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Updated January 20, 2000

SHUTTLE RADAR

TOPOGRAPHY

MISSION

FIRST SHUTTLE FLIGHT OF THE NEW MILLENNIUM
STS-99 Table of Contents

Mission Profile ................................................................................................................1

Mission Overview ...........................................................................................................4

Crew .................................................................................................................................9

Flight Day Summary Timeline ......................................................................................................11

Secondary Objectives

Science & Technology Applications .........................................................................................................12

SRTM Partners and Imaging Radar History at NASA and JPL ................................................................13

Payloads

Payload Overview, Applications, and Benifits ..........................................................................................17

SRTM Hardware - the Antenna ................................................................................................................26

SRTM Hardware - the Mast ......................................................................................................................27

Data Recording, Processing, and Products .............................................................................................32

EarthKAM .................................................................................................................................................34

Experiments (Not available)

DTO/DSO/RME

DTO 686 Heat Exchange Unit Evaluation ................................................................................................37

DTO 690 Urine Collection Device ............................................................................................................38

DTO 700-14 Single-String Global Positioning System, with PGSC and GPS ..........................................40

DTO 700-17A High-Definition Television (HDTV) Camcorder Demonstration .........................................41

DTO 805 Crosswind Landing Performance ..............................................................................................43

DSO 206 Effect of Space Flight on Bone, Muscle and Immune Function ................................................44

DSO 493 Monitoring Latent Virus Reactivation and Shedding in Astronauts ...........................................45

DSO 496 Individual Susceptibility to Post-Space-Flight Orthostatic Intolerance ......................................46

DSO 498 Space Flight and Immune Functions ........................................................................................47

DSO 802 Educational Activities, Objective 2 ............................................................................................48

Media Assistance ........................................................................................................ 49

Contacts ....................................................................................................................... 51
STS-99

Endeavour OV105

Launch: Monday, January 31, 2000 

 

Mission Objectives

The primary objective of the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission is to acquire a

high-resolution topographic map of the Earth's land mass (between 60°N and

56°S) and to test new technologies for deployment of large rigid structures

and measurement of their distortions to extremely high precision. 

The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission represents a breakthrough in the

science of remote-sensing and will produce topographic maps of Earth 30

times as precise as the best global maps in use today. The information will be

used to attempt to produce one of the most comprehensive and accurate

maps of Earth ever assembled. 

A Comparison of Resolution Data

1
Planned Data Takes

Data Acquisition more than 80 hours

Data recording rate 180 Mbits/sec for C-band, 90 Mbits/sec for X-band

Total Raw Radar Data 9.8 Terabytes (15,000 CDs)

Data Tapes

or 60 min. of X-band data)

In addition, this mission offers a number of applications for data products and

science, including: geology, geophysics, earthquake research, volcano

monitoring; hydrologic modeling; ecology; co-registration and terrain

correction of remotely-acquired image data; atmospheric modeling; flood

inundation modeling; urban planning; natural hazard consequence

assessments; fire spread models; and transportation/infrastructure planning. 

Civilian Applications

Enhanced ground collision avoidance systems for aircraft; civil engineering,

land use planning, and disaster recovery efforts; and line-of-sight

determination for communications, e.g., cellular telephones. 

Military Applications

Flight simulators; logistical planning, air traffic management; missile and

weapons guidance systems; and battlefield management, tactics. 

Crew

Commander: Kevin R. Kregel

Pilot: Dom L. Gorie

Mission Specialist 1: Gerhard P.J. Thiele

Mission Specialist 2: Janet L. Kavandi

Mission Specialist 3: Janice Voss

Mission Specialist 4: Mamoru Mohri

Launch

Orbiter: Endeavour OV105

Launch Site:

Launch Window: 2 hours, 02 minutes

Altitude: 126 nautical miles

Inclination: 57 degrees

Duration: 11 Days 4 Hrs. 5 Min.

2
Vehicle Data

Shuttle Liftoff Weight: 4,520,415 lbs.

Orbiter/Payload Liftoff

Weight:

256,560 lbs.

Orbiter/Payload Landing

Weight:

225,669 lbs.

Payload Weights

SRTM 14.5 tons

Software Version: OI-27

Space Shuttle Main Engines

SSME 1: 2052 SSME 2: 2044 SSME 3: 2047

External Tank: ET-92 ( Super Light Weight Tank)

SRB Set: BI-100/RSRM-71

Landing

Landing Date: 02/11/00

Landing Time: 4:55 PM (eastern time)

Primary Landing Site: KSC Shuttle Landing Facility

Payloads

Cargo Bay

Payload Overview, Applications, and Benefits

SRTM Hardware--the Mast

SRTM Hardware--the Antenna

Data Recording, Processing, and Products

In-Cabin

EarthKAM

3
STS-99

Mission Overview 

An innovative imaging radar, the first to map the Earth in three dimensions,

is the primary payload onboard STS-99, the first Shuttle flight of the new

century. 

Known as the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission, this radar system

represents a breakthrough in the science of remote-sensing and will produce

topographic maps of Earth 30 times as precise as the best global maps in

use today. The information has the potential to produce one of the most

comprehensive and accurate maps of Earth ever assembled. 

Scheduled for launch no earlier than January 31 from the Kennedy Space

Center, the Space Shuttle Endeavour will carry the radar into space for an

11-day mission to learn more about the planet's changing landscapes, its

4
The imaging radar will be able to capture landscapes that have been

sculpted through the millennia, with the passage of ice ages and periods of

warmer weather. This new imaging system will orbit at 145 miles (233

kilometers) above Earth, with two radar antennas mounted in the Shuttle

payload bay and two extended on a 200-foot-long (60-meter) mast. The

radar will image vast, barren deserts, frozen tundra, and deep valleys carved

by glaciers, such as those found in Alaska, the Andes, and Himalaya

mountains. The vestiges of ancient human settlements, such as the Eighth

Century Khmer civilization of Angkor, Cambodia, and the habitats of

endangered species, such as the mountain gorillas of Central Asia, will be

mapped. 

 

 

 

 

The 13-ton radar system will be able to collect highly accurate,

high-resolution images of Earth's crust between 60 degrees north latitude

and 56 degrees south latitude. The regions to be mapped are home to about

95 percent of the world's population and will be captured with an accuracy of

better than 100 feet (30 meters). 

The genesis of the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission lies in NASA's 1994

flights of the Spaceborne Imaging Radar C/X-band Radar on STS-59 and

STS-68. Several modifications have been made to the radar systems, which

5
give the mission new capabilities compared with its predecessors. The

cornerstone of innovation is the addition of a C-band and an X-band antenna

at the end of a deployable mast, which will be the longest rigid structure ever

flown in space. This will be the first time that a dual-antenna imaging radar is

flown, allowing scientists to use a technique called interferometry--which is

akin to combining stereo images--to map terrain elevation in a single pass. 

By using interferometry to combine two images electronically, researchers

will be able to generate computer versions of topographic maps, called

digital elevation models. With the exception of weather satellite

measurements, this topographic information will be the most universally

useful data set about the Earth ever produced. 

The mission is a partnership between NASA and the National Imagery and

Mapping Agency, in which the agencies are jointly seeking information with

valuable research and operational uses. The Shuttle Radar Topography

Mission will provide important information for NASA's Earth Science

Enterprise, which is dedicated to understanding the total Earth system and

the effects of human activity on the global environment. 

In addition to NASA and the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA),

the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission is a collaboration of the German

Aerospace Center (Deutsches Zentrum fur Luft- und Raumfart) and the

Italian Space Agency, which provided the experimental X-SAR radar

system. The two agencies are providing science teams for the mission. The

Jet Propulsion Laboratory is managing the project for NASA's Earth

Sciences program in Washington, D.C. 

6
Background 

The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) provides a platform for

mapping vast areas of the Earth in the relatively short time of a Shuttle flight.

In addition, the processing of SRTM data will be almost completely

automatic, allowing nearly 1 trillion measurements of the Earth's topography

to be integrated into a consistent, high-resolution map. 

Surprisingly, our home planet isn't mapped as well as one might think. A few

countries, such as the U.S., much of Europe, Australia, and New Zealand,

have digital maps at the 30 m (100 foot) resolution level, but the vast

majority of our planet lacks maps at that resolution, and many lack reliable

maps altogether. The main reason for this is that much of the globe, the

equatorial regions in particular, are cloud-covered much of the time. Thus,

optical cameras on satellites or aircraft can't image the areas. SRTM radar,

with its long wavelength, will penetrate clouds as well as providing its own

illumination, making it independent of daylight. 

The land area to be mapped by SRTM

In the past decade, numerous imaging radar satellites have been lofted to

orbit by the European Space Agency, Japan, and Canada. These radar

systems have been demonstrated to have the capability to produce digital

topographic data in many situations. However, none of these satellites was

designed for the production of digital topographic maps, so they lack some

important features of SRTM. The most important feature they lack is a

second antenna. While it is possible to obtain the second radar image on a

subsequent orbit using a single radar system, it is difficult to measure the

separation between the two passes to the required millimeter accuracy. If

enough control points can be measured in each scene so that the elevation

is known for those points, it is possible to solve for the unknown radar

positions. Since SRTM will measure the separation and orientation of its two

antennas to a high precision, it needs few control points to make its maps.

SRTM is the culmination of a broad arc of technological innovation. Starting

with the first civilian spaceborne imaging radar, Seasat, in 1978, it was

discovered that meaningful radar images of the land could be obtained from

space. Subsequent tests using the Shuttle proved the worth of that platform

7
for improving the technology. The third Shuttle Imaging Radar, SIR-C, tested

two critical technologies required for the development of SRTM: active,

phased array antennas and ScanSAR. The active antenna was required for

its ability to steer to any angle through electronic manipulation of the radar

beam. No moving parts were required. ScanSAR was derived from that

capability. The radar beam is literally scanned back and forth across as the

Shuttle orbits, painting out a much wider swath than was possible in ordinary

operation. Thus, the earlier swath of 50 km was increased to 225 km. It turns

out that 225 km is just enough for an 11-day Shuttle mission to literally

"cover the Earth" by painting one swath at a time. 

 

Updated: 01/18/2000

 

8
STS-99

Crew Profile Menu 

Commander: Kevin R. Kregel 

Making his fourth flight into space, Kregel has overall

responsibility for the success and safe conduct of the STS-99

mission. 

Kregel will lead the Red team shift, with his crewmates divided

into two three-person teams working 12-hour shifts to conduct

round-the-clock science activities. Kregel also is in charge of the

operation of an HDTV camera during the flight and the EarthKam

payload. 

Kregel previously flew as pilot on STS-70 and STS-78 and commanded the STS-87

mission.

Ascent Seating: Flight Deck - Port Forward

Entry Seating: Flight Deck - Port Forward

Pilot: Dom L. Gorie 

Gorie (Commander, USN) will lead the Blue team shift during

STS-99 on this, his second flight into space. 

A veteran of the STS-91 mission, Gorie will operate an HDTV

camera and the EarthKam payload during the flight and will

oversee orbiter operations during his 12-hour shift on the flight

deck. Gorie would also serve as an intravehicular crew member,

or choreographer, in the event a contingency spacewalk is

required.

Ascent Seating: Flight Deck - Starboard Forward

Entry Seating: Flight Deck - Starboard Forward

Mission Specialist 1: Gerhard P.J. Thiele 

In his first flight into space, European Space Agency astronaut

Gerhard Thiele will work on the Red team shift, responsible for

SRTM operations, including the deployment and retraction of the

200-foot high boom from Endeavour's cargo bay upon which one

of the flight's radar systems is mounted. 

Thiele would also be one of two spacewalking crew members

along with Janet Kavandi, in the event a contingency spacewalk

is required during the flight.

Ascent Seating: Flight Deck - Starboard Aft

Entry Seating: Mid Deck - Starboard

9
Mission Specialist 2: Janet L. Kavandi 

In her second flight into space, Kavandi will be the flight engineer

during Endeavour's launch and landing phases, sitting behind

Kregel and Gorie on the flight deck. 

She will work on the Red team shift, responsible for SRTM

spacewalk along with Thiele if a contingency arose during the

mission. 

 

 

Ascent Seating: Flight Deck - Center Aft

Entry Seating: Flight Deck - Center Aft

Mission Specialist 3: Janice Voss 

Voss will work on the Blue team shift during STS-99 and, as

Payload Commander, has the overall responsibility for the

operation of the SRTM systems during the flight. 

Voss is making her fifth trip into space, having previously flown

on STS-57, STS-63, STS-83 and STS-94.

Ascent Seating: Mid Deck - Port

Entry Seating: Mid Deck - Port

Mission Specialist 4: Mamoru Mohri 

NASDA astronaut Mohri is making his second flight into space,

Mohri will join Voss for responsibility of the SRTM payload during

the Blue team shift and would serve as an intravehicular crew

contingency spacewalk was required. Mohri will also operate an

secondary experiments.

Ascent Seating: Mid Deck - Starboard

Entry Seating: Flight Deck - Starboard Aft

Updated: 01/18/2000

10
STS-99

Flight Day Summary 

DATE TIME (EST) DAY MET EVENT

01/31/00 12:47:00 PM 0 000/00:00:00 Launch Time

01/31/00 1:24:00 PM 0 000/00:37:00 OMS-2

01/31/00 5:12:00 PM 0 000/04:25:00 Orb Adj.

01/31/00 6:07:00 PM 0 000/05:20:00 Mast Deploy

02/01/00 1:16:00 AM 1 000/12:29:00 Trim 1

02/02/00 2:09:00 AM 2 001/13:22:00 Trim 2

02/03/00 2:12:00 AM 3 002/13:25:00 Trim 3

02/04/00 1:41:00 AM 4 003/12:54:00 Trim 4

02/05/00 3:31:00 AM 5 004/14:44:00 Trim 5

02/06/00 1:14:00 AM 6 005/12:27:00 Trim 6

02/07/00 3:03:00 AM 7 006/14:16:00 Trim 7

02/08/00 2:15:00 AM 8 007/13:28:00 Trim 8

02/09/00 1:04:00 AM 9 008/12:17:00 Trim 9

02/10/00 4:52:00 PM 11 010/04:05:00 Landing

02/10/00 10:47:00 PM 10 010/10:00:00 Mast Retract (subject to

change)

02/11/00 4:55:00 PM 11 011/04:08:00 Deorbit

Updated: 01/20/2000

11
STS-99

Science and Technology Applications

Secondary Objective

Science and Technology Applications

Just within the past decade, Earth scientists have developed sophisticated

computer models that integrate their observations of the planet's surface,

allowing them a greater understanding of natural systems and a more

reliable method for predicting changes in the atmosphere, land, and sea that

are brought on by natural events and human-induced activities. 

Topographic data are critical to the accuracy of these computer models.

That is because Earth's shape determines the flow of air, water, and ice,

and the geography of all life, including people. Topographic data also give

scientists clues about the underlying structure of the Earth, including its

tectonic activity. 

The data will have a variety of uses in scientific disciplines ranging from

hydrology, geology, and archaeology to ecology and studies of urban

development and its impact on the environment. 

Hydrology concentrates on the storage, distribution, and movement of

water as rain and snow, in streams and rivers, within the soil as ground

water, and as glaciers and ice caps. Scientists have developed models for

the Earth's water cycle, and topography plays a key role in determining the

Threats to water resources from groundwater pollution or climate change

can be evaluated using these models. Flood predictions are another

important product of accurate hydrological models. The Shuttle Radar

Topography Mission will give scientists globally consistent topographic data

for these models, allowing them to better understand natural resources in

abundance and scarcity throughout the world. 

 

12
STS-99

Secondary Objective

The History of Imaging Radar at NASA and JPL

NASA and JPL's orbital radar program began with the Seasat synthetic

aperture radar in 1978. Seasat was a single-frequency, L-band (wavelength

of 24 cm or 9-1/2 inches), single polarization, fixed look-angle radar

designed for ocean studies. 

The first of the Shuttle Imaging Radars, called SIR-A, flew on the second

Space Shuttle flight in 1981 and was also an L-band radar with a fixed

look-angle. The second of that series, SIR-B, which flew on the Space

Shuttle in 1984, used an L-band, single polarization radar with an adjustable

look angle. The third mission, SIR-C/X-SAR, provided increased capability

over Seasat, SIR-A, and SIR-B by being able to acquire images at three

microwave wavelengths: L-band with quadruple polarization; C-band (6

centimeters or 2.4 inches) quadruple polarization; and X-band (3

centimeters or 1.2 inches)with a single polarization. SIR-C/X-SAR also had

a variable look angle and could image at incidence angles between 20 and

65 degrees. SIR-C/X-SAR flew onboard the Shuttle in April and October of

Typical image sizes for SIR-C data products were 50 by 100 kilometers (30

by 60 miles), with resolution of between 10 and 25 meters (33 and 82.5

feet). 

Parallel to the development of spaceborne imaging radars, JPL has built

and operated a series of airborne imaging radar systems. The laboratory

currently maintains and operates an airborne SAR system, known as

AIRSAR/TOPSAR, which flies on a NASA DC-8 jet. This system collects

radar images at three radar wavelengths: C-band, L- band, and P-band (68

cm or 27 in.). It also collects interferometric radar data at C-band and

L-band with pairs of antennas mounted on the fuselage. 

NASA's Office of Earth Sciences also is studying designs for future imaging

radar missions that would be less expensive to fly and provide detailed

coverage of regions that have not yet been imaged. Potential missions

might include mapping freezing and thawing transition zones in polar

regions, monitoring changes in the Earth's crust on a scale of millimeters,

mapping topography areas that are prone to earthquakes and volcanic

activity, and mapping vegetation cover to assess the rate of recovery from

such stresses as deforestation, biomass burning, and other human activities

and natural phenomena. 

The National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA)

The National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA)is a member of the

intelligence community and is a Department of Defense combat support

13
agency. NIMA was created in 1996 to accelerate the fusion of geospatial

information and imagery intelligence and to meet growing customer needs

for a common, digital view of the mission space. NIMA is committed to

delivering the imagery and geospatial information that gives national

policymakers and military users information superiority in a rapidly changing

global environment. 

With its headquarters in Bethesda, Md., NIMA operates major facilities in St.

Louis, Mo., Washington, D.C., and Reston, Va., and services a wide array of

customers throughout the world. Professionals in disciplines such as

cartography, imagery analysis, the physical sciences, geodesy, and

photogrammetry make up NIMA's combined military and civilian work force. 

Mission

NIMA's mission is to provide timely, relevant, and accurate imagery,

imagery intelligence, and geospatial information in support of U.S. national

security objectives. 

Mapping in Three Dimensions 

Presently, the U.S. has a better global topographic map of Venus than it

does of the Earth's surface. However, the SRTM mission will improve our

ability to produce topographic information by collecting high-resolution

elevation data over most of the Earth's land surface. To process the data,

NIMA uses Digital Terrain Elevation Data (DTED®), a process of evenly

spaced points on the Earth's surface whose elevations have been recorded.

These elevation data will provide an estimate of surface height every 30

meters, a density three times greater than the currently available height

map. 

Digital Terrain Elevation Data (DTED) 

DTED is used by NIMA's military and civilian customers for a wide range of

uses. Recently, NIMA provided the National Transportation Safety Board

DTED converge to complete a video reconstruction of a major aviation

accident. By providing a third dimension to normally flat map depiction, the

DTED enabled investigators to view the terrain as the pilot saw it before the

accident. 

After Hurricane Mitch, NIMA provided DTED to the U.S. Geological Survey

in support of a White House-sponsored Central American Reconstruction

Task Force. To aid in recovery operations and infrastructure reconstruction,

DTED was used to show terrain elevation in the affected countries before

and after the hurricane. Back home, DTED has been combined with satellite

imagery to generate a variety of commercial remote sensing data and

products through NASA's Global LandSat Mapping Project. 

The terrain data from SRTM is likely to spawn many uses for geospatial

information that will save lives and enhance economic development around

the world. SRTM data also can be used for hydrological studies that analyze

ground water flow, optimizing the locations for cellular phone towers;

14
earthquake and glacier activity monitoring; and terrain modeling around

airports to provide for safer approach routes. 

Military uses of DTED include scene visualization, command-and-control,

navigation and targeting. When draped over imagery in terrain modeling

systems, DTED is used to produce simulated "fly throughs" that facilitate

planning and enable aircrews to rehearse a mission before flying it. DTED

also has been used to generate realistic radar and cockpit views in flight

training simulators. 

The Army uses DTED to determine field of view from different advance

points, develop lines of sight, and identify minimum heights to keep a target

in sight. The Army also uses DTED to determine the slope of terrain for

off-the-road mobility and in dam analyses. Terrain analysts can measure the

capacity of a dam with DTED and predict the impact of flooding, including

the velocity of released water. 

Products are currently produced with DTED on the Army's Combat Terrain

Information System (CTIS). As the Army moves toward "dominant battle

space awareness" under Joint Vision 2010, DTED will become a

fundamental component of this vision. 

DLR 

(Deutsches Zentrum fuer Luft- und Raumfahrt, German Aerospace Center)

Germany's contribution to this spectacular international concerted effort is

the X-band radar interferometer with DLR as the project lead and

responsible for system engineering, mission operation, calibration, data

processing, archiving, distribution, and data utilization. Dornier

Satellitensysteme, together with the Italian Space Agency (ASI), is

responsible for the development of the X-SAR flight instrument. X-SAR

operates within the X-band of the electromagnetic spectrum at a wavelength

of 3.1 cm, equivalent to a frequency of 9.6 Gigahertz. 

DLR's Institute of Radio Frequency Technology was able to draw on its long

experience with imaging synthetic aperture radar systems. Idea and

conception for the construction of the X-SAR system originated at this

institute. Several teams have participated in its realization. The scientific

and technological supervision, as well as calibration and mission control,

are with Institute of Radio Frequency Technology. The German X-SAR

captures 50-kilometer swaths of the Earth's surface, mapping 40 percent of

all orbits at a significantly high resolution. 

DLR's German Space Operation Center (GSOC) in Oberpfaffenhofen is

involved in mission planning, operational system design and in the mission

itself. Each minute of the precious remote sensing time is planned years in

advance. During the mission, the team will work in NASA's mission and

According to the open policy on Earth observation data, which is one of the

main goals of DLR, X-SAR data will not be classified but will be made

available to the general public. DLR's German Remote Sensing Data Center

15
(DFD), also located in Oberpfaffenhofen, will process the data acquired in

the course of the mission and take care of the distribution. Users are from

many disciplines. Hydrologists can exactly determine area of river flooding,

geologists make out small changes in earthquake zones and around

volcanoes, ecologists receive precise information in the extent and condition

of vegetation, and climatologists are able to improve their forecast models.

Also telecommunication, agriculture, air traffic, and marine navigation

experts can profit from the SRTM information. 

Dornier Satellitensysteme GmbH plays a leading role in the area of Earth

observation in Europe. The company is a main industrial contractor for the

radar satellites ERS-1 and ERS-2 and heads the environmental mission

Envistal-1. For many years DSS has successfully participated in the

development of Earth observation devices. One focus was on

high-resolution SAR instruments. Dornier Satellitensysteme also offers

geo-information products through its own service. 

 

16
STS-99

Payloads 

Payload Overview, Applications, and Benefits

Payload Bay

14.5 tons lbs.

Prime:

Backup:

Overview

On-Orbit Check-Out (OOCO) will take up the first 14-16 hours of the mission.

During this time, the radar will be powered up, the mast will be deployed, the

antennas will be aligned, and the first data will be acquired and analyzed on

the ground. The major milestones, in Mission Elapsed Time (MET) are: 

MET EVENT

0:00 Launch

1:30 Payload Bay doors open

2:00 - 3:00 (AODA), and recorders 

5:30 Mast deploy 

7:00 AODA confirms mast deploy 

8:00 Flip outboard antennas 

8:30 First possible radar data 

9:00 Pulse tests of mast resonant frequencies 

10:00 Milkstool unstow and cold-gas enable 

11:00 Radar data acquired 

12:00 Radar data analyzed 

14:00 - 15:00

16:00 End OOCO, start of mapping 

Creating 3-D images of the Earth's surface will require the first on-orbit use of

single-pass interferometry, which means these topographic snapshots will

take just one pass by the Shuttle, using the dual antennas. The Shuttle Radar

Topography Mission will attempt to make close to 1 trillion measurements

during the 11-day mission.

17
A reflection of the C-band and X-band Swaths 

The power required to operate the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission and its

associated equipment will push the edge of the Shuttle's generating

capability. The payload will need 900 kilowatt-hours, enough to power a

typical home for 2-3 months. 

All data will be recorded onboard the Shuttle using payload high-rate tape

recorders. Data will be recorded at a rate of 180 megabits per second for the

C-band radar and 90 megabits per second for the X-band radar. The total

data expected to be recorded are nearly 10 terabytes, enough to fill 15,000

compact disks. The data will be recorded on 300 high-density tapes. 

Verifying that the data are properly recorded will be a challenge in itself, as

data will be generated at a rate of four times the speed at which it can be

downlinked from the Shuttle to the ground. Some data will be played back

from the tape recorders at 1/4 speed and downlinked to the ground using the

Shuttle Ku-band link to NASA's Tracking and Data Relay System satellites. 

18
What Is Imaging Radar? 

Since radars provide their own illumination, they can image regions of the

world at any time of the day or night. Also, because the radar wavelengths

are much longer than those of visible or infrared light, synthetic aperture

radar imaging also can "see" through cloudy and dusty conditions that would

blind visible and infrared instruments. 

An imaging radar works very much like a flash camera. A flash camera

sends out a pulse of light--the "flash"--and records on film the light that is

reflected back at it through the camera lens. Instead of a camera lens and

film, a radar uses an antenna and digital computer tapes to record the

reflected pulses of radar "light" that comprise its images. In a radar image,

one can see only the light that was reflected back toward the radar antenna. 

A typical radar (an acronym for radio detection and ranging) measures the

strength and round-trip time of the microwave signals that are emitted by a

radar antenna and reflected off a distant surface or object. The radar

antenna alternately transmits and receives pulses at particular microwave

wavelengths (in the range of 1 centimeter to 1 meter, which corresponds to a

frequency range of about 300 MHz to 30 GHz). For an imaging radar

system, about 1500 high-power pulses per second are transmitted toward

the target or imaging area, with each pulse having a pulse duration, called a

pulse width, of typically 10-50 microseconds. 

At the Earth's surface, the energy in the radar pulse is scattered in all

directions, with some reflected back toward the antenna. This so-called

"backscatter" returns to the radar as a weaker radar echo and is received by

the antenna. These echoes are converted to digital data and passed to a

data recorder for later processing and display as an image. 

Radar transmits a pulse and measures reflected echo or backscatter. 

In the case of imaging radar, the radar moves along a flight path, and the

area illuminated by the radar is moved along the surface in a swath, building

the image as it moves along building up a radar image using the motion of

the platform.

The length of the radar antenna determines the resolution in the azimuth

direction of the image, or along the track of the swath that is being taken.

The longer the antenna, the finer the resolution will be in this dimension. 

Synthetic aperture radar refers to a technique used to synthesize a very long

antenna by combining echoes received by the radar as it moves along its

flight track. "Aperture" refers to the radar antenna. A "synthetic" aperture is

constructed by moving a real aperture or antenna through a series of

positions along the flight track. 

How Are Radar Images Produced? 

Radar images are composed of many dots, or picture elements. Each pixel,

or picture element, in the radar image represents the radar backscatter, or

the radar pulses that are reflected back from a surface. Darker areas in the

19
image represent low backscatter, brighter areas represent high backscatter.

Bright features mean that a large fraction of the radar energy was reflected

back to the radar, while dark features imply that very little energy was

reflected. Backscatter for an area at a particular wavelength will vary for a

variety of conditions, such as the size of the objects being imaged in the

desired mapping area, the moisture content of the area, the polarization of

the pulses, and the observation angles. Backscatter will also differ when

different wavelengths are used. 

The rule of thumb in radar imaging is that the brighter the backscatter on the

image, the rougher the surface that is being imaged. Flat surfaces that

reflect little or no microwave energy back toward the radar always will

appear dark in radar images. Vegetation is usually moderately rough on the

scale of most radar wavelengths and appears as gray or light gray in a radar

image. Surfaces inclined toward the radar will have a stronger backscatter

than surfaces which slope away from the radar. 

Some areas not illuminated by the radar, like the back slope of mountains,

are in shadow and will appear dark. When city streets or buildings are lined

up in such a way that the incoming radar pulses are able to bounce off the

streets and then bounce again off the buildings--called a

double-bounce--and directly back toward the radar, they will appear very

bright, or white, in the radar images. Roads and freeways are flat surfaces,

so they appear dark. On the other hand, buildings, which do not line up so

that the radar pulses are reflected straight back, will appear light gray, like

very rough surfaces. 

Imaging Different Types of Surfaces With Radar

Backscatter is also sensitive to a mapping area's electrical properties,

including water content. Wetter objects will appear bright, and drier objects

will appear dark. The exception is a smooth body of water, which will act as

a flat surface and reflect incoming pulses away from a mapping area. These

bodies will appear dark. 

Different observation angles will affect backscatter. The angle of the track

will affect backscatter from very linear features, such as urban areas, fences,

rows of crops, and fault lines. The angle of the radar wave hitting Earth's

surface, called the incidence angle, also will cause a variation in the

backscatter. Small incidence angles, which are nearly perpendicular to the

surface, will result in high backscatter, whereas the backscatter will decrease

with increasing incidence angles. 

Radar backscatter is a function of the incidence angle. 

What Is Radar Interferometry? 

Radar interferometry is the study of interference patterns created by

combining two sets of radar signals. There are several ways to explain how

interferometry works. The following are two ways to explain radar

interferometry. 

20
Ripples in Still Water 

If one imagines a person standing with both arms extended to his or her

side, holding a pebble in each hand, then dropping the pebbles into a puddle

of water, two rippling, concentric circles would emanate from the splash of

the pebbles in the water. As the two waves travel outward, they will

eventually hit each other and cause interference patterns. These

interference patterns, where the two sets of waves meet, are the pulses that

are measured by an interferometer. The dual measurements will allow

scientists to build a single, three-dimensional image. 

SIR-C Multiple-Pass Radar Interferometry 

When two radar data sets are combined, the first product to be created is

called an interferogram, which is also called a "fringe map." A fringe map

looks similar to the ripples in a puddle of water. The main antenna located in

the Space Shuttle payload bay will illuminate a portion of the surface of the

Earth as it passes over, transmitting a radar wave, much like the ripples in a

puddle of water that has been disturbed. When the radar wave hits the

surface of the Earth, it will be scattered in various directions. These

scattered waves will be collected by the two Shuttle Radar Topography

Mission antennas. Using the information about the distance between the two

antennas and the differences in the reflected radar wave signals, scientists

will be able to obtain very accurate measurements of the heights of land

surfaces. 

21
Holograms

SRTM is basically producing a hologram of the surface of the Earth.

Holograms are usually produced by shining a laser beam onto an object and

recording the patterns resulting from the reflected light interfering with a

reference laser beam. The result is a 3-D representation of the object on

film. It turns out that radars are just like lasers, except they operate in the

long wavelength microwave part of the spectrum. 

Benefits

Science and Technology Applications 

Geomorphology is the study of Earth's landscapes. These geologic

formations are all around us, standing as huge mountain ranges, carved

deep into the Earth to form valleys, and stretching flat across thousands of

miles of land to create plains. 

Plate boundaries cut through continents and oceans and are concealed by

them. However, titanic geological events along these boundaries offer clues

to their locations. Where plates converge, mountains and volcanoes are

often found. Where they pull apart, oceans are born. Wherever they grind

against each other, they are jostled by frequent earthquakes. 

Digital topographic data of mountain ranges, which will be available for the

first time with the retrieval of Shuttle Radar Topography Mission data, will

allow geologists to test new models of how mountains form and determine

the relative strength of the forces that uplift and crumple mountains and the

erosive forces which polish and reshape them. 

Lower resolution digital topographic data, available only in the last few years,

have yielded some surprising results. It seems that landslides in

mountainous areas are responsible for far more of the erosion than

previously thought, causing revision of many basic ideas of mountain

development. Even more surprising, models based on new digital data have

shown that erosion of deep valleys into mountain ranges actually causes the

adjacent peaks to rise in elevation due to the buoyant force of the underlying

mantle. 

As with most disciplines, archaeology has become more interdisciplinary,

using cutting-edge technological tools in parallel with detailed field work.

Increasingly, archaeologists are studying sites and human activity within

their regional context to determine how the sites relate to each other and

This more regional view helps answer questions such as why cities and

towns were built in particular locations and how the patterns of settlement

relate to natural resources in the area. To do this, it is important to look at

why events occurred when they did and how those events might have

changed over time. Scientists are intensely interested in examining the

interactions of people with the land they inhabited and exploited over time in

22
an effort to explain the changes that occurred in both human societies and in

the natural environment.

The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission will provide archaeologists with a

topographic view of both ancient sites and the current landscape, which they

can use to help determine the boundaries of original sites. They also will be

able to learn how and where these sites fit into the regional landscape, as

well as probable migration routes through topographic barriers such as

mountain ranges. 

Shuttle radar data also will enable them to compare large-scale ancient

settlement patterns and their distribution around the world. Since many

archaeologists working in remote parts of the world rely on outdated maps or

no maps at all to conduct these studies, the Shuttle Radar Topography

Mission's highly precise 3-D data will provide many with their first

comprehensive tools. 

Ecology concentrates on the interrelationship of living things and their

environment. As civilization and technology advance, people have learned to

modify the environment. Human activity has had enormous repercussions,

changing ecosystems and depleting natural resources. People use vast

amounts of energy and produce massive amounts of waste and exhaust. It is

critical that scientists understand the impact humanity is having on planet

Earth and that better tools be developed to accurately measure changes in

world climate, temperatures, habitats,and species. 

Global climate change is another large-scale event occurring in the

atmosphere, brought about by the increase of so-called "greenhouse gases"

such as carbon dioxide. Like glass in a greenhouse, these gases admit the

sun's light but tend to reflect the heat that is radiated from the ground below

back down to the ground, trapping heat in Earth's atmosphere. 

Scientists continue to work on computer models of climate change to

determine how much of an increase in greenhouse gases is occurring in

Earth's atmosphere. Shuttle Radar Topography Mission data will allow them

to develop more accurate models of the global circulation of the atmosphere.

Mapping of the world's rainforests is an essential ingredient in global

protection of Earth in the next century. Another avenue of investigation

during the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission will focus on radar-imaging of

fragile habitats, such as Earth's tropical forests, to assess vegetation types

and determine terrain characteristics. Terrain data that will be collected

during the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission will provide near-global-scale

coverage of these ecosystems at a much higher resolution and allow

scientists to study tropical rainforests in more detail. Combined with data

from other remote sensing satellites, three-dimensional data of landforms,

waterways, and other types of vegetation will contribute to their

Communities nestled near the bases of active volcanoes or on earthquake

faults will be of interest to volcanologists and seismologists as well.

23
Scientists can use three-dimensional topographic maps to study the potential

of natural hazards. In addition to volcanic eruptions and earthquakes,

regions prone to severe flooding by major rivers will be of interest. 

Radar imaging will be used as a tool for city planners, land management,

and resource conservation, efforts which require highly detailed topographic

maps for monitoring land use patterns. Spaceborne radar imaging systems

can clearly detect the variety of landscapes in an area, as well as the density

of urban development. Examples of previous land management surveys

included imaging of major world cities, such as Los Angeles, New York, and

Washington, D.C. 

Commercial Applications 

Some of the commercial products that will be possible using Shuttle Radar

Topography Mission data will benefit the transportation industry, as well as

the communications and information technologies markets. In

telecommunications, wireless service providers and operators will be

particularly interested in this digital elevation data. Topographic data can be

used for building better transceiver stations and identifying the best

geographic locations for cellular telephone towers. 

Companies conducting geological and mineral exploration, as well as

hydrological and meteorological services, including risk assessment, also will

be interested in the data. Providers of satellite data, tourist and leisure maps,

24
and virtual reality software also will reap the benefits of these data, which

can be integrated into an absolute geographic grid system that will make all

data products uniform and consistent. In fact, just about any industry that

requires accurate digital elevation data stands to benefit from this mission. 

Terrain height data also may be a valuable addition to current aircraft

navigational tools to assist pilots in takeoffs, landings, and pinpointing their

locations during flight. Ground collision avoidance systems will become far

more accurate with new measurements and topographic maps of Earth's

terrain derived from the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission. Flight simulators

for crew training will have realistic backgrounds and, by adding information

from inflight global positioning system receivers, will become state-of-the-art

reference systems, giving pilots a set of "virtual eyes" for use in bad weather

or at night. 

Automobile navigation displays and digital road maps also will benefit from

terrain information provided by the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission. Here

terrain height is required, combined with accurate data about the horizon.

The newly acquired data will be made available to commercial users and

tailored to their specific needs. 

Defense Applications 

The National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA) plans to use the digital

global terrain elevation maps for planning, rehearsal, modeling, and

simulation for military and civilian uses. Successful completion of the SRTM

data set will provide NIMA with coverage of most of Earth's populated land

areas, with three times better resolution than previously available.

Additional information about Defense Department applications is available

from NIMA, a partner in the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission. 

Updated: 01/18/2000

25
STS-99

Payloads 

SRTM Hardware--the Antenna

Payload Bay

Prime:

Backup:

Overview

The Outboard Antenna Structure 

The outboard antenna structure is connected to the end of the mast. It

contains a C-band and an X-band antenna, two global positioning system

antennas, light emitting diode targets, and a corner-cube reflector. The two

outboard antennas can only receive radar signals. Transmitting of radar

signals will be done only by the main antenna. 

The C-band and X-band antennas on the outboard antenna structure

receive radar signals reflected from the ground. The signals are passed

down cables to the Shuttle for recording along with the signals from the main

antennas. 

Global Positioning System antennas will be used to gather accurate

information on the position of the Space Shuttle. Meanwhile, light emitting

diode (LED) targets will be used by a target tracker on the Attitude and Orbit

Determination Avionics (AODA), mounted on the main antenna, to measure

the position of the outboard antenna relative to the main antenna. A

corner-cube reflector will be used by the electronic distance measurement

unit on AODA to measure the length of the mast to within three millimeters

(1/8 inch). 

Updated: 01/18/2000

26
STS-99

Payloads 

SRTM Hardware--the Mast

Payload Bay

 

Prime:

Backup:

Overview

 

The Mast 

Made of carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP), stainless steel, alpha

titanium, and Invar, the mast is a truss structure that consists of 87

cube-shaped sections called bays. Unique latches on the diagonal members

of the truss allow the mechanism to deploy bay-by-bay out of the mast

canister to a length of 60 meters (200 feet), about the length of five school

buses. The canister houses the mast during launch and landing and also

deploys and retracts the mast. 

 

SRTM as Deployed From Endeavour's Payload Bay

27
mast canister. This nut will pull the mast from its stowed configuration and

allow it to unfold like an accordion. An astronaut inside the Space Shuttle will

initiate the mast deployment, which will take about 20 minutes. The mast also

may be deployed manually during an EVA using a hand-held motor if

necessary. 

The mast technology enables the SRTM system to perform at the high

precision necessary to achieve the desired mapping resolution. The mast

supports a 360-kilogram (792-pound) antenna structure at its tip and carries

200 kilograms (440 pounds) of stranded copper, coaxial, fiber optic cables,

and thruster gas lines along its length. 

The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission Mast 

Mast Length 60 m 200 feet

Nominal Mast Diameter 1.12 m 44 1/8 in 

Nominal Bay Width at Longerons 79.25 cm 31 1/4 in

Nominal Bay Length 69.75 cm 27 1/2 in 

Number of Bays 87 

Stowed Height/Bay 1.59 cm 5/8 in 

Total Stowed Height 128 cm 54 in 

 

The Main Antenna 

The main antenna is connected to a pallet that in turn is bolted into the

payload bay of the Space Shuttle. The system consists of two antennas and

the avionics that compute the position of the antenna. 

Each antenna is made up of special panels that can transmit and receive

radar signals. One antenna is the C-band antenna and can transmit and

receive radar wavelengths that are 2.25 inches or 5.6 centimeters long. The

second antenna is the X-band antenna. This antenna can transmit and

receive radar wavelengths that are 1.2 inches or 3 centimeters long. Both

wavelengths were used in the Spaceborne Imaging Radar C-band/X-SAR

missions in 1994 for a variety of environmental studies. The L-band antenna,

also used during SIR-C/X-SAR, has been removed to save weight. 

 

28
 

History/Background

 

Attitude and Orbit Determination Avionics 

In order to map the Earth's topography, SRTM researchers will need to do

two basic things: 

1) Measure the distance from the Shuttle to some common reference, such

as sea-level 

2) Measure the distance from the Shuttle to the surface feature over which it

is flying 

For example, if the Shuttle's height above sea level is known and its

respective height above a mountain, then researchers can subtract to get

the height of the mountain above sea level. 

For the first part, researchers need to know the Shuttle's height above sea

level at all times. NASA will need to constantly measure the Shuttle position

to an accuracy of 1 meter (about 3 feet). 

For the second part of the formula, SRTM is using radar interferometry to

measure the height of the Shuttle above the Earth's surface. One of the

biggest challenges in making interferometry work is knowing the length and

orientation of the mast at all times. Changes in its length and orientation can

have a profound effect on the final height accuracy. Suppose the mast tip

moves around by only 2 cm (a bit less than 1 inch) with respect to the

Shuttle (this is something that is expected to happen during the mission,

due to the astronauts moving around and Shuttle thrusters firing). That

doesn't sound like much, but if not taken into account, it would result in a

height error at the Earth's surface of 120 meters (almost 400 ft). 

Researchers also expect changes in mast length of about 1 cm (about a

half-inch) which if not detected would result in additional errors. Therefore,

SRTM team members will need to constantly monitor the mast orientation

and length. Part of this is measuring where the mast tip is relative to the

Shuttle to better than 1 mm (about 4/100th of an inch). The other part is

knowing how the Shuttle is oriented relative to the Earth to about 1 arcsec.

An arcsecond is the angular size of a dime seen from a distance of 2

miles. 

To keep track of the Shuttle's position, NASA will make use of the Global

Positioning System (GPS). Mission managers do this by combining

measurements taken by some specially designed GPS receivers being

29
flown on the Shuttle with measurements taken by an international network

of GPS ground receivers. 

To measure the mast length and orientation, team members will use a

variety of optical sensors. A target tracker will be used to follow a set of

Light Emitting Diode (LED) targets which can be seen on the outboard radar

antenna once the mast is fully deployed. 

The target tracker also is used to monitor the antenna alignment. There are

laptop computers on the Shuttle which display the antenna alignment (kind

of a cross-hairs with a dot, representing the alignment error). The crew will

use these displays to guide adjustment of some motors at the mast tip (the

"milkstool") to remove any alignment errors so the radar can operate

properly. 

To get the most accurate measure of the mast length, SRTM managers will

use a set of rangefinders, called Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM)

units. To save time and money, the SRTM team decided to buy commercial

surveying instruments and modify them for use in space. The rangefinders

30
work by bouncing a beam of light off a special corner-cube reflector on the

outboard antenna and measuring the time to determine the distance. 

To measure the orientation of the Shuttle with respect to the Earth, mission

managers will use one of the most precise star tracker and gyroscope

packages ever built. The star tracker looks at the sky and compares what it

sees with a star catalogue in its memory to get the attitude of the Shuttle. 

 

 

Updated: 01/18/2000

31
STS-99

Payloads 

Data Recording, Processing, and Products

Payload Bay

Prime:

Backup:

Overview

Data Recording

Once SRTM payload managers receive the radar echoes from both

antennas, they will route the data through the Digital Data Handling System

(DDHS). That system puts the different channels together and then sends

the data to the Recorder Interface Controller (RIC), a laptop in the flight deck

of the Shuttle. The laptop decides which of three Payload High-Rate

Recorders (PHRR) will get the data. The crew will monitor this and will

change tapes as they become full. SRTM will record to about 300 tapes

during the mission, which adds up to about 10 terabytes of data. Mission

managers also will send a small amount of data to the ground during the

Data Processing and Products 

When the high-speed digital tapes on board the Shuttle record the echoes

collected by the SRTM interferometer, it is only the beginning of the mission.

The worlds of microwave optics, orbital mechanics, signal processing, and

computer processing and networking merge in a sophisticated and intensive

effort to map the Earth's topography with record accuracy in record time. 

A synthetic aperture radar is much like a camera without a lens, transcribing

enough information from the signal echoes to allow the raw data to be

focused into an image. The SRTM interferometer has two sets of these

radar "cameras," one antenna in the Shuttle bay, the other at the end of the

mast. The radars alternately look at four different subswaths in order to build

up the wide swath necessary to map the world. The task of generating digital

topography from the recorded data requires powerful computers to focus the

eight data sets into images, two for each of four subswaths. The echoes in

each subswath are not continuous because the radar can collect only two

subswaths at a time, so mini-images are formed individually for each small

segment of data. Then for each subswath, the two small image pieces are

combined to form the "interferogram" which encodes the information about

topography. These miniature topographic images then must be carefully

pieced together for each subswath to form a larger interferogram. 

32
Topographic information in the interferogram needs further deciphering to be

useful, however. The interferometer produces what are in essence

topographic contours of equal height, but at this point the elevation value for

any contour is unknown, as is the height difference between any two

contours. This is where the measurements made by the Attitude and Orbit

Determination Avionics (AODA) becomes useful. Accurate knowledge of the

mast length and orientation is used to solve for the height of each contour. In

addition, data collected over the ocean are used to reference all elevations

to sea level. 

These operations must be repeated for each subswath for the length of each

data-take. An SRTM data-take extends from the time just before landfall until

just after the swath leaves land for every continent and every island. 

These data are still not a map, as they are still in distorted radar coordinates,

so each subswath must be "ortho-rectified" to map coordinates. With

hundreds of data takes processed to ortho-rectified intermediate products,

the effort shifts from interferometry to mosaicking. Specifically, the

subswaths and data takes must be "sewn" together to form a continent, with

all the seams well-formed and continuous across boundaries. If all goes

according to plan, the subswaths will lay down perfectly on top of each

other. If there are some small uncertainties in the geometry of the

interferometer, a little assistance to the mosaicking may be needed. This is

accomplished by measuring how well the subswaths match each other

where they overlap and by comparing them to known points on the ground.

Once these measurements are made, they are used to adjust all subswaths

in three dimensions to the best, smoothest mosaic. 

After the mosaic is produced, the product must be checked. At least six

stages of quality checks are performed on the subswaths as they proceed

through the processing, so the mosaicked data are expected to be of high

quality. Nonetheless, a last test of the accuracy of the product is made and

the results recorded in map form. 

This entire process is carried out for all the continents covered by SRTM. A

powerful computerized production system has been developed to transform

the basic radar and ancillary measurements acquired by SRTM to these

digital topographic maps and other derived products. The system brings

together all data elements in a processing environment that will deliver the

world's topography in less than two years. To accomplish this feat, the

production system comprises numerous computer subsystems linked

together on a high-speed network at JPL. The system pushes several

terabytes of raw data through in two years, with intermediate storage of

upwards of 100 terabytes. 

First, special-purpose hardware decodes the raw data. A workstation then

conditions the data to a usable form. A suite of parallel processing

computers performs the radar interferometry processing and mosaicking. A

robotic tape storage device automatically retrieves the data tape needed for

processing at each step. The final verified product is delivered to the

customer electronically, continent by continent. 

33
STS-99

Payloads 

EarthKAM

In-Cabin

 

Prime: Kevin Kregel

Backup: Dom Gorie

Overview

 

EarthKAM is a NASA-sponsored program that enables middle school

students to take photographs of the Earth from a camera aboard the Space

Shuttle. During missions, students work collectively and use interactive web

pages to target images and investigate the Earth from the unique

perspective of space. 

An electronic still camera (ESC) bracket-mounted to the overhead starboard

window of the orbiter aft flight deck will face the nadir to observe various

student-selected sites on Earth. Other than equipment setup, initial camera

pointing, and possible camera lens changes, no crew intervention is required

for nominal operations. 

The University of California at San Diego houses the EarthKAM Mission

Operations Center (MOC). Most participating schools (or group of schools)

establish a Student Mission Operation Center (SMOC) whose computers are

connected to the Internet for a number of purposes: 

· To communicate with other SMOC teams and EarthKAM personnel

· To track the Shuttle's orbit

· To select and submit target requests

34
 

How EarthKam Works

Before the mission, students select a topic of interest, such as human

settlement patterns, mountain ranges, or agricultural patterns. Then they

define investigations that will be supported by the EarthKAM images. 

During the mission, each SMOC submits a number of photo requests

through specialized EarthKAM web pages. The requests are processed and

uplinked to the EarthKAM ESC aboard the Shuttle. 

After the ESC takes the pictures, digital images are sent back to Earth and

posted on the data system for the students to use in their investigations. For

their final reports, students use these new images along with other relevant

images from the full EarthKAM image set. Scientists and educators review

the original proposal and the final report to provide feedback to the students. 

The EarthKAM program also is preparing to mount a camera aboard the

International Space Station.

35
 

 

History/Background

 

During the first four missions of EarthKAM, students took more than 2,000

high-resolution digital images of the Earth. These photographs included the

Himalayas, clouds over the Pacific, volcanoes, and recent forest fires in

Indonesia. 

 

 

Benefits

 

Students use the EarthKAM images in classroom projects to learn about

Earth science, geography, mathematics, and space science. They also

develop skills in investigation and image analysis, as well as learning how to

use the Internet.

Updated: 01/18/2000

36
STS-99

DTO/DSO/RMEs 

Heat Exchange Unit Evaluation

DTO 686

Prime:

Backup:

Overview

The purpose of this DTO is to test the effectiveness of a portable heat

exchange unit that uses the vacuum of space to chill nearby items by

controlling the vaporization rate of water. The objectives of the DTO are to

demonstrate the technology in microgravity, identify potential shuttle

applications, and measure the chilling capacity of the unit.

This commercial portable heat exchanger uses water as the refrigerant. It

chills items by evaporating water in the reduced-pressure environment

created by the vacuum of space. The unit, which is smaller than a beverage

can (a cylinder 1.75 inches in diameter and 5 inches long), has the potential

for extensive chilling capacity from two abundant resources aboard the

Shuttle, water and vacuum. The heat exchanger has a unique internal

feature that controls the water vaporization rate while maximizing heat

exchange during the process. Since chilling occurs on the outer surface of

the unit, items to be chilled (such as beverages or ice cream) are simply

exposed to this outer surface. 

The exchange unit, which is designed to connect to the orbiter waste control

system vacuum port (TP126) or the wastewater overboard dump system, is

equipped with quick disconnects that interface with the overboard dump

system. The system performed well in demonstrations on Earth;

theoretically, it should perform just as well in microgravity.

History/Background

This DTO has flown once before on STS-96.

Updated: 01/18/2000

37
STS-99

DTO/DSO/RMEs 

Urine Collection Device

DTO 690

In-Cabin

Prime: Principal Investigator: Jennifer D. Villarreal 

Backup:

Overview

Five crew members will participate in this DTO, which has five objectives:

1. Evaluate the fit of several sizes/types of manual urine collection devices

(UCDs) and their adapters (anatomical interface) in microgravity.

2. Evaluate the ability of the adapter and valve design to accommodate urine

flow with minimal leakage.

3. Evaluate hygienic aspects of the UCD design, e.g., its ability to minimize

residual urine in or around the adapter that could potentially disperse into

the cabin. This UCD feature will also make scientific measurements of total

4. Evaluate user-friendliness of urine collection operations.

5. Evaluate techniques for returning urine to the waste collection system

(lower priority).

There are two primary benefits of an improved design for manual urine

collection devices. The UCD will be used as a backup to the current waste

collection system (WCS). Normally, if the WCS fails, the crew uses diapers

and must cut the mission short. But with the backup UCD, this will not be

necessary. 

Secondly, the ability of current UCDs to collect urine from females is a

serious disadvantage in scientific studies that include female subjects. With

the small number of subjects participating in microgravity experiments, loss

of all female subjects in studies requiring urine collection is unacceptable to

the scientific community. Although this study aims to optimize UCD designs

for both sexes, the highest priority is to find an acceptable female adapter,

Male subjects have also had problems with the existing UCDs: leakage, fit,

and urine remaining in the dead volume. Therefore, a secondary objective of

this study is to design and evaluate upgrades for the male interface. The

final designs will be flown on all missions that require urine collection

samples, either as the primary method of collection or as a backup to an

38
History/Background

This is the third flight of DTO 690. Its last flight was STS-96.

Updated: 01/18/2000

39
STS-99

DTO/DSO/RMEs 

Single-String Global Positioning System, With PGSC and GPS

DTO 700-14

In-Cabin

 

Prime: Kevin Kregel Principal Investigator: Ray Nuss, Wayne

Hensley, Michael

Sarafin

Backup: Dom Gorie

Overview

 

This DTO demonstrates the performance and operation of the Global

Positioning System (GPS) during orbiter ascent, on-orbit, entry, and landing

phases. A modified military GPS receiver-processor and the existing orbiter

GPS antennas will be used, and GPS data will be downlinked during all

mission phases. A payload and general support computer (PGSC) hard

drive may be used (optional) to record GPS data during ascent, entry,

and/or extended orbital phases.

The single-string GPS supports operational use of GPS as a Shuttle

navigation aid. This flight test of the single-string GPS

configuration--basically an extension of an earlier GPS development flight

test--entails the following:

· GPS receiver output data will be downlinked through the flight forward 2

(FF2) multiplexer/demultiplexer (MDM) and operational forward 2 (OF2)

· A PGSC may be connected to the receiver's RS-422 instrumentation port

to collect data during ascent, entry, and/or orbital phases (optional). 

· The crew may be requested to perform various activities, such as

exercising certain GPS SOP and navigation commands and/or cycling

power to the GPS receiver. Requirements for this option are defined

specifically for each mission to achieve the following objectives whenever

feasible: (a) incorporate GPS to NAV in OPS 201 (PASS), (b) incorporate

GPS to NAV in OPS 301 (PASS and BFS), and (c) perform GPS receiver

commands (via crew keyboard item entries) during OPS 201. 

History/Background

 

DTO 700-14 has previously flown on nine Shuttle missions. It last flew on

STS-96.

40
STS-99

DTO/DSO/RMEs 

High-Definition Television (HDTV) Camcorder

Demonstration

DTO 700-17A

 

Prime: Kevin Kregel Principal Investigator: Toshibumi Sakata,

Earth Science and

Technology

Organization (ESTO);

Toshihiro Ogawa,

NASDA, Earth

Observation Research

Center (EORC);

Yoshifumi Yasuoka,

University of Tokyo,

Institute of Industry

Sciences (IIS); Shoji

Matsubara, NASDA;

Akitoshi Yokota, NA

Backup: Dom Gorie

Overview

 

Specific objectives for STS-99 are listed in order of priority: 

Required:

· Earth observation consisting of forest areas, dry land, mountain areas, and

urban areas

· Atmospheric observation consisting of lightning and aurora

· Educational objectives

Desired:

HDTV coverage of SRTM targets

This system will provide NASA source material from Shuttle for the initial

U.S. HDTV broadcast. It represents the first step in NASA's transitional

process toward HDTV flight video systems and the new U.S. standard. The

DTO task of flying an HDTV camcorder is the minimal method to begin

meeting the requirements for HDTV implementation on the Shuttle.

 

 

41
History/Background

 

The U.S. television standard is in transition from the current analog National

Television Systems Committee (NTSC) format to the digital Advanced

Television Systems Committee (ATSC) format adopted by the Federal

Communications Commission (FCC). In order for NASA to provide source

material that supports these new standards, the current Shuttle video

system must be upgraded. The NASA administrator and Headquarters

Code M have established requirements and applications for this new

capability and have called for the Shuttle and Station programs to make

provisions that support it. A minimal hardware upgrade of existing Shuttle

resources is the first step toward this objective of giving the Shuttle program

some digital television capability.

This DTO has been flown once before on STS-93.

 

 

Updated: 01/18/2000

42
STS-99

DTO/DSO/RMEs 

Crosswind Landing Performance

DTO 805

Prime: Kevin Kregel

Backup: Dom Gorie

Overview

The purpose of this DTO of opportunity is to perform a manually controlled

Shuttle landing in the presence of a 90-degree, 10- to 15-knot, steady-state

crosswind.

History/Background

This DTO has been attempted 57 times. It was last manifested on STS-93.

Updated: 01/18/2000

43
STS-99

DTO/DSO/RMEs 

Function

DSO 206

Prime: Principal Investigator: Hiroshi Ohshima,

M.D., Ph.D., NASDA;

Tetsuo Fukunaga,

Ph.D., NASDA; Koh

Mizuno, Ph.D.,

NASDA; Takashi

Shigematsu, M.D.,

Ph.D.; Tatsunori

Suemitsu, M.D.,

NASDA

Backup:

Overview

The primary objective of this study is to investigate the basic mechanism of

how space flight affects the musculoskeletal system and immune function

during long missions. These accumulated baseline data will be used to

develop countermeasures for physiological changes in the musculoskeletal

system and immune function during long space flights.

Successful completion of this investigation will contribute to a better

understanding of the physiological adaptation of bone, muscle, and immune

function in space flight. This information will be used to prevent progressive

bone and muscle disease and immunological suppression. One crew

member will participate in the study, which requires examination only before

and after the flight.

Updated: 01/18/2000

44
STS-99

DTO/DSO/RMEs 

Monitoring Latent Virus Reactivation and Shedding in Astronauts

DSO 493

In-Cabin

Prime: Principal Investigator: Duane L. Pierson,

Ph.D.

Backup:

Overview

Six crew members will participate in this DSO, whose premise is that the

incidence and duration of latent virus reactivation in saliva and urine will

increase during space flight. The objective is to determine the frequency of

induced reactivation of latent viruses, latent virus shedding, and clinical

disease after exposure to the physical, physiological, and psychological

stressors associated with space flight.

Space-flight-induced alterations in the immune response become

increasingly important on long missions, particularly the potential for

reactivation and dissemination (shedding) of latent viruses. An example of a

latent virus is Herpes Simplex Type 1 (HSV-1), which infects 70 to 80

percent of all adults. It classically manifests with cold sores, pharyngitis, and

tonsillitis and is usually acquired through contact with the saliva, skin, or

mucous membranes of an infected individual. However, many recurrences

are asymptomatic, resulting in shedding of the virus. Twenty subjects have

been studied for Epstein-Barr virus. Three additional viruses will be

examined in an expanded subject group.

Updated: 01/18/2000

45
STS-99

DTO/DSO/RMEs 

Individual Susceptibility to Post-Space-Flight Orthostatic

Intolerance

DSO 496

Prime: Principal Investigator: Janice M. Yelle, M.S.;

Michael G. Ziegler,

M.D.; Peggy A.

Whitson, Ph.D.

Backup:

Overview

Researchers think that postflight orthostatic hypotension occurs in some,

but not all, astronauts because of (1) preflight, gender-related differences in

autonomic regulation of arterial pressure, and (2) space-flight-induced

changes in autonomic function, which precipitate the condition in

predisposed individuals. This DSO tests this hypothesis by examining

preflight and postflight differences in susceptible and nonsusceptible

astronauts.

Significant alteration of cardiovascular function after space flight is well

documented. One of the most important changes negatively affecting flight

operations and crew safety is the postflight loss of orthostatic tolerance.

Symptoms include difficulty walking independently, lightheadedness or

fainting, and impaired ability to climb out of the Shuttle after landing. Recent

evidence indicates that postflight autonomic dysfunction contributes to

orthostatic intolerance. Susceptibility to postflight orthostatic intolerance is

highly individual. Some astronauts experience very little effect, others have

severe symptoms, and women are more often affected than men. 

The goal of the proposed studies is to clarify mechanisms responsible for

these problems in order to customize countermeasures that prevent them.

Three crew members will participate in this study, only before and after the

flight.

Updated: 01/18/2000

46
STS-99

DTO/DSO/RMEs 

Space Flight and Immune Functions

DSO 498

Prime: Principal Investigator: Duane L. Pierson,

Ph.D.

Backup:

Overview

Scientists expect the essential functions of neutrophils, monocytes, and

cytotoxic cells (lymphokine-activated and natural killer cells) to be altered

during space flight. This DSO will let them know if they are right.

This project will characterize the effects of space flight on selected immune

elements that are important in maintaining an effective defense against

infectious agents. The roles of neutrophils, monocytes, and cytotoxic

cells--all important elements of the immune response--have not been

studied adequately in the U.S. space program. Therefore, these studies

complement ongoing and previous investigations in space immunology. The

specific objectives of the experiment will prove or disprove the hypothesis:

(1) analyze the function of neutrophils and monocytes before and after

space flight, and (2) assess cytotoxic cells and cytokine production before

and after space flight. 

As astronauts work and live in the relatively crowded, closed environment of

spacecraft on longer and longer missions, the risk of infectious disease

increases. The human immune system plays a pivotal role in preventing

infectious illnesses, but the effects of space flight on the immune response

are not fully understood. This DSO is designed to determine the functional

status of important elements of the immune response during STS-99, which

should provide valuable data for assessments of infectious disease risks on

long-duration space missions. Understanding the clinically relevant

changes, if any, will allow scientists to develop suitable countermeasures

that minimize risk.

Updated: 01/18/2000

47
STS-99

DTO/DSO/RMEs 

Educational Activities, Objective 2

DSO 802

In-Cabin

 

Prime: Kevin Kregel

Backup: Dom Gorie

Overview

 

This DSO, which is tied to DTO 700-17A (use of HDTV to film NASA

astronaut activities), will provide live TV downlink of the mission to

classrooms in hopes of attracting students to careers in science,

engineering, and mathematics. The addition of this DSO to a particular flight

is coordinated through the JSC Educational Working Group (EWG). 

The tasks required by this DSO support three distinct objectives: 

1. Produce educational products, such as 20-minute video lessons, with

scenes recorded both in space and on the ground. The on-orbit video

should represent about one-third of the finished video product. This

objective requires the videotaping of on-orbit educational activities

performed by the flight crew as well as other educational activities deemed

2. Support the live TV downlink of educational activities performed by the

flight crew explicitly for, or involving participation by, students and teachers.

Typically, these downlinks are limited to one or two 30-minute live sessions. 

3. Support the live or videotaped TV downlink of educational activities

performed by the flight crew for a general audience. Typically, these

activities are limited to 5 or 10 minutes per demonstration/narration to

explain the science and/or principles of the experiments performed by the

crew members. The number of events is mission dependent.

For STS-99, the crew will concentrate on Objective No. 2.

History/Background

 

This educational DSO supports the NASA administrator's educational

initiative and complies with his direction to use live and recorded lessons

from astronauts on Space Shuttle missions to meet the goals of NASA's

educational programs.

 Updated: 01/18/2000

48
 

 

STS-99

NASA Television Transmission

NASA Television is available through the GE2 satellite system which is

located on Transponder 9C, at 85 degrees west longitude, frequency 3880.0

MHz, audio 6.8 MHz.

The schedule for television transmissions from the orbiter and for mission

briefings will be available during the mission at Kennedy Space Center, FL;

Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, AL; Dryden Flight Research

Center, Edwards, CA; Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX; and NASA

Headquarters, Washington, DC. The television schedule will be updated to

reflect changes dictated by mission operations.

Status Reports

Status reports on countdown and mission progress, on-orbit activities and

landing operations will be produced by the appropriate NASA newscenter.

Briefings

A mission press briefing schedule will be issued before launch. During the

mission, status briefings by a flight director or mission operations

representative and when appropriate, representatives from the payload

team, will occur at least once each day. The updated NASA television

schedule will indicate when mission briefings are planned.

Internet Information

Information is available through several sources on the Internet. The primary

source for mission information is the NASA Shuttle Web, part of the World

Wide Web. This site contains information on the crew and its mission and

will be updated regularly with status reports, photos and video clips

throughout the flight. The NASA Shuttle Web's address is:

http://spaceflight.nasa.gov

General information on NASA and its programs is available through the

NASA Home Page and the NASA Public Affairs Home Page:

http://www.nasa.gov

or

49
Shuttle Pre-Launch Status Reports

http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/status/stsstat/current.htm

Information on other current NASA activities is available through the

Today@NASA page:

http://www.nasa.gov/today/index.html

The NASA TV schedule is available from the NTV Home Page:

http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/realdata/nasatv/schedule.html

Resources for educators can be found at the following address:

http://education.nasa.gov

Access by Compuserve

Users with Compuserve accounts can access NASA press releases by

typing "GO NASA" (no quotes) and making a selection from the categories

offered.

 

50
STS-99

Media Contacts 

NASA PAO CONTACTS

Eileen Hawley Astronauts/Mission Operations 281 483-5111

NASA, Johnson Space Center

Houston, TX

eileen.hawley1@jsc.nasa.gov

Dan Beck Boeing Rocketdyne 818 586-4572

Space Shuttle Main Engines

Canoga Park, CA

daniel.c.beck@boeing.com

David E. Steitz Policy/Program Management,

Office of Earth Sciences

202 358-1730

NASA Headquarters

Washington, DC

dsteitz@hq.nasa.gov

Jack King Shuttle Processing 321 861-4358

United Space Alliance

Kennedy Space Center, FL

KingJW@usafoo.unitedspacealliance.com 

Beth Hill Space Shuttle 714 372-4736

Boeing

Huntington Beach, CA

sara.b.hill@boeing.com

Alan Buis Space Shuttle 714 372-4734

Boeing

Huntington Beach, CA

alan.d.buis@boeing.com

Dwayne Brown Space Shuttle/Space Station

Policy

202 358-1726

NASA Headquarters

Washington, DC

dwayne.brown@hq.nasa.gov

51
Updated: 01/19/2000

 

52
Table prepared by Richard W. Orloff, 02/2001 

SHUTTLE FLIGHTS AS OF FEBRUARY 2000 

96 TOTAL FLIGHTS OF THE SHUTTLE SYSTEM -- 71 SINCE RETURN TO FLIGHT 

STS-103 

12/19/99 - 12/27/99 

STS-93 

07/23/99 - 07/27/99 

STS-96 

05/27/99 - 06/06/99 

STS-90 

04/17/98 - 05/03/98 

STS-95 

10/29/98 - 11/07/98 

STS-87 

11/19/97 - 12/05/97 

STS-91 

06/02/09 - 06/12/98 

STS-94 

07/01/97 - 07/17/97 

STS-85 

08/07/97 - 08/19/97 

STS-83 

04/04/97 - 04/08/97 

STS-82 

02/11//97 - 02/21/97 

STS-80 

11/19/96 - 12/07/96 

STS-70 

07/13/95 - 07/22/95 

STS-78 

06/20/96 - 07/07/96 

STS-63 

02/03/95 - 02/11/95 

STS-86 

09/25/97 - 10/06/97 

STS-75 

02/22/96 - 03/09/96 

STS-64 

09/09/94 - 09/20/94 

STS-84 

05/15/97 - 05/24/97 

STS-73 

10/20/95 - 11/05/95 

STS-60 

02/03/94 - 02/11/94 

STS-81 

01/12/97 - 01/22/97 

STS-65 

07/08/94 - 07/23/94 

STS-51 

09/12/93 - 09/22/93 

STS-79 

09/16/96 - 09/26/96 

STS-62 

03/04/94 - 03/18/94 

STS-56 

04/08/83 - 04/17/93 

STS-76 

03/22/96 - 03/31/96 

STS-58 

10/18/93 - 11/01/93 

STS-53 

12/02/92 - 12/09/92 

STS-74 

11/12/95 - 11/20/95 

STS-55 

04/26/93 - 05/06/93 

STS-42 

01/22/92 - 01/30/92 

STS-71 

06/27/95 - 07/07/95 

STS-52 

10/22/92 - 11/01/92 

STS-48 

09/12/91 - 09/18/91 

STS-66 

11/03/94 - 11/14/94 

STS-88 

12/04/98 - 12/15/98 

STS-50 

06/25/92 - 07/09/92 

STS-39 

04/28/91 - 05/06/91 

STS-46 

07/31/92 - 08/08/92 

STS-89 

01/22/98 - 01/31/98 

STS-40 

06/05/91 - 06/14/91 

STS-41 

10/06/90 - 10/10/90 

STS-45 

03/24/92 - 04/02/92 

STS-77 

05/19/96 - 05/29/96 

STS-35 

12/02/90 - 12/10/90 

STS-51L 

01/28/86 

STS-31 

04/24/90 - 04/29/90 

STS-44 

11/24/91 - 12/01/91 

STS-72 

01/11/96 - 11/20/96 

STS-32 

01/09/90 - 01/20/90 

STS-61A 

10/30/85 - 11/06/85 

STS-33 

11/22/89 - 11/27/89 

STS-43 

08/02/91 - 08/11/91 

STS-69 

09/07/95 - 09/18/95 

STS-28 

08/08/89 - 08/13/89 

STS-51F 

07/29/85 - 08/06/85 

STS-29 

03/13/89 - 03/18/89 

STS-37 

04/05/91 - 04/11/91 

STS-67 

03/02/95 - 03/18/95 

STS-61C 

01/12/86 - 01/18/86 

STS-51B 

04/29/85 - 05/06/85 

STS-26 

09/29/88 - 10/03/88 

STS-38 

11/15/90 - 11/20/90 

STS-68 

09/30/94 - 10/11/94 

STS-9 

11/28/83 - 12/08/83 

STS-41G 

10/05/84 - 10/13/84 

STS-51-I 

08/27/85 - 09/03/85 

STS-36 

02/28/90 - 03/04/90 

STS-59 

04/09/94 – 04/20/94 

STS-5 

11/11/82 - 11/16/82 

STS-41C 

04/06/84 - 04/13/84 

STS-51G 

06/17/85 - 06/24/85 

STS-34 

10/18/89 - 10/23/89 

STS-61 

12/02/93 - 12/13/93 

STS-4 

06/27/82 - 07/04/82 

STS-41B 

02/03/84 - 02/11/84 

STS-51D 

04/12/85 - 04/19/85 

STS-30 

05/04/89 - 05/08/89 

STS-57 

06/21/93 - 07/01/93 

STS-3 

03/22/82 - 03/30/82 

STS-8 

08/30/83 - 09/05/83 

STS-51C 

01/24/85 - 01/27/85 

STS-27 

12/02/88 - 12/06/88 

STS-54 

01/13/93 - 01/19/93 

STS-2 

11/12/81 - 11/14/81 

STS-7 

06/18/83 - 06/24/83 

STS-51A 

11/08/84 - 11/16/84 

STS-61B 

11/26/85 - 12/03/85 

STS-47 

09/12/92 - 09/20/92 

STS-1 

04/12/81 - 04/14/81 

STS-6 

04/04/83 - 04/09/83 

STS-41D 

08/30/84 - 09/05/84 

STS-51J 

10/03/85 - 10/07/85 

STS-49 

05/07/92 - 05/16/92 

 

OV-102 

Columbia 

(26 flights) 

OV-099 

Challenger 

(10 flights) 

OV-103 

Discovery 

(27 flights) 

OV-104 

Atlantis 

(20 flights) 

OV-105 

Endeavour 

(13 flights)