification. After evaluating the proposals, MSFC would award two parallel 12-mo firm-fxed price 

contracts. (MSFC Release 75- 192) 

0 Dale D. Myers, president of Rockwell International Corp.’s North 

American Aircraft Operations, announced appointment of Bastian 

Hello as president of Rockwell’s B-1 Bomber Div. Hello, who had 

been vice president of the division since 1973, was succeeding 

Robert E. Greer, who was retiring. Before joining the B-1 Div., Hello 

was vice president and general manager of Rockwell’s Space Div.’s 

Apollo launch operations organization at Kennedy Space Center. (RI 

Release LA-2) 

4 September: Former astronaut Alfred M. Worden, Chief of Ames Research Center’s Application Div., announced that he would leave 

government service, effective 5 Sept. Worden was also retiring from 

the Air Force after 20 yrs. During the Apollo 15 lunar landing mission 

(26 July- 7 Aug. 1971), Worden was command module pilot and, with 

fellow crewmen David R. Scott and James B. Irwin, spent 12 days 

7 hr 12 min in space. 

Worden transferred to ARC in September 1972 as a research scientist in the Airborne Science Office. He was also Chief of the Systems 

Studies Div. before his appointment to the Application Div. 

In his announcement Worden said he would spend one year lecturing on “Spaceship Earth” and writing a book commissioned by the 

High Flight Foundation, an interdenominational evangelistic organization based in Colo. (NASA Release 75-248) 

5 September: A Viking Data Review Management Center had been established at Kennedy Space Center, the Spaceport News reported. The 

center would promptly disseminate data from the two Viking spacecraft to all concerned government agencies and contractors, and would 

aid in solving launch-related problems as quickly as possible. 

During the Viking 1 launch on 20 Aug., data and review teams of 

NASA and contractor personnel at KSC were responsible for rapidly 

analyzing incoming data for top management. Any anomaly that could 

affect the launch of Viking B had to be detected and resolved as 

quickly as possible. Center personnel had tracked some 20 problems 

from discovery to resolution. (KSC Spaceport News, 5 Sept 75, 2) 

182 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 September 

Jet Propulsion Laboratory had proposed some economically sound and 

technically feasible alternatives to the automobile industry’s inefficient and polluting internal combustion engine [see 3 Sept.], a Los 

Angeles Times editorial said. Development of a new economical and 

pollution-free engine on a mass-production basis would take time and 

money but “the auto industry can well afford the $150 million a year 

that would be needed.” The JPL report voiced skepticism that industry 

could do the job alone. “Additional funding from the federal government is required, as well as a commitment that introduction of an 

alternative engine by 1985 is a national goal. JPL makes a persuasive 

case that all this is feasible and in the national interest. Given the 

potential in fuel savings and reduced air pollution, the 

money. . .would be a solid investment.” (LA Times, 5 Sept 75) * A group of 35 representatives from central Ha. planning agencies attended a 1-day workshop at Kennedy Space Center to assess the 

possibility of using satellite data for land-use planning. Edward J. 

Hecker of the KSC Office of Earth Resources told the group that the 

4cent-per-sq-mi cost of obtaining satellite data was one-third the cost 

of aircraft-obtained data. Data collected by “on foot” surveys cost $20 

per sq mi, and the cost of using an automobile for this purpose ran 

about $2 per sq mi. 

Dr. Garland L. Thomas, coinvestigator for the earth-resources mission of Landsat 2 (launched 22 Jan.) and employee of the Brevard 

County (Ha.) Planning and Zoning Dept., told the group that, using 

satellite data and photography, planners could determine which areas 

were developable and which were not, p:oduce comprehensive landuse planning maps, monitor water quality, and trace the process of 

eutrophication in central Fla.’s many lakes. (KSC Release 181 -75) 

8, 9, and 17 September: Data collected by sounding rockets, satellites, 

instrumented balloons, and high-flying aircraft had supported the 

hypothesis that fluorocarbons such as those found in aerosol spray 

cans might be breaking down the earth‘s ozone shield, scientists told 

hearings of the Senate Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences’ Subcommittee on the Upper Atmosphere. Ozone in the 

stratosphere screened the earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation 

that might increase incidence of cancer and other skin diseases and 

prove lethal to many life forms as well as damage eyes, crops, and 

livestock. An increase in atmospheric fluorocarbons could also have a 

greenhouse effect, permitting sunlight to pass freely but inhibiting the 

escape of heat in the form of infrared radiation. This would warm the 

lower atmosphere and the earth, altering aquatic and terrestrial 

ecosystems and environmental chemicals, and creating climate 

changes. An extreme greenhouse effect had been blamed for Venus’ 

oven-hot temperatures. Dr. Warren R. Muir, cochairman of the Interagency Task Force on 

Inadvertent Modification of the Stratosphere, told the subcommittee, 

“Based on our preliminary assessment there seems to be a legitimate 

cause for concern.” If additional government research-with NASA 

coordinating-had proved more conclusively the danger to the environment, the government should take action for “prompt enactment of 

toxic substances legislation.” 

Dr. Wilson K. Talley of the Environmental Protection Agency 

agreed that fluorocarbons might pose a problem to the stratosphere, 

183 
September ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

and that the total effect of releasing fluorocarbons and other halocarbon compounds into the atmosphere might not become apparent for 

10 yrs. But, with evidence of public danger not strong enough to stand 

up to a court challenge by manufacturers, government regulation of 

the offending substances would be unenforceable. (Transcript; Sullivan, NYT, 10 Sept 75, 1) 

9 September: Viking 2 was successfully launched at 239 pm EDT from the 

Eastern Test Range on a Titan-Centaur launch vehicle. The spacecraft entered on a trajectory toward Mars accurate to within the 3- 

sigma tolerance. If flown without midcourse correction, Viking 2 

would reach Martian orbit 279 259 km from the target. 

The launch had been rescheduled from 1 Sept., after the launch 

crew during a 28 Aug. precountdown test discovered a degradation in 

the detection threshold of the orbiter's S-band radio receiver. On 1 

Sept., project officials decided to remove the spacecraft from the 

launch vehicle for additional evaluation. The launch was rescheduled 

for 9 Sept. after evaluation concluded that the anomaly had been 

caused by a faulty connector or conductor between the diplexer module and the high-gain antenna. Since the faulty part could not be 

isolated, the antenna and cabling were replaced, the orbiter and 

lander retested, encapsulated, and mated to the launch vehicle. After 

launch, all onboard systems and experiments were checked out. A 

trajectory correction maneuver on 19 Aug. targeted Viking 2 for a 

rendezvous with Mars on 7 Aug. 1976. 

Viking 2 was the second of two identical planetary probes [see 20 

Aug.], each consisting of an orbiter and a lander, launched toward 

Mars in 1975 for rendezvous and orbital and surface exploration in 

1976. (NASA MOR S-815-75-01-02, 16 Sept 75; Viking Science 

Activities rpt no. 89; Mission Operations Status Bulletins 10-14) 

0 Japan's N booster launched, from Tanegashima launch site, its first 

payload--li;iku, an 83-kg spacecraft designed to measure launch vibrations and spacecraft temperatures in space. Kiku entered orbit with 

a 1104-km apogee, 977-km perigee, 106-min period, and 47" inclination. The launch vehicle consisted of a Rocketdyne MB- 3 first-stage 

engine, modified from the U.S. Thor program, with three Thiokol 

Corp. Castor 2 solid-rocket strap-ons. The second stage, designated 

LE- 3, had been designed by Japan's National Space Development 

Agency with Rocketdyne assistance. The third stage was a Thiokol 

TE-364-4 solid-rocket motor. (GSFC Wkly SSR, 4- 10 Sept 75; Av Wk, 

22 Sept 75, 50) 

0 A star tracker, STELLAR(Star Tracker forEconomica1 Long Life Attitude 

Reference), was being developed by Jet Propulsion Laboratory for a 

variety of future manned and unmanned space missions. STELLAR 

used a solid-state silicon detector, called a charge-coupled device 

(CCD), for image sensing and a microcomputer to process and format 

the data. Previous star trackers had used high-voltage vacuum-tube 

image dissectors for image sensing; the tubes were difficult to produce, had a limited lifetime, developed errors, and could provide 

attitude-reference data from only a single star in any given observation 

frame. STELLA& which substituted a single low-voltage 6-mm-sq CCD 

chip for the complex and expensive tube, offered the advantages of 

solid-state reliability and of simple programming to adapt to varying 

mission requirements. In addition to substantial savings in cost of 

184 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 September 

flight hardware, the CCD imaging devices were expected to revolutionize TV camera design, permitting miniature low-cost home 

monitors within the next several years. 

STELLAR, which had been developed under the management of 

NASA's Office of Aeronautics and Space Technology, would provide 

trackers for planetary Mariner spacecraft after the 

Mariner-Jupiter-Saturn mission in 1977 and for such Space Shuttle 

payloads as the proposed Shuttle infrared telescope facility. For the 

telescope facility, STELLAR would track as many as 10 stars simultaneously, providing position coordinates and star magnitudes for each. 

(NASA Release 75-251) 

0 The aft fuselage for Space Shuttle Orbiter 101 arrived at Rockwell 

International Corp.'s Palmdale, Calif., assembly facility after a 

160-km truck journey from Rockwell's Downey plant. The aft fuselage 

joined the midfuselage, vertical tail, and wing panels delivered earlier 

by Rockwell subcontractors. The forward fuselage was due in 

Palmdale in October, with rollout of the first orbiter scheduled for the 

third quarter of 1976. Approach and landing tests would begin during 

the second quarter of 1977. (JSC Roundup, 12 Sept 75, 4) 

0 NASA had awarded a $3.358-mUion contract to RCA Corp.'s AstroElectronics Div. to build a return-beam vidicon (RBV) two-camera TV 

system for the Landsat-C spacecraft. With twice the resolution offered by the cameras on Landsat 1 and2which viewed three identical ground scenes 160 km sq through separate spectral filters-the 

RBV camera system would produce side-by-side panchromatic pictures, each covering 80 km sq. (NASA Contract NAS 5-22-350; 

Raizen, GSFC Landsat Procurement Off, interview, 15 Sept 77; SBD, 

21 Aug 75) 

0 NASA announced selection of the Boeing Co. and Martin Marietta Corp. 

for negotiations leading to a contract for delivery of a base module for 

the first of NASA's Applications Explorer Missions (AEM-A), also 

known as the Heat Capacity Mapping Mission (HCMM). The base 

module would be a platform for the heat-capacity-mapping radiometer and all support instrumentation, including receivers, transmitters, 

power system, and attitude-control system. The contract would call 

for delivery of the base module within 20 mo of the award. 

Planned for launch in 1978, AEM-A would gather thermal-inertia 

data from the earth's surface, data which should distinguish rock 

types, locate mineral resources, detect soil moisture, and read temperatures of vegetation cover. (NASA Release 75 -253) 

10 September: Dr. George M. Low, NASA Deputy Administrator, told the 

Senate Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences that the combined efforts of government and industry could reduce fuel consumption of civil air transport by 40 to 50% without degrading the environment or reducing aircraft safety. The conclusion was based on a study 

by NASA, Federal Aviation Administration, DOD, and industry at the 

request of the committee. Need for a vigorous fuel-conservation program had been underscored by estimates from the Federal Energy 

Administration and Air Transport Association of America that U.S. 

outlays for imported oil had increased from $3 billion in 1970 to $24 

billion in 1974, and could reach $32 billion by 1977. Jet fuel costs had 

risen from 12 cents a gallon (4.4 cents per liter) in 1973 to 29 cents (10.5 

cents) in 1975. 

185 
September ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

NASA studies had shown that, by the year 2005, the U.S. could save 

one million barrels of refined aircraft fuel per day by use of new 

technology in civil air transport. NASA’s proposed fuel-efficiency plan 

would include six major programs of research on engine components, 

engine efficiency, aircraft design, turboprop performance, laminar 

flow control and drag reduction, and increased use of composite 

materials for aircraft parts. (Transcript, NASA Release 75 -252) 

0 Engineers at Marshall Space Flight Center were completing tests seeking to refine the means of towing to shore for refurbishment and reuse 

recovered solid rocket boosters from Space Shuttle launches. These 

tests explored the question of whether the parachute recovery lines 

and riser lines on the three recovery parachutes to be attached to each 

booster would, when under tension during descent, stretch enough to 

develop sufficient latent energy to deploy the 52-mm-dia by 15-m long 

tow rope from a tray located in the booster’s forward skirt. The tests 

employed a 10-m Saturn S-11-stage adapter ring, to which the 

parachute lines were attached. A crane hoisted the adapter ring until 

the stress on the rings was 12 000 kg, about one-half the stress expected on the parachutes lowering the booster. An explosive bolt was 

detonated, abruptly freeing the parachute lines; they contracted and 

the lines and fitting to which they were attached were yanked upward 

more than 60 m, quite enough energy to deploy the tow line. 

The recovery system parachutes would be fitted with flotation 

devices so they could be recovered. On the first six Shuttle developmental flights, the set of parachutes would be cut free from one 

booster in each set of two and both would be tested to determine which 

configuration made it easier to retrieve and tow the booster. (MSFC 

Marshall Star, 10 Sept 75, 2) 

Apollo 17 Astronaut Harrison H. Schmitt, the only scientist astronaut to 

walk on the moon, had announced his candidacy for U.S. Senator from 

N. Mex., the Washington Post reported. A Republican, Dr. Schmitt 

would oppose Democratic Senator Joseph M. Montoya, who was expected to seek reelection. (V Post, 10 Sept 75) 

0 The appearance of a supernova on 5 July 1054 had been recorded in 

primitive art by ancient Indians on the walls of a N. Mex. cave, the 

New York Times reported. Goddard Space Flight Center astronomer 

Dr. John C. Brandt, leader of the team of astronomers who had discovered the cave art, said that the date of the pictograph-a crescent 

moon with a nearby object variously described as a circle, cross, or 

asterisk-coincided with records of the Chinese Sung dynasty. The 

Chinese had reported that, on the morning of 5 July 1054, a minor star 

in the constellation Taurus appeared to explode into extraordinary 

brilliance. Ancient Chinese astronomers had described the eventwhich modern astronomers identifie as the supernova that had 

fading and at night for another 633 days. Although the modern astronomers could not prove that the cave art depicted the Crab Nebula 

supernova, “What we have is circumstantial evidence that, to us, 

looks pretty good,” Dr. Brandt said. No other supernova of known 

date had been visible from North America near a crescent moon. 

The supernova pictographs were not the only evidence of astronomical observations by American Indians; Navajo gourd rattles and sand 

paintings often depicted the Pleiades and Orion constellations, and 

created the Crab Nebula-as visible Y n daylight for 23 days before 

186 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 September 

Hopi designs included representations of the Milky Way, constellations, sun, moon, and stars. Heaps of stones strategically placed 

centuries ago in Wyo. hills could have been used by Indians to sight 

stars and to predict and confirm the summer solstice. (Rensberger, 

NYT, 10 Sept 75, 39) 

11 September: NASA launched a two-stage solid-propellant Nike-Hawk 

sounding rocket from Wallops Island, carrying an 84-kg payload to a 

164-km altitude. The flight, to demonstrate successful mating of a 

surplus Hawk engine with the Nike M-88 first stage, also tested a 

newly developed recovery system for both the single-stage Hawk and 

the Nike-Hawk vehicle. The system, designed for both land or air 

recovery, could return up to 136 kg of payload by parachute. The 

sounding rocket carried a Univ. of Pittsburgh high-resolution photoelectron spectrometer to measure daytime photoelectron energy distribution with a very high-energy resolution. The payload impacted 

178 km downrange and was retrieved by the research vessel Annandale. (WSC Release 75-10) 

0 NASA was considering resuming exploration of the moon in 1980, using a 

low-cost unmanned satellite to map the entire lunar surface from 

orbit, Goddard Space Flight Center scientist Marius B. Weinreb told 

United Press International in a telephone interview. The proposed 

satellite, together with a small communications relay satellite, would 

gather information needed by scientists to organize the vast amount of 

data collected during the Apollo lunar landing missions. 

One mission of the satellite would be to provide a detailed chart of 

the lunar gravitational field, including field variations, to tell scientists more about the composition of the moon and perhaps about its 

origin and evolution. Previous lunar orbiters had merely mapped and 

photographed the lunar surface. Although scientists had learned 

much from Apollo data about the gravitational field of the moon’s 

near side, they knew little about the far side. The proposed satelliteequipped with instruments including x-ray and gamma-ray sensorsand its accompanying high-orbiting comsat, which would remain in 

range of both the satellite and the earth at all times, would send back 

to earth data on the entire lunar surface. 

Weinreb told UP1 that NASA administrators had considered including the proposed project in the FY 1977 budget. Budget restrictions might prevent NASA from initiating new projects. (UPI, WT, 

11 Sept 75, 11; interview, Weinreb, 13 June 78) 

12 September: Former astronaut William R. Pogue (U~AF, Ret.) received 

the 1974 Thomas D. White Space Trophy during ceremonies at the 

National Geographic Society Headquarters in Washington, D.C. 

Pogue received the trophy-given annually to the military or civilian 

member of the Air Force who made an outstanding contribution to 

U.S. progress in aerospace-for his achievements as pilot ofskylab 4, 

third and final mission aboard the U.S.’s first manned orbiting workshop. The mission (16 Nov. 1973 to 8.Feb. 1974), longest manned 

flight in history, had established the foundation for future long-term 

missions in space. Pogue had retired from both the Air Force and the 

astronaut corps on 1 Sept. (DOD Release 456-75) 

0 Flight Research Center’s F-111 Integrated Propulsion Control System 

(IPCS) aircraft had made its first flight with the new system operating, FRC’sx-Press reported. The IPCS used digital electronics instead 

187 
September ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

of conventional hydromechanical controls for actuating the aircraft’s 

supersonic jet engine and engine inlet. The new system was expected 

to allow aircraft to fly at full high-speed performance limits without 

adverse interaction among the engine, the inlet, and the aerodynamic 

flow over the fuselage. During the 1-hr flight, the modified inlet 

and engine were operated entirely under computer control, with routine test transfers between digital and hydromechanical control at all 

flight conditions. (FRC X-Press, 12 Sept 75, 2) 

0 NASA had selected Brooks Air Force Base in San Antonio, Tex., as the 

site for a remote storage facility for 10 to 20% of the 382 kg of lunar 

material brought back from the moon by the Apollo crews, the Johnson Space Center Roundup reported. All lunar material had previously been stored in JSC’s curatorial facility; the additional site would 

safeguard against any catastrophe that might affect the material at the 

main site. 

Samples at Brooks, a cross section of all lunar materials collected 

during the Apollo missions, would be held in “dead storage” to keep 

them in pristine condition for analysis by future generations. (JSC 

Roundup, 12 Sept 75) 

0 Charles M. Duke, Jr., an astronaut since 1966 and lunar mobile pilot on 

the Apollo 16 lunar landing mission (16-27 April 1972), announced he 

would leave NASA, effective 1 Jan. 1976. He would also resign from the 

Air Force after nearly 19 yr of service. DuringApollo 16, Duke logged 

11 days 1 hr 43 min in space, including a 71-hr 14-min stay on the lunar 

surface. He and John W. Young made 3 surface explorations of the 

Descartes region for a total of 20 hr 15 min of lunar excursion. 

Since April 1973 Duke had served as technical assistant to the 

manager for Space Shuttle systems integration. (JSC Release 75 -74) 

15 September: In a letter to Rep. Don Fuqua, chairman of the House of 

Representatives’ Committee on Science and Technology Subcommittee on Space Science and Applications, NASA Administrator Dr. 

James C. Fletcher summarized options for missions that could use the 

remaining Apollo-Saturn flight hardware. Options included an earthorbital mission as an Apollo-Soyuz Test Project backup; a Skylab revisit; an Apollo geosynchronous mission; a lunar orbital mission; an 

earth-orbital mission to visit a Soviet space station; and a mannedsatellite inspector. The hardware could also be used to launch a U.S. 

unmanned space station carrying a large U.S.S.R. payload, a large 

orbiting reflector, a space solar-power demonstration, a planetary 

probe, or multiple payloads. Another possibility might be to carry an 

Apollo spacecraft into space aboard the Space Shuttle to provide a 

crew-rescue capability or to serve as a habitable module, to demonstrate a Shuttle-serviced free-flying module, or to inspect and service 

orbiting satellites. 

Dr. Fletcher’s letter added that he did not foresee that funds would 

be available to support additional Apollo-Saturn missions in the 

period preceding the Space Shuttle operation. The subcommittee at a 

25 March meeting had asked NASA to summarize the options when the 

agency had sought permission to dispose of surplus Apollo-Saturn 

equipment [see 9 April]. (Text, letter from Fletcher to Fuqua and 

attachment “Conceptual Flight Possibilities for Saturn-Apollo Hardware,” 15 Sept 75) 

0 Norman Pozinsky’s appointment as Deputy Associate Administrator for 

Tracking and Data Acquisition became effective. Pozinsky was re188 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 September 

lacing H. R. Brockett, who retired. Pozinsky previously had been PD irector of the Network Development and Engineering Div. in the 

Office of Tracking and Data Acquisition. (NASA anno 17 Sept 75) 

16 September: Dr. James C. Fletcher, NASA Administrator, presented 23 

awards to Marshall Space Flight Center employees and contractor 

personnel for contributions to the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project mission 

(15-26 July). Ellery B. May, former manager of the Saturn Program 

Office at WFC, received NASA’s highest award, the Distinguished 

Service Medal. Exceptional Service Medals were awarded to 14 MSFC 

employees; Public Service Awards went to six contractor employees 

active in the ASTP mission. The Group Achievement Award went to 

the ASTP Experiments Team and the Stress Corrosion Review Team. 

ASTP astronauts Thomas P. Stafford, Vance D. Brand, and Donald 

K. Slayton, as well as NASA Deputy Administrator Dr. George M. Low, 

Associate Administrator for the Office of Space Flight John F. Yardley, and ASTP Program Director Chester M. Lee, attended the ceremony honoring MSFC workers who had provided the Saturn launch 

vehicle as well as 10 of the 21 onboard experiments for the mission. 

(MSFC Release 75-196; Marshall Star, 17 Sept 75, 1-2) 

NASA announced appointment of Gonzalo Fernatldez as Assistant Associate Administrator for Center Operations, replacing Raymond 

A. Kline, appointed Assistant Administrator of Institutional Management. Fernandez, who came to NASA from the Air Force, would 

be responsible for the Offices of Administrative Data Processing 

Management, Information Systems, NASA Aircraft, Safety and 

Environmental Health, and Operating Systems. (NASA anno, 16 Sept 

75) 17 September: One of the most highly detailed and instrumented models 

of the Space Shuttle ever constructed had been wind-tunnel-tested at 

the Arnold Engineering Development Center, the Air Force Systems 

Command announced. Located throughout the 92-cm model were 835 

temperature sensors to measure heat levels of major components at 

jettison of the two expended solid-propellant boosters. 

Two other Shuttle tests also had been completed for NASA at AEDC: 

A smaller model and computer-controlled systems were used to study 

aerodynamic forces during the separation of the expended solid 

boosters. During the test the Orbiter and external fuel-tank models 

were attached to the tunnel supports and a solid booster model was 

attached to the computer-controlled support. Measurements were 

recorded with a single booster model at various points below, beside, 

and behind the Orbiter-tank combination and with the booster and 

Orbiter-tank at various pitch and yaw angles. 

In the third test, heating data were obtained on an Orbiter model 

positioned at a high angle of attack at mach 8. Special paints that 

changed from a solid to a liquid at specified tdmperatures were 

used to record heating histories on the surface of the model, and oilcoating techniques were used to examine aidow. (AFSC Release OIP 

226.75) 

18 September: President Gerald R. Ford presented the 1974 National 

Medal of Science, the nation’s highest science award, to 13 distinguished American scientists. Among those honored during the White 

House ceremony was Dr. Rudolf Kompfner of Bell Telephone Laboratories Research Communications Div., who received the award for his 

189 
September ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

invention of the traveling-wave tube and for major contributions to 

communications satellites and to optical communications. 

Dr. Linus C. Pauling received the award for his contributions in 

the fields of structural chemistry, molecular biology, immunology, 

and genetic diseases. Dr. Pauliig, two-time winner of the Nobel 

Prize, had been long bypassed for the national award, despite repeated recommendations of a scientific advisory committee, because 

of his outspoken criticism of much of American foreign policy. Victor 

Cohn of the Washington Post reported that the award signaled “an end 

to a White House war on unfriendly scientists conducted during the 

Johnson and Nixon administrations.” 

President Ford told the 200 persons attending the ceremonies that, 

looking back over 200 yr of the nation’s history, we owed a great debt 

to science and to all the men and women who have “carried on the 

scientific enterprise of this country.” The whole spirit of scienceone that urged us to innovate, to explore the unexplored, and to 

answer the unanswered-was the true spirit of America. Although 

scientific priorities had changed over the years, the “Nation’s 

commitment to that most basic of all inquiries-basic researchhas not diminished. . . . Our Nation’s future and that of the world 

depends on the creativity and the genius of men and women such as 

these we honor today.” (PD, 22 Sept 75, 1027-28; Cohn, W Post, 18 

Sept 75, AI; NYT, 19 Sept 75, 23) 

e The National Aeronautic Association announced the selection of 

Clarence L. Johnson to receive its Wright Brothers Memorial Trophy 

for 1975. Johnson, retired from Lockheed Aircraft Co. after 42 yrs 

with the company, would receive the award for his “vital and enduring 

contributions over a period of 40 years to the design and development 

of military and commercial aircraft.” As head of Lockheed’s 

Advanced Development Projects, he had played leading roles in the 

development and design of more than 40 of the world’s finest aircraft 

including the World War I1 fighter bomber, the P-38; the 

Constellation and Super Constellation; the first U.S. operational jet, 

the F-80; the high-altitude U-2 reconnaissance aircraft; and one of 

the first business jets, the Jet Star. 

The trophy had been awarded annually for significant public service of enduring value to aviation in the U.S. (NAA News, 18 Sept 75) 

0 The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics announced 

that James B. Lazar, NASA’s Chief of Electric Propulsion and Flight 

Experiments Branch in the Office of Aeronautics and Space 

Technology, and Roderick W. Spence of the Los Alamos Scientific 

Laboratory would receive the James H. Wyld Propulsion Award. The 

award was given annually in recognition of “outstanding leadership of 

this nation’s advanced propulsion programs in the separate fields of 

nuclear and electric rocket propulsion.” 

Lazar had been responsible for NASA’s electric propulsion program, providing NASA with the option for a highly reliable, efficient, 

and flight-proven space propulsion system. 

Dr. Spence had directed design and development of the nuclear 

rocket reactors at the Los Alamos laboratory, providing the 

foundation of technology for the nation’s nuclear rocket program. 

(AIM Release 18 Sept 75) 

A giant washing machine capable of doing 318 kg of laundry would help 

to develop economical and efficient methods of cleaning and refur190 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 September 

bishiig the Space Shuttle solid-rocket booster parachutes, and to 

identify the problems encountered during the process, Kennedy 

Space Center’s Spaceport News reported. The washer-2 m wide by 2 

m high and 10 m long, and holding 23 668 liters of water-would wash 

a 23-m 318-kg 80-gore parachute. Once washed, the parachute, 136 

kg heavier, would be taken by monorail to a drying area. A team of five 

technicians was required to complete the 4hr process. (KSC Spaceport News, 18 Sept 75, 6) 

19 September: Salyut 4, launched into earth orbit on 26 Dec. 1974, was 

continuing its flight, Tass reported. To date, the space station had 

completed 42200 revolutions of the earth and, in automatic mode, was 

collecting data and making astrophysical observations with the onboard instrumentation. All systems were functioning normally. 

Since its launch, Salyut 4 had been inhabited by two two-man 

crews. The fust crew, launched 11 Jan. 1975 aboard Soyuz 17, lived 

and worked aboard the station for nearly 30 days. A second crew, 

launched 24 May 1975 aboard Soyuz 18, visited the station for a 

Soviet manned space flight record of 63 days. A third mission, 

launched 5 Apr& was aborted when the booster third stage malfunctioned. (Tass, FBIS-SOV, 23 Sept 75, U1; A&A 74) 

The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics presented its 

Haley Astronautics Award to Skylab 4 astronauts Gerald P. Carr, 

Edward G. Gibson, and William R. Pogue at the AIAA-American 

Geophysical Union Conference on the Exploration of the Outer 

Planets, in St. Louis, Missouri. The award was presented “for 

demonstrated outstanding courage and skill during the recordbreaking 84-day Skylab mission.’’ During the mission, which had 

begun 16 Nov. 1973, the crew had successfully completed 56 experiments, 26 science demonstrations, 15 detailed subsystem objectives, 

and 13 student investigations. They also collected extensive earthresources data and logged 338 hrs of Apollo Telescope Mount data, 

making detailed observations of solar processes. (MSFC Marshall Star, 

3 Sept 75, 4) 

20 September -5 October: Apollo-Soyuz Test Project astronauts Thomas 

P. Stafford, Vance D. Brand, and Donald K. Slayton and their families 

visited the U.S.S.R., joining Soviet ASTP cosmonauts Aleksey A. 

Leonov and Valery N. Kubasov and their families for a goodwill tour of 

the Soviet Union. The two crews had not met since they said goodbye 

in space during their historic mission [see 15-24 July]. After 

greetings at the Moscow airport with wide grins, bear hugs, and back 

slaps, Stafford told the airport crowd in Russian, “We are very 

pleased to be back in the Soviet Union again. Now we can say our joint 

work has been fulfilled successfully. I am confident that our flight will 

serve progress and peace on earth.” During the welcoming 

ceremonies Boris Petrov, U.S.S.R. Chairman of the Intercosmos 

Council, told the Americans, “The Soviet people were glad to see your 

success and are eager to welcome you on earth and in the Soviet 

Union.” 

The astronauts, cosmonauts, and their families visited Star City on 

21 Sept. to thank the Soviet space community for its work on the ASTP 

mission. “For 2 years Star City was a second home to us,” Stafford 

told the crowd of Soviet space workers. “Thank you for all your 

work.” The astronauts’ families laid flowers at the memorial to Yuri 

Gagarin, first man to fly in space. Stafford, Brand, and Slayton 

191 
September ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

presented Star City with a plaque bearing the Soviet and American 

flags and exchanged other gifts with the Soviets. 

On 22 September Leonid I. Brezhnev, General Secretary of the 

Communist Party Central Committee, met the ASTP astronauts and 

cosmonauts at the Great Kremlin Palace, greeting each as “hero” and 

congratulating them on their historic mission, saying it would “pave 

the way for generations to come to go on with this work.” During the 35- 

min reception he told the crews of his hope for a treaty to limit nuclear 

arms. “Both sides-the United States and the Soviet side-should 

make every possible effort for good, neighborly relations, really good, 

in all aspects, from every point of view,” he said. 

On 23 Sept. the two crews and their families began a six-city tour of 

the Soviet Union that took them to Leningrad, Kiev, Volgograd, 

Novosibirsk, Sochi, and Tbilisi. Everywhere the crews were swamped 

by enthusiastic spontaneous crowds of up to 3000 persons waiting on 

corners and at airports for hours to cheer the spacemen. “The 

hospitality is fantastic,” Stafford remarked at Volgograd. The New 

York Times reported that each appearance of the spacemen was 

greeted with applause and cheering and they responded with waves 

and autographs. 

The astronauts ended their Russian tour on 4 Oct. with a farewell 

press conference back in Moscow. Stafford, Brand, and Slayton 

praised the “enthusiastic people with warm hearts” they had met 

during their tour. During the press conference-held exactly 18 yr 

after the U.S.S.R. had launched the first manmade satellite, Sputnik 

1, on 4 Oct. 1957-Stafford encouraged continued cooperation 

between the U.S. and U.S.S.R. in such areas as lunar and planetary 

exploration, space medicine, space meteorology, and earth environment. 

The three u.S. astronauts and their families flew to London for an 

overnight stay before flying back to Houston on 5 Oct. (B Sun, 21 

Sept-6 Oct 75; NYT, 21 Sept-6 Oct 75) 

22 September: NASA and the Air Force Systems Command’s Space and 

Missile Systems Organization had jointly contracted for procurement 

of 12 advanced meteorological satellites, saving more than $37 million, AFSC announced. Both agencies had developed satellites to 

observe and report worldwide weather conditions and were negotiating procurement of improved, longer lived meterological spacecraft. 

The contracts for long-leadtime parts for the new satellites-nine for 

NASA and three for the Air Forcewere a follow-on to an earlier Air 

Force procurement program for a meterological satellite identified as 

Block 5D. Although some of the systems differed, similar technical 

requirements permitted the basic spacecraft to serve both agencies. 

Use of an already developed basic design would save NASA about $33 

million, and the joint production contract would save both agencies 

nearly $2.4 million in material and assembly costs. (AFsC Release OIP 

186.75) 

0 The appointment of Lt. Gen. Duward L. Crow (USAF, Ret.) as Associate 

Deputy Administrator became effective. Gen. Crow succeeded Willis 

H. Shapley, who retired. Before joining NASA in September 1974 as 

Assistant Administrator for Dept. of Defense and Interagency Affairs, 

Gen. Crow had been Assistant Vice Chief of Staff of the Air Force 

since October 1873. He had previously been Comptroller of the Air 

Force. 

192 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 September 

Replacing Gen. Crow as Assistant Administrator for DOD and 

Interagency Affairs was Lt. Gen. William W. Snavely (USM Ret.) who 

had been Air Force Deputy Chief of Staff for Systems and Logistics 

since January 1973. (NASA Release 75-260) 

9 A NASA-developed low-cost highly efficient solar thermal-energy collector and a ball bearing design with alife expectancy 20 times greater 

than that of present ball bearings had been selected to receive Zndustrial Research magazine’s award for two of the 108 most significant 

new products developed during the year, NASA announced. 

Developed at Lewis Research Center in cooperation with Honeywell, Inc., the solar collector absorbed 20% more solar-radiated 

energy and produced a greater flow of high-temperature fluids. The 

flat-plate collector combined an efficient flow scheme, insulation, 

dual antireflective glass covers, and black chrome absorption coating 

to provide heating and cooling, with low cost and low pollution, for 

both commercial buildings and homes. 

LeRC developed the bearing with General Electric Co. and Industrial Tectonics, Inc., using computer analysis for maximum performance and reliability. Advanced techniques for producing and melting 

steel provided a cleaner, longer lived material for the bearing, and 

advanced fabrication and machining methods contributed greater 

accuracies and surface finishes to the bearing rings. The bearing was 

lubricated through holes in the bearing’s split inner ring rather than by 

a conventional lubricant jet pointed at the bearing rings. This 

advanced bearing design was expected to replace mainshaft-thrust 

ball bearings presently used in large turbine engines, pumping 

systems, electric utilities, and petroleum pipeline operations. (NASA 

Release 75-258) 

23 September: A Senate and House of Representatives conference committee reported out H.R. 8070, appropriating FY 1976 funds for the 

Department of Housing and Urban Development and sundry independent executive agencies, after resolving the disagreements of the 

two congressional bodies. Total NASA Ey 1976 appropriation recommended by the committee was $3 551 822 000, changed only with 

respect to funds allotted for research and development. The 

FY 1976 

NASA Budget Appropriation Congressional Adjustments 

to Budget Request 

(millions) 

Budget House Senate Conference Total Conference 

Program Request Changes Changes Changes Recommendation 

Research & 

Construction 

Research & Prog 

Development 2678.4 -49.4 +7.0 - 1.0 2677.4 

of Facilities 84.6 - 2.5 -2.5 -2.5 82.1 

Management - 

776.0 +0.5 - -0.5 -0.5 775.5 - - - Totals 3539.0 -52.4 +4.0 -4.0 3535.0 

(H.R. Comm Rpt 94-502; CR, 23 Sept 75, H9035-38) 

193 
September ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

committee appropriated to NASA $2 677 380 000 for R&D, qkM.4 maon 

more than the $2 628 980 000 proposed by the House [see 19 and 24 

June] and $8.0 million less than the $2 685 380 000 proposed by the 

Senate [see 24 and 26 July]. 

The conference committee agreed that NASA could reprogram $7 000 000 from the R&D total for an upper atmospheric research, 

technology, and monitoring program. The committee also agreed that 

$1 000 000 of the total funding of $48 400 000 proposed for a PioneerVenus mission might be reprogrammed for further planning of the 

Large Space Telescope, though not beyond evaluation of phase B 

studies. Appropriations for construction of facilities and for research 

and program management had been previously agreed on and remained unchanged. 

23 September: NASA Pilot William H. Dana made the last rocket-powered 

flight of the X-24B lifting body, from Flight Research Center. Although a four-chamber firing had been planned, only three chambers 

ignited, and a three-chamber flight plan was executed. The X-24B 

reached an altitude of 17 678 m and a speed of mach 1.2. Six more 

glide flights were planned. 

Objectives of the flight were to observe stability and control with 

rudder bias at lo", to test handling qualities with all damper gains at 

zero, to survey body pressure, to perform a qualification test of a highdensity reusable surface insulator, and to make a lefthand fin tuft 

study. The X-24B was part of a joint NASA-& Force program to test 

25 

concepts for a manned vehicle that could reenter the atmosphere 

from space, and to provide advanced technology for a future hypersonic cruise aircraft. (FRC X-Press, 26 Sept 75, 2; NASA Hq X-24B 

Flt Rpt) 

September: A NASA Atlas-Centaur vehicle launched Zntelsat-IVA F - 1 at 

8:17 pm EDT from Eastern Test Range into the planned synchronous 

transfer orbit. The communications satellite had been launched for 

the Communications Satellite Corp. under a cost-reimbursable 

contract. At 11:18 pm EDT 26 Sept., ComSatCorp fired the apogee 

kick motor to put the satellite in a geosynchronous orbit with a 35 821- 

km apogee, 35 294-km perigee, 23-hr 44-min period, and 0.1" 

inclination. 

NASA objectives for the mission were to review design, performance, and flight readiness for the Federal Communications Commission and to assure compatibility of the Intelsat spacecraft with 

NASA launch vehicles and launch environmental conditions, and to 

launch Zntelsat-WA F-1 into a transfer orbit that would enable the 

spacecraft apogee boost motor to inject the spacecraft into a synchronous orbit. Objectives were completed and the mission adjudged 

successful 29 Jan. 1976. 

ComSatCorp objectives were to fire the apogee boost motor, position the satellite into the planned geostationary orbit, and operate and 

manage the system for the International Telecommunications 

Satellite Organization (INTELSAT). 

Intelsat-ZVA F-1, built by Hughes Aircraft Co., was 698.5 cm high 

and 238.2 cm in diameter, with a liftoff weight of 1515 kg and orbital 

weight of 825.5 kg. The spin-stabilized satellite consisted of two main 

elements: A rotating section contained the power subsystem, a 

cylindrical solar array and two nickel-cadmium batteries; the 

anhydrous hydrazine-powered positioning and orientation system; the 

194 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 September 

solid-fueled apogee motor; and the despin-control system. The 

despun earth-oriented platform section contained the communications repeater, antennas, and associated elements of the telemetry 

and command subsystems. All spacecraft antennas were supported 

by a single tubular mast. 

For 24 hr after apogee-motor firing, Zntelsat-ZVA F-1 drifted 

eastward at a rate of lo" per day; then a velocity-correction maneuver 

slowed the spacecraft drift to 2.9' east per day. While the spacecraft 

was drifting, the Hawaii earth station checked out the spacecraft 

systems. Its final operating location, over the Atlantic Ocean at 335" 

east longitude, would be reached by mid-December. As primary 

Atlantic satellite in INTELSAT'S global commercial communications 

satellite system, it would serve more than 40 earth stations, offering 

users 6250 two-way voice circuits and two TV channels. 

Zntelsat-ZVA F-1 was the first in the Intelsat IVA series; its communications capacity was two-thirds greater than satellites in the 

Intelsat IV series, seven of which were still operating. The Intelsat 

system began with the launch of Zntelsat-Z F-1 (Early Bird 1) on 6 

April 1965; since then NASA had launched 16 successful comsats for 

ComSatCorp in the Intelsat 11, 111, and IV series. 

Although Intelsat IVA satellites had been designed primarily for 

use over the Atlantic with its heavy communications traffic, INTELSAT 

planned to launch as many as five additional IVAs, some to provide 

service for the Pacific and Indian Ocean regions. Intelsat IVAs had 

a design lifetime of 7 yr and a capacity sufficient to meet international communications requirements through 1979, when the system would be augmented with the even larger capacity Intelsat 

V comsats. 

INTELSAT, created in August 1964 by adoption of the Interim 

Agreements for the Establishment of a Global Commercial Comsat 

System, now comprised 91 member nations; a 24-member board of 

governors exercised overall responsibility for design, development, 

construction, establishment, operation, and maintenance of the Intelsat space segment. ComSatCorp, a privately owned carrier company operating under a U.S. congressional mandate, had provided 

technical and operational management services to INTELSAT and the 

global system under a cost-plus-fixed-fee management services contract. 

NASA had been responsible for procuring the Atlas-Centaur launch 

ducting preflight testing, and launching the spacecraft 

stern Test Range into a synchronous transfer orbit. 

engineers in the INTELSAT Spacecraft Technical Control 

Center in Washington, D.C., then assumed responsibility for the 

mission. 

Overall management for the NASA portion of the mission was under 

the direction of the Office of Applications. Lewis Research Center 

was responsible for Atlas-Centaur development and operation. 

Kennedy Space Center was responsible for vehicle checkout and for 

launch. (NASAMORs E-491-633-75-01,25 Sept 75,30 Jan 76; NASA 

Release 75-231; INTELSAT Releases, 21 Sept 75, 1 Oct 75; Singer, 

Today, 26 Sept 75; NASAPIO, interview, 26 Sept 75; GSFC WklySSR, 25 

Sept-1 Oct 75) 

26 September: Johnson Space Center's Glynn S. Lunney, U.S. Technical 

Director for the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, had been named manager 

195 
September ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

of the Space Shuttle Payload Integration and Development Program 

Office, JSC’s Roundup reported. The office had been created to plan 

and develop JSC payload for the Space Shuttle. The Apollo Spacecraft 

Program Office had been abolished, and personnel from that office 

and the Payloads Coordination Office had been reassigned to the new 

program office. Besides managing Shuttle payloads and components-including the Interim Upper-Stage low-cost modular spacecraft, long-duration exposure facility, and Large Space Telescope-the new office would manage JSC participation in international space activities, including any future U.S. -U.S.S.R. activities. (JSC Roundup, 26 Sept 75, 1) 

X-ray satellites-including Uhuru (Explorer 42 launched 12 Dec. 1970) 

and Os0 7 (Orbiting Solar Observatory launched 29 Sept 1971bhad 

revealed a previously unidentified class of x-ray sources associated 

with very old star clusters, Science reported. In at least five documented cases, satellites had detected x-rays from globular star 

clusters coming from above and below the pinwheel disk of the Milky 

Way galaxy. These clusters, left behind when the rest of the primordial galactic matter fell into the disk of the galaxy over 10 billion yrs 

ago, stillorbited the galactic center, bound to it by gravitational forces. 

Scientific evidence had indicated that the birth of new stars within 

clusters ended soon after the formation of the clusters themselves; the 

clusters had not been expected to contain any young binary star 

systems, those believed to make up the majority of galactic x-ray 

sources. This fact, along with the finding that sources were much 

more plentiful in globular clusters than in the galactic disk, indicated 

that some different process of x-ray production was at work. 

Scientists offered three explanations for the findings: existence of 

very large black holes, 1000 times as massive as the sun, within the 

clusters; a smaller black hole steadily fed with matter from the surrounding disk; and origin of the x-ray emissions in binary stars 

behavinglike x-ray binaries in the galactic disk but with very different 

origins. 

Scientists were hoping that two more x-ray satellites, U.K.’s Ariel 5 

(launched 15 Oct. 1974) and Ans 1 (Netherlands Astronomical Satellite launched 30 Aug. 1975), would contribute additional data to the 

study. (Metz, Science, 26 Sept 75, 1073-74) 

0 A vertical motion simulator to reproduce the critical maneuvers of aircraft during takeoff and landing was being built at Ames Research 

Center. Costing $3.5 million, the VMS would use an existing cab and 

computer system, but would have new hardware to provide large-scale 

vertical motions. It would move as much as 18 m vertically and 12 m 

horizontally and would accurately simulate flare and touchdown of 

such aircraft as the short takeoff and landing (STOL) and vertical 

takeoff and landing (VTOL). (FRC XPress, 26 Sept 75, 4) e Johnson Space Center’s Roundup reported that Scott Aviation Co. 

would begin commercial production .of a new lightweight breathing 

system for firefighters based on concepts and hardware developed by 

JSC engineers. Called the Scott Air-Pak 4.5, the new apparatus was 

the first major improvement in compressed-air breathing systems in 

more than 20 yrs. New features of the equipment included a 40% 

weight reduction; an improved pack frame and harness, with the 

unit’s weight carried on the hips rather than the shoulders; and a 

redesigned face mask for better vision. 

196 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 September 

NASA’s part in developing the apparatus had begun in 1970 when a 

national meeting of municipal officials identified the need for an improved system as their highest priority. NASA’s effort had been carried 

out at JSC as an engineering applications project under the Technology Utilization Program. After a design had been chosen from a 

number of candidates, prototype units were successfully field tested 

under actual firefighting conditions by the Houston, New York City, 

and Los Angeles fire departments. 

Scott Aviation was the first manufacturer to annovnce commercial 

production of an apparatus based on NASA effort. (JSC Roundup, 26 

Sept 75, 4) 

0 Aetna Life and Casualty would become the third partner with Comsat 

General Corp. and International Business Machines Corp. in a venture to establish a domestic satellite system, the three companies 

jointly announced. 

In a letter to the Federal Communications Commission, the three 

companies had proposed a corporate structure of the jointly owned 

CML Satellite Corp. under which each of the three companies would 

own a part of the organization. IBM would purchase 42.5% and Aetna 

would purchase 15% of CML stock, with Comsat holding the remaining 

42.5%. Aetna would also purchase a convertible note, bringing its 

investment to the same level as Comsat and IBM; the three partners 

would have equal representation on the board of directors. The 

arrangement would comply with FCC’s requirement that no partner 

own less than 10% nor more than 49% of CML’S stock [see 23 Jan.]. 

After FCC approval, the three partners would each invest up to $55 

million with additional funding obtained from outside financing. 

CML had been formed in 1972, with other stockholders, to enter the 

U.S. domestic communications satellite business; Comsat had owned 

all the stock of CML since July 1975 and, with IBM, had been seeking a 

third partner.. Both Comsat and IBM had been providing the interim 

financing. (Aetna-Comsat-IBM Release, 26 Sept 75) 

28 September: Plans had been completed for the first U.S. experiments to 

be flown on a Soviet spacecraft, Dr. David L. Winter, NASA Director 

of Life Sciences, announced. As a result of joint U.S.-U.S.S.R. 

working group meetings on space biology and medicine, 4 U.S. lifescience experiments and 7 tissue investigations were to fly aboard a 

Soviet biological satellite scheduled for launch later in the year. The 

U.S. experiments-all passive and completely autonomoue from 

spacecraft power, telemetry, and data recording-would be housed in 

5 Soviet-built containers, each 17.8 cm long by 12.7 cm wide by 11.5 

cm high. Maximum weight for each container, including experiments, 

would be 2.5 kg. Unique to this spacecraft was a Soviet-designed onboard centrifuge. U.S. experiments would be flown both on the 

centrifuge and on a stationary platform. 

The 4 flight experiments included a plant tumor-growth experiment 

to study the effects of weightlessness on sensitive plant systems; a 

carrot-cell-culture experiment to assess the effects of weightlessness 

on plant systems and on normal development of emb onic tissues; a 

energy particle radiation aboard the spacecraft; and a killifish or 

mummichog (minnows) embryogenesis experiment to evaluate the 

effect of weightlessness on development of the vestibular system 

during embryonic development in a vertebrate animal. 

197 

heavy-particle radiation experiment to measure high-c x arge and high- 
September ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Six of the tissue investigations would use rat tissue-and the 

seventh flies-supplied by the Soviets from their animal experiments. 

Soviet scientists would prepare the animal tissues for U.S. scientists 

to use in their investigations and would return the U.S. experiment 

packages upon completion of the flight. 

Ames Research Center was managing 3 of the life-science experiments and all tissue investigations. Johnson Space Center would 

manage the fish-egg development experiment. (NASA Release 75 - 264) 

0 Transfer of the Launch Vehicle and Propulsion Program from the Office 

of Space Science to the Office of Manned Space Flight, and transfer of 

the NASA Directorate for Life Sciences from the Office of Manned 

Space Flight to the Office of Space Science became effective. Also, 

the name of the Office of Manned Space Flight had been changed to 

Office of Space Flight, and the name of the Launch Vehicle and 

Propulsion Program had been changed to Expendable Launch 

Vehicle Programs. 

In announcing the changes, NASA Administrator Dr. James c. 

Fletcher had said that the exchange of these functions would “provide 

a more logical alignment of responsibilities as we move into Space 

Shuttle operations. The new Office of Space Flight will be concerned 

primarily with launching. . . and conducting Shuttle operations, while 

Space Science will have responsibility for the science to be performed 

on these flights.” (JSC Roundup, 26 Sept 75, 1) 

29 September: Johnson Space Center announced that the first of two 

Space Shuttle training aircraft had been test flown at Grumman 

American Aviation’s Bethpage, N.Y ., plant. The modified Gulfstream 

I1 would be used to train crews for Orbiter descent and landing procedures. The cockpit layout and the aerodynamic modifications of the 

trainers provided motion and visual cues and handling qualities 

similar to those of the actual Orbiter. The two trainers would be 

delivered to Johnson Space Center early in 1976. (JSC Roundup, 10 

Oct 75, 1) 

30 September: Marshall Space Flight Center had resumed acoustic testing 

of a 6.4%-scale model of the Space Shuttle to provide information 

needed in designing the Shuttle and its launch facilities, MSFC 

announced. The tests would also produce data on effects of hot 

exhaust gases on the aft portion of the Shuttle immediately after 

ignition. Data from earlier testing of the model, which included the 

liquid-fueled engines and solid rocket motors, had alerted designers 

that special provisions would be needed to deflect hot gases out of the 

solid rocket boosters away from the facility fuel lines near the launch 

pad. A pad design based on this analysis had been tested and proven. 

During the tests, which had begun originally in Ahgust 1974, the 

model was held in a test stand while its engines were fired from 6 to 10 

sec. (MSFC Release 75-205) 

During September: NASA had invited nearly 5000 scientists worldwide to 

propose experiments for a possible 6-yr mission to Uranus, beginning 

with a November 1979 launch. The mission, which could include a 

swing by Neptune, was being studied for inclusion in NASA’s FY 1977 

budget request. A mission to Uranus and Neptune would mean that 

every planet in the solar system except Pluto would have been probed 

198 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 September 

by a U.S. spacecraft by 1988. The spacecraft itself would be adapted 

directly from the Mariner probe now under development at Jet 

Propulsion Laboratory for a planned 1977 mission to Saturn; like 

Mariner-Saturn, the Uranus mission would use the gravity of Jupiter 

to hurl the spacecraft on toward the more remote planet. If the 

spacecraft remained healthy after it investigated Uranus, it would use 

the gravity of that planet to fly on to Neptune, more than 1.6 billion km 

deeper into space. (GSFC Goddard News, Sept 75,2; UPI, NYT, 4 Sept 

75, 20) 

199 

October 1975 

1 October: NASA and Rockwell International Corp. Space Div. had signed 

a $1.8-billion supplemental agreement for the follow-on development 

of the Space Shuttle Orbiter, NASA announced. The agreement 

formally incorporated into an existing contract awarded for Orbiter 

design, development, and test and evaluation, the construction of 

Orbiters 101 and 102, approach andlanding tests, and six orbital flight 

tests. The supplemental agreement for the additional work brought 

the value of the Rockwell contract to more than $2.7 billion. (NASA 

Release 75- 266; JSC Release 75- 90) 

0 Marshall Space Flight Center had opened for competition a research 

and development program to develop and demonstrate cryogenic 

components far the Space Tug vehicle. Work would include design of 

a reusable cryogenic storage system, and fabrication and evaluation of 

a testing system. Proposals were to be submitted by 31 October. (SBD, 

1 Oct 75, 159) 

0 NASA and the U.S. Coast Guard were jointly designing and developing a 

lightweight portable firefighting module to combat shipboard and 

dock fires, NASA announced. The module, a completely self-contained 

pumping system including pumps, hose, and firefighting suits, would 

pump sea water at a rate of up to 7300 liters per min (2000 gallons per 

min) for periods up to 3 hr. Marshall Space Flight Center was 

designing a prototype scheduled for construction early in 1976 and for 

testing 18 mos later. The Coast Guard had asked NASA to participate 

in the project because. of its long experience with high-capacity 

lightweight fuel pumps developed for rocket engines. The project was 

being managed for NASA by MSFC’S Technology Utilization Office. 

(NASA Release 75- 267) 

0 NASA announced selection of Bendix Field Engineering Corp. and 

Raytheon Service Co. for competitive negotiations leading to award of 

a single contract to operate and maintain portions of NASA’s worldwide 

Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network. Contractor services would 

include technical support, operation, and maintenance of the 

Goddard Space Flight Center’s Network Operations Control Center, 

GSFC’S Network Test and Training Facility, ten STDN stations, and the 

laser tracking subnet-one fixed station at Goddard Space Flight 

Center and 8 mobile stations at various sites around the world to 

support the San Andreas Fault Experiment, the Laser Geodynamic 

Satellite network, and the Geodynamic Experimental Ocean Satellite 

program-as well as operation of the magnetic-tape certification 

facility at GSFC. (NASA Release 75-268) 

0 Dr. Walter 6. Williams’ appointment as NASA Chief Engineer became 

effective. In his new position, Dr. Williams, who had been vice 

president and general manager of the Aerospace Corp. Vehicle 

Systems Div., would be responsible for reviewing the technical 

excellence of all NASA programs and for assuring their development on 

a sound engineering basis with proper programmatic controls. 

201 
October ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

From 1940 to 1958 Dr. Williams had been employed by the National 

Advisory Committee for Aeronautics and, after 1958, by NASA. His 

previous positions included chief of the High-speed Flight Station, 

Associate Director of Manned Space Center, Associate Director of 

Mercury’s Space Task Group at Langley Research Center, and 

Deputy Associate Administrator for Manned Flight Operations at 

NASA Headquarters. (MSFC Marshall Star, 10 Sept 75, 2) 

0 The appointment of Paul E. Cotton as Assistant Administrator for 

Center Operations became effective. Cotton would be responsible for 

special studies and analyses relating to institutional and organizational activities, and for implementing decisions resulting from these 

studies. Cotton joined NASA in 1958, serving in various management 

capacities until 1972, when he joined the Social Security Administration. He had returned to NASA in 1974 as special assistant to 

the Associate Administrator for Center Operations. (NASA anno, 1 

Oct 75) 

3 October: Johnson Space Center announced award of a $11.5-m3lion 

contract to General Electric Co. Space Div. to provide acceptancechecked equipment for the Space Shuttle orbiter. The equipment 

would be used to conduct standard tests and to detect variances in 

spacecraft systems in assembly at the Rockwell International Corp. 

plant. GE would also provide checkout support during the approach 

and landing phases of the Shuttle missions. (JSC Release 75-92) 

0 Johnson Space Center announced signing of a $44 800 000 contract 

amendment with Lockheed Electronics Co., Inc., for electronic, 

scientific, and computing-center support services at JSC. The services 

would support JSC programs including Space Shuttle, earth 

resources, aircraft, health applications, and the Large Area Crop 

Inventory Experiment. The amendment brought the estimated value 

of the Lockheed contract to $173 100 000. (JSC Release 75-93) 

5 October: Design and construction of a cost-saving municipal sewagetreatment plant, using a Jet Propulsion Laboratory-developed 

process, would begin late in the year in Orange County, Calif., JPL 

announced. The new system used a pyrolytic reactor to convert solid 

sewage materials to activated carbon, which was then used to treat 

incoming waste water. Besides reducing sewage-treatment costs by 

25%, the new system was expected to virtually eliminate sewage 

solids, produce cleaner waste water for delivery to the ocean, remove 

heavy metals contained in the sewage, and eliminate odors. Gases 

generated by the sewage solids would be used as a source of power. 

The plant-a pilot project funded by Federal, state, and municipal 

grants totaling approximately $2 million-would replace a small 

mobile unit installed by JPL in 1974. Project officials hoped that, 

following evaluation, the system could be scaled up 100-fold and 

adopted for urban waste treatment. (JPL Release 5 Oct 75) 

0 The Univ. of Chile would build and operate a ground station to receive 

earth-resources data directly from NASA’s Landsats 1 and2 spacecraft 

launched 23 July 1972 and 22 Jan. 1975, NASA announced. A 

memorandum of understanding between NASA and the university 

provided for Chile’s use of the Spaceflight Tracking and Data 

Network station at Santiago until the ground station becomes 

operational. 

202 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 October 

The station would aid South American investigators conducting 

research in cooperation with NASA and the United Nations. The Univ. 

of Chile station would be the tenth Landsat station worldwide. Three 

stations were located in the U.S. Brazil, Canada, and Italy each had 

stations in operation, and Iran and Zaire were constructing facilities 

for data acquisition. In addition, Canada was planning a second 

station. The Univ. of Chile station would be able to acquire data 

directly from the satellite as it passed over Bolivia, Uruguay, 

Argentina, Chile, and sections of Peru and Brazil. (NASA Release 

75- 265) 

6 October: A massive new power source for earth-transmission of solar 

energy by microwave frequency-had been under study by the Jet 

Propulsion Laboratory at the Goldstone station near Barstow, Calif. 

The dish antenna equipped with a 450-kw klystron tube for microwave 

transmission, represented a space station; the tower a mile away with 

an array of solar receivers to which the experimental power converted 

to microwave energy had been beamed represented a ground station. 

This research had been designed to lead to a network of space stations 

that would collect solar energy 24 hr a day and beam it to ground 

stations; the Goldstone tests had been the first high-power field trials 

of the system. Tiny rectifying dipole antennas-called rectennascollect and convert the radio-frequency beam; the 17 panels in the 

tower receiver contain 4590 of the rectennas. The system had 

demonstrated a maximum output of 30.4 kw converting the 

microwave beam to usable electricity, an efficiency of 82.5%. A spaceto-earth system would be 6 times more effective than a surface 

system, the Los Angeles Times commented, and could probably 

supply 15% to 20% of the earth‘s energy needs in the next century. 

Development of a utility operating system delivering 10 000 mw of 

power would cost about $60 billion, as much as NASA has spent to date 

on space programs. A single equatorial space station carrying a l-kmdiameter antenna transmitting to a U.S. earth station 15 km long and 

10 km wide could supply all the electrical needs of New York City or a 

third of the needs of the Los Angeles basin. (LA Times, 6 Oct 75, 1; 

NYT, 10 Oct 75, 2) 

7 October: Dr. William R. Lucas, Director of Marshall Space Flight 

Center, announced the establishment of an advanced mineralextraction task team within the Program Development Directorate. 

Working with the Dept. of Interior’s Bureau of Mines, the team would 

use NASA expertise and technology to increase the nation’s ability to 

extract energy and minerals at acceptable cost and with minimum 

effect on the environment. One of NASA’s first tasks would be to 

improve the efficiency of the long-wall shearer-a coal-removing 

machine used by miners that could leave a foot or more of 

unrecoverable coal along the edges of a vein-by using sensors, 

remote controls, and TV monitors to guide the machine. (MSFC 

Release 75-215) 

8 October: NASA announced award of a $1.5 million cost-plus-fixed-fee 

contract to Rockwell International Corp. for development of a solidstate bubble-memory data recorder to meet spacecraft data-storage 

requirements. The recorder, which would have no moving parts, 

203 
October ASTRONAUTlCS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

would offer a capacity of 100 million bits, serial or parallel data 

inpudoutput operation, user-selected data rates, and direct access to 

the memory. Rockwell would complete the work in two phases: A 

prototype would be completed by early 1977, and a flight-qualifiable 

model would be produced by early 1978. Langley Research Center 

would manage the contract for NASA. (NASA Release 75-272) 

0 Cosmos 775, believed to be third of a series in the Soviet Union’s 

Statsionar communications-satellite program, was launched from 

Baykonur Cosmodrome into a very low near-circular earth orbit. Its 

predecessors, Cosmos 637 and Molniya I-S, had been launched 26 

March and 29 July 1974. The satellites were to supply communications, including telephone, telegraph, Tv, and phototelegraph 

transmissions, between the Soviet Union and Europe and between the 

capital and extreme eastern portions of the U.S.S.R. Once the 

Statsionar communications system was established, the U.S.S.R. 

was expected to undertake implementation of a synchronous 

meteorological satellite system as early as the 1976-77 period. (SBD, 

16 Qct 75, 232) 

10 October: The first of a series of 5 conferences on design requirements 

for Space Shuttle and Spacelab payloads had been held at Marshall 

Space Flight Center. About 50 scientists and engineers from 

government, industry, and universities had met to define functional 

requirements for payload equipment to further NASA’s Space 

Processing Applications (SPA) program, including analysis of selected 

design approaches and recommendations for getting the most use out 

of SPA payloads for the materials science and technology community. 

The meeting would hear presentations on the two SPA competitive 

engineering designs by General Electric and TRW Systems, Inc. The 

next 2 days would be used by working groups to discuss their 

specialties-biological preparations; chemical processes and fluid 

phenomena; glasses and ceramics; and solidification of metals, 

alloys, composites, and electronic materials. The 5 scheduled 

meetings should define payloads that are compatible with the Space 

Shuttle and Spacelab and that would meet the research needs of the 

industrial and scientific communities. (MSFC Release 75- 218) 

0 NASA announced signing of an agreement with the Federal Aviation 

Administration to act as a third party for the purpose of receiving, 

processing, and analyzing safety reports filed under FAA’s Aviation 

Safety Reporting Program. The third-party arrangement would 

stimulate the free and unrestricted flow of information, by assuring 

users that FAA’s objective in the program was to provide the safest 

possible aviation system by identifying and correcting unsafe 

conditions before accidents occur. The agreement provided for 

specific procedures to protect the identity of persons involved in the 

reports submitted to NASA, except in criminal cases or accidents. 

NASA would set up an aviation safety reporting working group under 

its Research and Technology Advisory Council to advise NASA on the 

reporting system, to evaluate and review the program once it is under 

way, and to ensure the anonymity of those submitting reports. The 

group would include aviation and consumer groups and others 

involved in operational aspects of the national aviation system. (NASA 

Release 75- 273) 

204 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 October 

12 October: Soviet cosmonauts Valery Kubasov and Gen. Aleksey Leonov 

arrived in Washington, D.C., to begin a 2-wk tour of the U.S. by 

visiting President Ford at the White House and touring the capital. 

The American crew of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project and their wives 

would accompany the cosmonauts on the tour, which would also visit 

Chicago, Omaha, Salt Lake City, San Francisco, Reno, Lake Tahoe, 

Los Angeles, Atlanta, Nashville, and New York City. The cosmonauts 

were accompanied by their wives and three of their children, as well 

as the director of cosmonaut training, Gen. Vladimir Shatalov, plus a 

support staff and Soviet journalists. The Apollo-Soyuz crews had 

completed a 2-wk tour of the Soviet Union 4 Oct. (NASA Release 

75-276; SBD, 14 Oct 75, 216) 

13 October: At a news conference in Washington, D.C., with members of 

the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project crew today, astronaut Donald “Deke” 

Slayton said he is convinced that man eventually will fly to Mars, and 

that such a mission “is a natural for an international mission as 

opposed to any national mission.” Maj. Gen. Aleksey Leonov of the 

visiting cosmonauts agreed that the ASTP mission was “only the beginning of our future cooperation in space” and that it would be a 

“shame” for the U.S. and the Soviet Union to conduct parallel space 

programs that could be conducted as joint missions. (SBD, 15 Oct 75, 

224) 

14 October: Manufactyre of unique items in space is nearing reality with 

the availability of the Space Shuttle, scientists from TRW Systems 

Group told the 6th U.S. -European conference on partnership for 

space applications. Five practical processes in the space environment 

would be crystal growth, purification and separation, mixing, solidification, and processes in fluids. The gravity-free environment would 

permit the manufacture of items such as contamination-free glass for 

laser requirements, pure crystals for semiconductors, and highly pure 

vaccines. Also, if materials like copper-lead alloys that do not mix on 

earth could be combined in zero gravity, real breakthroughs in aircraft 

and automotive parts manufacture might be possible. (SBD, 14 Oct 

75, 221) 

Jet Propulsion Laboratory scientists reported that a joint JPL-Univ. of 

Texas astronomy team had detected carbon monoxide in the atmosphere b of Jupiter for the first time. Instrumentation at McDonald Observatory, the Univ. of Texas’s 27-m telescope facility in Austin, made the 

discovery by using high-resolution spectra. Dr. Reinhard Beer, JPL 

leader of the team, reported that the near-infrared spectra had been 

produced by a Connestype Fourier spectrometer in 1974; spectral 

lines-the “signatures” of various molecules-had disclosed that 

carbon monoxide molecules were present to a depth of at least 50 km 

into the lower atmosphere. Carbon monoxide had been previously 

found in minor amounts in the atmospheres of earth, Venus, and 

Mars. Although the spectra had shown no indication of carbon dioxide 

in the Jovian atmosphere, Dr. Beer reported, future telescope 

searches from higher altitudes might reveal its presence there. (NASA 

Release 75- 269) 

15 October: A “rather exciting development” in the ability of manned 

spacecraft systems to navigate accurately should be available in 10 yr, 

General William J. Evans, Commander, Air Force Systems Command, told the 57th annual meeting of the American Defense 

. 

205 
October ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Preparedness Assn. in Los Angeles. The NAVSTAR Global Positioning 

System, the "most precise and accurate positioning, velocity, and 

navigation assistance air or surface vehicles have ever had," may replace as many as five separate systems now required for these functions. (Msc Release 15 Oct 75) 

16 October: NASA launched the first geostationary operational environmental satellite, GOES-A, at 6:M pm EDT for the National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration aboard the 106th successful Delta 

from Kennedy Space Center. Transfer orbit elements were: apogee, 

36 795 km; perigee, 200 km; inclination, 23.7"; period, 650.9 min. 

Apogee boost motor fired at 10:51 am EDT 17 Oct. had put the spacecraft into a synchronous orbit at 36 200 km altitude, where it wodd 

drift to its scheduled position approximately 50"N. When the GOES- A 

had been moved to position and checked out, it would be designated 

Goes 1 and turned over to NOAA for operational use. 

GOES was the first operational version of the prototype synchronous 

meteorological satellites (Sms 1, launched 17 May 74 into geostationary orbit at 75"W, and Sms 2, launched 6 Feb. 75 and positioned at 

115"W). 

Sms 1, originally stationed over the eastern Atlantic in support 

of the Global Atmospheric Research Program, had provided the 

first near-continuous daylight coverage of a major hurricane 

(Carmen) in Sept. 1974. The day-night time-lapse motion pictures 

produced from Sms 1 images had aided understanding of hurricanes 

and tropical storms, as well as the total weather pattern in the 

Atlantic. Sms 2, from its station over the equator, had viewed the 

western half of the U.S., including Hawaii. Other NOhi satellites 

in polar orbit (Essa 8, Noaa 3, and Noaa 4) had collected global 

data for transmission to ground stations in Alaska and eastern 

U.S. This information has been available worldwide to any individual or agency with equipment that could receive the transmissions. 

Goes 1 would provide NOAA scientists with images of a quarter of 

earth's surface at 30-min intervals, day and night. The satellite would 

also collect and relay nonvisual environmental data transmitted from 

thousands of manned and unmanned remote-sensing facilities on land 

and sea. Its radiation sensors would monitor solar activity and 

transmit its findings to NOM'S Environmental Research Laboratories 

in Boulder, Colo., for use in predicting solar storms that would affect 

radio communications on earth. Goes 1 would also transmit weather 

maps and other material from NOAA's station at Wallops Island, Va., 

in a format suitable for use by.ground stations at regional forecast 

centers. (NASA Release 75-270; KSC Release 251-75; MORS E-608- 

75-03,22 Sept and 17 Oct 75; KSCSpaceport News, 31 Oct 75,l; NOM 

Release 75-188) 9 The Ancient Mariner-a power package built as a backup for the unit 

flown past Venus on Mariner 5 in 1967-was still going strong after 

more than 5 yr of operating in a space environment, the Boeing Space 

Center at Kent, Wash., said. Function of the package had been to 

transform raw power collected by solar panels into electric current 

acceptable to the spacecraft. NASA had asked Boeing to find out if 

electronic units like this could stand the rigors of long-distance space 

flights such as a 12-yr Grand Tour of the outer planets. 

206 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 October 

Boeing put the Manner instrument in a test chamber-part of an 

extensive vacuum and space simulation facility-in which temperature had been fixed at 1.6"C and other conditions had been made to 

conform with those in space. The duplicate had performed perfectly, 

outlasting much of its ground-support equipment and all but one of the 

technicians originally assigned to the experiment. The test had proved 

that flight hardware could stand temperatures as much as 30°C cooler 

than those encountered on missions already completed, and that similar electronic packages had a life expectancy of more than 5 yr, far 

longer than the period for which they had been designed. (Newport 

News Times-Herald, 16 Oct 75, 15) 

Goddard Space Flight Center announced selection of PW Facilities 

Management Corp. for a 2-yr $3 500 000 cost-plus-award-fee contract to provide processing, preparation, retrieval, reproduction, and 

distribution of space-science data for the National Space Science 

Data Center. PMI would also maintain, upgrade, develop, and implement plans for improved data-handling information systems, and 

would provide scientific analyses and programming, prepare reports, 

maintain files, order supplies and equipment, and operate photographic and microfilm equipment. 

The Data Center served as a NASA-wide depository for spacescience data and a means of analyzing and disseminating this information beyond that provided by principal investigators. (GSFC Release 

G- 24- 75) 

17 October: More than 1000 instrumented platforms-either floating 

buoys or balloons-were being used to provide information on tropical 

and polar weather and ocean and ice conditions, NASA announced. 

The platforms would transmit data from their sites to NASA's Nimbus 6 

meteorological research satellite, launched 12 June 1975, which 

would record and play back the data on command to ground stations 

around the world. The stations would then disseminate the information to investigators in Australia, Brazil, Canada, France, Norway, 

South Africa, and the U.S. Platforms would be located in such remote 

areas as the South Pole, Indian Ocean, Africa, Samoa, and the Arctic. 

The National Center for Atmospheric Research was releasing more 

than 400 balloons to altitudes up to 14 km from American Samoa, 

Ghana, and Ascension I. to study the atmosphere in the tropics. About 

50 low-level balloons were being released to an altitude of 750 m from 

the Seychelles island group, just north of the Malagasy Republic, by 

the Laboratoire de Meteorologie Dynamique in Paris to study the airsea interface to determine its effect on monsoons in India. About 30 

ice buoys were being placed in the Arctic and Antarctic, one only 45 m 

from the South Pole, as part of a major U.S. government project to 

understand ice packs, icebergs, and weather patterns near the poles. 

Scientists from the Norsk Polarinstitut in Norway were deploying four 

drifting buoys to help chart ice drift in the Greenland area. (NASA 

Release 75- 271) 

20 October: Kennedy Space Center announced a reorganization to prepare 

for the Space Shuttle era of space operations. John J. Neilon, Director 

of Unmanned Launch Operations since 1970, was named Deputy 

Director of Technical Support; George F. Page, Chief of Operations, 

Div. of Manned Spacecraft Operations, would move into Neilon's 

former post. 

207 
October ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

The Launch Operations Directorate would be reorganized into four 

major second-level groups: engineering, payloads, space transportation systems processing, and expendable vehicle operations. (KSC 

Release 253- 75) 

0 The Soviet Union may establish a ground station to receive data directly 

from the U.S. Landsat earth resources satellites, under a cooperative 

program in which the US. would establish facilities to receive data 

from Soviet weather satellites, NASA Administrator James Fletcher 

announced in Moscow. Landsat could be of enormous value to the 

Soviet Union, which is judged to have vast untapped oil and mineral 

deposits, which depends heavily for power on its water resources, and 

which needs help in improving crop yields and forecasting. (SBD, 20 

Oct 75, 255) 

20-22 October: More than 100 astronomers from the United States and 

several foreign countries had gathered at Goddard Space Flight 

Center to exchange information on x-ray astronomy. The symposium 

had been arranged to discuss compact double-star systems that emit 

x-rays and that had been observed in other spectral bands-radio, 

optical, ultraviolet. Earth’s galaxy alone contained 100 binary (doublestar) x-ray objects, discovered by spacecraft observing their emissions 

beyond the radiation-absorbing blanket of earth‘s atmosphere. 

Astronomers had considered the compact stars in these binary 

systems the most exciting objects of current research: the stars have 

masses close to that of earth‘s sun, but diameters of only about 10 km. 

Neutron stars, for example, had been found so dense that a teaspoonful would weigh a billion metric tons, and “black holes’’ would be even 

more dense. Five satellites currently in earth orbit had been observing 

celestial x-rays: Copernicus, Os0 8, and Sas 3, managed by GSFC, and 

the U.K.’s Ariel 5 and the Netherlands’ Am I, for which GSFC had 

coordination responsibility. In the past year spacecraft had discovered six new and extremely powerful x-ray sources, brightness in 

the sky, known as x-ray novas from their sudden brightening and subsequent fading after several months. One of these x-ray novas is as 

bright as earth’s sun and more than 10 times brighter than the easily 

visible Crab Nebula, most famous of the supernovas (exploding stars). 

(NASA Release 75-279; JSC Roundup, 24 Oct 75, 1) 

21 October: Goddard Space Flight Center had awarded a $45.8-million 

contract to RCA Astro-Electronics Division for design and production 

of eight third-generation Tiros-N spacecraft, the company announced. 

Scheduled for launch in 1978, the 635-kg spacecraft would forecast 

weather 2 days in advance with accuracy equal to that of present 1-day 

predictions. RCA earlier had received a $16.6 million NASA contract for 

long lead-time items for the Tiros-N series, bringing the total cost of 

the satellites to $62.4 million. (SBD, 21 Oct 75, 259) 

0 Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the Energy Research and Development Administration announced selection of 16 organizations to negotiate contracts for the development of low-cost solar cells for residential and commercial use. Twenty-two contracts, totaling approximately $12 million, would be awarded as part of the Low Cost Silicon 

Array Project managed by JPL for ERDA. Objective of the project was 

to create by 1985 an industrial capability of producing silicon solar 

cells or arrays at a market price of less than $500/kw. Cost to date had 

been $20 OOOkw. The demand for solar cells was expected to increase 

from 100 kw annually in 1975 to 500 000 kw annually by 1985. 

208 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 October 

JPL negotiations included production of low-cost solar-grade silicon, 

economical production of silicon in large-area sheets suitable for use 

in solar cells, development of economical encapsulation materials and 

techniques for an array lifetime of 20 yr, and development of automated processes and facilities for low-cost production of arrays. 

Future contracts would be negotiated to proeure array modules for a 

series of ERDA-funded tests of photovoltaic systems, in cooperation 

with the Department of Defense to determine the technical feasibility 

of using photovoltaics for military applications, and in cooperation 

with Lewis Research Center for a similar civilian effort. (NASA Release 75- 280) 

22-25 October: Two unmanned Soviet probes, Venera 9 and 10, dropped 

landers to the surface of Venus after 4.5-mo journeys and relayed to 

earth through 297 million km of space the first photographs of the 

Venusian surface. The two main probes went into differing 2-dayperiod orbits about the planet. The Venera 9 lander functioned for 75 

min in the atmosphere and 53 min on the surface, and the Venera 10 

for 75 min in the atmosphere and 65 min on the surface. 

The descent module of Venera 9 separated from the main spacecraft 20 Oct., 2 days before it reached the Venus atmosphere, which it 

entered at 11:58 pm EDT 21 Oct., landing on the surface at 1:13 am EDT 

Oct. 22. When the atmosphere had slowed the descent sufficiently, a 

parachute system had been deployed at about 50 km above the 

surface, and the lander studied the cloud layers and atmosphere during the rest of the descent. The lander modules had been built to withstand the hostile environment at the Venus surface, with temperatures that reach 500°C and pressures up to 100 times that of earth‘s 

atmosphere. Before landing, the modules had been cooled to - 10°C to 

provide a reserve of cold temperature that would permit operation for 

about an hour before overheating. Venera 10, launched 14 June and 

following the same procedure, had separated from its orbiter 23 Oct. 

and had landed on Venus at 1:17 am EDT 25 Oct. 

Venera 9, launched 8 June from the Baykonur cosmodrome, was the 

third Soviet spacecraft to make a soft landing on Venus: Venera 7 and 

8, which landed on Venus in Dec. 1970 and July 1972, respectively, 

had transmitted technical data for 23 and 50 min, respectively, but did 

not carry cameras. 

Pictures sent by the Venera 9 lander showed a rugged surface with 

sharp-angled and flat-surfaced rocks 30 to 35 cm across and some 

boulders. Pictures sent by the Venera 10 lander, which touched down 

2200 km from the site of Venera 9, showed what seemed to be an older 

mountain formation with smooth rounded rocks. Soviet scientists had 

expressed amazement that both sites were bathed in light. The dense 

cloudcover that hides Venus from earth had been thought to keep the 

planet in perpetual shade. Dr. Arnold Selivanov, one of the TV system 

designers, said that they had “expected poor lighting conditions and 

built our instruments accordingly”; this is why they had received 

good pictures. . .that can be used by newspapers without any preliminary processing.” 

The horizon of Venus discernible in a corner of the Venera photos 

did not appear concave (ends bent upward), as had been expected as a 

result of the theorized distortion resulting from the planet’s dense 

atmosphere. The apparent geological youth of the rocks on Venus 

testifies to recent catastrophic processes like volcanic eruptions or 

(6 

(6 
October ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

earthquakes-we should say Venusquakes-which took place 

recently,” said Soviet mineralogist Dr. Aleksandr Basilevsky. “Venus 

apparently is internally active.” This conclusion had affirmed 

American theory that Venus resembled earth in having a liquid core, a 

mantle, and a rocky crust. 

Four Soviet scientists reviewing the Venera 9 and 10 program in an 

article in Pravda had summarized the descent-module findings: Temperature and pressure at the landing sites, 468°C and 90 atm, respectively; surface illumination, about 10 000 lux; local wind velocity at 

landing site, 0.4 to 0.7 meter per sec (Venera 9) and 0.8 to 1.3 meter per 

sec (Venera 10); natural radioactive elements in Venus rock, 0.3% 

potassium, 0.0002% thorium, and 0.001% uranium. Orbiting module 

findings were: Temperature of Venus clouds at upper boundary, 

about -35°C; cloud temperatures on nocturnal side, about 10°C 

higher; atmospheric temperature decreased with altitude, but local 

temperature elevations were observable at the 66 to 55 km level; 

Venus ionosphere was thinner than the terrestrial and closer to the 

surface; and the electron concentration on the daytime side was 

significantly higher than on the nocturnal side but about 10 times 

smaller than in the terrestrial ionosphere. Much of the information 

relayed from Venus had still to be processed. 

Cameras in the orbiting spacecraft of Venera 9 and 10 had proceeded with photographing the dense cloudcover of Venus, their first 

pictures received 26 Oct. showing a panorama of more than 1500 km 

of the clouds circulating around the planet’s equator. Scientists at the 

Deep Space Communications Center in Moscow said the pictures 

“confirm the presence of powerful streams of circulating flows in the 

planet’s atmosphere, first detected on board the American probe 

Mariner 10 in February 1974.” There was no indication, the Baltimore 

Sun commented, how long the two Venus mother ships would continue in orbit. (WT, 23 Oct 75,l; 26 Oct 75,1, sec. 4 p 7; FBIS 208,210, 

25 Oct 75; WStar, 23 Oct 75, A3; BSun, 26 Oct 75, All; 27 Oct 75, A4; 

DefenseISp Bus Daily, 23 Oct 75,272; 28 Oct 75,289; 29 Oct 75,301; 

Pravda, 21 Feb 76, 3-4) 

23 October: Marshall Space Flight Center announced selection of Integrated Systems Support, Inc. to negotiate a $2.8-million cost-plusaward-fee contract for computer support and facility operations at 

MSFC’S Slidell Computer Complex. The 1-yr contract had provisions 

for four additional 1-yr extensions. (MSFC Release 75- 224) 

24 October: Marshall Space Flight Center announced selection of nine 

experiments on processing materials in space to be carried aboard a 

Black Brant 5C sounding rocket scheduled for December launch. The 

launch would be first in a 5-yr series of space-processing flights in 

MSFC’S Space Processing Applications Rocket (SPAR) project to find 

improved methods of materials processing on earth, and ultimately to 

produce materials in space that could not be produced on earth. 

The nine experiments were: dendrite remelting and macrosegregation; liquid mixing; lead-antimony eutectic; foams from sputterdeposited metals; thoria-dispersed magnesium; dispersionstrengthened lead-silver alloys; particle-interface interactions; bubble behavior in melts; and contained polycrystalline solidification. 

The low-cost rocket launches, each of which provided approximately 5.5 min of low gravity (0.001 of earth’s) during the coast phase 

of the trajectory, would offer the only means of obtaining scientific 

210 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 October 

data on space processing of materials in near-zero gravity until 

flights of the Space Shuttle in the early 1980s. (MSFC Release 75- 

225) 

9 Marshall Space Flight Center had issued requests for proposals for 

development of solar-energy cooling and heating systems for both 

residential and commercial applications. The ~WPS had been issued in 

five areas of procurement: firms already producing and marketing 

solar heating and cooling subsystems; firms developing marketable 

subsystems and needing government assistance; firms with complete 

systems under development; firms designing innovative complete 

systems; and firms to compete for test and evaluation of the subsystems procured under the first two WPS. The Solar Heating and Cooling Demonstration Act of 1974, which requires demonstration of the 

practical use of solar heating in the U.S. within 3 yr and of combined 

solar heating and cooling within 5 yr, made the Energy Research and 

Development Administration responsible for managing and coordinating the national program. ERDA assigned MSFC the responsibility 

for developing solar heating and cooling systems in an all-out effort to 

create a viable industrial and commercial capability of producing and 

distributing such systems. (NASA Release 75-284) 

25 October: Travelers on the scenic Beartooth highway in Custer Natl. 

Forest, Mont., had access to the first solar-powered privy, the Baltimore Sun reported. The installation had advantages in addition to 

making the Rock Creek Vista area a national leader in progressive 

plumbing, according to the U.S. Forest Service: it had overcome two 

basic problems of the site, lack of water and lack of power. The oilbased flush system, which cost $29 878 with toilets and storage vaults, 

recycled a white oil. The solar panels over the two-sided toilet installation, which cost $9750, had almost no upkeep expense; they had 

offered unlimited power without the cost of installing electrical lines, 

solving the problem of power sources that plagued many mountaintop 

areas of the nation’s forest system. (B Sun, 25 Oct 75, 11) 

26 October: NASA announced approval of Rockwell International 

Corp. to begin final design and construction of two subscale models of 

highly maneuverable aircraft. The construction would be completed 

under an $11.3-million contract awarded earlier. The Rockwell design 

called for a 6.3-m-long 1260-kg model with a “coke bottle” fuselage 

and two large canards mounted on each end of the 2.5-m wing. The 

model would be powered by a General Electric Co. supersonic 585 

supersonic jet engine. 

The two unmanned models would be flown from NASA’s Flight Research Center in a joint NASA-&- Force program to develop advanced technology in high-maneuverability aircraft. The models 

would be air-launched from large carrier aircraft and maneuvered by a 

pilot in a ground cockpit, using test techniques developed during 

NASA’s Remotely Piloted Research Vehicle program. (NASA Release 

75- 279) 

27 October: The Commerce Dept. had awarded Aeronutronic Ford, Inc., a 

contract for $5 581 824 to design and build a space environment monitor for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, which 

had commissioned it to make constant measurements of energetic 

solar particles when Tiros-N would be launched in 1978. Tiros-N, a 

joint mission of NOM and NASA, would be first of a new series of polarorbiting satellites to be operated by the National Environmental 

211 
October ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Satellite Service as “a major improvement in our capability of monitoring environmental phenomena,” according to Dr. George H. 

Ludwig, director of NESS’S Office of Operations. Detecting changes in 

the space environment and learning how they affect conditions on 

earth would help scientists to predict and prepare for these effects. 

The NOAA space-environment monitor, the only set of sensors facing 

away from the earth, would provide much of the needed data. (DOC 

Release G 75- 180) 

28 October: Heos 1 , Europe’s longest-living satellite, reentered the earth‘s 

atmosphere as predicted after exceeding its nominal lifetime by 

nearly 6 years. Launched 5 Dec. 1968 by the European Space Agency, 

Heos 1 was third of eight scientific satellites launched by ESROESA 

between 1968 and 1975. Its full payload of 7 experiments gave excellent results 4 months longer than the nominal lifetime; the experiment 

to study the interplanetary magnetic field worked until reentry, providing invaluable data on the field f& almost 7 of the 11 yr of a solar 

cycle. Experiments were: interplanetary magnetic field, high-energy 

galactic cosmic rays, and solar protons (Imperial College, London); 

solar wind (Universities of Florence, Rome, and Brussels); low-energy 

cosmic rays (Centre d’Etudes Nucleaires); high-energy electrons 

(CEN/University of Milan); barium cloud (Max Planck Institut). (ESA 

Release 29 Oct 75) 

0 NASA Administrator Dr. James C. Fletcher and Secretary of the Interior 

Thomas S. Kleppe announced the selection of Dr. William Nordberg, 

Goddard Space Flight Center scientist, and Dr. Carlos Brockmann, 

director of the Landsat project in Bolivia, to receive the 1975 William 

T. Pecora Award. Dr. Nordberg was selected for his meteorological 

contributions to the Landsat program and for his management of dayto-day research operations using data from Landsat 1 and2, launched 

(as Erts 1) on 23 July 1972 and on 22 Jan. 1975. Dr. Brockmann was 

selected for his leadership of a multidisciplinary team of Bolivian 

scientists responsible for the evaluation and application of Landsat 

images. Within 1 year, the team had produced evaluation reports 

covering geology, volcanology, forestry, hydrology, and land use 

of Bolivia; the group also published an improved national atlas of 

Bolivia. 

Given annually by NASA and the Dept. of Interior in recognition of 

“outstanding contributions of individuals or groups toward the understanding of the Earth by means of remote sensing,” the award would 

be presented at the joint U.S.-U.S.S.R. 4day symposium on earth 

resources at Sioux Falls, S. Dak., 28-31 Oct. (NASA Releases 

75-283, -285) 0 Eight Soviet scientists would attend a meeting at the Earth Resources 

Orbiting Satellite (EROS) Data Center in S. Dak. this week to review 

previous U.S.-U.S.S.R. remote-sensing projects [see 20 Oct.] and 

to discuss future cooperation on remote sensing of geology and agriculture. The meeting was part of a joint effort by NASA and the Soviet 

Academy of Sciences to advance studies of the earth from space; the 

Soviets might set up a ground station to receive remote-sensing data 

directly from u.S. Landsats. (SBD, 28 Oct 75, 295) 

28 -29 October: Principal investigators and other scientists meeting at the 

Marshall Space Flight Center had presented preliminary findings on 

the space-processing experiments conducted during the U.S. -Soviet 

Apollo-Soyuz Test Project in July. First day’s discussions would be on 

212 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 October 

the U.S. and West German experiments on electrophoresis-separation of biological materials by means of an electrical field-considered 

a key to the development of drugs to fight strokes, heart attacks, clots, 

and blood diseases. Six of the seven materials-processing experiments 

using a multipurpose electric furnace would be discussed the second 

day; a Soviet experiment using the furnace would not be discussed. 

The furnace experiments had demonstrated use of a weightless 

environment to investigate crystal growth, convection, and solidification processes for future use in space as well as for applications to 

present earth technology. (MSFC Release 75- 226) 

29 October: NASA and the Energy Research and Development Administration dedicated a 100-kw wind turbine designed and built by Lewis 

Research Center at plum Brook Station for ERDA. NASA Administrator 

Dr. James C. FletcherandERDA Administrator Robert C. Seamans, Jr., 

attended the ceremony conducted by LeRC Director Dr. Bruce T. 

Lundin. Objective of the wind turbine project was to test the performance and define the operating and economic characteristics of windenergy systems for generating commercial electric power in the 

future. The installation will provide data for use in developing larger 

and more advanced systems that could be produced commercially by 

private industry. The Plum Brook installation was the largest windenergy system in operation and the second largest ever built; the 

largest, a 1250-kw system operated between 1941 and 1945 in Vermont, had been abandoned because of economic difficulties and 

availability of less expensive fossil energy. The new generator, with its 

38-m-wide propeller blades, was built on top of a 30-m-high open-truss 

steel tower and could supply the power needs of about 25 homes. NASA 

was participating in the ERDA program because of its capability in 

energy-related technology. (NASA Release 75- 277) 

0 The Political 8r Security Committee of the u.N. General Assembly 

unanimously adopted a resolution seeking wider adherence to international agreements on the peaceful uses of outer space. The resolution called for continued U.N. work on space agreements, including 

one covering natural resources of the moon; on principles governing 

direct TV broadcasting by satellite; and on legal issues arising from 

remote sensing of earth and its resources from space. (SBD, 29 Oct 

75,300) 

30 October: The Saturn V dynamic test stand at Marshall Space Flight 

Center was being modified under a $1 923 400 contract between the 

Army Corps of Engineers and the Universal Construction Co., to provide a Space Shuttle Mated Ground Vibration Test Facility, MSFC 

announced. The 123-m-high structure would be used to test the 

vehicle in launch and boost configuration, to determine the bending 

modes and dynamic response during launch and ascent conditions. 

(MSFC Release 75- 230) 

NASA announced appointment of William N. Rock as Deputy Director of 

Flight Research Center, effective 9 Nov. Rock joined NASA in 1964 

and had served at NASA Headquarters, at Goddard Space Flight Center, and since 1968 at Kennedy Space Center, where he was associated with various applications and manned flight programs. (NASA 

anno, 30 Oct 75) 

31 October: Kennedy Space Center announced award of a $4 778 000 contract extension to Bendix Corp.’s Launch Support Div. for support 

services including operation and maintenance of Launch Complex 39, 

213 
October ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

mobiie launchers, mobile service structure, industrial complexes, 

technical shops, propellant systems, life-support facilities, and a 

components-cleaning laboratory. The 4mo extension brought the 

total value of the contract to $266 662 753. Complex 39, launch site for 

the Apollo, Skylab, and Apollo-Soyuz Test Project missions, would be 

the launch and landing site for Space Shuttle. Modification of the 

facilities was under way. (KSC Release 260-75) 

e Marshall Space Flight Center announced selection of Moog, Inc. for a 

$6 685 584 cost-plus-incentive-feelaward fee contract to design, 

produce, test, and maintain the Solid Rocket Booster Thrust Vector 

Control (TVC) electrohydraulic servoactuators. The devices move the 

solid rocket booster exhaust nozzle, providing directional control by 

gimballing the nozzle during propellant burn. (MSFC Release 75- 232) 

0 Langley Research Center had awarded General Electric of Phila. a 2.5- 

yr $3.2 million contract to provide an orbital scatterometer for the 

SEASAT- A spacecraft scheduled for launch in 1978. The scatterometer would measure wind speed and direction. (SBD, 31 Oct 75, 

317) 

During October: Air Force scientists under contract to NASA had completed a study of the physiological effects on man resulting from transfers from one atmosphere to another during the 15-24 July ApolloSoyuz Test Project. The difference between the Soyuz 7031-kg-persq-m atmosphere of 30% oxygen and 70% nitrogen and the Apollo’s 

3515.5-k&per-sq-m 100% oxygen represented the transition between 

3048 m and 8230 m in altitude. In 1973, scientists, using a hyperbaric 

chamber to simulate spacecraft environment, had found that volunteer subjects showed symptoms of decompression sickness (the 

bends) when moving from one atmosphere to the other. During the 

following year the scientists had found a way to lessen the chance of 

decompression sickness: The most satisfactory procedure was to 

increase the time allowed for denitrogenation (breathing 100% oxygen 

at ground-level pressure). This helped to remove excess nitrogencause of the bends-from the body. The Air Force study had helped 

NASA and Soviet ASTP planners schedule the actual transfers. (ASFC 

Newsreview, Oct 75, 8) 

e A 50 000-kg towing tractor, first piece of operational ground-support 

equipment manufactured by International Harvester Co. for Kennedy 

Space Center’s Space Shuttle operations, was accepted for delivery to 

KSC. The T-500s Paymover tractor would tow NASA’s Boeing 747 

carrier aircraft or the orbiter, or the mated 747-orbiter combination 

after use at the Flight Research Center, Edwards, Calif., during 

orbiter tests. (KSC Release 2574’5) 

e A new computer-controlled tracking device for telescopes, called VIP 

(video inertial pointing), had been developed at Ames Research 

Center to improve the aim of balloon-borne, airborne, and space 

telescopes. The two main functions of VIP were to help the astronomer 

steer the telescope, and to continuously update the automatic stabilization system that holds the telescope steady during viewing. Automatically stabilized telescopes heretofore had used gyroscopes to 

keep the telescope aimed at a point in space and counteract the 

rotation of the earth and other disturbances; gyroscopes had been 

found subject to drift, causing the telescope to wander off target. VIP, 

using a single video sensor, could generate the signals required for all 

214 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 October 

three control axes-roll, pitch, and yaw-and could use the visual 

information to point at nonvisible (infrared) sources. Previous systems 

using star trackers had needed from two to six conventional sensors to 

do the same job. 

Development of VIP had made use of several state-of-the-art 

devices: the microprocessor, a complete digital computer on a single 

printed circuit card, was the computer inside the VIP electronics. Two 

types of video sensors used by VIP were the solid-state imaging device 

called a CCD (charge-coupled device) that incorporated a matrix of 

light-sensitive elements on the surface of a silicon chip measuring 

0.01 mm on a side, and an advanced vidicon tube for night vision 

called an ISIT (intensified-silicon intensified-target) camera. By 

reducing the amount of hardware required for good performance, use 

of these new instruments had lowered the cost of the system. Ames 

would use VIP to provide accurate automatic pointing of the Spacelab Infrared Telescope Facility for the Shuttle that was under 

development at Ames and on contract. (Ames Astrogram, 9 Oct 

75, 1) 

0 NASA had awarded a $45.8-million contract to Radio Corporation of 

America Astro-Electronics Div. to design and build eight Tiros-N 

third generation meteorological satellites. The 635-kg Tiros-N 

(Television InfraRed Operational Satellite) would have 4 times the 

payload capacity of the previous generation of metsats, and was 

expected to be able to forecast weather 2 days in advance with accuracy equal to the 1-day predictions. In addition to providing day and 

night imagery, the Tiros-N spacecraft would take atmospheric and 

sea-surface temperature readings; measure proton, electron, and 

alpha-particle activity surrounding the earth; and collect data from 

weather platforms on balloons and from ocean buoys. (GSFC Goddard 

News, Oct 75, 1) 

0 The Mass. Inst. of Technology Lincoln Laboratory, under contract to 

the Air Force, was developing an experimental ground electro-optical 

deep-space surveillance (GEODSS) system to scan nighttime skies for 

orbiting and geosynchronous satellites. The system was being installed at White Sands Missile Range, first of a proposed five-site 

GEODSS worldwide surveillance network. The network would augment 

the Air Force’s Aerospace Defense Command’s spacetrack coverage 

which maintained a day-by-day count of all satellites and debris 

circling the earth. 

GEODSS combined two sophisticated telescopes with electro-optics, 

a TV camera, and a digital computer, as well as system-related 

equipment. Mounted at the focal plane of the larger telescope was aTV 

camera to transmit the signal to the observatory control room for 

instant screening and analysis. (AFSC Newsreview, Oct 75, 14) 

The Air Force had successfully test-flown an F-lllD turbofan jet 

engine with all-composite third-stage fan blades 40% lighter than 

conventional titanium fan blades. The tests-made at Edwards Air 

Force Base-marked the first military flight evaluation of a rotating 

structural engine component made of composite materials. Objectives of the flight-test program were to determine long-term environmental effects on the material and to verify potential operation and 

maintenance cost benefits. Use of composites could provide a 15 to 

20% weight savings in jet engines, allowing increased payloads or 

extended range. (AFSC Newsreview, Oct 75, 1) 

215 
October ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

e Limitations imposed by the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) 

agreements had made the development of the B-1 bomber essential, 

the Air Force Systems Command Newsreview reported Secretary of 

Defense James R. Schlesinger as telling Rep. Richard Bolling in an 

interview. Because the U.S. would be limited in megaton strike capability and approximately 60% of U.S. megatonnage was carried by 

bombers, it was essential to maintain a significant and highly effective 

bomber force. (AFSC Newsreview, Oct 75, 2) 

e Two visiting research associates working under 2-yr associateships 

awarded jointly by NASA and the National Research Council completed their research at NASA. While at NASA Dr. Ditmar Kranzer of 

the Technical University of Vienna, Austria, had designed and fabricated charge-coupled devices on silicon and sapphire wafers. This 

type of electronic device would be used as part of an electronic circuit 

for imaging, storage, and signal processing. The device had a high 

speed capacity, a low power requirement, and a very high packing 

density, which would decrease the number of outside connections 

needed for the circuits and reduce the area required for data storage. 

Dr. Tsuneo Yoshikawa had developed steering laws for singlegimbal and double-gimbal control-moment gyro systems during his 2- 

yr tenure at NASA. These laws, which apply to any spacecraft 

requiring highly accurate attitude-control systems, had been formulated in an effort to minimize performance deterioration. (MSFC Release 75-213, -219) 

According to International Telecommunications Union figures, a satellite had been launched every 3 days in 1974. Of the total of 124 launched, 

18 belonged wholly or partly to the US., and the Soviet Union accounted for 95. (GSFC Goddard News, Oct 75, 3) 

216 
November 1975 

1 November: A newly discovered dwarf galaxy called Snickers, 55 000 

light years from the sun, and nearest neighbor to the Milky Way yet 

found, could lead to more accurate estimates of the size of earth‘s 

galaxy. Announcing his find in the Astrophysical Journal Letters, Dr. 

S. Christian Simonson of the U. of Md. said the new galaxy had been 

hidden from earth view by dense star fields and cosmic dust clouds. 

Spots of hydrogen gas detected on radioastronomy maps were the clue 

that led to the discovery, first to be made solely through 

radiotelescope observations of hydrogen gas. Until now, the Magellanic Clouds-twin galaxies about 205 000 light years away-had 

been considered the galaxies nearest to the Milky Way. Dr. Simonson’s 

new galaxy had been christened Snickers by his colleagues, who said 

“it was like the Milky Way, only peanuts.” (B Sun, 2 Nov 75, A23) 

2 November: Efforts to charge batteries on the Viking 2 lander failed for 

unknown reasons, but controllers at Jet Propulsion Laboratory were 

confident that time would allow them to solve the problem. Both 

Viking 1 and 2 were launched with their lander batteries essentially 

uncharged to prolong their lives; the batteries aboard the Viking 1 

lander were charged without difficulty 2 wk ago, and the same 

procedure had been scheduled for Viking 2. The spacecraft carried a 

backup as well as a prime battery charger, but NASA had not attempted to use it in case the problem had originated outside the 

charger system. Use of the backup before the problem had been 

identified might have damaged it as well as the prime charger. Viking 

2, originally scheduled to be launched first, had been pulled back for 

repair after its orbiter batteries had been accidentally drained; 

officials said there was no connection between prelaunch orbiter 

problems and the lander situation. (NASA Release 75-288; Aero Daily, 

4 Dec 75, 10; SBD, 4 Nov 75, 16) 

0 Marshall Space Flight Center forwarded the experimental payload for 

the first launch of NASA’s Space Processing Applications Rocket 

(SPAR) project to Goddard Space Flight Center, where the payload 

would be integrated with its launcher, a Black Brant sounding rocket. 

The integrated unit would undergo checkout before being sent to N. 

Mex. for firing by White Sands Missile Range early in Dec. The payload consisted of nine scientific experiments on processing materials 

in near-weightlessness. After the first launch, three flights per year 

carrying similar payloads had been planned through 1980. All payloads were to be recovered by parachute for ground analysis. The lowcost SPAR missions would provide data on space processing until 

Space Shuttle flights began in the early 1980s. (MSFC Release 75-233) 

4 November: Inflation and procurement reforms had hiked NASA’s charge 

for a Delta launch by about 20% for the average customer, Aerospace 

Daily said. Prospective users 2 yr ago had been quoted less than $10 

million per launch; current cost had risen to $11- 12 million, and those 

wanting 1978 launches had been quoted $13-14 million. The Delta 

217 
November ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

had been the NASA launcher most in demand because of its size and 

price, most widely applicable among government and commercial 

users; the Kennedy Space Center, capable of one launch every 5 wk, 

had been booked solid for the foreseeable future. NASA had been 

renegotiating payment schedules, but no launch schedules had been 

changed except for technical reasons not related to cost. (Aero Daily, 

4 Nov 75, 11) e Largest of U.S. air carriers, United Airlines, and All Nippon Airways of 

Japan-one of the 10 largest airlines in the world-supported NASA’s 

10-yr program to reduce aircraft fuel use. Testifying before the Senate 

Aeronautical and Space Sciences Committee, executives of both 

companies said the airlines needed the improved technology but did 

not have the financial ability to conduct the research, estimated to 

cost $490 to $670 million. A spokesman for the Federal Energy 

Administration said more analysis was needed before Congress decided to fund the NASA program; the airlines should consider less 

expensive ways of conserving fuel, such as operating at higher load 

factors. (Transcript, 256, 271, 299) 

0 Soviet polar station Severny Polyus-22 had been scheduled to get a 

companion, a Moscow Tass broadcast reported. Drifting on an ice floe 

in the Arctic for the past 3 yr, the station’s scientists had made about 

200 scientific landings on the ice since last spring to observe the ice, 

the ocean, and the atmosphere. Another ice floe in the area of the 

inaccessibility pole” was to receive station Severny Polyus- 23, and 

the first deliveries of prefab houses and stocks of fuel and food had 

already been made by air. Scientists were to arrive at the new station 

in a few days. The high-latitude expedition, called Sever-27, was 

described as the biggest in the history of Arctic exploration, aimed at a 

comprehensive survey of the Arctic Ocean between the coasts of the 

U.S.S.R., Canada, and Greenland; about 50 scientists had participated. Work had also been done under an international program 

called Polex, to photograph the bottom of the Arctic Ocean and to 

study the lower surface of the polar ice cap. (FBIS No 214,4 Nov 75) 

4-5 November: A study called “Outlook for Aeronautics,” on probable 

aeronautical progress during the next 25 yrs, had forecast development of a Concorde I1 supersonic transport and an entirely new 

second-generation SST, NASA witnesses told the House Subcommittee 

on Aviation and Transportation R&D. The hearing was first of a series 

called to get an early start on H.R. 11573, NASA’s Ey 1977 budget 

authorization. Earliest dates of introduction for the Concorde I1 and 

advanced SST had been set at 1985 and 1995 respectively. Recent 

NASA technology work on the advanced SST included an anticipated 

engine-noise breakthrough based on noise-suppressor research, as 

well as on changes in engines and aircraft configurations. (Transcript, 

Vol. I1 Part 1: 9, 67, 117) 

5 November: “Clear and immediate benefits to society” that NASA could 

produce would justify a 25% increase in its budget, said Rep. Don 

Fuqua (D-Fla.), chairman of the House subcommittee on Space 

Science and Applications, urging the space agency to come up with 

plans for such a program. Noting that the Administration had been 

considering across-the-board cuts in the Federal budget, Rep. Fuqua 

said the President and the Office of Management and Budget should 

reconsider the NASA cuts, as returns from the space program should 

give it higher priority than nonproducing areas of the budget. 

64 

218 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 November 

The subcommittee’s three-volume report, “Future Space Programs,” called for new space systems for educational and medical 

services, and for new earth-survey satellites to provide maritime, 

agricultural, geological, and demographic data. The report stressed 

that the agency should offer both short-term and long-term plans. The 

latter should include plans for lunar bases, orbital colonies, extraterrestrial communications, planetary and stellar exploration, satellite solar power, and disposal of nuclear waste. 

Chairman Olin E. Teague (D-Tex.) of the House Committee on 

Science and Technology endorsed the subcommittee report, which he 

said contained “sensible recommendations,” noting particularly the 

concept of space-based generation of electrical power. Growth of the 

nation, said Teague, “is fundamentally dependent upon our continuing its number one ranking in science and technology.” (W Post, 6 Nov 

75, A10; NYT, 6 NOV 75, 51; SBD, 6 NOV 75, 28-30) 

0 HASPA-the Navy’s high-altitude superpressured powered aerostatfailed to reach its predicted altitude when the balloon-inflation 

mechanism malfunctioned. When fully extended, HASPA had measured 101.5 m long and 20.4 m in diameter. The launch at Kennedy 

Space Center had been planned as a 3- to 5-hr flight; during launch, 

the mylar container was inflated with the helium contained in the 

upper third and restrained there by a collar that would drop away to 

give the gas room to expand with altitude. The mechanism failed and 

the balloon inverted at 11.26 km, releasing the helium through a vent 

in the nose of the balloon, which impacted at KSC a half hour after 

launch. HASPA had been designed to function as a low-level satellite 

for a variety of payloads. (Spaceport News, 14 Nov 75; ETR PIO, interview. 5 Nov 75) 

6 November: NASA ’had awarded a $2 548 265 contract amendment to 

Aeronutronic Ford Corp. of Houston for operation of the Mission 

Control Center at Johnson Space Center. The amendment to a contract originally awarded in 1963 called for additional labor and materials that would bring the value of the contract to $267 710 123. The 

work would employ 513 persons at the three AFC facilities in Houston, 

and in Penn. and Calif. (JSC Release 75-94) 

Workmen on the largest building in the world using solar energy for 

heating and cooling had doubted that the system would work, until 

they turned on a water hose, said Dr. Robert San Martin of the Energy 

Institute at N. Mex. State Univ. When the time came to put the collectors on the roof, the foreman told the crew to run water through them 

with a garden hose; the workmen forgot that the collectors had been in 

the sun and were quite hot. “When they ran the water through, violent 

steam came shooting out the other end,” said Dr. Martin. “At that 

moment they were convinced.” 

The one-story building, a facility for the N. Mex. Dept. of Agriculture, would use 330 units mounted on its roof as a solar collector. Fluid 

circulated through the collectors heated by the sun would provide 80% 

of the heating and cooling of the 23@-sq-m structure. Biggest test 

would be use of solar energy for cooling, relatively untried as yet. 

(NYT, 6 Nov 75, 34) 

0 Harnessing nuclear fusion reactions to generate electricity on earth 

moved a step nearer reality when scientists at the Mass. Inst. of Technology reported achieving a fivefold improvement in the confinement 

of hydrogen in a magnetic container where it could be heated and com2 19 
November ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

pressed to the point of fusion. A test reactor at MIT called Alcator had 

successfully raised the magnetic field containing the hot plasma to 

75 000 gauss, about 150 000 times the strength of earth‘s magnetic 

field at the equator; this, said Dr. Robert C. Seamans, Jr., Administrator of the Energy Research and Development Administration, 

“exceeds by a factor of five anything previously achieved anywhere in 

the world.” 

The Soviet Union in the 1960s had developed toroidal (doughnutshaped) machines called Tokamaks that produced better temperature, containment time, and particle density in combination than 

anything before; a similar machine built in France had achieved a 

figure of 2 trillion for the density-multiplied-by-containment-time, at a 

temperature of 20 million’c. ME’S Alcator had achieved 10 trillion, at 

a temperature of 10 million’c. ERDA officials and university scientists 

noted that the plasma confinement would have to be another 10 times 

as effective, at temperatures 10 times higher, than those of the Alcator 

experiments before fusion could be achieved artificially in the 

laboratory. Although the U.S. had begun a program to build the first 

fusion-power plant by the end of this century, the economy of this new 

power source would remain doubtful in spite of the availability of 

cheap fuel from the ocean: The costs of such plants had been estimated at billions of dollars each. (NYT, 6 Nov 75,27; CSM, 6 Nov 75,l; 

B Sun, 6 Nov 75, Al) 

The Aerospace Industries Association called on NASA to abide by government policy that relied on the private sector for goods and services, charging that increasing in-house activity by the government had 

been detrimental to the economics of the private sector. Karl G. 

Harr, president of AIA, told the House Subcommittee on Aviation & 

Transportation R&D during hearings on H.R. 11573 that a proper 

partnership between NASA and the aerospace industry should be maintained, and warned of the prospect that the government might move to 

“increase its share of that partnership.” Involvement of government 

in postresearch activities such as prototype development “threatens 

to weaken our private technological base,” Harr said. “We do not feel 

that NASA and other government agencies should both identify the 

needs and pursue the solutions on their own.” Commending NASA for 

its 10-yr aircraft fuel-reduction program, Harr said the program was 

“an ideal opportunity to develop the government-industry team into 

its most efficient and cost-effective form.” (Transcript, Vol I1 Part I, 

149 ff) 

9 November: All four batteries on the Viking 2 lander had been fully 

charged, NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory reported. The problem 

had been solved by using a backup charger system carried on the 

orbiter after the primary system failed earlier [see 2 Nov.]. Recharging took about 24 hr per battery. The voltage had to be replenished 

before the spacecraft entered Mars orbit and before the lander 

separated from the orbiter. The difficulty with the lander’s primary 

charger had been traced to failure of one of four resistors in the circuitry. To prevent unforeseen problems with the backup charger, 

Viking project officials had decided to keep at least one of the batteries charged throughout the remainder of cruise flight, to ensure activation of the switch shifting the lander from its solar-panel power to 

that from radioisotope thermoelectric generators. The two RTGs had 

not been used for primary power during flight to avoid thermal 

220 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 November 

problems from the heat given off by the units. (LA Times, 6 Nov 75,l; 

Av Wk, 10 Nov 75,6; SBD, 12 Nov 75,64; Langley Researcher, 14 Nov 

75, 1) 

9 States from New England to California had joined the competition to be 

selected as the site of a proposed Federal Solar Energy Research 

Institute that might be spending up to $50 million annually within 3 yr 

after its establishment. Competition had begun even before issuance 

of formal criteria describing the center’s mission and needs, expected 

later in November. A report on the center by a special committee of 

the National Research Council-an agency of the National Academy 

of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering-had forecast 

a staff of about 800 professionals and 800 support people. The 

committee had recbmmended a single institute administered by a 

nonprofit corporation, like those that govern many other large national 

laboratories; geographical location had not been considered as 

important as “intellectual atmosphere, technical suppliers and 

availability of services for a substantial laboratory.” Issuance of 

criteria by the Energy Research and Development Administration 

would call for proposals early next year, with site to be chosen in 

April or May 1976 by Dr. Robert C. Seamans, Jr., Administrator of 

ERDA. 

Among those already in competition were the state of N. Mex., 

which had put a proposal for the solar center in Feb. 1975 when ERDA 

. was a month old; a consortium of universities and industries on Long 

Island, N.Y.; the governors of six New England states, sitting as the 

New England Regional Commission, who voted to “work as a regional 

force” to get the center for New England; and the state of N.Y., which 

had designated a coordinator to work on getting the center, including 

assembling the necessary real estate” from various areas of the 

state. (NYT, 9 Nov 75, 33) 

10 November: Marshall Space Flight Center had awarded contracts worth 

$500 000 each to Martin Marietta’s Denver Division and to TRW Systems Group, to define the Spacelab payload called AMPS (atmospheric, 

magnetospheric, and plasmas in space). The definition studies would 

emphasize flexibility, low cost, and an evolutionary approach to 

environmental research. 

One of the first payloads considered for Spacelab, AMPs had been 

conceived as a manned orbiting scientific laboratory to study the nearspace environment of earth and the effects on it of changes in incident 

solar energy and of emissions from earth. Instrumentation would include a laser beam to define the composition of the various constituents of earth‘s atmosphere. Missions would last from 7 to 30 days, with 

extensive involvement of the scientist crews in conducting the 

experiments. (MSFC Release 75-239; SBD, 20 Nov 75, 108) 

The u.S. space program was an adventure whose potential benefits 

were undefinable and incalculable, NASA Administrator Dr. James C. 

Fletcher told the National Academy of Engineering. Speaking on the 

“Outlook for the Space Program,” Dr. Fletcher noted that the public 

and the Congress were “now” oriented, and that concentration on 

immediate benefits might jeopardize “the vast potential” of the 

national space program. Admitting that “NASA’s present actions seem 

to speak louder than its words,” in that its money had been spent on 

current needs rather than on tomorrow’s goals, Dr. Fletcher said this 

did not result from lack of vision but from “accommodation with 

6b 

221 
November ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

current constraints.” Projects to be considered for NASA’s future 

should include satellite systems to beam solar energy PO earth; a 

permanent manned space station in orbit, as a forerunner of the space 

colony that had been proposed; exploration of the planets expanded to 

interstellar missions; and making contact with another intelligent 

race-“the most significant achievement of this millennium.” (Text; 

NASA Release 75- 294) 

0 A 25-member delegation from the Soviet Union, headed by Professor 

K. D. Bushuyev, U.S.S.R. technical director for the Apollo-Soyuz 

Test Project in July, had begun work at the Johnson Space Center on a 

joint U.S.-U.S.S.R. report on the mission. Cosmonaut Aleksey S. 

Yeliseyev, who had been U.S.S.R. flight director for ASTP, was a 

member of the delegation, which had been scheduled to remain at JSC 

until November 21. Dr. Glynn S. Lunney, who had been U.S. 

technical director for ASTP, headed the NASA group working with the 

Soviet specialists. (JSC Release 75- 95) 

11 November: Development of a reusable single-stage Space Shuttle that 

could perform better than the current partially reusable design, and 

cost less, would be feasible before the end of this century “if pushed 

aggressively enough,” Robert E. Smylie, Deputy Associate Administrator for Aeronautics and Space Technology for NASA, told the 

House Subcommittee on Space Science and Applications. Studies by 

the agency had shown that structural weight reductions of 25% and 

propulsion-system improvements of 5 to 6%, relative to current space 

flight technology, could be achieved in the late 1990s. In other areas of 

space technology, Smylie cited the concept of solar-electric propulsion that had been considered for planetary missions using the Space 

Transportation System, and described research in automated processing of microcircuits, robot vehicles for planetary exploration, 

vitreous materials resistant to laser radiation, and dry lubricant with 

application in space payloads. (Transcript, Vol I Part 1, 696, 726, 

1130 ff) 

NASA had begun preliminary long-range planning for a fourth earth resources satellite, Landsat-D, Sen. Frank E. Moss (D-Utah) told the 

American Mining Congress, and “the odds are that it will be optimized 

for agricultural studies.” Moss had predicted that the US. would 

eventually have a Landsat optimized for mineral exploration; “the 

people who will decide . . . if we need a specialized satellite will be 

the scientific and engineering community itself. They must guide 

NASA in the . . . proper utilization of the environment of space.” 

NASA had reported that both Landsats 1 and 2 were operating satisfactorily but under reduced capability in areas without ground stations because of tape-recorder deterioration. To expedite flow of 

Landsat information to users, NASA had planned expansion by May 

1977 to handling 200 Landsat scenes a day and delivering magnetic 

tapes from the data centers to the user within 24 to 48 hr after receipt 

of data at GSFC. (CR, 11 Nov 75, S19689; SBD, 17 Nov 75, 84) 

12 November: NASA and the Energy Research and Development Administration were near agreement on a plan to build a coal gasification plant 

near NASA’s Michoud assembly facility in La. to provide hydrogen gas 

for testing and operating the Space Shuttle, said Dr. Myron S. Malkin, 

director of the Space Shuttle program for NASA’s Office of Space 

Flight. In testimony before the House Subcommittee on Space 

222 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 November 

Science and Applications, Dr. Malkin said ERDA would hire a private 

contractor to build a $65-maon plant and would operate it for 3 yr to 

obtain data on coal gasification; after that, it would turn the plant over 

to NASA. The facility would produce enough gas daily to provide 30 

tons of liquid hydrogen for the Shuttle. (Transcript, Vol I Part 1, 858, 

910) 

0 NASA had decided to eliminate all expendable launch vehicles except 

scout after the Space Shuttle became operational, NASA Associate 

Administrator John F. Yardley told the House Subcommittee on 

Space Science and Applications, but the Air Force wanted to play it 

safe. AI? officials wanted extra vehicles on hand after Shuttle in case 

problems developed, he said. NASA had planned about 20 launches of 

expendable vehicles a year through 1980-4 Scouts, 10 Deltas, 3 or 4 

Atlas-Centaurs, and 1 or 2 Titan-Centaurs-with 17 launches in FY 

1977 and 27 in FY 1978. (Transcript, Vol I Part 1, 899) 

Marshall Space Flight Center had selected Moog Inc. Controls Div. 

to negotiate a cost-plus-incentive-feelaward-fee contract totaling 

$6 685 5W for the design, development, production, and acceptance 

testing of a thrust-vector control electrical-hydraulic servoactuator on 

the Space Shuttle solid rocket booster. The servoactuator would 

control the SM’s exhaust nozzle. (Murshall Star, 12 Nov 75, 4) 

13 November: The earth‘s ozone layer, a shield of heavy molecules of 

oxygen that prevents some harmful ultraviolet radiation from reaching 

the earth‘s surface, might be in less danger from aerosol sprays than 

from the increasing worldwide use of chemical fertilizers. Michael B. 

McElroy, professor of atmospheric sciences at Harvard University, 

had predicted that a projected increase in the use of nitrogen 

fertilizers over the next 25 yr could reduce the ozone layer 20 to 25%. 

Theoretically, each 1% reduction in the ozone layer could lead to 

thousands-as many as 15 000-additional cases of skin cancer in the 

U.S. alone. 

All life needs nitrogen to make proteins, McElroy pointed out. The 

earth‘s atmosphere would have lost all its nitrogen long ago except for 

the process by which bacteria “denitrify” decayed matter in the soil; 

most nitrogen returned to the atmosphere in the same inert pure form 

in which it was taken and converted to use by earth’s plant life, which 

then formed a source of nitrogen for other plants and animals; 

however, some nitrogen returned in a form that acted as a catalyst to 

destroy ozone. Man had recently been extracting nitrogen from the air 

and putting it into plant life in the form of fertilizer on a scale rivaling 

nature; by the year 2000, said McElroy, the amount of nitrogen 

extracted from the air would be double that removed by natural 

causes. With a sharp increase in the natural denitrification process, 

more nitrogen catalysts destructive to ozone would be released. 

Serious effects should be evident within the next 4 yr, McElroy said. 

Although aerosol sprays could be dispensed with, nitrogen fertilizers 

were a necessity for increased world food production. Increased 

incidence of skin cancer concerned light-skinned humans, who were 

unlikely to get much sympathy from darker-skinned inhabitants of 

areas where the fertilizers-and increased food production-are 

urgently needed. (WSJ, 13 Nov 75, 13) 

First major inflight tests of the Viking 1 lander scheduled to touch down 

on Mars in July 1976 had shown the craft to be in excellent health, 

223 
November ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

flight controllers at Jet Propulsion Laboratory reported. JPL engineers 

completed thorough checks of the nuclear power, propulsion, 

guidance, attitude control, computer, tape recorder, telemetry, heat 

control, and radar landing systems, as well as four of the scientific 

instruments, including two cameras to photograph the Martian 

surface in closeup. The second Viking lander, scheduled to reach 

Mars in Sept. 1976, would undergo similar checkout the following 

week. (Pasadena Star-News, 14 Nov 75, 1) 

0 Calculation of crop acreage from satellite images had proven “generally 

adequate” in NASA tests involving wheat acreage in nine Great Plains 

states during the past year, NASA Associate Administrator Charles 

W. Mathews told the House Subcommittee on Space Science and 

Applications. Reporting on the 9.9% error rate in the LACE (large area 

crop inventory experiment) test using Landsat data, Mathews said 

that the U.S. had demonstrated the feasibility of an operational global 

forecasting system for wheat. Mathews mentioned other Landsat 

data applications: The Geological Survey and NOAA had developed 

computer techniques for processing multispectral Landsat data that 

made oil slicks clearly visible. Other computer techniques using the 

data had detected subtle differences in surface soils and rocks that 

revealed mineralization and potential ore deposits. (Transcript, Vol I 

Part 1, 931, 938, 939) 

0 Estimated cost of the Spacelab being built for the first Space Shuttle 

flight had risen from $400 million to $500 million during the last year, 

and the program had fallen 3 to 6 mo behind schedule, NASA’s Spacelab program director Douglas Lord told the House Subcommittee on 

Space Science and Applications. The European Space Agency, which 

was developing Spacelab, was confident of delivering it in time to fly 

on the Shuttle. Lord and NASA Associate Administrator John F. Yardley said the increased development cost would not affect NASA’s cost 

in purchasing the modules, because NASA’s agreement with ESA precluded the Europeans from recouping development costs. NASA had 

been committed to buying one set of Spacelab hardware at a cost “reasonable to NASA,” although pricing proposals would not be received 

for 6 to 8 mo. The two officials said European cooperation on the program had been “exceptional.” (Transcript, Vol I Part 1, 889) 

14 November: Pan American World Airways announced the industry’s 

fiist nonstop flights from New York and Los Angeles to Tokyo, 

beginning early in 1976. The announcement came a day after a new 

Boeing 747SP jetliner had made a demonstration flight New York to 

Tokyo in 13 hrs 33 min, fastest commercial service to Japan from the 

U.S. Current commercial time on that route, which required a 

refueling stop, was more than 17 hr. The Boeing 747~~ (special 

performance) was 100 seats smaller than the 747-21, but had the same 

fuel capacity and the same four engines as the larger model. The SP 

had been capable of cruising faster and higher than any other 

commercial jetliner and had a range of 1200 km beyond that of the 

standard 747. (B Sun, 15 Nov 75, A9) 

15 November: Observation of the sun’s magnetic fields might make it 

possible to predict weather 4 days in advance with greater reliability, 

said scientists at the Institute for Plasma Research at Stanford 

University. Investigators at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration in Boulder, Colo., and at Stanford said that magnetic 

224 
November 

forces from the sun played a role in formation of pressure troughs on 

earth, which bring rainy weather; observations from space, corroborated from earth measurements, indicate influence on weather 

from solar flares, sunspots, and high velocities of the solar wind. 

The weather effect involved two phenomena, the sun’s magneticsector structure and a concept called the vorticity-area index. The 

index is a measure of the size of low-pressure troughs in square 

kilometers, calculated by computer from twice-daily standard 

weather-service maps. As solar magnetic sectors and boundaries 

were measured regularly at Mt. Wilson Observatory, the Astrophysical Observatory in the Crimea, and the Stanford Solar 

Observatory, scientists could compare the solar magnetic structure 

with the vorticity-area index to see whether the sun structure affected 

the nature and size of low-pressure troughs that bring rain and stormy 

weather. (NYT, 16 Nov 75, 40) 

9 A nova that exploded about 10 000 yr ago and attracted the attention of 

primitive farmers in the Near East may have been a stimulus to the 

rise of man’s first known civilization, according to the New York 

Times. Reporter Boyce Rensberger, writing on the theory published 

in the Explorers Journal by amateur scholar George Michanowsky, 

described clues found by Michanowsky in cuneiform texts regarding a 

gigantic star in the constellation Vela. No particularly bright star was 

to be found in Vela in modern times, Michanowsky pointed out, but 

astronomers had agreed that a supernova of uncertain date had 

probably been the forerunner of the present Gum nebula, a huge 

glowing cloud of hot gases centered on a relatively cold pulsar. 

Occurrence of the supernova had been placed anywhere from 6000 to 

15 000 yr ago. In the times after the starburst, the primitive 

peoples-especially Sumerians-developed astronomy, mathematics, 

and writing; Michanowsky had suggested that the supernova had 

stimulated great attention to stellar phenomena and led to a more 

careful study of the heavens, to formal astronomy and mathematics, 

and to the need to make written records. (NYT, 15 Nov 75, 29) 

17 November: The U.S.S.R. launched its 76th space mission for 1975, an 

unmanned Soyuz 20, from Baykonur Cosmodrome near Tyuratam, 

and established a new procedure by identifying the unmanned flight 

as a spacecraft designed for manned flight. Reuters quoted Soviet 

scientist Dr. Konstantin Feoktistov as saying the purpose of the flight 

was to develop a transport system either to supply a space station with 

expendables, or to serve as an emergency rescue ship. One possibility 

would be to automatically dock a Soyuz with the manned station after 

one of the cosmonauts had removed the original Soyuz, or perhaps a 

new Soyuz would be used as a new return vehicle: one of these 

procedures would be required unless the Salyut space station had 

been designed with two docking positions. 

The Soviet director of July’s Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, Konstantin 

Bushuyev, in Houston for a conference, said Soyuz 20 had not been 

designed to transfer expendables to the current Salyut 4 space 

station; Christopher S. Wren, reporting from Moscow for the New 

York Times, pointed out that it was not known how provisions could be 

transferred from the Soyuz to the space station, since neither craft 

had been reported to have such an automatic capability. (NYT, 20 Nov 

75; 21 Nov 75, 25; SBD, 18 Nov 75, 90; 21 Nov 75, 114) 

ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

225 
November ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

0 Dr. Detlev W. Bronk, president emeritus of Rockefeller Univ. and 

former president of Johns Hopkins Univ., the Natl. Academy of 

Sciences, and the American Assn. for the Advancement of Science, 

died at the age of 78. A scientist who had been adviser to Presidents 

Truman, Eisenhower, and Kennedy, Dr. Bronk had been credited 

with formulating the modern theory of the science of biophysics-application of physics to the life systems of plants and animals. He had 

been chairman of the National Research Council from 1946 to 1950, 

and president of the National Science Foundation for three terms from 

1950 to 1960. In 1964 he had received the Medal of Freedom, highest 

civilian award to be granted by a u.S. President. (B Sun, 18 Nov 75, 

A13; NYT, 18 Nov 75, 38M) * Alexander P. Vinogradov, leading geochemist of the U.S.S.R. and vice 

president of the Soviet Academy of Sciences, had died at Moscow at 

the age of 80, according to Tass, the Soviet news agency. Vinogradov 

had identified 41) chemical elements in earth’s soil zones and had 

developed a new field of investigation called cosmochemistry-the 

chemical analysis of lunar and Venus composition. He had remained 

active as the head of Moscow’s Institute of Geochemistry and 

Analytical Chemistry. (Tass, in FBIS, 17 Nov 75; NYT, 19 Nov 75,38; 

Aero Daily, 20 Nov 75, 112) 

18 November: NASA expected to add 3800 contractor personnel in FY 1976, 

mostly for the Space Shuttle, NASA Comptroller William E. Lilly told a 

joint session of the House Subcommittees on Space Science and 

Applications and on Aviation and Transportation R&D. However, 

overall employment on the space program had been forecast down 

68%, or 278 000 workers, from its peak of 409 000 in 1965. NASA would 

lose 17 more Federal positions in FY 1976 after losing 521 Federal 

employees in FY 1975. NASA is paying more for fewer employees, Liuy 

pointed out, because agency manpower expenses go up about $6 

million a year, offset by only $1 million in replacing retired workers 

with new workers in lower grades. Total Federal employment at NASA 

had hit a high of 33 924 in 1966; NASA Federal employees now 

numbered 24 316. (Transcript, Vol I Part 1, 995, 1024, 1031) 

0 Boeing Co., which had a 44-mo $Smillion subcontract from Rockwell to 

detect electrical problems with the Space Shuttle, reported that 35 

design or hardware changes had been necessary in main-engine 

electrical circuits of the Shuttle so far. Boeing was conducting a sneak 

circuit analysis of the first Shuttle orbiter, to be used for approach and 

landing tests; later studies were scheduled for the second orbiter, the 

solid rocket booster, and the external fuel tank, as well as critical 

ground-support equipment. (SBD, 18 Nov 75, 92) 

0 At least five of NASA’s 25 000 employees had made use in past years of 

hunting facilities owned by Rockwell International, and the agency 

and Sen. William Proxmire (D- Wis.) had begun investigating the 

matter. The investigation had not been confined to entertainment at 

the Rockwell facility in Md., but included “receipt of other gratuities 

such as Redskin (football) tickets and use of hospitality suites,” the 

senator said. Rockwell had been prime contractor for the $6.4-bd&on 

Space Shuttle program that accounted for more than a third of NASA’s 

budget. Sen. Proxmire, vice chairman of the Joint Committee on 

Defense Production, had directed the committee staff to assist NASA 

in determining the full extent of “unethical or illegal lobbying by NASA 

226 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 November 

contractors.” NASA had placed five inspectors on the case. (NYT, 19 

Nov 75, 1) 

0 INTELSAT had awarded a 15-mo $60 000 contract to EIC Inc. of Newton, 

Mass., to develop improved hydrogen electrodes and separators for 

use in nickel-hydrogen cells in communication-satellite batteries. 

NiH batteries would provide improved reliability and weight-to-power 

ratios over nickel-cadmium batteries now in use. (INTELSAT Release 

75- 19) 

19 November: The Space Shuttle orbiter might travel by ground rather 

than air from Rockwell International’s assembly facility at Palmdale, 

Calif., to Edwards Air Force Base for its approach and landing tests, a 

Rockwell official said as the orbiter made its first appearance for the 

press. Original plan had been to send the orbiter piggyback on NASA’s 

Boeing 747 scheduled to launch the unpowered craft during its tests at 

Edwards. Travel on the ground would take 6 hr to go about 32 km, 

using an off-the-road vehicle inherited from the Apollo program, and 

would cost less. (NASA Release 75-293; Aero Daily, 20 Nov 75, 107) 

19 November: Soyuz 20, the unmanned Soviet spacecraft launched from 

Baykonur 17 Nov., docked automatically withSalyut 4 using onboard 

radio devices and computer installations for a program of “testing unit 

constructions and onboard systems. . .in joint flight,” Tass announced. Salyut 4, the orbiting space station, had been visited by the 

crew of Soyuz 17 for almost 30 days and by the crew of Soyuz 18 for 

more than 60 days. The Soyuz 20 mission had been analyzed as 

transfer of fuel to Salyut 4; in orbit since 26 Dec. 1974, the space 

station was thought to be running low on maneuvering fuel. Reporters 

had speculated that a new two-man crew might be sent to Salyut 4 

later this year for a stay of 3 mo or longer that would break the 84-day 

record set by U.S. astronauts in 1974. The value of the automatic 

docking for resupply would be the economy of not sending men with 

each flight, although the Soviets had never indicated the cost of their 

launches. 

Tass reported that the “space complex Salyut-4- Soyuz-20” was in 

an orbit with apogee 367 km, perigee 343 km, 51.6” inclination, and 

91.4 min period of revolution. (W Post, 21 Nov 75, B14; NYT, 21 Nov 

75, 25; FBIS No. 225, 19 Nov 75, No. 226, 20 Nov 75; Aero Daily, 20 

Nov 75, 108) 

19 November-23 December: Atmosphere Explorer-E, third in a series of 

new deep-dipper spacecraft designed to investigate the ionosphere, 

was launched from Eastern Test Range aboard a Delta vehicle at 9:07 

pm EST (0206GMT) into an almost perfect orbit: apogee, 3026 km; 

perigee, 157 km; inclination, 19.7”; period, 118.1 min. In orbit the 

satellite became Explorer 55. 

Major difference between the original and new generation of atmosphere explorers was the unusually large onboard propulsion system 

that enabled the later spacecraft to move themselves up or down in 

space by hundreds of km or go from highly elliptical to circular orbits. 

The name “deep-dippers” meant that the spacecraft could drop into 

the atmosphere and pull out again, taking measurements only while in 

the upper reaches of the thermosphere. This region, important 

because it absorbed most ultraviolet light and heat received from the 

sun and because movement of that heat determined the structure of 

the upper atmosphere, had been difficult to study because the altitude 

227 
November ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

was too high for all aircraft and most balloons and too low for other 

satellites. The dipping orbit prevented accumulation of excessive heat 

in the metal skins of the AE spacecraft. 

Explorer 55 would also cany a backscatter ultraviolet spectrophotometer to obtain a vertical profile and density measurements of 

the ozone layer between 20”N and S; the measurements would be 

compared with those from Nimbus 4, launched in 1970, to evaluate the 

long-term accuracy of the Nimbus instrumentation. A mission operations report 23 Dec. said Explorer 55 had completed more than 400 

orbits and all subsystems were performing well. (NASA Release 75- 

290,70-29,72-212; KSC Release 266-75; SBD, 21 Nov 75,114; KSC 

Spaceport News, 31 Oct 75, 3; MORS 13 Nov 75, 3 Dec 75,23 Dec 75) 

20 November: Pioneer 11 had been scheduled to take its first look at 

Saturn, according to controllers at Ames Research Center. Upon its 

encounter with Jupiter on 2 Dec. 1974, Pioneer’s trajectory was 

altered by the gravitational effects of Jupiter to one that would take 

Pioneer to Saturn on or about 1 Sept. 1979. The spacecraft had 

returned the only pictures ever taken of Jupiter’s polar regions and 

probed the planet’s intense inner radiation belts for the first time, 

attaining the highest speed ever attained by a manmade object 

(171 000 km per hr). 

Pioneer was still more than 1287 million km from Saturn, but in a 

position to observe the ringed planet at a phase angle 4 times larger 

than the largest angle at which Saturn could be seen from earth. The 

total amount of light and the polarization of sunlight reflected from a 

planet’s atmosphere at different angles could reveal the composition 

of the atmosphere; scientists would watch Saturn throughout Pioneer’s 

approach to note changes in intensity and polarization of light reflected from the planet with changes in phase angle. The viewing 

angle would also permit study of the light-reflecting characteristics of 

Saturn’s rings in large areas of shadow from the planet, an effect not 

visible from earth. Pioneer was headed upward out of the plane 

containing the sun’s planets, and in 1977 would attain a distance 

above this plane of about 161 million km, allowing it to measure 

phenomena coming from higher latitudes on the sun than previously 

observable. (ARC Release 75-53; MOR S-811-73-07, 19 Nov 75) 

Jet Propulsion Laboratory had awarded a 920-million contract to Lockheed Missiles and Space Co. for design and development of SeasatA, an ocean survey satellite that would circle the earth 14 times a day 

and view 95% of the surface every 36 hrs. Scheduled for launch in 

1978, Seasat would record radar imagery of waves and ice fields, 

ocean topography, tides, and currents, and would measure wave 

height, length, and direction; force and direction of sea-surface winds; 

and temperatures of the sea surface and the airlsea interface. (WStar, 

21 Nov 75, A2; Av Wk, 8 Dec 75, 6; SBD, 21 Nov 75, 118) 

0 A new satellite-fed printing plant that would speed delivery of the Wall 

Street Journal to its readers in the southeastern United States had 

been introduced to Orlando, Fla., area business leaders and dedicated 

by the Journal’s publishers, Dow Jones and Co. The $2-million plant 

could print 70 000 copies of the newspaper per hour, and would serve 

readers in Ga. and Fla. at first, with distribution into five other southeastern states coming later. 

The paper would be printed in Orlando on the date of publication in 

Chicopee, Mass., by the use of Westar 1 facilities provided by 

228 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 November 

American Satellite Corp. Fullsize facsimiles of pages would be put 

under a high-intensity scanner that would convert the images to 

electronic impulses beamed to Westar 1. The satellite would relay the 

impulses to the Orlando plant where they would be received on pagesize photo film; sending and receipt of data for a full page had been 

clocked at 3.5 min. The film would be used to make photolithographic 

plates for the Orlando press. 

The Orlando plant would be the tenth regional printing plant for the 

Journal. The eastern edition previously delivered to 60 000 subscribers in Fla. and Ga. had been airmailed from Silver Spring, Md., 

arriving a day late. (Orlando SentinelStar, 20 Nov 75, 20A) 

9 The Air Force's Space and Missile Systems Organization awarded a 

$36.3-m=on contract to McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Co. for 

building and testing in earth orbit a space laser communications 

system. The 5-yr contract would produce three synchronous satellites 

to relay high-data-rate messages by laser to aircraft, ground stations, 

or other satellites, with a capability of transmitting a billion pieces of 

data per sec-about 20 times the data volume possible with present 

commercial communications-satellite systems. The award includes 

development of the space and ground-station equipment. McDonnell 

would work on high-accuracy pointing of the laser beams, within 10 

millionths of a degree. (St. Louis P-D, 20 Nov 75,13; LA Times, 9 Dec 

75, 15C; SBD, 20 Nov 75, 107) 

21 November: Goddar&Space Flight Center awarded Boeing Co. a fixedprice incentive contract for $8 236 000 to provide modules for the first 

two Atmospheric Explorer missions: AEM- A (heat capacity satellite) 

and AEM- B (the stratospheric aerosol gas experiment-SAGE). 

AEM-A, scheduled for launch in 1978, would carry a heat-capacity 

mapping radiometer that NASA would acquire independently, to gather 

thermal-inertia data on rock types, location of mineral resources, soil 

moisture, and vegetation-cover temperature measurements. 

AEM- B's SAGE would measure spatial distribution of stratospheric 

aerosol and ozone on a global basis. It had been scheduled for launch 

in 1979. (NASA Release 75-299; WSJ, 24 Nov 75, 28) 

23 November: Dr. John E. Naugle became Associate Administrator of 

NASA, a position in which he had acted since the departure of Dr. 

Rocco A. Petrone in April. Beginning his service with NASA in 1959, 

Dr. Naugle had been appointed Associate Administrator for Space 

Science and Applications in 1967, and Deputy Associate Administrator of NASA in 1974. As Associate Administrator, he would be responsible for directing the research, development, and operational activities conducted by the Offices of Applications, Aeronautics and Space 

Technology, Space Science, and Tracking and Data Acquisition. 

(NASA anno, 23 Nov 75; SBD, 24 Nov 75, 122) 

25 November: The U.S.S.R. launched Cosmos 782, a biological satellite 

carrying 4 U.S. experiments as well as materials from Russia, Czechoslovakia, France, Hungary, Poland, and Romania, to be recovered in 

Soviet territory in about 3 wks. Launched from Plesetsk into an orbit 

with 405 km apogee, 227 km perigee, 62.8" inclination, and 90.5 min 

period, the satellite provided an opportunity for U.S. scientists to fly 

biology and weightlessness experiments that would otherwise have 

had to await flights of the Space Shuttle in the 1980s. Last U.S. 

biology research spacecraft, Biosatellite 3, had been launched in 

1969. 

229 
November ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Cosmos 782 was the first satellite equipped to simulate gravity in 

space, to compare effects on biological processes with those of 

weightlessness. A specially constructed centrifuge, consisting of a 

small disk that would rotate at a constant speed, would create a 

centrifugal force equal to gravity on earth for packages placed at the 

right spot on the disk. Comparing the specimens exposed to lack of 

gravity during orbital flight with similar specimens feeling the pull of 

gravity would prove any effects had resulted from weightlessness. 

Results of the experiments should be available in about 90 days, according to the Tass news agency. 

Ames Research Center managed the U.S. participation in the 

Cosmos 782 flight. It had had no advance notice of the launch date, 

place of launch, or mode of orbital operation, although life limitations 

of the biology materials had dictated a launch near this date. NASA had 

been invited to participate in a second Soviet biosat mission in 1977, 

and had planned to fly Russian experiments on its Space Shuttle in the 

early 1980s. (NYT, 27 Nov 75, 62M; NASA Release 75-292; SBD, 28 

Nov 75, 145; Aero Daily, 28 Nov 75, 148) * A metering truss made of graphite-one of the few materials that expands with cold and contracts with heat-and epoxy, which expands 

with heat and contracts with cold in the usual way, had been designed 

to hold stable the mirrors of NASA’s Large Space Telescope without 

being distorted by temperature changes. Built by Boeing Aerospace 

Co. under a $185 000 contract with Marshall Space Flight Center, 

the structure had been subjected to a 2-day vacuum-chamber test at 

Boeing’s Space Center in Seattle under temperatures ranging from 

-84°C to +21”C without suffering lens-limiting thermal distortion. 

(Huntsville Times, 25 Nov 75; Boeing Release A-0459) 

The Soviet Academy of Sciences chose Anatoly Alexandrov, a 72-yr-old 

nuclear physicist, as its new president, the Tass news agency reported. Peter Osnos commented in the Wushington Post that the main 

speaker at the Academy meeting-Mikhail Suslov, the Communist 

Party’s chief ideologist, who is not even a member of the Academymade the only speech on Alexandrov’s behalf. This, said Osnos, 

showed the extent to which the choice was determined by Kremlin 

leadership and the Party’s growing influence over the onceautonomous scientific establishment. Academy members traditionally had voted in secret ballots and had maintained their own organizational structure in running the country’s important research facilities; 

Alexandrov was chosen on a secret ballot, but apparently there were 

no other candidates. Alexandrov, head of the atomic research institute 

in Moscow, was one of the few Academy members also a member of 

the Party central committee. (W Post, 26 Nov 75, A8) 

26 November: Under a decision of the Federal Communications Commission, the Communications Satellite Corporation (ComSat) had been 

making too much money and would have to reduce its rates on international communications services by up to 35%. The order followed a 

10-yr FCC investigation of the entire range of ComSat services. Essentially a wholesaler of communications, ComSat had been selling satellite circuits to telephone and telegraph firms that retailed the services 

to consumers. The FCC order could substantially reduce overseas 

telephone and telegraph charges; an accompanying order required the 

international firms that had been dealing with ComSat to pass the 

reduced rates on to their customers. FCC ruled that ComSat was 

230 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 November 

entitled to a return ranging from 10.8 to 11.8%, but ComSat’s rate of 

return in 1974 was about 34.6%. (W Star, 27 Nov 75, A2) 

The People’s Republic of China successfully launched an earth-orbiting 

satellite into an orbit with 483 km apogee, 173 km perigee, 63” inclination, and 91-min period, the New China News Agency announced. 

(FBIS No. 230, 26 Nov 75; W Star, 27 Nov 75, A2) 

0 The U.N. General Assembly adopted a resolution [see 29 Oct.] calling 

for wider observance of international agreements on peaceful uses of 

outer space, and providing for continued US. work on new international accords relating to space. Among these were a moon treaty, 

principles governing direct television broadcasting by satellite, and 

legal issues involved in remote sensing of earth from space. The 

resolution also called for continuing review of ways to help developing 

countries apply space technology. (SBD, 26 Nov 75, 140) 

28 November: The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOM) awarded a $145 000 contract to RCA’S Astro-Electronics Div. 

for a first-phase design study of the Tiros-N data-acquisition and 

control system (DACS). DACS would provide operational control of 

Tiros-N in orbit, and would collect and transmit telemetry and 

weather information to NOM facilities in Md. RCA’S Astro-Electronics 

Div., which had been developing the new generation of weather satellites for NASA, had scheduled the first flight for 1978. As part of the 

design study, RCA would provide descriptions of materials and procedures needed to implement the DACS, a network of ground stations 

including the Md. center and the command and data-acquisition 

stations (CDA) in Alaska and Va. (Aero Daily, 28 Nov 75, 149) 

29 November: Radio astronomers in both the U.S. and U.S.S.R. had 

intensified their search for possible civilizations out in space, Walter 

Sullivan wrote in the New York Times. Little publicity had been given 

the search to prevent raising public expectation for “what is likely to 

be a prolonged effort.” Costs were minimal, because the observations 

had made use of equipment also used for other research. Dr. Hans 

Mark, Director of Ames Research Center, had told students at the 

Polytechnic Inst. of N.Y. that the search for other civilizations would 

become “one of the major scientific enterprises,” and cited his belief 

that “communicative civilizations” had been a natural consequence of 

biological evolution. Dr. Mark pointed out that the U.S. giant antenna 

at Goldstone, Calif., used for spacecraft communications, could pick 

up emissions only from the vicinity of the nearest stars. One American 

search is using the largest antenna on earth-the dish at Arecibo, 

P.R.-to scan the five nearest galaxies at 1420 mhz, the frequency of 

radio waves given off by hydrogen atoms, long considered a logical 

frequency for civilizations trying to make contact. The Arecibo search 

had been conducted by two Cornell professors, Dr. Frank B. Drake 

and Dr. Carl Sagan. Another American search had been using the 

National Radio Astronomy Observatory at Green Bank, W. Va., to 

scan 700 stars (resembling earth‘s sun) within 80 light years of the 

solar system for signals at the 1420-mhz wavelength. No obvious 

signals had been detected, but the recordings had not been subjected 

to detailed analysis, according to Dr. Patrick Palmer of the Univ. of 

Chicago and Dr. Benjamin M. Zuckerman of the Univ. of Md. 

The Soviet program, scanning the entire portion of the celestial 

sphere visible from the Soviet Union, had been using two networks 

with a total of eight stations spread across the vast width of the Soviet 

231 
November ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Union. The moven&er issue of karus, international journal of solarsystem studies, had carried a prospectus of the Soviet CETI (communication with extraterrestrial intelligence) program divided into two 

phases. CETI 1, scheduled from 1975 to 1985, included the whole-sky 

scan by eight stations plus monitoring by two space stations and a 

survey of nearby galaxies like the one under way at Arecibo. Only the 

eight-station prdject had been initiated, as far as U.S. scientists knew. 

CETI 2, from 1980 to 1990, had been scheduled to continue satellite 

monitoring but would also use semirotatable antennas such as the 

RATAN-600 antenna 60 m wide, known to be located high in the 

Caucasus; the system consisted of numerous plates that had to be 

aimed individually$ calling for han alignment since no computer had 

monitoring station at the point beyond the moon where the gravitational fields of earth and moon would balance each other; a station at 

that point would be protected from the earth‘s own radio emissions. 

Identical fluctuations of signal recorded simultaneously at widely 

separated points would be considered to have extraterrestrial origin 

rather than to result from a local manmade effect. (NYT, 29 Nov 75, 

C13) 

During November: An x-ray telescope assembled at Marshall Space Flight 

Center fdr the study of remnants of an exploded star had been shipped 

from England, where it had undergone payload integration, to the 

Woomera Rocket Range in Australia for launch. The project, called 

Skylark for the British sounding rocket on which the telescope would 

fly, was a joint British-American undertaking to study a supernova 

remnant. known as Puppis A for information on the evolution of stars 

and perhaps on the formation of neutron stars. The flight would 

provide at least 3 min 20 sec for the 346.5-kg payload to make its 

observations above 120-km altitude. (NASA Release 75 -287; MSFC 

Release 75-238) e States iqvolved in NASA’s land-use satellite applications had included 

Ala., Miss., and Tenn., which had organized statewide survey programs, and Mo., which had just begun such a program. The Southern 

Growth Policies Board, a 15-state group monitoring the South‘s development, had investigated application of Landsat capabilities to 

identify prime farm land, potential commercial sites, and land values. 

Georgia, working through Ga. Tech., Marshall Space Flight Center, 

and the U.S. bept of Agriculture, had begun aerial surveys of Georgia’s peach orchards to study the problem of premature loss of the fruit 

trees. IM[SFC aircraft provided multispectral photos and thermal data to 

be processed through Ga. Tech. computers, detecting stages of decline not visible from the ground. (MSFC Release 75-247, 75-251) 0 The first successful air drop of data-collection platforms for use by the 

Nimbus 6 polar-orbiting weather satellite would lead to another first: 

successful day-to-day tracking of ice-pack movement in the Arctic 

Sea north of Alaska’s oil-rich Prudhoe Bay area. Knowledge about the 

interaction between the winter sea ice and the continental shelfwould 

be important to government and to oil companies; government would 

use the information in allocating driUing areas and overseeing their 

use by private industry. Oil companies would need to know whether to 

locate drilling rigs on the ice or sink them into the sea bed; whether to 

bury pipelines under the ocean floor, lay them along the bottom, or run 

them over the ice to loading areas. The exterior sphere of the platto perfprm this ro 4 e. The Soviets also envisioned a 

232 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 November 

forms, built to be dropped on the ice from small aircraft, had been 

constructed of a tough material to foil the hunger and curiosity of polar 

bears, which reportedly would attempt to chew on anything appearing 

different from the usual surroundings. 

The tracking and data-relay experiment aboard Nimbus 6 had successfully completed its share of a transmission test that sent sensor, 

telemetry, and ranging signals from its near-polar 1110-km orbit to 

NASA’s Ats 6 in geostationary orbit 35 900 km above India. The signals, 

relayed to NASA’s Madrid receiving station, were immediately retransmitted to GSFC. Information gathered in the test would be used to 

design the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) planned 

for late 1979. The system would use two geostationary satellites to 

relay tracking data, commands, and communications between a central ground terminal and a number of spacecraft in low earth orbit; this 

would increase low-orbit spacecraft access to ground stations from 15 

to %%, reducing NASA requirements for ground-station networks. 

General Electric’s Space Div., reporting on the success of the test, 

said the quality of all data received was excellent. (Marshall Star, 26 

Nov 75,4; Sun Diego Union, 9 Nov 75,l; Aero Daily, 26 Nov 75,140; 

SBD, 26 Nov 75, 143) 

0 The Bangui Anomaly-a massive magnetic disturbance in the earth 

along the equator in Africa, suggesting rich deposits of heavy metals 

like iron and uranium-had been accidentally discovered by Ogo 1, 

launched in 1964 with magnetometers that were stiU measuring the 

earth‘s magnetic field in 1970 when the Geological Survey decided to 

use them for other purposes. 

Attempting to measure the ionosphere for traces of a jetstream 

above the equator, Survey scientists noticed a “kink” in the data and 

had checked their findings by scanning the region with magnetometers in aircraft. Results showed a magnetic difference so great that it 

could be caused only by an ore body larger than the Mesabi range in 

Minn., largest in the U.S. Scientists had deemed the find so important 

that NASA had suggested putting a satellite in orbit to do nothing but 

chart the earth‘s magnetic field. 

The anomaly was named for the capital of the Central African 

Republic, an extremely poor nation almost as big as Texas with a 

population of about 2 million. The deposits had been localized in hilly 

regions away from the Ubangi River, so that a railroad or highway 

would be needed to carry ores to the river for shipping. State Dept. 

sources said that interest in the region among foreign mineralextraction companies had risen. (O’Toole, LA Times, 15 Nov 75, 1) 

9 Energy from the Mideast had been forecast for cooling buildings in the 

Persian Gulf countries-but without using a drop of oil, according to 

the Christian Science Monitor. Solar energy would provide power to 

sweeten the waters of the Dead Sea, heat water for householders in 

Cyprus and Israel, and desalinize water for military units in Saudi 

Arabia. First desalination plant of its kind to use solar energy would be 

built at Aqaba by the Jordanian Royal Scientific Society working with 

Dornier of West Germany; the latter company would also build the 

small desalting plants for the Saudis. A world conference on solar 

energy had been scheduled for the new Dhahran campus of the Saudi 

Arabia University of Petroleum and Minerals, at the end of November. 

(CSM, 18 Nov 75, 2) 

233 
November ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

0 A simple device familiar for centuries-the flywheel-had been the 

subject of a national symposium as a possible solution for some of 

America’s critical energy problems. The first conference on flywheel 

technology, held at Berkeley, Calif., under sponsorship of the Energy 

Research and Development Administration and the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, had been told that modern materials and design had 

made possible a superflywheel that could transform the energy picture. The principle upon which flywheels performed-storage of 

mechanical energy by a spinning wheel-had been enlarged by the 

use of fiber composites developed for use in spacecraft nosecones that 

had greater strength-to-weight ratios, being 10 to 20 times stronger 

than steel and much lighter. As the amount of energy stored by the 

flywheel varied as the square ofthe rotation speed, the limit had been 

on the tensile strength of the material used; the fiber wheel could be 

spun faster to store more energy per kg than the conventional metal 

one, and would also cost less. A superflywheel might spin at 100 000 or 

even 200 000 rpm. Both the Soviet Union and American industry had 

displayed interest in developing the flywheel; use of the technology in 

automobiles would reduce pollution and would represent a safety 

improvement. The flywheels also could act in backup systems for 

homes using solar energy and windmills for their energy needs. 

Further investigation of the materials under stress-rupture tests was 

being conducted at the Lawrence laboratory and elsewhere. (MT, 30 

Nov 75, L84) 

0 National laws and national governmental institutions were inadequate to 

deal with problems arising from possible depletion of ozone in the 

stratosphere by manmade fluorocarbons, said a study by the Library 

of Congress. The Senate Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences said the study would be “most useful” in its continuing investigation of pollution in the upper atmosphere. The study called for an 

international system of data gathering and institutional control, at the 

same time emphasizing the lack of conclusive evidence that 

fluorocarbons had reduced atmospheric ozone-although it found 

“very strong grounds” for believing that probable cause of harm 

existed. (SBD, 4 Nov 75, 12) 

234 
December 1975 

1 December: National Science Foundation held in Chicago the first of 7 

meetings scheduled nationwide to obtain public views on a Federal 

program for greater public involvement in science policy issues. 

Subsequent meetings would be held during Dec. in Atlanta, Dallas, 

Denver, San Francisco, Washington, D.C., and Boston. Oral and 

written statements presented at the meetings would be included in an 

NSF report to Congress. (SBD, 3 Dec 75, 173) 

2 December: Space programs that create new commercial activity, new 

wealth, and new jobs were essential to the growth of both the US. and 

Europe, Sen. Frank E. Moss (D-Utah) told the Assembly of Western 

European Union. Reviewing policies that had governed agreements 

on space with Western Europe, Moss warned that continued 

cooperation in space would hinge on Europe’s paying its full share of 

the expenses. Concentration on programs with immediate application 

to earth problems should not mean abandonment of space science, or 

loss of “the vision and imagination that have been so important to our 

achievements to date,’’ the senator said. (CR, 10 Dec 75, S 21650; 

SBD, 5 Dec 75, 185) 

DefenselSpace Business Daily reported that “a NASA spokesman” 

had said the proposed Mariner Jupiter-Uranus mission scheduled 

for 1979 had not been eliminated from the agency’s FY 1977 budget 

and was “still planned.” The Federal budget squeeze announced 

for FY 1977 had put the 8177-million project in serious question. NASA 

reportedly might try to use one of its Mariner Jupiter-Saturn 1977 

spacecraft as an alternative to permit a flight to Uranus. (SBD, 3 

Dec 75, 175) 

3 December: Dr. Maxime A. Faget, director of engineering and development at Johnson Space Center, received the gold medal of 

the American Society of Mechanical Engineers at its annual 

winter meeting honors assembly in Houston. Faget had been responsible for design and testing of the Mercury, Gemini, and ApoUo spacecraft and the Skylab space station, as well as of the Space Shuttle 

scheduled for flight in the late 1970s. Previous JSC recipients of the 

ASME gold medal had been JSC Director Dr. Christopher C. Kraft, 

Jr., in 1973 and former JSC Director Robert R. Gilruth in 1970. (JSC 

Release 75-98) 

Dr. Ernst Stuhlinger, associate director for science at Marshall Space 

Flight Center, would retire after 30 yrs of Federal service on 28 Dec., 

NASA announced. Born and educated in Germany, Dr. Stuhlinger 

became a physicist and had been involved in rocketry and space work 

since 1943 when he joined the rocket development team at 

Peenemunde, Germany. He had come to the U.S. after World War I1 

and worked for the US. Army before transferring to NASA when MSFC 

was wet up in 1960. Early planning for lunar exploration and the Apollo 

telescope mount had been carried out under his direction, as well as 

early planning on the High Energy Astronomy Observatory and initial 

235 
December ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

phases of the Space Telescope project. His work had included electric 

propulsion studies and scientific payloads for the Space Shuttle. 

(MSFC Release 75- 256) 0 The Peoples Republic of China announced it had successfullyrecovered 

an artificial earth satellite for the first time, becoming the third 

country after the U.S. and the Soviet Union to develop a technique for 

returning a satellite from orbit. The satellite, which had been 

launched 26 Nov., was China’s fourth; the third had been orbited in 

July and the fiist two in 1970 and 1971. Edward K. Wu, Hong Kong 

correspondent of the Baltimore Sun, noted that Chinese scientists and 

engineers apparently had solved technological problems including 

development of a heat-resistant alloy to withstand reentry temperatures, automatic techniques for remote control, and a trigger system 

to fire the satellite back to earth. (B Sun, 4 Dec 75, A4) 

The automated docking of the U.S.S.R.’s pilotless Soyuz 20 with the 

unmannedSaZyut 4 space station [see 19 Nov.] had been a preliminary 

to Soviet experiments aimed at building a permanent space base, the 

Christian Science Monitor said. Recalling the failure of the automatic 

docking system in August 1974, CSM quoted Maj. Gen. Vladimir 

Shatalov-head of the cosmonaut group-as saying that the Soyuz 

was being developed as a universal spacecraft for carrying crews, 

fuel, and provisions to scientific stations and for assembling complex structures in orbit; craft of this kind would “undoubtedly become 

assembly sites for large space stations to be set up in orbit.” European 

observers had said the Soviet plan would be to launch the central part 

of the space platform first, followed by separate laboratory modules 

that would plug into docking ports to draw on the power and facilities 

of the mother station. The orbital stations would be supplied with 

consumables by a modification of the existing Soyuz, and this 

experience would be applied later to shuttles and space tugs. (CSM, 3 

Dec 75, 7) 9 Evidence that aerosols from spray cans had damaged earth‘s ozone layer 

had been under study by an independent scientific panel that would 

make its report early in 1976, the ‘wall Street Journal said, but Federal 

action against fluorocarbons was not considered likely before that 

time, and foreign governments were considered unlikely to act before 

the U.S. did. Fluorocarbon manufacturers and users had insisted that 

the ozone-depletion theory had not been proved, and warned of 

damage to an industry that had made products worth $400 million 

to $450 million a year, with manufacturing facilities worth $300 

million. U.S. producers had accounted for about half the world’s production of fluorocarbons, which was approaching about 0.9 billion kg 

a year. 

Two Univ. of Chicago chemists-Mario J. Molina and F. Sherwood 

Roland-had advanced a theory 18 mo ago that fluorocarbons used in 

spray containers and in refrigerators and air conditioners were getting 

into the upper atmosphere, encountering ultraviolet light (more intense 

at high altitudes) that split the fluorocarbon molecules to release 

highly active chlorine. The chlorine had depleted the atmospheric 

ozone by converting it to ordinary oxygen. The theory had been partly 

confirmed in the laboratory by National Bureau of Standards chemists 

who showed that ultraviolet lamps would split fluorocarbons to 

produce either one or two chlorine atoms, depending on the ultraviolet 

236 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 December 

wavelength used. However, no one had discovered a way to measure 

the ozone to tell whether it had been affected by chlorines from 

fluorocarbon dissociation. Another clue had been to search for 

chlorine products such as hydrochloric acid in the stratosphere; 

tests conducted by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory using U-2 flights and 

balloons had confirmed the presence in the stratosphere of hydrochloric acid that had not originated from the earth. Granting the effect 

of aerosols, opinions had been divided upon the significance of ozone 

depletion: possible consequences of additional ultraviolet radiation 

impinging upon earth included increased incidence of skin cancer, 

harmful effects on animal and plant life, and alteration of temperature 

patterns in the stratosphere with resulting alteration of weather 

patterns on earth. Even without proof of damage, public apprehension 

of risk had increased pressure for a ban on the suspect chemicals, 

especially in aerosols. (Tannenbaum in WSJ, 3 Dec 75, 1) 

0 The Aerospace Gorp. had donated its $2-million San Fernando Observatory to Calif. State Univ. at Northridge as an educational center 

for solar research, Aerospace president Dr. Ivan Getting announced. 

The nonprofit company, which had used the observatory in support of 

flights in the Apollo and Skylab projects, was giving away the 7-yr-old 

facility because its planned solar research had been completed. (SBD, 

3 Dec 75, 173) 

4 December: NASA’s winter phase of meteorological rocket and satellite 

comparisons had been completed at Wallops Flight Center, where 31 

single and two-stage rockets had been launched since 18 Nov. Data 

obtained from the launches had been compared with measurements 

received from the Nimbus 6 satellite passing over the Wallops facility. 

The Super-Loki single-stage rocket had carried three types of payload: inflatable spheres of mylar to obtain atmospheric density and 

wind measurements; datasondes to obtain temperature and wind data; 

and ozone-measuring devices. The Nike-Cajun, a two-stage vehicle, 

carried acoustic grenade payloads to measure wind and temperature 

by recording time and location of detonation on arrays of sensitive 

microphones at the launch site that could measure time lapse and 

direction of sound arrival. The rocket and satellite data comparison 

had been the latest of several conducted from the Wallops facility 

since 1970. (WFC Release 75- 14) 

0 Landsat 2, launched 22 Jan. 75, had successfully completed more than 

10 mos of orbital operations during which it had acquired more than 

53 000 frames of imagery. Nearly 300 000 messages from datacollection platforms had been received, processed, and sent to users; 

imagery from more than 2600 sample sites for the Large Area Crop 

Inventory Experiment (LACIE) had been processed and shipped to 

Johnson Space Center. About 62% of domestic investigations and 

43% of foreign investigations had been supplied enough Landsat 2 

data to meet the major objectives. Primary mission objectives had 

been declared satisfied, as well as all secondary objectives that were 

not time-dependent. (MOR E-641-75-02, 4 Dec 75) 

0 The Soviet Union had landed Arctic explorers on an ice floe 600 km from 

Chukotka to sei up Severny Polyus-23, a drifting observatory to 

study weather and ice conditions in the Arctic Sea, Tass announced. 

Air search last spring had discovered a flat berg 7 km long and 3 km 

wide about 500 km from Wrangel Island north of the eastern tip of 

237 
December ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Siberia. N. Blinov, head of the Soviet high-latitude expedition Sever27, called this a rare find because the ice appeared to be 20 m thick. 

Research stations on such floating islands made it possible to trace 

circulation of Arctic ice over many years; the Severny Polyus-22 

station operating in the Arctic for 3 yr had moved in a clockwise 

anticyclone circular drift and “repeatedly found itself in both the 

eastern and western hemispheres.” The new station, larger than its 

predecessor, was expected to last longer. (Tass, in FBIS No. 240,4 Dec 

75) 5 December: Launch of the Dual Air Density (DAD) spacecraft from the 

Western Test Range failed when a catastrophic event during thirdstage burn caused loss of vehicle control and failure to achieve orbit. 

The destruct signal was transmitted 341 sec after ignition. 

The four-stage Scout-D launch was to have placed into orbit two 

satellites-a small rigid sphere of aluminum and a large inflatable 

sphere of mylar-similarly instrumented with a mass spectrometer 

and associated electronics. The satellites were to have been in 90“ 

polar orbits intersecting periodically, to measure atmospheric densities ai two differing altitudes but at the same latitudes at the same 

local-hour angle of the sun. The measurements would show effects on 

upper atmosphere readings of changes in solar heat input and the 

relationships between upper and lower atmospheres. 

The launch, scheduled for 3 Dec., had been delayed because of a 

malfunction in the ignition system of the Scout launch vehicle. (NASA 

Release 75-300; MOR S-863-75-05, 6 Jan 76; HQ memo, Goozh, 

9 Dec 75; SBD, 5 Dec 75, 186) 

0 Marshall Space Flight Center issued a request for quotations from 

industry for development of a flat conductor-cable wiring system 

suitable for use in residences and commercial establishments. Surface mounting, a feature of the flat cable system originated by NASA to 

reduce the size and weight of wiring harness in space capsules, 

would eliminate the need for routing wires in walls, ceilings, and 

floors because it could be covered by paneling, tile, or even wallpaper. Use of the flat wiring would reduce costs of wiring new construction and permit savings in renovating, remodeling, and rewiring of existing buildings. The successful proposer would develop 

a surface-mounted baseboard system using a cable 63.5 mm wide; 

total thickness of the baseboard-channel, airspace, and coverwould be about 11 mm, thickness of the thinnest lumber baseboard 

strips in use. (MSFC Release 75-257) 

8 December: The Senate passed H.R. 8674, the Metric Conversion Act of 

1975, after substituting the provisions of its own bill S. 100. The 

legislation would establish a 17-member United States Metric Board, 

appointed by the President, to carry out a program of planning and 

public education to implement the adoption of the metric system on a 

voluntary basis. Board members would serve staggered terms of up to 

6 yr, and would report to the President annually on the conversion 

process with recommendations on necessary legislation or executive 

action. (CR, 8 Dec 75, S21368) 

9 December: The Communications Satellite Corporation fiied with the U.S. 

Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia a petition for review of 

the Federal Communications Commission decision of 4 Dec. on the 

allowed rate base, rate of return, and rate structure for ComSat’s 

international satellite services. ComSat intended to apply to the 

238 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 December 

FCC-and to the court-for a stay of the FCC order that new tariffs be 

fded by 5 Jan. 1976. The corporation had prepared a letter to its 

stockholders on the FCC decision. (ComSat Release 75-61) 

10 December: Marshall Space Flight Center announced it would distribute 

the first NASA Standard Parts List (NSPL) to all NASA centers and 

contractors in Jan. The NSPL was to include electronic parts selected 

from experience in flights, tests, failure analyses, and recent plant 

surveys, to ensure reliability. The standardization had been undertaken to solve problems of small-quantity buying, high cost, long 

delivery schedules, market fluctuations, ‘part failures, and extensive 

rework. The cost of correcting problems resulting from failure of parts 

had been estimated as 100 times the cost of preventing the use of poorquality parts to begin with. The NASA Standard Parts Lead Office, 

located at MSFC because of its experience in parts management 

developed during the Saturn program, would establish requirements 

for parts, coordinate the effort with all NASA Centers, and issue and 

maintain the list. (NASA Release 75-303; MSFC Release 75-259) 

0 The Air Force had formally entered into an agreement with NASA on development of an experimental hypersonic research aircraft capable of 

mach 6 flight. The two agencies had agreed after a joint 1974-75 

study that ‘‘the combined objective and the national interest” would 

be best served by a joint hypersonic flight-test program. The agreement provided that the report of the joint study would be the baseline 

document for program development; that technology development 

and experimental tests would be completed in 1976 so preliminary design 

study could begin in fl1977; that personnel from both agencies would 

participate in all phases to the maximum extent practicable; and that 

an ad hoc steering committee would be established to prepare a 

project plan for use in vehicle procurement. (Memo of understanding, 

10 Dec 75) 

e A long-duration free-flying manned space station in earth orbit appeared 

to be the most economical way of providing a continuing manned 

presence in space, according to “Manned Orbital Systems Concepts,” a study conducted for Marshall Space Flight Center by 

McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Co. A station that could significantly 

extend the time in space planned for the Space Shuttle would offer 

advantages for doing a given amount of work with fewer flights and 

reducing the number of turnarounds, checkouts, and similar operations. A permanent facility could offer maintenance and repair and 

even reconfiguration of payloads. The study envisioned development 

of four-man facilities that would serve as building blocks for growth 

into larger stations for 12 or 24 workers as needed; the four-man 

configuration would consist of a subsystems and habitability module 

carried into orbit by one Shuttle and joined with a logistics and 

payload module carried on a second mission. Several payload modules 

could be docked in tandem with the core vehicle, or in radial locations 

through use of a multiple-port docking adapter. The core vehicle 

would be left on station for a nominal lifetime of 5 yr, logistic and 

payload modules being replaced at 90-day intervals. Crew exchange 

and resupply would occur every 90 days. The study concluded that 

problems anticipated by the world in the 1990s should be solved in the 

19809, and that an extended-duration manned orbital facility could 

contribute significantly to those solutions. (MSFC Release 75- 26) 

239 
December ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

* INTELSAT-the International Telecommunications Satellite organization-had awarded a 20-mo fixed-price contract for $220 000 to the 

Messerschmitt- Boelkow- Blohm Co. of Munich for design, fabrication, and test of a prototype lightweight deployable solar array for use 

in synchronous satellites. The new array would provide 30 to 33 watts 

per kg at the end of a 7- to 10-yr mission, compared to the current level 

of 10 to 15 watts per kg. (INTELSAT Release 75-20) 

11 December: A Black Brant VC sounding rocket, first of a series scheduled over the next 5 yrs in a Space Processing Applications Rocket 

(SPAR) project managed by Marshall Space Flight Center, was 

launched to an altitude of 225 km from the Army’s White Sands 

missile range and traveled downrange about 80 km, providing about 

5 min of near weightlessness during its coast phase. The rocket carried nine space-processing experiments in a 143-kg payload assembled at MSFC. The next flight had been scheduled for the spring of 

1976. (MSFC Release 11 Dec 75) 

e NASA issued a request for proposals from industry on a space-station 

systems analysis study. The proposals would be due 26 Jan. 1976. 

Two $700 000 contracts would be issued in April for parallel 18-mo 

concept studies, one to be managed by Marshall Space Flight Center, 

the other by Johnson Space Center. Contractors would study loworbit and synchronous-orbit facilities, to begin module construction 

in the mid-1980s. The space station would be used as a test facility 

and construction base to support the manufacture and assembly in 

space of various kinds of space structures-e.g., generation of electric power by large solar collectors and transmission to earth by microwave antennas. Other uses would be the retrieval and repair of automated spacecraft, or storage and transfer of fuel and other expendables. Elements of the station would be compatible with the 

Shuttle cargo bay, 18.3 m long by 4.6 m in diameter. (NASA Release 

75-310; MSFC Release 75-262; JSC Release 75-99) 

e Kennedy Space Center awarded a $1 279 000 contract to George A. 

Fuller Co., a division of Northrop Corp. of Chicago, for fabrication 

and erection of a structure for mating and demating the Space Shuttle 

Orbiter and its Boeing 747 carrier aircraft at NASA’s Flight Research 

Center in Calif. KSC had been given responsibility for Space Shuttle 

launch operations and for Orbiter ground operations and support 

equipment both at KSC in Fla. and at FRC, which was to be Orbiter 

landing site for the first four missions. The contractor was to complete 

the structure-including hoist system, access platforms, and utility 

systems-within 328 days after notice to proceed. (KSC Release 

290- 75) 

0 Fluorocarbon levels in the stratosphere over N. Mex. had more than 

doubled since 1968, reported Dr. David G. Murcray, professor of 

physics at Univ. of Denver. The average annual increase of about 

14% approximated the annual increase in fluorocarbon use. Dr. 

Murcray’s experiments, funded by the National Science Foundation 

and the Manufacturing Chemists Assn., used a balloon-borne highresolution infrared spectrometer to measure the wavelengths at which 

fluorocarbons absorbed light. “The measurements of the fluorocarbons made using this technique are of particular interest,” said 

Dr. Murcray, “since I had made similar measurements in 1968.” 

The 1968 measurements had been the only ones of the amounts of 

fluorocarbons present in the stratosphere made before 1974. In 1968, 

240 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 December 

fluorocarbon 11 was measured at 20 parts per trillion; in 1975, at about 

50. Comparable figures for fluorocarbon 12 were 50 to 60 parts per 

trillion in 1968 and 140 to 160 parts per trillion in 1975. (NSF Release 

PR75- 101) 0 NASA announced selection of Boeing Commercial Airplane co. of 

Seattle for negotiations leading to award of a $9.8-million contract to 

develop a computer software system that could substantially reduce 

design time and costs of aircraft and space vehicle design and ensure 

improved vehicle performance. The system, called IPAD (integrated 

programs for aerospace-vehicle design), would process installation of 

engineering information on computers at major U.S. aerospace comanies, acting as the key communications and calculations integrator 

!or many designers and increasing their effectiveness by speeding up 

computations and data management required in design. It would serve 

large engineering staffs from the design concept through detailed design, and would help to organize and assemble design data in support of manufacturing processes. (NASA Release 75 -312) 

0 The Soviet Union launched Intercosmos 14 into an orbit with 1707-km 

apogee, 345-km perigee, 105.3-min period, and 72 inclination. The 

satellite had been equipped to study low-frequency electromagnetic 

fluctuations in the magnetosphere, the structure of the ionosphere, 

and the intensity of micrometeorite fluxes. Tass reported that flags of 

nine socialist countries had waved over “one of the Soviet cosmodromes” where the launching took place; mentioned as participating 

in this particular mission were scientists from Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary, as well as the U.S.S.R. Satellites of the Intercosmos series were considered “closest to purely earth problems” in 

that they had been connected with specific orders placed by geophysicists, physicians, meteorologists, and radiocommunications experts. Academician Boris Petrov, head of the Soviet Intercosmos, 

said the launch ended the first decade of cooperation between scientists and engineers of the socialist countries, who had made significant discoveries regarding sun and earth climate, influence of solar 

activity on magnetic weather, and dispersal of radio waves. Collectives of experts in all nine member countries of Intercosmos would 

take part “as usual” in processing information received from the 

satellite, working at the scientific flight headquarters near Norilsk, 

beyond the polar circle, where parallel ground observations would be 

conducted. (Tass, in IS 240 and 243, 12 Dec 75) 

12 December: Satcom I, first of three domestic communications satellites 

to be placed in geostationary orbit around the equator for RCA Corp. to 

transmit long-distance telephone calls and service data, had been 

launched at 856 pm EST from Cape Canaveral on a Delta vehicle into a 

parking orbit with 35 980-km apogee and 182-km perigee. A kick 

motor was to be fired at 541 pm EST 15 Dec. to put the satellite into a 

synchronous orbit. The RCA Satcom was the second domestic communications satellite to be launched by communications companies; 

the Western Union Corporation’s Westar system became operational 

earlier this year. Each Satcom would receive and transmit data on 

24 channels. Westar-a two-satellite system-had only 12 message 

channels per satellite. Each Satcom channel was built to transmit 

1000 telephone calls at a time, or one color TV channel, or 64 million 

bits per sec of computer data. Satcom 1 would be stationed at 119”W, 

and the two subsequent Satcoms would be located at 99”W and 129T 

241 
December ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

over the equator to handle television, voice channels, and high-speed 

data between the contiguous U.S., Hawaii, and Alaska. (NASA Release 75-302; NYT, 13 Dec 75,37; SBD, 16 Dec 75,242; KSC Releases 

NASh marked the 10th year in space of Pioneer 6, launched 16 Dec. 

1965 to make the first detailed measurements of the interplanetary 

medium, some spanning more than 805 million km. Pioneer 6 had 

measured the sun’s corona, returned data on solar storms from the 

invisible side of the sun, and measured the tail of Comet Kohoutek, 

during what was believed to be the longest operating life yet attained 

by an interplanetary spacecraft; it had also helped to chart the solar 

wind, solar cosmic rays, and the solar magnetic field, all of which 

extend far beyond the orbit of Jupiter. Pioneer 6, and three sister 

craft-Pioneers 7, 8, and 9-all years beyond their 6-mo design 

lives, had constituted a network of solar weather stations that circle 

the sun in locations millions of kilometers apart. Two younger craftPioneer 10 and 11-had flown past Jupiter in 1972 and 1973 and were 

headed for the outer reaches of the solar system. (NASA Release 75- 

311; ARC Release 75-65) 

14 December: The Air Force launched a “spy satellite” from Kennedy 

Space Center at 12:15 am EST into a stationary orbit at about 36 000 

km above earth. Although no announcement had been made of the 

success or failure of the launch, observers next day concluded that 

the launch had been successful. The satellite was one of a series designed to monitor missile launchings in China and the Soviet Union to 

give a 30-min warning of a land-launched attack or about 10-min warning of a missile attack from submarines. It had been launched by a 

Titan IIIC, 24th of this type launched from Cape Canaveral, and 

was thought to carry both infrared sensing equipment and still and TV 

cameras to permit day and night monitoring. (NYT, 16 Dec 75, 14; 

C Trib, 15 Dec 75, 5) 

15 December: Giant designs stretching for miles on the Nazca plains of 

Peru had possibly been laid out by observers in hot-air balloons, Time 

magazine reported, as members of the InternationalExplorers Society 

constructed and flew such a balloon over the area using materials and 

techniques available to the ancient Indians. Documents discovered in 

Portugal had revealed that in 1709 a missionary had demonstrated a 

model of a hot-air balloon reportedly used by the Indians. Textiles recovered from desert graves provided evidence that the Nazcas had 

the materials to make a balloon envelope, and a picture of an ancient 

ceramic appeared to represent a hot-air bag. The IES members built 

a balloon about 27 m high with fabric resembling the Nazca material, 

with lines and fastenings from local fibers and a gondola woven from 

reeds growing in Peru’s Lake Titicaca. Named Condor I, the device 

flew about 4 km in 18 min and reached an altitude of more than 300 m. 

(Time, 15 Dec 75, 50) 

0 Kennedy Space Center had awarded a $265 700 contract to Charter Industries of Raleigh, N.C., for rental of 14 geodesic domes to house 

displays at a bicentennial exposition of science and technology to be 

sponsored by the government next summer at the spaceport. KSC 

would be host for the exposition, which would consist of exhibits 

from government and industry showing applications of science and 

technology to improve living conditions during the next 200 years. 

(NASA Release 75 -313) 

289-75, 295-75) 

242 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 197s December 

16 December: Astronaut Donald K. (Deke) Slayton had been appointed 

Deputy Director of Flight Operations for Approach and Landing Test 

at the Johnson Space Center, announced Center Director Dr. Christopher C. Kraft, Jr. In the newly created position, Slayton would be 

responsible for planning and implementing the approach and landing 

test project for the Space Shuttle program. He most recently had 

been docking module pilot of the U.S. crew for the Apollo-Soyuz 

Test Project. (NASA Release 75-314; JSC Release 75-100) 

0 Langley Research Center awarded a $1.5-million 30-mo contract to 

Rockwell International’s Autonetics Group for a highly reliable solidstate satellite data recorder using bubble-domain technology. The 

new recorder, with a memory capacity of 100 million bits, would 

achieve a tenfold improvement in reliability over mechanically driven 

recorders now in use. The bubble-domain technology would make 

the recorder about a third the size and half the weight of present 

recorders and would require only half the power for operation. Dr. 

R. L. Stermer of LaRC said a NASA decision to define hardware using 

the bubble-domain technology for use in the late 1970s would be 

greatly influenced by success of the new recorder. (Rockwell Release 

AG -9) 

17 December: The Peoples Republic of China announced the launch of its 

fifth earth satellite, third launched this year. Reuters, quoted in the 

New York Times, said observers believed it had been a step toward 

Peking’s first manned space flight. The fourth China spacecraft, 

launched 26 Nov., had been recovered, leading observers to believe the 

Chinese engineers had perfected soft-landing techniques. Weights of 

the three craft launched this year had not been disclosed, to hide the 

capacity of the type of rocket used for launch, nor had the current 

announcement disclosed the satellite’s orbit or height. (NYT, 18 Dec 

75, 26; New China News Agency, in FBIS 243, 17 Dec 75) 

Evidence that the Arabian peninsula is rotating toward Asia exists in 

photographs taken during the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, according to 

Dr. Farouk el-Baz, director of the Smithsonian Center for Earth and 

Planetary Studies at the National Air and Space Museum. Dr. el-Baz, 

who coordinated the earth-observation study of ASTP, said the photographs provided geologic evidence of the continental drift theory in 

color shots of a vast complex of fault lines extending north from the 

Red Sea through the Gulf of Aqaba, the Dead Sea, and the Sea of 

Galilee. The fan-shaped pattern revealed the movement of the Arabian landmass to be a rotation rather than simply an eastward drift, 

Dr. el-Baz said. Until the ASTP pictures became available, the fault 

line had not been known to extend beyond the Golan Heights region, 

probably a pivotal spot geologically as well as politically. (NYT, 18 

Dec 75,24) 

0 Kennedy Space Center awarded a $74998 contract to the Univ. of 

Fla. Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences for continuation of a 

freeze-prediction study. A 1973 contract had provided for study of the 

application of satellite thermal and infrared imagery to development 

of a freeze-prediction model; results were so encouraging that a 

second contract had been awarded m 1974. Also involved in this effort 

had been meteorologists from the Lakeland office of the National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and its Environmental Services Center at Auburn, Ala. Freeze-warning information had previously been provided by NOM’S Ruskin, Fla., facility on the basis of 

243 
December ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

data from 300 recording thermometers operated by a Federal-state 

agricultural weather system and other reporting stations; the KSC 

contracts had aimed at developing a computerized system using thermal scanning and infrared imagery from spacecraft and aircraft for 

more accurate predictions. The study used data from all agencies, 

including spacecraft readings and actual ground- and leaf-temperature measurements provided by Univ. of Fla. personnel at specific 

times in selected test areas, combined at KSC for analysis in its 

earth resources data-analysis facility. The analyzed data had then 

gone to the university and to NOM for predictive model development. 

(KSC Release 294-75) 

NASA had awarded Bendix Field Engineering Corp. a $104-million contract to operate and maintain portions of the worldwide Spaceflight 

Tracking and Data Network that serves the needs of NASA’s earthorbital space programs, manned and unmanned. The 2-yr costplus-award-fee contract would permit negotiation of up to three additional 1-yr extensions, and would be supervised by Goddard Space 

Flight Center. The contractor would provide technical support for 

STDN stations and facilities as well as for the Laser Tracking Subnet 

and for the Magnetic Tape Certification Facility and the NASCOM 

facilities located at GSFC. (NASA Release 75-315) 

18 December: Allegations that the Soviet Union had been testing a laser 

system to blind u.S. spy satellites were discussed in an article in the 

Christian Science Monitor. A satellite watching Russia from a spot in 

the sky over the Indian Ocean had set off false alarms of a missile 

attack 18 Oct. when its sensitive instruments detected heat such as 

might result from the firing of missiles. The heat had originated from 

a fire caused by breaks in a natural gas pipeline, as later satellite 

photographs confirmed, but between the alarm and the photographs 

U.S. intelligence had speculated that the Soviets had trained lasers 

on the satellite to prevent detection, in violation of the U.S.-Soviet 

agreement on arms. The gas fires had set off other warnings after 18 

Oct., apparently because the ruptures and fires occurred at different 

times and places in Russia in both October and November. CSM 

quoted an article in Aviation Week magazine questioning whether 

lasers could be used to prevent monitoring of military activity on the 

ground by satellites, noting that officials at the u.S. Arms Control 

Agency had discounted the reported incidents. Both the U.S. and the 

Soviet Union were known to be spending large amounts on laser 

research, and the December issue of the authoritative Jane’s Weapon 

Systems had discussed the implications of laser research for military 

uses in both countries. (CSM, 18 Dec 75,3; Miami Herald, 24 Dec 75, 

8A; Ft. Myers News-Press, 28 Dec 75, 1) e The Soviet Union for the first time had discovered atoms of “natrium”- 

sodium, as it is known in the U.S.-at an altitude of nearly 100 km, 

in the lower ionosphere. The experiment was difficult, said Tass, 

because at that altitude only 1 atom of natrium exists per 1000 

million molecules of nitrogen and oxygen. A laser unit had established a relationship between natrium content in the upper atmosphere and meteor showers; the announcement said the discovery 

would be signifcant because of the effect of natrium on longdistance television and radio communications. (Tass, in FBIS No. 248, 

18 Dec 75) 

244 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 December 

22 December: A new domestic communications-satellite partnership 

named Satellite Business Systems fied applications with the Federal 

Communications Commission seeking authorization to establish an 

all-digital system to serve large industrial, government, and other 

users beginning in 1979. The new partnership had been formed by 

subsidiaries of Aetna Life & Casualty, Comsat General, and IBM, each 

of which intended to own one-third. The proposed system, using 

higher frequencies at 12 and 14 gigahertz and advanced technology, 

would permit customers in geographically dispersed locations to combine voice, data, and image communications into a single integrated 

private-line network; small automated ground stations would be located at customers’.premises and connected where possible to existing terminals to minimize terrestrial communications costs. The system would use two satellites in geostationary orbit at about 36 000 

km altitude, one serving as a backup, to provide coverage of the 48 

contiguous states. (Comsat Release 75-63) 

0 The Soviet Union launched Prognoz 4, a 905-kg automatic station to 

study corpuscular and electromagnetic emissions of the sun, flows of 

solar plasma, and near-earth magnetic fields, to determine solar influence on the earth’s magnetosphere. The satellite’s orbit would have 

a 40 836-km apogee, 451-km perigee, 12 hr 16 min period, and 62.8” 

inclination. (Tass, in FBIS No 247, 22 Dec 75) 

0 The Soviet Union launched a communications satellite called Raduga 

(Rainbow) into a stationary circular orbit at 35 000 km, with a 23 hr 54 

min period and a 0.3”inclination. The satellite had been instrumented 

to provide continuous round-the-clock telephone and telegraph radio 

communications with simultaneous transmission of color and blackand-white central. TV programs to the network of Orbita stations. 

(Tass, on FBIS No. 248, 23 Dec 75) 

23 December: Pioneer 11, about a third of the way on its course toward 

Saturn, had successfully completed its riskiest course-change maneuver in response to signals from earth, 458 million km distant. Controllers at Ames Research Center ceased communications with the 

Pioneer for several hours, giving the spacecraft time to command 

itself into a change of position, fire its thrusters, and reposition itself 

with antenna pointing back to earth. The maneuver increased spacecraft velocity by 108 km per hr, to ensure that Pioneer would have 

a choice of approach as it neared Saturn: between the rings and the 

planet, or under the rings and upward outside them. Recent tests 

had shown the onboard camera working well; Pioneer 11 had been 

scheduled to take the first closeup pictures of Saturn and its rings 

upon arrival at the planet in 1979. If its course had been set inside 

the rings, Pioneer 11 should be able to look closely at Saturn’s sixth 

moon, Titan, which is larger than the planet Mercury. (NASA Release 

75-319; ARC Release 75-69) 

The Pentagon, checking out reports of Soviet laser devices that had 

blinded U.S. reconnaissance satellites, had found the reports to be 

wrong, said new Secretary of Defense Donald H. Rumsfeld at his 

first press conference since taking over from James R. Schlesinger 

a month ago. Rumsfeld declined to say how it had been determined 

that intelligence reports were wrong, but said: “After examination, 

any implication that the activity that was reported. . . did in fact exist 

was not correct.” He said it was clear there was no violation of any 

245 
December ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

arms control agreement, nor any evidence to sup ort the laser report, 

which he sought to portray as press speculation. &Star, 23 Dec 75,6; 

NY News, 23 Dec 75, 2) 

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration had developed 

a new remote-sensing technique to “see” nitrogen oxide in the 

stratosphere, permitting scientists for the first time to calculate the 

actual rate at which the nitrogen compounds destroy stratospheric 

ozone. Much of the work on the ozone cycle had been theoretical, 

based on computer models and laboratory tests; seasonal variations in 

the stratosphere at high latitudes, revealed by spectrometers on jet 

aircraft, had not been predicted by theory, which meant that the computer models had not provided close simulation. The new technique, 

using a spectrometer to measure the light spectrum and isolate that 

portion caused by nitrogen dioxides, would permit routine checks on 

daily, seasonal, and latitudinal variations in the content of the stratosphere. The method would be applied by small automated instruments run by minicomputers at Nohi stations in Alaska, Samoa, 

Hawaii, and the South Pole, and at the Air Force base in Greenland. 

(NOAA Release 75-220) 

24 December: The National Research Council, in its pro am of conducting technical studies on behalf of the National Acagmy of Sciences 

and the National Academy of Engineering, had mailed out announcements to more than 5000 individuals and organizations inviting statements on the role of nuclear power in the context of alternative energy 

systems. Hearings in five major cities had been scheduled for January 

and early February 1976 to obtain the broadest possible perspective 

for a comprehensive study. The Energy Research and Development 

Administration had asked the academies to conduct a 2-yr study, 

and the announcement represented the first time in the 112-yr history 

of the National Academy of Sciences that such an extensive effort had 

been made to solicit the views of the informed public on a projected 

study. The committee conducting the study would attempt to set forth 

the current and probable states of energy technology through the year 

2010, various policy options, and consequences of each. (NRC Release 

24 Dec 75) 

0 The Air Force had awarded a $28.5-million contract to Lockheed Aircraft Corp. for design, development, and testing of a strengthened 

wing for the C -5A transport airplane that the New York Times called a 

symbol of Pentagon “cost overruns.” Aim of the original C -SA contract with Lockheed had been to produce a transport capable of 

carrying a 99 700-kg payload and having a service lie of 30 000 flying 

hours. Even before it had gone into full operational use, the C-5A 

wing had been shown in static ground tests to be too weak to carry the 

prescribed load and had developed fatigue cracks in. the metal structure. The cracking had been attributed to high stresslevels inherent in 

the design, ineffective fasteners on the wing panels, and difficulty in 

mating the stiff contours of the wing and joints during manufacture. 

The Air Force had paid $4.5 billion on delivery of 81 C-5As; it had 

already spent more than $198 million through June 1975 correcting 

deficiencies for which Lockheed was responsible under the original 

contract, renegotiated when Lockheed was in financial difficulty in 

1971. In addition to $1.3 billion for furing the wings, the AF planned to 

spend another $200 million to fiu other defects. Cost of the repairs 

246 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 December 

would nearly double the original AF estimate of $3.4 billion for the 

C -5A program. However, without the repairs, the C-5A fleet would 

have to be grounded beginning in 1979 when the flying-time safety 

limit had been reached. Because of the defects, service life had 

recently been re-estimated at 8750 hr and payload limit at 78 900 kg. 

(NYT, 15 Dec 75, 1; VSJ, 24 Dec 75, 3) 

0 Citing “new scientific evidence” supporting ozone-depletion theories, 

the Natural Resources Defense Council and 10 states had petitioned 

the Consumer Product Safety Commission to ban the use of 

fluorocarbon propellants in aerosol products. The commission had 

denied a previous petition from the resources council; the Food and 

Drug Administration-which had responsibility for regulating all food, 

drug, and cosmetic aerosol products-had also rejected a petition 

from the group. Copetitioners with the resources council were the 

Environmental Defense Fund and the Minnesota Public Interest Research Group; the 10 states were Colo., Ha., Mass., Mich., Minn., 

N.H., N.Y., Ore., Vt., and Wis. Both N.Y. and Ore. had already 

passed laws banning the use of fluorocarbon sprays, and more than a 

dozen other states were said to be considering this action. The Aerosol 

Education Bureau-sponsored by industry to oppose a ban of 

fluorocarbon-containing products-issued a statement that restrictions would be “inappropriate.” (VSJ, 24 Dec 75, 5) 

26 December: The Christmas Day inaugural flight announced for the 

U.S.S.R.’s supersonic jetliner had been delayed a day by weather 

conditions variously reported as runway ice or fog at the destination, 

but its first flight carrying freight and mail from Moscow to Alma 

Ata-capital of the central Asian republic of Kazakhstan-took onIy 4 

hr for the 8000-km round trip. The Tupolev- 144 airliner, rival of the 

British-French Concorde, could fly at an altitude of up to 46.3 km, 

higher than conventional airliners. Although the flights had been 

billed as the first commercial service by a supersonic jet, and had been 

scheduled to get ahead of the Concorde passenger service set for 

January between Paris and Rio and between London and Bahrain, 

Tu-144 would not carry passengers until the second half of 1976 at 

the earliest, and then on internal routes, according to Deputy Aviation 

Minister Nikolai Boikov. (NYT, 27 Dec 75,2; Miami Herald, 27 Dec 75, 

20A) 

27 December: In a Miami Herald article presenting “the case for the 

Concorde,” S. Fred Singer-who had served in 1970-71 as chairman 

of an interagency task group to evaluate environmental effects of 

supersonic transports-pointed out that the effect of Concorde pollution would be completely swamped by other factors that had been 

shown to decrease atmospheric ozone-nitrogen fertilizers, carbon 

tetrachloride, and fluorocarbons. Banning the Concorde from the U.S. 

would not prevent it from depositing pollutants elsewhere; in any case, 

military planes flying in the stratosphere and subsonic planes pushing 

to higher altitudes to avoid traffic would produce the same pollution 

effect as the Concordes. Singer, now a professor of environmental 

sciences at U. of Va., called for more study of the effects of Freon and 

fertilizers and for modification of the engines of future SSTs. (Miami 

Herald, 27 Dec 75, 7A) 

28 December: Lutz T. Kayser, an aerospace engineer from Stuttgart, 

Germany, had established a business called Orbital Transport and 

247 
December ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Raketen A.G. to build and launch rockets on a commercial basis, 

starting in 1980: if successful, it would be the world's first private 

space-launch venture. NASA had been charging at least $25 million to 

put a $lZmillion satellite into space; Kayser had designed a "space 

truck" to put satellites in orbit for half the NASA price. His rockets 

could not be used for military purposes, he said, as he had no plans to 

sell equipment, but would do the launches himself and sell only 

booster services. As the launches could not take place in crowded 

West Germany, they would have to be done from either a ship at sea or 

from a base in some sparsely populated country. After ground tests of 

Kayser's rocket engines last summer, German scientists had been 

convinced that his spacecraft would fly. 

Kayser said that if the Germans would not su port him, he would 

more than half the backing would come from private investors, and the 

rest from banks. The West German government had spent about $2 

billion to encourage German and European space projects that could 

offer an alternative to the NASA monopoly, but such projects had not 

succeeded. 

The first "space truck"-now under construction for suborbital test 

next year-would be 39.62 m high and consist of inexpensive conventionally produced materials. To make mass production possible, all 

stages would use identical engines; the stages would be placed in 

concentric rings that would drop off as the craft climbed. (NYT, 28 Dec 

75, 18) 

30 December: Pulsars had been discovered to be not only superdense but 

also superfluid, Columbia University physicists reported indstrophysical Journal. Pulsars, collapsed remnants of exploded stars formed 

almost entirely of neutrons, had been shown to be so dense that a 

spoonful would weigh millions of metric tons. Theorists had suspected 

that such objects, even with a thin rigid crust of iron, would be 

superfluid-a state produced experimentally on earth in small helium 

specimens cooled almost to absolute zero, where both friction and 

viscosity disappear. Material inside such an object, stirred into motion, would swirl indefinitely. 

The Columbia Univ. experimenters had attempted to measure the 

surface temperature of a young pulsar, such as the one in the Crab 

Nebula. If the temperature were less than 8.8 million'c, the object 

would probably be superfluid; a fast-spinning neutron star would cool 

rapidly because of its reduced heat capacity. Temperatures of such 

objects could be detected by x-ray wavelengths, but the x-rays produced could not penetrate earth's atmosphere. Space observation was 

necessary, and rockets launched by NASA from Hawaii and N. Mex. 

tested the Crab nebula pulsar, using the moon as a curtain. As the 

moon passed across the whole nebula several times, cutting off its 

various x-ray emissions, the physicists had been able to identify the 

x-rays indicating temperature. Since the Crab nebula pulsar's temperature was shown to be less than 5 million "C, the hysicists con- 

* Predictions of a trend toward harsher winters for North America had 

been put in question by satellite monitoring of snowcover over the 

northern hemisphere during the past 9 yr, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. NOM'S National 

seek backers elsewhere, in South America or x sia. He had hoped 

cluded that the pulsar must be superfluid. (NYT, 30 f; ec 75, 40) 

248 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 December 

Environmental Satellite Service had published a document, “Monthly 

Winter Snowline Variation in the Northern Hemisphere from Satellite 

Records, 1966- 1975,” containing the most complete record available 

of hemisphere snowcover. Analysis of the charts had revealed no 

significant change in North American snowcover during the entire 

period. Predictions of harsher weather had raised the possibility of 

southward movement of the polar ice cap, which could be caused by a 

drop of only a few degrees in average winter temperature. The document concluded that “Lack of systematic increase in . . . snow cover 

tends to contradict the evidence. . . that the current climate is changing adversely.” (NOM Release 75-217) 

0 President Ford had signed legislation establishing a 17-member U.S. 

Metric Board to plan for voluntary conversion of the nation to the 

metric system. Dr. Ernest Ambler, acting head of the National Bureau 

of Standards, said the signing of the bill would encourage U.S. industry and commerce to export products made to metric dimensions, 

which “should stimulate additional international trade.” (SBD, 30 Dec 

75, 299) 

During December: Goddard Space Flight Center and the Fla. Dept. of 

Natural Resources had approved the first long-range, space-assisted 

program to develop an “early warning system” for the onset of red 

tide, an ocean-borne organism that had left tons of dead fish rotting on 

beaches around the world. Dr. Warren A. Hovis of GSFC had designed 

an ocean-color scanner capable of detecting subtle variations in the 

color of coastal waters that might indicate changes in concentration 

and species of marine phytoplankton, especially the red-tide dinoflagellate Gymnodinium breve. Red tide had been a major problem 

because of oxygen depletion in ocean water from fish decomposition, 

and eye and respiratory infections caused by toxic particles produced 

in the organism. Shellfish beds affected had been closed for months by 

authorities. An outbreak of red tide in 1971 had cost the state of Fla. 

more than $20 million in lost tourist business. The ocean scanner, 

developed for use in the Nimbus-G pollution-sensing spacecraft 

scheduled for launch in 1978, could be used in photographic overflights by aircraft and Landsat spacecraft, in connection with on-site 

sampling of ocean waters by research ships, to detect the organism in 

time to take countermeasures and warn the public about affected 

areas. (Spaceflight, Vol 17 No. 12, Dec 75, 425) 

0 The boards of directors of the All-Women Transcontinental Air Race 

and the Ninety-Nines, Inc., had decided to terminate the Powder Puff 

Derby-world‘s largest and longest speed race for light aircraft-after 

the 1976 bicentennial race, because of the nation’s current financial 

and energy problems, the National Aeronautic Association announced. Sponsored by NM since its beginning in 1947, the derby had 

a safety record unparalleled in air race history: no fatalities. The NU 

newsletter noted that the derby had inspired countless women to fly, 

and that recent races had more than 100 aircraft competing. The final 

derby had been scheduled for 12-19 July 1976 from Sacramento, 

Calif., to Wilmington, Del. (NAA News, Dec 75) 

0 Space scientists and astronomers had been wrestling with a “cultural 

crisis” in putting names to features of distant worlds that had never 

been clearly seen before, as closeup views of several planets became 

available and more were on the way. Working through the Interna249 
December ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

tiond Astronomical Union, the scientists had been forced to look 

beyond the names of scientists and explorers that had been used 

almost exclusively for objects on the moon and on Mars. A meeting on 

the problem in Moscow in July 1974 had agreed that objects on Venus 

would be called after women famous in mythology and history. New 

maps of the recently photographed surface of Mercury would bear the 

names of contributors to the arts and other humanities; the scientists 

had sought advice from scholars in the humanities to get the widest 

possible representation from past and present cultures. 

The Moscow meeting on new approaches to names for planetary features had been preceded by intense work on naming newly discovered configurations on the moon and on Mars. A complete scheme 

of names for more than 500 large formations on the far side of the 

moon-visible only to spacecraft because one side of the moon had 

always been turned toward earth-had been approved in 1970. Soviet 

scientists had rejected suggestions of names from the humanities for 

features on the moon and on Mars; they had urged a fresh start on 

Mercury, a new planet, with formations named not only for authors, as 

the Americans had originally suggested, but also for persons in other 

branches of the humanities. (MT, 25 Dec 75, C10) 

0 Space communities that could supply enough energy to the earth to end 

its energy crisis permanently had been described in an article by Dr. 

Gerard K. ONeill in Aerospace magazine. Recalling the conclusions of 

Princeton Univ. conferences on space colonization in 1974 and 1975, 

and his own testimony before the Subcommittee on Space Sciences 

and Applications of the House Committee on Science and Technology 

23 July 1975, Dr. O'Neill said that within 13 yrs after beginning 

construction in space, the amount of usable electricity delivered to the 

point where power would enter the distribution system would exceed 

the peak capacity of the Alaska pipeline. An investment of about $96 

billion over a 6-yr period would serve to establish the beachhead 

colony, and even with program costs of up to $300 billion the payback 

after 9 yr would exceed the total investment and interest, he 

estimated. (Aerospace, Dec 75, 3) 

0 Establishment of manufacturing facilities in space might be feasible 

within this century, Dr. Gerard K. O'Neill wrote in the December issue 

of Science magazine. Construction of satellite solar power stations 

(SSPSs) from lunar materials, for example, could be shown more 

economical than building such stations on earth and lifting them into 

orbit. The space manufacturing facility (SMF) that had been envisioned 

by Dr. O'Neill and others would be a self-sustaining habitat for a large 

number of people whose energy needs could be met by solar power 

used directly for agriculture, as process heat for industry when concentrated by mirrors, or indirectly as electricity. Dr. O'NeiU had 

assembled tables and figures from the literature to accompany his 

argument for the SSPs as a means of meeting increased demands for 

electricityon earth in a time of shortage of fuels and concern about use 

of nuclear energy. (Science, Vol 190, 4218) 

250 
Appendix A 

SATELLITES, SPACE PROBES, AND 

MANNED SPACE FLIGHTS, 1975 

World space activity increased in 1975. Total launches, 125, increased 

from 106 in 1974. Of this total, the u.S. had 28, described in the introduction to Appendix B. The U.S.S.R. had 89 launches with 112 payloads, 85 of 

these in the Cosmos series; Cosmos payloads included such specialized 

spacecraft as Cosmos 775, part of the Statsionar series for TV relay, and the 

Cosmos 782 biosat carrying 4 U.S. experiments. The Soviets also launched 

10 spacecraft in the Molniya comsat series, 4 in the Meteor series, 2 

Intercosmos spacecraft carrying experiments from other countries, the 2 

Venus landers (Venera 9 and lo), the magnetospheric investigator Prognoz 

4, a color-TV comsat called Raduga (Rainbow), and 5 Soyuz spacecraft 

including the April 5 “anomaly” and theSoyut 19 that participated in ASTP. 

The U.S.S.R. also launched Aryabhata for India in April, and Sret 2 for 

France as a piggyback payload with Molniya 1-30 in June. 

The number and variety of launches by other countries also increased in 

1975. In Feb., France launched Starlette, a passive geodetic satellite, first 

for the Diamant booster developed by cms; in May it launched Castor and 

Pollux, first 2 satellites launched by France on a single booster; in Sept., 

the industry-managed satellite Aura went into orbit on the last Diamant 

booster. The U.S.S.R. had launched France’s Sret 2 in June, and a 

French-West German consortium sponsored the launch of Symphonie 2 by 

NASA in Aug. In Feb., Japan launched Taiyo to observe solar radiation and 

thermospheric structure; in Sept., it launched Kiku to measure temperatures in space. The People’s Republic of China in July launched its third 

satellite, first in 4 r (previous launches were in 1970 and 1971); in Nov., 

ery, becoming the third country to retrieve a payload from orbit. In Dec., 

the PRC launched its fifth satellite, third for 1975, in what observers 

considered a step toward its first manned space flight. 

The following table includes all payloads that have (a) orbited; (b) as 

probes, ascended to at least the 6500-km altitude that traditionally had 

distinguished probes from sounding rockets; or (c) conveyed one or more 

human beings into space, whether or not orbit was attained. The 1975 table 

lists for the first time in this series the identities of Soviet launch vehicles; 

for details on these vehicles, see Soviet Space Programs 1971 -75, US. 

Senate Comm. on Aeronautical & Sp. Sciences, 30 Aug. 76, Vol. I, 39-61. 

For details on U.S. launch vehicles, see Aeronautics & Space Report of the 

President, 1975 Activities, GPO stock number 033-000-00649- 1, App. 

D, 110. 

Sources of these data include the United Nations Public Registry of 

Space Flights; the Satellite Situation Report compiled by Goddard Space 

Flight Center’s Operations Control Center; press releases of NASA, Deit launched a fourt ZI satellite and shortly announced its successful recov25 l 
Appendix A ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

partment of Defense, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 

and other government agencies, as well as the Communications Satellite 

Corporation. Soviet data derive from statements in the Soviet press, translations from the Tass news agency, and international news-service reports, 

as well as announcements and briefings by Soviet officials on matters 

affecting the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. Data on satellites of other nations 

also come from the announcements of their respective governments and 

international news services. 

252 
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Appendix B 

MAJOR NASA LAUNCHES, 1975 

The following table of major NASA launches includes payloads carried by 

all rocket vehicles larger than sounding rockets launched in 1975 by NASA 

or under NASA direction. 

During 1975, the U.S. had 34 launches of which 28 were successful. Of 

these, 7 were launches by DOD. The remaining 21 were NASA launches, 10 

for its own program, including ASTP in July; the two Viking spacecraft 

launched toward Mars in Aug. and Sept. ; 3 applications satellites, Landsat 

2, Geos 3, and Nimbus 6; and 4 scientific satellites-oso 8, Sas-C (Explorer 

53, launched by an Italian crew from the San Marco platform into an 

equatorial orbit); AE-D (Explorer 54), and AE-E (Explorer 55). In 1974, 

NASA had launched only one all-U.S. scientific payload. Launches for 

others included 3 spacecraft for DOD; 3 comsats-Zntelsat IV in May and 

Zntelsat IVA in Sept., and the RCASatcom 1 ; 2 for NOAA, Sms 2 in Feb. and 

Goes 1 in Oct.; and 3 international satellites-Anik for Canada in May, 

CosB for ESA in Aug., and Symphonie 2 in Aug. for the West GermanFrench consortium. 

The table includes vehicle and payload performance under categories S 

for successful, P for partially successful, and U for unsuccessful. A fourth 

category (Unk) indicates payloads that did not operate because of vehicle 

failure. The categories, which are unofficial, do not take into account that 

U missions may produce valuable information, or that payloads with alonglife design may fail to meet design requirements and become officially 

unsuccessful at a later date. Further information on these launches appears in Appendix A and in the indexed entries in the text. 

277 
Appendix B ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

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ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 Appendix B 

279 

Appendix C 

MANNED SPACE FLIGHTS, 1975 

A high point in NASA’s activity in 1975 was the Apollo-Soyuz Test 

Project, in which three astronauts in the Apollo (ASTP) spacecraft and two 

cosmonauts in the U.S.S.R. Soyuz 19 flight-tested a mechanism for joining 

two orbiting manned spacecraft from different countries, in history’s first 

international manned space flight. The ASTP achieved a number of firsts: 

First space flight involving crews and spacecraft of more than one nation; 

first linking in orbit of spacecraft of more than one nation; first detection of 

a pulsar outside earth’s galaxy; first separation of live biological materials 

in space, by electrophoresis; first communications between a manned 

orbiting spacecraft and ground controllers through an orbiting unmanned 

satellite (Ats 6). The Soyuz 19 liftoff for ASTP was the first Soviet launch 

shown on live television, and its parachute descent and landing were the 

first to be televised live. Of the 28 ASTP experiments, 21 were U.S., 5 were 

joint U.S.-U.S.S.R., and 2 were West German. All primary mission objectives were met. ASTP was the only U.S. manned flight of the year, and 

would be the last until the Space Shuttle flights scheduled for the 1980s. 

The U.S.S.R. attempted 4 manned launches including Soyuz 19 for 

ASTP; 3 of these were successful. The April anomaly was attributed to a 

booster failure, and the crew was retrieved safely; the incident called into 

question the safety of crews during ASTP, but the latter ended successfully. 

By the end of 1975, the u.S. had made 31 manned space flights: 2 

suborbital, 20 in earth orbit, 3 in lunar orbit, and 6 lunar landings, with a 

total of 43 different crewmen. The U.S.S.R. had made 27 manned flights, 

all in earth orbit, with 34 cosmonauts. The U.S. total of manned-spacecraft 

hours in flight was 7681 hr 10 min; the U.S.S.R. total, 5265 hr 3 min. Total 

cumulative man-hours in space for the US. were 22 503 hr 39 min; for the 

U.S.S.R., 10 734 hr 48 min. 

281 
0) 

B 

ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

282 
Appendix D 

NASA SOUNDING ROCKET LAUNCHES, 1975 

The table following lists the 83 sounding rockets of the Arcas class and 

above launched by NASA in 1975. The launches took place in Peru, 

Greenland, Canada, and the Kerguelen Islands of the Indian Ocean as well 

as in the United States. Payloads were carried for the Naval Research 

Laboratory, the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, and three NASA 

centers; fifteen universities; and two u.S. corporations. Onboard 

experiments included 35 physics; 18 meteorology; 11 each astronomy and 

aeronomy; 7 performance tests; and 1 space-processing experiment. 

Information fcr the table came from Goddard Space Flight Center’s 

Quick Look Sounding Rocket Data sheets, issued after launches, with 

additional information from some of the experimenters concerned. The 

Kerguelen Islands launches in January and February were part of a joint 

Soviet-French exercise called ARAKS-artificial aurora between Kerguelen and Sogra (U.S.S.R.)-from which the usual telemetry reports 

were not available. Launch dates in the table are local time, with the date 

by Greenwich Mean Time given if different. 

283 
Appendix D ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

284 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 Appendix If 

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Appendix D ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

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ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 Appendix D 

291 

Appendix E 

X-24B LIFTING-BODY FLIGHTS, 1975 

Lifting bodies are wingless vehicles that receive aerodynamic lift from 

their shape alone. NASA undertook in the early 1950s a program to develop concepts for a maneuverable manned vehicle that could reenter the 

atmosphere from space and to provide a technological basis for hypersonic cruise aircraft. Since 1963, NASA's Flight Research Center (called 

Dryden Flight Research Center after January 1976) has flight-tested the 

M2 configuration designed by Ames Research Center, the HL-10 

designed by the Langley Research Center, and the X-24A and X-24B 

in a joint program with the Air Force. 

The X-24B program began with a captive flight in 1973 and ended with 

the 36th and fmal flight on 26 Nov. 1975. The X-24B was launched 

from a B-52 aircraft, usually at an altitude of 13 700 meters; in captive 

flight, the vehicle remained attached to the B-52. In unpowered free 

flight, the vehicle glided through maneuvers to landings on a dry lake bed; 

in powered flight, the rocket engine was ignited to take the vehicle to 

higher altitudes and achieve higher speeds. 

The following table lists all X-24B missions that left the ground in 1975, 

even those eventually aborted because of weather or mechanical problems. The flight number includes vehicle designation (B for X-24B 

vehicles)-free-flight number-B-52 carry number. "B - 19 -30" was the 

19th free flight of the X-24B and the 30th time it was carried by the 

B-52. C or A appearing instead of a free-flight number indicates a captive 

or an aborted flight. 

Information for the table appears in flight reports issued by the Office 

of Aeronautics and Space Technology at NASA Headquarters and in the 

X-24B flight summaries issued by the Flight Research Center. 

X-24B LIFTING-BODY FLIGHTS, 1975 

Flight Date Pilot, and Maximum Altitude, Remarks 

Number Maximum Speed 

14 Jan. 75 John A. Manke 

-19-30) 22 098 m Maeh 1.76 

Ohjeotivegto evaluate lon@tudinal stability and controlat maeh 

1.8; perform with upper &pat -3O'and approach with upper 5p at -24"; and perform boundary-layer noise and vibration 

experiment-were attained. 

31 Jan. 75 mSj. Michael V. Love Flight aborted -use of weather. 

(B-A-31) 

20 Mar. 75 Maj. Micheel V. Love Ohjeetives-to evaluate &ability and control at speeds up to 

maeh 1.30; perform with upper flap at -35"; approaeh with 

upper flap at -24'. survey fin, rudder, and flap pressure; and 

make boundary-la;er noise and vibration experiments-were attained. 

(520-32) 22 860 m MBch 1.40 

293 
Appendix E ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Flight Date Pilot, and Maximum Altitude, 

Number Maximum Speed Remarks 

18 April 75 John A. Manke (B-21-33) 16 764 m Mach 1.17 

6 May 75 Lt. Col. Michael V. Love (B-22-34) 22 250 m Mach 1.5 

22 May 75 John A. Mauke (B-23-35) 22 250 m Mach 1.6 

6 June 75 Lt. Col. Michael V. Love (B-24-36) 22 250 m Mach 1.68 

24 June 75 John A. Manke (B-A-37) 

25 June 75 John A. glanke 

(B-25-38) 18 590 m Mach 1.43 

15 July 79 Lt. Col. Michael V. Love (B-26-39) 21 175 m Mach 1.585 

5 Aug. 75 John A. Mauke (B-27-40) 17 678 m Mach 1.23 

20 Aug. 75 Lt. Col. Michael V. Love (B-28-41) 21 945 m Mach 1.53 

9 Sept. 75 William H. Dana (829-42) 19 200 m Mach 1.48 

23 Sept. 75 William H. Dam 

(B-30-43) 17 678 m Mach 1.2 

9ocL 75 Einar Euevaldson (B-31-44) 13 716 m Mach 0.7 

Primary objectives were to evaluate stability and control at speeds up to meeh 1.60; operational checkout of Ay feedback system; to ap roach with upper fla at -24"; to survey fm, 

rudder, and &p pressure; to make fPS qualifiiation test; and to check handling qualities with all dampers at zero gain. Three chamhers of XLR-11 engine ignited, not the four planned for this flight. All objectives wert: achieved except for the stability and control evaluation, which was limited to data on speeds up to mach 1.17. 

Shutdown in #3 engine E52 30 miu. aftcr takeoff attributed to fm* launch altitude 12 800 m instead of 13 700 m. All 

objectLeeto evaluate stability and control at speeds up to mach 1.60, and with aileron bias at 3"; approach with up flap at -24"; survey fin, rudder, and flap pressure; make &% 

quatifsation test; and check performenee and trim at 18" and with upper flap at 30"-were attained except for the stability and control evaluation, which was limited to data up to mach 1.15. 

Primary ohjectiveeto evaluate stability and control at speeds up to mach 1.60, and with aileron hias at 3"; approach with upper flap at -24O; survey fin, rudder, and flap pressure; make TPS qualilication test (SLA 220); check rfornmnce and trim at 204 and with 30" upper flap; andchecrflying qualities with Ay feedback systcm-were attained, except for hinge-moment data on aileron hias erformauce. Hinge-moment gauges did not operate as desires. 

AU objectives-to evaluate stability and control at speeds up to mach 1.70; approach with upper flap at -24"; survey fm, 

rudder, and flap ressure. make TPS ualifieation test. and check stability an3 control at 20"~ wit2 upper flap at 50'- were attained. 

Flight aborted because of winds. 

AU ohjeetiveeto evaluate power effects on directional sta- bility; approach and land with upper flap at -28"; survey fm, 

rudder, and flap pressure; make TPS qualifition test- and evalunte stability and control with aileron hias at 30"Lwere attained. 

All objectives-to evaluate stability and control at speeds up to mach 1.68; approach and land with u r flap at -28'; survey fin, rudder, and flap pressure; make '#?qualifmtion test; and evaluate stability and control with aileron bias at 11"-wcre at- tained. First flight after realignment of engine in yaw axis. 

First landing of X-24B on prepared concrete NUWII~; touch- down was within 1.5 meters of marker. Ohjectiveelandmg on concrete runway, survey of body pressure, study of left-hand fin tuft, study of TPS qnalifiiatiou, and evaluation of stabilit and control with aileron hias at 3'-wcre attained elthougg 

only three of engine's four chambers ignited. 

Second successful landing on mway. Ohjeetive4ndiug on concrete runway, body-pressure survey, left-hand fiu study, TPS qualifiition study, and evaluation of stability and control with rudder bias at 5" toe-out-were attained. 

Objective-ilot checkout, evaluation of stability and control at speeds up to mach 1.45, body-pressure survey, TPS qualii cation test (high-density MI), and study of left-hand fin tuft- were attained. First X-24B tli ht for this pilot, who had pre- viously flown M2-F3 and HLfO. 

Last of scheduled powered flights; six remaining flights before end of CY 75 to be glide flights. Objectivcs-evaluation of stability and control with rudder bias at lo", evaluation of handling qualities with all damper gains at zero, survey of body pressure, HRSI qualification test, and study of left-hand fin tuft-were attained. Subsonic data attained for all ohjectivcs. 

Unpowered flight. Ohjectivee-pilot checkout, evaluation of handling qualities, and TPS qdifiition test (HRSI+were at- tained. 

294 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 Appendix E 

Flight Date Pilot, and Maximum Altitude, 

Nnmher Maximum Speed Remarks 

21 Oct. 75 

(53245) 

3 Nov. 75 

(533-46) 

12 Nov. 75 

(534-47) 

19 NOT. 75 

(535-48) 

26 Nov. 75 

(536-49) 

Ce t. Franeis R. Scobee & 716 m 

Meoh 0.7 

13 716 m Meoh 0.7 

13 716 m Mach 0.7 

Thomas C. MeMurtrp 

Einar Enevoldson 

Ca t. Francis R. Scobee & 716m Mach 0.7 

Unpowered flight. Objectives-pilot checkout, evaluation of handbag qualities, and TPS qualifiition test (HRSIWere attained. 

Unpowered fliht. Objectives-pilot checkout, evaluation of handling qualities, and TPS qualification test (HRSIWere attained. 

Unpowered flight. Objectives-evalnatiou of handling qualities with eem damper, TPS qualifmtion test (HRSI), approach with upper flap at 24*, and landing with upper &p at 22"-were. attained. 

Uppowered Riiht. Objectives-evaluation of handling qualities with zem damper pins, TPS qualifb~tiou test (HRSI), ap- proach with upper flap at 243 landing with upper flap at 22', and survey of left-hand fin pressnre-were attained. 

Unpowered flight. Final flight of X-24B in NASA/Air Force lifting-body flight research program. Ohjeetives-evaluatiou of handling qualities with zero damping gains, TPS qualii- tion test (HRSI), appmaeb with u per flap at 24', lending with upper flap at 22". and survey ofyeft-hand fin pressnre-were attained. 

295 

Appendix F 

ABBREVIATIONS OF REFERENCES 

Listed here are the abbreviations used for citing sources in the text. Not 

all the sources are listed, only those that are abbreviated. 

AAAS Bull 

A&A 

A&A 1974 

ABC 

AEC Release 

Aero Daily 

Aero Med 

AF Mag 

AFHF Newsletter 

AFJ 

AFSC Newsreview AFSC Release AM Release 

AlAA Facts 

AlAA Release 

AIP Newsletter 

AP 

ARC Astrogram 

Astro Journ 

Atlanta JC 

Av Wk 

B News 

B Sun 

Bull Atom Sei 

Bus Wk 

C Daily News 

C Trib 

Can Press CBS 

CSM 

CTNS -_ - 

D News 

I D Post 

DASA Release 

American Association for the Advancement of Science’s 

American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics’ 

NASA’s Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1974: A ChroAmerican Broadcsting Company 

Atomic Energy Commission news release 

Aerospace Daily newsletter 

Aerospace Medicine magazine 

Air Force Association’s Air Force Magazine 

Air Force Historical Foundation Newsletter 

Armed Forces Journal magazine 

Air Force Systems Command‘s Newsreview 

Air Force Systems Command news release 

Aerospace Industries Association of America news 

American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics’ 

American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics 

American Institute of Phvsics Newsletter 

Associated Press news service 

NASA Ames Research Center’s Astrogram 

American Astronomical Society’s Astrophysical JourAtlanta Journal Constitution newspaper 

Aviation Week & Space Technology magazine 

Birmingham News newspaper 

AAAS Bulletin 

magazine, Astronautics & Aeronautics 

nology (this publication) 

release 

Facts 

news release 

nal 

Baltimore Sun newspaper 

Education Foundation for Nuclear Science’s Bulletin 

of the Atomic Scientists 

Business Week magazine 

Chicago Daily News newspaper 

Chicago Tribune newspaper 

Canadian Press news service 

Columbia Broadcasting System Chemical & Engineering News magazine 

Cleveland Plain Dealer newspaper 

Cleveland Press newspaper 

Columbia Journalism Review magazine 

Communications Satellite Corporation news release 

Congressional Quarterly 

Congressional Record 

Christian Science Monitor newspaper 

Chicago Tribune News Service 

Detroit News newspaper 

Denver Post newspaper 

Defense Atomic Support Agency news release 

297 
Appendix F 

DFRC 

DOC PI0 

DJ 

DOD Release 

DOT Release 

EOP Release 

FAA Release 

FBIS-sov 

FonF 

FRC Release 

FRC X - Press 

GE Forum 

Goddard News 

GSFC Release 

GSFC SSR 

GT~E Release 

H Chron 

H Post 

JA 

JPL Labaratory JPL Release 

JPRS 

JSC Release 

JSC Roundup 

JSR 

KC Star 

KC Times 

KSC Release 

LA Her-Exam 

LA Times 

Langley Researcher 

LARC Release 

LATNS 

LERC Release 

Lewis News 

M Her 

M News 

M Trib 

Marshall Star 

MJ 

MSFC Release 

N Hav Reg 

N News 

N Vu Sun 

NAA News 

NAA Record Book 

NAC Release 

NAE Release 

NAS Release 

NAS-NRC Release 

NAS-NRC-NAENCWS Rpt 

NANA 

NASA ann0 

ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

See FRC. 

Dow Jones news service 

Department of Commerce Public Information Office 

Department of Defense news release 

Department of Transportation news release 

Executive Office of the President news release 

Federal Aviation Administration news release 

Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Soviet number 

Facts on File 

Flight Research Center news release (after 8 Jan. 

1976, became Dryden Flight Research Center news 

release) 

NASA Flight Research Center’s x-Press 

General Electric Forum magazine 

NASA Goddard Space Flight Center’s Goddard News 

NASA Goddard Space Flight Center news release 

NASA Goddard Space Flight Center’s Satellite SituaGeneral Telephone & Electronics news release 

Houston Chronicle newspaper 

Howton Post newspaper 

Journal of Aircrafi magazine 

Jet Propulsion Laboratory’s Lab-Oratory 

Jet Propulsion Laboratory news release 

Department of Commerce Joint Publications Research 

NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center (Manned SpaceNASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center’s Space News 

American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics’ 

Kansas City Star newspaper 

Kansas City Times newspaper 

NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center news release 

Los Angeles Herald-Examiner newspaper 

Los Angles Times newspaper 

NASA Langley Research Center’s Langley Researcher 

NASA Langley Research Center news release 

Los Angeles Times News Service 

NASA Lewis Research Center news release 

NASA Lewis Research Center’s Lewis News 

Miami Herald newspaper 

Miami News newspaper 

Minneapolis Tribune newspaper 

NASA George C. Marshall Space Flight Center’sMarshall 

Milwaukee Journal newspaper 

NASA George C. Marshall Space Flight Center news 

New Haven Register newspaper 

Newark News newspaper 

Northern Virginia Sun newspaper 

National Aeronautic Association News 

National Aeronautic Association’s World and U.S.A. 

National Aviation Club news release 

National Academy of Engineering news release 

North American Newspaper Alliance 

National Academy of Sciences news release 

National Academy of Sciences- National Research 

Council news release 

National Academy of Sciences-National Research 

Council-National Academy of Engineering News 

Report 

tion Report 

Service 

craft Center until l? Feb. 1973) news release 

Roundup 

Journal of Spacecrafi and Rockets magazine 

Star 

release 

National World Aviation-Space Records 

NASA announcement 

298 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 Appendix F 

NASA Gen Mgmt Rev Rpt 

NASA Hist off 

NASA Hq Wi? 

NASA ht Aff 

NASA LAR, XIII/8 

NASA Leg Off 

NASA MOR 

NASA HHR-39 

NASA prog off 

NASA Release 

NASA Rpt SRL 

NASA SP-4019 

Nut1 Obs 

Nature 

NBC 

NGS Release NMI 

NN 

NOAA Release 

NRL Release 

NSC Release 

NSC Letter 

NSC News 

NSF Highlights 

NSF Release 

NSTL Release 

NASA proj Off 

NY News 

NYT, 5:4 

NYTNS 

0 Sen Star 

Oakland Trib 

Omaha W-H 

ONR Rev 

P Bull 

P Inq 

PA0 

PD 

PI0 

PMR Missile PMR Release 

Pres Rpt 74 

SA0 Release 

SBD 

Sci Amer 

Sci & Gout Rpt 

SciServ 

SD 

SD Union 

SET Manpower Comments 

SF 

SF Chron 

SF Exam 

Sou Aero 

Sou Rpt 

NASA Headquarters “General Management Review 

NASA Historical Report No. 39 

NASA History Office 

NASA Headquarters Weekly Bulletin 

NASA Office of International Affairs 

NASA Legislative Activities Report, Vol. XIII, No. 8 

NASA Office of Legislative Affairs 

NASA Headquarters Mission Operations Report, preliminary prelaunch and postlaunch report series; 

information may be revised and refined before publication 

Report” 

NASA program office (for the program reported) 

NASA project office (for the project reported) 

NASA Headquarters news release 

NASA report of sounding rocket launching 

NASA Special Publication No. 4019 

National Observer magazine 

Nature Physical Science magazine 

National Broadcasting Company 

National Geographic Society news release 

NASA Management Instruction 

NASA Notice 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

Naval Research Laboratory news release 

National Space Club news release 

National Space Club Letter 

National Space Club News 

National Science Foundation’s Science Resources 

National Science Foundation news release 

NASA National Space Technology Laboratories news 

New York Daily News newspaper 

New York Times newspaper, section 5, page 4 

New York Times News Service 

Orlando Sentinel Star newspaper 

Oakland Tribune newspaper 

Omaha World-Herald newspaper 

Navy’s Office of Naval Research Reviews 

Philadelphia Evening and Sunday Bulletin newspaper 

Philadelphia Inquirer newspaper 

Public Affairs Office 

National Archives and Records Service’s Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents 

Public Information Office 

USN Pacific Missile Range’s Missile 

USN Pacific Missile Range news release 

Aeronautics and Space Report of the President: 1974 

Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory news release 

DefenselSpace Business Daily newspaper 

Scientific American magazine 

Science & Government Report, independent bulletin 

of science policy 

Science Service News service 

Space Digest magazine 

Sun Diego Union newspaper 

Scientific Manpower Commission’s Scientifi, EngiBritish Interplanetary Society’s Spaceflight magazine 

Sun Francisco Chronicle newspaper 

Sun Francisco Examiner newspaper 

Soviet Aerospace newsletter 

Center for Foreign Technology’s Soviet Report (translanews release 

Studies Highlights 

release 

Activities 

neering, Technical Manpower Comments 

tions) 

299 
Appendix F 

SP 

Spaceport News 

Spacewarn 

SR list 

SSN 

St Louis G-D 

St Louis P-D 

T- Picayune 

Tech Rev 

Testimony 

Text 

Transcript 

UN Reg 

UP1 

USGS Release 

USPS Release 

w Post 

W Star-News 

WFC Release 

WH Release 

WJT 

WS Release 

WSJ 

ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Space Propulsion newsletter 

NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center's Spaceport News 

IUWDS World Data Center A for Rockets and SatelNASA compendium of sounding rocket launches 

Soviet Sciences in the News, publication of ElectroSt Louis Globe-Democrat newspaper 

St Louis Post-Dispatch newspaper 

New Orleans Times-Picayune newspaper 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology's Technology 

Congressional testimony, prepared statement 

Prepared report or speech text 

Official transcript of news conference or congressional 

United Nations Public Registry of Space Flight 

United Press International news service 

US. Geological Survey news release 

U.S. Postal Service news release 

Washington Post newspaper Washington Star-News newspaper 

NASA Wartops Flight Center news release (after 26 

April 1974; formerly Wallops Station News Release) 

White House News Release 

World Journal Tribune newspaper 

NASA Wallops Station news release (see also WFC) 

Wall Street Journal newspaper 

lites' Spacewarn Bulletin 

Optical Systems, Inc. 

Review 

hearing 

300 
INDEX AND LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 

AND ACRONYMS 

A 

A-300B (European airbus), 95 

AAAS. See American Association for the 

Advancement of Science. 

AAS. See American Astronautical Society; 

Americ,p Astronomical Society. Abbott Laboratories, 4 

ABM (antiballistic missile), 60 

ABMA (Army Ballistic Missile Agency), 125 

Accident on Soyuz 11, 92 

ACF. See air combat fighter. Acoustic gretlade payloads, 237 

Acoustic tests, 147 

ACPL (Atmosphere Cloud Physics Laboratory), 182 

ACS. (Attitude control systems) 

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 176 

Advanced medium shart-takeoff-and-landing aircraft (AMST), 178 

Advanced missions appropriations, 45 

Advanced Technology Light Twin (ATLIT), 

53 

AE (Atmospheric Explorer satellites), 13 

AEC. See Atomic Energy Commission. 

AE-D (Atmospheric Explorer), 1 

AEDC. See Arnold Engineering Development Center. - 

AEM (Atmospheric Explorer Mission), 229 

AEM-A (Applications Explorer Mission), 

185 

Aero Company, 66, 124 

Aero Daily, 217, 231 

Aero Propulsion Laboratory (USAF), 67 

Aerobee (sounding rocket) 

Aerobee 150A-MII, 285 

Aerobee 170, 288, 290 

Aerobee 170A, 286, 289 

herobee 180, 289 

Aerobee 200A, 284, 285,289 

Aerobee 350,290 

Aerojet Electrosystems Cb., 26 

Aerojet General Corporation, 136 

Aerojet mechanical-thermal simulator, 26 

Aeronautical and Space Sciences, Senate 

Committee on, 25, 80, 116, 183, 185, 

218, 234 

Aeronautical research, 19, 101 

Aeronautics and Space Report of the President: 1974 Activities, 106 

Aeronautics and Space Report of the President: 1975 Activities, 251 

Aeronautics and Space Technology, NASA 

Office of (OAST), 22, 293 

Aeronutronic Ford Corporation, 94, 211, 

219 

Aerosat (Canadian-ESRO-U.S. comsat 

program), 48, 116 

Aerosol, 159, 229, 236 

Aerosol Education Bureau, 247 

Aerospace Corporation Vehicle Systems 

Division, 201, 237 

Aerospace Day, 35 

Aerospace Defense Command (USAF), 215 

Aerospace Industries Association (MA), 

Aerospace industry, 36 

Aerospace hagazine, 250 

Aetna Life and Casualty Company, 197, 

AFCRL. See Cambridge Research LaboraAfrica, 38, 140 

AFSATCOM (Air Force Satellite CommuniAFSC. See Air Force Systems Command. 

Agriculture, U.S. Dept. of, 1,9,29,59,232 

Agriculture, solar power for, 250 

AIA. See Aerospace Industries Association. 

AIM. See American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. 

AIDJEX (Arctic ice dynamics joint experiments), 71 

Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution, 128, 159, 179, 243 

Air combat fighter F-16, 4, 99, 107, 138 

AirForce,U.S. SeeU.S. AirForce(USAF). 

Air Force Systems Command (AFSC), 24, 

66, 67, 81, 120, 124, 154, 189, 192 

Air Fbrbes Journal International, 70 

Air freight, 24 

Air Products ad Chemicals, Inc., 123 

Air rescue, 54-55, 74 

Air Sampling Program, Global (GASP), 

Air Show, Paris, 95, 106 

Air traffic safetv. 23 

44,220 

245 

tories (USAF). 

cations System), 43 

41 

Air Transport ’ Association of America 

Air transportation research budget, 19 

Airborne Infrared Observatory, 29, 88 

Airborne Science Spacelab Experiments 

System Simulation (ASSESS), 100 

Aitborne Warning and Control System 

(AWACS), USAF, 59 

Airbus, 107 

Aircraft, 4, 6, 8, 13, 23, 57, 115, 211 

AirfloC, supersonic, 149 

(ATA), 185 

301 
Index ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

302 

Airfoil, General-Aviation-Whitcomb, 53 

Alabama, 232 

ALADDIN (Atmospheric Layering and Density Distribution of Ions and Neutrals 

program), 6 

Alaska, 9, 157, 231-232, 246 

Alaskan Federation of Natives, 36 

Albedo, 142 

Albert, Rep. Carl B., 106 

Albuquerque, N. Mex., 127 

Alcator (reactor at MIT), 220 

Alexandrov, Anatoly, 230 

Algeria, 3 

All Nippon Airways, 218 

Allen, Dr. Jose h P., 139 

Allison, L/C Efgar L., 74 

Alloy, heat-resistant, developed in China, 

236 

All-Women Transcontinental Air Race, 249 

Alma-Ata, U.S.S.R., 44 

Alpha Jet (aircraft), 95 

Aluminum Company of America, 129 

Aluminum vapor, 6 

Ambler, Ernest, 249 

American Airlines, Inc., 2 

American Association for the AdvanceAmerican Astronomical Society (AAS), 168 

American Defense Preparedness Assn., 

American Geophysical Union, 191 

American Institute of Aeronautics and 

Astronautics (AIAA), 35,160,190,191 

American Mining Congress, 222 

American Satellite Corporation, 51, 229 

American Society of Mechanical Engineers 

(ASME), 235 

American Telephone & Telegraph Company, 10 

Ames Astrogram, 215 

Ames Research Center (ARC), 22, 29, 36, 

69,80,88,100,108,114,116,128,138, 

144, 159, 161, 167, 174, 198, 214, 228, 

231, 245, 293 

AMOS (antireflection-coated metal oxide 

semiconductor), 80 

AMPS (Atmospheric, Magnetospheric and 

Plasmas-in-Space) Spacelab payload, 

13, 160, 221 

AMST (advanced medium STOL aircraft), 

178 

ment of Science (AAAS), 226 

205-206 

Ancient Mariner, 206 

Anders, William A., 6 

Anderson, Jack, 77 

Anderson, Robert, 173 

Andreyev, Boris D., 28 

Anik (Canadian comsat), 79, 84, 259, 277, 

278 

Ani&& in space flight, 121 

Annandale (research vessel), 187 

Ans 1. See Netherlands astronomical satelAntarqui (project), 90 

Antennas, 3, 231, 232 

Antiballistic missile (ABM), 60 

Antireflection-coated metal-oxide semiconlite. 

ductor (AMOS), 80 

Apathy toward space, U.S., 14.6 

Apogee motor, solid-fuel, 195 

Apollo-Salyut proposal, 131 

Apollo-Saturn hardware storage 61 

Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (AST ; see also 

Apollo, Soyuz), 1,11,21,31,51,59,76, 

130, 131, 167, 189, 195, 22 , 281, 282 

ApolloSoyuz Test Project: I 1 formation 

for Press, 136 

Apollo spacecraft launch, 1, 131, 278 

art exhibit, 137 

astronauts visit U.S.S.R., 168 191 

Ats 6 coverage, 65, 87, 126. 1k7 

backup mission, 188 

briefings, 37, 137, 145, 147 

CIA warning, 127 

comment, 140, 142, 145, 152, 153 

communications, 7, 12, 104, 1/32, 157 

control centers (Houston and Moscow), 

cosmonauts visit U.S., 168, 205 

cost, 65 crew members, 5, 6, 28, 178 

docking, 5, 12, 104, 139-14C 

experiments, 4, 37, 38, 133, 134-135, 

joint activities in orbit, 133 

joint training, 7, 12, 28, 83 

languages used, 28, 132 

launch sites, 214, 265 

medical conditions, 120, 134, 147, 149, 

meetings, 7, 65 

military potential, 164 

objectives, 135 

photography, 134-135, 243 

preparations, 4-5 

Proxmire, Sen., 61, 102, 126 

readiness review, 12, 110 

recovery, 104, 135, 145 

safety risks, 94, 102, 110, 144 

Saturn IB (launch vehicle), 52, 92, 136, 

simulations, 5, 51, 82, 83, 121 

Soviet delegation, 222 

space-food exhibition, 121 

Soyuz 19 launch, 265 

technician housing, 81 

telemetry coverage, 38 

tracking, 12 

training, 12, 28, 38 

TV broadcasts, 132, 133, 136 

working groups, 7, 77 

Apollo spacecraft Apollo 9, 67 

Apollo 10, 178 

Apollo 12, 94 

Apollo 14, 11 

Apollo 15, 67, 182 

Apollo 16, 11, 188 

Apollo I?, 11, 63 

ASTP check, 123 

atmospheres, 133, 214 

corrosion, 110 

design, 11, 12, 64, 104 

82-83, 122 

169, 212 

171, 214. 

160 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 Index 

Apollo spacecraft-continued 

hatches, 133 

launch site, 214 

life-support systems, 12 

malfunction on ASTP, 135 

oxygen supply, 135, 147 

propellants, 121 

Apollo lunar missions, 11, 63, 143, 214 

Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM), 14, 191 

Appalachia, 157 

Applications Explorer Mission (AEM- A), 

Applications Systems Verification Test 

Applications Technology Satellite (ATS) 

Appropriations, House Committee on, 120 

Appropriations, Senate Committee on, 143- 

Aqaba, Gulf of, 243 

Aquatic plants, vascular, 39 

Arab League, 140 

Arabian peninsula, ASTP images, 243 ARAKS (artificial aurora between Kerguelen and Sogra), 39, 283 

Arcas rocket (see also Super Arcas), 288 

ARC. See Ames Research Center. 

Arctic, 71, 207, 218, 237 

Arctic Ice Dynamics Joint Experiment 

Areciho, Puerto Rico, 231, 232 

Argentina, 122, 203 

Ariane (launch vehicle), 48 

Ariel 5 (US.-U.K. cooperative satellite), 

158, 196, 208 

Aries (rocket), 289 

Arizona, Univ. of, 29, 35, 36, 58, 88, 94 

Arkalyk, U.S.S.R., 92 

Arkhangelsk Oblast, U.S.S.R., 39 

Army Corps of Engineers, U.S., 9, 213 

Arnold Engineering Development Center 

(AEDC-AFSC), 120, 154, 189 

Artificial aurora between Kerguelen and 

Aryabhata (India science satellite), 67,251, 

185 

(ASVT), 5, 9 

(See also Ats 6), 26, 54, 87, 109 

144 

, 

(AIDJEX), 71 

Sogra (ARAKS), 39, 283 

259 

Asia, 103, 243 

ASME. See American Society of MechaniASSESS (Airborne Science Spacelab ExperASTP. See Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. 

Astrain, Santiago, 159 

Astrobee F, 286 

Astronaut Office, JSC Science and Applications Directorate, 164 

Astronautics programs, military, 19 

Astronauts, 11, 33-34, 58, 88, 147-148, 

Astronomers, microwave signals picked up 

Astronomical Association of Northern CaliAstronomy, 141, 164, 225 

Astrophysical Journal, 30, 181, 248 

Astrophysical Journal Letters, 217 

cal Engineers. 

iments System Simulation), 100 

157, 167, 171 

by, 178 

fornia, 163 

ASVT (Applications Systems Verification 

ATA. See Air Transport Association. 

Atlantic Ocean communications services, 

Test), 5, 9 

180 

194, 195, 223 

aircraft), 53 

Atlas-Centaur launch vehicles, 2, 33, 89, 

ATLIT (advanced technology light twin 

ATM. See Apollo Telescope Mount. 

Atmosphere modification, 183 

Atmosphere Cloud Physics Laboratory 

(ACPL), 182 

Atmospheric Explorer (AE) satellites, 1,13, 

227, 229 

Atmospheric layering and density distribution of ions and neutrals (ALADDIN) 

program, 6, 15 

Atmospheric, Magnetospheric and Plasmasin-Space (AMPS), Spacelab payload, 

13, 221 

Atmospheric Sciences, Interdepartmental 

Committee for, 29 

Atmospheric variability experiments (AVE), 

71 

Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), 6 

Atomic Research Institute, Moscow, 230 

ATP. See adenosine triphosphate. 

Ats 6 (Applications Technology Satellite), 

38, 54-55, 62, 64-65, 87, 126-127, 

AT&T. See American Telephone and TeleAU: astronomical unit. 

Auburn, Ala., 243 

Auburn, Mass., historic site acquisition, 12 

Aura (French satellite), 251, 270 

Aurora, artificial, 283 

Australia, 207, 232 

Australia-London news satellite link, 122 

Austria, 27, 216 

“Automobik Power Systems Evaluation 

Study, 181 

Avco Corporation, 108 

AVE. .See atmospheric variability experiAviation and Transportation R&D, House 

Aviation Safety Reporting Program, 204 

Aviation Week and Space Technology, 23, 

35, 48,60, 67,76, 82,95, 99, 106, 107, 

14, 157, 244 

Avionics control system, automated, 129 

Avionics Laboratory, USAF, 81 

AWACS. See Airborne Warning and ConAwards 

130, 157, 233 

graph Company. 

ment. 

Subcommittee on, 220 

trol System. 

AIAA annual, 36 

ASME, 235 

ASTP, 189 

ATS, 64 

Collier, Robert J., Trophy, 74 

de Florez Award, 36 

Harmon Aviation, 74 

Landsat, 212 

Lindsay, John C., Award, 124 

303 
Index ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

304 

Awards-continued 

Losey, Robert M., award, 36 

Manner-Venus team award, 77 

NASTRAN, 7 

National Space Club, 64 

Pecora, Wm. T., Award, 212 

Reed, Sylvanus A., Award, 36 

Space Science Award, 37 

Spacecraft Design Award (MAA), 37 

Waterman, Alan T., Award, 84 

White, Thomas D., trophy, 187 

Wright Brothers, 190 

Wyld, James A., 190 

Azcarraga, Luis de, 120 

B 

B-1 (strategic bomber), 10, 19, 64, 106, 

180, 182 

Babcock, Alice K., 64 

Bacteria, 177, 223 

Bahamas, Central, 178-179 

Balch, Jackson, 143 

Ball-bearings, 193 

Ballistic Missile Agency (U.S. Army), 125 

Ballistic motors, reusable, 154 

Balloons, 13, 74, 89-90, 109, 207, 242 

Baltimore Sun, 41, 54, 58, 112, 137, 149, 

166, 210, 211, 236 

Bangui Anomaly, 233 

Barium cloud, 212 

Barnes, James C., 168 

Barstow, Calif., 203 

Basilevsky, Aleksandr, 210 

Bathymetry, 178- 179 

Batteries, solar, 103 

Bay St. Louis, Miss., 39 

Baykonur cosmodrome (U.S.S.R.), 3, 28, 

59,66, 83,91, 105, 131-132, 134, 149, 

225 

Beame, Mayor Abraham D., 11 

Bean, Alan L., 6, 64, 65, 123 

Beartooth highway, Custer National Forest, 

Beayondan (Johns Hopkins University reBeechcraft 99 (commuter aircraft), 129 

Beech-Hawker 125 (aircraft), 65 

Beer, Reinhard, 205 

Belgium, 31, 60, 99, 107 

Bell Telephone Research Division, 189 

Bendix Field Engineering Corporation, 15, 

Bends, 167, 214 

Montana, 211 

search vessel), 179 

102, 201, 213, 244 

Bennett, Ga L., 123 

Bering Sea %%ne Mammal Experiment 

(BESMEX). 71 

Betelgeuse (star), 138 

bev: billion electron volts. 

Bicentennial, U.S., 172 

“Big bang” theory, 178 

Big Bird (reconnaissance satellites), 67, 86 

Billingham, John, 163-164 

Biological experiments in space, 3, 197-198 

Biology, molecular, 190 

Biosatellite 3, 229 

BIS. See British Interplanetary Society. 

Black Brant VC (sounding rocket), 11,210, 

Black holes, 48, 158, 196, 208 

Blackout of communications, 73-74 

Blagonravov, Anatoly A., 25 

Blinov, N., 238 

Blood pressure, cosmonauts’, 92 

Blount Brothers Construction Company, 

217, 240, 284,288,290 

161 

“Blue Planet,” at Paris Air Show, 95 

Blum, Haywood, 60 

BN2 Islander (British aircraft), 95 

Bobko, Karol J., 65 

Body size, pilots’, 88 

Boeing Company, 2,44,54,78,95,124,131, 

Boeing 707, noise from, 32 

Boeing 747, Global Air Sampling Program, 

154, 161, 185, 226, 241 

41 

Boeing 747 Space Shuttle carrier, 34, 214, 

240 

Boeing 747SP aircraft, 224 

Boeing Space Center, Kent, Wash., 206, 

230 

Boikov, Nikolai, 247 

Bolivia, 203, 212 

Bolling, Richard, 216 

Bomber force. U.S.. 216 

Booster separation motors (BSM), 162 

Booster, solid-pro ellant, 189 

Boretsky, Michaet 68 

Boulder, Colo., NOAA laboratories, 206 

Bow shock wave at Venus, 52 

Bowden, Donald R., 116 

Bowyer, Stuart, 169 

Brand, Vance D., 1,5,65,83,120,121,123, 

132, 133, 134, 135, 147, 149, 168, 189, 

191, 192, 265, 282 

Brandt, John C., 186 

Brayton gas-turbine engine, 181 -182 

Brazil, 3, 4, 94, 203 

Breathing systems, 11, 12 

Brezhnev, Leonid I., 192 

British Association for the Advancement 

of Science, 178 

British exhibits at Paris Air Show, 95 

British Interplanetary Society (BIS), 169 

British cooperation in AWACS, 59 

British sounding rocket, 232 

Brockett, H. R., 189 

Brockmann, Carlos, 212 

Bronk, Detlev W., 226 

Brooks Air Force Base, Texas, 188 

Brown, Harold, 115 

Brussels, Univ. of, Belgium, 212 

BSM (booster separation motors), 162 

Bubble-domain technology, 90, 243 

Bubbling behavior in melts in space, 210 

Budget, NASA, 20,21,22,45,75,76,101- 

Bugging, Moscow ASTP control center, 157 

Bulgaria, 153, 241 

Bureau of Mines, U.S. Dept. ofthe Interior, 

102, 107, 114, 143-145, 218 

203 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 Index 

Burning, external exhaust, 154 

Bushuyev, Konstantin D., 7,12,59,77,225 

Business Aircraft Association, National, 65 

C 

C-141 (Airborne Infrared Observatory), 29, 

C-5A (military cargo aircraft), 68, 246 

Cable, flat conductor, 85, 86 

Calcium loss bv astronauts. 33-34 

30, 35 

California, 167; 180 

California Institute of Technology, 17, 115 

California State University, observatory, 237 

California, Univ. of, 111,126,166,169,177, 

Callisto (Jupiter’s moon), 43 

Calypso (Cousteau Society research vessel), 

Cambridge Research Laboratory (USAF), 6 

Cameras, high-resolution, 86 

Canada, 2, 4, 48, 54-55, 71, 78-79, 116, 

Canadian National Exhibition, Toronto, 173 

Canadian Overseas Telecommunications 

Canadian Science Writers Association, 34 

Canberra, Australia, tracking station, 58 

Cancer, 27, 28, 183, 223 

Cannon, James, 90 

Canopus lock for Mariner 10,47 

Cape Canaveral, 57, 241 

Carbon dioxide on Mars, 171 

Carbon monoxide detected in atmosphere, 

Carbon tetrachloride, 247 

Cardiac care systems, portable, 51 

Cargo aircraft (YC-15), 178 

Carmen (hurricane), 206 

Carr, Gerald P., 64, 173, 191 

Carrot-cell-culture experiment, 197 

Castor and Pollux (French satellites), 86, 

CCD. See charge-coupled device. 

Celestial bodies and space law, 165 

Celestial Observation Satellite (Cos -B), 2, 

162, 266, 277, 278 

CEN (Centre #Etudes Nucleaires), 212 

Census, U.S. Bureau of, 1 

Central African Republic, 233 

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 102, 

Central Telephone and Utilities Corpora284 

179 

203, 277, 283 

Corporation, 58 

205 

251, 260 

127, 130 

tion, 130 

48, 177 

Centre #Etudes Nucleaires (CEN), 212 

Centre National #Etudes Spatiales (CNES), 

Cernan, Eugene A., 65, 178 

Cesium propellant, 93 

CETI (communication with extraterrestrial 

intelligence), 232 

Chamberlain Manufacturing Corporation, 

12 

Chapman, Dean R., 69 

Charge-coupled device (CCD), 184 

Charter Industries, Raleigh, N.C., 242 

Charyk, Joseph V., 30, 116 

Chase Econometric Associates, 157 

Chemistry, 13, 68, 190, 226 

Chicago, Ill., 112, 231, 235-236 

Chilca Launch Range, Peru, 90 

Chile, 58, 202, 203 

China, People’s Republic of, 129, 149, 231 

ancient supernova records, 186 

astronomers’ discoveries, 78 

comment on ASTP, 140, 153 

heat-resistant alloy, 236 

recovery of earth satellite, 236 

satellite launches, 149,176,236,243,251 

China I, 2,3,4 and5 (satellites), 176,266, 

273, 274 

Chlorine, 236 

Chlorofluoromethanes, 13 

Christian Science Monitor, 24,67,103,105, 

149, 161, 162, 169, 174, 236, 244 

Christy-Sackmann, Juliana, 17 

CIA. See Central Intelligence Agency. 

CIAP. See Climatic Impact Assessment 

Program. 

“City in space,” 174 

Civil aviation, 107 

Civilian R&D programs, Federal, 23 

Civilization(s), 73, 225. 231 

Clark, John F., 29, 74 

Climate, 50, 150 

Climatic Impact Assessment Program 

(CIAP, DOT), 8 

Cloud layer, Venus, 101, 210 

Cloud research, 117 

CNES (Centre National #Etudes Spatiales), 

Coal, 8, 49, 203, 222 

Coast Guard, U.S., 55, 201 

Coastal disaster warnings, 2 

Coating, anticorrosion, 148 

Cockpit design for Space Shuttle, 88 

Cockpit, ground-based instrumented, 167 

Cole, Edward N., 24 

Collier, Robert J., trophy, 74 

Collins, Michael, 159 

Collision, continental, 163 

Colonization of space, Princeton Univ. 

48, 177 

conference, 250 

Colorado, Univ. of, 118, 142, 288, 289 

Columbia Univ., 248 

Coma Berenices, dwarf star in, 169 

Comets, 168 

Command and data-acquisition centers, 

NOAA, 231 

Commerce, U.S. Department of (DOC), 15, 

26, 29, 55, 63, 70, 94, 211 

Commercial activity and space, 235 

Communications blackout on Intelsat, 73 

Communications satellites (comsats: see individual satellites), 1, 2, 3, 4, 19, 43, 

48. 87. 180 

Cornminications Satellite Corporation, 1, 

10, 30, 33, 74, 82, 89, 116, 148, 151, 

180, 194, 230, 238, 245 

Communist Party ideologist Mikhail Suslov, 

230 

Composite materials, 24, 179 

305 
Index ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Compression technology, 50 

Computers, 13, 17, 53, 77, 117, 167, 241 

Comsat General Corporation (subsidiary), 

10,230,238. See also Communications 

Satellite Corporation. 

ComSatCorp. See Communications Satellite Corporation. 

Concept verification test (CVT), 164 

“Conceptual Flight Possibilities for SaturnApollo Hardware, 188 

Concorde (U.K. -France supersonic aircraft), 95, 107, 159, 218, 247 

Condor I (balioon replica), 242 

Conductor cable, flat, 85, 86 

Congress, House of Representatives 

Appropriations, Committee on, 120 

Aviation and Transportation R&D, Subcommittee on, 220 

Science and Astronautics, Committee on. 

See Science and Technology, Committee on. Science and Technology, Committee on, 

8, 45, 61, 108, 158, 250 

Space Science and Applications, Subcommittee on, 223, 224 

Congress, Senate 

Aeronautical and Space Sciences, Committee on, 25, 80, 183, 185, 218, 234 

Appropriations, Committee on, 140- 143 

Labor and Public Welfare, Committee 

on, 116 

sitional aeriod. 102 

Congressional authorization for NASA tranCongression&! Record, 130 

Connecticut, 180 

Connestype Fourier spectrometer, 205 

Conrad, Charles P., 64, 74 

Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Italy, 

Consortium of European aircraft manufacConstellation (aircraft), 190 

Construction and modification of facilities, 

Consumer Product Safety Commission, 247 

Continental Airlines, Inc., 36 

Contract, NASA, 44,79,112,113,137,174, 

Control Data Corporation, 78 

Coos Bay. Oree.. 74 

44 

turers, 99 

budget, 101 

201, 208, 226, 227, 240 

Coperni& (Orrbiting Astronomical Observatory), 73, 113, 208 

Copper-lead alloys, 205 

Core reactors, 30 

Cornell Univ., 63, 231 

Cortisone, 147 

Cortright, Edgar M., 129, 143 

Cos-B: Celestial Observation Satellite. 

Cosmic rays 

astronaut exposure, 11, 37, 94 

astronomy experiments, 164 

background component, 118 

degenerating solar cells, 103 

measurement, 11, 4.6 

sources, 141, 212 

Cosmochemistry, 226 

Cosmonauts, 91, 92, 132, 134, 205 

Cosmos (U.S.S.R. satellites), 167 

Cosmos 122, 66 

Cosmos 637, 204 

Cosmos 702, 253 

Cosmos 703, 253 

Cosmos 704, 253 

Cosmos 705, 253 

Cosmos 706, 254 

Cosmos 707, 254 

Cosmos 708, 254 

Cosmos 709, 255 

Cosmos 710, 255 

Cosmos 711, 255 

Cosmos 71 2, 255 

Cosmos 713, 255 

Cosmos 714, 255 

Cosmos 715, 256 

Cosmos 716, 256 

Cosmos 717, 256 

Cosmos 718, 256 

Cosmos 719, 256 

Cosmos 720, 257 

Cosmos 721, 257 

Cosmos 722, 257 

Cosmos 723, 257 

Cosmos 724, 257 

Cosmos 725, 258 

Cosmos 726, 258 

Cosmos 727, 258 

Cosmos 728, 258 

Cosmos 729, 259 

Cosmos 730, 259 cosmos 731, 260 

Cosmos 732, 261 cosmos 733, 261 

Cosmos 734, 261 

Cosmos 735, 261 

Cosmos 736, 261 

Cosmos 737, 261 

Cosmos 738, 262 

Cosmos 739, 262 

Cosmos 740, 262 

Cosmos 741, 262 

Cosmos 742, 262 

Cosmos 743, 263 

Cosmos 744, 263 

Cosmos 745, 264 

Cosmos 746, 264 

Cosmos 747, 264 

Cosmos 748, 264 

Cosmos 749, 264 

Cosmos 750, 265 

Cosmos 751, 265 

Cosmos 752, 265 

Cosmos 753, 266 

Cosmos 754, 266 

Cosmos 755, 266 

Cosmos 756, 267 

Cosmos 757, 267 

Cosmos 758, 267 

Cosmos 759, 268 

cosmos 760, 268 

Cosmos 761, 268 

Cosmos 762, 268 

Cosmos 763, 268 

Cosmos 764, 268 

Cosmos 765. 269 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 Index 

Cosmos 766, 269 

Cosmos 767, 269 

Cosnws 768, 269 

Cosmos 769, 269 

Cosmos 770, 269 

Cosmos 771, 270 

Cosmos 772, 270 

Cosmos 773, 270 

Cosmos 774. 270 

Cosmos 775; 204, 251, 271 

Cosmos 776, 271 

Cosmos 777, 271 

Cosmos 778, 272 

Cosmos 779, 272 

Cosmos 780, 272 

Cosmos 781, 272 

Cosmos 782, 229, 230, 251, 273 

Cosmos 783, 273 

Cosmos 784, 273 

Cosmos 785, 273 

Cosmos 786, 274 

Cost containment, 36 

Cost overruns, 246 

Cotton, Paul E., 202 

Cousteau, Jacques, 179 

Cousteau, Philippe, 179 

Cousteau Society, 178- 179 

CPK (creatine phosphokinase), 177 

Crab Nebula, 186,248 

Creation of the earth, 178 

Crimea Astrophysical Observatory, 225 

Crippen, Robert L., 65 

Cronkite, Walter, 146 

Crop acreage, Landsat measurements, 9, 

Crow, Duward L., 192 

Crows Landing, Calif., 116 

Crystal growth in zero-g, 213 

CS (Japanese comsat), 139 

Culbertson, Philip E., 48 

Custer National Forest, Mont., 211 

Cutler-Hammer, Inc., 69 

CVT (concept verification test), 164 

Cyprus, 233 

Czechoslovakia, 229, 241 

224 

D 

DACS (data-acquisition and control system). 231 

DAD (Dual Air Density) spacecraft, 238 

Dallas, Tex., 112 

Dana, William H., 194, 294 

Dash 7 (Canadian aircraft), 54 

Dassadt-Breguet Mirage FIE (French lighter 

Data-acquisition and control system (DACS), 

aircraft), 99 

23 1 

DAD I 

Dallas, Tex., 112 

Dana, William H., 194, 294 

Dash 7 (Canadian aircraft), 54 

Dassadt-Breguet Mirage FIE (French lighter 

E 

airoraft) 00 

z3 I 

Data%&&, Landsat, 10 

Data Center, Federal, 9 

Data processing on Shuttle Orbiter, 126 

Data recorder, solid-state, 90, 243 

Day, LeRoy E., 34 

Days, Martian (sols), 111 

DC-8 (jet transport), 32 

Dead Sea, 233, 243 

Debus, Kurt H., 12, 69 

Decompression, 167, 214 

Deep Space Communications Center, Moscow, 210 

96. 137. 209 

Defense, U.S. Dept. of, 2,19,23,26,29,63, 

Defense military effort and space, 180 

Defense procurement, 20 

Defense Research, Development, Test, 

Defense Space Business Daily, 176 

deFlorez Award, 36 

deGaulle, Charles, 66 

Delhi Domestic News Service, 67 

Deloffre, Bernard, 8, 66 

Delta launch, 29, 51, 139, 217 

Demerliac, Y., 93 

Dendrite, 210 

Denitrogenation, 214 

Denmark, 99, 107 

Denver, Univ. of, 91, 240 

Desalination, 233 

Desert geography, 135 

Detente, 31, 175 

Deutsche Presse Agentur, 43 

Diagnostic system, 102 

Diamant B/P.4 (French launcher), 27, 86 

DIGITAC (digital flight control system), 27 

Dirac, Paul, 166 

Dirigibles, 99 

Discoverer (satellites), 86 

Disher, John H., 154 

Disney World, 28 

“Distorted Priorities in the R&D Budget,” 

Divers in decompression, 167 

Dobrynin, Anatoly P., 132 

DOC. See Commerce, U.S. Dept. of. 

DOD. See Defense, US. Dept. of. 

DOD spacecraft, 256, 259, 260, 263, 271, 

273, 274, 278 

DOL See Interior, U.S. Dept. of. 

Domes, geodesic, 242 

d‘Ornano, Michel, 95 

Dornier company (West Germany), 233 

DOT. See Transportation, U.S. Dept. of. 

Dow Jones and Company, 228 

Downey, Calif., 161 

Drag reduction on trucks, 39 

Drake, Frank B., 231 

Dryden, Hugh L., 25 

Dryden Flight Research Center, 293. See 

Dryer, Murray, 37 

Dual Air Density (DAD) spacecraft, 238 

Duckett, Carl, 127 

Dudley Observatory, Albany, N.Y., 91,287 

Duke, Charles M., Jr., 188 

Duke University Medical Center, 34 

Dwarf star in Coma Berenices, 169 

Dynamic Test Facility (MSFC), 15 

Dystrophy, muscular, 177 

Dzhanebekov, Vladimir A., 28 

and Evaluation, 19 

41 

Flight Research Center. 

307 
Index ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

E 

EarLyBird (Intelsat IF- I), 89,121,159,195 

Earth 

galaxy, size of, 217 

gravity field, 63 

-moon relationship, 111 

-oriented space missions, 150 

resources, 1, 3, 23, 44, 90, 138 

stations, 51, 112 -sun relationships, 118 

tremors simulation, 50 

Earth Orbiting Teleoperator System (EOTS), Id 

Earth iadiation budget (ERB), 109 

Earth Resources Experiment Package 

Earth Resources Orbiting Satellite (EROS) 

Earth Resources Technology Satellite 

@REP), 10, 168 

Data Center, 212 

(ERTS), 1, 5, 74, 168. See Landsat. 

ERTS-B (Landsat Z), 1, 5, 8, 253 

Erts I (Landsat I), 5, 163 

Earth sciences budget, 18 

East Afiica. 126 

Eastern Test Range (ETR), 25, 33, 60, 79, 

Echo I, commemoration, 165 

Echo-free chambers, 146 

87, 89, 117, 169, 177, 195, 227 

Eclipse, solar, 37, 133 

Ecliptic plane, 85 

Econ, Inc., 30 

Economic benefits of space program, 157 

Educational TV by satellite, 87, 157 

Edwards AFB, Calif., 178, 214, 215 

“Effects of Stratospheric Pollution by Aircraft” (DOT study), 7, 18, 27 

EIC Inc., 227 

Eisenhower, President Dwight D., 125,165, 

226 

el-Baz, Farouk, 243 

ELDO (European Launcher Development 

Organization), 93 

Electric power generation, 54, 89, 93, 126, 

Electric propulsion, 93, 190 

Electrical fields, atmospheric, 94 

Electrical svstem failure. 23 

213, 219-220 

Electrically scanning microwave radiometer 

Electricity furnished from space colony, 

(ESMR), 109 

__ 

2sn - Electromagnetic wave energy-conversion 

Electron loss, ionospheric, 13, 97 

Electronic Research Division (Rockwell), 

Electrophoresis experiments, 4, 212 

Emission from aircraft, 8 

Employees, fewer Federal, 4 

Employment, NASA, 122, 226 

Energy (See also Fuels; Solar energy) 

(EWEC) concept, 71 

90 

budget, 17, 18, 22 

chemical, 68 

conservation, 68, 106 

electric autos, 182 

flywheel, 125, 234 

fuel efficiency, 186 

internal-combustion engine, 181, 182 

laser energy, 44, 63, 119, 229, 244 

national policy, 49 

nuclear, 219, 220 

power satellites, 30-31, 131, 161 

research and development, 18, 221 

satellites generating power, 30-31, 131, 

space communities, 250 

storage, 176 

technology, 45, 101 

thermionic conversion, 131 

wind energy, 127,213 

Energy Administration, Federal (FEA), 185 

Energy Information Center, 127 

Energy Institute at New Mexico State Univ., 

Energy Reorganization Act of 1974, 6 

Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA), 18,19,21,23,24,29, 

38,89,111,116,119,125,213,221,246 

161 

2 19 

establishment, 6 

projects, 49, 208, 211, 222 

relocation, 43 

Enevoldson, Einar, 167, 294, 295 

Engine materials, composite, 179 

Engine noise reduction, 2 

Engineering, National Academy of, 68,221, 

3LM 

Environment, 5, 9, 45, 71, 103, 142, 179, 

Environmental Defense Fund, 247 

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 

213, 214 

7. 9. 183 I, - 

Environmental Quality, Council on, 29 

Environmental Research and Technology, 

Environmental Research Institute, MichiEnvironmental Research Laboratories, 94 

EOTS. See Earth Orbiting Teleoperator 

EPA. See Environmental Protection Agency. 

Epsilon Eridani (star), 73 

Epsilon Indi (star), 73 

Equator, 90, 233 

Equatorial space station, 203 

Equatorial undercurrent, 117 

ERB (earth radiation budget) experiment, 

ERDA. See Energy Research and DevelopEREP (earth resources experiment packEridan (French sounding rockets), 39 

ERN0 Raumfahrttechnik GmbH, 35 

EROS (Earth Resources Orbiting Satellite) 

ERTS. See Earth Resources Technology 

Erythrocytes decrease in cosmonauts, 92 

ESA. See European Space Agency. 

ESMR (electrically scanning microwave 

ESOC (ESA’s space operations center), 162 

Inc., 168 

gan, 179 

System. 

109 

ment Administration. 

age), 10, 168 

Data Center, 212 

Satellite. 

radiometer), 109 

308 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 Index 

ESRO. See European Space Research 

Essa8, 179 

ESTEC (European Space Research and 

ET. See External tank. 

ETR. See Eastern Test Range. 

Eurasia, 163 

Europa 2 (launch vehicle), 112 

European Launcher Development Organization (ELDO), 93 

European Space Agency @SA), 2, 43, 4, 

66, 95, 120, 121, 162, 212, 224, 277 

“European Space Days,” 93 

European space programs, 48, 93, 116 

European Space Research and Technology 

Center (ESTEC), 8, 93, 163 

European Space Research Organization 

(ESRO), 8,27,44,48-49,60,67,85,93, 

95, 162. (See also ESA.) 

European-U.S. cooperation, inspace, 35,85 

Europeans, F-16 combat aircraft for, 107 

Eurospace (Groupement Industriel EuroEutrophication, 183 

EUV (extreme ultraviolet radiation), 169 

ev: electron volt. 

Evans, Ronald E., 6, 65, 123 

Evans, William J., 181, 205 

EWEC (electromagnetic wave energy-conversion) concept, 71 

Exhaust pollution, 19, 154 

Exosat (European x-ray astronomy satellite), 48 

Expendable Launch Vehicle Programs, 198 

Exploded stars, 248 

Explorer satellites, 1 

Explorer I, 47, 115 

Explorer 29 (Geos I), 63 

Explorer 36 (Geos 2), 63 

Explorer 42, 79 

Explorer 48 (Small Astronomy Satellite 

B), 79, 141 

Explorer 49, 100 

Explorer51 (Atmospheric Explorer-C), 90 

Explorer 53 (SAS-C Small Astronomy 

Satellite), 1, 78-79, 84, 158,259, 277, 

278 

Organization. 

Technology Center), 8, 93, 163 

peen #Etudes Spatiales), 93 

Explorer 54, 1, 271, 277, 279 

Explorer 55, 1, 227, 228, 272, 277, 279 

Explorer 56. 1 

Explorer 57, 1 

Explorer Interplanetary Monitoring PlatExplorers Journal, 225 

Explorers Society, International, 242 

External tank (ET), 14, 108 

Extraterrestrial life, intelligent, 164, 231, 

Extreme ultraviolet radiation 0, 169 

Exxon Corporation, 67, 82, 151 

Eye-controlled switches, 51 

form (IMP), 124 

232 

F 

F- 1 (French fiihter aircraft), 99 

F-4 (Phantom jets), 28 

F- 14 (Tomcat fighter), 107 F- 15 (Eagle fighters), 28, 32, 41, 107 

F-16, 4, 99, 107, 138 

F-18, 137, 138 

FlOO (engine), 4 

F-104G (mach 2 fighter), 107, 126 

F-111D (turbofan jet), 179, 215 

FAA. See Federal Aviation Administration. 

Facilities construction, 101 

Faedo, Alessandro, 44 

Faget, Maxime A., 235 

Fairbanks, Alaska, 9 

Fairchild Industries, 116 

Fairchild Republic Company, 96 

Fan blades, 24, 179 

Far East Orbita stations, 103 

FCC. See Federal Communications ComFEA. See Federal Energy Administration. 

Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), 23, 

32, 127, 204 

Federal Committee on Science and Technology, 151 

Federal Communications Commission 

(FCC), 10, 112, 116, 148, 194, 230 

Federal Council for Science and Technology, 29, 106 

Federal Data Center, 9 

Federal Energy Administration (FEA), 18, 

218 

Federal-industry liaison, 152 

Federal Interagency Task Force on Inadvertent Modification of the Stratosphere 

(IMOS), 29 

Federal Power Commission (FPC), 18 

Federal Science and Technology Survey 

Committee, 151 

Federal Solar Energy Research Institute, 

221 

Federal-state liaison, 152, 244 

Fernandez, Gonzalo, 189 

Ferri, Antonio, 36 

Ferson telescope, 165 

Fertilizers, chemical, 81, 223, 247 

Fiber optics, 81 

Fighter aircraft, 99 

Filipchenko, Anatoly V., 28 

Fink, Daniel J., 74 

Finke, Wolfgang, 120 

Finland, 153 

Firefihters breathing system, 11- 12 

Firefighting module, 201 

Firefly chemicals, 176- 177 

Fires, stellar, 17 

Fimberg, Hertha, 27 

Fish embryogenesis, 197 

Fisk, Leonard A., 85 

Flaps, 178 

Flashes, stellar, 17 

Flat conductor cable, 238 

Fletcher, James C., 11, 13, 20, 21, 36, 4, 

49,50,61,123,131,141,145,150,188, 

198, 208, 212, 213, 221 

Flight-control system, 129 

F-111, 24, 187 

mission. 

309 
Index ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Flight Research Center, 12, 22, 31, 39, 41, 

172, 187, 194, 240, 293 

Florence, Univ. of Italy, 212 

Florida, 23, 166, 179, 183, 243, 244, 249 

FLTSATCOM (Air Force-Navy satcom 

system), 43 

Fluids research, 50 

Fluorocarbons, 183, 234, 236, 240 

Flying magazine, 97 

Flywheel, 125, 234 

Food, 103, 121, 142 

Forbes, Malcolm S., 74 

Ford, President Gerald, 4,6, 17,21,33,49, 

57, 64, 74, 77, 84, 90, 103, 104, 106, 

113, 125, 132, 135, 136, 172, 179, 189, 

190, 205, 249 

65,66,73,80,87-88,92,115,129,167, 

Ford, Jack, 179 

Ford Motor Company, 181 

Forest management, 142 

Forest Service, U.S., 211 

Formica, Gianni, 66 

Fort Stockton, Tex., 89 

Fossil fuel search by satellite, 50 

Fourier interferometer, 159 

FPC (Federal Power Commission), 18 

France (see also Aura, Mirage FIE, Sret 2, 

Centre #Etudes Nucleaires, 212 

Centre National #Etudes Spatiales, 48, 

Centre National de la Recherche Sciencomsats, 4 

ESRO contract, 60 

experiments, 229 

Franco- Soviet cooperation, 103 

launchings, 2, 27, 86, 103, 177, 251 

nuclear reactors, 220 

space center inFrench Guiana, 111-112 

Starlette, Symphonie 2) 

177 

tifique, 118 

Frank Briscoe Co., Inc., 87 

Frankfurter Allgemeine, 152 

FRC. See Flight Research Center. 

Freeze-prediction model, contract for, 243 

Freeze-temperature prediction research, 24 

Freight carrier, giant, 24 

French Guiana, 111-112 

Freon, 13, 70, 247 

“Frontier Technology and Shuttle Country,” 

35 

Frutkin, Arnold W., iii 

Fuels, 19, 21, 52, 54, 67-68, 92, 218, 

Fuller, George A., Company, 240 

Funding, 17, 18, 19, 148, 173 

Fungi, zone-forming, 134 

Fuqua, Don, 188, 218 

Furguson, Ernest B., 84 

Furnace, space experiments, 213 

“Future Space Programs,” 219 

220 

G 

Gagarin, Yuri, 136, 191 

Gagarin Cosmonaut Center, U.S.S.R., 65 

Galapagos Islands, 87 

Galactic center, 138 

Galilee, Sea of, 243 

Gulileo ZZ (instrumented Convair !NO), 71, 

Gamma rays, 11, 89, 141, 162, 181, 187 

Ganymede (Jupiter’s moon), 114- 115 

Garments, biological isolation, 51 

100 

GARP (Global A<mospheric Research ProGarriott, Owen K., 64 

gram), 109, 117 

Gas industry, 50 

Gas, natural, 11, 99 

Gas pipeline, Soviet, 244 

Gas storage safety, 11 

Gas, stratospheric, 159 

GASP (Global Air Sampling Program), 41-42 

GATE (GARP Atlantic Tropical ExperiGates Learjet, 65 

Gatland, Kenneth W., 67 

GAW. See General Aviation-Whitcomb. 

GCA Corporation, 91 

Gemini program, 67, 128, 178 

General aviation engines, noise investigations, 127 

General Aviation Technology Advisory 

Panel (NASA), 98 

General Aviation-Whitcomb (GAW) airfoil, 

53 

General Dynamics Corporation, 2, 4, 99, 

107 

General Electric Company, 89, 93, 109, 

193, 202, 204, 211, 214, 233 

General Services Administration (GSA), 

114, 145 

Generation of electricity, 54, 89 

General Motors Corporation, 24, 36 

Geochemistry and Analytical Chemistry, 

Geodesic domes, 242 

GEODSS (ground electro-optical deepment), 117 

Moscow Institute of, 226 

mace surveillance). 215 

Geod$namic Experimental Ocean Satellite 

Geography, ASTP observations, 135 

GeologicalSurvey, U.S. (USGS), 19,71,233 

Geology, comparative, 175- 176 

Geophysical Union, 191 

Geophysics Corporation, 287, 288 

George A. Fuller Company, 240 

Georgia Institute of Technology, 232 

GEOS (Geodynamic Experimental Ocean 

(GEOS), 1, 60, 201 

Satellite), 1, 60, 201 

Geos I (Explorer 29), 63 

Geos 2 (Explorer 36), 63 

Geos 3, 62-63, 258, 277 

Geostationary Operational Environmental 

Satellite (GOES), 1, 26, 206, 271, 

277-279 

Geosynchronous orbit, Ats 6, 87 

Getting, Ivan, 237 

Ghana, 207 

ghz: gigahertz (1 billion cycles per second) 

Gibson, Edward G., 64, 173, 191 

Gibson, Roy, 27, 43, 66, 93, 123 

Gilruth, Robert R.. 235 

Giuli, Thomas, 37 

3 10 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 Index 

Glenn, John, 136 

Glennan, T. Keith, 125 

Global Air Sampling Program (GASP), 41 

Global Atmospheric Research Program 

GMS (Japanese meteorological satellite), 139 

GNP (gross national product) U.S., 158 

Goddard News, 124, 199 

Goddard, Robert H., 12, 64 

Goddard Soace Flieht Center. 2. 9. 22. 26. 

(GARP), 109, 117, 207 

283 

Environmental Satellite. 

WES. See Geostationary Operational 

Golan Heights, 243 

Gold, Dr. Thomas, 63 

Golden Gate Bridge, paint test, 148 

Goldstein, Richard M., 114-115 

Goldstone, Cali. (NASA facility), 9, 166, 

Goldwater, Senator Barry, 115 

Goodyear Aerospace Corporation, 44, 59 

Goodyear Rubber Corporation, 57 

Gordon, Robert V., 147 

Gorno-Altaisk, U.S.S.R., 59 

Graphite, qualities of, 230 

Gravitational field, earth, 63 

Gravity, 11, 205, 230 

Grechko, Georgy M., 3, 91, 253, 282, 283 

Green Bank, W. Va., observatory, 231 

Greenbelt Homes, Inc., 29 

Greenbelt, Md., TDA station, 9 

Greenberg, Daniel S., 103 

Greenhouse effect, 183 

Greenland, 207, 218, 246, 283 

Greer, Robert E., 182 

Griffin, Gerald D., 139 

Grobecker, Alan J., 8 

Gross national product (GNP), U.S., 158 

Ground electro-optical deep-space surveilGroupement Industriel Europken #Etudes 

Grumman Aerospace Corporation, 70, 94, 

Grumman American Aviation Carp., 198 

Grumman Gulfstream (aircraft), 65, 198 

GSA (General Services Administration), 

114, 145 

GSFC. See Goddard Space Flight Center. 

Gubarev, Aleksey A., 3, 91, 253, 282 

Gum nebula, 225 

Gwynn Island, Va., 74 

Gymnodinium phytoplankton red-tide, 179, 

Gyro anomaly investigation, 15 

Gyroscopic systems, 214, 216 

203, 231 

lance (GEODSS), 215 

Spatiales (Eurospace), 93 

136 

249 

H 

Hackerman, Norman, 84 

Halcon, Inc., 68 

Haley Astronautics Award, 191 

Hammarstrom, Ove, 66, 121 

Hammud al-Khalid, Sulayman, 130 

Handler, Philip, 34 

Hansen, Grant L., 35, 36 

Harmon Aviation Awards, 74 

Harr, Karl G., 220 

HASPA. See High-altitude superpressured 

Hawaii, 135, 137, 138, 195, 206, 246, 248 

Hawkes, John, 8 

HC- 130H (rescue aircraft), 74 

HCMM. See Heat Capacity Mapping Mission. 

Health, Education, and Welfare, U.S. 

Dept. of (HEW), 29 

HEAO. See High Energy Astronomy Observatory. Heart attack, 177 

Hearth, Donald P., 129 

Heat Capacity Mapping Mission (HCMM), 

Heat, 130, 175 

Heavy-particle cosmic ray exposure reHecker, Edward J., 183 

Helicopters, 66, 99, 107 

Helios 1, 46, 47, 61, 212 

Helium, 17, 37, 99, 180 

Hello, Bastian, 182 

HEW. See Health, Education, and Welfare, U.S. Dept. of. 

High-altitude research, 13, 49 

High-altitude superpressured powered aerostat (HASPA), 219 

High Energy Astronomy Observatory 

(HEAO), 10, 14, 48, 79, 85 

High Flight (evangelistic foundation), 173, 

182 

High-temperature core reactors, 30 

Highly Maneuverable Aircraft Technology 

(HIMAT) program, 66 

Hinners, Noel W., 73, 143, 158 

Hinterman, Hans, 121 

HIRS (high-resolution temperature sounder), 

Hoffman, Hans E. W., 35 

Holbrook, Gordon F., 36 

Hole in ionosphere, 97 

Halloman, Dr. J. Herbert, 68 

Holmdel, New Jersey, 166 

Homes, heat loss, 130 

Honeywell, Inc.. 13 

Hopi Indians, supernova record, 186 

Hosenball, S. Neil, 24, 111, 165 

Housing and Urban Development, U.S. 

Dept. of (HUD), 113,120,143,148,193 

Houston, Tex., ASTP mission control, 132 

Houston, Univ. of, 166, 192, 219, 235,2&, 

285 

Hovis, Warren A., 249 

Hsinhua (PRC news agency), 149 

Huancayo Observatory, Peru, 90-91 

HUD. See Housing and Urban Development, 

Hughes Aircraft Co., 31, 38, 74, 79, 116, 

Human immunity, 37 

powered aerostat. 

185 

ceived by astronauts, 11 

109 

US. Dept. of. 

119, 194 

311 
Index ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Hungary, 153,229,%1 

Huntsville Times, 155, 230 

Hurricanes, 26, 57, 206 

Hurt, Hugh H., 36 

Huskie giant aircraft, 24 

Hydrochloric acid in stratosphere, 237 

Hydrogen, 17, 68, 127, 159, 217, 219, 220 

Hypersonic research, 129, 239 

I 

IAU (International Astronomical Union), 

162, 249-250 

IBM (International Business Machines Corporation), 10, 126, 136, 146, 148, 180, 

197. 245 

Icarus, 232 

Ice research, 142, 207, 218, 232, 237 

Ice-warn (program), 5 

EA (integrated electronic assembly), 7,181 

Iliac 4 (computer), 50 

Illinois, Univ. of, 50, 91, 287 

Immunity system, human, 37 

Immunology, 190 

IMOS (Inadvertent Modifcation of the Stratosphere), Federal Interagency Task 

Force on, 29 

IMP (Explorer Interplanetary Monitoring 

Platform), 124 

Improved TIROS Operational Satellite 

(ITOS E-2), 2 

India, 32,37,67,87,126,127,130,157,163, nr 1 

131 

Indians, American, supernova record, 186 

Indian Ocean, 89, 180, 195, 207 

Indonesia, 4, 31 

Industrial Research, 193 

Industrial Tectonics, Inc., 193 

Industry-Federal liaison, 152 

Inefficiency, 98 

Infections, urinary, 177 

Inflation, 21 

Infrared observation of upper atmosphere, 

100 

Infrared Observatory, Airborne, 29, 88 

Infrared telescope project, 84 

Instituto Geofisico del Peru, 91 

Instrumentation of aircraft, 6 

Integrated electronic assembly (IEA), 7, 

181 

Integrated Propulsion Control System 

(IPCS), 187 

Integrated Subsystems Test Bed, 52 

Intelligent extratewestrial life, 164, 231, 

232 

INTELSAT (International Telecommunications Satellite Organization), 4, 24, 

30, 58, 73, 80, 93, 122, 138, 159, 195, 

227, 240 

Intelsat I F-1 (Early Bird), 89 

Intelsat N F-1, 2, 89, 180, 195, 260, 277, 

278 

Inteiat IV F-6, 33, 180 

Intelsat IV F-8, 30, 180 

Intelsat IVA F-1, 2, 270, 277, 279 

Intelsat V satellites, 138 

Intensified-silicon intensified-target (ISIT) 

camera, 215 

Interagency cooperation, 119, 127, 161, 

183,194,204,213 

Interagency Task Force, 183 

Interim Agreements for the Establishment 

of a Global Commercial Comsat System, 195 

Interior, U.S. Dept. of (DOI), 6,8,9,18,203 

Internal combustion engine, 181, 183 

Intercosmos (organization), 241 

Intercosmos (U.S.S.R. satellites), 251 

International Association of Machinists, 51 

International Astronomical Union (IAU), 

International Business Machines Corporation. See IBM. 

International communications, Cornsat 

rates for, 230 

International cooperation on space, 1, 31, 

32,39,41,103, 130,131,139,197,198, 

212 

International Explorers Society, 242 

International Harvester Company, 214 

International Quiet Sun Year, 90 

International Space Research Committee, 

International Telecommunications Satellite 

International Telecommunications Union, 

Interplanetary Monitoring Platform. See 

Intercosmos 13, 257 

Intercosmos 14, 241, 273 

162, 249-250 

25 

Organization. See INTELSAT. 

93, 216 

IMP. 

Interpretation of satellite imagery, 9 

Ionosphere, 13, 97, 244 

Ion-thruster propulsion system, 93 

IPCS (Integrated Propulsion Control System), 187 

IR: infrared. 

Iran, 3, 4, 203 

Irwin, James R., 173, 182 

ISIT (intensified-silicon intensified-target) 

camera, 215 

Isolation, biological, 51 

Israel, 233 

Italy, 44, 60, 78, 203 

Itek Corporation, 112 

ITOS E-2 (Improved TIROS Operational 

Satellite), 2 

Ivanchenkov, Aleksandr S.. 28 

Izvestiya, 38, 39 

J 

Jaguar (close-air-support aircraft), 95 

Jakarta, Indonesia, 31 

Jane’s Weapons System, 244 

Japan, 4, 35, 48, 53, 139, 184, 251 

Jastrow, Robert, 175 

Javelin, rocket, 284 

Jet engines, 32, 215 

Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 2,22,50,51-52, 

55,77,80,102,159,166,181,183,184- 

185,202,203, 205,208,223-224,228 

312 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 Index 

313 

Jet Star (business jet), 190 

Jet aircraft, 44 

Jetstream, 31, 233 

Jever Air Force Base, West Germany, 126 

Jicamarca Observatory, Peru, 90-91 

Jodrell Bank radio telescope station, EngJohn C. Lindsay Award, 124 

John Jeffries Award, 37 

Johns Hopkins University, 31, 63, 79, 166, 

176, 179, 226, 285 

Johnson, Clarence L., 190 

Johnson. R. Tennev. 24. 111 

land, 178 

Johnson'Space Ceiter, 11-12, 22, 28, 37, 

44, 49, 58, 59, 62, 67, 69, 83, 88, 104, 

110, 120, 139, 144, 164, 195, 196, 198, 

202, 219, 222, 235, 237, 24, 243 

Johnston, Richard S., 147, 149 

Jones, J. Lloyd, Jr., 88 

Jones, Robert T., 115 

Journal of Atmospheric Sciences, 28 

JPL. See Jet Propulsion Laboratory. 

JSC. See Johnson Space Center. 

Jupiter (planet), 29-30,35,42-43,89,108, 

Justice, U.S. Dept. of, 29 

114-115, 124, 199, 228, 242 

K 

Kadlec, Paul W., 36 

Kaliningrad, U.S.S.R., 66 

Kansas, Univ. of, 129 

Kapustin Yar, U.S.S.R., 167 

Kajalaimen (Finnish publication), 153 

Kayser, Lutz T., 247 

Kazakhstan, 247 

Kennedy, Sen. Edward M., 12 

Kennedy, President John F., 136, 226 

Kennedy Space Center (KSC), 2,4,5-8,11, 

12,22,23, 28,29,32,44,61,67,69,73, 

77,80,85,92,93,94,96,100,110,112, 

117, 121, 123, 132, 137, 143, 146, 157, 

161, 167, 168, 171, 183, 195, 206, 207, 

213, 214, 218, 219, 240, 242, 243 

Kent, Wash., Boeing Space Center, 206 

Kenya, San Marco launch platform, 78 

Kerguelen Is., launches, 39, 283 

Kerwin, Joseph P., 64, 74 

Kidney-cell experiment, 4 

Kiev, U.S.S.R., 192 

Kiku (Japanese satellite), 184, 251, 267 

Kleppe, Thomas S., 212 

Klimuk, Pyotr, 91, 92, 121, 282 

Kline, Raymond A., 189 

Knights of Columbus, 173 

Kompfner, Rudolf, 189 

Kostroma Oblast, U.S.S.R., 39 

Kotelnikov, Vladimir A., 77, 131, 145 

Kourou, French Guiana, 86, 111 

Kraft, Christopher C., 235, 243 

Gamer, Robert S., 110 

Kranzer, Ditmar, 216 

Kremlin, 192 

KSC. See Kennedy Space Center. 

Kubasov, Valery N., 1,28,91,130,131,132, 

133, 134, 168, 191, 205, 265, 282 

Kuiper Airborne Observatory, 88, 138 

Kuiper, Gerard P., 88 

Kuwait, ground station, 130 

L 

Labor and Public Welfare, Senate CommitLaboratoire de Meteorologie Dynamique, 

LACE. See Large areacrop inventoryexperLAGEOS. See Laser Geodynamic Satellite. 

Lake Tahoe, Nev., 168 

Lake Victoria, Africa, 87 

Lakeland, Fla., 243 

Laminar flow, 54 

Lancaster, Malcolm C., 37 

Land-use planning by satellite, 9, 183 

Landau, Ralph, 68 

Landsat program, 5,9,74,168,208,212,232. 

See ERTS. 

Landsat-B, 5 

Landsat-C, 21 

Landsatl, 5,9,33,38,163,179,185,202, 

tee on, 116 

207 

iment. 

a'.'. 

ZLZ 

Landsat 2,5,8-9,33,38,53,90,157,185, 

202, 237, 242, 253, 277, 278 

Langley Research Center (LaRC), 2,22,31, 

36, 53, 54, 79, 96, 110, 126, 129, 143, 

160, 171, 202, 204, 214, 243, 293 

LaRC. See Landev Research Center. 

Landsat 2,5,8-9,33,38,53,90,157,185, 

202, 237, 242, 253, 277, 278 

Langley Research Center (LaRC), 2,22,31, 

36, 53, 54, 79, 96, 110, 126, 129, 143, 

160, 171, 202, 204, 214, 243, 293 

LaRC. See Landev Research Center. 

Large, Arlen J.,-33 

Large area crop inventory experiment 

Large Lift Vehicle (LLV), 154 

Large Space Telescope (LST), 14,105,113, 

Laser Geodvnamic Satellite (LAGEOS) net- 

(LACE), 5, 9, 44, 59, 172, 224, 237 

127, 144, 147, 148, 194, 230 

work, 201 

Laser Tracking Subnet, 244 

Lasers. 44. 63. 119. 229. 244 

Lassen, Herbert A', 37 

Launch complex, 39,61, 112 

Launch processing system (LPS), 93, 152 

Launch vehicles, 45, 101, 223 

Launchings, 1-2, 21, 89, 163, 277, 283 

Lawrence Speny Award, 37 

Law, space, 165 

Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, 234 

Lazar, James B., 190 

Lazarev, Vasily, 59, 282 

LCMS. See Low-Cost Modular Spacecraft. 

Lead-antimony eutectic, 210 

Lead-silver alloys, 210 

LeBeau, Andre, 66 

LeBourget Airport, Paris, 95 

Lee, Chester M., 64, 110, 189 

Leningrad, 192 

Leninsk, U.S.S.R., Baykonur Cosmodrome 

at, 83 

Leonov, Aleksey A., 1,28,38,91,121,130, 

131, 133, 134, 137, 146, 168, 191,205, 

265, 282 

LeRC. See Lewis Research Center. 

Leucocytes increase in cosmonauts, 92 
Index ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Lewis Research Center(LeRC), 2,22,33,42, 

49,50,67,82,93,111,139,146,171,193, 

195, 209, 213 

Lick Observatory, Univ. of California, 126 

Life, 35, 164, 176 

Life sciences, 33, 165, 197 

Life-support system for Space Shuttle, 81 

Lifting body (aircraft), 128, 172-173 

Light flashes observed by Skylab 4, 94 

Li htning strikes, 94, 110 

Lay, William E., 22, 226 

Limb-radiance inversion radiometer (LRIR), 

Lindsay, John C., Award, 124 

Liquid-metal plasma valve, 38 

Liquid mixing in space, 210 

Lloyd, Russell P., 168 

LLV. See Large Lift Vehicle. 

Lockheed Aircraft Corporation, 10, 44, 78, 

99, 148, 190, 246, 284 

Lockheed Electronics Co., Inc., 202 

Lockheed Jet Star aircraft, 65 

Lockheed Missiles and Space Go., Inc., 14, 

London, England, 111, 122, 212 

Long Beach, Calif., 178 

Lord, Douglas R., 49, 224 

Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, 119,190 

Los Angeles, 112, 160 

Los Angeles Times, 47,139,159,172,183,203, 

Louis W. Hill Award, 36 

Lousma, Jack R., 6, 64, 65, 123 

Love, Eugene S., 54 

Love, Michael V., 172, 293, 294 

Lovell, Sir Bernard, 178 

Low, George M., 21,77,105,110,131,18.5, 

Low-Cost Modular Spacecraft (LCMS), 25 

Low-Cost Silicon Array (JPL project), 208 

Low-gravity processing, 11 

LPS (launch processing system), 152 

LRIR (limb-radiance inversion radiometer), 

LST. See Large Space Telescope. 

LTV Aerospace Corporation, 115 

Lucas, William P., 125, 203 

Luciferase, 176 

Luciferin, 176 

Ludwig, George H., 212 

Luksch, Walter, 8, 66 

Luminescence, 176- 177 

Luna 22, 99, 100, 176 

Lunar and planetaryexplorations, 11,14,45, 

Lunar Curatorial Facility, 114 

Lunar Orbiter (NASA program), 12 

Lunar Roving Vehicle, 125 

Lunar samples, 23, 50, 114, 144, 188 

Lundin. Bruce T.. 213 

109 

120, 228 

229, 233 

189 

109 

101 

Lung le’sion in astronaut, 171 

Lunik I, 25 

Lunney, GlynnS., 7,59,60,77,110,127,195 

M 

M2 (lifting body), 128 

Machinists, International Association of, 51 

Madagascar, 130 

Madrid, 233 

MAF. See Michoud Assembly Facility. 

Magellanic Clouds, 217 

Magnetic equator, rockets launched at, 90 

Magnetic field, 105, 233, 245 

Magnetic particle, 166 

Magnetic-tape certification facility, 201,244 

Magnetically interlinked points, 39 

Magnetohydrodynamic generator, 54 

Magnetosphere, 100, 241 

Makarov, Oleg, 59, 282 

Malagasy Republic, 129- 130 

Mallcin, Myron S., 222, 223 

Man, effects of space flight, 214 

Management and Budget, U.S. Office of, 96 

Manami trees, 138 

Manikins used by NASA, 88 

Manke, John N., 161, 293, 294 

Manned laboratories in space, 96-97 

Manned maneuvering unit, 62 “Manned Orbital Systems Concepts” (MSFC 

Manned Space Flight, NASA Office of, 48 

Manned space flights, 22,160,164,251,281 

Manned space station, U.S., 105,222, 239 

Mannheimer, Harry, 5 

Manufacturing Chemists Association, 240 

Mao Tse-tung, 149 

Maps, radioastronomy, 217 

Marine Environmental Sciences Consortium, 90 

Mariner- Jupiter- Saturn mission, 14,35,89, 

185, 235 

Mariner- Jupiter- Uranus mission, 14, 235 

Mariner, Ancient, 206 

Mariner- Saturn, 199 

Mariner missions, 88, 89, 185, 199 

study), 239 

Mariner 5, 206 

Mariner 6 and 7, 171 

Mariner 8, 33 

Mariner10,47,49,50,51-52,58,88,115, 

124, 175, 210 

Mariner- Venus team award, 77 

Marisat (maritime-satellite system), 2, 51, 

60, 82, 151, 180 

Mark, Hans M., 36, 231 

Marots (ESRO’s maritime orbital test satellite). 48 

MarquGdt Corporation, 129 

Mars(planet), 1,8,14,31,55,78,96,110,111, 

115, 143, 160, 162, 164, 169,170, 171, 

172, 175, 176, 184, 205 

Marshall, Mrs. George C., 125 

Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC), 4,7, 

8,10,12,13,14- 15,22,23,30,47,49,57, 

61,83,85,89,90,102,105,108,110,113, 

116, 120, 125, 129, 130, 146, 154, 160, 

162, 164, 181, 182, 186, 198, 201, 203, 

210, 211, 212, 213, 217, 221,223, 232, 

235, 238, 239, 240 

Marshall Star, 5,53,89,110,120,122,233 

Martin, James S., Jr., 96, 143 

Martin Marietta Corporation, 14,15,62,93, 

95. 108. 152. 171. 185. 221 

Maryland, Univ. ’of, 231 

314 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 Index 

Massachusetts InstituteofTeclmology (MIT; see also Alcator; Center for Space Research), 79, 215, 219-220, 289 

Materials processing, 24, 179, 205, 210 

Mathews, Charles W., 5, 224 

Matilsky, Terry, 158 

Matthoefer, Hans, 43 

Mauna Kea, Hawaii, 137 

Max-Planck Institut, 212 

May, Ellery B., 110, 160, 189 

Mayfair Construction Company, 157 

McCluney, Ross, 179 

McConnell, Joseph H., 82 

McDonald Observatory, 205 

McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Company, 

120, 174, 229, 239 

McDonnell.Douglas Corporation, 2,28-29, 

32, 44, 51, 60, 78, 79, 80, 95, 97, 178 

McElroy, Michael B., 223 

MCI Communications Corporation, 10,148 

McLeaish, John E., 104 

McLucas. Tohn L.. 4 

McMurtj,"ThomaL C., 295 

MDM (multiplexers-demultiplexers), 130 

MechanicalEngineers, American Society of, 09c 

433 

Mechanical-thermal simulator, 26-27 

Medical isolation of ASTP crew, 120 

Medicine and space technology, 51,177,219 

Megaton strike capacity, U.S., 216 

Memory device, 90 

Mercanti, Eurico P., 179 

Mercury (planet), 47,49,52, 106, 115,250 

Mercury propellant, 93 

Mercury valve, 38 

Mesabi range, Minn., 233 

Messerschmitt- Boelkow- Blohm Company, 

95, 163, 240 

Metals, 111, 205 

Meteor (U.S.S.R. meteorological satellite), 

167, 251 

Meteor 21, 257 

Meteor 2 -1, 265 

Meteor 22, 269 

Meteor 23, 275 

Meteorology, 2,9,24,26,27,41,71,117,142. 

168, 207, 225, 244 

Metric conversion, 238, 249 mev: maion electron volts. 

Mexico-Spain satellite link, 122 

mhz: megahertz (one million cycles per 

Miami Herald, 244, 247 

Miami, Univ. of, 44 

Michanowsky, George, 215 

Michigan, Environmental Research Instisecond). 

tute of, 179 

Michigan, Univ. of, 284, 286 

Michoud Assembly Facility (MAF), 14, 32 

Microbes, 37 

Microbiological laboratory, U.S.S.R., 169 

Micrometeoroids. 46 

Microorganisms, 134 

Microprocessor, 215 

Microwave energy, 161, 178 

Microwave Scanning Beam Landing SysMilan, Univ. of, 212 

tem, 69 

Mili, M., 93 

Militsin, Albesy-V2 81 

Milky Way (galaxy), 84, 134, 141, 187, 196, 077 

01 1 

Mineral extraction, 8, 203 

Mineral resources, 9, 142, 185 

Minicomputers for Space Shuttle, 85 

Minnesota Public Interest Research Group, 

247 

Minnesota, Univ. of, 285 

Minnows, 197 

Mirage (Fl-E; French fqhter aircraft), 99 

Missile (see also individual missiles, kinds 

of missiles, and missile systems). 

early warning system, 19 

launchings monitored by U.S., 86, 242 

nosetip design, 152 

U.S.S.R. firing, 166-167 

Mississippi (state), Landsat applications, 

39, 232 

Mississippi Air and Water Pollution Control 

Commission, 90 

Missouri, Landsat applications, 232 

MIT. See Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 68, 79, 215, 219-220, 289 

Mitsubishi Electric Corporation, 53 

Mobile Bay, 90 

Modular Computer Systems, Inc., 85, 117 

Molina, Mario J., 236 

Molniya (U.S.S.R. comsat series), 167, 251 

long-range communications and TV, 

Molniya 1, 259, 262, 267 

Molniya I-30, 103, 251 

for, 103 

Molniya 2, 254, 265, 267, 274 

Molniya 3, 258, 272, 275 

Molniya I-S, 204, 

Monkeys in space program, 121 

Monopole discovery, 166 

Montoya, Joseph M., 186 

Moog Inc. Controls Division, 223 

Moon (see also lunar headings), 14, 23, 

Morris, George A., 115 

Morrison, James R., 5 

Morrison Knudsen Company, 69 

Morton, Rogers C. B., 8 

Moscow, U.S.S.R., 3, 81, 137, 191, 208, 

Moscow Mission Control Center, 122, 127 

Mosher, Charles A., 43,49, 108, 151 

Moss, Sen. Frank E., 25, 115, 222, 235 

Mount Wilson Observatory, 225 

MRCA (multirole combat aircraft), 107 

MSFC. See Marshall Space Flight Center. 

Muir, Warren R., 183 

Multiplexers-demultiplexers (MDM), 130 

Multirole combat aircraft (MRCA), 107 

Munich space operations center, 46 

Murcray, David G., 240 

Murray, Bruce C., 115 

Myers, Dale D., I82 

Mylar balloon (Echo l), 165 

63-64,74,99-100,111,124,187,213, 

226 

210, 226, 230, 250 

N 

NAA (National Aeronautic Assn.), 190, 

249 

315 
Index ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

316 

NACA. See National Advisory Committee 

NAE: See National Academy of EngineerNames for new planetary features, Moscow 

Nanking Observatory, China, 78 

NAS. See National Academy of Sciences. 

NASA. See National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration. 

Nash, Edward J., 74 

NASTRAN (NASA structural analysis), 

for Aeronautics. 

ing. 

meeting on, 250 

7 

Natural resources information, 5 

Nature magazine, 63, 64 

Nature, 103 

Naugle, John E., 70, 143, 229 

Nauka I Zhin, 149 

Navigation, 116, 205-206 

NAVSTAR (navigation system using time 

and ranging), global positioning system. 19. 206 

Navy, U:S. See U.S. Navy. 

Nazca plains, 242 

NBS. See National Bureau of Standards. 

NCAR. See National Center for AtmosNational Academy of Engineering (NAE), 

National Academy of Sciences (NAS), 34, 

68,221,246 

68, 141, 246 

tics (NACA), 69, 202 

National Advisory Committee for AeronauNational Aeronautic Assn. (NAA) 190, 249 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA; see also individual 

Centers, offices, and programs; 

Awards; Budget, NASA; Contract, 

NASA; Employment, NASA; Interagency cooperation; International Cooperation, space; Launchings; and 

Personnel, NASA), 1,6,7,8,9,11,13, 

19,29,35,37,38,41,43,54,57,63,69, 

71,82,85,93,94,97,98,105,119,123, 

127, 129, 144, 151, 158, 165, 168, 171, 

173, i7a-i79,ia6,ia7,i90,206,207, 

218,222,226,24t3 

National Aviation Club, 74 

National Bureau of Standards (NBS), 43, 

National Business Aircraft Association, 65 

National Cancer Institute, 27-28, 60 

National Center for Atmospheric Research 

National Center for Resource Recovery, 61 

National Environmental Satellite Service 

(NESS). NOAA. 211-212.243.248-2.29 

236, 249 

@CAR), 89,207 

National Gallery of'Art, 137 ' 

National Geodetic Satellite Program 

Natiopal Medal of Science, 189-190 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric AdNational Radio Astronomy Observatory, 

(NGSP), 63 

ministration. See NOAA. 

-" 341 - 

National Research Council, 14, 216, 221, 

National Science Board. 84 

246 

National Science Foundation (NSF), 6, 18, 

National science policy, 151 

National Space Club awards, 64 

National Space Science Data Center, 207 

National Space Technology Laboratories 

National Weather Service. 71 

29, 84, 103, 235 

(NSTL), 22, 39, 52, 63, 90, 123, 143 

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), 59, 108 

Natrium (sodium), 244 

Natural gas. See Gas, natural. 

Natural Resources Defense Council, 247 

pheric Research. 

Neal, Roy, 64 

Neilon, John J., 207 

Neptune (planet), 168, 198 

Nepzabadsag, 153 

NESS. See National Environmental Satellite Service. 

Ness, Norman F., 47, 124 

Netherlands, 8, 99, 107 

Netherlands astronomical satellite (Am I), 

196, 208 

Neutron stars, 48, 232 

New Hampshire, Univ. of, 285 

New Mexico Department of Agriculture, 

219 

New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology, 94 

New Mexico, launchings, 248 

New Mexico State Univ., 127, 219 

New York City, N.Y., 11, 112 

New York State Development Corporation, 

86 

New York, State Univ. of, 15, 36, 80 

New York Times, The, 1, 27, 31, 49, 60,90, 

111, 121, 175, 176, 181, 186, 192, 225, 

231, 243, 246 

Newport News Times Herald, 160, 207 

Newsreview (AFSC publication), 97, 124, 

Newsweek, 99 

Newton, Mass., 227 

NGSP (National Geodetic Satellite Program). 63 

154, 178, 181, 215, 216 

Nicoioss(an, Arnauld E., 148-149, 171 

Nike-Apache, 90, 284, 285, 287, 288 

Nike-Cajun, 237, 286, 288, 290 

Nike-Hawk (sounding rocket), 187, 289 

Nike-Javelin, 290 

Nike-Tomahawk. 90. 285. 286. 287. 288. 

289, 291 

Nimbus (satellites), 13, 26, 142 

Nimbus-F experimental meteorological 

Nimbus 1, 109 

Nimbus2, 109 

Nimbus3, 109 

Nimbus 4, 109, 228 

Nimbus 5, 109 

satellite, 1, 51, 60 

Nimbus 6, 108-109, 207, 232, 233, 237, 

263,277,278 

Ninety-Nines, Inc., 249 

Nitrogen, 223, 247 

Nitrogen-oxide emission standards, 8 

Nitrogen tetroxide, 148 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 Index 

Nixon, President Richard M., 90, 104, 142, 

143 

NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration). (See also National 

Environmental Satellite Service 

(NESS)), 2, 19, 24, 25, 37, 43, 57, 59, 

71, 94, 179, 206, 211, 212, 231, 243, 

246, 248-249 

Nom satellites: see ITOS E-2, Sms, Goes 

Nobel Prize, 125, 190 

Noggle, Lawrence W., 57, 58 

Noise 

galactic, 100 

jet, 32-33, 147 

reduction, 2, 19, 65, 127 

Noordwijk, the Netherlands, 93 

NORAD. See North American Air Defense 

Command. 

Nordberg, William, 163, 212 

Norsk Polarinstitut, Norway, 207 

North American Air Defense Command 

(NORAD), 47 

(NATO), 59, 108 

North Atlantic Treaty Organization 

Northrup Corporation, 4, 54, 124, 240 

Northrup Services, Inc., 14 

Norway, 99, 107 

Nosecap on Space Shuttle, 7 

Nosetip designs, 152 

Novosibirsk, U.S.S.R., 192 

NRC (Nuclear Regulatory Commission), 6- 

7. (See also National Research Council) 

NRL (Naval Research Laboratory). See 

U.S. Navy. 

NSF. See National Science Foundation. 

NSPL (NASA Standard Parts List), 239 

NSTL. See National Space Technology 

Nuclear energy, 119, 219, 220 

Nuclear fusion, 219-220 

Nuclear-powered aircraft, 57, 123 

Nuclear-powered lasers, 119 

Nuclear reactors, 220 

Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), 

Nuclear Technology, 30 

Laboratories. 

6-7 

0 

OA (Office of Applications, NASA Hq), 110 

Oao 3 (Copernicw, Orbiting Astronomical 

OAST (Office of Aeronautics and Space 

Oberg, James%, 64 

Objects in space, manmade, 47 

Observatory, 88, 138, 237 

Oceanography, 2, 117, 142, 179, 218 

Office of Management and Budget (OMB), 

Office of Occupational Medicine and EnOffice of Science and Technology (White 

Offshore oil, 159, 232-233 

Ogo 1, (Orbiting Geophysical Observatory), 

Laboratory), 73, 113 

Technolo NASA Hq), 7, 88, 293 

1, 33 

vironmental Health, 50 

House), 90, 116, 151 

233 

Ohia trees, 138 

Oil, 107, 151, 159, 185, 232-233 

Oja, Heikka, 169 

O’Keefe, John A., 111 

Okorokov, Boris, 137 

OMB (Office of Management and Budget), 

OMSF (Office of Manned Space Flight, 

O’Neill, Gerard K., 250 

OPA (Office of Program Assurance), 46 

Opportunities and Choices in Space Science, 

1974, 14 

Optical bench, 47 

Optical sensations from cosmic rays, 37 

Orange County, Calif., 202 

Orbita network (U.S.S.R.) 103, 245 

Orbital behavior theory, 166 

Orbital Test Satellite (OTS), 48 

Orbital Transport and Raketen A.G., 247 - 

Orbiter, Shuttle, 34, 185, 189, 201 

1, 33 

NASA Hq), 48, 123, 198 

24% 

and Lander 1 to Mars, 55 

Orbiter 2, 73 

Orbiter 102, 38 

Orbiting Astronomical Observatory (OAO), 

Orbiting Geophysical Observatory (OGO), 

Orbiting Solar Observatory. See OSO. 

Orders of Magnitude, 69 

Orion (constellation), 158 

Orlando Sentinel Star, 165, 168, 229 

Orthostatic stability in cosmonauts, 92 

Osborne, Weyman A., 166 

Osnos, Peter, 230 

OS0 (Orbiting Solar Observatory), 1, 10, 

Os0 1, 51, 118 

os0 5, 10 

os0 7, 10 

Os0 8, 117, 118, 208, 264, 277, 278 

OSS (Office of Space Science, NASA Hq), 

13, 198 

OST. See Office of Science and Technolom. OTDA (Office of Tracking and Data Acquisition, NASA HqJ, 189 

OToole, Thomas, 3, 131, 137, 233 

OTS (Orbital Test Satellite), 48 

Outer solar system, 14 

Outer space, 165, 213, 231 

“Outlook for Aeronytics,” (study), 218 

“Outlook for Space, 150 

“Outlook for the Space Program,” (speech), 

22 1 

Ovenden, Michael W., 168 

Overmyer, Robert F., 157 

Oxygen, 147 

Ozone 

73, 113 

233 

60, 117-118 

air sampling, 42 

depletion, 144, 159, 183, 223, 234, 236- 

237, 246,247 

skin cancer, 27-28, 223 

supersonic trans orts, 8 

stratospheric pointion, 27-28, 70 

Ozonesonde balloons, 90 

317 
Index ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

P 

P-38 (fighter aircraft), 190 

Pacific Ocean, 180, 195 

Page, George F., 207 

Paint, inorganic, 148 

Paintings following ASTP, 137 

Paiute-Tomahawks, 6 

Palestine, Tex., 89 

Palmdale, Calif., 185 

Palmer, Patrick, 231 

Pan American World Airways, 42, 224 

Parachutes, 100, 160, 186, 190-191, 217 

Paris, 95, 106-107, 207 

Particle-interface reactions, 210 

Particle stream measurements, 39 

Particle with one magnetic pole, 166 

Partnership: A History of the Apollo-Soyuz 

Test Project, 66, 77, 83, 110, 120, 121, 

136 

Pasadena Star News, 161 

Patterson Air Force Base, 58 

Patterson, John, 125 

Pauling, Linus C., 190 

Pearl River buoys, 90 

Pecora, William T., Award, 212 

Peenemunde, Germany, 235 

Pendray, G. Edward, Award, 36 

Pennsylvania State Univ., 91, 286,287,288 

Pentagon, 164, 245, 246 

People’s Daily, The (China), 140, 176 

People’s Republic of China (PRC). See 

China, Peolde’s Republic of. 

Permanent space facility, 151 

Personnel, NASA 

appointment, 24-25, 47, 88, 122, 129, 

173, 189, 207 

force reduction, 13 

Peru. 90. 203. 242. 283 

Peterson; kusLfW., 29 

Petrone, Rocco A., 36, 61, 69, 70, 229 

Petrov, Boris N., 7, 191, 241 

Ph.D.s, overproduction, 60 

Philadelphia Inquirer, 86, 142, 157, 158, 

Phillips, Samuel C., 180, 181 

Phillips, William H., 36 

Phosphates, water hyacinths absorbing, 39 

Photochemical processes caused by solar 

Photoelectron distribution measurement, 

Photography by satellites, 86, 134 

Photovoltaic conference, 80 

Photovoltaic systems, 209 

Physical changes in cosmonauts, 92 

Physical Review Letters, 141 

Physics and astronomy, 45, 101 

Physics Today, 97 

Physiological effects of environment, 214 

Phytoplankton Gymnodinium, 179 

Pickering, William H., 115 

Pictoerauhs of suuernova. 186 

164 

ultraviolet radiation, 13 

187 

Pilot-istionaut pdpulation in 1985, 88 

Pilot body-size changes, 88 

Pilots of lifting-body flights, 293-295 

Pinsky, Lawrence S., 166 

Pioneer II, 42-43 

Pioneer 6, 242 

Pioneer 10, 29, 42, 88, 108, 138, 242 

Pioneer 11, 29, 242, 245 

Pioneer- Jupiter orbiter, 14 

Pioneer-Saturn (formerly Pioneer ZI), 42, 

228 

Pioneer-Venus project, 14, 100-101, 113, 

Piper PA-34 Seneca aircraft, 53 

Pittsburgh, Univ. of, 91, i87, 284, 285, 287 

“Plane for Outer Space, 150 

“Planeta,? Exploration: Earth‘s New HoriPlanets, 19, 78, 163, 175, 198, 206 

Plant tumor experiment, 197 

Plants, aquatic, 39 

Plasma processes, 85 

Plasma experiment on Mariner IO, 52 

Platforms, 109, 207, 232 

Plesetsk (U.S.S.R. launch site), 229 

Plum Brook Station (ERDA), 213 

Plume simulation, 14 

Pluto (planet), 78, 198 

PMI Facilities Management Corporation, 

PMR (pressure-modulated radiometer), 109 

pndb: perceived noise in decibels 

Pogue, William R., 64, 94, 173, 187, 191 

Poland. 229 

127-128, 144, 147, 175, 194 

zon, 35 

207 

Polar station, Soviet, 218 

Polcyn, Fabian, 179 

Pollution, 19, 21, 27-28, 39, 106, 154, 181- 

Pollux and Castor (French satellites), 86, 

183, 247. 

251, 260 

Polycrystalline solidification, 210 

Pope Paul VI, 140 

Pope’s Easter Message, 173 

Powder Puff Derby, 249 

Power from orbit, 30-31 

“Powersat” (solar power satellite), 161 

Pozinsky, Norman, 188-189 

PPG Industries, 13 

“Practical Applications of Space Systems” 

(NRC report), 141 

Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Division (United 

Aircraft Corp.), 2 

Pravda, 210 

PRC (People’s Republic of China). See 

China. 

Precipitation, 94 

Presidential Management Improvement 

Awards, 77 

Pressure groups, 60 

Pressure-modulated radiometer (PMR), 

1 n9 

Prici,-Paul B., 166 

Prichard, Reuben P., 50 

Princeton Univ., 250 

Productivity, 36, 68 

Production in space, 210 

Prognoz 4, 245, 251, 275 

Program Assurance, NASA Office of, 

Propellant research, 154 

Propulsion technology, 49,82,93, 10.5, 119, 

46-47 

129, 190 

318 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 Index 

319 

Proxmire, Sen. William, 42, 61, 102, 126, 

127, 130, 157, 226 

Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, 232 

Pruitt, Dow C., 164 

Public science policy, 235 

Public Service Satellite Users Consortium. 

36 

Puerto Rico, 231-232 

Pulsars, 134, 162, 181, 24.8 

puppis A (supernova remnant), 232 

Purple Mountain One and Two, 78 

Q 

Qantas Airways, 1.2 

Quasars, 48, 162 

Quiet Sun, International Year of, 90 

R 

Rabotnichesko, 153 

Radar, 71, 94 

Radiation (see also Cosmic ray, Gamma 

ray, Solar radiation, Ultraviolet radiation, X-ray), 13,41, 105, 141, 162, 178 

Radio, 39, 140 

Radio Astronomy Explorers A and B, 100 

Radio Corporation of America (RCA), 1, 2, 

Astro-Electronics Division, 185,208,231 

74, 112, 116, 215, 241 

Radioactivity, 30, 210 

Radiosonde, 71 

Rudugu (Rainbow), (U.S.S.R. satellite), 

245, 251, 275 

Ranger and Surveyor programs, 88 

Ranger (spacecraft), 115 

Rango, Albert, 168 

Rappaport, Saul A., 158 

Rasool, Ichtiaque S., 158 

Rats, 121, 198 

RATAN-600 antenna, 232 

Ratsiraka, Didier, 129 

Raytheon Service Company, 154, 201 

RBV (return-beam vidicon) cameras, 185 

RCA. See Radio Corporation of America. 

RCA-Satcom 1, 2 

Reaction control system (RCS), 135 

Reconnaissance satellites, 67, 86, 176 

Recovery helicopters, 66 

Recurrent nova, 158 

Red-cell production in astronauts, 34 

Red stars, 17 

Red tide (phytoplankton, Gymnodiniurn), 

179. 249 

Redstone (missile), 125 

Reed, Sylvanus Albert, award, 36 

Refan program for noise reduction, 32 

Reimbursable payloads, foreign, 48 

Reinhold Construction Company, 69 

Reliability, aircraft, 19 

Remote Manipulator System (RMS), 78 

Remote-sensing technology, 9- 10, 41, 168 

Remotely piloted research vehicle (RPRV), 

Remotely piloted vehicle (RP 

41, 66, 167 

Guard, 55 

, 66, 124 

Rescue Coordination Center o 9 U.S. Coast 

Research, 25, 45, 50 

appropriations, 19, 21, 45, 46, 49, 159 

composite materials, 24, 179 

energy, 21, 49, 67-68, 82, 119, 154 

hypersonic flight, 239 

meteorology, 41, 71, 117 

solar, 221, 237 

space, 50, 162, 232 

stratosphere, 70, 159 

Return-beam vidicon (RBV) cameras for 

Reusable space vehicle, 149 

Reuters news agency, 225 

Reynolds, Smith, and Hills Company, 112 

Rice Univ., 285 

RMS (remote manipulator system), 78 

Robert M. Losey Award, 36 

Robot vehicles, 222 

Rock, William H., 110, 213 

Rockefeller, Nelson A., 106 

Rockefeller Univ., 226 

Rocketdyne Division of Rockwell InternaRocket technology, 11, 13, 21, 41, 53, 57, 

235, 248, 283 

Rockwell International Corporation, 7, 25, 

37, 52, 66, 70, 78, 81, 90, 92-93, 96, 

105, 120, 124, 125, 126, 136, 139, 161, 

173, 180, 182, 185, 201, 202, 203, 211, 

226-227, 243 

Rocky Mountains, 157 

Roland, F. Sherwood, 236 

Romanenko, Yury V., 28 

Romania, 229 

Rome, Univ. of, 212 

Rosen, George, 36 

Ross, Miles, 52 

Roundup (JSC publication), 188, 196 

Rowe, Herbert J., 173 

Royal Society, the, London, 111 

RPRV (remotely piloted research vehicle), 

RPV (remotely piloted vehicle), 66, 124 

Rukavishnikov, Nikolay N., 28 

Rumsfeld, Donald H., 245 

Russia. See U.S.S.R. 

TV, 185 

tional Corporation, 78 

84, 90, 102, 111, 119, 123, 186, 190, 

41, 66, 167 

S 

Saah Viggen (Swedish fighter aircraft), 99 

Sabreliner, Rockwell, 65 

Safety, aircraft, 19 

Safety and Environmental Health, NASA 

Office of, 50 

Sagan, Carl, 231 

Sagdeyev, Ronald, 44,45 

SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks), 

152, 216 

Salyut (U.S.S.R. scientific space station), 

225 

Saijit 2, 92 

Salyut 4, 3, 59, 91, 92, 126, 145, 191, 

225, 253 

Samoa, 207, 246 

SAMSO. See Space and Missile Systems 

Organization (USAF). 

suzyut 3, 11 
Index ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

San Andreas Fault Experiment, 201 

San Antonio, Tex., 188 

Sun Diego Union, 105, 233 

San Fernando Observatory, 237 

San Marco platform, 2, 78, 277 

San Martin, Robert, 219 

Sands, George, 160 

Santa Fe Engineers, Inc., 87 

Santiago, Chile, 202-203 

SAO. See Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatorv. 

SAS (Small Astronomy Satellite), 1 

Sas-C, 277 

Sas2, 181 

Sas 3, 158, 208 

Satcom (communications satellites). 241 - 242 

Satcom I (RCA l), 274, 277, 279 

Satellite applications (see also individual 

satellite names) 

atmospheric, 21 

biological, Soviet, 229 

climate forecasting, 150 

comsats, 44, 121, 165, 229 

crop acreage calculation, and, 224 

earth resources, 23, 33, 74, 106 

educational TV, 87 

fossil fuel searches, 50 

geodynamic, 201 

geostationary environmental, 206 

high-altitude research, 13 

land-use planning, 183 

meteorological, 21, 51, 71, 192, 215 

microwave communications, 44 

mineral location, 185 

offshore communications, 159 

power stations, 131, 250 

printing reproduction, 51 

radiation transfer, 41 

reconnaissance, 67, 86, 242 snowcover measurement, 249 

solar power, 161 

"spy satellite,'' 242 

tracking and data relay, 21, 109 

water measurement by, 179 

X-ray research, 196 

Satellite Business Systems, 245 

Satellite de Recherches et #Environment 

Technique @ret 2), 103 

Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE), 87, 130 Satellite Situation Report, 251 

Saturn (launch vehicle). 125 

Saturn I, 125 

Saturn IB, 4-5, 32, 52, 132, 136, 160 

Saturn IVB, 132 

Saturn V. 3. 13. 161. 213 

Saturn I, 125 

Saturn IB, 4-5, 32, 52, 132, 136, 160 

Saturn IVB, 132 

Saturn V. 3. 13. 161. 213 

Saturn Program offici, 160 

Saturn (planet), 108, 199, 228, 245 

Saudi Arabia, 4, 233 

S-band radio receiver on Viking 2, 184 

SCAMS (scanning microwave spectrometer), 109 

Scandinavian Airlines, 42 

Scanning microwave spectrometer 

(SCAMS), 109 

Scatterometer, 214 

Scherer, Lee R., 12, 67 

Schlesinger, James R., 107, 216, 245 

Schmitt, Harrison H., 164, 186 

Schurmeir, Harris M., 35 

Schweikart, Russell L., 179 

Science, 103, 104, 106, 151, 190, 235, 242 

Science magazine, 11, 13,94, 115, 117, 147, 

148, 163, 196, 250 

Scientists, 86, 87, 198 

Scobee, Francis R., 295 

Scott Air Force Base, Ill., 74 

Scott Air-Pak 4.5, 196 

Scott, David R., 67, 182 

Scout-D launch, 238 

Sea of Galilee, 24% 

Sea-ice, 109, 232 

Sea satellite (SEASAT), 2, 142, 228 

Seamans, Robert C., 6, 49, 213, 220, 221 

Search and rescue, 54-55 

Sears, William R., 36 

SEASAT (specialized experimental appliSeismic pictures of the earth, 50-51 

Selivanov, Arnold, 209 

Serv-Air, Inc., 58 

Servoactuator, 223 

Sevastyanov, Vitaly, 91, 92, 121, 282 

Sever-27, (Soviet high latitude expedition), 

Severny Polyus-22, 218 

Severny Polyus-23, 218, 237 

Sewage, 39, 202 

Seychelles Islands, 207 

Shapley, Willis H., 146, 192 

Shatalov, Vladimir A., 149, 150, 205, 236 

Shearing interferometer, 112 

Shell Oil Company, 99 

Shepard, Alan B., 28, 146 

Ships, 82, 135, 248 

Shirk, Edward K., 166 

Short takeoff and landing (STOL) aircraft, 

54, 116, 167 

Shuttle Orbiter, contracts for, 126 

Siberia, 103, 238 

Siemens AG, West Germany, 130 

Silicon devices, 216 

Silver Spring, Md., 229 

Simonson, S. Christian, 217 

Simulator, communications, 43 

Singer, S. Fred, 247 

Sioux Falls, S.D., 212 

SIR10 (Italy's microwave-propagation comcations satellite) mission, 2, 142, 228 

218 

sat). 44 

Sirius (H;ar), 1% 

SITE (Satellite Instructional Television 

Skin cancer and stratospheric ozone, 27 

Skylab Earth Resources Catalog, 58 

Skylab (program), 10-11, 15, 58, 94, 122, 

Skylab Orbital Workshop, 3, 13, 64, 97, 

Experiment), 87, 130 

141, 143, 191 

125, 161, 168, 179 

Skylab I, 3, 13, 97, 125 

Skylab 2, 74 

Skylab 4, 15, 94, 168, 187 

Skylark (British sounding rocket), 232 

Skynet IIA (U.K. military comsat), 23 

320 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 Index 

32 1 

Skyship dirigible, 99 

Slayton, Donald K., 1, 5, 65, 83, 104, 120, 

121,123, 133, 135,147, 149,168,171- 

172,176, 179,189, 191-192,205,243, 

265, 282 

Slidell Computer Complex, MSFC, 210 

SLX-14 (Soviet launch vehicles), 67, 149 

Small Astronomy Satellite. See SAS. 

Small Magellanic Cloud, 134 

SMF (space manufacturing facility), 250 

Smith, Bruce F., 64 

Smith, James W., 29 

Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory 

(SAO), 283, 285 

Smithsonian Center for Earth and Planetary Studies, 243 

Smithsonian Institution, 128, 159, 179,243 

SMM. See Solar Maximum Mission. 

SMS (Synchronous Meteorological Satellite), 

1, 26 

SMS-B, 1 

sms 1,206 

Sm 2, 25, 206, 254, 277, 278 

Smylie, Robert E., 54, 88, 222 

Snavelv, William W., 193 

Snickers (galaxy), 217 

Snowcover and snow-melt prediction proSnowcover observations, 168, 248-249 

Sochi, U.S.S.R., 192 

Socioeconomic benefits from space systems applications, 142 

Soehardjono, Maj. Geu., 73 

Sol, 111 

Solar array, 105, 240 

Solar cavity, 85 

Solar cells, 80, 108, 208 

Solar collectors, 12-13, 42, 193 

“Solar eclipse” during ASTP, 133 

Solar energy 

&ram, 5 

agriculture, use in, 250 

bibliography, 127 

collector for, 193 

conversion to electric power, 93 

cooling and heating systems, 13,29, 116, 

211, 219, 233 

demonstration mission, 188 

desalination, 233 

generating system, terrestrial, 31 

heating and cooling systems, 13,29, 116, 

211, 219, 233 

plants, two kinds of, 30 

privy, 211 

propulsion, 105 

recording system, terrestrial, 146 

satellite, 161, 250 

thermal energy, 127, 193 

330-unit installation, 219 

transmitted by microwave, 203 

Solar Energy Research Institute, 221 

Solar flares, 73 

Solar Heating and Cooling Demonstration 

Solar heating, 13, 29, 116, 211, 219, 233 

Solar maximum mission (SMM), 14 

Solar noise bursts, 100 

Solar particle problem, 74 

Act of 1974, 21, 211 

Solar power. See Solar energy. 

Solar Radiation and Thermospheric Structure Satellite (Sruts), 35 

Solar system, 14, 134, 168, 232 

Solar radiation, 13 

Solar winds, 52, 85, 105 

Solar x-rays, 118 

Solid-fueled rocket booster (SRB), 57, 102, 

174 

Sound barrier, 69 

Sound-waves diagnostic system, 102 

Sounding rockets, 11, 39, 41, 90, 178, 240, 

283 

SouthAfrica, 207 

South Atlantic Anomaly, 94 

South Dakota, 130 

South Pole, 207, 246 

Southern California, Univ. of, 36 

Soviet Academy of Sciences, 131, 145, 165, 

Soviet Space Program, 1971 -75, 251 

Soviet Scientific Conference, 44 

Soviet Space Research Institute, 44 

Soviet State Research Institute of Engineering Studies, 25 

Soviet Union. See U.S.S.R. 

Soyuz spacecraft (see also ASTP), 59, 65, 

226, 230 

140. 251. 257 I~ I 

Soyuz 10,92 

Soyuz 11, 92 

Soyu 14, 11, 92 

Soyuz 15, 11 

Soyuz 16, 12 

Soyuz 17, 3, 91, 92, 227, 253, 282 

Soyu 18, 91, 121, 126, 227, 260, 282 

SOVUZ 19 IASTP). 1. 131-132, 134, 167, 

’ 251, 2k5, 281, 282 

Soyuz 20, 225, 227, 236, 272 

Space, 47, 150, 180, 205 

Space and Missile Systems Organization 

Space applications, 45, 101, 205 

Space biology and medicine, 4,197-198,214 

Space colony, 250 

Space-environment monitor, 212 

Space flight operations, 45, 101 

Space Launch Complex, 153 

Space law, 165, 213 

Space manufacturing facility (SMF), 250 

%ace objectives and the national interest, 

(SAMSO, USAF), 154, 229 

150 

Space probes, 175, 251 

Space Processing Applications Rocket 

(SPAR), 210, 212, 217 

Space program, national, 146, 226 

Space research, 25, 4.5, 50-51 

Space Science, NASA Office of, 13, 22, 

70. 79 

Space ‘Science and Applications, House 

Space Science Award, 37 

Space Shuttle (see also AMPS; ApolloSoyuz Test Project; Employment, 

NASA; External tank; Launch Processing System; Low Cost Modular 

Spacecraft; MDM; servoactuator; 

Space Shuttle main engine; Space 

Subcommittee on, 223, 224 
Index ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

Space Shuttle-continued 

Shuttle orbiter, Space Tug, Spacelab; SRB), 11,13,34,43,53,67,85,96,113, 

135, 137, 154, 168, 173, 180, 185, 188 

appropriations FY 1976, 45, % 

budget, 21, 42, 101, 224 

construction of facilities, 61, 69, 87-88, 

153-154, 214 

contracts, 7, 14, 34, 69, 84, 85, 93, 105, 

108, 112, 113, 130, 152, 202, 213, 226, 

240 

development status, 19, 34, 222 

economics effects, 78 

fuel, 52 

payloads, 48-49, 78, 142, 204 

press comment, 146 

testing, 15, 63, 189, 198, 213 

tracking and dataacquisition, 11,31, %- 

97, 113, 142, 151 

use, 48, 142 

Space Shuttle main engine (SSME), 105, 

120, 160 

81, 87, 92, 185, 227 

240, 250 

Space Shuttle orbiter, 14,34,38,69,70,78, 

Space station, 149,150,151,203,236,239- 

Space Telescope (project), 236 

Space Transportation System (STS), 222 

“Space truck,” 248 

Space Tug, 14, 139, 201 

Space vehicle, reusable, 149 

Spacecraft, 6, 19, 86, 110, 133, 163 

Spacecraft Design Award (AIAA), 37 

spaceflight (BIS publication), 249 

Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network 

Spacelab (ESA payload for Shuttle), 21,27, 

Spacelab Newsletter, 123 

(STDN), 244 

160, 165, 182 

35-36, 48, 49, 57, 67, 100, 113, 123, 

Spaceplane, 149 

Spaceport News, 5,73,92,94,123,146,182, 

191, 219 

“SDaceshiu Earth” (lecture), 182 

Spkesuit leak, 121 

Spacetrack coverage, 215 

Spain-Mexico satellite link, 122 

SPAR (Space Processing Applications 

Rocket), 210, 217 

Spectrometry, 102 

Spectrophotometer, 228 

Spence, Roderick W., 190 

Sperry Flight Systems, 116, 167 

Sperry Rand Corporation, 69, 130 

Spinning flight, 167 

Spinrad, Hyron, 126 

Sputnik (magazine), 149, 150 

Sputnik 1, 25, 165, 192 

Sputter-deposited materials, 210 

Spy satellites, U.S., 242, 244 

Srats (solar radiation and thermospheric structure) Japanese satellite, 35 

SRB (solid-fueled rocket booster), 57, 102, 

174 

Sret 2 (Satellite de Recherches et d’Environment Technique), 103, 251 

SS (U.S.S.R. missiles) (SSN-6, SS-7, 

SSMJL See Space Shuttle main engine. 

SSN-6 (U.S.S.R. submarine-based rocket), 

SS-8, SS-11, SS-17, SS-19), 167 

167 

218, 247 

SST (supersonic transport), 8, 60, 82, 107, 

St. Louis. Mo.. 191 

St. Louis PostDispatch, 229 

Stafford, Thomas P., 1, 5,65,83, 120, 123, 

132, 133, 135, 147, 149, 168, 178, 189, 

191, 192, 265, 282 

Standardization of weapons in NATO coun- tries, 108 

Standard Parts List, NASA, 239 

Stanford Solar Observatory, 225 

Star City, U.S.S.R., 191-192 

Star Tracker for Economical Long-Life 

Attitude Reference (STELLAR),-l84- 

185 

Starlette (passive geodetic satellite), 27,254 

Stars, 48, 73, 196 

State-Federal liaison, 152 

STDN. See Spaceflight Tracking and Data 

Network. 

Steam plants, 49 

Stecker. Flovd W.. 141 

Steering by gyro, 216 

STELLAR (Star Tracker for Economical 

Long-Life Attitude Reference), 184- 

185 

Stellar fires, 17 

Sterilization, 110, 112, 143 

Stermer, R. L., 243 

Stern, Richard J., 80 

Stever, H. Guyford, 29, 84, 103 

Stirling external combustion engine, 181- 

182 

STOL-(short takeoff and landing) aircraft, 

Storms. See Meteorology. 

Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT), 

54, 116, 167 

lc2, 216 

184. 237 

Stratosphere, 13,21,29,70,144,159,183- 

Streamflow observations, 168 

Strike of aircraft workers, 28-29 

Strom, Robert G., 58 

Structural surveys, 9 

STS. See Space Transportation System. 

Stuhlinger, Ernst, 235 

Stullken, Donald E., 104 

Submarines, 19, 242 

Sullivan, Walter, 1, 27, 158, 231 

Sumerians, 225 

Sun-earth relationship, 118 

Sun (see also solar headings), 10, 19, 118, 

Sundic, Milika, 152 

Sung Dynasty, 186 

Super Arcas (sounding rocket), 90, 284, 

285, 286, 287, 289, 290, 291 

Super Loki (sounding rocket), 90, 237 

Supernovae, 48, 162, 181, 186-187, 232 

Supersonic transport (SST), 8, 60,82, 107, 

224-225, 245 

154, 247 

322 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 Index 

Surueyor (spacecraft), 115 

Suslov, Mikhail, 230 

Sweden, 60, 99 

Symphonie-B, (French-German experiSymphonie I, 23, 177 

Symphonie 2, 177, 251, 267, 277, 279 

Symphonie Project Operations Group, 177 

Synchronous Meteorological Satellite 

(SMS), 1, 25 

Synthetic fuels, 67-68 

Syromyatnikov, Vladimir, 139, 141) 

mental comsat), 2 

T 

T-500s (Paymover tractor), 214 

T&DR (tracking and data relay), 109 

Tuiyo, 251, 255 

Talley, Wilson K., 183 

Tanegashima launch site, Japan, 184 

Tape recorder on Landsat, 222 

Target visibility, 6 

Tass news agency, 91, 99, 100, 105, 218, 

Tau Ceti (star). 73 

226, 230, 241, 244 

Texas Medical Center, 176, 179 

Texas, Univ. of, 205, 289 

Thermal energy, 31, 127, 185 

Thermionic conversion, 131 

Thiokol Corporation, 84 

THIR (temperaturelhumidity infrared 

radiometer), 109 

Thole, John M., 64 

Thom, Kari, :!B 

Thomas, Garland L.. 183 

Thor-Deltalaunch vehkles, 2,8,23,25,44, 

163, 177 

Thoria-dispersed magnesium, 210 

Tiros-N (Television Infrared Operational 

Satellite) spacecraft, 26,208,211,215, 

231 

Tiros 1, 57 

60,62,63, 73, 79, 108, 110, 119, 162- 

Titan-Centaur launch vehicles, 2, 87, 143, 

164, 171, 173, 223 

Titan (Saturn moon), 245 

Today editorial, 172 

Toilets, solar-Dowered. 211 

Titan-Centaur launch vehicles, 2, 87, 143, 

164, 171, 173, 223 

Titan (Saturn moon), 245 

Today editorial, 172 

Toilets. solar-Dowered. 211 

Tokamak (nudlear reactor), 220 

Tokyo Univ., Institute of Space and Aeronautics, 35 

Toronto, 173 

Toxic chemicals, 39 

Tracking and data acquisition, 22,45, 101, 

188 - 189 

Tracking and data relay (T&DR), 109 

Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System 

(TDRSS), 27, 113, 233 

Tracking stations, 21, 130, 201 

Tractor,-towing, 214 

Transit (U.S. Navy navigation system), 179 

Transonic flight, 161, 172 

Transport aircraft, 8, 82, 107 

Transportation, U.S. Department of, 8,27, 

Trella, Massimo, 8, 66 

Trendelenburg, Ernst, 66 

Triad 2 (U.S. Navy satellite), 271 

Trident missile, 19, 23 

Trime thylaluminum , 6 

Tripler Hospital, Hawaii, 147, 149 

Tropical wind-energy conversion and reference level experiment (TWERLE), 109 

Truman, President Harry S, 84, 226 

TRW Company, 43 

TRW Systems Group, 37,43,136,204,221 

Tsibin, Sergei, 144l 

Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin, 137 

Tu-144 (U.S.S.R. supersonic aircraft), 44 

Tulinius, Jan R., 37 

Tunuey, Sen. JohnV., 32, 127, 128, 161 

Tupolev, Aleksey A., 44 

Tupolev- 144 airliner, supersonic, 44, 247 

Turbine technology, 50 

Turbofans, 82 

Turbojet, 82 

TWERLE (tropical wind-energy conversion 

Tyuratam, U.S.S.R., 67 

29, 55, 80 

and reference level experiment), 109 

U 

U-2 (high altitude aircraft), 13, 70, 138, 

UAL. See United Air Lines. 

Ubangi River, Africa, 233 

Uchinoura Space Center, Japan, 35 

Uhuru (Explorer 42), 79 

U.K. (United Kingdom), 23, 60, 93 

Ultrasounct diagnostic systems, 102 

Ultraviolet radiation, 13, 68, 105, 134, 223 

U.N. See United Nations. 

Unemployment of scientists and engineers, 

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. See 

United Air Lines, Inc. (UAL), 2, 42, 218 

United Aircraft Corporation, 4, 36 

United Kingdom. See U.K. 

190, 237 

86 

U.S. S.R. 

323 
Index ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 

324 

United Nations (U.N.) 

ad hoc committee on uses of outer space, 

165 

General Assembly, 231 

Political and Security Committee, 213 

Scientific and Technical Subcommittee 

for the Peaceful Use of Space, 25 

World Meteorological Organization, 139 

United Nations Public Registry of Space 

United States (see U.S.), 68, 121, 158 

United States Air Force (USAF) 

Aero Propulsion Laboratory, 67 

AFSC. See Air Force Systems Command. 

airborne comsat terminal, 29 

Airborne Warning and Control System 

(AWACS), 59 

Avionics Laboratory, 81 

Cambridge Research Laboratories, 6 

comsat failures, 87 

dirigibles, 99 

Flight Dynamics Laboratory, 152 

Flight Test Center, Calif., 10, 24, 27 

hypersonic aircraft, 239 

manned orbiting laboratory, 153 

-NASA joint programs, 293 

nuclear-powered aircraft, 57 

reconnaissance satellites (Big Bird), 67 

satellite communications (AFSATCOM), 

Flights, 251 

43 

Space and Missile Systems Organization 

upper atmosphere experiments, 6 

Ballistic Missile Agency, 125 

Corps of Engineers, 9, 14, 213 

Auxiliary Landing Field, Calif., 167 

combat fighter development, 23 

Naval Observatory, 168 

Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), 94 sixth fleet, 59 

Transit navigation system, 179 

(SAMSO), 154, 229 

United States Army, 71 

United States Navy (USN), 71 

United Technologies Corporation, 81, 162 

Universal Construction Company, 213 

Universe. 19. 178 

Upper atmosphere, 6, 100 

Uranium, 119, 233 

Uranus (planet), 168, 198-199, 235 

Urey, Harold C., 111 

Urinary infections detection, 177 

Urokinase, 4 

Uruguay, 203 

USAF. See United States Air Force. 

USDA. See Agriculture, U.S. Department 

of. 

first mission, 35 

U.S. -European joint venture, Spacelab's 

USGS. See Geological Survey, U.S. 

U.S. -Malagasy agreement on tracking staUSN. See United States Navy. 

U.S. -U.K. cooperative satellite (Ariel 5), 

tion, 129 

- -- 

138 

U.S.-U.S.S.R. cooperation (see also 

Apollo-Soyuz Test Project), 31 -32, 

41, 131, 140, 191-192 

U.S.-West German solar probe (Helios I), 

46 

U.S.S.R. (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics), 24,28,42,44,53,54,70,77,107, 

121, 127, 1%, 168, 204, 222, 234 

missile (see also individual missiles. such as SS-19. SSN-6). 166-167 

satellites and spacecraft (see also individual satellites and spacecraft, such as Cosmos, Intercosmos, Luna, Mars, 

Meteor, Molniya, Salyut, and Soyuz), 

4, 47, 67, 99, 100, 103, 149, 169, 176, 

188, 204, 208, 209 

space program, 81, 102, 130, 149, 218, 001 

LSl 

Ute-Tomahawk rockets, 6 

UV: ultraviolet (radiation). 

V 

VAB: Vehicle Assembly Building (KSC). 

Van Allen radiation belts, 42, 94, 103 

Van Flandern, Thomas C., 168 

Van Reeth, George, 66 

Vandenberg Air Force Base, 29, 64, 153, 

154 

Vanguard 1, 47 

Vatican satellite coverage, 173 

Vecchietti, George J., 59 

Vela (constellation), 181, 225 

Venera spacecraft, 106, 162, 209, 210 

Venera 9, 105, 209, 210, 251, 263 

Venera 10, 105, 209, 210, 251, 263 

Venus (planet; see also Mariner 10, Pioneer-Venus, Venera 9, and Venera 

lo), 49,52,100,101,105,106,113,115, 

127, 144, 162, 183, 209-210, 226 

Vertical Motion Simulator (VMS), 159, 196 

Vertical takeoff and landing aircraft 

Vibration testing of Space Shuttle, 15 

Video inertial pointing (VIP), 214 

Video sensors, 215 

Videp,:ervice by Westar (Western Union), 

(VTOL), 159, 1% 

, 11L 

Vidicon tube, 215 

Viking Data Review Management Center, 

182 

Vikiig:-Mission to Mars, 171 

Viking (program), 8, 21, 113, 143, 160, 

172-173, 174-175 

Viking (spacecraft), 1, 55, 73, 95, 96, 112, 

153, 164, 169-170, 277 

Viking-A spacecraft, 153, 166 

Viking-B spacecraft, 143, 153, 166, 182 

Viking I, 110,169, 170-171,217,223,266, 

279 

Viking-1 lander, 110, 111, 170-171 

Viking 2 lander, 73,94, 184, 217, 220, 267, 

279 

Vinogradov, Alexander P., 226 

VIP (video inertial pointing), 214 

Virginia, Univ. of, 247 

VMS (Vertical Motion Simulator), 159 

Volcanoes on Mars, 175 

Volgograd, U.S.S.R., 192 

Vologda Oblast, U.S.S.R., 39 
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS, 1975 Index 

von Braun, Wernher, 31, 125, 166 von Karman lecture, 35 

Vortices, wake, 80 

VSTOL: vertical or short takeoff and 

VTOL. See Vertical takeoff and landing 

W 

landing. 

aircraft. 

Wake vortices, 80 

Wall Street Journal, 33, 51, 228, 236 

Wallops Flight Center (WFC), 2,22,91,237 

Wallom Island. Va.. 41. 206 

Walvekon, Briksh Columbia, 39 

Washington, D.C., 128, 159, 195 

Washington Post, The, 3, 4, 42, 54, 77, 81, 

96, 102, 126, 127, 131, 136, 137, 157, 

166, 173, 174, 186, 190, 219. 230 

Washington Star, The, 10, 57, 58, 84, 116, 

137, 163, 175, 231, 246 

Water, 37, 44, 90, 142, 177, 179 

Water hyacinths, 39 

Waterman, Alan T., Award, 84 

Wave radiation measurements, 39 

Weapons standardization in NATO, 108 

Weather. See Meteorology. 

Weber Metals and Supply Company, 129 

Weightlessness, 3, 135, 197, 213, 229 

Weinberger, Caspar W., 36 

Weinreb, Marius B., 187 

Weitz, Paul J., 64, 74 

West Germany, 2,4,35, %, 59,60,67,126, 

Westar (Western Union comsat), 4, 136, 

152, 177, 247-248, 277 

159. 241 

Westurj, 112, 136, 164, 228-229 

Westar 2, 112, 136 

Western European Union, 235 

Western Test Ran e (WTR; see also 

Vandenberg AFB, Calif.), 2,8,60, 62, 

108, 162, 238 

Western Union Telegraph Company, 112, 

116, 136, 159, 164, 241 

WFC. See Wallops Flight Center. 

Wheat, 9, 264 

White. Ceoree C.. 47 

WhitiHousg, 60,7103, 190, 205 

White Sands Missile Range (WSMR), 215, 

7A.n 

WfiiiTun of the Desert (fiim), 130 

White, Thomas D., Space Trophy, 187 

Whitlow, John B., 82 

Whitten, Les, 77 

Wicks, Alden, 137 

Wide-bodied jets, 78 

Williams, Walter C., 201-202 

Wdmington, Del., 249 

Wilson, Robert G,, 25 

“Wind Energy Utilization” (bibliography), 

Wjnd tunneI,-67); 73, 152 

Wmfrey, Lee, 142 

Wing-sweep control on 8- 1, JO 

Wingless lifting body, X-24B, 161 

Wingless vehicle, M2-F3, 128 

Winter, David L,, 33, 34, 96, 197 

Wischnia, Herbert F., 113 

Wisconsin, Univ. af, 284, 289 

Witkin, Richard, 181 

Woodfm, Kenneth L., 59 

Woomera Rocket Range, Australia, 232 

Worden, Alfred M., 182 

World Meteorological Organization (U. N.), 

World War 11, 69, 235 

Wren, Christopher S., 225 

Wrieht Brothers Memorial TroDhv. 190 

127 

139 

WSkR. See White Sands Miss& Range. 

WTR. See Western Test Range. 

Wu, Edward K., 149, 236 

Wyeth, Jamie, 137 

Wyld, James H., Propulsion Award, 190 

Wyoming, 168, 187 

Wyoming, Univ. of, 84 

XYZ 

X-1 (NACA-USAF aircraft), 69 

X-ray 

X-24 (lifting body), 161, 172, 194,293 

astronomy, 208 

medical, 51 

Orion constellation, 158 

sensors, 187 

sources, 84, 118, 134, 158, 196 

telescopes, 10, 48, 91 

Yak (U.S.S.R. airliner), 53 

Yakushin, Anatoly, 137 

Yardley, John F., 61, 189, 223, 224 

YC- 15 [short-takeoff-and-landing airYeliseyev, Aleksey S., 81, 222 

Yoshikawa, Tsuneo, 216 

Young. A. Thomas, 110, 111 

Young, John W., 188 

Young, Kenneth A., 37 

Yugoslavia, 152 

Zaire, 38, 203 

Zhukov, G. P., 165 

Zodiacal light, 15, 46 

Zuckerman, Benjamin M., 231 

Zvenigorod, U.S.S.R., 44 

Zvezdny Gorodok, U.S.S.R., 121 

craft), 178 

325 

ERRATA 

In Earlier Volumes of Astronautics and Aeronautics 

Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1967 

p. 65: In second item on March 7, “Impact of Jan. 27 Apollo accident. . . ,” add three 

ellipsis dots at end of first paragraph. Substitute for source at end of item: “(NASA 

Auth. Hearings transcript, pp. 151-2, 186-7)” 

p. 442: Index: Under “Apollo (program)” in left :olumn, substitute “Apollo 6” for 

“Apollo 5” in parentheses after “AS-502. In right column after “Apollo 5,” 

substitute “AS-204, originally AS-206” for “AS-502” in parentheses. 

Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1968 

p. 316: In 4th paragraph, 1st line, change “Sonnett” to “Sonett.” Make corresponding 

p. 355: In Appendix A, 1st column, add two asterisks after Sept. 16, for Zond V. 

change in Index, p. 417, left column. 

Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1969 

p. 64: In 2nd paragraph from bottom, change time of Apollo 9 splashdown to 12:00:53 

p. 376: In 8th line, change “July 21” to “July 20” [using Eastern Standard Time rather 

than Greenwich Mean Time]. 

In paragraph 3, line 4, for “contingency sample” substitute “contingency and 

selected samples.” 

pm EST. 

Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1972 

p. 345: In 13th line from bottom, change identification of Dr. Robert R. Gilruth to “NASA 

p. 148: In paragraph 3, line 3, change liftoff date to April 23. [It was 1:26 am April 24 by 

Director of Key Personnel Development and former MSFC Director.” 

Greenwich Mean Time.] 

Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1973 

p. 432: Index: After Gilliland, Whitney, change “5” to “4.” 

327 

NASA HISTORICAL PUBLICATIONS 

HISTORIES 

* Anderson, Frank W., Jr., orders ofMagnitude: A HistoryofNACA and NASA, 1915- 

Benson, Charles D., and William Barnaby Faherty, Moonport: A History of Apollo 

*Brooks, Courtney G., James M. Grimwood, and Loyd S. Swenson, Chariots for 

* Byers, Bruce K., Destination Moon: A History of the Lunar Orbiter Program, NASA 

* Corliss, William R., NASA Sounding Rockets, 1958-1968: A Historical Summary, 

* Ezell, Edward C. and Linda N., The Partnership: A History of the ApolloSoyuz Test 

* Green, Constance McL., and Milton Lomask, Vanguard: A History, NASA SP-4202, 

* Hacker, Barton C., and James M. Grimwood, On the Shoulders of Titans: A History 

* Hall, R. cargill, Lunar Impact: A History of Project Ranger, NASA SP-4210, 1977, 

Hartman, Edwin P., Adventures in Research: A History of the Ames Research Center, 

* Link, Mae Mills, Space Medicine in Proj6ct Mercury, NASA SP-4003, 1965, NTIS. * Rosholt, Rohert L., An Administrative History of NASA, 1958-1963, NASA SP-4101, 

* Slocp, John L., Liquid Hydrogen as a Propulsion Fuel, 1945-1959, NASA SP-4404, 

* Swe.ison, Loyd S., James M. Grimwood, and Charles C. Alexander, This New Ocean: 

1976, NASA SP-4403, 1976, GPO.* 

Launch Facilities and operations, NASA SP-4204, 1978, GPO. 

Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft, NASA SP-4205, 1979, GPO. 

TM X-3487, 1977, NTIS.? 

NASA SP-4401, 1971, NTIS. 

Project, NASA SP-4209, 1978, GPO. 

1970, GPO; also, Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1971. 

of Project Gemini, NASA SP-4203, 1977, GPO. 

GPO. 

1940-1965, NASA sP-4302, 1970, NTIS. 

1366, NTIS. 

1978, GPO. 

A History of Project Mercury, NASA SP-4201, 1966, GPO. 

REFERENCE WORKS 

* Aeronautics and Space Report of the President, annual volumes for 1975- 1978, GPO. 

The Apollo Spacecraft; A Chronology, NASA SP-4009, vol. 1, 1969, NTIS; vol. 2, 1973, 

GPO; vol. 3, 1976, GPO; vol. 4, 1978, GPO. * Astronautics and Aeronautics: A Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy, 

annual volumes 1961- 1974, with an earlier summary volume, Aeronautics and 

Astronautics, 1915- 1960. Early volumes available from NTIS, recent ones from GPO. * Hall, R. Cargill, ed., Essays on the History of Rocketry and Astronautics: Proceedings 

of the Third through the Sixth History Symposia of the International Academy of 

Astronautics, NASA CP-2014, 2 vol., 1977, GPO. * Roland, Alex F., A Guide to Research in NASA History, HHR-50,3rd ed., Feb. 1979, 

looseleaf, available from NASA History Office, Washington, DC 20546. 

*Skylab: A Chronology, NASA sp-4011, 1977, GPO. * Van Nimmen, Jane, and Leonard C. Bruno, NASA Historical Data Book, 1958-1968, 

*Wells, Helen T., Susan H. Whiteley, and Carrie E. Karegeannes, Origins of NASA 

NASA SP-4012, vol. 1, NASA Resources, 1976, NTIS. 

Names, NASA SP-4402, 1976, GPO. 

*GPO: 

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