Aeronautics and Space Report

of the President

Fiscal Year

2011 Activities
Aeronautics

and

Space Report

of the 

President

Fiscal Year

2011

Activities
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

The National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 

directed the annual Aeronautics and Space Report 

to include a “comprehensive description of the 

programmed activities and the accomplishments 

of all agencies of the United States in the field of 

aeronautics and space activities during the preceding 

calendar year.” In recent years, the reports have 

been prepared on a fiscal-year basis, consistent 

with the budgetary period now used in programs of 

the Federal Government. This year’s report covers 

activities that took place from October 1, 2010, 

through September 30, 2011.
Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

Table of ConTenTs

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 1

•	 Human	Exploration	and	Operations	Mission	Directorate	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	1

Science	Mission	Directorate 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	18

	 Aeronautics	Research	Mission	Directorate 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	35

•

•

Department of Defense 49

Federal Aviation Administration 63

Department of Commerce 71

Department of the Interior 97

Federal Communications Commission 121

U S Department of Agriculture 125

National Science Foundation 137

Department of State 147

Department of Energy 151

Smithsonian Institution 157

Appendices 163 

•	 A-1	U S 	Government	Spacecraft	Record	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 164

A-2	World	Record	of	Space	Launches	Successful	in	

Attaining	Earth	Orbit	or	Beyond 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	165

B	Successful	Launches	to	Orbit	on	U S 	Vehicles	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 166

C	Human	Spaceflights 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	168

D-1A	Space	Activities	of	the	U S 	Government—Historical	Table	of	Budget		

Authority	in	Millions	of	Real-Year	Dollars 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 169

D-1B	Space	Activities	of	the	U S 	Government—Historical	Table	of	Budget		

Authority	in	Millions	of	Inflation-Adjusted	FY	11	Dollars	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 170

D-2	Federal	Space	Activities	Budget 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	171

D-3	Federal	Aeronautics	Activities	Budget 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 172

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Acronyms 173
.
1Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

naTional aeronauTiCs and

spaCe adminisTraTion

NASA

Human Exploration and Operations Mission Directorate

The Human Exploration and Operations (HEO) Mission Directorate was newly 

formed in August 2011. It merged the Exploration Systems and Space Operations 

Mission Directorates, creating an organization dedicated to enabling human and 

robotic space exploration. HEO operates the International Space Station (ISS) 

and is developing technologies and capabilities for human exploration beyond 

low-Earth orbit (LEO). It manages the commercial crew and cargo developmental 

programs, the construction of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle (MPCV), the 

development of a new heavy-lift rocket known as the Space Launch System (SLS), 

launch operations, space communications, rocket propulsion testing, human health 

and safety, and exploration technology development, the last of which enables 

human exploration of deep space.

Space Operations

Space Shuttle/International Space Station

The Space Shuttle flew its final three missions and the last flights of each of the 

three orbiters in fiscal year (FY) 11, capping 32 years of operations and 135 missions by completing the assembly and outfitting of the International Space Station. 

Altogether, these three flights carried nearly 120,000 pounds of hardware, equipment, and supplies to the ISS.
2Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

The ISS began FY 11 with Expedition 25 crewmembers Douglas Wheelock 

(U.S.), Shannon Walker (U.S.), and Fyodor Yurchikhin (Russia) living on board. 

They were joined on October 10, 2010, by Scott Kelly (U.S.), Alexander Kaleri 

(Russia), and Oleg Skripochka (Russia), who launched on a Russian Soyuz rocket 

from Baikonur Cosmodrome, Kazakhstan. A Russian Progress cargo vehicle 

carrying several tons of supplies docked with the ISS on October 30, 2010. On 

November 2, 2010, the ISS program celebrated 10 continuous years of human occu-

pation in low-Earth orbit. On November 15, 2010, Russian crewmembers Fyodor 

Yurchikhin and Oleg Skripochka conducted a spacewalk in Russian Orlan space-

suits, doing maintenance activities and replacing science experiments over the 

course of more than 6 hours on the outside of the Russian segment. On November 

25, 2010, Wheelock, Walker, and Yurchikhin undocked their Soyuz return vehicle 

from the ISS and returned to Earth, landing on the steppes of Kazakhstan and 

ending Expedition 25.

Expedition 26 began on November 25, 2010. Astronaut Kelly (now ISS com-

mander) and cosmonauts Kaleri and Skripochka remained on board and were 

joined by the rest of Expedition 26 on December 17, 2010, when a Russian Soyuz 

vehicle carrying Catherine Coleman (U.S.), Paolo Nespoli (European Space 

Agency [ESA]), and Dmitri Kondratyev (Russia) docked with the ISS. Skripochka 

and Kondratyev conducted two Russian Orlan spacewalks, on January 21, 2011, 

and February 16, 2011, which focused on maintenance on the Russian segment, as 

well as removing and replacing several external science experiments. The Japanese 

H-II Transfer Vehicle-2 (HTV-2) Kounotori berthed to the ISS Node 2 nadir port 

on January 27, 2011, carrying more than 5,300 kilograms of both pressurized and 

unpressurized supplies to the ISS. Due to the arrival of Space Shuttle Discovery, 

the HTV-2 had to be moved to the Node 2 zenith port during Shuttle docked 

operations and then moved back to the nadir port after the Shuttle’s departure. 

The HTV-2 remained at the ISS until March 28, 2011. A Russian Progress vehicle 

docked with the ISS on January 30, 2011, carrying some 2,600 kilograms of cargo. 

On February 24, 2011, the ESA-provided Automated Transfer Vehicle-2 (ATV-2), 

named Johannes Kepler, docked with the ISS, carrying more than 7,000 kilo-

grams of supplies and equipment. The ATV-2 remained at the ISS until June 20, 

2011, when it undocked and then burned up in the atmosphere. February 2011 
3Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

marked the first time that each ISS partner with a flight vehicle had one at the ISS 

at the same time: Space Shuttle, ATV, HTV, Progress, and Soyuz.

The first Space Shuttle flight of the fiscal year, which was the final mission 

of Space Shuttle Discovery, launched on February 24, 2011, following about 

four months of delays due to weather scrubs and technical reviews of a cracked 

stringer on the external tank. STS-133 commander Steve Lindsey; pilot Eric Boe; 

and mission specialists Alvin Drew, Steve Bowen (whose flights on STS-132 and 

STS-133 made him the first American astronaut to fly back-to-back missions), 

Michael Barratt, and Nicole Stott delivered the last U.S. pressurized module (the 

Permanent Multipurpose Module, or PMM) and an external stowage platform 

(the EXpedite the PRocessing of Experiments to the Space Station [EXPRESS] 

Logistics Carrier 4, or ELC 4) to the ISS, as well as equipment and supplies. 

During Discovery’s almost nine days at the Station, Bowen and Drew performed 

two spacewalks for maintenance work and installation of new components. 

Discovery’s visit to the Station was extended by two days so that its crew could 

help outfit the PMM, which previously had served as the reusable Multi-Purpose 

Logistics Module (MPLM) Leonardo. Leonardo had visited the Station seven 

times previously as a cargo carrier before being refurbished to serve as a permanent 2,472-cubic-foot addition to the orbiting laboratory. Among the 6,000 

pounds of Leonardo cargo was Robonaut  2, a human-upper-torso-like robot 

that could be a precursor of devices to help during spacewalks. About 2,000 

pounds of additional cargo for the Station was carried on the Shuttle’s middeck. Space Shuttle Discovery returned to Earth on March 9, 2011, after which 

Discovery began nearly a year of safing activities in preparation for permanent 

display at the National Air and Space Museum’s Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in 

Chantilly, Virginia.

Expedition 26 ended on March 16, 2011, when Kelly, Kaleri, and Skripochka 

left the ISS on their Soyuz vehicle and returned to Earth. Kondratyev, Coleman, 

and Nespoli remained on board to begin Expedition 27, which was joined by Ron 

Garan (U.S.), Andrei Borisenko (Russia), and Aleksandr Samokutyayev (Russia) 

when their Soyuz docked with the ISS on April 6, 2011. On April 12, 2011, the 

crew celebrated the 50th anniversary of the launch of Yuri Gagarin (the first man 

in space) as well as the 30th anniversary of the first launch of the Space Shuttle. 
4Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

A Progress cargo ship carrying approximately 2,600 kilograms of cargo docked with 

the ISS on April 29, 2011, where it remained until October 29, 2011.

Space Shuttle Endeavour began its final mission, STS-134, with a morning 

launch on May 16, 2011. The six-person crew included commander Mark Kelly; 

pilot Gregory H. Johnson; and mission specialists Michael Fincke, Greg Chamitoff, 

Andrew Feustel, and European Space Agency astronaut Roberto Vittori. One of 

Endeavour’s primary mission objectives was the delivery and installation of the 

$2 billion Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer 2 (AMS-02) to the ISS. AMS-02 is a 

particle physics detector designed to search for dark matter and for antimatter, 

which was first proposed by British physicist Paul Dirac in the 1920s. Endeavour 

also delivered spare parts for ensuring continued safe operations of the ISS after 

the Shuttle fleet was retired, including two S-band communication antennas, a 

high-pressure gas tank, and additional spares for the Station’s Special Purpose 

Dexterous Manipulator (SPDM), or Dextre. Endeavour also transferred its Orbiter 

Boom Sensor System (OBSS) to the ISS. Following the loss of Space Shuttle 

Columbia, two OBSS systems were developed from systems similar to those used to 

build the orbiter’s robotic arm; the new systems allowed the orbiters to inspect their 

thermal protection systems to ensure that they could return home safely. As part 

of the crew’s work on the ISS, Shuttle astronauts Feustel, Chamitoff, and Fincke 

conducted the last four extravehicular activities (EVAs) by a Shuttle crew. Mike 

Fincke also surpassed Peggy Whitson’s record for time spent by an American in 

space, logging a total of 382 days in orbit. Endeavour touched down nominally at 

the Kennedy Space Center on June 1, 2011. Afterward, like Discovery, Endeavour 

began a yearlong safing process. Endeavour would eventually be delivered for permanent display at the California Science Center in Los Angeles.

During Endeavour’s docked period, ISS crewmembers Coleman, Kondratyev, and 

Nespoli undocked their Soyuz vehicle for return to Earth, ending Expedition 27. 

This marked the first time that a Soyuz had undocked from the ISS while a Shuttle 

was present. The Soyuz crew conducted a flyaround, capturing the first up-close 

and detailed pictures of a Space Shuttle orbiter docked with the Station.

Expedition 28 began with crewmembers Garan, Borisenko, and Samokutyayev 

watching the departure of Endeavour from the ISS. On June 9, 2011, they were 

joined on the ISS by Mike Fossum (U.S.), Satoshi Furukawa (Japan), and Sergey 
5Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

Volkov (Russia), arriving on a Soyuz vehicle. A Russian Progress vehicle arrived on 

June 21, 2011, carrying food, water, supplies, and scientific research.

The final chapter in the 30-year history of Space Shuttle began on a hot Florida 

morning on July 8, 2011. Space Shuttle Atlantis was prepped and ready for launch, 

but a 70 percent chance of inclement weather made it likely that the launch would 

be postponed. Nevertheless, the countdown proceeded smoothly until a last-minute 

glitch held the clock at T-31 seconds. The issue—whether the gaseous oxygen vent 

arm had fully retracted—was quickly resolved by the experienced team inside the 

Launch Control Center at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida, and the clock 

began counting down the final seconds. Atlantis roared off historic launch pad 

LC-39A at 11:29 a.m. eastern daylight time. The crew of four veteran astronauts 

aboard Atlantis—commander Chris Ferguson, pilot Doug Hurley, and mission specialists Sandy Magnus and Rex Walheim—set off on the STS-135 mission to deliver 

a stockpile of supplies and parts to the ISS. The MPLM Raffaello was berthed to the 

nadir port on the ISS Harmony node, and the Space Shuttle and ISS crews spent 

the next eight days transferring over 11,600 pounds of supplies and equipment. Two 

days after Atlantis arrived at the Station, the only spacewalk during the mission 

was performed—not by Shuttle astronauts, but by two ISS residents who, three 

years earlier, had collaborated on three spacewalks when they were STS-124 Shuttle 

crewmates. Now, as Expedition 28 flight engineers, Fossum and Garan were paired 

again as they spent 6 hours and 31 minutes working outside the Station. Among the 

spacewalkers’ tasks was retrieving the Station’s failed 1,400-pound cooling system 

pump module, which was replaced after it stopped working in 2010. The astronauts 

removed the pump from its temporary storage location and packed it in the Shuttle’s 

cargo bay. Returning the pump to Earth allowed engineers to look into what caused 

its failure and then refurbish it for use as a spare in the future. The pair installed the 

Robotic Refueling Mission experiment, which would test whether remote-controlled 

robots could perform satellite refueling tasks in orbit using commands sent from 

controllers on Earth. The capability is expected to reduce costs and risks and lay 

the foundation for future robotic servicing missions. One week into Atlantis’s mission, President Barack Obama radioed the combined Shuttle and ISS crews to help 

mark the final Shuttle flight. The President told them, “We’re all watching as the 

10 of you work together as a team.” He added, “Your example means so much not 
6Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

just to your fellow Americans, but also your fellow citizens on Earth. The space 

program has always embodied our sense of adventure and explorations and courage.” Ferguson presented the ISS crew with a U.S. flag flown on the first Space 

Shuttle mission, STS-1. The flag will remain displayed on board the ISS until the 

next crew launched from the United States retrieves it for return to Earth so that 

it can be carried by the first crew launched from the United States on a journey 

of exploration beyond Earth orbit. Weather on landing day proved more predictable than it was for launch, and Mission Control in Houston gave the STS-135 

astronauts the “go” for a deorbit burn that would bring them home on their 200th 

orbit of Earth. At 5:57 a.m. on July 21, Space Shuttle Atlantis dropped out of the 

predawn darkness and landed at Kennedy’s Shuttle Landing Facility Runway 15. 

Caught in the last seconds by the brilliant xenon lights, a Space Shuttle rolled to a 

stop for the final time. But Atlantis’s work was not complete. Like her sister ships, 

Atlantis began the process of being safed of hazardous materials and prepared for 

permanent display only a few miles from where all American crewed space missions 

were launched, in a new exhibit at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex.

On August 3, 2011, Expedition 28 crewmembers Volkov and Samokutyayev con-

ducted a Russian Orlan spacewalk outside the Russian segment. The pair performed 

a variety of maintenance and documentary activities and began relocating a Strela 

cargo boom from one docking compartment to another. On September 16, 2011, 

Garan, Borisenko, and Samokutyayev returned to Earth in their Soyuz descent 

vehicle, marking the end of Expedition 28 and the beginning of Expedition 29.

Launch Services

The first launch for the Launch Services Program (LSP) in FY 11 was the Glory 

climate observatory mission launching on an Orbital Sciences Corporation Taurus 

XL launch vehicle on March 4, 2011. Unfortunately, the mission did not achieve 

orbit due to the Taurus XL’s payload fairing’s failure to separate from the launch 

vehicle. LSP then went on to conduct four successful launches of four NASA mis-

sions during FY 11. LSP launched NASA’s Aquarius instrument into low-Earth 

orbit aboard the Space Agency of Argentina’s (Comisión Nacional de Actividades 

Espaciales, or CONAE) Satelite de Aplicaciones Cientificas-D (SAC-D) spacecraft 

on June 10 and launched Juno toward its path to Jupiter on August 5. The Gravity 
7Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

Recovery and Interior Laboratory (GRAIL) mission, designed to increase knowledge of Earth’s moon, launched on September 10. LSP also continued to provide 

launch-related systems engineering, launch integration, and mission design and 

analysis support to approximately 35 NASA-sponsored missions in various phases 

of development. To find out more about these and other NASA science missions, 

see the Science Mission Directorate section in this report.

Working to expand the selection of launch vehicles, LSP is working across the 

launch vehicle industry to support the emergence of a U.S. commercial space sector by providing competitive opportunities to U.S. commercial launch providers. 

In FY 11, LSP executed a procurement that allows new providers to be added and 

existing providers to “on-ramp” (put on contract) additional launch vehicles within 

an existing contract. In September 2011, LSP modified its NASA Launch Services 

(NLS) II contract with United Launch Services (ULS) of Littleton, Colorado, to 

add the Delta II rocket launch service in accordance with the contract’s on-ramp 

provision. This modification will enable ULS to offer as many as five Delta II rockets for future NASA missions. Two other on-ramp proposals for additional launch 

vehicles were still under evaluation at the end of FY 11.

In FY 2011, Launch Services was also active on the launch-policy front. 

Efforts resulted in the development and signing of two major agreements with 

our Government Expendable Launch Vehicle (ELV) partners (i.e., the U.S. Air 

Force and the National Reconnaissance Office) that included a Memorandum of 

Understanding (MOU) on Evolved ELV (EELV) acquisition coordination, as well 

as an MOU on cooperative investments in launch range infrastructure.

Lastly, LSP actively supported the Taurus XL T9 Mishap Investigation Board 

(MIB) that is reviewing the cause for the March 4, 2011, launch failure of the 

Orbital Sciences Corporation Taurus XL launch vehicle. At the end of FY 11, the 

MIB was still ongoing. A Corrective Action Plan (CAP) will be developed and 

executed upon completion of the investigation.

In 2010, the Rocket Propulsion Test (RPT) Program continued to facilitate the 

Agency’s ability to safely test rocket propulsion systems for NASA and the Nation 

by focusing its energies and limited resources on key needs. To ensure that the 

appropriate rocket test capabilities were understood, the RPT Program maintained 

close coordination with the Space Shuttle Program, the Exploration Systems 
8Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Mission Directorate, and the Department of Defense. Additionally, Stennis Space 

Center’s Test Operations Contract (TOC) completed its final contract period in 

August 2010. To accommodate the competitive process and cover the transition 

from the old to a new TOC contract, a six-month extension was granted through 

the end of February 2011.

Space Communications and Navigation

In FY 11, NASA’s Space Communications and Navigation (SCaN) Program 

Office focused on the critical sustainability and development of the ground and 

space components of the networks that provide space communications for NASA’s 

missions. The three networks—the Near Earth Network (NEN), the Space 

Network’s (SN) Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS), and the Deep 

Space Network (DSN)—continued to meet the space communications needs, such 

as Earth monitoring and support of deep space exploration missions, of a wide 

range of customers, both internal and external to NASA.

In FY 11, SCaN maintained at least 99 percent proficiency of all of its networks, 

providing communication and navigation services to 29 spacecraft using the DSN, 

35 spacecraft using the SN, and 33 spacecraft using the NEN. The Near Earth 

Network also provided communication and navigation services to 33 launches during launch and early orbit phases.

The Deep Space Network is an international network of antennas that sup-

ports interplanetary spacecraft missions and radio and radar astronomy observa-

tions for the exploration of the solar system and the universe. The network also 

supports selected Earth-orbiting missions. The Space Network consists of a space 

segment, composed of TDRSS, and a ground segment, which includes the White 

Sands Complex and the Guam Remote Ground Terminal. Data from the satellites 

are downlinked to the ground segment. Using antenna assets located around the 

world, the Near Earth Network provides tracking, telemetry, and communications 

services for orbital missions and, occasionally, suborbital missions.

SCaN continued the sustaining and engineering of its aging networks, includ-

ing the completion of upgrades to the NEN assets at McMurdo Ground Station 

in Antarctica. The Deep Space Network Aperture Enhancement project broke 

ground for adding 34-meter (110.5-foot) antennas at the Canberra Deep Space 
9Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

Communications Complex in Canberra, Australia. The program also made significant progress in technology development. The Communication, Navigation and 

Networking re-Configurable Testbed (CoNNeCT) made significant progress and 

was readied for System Acceptance Review in early FY 12.

SCaN completed some key milestones for its development projects during FY 11:

•	

•	

The Space Network Ground Segment Sustainment project completed its 

System Requirements Review (SRR). The goal of the project is to implement a flexible and extensible ground segment that will allow the Space 

Network to maintain the high level of service in the future and accommodate new users and capabilities while reducing the effort required to 

operate and maintain the system. The SRR examines the functional and 

performance requirements defined for the system and the preliminary 

project plan and ensures that the requirements and the selected concept 

will satisfy the needs of the Space Network.

The Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS) project completed its System 

Integration Review (SIR) for the TDRS K satellite, which will become part 

of the space segment of the Space Network. The SIR evaluates the readiness 

of the project to start flight system assembly, testing, and launch operations.

Exploration Systems

FY 11 saw the continued transition for NASA’s Exploration Systems Mission 

Directorate (ESMD) as NASA continued the development of the next generation of space vehicles to support human exploration beyond low-Earth orbit. The 

President’s FY 11 budget continued recently initiated activities to develop the capabilities to send humans to a near-Earth asteroid and other development activities.

Advanced Capabilities Division

The Advanced Capabilities Division (ACD) is responsible for pursuing innovative knowledge and technology to reduce operational risks and costs associated 

with NASA’s current and future exploration systems. ACD manages three programs: the Human Research Program, the Exploration Technology Development 

Program, and the Lunar Precursor Robotics Program. These programs focus on 
10Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

high-priority activities, such as conducting basic research in life and physical sci-

ences, meeting technology requirements for long-duration spaceflight, and develop-

ing robotic missions as precursors for future human missions.

Human Research Program

The Human Research Program (HRP) supported NASA’s exploration goals by 

investigating and mitigating risks to astronaut health and performance during 

exploration missions. Risks include physiological effects from radiation, reduced 

gravity and microgravity, and terrestrial environments, as well as unique challenges 

in medical support, human factors, and behavioral health support. HRP has devel-

oped the Human Research Roadmap Web site for communicating the program’s 

integrated approach and research activities needed to address these risks (see http://

humanresearchroadmap.nasa.gov/).

In FY 11, HRP made extensive use of the ISS to perform research on maintain-

ing human health and performance during and after long-duration spaceflight. 

HRP flew 11 major medical experiments to evaluate the immune system and other 

human health areas to make exploration missions healthier, safer, and more pro-

ductive. HRP also added new ISS biomedical capabilities, including the secondgeneration ultrasound for medical imaging, the Urine Monitoring System, and 

the jointly developed ESA-NASA Muscle Atrophy Research and Exercise System. 

Additionally, HRP developed programmable lighting to aid in astronaut adaptation 

to the work, rest, and sleep cycle while living on the ISS. For summaries of HRP 

ISS experiments spanning FY 11, see Expeditions 25–26 (September 2010 through 

March 2011) and Expeditions 27–28 (March 2011 through September 2011) at the 

following ISS Program Web site: http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/

experiments/experiments_by_expedition.html.

During the fiscal year, the program also delivered significant research products 

that will help take human space explorers far beyond low-Earth orbit, including an 

update to the space radiation cancer risk model that predicts the lifetime cancer 

health risk from exposure to deep space radiation—a vital tool in planning safe 

exploration missions. The updated model was delivered to the Space Studies Board 

of the National Academies for assessment to identify any gaps in NASA’s approach 

to protecting astronauts from the effects of space radiation. Additionally, under 
11Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

the leadership of HRP, NASA collaborated with ESA in January 2011 to develop 

and deploy a highly successful international outreach program called “Mission 

X,” which brought together 14 space agencies and various partner institutions to 

work together to address health and fitness education for young people around 

the globe.

Finally, HRP released two NASA Research Announcements (NRAs) in FY 11 

to engage the national biomedical research community: the Space Radiobiology 

NRA to address space radiation health effects and the Joint NASA and National 

Space Biomedical Research Institute’s NRA on Crew Health and Performance in 

Space Exploration Missions to solicit innovative research addressing risks identified 

in NASA’s human research roadmap.

Exploration Technology Development Program

In FY 11, the Exploration Technology Development Program (ETDP) tested a 

breadboard portable life-support system for an advanced spacesuit in the laboratory. This system incorporated new technology components for spacesuit thermal 

control, pressure regulation, and carbon dioxide removal. Advanced spacesuits 

with greater mobility, operational flexibility, and extravehicular activity duration 

are needed to replace the aging spacesuits used on the ISS and to enable the exploration of planetary surfaces.

In a desert field test, the program tested a mock-up habitat that included an 

airlock, a hygiene module, crew workstations, modules for growing plants, and an 

inflatable loft to provide greater living space. The test allowed designers to evaluate 

different habitat subsystems and configurations for a future deep space habitat in 

which the crew would live and work on missions lasting over a year.

The program delivered a radiation assessment detector for launch on the Mars 

Science Laboratory mission. This detector will measure the interplanetary radiation environment during the trip to Mars, as well as the radiation on the planet’s 

surface. Characterizing the Mars radiation environment will increase our understanding of the risks that future human explorers will face and will help us to 

develop more effective countermeasures and radiation shielding.

In order to simulate asteroid mission operations, the program conducted the 

NASA Extreme Environment Mission Operations (NEEMO) underwater test. 
12Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Divers in spacesuits demonstrated various methods of anchoring to and translating 

across the surface of an asteroid in low gravity. A submersible simulated a crew 

excursion vehicle that flies around the asteroid. Such early testing of prototype 

systems and validation of operational concepts in analog tests helps to reduce mis-

sion risk and cost.

The humanlike Robonaut 2 hardware was launched to the ISS on STS-133. 

The 330-pound Robonaut 2 consists of a head and a torso with two arms and 

two dexterous hands. Engineers monitored how it operated in near microgravity 

with the objective of using it as a robotic assistant that can work alongside the 

crew. Currently, Robonaut is confined to operations in the ISS Destiny laboratory. 

Future enhancements and modifications may allow it to move more freely around 

the interior or outside the complex.

In support of future technology activities, ETDP issued broad agency announce-

ments for cryogenic propellant storage and transfer and solar electric propulsion 

mission concept studies. NASA selected four companies to perform cryogenic pro-

pellant storage and transfer mission concept studies and five companies to perform 

solar electric propulsion mission concept studies. The concept studies will test and 

validate key capabilities and technologies required for future exploration elements 

such as large cryogenic propulsion stages, propellant depots, and high-power solar 

electric tugs.

Lunar Precursor Robotic Program

NASA created the Lunar Precursor Robotic Program (LPRP) to execute precursor robotic missions to support planned human missions to the moon, making the 

program critical to the Constellation Program’s efforts. The goal of these robotic 

missions was to gather data essential for reducing risks to astronauts, identify 

resources and landing sites, and refine the requirements for lunar surface hard-

ware. With the shift from lunar exploration to an advanced capabilities framework, 

the program was phased out in FY 11, culminating in the transfer of the Lunar 

Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) to the Science Mission Directorate.

Launched in June 2009, LRO operated flawlessly throughout FY 11, contributing 

to a range of discoveries that enhanced researchers’ understanding of the moon. 

The LRO spacecraft provided data for high-resolution mapping of the moon, 
13Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

conducted investigations on lunar radiation and thermal environments, and identified lunar resource availability. In October 2009, the Lunar CRater Observation 

and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS), a spacecraft comanifested with LRO, impacted 

a permanently shadowed crater at the lunar South Pole to investigate the possible 

presence of water and other volatiles. LRO imagery provided unprecedented highresolution topography of the moon, while LCROSS data identified the presence 

of water and a variety of volatiles on the lunar surface. These two missions, with 

the data from previous NASA and international missions, have revolutionized our 

understanding of lunar volatiles and the geologic history of the moon. After its 

transition to NASA’s Science Mission Directorate at the end of FY 10, the LRO 

mission has continued to operate flawlessly.

Another key component of LPRP was the Lunar Mapping and Modeling Project 

(LMMP), an initiative to ensure that results of precursor robotic missions are accessible to lunar exploration planners. LMMP data are accessed through a single, common 

NASA portal designed for convenient dissemination of lunar mapping and modeling 

data, products, and tools. The Web portal went live for public access in early FY 11 

and provides public access to, among other products, LRO lunar images and maps.

Constellation Program and Its Relevance to SLS and MPCV

In moving forward, NASA is committed to meeting the goals and requirements 

of the NASA Authorization Act of 2010 by developing an affordable, sustainable, 

and realistic next-generation human spaceflight system that will enable human 

exploration, scientific discovery, broad commercial benefits, and inspiration missions that are in the best interest of the Nation. NASA is working to build a bridge 

between the past and the future by transitioning previous and ongoing development work, best practices, and lessons learned from the Constellation Program to 

the SLS and MPCV Programs and by transitioning and leveraging hardware and 

technology investments wherever possible.

Through April 2011, NASA spent $13.1 billion on the Constellation Program. 

That amount includes money spent on labor, infrastructure, acquisition, and testing of hardware elements and software systems, among other things. Much of what 

Constellation has accomplished is indeed transferable to the SLS and MPCV programs, not just in terms of hardware, validated requirements, and infrastructure 
14Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

elements, but also in terms of less tangible items such as knowledge and experience 

gained by our team with the Constellation systems being developed. Therefore, as 

NASA works to close out the Constellation Program, we are also taking care to 

capture and build upon program accomplishments, especially those technologies 

that have a high likelihood of feeding into the SLS and MPCV programs. From 

the beginning, the Constellation Program used electronic records and a centralized 

database to capture and manage all data, risks, and knowledge learned, includ-

ing information from test flights, hardware and software tests, and programmatic 

reviews. Therefore, there is a wealth of information that the program will be able 

to pass on to future human spaceflight developers, including those at NASA and 

those in the U.S. aerospace industry, when allowable by law. Since completing the 

technical portion of the program-level Preliminary Design Review (PDR) in March 

2010, and after previously having completed the project-level PDRs for Ares and 

Orion in 2008 and 2009 respectively, the program has been working to finalize its 

technical library, thus ensuring that historical data from Constellation work are 

documented, preserved, and made accessible to future human spaceflight designers.

The Constellation Program enabled us to relearn how to build a crew launch 

system, beginning from the earliest stages of viewgraphs and Tradespace and 

advancing through multiple key project review checkpoints and ultimately to 

the point where NASA, along with its industry partners, had built hardware and 

integrated systems that were used on two major test flights, the Ares I-X flight and 

the Pad Abort 1 (PA-1) flight for the Orion Launch Abort System (LAS)—both 

of which resulted in substantial data that will be of great use to the MPCV and 

SLS programs. Additionally, the Constellation Program allowed us to incorporate 

new engineering models, technologies, and testing methods that will certainly 

become the norm as we move forward with SLS and MPCV. Historically speaking, during the Apollo era, NASA had comparatively little experience with inflight aborts and limited computational capability. Today, however, flight tests 

are being combined with advanced simulation tools and advanced computers, 

thereby allowing NASA to conduct a more thorough analysis of hardware and 

software elements and operating processes. The Orion integrated abort system’s 

effectiveness can now be calculated using computer models of the blast environ-

ment by employing more realistic, physics-based simulations of abort conditions 
15Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

with remarkable speed and accuracy, given NASA’s evolved engineering expertise 

and the computational power of modern computers. In comparison, during the 

Apollo era, abort effectiveness was estimated by comparison to escapes from highperformance military aircraft combined with the results of a few escape system 

tests. In fact, our current computer modeling scenarios are so accurate that we 

were able to forgo more expensive ground tests in some cases. We expect this 

trend to continue with the SLS and MPCV whenever possible, without sacrificing 

safety. For example, designing the Ares I allowed NASA to make an important 

technology leap in the design process by transitioning from a 2D, paper-based 

vehicle design and verification process to a 3D model-based design environment. 

NASA was able to gain valuable experience with a state-of-the-art design system 

that can reduce costs while also increasing system reliability—benefits that will 

feed into the SLS.

It is also important to note that there are Constellation technologies that are 

transferable to the U.S. aerospace industry. For example, one of NASA’s commercial cargo partners, Space Exploration Technologies, has already incorporated 

Orion’s Thermal Protection System and its parachute development technologies 

into the company’s Dragon capsule, which successfully launched last year.

Over the past year, NASA continued to implement the Constellation Program 

and associated projects while prioritizing Constellation funding on work that was 

most related to the SLS and the MPCV, thus maximizing the effective use of taxpayer dollars.

The Ares project has worked closely with the SLS planning team to focus its 

development efforts on technologies and processes that could be utilized in the 

eventual SLS configuration. These include vehicle avionics, J-2X engine testing, 

first stage engine testing (development motor-3) and installation of upper stage 

tooling applicable to large-diameter tanks. At the same time, Ares deferred activities that were highly vehicle-configuration dependent, including a ground-vibration 

test article and the design of upper stage component hardware, such as the reaction 

control system.

The Orion project has focused its development efforts on crew safety, targeting 

an orbital test flight, Exploration Flight Test (EFT-1), in December 2014 to validate 

10 of the top 13 analyzed crew safety risks in the real flight environment—risks 
16Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

primarily in the areas of entry, descent, and landing. At the same time, Orion 

deferred efforts in areas posing relatively small risk to crew safety, such as life sup-

port, communications, crew-support systems, and the LAS. NASA has deferred 

further work on the LAS for the near term because it is ahead of other Orion 

systems in its design and testing phases.

The extravehicular activity (EVA) project has coordinated with Orion to focus 

its development efforts on suit architecture trades in light of the new beyond-LEO 

mission timetable, including a modified Advanced Crew Escape System (Shuttle 

launch and entry suit) that has been part of a launch and entry suit trade study. 

Concurrently, the project has deferred efforts on beyond-LEO suit design and com-

monality with the launch and entry suit.

Exploration Ground Systems has coordinated with the SLS team and focused 

its ground operations work on items that would most likely be needed by heavy-lift 

launches—including improvements to launch pad construction, launch control cen-

ter construction at JSC, and crawler overhauls. (The crawler is the vehicle that trans-

ports a launch vehicle stack from an integration building to the launch site.) Also, 

Ground Operations deferred Vehicle Assembly Building modifications at Kennedy 

Space Center (KSC) until the dimensions of the new heavy-lift vehicle are known.

Mission Operations has coordinated with the Orion project to focus its efforts 

on activities required for general human spaceflight mission support, with efforts 

concentrated on the mission control center and training systems. Efforts have also 

been deferred on highly configuration-dependent activities such as a high-fidelity 

Orion mockup or docking adapter trainer.

Currently, NASA is finalizing its Constellation Transition Plan, which will 

provide the framework for moving ahead on the SLS and MPCV. NASA has pro-

curement teams who are mapping SLS requirements (those outlined in the NASA 

Authorization Act of 2010, which are under development) against the Ares con-

tracts to determine if the new requirements fit the scope of the existing contracts. 

For the SLS, NASA is reviewing each element of Ares (first stage, upper stage, 

upper stage J-2X engine, and avionics) to determine whether the new SLS require-

ments are within the scope of the current contract. For the MPCV, NASA recently 

announced that the Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle and its associated contract 

would be used for at least the development phase of the MPCV.
17Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

Commercial Crew Development

NASA Awards Second Round of Commercial Crew Development Awards

To further stimulate efforts within the private sector for the development and 

demonstration of safe, reliable, and cost-effective space transportation capabilities, 

NASA awarded approximately $270 million to four commercial companies in April 

2011 and approximately $46 million in September 2011 in optional milestones.

This investment by NASA continues and expands the 2009 Commercial Crew 

Development (CCDev) initiative in which NASA used American Recovery and 

Reinvestment Act funds to develop and demonstrate human spaceflight capabilities. Through this new effort, CCDev2, NASA’s commercial partners will further 

advance commercial crew space transportation system concepts, maturing the 

design and development of system elements such as launch vehicles and spacecraft. 

These investments will spur economic growth as capabilities for new, cost-effective 

space markets are created. NASA and the Nation will benefit from a reduced gap 

in U.S. human spaceflight capability.

For the second round of agreements, proposals selected were as follows:

•	 Blue Origin: $22 million. The company is developing a space vehicle 

design for their biconic New Shepard spacecraft, designed to take off and 

land vertically.

Sierra Nevada Corporation: $80 million. Sierra Nevada is designing a lifting body called Dream Chaser.

Space Exploration Technologies (SpaceX): $75 million. SpaceX plans 

to use the award to develop an escape system for a crewed version of its 

Dragon capsule, an uncrewed version of which has already flown.

The Boeing Company: $92.3 million. Boeing will continue development 

of the CST-100 crew capsule, including maturation of the design and integration of the capsule with a launch vehicle.

•	

•	

•	

Setting Requirements for Commercial Services

During the fiscal year, NASA has been developing the acquisition strategy 

and long-term planning for investment in end-to-end commercial crew transportation capabilities. In December 2010, NASA released the Commercial Crew 
18Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Transportation System requirements for NASA low-Earth orbit missions, which 

provide a consolidated set of requirements, standards, and processes that will be 

applied to the certification of a specific commercial crew transportation system for 

low-Earth orbit missions.

NASA developed a series of documents to communicate roles and responsibili-

ties, technical management processes supporting certification, crew transportation 

system and ISS services requirements, ISS interface requirements, and the applica-

tion of technical and operations standards for potential commercial partners. Over 

the year, these documents have been reviewed within NASA and by members of 

the industry. NASA’s overarching strategy for the development of these documents 

is to ensure that the requirements meet NASA safety and performance standards, 

but the strategy is not overly prescriptive and allows commercial industry maxi-

mum flexibility to develop safe, reliable, and cost-effective human space transporta-

tion systems.

Commercial Spaceflight

The Commercial Spaceflight Theme creates incentives for commercial provid-

ers to develop and operate safe, reliable, and affordable commercial systems to 

transport crew and cargo to and from the ISS and LEO. This approach will sup-

ply assured access to the ISS, strengthen America’s space industry, and provide 

a catalyst for future business ventures to capitalize on affordable access to space. 

Programs include Commercial Cargo and Commercial Crew.

Science Mission Directorate

NASA’s Science Mission Directorate (SMD) conducts scientific exploration 

enabled by the use of space observatories and space probes that view Earth from 

space, observe and visit other bodies in the solar system, and peer out into our 

galaxy and beyond. NASA’s science program seeks answers to profound questions 

that touch us all: How and why are Earth’s climate and environment changing? 

How and why does the sun vary and affect Earth and the rest of the solar system? 

How do planets and life originate? How does the universe work, and what are its 

origin and destiny? Are we alone?
19Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

SMD has five program divisions: Astrophysics, Planetary Science, Heliophysics, 

Earth Science, and the Joint Agency Satellite Division. SMD also has a James 

Webb Space Telescope (JWST) program office. In FY 11, SMD successfully 

launched three new space and Earth science missions designed to improve our 

understanding of the Earth system and the history of the solar system. NASA’s 

science vision is to achieve a deep scientific understanding of our planet, other 

planets and solar system bodies, our star system in its entirety, and the universe 

beyond. SMD lays the intellectual foundation for the robotic and human expeditions of the future while meeting today’s needs for scientific information to address 

national concerns on climate change, space weather, and education.

Planetary Division

NASA extends humankind’s virtual presence throughout the solar system via 

robotic space probes to other planets and their moons, to asteroids and comets, 

and to icy bodies of the outer solar system. SMD is completing humankind’s first 

basic reconnaissance of the solar system by sending one mission to fly by Pluto and 

another to arrive at the asteroid Ceres in 2015; the latter mission visited one of the 

largest asteroids in our solar system—Vesta—in 2011. SMD is also in the midst of a 

large-scale investigation of Mars, with an ever-more-capable set of orbiters, landers, 

and rovers exploring the planet; the long-term goal is a sample return mission. 

Further, SMD is focusing on certain moons of the giant planets where current 

NASA missions see intriguing signs of surface activity and of liquid water within, 

knowing that on Earth, where there is water and an energy source, there is also life.

On October 21, 2010, nearly a year after announcing the discovery of water 

molecules on the moon, scientists revealed new data from NASA’s Lunar CRater 

Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS) and Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter 

(LRO) that confirmed the discovery. The missions found evidence that the lunar 

soil within shadowy craters was rich in materials and that the moon was chemically 

active and had a water cycle.

On November 4, 2010, NASA’s EPOXI mission spacecraft successfully flew past comet Hartley 2. EPOXI was an extended mission that 

used the already-in-flight Deep Impact spacecraft to conduct its new 
20Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

mission. Images from the EPOXI mission revealed comet Hartley 2 to have 

100 times less volume than comet Tempel  1, the first target of Deep Impact. 

Initial estimates indicated that the spacecraft was about 435 miles from the comet 

at its closest approach.

On December 14, 2010, NASA’s Cassini spacecraft found possible ice volcanoes 

on Saturn’s moon Titan that were similar in shape to those on Earth that spew 

molten rock. Topography and surface composition data had enabled scientists to 

make the best case yet in the outer solar system for an Earth-like volcano landform 

that erupted in ice. Scientists debated for years whether ice volcanoes, also called 

cryovolcanoes, existed on ice-rich moons and, if they did, what their characteristics 

were. The working definition assumed that some kind of subterranean geological 

activity warmed the cold environment enough to melt part of the satellite’s interior 

and sent slushy ice or other materials through an opening in the surface. Volcanoes 

on Jupiter’s moon Io and on Earth spew silicate lava. But when such flows were 

spotted on Titan in the past, theories explained them as nonvolcanic processes, 

such as rivers depositing sediment. At Sotra, however, cryovolcanism was the best 

explanation for two peaks more than 3,000 feet high with deep volcanic craters 

and fingerlike flows. Data from Cassini’s visual and infrared mapping spectrometer 

revealed that the lobed flows had a composition different from that of the surround-

ing surface. Cassini launched on October 15, 1997, and began orbiting Saturn in 

2004. Saturn has more than 60 known moons, with Titan being the largest.

On December 15, 2010, NASA’s Mars Odyssey, which had launched in 2001, 

broke the record for longest-serving spacecraft at the Red Planet. The probe began 

its 3,340th day in Martian orbit at 8:55 p.m. EST to break the record set by NASA’s 

Mars Global Surveyor, which orbited Mars from 1997 to 2006. Odyssey’s longev-

ity has enabled continued science, including the monitoring of seasonal changes 

on Mars from year to year and the most detailed maps ever made of the planet. 

Odyssey also served as a communication relay, handling most of the data sent home 

by NASA’s Phoenix lander and Mars Exploration Rovers (Spirit and Opportunity). 

Odyssey became the middle link for continuous observation of Martian weather by 

NASA’s Mars Global Surveyor and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO). 

Odyssey will support the 2012 landing of the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL)/

Curiosity and surface operations of that mission.
21Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

On February 15, 2011, the Stardust-NExT (New Exploration of Tempel 1) mission observed surface features on Comet Tempel 1 that had changed in areas previously seen during the 2005 Deep Impact mission, imaged new terrain, and viewed 

the crater generated when the Deep Impact mission propelled an impactor at the 

comet. The images also showed that the comet has a fragile and weak nucleus. 

The spacecraft made its closest approach to comet Tempel 1 on February 14 at a 

distance of approximately 111 miles. It also accumulated data about the dust in 

Tempel 1’s coma.

On March 15, 2011, NASA’s LRO team released the final set of data from the 

mission’s exploration phase along with the first measurements from its new life as a 

science satellite. With this fifth release of data, striking new images and maps were 

added to the already comprehensive collection of raw lunar data and high-level 

products, including mosaic images, that LRO made possible. The spacecraft’s seven 

instruments delivered more than 192 terabytes of data with an unprecedented level 

of detail. LRO’s Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment provided new data relating to the moon’s surface. These included maps of visual and infrared brightness, 

temperature, rock abundance, nighttime soil temperature, and surface mineralogy.

On March 18, 2011, NASA’s MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, 

GEochemistry, and Ranging (MESSENGER) spacecraft successfully achieved 

orbit around Mercury. This marked the first time a spacecraft had accomplished 

this engineering and scientific milestone at our solar system’s innermost planet. 

MESSENGER continues to gather data about Mercury, including the recent discovery that water ice exists in permanently shaded areas at the planet’s poles.

On May 21, 2011, new data analysis from NASA’s Galileo spacecraft revealed 

a subsurface ocean of molten or partially molten magma beneath the surface of 

Jupiter’s volcanic moon Io. The finding heralded the first direct confirmation of 

this kind of magma layer on Io and explained why the moon was the most volcanic 

object known in the solar system. Io produces about 100 times more lava each year 

than all the volcanoes on Earth. Before Galileo’s findings, NASA’s Voyager spacecraft discovered Io’s volcanoes in 1979, making that moon the only body in the 

solar system other than Earth known to have active magma volcanoes. The energy 

for the volcanic activity came from the squeezing and stretching of the moon by 

Jupiter’s gravity as Io orbited the largest planet in the solar system. Galileo was 
22Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

launched in 1989 and began orbiting Jupiter in 1995. After a successful mission, the 

spacecraft intentionally was sent into Jupiter’s atmosphere in 2003.

On July 17, 2011, NASA’s Dawn spacecraft became the first probe ever to enter 

orbit around an object in the main asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. Dawn 

studied the asteroid, named Vesta, for a year before departing for a second destina-

tion, a dwarf planet named Ceres, in July 2012. Observations provided unprec-

edented data to help scientists understand the earliest chapter of our solar system. 

The spacecraft relayed information to confirm that it had entered Vesta’s orbit. 

The asteroid’s mass determined the strength of its gravitational pull. With Dawn 

now in orbit, the science team took more accurate measurements of Vesta’s grav-

ity and gathered more accurate timeline information. Dawn, which launched in 

September 2007, was on track to become the first spacecraft to orbit two solar 

system destinations beyond Earth.

On August 4, 2011, observations from NASA’s MRO revealed possible flowing 

water during the warmest months on Mars. Dark, fingerlike features appeared and 

extended down some Martian slopes during late spring through summer, faded in 

winter, and returned during the next spring. Repeated observations tracked the 

seasonal changes in these recurring features on several steep slopes in the middle 

latitudes of Mars’s southern hemisphere. Some aspects of the observations puzzled 

researchers, but flows of liquid brine (salty water) fit the features’ characteristics 

better than alternate hypotheses. Sites with active flows got warm enough, even 

in the shallow subsurface, to sustain liquid water that was about as salty as Earth’s 

oceans, while pure water would freeze at the observed temperatures. The features 

imaged were only about 0.5 to 5 yards or meters wide, with lengths of up to hun-

dreds of yards. The width was much narrower than those of previously reported 

gullies on Martian slopes. However, some of those locations displayed more than 

1,000 individual flows. Also, although gullies were abundant on cold, pole-facing 

slopes, these dark flows were on warmer, equator-facing slopes. These results were 

the closest scientists had come to finding evidence of liquid water on the planet’s 

surface. Frozen water, however, was detected near the surface in the mid- to highlatitude regions. Fresh-looking gullies suggested slope movements in geologically 

recent times, perhaps aided by water. Purported droplets of brine also appeared 

on struts of the Phoenix Mars Lander. If further study of the recurring dark flows 
23Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

supported evidence of brines, these could be the first known Martian locations 

with liquid water.

On August 5, 2011, NASA’s solar-powered Juno spacecraft lifted off from Cape 

Canaveral Air Force Station to begin a five-year journey to Jupiter. Juno’s detailed 

study of the largest planet in our solar system might reveal Jupiter’s origin and 

evolution. As the archetype of gas giants, Jupiter could help scientists understand 

the origin of our solar system and learn more about planetary systems around other 

stars. The spacecraft would orbit the planet’s poles 33 times and use its collection 

of eight science instruments to probe beneath the gas giant’s obscuring cloud cover 

to learn more about its origins, structure, atmosphere, and magnetosphere; it would 

also look for a potential solid planetary core. With four large moons and many 

smaller moons, Jupiter could form its own miniature solar system. Its composition 

resembles a star’s, and if it had been about 80 times more massive, the planet could 

have become a star instead.

On September 10, 2011, NASA’s twin lunar Gravity Recovery and Interior 

Laboratory (GRAIL) spacecraft lifted off from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station 

in Florida to study Earth’s moon in unprecedented detail. GRAIL-A reached 

the moon on New Year’s Eve 2011, while GRAIL-B arrived on New Year’s Day 

2012. The two solar-powered spacecraft flew in tandem orbits around the moon 

to measure its gravity field. GRAIL answered long-standing questions about the 

moon and gave scientists a better understanding of how Earth and other rocky 

planets in the solar system formed. The straight-line distance from Earth to the 

moon is approximately 250,000 miles (402,336 kilometers). NASA’s Apollo moon 

crews needed approximately three days to cover that distance. However, each 

spacecraft took approximately 3.5 months and covered more than 2.5 million 

miles (4 million kilometers) to arrive. This low-energy trajectory resulted in the 

longer travel time.

Earth Science Division

From space, NASA satellites can view Earth as a planet and enable its study as 

a complex, dynamic system with diverse components: oceans, atmosphere, continents, ice sheets, and life itself. The Nation’s scientific community can thereby 
24Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

observe and track global-scale changes, connecting cause to effects; study regional 

changes in their global context; and observe the role that human civilization plays 

as a force of change. Through partnerships with agencies that maintain forecast 

and decision-support systems, NASA improves national capabilities to predict 

climate change, weather, and natural hazards; manage resources; and craft envi-

ronmental policy.

On March 4, 2011, NASA’s Glory mission launched from Vandenberg Air Force 

Base in California but failed to reach orbit due to a launch-vehicle failure. The 

spacecraft separation was supposed to occur 13 minutes after launch. If the Glory 

mission had successfully launched, data from the mission would have allowed 

scientists to better understand how the sun and tiny atmospheric particles called 

aerosols affect Earth’s climate.

On March 14, 2011, researchers and flight crew arrived in Thule, Greenland, for 

the start of NASA’s 2011 Operation IceBridge, an airborne mission to study changes 

in Arctic polar ice. This year’s plans included surveys of Canadian ice caps and 

expanded international collaboration. The state of Earth’s polar ice sheets, glaciers, 

and sea ice is an important indicator of climate change and plays a key role in 

regulating global climate. With IceBridge, NASA is pushing ahead with its com-

mitment to keep an eye on changes to polar ice to better understand the effects of 

climate change. Since 2009, Operation IceBridge has flown annual campaigns over 

the Arctic starting in March and over Antarctica starting in October. The missions 

extend the multi-year record of ice elevation measurements made by NASA’s Ice, 

Cloud, and land Elevation Satellite (ICESat), which stopped collecting data in 2009, 

until the upcoming ICESat-2 launches in 2016. ICESat-2 will use a micro-pulse multibeam approach. This approach will provide dense cross-track sampling to resolve surface slope on an orbit basis and improve lead detection for sea ice freeboard estimates.

On June 10, 2011, NASA’s Aquarius/SAC-D observatory rocketed into space 

from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California. The SAC-D observatory is a col-

laboration between NASA and Argentina’s space agency, Comisión Nacional 

de Actividades Espaciales (CONAE). Aquarius is providing NASA’s first space 

observations of the salinity, or concentration of salt, at the ocean surface, a key 

missing variable in satellite studies of Earth. Variations in salinity influence deep 

ocean circulation, trace the path of freshwater around our planet, and help drive 
25Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

Earth’s climate. In addition to Aquarius, the observatory carries seven instruments that monitor natural hazards and collect a broad range of environmental 

data. Other mission partners include Brazil, Canada, France, and Italy. Aquarius 

is mapping the global open ocean once every seven days for at least three years 

with a resolution of 93 miles (150 kilometers). The maps show how ocean surface 

salinity changes each month, season, and year. Aquarius measures salinity by 

sensing thermal microwave emissions from the water’s surface with three microwave instruments called radiometers. Because salinity levels in the open ocean 

vary by only about 5 parts per 1,000, Aquarius is able to detect changes as small 

as approximately 2 parts per 10,000, equivalent to about one-eighth of a teaspoon 

of salt in a gallon of water.

On June 23, 2011, two NASA research airplanes flew over the BaltimoreWashington region and northeast Maryland as part of a mission to enhance 

the capability of satellites to measure ground-level air quality from space. The 

campaign was called DISCOVER-AQ, which stood for Deriving Information on 

Surface conditions from COlumn and VERtically resolved observations relevant 

to Air Quality. It was one of the five Earth Venture class of investigations selected 

in 2010 as part of NASA’s Earth System Science Pathfinder Program. These targeted science investigations complemented NASA’s larger research missions. A 

fundamental challenge for spaceborne instruments monitoring air quality was 

to distinguish between pollution high in the atmosphere and pollution near the 

surface where people live. The new NASA field campaign made measurements 

from aircraft in combination with ground-based observation sites to help scientists better understand how to observe ground-level pollution from space in the 

future. A fleet of Earth-observing satellites called the Afternoon Constellation, 

or “A-train,” passed over the DISCOVER-AQ study area each day in the early 

afternoon. The satellites’ data, especially from the Aqua and Aura spacecraft, 

gave scientists the opportunity to compare the view from space with that from 

the ground and aircraft. The combined scientific resources made DISCOVER-AQ 

a rare opportunity for air-quality researchers.

Following the mission’s first campaign in summer 2010, scientists embarked from 

Alaska on June 25, 2011, on the second and final NASA campaign to study how 

changing conditions in the Arctic affect the ocean’s chemistry and ecosystems. 
26Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

The Impacts of Climate on EcoSystems and Chemistry of the Arctic Pacific 

Environment (ICESCAPE) mission resumed its shipborne investigation of the 

impacts of climate change in the Chukchi and Beaufort seas along Alaska’s western 

and northern coasts. Research teams departed from Dutch Harbor, Alaska, and 

boarded the U.S. Coast Guard Cutter Healy. The field campaign took 47 scientists 

for five weeks to the Arctic Ocean, where a variety of instruments were used on 

board the Healy and deployed into the ocean and on the sea ice. The second year 

of sampling sought to find year-to-year differences and provided data for new lines 

of investigation. Combined observations from the field and from NASA satellites 

were critical to understanding the Arctic, where the signals of climate change were 

amplified. The accelerated decline of Arctic sea ice extent and thickness exem-

plified this trend, and scientists wanted to know how this change affected other 

ocean processes and marine life. Phytoplankton, microscopic organisms found in 

watery environments, was a key focus of the campaign. They formed the base of the 

aquatic food web, participated in cycling Earth’s carbon between the atmosphere 

and the ocean, and were susceptible to climate change. NASA monitored changes 

in phytoplankton from space worldwide with the Moderate Resolution Imaging 

Spectroradiometer instrument on the Aqua satellite and the Sea-viewing Wide 

Field-of-view Sensor, which ended observations in 2010.

Heliophysics Division

Our solar system is governed by the sun, a main-sequence star midway through 

its life. The sun’s influence is wielded through its gravity, radiation, solar wind, 

and magnetic fields as they interact with the masses, fields, and atmospheres of 

planetary and small bodies. Through the eyes of multiple spacecraft, the scientific 

community sees the solar system as a “heliosphere,” another kind of interconnected 

system with diverse components. Using a fleet of sensors on various spacecraft in 

Earth orbit and throughout the solar system, SMD seeks to understand how and 

why the sun varies, how planetary systems respond, and how human activities are 

affected. The science of heliophysics enables the space weather predictions neces-

sary to safeguard the outward journeys of human and robotic explorers.
27Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

On June 9, 2011, observations from NASA’s Voyager spacecraft, humanity’s 

farthest deep space sentinels, suggested that the edge of our solar system might 

not be smooth, but filled with a turbulent sea of magnetic bubbles. While using a 

new computer model to analyze Voyager data, scientists found that the sun’s distant magnetic field was made up of bubbles approximately 100 million miles wide. 

The bubbles were created when magnetic field lines reorganized. The new model 

suggested that the field lines were broken up into self-contained structures disconnected from the solar magnetic field. The Voyager spacecraft, more than nine 

billion miles away from Earth, was traveling in a boundary region. In that area, the 

solar wind and magnetic field were affected by material expelled from other stars 

in our corner of the Milky Way Galaxy. Understanding the structure of the sun’s 

magnetic field allows scientists to explain how galactic cosmic rays enter our solar 

system and helps define how the star interacts with the rest of the galaxy.

On July 19, 2011, two small NASA probes were orbiting the moon to study 

its interior and surface composition. The spacecraft, called Acceleration, 

Reconnection, Turbulence and Electrodynamics of the Moon’s Interaction with 

the Sun (ARTEMIS), began their journey away from Earth’s orbit in July 2009. The 

ARTEMIS mission was made possible by repurposing two spacecraft. The spacecraft were part of NASA’s Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions 

during Substorms (THEMIS) mission, launched in 2007, which consisted of five 

identical spacecraft that studied the magnetic environment around Earth, the 

aurora, and how these were affected by the sun. The first spacecraft entered lunar 

orbit on June 27, and the second on July 17. Engineers used complex orbit maneuvers to relocate the spacecraft to their new locations. The journey required many 

gravity-assists from the moon and Earth and used minimal amounts of fuel. The 

probes approached the moon’s surface to within 60 miles every orbit. The data 

provided scientists with new information about the moon’s internal structure. Both 

spacecraft were previously in areas called the Lagrangian points, areas on either 

side of the moon where the moon and Earth’s gravity balance perfectly. These 

locations were ideal spots to study Earth’s distant magnetic field and how the solar 

wind, made up of ionized gas known as plasma, flew past the moon and tried to fill 

in the vacuum on the other side.
28Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

On August 18, 2011, NASA spacecraft observations and new data-processing 

techniques were giving scientists better insight into the evolution and develop-

ment of solar storms that could damage satellites, disrupt communications, and 

cause power grid failures on Earth. The solar storms, called Coronal Mass Ejections 

(CMEs), were being observed from NASA’s twin Solar TErrestrial RElations 

Observatory (STEREO) spacecraft, launched in 2006. The duo represented a key 

component within a fleet of NASA spacecraft that enhanced the capability to 

predict solar storms. Previous spacecraft imagery did not clearly show the structure 

of a solar disturbance as it traveled toward Earth. As a result, forecasters had to 

estimate when storms would arrive without knowing the details of how they evolve 

and grow. New processing techniques used on STEREO data allowed scientists 

to see how solar eruptions developed into space storms as they reached Earth. 

CMEs are billion-ton clouds of solar plasma launched by the same sun explosions 

that spark solar flares. When they sweep past Earth, they cause auroras, radiation 

storms that disrupt sensitive electronics on satellites, and in extreme cases, power 

outages. Better tracking of these plasma clouds and the ability to predict their 

arrival are important parts of space weather forecasting. The spacecraft’s wideangle cameras captured the images. They detected ordinary sunlight scattered by 

free-floating electrons in plasma clouds. These observations could pinpoint not 

only the arrival time of the CME, but also its mass. The brightness of the cloud 

enabled researchers to calculate the cloud’s gas density throughout the structure 

and compare it to direct measurements by other NASA spacecraft. When this 

technique was applied to future storms, forecasters were able to say with confidence 

whether Earth was about to be hit by a small or large cloud and where on the sun 

the material originated.

On September 7, 2011, NASA’s Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) provided 

scientists with new information indicating an increase in strength and longevity 

in solar flares that was more than previously thought. Solar flares are intense bursts 

of radiation from the release of magnetic energy associated with sunspots. They are 

the solar system’s largest explosive events and are seen as bright areas on the sun. 

Their energy can reach Earth’s atmosphere and affect operations of Earth-orbiting 

communication and navigation satellites. Using SDO’s EUV (extreme ultraviolet) 

Variability Experiment (EVE) instrument, scientists observed that radiation from 
29Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

solar flares continues for up to 5 hours beyond the main phase. SDO provided 

images 10 times clearer than high-definition television and more comprehensive 

science data faster than any solar observing spacecraft in history.

Astrophysics Division

Some of the greatest minds of the last century discovered wondrous things 

about our universe: the Big Bang and black holes, dark matter and dark energy, 

and the interrelated nature of space and time. Their theories challenge scientists 

and NASA to use observations from space to test the limits of our understanding 

of fundamental physics. Having measured the age of the universe, the scientific 

community now seeks to explore its ultimate extremes: its birth, the edges of space 

and time near black holes, and the mysterious dark energy filling the entire universe. Scientists also seek to understand the relationship between the smallest of 

subatomic particles and the vast expanse of the cosmos. With hundreds of planets around other stars now known, scientists are using current NASA missions 

in conjunction with ground-based telescopes to seek Earth-like planets in other 

solar systems.

On October 6, 2010, after nine years of scanning the sky, NASA’s Wilkinson 

Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) space mission concluded its observations 

of the cosmic microwave background, the oldest light in the universe. The spacecraft had not only given scientists their best look at this remnant glow but also 

established the scientific model that described the history and structure of the universe. WMAP was designed to provide a more detailed look at subtle temperature 

differences in the cosmic microwave background that were first detected in 1992 by 

NASA’s Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE). WMAP is in the Guinness World 

Records for “most accurate measure of the age of the universe.”

On November 15, 2010, astronomers using NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory 

found evidence of the youngest black hole known to exist in our cosmic neighborhood. The 30-year-old black hole provided a unique opportunity to watch this 

type of object develop from infancy. The black hole could help scientists better 

understand how massive stars explode, which ones leave behind black holes or 

neutron stars, and how many black holes there are in our galaxy and others. The 
30Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

30-year-old object was a remnant of SN 1979C, a supernova in the galaxy M100 

approximately 50 million light-years from Earth.

On December 15, 2010, NASA’s scientific balloon program resumed flights 

after an extensive evaluation of its safety processes following a mishap during an 

earlier launch attempt from Australia in 2010. NASA’s high-altitude balloons fly 

instruments for scientific and technological investigations that contribute to our 

understanding of Earth, the solar system, and the universe. NASA’s scientific bal-

loons are composed of a lightweight polyethylene film that is similar to sandwich 

wrap. Flying to altitudes of nearly 25 miles, many of the balloons inflate to almost 

the size of a football stadium and carry payloads weighing up to 6,000 pounds. In 

October 2010, a NASA mishap review board listed 25 causes that contributed to 

the accident, including insufficient risk analysis, contingency planning, personnel 

training, Government oversight, and public safety accommodations. To prepare for 

the resumption of flights, NASA developed a corrective action plan to address the 

recommendations from the mishap review.

On January 11, 2011, the Planck mission released a new data catalog from initial 

maps of the entire sky. The catalog included thousands of never-before-seen dusty 

cocoons where stars were forming, along with some of the most massive clusters 

of galaxies ever observed. Planck is a European Space Agency (ESA) mission with 

significant contributions from NASA. Planck launched in May 2009 on a mission 

to detect light from just a few hundred thousand years after the Big Bang, an explo-

sive event at the dawn of the universe approximately 13.7 billion years ago. The 

spacecraft’s state-of-the-art detectors surveyed the whole sky at least four times, 

measuring the cosmic microwave background, or radiation left over from the Big 

Bang. The data helped scientists decipher clues about the evolution, fate, and fabric 

of our universe. Similarly, the Herschel Space Observatory, on February 6, 2011, 

revealed how much dark matter it took to form a new galaxy bursting with stars. 

Herschel is also an ESA mission supported with important NASA contributions. 

Herschel’s findings were a key step in understanding how dark matter, an invisible 

substance permeating our universe, contributed to the birth of massive galaxies in 

the early universe.

On January 26, 2011, astronomers pushed NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope to 

its limits by finding what is likely to be the most distant object ever seen in the 
31Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

universe. The object’s light traveled 13.2 billion years to reach Hubble, roughly 150 

million years longer than the previous record holder. The tiny, dim object was a 

compact galaxy of blue stars that existed 480 million years after the Big Bang. More 

than 100 such mini-galaxies would be needed to make up our Milky Way. The new 

research offered surprising evidence that the rate of star birth in the early universe 

grew dramatically, increasing by about a factor of 10 from 480 million years to 650 

million years after the Big Bang. As with a developing embryo, astronomers knew 

there must have been an early period of rapid changes that would set the initial 

conditions to make the universe of galaxies what it is today.

On April 6, 2011, NASA’s Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy 

(SOFIA) completed its first science flight using the German REceiver for 

Astronomy at Terahertz Frequencies (GREAT) scientific instrument. GREAT is 

a high-resolution, far-infrared spectrometer that finely divides and sorts light into 

component wavelengths for detailed analysis. SOFIA is the world’s largest airborne 

observatory. It is a joint program between NASA and the German Aerospace 

Center (DLR). The observatory is a heavily modified Boeing 747SP aircraft carrying a reflecting telescope with an effective diameter of 100 inches. Flying at 

altitudes between 39,000 and 45,000 feet, above the water vapor in Earth’s lower 

atmosphere that blocks most infrared radiation from celestial sources, SOFIA conducts astronomical observations not possible with ground-based telescopes. Among 

its targets were IC 342, a spiral galaxy located 11 million light-years from Earth in 

the constellation Camelopardalis (“The Giraffe”), and the Omega Nebula (known 

as M17), 5,000 light-years away in Sagittarius. The team captured and analyzed 

radiation from ionized carbon atoms and carbon monoxide molecules to probe the 

chemical reactions, motions of matter, and flows of energy occurring in interstellar 

clouds. Astronomers had evidence that such clouds in both IC 342 and M17 were 

forming numerous massive stars. GREAT focused on strong far-infrared emissions 

from interstellar clouds that cooled the clouds. The balance between heating and 

cooling processes regulates the temperature of the interstellar material and controls 

initial conditions for the formation of new stars.

On April 12, 2011, the famous Crab Nebula supernova remnant erupted in an 

enormous flare five times more powerful than any flare previously seen from the 

object. NASA’s Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope first detected the outburst, 
32Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

which lasted six days. The nebula was the wreckage of an exploded star that emitted light, which reached Earth in the year 1054. It was located 6,500 light-years 

away in the constellation Taurus. At the heart of an expanding gas cloud lies what 

is left of the original star’s core, a superdense neutron star that spins 30 times 

a second. Based on the rise and fall of gamma rays during the April outbursts, 

scientists estimated that the size of the emitting region must be comparable in size 

to the solar system.

On April 20, 2011, to celebrate the 21st anniversary of the Hubble Space 

Telescope’s deployment into space, astronomers at the Space Telescope Science 

Institute in Baltimore, Maryland, pointed Hubble’s eye at an especially photogenic 

pair of interacting galaxies called Arp 273. The newly released Hubble image showed 

a large spiral galaxy, known as UGC 1810, with a disk that was distorted into a roselike shape by the gravitational tidal pull of the companion galaxy near it, known as 

UGC 1813. The image showed a tenuous tidal bridge of material between the two 

galaxies that were separated from each other by tens of thousands of light-years.

On May 3, 2011, NASA’s Gravity Probe B (GP-B) mission confirmed two key 

predictions derived from Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity, which the 

spacecraft was designed to test. The experiment, launched in 2004, used four ultraprecise gyroscopes to measure the hypothesized geodetic effect, the warping of 

space and time around a gravitational body, and frame-dragging, the amount a 

spinning object pulls space and time with it as it rotates. GP-B was one of the 

longest-running projects in NASA history, with Agency involvement starting in 

the fall of 1963 with initial funding to develop a relativity gyroscope experiment. 

Innovations enabled by GP-B had been used in Global Positioning System (GPS) 

technologies that allowed airplanes to land unaided. Additional GP-B technologies 

were applied to NASA’s Cosmic Background Explorer mission, which accurately 

determined the universe’s background radiation. That measurement was the underpinning of the Big Bang theory and led to the Nobel Prize for NASA physicist 

John Mather.

On May 26, 2011, NASA’s Spitzer Space Telescope observed that tiny crystals 

of a green mineral called olivine were falling down like rain on a burgeoning star. 

This was the first time such crystals had been observed in the dusty clouds of 

gas that collapsed around forming stars. Spitzer’s infrared detectors spotted the 
33Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

crystal rain around a distant, sunlike embryonic star, or proto-star, referred to as 

HOPS-68, in the constellation Orion. The crystals were in the form of forsterite. 

They belonged to the olivine family of silicate minerals and could be found everywhere from a peridot gemstone to the green sand beaches of Hawaii to remote 

galaxies. Forsterite crystals had been spotted before in the swirling planet-forming 

disks that surround young stars. The discovery of the crystals in the outer collapsing cloud of a proto-star was surprising because of the cloud’s cold temperatures, 

about minus 280 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 170 degrees Celsius), whereas they 

are formed in regions at temperatures of 1,300 degrees Fahrenheit (700 degrees 

Celsius). This led the team of astronomers to speculate that the jets might in fact 

be transporting the cooked-up crystals to the chilly outer cloud.

On July 27, 2011, astronomers studying observations taken by NASA’s Widefield Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) mission discovered the first known “Trojan” 

asteroid orbiting the sun along with Earth. Trojans are asteroids that share an orbit 

with a planet near stable points in front of or behind the planet. Because they 

constantly lead or follow in the same orbit as the planet, they never collide with it. 

In our solar system, Trojans also share orbits with Neptune, Mars, and Jupiter. Two 

of Saturn’s moons share orbits with Trojans. Scientists had predicted that Earth 

should have Trojans, but they are difficult to find because they are relatively small 

and appear near the sun from Earth’s point of view. The WISE telescope scanned 

the entire sky in infrared light from January 2010 to February 2011. Scientists 

began their search for an Earth Trojan using data from NEOWISE, an addition to 

the WISE mission that focused in part on near-Earth objects (NEOs), such as asteroids and comets. The NEOWISE project observed more than 155,000 asteroids in 

the main belt between Mars and Jupiter and more than 500 NEOs, discovering 132 

that were previously unknown. The team’s hunt resulted in two Trojan candidates. 

One, called 2010 TK7, was confirmed as an Earth Trojan after followup observations with the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope on Mauna Kea in Hawaii.

On September 15, 2011, the existence of a world with a double sunset, as portrayed in the film Star Wars more than 30 years ago, was proven as a scientific fact. 

NASA’s Kepler mission made the first unambiguous detection of a circumbinary 

planet—a planet orbiting two stars—200 light-years from Earth. Unlike Star Wars’

Tatooine, the planet was cold, gaseous, and not thought to harbor life, but its 
34Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

discovery demonstrated the diversity of planets in our galaxy. Previous research 

had hinted at the existence of circumbinary planets, but clear confirmation proved 

elusive. Kepler detected such a planet, known as Kepler-16b, by observing transits, 

during which the brightness of a parent star dims when the planet crosses in front 

of it. Kepler was the first NASA mission capable of finding Earth-size planets in 

or near the “habitable zone,” the region in a planetary system where liquid water 

could exist on the surface of the orbiting planet. Scientists detected the new planet 

in the Kepler-16 system, a pair of orbiting stars that eclipsed each other from our 

vantage point on Earth. When the smaller star partially blocked the larger star, a 

primary eclipse occurred, and a secondary eclipse occurred when the smaller star 

occulted, or completely blocked, the larger star. Astronomers further observed that 

the brightness of the system dipped even when the stars were not eclipsing one 

another, hinting at a third body. The additional dimming in brightness events, 

called the tertiary and quaternary eclipses, reappeared at irregular intervals of 

time, indicating that the stars were in different positions in their orbit each time 

the third body passed. This showed that the third body was circling not just one, 

but both, stars in a wide circumbinary orbit.

James Webb Space Telescope Program

The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) will be a large, infrared-optimized 

space telescope. JWST will discover the first galaxies that formed in the early uni-

verse, connecting the Big Bang to our Milky Way Galaxy. JWST will peer through 

dusty clouds to see stars forming planetary systems, connecting the Milky Way 

Galaxy to our own solar system. JWST’s instruments will be designed to work pri-

marily in the infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum, with some capacity 

in the visible range.

On September 13, 2011, JWST reached a major milestone in its development. 

The mirrors finished undergoing the coating process at Quantum Coating, Inc., 

in Moorestown, New Jersey. The Webb telescope has 21 mirrors, with 18 mirror 

segments working together as one large 21.3-foot (6.5-meter) primary mirror. The 

mirror segments are made of beryllium, which was selected for its stiffness, light 

weight, and stability at cryogenic temperatures. Bare beryllium is not very reflective 
35Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

of near-infrared light, so each mirror was coated with a microscopically thin layer 

of gold, selected for its ability to properly reflect infrared light from the mirrors into 

the observatory’s science instruments. The coating will allow the Webb telescope’s 

“infrared eyes” to observe extremely faint objects in infrared light. The last fullsize (4.9-foot/1.5-meter) hexagonal beryllium primary mirror segment was coated, 

completing this stage of mirror production.

Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate

Aviation is an integral part of our daily lives, a critical part of the Nation’s economy, 

and a source of strength in the global market. Airlines in the United States transport 

over one million people daily, but during peak travel times, the air traffic and airport systems in the United States are stretched to capacity. Environmental concerns, 

such as aircraft noise and emissions, limit increased operations and the expansion of 

airports and runways. Technological superiority is a key enabler for the U.S. industry to continue in its position as the world leader in the aviation sector, which has 

been bringing a positive trade balance of over $40 billion per year. The critical challenge—and opportunity—facing the U.S. aviation industry is to retain this leadership 

in a growing, complex, and increasingly global market through the infusion of new 

technology. NASA’s aeronautics research portfolio is the Nation’s most comprehensive civil aeronautics research and development effort. While improving the safety 

of the system that is already the safest mode of transportation, NASA’s Aeronautics 

Research Mission Directorate (ARMD) works to solve these critical challenges that 

affect the Nation’s air transportation system and limit growth of the economy.

ARMD’s four research programs—Aviation Safety, Airspace Systems, 

Fundamental Aeronautics, and Integrated Systems Research—conduct cuttingedge research at the fundamental and integrated systems levels to address these 

national challenges. This research supports current and emerging applications, as 

well as revolutionary concepts and technologies that could one day change the 

face of air transportation. ARMD’s research is also enabled by its Aeronautics 

Test Program, which provides critical support to NASA’s ground and flight test 

infrastructure needs. The Aeronautics Test Program manages and makes strategic 

investments in the NASA-owned state-of-the-art ground test facilities and flight 
36Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

research assets to ensure ready access for NASA programs, other Federal agencies, 

and the private sector to test and evaluate research concepts and technologies.

ARMD’s research portfolio is well aligned with the principles, goals, and objec-

tives of the National Aeronautics Research and Development Policy and Plan and 

directly supports the development of the Next Generation Air Transportation 

System (NextGen), a national initiative to transform America’s air traffic control 

system from an aging ground-based system to a satellite-based system. NextGen 

technology will provide advanced levels of automated support to air navigation service providers and aircraft operators, thereby permitting controllers to monitor and 

manage aircraft with greater safety margins and enabling shortened routes for time 

and fuel savings, reduced traffic delays, and increased capacity. This transformation 

has the aim of reducing gridlock, both in the sky and at airports.

ARMD’s partnerships with other Federal agencies, academia, and industry 

are critical to our ability to expand the boundaries of aeronautical knowledge 

for the benefit of the Nation. These partnerships foster a collaborative research 

environment in which ideas and knowledge are exchanged across all communi-

ties and help to ensure the future competitiveness of the Nation’s aviation indus-

try. As a member agency of the multi-agency Joint Planning and Development 

Office (JPDO), NASA, along with partner Federal agencies including the Federal 

Aviation Administration (FAA) and the Department of Defense (DOD), plans and 

coordinates the development of concepts and technologies required for NextGen. 

Through the research conducted in-house and sponsored with academia and indus-

try, ARMD helps to develop the technology that enables continuous innovation in 

aviation. U.S. companies are well positioned to build on discoveries and knowledge 

resulting from NASA research, turning them into commercial products benefit-

ing the quality of life for our citizens, providing new high-quality engineering and 

manufacturing job opportunities, and enabling the United States to remain com-

petitive in the global economy.

Results from ARMD’s fundamental research into high-efficiency, low-emissions 

combustion and light, high-temperature materials for jet engines from the 1990s 

and early 2000s have been incorporated by U.S. jet engine manufacturers Pratt & 

Whitney (P&W) and General Electric (GE) in their next-generation aircraft 

engines. The P&W Geared Turbofan (GTF) engine and the GE LEAP-X (leading 
37Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

edge aviation propulsion) engines feature a reduction of more than 15 percent 

in fuel burn and harmful emissions, and these competitive edges enabled P&W 

and GE to dominate the two global engine replacement programs: the Boeing 737 

MAX and the Airbus A320NEO. In the case of P&W, all new Bombardier C-Series 

and Mitsubishi Regional Jets selected the GTF engine as their launch product. As 

noted in the May 30, 2011, issue of Time magazine, job creation associated with the 

P&W GTF engine is estimated to be in the hundreds of jobs per year in the highpaying manufacturing sector. The same competitive edges that these engines present in decreased fuel burn, reduced emissions, and lower noise will directly benefit 

the flying public and communities adjacent to the Nation’s airports and will help to 

ensure the long-term viability of the U.S. air transportation system. By addressing a 

current problem and making a timely transfer of the needed technology, NASA is 

helping the FAA realize NextGen benefits through near-term applications.

ARMD collaborates with universities for conducting cutting-edge, fundamental 

research with built-in support for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics 

(STEM) education. For example, ARMD’s NASA Research Announcements represent a significant investment in university research, which encourages participating 

undergraduate and graduate students to work with NASA researchers and its industry partners. The NASA Aeronautics Scholarship Program provides tuition support 

and pays for student recipients to spend a summer working with NASA researchers 

at NASA research centers. These direct interactions and hands-on experiences have 

been helping to inspire students to pursue future careers in the STEM professions.

NASA pursues very challenging and high-payoff aeronautics research goals to 

bring about revolutionary advancement, not incremental improvement, in technologies and concepts. With inherently high-risk research, the potential for not 

meeting any specific research metric is always present. NASA is still committed 

to performing such research and seeks to ensure that our research—even in those 

cases where the intended results are not achieved—provides valuable knowledge. 

We mitigate these risks by making certain that NASA’s work is relevant to national 

needs, closely coordinating and collaborating with external partners, and ensuring 

technical excellence and rigorous technical and program management.

During FY 11, the ARMD programs made significant progress toward their 

research goals. Specific examples from each program are provided below.
38Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Aviation Safety Program

The extremely high safety record of the National Airspace System (NAS) is a 

credit to the ongoing vigilance of operators, manufacturers, and regulators and 

past investments in technology. But even with very low accident rates, the United 

States always strives to improve this record, and NASA contributes to this con-

tinuous improvement through innovation to meet the remaining and emerging 

safety challenges. The Aviation Safety Program develops innovative algorithms, 

tools, concepts, and technologies that will improve the safety attributes of current 

and future aircraft operating in the NAS; identify and control emerging hazards; 

and overcome aircraft safety–related barriers that could impede full realization 

of NextGen. During FY 11, the program developed a highly capable data-mining 

algorithm to identify flight anomalies that could be precursors to safety issues and 

demonstrated “self-healing” concepts that can mitigate damage in aircraft struc-

tural components.

The data-mining algorithms enable the discovery of flight operations and aircraft 

maintenance issues through automated analysis of the vast amounts of data generated during flight operations and by sensors on board the aircraft. These methods 

have enabled the development of new software for aircraft central maintenance 

computers on both business jets and large commercial aircraft that can identify 

the early stages of hardware faults 30 to 50 flights earlier than previously possible. 

This enables airline maintenance personnel to address equipment issues before 

they cause a disruptive maintenance delay at the airport gate. Anomalous flights 

contain data points that are significantly different from those of other, comparable 

flights. These events, known as anomalies, could be due to a pilot configuring 

the airplane for landing (setting flaps and gear) at an inappropriate time or carrying out excessive maneuvering close to the ground, or something that causes 

unexpected readings from an airplane system. Anomalies may signify operation-

ally significant events that can have a potential impact on flight safety. However, 

they are contained within massive datasets, and it would be too time-consuming 

for human analysts to find them without support from highly capable algorithms. 

These algorithms will detect anomalous flights from within these large datasets, 

helping analysts identify potential safety issues and conduct targeted studies. The 
39Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

program developed a highly capable data-mining algorithm that searches data from 

thousands of flights to discover unusual events that could be precursors to safety 

issues. The algorithm successfully detected three operationally significant anomalies, data points that are significantly different from the majority of the data, across 

177,000 flights. When anomalies are detected, airlines investigate the events and 

take corrective action if needed.

NASA open-sourced key data-mining software for analyzing flight data recorder 

output through a collaborative Web site with over 300 members, known as 

DASHlink. Southwest Airlines (SWA) acquired sequenceMiner and Orca, two 

advanced anomaly-detection techniques, through DASHlink. Early application of 

these techniques to data from 7,200 SWA flights uncovered flight anomaly events 

that were not detected by SWA’s existing analysis methods. Events flagged by 

these software tools are being added to SWA’s daily operations review to improve 

operational performance. Southwest Airlines plans to incorporate these software 

tools into daily use to better manage their fleet of 305 planes, which fly over 1,600 

flights per day.

Self-healing concepts were successfully demonstrated by the program to mitigate damage in aircraft structural elements, helping to improve aircraft safety. 

Initiation and propagation of damage generally results in the failure of aircraft 

structural components. Additionally, typical structural repairs often result in damaging practices in which material is ground away and holes are drilled to secure 

patches, which can act as new sites for damage. The proposed self-healing system 

provides a nonintrusive means to mitigate damage and is a significant foundation 

for future self-healing systems. Demonstration results have shown the ability to 

mitigate fatigue crack spread in metals and to mitigate the effects of impacts on 

compressive strength in composites. For metals, a heat-activated self-healing material was drawn into fatigue cracks. The material successfully reduced the crack 

tip driving force of two aerospace materials (aluminum and titanium alloys), dramatically slowing the spread of the crack. For composites, the program developed 

a carbon-fiber-reinforced composite with a commercially available thermoplastic 

resin, which self-heals after ballistic impact and through penetration. A healing 

effect was demonstrated in the developed composite materials by heating these 

materials under pressure. These capabilities suggest that a healing system can 
40Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

be scaled up to provide self-healing to damaged structural aircraft components. 

Work supporting this research and other program accomplishments was done in 

close cooperation with the program’s many partners from industry, academia, and 

other Federal agencies. The program personnel also published numerous technical 

papers, gave presentations at conferences, and worked with partners to transfer 

key technologies.

Airspace Systems Program

The Airspace Systems Program addresses the fundamental air traffic manage-

ment research needs of increasing capacity, improving efficiency, and reducing the 

environmental impact of aviation in NextGen in collaboration with its partners 

in Government, industry, and academia. The program works to directly benefit 

the flying public by moving key concepts and technologies from the laboratory 

into the field to facilitate the transfer of technology to end users. Concept simu-

lations and field trials of NASA-developed technologies in real flight environ-

ments have demonstrated potential annual savings of tens of millions of dollars 

to airspace users through reduction in flight delays and fuel usage. During FY 11, 

the Airspace Systems Program completed a joint NASA-FAA study that demon-

strated an effective process called Flow-Based Trajectory Management (FBTM) 

for managing future aircraft operations; developed a promising technology called 

Terminal-Tactical Separation Assured Flight Environment (T-TSAFE), which is 

able to predict the future positions of aircraft; supported testing of the NASAdeveloped Ground Delay Program (GDP) Parameters Selection Model, which combines National Weather Service real-time data with Air Traffic Control departure 

scheduling; and made significant progress in the Efficient Descent Advisor (EDA) 

tool, which will allow efficient aircraft arrival profiles.

The program conducted work in tools and methods for in-flight FBTM in the 

NextGen. FBTM is a process for solving local airspace problems by modifying 

flightpaths, or trajectories, of one or more aircraft. These operations provide a 

practical way to maintain efficient operations in the face of changing local and 

downstream conditions. Solving the technical challenge of managing in-flight 

trajectories that extend beyond currently available planning horizons provides one 
41Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

step toward accommodating increasing airspace capacity. The concept of FBTM 

has evolved through a series of studies that began in 2006 and culminated in 2011 

with a study completed by the joint NASA–FAA FBTM Research Transition Team 

(RTT). NASA uses the joint agency RTT to conduct research and field trials to 

accelerate the acceptance of new air traffic management procedures. For the study, 

the RTT modified current air traffic management procedures to distribute FBTM 

responsibilities within a “planning team” composed of traffic management and area 

supervisors. The RTT successfully managed air traffic levels 30 percent greater 

than today’s level. FBTM also can be integrated effectively into today’s operations without additional resources. The RTT provided simulation results and tool 

requirements to the FAA as technology transfer to inform FAA acquisition planning. The results also inform 10 out of 50 Operation Improvements as described in 

the FAA’s NextGen Implementation Plan. The study is an example of successfully 

transitioned research results from NASA to the FAA and Government collaboration using the RTT model.

The concept and algorithms for T-TSAFE were developed by the program. 

T-TSAFE uses a trajectory algorithm based on available flight intent information 

that includes flight plans, area navigation departure routes, speed restrictions, and 

altitude clearances. Terminal airspace surrounds airports to a radius of about 40 

miles. Air traffic controllers managing this airspace guide aircraft as they approach 

or depart and must maintain separation standards. Separation standards can 

change depending upon factors such as aircraft weight class, type of approach, 

visual versus instrument flight rules, and whether the aircraft is transitioning to or 

from en route airspace. T-TSAFE is able to predict the future positions of aircraft 

and check them for possible conflicts with significantly fewer false alerts. NASA 

continues to address additional T-TSAFE challenges to include traffic density, 

turning angle, and flight plan data availability.

NASA provided support to the FAA to conduct trials of the GDP Parameters 

Selection Model at San Francisco Airport. A significant reduction in ground delays 

due to morning fog was demonstrated compared with the airport’s current ground 

delay policy, which often leads to excessive and unrecoverable delays affecting the 

entire country.
42Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

The program also successfully field-tested the EDA tool, which provides air traffic controllers with speed and path changes that will allow efficient aircraft arrival 

profiles. Current air traffic control operations require an air traffic controller to 

generate and provide clearances manually (that include path and speeds) so aircraft 

can arrive at an established point on a route and to time-regulate the aircraft’s 

entry into an airport’s terminal area at a scheduled time during the arrival phase 

of flight. This manual process often results in inefficient paths for an aircraft’s 

flight and descent (particularly during higher traffic density operations), restricting 

the number of aircraft that can be processed for arrival operations while increas-

ing noise and fuel consumption. EDA’s innovation is its transformation of opera-

tions from existing procedures to ones that reduce flight time, fuel consumption, 

noise, and emissions, thus resulting in more environmentally friendly en route and 

terminal operations. By enabling aircraft to descend on the optimal continuous 

path, NASA estimates $300 million in fuel savings per year if EDA is implemented 

fleetwide at the Nation’s busiest airports. This type of capability not only will con-

tribute to more efficient operations but also will show the airlines the return on 

investment they can achieve by equipping their aircraft with NextGen avionics.

Fundamental Aeronautics Program

The Fundamental Aeronautics Program develops knowledge, technologies, tools, 

and innovative concepts to enable new aircraft that will be faster, cleaner, and qui-

eter and use fuel far more efficiently. The program conducts research on advanced 

vehicle configurations and concepts; lighter, stronger materials and structures; 

fuel-efficient, less polluting propulsion systems; advanced concepts for increasing 

lift and reducing drag; advanced computational tools and capabilities; and model-

ing and simulation for efficient future air vehicle design. Future air vehicles will 

demand environmentally sensible and innovative aeronautics technologies and 

concepts to achieve significantly better performance, higher fuel efficiencies, and 

reductions in noise and emissions. During FY 11, the program validated a tool 

used to develop future aircraft configurations and technologies; demonstrated 

advances in rotorcraft safety and performance; verified supersonic aircraft model 
43Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

configurations that produce significantly less sonic boom; and completed significant hypersonic engine inlet model testing.

The program confirmed the accuracy of its second-generation aircraft system 

analysis code used to evaluate and compare future subsonic fixed-wing aircraft 

designs with respect to predicted noise, emissions, and performance. This tool 

enables the design of future aircraft that break the mold of current configurations, 

allowing designers to conceive advanced, unconventional aircraft configurations 

and evaluate performance with a higher degree of confidence than ever before. 

Project personnel confirmed the accuracy of this computer code by developing 

analytical aircraft performance predictions for both conventional and unconventional configurations (ones that are not a tube-and-wing shape) and then verifying the accuracy of these predictions against publicly available data and/or other 

independent data sources. The code is also used to assess the introduction of new 

technologies that allow significant improvements in performance for future aircraft 

and help guide future research to help select and develop the technologies that will 

have the most impact on an integrated design.

The program made advances in computational modeling for understanding and 

designing crashworthy rotorcraft by using test data obtained from full-scale crash 

tests of an MD-500 helicopter, conducted in December 2009 and March 2010. 

These data were used to calibrate and validate finite element models that contained detailed representations of airframe, seats, occupants, and external energy 

absorbers. Results and comparisons were very encouraging: the models predicted 

the pilot floor acceleration response within ±10 percent of the target. The significance of this result is that survivability for helicopter crashes can be predicted to 

a higher degree of confidence, which in turn can be used to produce safer designs. 

As the technology evolves to efficiently incorporate more modeling and simulation 

into the design process, next-generation rotorcraft will contain more crashworthy 

features without sacrificing weight and performance.

Using wind tunnel tests, the program verified advanced supersonic aircraft 

models that produce significantly lower sonic booms. These aircraft concepts were 

designed using NASA-developed computer-based tools for predicting aircraft shape 

and performance. These tools allow designers to accurately and quickly assess 

supersonic aircraft shapes and other key attributes of successful supersonic aircraft 
44Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

flight, such as aircraft efficiency and control, thereby helping to enable new designs 

that may make much faster forms of transportation possible in the future.

Additionally, program researchers completed significant testing of the changing 

shape of a hypersonic engine inlet model as airspeed increased to Mach 4. The test 

results and the associated data analysis, as well as propulsion prediction and design 

tool developments, establish key knowledge for future applications of turbine-based 

combined-cycle engines for hypersonic vehicles. This work culminates several years 

of wind tunnel combined-cycle engine inlet model design and build, small-scale 

inlet testing, inlet performance tool development, and experimental data analysis.

Integrated Systems Research Program

One of the greatest challenges that NASA faces in transitioning advanced 

technologies into future aeronautics systems is closing the gap caused by the difference between the maturity level of technologies developed through fundamental research and the maturity required for technologies to be infused into future 

air vehicles and operational systems. The Integrated Systems Research Program’s 

(ISRP) goal is to demonstrate integrated concepts and technologies to a maturity 

level sufficient to reduce the risks associated with implementation for stakehold-

ers in the aviation community. The research in this program is coordinated with 

ongoing, long-term fundamental research within the other three aeronautics 

research programs, as well as efforts of other Government agencies. This coordi-

nation helps to ensure that the most promising research is transitioned between 

the fundamental research programs and ISRP. The program conducts integrated 

system-level research on those promising concepts and technologies to explore, 

assess, and demonstrate the benefits in an operationally relevant environment. The 

program matures and integrates technologies for accelerated transition to practical 

applications. One of the program’s goals is to reduce the impact of aviation on the 

environment through the development of vehicle concepts and technologies that 

can simultaneously reduce aircraft fuel burn, noise, and emissions. During FY 11, 

the program completed a major design study by three aircraft manufacturers that 

developed advanced vehicle concepts and associated technology suites capable of 

simultaneously meeting NASA’s environmental goals in aircraft entering service in 
45Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

2025. The program also achieved significant results related to fuel injector design 

concepts; a highly fuel-efficient jet engine concept; and low-weight, damage-tolerant 

composite structures.

The program demonstrated fuel injector design concepts that achieved a significant reduction in nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions. NOx forms quickly from emissions from aircraft engines (as well as from automobiles, trucks, power plants, and 

industrial plants) and contributes to the formation of ground-level ozone (smog) 

and fine-particle pollution. These concepts were developed to efficiently mix the 

fuel and air to maintain a stable combustion process and minimize the formation of 

NOx emissions. The program worked collaboratively with industry to develop and 

test several new combustor concepts that have the potential to reduce NOx emissions by as much as 75 percent compared to emissions from aircraft flying today.

As part of its research on future aircraft engine designs that aim to dramatically reduce the impact of the aviation industry on the environment, the program 

demonstrated lower noise, high-propulsive-efficiency counter-rotating “open rotor” 

systems. This engine concept called “open rotor” does not encase the engine fan 

blades in an engine housing, which is typical in traditional jet engine designs. 

Research has shown that this concept has great potential to dramatically reduce 

fuel burn.

The program successfully demonstrated a Pultruded Rod Stitched Efficient 

Unitized Structure (PRSEUS) panel. This low-weight, damage-tolerant stitched 

composite structural concept on a curved panel represented the first demonstration of the PRSEUS configuration for conventional-type aircraft fuselage structure, 

capable of being fabricated and supporting the required combined pressure and 

tension loading condition. In addition, a successful test of a PRSEUS pressure 

cube demonstrated that low-weight, damage-tolerant joints in stitched composite 

structures with fewer fasteners were capable of being fabricated and supporting the 

required pressure loading.

In FY 11, the program began a new project that will contribute capabilities that 

reduce technical barriers related to the safety and operational challenges associated 

with enabling routine civil unmanned aircraft system (UAS) access to the NAS. 

There is an increasingly urgent need to fly UAS in the NAS to perform missions 

of vital importance to national security and defense, emergency management, and 
46Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

science, as well as to enable commercial applications. As part of the UAS integra-

tion into the NAS efforts in FY 11, the program worked with JPDO and associated 

Government agencies to deliver a research, development, and demonstration road-

map for UAS access to the NAS. It also provided a rationale for international sup-

port for a radio-frequency spectrum allocation to be addressed at the 2012 World 

Radiocommunication Conference.

Aeronautics Test Program

The Aeronautics Test Program manages and ensures the strategic availability of 

a minimum, critical suite of aeronautical test facilities (like wind tunnels and jet 

engine test facilities), support aircraft, laboratories, and the Western Aeronautical 

Test Range, which are necessary to meet the long-term aeronautical test require-

ments of the Nation. The Aeronautics Test Program’s ground test facilities consist 

of various categories of wind tunnels located at Ames Research Center, Glenn 

Research Center, and Langley Research Center; the flight operations and test 

infrastructure are located at Dryden Flight Research Center and include the 

Western Aeronautical Test Range, support aircraft, and the Simulation and Flight 

Loads Laboratories.

In FY 11, the program successfully executed more than 9,000 hours of ground 

testing and approximately 1,000 hours of flight testing for NASA and the Nation, 

achieving high overall customer satisfaction ratings and good facility availability 

and performance. Strategic initiatives accomplished by the program include investments and upgrades at five major wind tunnels across its portfolio to provide new 

capabilities, improved facility reliability, and investments in flight assets to enable 

a new flight research capability.

The program performed critical testing in the Ames Research Center Unitary 

Plan Wind Tunnel to validate design processes and predictions for a new supersonic 

low-boom, low-drag design for ARMD’s Fundamental Aeronautics Program. Flight 

testing was performed at Dryden Flight Research Center to execute its Superboom 

Caustic Analysis and Measurement project, validating computer prediction tools 

to be used in design of future quieter supersonic aircraft. The program performed 

several critical tests for DOD, including testing at the Glenn Research Center Icing 
47Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

Research Tunnel for the Office of Naval Research and at the Langley Research 

Center 14×22-Foot Subsonic Wind Tunnel for the U.S. Army.

Included in program investments were a new engine icing test capability at the 

Propulsion Systems Laboratory at Glenn and an acoustic measurement capability 

at the 14×22-Foot Subsonic Wind Tunnel at Langley that will enable researchers 

to measure noise signatures from novel aircraft designs at a fraction of the cost of 

flying real aircraft over airport microphone arrays. The program also modified an 

existing G-III subsonic research aircraft test bed to enable ARMD flight testing at 

Dryden, which will result in new experimental flight test capability to assess emerg-

ing flight technologies. One of the first intended uses of the aircraft is to enable 

NASA to explore and mature alternative unconventional aircraft designs with the 

potential to simultaneously meet research goals for community noise, fuel burn, 

and nitrogen oxides emissions. Program investments also led to the development 

and implementation of new and improved test technologies to increase productiv-

ity and efficiency and improve research data quality, including investments in the 

National Force Measurement Technology Capability. The program also finalized 

a Capability Reliance Framework, a top-level decision-analysis instrument that 

provides a view of the entire suite of the program’s ground test capabilities and 

includes similar test assets owned and operated by DOD. This decision-analysis 

tool will inform decision makers about capability needs, the facilities and resources 

operated by NASA and other entities that could serve those needs, reliance opportunities, condition and life-cycle costs, and other related issues.
.
49Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

deparTmenT of defense

DOD

Aeronautics Activities

Fixed-Wing Vehicles

The Department of Defense (DOD) continued flight test evaluations of the 

three F‐35 Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) variants: the F‐35A conventional takeoff and 

landing, the F‐35B short takeoff/vertical landing, and the F‐35C aircraft carrier 

variant. The F‐35 completed its 1,000th test flight. The F‐35B has performed more 

than 122 vertical landings, including one on the USS Wasp. The F‐35C also com‐

pleted jet‐blast deflector testing and initiated catapult launch testing.

The E‐2D Advanced Hawkeye, the Navy’s newest airborne early warning and 

command and control aircraft, completed carrier suitability testing.

The Air Force awarded Boeing the contract to develop its next‐generation aerial 

refueling tanker, the KC‐46A, based on the 767‐200 platform.

The Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) and the Air Mobility Command 

(AMC) performed flight tests to validate potential fuel savings that might be real‐

ized by retrofitting C‐130H/J aircraft with drag‐reduction devices that have been 

shown to improve fuel efficiency. The tests indicated the potential for a savings 

of up to $30 million per year and revealed no adverse effects on the airframe as 

a result of the change. The first phase of testing assessed the compatibility of 

microvanes with airdrop missions.

The AFRL and AMC also flight tested a Flight Formation System aboard the 

C‐17. The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) began develop‐

ing this system in 2010, and the AFRL continued the project with the goal of 
50Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

reducing fuel consumption through formation flying. The tests showed a fuel sav‐

ings of between 8 and 13 percent. Because the C‐17 fleet consumes approximately 

one‐quarter of the fuel used by the Air Force each year, savings of 8 to 13 percent 

are potentially significant.

The Speed‐Agile Concept Demonstration, performed at the National Transonic 

Facility (NTF) and the National Full‐Scale Aerodynamics Complex (NFAC) at 

NASA Ames Research Center, validated a cruise‐efficient powered lift system that 

produced double the lift per unit thrust of a conventional C‐17, resulting in a 30 

percent improvement in range. The lift system can be employed with commercially 

available bypass ratio engines and uses bypass airflow to drive circulation control 

wing flaps. Employing this design approach reduces engine size requirements.

Rotorcraft

The Army demonstrated the performance, vibration, and noise improvements 

of a helicopter rotor system with active trailing‐edge flaps at the NFAC. In related 

efforts, DARPA’s Mission Adaptive Rotor (MAR) program investigated various 

methods to increase helicopter payload, range, and availability and reduce acoustic 

signature and vibration by actively morphing the shape and other properties of 

the rotor system. MAR also uses active rotors with on‐blade control in order to 

eliminate the need for a rotor swash plate. Adaptive features include modification 

to blade slope, control of individual blades, and variation in rotor speeds.

The Army and NASA began analysis of data acquired during the 2010 UH‐60A 

air loads wind tunnel test at Ames. This test program provided unique measure‐

ments on a full‐scale UH‐60A rotor system under challenging flight circumstances, 

including high‐speed, high‐thrust, and slowed‐rotor conditions. Measurements 

included blade pressures and loads, rotor condition, blade displacement and defor‐

mation, and rotor wake velocity. Initial analysis verified the quality of the data and 

identified defects in the computational fluid dynamical models.

The Computational Research and Engineering Acquisition Tools and 

Environments (CREATE) program released the rotorcraft design tool HELIOSv2.0 

in FY 11. HELIOSv2.0 enables off‐body adaptive mesh refinement and the ability 

to handle multiple rotorcraft components.
51Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

Balloon Flight Systems

Marines from the 26th Marine Expeditionary Unit used a balloon‐based commu‐

nications system, Lofted Comms, during counterinsurgency operations in Helmand 

province, Afghanistan. They also launched Lofted Comms balloons from the USS 

Kearsarge to relay messages to AV‐8B Harrier jump jets flying strike missions over Libya.

The Army is in the process of developing a first‐of‐type, state‐of‐the‐art hybrid 

airship, the Long Endurance Multi‐intelligence Vehicle (LEMV), to provide persis‐

tent intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance capability. The LEMV hybrid 

aircraft is designed to generate 40 percent of its lift using aerodynamic forces to 

increase endurance. The airship was inflated in September 2011 at the integra‐

tion facility in Lakehurst, New Jersey. After completion of integration and testing, 

LEMV will be ready for deployment to Afghanistan.

Hypersonics

The second flight of the X‐51A Waverider in June 2011 resulted in the loss of the 

flight vehicle. Despite the loss of the vehicle, data were obtained that identified modi‐

fications to the vehicle for another flight. Many of the subsystems worked as expected, 

including B‐52 safe separation, boost, booster separation, guidance and control, flight 

actuators, battery power, fuel system pressurization, and flight test instrumentation.

A second test flight of DARPA’s experimental Falcon Hypersonic Technology 

Vehicle 2 (HTV‐2) on August 11, 2011, ended prematurely when the aircraft failed 

and stopped sending back real‐time data to engineers and scientists who were mon‐

itoring the mission. After booster separation, the HTV‐2 was designed to maneuver 

to perform a ballistic atmospheric reentry, execute a pull‐up after pierce‐point, then 

fly a long‐endurance, in‐atmosphere powered glide phase that included maneuvers 

to help characterize its aerodynamic properties in high‐speed regimes. HTV‐2 pro‐

vided data through boosting, apogee reorienting, ballistic return, and atmospheric 

reentry. Ground control lost contact with the vehicle during its aerodynamic glide 

phase. The aircraft plunged into the Pacific Ocean after reaching a top speed of 

approximately Mach 20 on this flight, the second and last scheduled flight for the 

Falcon program, which began in 2003. For the test, the Falcon was launched from 
52Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Vandenberg Air Force Base (AFB) aboard a Minotaur IV. HTV‐2 had been modi‐

fied after its first flight; the changes moved its center of gravity, reduced its angle 

of attack to increase controllability, and augmented its aerodynamic control sur‐

faces with reaction control system (RCS) steering jets.

The Air Force Office of Scientific Research, DARPA, and the Arnold 

Engineering Development Center (AEDC) refined and integrated a suite of sci‐

entific research tools in AEDC’s Tunnel 9; they have been used to measure the 

performance of hypersonic flight vehicles. Until this development, hypersonic 

systems were tested and evaluated by measuring integrated forces and moments. 

These tools provide a new capability in aerothermal analysis. Engineers com‐

bined high‐frequency pressure measurement practices and computation tech‐

niques from academia with surface‐temperature‐sensitive paint measurements 

from AEDC. This combination enables developers to predict, measure, and 

document the global impact of boundary layer instabilities that drive significant 

heating phenomena on hypersonic systems.

The National Center for Hypersonic Combined Cycle Propulsion (CHCCP), 

funded by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research and NASA, completed its 

second year of research. Consisting of teams from industry, Government, and 

academia, CHCCP is seeking to improve our understanding of the physics and to 

model three combined‐cycle flow regimes: turbine‐to‐ramjet mode transition, ramjet‐

to‐scramjet mode transition, and hypervelocity operation. Researchers developed a 

dual‐mode combustion wind tunnel to simulate Mach 5 flight conditions, incorpo‐

rating new laser diagnostic tools such as tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy 

and particle image velocimetry. Modeling of experimental data continues using 

both Reynolds‐averaged Navier‐Stokes (RANS) and large‐eddy simulation/RANS 

methods. Advanced filter density function and chemical kinetic models are being 

developed to compute hypersonic turbulent reacting flows.

Unmanned Aerial Systems (UASes)

The X‐47B Unmanned Combat Air System (UCAS) made its first flight in 

February 2011. The airframe’s unique configuration combines a kite planform and 
53Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

a flying wing (called a “cranked” wing) optimized for aircraft carrier operations. 

Stereolithograph models were used to analyze initial test results and implement 

design changes quickly. A modified F/A‐18D (using the X‐47B precision GPS 

guidance and control laws) successfully completed shipboard surrogate testing 

aboard the USS Dwight D. Eisenhower. The aircraft achieved a completely auto‐

mated approach and trap using precision GPS and datalink systems, the first such 

approach and trap in naval history. The stealthy, tailless X‐47B demonstrator made 

strides toward the long‐held Navy goal of marrying persistent, autonomous unpi‐

loted intelligence and strike aircraft with the reach of its fleet of aircraft carriers.

The Navy integrated the MQ‐8B Fire Scout UAS into operations on the USS 

Halyburton. This UAS has been used to chase pirates in the Indian Ocean, watch 

over troops in Afghanistan, and provide reconnaissance in Libya.

A miniaturized version of the electro‐optical portion of the Air Force Sense‐

And‐Avoid (SAA) system was integrated into an Army Shadow and flown in 

January 2011. On April 25, 2011, the Army flew the Grey Eagle UAS during the 

first night SAA flights. The midair collision of a drone with a C‐130 military cargo 

plane in eastern Afghanistan on August 15, 2011, highlighted the need for new 

control strategies and SAA systems. No crew injuries resulted, and the cargo plane 

was able to make an emergency landing with only minor damage.

The AFRL demonstrated a replacement lithium‐ion battery for the Global Hawk 

Program and developed a derivative B‐2 battery set for Global Hawk to replace the 

three nickel‐cadmium batteries, saving approximately 170 pounds and providing 

additional volume and weight for sensor equipment.

The Air Force Institute of Technology’s Department of Aeronautics and 

Astronautics is continuing research on the development and testing of flapping 

wing micro air vehicles (FWMAVs). Each wing is individually controlled using 

a piezo actuator and novel control technique: biharmonic amplitude and bias 

modulation control, which consists of three independent wing‐stroke parameters 

per wing. Various micromanufacturing techniques were developed to create wing 

structures, hinge mechanisms, piezoelectric actuators, and support assembly.

DARPA’s nano air vehicle program developed Nano Hummingbird, a 19‐gram, 

16‐centimeter‐wingspan UAS that can be independently controlled up/down, for‐

ward/backward, left/right, and in yaw by modulating the thrust and shape of the 
54Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

wings using four electric motors. Nano Hummingbird can fly both indoors and 

out for up to 10 minutes, streaming video back to a palmtop base station. It has 

demonstrated hover, forward flight at up to 11 miles per hour (mph), and even a 

360° autonomous lateral flip. Nano Hummingbird has shown stability of hover in 

lateral wind gusts of up to 5 mph.

Aircraft Engines, Subsystems, Components, 

and Other Aeronautical Developments

The AFRL ADaptive Versatile ENgine Technology (ADVENT) program com‐

pleted risk‐reduction tests that verified performance and structural characteristics 

of a variety of components intended to culminate in a variable cycle turbofan 

demonstrator engine. Key ADVENT components that were successfully tested 

include the adaptive fan, compressor, combustor, bearing, and heat exchanger. 

In addition, AFRL produced advanced high‐pressure compressor test rigs under 

the Highly Efficient Embedded Turbine Engine (HEETE) program, which seeks 

significant improvements in engine thermal efficiency.

The Army tested upgraded engines for the UH‐60 Blackhawk under its 

Advanced Affordable Turbine Engine program.

AFRL demonstrated a 2.5‐megawatt, high‐speed generator to industry and 

DOD. The demonstration showed a tenfold power improvement for its weight/

package (360 pounds) over existing state‐of‐the‐art generators. The generator is 

intended to supply power through a compact package for airborne directed energy 

applications and other special mission loads.

AFRL demonstrated a high‐current silicon carbide power module in a joint 

Air Force–Army program that led to the first commercial product of that class. 

This high‐current solid‐state switch replaces mechanical contactors in electric 

systems, providing fast reconfigurability and fault protection.

The Army’s Joint Precision Airdrop System demonstrated prototype software that 

enables clusters of guided parachutes to avoid terrain, and each other, during descent. 

The parachutes are fully autonomous during their entire descent; advanced on‐board 

optimization‐based guidance algorithms enable them to fly for several miles using on‐

board terrain databases for guidance around obstacles and for highly precise landings.
55Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

A single 150‐foot‐diameter Ares main parachute was successfully tested at 

the Army’s Yuma Proving Ground. The 72,000‐pound Jumbo Drop Test Vehicle 

(JDTV) was extracted from a C‐17 aircraft at an altitude of 25,000 feet. The JDTV 

descended under a programmer chute until main parachute deployment. The total 

extracted weight was 85,000 pounds, a record for C‐17 single‐payload extraction.

The Navy completed its first aircraft launch using the electromagnetic aircraft 

launch system designed to replace today’s steam‐catapult system on next‐generation 

aircraft carriers to reduce maintenance and personnel costs.

The AFRL demonstrated the Automatic Ground Collision Avoidance System 

(Auto‐GCAS). Auto‐GCAS performs an automatic avoidance maneuver in order 

to save the pilot’s life, even if the pilot has lost consciousness because of g‐induced 

maneuvers, has become disoriented, or has lost situation awareness. Auto‐GCAS 

performs the automatic recovery maneuver between the point when the pilot nor‐

mally gets the warning alert and the point of nonrecovery. This capability has 

been transitioned to the F‐16 Block 40 and is being targeted to transition to the 

remainder of the F‐16 fleet and to F‐22s and F‐35s.

Airborne Weapons Systems and Missiles

The Army’s high‐energy laser tactical demonstrator was completed and delivered 

to the Army Space and Missiles Defense Command.

The Missile Defense Agency’s Airborne Laser Testbed continued in‐flight testing 

of the laser weapon, building on its missile shoot‐down successes in 2010. Working 

along a similar path, researchers at the Air Force Academy, AFRL, and Lawrence 

Livermore National Laboratory demonstrated further improvements in the hybrid 

gas‐electric diode pumped alkali laser technology, which has the potential to super‐

sede both solid‐state and chemical laser technology with lower logistics footprints 

and higher efficiencies.

The Airborne Laser (ABL) platform was used this year as a test bed and suc‐

cessfully flew numerous missions in that capacity without engaging in high‐power 

tests. Significant advances were made in different types of chemical oxygen iodine 

laser efficiencies promising output performance increases of an order of magni‐

tude. DARPA pursued acquisition of the 100‐kilowatt‐class solid‐state high‐energy 
56Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

liquid laser area defense system (HELLADS) for potential applications for future 

Air Force airborne high‐energy demonstrators. The Air Force Research Laboratory 

conducted preliminary ground demonstrations with its high‐power microwave 

system on a cruise missile named CHAMP (Counter‐electronics High‐powered 

Microwave Advanced Missile Project).

In April, the Navy completed the first flight test of a Standard Missile‐3 (SM‐3) 

Block IA against an intermediate‐range ballistic missile, marking the 19th success‐

ful SM‐3 intercept. In August, Aerojet accomplished key developmental milestones 

on its SM‐3 Block IB throttleable divert and attitude‐control system by completing 

a series of full‐up system tests.

In March 2011, the enhanced version, the Patriot Advanced Capability 3 

Missile Segment Enhancement, successfully intercepted a tactical missile target 

at White Sands.

In March, the Navy conducted a successful test flight of a Trident II D5 fleet 

ballistic missile. The three‐stage, solid‐propellant D5 was launched from the sub‐

merged submarine USS Nevada in the Pacific Ocean, marking the 135th con‐

secutive successful test flight of the D5 missile since 1989—a 22‐year record of 

reliability unmatched by any other large ballistic missile or space launch vehicle.

The Navy carried out the 25th launch of its Coyote supersonic sea‐skimming 

target vehicle in July 2011, supporting ongoing ship self‐defense exercises.

In May, the Air Force completed a series of tests of the next‐generation joint 

air‐to‐ground missile (JAGM), a single‐motor solution for fixed‐ and rotary‐wing 

platforms. The rockets were subjected to 5 to 20 thermal cycles of –45 to 160°F 

and successfully fired, meeting all test objectives. In August, the JAGM conducted 

a demonstration firing of a minimum‐smoke rocket motor in fixed‐wing aircraft 

operating in severe weather environments.

Aircraft Survivability

At Wright‐Patterson AFB, the Air Force recently investigated laser effects on 

fuel‐backed aircraft composite materials immersed in a high‐velocity airstream. 

The goal was to conduct a test, the first of its kind, of a composite wing box under 

fully controlled test conditions that included laser engagement during simulated 
57Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

flight. In order to obtain the necessary test approvals for these weapons, in‐lab tests 

supported by modeling addressed fundamental questions concerning target surface 

reflectivity, laser burn‐through time, energy absorption due to the fluid‐backing, 

and the presence of an airstream. Simultaneously, the Air Force’s airflow test facil‐

ity was reconfigured to create a fully enclosed test operation, complete with laser 

energy locks. After the approval was granted, three laser tests were performed on a 

single composite wing box from a UAS. The first two of these tests avoided the fuel 

tank and were performed merely to verify laser system stability and burn‐through 

times in the presence of an airstream. The final test involved direct impingement 

on the fuel tank. The test procedure will now transition to assessing the surviv‐

ability of other military assets against this threat.

Large turbofan engines of both civilian and military aircraft are vulnerable to 

manportable air defense system (MANPADS) missiles. An important first step 

toward countering this threat is to understand and determine likely engagement 

outcomes. Thus the Air Force, the Navy, the Department of Homeland Security, 

and NASA Langley Research Center have teamed to assess the missile’s encounter 

with a large transport aircraft. Testing involved firing live‐warhead missiles into 

each of two turbofan engines operating at full thrust. Work completed during the 

past year includes generating high‐ fidelity predictions of the engine damage and 

provisioning for the test. This effort also included preparing the test plan, fabricat‐

ing the test fixture, designing an engine controller, preparing and instrumenting 

engine test articles, and conducting system checkout tests. Upon the conclusion 

of each engine test, thrust degradation characteristics and end damage states will 

be assessed, correlated with damage predictions, and used to evaluate the aircraft’s 

controllability and its ability to perform a safe landing.

Space Activities

The first Defense Space Council (DSC) was held on December 20, 2010. The 

DSC, chaired by the Department of Defense Executive Agent for Space, serves as 

the principal advisory forum on all Defense space matters to include providing rec‐

ommendations regarding Defense space and Defense elements of National Security 

Space (NSS) to streamline space governance while allowing appropriate interagency 
58Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

participation; developing, coordinating, and recommending Defense space priorities 

and strategic guidance for Defense space systems and for Defense space planning and 

programming; assessing and guiding Defense space requirements, plans, programs, 

and architectures; promoting cooperation between the Defense and Intelligence 

Community (IC) space sectors to create effectiveness and efficiency in Defense 

and IC space programs; aligning DOD requirements, Planning, Programming, 

Budgeting and Execution (PPBE) guidance, and acquisition with Defense and NSS 

strategy, policy, and resources; synchronizing Defense space activities; and promot‐

ing unity of effort within DOD and the U.S. Government, consistent with NSS 

strategic objectives.

Launch and Range Operations and Spacelift Developments

The Air Force, through partnership with the United Launch Alliance (ULA), 

launched eight Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicles to extend the program’s 

record to 43 successful launches out of 43 attempts. Atlas V launch vehicles 

launched the military’s X‐37B in March, the NROL‐34 spacecraft in April, 

Space Based Infrared System (SBIRS) Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO) 1 in 

May, and NASA’s Juno spacecraft to Jupiter in August. Delta II launch vehicles 

launched Argentina’s SAC‐D satellite with the Aquarius instrument for NASA, 

the GRAIL mission for NASA, and the National Polar‐orbiting Operational 

Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS) Preparatory Project (NPP) weather 

satellite for NASA and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA), along with six CubeSats. Delta IV launch vehicles launched the 

NROL‐27 satellite and the Air Force’s second Block IIF navigation satellite for 

the GPS. Finally, a Delta IV‐Heavy launched the NROL‐49 payload. ULA also 

signed a Space Act Agreement with NASA to collaborate on human rating for 

crewed flights.

DOD also supported NASA launch events for the second launch of SpaceX’s 

Falcon 9 launch from Cape Canaveral. The Air Force’s Eastern Test Range 

provided vital tracking assets in support of range safety. This successful launch 

occurred on December 8, 2010.
59Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

AFRL successfully tested a hydrogen turbopump under the Upper Stage Engine 

Technology effort. This project also successfully validated a new set of physics‐based 

modeling, simulation, and analysis tools for liquid rocket engines that the industry is 

already using in developing new designs and analyzing existing designs. These tools 

have the potential to save new engine development programs $1 billion compared 

to how the United States developed the Apollo F‐1 and Space Shuttle main engine.

For the U.S. Government, the National Reconnaissance Office successfully 

launched six satellites over an eight‐month period, a launch tempo not seen by 

them in 25 years.

Also of note was the Army’s launch of several CubeSats on a Falcon 9. SpaceX 

developed and produced the Merlin rocket engine to power the Falcon 9 launch 

vehicle using liquid oxygen and rocket‐grade kerosene propellants.

Global Positioning System

The Air Force launched the second of the GPS Block IIF satellites in 2011 to 

maintain the constellation as a global utility, providing improved accuracy and 

enhanced performance for GPS users worldwide.

Satellite Communications

The first Advanced Extremely High Frequency (AEHF) space vehicle, launched 

on August 14, 2010, overcame a main propulsion subsystem failure during 2011. In 

2011, an ad hoc satellite recovery team with representatives from the Space and 

Missile Systems Center, 14th Air Force, 50th Space Wing, Headquarters Air Force 

Space Command, as well as the Aerospace Corporation and Lockheed Martin, 

successfully averted an AEHF‐1 mission failure by using on‐board propulsion sys‐

tems, which were not designed for orbit placement, to ease the satellite into its 

planned orbit.

DOD launched the Tactical Satellite‐4 (TacSat‐4) space vehicle, which was 

developed by the Naval Research Laboratory for the Office of Naval Research and 

the Operationally Responsive Space (ORS) Office. TacSat‐4 will enable deployed 

military members utilizing handheld radios to contact and task the experimental 
60Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

asset even in many now‐problematic mountainous and urban areas. In September, 

the TacSat‐4 satellite was launched from the Kodiak Launch Complex on a 

Minotaur‐IV. The Navy‐led joint tactical microsatellite mission features a 12‐foot‐

diameter deployable antenna with 10 ultrahigh‐frequency (UHF) channels battle‐

field commanders can use with a multitude of existing communications systems. 

Placed in a low, highly elliptical orbit, TacSat‐4 can provide long dwell times over 

intended theaters of operations to enable communications on the move, blue force 

tracking, and data exfiltration.

Space-Based Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance

The Air Force launched the first SBIRS GEO satellite, a long‐anticipated mile‐

stone in upgrading our Nation’s missile warning capability. SBIRS GEO‐1 will 

provide missile warning, missile defense, battlespace awareness, and technical 

intelligence products to deployed warfighters, national leadership, and U.S. allies. 

The satellite employs staring and scanning infrared (IR) sensors, supporting revo‐

lutionary simultaneous strategic and theater surveillance.

DOD launched the ORS‐1 satellite. The ORS‐1 effort stemmed from an urgent 

request by U.S. Central Command for additional space‐based intelligence, surveil‐

lance, and reconnaissance capabilities.

The Air Force launched the Commercially Hosted Infrared Payload (CHIRP) 

in September 2011 as part of the SES‐2 telecommunications satellite on an Ariane 

5 rocket out of Kourou, French Guiana. CHIRP is a technology‐maturation and 

risk‐reduction experiment to collect real‐world data, investigate spacecraft‐sensor 

interactions and sensor behavior in the space environment, explore operational 

issues relevant to these sensors, and evaluate long‐term suitability of commercially 

hosted payloads. This effort marks the first time the Air Force has integrated a 

payload into a commercial satellite.

Air Force Space Command continued operational control of AFRL’s TacSat‐3 

and demonstrated the capability to provide space‐based hyperspectral images 

and information that meets the needs of U.S. tactical warfighters. The spacecraft 

delivered over 2,100 hyperspectral images and demonstrated the ability to transmit 

processed data to a tactical ground station within 10 minutes.
61Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

Satellite Control and Space Situation Awareness

DOD launched the Space‐Based Space Surveillance (SBSS) satellite to enhance 

awareness of deep space objects of interest for safety of flight, threat detection, and 

warning. This system was launched on September 25, 2010, and became operational 

during 2011. SBSS significantly improves the timeliness of data on space objects in 

transit to deep space orbits and is exceeding performance expectations, demonstrating 

excellent focus, high stability, and superb photometric sensitivity.

In 2011, space professionals used the Air Force Satellite Control Network to conduct 

over 159,000 satellite contacts and to support 15 launches and more than 20 space 

vehicle emergencies, averaging 450 satellite contacts per day. The Air Force Satellite 

Control Network provides launch support, the capability to receive satellite telemetry 

and command and control of U.S. Government and allied spacecraft once on orbit.

The Space Surveillance Telescope (SST) achieved first light (began operating) 

on February 15, 2011, delivering the capability to routinely maintain the entire 

deep space catalog.

Space Situation Awareness (SSA) partnership agreements were signed between 

the United States and France in February 2011 and between the United States and 

Canada in March 2011. These documents, signed by the U.S. Secretary of Defense 

and the respective countries’ ministers of defense, provide overarching policy, guid‐

ance, and emphasis for SSA cooperation between these countries.

The first reentry of the ReEntry Breakup Recorder (REBR) occurred on March 

29, 2011, while the instrument was attached to the Japanese HTV‐2 supply vehicle. 

The REBR is a small, autonomous device that records temperature, acceleration, 

rotational rate, and other data during the reentry of space hardware into Earth’s 

atmosphere and during the subsequent breakup due to aerodynamic heating and 

loads. REBR includes a heat shield that protects the instrument and its recorded 

data from the severe reentry heating environment. Recorded data are transmitted 

through the Iridium satellite network, and REBR recovery is not needed. The first‐

ever recorded data from an intentionally destroyed spacecraft enables the validation 

of reentry hazard models in support of DOD safety requirements. Future collection 

of additional REBR data will enable spacecraft and launch stages to be designed to 

minimize risks from surviving debris.
62Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

The Air Force’s multi‐mission spacecraft operations center began operations at 

the beginning of 2011, marking a new milestone for responsive space missions. The 

Army opened a new Wideband Space Operations Center in Hawaii in February 2011.

Other Space Developments

A second X‐37B Orbital Test Vehicle (OTV) was launched aboard an Atlas V 

on March 5, 2011, and landed safely during FY 12. The OTV mission is to test new 

space technologies. The X‐37B was launched on its first orbital flight on an Atlas V 

rocket in April 2010. The spacecraft was placed into LEO for testing. As scheduled, 

the X‐37B deorbited, reentered Earth’s atmosphere, and landed at Vandenberg AFB 

on December 3, 2010.

The Naval Research Laboratory is nearing completion of two tethered satellite 

systems to demonstrate electrodynamic‐tether (EDT) propulsion in LEO. TetherSat, 

being built in conjunction with the Naval Academy, will test the deployment of a 

1‐kilometer tether connecting two 1.5‐unit CubeSat end masses. (A CubeSat unit 

is a volume of 10 by 10 by 10 centimeters.) The Tether Electrodynamic Propulsion 

CubeSat Experiment (TEPCE) will perform orbit maneuvers. Extensive testing this 

year included tether deployment experiments in vacuum chambers and by freefall in 

air. These tests validated tether deployment driven by a long‐stroke spring called a 

stacer, which pushes the end masses apart at 4 meters per second and then stabilizes 

the deployer attitude. The launch of TetherSat and TEPCE by the Air Force’s satel‐

lite test program is expected in 2012.

An Air Force Office of Scientific Research–funded team from academia and indus‐

try continued its research on the use of energy‐harvesting EDT systems. Such systems 

can generate power and propulsion on spacecraft using EDTs by storing energy in and 

deriving energy from the “orbital battery.”
63Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

federal aviaTion 

adminisTraTion

FAA

The Federal Aviation Administration’s (FAA) Next Generation Air 

Transportation System (NextGen) is a wide-ranging transformation of the entire 

NAS to meet future demand and support the economic viability of the system 

while reducing delays, improving safety, and protecting the environment. NextGen 

is not a single piece of equipment or a program or a system that will instantaneously transform the NAS. It is an evolutionary process, and existing systems 

must be sustained in the transition. NextGen builds on legacy systems to increase 

capability in today’s airspace system, adds new performance-based procedures and 

routes, and ultimately delivers programs that will transform the NAS.

In FY 11, NextGen continued improving safety and adding real dollars to the 

bottom line. Using Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B), a 

GPS-based technology, aircraft are able to fly more safely and efficiently in previously challenging areas. ADS-B–equipped helicopters flying over the Gulf of 

Mexico benefited from radar-like air traffic services for the first time. ADS-B radio 

stations deployed along the shoreline and on oil platforms blanket the area with air 

traffic surveillance, increasing the safety of all operations. This same surveillance 

improved efficiency in the Gulf through more direct routing of ADS-B–equipped 

helicopters, reducing both their operating cost and their environmental impact. 

In Colorado, new surveillance technologies enabled controllers to track aircraft 

flying through challenging mountainous terrain. Currently, over half of the ADS-B 

ground infrastructure has been deployed.
64Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Several airlines began using GPS-based Required Navigation Performance 

(RNP) approaches at a dozen airports in 2011. In Alaska, airlines using RNP 

approach procedures at Juneau International Airport are able to fly precisely 

through mountainous terrain in low-visibility conditions thanks to the higher 

navigational accuracy of GPS.

In Atlanta, using more efficient descent procedures designed under NextGen, 

airlines saw savings in fuel costs. Aircraft descend continually to the runway with 

engines idle, as opposed to descending in a stair-step fashion and using the engines 

and burning fuel to power up at each level-off point. One airline is equipping its 

fleet with NextGen technology to help save time and money as pilots transport 

goods in and out of its hub, estimating a 25 percent to 30 percent savings in fuel 

burn on arrival.

The FAA conducted Initial Tailored Arrival (ITA) flight demonstrations at San 

Francisco, Los Angeles, and Miami. ITAs are pre-negotiated arrival paths through 

airspace of multiple air traffic control facilities; they limit vectoring and minimize 

the time the aircraft spends maintaining level flight during its descent. ITAs differ 

from other types of Optimized Profile Descents (OPDs) in that they are assigned 

by controllers to specific approaches and tailored to the characteristics of a limited 

number of Future Air Navigation System (FANS)-equipped aircraft types—747s, 

777s, A330s, A340s, and A380s. The agency estimates that the 747s saved an average of 176 gallons of fuel per arrival in ITAs and 78 gallons per flight in partial 

ITAs, compared with fuel usage in conventional approaches. For 777s, the corresponding savings were 99 gallons in full ITAs and 43 gallons in partial ITAs.

NextGen operational capabilities will make the NAS safer. ADS-B improve-

ments in situational awareness—on the ground and in aircraft—will increase 

controllers’ and pilots’ individual and combined ability to avoid potential danger. 

Among other benefits, these improvements could provide valuable time savings in 

search-and-rescue efforts. Appropriately equipped aircraft will be able to receive, 

displayed directly to the flight deck, information about nearby traffic, weather, and 

flight-restricted areas.

More precise tracking and information sharing will improve the situational 

awareness of pilots, enabling them to plan and carry out safe operations in ways 

they cannot today. Air traffic controllers will become more effective guardians of 
65Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

safety through automation and simplification of their most routine tasks, coupled 

with better awareness of conditions in the airspace they control. Additionally, 

NextGen will facilitate the implementation of Safety Management System processes for the air traffic controllers’ use.

Advances in tracking and managing operations on airport surfaces will make 

runway incursions less likely. Fusing surface radar coverage from Airport Surface 

Detection Equipment-Model X (ASDE-X) with ADS-B surveillance of aircraft and 

ground vehicles will increase situational awareness, particularly when linked with 

runway status lights.

Collaborative decision making will increase everyone’s understanding of what 

others are doing.

Starting with pre-takeoff advisories, departure instructions, and reroutes for 

pilots, we will use data messages increasingly instead of voice communications 

between pilots and controllers, reducing opportunities for error or misunderstanding. Voice channels will be preserved for the most critical information exchange.

As with safety, the agency’s work to mitigate aviation’s influence on the environment also benefits—and is a beneficiary of—NextGen. The operational improvements that reduce noise, carbon dioxide, and other greenhouse-gas emissions from 

aircraft are the tip of the FAA’s environmental iceberg. Equally important are the 

other four-fifths of the agency’s environmental approach—aircraft and engine 

technology advances, sustainable fuels, policy initiatives, and advances in science 

and modeling.

Environmental benefits of operational improvements are simple and direct. 

When efficiency in the NAS is improved, time and fuel savings will improve. 

Burning less fuel produces less carbon dioxide and other harmful emissions. Some 

of the agency’s NextGen improvements, notably landing approaches in which aircraft spend less time maintaining level flight and thus can operate with engines 

at idle, reduce ground noise too. But operational benefits go only so far; their net 

systemwide effect can be offset by growth of the aviation system.

To accommodate system growth, the FAA is supporting the development of 

aircraft, engine, and fuel technology. The agency’s Continuous Lower Energy, 

Emissions and Noise (CLEEN) program continues its work to bring promising new airframe and engine technologies to maturity, ready to be applied to 
66Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

commercial designs, within five to eight years. Similarly, the FAA is part of a 

Government-industry initiative, the Commercial Aviation Alternative Fuels 

Initiative, to develop sustainable low-emission alternative fuels and bring them 

to market.

The FAA developed and is using the NextGen Environmental Management 

System (EMS) to integrate environmental protection objectives into NextGen 

planning and operations. The EMS provides a structured approach for managing 

agency responsibilities to improve environmental performance and stewardship. 

The FAA also analyzed the effect of market-based measures, including cap-andtrade proposals, on aviation environmental policy and standards.

In FY 11, the FAA continued the expansion of its work on demonstrations, tri-

als, and initial deployment of NextGen systems and procedures. NAS operators 

and users—particularly participants in the demonstrations and trials—continue 

to benefit from them.

Also in FY 11, the FAA’s Office of Commercial Space Transportation (AST) 

continued to regulate the safety of U.S. commercial space transportation, as well 

as to encourage, facilitate, and promote industry growth.

A key area of AST activity involved issuing licenses and permits to commercial space transportation launch operators and launch sites. Two new launchspecific licenses were issued, involving the following:

•	SpaceX’s Falcon 9 vehicle, operating from Cape Canaveral Air Force 

Station (CCAFS), and

•	 Orbital Sciences Corporation’s Taurus II at Wallops Flight Facility (WFF).

Five launch operator license renewals were granted, including

•	Orbital Sciences Corporation’s Pegasus at WFF,

Orbital Sciences Corporation’s Pegasus at CCAFS,

Boeing’s Delta II at CCAFS,

Boeing’s Delta IV at CCAFS, and

SeaLaunch’s (transferred to Energia Logistics) Zenit 3SL from a mobile 

launch platform in the Pacific Ocean.

•	

•	

•	

•	

Two launch-site (spaceport) operator license renewals occurred. These 

involved the Oklahoma Spaceport and the California Spaceport, colocated with 

Vandenberg Air Force Base (VAFB).
67Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

One new reentry launch license was issued for SpaceX’s Dragon capsule. One 

new experimental permit was issued to Blue Origin to launch from its West Texas 

launch site.

Authorized by AST licenses and permits, a number of commercial spaceflights 

took place. Three licensed launches occurred, including a Delta II launch of an 

Earth observation satellite from VAFB; a Falcon 9 launch of the Dragon capsule 

from CCAFS, followed by the licensed reentry of the capsule; and a Zenit 3SL 

launch of a communications satellite from its mobile launch platform in the Pacific. 

Two suborbital flights took place under the authority of AST experimental permits, 

conducted by Blue Origin in West Texas.

Beyond this, AST supported NASA’s three final Space Shuttle missions. AST 

provided real-time reentry support during these flights. In fact, following the Space 

Shuttle Columbia failure in 2003, AST supported all 22 remaining Shuttle missions. 

AST benefited from Shuttle mission experience in preparing for the reentries of the 

SpaceX Dragon and other commercial orbital transportation vehicles. Shuttle expertise contributed to developing a number of useful tools and procedures.

Also directly impacting public safety, AST carried out inspections associated 

with a multitude of AST-regulated activities. The goal of every safety inspection 

was to ensure safe operations by verifying licensee, permittee, and safety approval 

holder compliance with FAA regulations and license/permit/safety approval terms 

and conditions. Overall, in FY 11, AST conducted 52 safety inspections. Inspectors 

traveled to a variety of locations, including Florida (CCAFS and Jacksonville), 

California (VAFB, Mojave, Hawthorne, and Long Beach), Texas (McGregor and 

Caddo Mills), New Mexico (Upham and Las Cruces), Oklahoma (Burns Flat), 

Virginia (WFF), Alaska (Kodiak), Nevada (Black Rock), and the equator.

Another significant aspect of AST’s public safety role involved environmental 

evaluations. Such evaluations supported eventual site license renewals and modifications. In FY 11, AST completed evaluations involving the California Spaceport, 

Oklahoma Spaceport, and Virginia Commercial Space Flight Authority. In addition, AST continued to monitor the New Mexico Spaceport Authority’s compliance with Federal historic preservation requirements and other requirements 

related to biological resources for the development of Spaceport America. AST 

also carried out environmental evaluations associated with the eventual issuance 
68Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

or renewal of launch operator licenses for Taurus II, Pegasus, Atlas V, Delta IV, 

Falcon  9, and Zenit 3SL, as well as reentry licenses involving the Dragon and 

Cygnus orbital cargo transportation vehicles. In addition, AST completed environ-

mental evaluations pertaining to the issuance of experimental permits for vehicles 

developed by SpaceX (Grasshopper) and Blue Origin.

As for development of commercial space transportation infrastructure, AST con-

tinued to administer a grant program on behalf of the FAA. Space Transportation 

Infrastructure Matching Grants were solely discretionary; required matching 

contributions from other, non-Federal sources; and funded projects that directly 

developed and expanded infrastructure. In 2011, grant awards totaled $500,000. 

The three grant recipients were the New Mexico Spaceport Authority, the Alaska 

Aerospace Corporation, and the Virginia Commercial Space Flight Authority/MidAtlantic Regional Spaceport.

As for AST’s research and development (R&D) portfolio, growing activities 

constituted a key part of the Office’s mission to encourage, facilitate, and promote 

commercial space transportation. FY 11 involved the continuing consolidation 

of initiatives into a single programmatic effort. Activities entailed conducting 

research in four main areas: space traffic management and operations; space trans-

portation operations, technologies, and payloads; human spaceflight; and space 

transportation industry viability. R&D activities were executed both in-house 

and by contractor and university (grantee) personnel. The most prominent R&D 

entity among these was the FAA Center of Excellence for Commercial Space 

Transportation (COE CST), a partnership of academia, industry, and government. 

The partnership was developed to address current and future challenges for com-

mercial space transportation. In FY 11, COE CST began its first full year of opera-

tion with the selection and implementation of 25 tasks across the nine member 

universities, involving 27 principal investigators and 31 students. For the second 

year of operation, the number of tasks was expected to grow to 30, with results from 

the first year’s efforts beginning to be published in the academic literature.

Another important initiative to encourage the growth of commercial space 

transportation was AST’s 14th annual conference, held in February 2011. 

Cosponsored by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics 

(AIAA), the event took place at the Walter E. Washington Convention Center in 
69Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

Washington, DC. Featuring high-level speakers and panels, the conference examined the state of technology and capabilities in the commercial space transportation sector, as well as economic and regulatory issues. Prominent speakers included 

Robert T. Bigelow, founder and president, Bigelow Aerospace; Brewster H. Shaw, 

vice president and general manager, Space Exploration, Boeing Defense, Space 

and Security; Joe Engle, former X-15 pilot and Space Shuttle astronaut; Michael C. 

Gass, president and chief executive officer, United Launch Alliance; and Wayne 

Hale, director of human spaceflight programs, Special Aerospace Services. Also 

speaking at the event were Ray LaHood, U.S. Secretary of Transportation, and 

J. Randolph “Randy” Babbitt, FAA Administrator. According to Dr. George C. 

Nield, FAA Associate Administrator for Commercial Space Transportation, the 

outstanding array of keynote speakers and panelists ensured that all attendees left 

the conference with a much better understanding of the issues confronting the 

U.S. commercial space transportation sector.

Also supporting commercial industry growth in FY 11 were several AST reports 

and publications, including the Flight Safety Analysis Handbook, Version 1.0. The 

Handbook was designed to help launch and reentry vehicle operators conduct 

flight safety analyses. The document reflected the results of a survey of common industry practices and identified those practices most appropriate to launch 

vehicles. In addition, AST continued to issue annual revisions of several ongoing 

reports, including US Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts: 

Vehicles, Technologies, and Spaceports; Semi-Annual Launch Reports; Commercial 

Space Transportation 2010 Year in Review; and 2011 Commercial Space Transportation 

Forecasts. The forecasts were prepared by the industry-led Commercial Space 

Transportation Advisory Committee in cooperation with AST. Projections for 

2011 to 2020 included an average worldwide demand of about 16 launches per year 

to geosynchronous orbit and approximately 13 launches per year to nongeosynchronous orbits.

In summary, FY 11 represented another year of successful progress for the FAA’s 

Office of Commercial Space Transportation, which worked effectively to protect 

public safety as well as to encourage, facilitate, and promote industry growth. 

Additional information about the Office is available at http://ast.faa.gov.
.
71Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

deparTmenT of CommerCe

DOC

During FY 11, the Department of Commerce (DOC) participated in interagency 

efforts to implement elements of the 2010 National Space Policy and develop updated 

policies addressing specific aspects of space activity.

DOC continued to participate in the national management of the Global 

Positioning System (GPS) as a member of the National Executive Committee for 

Space-Based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing, the senior body that advises and 

coordinates Federal agencies on GPS matters. DOC hosted four meetings of the committee and its Executive Steering Group to discuss major policy issues, including 

protecting GPS users from potential interference due to a communications network 

(LightSquared) licensed to broadcast in frequencies next to GPS. Through the 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), DOC participated 

in interference testing that showed harmful impacts to GPS users and conveyed its 

concerns to the Federal spectrum authorities. In testimony before Congress, NOAA 

Deputy Under Secretary Mary Glackin described a range of serious impacts to 

NOAA’s daily operations if GPS interference were to become widespread.

DOC continued to host the offices of the National Executive Committee. DOC 

staff planned and executed a major redesign and relaunch of its Web site, http://

www.gps.gov, as the central pillar of the Government’s GPS outreach campaign. 

The site quickly became a top result in Internet searches for “GPS.”

NOAA participated in bilateral consultations, led by the State Department, 

with Australia, Japan, and Europe to discuss cooperation on GPS issues. NOAA’s 

Office of Space Commercialization continued to serve as the U.S. cochair of a 

U.S.-European working group on trade issues affecting satellite navigation markets.
72Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

DOC participated in an American Meteorological Society workshop on the 

effects of space weather on satellite navigation, culminating in the publication 

of an April 2011 report highlighting vulnerabilities and recommending steps to 

strengthen the integrity and robustness of GPS-based services.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NOAA’s environmental satellites are key tools for forecasting weather, analyzing 

climate, and monitoring hazards worldwide. In FY 11, a year full of exceptionally 

destructive natural disasters, these satellites helped scientists and meteorologists 

at NOAA monitor severe flooding of the Mississippi River; a devastating tsunami 

in Japan; and a particularly destructive tornado season that included a single outbreak of 358 tornadoes across the southeastern United States and, one month later, 

the catastrophic EF5 tornado in Joplin, Missouri. Twenty-four-hour global coverage from NOAA’s satellites provides scientists and managers with a never-ending 

stream of information used in preparation for events that will impact our climate, 

weather, and oceans. NOAA manages and operates two groups of environmental 

satellites: Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES) and Polarorbiting Operational Environmental Satellites (POES).

NOAA’s Geostationary Satellites

GOES satellites continuously monitor the Western Hemisphere by circling 

Earth in a geosynchronous orbit 22,000 miles above the equator, meaning they 

remain over one position on the surface by orbiting at a speed matching Earth’s 

rotation. Information from GOES is used for short-term weather forecasting and 

severe-storm tracking. GOES imagery is also used to estimate rainfall during 

thunderstorms and hurricanes for flash-flood warnings, as well as to estimate 

snowfall accumulation and overall extent of snow cover. This information helps 

meteorologists issue winter storm warnings and spring snow-melt advisories. In 

FY 11, GOES-11 flew at 135°W and served as “GOES-West,” while GOES-13 flew 

at 75°W and served as “GOES-East.”
73Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

NOAA’s Polar-Orbiting Satellites

POES satellites circle Earth in an almost north-south orbit at an altitude of 

approximately 517 miles, passing close to both poles. Earth constantly rotates counterclockwise underneath the path of the satellites, allowing a different view with each 

orbit. It takes a satellite approximately 1.5 hours complete a full orbit. In a 24-hour 

period, the 14 orbits of each polar-orbiting satellite provide two complete views of 

weather around the world. POES provides full global coverage with advanced sensors 

for weather and climate data, collecting information on temperature, atmospheric 

conditions, wind speed, cloud formation, and drought conditions over the entire 

planet. In FY 11, NOAA-19 served as NOAA’s primary polar-orbiting satellite.

International Agreements

On July 18, 2011, NOAA entered into an agreement with the Japan Aerospace 

Exploration Agency (JAXA) for satellite information that will help scientists 

understand water circulation and climate change. Once launched in 2012, 

NOAA will receive access to data from the Global Change Observation MissionWater 1 (GCOM-W1) satellite in exchange for ground system support for JAXA. 

GCOM-W1 will carry the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer 2 (AMSR2) 

instrument, which observes water-related targets such as precipitation, water vapor, 

and snow depth. AMSR2 data will complement data from NOAA’s future Joint 

Polar Satellite System (JPSS) and meet key NOAA observational requirements in 

areas such as total water vapor content, cumulative cloud and water volume, and 

rainfall. GCOM-W1 data will contribute to a range of environmental data products 

used routinely in weather forecasting. Access to the data will allow NOAA to have 

improved forecasting skill without having to build and launch a similar satellite.

Other Accomplishments

Antarctica Station Cuts Data Delivery Latency in Half

On June 10, 2011, the Antarctica Data Acquisition (ADA) Station successfully 

began receiving images from the European Organisation for the Exploitation of 

Meteorological Satellites’ (EUMETSAT) Metop polar-orbiting satellites for the first 
74Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

time in history, allowing NOAA to process and deliver information from the polarorbiting satellites to weather data users in the United States and around the world 

approximately twice as fast as the previous rate. The Metop series records meteo-

rological and environmental data used by U.S. and European weather services for 

analyses of fires, tropical cyclones, volcano plume, and precipitation and general 

weather pattern observations. NOAA’s Office of Satellite and Product Operations 

(OSPO) implemented technology at the ADA Station—located at the U.S. National 

Science Foundation’s (NSF) McMurdo Station—that lets it download images from 

a Metop satellite when it reaches the South Pole. Previously, images from a Metop 

satellite were downloaded only at the Svalbard Ground Station at the North Pole.

The city of Joplin, Missouri, was devastated by a powerful tornado that spun through a densely popu-

lated part of town. This image, from GOES-13 on May 22, 2011, shows the storm system moments 

before it spawned the tornado, estimated to have struck shortly before 6 p.m. CST. Many houses, many 

school buildings, and the St. John Medical Center sustained major damage.

NOAA Provides Flood Imagery for Major Disasters

NOAA’s Center for Satellite Applications and Research (STAR) provided realtime flood maps to support emergency response to the March 2011 tsunami in 

Japan and the May 2011 flooding in the U.S. Midwest. The STAR Geostationary 

Operational Environmental Satellite Series R (GOES-R) land application team 

used satellite images to create a product to detect flooding and standing water. 
75Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

The imagery was rapidly disseminated to decision makers and the public to permit 

informed flood response, which involves developing plans for disaster preparation 

when a threatening flood approaches and monitoring active floods. After the tsunami in Japan, STAR created a flood map for the coast line of Sendai, Japan, in a 

quick response to a request from the U.S. Government. NOAA, NASA, and other 

agencies used this map online through NOAA’s Web sites. STAR also created a 

map of the levee breach near the confluence of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers.

The earthquake and tsunami that impacted Japan on March 11, 2011, crippled the Nation’s power 

supplies, leaving many areas without, or with less, electricity. On March 12, 2011, a U.S. Defense 

Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) satellite, a polar-orbiting Department of Defense satellite 

operated by NOAA, passed over Japan and was able to detect the nighttime lights from the region. 

The data are shown here in comparison to the average nighttime lights of Japan taken from several 

DMSP satellite passes during 2010. Much lower light levels can be seen in many areas of Japan. Sendai, 

near the 9.0 earthquake epicenter and also the area hardest hit by the tsunami, is almost completely 

blacked out.

NOAA manages the command, control, and data processing of the DMSP satellites. Data come from the Operational Linescan System sensors. Nighttime lights 

imagery is one of the many data products generated by DMSP. For example, the 

microwave sensors on board the satellite have provided meteorologists with the 

longest continuous data archive for many variables on Earth, including sea ice 

concentration and atmospheric moisture.
76Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

National Institute of Standards and Technology

In FY 11, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) con-

tinued to provide Federal agencies and the aerospace industry with the research, 

guidance, standards, products, and services needed to advance the presidential 

administration’s space agenda. These wide-ranging outputs fall into four main categories: 1) validation, measurement, and calibration; 2) manufacturing technology; 

3) observation and sensing; and 4) spacecraft and living environments.

NIST supported accurate and compatible measurements made by the aerospace 

industry by providing Standard Reference Materials (SRMs) and calibration services. Customers used these SRMs and services to ensure the accuracy of their 

own instrument calibrations and the validity of their measurement methods. In 

2011, aerospace companies purchased 50 SRMs, including ferrous and nonferrous 

metals certified for chemical composition and for hardness, as well as artifacts certified for nanoscale dimensional properties. Additionally, in 2011, 94 aerospace 

companies from 21 states and 7 foreign countries requested 278 calibrations of 

4,133 instruments or artifacts sent to NIST. These tests spanned NIST’s entire 

calibration services offerings, including dimensional, force, vibration, ionizing and 

optical radiation, mechanical, thermodynamic, and time/frequency measurements, 

thus providing these companies with a source of metrological traceability for their 

primary measurement standards.

NIST continues to provide the tools, methodologies, standards, and measure-

ment services needed by aerospace parts manufacturers, assemblers, and NASA to 

maintain their accurate and traceable use of the International System of Units (SI) 

units of length, mass, and time, as well as their derived units (force, acceleration, 

sound pressure, and ultrasonic power). For example, NIST performed calibrations 

of length standards for U.S. aerospace companies to ensure that the dimensions 

of their manufactured parts conform to design specifications. Traceable NIST 

measurements (mass, force, vibration, acoustics, electricity, thermometry, humid-

ity, flow, pressure, viscosity, fluid density, radiometry, and length) are essential for 

aircraft manufacturing, according to a senior Boeing metrologist. Further, in the 

manufacture of the company’s new 787 airplanes, every tool used in the assembly 

process was calibrated in Boeing’s metrology laboratories with direct traceability 
77Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

to NIST. Structural testing of the airplane is performed by scores of load cells 

with up to 3.54 meganewtons (800 kilopounds-force, or klbf) capacity. These load 

cells are central to the structural testing of the first full-scale composite wing/

titanium wing box. The load cells, used to analyze the integrity of the wing box 

structure, are directly traceable to NIST either through direct comparison with 

NIST-calibrated load cells or through calibration in the Boeing 221-kilonewton 

(50-klbf) deadweight machine whose masses were calibrated at NIST. Other direct 

applications of NIST measurements included the use of NIST-calibrated weights to 

support wind tunnel applications; the weighing of airplanes; and torque, pressure, 

and force measurements.

NIST worked with EMCORE Corporation of Albuquerque, New Mexico, a leading developer of high-efficiency solar photovoltaic cells for space applications, to 

“space-qualify” their solar cells. EMCORE sent batches of solar cells for irradiation 

by an electron beam from the NIST Van de Graaff accelerator, where the equivalent 

electron fluency experienced by a satellite over several decades in Earth orbit may be 

delivered in less than 1 hour. Characterizing the degradation in performance of the 

solar cells as a result of irradiation is an important part of the qualification process, 

validating the performance of the cells in a space-radiation environment. The knowledge gained by the irradiation of these devices assisted EMCORE in the development 

of its technology in terms of product reliability and functionality.

NIST has recently begun work with DOD and with Boeing on the applicability 

of laser scanning technology for the dimensional measurement of aircraft components. This new technology offers potential cost savings and increased measurement throughput. The work includes the development of calibration methodologies 

and facilities for laser scanner systems and national and international standardization of their measurement accuracy.

NIST continues to develop and characterize measurement methods for advanced 

optics used in aerospace and space applications. Advanced optical elements are 

essential components of air- and space-borne imaging systems and telescopes. They 

must incorporate features that yield vastly improved performance but pose significant measurement challenges. Examples are complex, highly accurate optical 

surfaces that are neither flat nor spherical or ones that have micro- and nanoscale 

surface structures. In collaboration with NASA, NIST developed a method that 
78Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

employs a mirror with a special height relief pattern to assess the capability of 

inspection equipment to measure fine surface features on optical surfaces. NIST 

furthermore collaborated with NASA, supported by funding through NASA’s 

Innovative Partnerships Program, to develop a new interferometric method to 

precisely measure the form errors of mandrels needed for the fabrication of x-ray 

mirrors for future space-borne x-ray telescopes. The new method, based on a pair 

of computer-generated holograms, has the potential to meet the metrology require-

ments for the next generation of x-ray mirrors, which cannot be met with the 

current probe-based metrology for mandrels. These collaborations built on prior 

joint developments by NIST and NASA for the calibration of reference optical flats 

for precision interferometry.

NIST also continues to work in the development of nanometrology for nano-

manufacturing. The aerospace industry is interested in the potential benefits of 

nanotechnology. The development of accurate nanometrology of small particles 

and structures is critical to the success of this effort. For example, a Reference 

Material has been made available for scale calibration of optical, scanning probe, 

and scanning particle beam instruments to the same dimensional standard. The 

use of this standard has also been extended to the measurement and monitoring 

of beam-induced contamination in scanned particle beam instruments. Using this 

standard and the methods developed, NIST has virtually eliminated the depo-

sition of contamination on the specimen, which is a common artifact in these 

instruments (which are critical to imaging, measurement, and characterization for 

nanotechnology). In addition, these methods have applications in other areas, such 

as cleaning optical surfaces. NIST research is also being conducted to characterize 

and monitor instrumentation performance and standardization to ensure accurate 

dimensional metrology of carbon composites, carbon nanotubes, and cellulose 

nanocrystals. Nanocomposite material offers the advantage of lighter airframes, 

giving better fuel economy; however, it still needs to be determined if the material 

provides the necessary high strength and durability. To facilitate this, NIST devel-

oped a new scanning electron microscope imaging technique to help determine the 

carbon nanotube loading in composite materials.

Using instruments developed to help improve semiconductor electronics, NIST 

has worked with Johns Hopkins University and NASA to measure the optical 
79Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

constants of iron and nickel. Iron metal is a key component of many planetary 

surfaces. It is present as macroscopic grains (larger than the wavelength of light) in 

a variety of meteorites and is inferred to exist in the asteroidal parent bodies (e.g., 

S- and M-types). In addition, much smaller (nanometer to micrometer) grains of 

metallic iron are produced to varying degrees in the surfaces of airless solar system 

bodies by exposure to the space environment. Space weathering (which includes 

solar wind sputtering and micrometeoroid impact melting and vaporization) results 

in the reduction of ferrous iron in silicates to the metallic state and the creation 

of nanophase blebs and coatings on and within regolith particles. The nanophase 

iron (npFe0) is optically active and has a strong effect on the reflectance spectrum. For example, a mature lunar soil that has accumulated npFe0

 is much darker 

and has a steeper spectral slope than a freshly ground powder of the same lithology; diagnostic absorption bands are also greatly attenuated in space-weathered 

material. In support of Johns Hopkins University’s efforts to analyze remote and 

laboratory spectra of planetary surfaces, NIST has undertaken a program to measure the optical constants of iron and nickel. The optical constants (n and k) are 

fundamental physical parameters that govern the reflectance (and transmission) 

of light from a material. NIST has measured n and k from extended wavelengths 

ranging from 150 nanometers to 4,000 nanometers for high-purity iron films using 

ellipsometry, including bare films exposed to the atmosphere and films protected 

from the atmosphere via a novel technique involving an iron coating on a fused 

silica prism. The air-exposed film exhibits optical constants that are markedly different from those of the protected film, despite the fact that the air-exposed film 

appears to the eye to be bright and mirrorlike. Analysis of the air-exposed film by 

x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy confirms the presence of oxidized iron (Fe2

O3) on 

the surface, and NIST scientists conclude that oxidation layers form rapidly on the 

air-exposed metal and measurably alter the optical properties.

NIST provided quality assessment of atomic data used by astronomers who are 

interpreting observations from NASA’s land- and space-based missions, including 

the Hubble Space Telescope, the Chandra X-ray Observatory, the Far Ultraviolet 

Spectroscopic Explorer, and the Spitzer Infrared Observatory. In 2011, NIST 

provided results for atomic sulfur, neon, titanium, chromium, nickel, barium, 

strontium, iron, silver, mercury, and other elements of particularly strong current 
80Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

interest. For each type of atom, NIST provided a single, self-consistent set of best 

values from the frequently inconsistent, incomplete, and heterogeneous-quality 

data scattered across the open literature. NIST published these evaluated datasets 

in peer-reviewed scientific journals and disseminated them publicly through NIST’s 

online Atomic Spectra Database (http://physics.nist.gov/asd). These data are used 

as standards across the astrophysics community and facilitate the comparison of 

results from different astronomers. This work was partially funded by NASA.

NIST measured atomic properties required to make use of observations from 

NASA’s ultraviolet and infrared spaced-based observatories. Comprehensive data 

for iron and chromium atoms, two of the most important atoms for interpreting 

data from these observatories, were recently published by NIST. The NIST analyses 

provide over an order of magnitude increase in accuracy over the previous data, 

which were over 30 years old. Additional data for chromium and cobalt are currently being analyzed. This work was partially funded by NASA.

NIST provided a new release of its online Atomic Spectra Database, v.4.1.1. 

Following this release, the average volume of data downloaded per month by all 

users doubled compared to the amount downloaded using previous versions. This 

change indicates that data are of high importance. The new release features signifi-

cant improvements to the spectral data on a range of elements critical to aerospace 

efforts. This work was partially funded by NASA.

NIST announced a new measurement service that provides accurate measure-

ments of the area of optical apertures. This new service improves the operation of 

optical apertures that are used in a variety of remote sensing instruments, such as 

satellite sensors, that measure the amount of optical radiation coming from Earth 

or the sun, as well as apertures in various radiometric standards needed to calibrate 

remote sensing instruments.

NIST published a report in the NIST Journal of Research summarizing the discus-

sions in the NIST workshop called “Bridging Satellite Climate Data Gaps.” The 

report addresses the issue of data gaps in time series of satellite measurements of 

climate variables such as sea surface temperature, ocean color, vegetation level, soil 

moisture, and atmospheric temperature. Gaps can be caused by a satellite failure 

on launch or on orbit or by a satellite launch delay. The report provided a variety of 
81Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

strategies to mitigate the impact of such a gap on maintaining accurate long-term 

climate variable time series.

NIST provided calibration support for the infrared and optical sensors for several 

satellite missions under development: JPSS, GOES-R, the Landsat Data Continuity 

Mission (LDCM), and the second Orbiting Carbon Observatory (OCO II). NIST 

activities included the provision of radiometric standards, the validation of radiometric standards used by the sensor development teams, and the calibration and 

characterization of satellite sensors.

NIST, in partnership with the University of New Mexico, Harvard University, 

and the Smithsonian Institution, continued a research program to improve the 

absolute radiometric calibration of stars for applications that include satellite sensor 

calibration, dark energy research, and nighttime aerosol monitoring.

Scientists from NIST, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), and the California 

Institute of Technology collaborated on the pre-launch and post-launch calibration of the Cosmic Infrared Background Experiment (CIBER) which has flown 

three times: first in February 2009, again in July 2010, and finally in March 2012. 

CIBER is designed to characterize various properties of the near-infrared background, including its absolute photometric spectrum and spatial anisotropy. These 

are critical measurements that constrain the overall stellar content of the universe, 

particularly at very early epochs when the first generation of stars was formed. 

The CIBER calibrations were performed using a transportable version of the NIST 

Spectral Irradiance and Radiance Responsivity Calibrations using Uniform Sources 

(Traveling SIRCUS) facility. The SIRCUS calibration provided the most accurate 

available measurements of the CIBER absolute spectral response and has allowed 

several critical science topics to be addressed. Primarily, the NIST calibration has 

enabled a detailed analysis of the CIBER data, allowing the disentanglement of 

local contributions like the zodiacal diffuse galactic light from the much more 

faint and distant extragalactic background. Furthermore, the NIST calibrations are 

critical for allowing comparison of the CIBER data to previous measurements and 

models, some of which have already been excluded by the CIBER data. As a sideproduct of the exceptionally accurate calibration provided by SIRCUS, the CIBER 

team will release a catalog of several hundred calibrated stars to the astronomical 
82Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

community; the catalog will be a unique and valuable dataset due to the lack of 

atmospheric extinction over a broad spectral range.

NIST developed calibration protocols for acoustic emission, a method used to 

detect subsurface macroscopic defects in fiber-based composites. A draft stan-

dard addressing these protocols is currently being balloted by American Society 

for Testing and Materials (ASTM) International. NIST also worked with several 

partners to develop protocols and reference specimens for calibrating nondestruc-

tive evaluation (NDE) instruments to enable more reliable detection of subsurface 

macro- and microscopic defects. Specifically, NIST established a noise-free calibra-

tion artifact for determining baseline performance in acoustic emission sensors. 

These sensors are widely used by NASA to detect breaks in fiber-reinforced struc-

tural composites. In addition to establishing the noise-free standard, NIST developed 

a protocol for calibration to specifically meet the needs of the aerospace industry. 

This documentary standard is currently under review by ASTM. NIST’s continued 

development of calibration standards will improve the accuracy of the data obtained 

through acoustic emission while also providing key scientific insights into composite 

manufacturing that will enable long-term reliability of the structural materials used 

in military and commercial aircraft and long-duration spacecraft.

NIST worked with the Air Force, as well as industry and NASA, in fuels research 

geared toward developing alternative fuels and generating an understanding upon 

which to base innovative designs for jet and rocket propulsion systems. Major foci 

of the work involved combustion kinetics, chemical characterization, and thermo-

physical properties. In particular, NIST evaluated properties of synthetic FischerTropsch fuels (including several renewable bio-based fluids) and rocket/jet fuels.

NIST’s Synchrotron Ultraviolet Radiation Facility (SURF) III was used 

as a source of soft x rays and extreme ultraviolet (EUV) light to calibrate mirrors, detectors, and spectrometers used in NASA and NOAA spacecraft. These 

include calibrations of rocket-borne instruments to maintain the accuracy of the 

instrumentation for the EUV Variability Experiment (EVE) aboard NASA’s Solar 

Dynamics Observatory (SDO) and others. NIST performed spectral irradiance 

measurements of the collimated output infrared beam from five separate space 

simulation chambers used in the aerospace industry for the calibration of infrared 

remote sensing systems for the Missile Defense Agency. One of these deployments 
83Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

utilized the NIST-developed Ballistic Missile Defense Transfer Radiometer (BXR), 

and four other deployments utilized the NIST-developed Missile Defense Transfer 

Radiometer (MDXR). Both of these are portable cryogenic radiometers. The BXR 

is the legacy NIST portable infrared filter radiometer for this application, and the 

MDXR is an improved system that can be operated as an infrared filter radiometer 

or as an infrared spectral radiometer using a recently developed cryogenic Fouriertransform spectrometer. While the MDXR was constructed to meet the infrared 

calibration needs of the missile defense community, it also has applications in the 

calibration of test sources and calibration standards for infrared astronomy.

NIST collaborated with NASA on the calibration and characterization of 

the Ocean Radiometer for Carbon Assessment (ORCA), a hyperspectral ocean 

color imaging system under development at NASA through the Instrument 

Incubator Program.

NIST continued its collaboration with NOAA on the calibration of the Marine 

Optical BuoY (MOBY) used in the vicarious calibration of ocean color measurements provided by satellite sensors.

The NIST Fluid Metrology Group makes airspeed and hydrocarbon liquid flow 

measurements to support the aerospace sector. The airspeed calibration service performs calibrations of anemometers used at airports, on aircraft, and in wind tunnels 

used for testing new aircraft. The hydrocarbon liquid calibration service calibrates 

flow meters that are used to meter jet fuel, for example, turbine meters used to evaluate jet engine performance on test stands. During the past year, NIST worked to 

improve these measurements by researching the influence of fluid properties (density 

and viscosity) on turbine flow meter performance. This work will lead to the use 

of less toxic and inflammable surrogate fluids by NIST and secondary calibration 

labs in the aerospace calibration chain. The NIST Temperature and Humidity 

Group provides measurement services for traceable temperature and humidity to 

support NASA’s missions. Additionally, the group is actively involved in accreditation activities, through the National Voluntary Laboratory Accreditation Program 

(NVLAP), with companies that support NASA (e.g., Wyle Laboratories). The NIST 

Pressure and Vacuum Group invented a revolutionary transfer pressure standard 

that can be used in an FAA-proposed project aimed at safely narrowing separation distances between aircraft, known as Reduced Vertical Separation Minima 
84Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

(RVSM). This potentially exciting application would help to alleviate air traffic 

congestion around the Nation’s airports.

NIST helped resolve long-standing discrepancies in the data used to determine 

temperature and other properties of hot astronomical objects observed by the Chandra 

X-ray Observatory and other x-ray missions. NIST created, in the laboratory, atoms 

in the same extremely hot form as that found in high-energy astrophysical environ-

ments. By analyzing x-ray emission from these atoms and comparing them to detailed 

calculations, NIST provided the basic data needed to understand observations from 

deep space. NASA partially funded this effort carried out in collaboration with the 

Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics and the Argonne National Laboratory.

NIST began the construction of a new facility, the Controlled-Background 

System for Spectroradiometry and Spectrophotometry (CBS3). This facility will 

contain an evacuated, temperature-controlled infrared test chamber for study-

ing the performance of sensors, calibration sources, and the optical properties of 

materials in the 5-micrometer to 50-micrometer infrared spectral region to provide 

the measurement standards and calibrations required for the next generation of 

infrared satellite sensors used for weather forecasting and climate research.

NIST initiated the construction of a new facility to permit more rapid and accu-

rate measurements of the bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) of 

materials, including polarization sensitivity, in support of ground- and space-based 

remote sensing throughout the solar reflected region.

NIST is collaborating with NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) to 

develop photodetectors for space applications. With funding from NASA, NIST 

designed and fabricated nanotextured gallium nitride (GaN) and GaN nano wires 

that serve as raw material for photocathode detectors. Goddard collaborators acti-

vated the material with cesium and packaged the units into complete imaging 

systems. In FY 11, this collaboration tested GaN nanowires with magnesium (Mg) 

doping that varied with depth and found that these performed better than previously 

tested nanowire samples. They also concluded that nanowire samples performed better when cleaned with similar processes that had been developed for planar materials.

NIST is collaborating with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) on the develop-

ment of superconducting nanowire single photon detectors (SNSPDs). SNSPDs 

are a type of single photon detector with extremely low noise and very-high-speed 
85Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

response. These devices are of interest to JPL for space communications and to 

NIST for various quantum information experiments. NIST characterized various 

JPL devices and also packaged some JPL devices with NIST’s self-aligned singlemode optical fiber packaging scheme.

NIST is teaming with Northrop Grumman and the University of Maryland to 

develop the next generation of highly sensitive, solar-blind, ultraviolet (UV) photodetectors using robust wide-bandgap materials. This project successfully combines 

Northrop Grumman’s expertise in nitride materials growth, NIST’s exceptional 

nanofabrication and characterization capabilities, and the University of Maryland’s 

device design and fabrication expertise. Such radiation-hard, ultra-sensitive ultraviolet photodetectors are intended for use in radiation monitors, satellite-based 

imaging, and other space applications.

With NASA funding, NIST is also developing Superconducting Quantum 

Interference Devices (SQUIDs) and SQUID-based multiplexers to read out large 

arrays of TES detectors in a manageable number of output channels. NIST is 

providing SQUID systems to many researchers, both those at NASA Centers 

(GSFC and JPL) and those in academia working on NASA-funded projects 

(including at the California State Polytechnic University; Stanford University; 

the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; the University of California, Berkeley; 

Princeton University; and Cornell University). SQUIDs and SQUID multiplexers developed at NIST are currently deployed in many ground- and balloon-based 

instruments (ACT, BICEP2/Keck, SPT, BLISS, GISMO, SPIDER, EBEX, and others) and will be used in most of NASA’s future TES instruments. Recent developments for improved detector readout include the demonstration of TES readout 

with dissipationless microwave SQUID multiplexers, the demonstration of codedomain multiplexers for subframe sampling for measurement of fast x-ray pulses, 

and new low-power SQUID amplifiers for use at focal plane temperatures. Recently 

(in collaboration with the University of Colorado), NIST has developed a quantum 

limited Josephson parametric amplifier for use in the readout of microwave kinetic 

inductance detectors (MKID). NIST’s work in detector readout and multiplexing 

creates a path for truly large (up to 1 million) pixel arrays of TES detectors for use 

in a variety of astronomical instruments. NIST is also using its SQUID expertise to 

assist Goddard in the development of magnetic micro-calorimeters.
86Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

NIST and international collaborators also successfully delivered eight imagers 

(10,240 total pixel count) for the Submillimeter Common-User Bolometer Array 

(SCUBA-2) camera. The SCUBA-2 instrument is currently in shared-risk observ-

ing mode, allowing preliminary scientific observation to be made concurrent with 

system startup. The new camera is based upon eight 1,280-pixel SQUID multi-

plexer chips and eight 1,280-pixel TES bolometer arrays fabricated at NIST. This 

ground-based instrument is not funded by NASA, but it is a technical pathfinder 

for a number of future NASA instruments. The SCUBA-2 instrument was com-

missioned for research in October 2011.

NIST continued work on new concepts to achieve on-chip electrical cooling 

of cryogenic detectors. These on-chip coolers, based on superconducting tunnel 

junctions, could greatly simplify spacecraft cryogenic requirements by provid-

ing a final on-chip stage of cooling from 0.3 kelvin (K) to 0.1 K. Researchers at 

NIST have developed large-area coolers fabricated using standard microelectronic 

processes. These devices have demonstrated cooling from 260 millikelvins (mK) 

to 115 mK with cooling power 100 to 1,000 times greater than previous demon-

strations. In collaboration with researchers at GSFC, NIST also fabricated and 

operated devices that combine both TES detectors and electrical refrigerators on 

a single chip.

NASA Kennedy Space Center (KSC) was the first measurement laboratory to 

implement NIST’s newly developed 10-volt programmable Josephson Voltage 

Standard. This system will be used for calibrating NASA standards and is the first 

in the world to provide stable voltages whose accuracy is determined by quantum 

behavior. It is also the first Josephson system capable of performing calibrations 

of alternating current (AC) voltages at 10 volts. NIST is collaborating with KSC 

to incorporate new software features and hardware that will make the system 

simpler to transport, including a compact microwave synthesizer and an on-board 

embedded controller.

In collaboration with Goddard (Microwave Sensors and Hydrological Sciences 

Branch), NIST demonstrated the world’s first SI-traceable brightness-temperature 

or radiance calibration of a microwave black-body target, as used in space-based 

radiometers that monitor Earth’s climate. NIST has designed the world’s first facility 

to precisely measure the performance of millimeter-wave antennas using a robotic 
87Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

arm. It will operate at first to 210 gigahertz (GHz) and ultimately to 600 GHz. This 

facility will allow NIST to perform accurate calibrations of radiometer antennas 

above 110 GHz, a capability currently not available to the aerospace community.

In collaboration with the University of Colorado (CU) Center for Astrophysics 

and Space Astronomy, NIST demonstrated a prototype easily portable new system to precisely measure the tiny changes in wavelength of infrared light emitted 

from stars caused by the orbit of Earth-like exoplanets. The NIST/CU system uses 

femtosecond laser frequency combs to make ultraprecise, ultra-stable wavelength 

references in the infrared spectrum around 1,600 nanometers (nm). About 80 percent of the exoplanets discovered so far have been identified by the radial velocity technique of measuring tiny changes in the wavelength of the star’s emitted 

light over weeks to months as the orbiting exoplanet causes the star to “wobble” 

slightly. However, the great majority of exoplanets so far detected with the radial 

velocity technique are large gas planets closely orbiting hot stars that emit strong 

visible light. Thus, the detectable exoplanets are much too hot to support Earthlike conditions and life as we know it. Cooler stars emitting mostly infrared light 

are very common (comprising about 2/3 of the stars nearest our solar system) and 

could support Earth-like exoplanets orbiting much closer to the stars and detectable by the radial velocity technique. But no good, ultra-precise, ultra-stable infrared wavelength references have been available, in contrast to suitable visible light 

references. The NIST/CU team developed a prototype compact, portable, ultraprecise, ultra-stable infrared wavelength reference based on the technology of laser 

frequency combs that won NIST a share of the 2005 Nobel Prize in Physics. The 

NIST/CU frequency comb reference was transported to and tested at the HobbyEberly Telescope at the MacDonald Observatory in Texas. The initial prototype 

testing, done in collaboration with astronomers from the Pennsylvania State 

University (PSU), resulted in the first stellar spectra calibrated with a frequency 

comb. Following this successful demonstration experiment, the NIST/CU team 

is now building a fully autonomous, stand-alone frequency comb operating near 

1,000 nm, which is the preferred wavelength band for observing the cooler stars 

mentioned above. In parallel, collaborators at PSU are developing the HabitableZone Planet Finder, which will be the world’s most precise spectrograph for this 

same wavelength band. In 2015, the NIST/CU frequency comb and the PSU 
88Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

spectrograph will come together again at the MacDonald Observatory to begin a 

systematic search for exoplanets around 300 nearby stars.

NIST also works with NASA on secure communications. The NIST 

Cryptographic Module Validation Program and the Cryptographic Algorithm 

Validation Program (CAVP) have had an ongoing relationship with NASA, spe-

cifically with NASA’s Langley Research Center, in providing technical assistance 

with Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) 140-2: Security Requirements 

for Cryptographic Modules, as well as other cryptographic-based standards. NASA 

works with many vendors and other government space agencies, such as the Japan 

Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), who develop cryptographic modules for 

unique environments (e.g., space-based or ground-based telemetry) where interpretation of FIPS 140-2 is critical to both development and conformance to the 

standard. As a result, the NIST programs have successfully validated vendordeveloped cryptographic modules for conformance to FIPS 140-2 that are deployed 

for space-based imaging and communication systems. Recent cryptographic 

validations were in use on vehicles contracted to the International Space Station 

(ISS) under NASA’s Commercial Resupply Services program. The ongoing NIST 

collaboration with NASA and suppliers continues with specific application to 

the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle (MPCV) and NASA’s Commercial Crew 

Development programs.

NIST supports NASA with its unique capabilities at the National Center for 

Neutron Research (NCNR). Polymer nanocomposites seek to enhance the thermal, mechanical, and electrical properties of the base polymeric matrix material. 

Electrical properties of nanocomposites are crucial in many aerospace applica-

tions, including lightning strike dissipation in air vehicles and electrical charge 

mitigations in space vehicles in the charged space environment. In addition, robust 

mechanical properties are necessary in a wide range of temperatures for funda-

mental structural material components. NIST partnered with Edwards Air Force 

Base to use small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) to measure electrically con-

ducting polyaniline nanofiber/polyimide nanocomposites. The study determined 

that the level of electrical conductivity in these heterogeneous materials depends 

primarily on the concentration and geometry of the conductive filler particles. The 

observed critical filler content that marks the onset of increase in conductivity 
89Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

in the majority of these composites falls between 15 and 25 percent (vol/vol). At 

such high filler concentrations, many of the desirable mechanical properties of 

the matrix polymer are either compromised or lost. However, when the conductive components are reduced in size from macro- to nano-sized, the concentration 

threshold for conductivity is dramatically reduced with the additional advantage of 

preserving the bulk mechanical properties of the matrix polymer.

An additional collaboration with NASA Glenn Research Center studied the 

synthesis and properties of several proton exchange membranes for fuel cell technology. SANS measurements were critical to understanding the morphology and 

distribution of small ionic clusters within these films that impart their ability to 

exchange protons. The goal of this partnership is to produce materials with lower 

costs, higher conductivity, and improved temperature stability.

As a part of the Materials Genome Initiative, NIST is exploring with Glenn 

methods to improve data informatics tools and accessibility for materials data.

With NASA funding from the Planetary Instrument Definition and Development 

Program (PIDDP), NIST has worked to develop microsensor technology for use in 

planetary exploration missions. The NIST sensing technology for the measurement 

of trace gas-phase compounds is inherently small, with low mass and low power 

consumption, and these features are well suited to extraterrestrial deployment and 

operation on rovers, atmospheric sampling balloons, trend-monitoring weather stations, or networks. The fabricated devices include silicon microelectromechanical 

systems (Si-MEMS) array platforms that are populated with varied chemiresistive 

materials. Rapid thermal modulation is employed to greatly enhance signal densities 

from sets of individually addressable “microhotplate” elements within the arrays to 

sense multiple analytes. Nanostructured oxide sensing materials provide the sensitivity required to detect targets of interest at relevant concentration levels. As a 

demonstration scenario, efforts were specifically directed to future exploration of the 

Martian surface that will seek to locate hot spots of methane and then determine 

if there is also proximal sulfur dioxide (suggesting volcanic activity) or ethane or 

hydrogen (possibly indicating a biological origin).

A critical aspect of NIST studies during FY 11 related to developing appropriate 

sensing, with the goal of demonstrating microsensor viability in the background 

conditions found on the Martian surface—which is dominated by carbon dioxide 
90Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

and is very low in oxygen. Initial testing of the NIST technology was successful at 

measuring sub-μmol/mol target concentrations. In FY 11, NIST designed and con-

structed a testing facility that operates at the reduced pressures (7.5 hectopascals 

[hPa]) and temperatures (200 K) found in the Mars environment.

The NIST Manufacturing Extension Partnership (MEP) program maintains a 

network of 60 centers, with at least one in every state and Puerto Rico. These MEP 

centers offer business and technical assistance services to the Nation’s manufac-

turers. The aerospace industry is experiencing a twofold challenge to meet the 

growing needs of domestic and worldwide government customers. These custom-

ers are demanding higher visibility in the supply chain while maintaining highperformance, lower-cost standards. These pressures are creating opportunities for 

small- and medium-sized manufacturers who are capable of moving beyond offering simple products to presenting differentiated product-service bundles based on 

innovative ideas. In FY 11, MEP centers engaged in 214 business improvement 

projects with 138 individual manufacturing companies designated with an aero-

space North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) 3364 code. MEP 

aerospace clients reported 2,140 jobs created and retained for this time period. 

Some examples of MEP projects impacting aerospace companies include efforts of 

the Connecticut State Technical Extension Program (CONNSTEP) to improve 

supply-chain efficiencies in the Connecticut aerospace industry. Connecticut has 

one of the highest concentrations of small and mid-sized aerospace suppliers in 

the Nation. CONNSTEP, in conjunction with aerospace suppliers, is doing TwoTier Value Stream Mapping projects. The maps cover the flow of product between 

companies. The first case was with an aircraft-bearing manufacturer and its heattreating vendor. The second was with an external jet-engine tube manufacturer 

and its plating supplier. Both were extremely successful, and CONNSTEP has at 

least one additional project planned with one of these companies.

In Ohio, the Ohio MEP is working with Airbus on a supplier initiative. This 

initiative was developed to aid Airbus in the recruitment and development of small 

business, minority, and disadvantaged suppliers. The Ohio MEP has a similar ini-

tiative in place with GE Aviation.
91Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

Industry and Trade Policy

The International Trade Administration’s (ITA) Office of Transportation and 

Machinery (OTM) participated in the development of administration policies 

on aeronautical R&D through the National Science and Technology Council’s 

(NSTC) Aeronautics Science and Technology Subcommittee (ASTS). In FY 09, 

the ASTS completed the first biennial update to the National Aeronautics Research 

and Development Plan (R&D Plan), which establishes research goals and objectives for Federal aeronautics R&D investments in priority areas. To follow that 

exercise, in FY 10, the ASTS completed the first biennial update to the National 

Plan for Aeronautics R&D and Related Infrastructure, which establishes aeronautics 

R&D goals, objectives, and guidance outlining the path forward for implementing 

the R&D Plan. With the completion of the 2011 Progress Assessment, the ASTS 

completed its five-year national aeronautics R&D planning and assessment cycle. 

Following the completion of the 2011 assessment, the ASTS engaged in deliberations to define its next steps. These discussions led to a consensus among the ASTS 

membership that its future work program should encompass the following:

1. continuing integrated R&D planning across the Federal agencies;

2. developing and implementing, as appropriate, measures for improving the 

dissemination of R&D results;

3. facilitating technology transition from R&D to applications; and

4. identifying and promoting innovative policies and approaches that complement and enhance the Federal Government’s aeronautics investments.

OTM participated in the planning and implementation process for the Next 

Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen) through the interagency 

Joint Planning and Development Office (JPDO) overseeing the initiative. OTM 

staff continued to represent the Department of Commerce on both the Global 

Harmonization Working Group (GHWG) and the Aviation Security Working 

Group. As part of the GHWG, OTM staff supported the GHWG Executive 

Committee and cochaired the Liaison Standing Committee (which is charged 

with collaborating with the other working groups on technological and procedural developments with global implications). Further, OTM staff coordinated 

the review of various JPDO documents, including the Harmonization Roadmap, 
92Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

JPDO suggestions to International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) regard-

ing air traffic management standard and recommended practices (SARP) and 

ICAO’s Aviation System Block Upgrade initiative, the JPDO’s Targeted NextGen 

Capabilities for 2025, and the Avionics Roadmap. The ICAO is a United 

Nations specialized agency, created in 1944 upon the signing of the Convention 

on International Civil Aviation (Chicago Convention). ICAO works with the 

Convention’s 191 Signatory States and global industry and aviation organizations 

to develop international SARPs which are then used by States when they develop 

their legally-binding national civil aviation regulations. OTM staff also began work 

to form a NextGen Vendors Group to improve outreach to industry, garner market 

intelligence, create strategies for increased foreign market access, and build a cata-

log of NextGen-related products and services to help promote exports.

OTM continued its participation in aviation security activities, including work 

on the JPDO Aviation Security Working Group. As part of the Secure Aircraft 

Standing Committee, OTM staff contributed to the creation of the Secure Aircraft 

Scenario, which suggested optimal technological and operational standards that 

would allow for both secure and efficient in-flight operations. OTM staff took part 

in various security technology demonstrations and presentations to determine 

viability and provide perspective on the state of aviation security technology. OTM 

staff worked to ensure cooperation between the GHWG and the Aviation Security 

Working Group with regard to specific projects, such as the Flight Data Initiative 

(advanced flight data recorder technology) and the Security Integrated Tool Suite 

(for assessing the threat level of various flight objects), as well as to the integration of 

unmanned aircraft systems (UASes) into common airspace. OTM also assisted the 

Commercial Service in recruiting for aviation security–related trade missions to the 

Netherlands and Sweden in March 2011.

OTM updated market and policy assessments for civil-use UASes. OTM contin-

ued public outreach on UAS issues through meetings with major UAS manufacturers 

at the 2010 Farnborough International Air Show and other UAS conferences. OTM 

also met with FAA officials on their small-UAS rule to ensure that the future rule 

addresses industry concerns regarding airspace access.

In September 2010, ITA signed a Memorandum of Understanding with EmbryRiddle Aeronautical University’s (ERAU) Worldwide Center for Aviation and 
93Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

Aerospace Leadership to promote U.S. aerospace industry competitiveness through 

joint outreach, research, and other activities.

Throughout the year, OTM organized and led five meetings of the Industry Trade 

Advisory Committee for Aerospace Equipment (ITAC 1). The committee provides 

advice to the Secretary of Commerce and U.S. Trade Representative on aerospacerelated trade policy issues.

ITA continues to support the Office of the U.S. Trade Representative on issues 

relating to the enforcement of U.S. rights under the World Trade Organization 

concerning trade in civil aircraft. In particular, OTM has provided support for the 

ongoing U.S.–European Union (EU) trade dispute over subsidies to manufacturers 

of large civil aircraft, providing industry expertise in areas relating to changes in the 

market and the actions of the major stakeholders.

ITA’s OTM and Office of Financial Service Industries continued to participate 

in the Group on the Sector Understanding on Export Credits for Civil Aircraft 

(the “Aircraft Sector Understanding,” or ASU) at the Organization for Economic 

Cooperation and Development (OECD). The governments of almost all countries 

with major aircraft manufacturers are signatories to the ASU, an annex to the 

OECD Arrangement on Officially Supported Export Credits, which establishes rules 

for export credit agencies. The OECD rules aim to ensure that government-provided 

export financing is not a competitive factor in civil aircraft sales competitions. In 

2011, a new round of negotiations was concluded; it addressed several issues related 

to the 2007 ASU. As a member of the U.S. delegation, ITA helped ensure that the 

interests of industry were incorporated into the U.S. position and provided advice on 

how the Export-Import Bank of the United States (Ex-Im Bank) programs affect the 

aerospace industry.

ITA and NOAA continued their active participation in the implementation of the 

current National Space Policies, which include industrial base and competitiveness 

issues. ITA’s OTM actively participated in the implementation of several actions that 

were identified in the June 2010 National Space Policy, which revised and updated 

several aspects of the previous policies. In order to ensure that commercial interests 

continue to be adequately addressed, OTM and NOAA continued to ensure that all 

of the policies’ implementation actions would improve U.S. industry’s competitiveness, stimulate the American economy, increase exports, and create U.S. jobs.
94Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

OTM continues to represent commercial remote sensing satellite industry interests within the Remote Sensing Interagency Working Group (RSIWG), led by the 

State Department. The RSIWG coordinates policy for the export of commercial 

remote sensing satellite systems and negotiates government-to-government agree-

ments that address the safeguarding of those systems’ technology. The RSIWG 

consulted with several foreign countries on satellite cooperation and met with 

industry representatives to understand the impact on industry.

ITA continued to play an important role in promoting U.S. aerospace trade 

interests as the industry faced mounting competition from abroad. ITA participated 

in and organized trade events and provided advocacy to support U.S. companies 

in international aerospace competitions, including commercial sales for aircraft, 

helicopters, airport construction, communications, remote sensing satellites, com-

mercial projects, and air traffic management projects.

In June 2011, ITA organized and supported the Commerce Department’s participation in the Paris Air Show and arranged senior-level meetings for the Under 

Secretary for International Trade and the Assistant Secretary for Manufacturing 

and Services with foreign government and industry officials as well as U.S. indus-

try executives. ITA/OTM met with numerous U.S. and foreign government and 

industry officials to discuss ongoing policy issues impacting the competitiveness of 

U.S. industry.

OTM organized several meetings of the Civil Aviation Subcommittee of the 

U.S.-India High Technology Cooperation Group. The group provides a platform 

to discuss industry-specific trade issues in both business-to-government and 

government-to-government formats. Important topics of discussion included the 

expansion and upgrade of India’s airport infrastructure and air traffic management 

system, as well as the development of India’s domestic business aviation industry.

In FY 11, ITA’s U.S. and Foreign Commercial Service Aerospace Team recorded 

363 export successes valued at over $20 billion. An export success is an activity in 

which Department of Commerce personnel effectively assist a U.S. company with 

identifying new international sales channels or resolving an issue that is hindering 

an export sale. Commercial Service (CS) personnel impacted deals with small- and 

medium-sized companies, as well as larger corporations such as Boeing, Lockheed 

Martin, Raytheon, and Northrop Grumman.
95Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

The CS Aerospace Team held over 500 counseling sessions with U.S. aerospace 

companies, helping them to resolve international trade issues, identify new export 

markets, and develop strategies for entering those markets.

The CS Aerospace Team participated in 30 domestic and international aero-

space trade events at which CS Aerospace Team members supported U.S. industry 

with one-on-one counseling sessions, arranged individualized business-to-business 

meetings with international business partners, and provided additional export 

counseling services. ITA trade show support generated hundreds of trade leads 

for participating companies, allowing them to enter or expand their exports to 

international markets. These international trade events included the Paris Air 

Show, Asian Aerospace, and an Aerospace Supplier Development Trade Mission 

to Russia, among others.
.
97Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

deparTmenT of The inTerior

DOI

The many bureaus in the Department of the Interior (DOI) rely on remotely 

sensed data to assist them in fulfilling their mission to measure, monitor, and evaluate surface features on land for which they carry responsibilities. The bureaus use 

a wide range of remotely sensed data from Government-managed satellites, commercial satellite sources, elevation data, GPS, aerial photography, and unmanned 

platforms. The collective data complement and supplement field studies and eventual analysis and interpretation. Reports from the bureaus illustrate the importance 

and uses of the remotely sensed data resources.

The National Park Service

Alaska Region continued the use of remote sensing technologies to manage 

nearly 55 million acres of national park resources. Alaska is home to some of the 

Nation’s most remote parklands, so there is perhaps no more appropriate place to 

highlight the utility and necessity of remote sensing technologies. Remotely sensed 

datasets were important for applications of aerial photography, satellite imagery, 

GPS, and digital elevation data as they were used by the Inventory and Monitoring 

(I&M) and other National Park Service (NPS) programs in various resource management disciplines, including wildlife monitoring, glacier and permafrost monitoring, vegetation and soils mapping, cultural resources, and hydrologic applications.

The Alaska Land Resources Program Center uses orthoimagery available from 

the Alaska Region’s Geographic Information System (GIS) site. Prior to good highresolution digital orthoimagery, the locations of many parcels were drawn using the 

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) quads digital raster graphics (DRGs) or other data 
98Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

that were often dated or of lower resolution. By using more recent orthoimagery 

in combination with the survey plat or legal descriptions, we are able to update 

tracts and boundaries with increased accuracy. The I&M Central Alaska Network 

stream monitoring program relies heavily on GPS and remote sensing technology. 

Remotely sensed imagery, particularly IKONOS and high-resolution aerial pho-

tography, is used extensively to evaluate the suitability and logistical feasibility of 

potential sampling locations prior to the field season. This is of particular importance in a large, remote landscape like the Central Alaska Network, where the 

cost of accessing sampling sites is particularly high. GPS is used daily to navigate 

to predetermined sampling coordinates and attach accurate location information 

to biological and habitat data collected in the field, including samples collected at 

stream reaches and anomalous permafrost features as part of an effort to construct 

a comprehensive dynamic database.

Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) are used to construct flow-accumulation grids 

for the sampled locations, a critical step in the delineation of point-specific drain-

age basins. IKONOS imagery is used to help confirm the accuracy of the resulting 

delineated basins. The derivation of spatially explicit basin descriptors for each 

sampling location is important for the ecological and hydrological modeling used 

to understand and quantify ecosystem status and trends across the landscape.

GPS data received by collars on caribou, moose, musk oxen, and wolves are 

relayed via communication satellites to the desks of wildlife biologists. This tech-

nology allows biologists to track these animals in the remote areas of Alaska even 

during inclement weather and darkness. These data help biologists study the move-

ments, behavior, habitat use, and population dynamics of these animals. Each cari-

bou migrates over 3,000 kilometers (1,800 miles) each year, and the herd utilizes 

five National Park units and roams over an area nearly the size of Montana.

In the Denali National Park and Preserve, GPS radio collars placed on grizzly 

bears and Dall sheep are designed to store the animals’ location data several times 

per day and detach from the animals’ necks on a preset date so that the collars can 

be retrieved and the data analyzed. These collars were used as part of the Denali 

Park Road study to help understand how animal movements were influenced by the 

presence of the road and by road traffic. Information from GPS collars on caribou 

helps to illuminate habitat use and food sources for the Denali Caribou Herd. The 
99Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

collars used on wolves provide biologists with timely information on movements, 

mortality, and den occupancy.

Nearly every wildlife research or monitoring project conducted by staff at 

Kenai Fjords National Park relies on GPS and/or GIS/remote sensing technologies to document geospatial data and monitor change. Management decisions 

are often facilitated by GPS data analyzed and displayed on maps with satellite 

image backgrounds.

The Alaska Region I&M program uses a variety of remote sensing technologies 

to assist its efforts to inventory vegetation and soils within the region. As with 

other NPS programs, the inventory program uses GPS to establish ground control 

for satellite image analysis and to collect geolocation information about the study 

sites. During routine office work, transects, plot locations, and related geospatial 

data are overlaid on satellite and/or aerial photography. Remotely sensed imagery is 

also used as background data for GPS unit displays to aid navigation while in the 

field. Standard-scale hard-copy aerial image maps are generated for navigational 

and reference purposes while in the field. These hard-copy maps provide a backup 

to GPS units should they fail while in remote areas.

The Alaska Region’s Exotic Plant Management Team also uses GPS technology as an important tool for invasive plant management, as it allows managers 

to map and monitor invasive plant populations and to document the success of 

control measures.

The Alaska Regional Cultural Resources program uses all available imagery 

to evaluate land areas for the presence of cultural sites and to assess the status 

of known sites. For example, an investigation to relocate Katmai Village in the 

Katmai National Park and Preserve involved the use of United States land survey 

records, NPS GIS data, and Google Earth imagery.

In support of the NPS Alaska Region Inventory and Monitoring Program, a 

sampling design of soil and vegetation in Lake Clark National Park and Preserve 

was developed through a contract with the private sector. As part of this effort, 

an extensive time series of Landsat imagery (1985–2010) was collected. The timeseries data were used to characterize patterns of snow persistence on the landscape, 

which is related to snow depth and growing-season length—factors important for 

soil development. The 30-meter-resolution satellite image time series was analyzed 
100Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

to determine the typical snow-free date for the Lake Clark soils study area. This 

analysis provided valuable information on local and regional snow regime patterns 

that will be useful for stratification and modeling of vegetation and soil distribution.

In FY 11, the I&M Arctic Network used IKONOS imagery from 2006 to 2008 to 

map slumps and small landslides caused by the thaw of permafrost in the Noatak 

National Preserve (2.6 million hectares). Over 1,000 features were located. The 

results of this analysis were compared to the 1977 color-infrared Alaska HighAltitude Photography (AHAP) of the same area to assess the volume of change in 

the landscape due to thawing permafrost.

NPS staff continued the trend to institutionalize the application of GPS and GIS 

technologies toward important and diverse park management needs. Routine workflows that survey and monitor wildlife and vegetation, assist with search-and-rescue 

operations, and document historic features now depend on GPS data and subse-

quent visualization and analysis of those data using GIS and recent orthoimagery.

•	Glacier National Park’s Integrated Pest Management (IPM) program 

documented exotic vegetation populations using GPS and monitored the 

effectiveness of treatments on these populations using GIS-based field 

maps and related descriptive notes.

The park’s first formal bat inventory in 2011 used a GIS analysis of vegeta-

tion/habitat and proximity to roads and trails to determine sample loca-

tions. Sample sites were then documented using GPS.

A harlequin duck research project fitted female ducks with radio transmitters, yielding XY locations that were analyzed in GIS to assess habitat 

utilization. Harlequin ducks are listed as a species of concern in Montana, 

where they are at high risk of extirpation due to their very limited num-

bers, limited habitat, disturbance, and habitat loss or alteration. One bird 

was documented in the Puget Sound, hundreds of miles from their breed-

ing grounds in Glacier.

Ranger staff responded to two search-and-rescue events in 2011 assisted by 

GIS mapping products that show GPS track log paths of previous groundand air-based search parties.

Submeter GPS was used to document new cultural features and conduct 

condition assessments of existing cultural resource sites, greatly improving 

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101 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

the spatial resolution of feature mapping at those sites. Notable was the 

2011 discovery and documentation of an abandoned adit from the brief 

heyday of copper mining in Glacier, ca. 1896.

Recently acquired National Agriculture Imagery Program (NAIP) and border 

area orthoimages are valuable backdrops for revisions to core geospatial base map 

datasets in Glacier National Park. The 2009 Montana NAIP data were used to 

revise hydrology data for stream reaches in Glacier that experienced channel shifting due to spring runoff events. The revised data will assist the Montana State 

Library’s coordinated edits to the National Hydrography Dataset (NHD). More 

importantly, approximately 40 percent of the park boundary is defined by stream 

channel location, and revisions to those stream segments resulted in a current, or 

“working,” park boundary theme in GIS. The NAIP-derived working boundary 

layer was used in 2011 to define a project area boundary for the park’s Natural 

Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) soil inventory. NAIP and border area 

data also helped update park trails and building footprints in remote settings where 

ground-based GPS mapping efforts come at a great expense.

Grand Canyon staff and contractors used imagery from the U.S. Department of 

Agriculture (USDA) NAIP program and Landsat imagery to map vegetation in the 

inner canyon. A time series of Landsat images was used to generate life-form maps 

(deciduous versus evergreen and woodlands versus shrublands versus grasslands).

Grand Teton National Park is currently using historic color and color-infrared 

aerial photography, QuickBird satellite imagery, and Light Detection and Ranging 

(LIDAR) imagery for several wide-ranging and critical projects that range from 

resource protection (natural and cultural) to decision support for infrastructure and 

emergency planning. The GIS specialists lead the acquisition and analysis of the 

remotely sensed images, and vegetation ecologists, wildlife specialists, and project 

manager experts inform the analysis methodology and evaluate the results.

Park facilities management and resource management staff are very interested in 

the wider use of LIDAR imagery for project planning and other park management 

decisions. Specific future applications include characterizing the vertical structure 

of forested areas for fire fuels monitoring and sagebrush areas for their use by sage 

grouse and other wildlife species, as well as identification and documentation of 

historic and archaeological resources.
102Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Vegetation post-fire updates used Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM)–derived burn 

severity and other fire data: park GIS staff assisted the Bridger-Teton National 

Forest in developing a process to update vegetation maps using Landsat TM–based 

burn severity models in association with vegetative change models. This process is 

being adapted to update the Grand Tetons vegetation map.

Each year, disturbance events such as avalanches, landslides, floods, fires, and 

clearcuts alter the landscape in and around the parks in the North Coast and 

Cascade Network (NCCN). These disturbances vary in duration, size, and severity, 

from a sudden small flood in a riparian zone to a fire that burns thousands of acres 

over several weeks.

Natural-disturbance events inside the park can have lasting effects on park eco-

systems and can significantly impact cultural resources. Disturbances outside the 

parks, such as clearcuts and development, alter the ecological connections that tie 

resources within the park to the broader ecosystem in which each park is located. 

The NCCN landscape dynamics monitoring program was developed in order to 

track the location, type, severity, and duration of common landscape disturbances. 

Observations from the program will also provide a broader context for changes 

observed in other NCCN monitoring programs.

Due to advancements in satellite image–processing techniques, landscape 

changes can be efficiently detected over large areas at a relatively low cost. The 

NCCN landscape dynamics monitoring program uses satellite imagery, GIS, and 

statistical analyses to map and categorize disturbance events in and around NCCN 

parks. The study area for each park includes all watersheds inside and within 10 

miles outside the park’s boundary, as well as areas of particular detection and map-

ping areas within the NCCN study areas that are larger than 2.5 acres (0.5 hectares) and have experienced a minimum 10 percent loss in cover.

The Midwest Archeological Center (MWAC) maintains archaeological datasets 

for parks in the Midwest region and assists parks with archaeological issues. The 

Center’s Archeological Information Management Team makes extensive use of 

GIS to maintain spatial location information on over 5,000 archaeological sites in 

the region. Remotely sensed data are an integral component of the archaeological 

base maps and are used in data analysis. The data, maintained in attribute and 

spatial databases, are used to aid in the preservation and protection of those sites.
103 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

Bureau of Reclamation

In 2011, the Bureau of Reclamation (BOR) continued its use of remote sensing 

to support its water resource management mission. Two specific application areas 

are highlighted: estimating consumptive water use and providing data necessary for 

river restoration activities.

Consumptive Water Use

Consumptive water use refers to water that is removed from a watershed by 

evapotranspiration (ET)—the loss of water from direct evaporation or plant transpiration—making it unavailable for other uses. BOR staff needs reliable estimates 

of consumptive water use to administer interstate and interbasin water compacts 

and to quantify and verify volumes of conserved water arising from fallowing and 

crop type substitution agreements.

BOR image analysts used Satellite Pour l’Observation de la Terre (SPOT) and 

Landsat Thematic Mapper imagery to map open water, crop types, and riparian 

vegetation for the Central and Imperial Valleys of California, as well as areas 

adjacent to the Lower Colorado River dividing California and Arizona. Multidate imagery was required to map the area because some of these areas produce 

agricultural crops year-round and up to four different crops could grow on a single 

agricultural field during the year. A GIS was used to assign the Landsat-derived 

crop types to vector-based maps of individual agricultural fields developed from 

high-resolution imagery. The GIS data were then used to calculate and analyze 

consumptive water use at a wide range of spatial scales, from individual agricultural fields to entire river basins.

BOR staff are involved with a number of river restoration efforts throughout 

the western United States, including the San Joaquin and Trinity in California, 

the Grande Rhonde in Oregon, the Lemhi and Yankee Fork in Idaho, the Elwah 

in Washington, and the Colorado along the California/Arizona border. Although 

the specific goals of the restoration activities vary from river to river, they usually include provisions to improve riverine habitat for native fish populations 

that have been adversely affected by human activity. Examples of adverse effects 
104Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

include reduced flows due to agricultural development, as well as altered tempera-

ture and sediment load regimes and blocked migration routes resulting from dam 

construction. Remediation activities might include river channel modification; the 

addition or removal of floodplain vegetation; and, where possible, the modification 

of river flow regimes. Most of these projects make use of LIDAR and multispectral 

image data to characterize pre-treatment vegetation and terrain conditions, to aid 

in the development of site improvement plans, and to monitor restoration activities.

BOR staff have partnered with state and local organizations in the Salmon River 

Basin to restore salmon habitat in tributaries to the Salmon River. As a part of 

this effort, Reclamation acquired LIDAR and 6-inch-resolution aerial multispectral 

imagery of the Yankee Fork River in central Idaho. The LIDAR data are of sufficient quality to classify important floodplain features such as sand and gravel 

bars, as well as disconnected river channels, and to provide estimates of surface 

roughness useful in hydraulic modeling. These data were used to model inundated 

areas at estimated 10-year and 100-year flood flows. The LIDAR imagery and ortho-

imagery (generated from the LIDAR and multispectral image data) were also use-

ful for identifying channelized portions of the river for potential remediation and 

quantifying volumes of placer mining waste.

United States Geological Survey

A primary objective of the Changing Arctic Ecosystems Initiative of the USGS 

Alaska Science Center is to measure and forecast the effect of changing terrestrial 

ecosystem processes on wildlife populations along Alaska’s Arctic Coastal Plain. 

Part of the Changing Arctic Ecosystem Initiative seeks to understand the physical 

changes in the environment that are occurring as a result of warming during the 

20th and 21st centuries and how these environmental changes are impacting molting and breeding bird populations, such as those of Pacific black brant geese (Branta 

bernicla) and white-fronted geese (Anser albifrons). The current work is applying timeseries image analysis and field sampling to determine the timing and areal extent of 

permafrost-related subsidence occurring along and near the Arctic coast.

The Arctic Coastal Plain (ACP) in northern Alaska provides a denning habi-

tat for polar bears (Ursus maritimus) and also has high potential for recoverable 
105 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

hydrocarbons, with several oil and gas fields in the central plain currently in development or extraction phases. To ensure that wintertime oil and gas exploration 

and development activities do not disrupt denning and threaten the survival of 

cubs, managers require knowledge of the distribution of the landscape features in 

which pregnant polar bears are most likely to dig maternal dens. Maps of potential 

den habitat were developed for the central and eastern portions of the ACP using 

standard photogrammetric techniques.

Additionally, remotely sensed data have proven economically viable and scientifically useful for studying the following:

•	 The Atlantic sturgeon spawning habitat along the eastern seaboard.

Coral reef habitat for sea turtles.

Turbid water conditions and resources for Florida manatees.

The effects of Burmese pythons as invasive exotic species in southern 

Florida.

The effects of road and vehicle disturbances on rangelands.

The accurate assessment of fuel loads and restoration in sagebrush habitat.

The use of LIDAR to characterize oak trees, forests, and landscapes.

The documentation of year-round movements of Swainson’s hawks.

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USGS scientists, in partnership with the U.S. Agency for International 

Development (USAID), developed forecasts of drought conditions that led to 

intense monitoring in support of the United Nations’ famine declaration for 

southern Somalia. Parts of eastern Africa, including Somalia, experienced two 

consecutive seasons of very poor rainfall, resulting in the worst drought in 60 

years. Crops failed; livestock deaths were widespread; and food prices were very 

high. While the depth of the crisis outstripped the capacity of the humanitarian 

response, USGS support of the Famine Early Warning Systems Network (FEWS 

NET) helped mitigate severe malnutrition and mortality.

The combination of USGS climate research and remote sensing applications 

provided a powerful tool for 1) advance warning of impending drought and 

2) immediate and accurate assessments of a broad range of environmental and 

agricultural conditions. When considered within historical context, these tools 

leverage the capacity of remote sensing to help mitigate the effects of drought.
106Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

According to the United Nations’ Food Security and Nutrition Analysis Unit 

(of Somalia), the crisis represents the most serious food insecurity situation in the 

world today, in terms of both scale and severity. Historically, it is Africa’s worst 

food security crisis since Somalia’s 1991–92 famine.

The USGS Eastern Geographic Science Center (EGSC) is conducting research 

that develops advanced data mining, fusion, and evaluation techniques to create 

biophysical remotely sensed data; demonstrate the utility of those data in particu-

larly challenging or scientifically important regions of the eastern United States; 

and improve process-based hydrologic, biologic, and climate modeling. Current 

efforts focus on vegetation structure, fire disturbance, and surface water extent.

Fire disturbance and variations in vegetation dynamics following fire are primary 

factors in shaping the patchwork nature of wetland vegetation/surface water cover. 

Very little is known about wetland fire ecology. Remote sensing technologies have 

become an important data source for the study of fire disturbance and recovery, 

but method development has occurred almost exclusively in upland environments, 

not wetland ones. EGSC is conducting research to develop improved methods for 

fire detection, fire scar mapping, burn severity indexing, and post-fire vegetation 

monitoring in wetland environments. Since 2003, the USGS Earth Resources 

Observation and Science (EROS) Center fire science staff have worked jointly with 

the U.S. Forest Service (USFS) Remote Sensing Applications Center (RSAC) staff 

to map all significant wildfires on DOI- and Forest Service–managed lands primarily to satisfy the burn severity mapping requirements of Burn Area Emergency 

Response (BAER) Teams. EROS receives national-level funding from DOI fire 

management programs to support this ongoing activity.

EROS staff rapidly processes Landsat and other satellite imagery, enabling the 

timely generation of DOI and USFS map products, generally in less than two days 

after fire containment. Historically, seven to eight years ago, BAER soil burn severity mapping was done by sketch, mapping severity patterns on topographic maps, 

perhaps with the aid of a digitized fire perimeter. Today, burn severity mapping 

derived using satellite imagery has replaced the manual method for BAER teams, 

except in cases where timely imagery is not available due to clouds, smoke, and 

missed acquisitions.
107 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

As of 2011, USGS EROS and USFS RSAC have mapped over 1,000 wildfires 

representing over 35 million burned acres in support of BAER and other local DOI 

and USFS land managers. Recently, USGS EROS has been asked to support international emergency fire incidents. In 2009, USGS EROS supported U.S. BAER 

teams deployed to Australia and mapped over 700,000 acres over a period of two 

weeks. Also in 2009, USGS EROS staff assisted fire managers in Greece and the 

Republic of Georgia.

The USGS routinely uses remote sensing methodologies and data to address 

wildland fuels in the United States. USGS leads the Landscape Fire and Resource 

Management Planning Tools (LANDFIRE) program, which produces consistent 

and comprehensive maps and data describing vegetation, wildland fuel, and fire 

regimes across the United States. The LANDFIRE geospatial data are derived 

from Landsat satellite data and ecological models that provide layers of vegetation 

composition and structure, surface and canopy fuel characteristics, and historical 

fire regimes. The LANDFIRE program is now in the phase to update the geospatial 

information to incorporate major landscape changes such as wildfire, insect, and 

disease and other management activities that alter the vegetation and fuel characteristics. The USGS has also investigated the use of LIDAR to better characterize 

forest vegetation structure and change to improve fire behavior models.

Space-based remote sensing techniques are an invaluable tool for monitoring 

volcanic activity around the world. While especially useful at poorly accessible 

volcanoes with little or no in situ instrumentation, remote sensing datasets are also 

used extensively at well-monitored volcanoes to fill observational gaps in groundbased monitoring. For example, remote sensing forms a core monitoring dataset at 

Kīlauea Volcano in Hawaii—one of the best-monitored volcanoes in the world. 

High-resolution (10–30 meters per pixel size) multispectral data, such as EO-1 

Advanced Land Imager, Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection 

Radiometer (ASTER), and Landsat, have provided precise locations on active lava 

flows that augment the information collected during routine field observations. 

Combining the active flow locations with topographic data collected from other 

satellites, the USGS Hawaiian Volcano Observatory can forecast the descent path 

and potential hazard of the lava flows.
108Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Coastal wetlands are essential to ocean productivity and critical as nursery areas 

for coastal and oceanic life. The robustness of these systems is intrinsically linked 

to the frequency and duration of inundation and the salinity of the flushing waters. 

In order to identify the thresholds of these inundation variables required for wetland viability, their spatial and temporal changes must be determined; however, 

rapid temporal changes and high spatial complexity often thwart the application 

of conventional contouring and hydraulic flow models.

Envisat Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar data were used to provide accurate 

spatial mapping and consistent temporal patterns of storm surge flooding and its 

recession following Hurricane Rita’s landfall in September 2005.

The results of a recently published study, conducted by the U.S. Geological 

Survey, reveal that faults west of Lake Tahoe, California, represent a substantial 

seismic hazard to the greater Lake Tahoe region of California and Nevada. The 

study utilized a high-resolution, three-dimensional (3D) imaging technology, 

known as bare-earth airborne LIDAR, which is capable of seeing through dense 

forest cover to reveal active earthquake faults that were not detectable with con-

ventional aerial photography.

Terrestrial LIDAR, or T-LIDAR, was deployed by the USGS in the immediate 

aftermath of Hurricane Isaac to map urban flooding and quickly generate 3D maps 

of buildings, dams, levees, and other structures that were damaged in the storm.

Tens of millions of people felt the M5.8 earthquake that occurred in Louisa 

County, Virginia, on August 23, 2011. Damage to buildings and structures was 

widespread, with cost estimates in the millions. The earthquake impact was great 

not only because of high population densities, but also because regional geologic 

features transmit seismic energy very efficiently. The earthquake occurred on a 

fault that had not previously been mapped, and no corresponding surface rupture 

was observed. Within days following the event, the USGS and other organizations 

deployed a set of seismic monitoring stations in the earthquake area. Aftershocks 

recorded by these stations delineate the probable causative fault in the hypocen-

tral region. In order to map the lateral extent of the fault and associated geologic 

structures, the USGS commissioned high-resolution airborne magnetic, gravity, 

and radiometric (gamma-ray spectroscopy) surveys, as well as LIDAR surveys, over 

the epicentral region.
109 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

Cold Regions Lake and Landscape Research at the Alaska Science Center 

focuses on the study of the Arctic and Subarctic landscape, with an emphasis on 

Alaska. The primary objective of this research program is to gain an understanding 

of landscape change in the recent (last 50 years) and distant (last 20,000 years) 

past. This is accomplished through a combination of techniques that include 

remote sensing, GIS, field surveys, laboratory analyses, and model development. 

Ultimately, these studies provide information that land and resource managers can 

use to better inform their decision-making process. During FY 11, remotely sensed 

imagery derived from a number of sources to better understand thermokarst lake 

dynamics in the continuous permafrost regions of northern Alaska were used. By 

combining historical aerial photography with more contemporary high-resolution 

commercial satellite imagery, scientists were able to document changes to the 

abundance and surface area of lakes in two regions that provide important fish and 

wildlife habitat as well as sources of water for winter oil and gas exploration.

The USGS is using remote sensing technology as part of a field-to-sky approach 

for integrated monitoring and assessment of wetland-upland landscapes across 

the United States and Canada. This approach was developed for the Terrestrial 

Wetland Global Change Research Network (TWGCRN), a U.S.–Canadian effort 

to assess key impacts of climate, interacting with other drivers of global change 

(e.g., land-cover and land-management change), on wetland-upland landscapes 

across environmental gradients in North America.

Astrogeology is an important activity for the USGS, and remote sensing techniques are used for further understanding of extraterrestrial bodies.

The innermost planet of our solar system (Mercury) is being investigated by 

the NASA MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry, and Ranging 

(MESSENGER) mission. The Integrated Software for Imagers and Spectrometers 

(ISIS) software is used for processing the data from the Mercury Dual Imaging 

System (MDIS). USGS is also tasked with leading the international effort to 

combine data from the laser altimeter and stereo imaging to produce the highestquality global topographic map of Mercury. This is the first time altimetry and 

stereogrammetry are being combined to this degree on a global scale for any body.

Similarly, remote sensing techniques have been used for studies of the moon, 

Mars, Saturn, and asteroids.
110Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

The erosion of riverbanks along the Missouri River is a continuing concern 

of many of the Native American tribes within South Dakota. Changing res-

ervoir levels combined with precipitation, wind, and ice result in conditions 

under which substantial shoreline erosion may occur within a single season. 

The Lower Brule Sioux Tribe is concerned about water pollution caused by this 

shoreline erosion. The Missouri River has experienced massive riverbank ero-

sion, estimated up to 8 feet or more per year, along the entire length of the 

reservation border. The USGS is using various technologies to obtain accurate 

measurements of shoreline erosion along a 7-mile stretch of shoreline near the 

community of Lower Brule.

Since the launch of Landsat 1 in 1972, International Cooperators have 

formed a key strategic alliance with the USGS to facilitate direct downlinks of 

Landsat data and to build the foundation for scientific and technical collabora-

tion. The International Cooperators provide critical emergency response sup-

port and contribute historical Landsat imagery for the Landsat Global Archive 

Consolidation. The USGS plays a leadership role in two international groups for 

satellite observations, the Committee on Earth Observation Satellites (CEOS) 

and the International Charter for Space and Major Disasters. CEOS (http://www.

ceos.org) is a voluntary international partnership of 52 space agencies and related 

organizations, which strive to enhance the international coordination of satellite 

observations and data exchange for societal benefit. Through its participation 

in CEOS, the USGS is uniquely positioned to advance space-based land remote 

sensing technologies and applications with foreign partners, to obtain new datasets, and to serve the science and technology needs of its user community.

The International Charter (http://www.disasterscharter.org) provides a unified 

system of satellite observations and data delivery to those affected by natural or 

anthropogenic disasters, through a network of Authorized Users. The USGS participates in the Charter in order to receive foreign remote sensing data support 

for U.S. disaster response and recovery efforts and to ensure the provision of U.S. 

land imaging data to support foreign disaster response and recovery efforts. In 

2011, the Charter was activated 32 times in response to U.S. and foreign disasters.

The National Elevation Dataset (NED) is the primary elevation data product 

provided by the USGS in partnership with the National Geospatial Program. The 
111 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

NED provides seamless raster elevation data of the conterminous United States, 

Alaska, Hawaii, and the island territories, and it is derived from diverse source data 

that are processed to a specification with consistent resolution, coordinate system, 

elevation units, and horizontal and vertical datums. The NED is the logical result 

of the maturation of the long-standing USGS elevation program and serves as 

the elevation layer of the National Map. The NED provides elevation information 

for Earth science studies and mapping applications in the United States, and it 

is available nationally at grid spacings of 1 and 1/3 arcsecond (~30 meters and 

10 meters respectively) for the conterminous United States and 1/9 arcsecond (~3 

meters) for parts of the United States.

Midcontinent carbonate aquifers are some of the most productive in the Nation, 

yielding water for agriculture, industry, and public drinking supplies. Caverns and 

springs provide unique habitats for many rare and unique animal and plant species. 

Managing these water resources in a sustainable way requires an understanding 

of groundwater storage, flow, and recharge, which depend on aquifer geology and 

structure. The Crustal Geophysics and Geochemistry Science Center (CGGSC) in 

Denver, Colorado, uses remote sensing geophysics to assist geologists and hydrologists in creating and updating two-dimensional maps and three-dimensional digital models of the complex geology associated with fractured, faulted, weathered, 

deformed, and altered carbonate rock formations.

Using Landsat imagery with the Mapping EvapoTranspiration at high Resolution 

and Internalized Calibration (METRIC) procedure, scientists estimated consumptive water use of irrigated and non-irrigated lands at 30-meter resolution in the 

Klamath Basin, Oregon. Because ground surfaces with large ET rates are left cooler 

than ground surfaces that have less ET, irrigated fields appear on images as being 

cooler than nonirrigated fields. Both the rate and spatial distribution of ET can be 

efficiently and accurately quantified independent of the crop development stages or 

the specific crop type.

The USGS Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center (UMESC, http://

www.umesc.usgs.gov) remained an active user and developer of remote sensing 

data and products. UMESC has used remote sensing data for over 20 years to 

develop vegetation maps/spatial databases, elevation products, and orthophoto 

mosaics for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), U.S. Fish and Wildlife 
112Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Service (FWS), National Park Service (NPS), and Upper Mississippi River System 

(UMRS, the Mississippi River from Minneapolis, Minnesota, to Cairo, Illinois, and 

the full length of the Illinois River). UMESC also uses remote sensing technology 

to track the movements of wildlife, study wildlife diseases, and assess the potential 

impacts of wind energy developments and other high-tower projects (e.g., electrical 

lines or radio towers). FY 11–12 remote sensing activities include the following:

•	Evaluating the impacts of wind energy developments on wildlife by 

observing water bird use of the Great Lakes.

Using weather radar to track waterfowl disturbances.

Mapping vegetation for the National Park Service.

Mapping land cover for the Upper Mississippi River System Floodplain.

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In the late summer of 2010 and 2011, UMESC collected high-resolution color 

infrared aerial photography of the 2.75-million-acre UMRS. This photography is 

being used to create a systemic land-cover/land-use dataset. Systemic datasets were 

created previously using 1989 and 2000 aerial photos. These data are being devel-

oped for the Long Term Resource Monitoring Program, an element of the USACE’s 

Upper Mississippi River Restoration-Environmental Management Program. This 

multi-agency Federal and state cooperative program is designed to monitor, restore, 

and enhance the multi-use functionality of the UMRS.

Bureau of Land Management

The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) utilizes remote sensing to support 

many multi-use resource management needs. High-resolution imagery depicts current and past conditions required by managers and specialists to make timely and 

scientifically sound decisions. Many projects reflect a few of the ways that remote 

sensing supports the daily on-the-ground needs of our resource managers.

Cadastral Surveys

LIDAR data and aerial photography are valuable tools for preliminary investi-

gations by cadastral surveyors. Boundary disputes are often decided using survey 

information. Remote sensing data provide a visual presentation of the ground
113 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

conditions to help interpret the situation. Historical aerial photography, satellite 

imagery, and LIDAR data combined with ground survey data provide clues to surveyors investigating trespass, boundary issues, and other situations dealing with 

monument lands. Remote sensing investigations may drive the need for field surveys or provide enough information to resolve issues without field data collection.

Mapping Stream Networks

The Pacific Northwest Hydrography Framework sponsors a working group tasked 

to evaluate the use of LIDAR-derived Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) as a principal data source for updating the National Hydrography Dataset (NHD). The working group has identified a workflow leading to the acceptance of revisions to the 

national stream network dataset.

Two 10-digit hydrographic unit watersheds located in Oregon’s Coast Range and 

Cascade Range were chosen as study areas. For each watershed, a bare-earth DEM 

at 3-foot resolution was created from a LIDAR point cloud. The workgroup followed the standard sequence for modeling surface drainage patterns from DEMs: 

1) resolving depressions, 2) routing flow, 3) calculating flow accumulation values 

at every cell, and 4) applying a flow-accumulation threshold to derive the stream 

network. The result can be combined with the flow-direction grid to determine 

stream order, generate a vector representation of the stream network, and delimit 

watershed boundaries.

Experiences show the quality of stream features modeled from LIDAR-derived 

DEMs exceeds that of the original sources used for the Oregon dataset. The 

LIDAR-based delineations represent a significant workload, however, and the effort 

should not be underestimated. Ultimately, programmatic use of LIDAR-derived 

DEMs to update NHD will be determined by the perceived benefits to the resource 

management programs relative to available budgets.

Juniper Vegetation Mapping

The Oregon BLM State Office developed a semiautomated technique to map 

juniper distribution for specific project areas. The technique uses 0.5-meter 
114Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

color infrared NAIP imagery to identify juniper vegetation and map individual 

trees. The maps are used to plan for field activities such as fuel treatments and 

habitat restoration.

Cultural Resource Monitoring and Documentation

The famous Laetoli footprints were made by a human ancestor 3.56 million years 

ago in the Rift Valley of Tanzania and are the earliest fossil evidence of bipedalism 

in our ancestors. The trail of 70 tracks, found in 1976, is believed to correspond to 

an Australopithecus afarensis. The tracks were covered for protection after initial 

investigations. At the request of the Tanzanian government, a partial re-excavation 

of the site was conducted in February 2011 to evaluate the preservation of the buried footprint trail and to get samples for further scientific studies. The information 

gained from the re-excavation will be used to develop a state-of-the-art museum 

that will cover the site.

Photogrammetric specialists from the BLM were part of the interdisciplinary 

team of scientists that worked at the site during the re-excavation. Close-range 

digital photogrammetry is a no-contact procedure that produces a high-accuracy, 

3D digital reconstruction of a subject using a sequence of overlapping photographs. 

This method is excellent for remote field locations because it requires only a digital 

camera of appropriate resolution. The photographs are processed in multi-view 

matching software that generates a very dense “cloud” of data.

Office of Surface Mining

The mission of the Office of Surface Mining (OSM) is to carry out the require-

ments of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA) in coop-

eration with states and tribes. A primary objective of SMCRA is to ensure that 

coal mines are operated in a manner that protects citizens and the environment 

during mining and to ensure that the land is restored to beneficial use following 

mining activities. To support this mission, active and inactive surface coal-mining 

and reclamation operations are inspected on a routine basis to ensure compliance 

with approved permits.
115 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

In 2011, OSM investigated the use of high-resolution satellite imagery to determine if it could be used to support the SMCRA regulatory program. This two-year 

pilot project was an interagency and interdepartmental partnership working with 

the USGS and the National Geospatial Intelligence Agency (NGA). The scope of 

the project was limited to three mine sites: Centralia mine site within the state of 

Washington, the McKinley mine site located in New Mexico, and the Valley Creek 

mining sites in Tennessee.

Imagery used for the pilot project range from a single panchromatic (blackand-white) image to multispectral (natural-color and color-infrared) images. 

Land-imaging satellites used include the panchromatic-only WorldView-1 satellite, 

the panchromatic and 8-band multispectral WorldView-2, the panchromatic and 

4-band multispectral QuickBird-2, the panchromatic and 4-band multispectral 

GeoEye-1, and the aging panchromatic and 4-band multispectral IKONOS satellite.

Most of the Virtual Inspection Priorities (VIP)s require orthorectified imagery 

to permit the measurement of distances directly on the image and precise alignment with other map data layers. DEMs can be extracted from stereo imagery and 

provide vertical elevations for features in the images.

A mining permit describes the lands that will be affected by coal-mining activities. The SMCRA inspector ensures that the mining and associated operations are 

within these approved boundaries.

Remote sensing imagery is ideal for this requirement. Using high-resolution satellite imagery and GIS techniques, the inspector can perform a virtual inspection 

and, without a field visit, determine if mining disturbance is contained within the 

approved boundaries.

Water diversions are constructed to prevent and control water runoff and erosion problems associated with the disturbed area. Water diversions constructed 

on mine sites must be the same in terms of placement and size as identified in the 

permit requirements.

Using orthorectified satellite imagery in a GIS, the inspector can determine if 

water diversions have the correct location, length, and (in rare cases) width as 

specified in the permit.

High-resolution WorldView-2 satellite imagery was analyzed using GIS to calculate the actual length of the water diversion. This technique allows the inspector 
116Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

to measure actual distance on the satellite image without having to go to the mine 

site and walk the entire diversion to measure the distance.

Additional applications of remotely sensed data include the following:

•	Identifying the location and extent of acid mine drainage.

Backfilling and grading the spoil.

Generating contours from a digital surface model.

Performing post-mining topography—slope angle.

Performing post-mining topography—slope shape (curvature).

Performing post-mining topography—slope length.

Performing post-mining topography—aspect (slope direction).

Performing post-mining topography—viewshed analysis.

Performing post-mining topography—volumetrics.

Performing drainage reconstruction.

Impounding structure identification.

Performing distance prohibition validation.

Performing revegetation—vegetation establishment.

Performing revegetation—vegetation cover density.

Performing revegetation—vegetation community types.

Performing revegetation—vegetation change over time.

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Bureau of Indian Affairs

Remote sensing offers the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) a low-cost solution to 

field-based forest inventories. All reservations and tribes with forested land must 

develop and implement a forest-management plan by the end of 2015. A manage-

ment plan requires a forest inventory to identify timber resources, estimate timber 

volume, calculate allowable cuts, and support other management decisions. Some 

reservation lands are remote, with limited access to the forested areas; others border Mexico and are dangerous places for field data collection. Also, some lands 

do not have high-value timber to justify the expense of field-based measurements. 

The BIA turned to remote sensing to gather data on general cover types and densi-

ties. This information was combined with biomass and Forest Inventory and Analysis 

Program data derived from adjacent lands to estimate timber volumes on BIA lands.
117 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

A variety of remote sensing tools are needed to support the breadth of conservation and land-management activities by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS). 

Aerial cameras, satellite radar and optical sensors, LIDAR systems, and other sensors reflect the diverse set of remote sensing tools employed to support the FWS’s 

Endangered Species, Migratory Bird, Joint Venture, and Refuges programs.

The Migratory Bird Program in the FWS utilizes remotely sensed data to survey 

migratory birds, conduct research on bird migration and habitat use, evaluate habitat conditions, and manage migratory bird populations and habitat through Joint 

Ventures, a collaborative, regional partnership of government agencies, nonprofit 

organizations, corporations, tribes, and individuals; it conserves habitat for priority 

bird species, other wildlife, and people.

Migratory Bird Program biologists rely on remotely sensed data to plan bird surveys, 

delineate survey strata, place transects, and identify habitat boundaries. The western 

Gulf Coast mottled duck aerial survey, a joint effort of the FWS, Texas Parks and 

Wildlife Department, and Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, utilizes 

the Chabreck-Linscombe coastal vegetation map derived from helicopter transect 

sampling using sampling sites along each transect to delineate salt and freshwater 

marsh habitat along the Gulf Coast. Aerial sea duck and seabird transect surveys 

along the U.S. Atlantic coast were designed using bathymetry data from the NOAA 

National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) Coastal Relief Model to delineate substrates used by foraging diving ducks. In 2011, a research study investigating detection 

bias along road routes for mourning dove count surveys used aerial imagery to locate 

off-road survey points within a specified distance of houses and human disturbance.

Within the FWS Branch of Population and Habitat Assessment, Moderate 

Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite imagery is used to evaluate daily ice and snow cover and develop forecasts for goose production in remote 

portions of the high western Arctic breeding range.

To evaluate habitat conditions for Arctic geese populations, daily ice maps of the 

Canadian and Alaskan Arctic are generated by the National Ice Center analysts 

using imagery from Envisat, DMSP, Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer 

(AVHRR), and RADARSAT sensors.
118Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Satellite telemetry is an important tool for investigating migratory bird move-

ments at continental scales. In 2011, the third year of a four-year study, 27 sandhill 

cranes with solar-powered GPS satellite transmitters were monitored traveling 

from their summer territories in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, and Ontario to 

their winter ranges in Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, Georgia, and Florida. Weekly 

crane movements are posted on the project’s Facebook page: http://www.facebook.

com/pages/Eastern-Population-Sandhill-Crane-Monitoring-Project/279069252152006.

Sea ducks are another group of birds that have been monitored using satellite 

telemetry. Due to concerns about declining populations in the Atlantic Flyway, the 

Sea Duck Joint Venture has been tracking sea ducks (black, surf, and white-winged 

scoters, as well as long-tailed ducks) since 2009 to identify key habitat regions used 

for staging, molting, and wintering areas. Telemetry data from black scoters have pro-

vided a completely new view of their breeding range. As a result of this study, a new 

area has been identified as an area of continental significance to North American 

ducks, geese, and swans in the North American Waterfowl Management Plan.

The FWS’s Division of Bird Habitat Conservation (http://www.fws.gov/midwest/

hapet/) staff uses a variety of remotely sensed data to survey habitat quality for 

breeding and wintering birds. In the Prairie Pothole region, this group conducts an 

annual Waterfowl Breeding Population and Production Estimates Survey to assess 

the contributions of National Wildlife Refuge System lands to continental waterfowl populations. Color infrared aerial photos of 186 4-square-mile sample plots in 

Minnesota and 60 plots in Iowa are acquired annually to assess habitat conditions. 

These plots are surveyed by ground and helicopter to estimate waterfowl abun-

dance and productivity during the breeding season.

Refuges

Land-cover and vegetation maps are common products used by many refuges to 

portray current conditions. A variety of remote sensing and geospatial layers may 

be used to derive these products.

Over the past year, the Pacific Southwest Region of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service has undertaken several land-cover mapping efforts on National Wildlife 

Refuges (NWRs). The goal of these projects is to provide detailed, accurate 
119 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

land-cover maps that will inform management decisions on the refuges. The proj-

ects utilize a combination of image sources including NAIP aerial imagery as well 

as Quickbird, WorldView, and ASTER satellite imagery, depending on image qual-

ity and availability. The refuges mapped in 2011 include Hopper Mountain NWR, 

Bitter Creek NWR, Blue Ridge NWR, Coachella Valley NWR, and portions of the 

Desert NWR.

Bureau of Land Management

The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) has issued a national sage-grouse pol-

icy to ensure environmentally responsible exploration, authorization, leasing, and 

development of energy resources within the range of the Gunnison sage-grouse. 

To support the Colorado State Office and the Gunnison Field Office, the BLM 

acquired LIDAR and airborne digital imagery for approximately 30,000 acres in the 

Gunnison basin. In 2011, LIDAR data were acquired at 8 to 10 points per square 

meter density and used to create highly accurate bare-earth elevation models and 

representations of sagebrush vegetation structure. Also, high-resolution, 4-band 

stereo airborne imagery at a 10-centimeter resolution was acquired to create veryhigh-resolution orthoimagery for the project area. The new imagery and elevation 

data will be added to the suite of data already available: 1993 to 1995 Landsat TM; 

2004 Digital Globe QuickBird; 2004 E01 Advanced Multispectral Land Imager; 

2005, 2009, and 2011 NAIP; and the National Elevation Dataset.
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121 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

federal CommuniCaTions

Commission

FCC

The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) formulates rules and administers proceedings to facilitate the provision of commercial satellite services 

in the United States. It also issues licenses for the launch and operation of all 

nongovernmental U.S. satellites. Internationally, the FCC coordinates satellite 

radio-frequency usage with other countries. The FCC’s activities in FY 11 related 

primarily to commercial communications satellites.

The FCC took several significant actions in administrative and rule-making 

proceedings in FY 11. On January 26, 2011, the FCC issued an order concerning 

a proposal by LightSquared Subsidiary LLC, a Mobile Satellite Service (MSS) 

licensee, to use MSS radio-frequency spectrum for a terrestrial service that 

would provide mobile broadband service. The FCC waived some of its rules 

on the condition that LightSquared address concerns of potential interference 

with Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers. The order specified a process 

for resolving these interference concerns. This included a GPS interference 

technical working group to work with LightSquared to resolve potential GPS 

compatibility and interference concerns. LightSquared submitted a report on 

June 30, 2011, concerning testing interference to GPS receivers. After a period 

for public comment, on September 13, 2011, the FCC’s International Bureau 

and Office of Engineering and Technology determined that additional testing 

was necessary.

In a rulemaking order released on April 6, 2011, the FCC adopted rules to 

enhance the use of MSS spectrum in the 2-gigahertz (GHz) frequency range. 
122Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

First, the FCC added terrestrial Fixed and Mobile allocations to the MSS 2-GHz 

band. This action laid the groundwork for more flexible use of the band, includ-

ing for terrestrial broadband services, in the future. The FCC took this action 

to make additional spectrum available for new investment in mobile broadband 

networks while also ensuring that the United States maintains robust MSS capa-

bilities. Second, in order to create greater predictability and regulatory parity 

with bands licensed for terrestrial mobile broadband service, the FCC extended 

the Commission’s secondary market “spectrum manager” spectrum-leasing 

policies, procedures, and rules to terrestrial systems operating in certain MSS 

frequency bands.

On June 14, 2011, the FCC released rules concerning 17/24-gigahertz 

Broadcasting-Satellite Service (BSS) space-to-Earth transmissions. The rules 

were adopted to mitigate so-called “space path” interference between such satel-

lites. As part of the new rules, the FCC revised informational requirements to 

mandate that 17/24-gigahertz BSS space station applicants file information about 

antenna characteristics for such stations. These rules facilitate the introduction of 

17/24-gigahertz BSS, which in turn is expected to provide new and innovative services (e.g., video, audio, data, and video-on-demand) as well as promote increased 

competition among satellite and terrestrial services.

The FCC authorized a number of commercial communications satellite launches 

and operations. The authorizations include the following:

•	November 17, 2010: To Intelsat North America, LLC, to launch and 

operate a replacement C/Ku-band satellite at the longitude 66° east 

orbit location.

February 4, 2011: To Satellite CD Radio, Inc., to launch and operate a 

satellite at the longitude 115.2° west orbit location.

July 26, 2011: To Intelsat North America, LLC, to launch and operate a 

satellite at the longitude 180.0° east orbit location.

August 30, 2011: To Pegasus Development DBS Corporation, to launch 

and operate a satellite at the longitude 95.15° west orbit location.

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The FCC granted a number of licensee modifications and special tempo-

rary authorizations for satellite networks. Many involved the routine testing or 
123 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

redeployment of satellites within a multi-satellite system. One action, however, 

warrants particular mention:

•	November 4, 2010: The FCC granted SES Americom, Inc., authori-

zation to relocate satellite AMC-4 to operate at longitude 67° west 

orbit location consistent with a Colombian filing at the International 

Telecommunication Union.

The FCC added three non-U.S.-licensed space stations to the Commission’s permitted space station list in order to allow these space stations to provide domestic 

and international satellite service to U.S. earth stations. Specifically, on October 

13, 2010, the FCC added the Brazilian Star One B1 space station using the C-band 

at the longitude 68° west orbit location to the permitted list on a conditional basis. 

On June 17, 2011, the FCC added the United Kingdom’s Spaceway 6 space sta-

tion to access the United States market using the Ka-band at the longitude 90.9° 

west orbit location. On June 24, 2011, the FCC allowed the United Kingdom’s 

Spaceway 5 space station to access the United States market using the Ka-band at 

the 109.1° west orbit location.
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125 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

u.s. deparTmenT of 

agriCulTure

USDA

National Institute of Food and Agriculture

The National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA) is the extramural 

research arm of the USDA. In partnership with land-grant universities, as well as 

other public and private organizations, NIFA provides the focus to advance a global 

system of extramural research, extension, and higher education in the food and 

agricultural sciences. NIFA primarily provides financial assistance, in the form of 

grants, to conduct high-priority agricultural research, extension, and education. In 

FY 11, NIFA awarded many grants that use NASA data products to solve complex, 

environmentally related problems on topics such as land use, water and nutrient 

management, resource conservation, and pest management in forest and crop 

lands. A few examples of the above topics supported by NIFA that use NASA data 

products include the following:

•	 Satellite imagery and geospatial databases have been used to manage carbon and nitrogen and to do greenhouse gas accounting in corn cropping 

systems in the Midwest and Northeast.

Nutrient status of nut orchards in California have been mapped with 

hyperspectral imagery to develop management strategies.

Thermal images in the Northern Great Plains have been used to validate 

water balance models for evapotranspiration.

Geospatial toolkits have been developed and used by agricultural extension 

agents in a train-the-trainer program in Utah to access NASA imagery.

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126Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Along with the Science Mission Directorate of NASA, NIFA jointly funded sev-

eral geospatial extension programs at land-grant, sea-grant, and space-grant insti-

tutions. These geospatial outreach programs continue to operate after the funding 

has terminated to help train local and regional technologists in the use of NASA 

data products and geospatial technologies. By leveraging the ongoing coordination 

in these state geospatial programs in the realm of geospatial technologies (interoperability, standards, metadata, architecture, etc.), the geospatial extension specialists 

will help ensure that the vast quantity of data being collected by NASA and other 

Federal agencies is utilized effectively and shared more broadly with the public.

Natural Resources Conservation Service

The Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) is the primary Federal 

agency working with private landowners to help protect and conserve the Nation’s 

natural resources. It provides leadership in partnership efforts to help people con-

serve, maintain, and improve our natural resources and environment. For more 

than 50 years, the NRCS use of remote sensing products has helped to carry out 

conservation programs. Aerial and satellite imagery processed in the form of digi-

tal orthoimagery remained the primary remote sensing product used by NRCS to 

inventory, monitor, manage, and assess our natural resources in GIS nationwide. 

By partnering with the USDA Farm Service Agency and other Federal and state 

agencies, NRCS acquired statewide 1-meter orthoimagery for 19 states and parts 

of Alaska, Hawaii, and the Pacific Basin. NRCS participates in many Federal 

Government interagency coordination committees such as the National Digital 

Orthophoto Program and the National Digital Elevation Program to avoid dupli-

cation of orthoimagery and digital elevation acquisitions. The USDA Geospatial 

Data Gateway Web site made available all orthoimagery purchased by the NRCS 

to internal users and the general public.

NRCS orthoimagery acquisitions for Hawaii and the Pacific Basin used pre-

dominately high-resolution commercial satellites from DigitalGlobe and GeoEye. 

All acquisitions were contracted at USGS’s Mid-Continent Mapping Center. All 

orthoimagery acquisitions are at 1-meter or higher resolution and 4 to 8 multispec-

tral bands, depending on the satellite sensor. In FY 11, NRCS acquired Hawaii 
127 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

(Oahu, Maui, and Kahoolawe), Guam, and the Commonwealth of the Northern 

Mariana Islands (Saipan, Tinian, and Rota). Moreover, NRCS acquired orthoimagery for Alaska’s Kodiak Island under the USDA Small Area Aerial Photography 

Contract. This acquisition was for color infrared film at 1-meter ground resolution. 

NRCS used the Aerial Contract at USGS’s Mid-Continent Mapping Center to 

acquire an area northeast of Fairbanks called the Yukon Flats. This acquisition was 

for 1-meter, 4-band digital orthoimagery.

NRCS used the USDA Small Area Aerial Photography Contract to acquire highresolution aerial photography (4" ground-resolving distance) and scans over 70,196 

confidential statistical sites to collect natural resource data for the annual National 

Resources Inventory (NRI) program in the contiguous United States (CONUS). 

NRCS also contracted for aerial photography over 451 NRI sites in Puerto Rico and 

the U.S. Virgin Islands. NRCS used the USDA Small Area Aerial Photography 

Contract to acquire 20,287 photos over 12,021 Stewardship Land easements in 

CONUS and Hawaii. The easements cover approximately 2.18 million acres, and 

the imagery was used to monitor restoration efforts on each property enrolled.

NRCS continued to investigate direct digital imagery as a replacement for 

analog film. Acquisitions included 55 NRI sites acquired with 3-centimeter- and 

15-centimeter-resolution, 4-band imagery for a joint rangeland investigation with 

the Agricultural Research Service (ARS). NRCS also evaluated 8-centimeterresolution and 15-centimeter-resolution, stereo, 4-band imagery for a National 

Easement Assessment Project with the University of Tennessee. Although the 

digital imagery was excellent, the significant increase in cost over that of analog 

film limits more widespread use.

The NRCS also continued using satellite imagery from the USGS Hazard Data 

Distribution System and the USDA Satellite Imagery Archive to respond to natural disasters. In response to the 2011 flooding along the Mississippi and Missouri 

rivers, NRCS provided pre- and post-event imagery from satellite and aerial sources 

via Web services to state offices, supporting their ability to deliver Emergency 

Watershed Protection assistance.
128Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

NRCS Elevation Program

NRCS has a national strategy and requirements for high-quality elevation 

data. NRCS has a national strategy to acquire, integrate, and deliver high-quality 

elevation data that meet the USDA’s geospatial requirements. High-quality digital 

elevation data will support the USDA’s business activities by improving employee 

effectiveness and efficiency in providing assistance to our customers through the 

use of digital elevation models (DEMs), as well as hillshade, slope, and contour map 

and data products.

NRCS is a member agency of the National Digital Elevation Program (NDEP). 

NDEP is a multi-agency Federal partnership chaired by the U.S. Geological Survey 

(USGS) to expedite the collection and availability of elevation data. NDEP mem-

ber agencies intend to leverage funds for the acquisition of elevation data in com-

mon areas of interest. NDEP supports data sharing, promotes using flexible and 

common standards, and encourages the leveraging of resources to minimize redun-

dant data production. NRCS uses USGS’s LIDAR Base Specifications Version 

1.0 as the baseline for the acquisition of high-resolution elevation to meet agency 

requirements. NRCS tracks data investments using a file geodatabase and publishes 

a status map on a monthly basis.

National Enhanced Elevation Assessment

NRCS participated in and  helped fund the National Enhanced Elevation 

Assessment (NEEA). The NEEA was performed to document national require-

ments for improved elevation data, estimate the benefits and costs of meeting these 

requirements, and evaluate multiple national enhanced program implementation 

scenarios. The study was sponsored by member agencies of the NDEP and was com-

pleted in December 2011. The 3D Elevation Program (3DEP) was recommended by 

NDEP and was endorsed by the National States Geographic Information Council 

(NSGIC) and the National Geospatial Advisory Committee (NGAC).
129 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

Elevation Data Sources and Provisioning

Types and sources of elevation data commonly used for NRCS applications are 

DEMs and the National Elevation Dataset (NED). These data have 10- , 30-, and 

3-meter resolution and are available via the USGS and USDA Web sites. The 

USGS offers a central Web site for downloading or ordering digital elevation data 

in Geographic and NAD83 formats via the National Map. The Geospatial Data 

Gateway is a USDA data distribution Web site where DEM and NED data are downloadable in the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection, NAD83 datum.

Foreign Agricultural Service

The USDA’s International Production Assessment Division (IPAD) of the Office 

of Global Analysis (OGA) within the Foreign Agricultural Service (FAS) serves as 

the USDA’s primary focal point for assessing global agricultural production outlook 

and conditions that affected world food security. For approximately three decades, 

satellite imagery analysis by FAS has provided the USDA’s World Agricultural 

Supply and Demand Estimates (WASDE) report and the FAS Production Supply 

and Distribution (PSD) online database with objective and reliable global crop 

production estimates for foreign countries. The USDA’s monthly WASDE report is 

part of OMB’s Principal Federal Economic Indicators, and it is a timely assessment 

of national crop statistics collected worldwide. Free Landsat and MODIS imagery 

supplied crucial data inputs in deriving the monthly crop area and crop production 

estimates in the WASDE report, which is widely used by commodity market traders, producers, and U.S. Government policy decision makers.

During the 2011 crop season, FAS crop analysts examined and assessed satellite 

imagery with global coverage to enhance the reliability and objectivity of foreign crop 

production estimates. Satellite imagery analysis was utilized in conjunction with meteorological data, trade reports, and other sources of information that provided great 

strategic intelligence in determining crop production estimates for foreign countries.

The FAS crop analysts utilized multiple-resolution satellite imagery during the 

2011 crop season to provide early warning of potential food supply disruptions 

worldwide, with free Landsat and MODIS imagery being the two primary satellite 
130Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

imagery sources utilized. Free daily MODIS imagery (with 250-meter spatial resolu-

tion) from NASA’s Terra and Aqua satellites helped to provide “cloud-free” imagery 

for relative crop yield monitoring, while free 16-day Landsat imagery (with 30-meter 

spatial resolution) from the USGS helped to provide timely crop area assessments 

worldwide. In addition, the FAS worked in cooperation with NASA’s Goddard 

Space Flight Center (GSFC) and established the Global Agricultural Monitoring 

(GLAM) system, which quickly compared near-real-time MODIS imagery with 

historical imagery and allowed rapid crop yield estimates to be determined by sys-

tematic crop yield regression procedures.

FAS also managed the USDA’s Satellite Imagery Archive (SIA), which saved 

millions of dollars in purchased commercial imagery through bulk imagery dis-

counts and shared agency-wide imagery licenses. Reduced price-per-image savings 

and shared license costs helped to leverage limited USDA imagery funds for the 

benefit of all USDA agencies with remote sensing programs. For example, the 

2011 North America Data Buy (NADB) contract with SPOT/Astrium provided 

the greatest cost savings for USDA-SIA because it offered “ground-receiver” dis-

count rates for SPOT4 and SPOT5 imagery (with 20-meter and 10-meter spatial 

resolution, respectively) at approximately $14 per image, or a USDA cost savings 

of approximately $3,000 per image. In addition, the USGS orthorectified all “cloudfree” SPOT4 and SPOT5 imagery, which provided additional cost savings to all 

USDA agencies.

For more information about the remote sensing program at FAS, please refer to 

the Crop Explorer Web site at http://www.pecad.fas.usda.gov/cropexplorer.

Forest Service

As the primary forestry agency of the United States and the largest agency in 

the USDA, the U.S. Forest Service (USFS) continues to sustain the health, diversity, and productivity of the Nation’s forests and grasslands. This work is conducted 

via three specific agency mission areas: Research and Development (USFS R&D), 

the National Forest System (NFS), and State and Private Forestry (USFS S&P).

In FY 11, USFS R&D conducted research to address forestry and natural resource 

issues both internationally and domestically, including the development of relevant 
131 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

science and technologies. Partnerships with states, tribes, and other Federal agencies, as well as with universities and private industry, are integral to accomplishing 

the USFS R&D mission. Additionally, the USFS administered and managed 155 

national forests and 20 national grasslands, collectively known as NFS lands. These 

lands encompassed 193 million acres in 44 states and Puerto Rico and were managed to meet diverse needs through sustainable multipurpose use. Lastly, USFS S&P 

provided assistance to private landowners and state, tribal, and community forestry 

agencies in the stewardship of approximately 500 million acres of non-Federal forest 

lands throughout the United States. This assistance included the provision of information and support to partner agencies to protect forests from wildland fires, insects, 

disease, and invasive plants.

To address the information needs of these USFS mission areas in FY 11, the 

USFS collaborated with NASA, as well as NOAA, the USGS, and other agencies, 

to apply operational satellite and airborne imagery and the most advanced remote 

sensing and geospatial technologies. Specific FY 11 USFS accomplishments are 

summarized below:

•	 Collecting comprehensive Earth Observing System (EOS) MODIS direct 

broadcast data for the United States and Canada; performing operational 

processing and disseminating relevant fire mapping and geospatial data products to fire managers and the general public (http://activefiremaps.fs.fed.us).

Continuing activities with NASA Goddard Space Flight Center’s Direct 

Readout Laboratory to test and operationally implement direct readout 

technologies to support resource management including land, atmosphere, and ocean science processing algorithms for EOS sensors (http://

directreadout.fs.fed.us).

Utilizing MODIS imagery for the operational detection of damage and 

changing forest health conditions in our Nation’s forests (http://foresthealth.

fs.usda.gov/portal/Flex/FDM?dL=0).

Using MODIS imagery and other geospatial predictor data to produce 250-meter forest attribute data surfaces using nearest neighbor 

imputation methods.

Using MODIS imagery and other geospatial predictor data to produce 250-

meter forest carbon estimates using nearest neighbor imputation methods.

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132Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

•	Conducting operational crewed wildfire mapping missions using the 

Autonomous Modular Sensor (AMS) via coordination between the USFS, 

NASA Ames Research Center, and NASA’s Airborne Sciences Program.

Using Landsat TM/Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM) imagery to 

map the location, extent, and severity of year 2011 wildfires to sup-

port post-fire emergency stabilization/hazard mitigation activities, 

and of over 1,000 historical wildfires to assess the effectiveness of 

national fire management policies (http://www.fs.fed.us/eng/rsac/baer,

http://www.fs.fed.us/postfirevegcondition, and http://www.mtbs.gov).

Continuing the exchange of knowledge and technologies between the 

USFS and Ames on the use of unmanned aircraft systems (UASes) 

under the auspices of the NASA/USFS Wildfire Research Applications 

Partnership (http://geo.arc.nasa.gov/sge/WRAP/index.html).

Coordinating with Ames on the development of the Wide Area Imager 

(WAI) (developed under the NASA Small Business Innovation Research 

[SBIR] Program) as part of the next generation of Forest Service airborne 

sensors for fire/resource mapping.

Using Landsat 5 TM and National Agriculture Imagery Program (NAIP) 

imagery to initiate and complete mid-level vegetation mapping products 

for National Forest lands and adjacent land areas throughout the country.

Using Landsat TM/ETM and NAIP imagery to model Tree Canopy Cover 

(TCC) for study areas in the southeast and intermountain west as a pro-

totype to generate a comprehensive TCC layer for the United States as 

part of the Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics Consortium (MRLC) 

National Land Cover Database 2011 update.

Using Landsat TM/ETM and MODIS imagery to map and assess damage 

to forests in the immediate aftermath of the severe tornado outbreak of 

spring 2011 in the southeastern United States.

Coordinating with the USGS in using Landsat TM imagery to update the 

Nationwide LANDFIRE vegetation and fuel layers originally compiled in 

2001 (http://landfire.gov).

Supporting an Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) assessment of 

the effects of land-cover change on water quality using Landsat TM/ETM 

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133 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

time-series stacks to detect and monitor forest land-cover change in the 

Lake Superior and Lake Michigan watersheds from the mid-1980s to 

the present.

Leveraging multi-season Landsat TM imagery and other predictor layers 

to model key forest parameter surfaces used as inputs for the 2010 update 

of the National Forest Insect and Disease Risk Map (http://www.fs.fed.us/

foresthealth/technology/nidrm.shtml).

Using Landsat TM/ETM and NAIP imagery in conjunction with other 

core geospatial datasets to conduct ecological and soil-type mapping on 

NFS lands that are used by the USFS, NRCS, and other agencies for 

resource management, planning, and decision making (http://www.fs.fed.

us/eng/rsac/programs/teui/about.html).

Using Landsat TM/ETM time-series stacks, NAIP imagery, and USFS 

Forest Inventory and Analysis plot data to support carbon and biomass 

monitoring for 55 selected forested sites across the United States in support of the North American Forest Dynamics (NAFD) Project (http://

daac.ornl.gov/NACP/guides/NAFD_Disturbance_guide.html).

•	

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Agricultural Research Service

As the primary research agency for the USDA, the Agricultural Research Service 

(ARS) conducts research to solve problems affecting global food security, agricultural 

air quality, biofuels, ecosystem services such as watersheds, and humanity’s ability 

to adapt to climate change. ARS collaborates with NASA in partnership with 

other USDA agencies (NRCS, the Risk Management Agency [RMA], the World 

Agricultural Outlook Board [WAOB], FAS, the National Agricultural Statistics 

Service [NASS], and the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service [APHIS]) to 

develop technologies that will help the agencies carry out their missions. Partnerships 

with other Federal agencies, universities, industry, and state governments are integral 

to ARS research. ARS develops technologies for the management of water and soil 

resources, crop production, and rangeland resources. The sensor systems used by ARS 

include satellite systems, airborne systems such as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), 

on-the-go sensors mounted on field equipment, and other ground-based systems.
134Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

In FY  11, water quality and quantity management continued to be the largest 

area of emphasis for ARS remote sensing activities. Soil moisture remote sensing 

research continued with the development of algorithms for soil moisture estimation 

from aircraft and satellites. ARS scientists also contributed to the development of the 

next generation of satellite remote sensing systems through the Soil Moisture ActivePassive (SMAP) mission, with three scientists serving on the Science Definition 

Team. Researchers developed an Evaporative Stress Index (ESI) that will be used to 

map evapotranspiration and plant moisture stress from scales ranging from withinfield to continental. ARS scientists have also shown that thermal infrared (TIR) and 

multispectral visible, near-infrared, and shortwave infrared data could be used to 

schedule irrigation, perform spatially variable irrigation, map drought, and estimate 

soil moisture and vegetation canopy water content. Additional research into more 

efficient fertilizer application using remote sensing of crop nitrogen status reduced 

excess fertilizer losses to the environment, thus leading to improved water quality and 

better economic returns to farmers.

In FY 11, ARS delivered to the FAS a data-assimilation system for merging landsurface information from models and remote sensing into a single enhanced estimate 

of land-surface variables including root-zone soil moisture, stream flow, and evapo-

transpiration. The data-assimilation technique enhances the value of remote sensing 

retrievals for monitoring key environmental variables, as well as improved precipita-

tion estimates from numerical weather prediction models.

Scientists used remotely sensed information in the management of soil and nutrient 

resources via projects to map crop tillage practices, crop residue cover, and soil carbon. 

These applications remain important for conserving soil and water, sustaining soil 

quality, and sequestering carbon. Specific research on how winter cover crops reduced 

nitrogen runoff to sensitive ecosystems, like the Chesapeake Bay, used remote sensing 

to map and quantify the contributing landscapes. Similarly, radar remote sensing was 

developed as a tool to better understand and manage the fate of agrochemicals and 

sediment in coastal watersheds. Development began between ARS and Goddard on 

the implementation of a hyperspectral instrument on the International Space Station 

that will aid in the monitoring of vegetation status and soil carbon.

ARS also developed procedures to monitor the proliferation of invasive species 

with remote sensing to manage rangeland and understand the impacts of changing 
135 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

climate on managed and natural ecosystems. Additionally, pest management 

research was enhanced with airborne and satellite imagery. Both cattle fever tick 

and screwworm flies were the focus of eradication and containment research, in 

which remote sensing was used to map infestations and favorable habitats.

National Agricultural Statistics Service

The National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS) serves the basic agricultural and rural data needs of the country by providing objective, important, and 

accurate statistical information and services to farmers, ranchers, agribusinesses, 

and public officials. These data are vital to monitoring the ever-changing agricultural sector and carrying out farm policy. In FY 11, NASS used remote sensing data 

to construct and sample area frames for agricultural statistical surveys, estimated 

crop area and yield, began investigations of a NASA science grant on crop progress/

condition, and published crop-specific land-cover data for dissemination via the 

new CropScape Web portal.

Furthermore, NASS used remote sensing data and techniques to improve the 

quality and accuracy of its statistics. For example, NASS used Landsat imagery, digital NAIP orthophoto quadrangles, and other remotely sensed inputs for CONUS 

and Puerto Rico to select the yearly area-based samples for the June Agricultural 

Survey. In addition, NASS constructed or updated new area-based sampling frames 

for Arizona, New Mexico, and Oklahoma.

The remote sensing acreage estimation program used Disaster Monitoring 

Constellation (DMC) and USGS Landsat data to produce crop acreage estimates 

for crops at the state and county levels for 41 states during the FY 11 crop year, up 

from 36 states the previous year. Acreage estimates were created for 18 different 

crops, up from 16 the previous year, covering all market-sensitive crops and states. 

With the expanded coverage and timeliness, NASS’s Agricultural Statistics Board 

(ASB) was able to utilize the remote sensing acreage indications as independent 

input for setting the official estimates for the board’s monthly Crop Production 

Reports. Analysts derived remote sensing–based acreage indications from a cropspecific land-cover categorization called the Cropland Data Layer (CDL). For the 

primary satellite imagery inputs, the FAS Satellite Imagery Archive provided 1,262 
136Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

DMC images through a cooperative partnership while utilizing 3,972 Landsat images 

from the USGS. In addition, NASS distributed the CDL for 48 states to stakehold-

ers for the previous 2010 crop season via the USDA Geospatial Data Gateway and 

the new CropScape data visualization portal at http://nassgeodata.gmu.edu/CropScape. 

Developed in cooperation with George Mason University (GMU) and released 

January 10, 2011, CropScape provides an open and freely available data exploration 

and query method to interact with current and historical CDLs.

NASS utilized MODIS normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) products 

for modeling corn and soybean yield indications over the 12 largest production 

states. Updated yield estimates were delivered operationally to the ASB as an 

independent indication for setting official August, September, and October yield 

estimates by state, district, and county.

Finally, NASS continued work with GMU in FY 11 on a NASA-funded science 

grant titled “A National Crop Progress Monitoring System Based on NASA Earth 

Science Results.” Research focused on crop growth modeling, crop phenology stage 

detection algorithm development, system prototyping and implementation, and 

crop progress ground truth data collection for validation. Additionally, prototyping 

efforts began on a Web-based national vegetation condition geospatial monitoring 

application based on MODIS data products and incorporated several vegetation 

metric indices for vegetation greenness and drought anomaly assessment.

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

USDA’s Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) Center for Plant 

Health and Science used the North Carolina State University APHIS Plant Pest 

Forecasting System to generate global predictive maps; climate data were obtained 

from NOAA to generate the maps.
137 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

naTional sCienCe 

foundaTion

NSF

The National Science Foundation (NSF) continued to serve as the lead Federal 

agency for the support of ground-based astronomy and space science in FY  11. 

Through the Divisions of Astronomical Sciences, Atmospheric and Geospace 

Sciences, and Physics, as well as through the Office of Polar Programs, the NSF 

sponsored a broad base of observational, theoretical, and laboratory research aimed 

at understanding the states of matter and physical processes in the universe. Areas 

of research ranged from the most distant reaches of the universe and the earliest 

moments of its existence to nearby stars and planets, including our own sun and 

planetary system, as well as Earth’s atmosphere and space environment.

Division of Astronomical Sciences

The Division of Astronomical Sciences (AST) supported the development of 

advanced technologies and instrumentation for astronomical sciences, in addition 

to providing core support for the optical and radio observatories whose state-of-theart instrumentation and observing capabilities are accessible to the community on 

the basis of scientific merit. The NSF’s national astronomical facilities included the 

National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO), the Arecibo Observatory (AO), 

the National Optical Astronomy Observatory (NOAO), and the National Solar 

Observatory (NSO). The NSF also served as the executive agency for the Gemini 

Observatory—an international partnership operating optical/infrared telescopes in 
138Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

both the Northern and Southern hemispheres—providing the United States’ share 

of support for the program.

AST, in partnership with Europe, Canada, Japan, and Taiwan, continued con-

struction on the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA), an 

interferometer located near San Pedro de Atacama, Chile. FY 11 saw continued 

delivery of North American antennas at a rate of about 1 every two months and 

transport of a further 11 accepted antennas to the 16,500-foot high-altitude site. 

The number of antennas at various stages of commissioning, integration, and testing in Chile now totals 51. Science observations by the community commenced 

using a 16-element subset of the full array.

AST continued its oversight of the Advanced Technology Solar Telescope 

(ATST), the next-generation U.S. ground-based solar telescope. The ATST, a 

collaboration of scientists from 22 institutions representing a broad segment of 

the U.S. solar physics community, previously earned the strong recommendation 

of the National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences. When 

completed in 2019, the ATST will be the world’s flagship ground-based telescope 

designed specifically for the study of solar magnetic fields on scales as small as 

30 kilometers. In FY 11, funding for the construction of the $298 million ATST 

began with funds from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act and the 

NSF’s Major Research and Facilities Construction account. Detailed design and 

fabrication of the major telescope subsystems and instruments are under way, and 

the primary mirror blank has been cast. Construction awaits final permits from the 

state of Hawaii authorizing construction to begin on the site on Haleakala peak 

on Maui.

In FY 11, AST was moving toward the next phase of funding for the design 

and development of the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST) and starting the 

process for presenting LSST for construction support. LSST is a joint project of the 

NSF and the Department of Energy (DOE), with private and international partners. An interagency joint oversight group met regularly, both internally and with 

representatives from the project, throughout FY 11. The LSST Project will produce 

a purpose-built wide-field survey telescope and use the attached 3.3-gigapixel cam-

era to image the entire accessible sky repeatedly for at least 10 years, producing 

more than 20 terabytes of data nightly. The LSST Project will enable breakthrough 
139 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

research not just in cosmology (notably studies of dark energy and dark matter), but 

also in galactic structure and solar system astronomy. In addition, LSST opens up 

the time domain and will revolutionize the study of transient events. Project design 

work continued in FY 11, mostly with Federal support, while private funding was 

used for long-lead-time items and to address items of higher risk. The University of 

Arizona’s Steward Observatory Mirror Lab started preliminary figuring and rough 

polishing of the innovative combined primary/tertiary mirror. The camera is a 

deliverable from DOE being designed at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center 

(SLAC) National Accelerator Laboratory, and development work on the required 

detectors proceeded satisfactorily with more than one possible supplier. Full environmental and cultural compliance was completed early in FY 11, and site preparation work was completed during the year at Cerro Pachon, Chile. The NSF and 

DOE moved forward in their review processes: DOE’s CD-1 review for the camera 

the agency will be supplying, and NSF’s Preliminary Design Review of the full 

project. Both were completed successfully during FY 11. Community interest and 

support remain high.

The Atacama Cosmology Telescope (ACT) is a 6-meter-diameter millimeterwave telescope located at 5,200 meters (17,000 feet) on Cerro Toco in the Atacama 

Desert of northern Chile, near the ALMA site. It is designed to measure minute 

variations in intensity of the cosmic microwave background (CMB, the radiation 

at microwave wavelengths that is a remnant of the Big Bang) to study how the 

universe began, what it is made of, and how it evolved to its current state. ACT is a 

dedicated special-purpose telescope and is equipped with a state-of-the-art customized camera with over 2,500 detectors cooled to a third of a degree above absolute 

zero. During FY 11, the telescope continued to operate successfully in its third year 

of full science operations, obtaining measurements that span size scales on the sky 

two to three times finer than any previous experiment to measure the microwave 

background. Under renewed funding in FY 11, work was begun to upgrade and 

expand the bolometer cameras and add polarization measurement capability.

The POLARBEAR telescope, funded by AST, is a new addition to the suite 

of observatories on the Atacama plateau. The telescope will be used to measure 

polarization of the cosmic microwave background to search for so-called B-modes, 

which will open up a new window on the early universe and the physics of inflation 
140Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

if detected. POLARBEAR is a 3.5-meter-diameter microwave telescope, custom 

designed and fabricated by General Dynamics SATCOM, and looks most like a 

radio telescope or satellite dish. Unlike previous radio telescopes, POLARBEAR 

was designed for a very large field of view to accommodate a large imaging cam-

era. Following a full field test of the system in California, the telescope was disas-

sembled and shipped to Chile during FY 11.

Division of Atmospheric and Geospace Sciences

The Division of Atmospheric and Geospace Sciences’ (AGS) high-altitude aircraft, the High-performance Instrumented Airborne Platform for Environmental 

Research (HIAPER), is a highly modified and instrumented Gulfstream V (GV) 

midsize jet operated by the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), a 

Federally Funded Research and Development Center of the NSF. HIAPER is FAAcertified to operate at 51,000 feet, and its ability to fly for long durations (over 12 

hours), its long range (over 6,000 kilometers), and its scientific payload capac-

ity (6,000 pounds) have enabled scientific research previously not possible with 

existing platforms. HIAPER is the most advanced airborne research platform in 

the U.S. civilian fleet. The German Aerospace Center (DLR) recently completed 

modifications, including advanced instrumentation, to a Gulfstream 550 that can 

collaborate with the NSF’s GV HIAPER aircraft in scientific campaigns. During 

FY 11, the DLR’s 550 staff and the GV’s staff continued collaboration on instru-

ment pod development and shared instrumentation. Also in FY 11, the GV con-

tinued to conduct long-duration flights for the HIAPER Pole to Pole Observations 

(HIPPO) deployment to study the carbon cycle and greenhouse gases as part of 

a multi-year campaign. The HIAPER GV also participated in additional field 

projects during FY 11 and remained one of the world’s most advanced airborne 

research platforms.

NCAR’s Research Aircraft Facility continued to operate and maintain HIAPER 

through FY 11, and HIAPER’s expected lifetime is 10 to 25 years, during which 

new instrumentation innovations will be continually integrated onto the airframe 

as appropriate. NCAR also operated and maintained NSF’s heavy-lift C-130Q 

research aircraft. In FY 11, the C-130Q participated in the Ice in Clouds—Tropical 
141 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

(ICE-T) experiment, flying 13 missions through cumulonimbus clouds in the 

vicinity of the Virgin Islands in the Caribbean. The primary goal of ICE-T was to 

understand how ice particles originate in these clouds and how they impact the 

subsequent spread of ice in clouds from this climatologically important region.

The AGS Geospace Section (GS) supported a wide variety of research programs 

in space science in FY 11. These included the funding of advanced radar systems 

to study the ionosphere and magnetosphere, ground-based optical equipment to 

study the aurora and airglow, partial support to ground-based solar telescopes and 

instruments, and a wide-ranging portfolio of basic research in space physics. Major 

GS-funded activities in FY  11 included the Geospace Facilities (GF) program; 

the National Space Weather Program (NSWP); the Coupling, Energetics, and 

Dynamics of Atmospheric Regions (CEDAR) program; the Geospace Environment 

Modeling (GEM) program; and the Solar, Heliosphere, and INterplanetary 

Environment (SHINE) program.

The NSWP is a multiagency Federal program aimed at mitigating the adverse 

effects of space weather on the Nation’s technological infrastructure by providing 

timely, accurate, and reliable space environment observations, specifications, and 

forecasts. In FY 11, GS contributed to the further development of the NSWP’s 

Strategic Plan and Implementation Plan. These plans are available at the Web site 

of the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology.

In addition, during FY 11, a formal NSF Science and Technology Center called 

the Center for Integrated Space Weather Modeling (CISM) continued to develop 

and test an end-to-end computer simulation for space physics research and applications. CISM’s coupled models simulated the processes by which energy from the 

sun and solar wind propagates to Earth, as well as the resulting effects on Earth’s 

magnetosphere, ionosphere, and thermosphere. CISM researchers integrated these 

results with education and outreach activities. An effective knowledge transfer 

program also ensured that CISM shared these models for use in operational space 

weather forecasting centers of the United States Air Force and NOAA.

Throughout FY 11, the Community Coordinated Modeling Center (CCMC) 

for space weather research, cosponsored by the NSF and NASA and located at 

NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, continued to provide the research community with access to state-of-the-art space weather models and conducted important 
142Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

model validation activities necessary for the transition of research models to 

operational use.

Research facilities remained as the key component of GS efforts. In FY 11, the 

Upper Atmospheric Facilities program continued to promote basic research on the 

structure and dynamics of Earth’s upper atmosphere. In particular, the CEDAR and 

GEM programs conducted research efforts utilizing these facilities. Throughout 

FY  11, observations made by the Advanced Modular Incoherent-Scatter Radar 

(AMISR) at Poker Flat, Alaska, demonstrated the unique capabilities of this new 

instrument, including its ability to image the ionospheric effects of auroral particle 

precipitation in three dimensions. These observations provided a wealth of data 

particularly useful to modelers interested in validating space weather models. A 

second AMISR system has been operating at Resolute Bay in Arctic Canada since 

2009. This radar is ideally situated to observe the properties of the ionosphere in 

the polar cap, a region that is characterized by high ionospheric variability that 

often causes disruption of important navigation and communication systems.

GS also continued to support the study of magnetospheric physics within the 

international Super Dual Auroral Radar Network (SuperDARN) consortium 

through the addition of a new radar installation in central Oregon in 2010. Along 

with two other midlatitude SuperDARN radars that had been constructed in 

southern Virginia and central Kansas in 2009, the new Oregon site in Christmas 

Valley extended the longitudinal coverage of this growing instrument chain.

In FY 11, GS continued to support its new program for CubeSat-based small 

satellite science missions for atmospheric and space weather research. During the 

third CubeSat competition in May 2010, GS received proposals for a total of 23 

new missions. As was the case for the previous CubeSat solicitations, the quality of 

the proposals, in terms of both scientific creativity and technological innovation, 

was exceptional. From this competition, another two excellent CubeSat science 

projects were started in FY 11, adding new capabilities and breadth to the overall 

CubeSat program, which, with this addition, encompassed eight CubeSat projects. 

Two NSF-funded CubeSat missions were launched successfully in November 2011 

as part of NASA’s Educational Launch of Nanosatellites (ELaNa) program.

GS continued support for the satellite-based Active Magnetosphere and 

Planetary Electrodynamics Response Experiment (AMPERE) through FY  11. 
143 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

AMPERE utilized the 66 networked satellites of the existing Iridium constellation 

to create a new facility for collecting geomagnetic field data. The AMPERE facility has provided the first-ever real-time observations of the electric currents that 

link Earth’s magnetosphere and ionosphere and the first-ever continuous, global 

observations for tracking geomagnetic storm-time dynamics. Geomagnetic storms 

occur when charged particles emitted by solar flares interact with Earth’s magnetosphere. Such storms can cause major disruptions of power and communications 

systems on the ground. The AMPERE data server facility has been established and 

placed online, and data for the full year of 2010 have been made freely available to 

researchers, with new data being added continually.

The GS solar physics community also continued to benefit from the Division 

of Astronomical Sciences’ ongoing efforts to develop and manage the Advanced 

Technology Solar Telescope being constructed in Hawaii. Also in FY 11, GS continued to provide oversight for much-needed upgrades at the Owens Valley Solar 

Array in California.

During FY 11, the AGS Atmosphere Section (AS) continued to support the 

Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere, and Climate 

(COSMIC). The University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR) and 

its collaborator, Taiwan’s National Space Organization (NSPO), designed and built 

the COSMIC six-satellite constellation, which was launched on April 14, 2006, 

with the support and assistance of the U.S. Air Force’s Space Test Program (STP). 

Shortly thereafter, data became available from the three payloads: the special 

space-based GPS radio occultation (RO) receivers, the so-called tiny ionospheric 

photometers, and the tri-band beacons. These data have been provided freely to 

the world scientific community.

COSMIC radio occultation data have been assimilated at many operational 

weather prediction centers, including the U.S. National Centers for Environmental 

Prediction (NCEP), the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts 

(ECMWF), Météo France, the U.K. Met Office, the Meteorological Service 

of Canada, Taiwan’s Central Weather Bureau, and others. All of these centers 

have reported that RO data are having a significant positive impact on numerical 

weather forecasts. In ionospheric studies, COSMIC RO data have accelerated the 

development of physical models for space weather prediction by providing dense, 
144Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

accurate, and global electron-density measurements. These data are used for model 

testing and initialization, including for the response of the global ionosphere to the 

impact of solar storms.

During FY 11, all six COSMIC satellites were operating and providing data. On 

average, COSMIC produced from 1,500 to 2,000 GPS RO soundings per day. Ninety 

percent of these were processed and delivered to operational centers within 3 hours. 

COSMIC has supported more than 1,100 registered users from 52 countries. In col-

laboration with UCAR’s Unidata, COSMIC soundings have been provided in real 

time to support the university community. COSMIC received funding from U.S. 

agencies and Taiwan in order to continue its operation through April 2011.

Office of Polar Programs

For FY 11, the primary activities of the NSF’s Office of Polar Programs (OPP) in 

ground-based space science and astronomy included continued full-scale observations 

with the 10-meter off-axis radio telescope at the U.S. Amundsen-Scott South Pole 

Station that was surveying deep space galaxy clusters, as well as continued observa-

tions of high-energy neutrinos with the IceCube Neutrino Observatory (ICNO), fully 

completed and commissioned with a total of 86 strings in December 2010.

By December 2011, the South Pole Telescope successfully completed five-yearlong austral winter (northern summer) observations of the redshift-independent 

Sunyaev-Zel’dovich Effect (SZE) in the cosmic microwave background radiation. 

(The SZE is a decrement in the strength of CMB radiation as it was scattered by 

electrons in galaxy clusters on its way toward Earth.) Covering a total of 2,500 

square degrees of the southern skies, the SZE survey discovered over 500 massive 

galaxy clusters in the early universe. This mapping will allow reconstruction of the 

universe’s evolution through the power of this new method of distant galaxy cluster 

mass detection.

By the end of 2011, the South Pole ICNO had collected data for the first full year 

of operating the complete array of 86 strings of optical photodetectors deployed, 

at the 1.4- to 2.4-kilometer depth, in the ice under the South Pole Station in 

Antarctica. This makes ICNO the largest (by volume—1 cubic kilometer) neutrino 

detector in the world available for science observations. Data collection continued 
145 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

with the advanced filtering and reconstruction of neutrino events. Scientific topics 

under study included searches for weakly interacting massive particles, neutrino 

point sources, and magnetic monopoles. An additional scientific topic of interest is 

a study of the symmetry and asymmetry of the distribution of galactic cosmic rays 

between the Northern and Southern hemispheres.
.
147 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

deparTmenT of sTaTe

DOS

The Department of State (DOS) carries out diplomatic efforts to support U.S. 

space policies and programs internationally. State supports U.S. civil space activities through the negotiation of bilateral and multilateral agreements with partner 

countries and leads U.S. participation in numerous international space and technological venues and international organizations. State also maintains outreach 

programs to advance U.S. space and foreign policy objectives.

DOS continued to represent the United States on the United Nations 

Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS) and its Legal and 

Scientific and Technical subcommittees. With so many countries now engaged in 

space activities, DOS considers promoting the safe and responsible use of space 

by all current and future spacefaring nations a vital goal. At UNCOPUOS, DOS 

led U.S. efforts on the long-term sustainability of space, including such issues as 

orbital space debris, meteorology, astronomy and astrophysics, space transportation, nuclear power sources in space, and legal issues related to international 

liability and responsibility of launching nations. Still building on the results of the 

International Heliophysical Year to improve international cooperation in understanding the impact of space weather on satellites and Earth’s environment in 

general, DOS continued to promote space weather as an important foreign policy 

topic worldwide.

DOS continued strong international efforts to implement the National Space 

Based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT) Policy and the U.S. Space 

Policy in FY 11. The fifth plenary meeting of the International Committee on 

Global Navigation Satellite Systems (ICG-5) was held in Turin, Italy, in October 

2010, and the sixth plenary meeting of the ICG (ICG-6) was held in Tokyo, Japan, 
148Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

in September 2011. In both ICG meetings and throughout the year, State pursued 

work plans in the four ICG working groups to obtain better understanding of other 

Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) providers’ systems and to promote 

common time and geodesy standards for interoperable civil systems. Templates 

describing geodetic and timing references for all systems were completed at ICG-6 

and were made available on the ICG Web site.

An Interference Detection and Mitigation Workshop was approved by the ICG-6 

plenary. A new ICG subgroup was also formed to focus on GNSS applications.

The United States and European Union continued close cooperation under the 

auspices of the 2004 GPS-Galileo Cooperation Agreement. In November 2010, the 

United States was informed that all EU member states had deposited entry-intoforce notes, and the United States subsequently sent an entry-into-force diplomatic 

note to the EU Depository (Commission) on June 6, 2011. The United States and 

EU conducted a plenary-type digital videoconference in May 2011, and the EU 

proposed an updated joint strategy for closer GNSS cooperation. 

Close U.S.-Japanese cooperation in satellite navigation issues continued with our 

annual plenary meeting in January 2011 in Washington, DC. In September 2010, 

Japan had launched its first Quasi-Zenith Satellite (QZS), called Michibiki, which 

is designed to be compatible and highly interoperable with GPS. Work designed to 

improve QZS performance continued on QZS monitoring sites in Guam and Hawaii.

Bilateral U.S.-Russia talks on compatibility and interoperability issues between 

GPS and Russia’s Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) continued 

on the margins of international conferences. Technical work continued on nextgeneration search-and-rescue capabilities that are planned for GPS III SVs9+ and 

new GLONASS satellites.

In July 2011, the U.S. and India convened the third U.S.-India Joint Working 

Group on Civil Space Cooperation in Bangalore. Among other agenda items, the 

Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) agreed to resume work with U.S. 

Government agencies to promote interoperability between GPS and two emerg-

ing Indian counterpart systems, the Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System 

(IRNSS) and the GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) System.

State supported a strong public outreach and diplomatic campaign to underscore 

the reliability and accuracy of GPS. DOS speakers gave presentations at many 
149 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

international conferences, including the Moscow International GNSS Conference, 

the Korean International GNSS Symposium, meetings of the international section of the Civil GPS Service Interface Committee, and the annual Institute of 

Navigation conference.

In June 2010, the United States hosted the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation 

(APEC) GNSS Implementation Team in Seattle, Washington. The meeting was 

attended by 80 experts from 12 APEC economies (Chile, People’s Republic of 

China, Indonesia, Japan, Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, Chinese Taipei, 

Peru, Russia, Thailand, and the United States) and 1 intergovernmental organization (the International Committee on the Global Navigation Satellite System), 1 

participant from the European Commission, and 1 nongovernmental organization 

(the International Federation of Surveyors). An industry forum was conducted 

as part of the program, and representatives from Boeing, Lockheed Martin, ITT, 

Raytheon, Trimble, OnStar, FedEx, United Airlines, Alaska Airlines, and others 

highlighted satellite navigation technology developments that would reduce congestion, enhance transport safety and security, and achieve effective sustainability, 

as called for by APEC transportation ministers. The United States demonstrated 

several GNSS applications in the transportation area, and the APEC GNSS 

Implementation Team endorsed a strategy for the adoption of measures to include 

GNSS technologies in the development of seamless intermodal transportation 

systems for 2010 through 2015.

In 2010, DOS initiated a new dialogue with the EU and the European Space 

Agency (ESA) on space weather as part of ESA’s space situational awareness 

program. DOS also supported an international meeting called by the National 

Security Council staff on mitigating space weather events. State is supporting formal and informal interagency dialogue with a view to coordinating U.S. 

Government efforts in this area in terms of both research and operations.

Finally, DOS continued to promote the use of GPS in the African continent, 

working through the AfricaArray consortium and the United Nations Office of 

Outer Space Affairs. AfricaArray is a public-private partnership led by academic 

researchers at the Universities of Witwatersrand in South Africa and Pennsylvania 

State University in the United States; it is focused on supporting training and 

research in Earth, atmospheric, and space sciences in Africa. At the AfricaArray 
150Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

annual meeting held November 14–22, 2011, in Johannesburg, DOS facilitated 

the travel of scientists from Botswana, Cameroon, the Democratic Republic of 

the Congo, Ethiopia, Ghana, Malawi, Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia, 

as well as their participation in workshops on GPS applications taught by 

UNAVCO scientists.
151 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

deparTmenT of energy

DOE

The Department of Energy (DOE) participates in the national effort to further 

U.S. interests in space. Three organizations within DOE provide this capability: the National Nuclear Security Administration’s (NNSA) Office of Defense 

Nuclear Nonproliferation Research and Development (DNN R&D), the Office of 

Science (SC), and the Office of Nuclear Energy (NE).

Office of Defense Nuclear Nonproliferation 

Research and Development

The Nuclear Detonation Detection program builds the Nation’s operational sensors 

to monitor the entire planet from space to detect and report surface, atmospheric, or 

space nuclear detonations (NuDets). The Space-Based Nuclear Detonation Detection 

subprogram provides much of the Nation’s capability to detect, report, locate, and 

identify nuclear explosions using orbiting satellites. The DNN R&D develops, builds, 

and delivers these satellite payloads to meet interagency performance and schedule 

commitments and provides launch and on-orbit operational support for the current 

generation of the U.S. NuDet Detection System (USNDS).

Since the Vela satellite program in 1960, NNSA and its predecessors have provided the underlying science and technology capability for space-based detection of 

foreign nuclear weapon detonations to meet test-ban-treaty monitoring and missile 

warning needs. Today, these associations continue and have expanded to include 

military support missions and space control. These efforts span decades of overlapping generations of instruments deployed on multiple platforms in different orbital 

configurations. NNSA will continue full-scale production and deliveries of sensor 
152Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

packages to ensure that payloads are ready, as needed, to meet national security 

requirements. To ensure that the technologies and capabilities developed for the 

program support stakeholder needs, DNN R&D actively engages in intergovern-

mental working groups that reduce duplication among agencies, bring new user 

requirements to the fore, and improve the quality of relevant technology across 

the funding agencies. Strong synergy exists between the work performed in the 

USNDS program and planetary science and astrophysics. The current gamma-ray 

spectrometers used for USNDS share their heritage with the NASA Swift mission, 

which evolved from earlier USNDS sensors. This mission exemplifies how collabo-

ration between DOE’s national laboratories and NASA for astrophysics has ben-

efited USNDS capabilities and vice versa. Additionally, the NASA Living With 

a Star program contributes to, and is benefited by, the NNSA-developed payloads 

that monitor and operate in the near-Earth space environment.

The NNSA weapons laboratories, most notably Los Alamos National Laboratory 

(LANL) and Sandia National Laboratory (SNL), supply the science, technol-

ogy, and engineering required for USNDS, with Lawrence Livermore National 

Laboratory (LLNL) contributing to the end-to-end testing of USNDS. These 

NNSA laboratories have unique and comprehensive capabilities in understanding 

nuclear weapons, as well as knowledge of the signatures and observables associ-

ated with a nuclear detonation and the propagation of signals from the weapon 

to the sensor. Moreover, these laboratories provide capabilities in the design, 

construction, calibration, deployment, and operation of satellite-based detection 

instruments, along with detailed modeling and analysis. As the basis for 24/7/365 

global monitoring, the user/operations communities routinely receive analysis, 

insights, and computer codes based on this research. These capabilities represent 

an important noncommercial source of national space expertise and competency 

that NNSA is committed to sustaining and nourishing.

Two payloads built by NNSA at these laboratories accomplish the NuDets reporting mission—the Global Burst Detector (GBD) and the Space and Atmospheric 

Burst Reporting System (SABRS). The GBD payload is hosted on all GPS satel-

lites. The SABRS payload is carried on satellite hosts in geosynchronous orbit. In 

order to maintain a vital capability to design and implement these systems, DNN 

R&D supports demonstration-validation payloads to explore new technologies and 
153 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

new sensing modalities and to increase the technology readiness level (TRL) for 

parts that might be used in future payload designs.

Office of Science

The Office of Science (SC) supports many cooperative efforts with NASA 

covering a broad range of space interests. Projects funded by SC include the 

development of techniques to conduct fundamental physics in space to investigate high-priority national science objectives. Examples of these efforts include 

the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer and the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope 

(FGST). The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer, also designated AMS-02, is a particle 

physics experiment. Launched on the Space Shuttle in May 2011, AMS-02 is now 

mounted on the International Space Station, where it searches for various forms of 

unusual matter by measuring cosmic rays. Among the experiment’s science goals 

are the search for evidence of dark matter and for cosmic domains of antimatter. 

When it becomes available, the AMS-02 database of tens of billions of cosmic ray 

events can also benefit NASA’s Human Space Exploration Program by its use in 

future NASA space-radiation dose models.

The Large Area Telescope (LAT), the primary instrument on FGST, is a satellite 

mission that studies the high-energy gamma-ray sky. SC managed the LAT fabrication and now operates the LAT Science Operations Center. Researchers use the 

data to learn about high-energy acceleration mechanisms generated by supermassive black holes and supernovae and to search for dark matter.

The Office of Science also supports research in plasma science, which contributes to SC-NASA mutual interests in the knowledge of astrophysical systems. 

A major area of research supported by SC’s Office of Fusion Energy Sciences is 

centered on developing a comprehensive understanding of astrophysical magnetic processes, including particle acceleration in cosmic gamma-ray bursts, 

magnetic reconnection and turbulent processes in Earth’s magnetosphere and 

solar corona, the formation and evolution of astrophysical jets, and dynamo 

processes creating planetary/galactic magnetic field structures. Other research 

sponsored by this office focused on probing the properties of warm dense matter 

as found in planetary cores.
154Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

The Office of Science and NASA completed a successful joint experiment in 

2011, the Midlatitude Continental Convective Clouds Experiment (MC3E), at 

the Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Climate Research Facility’s 

Southern Great Plains (SGP) site in central Oklahoma. Findings from this experi-

ment support the development of model improvements and critical algorithms for 

the NASA Global Precipitation Mission satellite. Several publications by teams 

of DOE and NASA scientists are nearing publication. NASA scientists are also 

co-investigators in a current experiment, MAGIC (the Marine ARM GPCI 

Investigation of Clouds; GPCI is a project comparing data from the major climate 

models), which is studying marine clouds by deploying the second ARM Mobile 

Facility (AMF2) on the Horizon Lines container ship Spirit, making regular tran-

sects between Los Angeles and Hawaii from October 2012 to September 2013. The 

Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2 (OCO-2) Science/Validation Team has deployed 

ground-based solar-viewing Fourier transform spectrometer (FTS) mobile labora-

tories at the SGP and Darwin Tropical West Pacific (TWP) ARM sites for several 

years. This work is scheduled to continue through 2016. These data have been 

utilized to validate space-based CO

2

 retrievals from a variety of different satellite 

instruments. SC also engages in joint efforts to understand atmospheric and envi-

ronmental phenomena.

Since astronauts are spending more time in space, NASA is working on groundbased studies with DOE and others to understand the possible risks to human 

beings exposed to space radiation. SC provides scientific user facilities for the 

scientific community, including particle accelerators and ion beams for biological 

and electronic systems radiation studies. The NASA Space Radiation Laboratory 

(NSRL) was established at DOE’s Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) to study 

the radiobiological effects of using beams that simulate the cosmic rays found in 

space. Jointly managed during the four-year construction period by SC and NASA’s 

Johnson Space Center, the facility employs beams of heavy ions extracted from 

BNL’s Booster accelerator, providing a leading capability for radiobiology studies 

in the United States.

Since FY 01, under a joint Memorandum of Agreement, DOE and NASA have 

engaged in coordinated efforts to better understand and predict the health risks 

associated with exposure to low-dose radiation. SC’s Low Dose Radiation Research 
155 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

Program interacts with the Space Radiation Project within NASA’s Human 

Research Program. The Low Dose program focuses on doses of radiation measured 

at or below current workplace exposure limits. NASA’s Space Radiation Project 

seeks to understand the biological effects of space radiation so that radiation risks 

may be accurately assessed.

Office of Nuclear Energy

The Office of Nuclear Energy (NE) supports NASA’s space science and exploration programs by maintaining the necessary nuclear facilities’ infrastructure 

capabilities to produce and deliver power systems for Federal user agencies, such as 

NASA. These facilities support NE’s production of space radioisotope and reactor 

power system technologies for current space mission applications.

DOE and its predecessors have provided radioisotope power systems that have 

safely enabled deep space exploration and national security missions for five 

decades. Radioisotope power systems (RPSs) convert the heat from the decay of 

the radioactive isotope plutonium-238 into electricity. RPSs are capable of producing either heat or electricity for decades under the harsh conditions encountered in deep space. They have proven to be safe, reliable, and maintenance-free 

in missions to study the moon and all of the planets in the solar system except 

Mercury. Systems that utilize RPS-powered systems are currently in many different 

stages of their mission lives. The Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity rover was 

launched in November 2011. Curiosity is powered by a Multi-Mission Radioisotope 

Thermoelectric Generator (MMRTG) that was designed, built, and delivered by 

DOE. Curiosity is the largest and most capable rover ever sent to another planet. 

It is currently exploring a region on Mars known as Gale Crater. Voyagers 1 and 2 

left Earth in 1977 to conduct a grand tour of the outer planets and are currently 

exploring the heliosheath on the edge of the solar system, seeking out the boundary of interstellar space. Currently, Voyager 1 is the farthest humanmade object 

from Earth; it is in interstellar space more than 11 billion miles away. Three MultiHundred Watt Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (MHW-RTGs) serve as 

the central power source for the Voyager spacecraft. Both spacecraft remain operational and are sending back useful scientific data after over 36 years of operation; 
156Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

they are expected to continue functioning through 2025. The Cassini mission 

launched in 1997 and entered orbit around Saturn in 2004. The Cassini spacecraft 

uses three DOE-supplied General Purpose Heat Source Radioisotope Thermoelectric 

Generators (GPHS-RTGs) and is the largest spacecraft ever launched to explore the 

outer planets. It is successfully returning data and images of Saturn and its surround-

ing moons, using a broad range of scientific instruments, and is expected to continue 

to operate until at least 2017. The New Horizons spacecraft, launched in 2006, is 

the fastest spacecraft ever to leave Earth and also uses a GPHS-RTG. New Horizons 

has already returned images and scientific data from Jupiter and will continue its 

journey of 3 billion miles to study Pluto and its moon, Charon, in 2015. It may also 

go on to study one or more objects in the vast Kuiper Belt, the largest structure in 

our planetary system.

The stockpile of plutonium-238 used to power these missions to explore the 

solar system and for other Government applications is limited. NE is working with 

NASA to reestablish domestic plutonium-238 production in order to ensure contin-

ued availability of these power systems for future science missions.
157 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

smiThsonian insTiTuTion

The Smithsonian Institution continued to contribute to national aerospac

goals through the activities of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observator

(SAO), which, together with the Harvard College Observatory in Cambridg

Massachusetts, forms the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (CfA

Through this organization, more than 300 scientists are engaged in a broad pro

gram of research in astronomy, astrophysics, Earth and space sciences, and sci

ence education. The Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum (NASM) i

Washington, DC, also contributed to national aerospace goals through its researc

and education activities.

In FY 11, SAO astronomers announced the discovery of giant, previousl

unseen structures at the center of our galaxy. They found two gamma-ray-emittin

bubbles that extend 25,000 light-years above and below the galactic plane. Thos

bubbles may be fossils from an earlier, more active period in our galaxy’s histor

The energy required to create them probably came from an eruption from th

supersized black hole at the center of the Milky Way.

SAO continued to be at the forefront of a decades-long effort to map th

local universe. In May 2011, researchers unveiled the most complete 3D map o

nearby galaxies ever created. The 2MASS redshift survey took more than 10 year

to accomplish. It cataloged more than 43,000 galaxies out to a distance of 38

million light-years.

FY 11 marked the eighth year of operations for NASA’s Spitzer Space Telescop

whose Infrared Array Camera (IRAC) was developed at SAO and constructed a

NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center. Spitzer is operated by the Jet Propulsio

Laboratory. Spitzer studies the universe at infrared wavelengths of light, enabling i

to peer into nearby dust-obscured regions to study the birth and evolution of stars

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158Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

observe planets around other stars (exoplanets), and detect distant galaxies in the 

early universe.

In FY 11, SAO scientists released a photo album of galactic “train wrecks.” The 

new images combined observations from Spitzer, which observes infrared light, and 

NASA’s Galaxy Evolution Explorer spacecraft, which observes ultraviolet light. 

By analyzing information from different parts of the light spectrum, scientists can 

learn much more than from a single wavelength alone because different compo-

nents of a galaxy are highlighted. The combined data highlighted areas in colliding 

galaxies where stars are forming most rapidly, permitting astronomers to take a 

more complete census of the new stars.

Spitzer also has proved valuable in studying exoplanets. For example, in FY 11, it 

showed that a gas giant planet circling Upsilon Andromedae has a “hot spot” shifted 

80° around the planet, rather than being hottest directly under the glare of its sun. 

This suggests that the planet has extremely fast winds. Spitzer also revealed the first 

carbon-rich planet, which contrasts with the silicon-rich worlds in our solar system.

As one of NASA’s Great Observatories, the Chandra X-ray Observatory studies 

the high-energy universe with unparalleled vision in x-ray light; SAO has operated 

it on NASA’s behalf since 1999.

There were many exciting and significant astronomical advances made by the 

Chandra X-ray Observatory in FY 11. For example, astronomers using Chandra 

announced the discovery of evidence for the youngest black hole known to exist in 

our cosmic neighborhood. This black hole could help scientists better understand 

how massive stars explode, which ones leave behind black holes or neutron stars, 

and the number of black holes in our galaxy and others.

Scientists also found a pattern of x-ray “stripes” in the remains of an exploded 

star in the data from a long Chandra observation of what is known as the Tycho 

supernova remnant. This result may provide the first direct evidence that a cos-

mic event can accelerate particles to energies a hundred times higher than that 

achieved by the most powerful particle accelerator on Earth. It could also explain 

how some of the extremely energetic particles bombarding Earth, called cosmic 

rays, are produced.

Astronomers also used Chandra in FY 11 to discover the first pair of supermassive black holes in a spiral galaxy similar to the Milky Way. At a distance of 
159 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

160 million light-years, it is also the nearest known pair of supermassive black 

holes. The black holes are located near the center of the spiral galaxy NGC 3393. 

Separated by only 490 light-years, the black holes are likely the remnant of a merger 

of two galaxies of unequal mass a billion or more years ago.

The Solar Dynamics Observatory provides better-than-HD-quality images of the 

sun’s surface and outer atmosphere. SAO is a major partner in the Atmospheric 

Imaging Assembly (AIA), a group of four telescopes that photograph the sun in 10 

different wavelength bands, or colors, once every 10 seconds.

In FY 11, AIA offered stunning images of solar material dancing up into the 

sun’s atmosphere, of intense bursts of light from powerful solar flares, and of “active 

regions” as they merge and grow. By looking at these pictures in different wavelengths—each wavelength corresponds to gases at a different temperature—scientists can better map how these events fit in to the sun-Earth system as a whole.

AIA spotted hypothesized, but never before detected, magnetic field ripples in 

the sun’s atmosphere called Alfvén waves. Scientists found that the waves in the 

sun’s atmosphere carry more energy than previously thought, and possibly enough 

to drive two solar phenomena whose causes remain points of debate: the intense 

heating of the corona to some 200 times hotter than the sun’s surface, and solar 

winds that blast up to 1.5 million miles per hour.

AIA also had another first in FY 11: it observed a comet’s last moments as it 

evaporated into nothing while flying too close to the sun. Comets often die this 

way, but humans had never before seen them do so against the backdrop of the 

sun. Watching the death throes offered scientists a chance to measure the mass 

of the comet, something that cannot usually be determined from afar. In its final 

moments, the comet was about 100 million pounds and had a glowing tail some 

10,000 miles long, while traveling about 400 miles per second.

SAO maintained its partnership in two other sun-watching spacecraft: Hinode 

and the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory.

SAO continued to play a leading role in the work leading toward the scientific 

success of NASA’s Kepler mission. Kepler is tasked with hunting for exoplanets 

orbiting select stars in the Lyra and Cygnus constellations. SAO scientists are 

making major contributions to the confirmation and characterization of planet 

candidates identified by Kepler. The highlights in FY 11 included the discoveries of 
160Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

a gas-giant planet blacker than coal and a planet that resembles the fictional world 

of Tatooine, Luke Skywalker’s home in the movie Star Wars. This real-life Tatooine 

circles a pair of stars, so it has two suns in its sky.

The Submillimeter Array (SMA), a pioneering observatory for radio astronomy, 

continued to engage in a wide variety of astronomical observations. Its top research 

highlight for FY 11 was the study of a dusty disk surrounding the star CQ Tauri, a 

roughly 10-million-year-old star located about 300 light-years away.

A dust grain emits most strongly at wavelengths of radiation that are approxi-

mately the same as its size; its efficiency radiating at other wavelengths similarly 

depends on its size. By measuring the spectral behavior of dust emission, therefore, 

it is possible to determine the ensemble properties of the dust grains in a disk. The 

dust in the interstellar medium (and by implication in the very early disk around a 

star) has sizes comparable to or smaller than a wavelength of optical light.

In contrast, SAO astronomers found that the dust in the disk of CQ Tauri was 

huge: consistent with sizes of a centimeter or perhaps even more—almost 10 thou-

sand times larger than the typical dust grains in interstellar space. They also reported 

evidence that the dust grains in the inner portion of the disk were larger than those 

in the outer regions. These new results lend support to models of bottom-up grain 

growth and, in turn, help to explain how, where, and when new planets are made.

In public outreach, SAO continued its popular monthly Observatory Night 

lectures and observing sessions. Begun by observatory director Harlow Shapley 

in 1930, these public nights offer the local community an opportunity to learn 

about the latest advances in astronomy as well as view the moon, stars, and plan-

ets through a variety of telescopes. During FY 11, attendees routinely filled the 

observatory auditorium and a nearby overflow room to capacity. The lectures are 

Webcast live and archived online to reach a broader audience.

SAO participated in the fifth annual Cambridge Science Festival—a cel-

ebration showcasing the leading edge in science, technology, engineering, 

and math. This multifaceted, multicultural event takes place every spring in 

Cambridge, Massachusetts.

SAO also provided occasional Author’s Night programs, as well as Sci-fi Movie 

Nights that explored the theme “Everything I learned about science, I learned at 

the movies.”
161 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

In FY 11, NASM continued to educate and inspire the public through exhibits 

and education programs, including discovery stations, lecture series, family educational events, publications, and intern programs. A new, updated edition of the 

bestselling overview on aeronautical engineering, Introduction to Flight, by NASM 

curator for aerodynamics Dr. John Anderson, was published this year. In collaboration with the National Museum of American History, NASM began construction 

on a new major exhibition, “Time and Navigation,” which will explore the relationship between timekeeping and finding our way in air, in space, on land, and on sea. 

Work also continued on updates to the “Moving Beyond Earth” exhibition on the 

topic of human spaceflight in the Space Shuttle/International Space Station era.

NASM’s Archives Division began moving to the museum’s Steven F. UdvarHazy Center, which houses a new restoration hangar, conservation lab, and storage areas for the national artifact and archival collections. The World War II–era 

Curtiss SB2C Helldiver was the first aircraft moved by the Collections Division to 

the new facility.

Staff members in NASM’s Center for Earth and Planetary Studies (CEPS) 

continued to serve on the science teams of several spacecraft missions. Dr. John 

Grant is a participating scientist for the Mars Exploration Rover (MER) mission 

that is currently operating on Mars. He is a chair of the MER Science Operations 

Working Group; in that capacity, he directs the science team to consensus on 

targets and operations for the long-lived rovers. He conducts real-time mission 

planning from a control station installed on-site at CEPS. Dr. Grant is also on the 

Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) science team and was cochair of the MSL Landing 

Site Steering Committee, which worked to identify candidate landing sites for the 

rover Curiosity. NASA announced the selection of Gale Crater as the landing 

site at NASM during the museum’s annual “Mars Day!” family educational event, 

which included a full-scale model of Curiosity on display.

CEPS staff are on the science teams for the Mars Advanced Radar for Subsurface 

and Ionosphere Sounding instrument on Mars Express, both the High Resolution 

Imaging Science Experiment and the Shallow Subsurface Radar instruments on 

the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, and the 

MESSENGER mission to Mercury. This year, the MESSENGER spacecraft was 

successfully inserted into Mercury orbit. Dr. Tom Watters, a participating scientist 
162Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

on MESSENGER, helped plan and implement data collection for the orbital phase 

of the mission.

CEPS continued its active research program in planetary and terrestrial geology 

and geophysics using remote sensing data from Earth-orbiting satellites, as well as 

piloted and unpiloted space missions. The scope of research activities included 

work on the moon, Mars, Earth, Mercury, and Asteroid 433 Eros. Research top-

ics included cratering and volcanism on Mercury; lunar geomorphic and tectonic 

studies; comparative planetology; terrestrial arid land studies; and Martian aeolian, 

depositional, fluvial, volcanic, and glacial features.

As a NASA Regional Planetary Image Facility (RPIF), CEPS continued to house 

a collection of over 300,000 images of the planets and their satellites that is a reference library for science researchers and the public. The CEPS RPIF holds the most 

complete collection of hard-copy lunar images of any RPIF in the world.
163

a

Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

ppendiCes
164Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Appendix A-1

u.s. governmenT spaCeCrafT reCord

(Includes spacecraft from cooperating countries launched by U.S. launch vehicles.) 

Calendar Year Success

Earth Orbita

Failure Success

Earth Escapeb

Failure

1957

1958

1959

1960

1961

1962

1963

1964

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011 (through September 30, 2011)

0

5

9

16

35

55

62

69

93

94

78

61

58

36

45

33

23

27

30

33

27

34

18

16

20

21

31

35

37

11

9

16

24

40

32c

26c

28c

31c

24c, d

30

22e

23

35

31f

23

18

28c, f

8c

10

20d

16

22f

24f

15

15

1

8

9

12

12

12

11

8

7

12

4

15

1

1

2

2

2

2

4

0

2

2

0

4

1

0

0

3

1

4

1

1

0

0

0

0

1

1

2

1

0

0

4

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

0

1

0

1

0

0

1

1

0

4

0

4

4

7

10

3

8

3

8

8

3

1

4

1

2

7

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

1

0

1

1

1

1

3

1

2

2

0

3

0

2

1

2

2

2

0

0

0

2

0

4

2

2

2

1

0

0

1

1b

0

0

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1b

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

TOTAL 1,682 157 108 16

a. The criterion of success or failure used is attainment of Earth orbit or Earth escape rather than judgment of mission success. “Escape” flights 

include all that were intended to go to at least an altitude equal to lunar distance from Earth.

b. This Earth-escape failure did attain Earth orbit and, therefore, is included in the Earth-orbit success totals.

c. This excludes commercial satellites. It counts separately spacecraft launched by the same launch vehicle.

d. This counts various sets of microsatellites as a single payload.

e. This includes the Small Spacecraft Technology Initiative (SSTI) Lewis spacecraft that began spinning out of control shortly after it achieved 

Earth orbit.

f. This includes American spacecraft not launched in the U.S.
165 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

Appendix A-2

World reCord of spaCe launChes suCCessful

in aTTaining earTh orbiT or beyond

(Enumerates launches rather than spacecraft; some launches orbited multiple spacecraft.)a

Calendar 

Year

United

Statesb

USSR/

CIS Francec Italyc Japan

People’s 

Republic

of China Australia

United

Kingdomc

European 

Space

Agency India Israel Iran

1957

1958

1959

1960

1961

1962

1963

1964

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011*

2

1

3

3

6

20

17

30

48

44

66

74

70

81

83

74

86

81

89

99

98

88

87

89

98

101

98

97

98

91

95

90

74

75

62

55

45

49

33

25

28

24

26

34

23

23

21

22

26

16

33

26

29

30

20

5

10

16

29

52

38

57

63

73

57

45

40

28

30

30

23

22

27

26

24

32

16

13

18

18

22

22

17

6

8

12

17

27

20

31

24

26

27

32

37

34

32

30

23

18

26

19

16

15

25

19

25

15

15

*(through September 30, 2011)

1

1

2

2

1

3

1

1

2

1

2

1

1

2

1

1

2

1

2

3

2

2

3

1

3

3

2

2

3

2

2

3

2

2

1

2

1

1

2

2

1

3

2

2

5

3

1

3

2

2

1

1

3

2

1

1

1

1

3

1

2

2

4

5

1

3

1

5

2

3

6

6

4

5

1

4

6

8

5

3

13

11

4

15

10

1

1

1

2

2

4

3

2

2

7

7

5

9

7

7

6

12

10

12

11

10

12

8

11

4

3

5

5

8

7

9

6

5

1

1

1

1

2

2

1

1

1

2

1

2

1

1

3

3

4

1

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

TOTAL 1,432 2,906 10 8 78 144 1 1 202 31 6 2

a. This includes commercial expendable launches and launches of the Space Shuttle as well as launches to useless orbit.

b. Launches from U.S.-Russia joint platform included in U.S. totals.

c. Since 1979, all launches for ESA member countries have been joint and are listed under ESA.
166Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Appendix B

suCCessful launChes To orbiT on u.s. vehiCles

October 1, 2010–September 30, 2011

Launch Date

Spacecraft Name

COSPAR* Designation

Launch Vehicle

Apogee and

Perigee (km),

Period (min),

Mission Objectives Inclination to Equator (°) Remarks

November 6, 2010 Earth observation 623 km

622 km

97.2 min

97.9°

Constellation of Small Satellites for 

Mediterranean basin Observation 

(COSMO) 

Italian Space Agency, dual-use for 

civilian and military

COSMO-SkyMed 4

2010-060A

Delta 2

November 20, 2010 Military, technology, science 655 km

628 km

97.5 min

71.9°

U.S. Department of Defense Space Test 

Program (STP) for experiments and 

technology demonstration

First use of a Multi-Payload Adaptor 

developed for the Minotaur IV

USA 217-222, 228 (STP-S26)

2010-062A-J

Minotaur IV

November 21, 2010 Military/classified 1,204 km

1,200 km

692.2 min

26.5° 

U.S. National Reconnaissance Office 

USA 223 (NROL-32)

2010-063A

Delta IV Heavy

December 8, 2010 Commercial 300 km

275 km

88.1 min

34.5°

SpaceX demonstration for NASA’s 

Commercial Orbital Transportation 

Services 

Dragon C1

2010-066A-H

Falcon 9 

January 20, 2011 Military/classified 251 km

991 km

97.1 min

97.8°

U.S. National Reconnaissance Office 

USA 224 (NROL-49)

2011-002A

Delta IV Heavy 

February 6, 2011 Military/classified 1,230 km

1,202 km

109.7 min

90°

U.S. National Reconnaissance Office’s 

USA 225 (NROL-66) Rapid Pathfinder Program

2011-006A

Minotaur 1

February 24, 2011 International Space Station 234 km

157 km

88.4 min

51.6°

STS-133/Discovery 

2011-008A

Space Shuttle

March 5, 2011 Military 334 km

333 km

91.2 min

42.8°

U.S. Air Force robotic space plane

USA 226 (X-37B OTV-2)

2011-010A

Atlas 5 501

March 11, 2011 Military/classified 37,496 km

269 km

665.9 min

26.5°

U.S. National Reconnaissance Office

USA 227 (NROL-27) 

2011-011A

Delta 4 Medium+(4,2)

April 15, 2011 Military/classified 1,209 km

1,013 km

107.5 min

63.4°

U.S. National Reconnaissance Office

USA 229 (NROL-34) 

2011-014A-B

Atlas 5 411

May 7, 2011 Military 36,919 km

252 km

654.2 min

21.7°

U.S. Air Force’s Space Based Infrared 

System Geosynchronous Earth Orbit 

satellite

USA 230 (SBIRS GEO1)

2011-019A

Atlas 5-401
167 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

Appendix B

(Continued)

suCCessful launChes To orbiT on u.s. vehiCles

October 1, 2010–September 30, 2011

Launch Date

Spacecraft Name

COSPAR* Designation

Apogee and

Perigee (km),

period (min),

Launch Vehicle Mission Objectives Inclination to Equator (°) Remarks

May 16, 2011 International Space Station 325 km

231 km

90.1 min

51.6°

STS-134/Endeavour 

2011-020A

Space Shuttle

June 10, 2011 Military 410 km

400 km

92.6 min

40°

U.S. Air Force

First launch in the Operationally 

Responsive Space Program (ORS)

SAC-D/Aquarius

2011-024A

Delta 2-7320

June 30, 2011 Military 410 km

400 km

92.6 min

40°°

U.S. Air Force

First launch in the Operationally 

Responsive Space Program (ORS)

USA 231 (ORS 1)

2011-029A

Minotaur 1

July 8, 2011 International Space Station 232 km

157 km

88.4 min

51.6°

STS-135/Atlantis

2011-031A

Space Shuttle

July 16, 2011 Navigation 20,406 km

241 km

359.5 min

43.4°

U.S. Air Force Global Positioning 

USA 232 (GPS IIF-2, Navstar 66) System (GPS) satellite

2011-036A

Delta 4 Medium+(4,2)

August 5, 2011 Jupiter exploration 229 km

195 km

88.6 min

28.8°

NASA mission to understand the 

Juno origin and evolution of Jupiter 

2011-040A

Atlas 5-551

September 10, 2011 Lunar exploration 172 km

171 km

87.8 min

28.5°

NASA’s Gravity Recovery and Interior 

Laboratory (GRAIL) twin spacecraft 

(Ebb and Flow) mapped the moon’s 

gravity field to study its subsurface 

structures and advance understanding 

of its thermal evolution

GRAIL A/B

2011-046A-B

Delta 2 7920H-10

September 27, 2011 Military 11,836 km

658 km

235.2 min

63.6°

U.S. Naval Research Laboratory comTacSat-4 munications technology demonstration

2011-052A

Minotaur IV+

*U.N. Committee on Space Research
168Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Appendix C

human spaCeflighTs

October 1, 2010–September 30, 2011

Flight Time 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew (d:h:min) Highlights

Soyuz TMA-01M

(Expedition 25)

October 7, 2010 Aleksandr Kaleri

Scott Kelly

Oleg Skripochka

159:08:44 First flight of the TMA-M series 

spacecraft

Soyuz TMA-20

(Expedition 26)

December 15, 2010 Catherine Coleman

Dmitry Kondratyev

Paolo Nespoli

159:08:18

Space Shuttle

Discovery (STS-133)

February 24, 2011 Steven Lindsey

Eric Boe

Michael Barratt

Stephen Bowen

Benjamin Drew

Nicole Stott

12:19:04 Delivery of the EXpedite the 

PRocessing of Experiments to the 

Space Station (EXPRESS) Logistics 

Carrier 4 (ELC 4) and Permanent 

Multipurpose Module (PMM) 

Leonardo

Mission extended by two days so 

its crew could help outfit the PMM 

Leonardo, which included Robonaut 2

Bowen became the first astronaut on 

consecutive Space Shuttle flights, STS132 and STS-133 

Last flight of Discovery 

Soyuz TMA-21

(Expedition 27)

April 4, 2011 Andrei Borisenko

Ronald Garan

Aleksandr Samokutyayev

164:05:41 Spacecraft named the Gagarin to 

celebrate the 50th anniversary of the 

first human spaceflight, made by Yuri 

Gagarin

Space Shuttle

Endeavour (STS-134)

May 16, 2011 Mark Kelly

Gregory Johnson

Gregory Chamitoff

Michael Fincke

Andrew Feustel

Roberto Vittori

15:17:38 Delivery of EXPRESS Logistics 

Carrier 3 (ELC 3) and Alpha Magnetic 

Spectrometer (AMS) 

Last flight of Endeavour

Soyuz TMA-02M

(Expedition 28)

June 7, 2011 Michael Fossum

Satoshi Furukawa

Sergey Volkov

167:05:14

Space Shuttle

Atlantis (STS-135)

July 8, 2011 Christopher Ferguson

Douglas Hurley

Sandra Magnus

Rex Walheim

12:18:28 Delivery of the Raffaello Multi-Purpose 

Logistics Module

Last flight of Atlantis and last Space 

Shuttle flight
169 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

Appendix D-1A

spaCe aCTiviTies of The u.s. governmenT

HISTORICAL TABLE OF BUDGET AUTHORITY 

(in millions of real-year dollars)

NASA NASA 

FY Total Space DOD Othera DOEb DOC DOI USDA NSFc DOT Total Space

1959 331 261 490 34 34 785

1960 524 462 561 43 43 1,066

1961 964 926 814 68 68 1,808

1962 1,825 1,797 1,298 199 148 51 3,294

1963 3,673 3,626 1,550 257 214 43 5,433

1964 5,100 5,016 1,599 213 210 3 6,828

1965 5,250 5,138 1,574 241 229 12 6,953

1966 5,175 5,065 1,689 214 187 27 6,968

1967 4,966 4,830 1,664 213 184 29 6,707

1968 4,587 4,430 1,922 174 145 28 0.2 1 6,526

1969 3,991 3,822 2,013 170 118 20 0.2 1 31 6,005

1970 3,746 3,547 1,678 141 103 8 1 1 28 5,366

1971 3,311 3,101 1,512 162 95 27 2 1 37 4,775

1972 3,307 3,071 1,407 133 55 31 6 2 39 4,611

1973 3,406 3,093 1,623 147 54 40 10 2 41 4,863

1974 3,037 2,759 1,766 158 42 60 9 3 44 4,683

1975 3,229 2,915 1,892 158 30 64 8 2 54 4,965

1976 3,550 3,225 1,983 168 23 72 10 4 59 5,376

TQ* 932 849 460 43 5 22 3 1 12 1,352

1977 3,818 3,440 2,412 194 22 91 10 6 65 6,046

1978 4,060 3,623 2,738 226 34 103 10 8 71 6,587

1979 4,596 4,030 3,036 248 59 98 10 8 73 7,314

1980 5,240 4,680 3,848 231 40 93 12 14 72 8,759

1981 5,518 4,992 4,828 234 41 87 12 16 78 10,054

1982 6,044 5,528 6,679 313 61 145 12 15 80 12,520

1983 6,875 6,328 9,019 327 39 178 5 20 85 15,674

1984 7,458 6,858 10,195 395 34 236 3 19 103 17,448

1985 7,573 6,925 12,768 584 34 423 2 15 110 20,277

1986 7,807 7,165 14,126 477 35 309 2 23 108 21,768

1987 10,923 9,809 16,287 466 48 278 8 19 112 1 26,562

1988 9,062 8,322 17,679 741 241 352 14 18 115 1 26,742

1989 10,969 10,097 17,906 560 97 301 17 21 121 3 28,563

1990 12,324 11,460 15,616 506 79 243 31 25 124 4 27,582

1991 14,016 13,046 14,181 772 251 251 29 26 211 4 27,999

1992 14,317 13,199 15,023 798 223 327 34 29 181 4 29,020

1993 14,310 13,064 14,106 731 165 324 33 25 180 4 27,901

1994 14,570 13,022 13,166 632 74 312 31 31 179 5 26,820

1995 13,854 12,543 10,644 759 60 352 31 32 278 6 23,946

1996 13,884 12,569 11,514 828 46 472 36 37 231 6 24,911

1997 13,709 12,457 11,727 789 35 448 42 39 219 6 24,973

1998 13,648 12,321 12,359 839 103 435 43 39 213 6 25,519

1999 13,653 12,459 13,203 982 105 575 59 37 200 6 26,644

2000 13,601 12,521 12,941 1,056 164 575 60 44 207 6 26,518

2001 14,230 13,304 14,326 1,062 145 577 60 36 232 12 28,692

2002 14,868 13,871 15,740 1,180 166 644 64 28 266 12 30,791

2003 15,364 14,360 19,388 1,305 191 649 74 42 337 12 35,053

2004 15,379 14,322 19,115 1,464 209 745 71 61 366 12 34,901

2005 16,198 15,234 19,690 1,551 229 807 70 73 360 12 36,475

2006 16,623 15,765 22,114 1,647 245 860 82 84 364 12 39,526

2007 16,285 15,568 22,418 1,680 200 912 87 65 404 12 39,666

2008 17,117 16,502 24,795 1,698 195 862 90 59 479 13 42,995

2009 17,775 17,275 26,528 1,868 200 1,078 64 27 485 14 45,671

2010 18,725 18,228 26,463 2,057 203 1,261 67 27 484 15 46,748

2011 18,432 17,898 27,234 2,186 229 1,444 66 20 412 15 47,318

a. The Other column is the total of the non-NASA and non-DOD budget authority figures that appear in the succeeding columns. The total is 

sometimes different from the sum of the individual figures because of rounding. The Total Space column does not include the NASA Total column because the latter includes budget authority for aeronautics as well as space. For the years 1989–1997, this Other column also includes small 

figures for the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Also includes $2.1 billion for the replacement of Space Shuttle Challenger in 1987.

b. The DOE has recalculated its space expenditures since 1998.

c. The NSF has recalculated its space expenditures since 1980, making them significantly higher than reported in previous years.

* Transition Quarter
170Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Appendix D-1B

spaCe aCTiviTies of The u.s. governmenT

HISTORICAL TABLE OF BUDGET AUTHORITY 

(in millions of inflation-adjusted FY 11 dollars)

Inflation NASA NASA 

FY Factors Total Space DOD Othera DOEb DOC DOI USDA NSFc DOT Total Space

1959 6.144 2,034 1,604 3,011 209 209 4,823

1960 6.058 3,174 2,799 3,398 260 260 6,457

1961 5.983 5,767 5,540 4,870 407 407 10,817

1962 5.897 10,763 10,598 7,655 1,174 873 301 19,426

1963 5.833 21,423 21,149 9,041 1,499 1,248 251 31,689

1964 5.760 29,378 28,894 9,211 1,227 1,210 17 39,332

1965 5.693 29,887 29,249 8,960 1,372 1,304 68 39,581

1966 5.596 28,957 28,342 9,451 1,197 1,046 151 38,990

1967 5.477 27,201 26,456 9,114 1,167 1,008 159 36,737

1968 5.308 24,348 23,514 10,202 925 770 149 1 5 34,641

1969 5.127 20,463 19,597 10,321 874 605 103 1 5 160 30,792

1970 4.904 18,371 17,395 8,229 692 505 39 5 5 137 26,316

1971 4.652 15,404 14,427 7,035 753 442 126 9 5 172 22,215

1972 4.431 14,652 13,607 6,234 591 244 137 27 9 175 20,432

1973 4.231 14,410 13,085 6,866 623 228 169 42 8 175 20,575

1974 4.054 12,311 11,184 7,159 641 170 243 36 12 179 18,984

1975 3.782 12,211 11,023 7,155 597 113 242 30 8 203 18,775

1976 3.423 12,152 11,039 6,788 576 79 246 34 14 203 18,403

TQ* 3.194 2,976 2,711 1,469 137 16 70 10 3 38 4,318

1977 3.096 11,821 10,650 7,468 599 68 282 31 19 200 18,717

1978 2.971 12,064 10,766 8,136 671 101 306 30 24 211 19,573

1979 2.784 12,794 11,219 8,452 690 164 273 28 22 203 20,361

1980 2.576 13,499 12,056 9,913 595 103 240 31 36 186 22,564

1981 2.367 13,062 11,817 11,429 555 97 206 28 38 185 23,801

1982 2.155 13,025 11,913 14,393 674 131 312 26 32 172 26,980

1983 2.017 13,867 12,764 18,191 660 79 359 10 40 172 31,615

1984 1.932 14,409 13,250 19,698 763 66 456 6 37 199 33,711

1985 1.863 14,109 12,901 23,787 1,087 63 788 4 28 204 37,776

1986 1.805 14,088 12,929 25,491 860 63 558 4 42 194 39,281

1987 1.764 19,265 17,300 28,726 822 85 490 14 34 197 2 46,848

1988 1.718 15,567 14,296 30,369 1,273 414 605 24 31 198 2 45,938

1989 1.664 18,258 16,806 29,804 932 161 501 28 35 202 5 47,543

1990 1.602 19,747 18,362 25,021 810 127 389 50 40 198 6 44,194

1991 1.545 21,661 20,162 21,916 1,193 388 388 45 40 326 6 43,271

1992 1.489 21,317 19,652 22,368 1,188 332 487 51 43 269 6 43,208

1993 1.451 20,766 18,958 20,470 1,061 239 470 48 36 261 6 40,488

1994 1.420 20,688 18,490 18,695 898 105 443 44 44 255 7 38,083

1995 1.391 19,264 17,441 14,801 1,055 83 489 43 44 386 8 33,297

1996 1.362 18,905 17,115 15,678 1,127 63 643 49 50 314 8 33,920

1997 1.336 18,314 16,641 15,666 1,055 47 598 56 52 293 8 33,362

1998 1.312 17,902 16,161 16,211 1,101 135 571 56 51 280 8 33,474

1999 1.295 17,684 16,137 17,101 1,272 136 745 76 48 259 8 34,510

2000 1.278 17,386 16,006 16,543 1,349 210 735 77 56 264 8 33,898

2001 1.253 17,837 16,676 17,957 1,331 182 723 75 45 291 15 35,964

2002 1.225 18,209 16,988 19,277 1,445 203 789 78 34 326 15 37,709

2003 1.205 18,509 17,300 23,357 1,572 230 782 89 51 406 14 42,229

2004 1.181 18,157 16,909 22,567 1,728 247 880 84 72 432 14 41,204

2005 1.151 18,652 17,542 22,672 1,786 264 929 81 84 415 14 42,000

2006 1.115 18,538 17,581 24,662 1,837 273 959 91 94 406 13 44,079

2007 1.079 17,564 16,791 24,178 1,812 216 984 94 70 436 13 42,781

2008 1.048 17,931 17,286 25,973 1,779 204 903 94 62 502 14 45,039

2009 1.024 18,198 17,686 27,159 1,912 205 1,104 66 27 497 14 46,757

2010 1.009 18,898 18,396 26,707 2,076 205 1,273 68 27 488 15 47,179

2011 1.000 18,432 17,898 27,234 2,186 229 1,444 66 20 412 15 47,318

a. The Other column is the total of the non-NASA and non-DOD budget authority figures that appear in the succeeding columns. The total is 

sometimes different from the sum of the individual figures because of rounding. The Total Space column does not include the NASA Total 

column because the latter includes budget authority for aeronautics as well as in space. For the years 1989–1997, this Other column also includes 

small figures for the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Also includes $2.1 billion for replacement of Space Shuttle Challenger in 1987.

b. The DOE has recalculated its space expenditures since 1998.

c. The NSF has recalculated its space expenditures since 1980, making them significantly higher than reported in previous years.

* Transition Quarter
171 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

Appendix D-2

federal spaCe aCTiviTies budgeT

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year)

Budget Authority Budget Outlays

Federal 2010 2011 2012 2013 2010 2011 2012 

Agencies actual actual actual est1 actual actual actual

NASA2 18,222 17,898 17,203 16,335 18,406 17,017 16,606

DOD3 26,463 27,234 26,677 25,555 24,142 25,924 26,457

DOE4 203 229 199 185 204 177 158

DOC 5 1,398 1,444 1,876 567.1 803.2 1,074.3

DOI 67 66 76 67 66 76

USDA 26.6 19.5 6.7 21.6 18.1 17.3

DOT 15 15 16 15 15 16

NSF6 484 412 406 146 515 543 489

(1) FY 13 figures incorporate the effect of sequestration.

(2) NASA program budgets reflect only direct program costs. Indirect costs are budgeted within the Cross Agency Support Programs account 

(captured within the Federal Space Activities Budget table).

(3) DOD FY 11, 12, and 13 figures for Budget Authority and Outlays are estimated at the time of preparing this report.

(4) Department of Energy budget figures do not include any physics research and operations funding for ground-based experiments managed in the 

High Energy Physics program.

(5) Beginning in 2010, the Department of Commerce has defined the entire National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service 

budget that is within the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) as a space activity. Prior years did not include some 

items, such as NOAA’s National Climatic Data Center archives and Comprehensive Large Array-data Stewardship System (CLASS). The 

Budget Outlays columns reflect dollars “costed” in a fiscal year specific to that same fiscal year’s appropriated dollars.

(6) Totals for NSF include Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST) and all telescope activities. Outlay information includes American Recovery 

and Reinvestment Act (ARRA).
172Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Appendix D-3

Federal Aeronautics Activit

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year)

Federal 

Agencies

Budget Authority Budget Outlays

2010 

actual

2011 

actual

2012 

actual

2013 

est.1

2010 

actual

2011 

actual

2012 

actual

NASA2 497 534 570 530 500 601 584

USDA 55.4 37.1 36.9 34.5 52.6 35.3 36.8

DOD3 14,166 14,170 1,4221 1,4099 13,573 13,577 13,509

DOI 28 24 27 26 29 25 27

DOT 3,104 2,905 2,884 2,733 2,742 2,895 3,102

(1) FY 13 figures incorporate the effect of sequestration.

(2) NASA program budgets reflect only direct program costs. Indirect costs are budgeted within the Cross-Agency Support Programs account 

(captured within the Federal Space Activities Budget table).

(3) DOD FY 11, 12, and 13 figures for Budget Authority and Outlays are estimated at the time of preparing this report.
173 aCronyms Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

3D three-dimensional

3DEP 3D Elevation Program

A

ABL Airborne Laser

AC alternating current

ACD Advanced Capabilities Division

ACP Arctic Coastal Plain

ACT Atacama Cosmology Telescope

ADA Antarctica Data Acquisition

ADS-B Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast

ADVENT ADaptive Versatile ENgine Technology

AEDC Arnold Engineering Development Center

AEHF Advanced Extremely High Frequency

AFB Air Force Base

AFRL Air Force Research Laboratory

AGS Division of Atmospheric and Geospace Sciences (NSF)

AHAP Alaska High-Altitude Photography

AIA Atmospheric Imaging Assembly

AIAA American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

ALMA Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array

AMC Air Mobility Command

AMF2 ARM Mobile Facility

AMISR Advanced Modular Incoherent-Scatter Radar

AMPERE Active Magnetosphere and Planetary Electrodynamics Response Experiment

AMS Autonomous Modular Sensor; Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer

AMS-02 Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer 2

AMSR2 Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer 2

AO Arecibo Observatory

APEC Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation

APHIS Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

ARM Atmospheric Radiation Measurement

ARMD Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate

ARS Agricultural Research Service

ARTEMIS Acceleration, Reconnection, Turbulence and Electrodynamics of the Moon’s Interaction 

with the Sun

AS Atmosphere Section

ASB Agricultural Statistics Board

ASDE-X Airport Surface Detection Equipment-Model X

AST Office of Commercial Space Transportation (FAA); Division of Astronomical 

Sciences (NSF)

ASTER Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

ASTS Aeronautics Science and Technology Subcommittee

ASU Aircraft Sector Understanding, short for Group on the Sector Understanding on Export 

Credits for Civil Aircraft

ATST Advanced Technology Solar Telescope

ATV-2 Automated Transfer Vehicle-2

Auto-GCAS Automatic Ground Collision Avoidance System

AVHRR Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer
174Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

B

BAER 

BIA 

Burn Area Emergency Response

Bureau of Indian Affairs

BLM 

BNL 

BOR 

Bureau of Land Management

Brookhaven National Laboratory

Bureau of Reclamation

BRDF bidirectional reflectance distribution function

BSS 

BXR 

Broadcasting-Satellite Service

Ballistic Missile Defense Transfer Radiometer

C

CAP Corrective Action Plan

CAVP Cryptographic Algorithm Validation Program

CBS3 Controlled-Background System for Spectroradiometry and Spectrophotometry

CCAFS Cape Canaveral Air Force Station

CCDev Commercial Crew Development

CCMC Community Coordinated Modeling Center

CDL Cropland Data Layer

CEDAR Coupling, Energetics, and Dynamics of Atmospheric Regions

CEOS Committee on Earth Observation Satellites

CEPS Center for Earth and Planetary Studies

CfA Center for Astrophysics

CGGSC Crustal Geophysics and Geochemistry Science Center

CHAMP Counter-electronics High-powered Microwave Advanced Missile Project

CHCCP National Center for Hypersonic Combined Cycle Propulsion

CHIRP Commercially Hosted Infrared Payload

CIBER Cosmic Infrared Background Experiment

CISM Center for Integrated Space Weather Modeling

CLASS Comprehensive Large Array-data Stewardship System

CLEEN Continuous Lower Energy, Emissions and Noise

CMB cosmic microwave background

CME Coronal Mass Ejection

COBE Cosmic Background Explorer

COE CST Center of Excellence for Commercial Space Transportation

CONAE Comisión Nacional de Actividades Espaciales

CoNNeCT Communication, Navigation and Networking re-Configurable Testbed

CONNSTEP Connecticut State Technical Extension Program

CONUS contiguous United States

COSMIC Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere, and Climate

CREATE Computational Research and Engineering Acquisition Tools and Environments

CS Commercial Service

CU University of Colorado

D

DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency

DEM Digital Elevation Model

DISCOVER-AQ Deriving Information on Surface conditions from COlumn and VERtically resolved 

observations relevant to Air Quality

DLR German Aerospace Center

DMC Disaster Monitoring Constellation

DMSP Defense Meteorological Satellite Program

DNN R&D Office of Defense Nuclear Nonproliferation Research and Development

DOC Department of Commerce

DOD Department of Defense

DOE Department of Energy
175 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

DOI Department of the Interior

DOS Department of State

DRG digital raster graphics

DSC Defense Space Council

DSN Deep Space Network E

ECMWF European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts

EDA Efficient Descent Advisor

EDT electrodynamic-tether

EELV Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle

EFT-1 Exploration Flight Test

EGSC Eastern Geographic Science Center

ELaNa Educational Launch of Nanosatellites

ELC 4 Express Logistics Carrier 4

ELV Expendable Launch Vehicle

EMS Environmental Management System

EOS Earth Observing System

ERAU Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University

EROS Earth Resources Observation and Science Center

ESA European Space Agency

ESI Evaporative Stress Index

ESMD Exploration Systems Mission Directorate

ET evapotranspiration

ETDP Exploration Technology Development Program

ETM Enhanced Thematic Mapper

EU European Union

EUMETSAT European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites

EUV extreme ultraviolet

EVA extravehicular activity

EVE EUV Variability Experiment

Ex-Im Bank Export-Import Bank of the United States

EXIS EUV and X-ray Irradiance Sensor

EXPRESS EXpedite the PRocessing of Experiments to the Space Station F

FAA Federal Aviation Administration

FANS Future Air Navigation System

FAS Foreign Agricultural Service

FBTM Flow-Based Trajectory Management

FCC Federal Communications Commission

Fe O 2 3 oxidized iron

FEWS NET Famine Early Warning Systems Network

FGST Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope

FIPS Federal Information Processing Standard

FTS Fourier transform spectrometer

FWMAV flapping wing micro air vehicle

FWS Fish and Wildlife Service

FY fiscal year G

GAGAN GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation

GaN gallium nitride

GBD Global Burst Detector

GCOM-W1 Global Change Observation Mission-Water 1
176Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

GDP Ground Delay Program

GE General Electric

GEM Geospace Environment Modeling

GF Geospace Facilities

GHWG Global Harmonization Working Group

GHz gigahertz

GIS Geographic Information System

GLAM Global Agricultural Monitoring

GLONASS Global Navigation Satellite System (Russian)

GMU George Mason University

GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System

GOES Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites

GOES-R Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite Series R

GP-B Gravity Probe B

GPHS-RTG General Purpose Heat Source Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator

GPS Global Positioning System

GRAIL Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory

GREAT German REceiver for Astronomy at Terahertz Frequencies

GS Geospace Section (NSF)

GSFC Goddard Space Flight Center

GTF Geared Turbofan

GV Gulfstream V

H

HEETE Highly Efficient Embedded Turbine Engine

HELLADS high-energy liquid laser area defense system

HEO Human Exploration and Operations

HIAPER High-performance Instrumented Airborne Platform for Environmental Research

HIPPO HIAPER Pole to Pole Observations

hPa hectopascal

HRP Human Research Program

HTV-2 H-II Transfer Vehicle-2; Hypersonic Technology Vehicle 2

I

I&M Inventory and Monitoring

IC Intelligence Community

ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization

ICE-T Ice in Clouds—Tropical

ICESat Ice, Cloud, and land Elevation Satellite

ICESCAPE Impacts of Climate on EcoSystems and Chemistry of the Arctic Pacific Environment

ICG International Committee on Global Navigation Satellite Systems

ICNO IceCube Neutrino Observatory

IPAD International Production Assessment Division

IPM Integrated Pest Management

IR infrared

IRAC Infrared Array Camera

IRNSS Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System

ISIS Integrated Software for Imagers and Spectrometers

ISRO Indian Space Research Organisation

ISRP Integrated Systems Research Program

ISS International Space Station

ITA Initial Tailored Arrival; International Trade Administration

ITAC 1 Industry Trade Advisory Committee for Aerospace Equipment
177 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

J

JAGM joint air-to-ground missile

JAXA Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

JDTV Jumbo Drop Test Vehicle

JPDO Joint Planning and Development Office

JPL Jet Propulsion Laboratory

JPSS Joint Polar Satellite System

JSF Joint Strike Fighter

JWST James Webb Space Telescope

K

K kelvin

klbf kilopounds-force

KSC Kennedy Space Center

L

LANDFIRE Landscape Fire and Resource Management Planning Tools

LANL Los Alamos National Laboratory

LAS Launch Abort System

LAT Large Area Telescope

LCROSS Lunar CRater Observation and Sensing Satellite

LDCM Landsat Data Continuity Mission

LEAP-X leading edge aviation propulsion

LEMV Long Endurance Multi-intelligence Vehicle

LEO low-Earth orbit

LIDAR Light Detection and Ranging

LLNL Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory

LMMP Lunar Mapping and Modeling Project

LPRP Lunar Precursor Robotic Program

LRO Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter

LSP Launch Services Program

LSST Large Synoptic Survey Telescope

M

MAGIC Marine ARM GPCI Investigation of Clouds

MANPADS manportable air defense system

MAR Mission Adaptive Rotor

MC3E Midlatitude Continental Convective Clouds Experiment

MDIS Mercury Dual Imaging System

MDXR Missile Defense Transfer Radiometer

MEMS microelectromechanical systems

MEP Manufacturing Extension Partnership

MER Mars Exploration Rover

MESSENGER MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry, and Ranging

METRIC Mapping EvapoTranspiration at high Resolution and Internalized Calibration

Mg magnesium

MHW-RTG Multi-Hundred Watt Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator

MIB Mishap Investigation Board

mK millikelvin

MKID microwave kinetic inductance detectors

MMRTG Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator

MOBY Marine Optical BuoY

MODIS Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer

MOU Memorandum of Understanding
178Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

MPCV 

mph 

MPLM 

MRLC 

Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle

miles per hour

Multi-Purpose Logistics Module

Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics Consortium

MRO Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter

MSL 

MSS 

Mars Science Laboratory

Mobile Satellite Service

MWAC Midwest Archeological Center

N

NADB North America Data Buy

NAFD North American Forest Dynamics

NAICS North American Industry Classification System

NAIP National Agriculture Imagery Program

NAS National Airspace System

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NASM National Air and Space Museum

NASS National Agricultural Statistics Service

NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research

NCCN North Coast and Cascade Network

NCEP National Centers for Environmental Prediction

NCNR National Center for Neutron Research

NDE nondestructive evaluation

NDEP National Digital Elevation Program

NDVI normalized difference vegetation index

NE Office of Nuclear Energy (DOE)

NED National Elevation Dataset

NEEA National Enhanced Elevation Assessment

NEEMO NASA Extreme Environment Mission Operations

NEN Near Earth Network

NEO near-Earth objects

NEOWISE Near-Earth Object Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer

NExT New Exploration of Tempel 1

NextGen Next Generation Air Transportation System

NFAC National Full-Scale Aerodynamics Complex

NFS National Forest System

NGA National Geospatial Intelligence Agency

NGAC National Geospatial Advisory Committee

NGDC National Geophysical Data Center

NHD National Hydrography Dataset

NIFA National Institute of Food and Agriculture

NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology

NLS NASA Launch Services

nm nanometer

NNSA National Nuclear Security Administration

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NOAO National Optical Astronomy Observatory

NOx nitrogen oxides

npFe0 nanophase iron

NPOESS National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System

NPP NPOESS Preparatory Project

NPS National Park Service

NRA NASA Research Announcement

NRAO National Radio Astronomy Observatory

NRCS Natural Resources Conservation Service

NRI National Resources Inventory

NRO National Reconnaissance Office
179 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

NSF National Science Foundation

NSGIC National States Geographic Information Council

NSO National Solar Observatory

NSPO National Space Organization (Taiwan)

NSRL NASA Space Radiation Laboratory

NSS National Security Space

NSTC National Science and Technology Council

NSWP National Space Weather Program

NTF National Transonic Facility

NuDets nuclear detonations

NVLAP National Voluntary Laboratory Accreditation Program

NWR National Wildlife Refuge O

OBSS Orbiter Boom Sensor System

OCO Orbiting Carbon Observatory

OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

OGA Office of Global Analysis

OPD Optimized Profile Descent

OPP Office of Polar Programs

ORCA Ocean Radiometer for Carbon Assessment

ORS Operationally Responsive Space

OSM Office of Surface Mining

OSPO Office of Satellite and Product Operations

OTM Office of Transportation and Machinery

OTV Orbital Test Vehicle P

P&W Pratt & Whitney

PA-1 Pad Abort 1

PDR Preliminary Design Review

PIDDP Planetary Instrument Definition and Development Program

PMM Permanent Multipurpose Module

PNT Positioning, Navigation, and Timing

POES Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellites

PPBE Planning, Programming, Budgeting and Execution

PRSEUS Pultruded Rod Stitched Efficient Unitized Structure

PSD Production Supply and Distribution

PSU Pennsylvania State University Q

QZS Quasi-Zenith Satellite R

R&D research and development

RANS Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes

RCS reaction control system

REBR ReEntry Breakup Recorder

RMA Risk Management Agency

RNP Required Navigation Performance

RO radio occultation

RPIF Regional Planetary Image Facility

RPS radioisotope power system

RPT Rocket Propulsion Test
180Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

RSAC Remote Sensing Applications Center

RSIWG Remote Sensing Interagency Working Group

RTG radioisotope thermoelectric generator

RTT Research Transition Team

RVSM Reduced Vertical Separation Minima

S

SAA Sense-And-Avoid

SABRS Space and Atmospheric Burst Reporting System

SAC-D Satelite de Aplicaciones Cientificas-D

SANS small-angle neutron scattering

SAO Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory

SARP standard and recommended practices

SBIRS GEO Space Based Infrared System Geosynchronous Earth Orbit

SBSS Space-Based Space Surveillance

SC Office of Science (DOE)

SCaN Space Communications and Navigation

SDO Solar Dynamics Observatory

SGP Southern Great Plains

SHINE Solar, Heliosphere, and INterplanetary Environment

SI International System of Units

SIA Satellite Imagery Archive

SIR System Integration Review

SIRCUS Spectral Irradiance and Radiance Responsivity Calibrations using Uniform Sources

SLAC Stanford Linear Accelerator Center

SM-3 Standard Missile-3

SMA Submillimeter Array

SMAP Soil Moisture Active-Passive

SMCRA Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act

SMD Science Mission Directorate

SN Space Network

SNL Sandia National Laboratory

SNSPD superconducting nanowire single photon detector

SOFIA Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy

SpaceX Space Exploration Technologies

SPDM Special Purpose Dexterous Manipulator (also called Dextre)

SPOT Satellite Pour l’Observation de la Terre

SQUID Superconducting Quantum Interference Device

SRM Standard Reference Material

SRR System Requirements Review

SSA Space Situation Awareness

SST Space Surveillance Telescope

STAR Center for Satellite Applications and Research

STEM science, technology, engineering, and mathematics

STEREO Solar TErrestrial RElations Observatory

STP Space Test Program

SuperDARN Super Dual Auroral Radar Network

SURF Synchrotron Ultraviolet Radiation Facility

SUVI Solar Ultraviolet Imager

SWA Southwest Airlines

SZE Sunyaev-Zel’dovich Effect

T

T-LIDAR Terrestrial LIDAR

T-TSAFE Terminal-Tactical Separation Assured Flight Environment

TacSat Tactical Satellite
181 Fiscal Year 2011 Activities

TCC Tree Canopy Cover

TDRS Tracking and Data Relay Satellite

TDRSS Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System

TEPCE Tether Electrodynamic Propulsion CubeSat Experiment

TES transition-edge sensor

THEMIS Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions during Substorms

TIR thermal infrared

TM Thematic Mapper

TOC Test Operations Contract

TRL technology readiness level

TWGCRN Terrestrial Wetland Global Change Research Network

TWP Tropical West Pacific U

UAS unmanned aircraft system; unmanned aerial system

UAV unmanned aerial vehicle

UCAR University Corporation for Atmospheric Research

UCAS Unmanned Combat Air System

UHF ultrahigh-frequency

ULA United Launch Alliance

ULS United Launch Services

UMESC Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center

UMRS Upper Mississippi River System

UNCOPUOS United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space

USACE U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

USAID U.S. Agency for International Development

USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture

USFS U.S. Forest Service

USFS R&D USFS Research and Development

USFS S&P USFS State and Private Forestry

USGS U.S. Geological Survey

USNDS U.S. NuDet Detection System

UTM Universal Transverse Mercator

UV ultraviolet V

VAFB Vandenberg Air Force Base

VIP Virtual Inspection Priority W

WAI Wide Area Imager

WAOB World Agricultural Outlook Board

WASDE World Agricultural Supply and Demand Estimates

WFF Wallops Flight Facility

WISE Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer

WMAP Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe
.
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