National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration

Volume 38, Number 1 First Quarter 2021

NASA HISTORY PROGRAM OFFICE

OFFICE OF COMMUNICATIONS

IN THIS ISSUE:

1 From the Acting Chief Historian

1 The Science of Commemorating 

Human Spaceflight

5 NASA History Updates

9 NASA Remembers 60 Years of 

Human Spaceflight

20 Foreword to Spaceflight

23 Space Exploration Launched 

from Kennedy Space Center

27 A Spring of Achievement and 

Growth: Looking Back on 1961

29 Space Biology at Ames 

Research Center

31 Stennis Space Center and 

Human Spaceflight

32 Glenn Research Center and 

the ISS

33 Upcoming Meetings

34 The Overview Effect: Perspective 

Gained from Looking Back 

at Earth

FROM THE 

ACTING 

CHIEF 

HISTORIAN

When I was a second-grader 

growing up in rural 

south Alabama, my 

teacher took my 27 classmates and me to the 

library to view an educational program that 

would turn out to be one of the most tragic 

events in the history of human spaceflight. I 

seem to remember sitting at a rectangular table 

watching on TV when, 73 seconds into the 

flight, the Space Shuttle Challenger exploded. 

The fact that STS-51L included Christa 

McAuliffe and the Teacher in Space Project 

brought that mission squarely into classrooms 

across the nation and had profound consequences for my generation. Over the years, I 

have returned again and again to this memory, 

particularly when considering those moments 

from the history of the space program that 

were the most personally impactful. The passage of time has seen the attrition of other 

memories, but this one continues to be both 

resonant and clear. Or so my memory tells me. 

Memory is one of the most dominant, yet 

untrustworthy aspects of our identity. It is 

vulnerable to both the passage of time and the 

accumulation of new information and emotional elaboration. Over the years, I’ve discussed the Challenger tragedy with members 

of the NASA workforce, past and present—

those who were working at the Agency that 

day and those who have come on board since. 

These conversations have without question 

reshaped that memory far beyond grounded 

continued on next page

THE SCIENCE OF COMMEMORATING 

HUMAN SPACEFLIGHT

By Travis Frederick, NASA Headquarters History Spring 2021 Intern

1 “Memories of Apollo from People All Over 

the World,” https://www.nasa.gov/feature/

goddard/2019/memories-of-apollo-from-peopleall-over-the-world/ (accessed 10 March 2021).

I remember stopping and raising my fist 

to the Moon, and saying, 

“Yes, we did it!” 

—David from Minnesota, 

recalling the night of 20 July 1969

David’s reaction to the 1969 Moon landing is highly representative of 

the kinds of stories we heard during the 

Apollo 11 50th anniversary oral history 

project,1 completed by NASA’s Goddard 

Space Flight Center, which collected 

memories from people all over the world. 

Personal stories collected through oral 

histories such as this one inject historical research with a human touch that 

allows us to connect more personally 

and emotionally with the past. However, 

while typically reliable for everyday purposes, memory is notoriously fallible. 

Conducting analytical and fact-based 

history solely based on memory would 

be like playing trivia with the guy who 

continued on page 4
2

NASA HISTORY PROGRAM OFFICE — News & Notes

From the Acting Chief Historian (continued)

reality. I’m certain I misremembered, recategorized, 

and added further details to my own experience of 

witnessing the accident.

More than we might like to think, our memories are 

grounded, not in some internal hard drive waiting to 

be recalled at a moment’s notice, but in our imaginations. Philosopher Paul Ricoeur underscores this 

dilemma, arguing that while operating “in the wake 

of imagination,” we have no better tool than memory 

to connect us to the meaningful events of our lives. 

The dichotomy is not between truth and fiction, but 

between the past as it happened and the past as we 

remember it. Public memory takes remembering the 

past a step further, creating shared identities used to 

foster a sense of belonging, particularly significant for 

creating and strengthening the imagined connections 

necessary for large group identities such as nationalism.

There emerges then the necessity of distinguishing 

between history and memory. History is the attempt 

to utilize available evidence in the reconstruction and 

analysis of the past. Memory is embodied—a living 

and continually evolving aspect of individual and 

collective identity. In this way, memory is not a preservation of the past but a reimagining of that past—

continually under reevaluation by the one doing the 

remembering. In the words of Walter Benjamin, “he 

who seeks to approach his buried past must conduct 

himself like a man digging.” When reflecting on 

events such as the Apollo 11 Moon landing (20 July 

1969), the launch of STS-1 (12 April 1981), or the 

Space Shuttle Columbia accident (1 February 2003), 

we usually do so oblivious to the layers of embedded 

details amassed over the years.

Anniversaries serve as moments of reconstituting—

reimaging. When reflecting upon what we remember as 

the most significant, profound moments from 60 years 

of human spaceflight (Yuri Gagarin, April 1961) and 

60 years of American spaceflight (Alan Shepard, May 

1961), we are likely to select those most reflective of 

who we believe ourselves to be. We then begin digging 

through those embedded layers of memory, analyzing 

the significance of Alan Shepard’s 5 May 1961 flight, 

the televised handshake during the Apollo-Soyuz 

mission, or that International Space Station (ISS) 

Expedition crew launch we witnessed at the Cape. 

While it is important that we recognize its fragility, it is 

critical that we integrate memory fully into the work 

we do at the NASA History Program. The primary concern is not whether we should include memory work 

in the program but how to maintain an equitable balance. As Travis Frederick points out in his article below, 

memory work and the commemoration that comes 

along with it places our office at the forefront of fostering collective identity and bolstering group cohesion. 

Oral histories are crucial examples of this memory 

work. At an individual level, our memories constitute 

the shape and reshaping of our identities, signaling 

our membership to family or communities. At NASA, 

these individual memories stand at the center of our 

organizational and institutional culture. Collecting 

and investigating individual memories from 60 years 

of human spaceflight provides a unique window into 

the impact our organization has on both internal and 

external stakeholders. The point of these memories is 

not to convey an undeniable truth about the past but 

to show how we think about it.

As a NASA historian, I’ve watched, researched, and 

written about numerous important milestones from 

the history of human spaceflight. Last year alone, 

America and the world watched as Bob Behnken and 

Doug Hurley launched on 30 May, followed by the 

Crew Dragon (Crew-1) on 16 November. The Artemis 

program promises to add many more historic missions 

to the long list of past achievements of human spaceflight as we journey back to the Moon and beyond. 

Moving forward, NASA’s bold missions will continue 

to inspire with monumental achievements—how we 

choose to remember them is up to us.

Stay safe,

Brian C. Odom

Acting Chief Historian
3

Volume 38, Number 1 First Quarter 2021

has had one too many, answering questions loudly, 

overconfidently—and often incorrectly.

The Science of Commemorating Human Spaceflight (continued)

Vice President Spiro Agnew and former President Lyndon B. Johnson view the liftoff of Apollo 11 from pad 39A 

at Kennedy Space Center. (Photo credit: NASA)

In one illustrative study, cognitive psychologist Ulric 

Neisser had students in his psychology class write 

down memories of where they were, what they were 

doing, and who was with them at the moment of 

the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion. This was in 

January 1986, less than 24 hours after the disaster. 

Neisser waited nearly three years before returning to 

gather the same students’ recollections of the accident, now as seniors. The questions were the same, but 

shockingly, the majority of what the students recalled 

during the second round of questions in fall 1988 

failed to align with previous memories. Many students 

even produced entirely made-up situations.

One student, known in the study as R. T., remembered during the second session in 1988 that she and 

her roommate had been in their dorm room watching television when a news flash came across the TV. 

Shocked and upset, R. T. claimed she went upstairs 

to talk to a friend before calling her parents. During 

her original recollection, taken immediately after the 

Challenger disaster, R. T. described what happened 

2 Ulric Neisser and Nicole Harsch, “Phantom Flashbulbs: False Recollections of Hearing the News about Challenger,” in Affect and 

Accuracy in Recall: Studies of “Flashbulb” Memories, ed. E. Winograd and U. Neisser, Emory Symposia in Cognition (Cambridge, U.K.: 

Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 9–31.

this way: “I was in my religion class and some people 

walked in talking about it. I 

didn’t know any of the details 

except that it had exploded 

and the schoolteacher’s students had all been watching 

which I thought was so sad.” 

Neisser also had students 

rate their confidence levels for each aspect of their 

memories. In 1988, R.  T. 

maxed out the scale, saying 

she was “absolutely certain” 

of the veracity of her false 

Challenger memories.2

THE QUESTIONS WERE THE 

SAME, BUT SHOCKINGLY, THE 

MAJORITY OF WHAT THE STUDENTS RECALLED DURING THE 

SECOND ROUND OF QUESTIONS 

IN FALL 1988 FAILED TO ALIGN 

WITH PREVIOUS MEMORIES. 

MANY STUDENTS EVEN PRODUCED ENTIRELY MADE-UP 

SITUATIONS. 

In the early 2000s, psychologists, building on Neisser’s 

work, began investigating the idea that conversation 

and group commemoration could shape personal 

memories of highly emotional events, including the 

Space Shuttle Columbia accident. This approach 

involved a decade-long study of Americans’ memories of the terrorist attack on 11 September 2001. 

Participants who had lived in New York City at the 
4

NASA HISTORY PROGRAM OFFICE — News & Notes

time of the attack were asked to recall the details of 

the moment it all happened. In this study, participants 

were asked to repeatedly share their personal stories 

with one another prior to the final recall. Researchers 

found that for both speakers and listeners, aspects of 

the stories that were communicated between participants were better remembered, while related information that went unmentioned was more likely to 

be forgotten than unrelated, unmentioned material. 

Due to the respective social pressures of collaborative 

recall and mutual forgetting, researchers discovered 

that participants’ deeply personal memories of this 

unforgettable event were actually converging!3

What does this all mean for a history program commemorating the 60th anniversary of human spaceflight? It means that the people and events we choose 

to publicly commemorate, from the successes of 

human spaceflight and lunar landings to the tragedies 

recalled annually on the Day of Remembrance, are 

extremely consequential.

Traditionally, the purpose of the 

History Program Office has been 

publishing historical research, 

studying the societal impact of 

space exploration, and expanding 

the Agency’s knowledge base to 

assist leadership in accomplishing 

its missions. Former NASA Chief 

Historian Roger Launius has 

described the History Program’s 

role in commemorative events as 

a double-edged sword. He argued 

that despite offering opportunities 

to renew enthusiasm and resources, 

it is a constant balancing act to 

maintain focus on substantive 

projects in an environment that 

tends to rally around public commemorations—many of which 

3 Alin Coman, David Manier, and William Hirst, “Forgetting the Unforgettable Through Conversation: Socially Shared Retrieval-Induced 

Forgetting of September 11 Memories,” Psychological Science 20, no. 5 (2009): 627–633.

4 Roger D. Launius, “NASA History and the Challenge of Keeping the Contemporary Past,” Public Historian 21, no. 3 (1999): 63–81.

are “tailor-made for hoopla, historicism, and perhaps 

even hysteria.”4

It seems that the science of memory and commemoration urges us to value the History Program’s role in 

commemoration far more highly. Commemorative 

events are more than opportunities to rally public support and attract resources; they are deeply important 

decisions that shape our shared understanding of the 

past. Group commemorations in the form of publishing newsletters, dedicating buildings, and establishing 

monuments all have the capacity to unknowingly alter 

even our most personal and emotional memories.

The fallibility of memory is not all bad. Shared memories foster collective identity and can bolster group 

cohesion. Joint commemorations offer regular opportunities to strengthen the community bonds of the 

extended NASA family. And, as one contributor to 

the Apollo 11 50th anniversary oral history project 

asked, “Who could forget seeing that first step?”

The Mary W. Jackson NASA Headquarters building in Washington, DC. (Photo credit: NASA)
5

Volume 38, Number 1 First Quarter 2021

NASA HISTORY UPDATES

NASA HEADQUARTERS

Washington, DC

By Brian Odom

Much work has gone into finalizing the program for the “NASA and the Rise of Commercial 

Space” symposium, which took place 17–19 March, 

with an additional panel on more recent commercial 

space activity on 25 March. From activities in lowEarth orbit to the Artemis program, the commercial 

space industry is beginning to take on an increased 

role as innovator in space access, commerce, and 

exploration. This growth of commercial space over 

the past decades offers the potential for a new paradigm for space exploration—one in which industry transitions from supplier to partner. Still, many 

questions remain, spanning from the most seemingly 

consequential—“How will humanity explore the 

Moon and Mars?”—to the more basic—“What is 

commercial space?” This virtually hosted symposium 

will explore this transformation and examine the historical context for answering these 

questions. Our hope is that this 

historical analysis will inform the 

relationship between government 

and industry moving forward. The 

program includes keynote talks 

from Eric Berger (Ars Technica), 

Ken Davidian (Federal Aviation 

Administration [FAA]), Alexander 

MacDonald (NASA), and Steve 

Lee (Astrosat), in addition to 

four panel discussions featuring 

more than 20 notable speakers. I 

would like to extend a thank-you 

to planning committee members 

Stephen Waring, Ken Davidian, 

Steve Garber, and Rick Sturdevant, 

as well as NASA History interns 

Travis Frederick and Jonathan 

Ruff, for all the work to bring 

the symposium to this juncture. I 

would also like to thank Jason Greene (University of 

Alabama in Huntsville) and Christine Kretz (ISS U.S. 

National Laboratory) for their work pulling together 

the 25 March session. 

Not Yet Imagined: A Study of Hubble Space Telescope 

Operations, by Chris Gainor, was published in January. 

Gainor’s work documents the history of the Hubble 

Space Telescope from launch through the first 30 years 

of operations. It focuses on the interactions among 

the public, astronomers, engineers, government officials, and members of Congress during that time. 

The decision-making behind the changes in Hubble’s 

instrument packages on servicing missions that made 

it a model of supranational cooperation amongst scientists is chronicled, along with Hubble’s contributions to our knowledge about our solar system, our 

galaxy, and our universe. Visit the NASA History web 

page for more information on how to download the 

free e-book: https://www.nasa.gov/connect/ebooks/

not-yet-imagined.html.

National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration NEW from the NASA HISTORY 

PROGRAM OFFICE

NOT YET 

IMAGINED

A STUDY OF HUBBLE SPACE 

TELESCOPE OPERATIONS 

NASA’s History Program Office is pleased to 

present Christopher Gainor’s new, richly 

illustrated book documenting the Hubble 

Space Telescope’s spellbinding 30-year 

history of operations in space. Gainor details 

Hubble’s development and launch; its repair 

and upgrading through several servicing 

missions; and the effects of its continuing 

contributions to our knowledge of our solar 

system, galaxy, and universe. Discover how 

Hubble’s mission has become a model of 

supranational cooperation among scientists 

and how the images it produces have 

expanded our appreciation for the universe.

DOWNLOAD THE FREE E-BOOK

http://www.nasa.gov/connect/ebooks/not-yet-imagined.html

www.nasa.gov
6

NASA HISTORY PROGRAM OFFICE — News & Notes

Not Yet Imagined was also the subject of the NASA 

History monthly brown-bag lecture series on 

27 January. Gainor’s talk canvassed the incredible 

launch and operational life of Hubble to this point, 

including notable observations, complex design, and 

incredible servicing missions, which have all made the 

telescope a genuinely Great Observatory.

On 10 February, writer David Brown discussed the 

research behind his book The Mission, the story of 

NASA’s many attempts to mount a robotic expedition 

to Europa, Jupiter’s ocean moon. Told from multiple 

perspectives—through scientists, NASA Headquarters 

personnel, members of Congress, and White House 

appointees—the book offers a holistic view of how 

the Europa mission concept evolved and was at last 

realized as Europa Clipper. The Mission also offers a 

historical perspective of where outer-planet flagship 

missions fit in NASA’s broader portfolio—particularly 

their relationship to Mars exploration—and examines 

the ways human spaceflight has hindered and ultimately helps robotic space exploration. The Mission 

is, at its heart, a story of tenacity—the tale of a few 

determined scientists and how they confronted and 

overcame years of setbacks to turn PowerPoint presentations into NASA’s next flagship.

ON 10 FEBRUARY, WRITER 

DAVID BROWN DISCUSSED THE 

RESEARCH BEHIND HIS BOOK 

THE MISSION, THE STORY OF 

NASA’S MANY ATTEMPTS TO 

MOUNT A ROBOTIC EXPEDITION 

TO EUROPA...

Our most recent talk took place on 24 February as 

Teasel Muir-Harmony discussed her recent work, 

Operation Moonglow: A Political History of Project 

Apollo (2020). That work considers how and why the 

Moon landing became one of the most decisive geopolitical events of the 20th century. Muir-Harmony 

points out that, in the wake of the Soviet Union’s 

pioneering launch of cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin in 1961 

and a humiliating defeat at the Bay of Pigs days later, 

President John F. Kennedy proposed Project Apollo as 

a solution to restoring America’s tarnished geopolitical 

standing. With Cold War tensions between the Soviet 

Union and the United States approaching an all-time 

high, Kennedy argued that ramping up the space program would inspire global confidence in American 

excellence—and might even persuade people in 

developing countries to pick American “freedom” over 

Soviet “tyranny.” Muir-Harmony is the curator of the 

Project Apollo collection at the Smithsonian National 

Air and Space Museum. Be on the lookout for many 

more of these brown-bag talks starting again in April! 

Information on these events is available via social 

media or by subscribing to our NASA History Office 

Listserv. Contact me at brian.c.odom@nasa.gov to be 

added to the listserv.

Looking ahead, the office is in the initial stages of 

planning our next symposium—“NASA and the 

Environment.” The aim of this event, planned for midto late 2022, is to explore the role NASA programs 

and projects have played in the understanding of our 

own planet and global climate change in addition to 

examining the larger social, political, economic, and 

transnational contexts of that mission of scientific 

discovery. While additional information is forthcoming on the event, please do not hesitate to reach out 

to the NASA History Program Office with ideas or 

suggestions. For more information on NASA’s work 

on climate change, visit https://climate.nasa.gov/.

Internship Update

As before, our NASA Headquarters History interns 

have different projects and responsibilities. Here is a 

description of each of their projects in their own words:

Travis Frederick

I am a Ph.D. candidate in security studies and a graduate researcher in a psychology of collective memory 

research lab. This background has allowed me to bring 
7

Volume 38, Number 1 First Quarter 2021

a somewhat unusual perspective to the History Office. 

In my first article on the History Office web page, I 

looked back at the introduction of NASA’s Day of 

Remembrance to reflect on why, beyond the technical 

lessons learned, NASA leadership decided to establish 

an annual commemoration marking the three most 

devastating catastrophes in its history. I have continued along this theme of Agency-sponsored commemoration in this newsletter, contributing a piece that 

explores the science behind group commemoration 

and its effects on individual memories. I am excited 

to continue exploring the boundaries between history 

and memory moving forward.

This internship has also given me the opportunity to 

learn a lot. I got to read all about NASA’s regional 

impacts through editing the forthcoming book NASA 

and the American South. I am also helping to edit A 

Wartime Necessity, which takes a detailed look at aeronautical innovations spurred by the Second World 

War. In March, we will be hosting the “NASA and 

the Rise of Commercial Space” symposium, including 

a follow-on event that seeks to apply lessons learned 

from the history portion of the symposium to exploring the potential for a new, commercial paradigm in 

space exploration. It is an incredibly exciting time to 

be at NASA, and I’m really looking forward to soaking 

in as much as I can throughout the rest of the semester.

Felicia Ragucci

After first joining the History and Office of the 

Chief Scientist (OCS) teams in September 2020, I 

am excited to continue working on my project for a 

second semester. In the fall, I dove (no pun intended!) 

into the history of the 75-foot-wide, 40-foot-deep 

water tank that operated at Marshall Space Flight 

Center for nearly three decades until it closed in 1997. 

Known as the Neutral Buoyancy Simulator (NBS), 

this facility has a rich history of human factors engineering and development of tools and procedures 

for extravehicular activity. For example, the tank was 

critical in saving Skylab, the nation’s first space station, 

and engineers used its zero-gravity environment to 

develop the foot restraints that astronauts use on their 

spacewalks. My research aims to document the NBS 

as a NASA facility and capture the personal narratives 

of those who brought the tank to life. I am helping 

Chief Scientist Dr. Jim Green—who was a safety diver 

for the tank in the 1980s—piece together this history 

into an e-book.

Last semester, I used archived newsletters to create a 

holistic timeline of NBS activities, built a visual timeline with photos and video from underwater tests, and 

gathered further reference materials. Since January, I 

have continued to update the timeline and created 

an abridged chronology of the tank’s key missions 

and milestones. I have also been working through 

additional historical documents and photos of the 

NBS, thanks to the help of former facility employees 

and volunteer divers. Yet the highlight for me has 

been actually talking to those aforementioned individuals. With help from Dr. Brian Odom, I prepared 

to conduct my first oral history interview, and since 

then I have talked to several people, with more to 

come. It has been insightful, fun, and inspiring to hear 

directly from the people who made a giant pool mimic 

outer space.

Jonathan Ruff

I am thrilled to join the NASA History Program 

Office to assist in a variety of projects we are tackling 

this spring. I am a Ph.D. student at the School of 

Public Policy, Oregon State University, with a background and interest in commercial space policy. This 

term, I have primarily assisted in the development 

and organization of the recent “NASA and the Rise of 

Commercial Space” symposium (17–19 March). This 

program took watchers and participants on a journey 

through the history and future of civil-commercial 

partnerships, from the development of the space 

industrial base during the Apollo era to NASA’s role 

in the future of celestial resource development. I am 

continuing this work with civil and commercial space 

leaders on a follow-up conference where our partners 

in the commercial sector will define opportunities for 

future civil-commercial partnerships in space.

In addition to these conferences, I have worked with 

NASA Archivist Sarah LeClaire on our newsletters’ 
8

NASA HISTORY PROGRAM OFFICE — News & Notes

commemoration of the 60 years of human spaceflight. 

Our writing describes the similarities and differences 

between the world in 1960 and the world today, both 

in space and in our daily lives. This internship has 

afforded me new opportunities to learn and grow in 

my knowledge of NASA and its past. Working with 

Dr. Brian Odom and Travis Frederick, I have read and 

edited chapters of the forthcoming books NASA and 

the American South and A Wartime Necessity. Using 

the experience gained in that process, Travis and I will 

be working with Jeff Pelosum to better understand 

the history of the NASA Explorers Program, which 

emphasizes rapid development and deployment of 

science-focused, university-developed satellites. The 

goal of the Explorers Program project, alongside all 

other projects I have the opportunity to work on 

this term, is to reframe NASA’s history to inform our 

potential futures. I am excited to be working for the 

NASA History Program Office during this exciting 

time and am looking forward to growing alongside 

the office throughout the remainder of my time here.

Jacqueline Zito

I am currently a junior at the University of Maryland 

double-majoring in marketing and business administration and minoring in creative writing.

My job is to support the History Program Office’s mission by creating colorful and engaging social media 

posts to expand NASA’s public profile. I utilize humor, 

history, and science to capture the public’s interest and 

support. I also track and measure public engagement 

using media metrics for Facebook and Twitter.

GLENN RESEARCH CENTER (GRC)

Cleveland, Ohio

By Bob Arrighi

On 23 January, we marked the 80th anniversary of the 

groundbreaking of the National Advisory Committee 

for Aeronautics (NACA) Aircraft Engine Research 

Laboratory—what we know today as NASA Glenn 

Research Center. The Center will be celebrating with 

a yearlong campaign of virtual activities and special 

communications. I have put together a resource on 

how Cleveland was selected as the site of the lab and the 

events leading up to the groundbreaking. It includes 

many primary source documents from our archival 

collection. It can be found at https://www1.grc.nasa.

gov/glenn-history/nasa-glenns-arrival-in-cleveland/.

THE CENTER WILL BE CELEBRATING WITH A YEARLONG 

CAMPAIGN OF VIRTUAL 

ACTIVITIES AND SPECIAL 

COMMUNICATIONS.

The flagship event of our 80th anniversary will be the 

selection of the third class of inductees for the Glenn 

Research Center Hall of Fame. The Hall of Fame was 

established in 2015 as part of the NACA Centennial 

celebration as a means of honoring past Glenn 

employees who have made significant contributions 

to the Agency, Center, and their fields. Inductees will 

be selected this summer, and an induction ceremony 

will be planned for later. Current members of the 

Glenn Hall of Fame can be found here: https://www1.

grc.nasa.gov/glenn-history/hall-of-fame/.

Glenn’s historic remote testing facility, Plum Brook 

Station, was renamed the Neil Armstrong Test Facility 

in December of last year. Neil Armstrong began his 

NASA career at what is now Glenn in 1955. He was 

a research pilot for several months before moving on 

to the NACA High Speed Flight Station in California. 

Plum Brook began as the Plum Brook Ordinance 

Works, an Army facility, in 1941. In 1955, the NACA 

leased a portion of the land from the Army to build the 

Plum Brook Reactor Facility. Over the next 10 years, 

additional large, high-risk test facilities were built and 

planned, and in 1963, NASA took possession of the 

entire property. It is home to several one-of-a-kind 

facilities supporting Agency and commercial missions.
9

Volume 38, Number 1 First Quarter 2021

NASA REMEMBERS 60 YEARS OF HUMAN SPACEFLIGHT

This newsletter has already delved into the complexities of memory. However, it is important to 

note that memory is also a valuable tool in the study of 

history. The history of human spaceflight is filled with 

significant events that were witnessed by the entire 

world. The memories of the people who experienced 

these achievements are instrumental in shaping institutions such as NASA.

So, in honor of the 60th anniversary of human spaceflight, the NASA History Program Office has asked 

members of the space community to share their favorite moment in the history of human spaceflight. We 

received a wonderfully wide range of answers. Some 

individuals shared generally influential events, like the 

successful failure of Apollo 13; others shared significant moments in their careers, like watching NASA’s 

first “Return to Flight” launch; and still others shared 

more personal memories, like looking up at the Moon 

in July 1969.

BILL BARRY

Former NASA Chief Historian

Choosing just one favorite moment from the first 

60 years of human spaceflight strikes me as a nearly 

impossible task. As longtime readers of NASA History 

News & Notes may recall, the flight of John Glenn is 

certainly the human spaceflight event that had the 

most significant personal impact on me. Sitting on 

the cold linoleum floor in front of our tiny blackand-white television, worrying about whether Glenn 

would live through reentry, is both my earliest memory and the event that grabbed me by the heart and set 

me on the path toward (eventually) working at NASA. 

While the first U.S. orbital flight had a life-changing 

impact on my four-year-old self, I would have to say 

that my favorite moments in the history of human 

spaceflight have been when teams have come together 

to beat the odds. Apollo 13 may come to your mind 

here, or the rescue of the Skylab program on the first 

crewed flight, or even the amazing rescue of Salyut 7 

in 1985. But, for me, my favorite of those beating-theodds moments is summed up in three words: “SCE 

to AUX.” It was 14 November 1969, and Apollo 12 

was struck by lightning just after launching into a 

rainy overcast sky. The power surge scrambled the 

Command and Service Module electronics. The second lunar landing looked like it would be scrubbed 

within a minute of launch. But, in Mission Control, 

John Aaron recognized the pattern in the telemetry 

and recommended the change of a single switch position that would restore the instruments and telemetry. 

This mission save was not just a testament to “steelyeyed missile man” John Aaron, but to the incredible 

depth of training and devotion of the entire team that 

pulled off Apollo. Those thousands of hours of study 

and simulation not only meant that someone had the 

answer to an unexpected problem at their fingertips, 

but that Flight Director Gerry Griffin was willing 

to trust a critical call to a “kid” just five years out of 

college. That’s the kind of organization NASA can be, 

when it is at its best.

THOSE THOUSANDS OF HOURS 

OF STUDY AND SIMULATION 

NOT ONLY MEANT THAT 

SOMEONE HAD THE ANSWER 

TO AN UNEXPECTED PROBLEM 

AT THEIR FINGERTIPS, BUT 

THAT FLIGHT DIRECTOR 

GERRY GRIFFIN WAS WILLING 

TO TRUST A CRITICAL CALL TO 

A ‘KID’ JUST FIVE YEARS OUT 

OF COLLEGE. THAT’S THE KIND 

OF ORGANIZATION NASA CAN 

BE, WHEN IT IS AT ITS BEST.
10

NASA HISTORY PROGRAM OFFICE — News & Notes

BOB CABANA

Commander, STS-88/2A

Director, John F. Kennedy Space Center

What a challenging question!

Was it as a young boy in school watching the Mercury 

astronauts blast off into space? Was it as a midshipman 

at the Naval Academy watching Neil Armstrong step 

down on the lunar surface, or being at Kennedy Space 

Center (KSC) to see Apollo 13 launch in April 1970? 

Was it watching that first Shuttle launch on 12 April 

1981? Or maybe it was one of my own trips to space 

or participating in one of the many history-making 

moments during my tenure as KSC Director? There 

are so many to choose from.

When I think back, it was probably during STS-88 

aboard Endeavour on the first Space Station assembly 

mission. There were so many memorable moments 

from that flight: conducting the rendezvous with, and 

berthing of, Zarya; activating the Space Station computers; entering the Space Station for the first time; 

and more. But the one that stands out to me was a 

quiet moment alone, tucked away in a corner of the 

Unity node, when I reflected on the importance of 

what we had accomplished and made the first entry in 

the ISS Log Book, 10 December1998.

Activation of the International Space Station 

by the crew of the Space Shuttle “Endeavour” 

STS-88, ISS 2A

From small beginnings, great things come. 

Today we ingressed for the first time the 

“Unity” and “Zarya” modules. May the spirit of 

international cooperation in space exploration 

continue to grow, as the Space Station grows, 

taking us on to the Moon, Mars and beyond.

The crew of Endeavour

It was an outstanding mission from start to finish, but 

those moments lost in thought aboard this brand-new 

Space Station were powerful and, even 20 years later, 

are remembered like yesterday.

First entry in the ISS log book, 10 December 1998.

LUZ M. CALLE

Principal Investigator for Corrosion Research, 

NASA’s Kennedy Space Center

Thinking about the past 60 years of human spaceflight takes me back to nearly 26 years ago. I had just 

submitted a scientific paper on corrosion for publication. I was driving into my workplace at the Materials 

Science Laboratory in the Operations and Checkout 

building at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center, and as I 

drove along the causeway, Space Shuttle Discovery 

stood on the launch pad, preparing to launch on the 

STS-70 mission. Just to the south of it, on a different 

launch pad, was an Air Force Titan 4 rocket with a 

national security payload. This stood out to me as 

ironic because, only days before, the Shuttle Atlantis 

had docked with the Russian Mir space station. This 
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Volume 38, Number 1 First Quarter 2021

was the first docking with a Russian spacecraft since

the Apollo-Soyuz mission in 1975.

Less than a week after Atlantis returned, Discovery 

would launch on the STS-70 mission, in the fastest turnaround for the Shuttle Program. While 

it did not feel unusual, we were making quite a bit 

of history that summer. Docking with Mir was just 

the beginning of the international cooperation on 

long-duration human spaceflight that would lead to 

the International Space Station and 20 years of people 

continuously living and working in space.

PETER CHITKO

Technical Integration Manager, NASA’s 

Kennedy Space Center

In April 1981, I was a junior mechanical engineering 

student at Georgia Tech in Atlanta. I had grown up in 

Jacksonville Beach, Florida, watching all of the Apollo 

launches from my front yard and having become an 

absolute space nerd since third grade after watching 

the Apollo 11 mission. I had followed the challenging 

development and testing progress on the Space Shuttle, 

and, as millions of others were, I was anticipating the 

first flight with bated breath. I was lucky enough to 

have secured a car pass for viewing access to KSC, and 

at 7 p.m. the night before the launch, three friends 

and I headed south on the 8-hour drive. As we arrived 

at the KSC causeway in the dark early-morning hours, 

Columbia looked like a pristine cathedral lit up by the 

xenon searchlights. The mood of the thousands of us 

packed in the viewing site was absolutely electric. The 

tension was so palpable you could feel it in the air. We 

could not believe that this day had finally arrived—

the launch of the most hazardous, daring mission that 

NASA had ever undertaken with a host of unknowns 

to be demonstrated for the first time and with a crew 

on board! The countdown proceeded smoothly, and 

at 7 a.m., Columbia came to life and literally leapt 

off the pad on blinding twin pillars of flame accompanied by the cheers, wishes, tears of joy, prayers, 

hopes, and dreams of all of us who were privileged to 

share that historic moment in person. I was fortunate 

after graduation to have been hired by NASA at KSC, 

where I have worked for the past 37 years, including supporting 120 Shuttle launches from the Firing 

Room, always carrying with me the cherished memories of witnessing that first heart-stopping launch.

SUZY CUNNINGHAM

NASA Strategy and Integration Manager

I’ve had a lot of exciting moments during my 34 years 

with NASA, but above all of the exciting, diverse work 

assignments I’ve had and the astronauts and celebrities 

I’ve encountered, my favorite moment was seeing the 

Shuttle Discovery STS-26 launch on 29 September 

1988 and land on 3 October 1988 after working two 

years as the Lead Thermal Protection System Engineer 

helping us return to flight after the Challenger accident. If I had a second moment, it would be the STS114 launch and landing in 2005 after working on the 

Columbia Reconstruction Team.

There’s just nothing like seeing a launch and a landing, 

and returning to flight is the most special, physically 

and emotionally.

DAVID DEVORKIN

Senior Curator, Space History Department, 

Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum

Among my many favorite moments—fixing the 

Hubble, landing on Mars, visiting Pluto—the one that 

is most indelible in my mind is the first Apollo lunar 

landing and subsequent broadcasts from the Moon. I 

was a graduate student in astronomy at Yale, and about 

six of us, grads in astronomy and history, since the two 

departments were neighbors, were gathered around a 

small black-and-white TV to experience the moment. I 

blurted out something like “Wow, I’d love to be there,” 

and historian Janice Henderson gently shot me down: 

“Oh, David, if you were there you’d be going crazy right 

now.” We spent the rest of the time debating how the 

astronauts could keep their wits about them.
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NASA HISTORY PROGRAM OFFICE — News & Notes

MELVIN J. FEREBEE

Director, Systems Analysis and Concepts 

Directorate, NASA’s Langley Research Center

I’ve always wanted to work for NASA! I was always in 

front of the TV listening to Walter Cronkite and Wally 

Schirra on CBS providing commentary at every launch. 

Then, after the launch, I’d watch Jules Bergman on 

ABC explain what was happening during the mission. 

This may be funny—I wanted to become an astronaut 

because of astronaut Ed White. Why? Because he lost 

a glove during a spacewalk. I wanted to be the guy 

to go back and find that glove. I was an overweight 

kid, and my friends thought I would weigh the rocket 

down and it would never leave Earth. I decided I 

would build rockets and the spacecraft that would take 

humans from Earth to the Moon, Mars, and beyond. 

As a kid, I really wished just once that I could be one 

of the folks in Mission Control during a Shuttle mission. That wish came true in September 1994, when 

I was a member of the Lidar In-Space Technology 

Experiment (LiTE) team. I’ve been blessed to work on 

the Shuttle Program, the International Space Station 

Program, and the Constellation Program’s Ares I-X 

rocket. These moments, indelible in my mind, contribute to living the greatest career ever!

MARK GEYER

Director, NASA’s Johnson Space Center

I have been blessed with a more-than-30-year career 

at NASA, and there are many moments that come 

to mind, including the Orion test flight (Exploration 

Flight Test–1) that we successfully executed after 

so many challenges and setbacks. However, I think 

my favorite moment would have been when NASA 

astronaut Bob Cabana and Russian cosmonaut 

Sergei Krikalev floated through the Node 1 hatch 

together, signifying the beginning of International 

Space Station joint operations. There were several reasons this moment was significant to me. First, it was 

the first program I had worked on that actually flew. 

Second, it was the culmination of nearly six years of 

hard work, including many long trips to Moscow. 

There were moments in these six years when the success of the program was very much in doubt because 

of funding issues in Russia and technical issues in the 

United States. I was part of the NASA team that was 

in Baikonur for the Functional Cargo Block (FGB) 

launch, and for the Node launch our team was at 

Johnson Space Center in Building 30, supporting 

operations. Even then, I doubt I could have envisioned the impact of the ISS on the U.S. exploration 

of space and on U.S. leadership of the international 

partnership. To have been a part of the beginning of 

this great program is a source of pride for me.

Robert D. Cabana, mission commander (left), and Sergei Krikalev, mission 

specialist representing the Russian Space Agency (right), float in the 

pressurized mating adapter (PMA) connected to the Russian-built Zarya 

module in December 1998.
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Volume 38, Number 1 First Quarter 2021

MALCOLM GLENN

Safety Engineer, Kennedy Space Center

My two favorite moments in 60 years of human 

spaceflight:

20 July 1969. I watched the Apollo 11 Moon landing 

at my grandparents’ house, on a color TV my grandfather had just bought, on that Sunday night. There 

were a group of us watching, all amazed!

4 April 1983, the first launch of Challenger and my first 

launch as a T-0 console engineer, responsible for the 

Orbiter Access Arm (OAA) and Sound Suppression 

System, in KSC Launch Control Center Firing 

Room 1. Shortly before OAA retract at T-7 minutes 

30 seconds, I looked down and my palms were sweating, not good, and the Firing Room was ice cold. The 

OAA and Sound Suppression System worked fine that 

day, and I went on to support more launches as a T-0 

engineer, without my palms sweating. Live and learn!

DANA M. HUTCHERSON

Deputy Manager, NASA’s Commercial Crew Program

As the former Flow Director for the Space Shuttle 

Endeavour, the most challenging assignment I had 

was to prepare my team and the orbiter for its last 

flight, STS-134. It was my last mission working with 

the Space Shuttle and my last opportunity to work 

with some of the most impressive and dedicated 

professionals with whom I had the privilege to work. 

Soon, we would all be working in new positions and, 

in some cases, changing careers—each of us bereaved 

of our livelihood. After this complex mission, my 

team accomplished precisely what we planned: preparation of Endeavour for its final resting place at the 

California Science Center. Once there, it genuinely 

broke my heart to see this extraordinary engineering 

marvel as a museum piece, rather than being prepared 

to send NASA’s astronauts to space. It was at that point 

that I committed to helping NASA return human 

spaceflight to America and joined the Commercial 

Crew Program.

STS-134 mission specialist Greg Chamitoff greets Space Shuttle 

Endeavour’s NASA flow manager, Dana Hutcherson, after arriving at the 

Shuttle Landing Facility at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida.

After years of working with commercial space providers, I was absolutely delighted to be part of the 

team that helped return humans to space after a nineyear hiatus! My favorite moment in the history of 

spaceflight was during the launch of SpaceX’s crewed 

test flight, Demonstration Mission-2 (DM-2). On 

30 May 2020, SpaceX became the first private company to complete a crewed orbital spaceflight and only 

the fourth entity to fly humans since Yuri Gagarin’s 

first flight in 1961. I celebrated, with tears in my eyes 

and pride in my soul, this amazing accomplishment 

with my team. But shortly after launch, what I hadn’t 

expected was the revelation by the DM-2 crew of the 

name of their Crew Dragon spacecraft, Endeavour! I 

couldn’t imagine any greater honor sharing the rich 

history of human spaceflight.

JIM JEFFERS

Section Supervisor, Orbital Replacement 

Unit (ORU) and Spacecraft Processing, 

NASA’s Exploration Ground Systems

Liftoff of Space Shuttle Discovery at 11:37 a.m. 

on 29 September 1988. As a young Space Shuttle 

Spacecraft Technician four years into my career, I 

was privileged to be working in the Aft Section on 

the orbiter Discovery in Orbiter Processing Facility 

(OPF) 1 for the STS-26 Return to Flight mission. 

That launch was by far my most favorite moment of 
14

NASA HISTORY PROGRAM OFFICE — News & Notes

human spaceflight because not only did it heal us 

as a team, but it brought America together again by 

unifying the emotional losses, strengthening our commitments, and showing the world our desires and 

dedication to human spaceflight. That day saw the 

world not only looking back at the past but looking at 

the present and looking toward the future. That day, 

in my mind, defined where we are today with human 

spaceflight, and so that is why it must be my favorite 

moment. (There have been many to choose from!)

BHAVYA LAL

NASA’s Acting Chief of Staff

In 1969, when we landed on the Moon, I was not 

quite two years old. My father was still in his 20s, a 

newly trained electrical engineer sent to a rural and 

remote part of northern India to manage a factory that 

manufactured heavy equipment for power generation. 

The factory was part of a grand plan by the Indian 

government to electrify India and create jobs in the 

countryside. We lived in a small and modest apartment 

at the outskirts of a small town called Hardwar. We 

didn’t have a TV or any modern appliances. My mom 

was a homemaker barely twenty years old, and my parents lived a quiet, happy, and contented life. I am told 

I was a precocious toddler always trying to find danger! 

I have few memories of the time, but one stands out. 

On the evening of July 20 1969, my father put me 

on his shoulders (as he often did, I must have liked 

sitting and observing the world from high above) and 

took me to a forest that abutted the apartment building 

where they lived. This wasn’t a fake planted forest, it 

was a right proper tropical one, with pythons, cobras, 

scorpions and mountain lions. We went to a clearing 

and sat down, and looked up at the Moon, a thin but 

bright crescent. And then he started something that 

I don’t remember the details of, but the memory is 

indelible. He started narrating the Moon landing. 

He of course didn’t know what was actually going on—

we had no TV or real avenues for news beyond the 

occasional big-city newspaper. He worked long hours 

in the factory and didn’t have time to find specialized 

Astronaut Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin takes his first step onto the surface of the 

Moon in July 1969.

avenues of information about the Apollo program. 

But growing up on Flash Gordon comic books, he was 

imaginative, and made up an elaborate story—how 

Armstrong and Aldrin were landing, bouncing around 

the craters, and collecting Moon dust. I listened in 

rapt attention hanging on to every word even when I 

didn’t understand what he was saying. We pointed to 

the Moon, imagined all the excitement, and looked up 

for a long time until I probably fell asleep. 

Over the years, my dad and I watched Star Trek 

together and talked about how humans would one 

day travel to the stars. Thanks to my parents getting 

me interested in science and engineering, I grew up 

loving math and science, attended a STEM magnet 

high school in Delhi, and eventually came to MIT to 

study engineering. I now focus on space technology, 

policy and strategy, working as hard as I can not only 

to ensure a bright future in the stars for humanity, but 

also to thank my parents for raising me with a love for 

science and engineering. 

I have many fond memories of growing up, mostly in 

Delhi, where I spent most of my childhood, but of all 

the memories, my favorite is the day my father took 

me into the forest to “watch” the Moon landing. What 

started that day has continued on to make me the 

person I am today. 
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Volume 38, Number 1 First Quarter 2021

Oh and one last story—When I first met my husband, 

he asked me what my favorite place on all of Earth 

was. He was expecting perhaps I would say Italy or 

Hawaii or something like that; someplace where we’d 

go on a romantic vacation. I told him (of course) that 

my favorite place on all of Earth was where the Lunar 

Lander at the Smithsonian National Air and Space 

Museum in Washington DC stood. He must have 

remembered, because a year later he proposed to me 

in front of the lunar module. The ring was inside the 

blueprint of the first print of the lander.

MARK LARSON

Engineer, NASA’s Exploration Ground Systems

For myself, my favorite moment would have been 

watching Neil Armstrong take that first step onto the 

Moon in July of 1969. I was 13 years old at the time 

and watched it live on TV with my family as it happened. I was aware, of course, of the previous flights 

of Gemini (Mercury being a little before my time of 

understanding), but Apollo brought everything into 

the living room for us to see for ourselves as NASA 

brought us video from space for the evening news.

Being a teenager and watching Star Trek as it came 

on our TV each week, I was caught up in “What if 

that were us exploring” moments, hoping someday 

that humans would be going out there to explore new 

worlds. When Neil stepped on the Moon, it became 

real, and I knew I was seeing the start of where it was 

all beginning for mankind, just as Neil proclaimed as 

he stepped onto the lunar surface. We had just taken 

our first step on another world, a starting point that 

has no finish line, only more destinations!

ROGER D. LAUNIUS

Former NASA Chief Historian

There are so many moments in the history of Space 

Age. An easy answer would be the landing of 

Apollo 11 on the Moon in July 1969, but let me 

emphasize a different Apollo mission, the landing of 

Apollo 12 on 19 November 1969. Apollo 12 entered 

the public’s perception in a way different from the first 

Moon landing. It represented exciting and significant 

advances in capability over Apollo 11, but it did not 

have a broadcast component since the camera failed 

on the lunar surface. Instead, Apollo 12 really broke 

open the space race with the Soviet Union. Apollo 11 

might have been a fluke, but this mission required a 

precision landing close to a robotic Surveyor III spacecraft that had touched down on the lunar surface in 

1967. Soviet space exploration officials knew that if the 

Americans pulled that off, that meant that the Soviets 

could not compete in the Moon race. The descent 

was automatic, with only a few manual corrections 

required by Charles “Pete” Conrad and Alan L. Bean 

to bring the Lunar Module Intrepid within walking 

distance—600 feet (182.88 meters)—of Surveyor III.

In contrast to Neil Armstrong’s memorable first words 

as he stepped onto the Moon, “one giant leap for 

mankind,” Conrad’s statement was more human, if 

less memorable. Conrad was always something of a 

jokester and definitely more flamboyant that many 

of the other astronauts. He demonstrated that when 

arriving on the lunar surface. He said, “Whoopee! 

Man, that may have been a small one for Neil, but 

that’s a long one for me.” Conrad and Bean took two 

Moonwalks lasting just under 4 hours each and collected pieces of Surveyor III to take back to Earth 

for analysis.

They collected rocks and set up experiments that 

measured the Moon’s seismic activity, solar wind flux, 

and magnetic field. Meanwhile, Richard Gordon, on 

board the Yankee Clipper in lunar orbit, took multispectral photographs of the surface. The crew stayed 

an extra day in lunar orbit taking photographs. When 

the Lunar Module ascent stage was dropped onto the 

Moon after Conrad and Bean rejoined Gordon in 

orbit, the seismometers the astronauts had left on the 

lunar surface registered the vibrations, demonstrating 

their functionality.

That mission really sealed the reality that the United 

States had won the space race, and I believe it deserves 

more attention.
16

NASA HISTORY PROGRAM OFFICE — News & Notes

AMANDA MITSKEVICH

Program Manager, NASA’s Launch Services Program

I started at NASA in the Shuttle Program at KSC, 

right from Georgia Tech. I remember coming back 

from class for lunch one cold January day and being 

stunned seeing the Challenger disaster unfold on TV. 

That fall, NASA came to campus to interview for all 

kinds of engineering disciplines. I distinctly remember 

my interviewer wearing suspenders with pictures of 

palm trees and beaches.... My first day was 20 July 

1987, the anniversary of the Apollo Moon landing. 

Just over a year later, on 29 September 1988, a beautiful perfect day, my new teammates and I walked 

from our building to the parking lot of the Vehicle 

Assembly Building to watch the return of humans to 

space with the spectacular launch of Discovery. For 

most of us, it was our very first in-person launch, as 

we had gotten hired in the last year and a half, when 

NASA went on a massive hiring spree after the 

Challenger disaster. Witnessing our first launch was an 

amazing experience. I can still see it and feel it, but I 

can’t really describe it in words. It brought tears to our 

eyes, as did every launch and landing I saw after. I met 

the most dedicated people who put their hearts and 

talents into preparing the Shuttles for flight, no matter 

the job—and I learned that everyone at NASA is like 

that. I eventually left human spaceflight to be on a 

team that places NASA’s amazing science missions 

into space, and I have loved every minute of it. But I 

still care deeply about human spaceflight, and my next 

vivid memory was watching Bob and Doug enter the 

International Space Station. The long journey to once 

again launch American astronauts from American soil 

on an American rocket was an incredible feat. Another 

tear-making moment.

MARLA E. PEREZ-DAVIS

Director, NASA’s Glenn Research Center

I vividly remember sitting in front of our black-andwhite TV at my childhood home watching Neil 

Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin bouncing around on the 

Moon. I was a young girl, and I could never have 

dreamt I would end up working at NASA, but I could 

sense it was a moment I would never forget. It’s one of 

the greatest memories of my life.

Another fond memory is STS-95, the first launch I 

was able to watch in person. There are many things I 

remember about that launch—the sound, the vibration, the entire physical experience. But the thing that 

has stuck with me from that launch is the complexity 

of making something like that happen. The number of 

people and organizations that have to come together 

to make a launch successful, it’s astounding, and it’s 

done for something bigger than any one entity. It’s 

even more meaningful to me now because I lead the 

Center named after a very special astronaut on that 

flight, the late John Glenn.

Finally, being a woman of color, I loved watching 

Sally Ride, Mae Jemison, and Ellen Ochoa break the 

highest of ceilings. I remember when each of them 

launched and the pride I felt knowing women were 

now represented in the astronaut core. It’s been great 

to see our astronaut classes continue to diversify.

DENISE PHAM

Chief, Fleets and Systems Management 

Division, NASA’s Launch Services Program

Where do I begin? I can vividly remember the first 

day I reported to work for NASA at Kennedy Space 

Center. That beautiful and hot August day began a 

series of amazing chapters of my career, as well as my 

life. Having the opportunity to be part of the U.S. 

space program, not from a distance, but up close and 

personal, shaped me into who I am today. Every time 

I walk into Kennedy Space Center’s Visitor Complex 

and see the Space Shuttle Atlantis proudly displayed, 

I can’t help but feel overwhelming pride. In fact, I 

am quite overcome with powerful, inspiring emotions, not unlike those that I felt the first few days 

on the job! You see, my first assignment was as an 

engineer working on the Atlantis orbiter! Fast forward 

to today, and once again I am fortunate enough to be 

part of the team that launches astronauts into space 
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Volume 38, Number 1 First Quarter 2021

using U.S. commercial launch vehicles. How lucky 

I am! NASA opened doors to my American dream; 

it humanized and personalized the once seemingly 

faraway space exploration vision. It is still surreal! My 

greatest moments of personal satisfaction come when 

I am able to pave the way for the next generation, just 

as those who came before me did. As for my favorite 

memories, I would say sitting on console for launch 

days and saying “Go” for launch as a member of the 

best team ever! The adrenaline....

RALPH ROE

NASA’s Chief Engineer

My favorite moment in human spaceflight in the last 

60 years is not one specific moment or event, but rather 

our team’s response to some of our darkest moments. 

Everyone knows the scene in the movie Apollo 13

where, after the explosion on board the spacecraft 

and the loss of their oxygen supply, the ground team 

dumps out all the equipment the astronauts have 

in space on a table and 

begins to figure out how 

to solve the problem of 

keeping the astronauts 

alive. While that moment 

has been made famous by 

the movie, I have seen that 

same can-do attitude from 

our team many, many 

times at NASA. While no 

one wants any mission to 

go wrong, when it does, 

it’s usually that can-do 

attitude that moves to 

the forefront and helps us 

solve some very challenging problems. It doesn’t 

matter what the issue 

is—hydrogen leaks, wire 

damage, software defects—

when everything looks bleak, our team responds, pulls 

together as one, and develops innovative solutions to 

continue our mission of human exploration of space. 

The passion and dedication of our team, both NASA 

and contractor, is what has made human spaceflight in 

the last 60 years such a resounding success.

IT DOESN’T MATTER WHAT THE 

ISSUE IS—HYDROGEN LEAKS, 

WIRE DAMAGE, SOFTWARE 

DEFECTS—WHEN EVERYTHING 

LOOKS BLEAK, OUR TEAM 

RESPONDS, PULLS TOGETHER 

AS ONE, AND DEVELOPS 

INNOVATIVE SOLUTIONS TO 

CONTINUE OUR MISSION 

OF HUMAN EXPLORATION 

OF SPACE.

STEVE SHIH

Associate Administrator, Diversity 

and Equal Opportunity, NASA

As we celebrate NASA’s 60th anniversary of human 

spaceflight, it’s the moments from NASA’s human 

spaceflight history with the greatest impacts on 

human existence that are my favorite. These moments 

exemplify the wonderful ways that NASA’s leadership 

and accomplishments, along with the inclusiveness 

and teamwork with which we perform our missions, 

have inspired human beings, elevated their focus to a 

common higher purpose, and reinforced to all people 

a sense of connection and unity.

My single favorite moment is the STS-88 Space 

Shuttle mission, especially the 5 December 1998 

connection of the first 

American module of 

the International Space 

Station (ISS), aptly named 

Unity, with the Russian 

module Zarya. This physical connection served as 

a transcendental symbol 

and roadmap of international and human connection and collaboration on 

a higher common purpose 

during a time of extreme 

conflict and division 

between people on the 

Earth below. This symbolism was further reinforced 

on 10 December 1998, 

when U.S. astronaut Bob 

Cabana made a decision 

to jointly enter the ISS with Russian cosmonaut Sergei 

Krikalev as the first humans to board the ISS.
18

NASA HISTORY PROGRAM OFFICE — News & Notes

STS-88 provides a perfect example of the history and 

impact of NASA’s human spaceflight. These accomplishments have provided clarity and inspiration to 

human beings across our planet on the importance 

of a transcendental focus on a common and higher 

purpose, as well as the importance of connection 

and collaboration to accomplish the most impactful 

achievements for the benefit of all humankind. These 

milestones reflect the important leadership and model 

that NASA has continually provided to all humans 

on the need for us to work jointly and collaboratively 

because—as our astronauts have seen from the overview effect in space—our planet is very small, fragile, 

and unique; and our health, sustainability, and fates as 

human beings are interconnected and interdependent.

DIANE STEES

Cryogenic Operations and Cryogenic 

Propulsion Ground and Flight Application 

Software Team (GFAST) Lead

My 25 years on the Space Shuttle launch team as a liquid hydrogen engineer at Kennedy Space Center provided many treasured memories of human spaceflight. 

How does one pick a favorite moment after supporting 

more than 100 launches and witnessing many KSC 

landings, with all the thrills and challenges encountered during launch vehicle flow processing? After 

some thought, I decided that my favorite moment in 

human spaceflight was an unplanned encounter with 

the STS-132 flight crew shortly after Space Shuttle 

Atlantis arrived at Launch Pad 39A after rollout from 

the Vehicle Assembly Building on 22 April 2010.

I went to the pad with my 30th high school reunion 

banner that morning to get a picture with Atlantis 

in the background. The picture would be included 

in a slide show during my reunion that June. A pad 

security guard could hold one side of the banner and 

I would hold the other. When I arrived, the guard 

informed me that the flight crew was inside for a press 

conference and that I should ask them to hold the 

banner. My heart skipped a beat as I was directed to 

someone who had me wait until the press conference 

was over. I was then permitted to walk up to the flight 

crew and ask them to help me hold the banner for a 

picture. They enthusiastically obliged, and there I was, 

flanked by three blue-suited Shuttle astronauts on 

each side on a beautiful, sunny day with Atlantis in 

all her glory behind us. I was proud to be a part of the 

Shuttle family committed to flying humans safely to 

space and returning them home. And my former high 

school classmates loved the photo!

ELLEN STOFAN

Under Secretary for Science and 

Research, Smithsonian Institution

It’s incredible how far we’ve gone in space in the last 

60 years. From launching the first American astronauts into orbit to sending robotic explorers out into 

the solar system to see what they could find—our 

success in space exploration is truly an idea that would 

have defied imagination a few hundred years ago. One 

moment from our history as a spacefaring nation that 

really stands out to me is 18 June 1983, when Sally K. 

Ride became the first American woman in space on 

board Space Shuttle Challenger. I had just graduated 

from college and was getting ready to start my Ph.D. 

studies in geological sciences at Brown University. 

Despite having found incredible mentors in aerospace 

and planetary science—including my father, who 

worked for NASA when I was a kid—I couldn’t help 

but worry about how being a woman would impact 

my opportunities in grad school, internships, and 
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Volume 38, Number 1 First Quarter 2021

ultimately the workforce. Even though I was confident 

in my abilities, I didn’t know if my classmates and 

colleagues would afford me the same respect I afforded 

them, just because I was a woman.

And here was a woman, serving as an astronaut—

arguably the most visible job at NASA and one of the 

most visible in the United States—and flying through 

glass ceilings all the way into space. It really had a 

huge impact on me as I prepared to start my graduate 

studies. And it was a moment that felt long overdue: The first woman in space, cosmonaut Valentina 

Tereshkova, had achieved that milestone 20 years 

before, so the fact that America had not yet afforded 

a woman that opportunity was discouraging. But that 

all changed with NASA’s 1978 class of astronauts, the 

first to include women, and then Sally’s first spaceflight in 1983. Marian Wright Edelman once said, 

“You can’t be what you can’t see”; that day, girls and 

women around the country saw Sally Ride launch into 

space, and a whole new frontier was opened to them.

MARGARET A. WEITEKAMP

Curator and Department Chair, Space History 

Department, National Air and Space Museum

Witnessing the launch of STS-7 with Dr. Sally K. Ride 

aboard as the first American woman in space was my 

favorite moment. In June 1983, my family was on 

vacation in Florida, visiting my aunt and uncle near 

Daytona Beach, so we took a trip down the coast to 

visit Kennedy Space Center. Our tour was the day 

before the launch, and the place was abuzz. The signs 

outside nearby hotels and restaurants read, “Ride, Sally 

Ride!” My mother kept asking various staff members 

how our family could get back onto the KSC grounds 

the next day to see the launch. Finally, someone 

explained to her that, unlike our home in the mountains in Pennsylvania, Florida was flat. Even people 

miles away would be able to see the launch easily. So 

that is how we came to be among the thousands of 

onlookers listening to the preparations on the radio as 

we drove along the highway as the countdown neared. 

When the launch was imminent, it was an amazing 

moment. All of the cars pulled off the highway onto 

the shoulder and all heads turned toward KSC. We sat 

on the hood of the rental car and cheered as Sally Ride 

made history.

I never got to meet Dr. Ride in person, but I was a 

part of the team from the Smithsonian’s National Air 

and Space Museum that helped to bring her archives 

and artifacts to the museum after her untimely death 

in 2012.

VANESSA WYCHE

Deputy Director, NASA’s Johnson Space Center

My favorite moment from the past 60 years of human 

spaceflight occurred during my eighth year with 

NASA, as the payload manager for STS-95, a Spacehab 

research mission in which John Glenn returned to 

space after his first flight on Mercury 7. The mission 

was historic because of the research conducted on, 

and by, John Glenn, the first American to orbit Earth 

and the oldest person to fly in space at the age of 77 

years. While John Glenn was a national hero and a 

U.S. Senator, he insisted that he be referred to as John. 

He was extremely focused on his training, and his 

stamina was amazing. His humility and dedication to 

the successful outcome of the mission and NASA left 

a lasting impression on me. One particular example 

did not happen during the extremely successful flight 

or the many months of intense training. It was at a 

restaurant one night after a full day of training, when 

a waitress asked to take a photo with him. He said sure. 

She then informed us that her son needed to bring the 

camera from her house—this was before smartphones. 

He said no problem, and we waited 20 minutes for 

her son to arrive with the camera. John Glenn not 

only took the photo with the waitress, but he also took 

photos with all of the employees at the restaurant, and 

because of timing, it was now well after the restaurant 

had closed for the night. Witnessing this selfless act, as 

well as his consistent demonstration of humility and 

dedication to being the best at his assignment, had a 

profound impact on me. I patterned my conduct as a 

public servant after the example of John Glenn.
20

NASA HISTORY PROGRAM OFFICE — News & Notes

FOREWORD TO SPACEFLIGHT

By Michael L. Ciancone

Michael Ciancone is an engineer at NASA’s Johnson 

Space Center (JSC) in Houston, Texas. He currently 

serves as the NASA Lead for Safety and Reliability on 

the Orion Program. Ciancone also chairs the History 

Committee of the American Astronautical Society 

(AAS) and is a member of the History Committee of the 

International Academy of Astronautics (IAA).

This article is adapted from a presentation the author 

gave at IAC 2019 (Washington DC), which was based 

on his book, Foreword to Spaceflight: An Illustrated 

Bibliography of pre-1958 Books on Rocketry & Space 

Travel (Apogee, 2018)

This article provides a visual and literary “photo album” 

to satisfy readers interested in the literary foundations 

of human spaceflight.

Three men are widely recognized as the fathers of 

rocketry for spaceflight—Konstantin Tsiolkovskii, 

Hermann Oberth, and Robert Goddard. Tsiolkovskii 

published numerous books on space travel and cosmology (the expansion of humans into the cosmos). 

The “holy grail” of this genre is an article he wrote in 

the May 1903 issue of Nauchnoe Obozrenie [Scientific 

Review] on “Exploration of Space by Means of 

Reactive Devices” (Figure 1) in which he applied the 

“rocket equation” to spaceflight and addressed various 

aspects of future spaceflight. Oberth was also an early 

theoretician. Oberth privately published one of the 

most influential books on spaceflight—Die Rakete zu 

den Planetenräumen [The Rocket into Planetary Space] 

(1923) (Figure 2). Goddard was an experimenter who 

spent his life building and testing rockets. He published his seminal monograph, A Method of Reaching 

Extreme Altitudes (Figure 3), in 1919 and launched the 

first liquid-fuel rocket on 16 March 1926. 

Figure 1. Tsiolkovskii, 

“Exploration of Space by Means of 

Reactive Devices”

Figure 2. Oberth, Die Rakete zu den 

Planetenräumen

Figure 3. Goddard, A Method of 

Reaching Extreme Altitudes

Figure 4. Lasser, 

The Conquest of Space

What began as a solitary endeavor grew, as people with 

similar interests formed small groups to share news 

and plan for the future. Writers, particularly during 

the 1920s and 1930s, used their medium to spread the 

“gospel” of spaceflight. The first book of nonfiction in 

English on the use of rockets for human spaceflight, 

The Conquest of Space (1931) (Figure 4), was written 

by David Lasser, a founder and the first president of 

the American Interplanetary Society (later renamed 

the American Rocket Society, which exists today as the 

American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics). 

The first British books appeared shortly thereafter—

Stratosphere and Rocket Flight (Astronautics) (1935) 

(Figure 5) by C. G. Philp and Rockets Through Space: 
21

Volume 38, Number 1 First Quarter 2021

The Dawn of Interplanetary Travel (1936) (Figure 6) by 

P. E. Cleator. Although many of these early rocketeers 

were writers, they were soon joined by technical members, such as engineers, who were interested in the 

practical application of rocketry to human spaceflight. 

Together, these groups of dreamers and doers provided 

a fertile breeding ground that merely awaited a catalyst 

to reach fruition.

Russian writers also harbored dreams of travel to other 

worlds. Yakov Perel’man published a series of popular 

books on spaceflight from the 1910s into the 1930s, 

including Mezhplanetnye puteschesviia [Interplanetary 

Travels] (1919 edition depicted in Figure 7). Nikolai 

Rynin also published a compendium of knowledge 

on spaceflight in a series of books from 1928 to 

1932 under the title Mezhplanetnye soobshscheniia

[Interplanetary Communications] (Volume 2 depicted 

in Figure 8).

Figure 5. Philp, Stratosphere and 

Rocket Flight (Astronautics)

Figure 6. Cleator, Rockets 

Through Space: The Dawn of 

Interplanetary Travel

Figure 7. Perel’man, 

Mezhplanetnye puteschesviia

Figure 8. Rynin, 

Mezhplanetnye soobshscheniia

Early experimenters were pleased to see their rockets 

launch without exploding. Then, they were eager to 

send them higher and further. The German Army soon 

took notice. The V-2 rocket program of World War II 

offered the first industrial-level development and 

production of rockets (albeit using slave labor). One 

of the most interesting contemporary books on the 

V-2, Ballistics of the Future by Kooy and Uytenbogaart 

(1946) (Figure 9), provides detailed schematics of the 

V-2 rocket and the location of launch sites in The 

Netherlands. One of the first popular accounts of the 

V-2 program was offered by Walter Dornberger in V2: 

Der Schuss ins Weltall [The Shot into Space] (1952) 

(Figure 10).

Figure 9. Kooy and Uytenbogaart, 

Ballistics of the Future

Figure 10. Dornberger,

V2: Der Schuss ins Weltall 

To advocates of human spaceflight, the goal was to 

place a spacecraft into orbit around the Earth or 

to send it to the Moon or Mars. Perhaps the most 

influential book on this theme was Das Marsprojekt

[The Mars Project] (1952) (Figure 11) by Wernher 

von Braun, who was an early member of the German 
22

NASA HISTORY PROGRAM OFFICE — News & Notes

Society for Space Travel and architect of the V-2 program, 

as well as a prominent figure in the U.S. space program. 

Willy Ley was an early chronicler of the history, current 

status, and future of human spaceflight, who escaped 

Nazi Germany in 1935. His first book on the prospects 

of spaceflight appeared in 1926 under the title Die Fahrt 

ins Weltall [The Journey into Space] (Figure 12). He 

continued writing about spaceflight following World 

War II and is perhaps best known for Rockets, Missiles and 

Space Travel (Figure 14), which first appeared as Rockets: 

The Future of Flight Beyond the Stratosphere (1944) 

(Figure 13), and which went through many editions and 

printings through the 1960s.

Figure 11. Von Braun, 

Das Marsprojekt

Figure 12. Ley, 

Die Fahrt ins Weltall

Figure 13. Ley, Rockets: The Future 

of Flight Beyond the Stratosphere

Figure 14. Ley, Rockets, Missiles, 

and Space Travel 

As the 1950s ushered in an era of prosperity and plans for 

the future, a group of spaceflight professionals, including 

Ley and von Braun, and under the editorial guidance of 

Cornelius Ryan, published a series of articles in Collier’s

magazine in 1952–54 that envisioned the coming space 

age. These articles were later published in book form, 

including Across the Space Frontier (1952) (Figure 15) 

and Conquest of the Moon (1953) (Figure 16).

Figure 15. Ryan (ed.), 

Across the Space Frontier

Figure 16. Ryan (ed.),

Conquest of the Moon

In addition to the staples of the Wild West, children 

were also captivated by this “next frontier.” Books began 

appearing that specifically targeted younger readers, such as The First Book of Space Travel (1953) (Figure 17) by 

Jeanne Bendick and Rockets and Jets (1952) (Figure 18) by Marie Neurath.

Figure 17. Bendick, 

The First Book of Space Travel

Figure 18. Neurath, 

Rockets and Jets

The history of spaceflight is still being written as mankind continues its journey, back to the Moon and on to Mars.
23

Volume 38, Number 1 First Quarter 2021

SPACE EXPLORATION LAUNCHED FROM KENNEDY SPACE CENTER

By Linda Herridge

NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida has played 

a significant role in the Agency’s space exploration 

programs for the past 60 years. Since the early 1960s, 

when many of the Center’s facilities were constructed, 

to the present day, a workforce of NASA civil servants, 

contractors, and international partners has prepared 

payloads and spacecraft bound for the Moon, the 

International Space Station, and destinations beyond. 

They gained valuable processing and launch expertise 

along the way while reaching for the stars.

1960S

After the Mercury and Gemini missions, larger and 

more complex facilities were needed for the Apollo 

program. The iconic Vehicle Assembly Building, 

Launch Control Center, and Launch Complexes 39A 

and 39B were constructed to support the processing and launch of Saturn V rockets and the Apollo 

missions to the Moon. In the Industrial Area, the 

Operations and Checkout (O&C) Building (renamed 

for astronaut Neil Armstrong in July 2014) was constructed for the processing of Apollo Command and 

Service Modules and Lunar Modules. The astronaut 

crew quarters and some training facilities are located 

in the O&C. In total, 11 crewed Apollo missions were 

processed and launched from Kennedy.

1970S

Skylab, America’s first space station, launched atop a 

two-stage Saturn V rocket from Launch Complex 39A 

at Kennedy on 14 May 1973 and was placed into Earth 

orbit. The Skylab 1 mission launched on 25 May 1973, 

sending the first three-man crew to live and work on 

the orbiting lab. Skylab 2 launched on 28 July 1973, 

with the second three-man crew to live and work on 

the lab. Skylab 3 launched on 16 November 1973, 

carrying the final three to the lab. The crew of Skylab 3 

achieved the longest permanent occupation of space 

with 84 days, 1 hour, 15 minutes, and 31 seconds—a 

record not exceeded until long-duration stays on the 

International Space Station.

THE CREW OF SKYLAB 3 

ACHIEVED THE LONGEST PERMANENT OCCUPATION OF SPACE 

WITH 84 DAYS, 1 HOUR, 15 MINUTES, AND 31 SECONDS— 

A RECORD NOT EXCEEDED 

UNTIL LONG-DURATION 

STAYS ON THE INTERNATIONAL 

SPACE STATION.

The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) was the first 

international crewed spaceflight. The purpose of the 

nine-day joint mission was to flight-test a mechanism 

for joining two orbiting spacecraft and demonstrate 

that international space rescue missions would be feasible in the future. During ASTP planning, Kennedy 

hosted the cosmonauts for a tour of the Center and 

meetings with the Apollo astronauts. Workers stacked 

the Saturn 1B rocket on the mobile launcher in the 

Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB). Apollo underwent 

testing in the O&C, and extra propellant tanks were 

added for the reaction control system, as well as 

equipment to operate the docking module and system. 

Apollo/Saturn 1B launched on 15 July 1975 from 

Launch Complex 39B. Workers at Kennedy helped 

design the mechanism that allowed Apollo to dock 

with Soyuz on 17 July.

More than 40 years ago, Voyagers 1 and 2 were prepared 

for launch inside the Center’s Spacecraft Assembly 

and Encapsulation Facility. Voyager 2 launched on 
24

NASA HISTORY PROGRAM OFFICE — News & Notes

20 August 1977 on a Titan IIIE/Centaur from Launch 

Complex 41. Voyager 1 launched on a Titan IIIE/

Centaur from the same launch pad 16 days later. 

These satellites embarked on an ambitious mission 

to explore the giant outer planets—Jupiter, Saturn, 

Uranus, and Neptune. Since completing their flybys 

in 1989, they have continued to journey to the outer 

reaches of our solar system—where no spacecraft has 

been before. NASA continues to receive data from 

these two spacecraft, offering a window into the mysterious outer realms of our solar system and beyond.

As the Apollo program ended, efforts began to upgrade 

and modernize several facilities to process and launch 

the Space Shuttle. Vehicle Assembly Building high and 

low bays were converted to handle Shuttle stacking 

operations. The consoles and computers in the Launch 

Control Center firing rooms were upgraded. Launch 

Complexes 39A and 39B were outfitted with fixed and 

rotating service structures that provided access to and 

protected the Space Shuttle. The Orbiter Processing 

Facilities (OPFs) and engine shop were constructed to 

process the orbiters and main engines before and after 

a launch. Other facilities were converted, including 

Hangar AF to handle solid rocket booster (SRB) disassembly, the Vertical Processing Facility for Shuttle 

payloads, and the Parachute Refurbishment Facility to 

handle SRB parachutes.

1980S

Beginning with the first Space Shuttle launch, STS-1, 

on 12 April 1981, and continuing through 1989, 

workers processed 32 Shuttle missions. Orbiter vehicles 

were processed in OPFs and then were joined with the 

external tank and twin solid rocket boosters on top of 

mobile launcher platforms in the VAB for the slow trek 

on a crawler-transporter to Launch Complex 39A or B. 

Among the payloads prepared at Kennedy for release on 

a Space Shuttle were Magellan, on STS-30 (Atlantis), 

to map the surface of Venus; Galileo orbiter and probe 

on STS-34 (Atlantis), launched to Jupiter; and five 

missions dedicated to Department of Defense payloads. 

Mission specialist astronauts launched for the first time 

aboard STS-5 (Columbia) on 11 November 1982.

Launch of Challenger on mission STS-51F in July 1985.

Spacelab, developed by the European Space Agency, 

was a reusable laboratory that flew on several Space 

Shuttle missions. The first, called Spacelab-1, flew on 

STS-9 in August 1983. The laboratory included a pressurized module, an unpressurized carrier, and other 

related hardware housed in the Shuttle’s cargo bay. 

Subsequent missions were Spacelab-3 on STS-51B in 

April 1985, Spacelab-2 on STS-51F in July 1985, and 

Spacelab-D-1 on STS-61A in October 1985.

1990S

Between 1990 and 1999, the Kennedy workforce processed and launched 64 Space Shuttle missions. Major 

payloads launched from the Shuttle included Ulysses, 

the Chandra X-ray Observatory, and the Hubble 

Space Telescope.
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Volume 38, Number 1 First Quarter 2021

The Hubble Space Telescope arrived at Kennedy 

on 6 October 1989 and was moved to the Vertical 

Processing Facility. During processing, technicians 

powered up the telescope for the first time on 

28 October. On 25 March 1990, Hubble was delivered 

to Launch Complex 39B in a payload canister. The 

telescope launched aboard Space Shuttle Discovery on 

STS-31 on 24 April 1990.

The Space Station Processing Facility (SSPF) was built 

for preflight checkout and processing of hardware 

and components for the International Space Station. 

Groundbreaking occurred in March 1991, and the 

facility opened in June 1994. At the time, it was the 

biggest facility built at Kennedy since the Apollo days. 

The first U.S.-built component for the Space Station, 

Node 1 Unity, arrived for processing in June 1997. 

The node launched on STS-88 on 4 December 1998. 

During the 1990s, workers processed, tested, and 

prepared Station components, including all of the 

truss support structures and solar arrays, the U.S. Lab/

Destiny Module, three multipurpose logistics modules, the Joint Airlock, the Central Truss Assembly 

S0 truss, the Mobile Base System, the S1 (Starboard 

Side Thermal Radiator) truss, and the P1 (Port Side 

Thermal Radiator) truss.

In 1998, the launch vehicle programs at several 

NASA Centers were consolidated and established 

as the Launch Services Program (LSP) at Kennedy. 

The program brings together technology, business, 

procurement, engineering best practices, strategic 

planning, studies, and cutting-edge techniques—all 

instrumental components for the United States to 

have a dependable and secure Earth-to-space bridge 

that is dedicated to launching all types of spacecraft.

2000S

Between 2000 and 2009, Kennedy processed and 

launched 33 Space Shuttle missions. Components, 

supplies, and equipment for the Space Station were 

processed in the SSPF high bay. These included the 

Cupola, the European Science Module Columbus, 

the ISS Quest Joint Airlock, the Harmony Node 2, 

the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM), the 

Japanese JEM Exposed Facility, the Express Logistics 

Carrier with 30,000 pounds of parts, the Russian 

Mini-Research module Rassvet, and the Alpha 

Magnetic Spectrometer.

MISSIONS TO MARS

Several probes and landers were processed at Kennedy 

before launching to Mars. These included Mars 

Odyssey, atop a Delta II rocket on 7 April 2001; 

Mars Express, a European Space Agency (ESA) mission with NASA participation, on 2 June 2003; the 

Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, atop an Atlas V rocket 

on 12 August 2005; the Mars Science Laboratory 

(Curiosity), atop an Atlas V on 26 November 

2011; the Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution 

(MAVEN), also on an Atlas V, on 18 November 2013, 

and InSight, on an Atlas V on 5 May 2018. Mars 

Exploration Rovers Spirit and Opportunity were processed at Kennedy and launched on Delta II rockets 

from Launch Complex 17; Spirit on 10 June 2003 

from LC-17A, and Opportunity on 7 July 2003 from 

LC-17B. The Phoenix Mars Mission launched on a 

Delta II on 4 August 2007, from LC-17.

2010S

During 2010 and 2011, the final six Space Shuttle 

missions (STS-130 through STS-135) were launched 

from Launch Complex 39A. As the Space Shuttle 

completed its mission in July 2011, work had begun 

to prepare the Center for NASA’s Space Launch 

System rocket and Orion spacecraft. In 2012, the 

Center rolled out its 20-year vision for the evolution 

of a post–Space Shuttle age, in which NASA would 

continue reaching for the stars while nurturing commercial spacefaring ventures. A master plan outlined 

the roadmap for becoming a multi-user spaceport, 

where both government and commercial partners use 

the launch facilities.

The Commercial Crew Program was formed in 2014 

to facilitate the development of a U.S. commercial 

crew space transportation capability with the goal of 
26

NASA HISTORY PROGRAM OFFICE — News & Notes

achieving safe, reliable, and cost-effective access to and 

from the International Space Station and low-Earth 

orbit. The program is primarily based at Kennedy.

PREPARING FOR ARTEMIS

The Exploration Ground Systems (EGS) Program, 

based at Kennedy, was established to develop and 

operate the systems and facilities necessary to process 

and launch rockets and spacecraft during assembly, 

transport, and launch. EGS led the efforts to transform the Center from a government-only launch complex to a multi-user spaceport.

NASA’s first spacebound Orion spacecraft, Exploration 

Flight Test–1, launched atop a Delta IV rocket on 

5 December 2014 from Space Launch Complex 37 for 

its flight test as NASA’s newest human-rated spacecraft. Kennedy led the recovery efforts as splashdown 

occurred in the Pacific Ocean, concluding the 4.5-

hour flight.

Inside the Vehicle Assembly Building, EGS workers 

removed hundreds of miles of cables and replaced them 

with state-of-the art command, control, and communications systems. Workers also removed Space Shuttle–

era work platforms from High Bay 3 to make room 

for 10 levels of new platforms that can accommodate a 

variety of vehicles, including NASA’s heavy-lift rocket, 

the Space Launch System, and the Orion spacecraft. 

The O&C high bay was remodeled, and new test 

equipment and test cells were installed to handle Orion 

buildup, processing, and checkout for Artemis missions. 

Launch Control Center Firing Room 1 received a total 

makeover. The rotating and fixed service structures at 

Launch Complex 39B were removed to create a clean 

pad, and three 600-foot-tall lighting protection towers 

were installed around the pad. Construction workers 

upgraded the pad’s flame trench and installed a new 

flame deflector. The Multi-Payload Processing Facility 

was remodeled to handle Orion fueling.

2020S

More progress with the Artemis program continued 

with the creation of Gateway—NASA’s permanent 

lunar outpost that will be positioned in orbit around 

the Moon. While the Gateway Program is led out 

of the Agency’s Johnson Space Center in Houston, 

Deep Space Logistics (DSL) is the Gateway Project 

office established in 2019 at Kennedy—leading the 

commercial supply chain in deep space by procuring 

services for transporting cargo, equipment, and consumables to enable exploration of the Moon and Mars.

LSP also is supporting NASA’s return to the Moon, 

with sights on Mars—serving in a major consulting 

role for components of the Gateway. They also are 

leveraging their expertise in Venture Class Launch 

Services (VCLS) for precursor lunar CubeSat missions to reduce technical risk in advance of crewed 

Artemis campaigns. The LSP processing team prepared the Mars Perseverance rover for launch atop an 

Atlas V rocket from Space Launch Complex 41 on 

30 July 2020.

On 30 May 2020, the United States returned humans 

to space from American soil on American rockets 

when SpaceX launched its crewed Demo-2 mission 

from Kennedy Space Center to dock with the international Space Station as part of NASA’s Commercial 

Crew Program. SpaceX launched its second crewed 

mission, Crew-1, on 15 November 2020 to the Space 

Station. Boeing launched its first uncrewed orbital 

flight test last year and is preparing to launch its 

second uncrewed orbital flight test to dock with the 

Space Station later this year.

The spaceport also increased commercial opportunities 

with its newly completed Launch Complex 48, a dedicated site for small-class launch vehicles. The complex 

offers a “clean pad” concept, allowing companies to 

bring in their own resources and commodities for 

launch, thus reducing their investment in launch pad 

infrastructure.

Kennedy Space Center is now firmly established as a 

multi-user spaceport for government and commercial 

customers. Many types of partnering opportunities, 

including launch systems, spacecraft and payloads, 

capabilities and testing, and emerging markets, are 

now part of Kennedy’s space exploration landscape.
27

Volume 38, Number 1 First Quarter 2021

A SPRING OF ACHIEVEMENT AND GROWTH: 

LOOKING BACK ON 1961

By Sarah LeClaire, Archivist, and Jonathon Ruff, Marshall Space Flight Center Intern

1 See https://news.gallup.com/vault/190772/gallup-vault-cuba-embargo-popular-bay-pigs-fiasco.aspx (accessed 15 March 2021).

I

n the spring of 1961, humanity 

reached for the stars, and we 

found ourselves at the precipice 

of technological achievement and 

social change. Twenty-seven-year 

old Soviet pilot Yuri Gagarin 

became a household name after 

his historic flight as the first 

human to reach orbital space on 

12 April 1961. After he launched 

from Baikonur Cosmodrome 

in the Soviet Union, Gagarin’s 

journey aboard Vostok 1 lasted 

108 minutes. Less than a month 

later, on board the Freedom  7 

Mercury capsule, Alan Shepard, 

Jr., became the first American 

to fly to space on 5 May 1961. 

Gagarin and Shepard’s journeys 

captured the world’s attention 

just as the Wright brothers’ first 

aircraft flights had approximately 60 years prior. 

Almost exactly equidistant in time from the Wright 

brothers’ flight and the present day, Gagarin’s and 

Shepard’s achievements in spaceflight occurred at a 

time when the United States was in the midst of great 

social change.

Astronaut Alan B. Shepard, Jr., preparing for his Mercury 

Redstone 3 launch on 5 May 1961. (Image credit: NASA, 

https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/may-5-1961-

alan-shepard-in-spacesuit-before-mercury-launch)

Between Gagarin’s and Shepard’s spaceflights in April 

and May 1961, the United States became embroiled 

in conflicts at home and abroad. Less than a week after 

the first Soviet human spaceflight, the U.S. Central 

Intelligence Agency (CIA) sponsored a failed invasion operation on the Southwestern coast of Cuba, an 

event later known as the Bay of Pigs. This resonated 

with an American public wary of communism. A 

Gallup survey1

 conducted in April 1961 revealed that 

the public largely agreed with a trade embargo against 

Cuba but disagreed with the use 

of U.S. troops to help overthrow 

Cuban leader Fidel Castro.

Domestically, the U.S. public 

was in the midst of a civil rights 

evolution. In April 1961, the 

Washington Post reported on a 

meeting between Rev. Franklin 

Jackson and District of Columbia 

Police officials to discuss the rise of 

police brutality against Black people in the city. Later that month, 

the Jackson Advocate reported that 

the National Association for the 

Advancement of Colored People 

(NAACP) had been urged by the 

Kennedy administration to limit 

protest activities in their fight 

for civil rights as four students 

were arrested after a sit-in on a 

Jackson, Mississippi, city bus. By 4 May 1961, the 

U.S. Supreme Court had found segregation practices 

in interstate transportation unconstitutional. That 

same day, a group of civil rights activists known as 

the Freedom Riders boarded a bus in Washington, 

DC, bound for the Louisiana (and stopping in several 

southern states), to protest the continued use of illegal 

segregation practices in the South.

Americans seeking a respite from the news had plenty 

of options for art and entertainment. The year 1961 

saw the debut of a number of influential television 

shows: Mister Ed, ABC’s Wide World of Sports, Hazel, 

The Dick Van Dyke Show, and Ben Casey. The same 

week of Gagarin’s flight, we were celebrating achievements in the arts. At the 33rd Academy Awards, The 

Apartment won Best Motion Picture; Billy Wilder 
28

NASA HISTORY PROGRAM OFFICE — News & Notes

won Best Director; and Burt Lancaster and Elizabeth 

Taylor won Best Actor and Actress, respectively. The 

still-young Grammy Awards had appeared for the 

third year just days prior. Percy Faith’s “Theme from 

A Summer Place” took Record of the Year and “Let 

the Good Times Roll” by Ray Charles won Best R&B 

Performance. (Charles proved to be a big influence 

on a then-unknown British band who were playing a 92-night engagement at The Top Ten Club 

in Hamburg, Germany, at the time of the awards. 

As the Beatles, they later ushered in a revolution of 

their own.) On 23 April, Judy Garland’s concert at 

Carnegie Hall attracted thousands of attendees and 

Del Shannon’s “Runaway” topped the charts as the #1 

hit single on the radio.

The awe-inspiring achievement of the first human 

spaceflight came at a time of difficult social realities 

and new sights and sounds in the arts. Yet, on 12 April 

1961, we put aside our differences for a moment to celebrate the achievement of our political adversaries as 

an achievement of humanity. In a NASA news release 

later that day, newly appointed NASA Administrator 

James Webb commented on the success of Gagarin’s 

mission: “I would like to state for myself that I regard 

this as a splendid accomplishment. It is certainly an 

indication of a high state of advanced technology, and 

is a significant event in terms of the program of space 

exploration, both with respect to the USSR and with 

respect to ourselves and other nations interested in it.” 

After that moment passed, however, Administrator 

Webb, NASA personnel, and countless others across 

the country worked tirelessly throughout the remainder of April 1961 to send the first American to space 

within one month of Gagarin’s historic flight.

As we continue our journey in human spaceflight with 

new programs such as Artemis,2

2 See https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/ (accessed 15 March 2021).

 we must remember 

that our achievements in space may also come during 

times of national growth and social exploration. Just 

as 1961 America was marred by diplomatic failures 

and matured in the civil rights movement, 2021 

America finds itself in a time of global diplomatic 

uncertainties and opportunities for domestic growth 

in civil protection. Just as 1961 America occasionally 

tuned out the news to enjoy entertainers and artists, 

2021 America tunes into podcasts, streaming services, 

and sea shanties to soothe our anxious captivity in a 

time of quarantine. As much as the advancements of 

the past 60 years have propelled us to new heights of 

technological and social achievement, we reflect some 

of the political, social, and artistic realities of 1961. As 

we were then, we remain a people focused on a future 

in the stars while battling for growth at home.

NASA HEADQUARTERS HISTORY PROGRAM OFFICE 

STAFF CONTACT INFORMATION

Brian Odom brian.c.odom@nasa.gov

Acting Chief Historian 256-541-8974

Nadine Andreassen nadine.j.andreassen@nasa.gov

Program Support Specialist 202-358-0087

Catherine Baldwin catherine.e.baldwin@nasa.gov

Editor 202-358-4397

Stephen Garber stephen.j.garber@nasa.gov

Historian (on detail) 202-358-0385

Sarah Jenkins sarah.h.jenkins@nasa.gov

Archivist 202-358-1033

Sarah LeClaire sarah.k.leclaire@nasa.gov

Archivist 202-358-1380

Holly McIntyre holly.a.mcintyre@nasa.gov

Acting Chief Archivist 301-286-6126

INTERNS

Travis Frederick travis.c.frederick@nasa.gov

Felicia Ragucci felicia.ragucci@nasa.gov

Jonathan Ruff jonathan.w.ruff@nasa.gov

Jacqueline Zito jacqueline.zito@nasa.gov
29

Volume 38, Number 1 First Quarter 2021

SPACE BIOLOGY AT AMES RESEARCH CENTER

By James Anderson

Harold Klein turns over the ceremonial first spade of dirt at the groundbreaking for the life sciences research laboratory at Ames on 13 April 1964. (Photo 

credit: NASA)

For 60 years now, human spaceflight has drawn upon insights from more than 70 years of sending 

nonhuman life into space. Before astronauts were ever 

sent on suborbital and orbital flights, fruit flies, fungal 

spores, and seeds were among some of the first organisms to be sent into space in the years preceding the 

formation of NASA.

Almost as soon as NASA was founded, the Agency 

began developing plans for the life sciences. Those 

early years were programmatically tumultuous, and 

the changes that Ames made to its organizational 

structure to support the Agency back then both 

shaped the character of Ames today and have had a 

lasting impact on the study of Earthly life in space.

What we today would call space biology—a field of 

research that focuses on the fundamental mechanisms 

of life to understand how spaceflight and space itself 

affect processes such as metabolism, growth, and stress 

responses—developed as part of a broader program 

within NASA when the Agency founded the Office 

of Life Sciences Programs at Headquarters in 1960. 

Although the Life Sciences Office was given equal 

footing with NASA’s other program offices at the time, 

it existed for less than two years. The reason for the 

dissolution was a lack of commitment to funding and 

a failure to provide enough personnel to support the 

venture, plus the impression from the Office of Space 

Flight Programs, which managed Project Mercury, 

that the new Life Sciences Office was impinging on its 
30

NASA HISTORY PROGRAM OFFICE — News & Notes

territory. That territory covered human 

factors and the testing of life-support 

systems that the Air Force conducted 

for NASA during the early stages of 

the program. NASA’s Administrator, 

T. Keith Glennan, had nevertheless 

wanted the Agency to develop a more 

expansive vision for the life sciences. 

While establishing the Office of Life 

Sciences Programs had been one of 

the recommendations of the Bioscience Advisory 

Committee (also known as the Kety Committee), 

so too was establishing a central research facility to 

conduct the investigations into fundamental questions about life in space, in addition to studying more 

immediate applications emerging out of medical and 

behavioral studies related to human spaceflight.

The life sciences research laboratory 

at Ames as it appeared shortly after 

construction; it was completed in 1965. 

(Photo credit: NASA)

In 2017, acting NASA Administrator Robert Lightfoot, acting Deputy NASA Administrator Lesa Roe, 

Ames Center Director Eugene Tu, Ames Director of Science Michael Bicay, and Amoroso Construction 

Northern California Operations Manager Michael Chambers donned hard hats and used golden 

shovels to ceremonially begin construction of the new Biosciences Collaborative Laboratory, which 

held its ribbon-cutting ceremony in February 2020. The new facility houses laboratories designed 

with the latest technology to serve NASA’s programs in fundamental space biology, astrobiology, and 

bioengineering. (Photo credit: NASA)

In his final years as the Ames Director, Smith DeFrance 

vigorously lobbied for Ames to be the Center where 

the facility would be located. Newly formed Goddard 

Space Flight Center and the National 

Institutes of Health were early favorites, but DeFrance ultimately prevailed. Concurrently, the life sciences 

were divided among the offices at 

NASA Headquarters as the programmatic tumult continued. At Ames, 

by the time the first Director of Life 

Sciences had arrived, the dissolution 

of the Office of Life Sciences Programs 

had already occurred. The Director, Webb Haymaker, 

also found that his research interests—combined with 

a desire for an almost completely academic atmosphere—would not align well with NASA’s goals.

Haymaker was succeeded in January 1964 by the 

head of the Exobiology Division, Harold Klein, 

who became the new Director of Life Sciences at 

Ames. Klein had first come to Ames on a sabbatical 

from Brandeis University in Massachusetts, where 

he had helped create the biology department. Like 

the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics 

(NACA) researchers before them, the life scientists 

arriving at Ames prized basic research, which Klein 

proved much more capable of organizing within the 

context of the new agency. What set the life scientists 

apart from the aerodynamicists was indeed a more 

academic culture that they both prized and fought for, 

with Klein working to ensure that the organization 

was simultaneously academic and mission-driven. In 

his recollections years later, Klein recalled threatening 

to quit if a library was not included in the new life 

sciences building at Ames.

The differences between the life scientists and the aerodynamicists proved beneficial, reinforcing the Ames 

culture of inquisitiveness and an openness to new 

ideas. Existing Ames expertise in simulation would 

make use of centrifuges, and the centrifuge facilities 

were expanded to support the life sciences. Those 

ground facilities and numerous other labs complemented the many biological payloads that Ames has 

managed since Project Gemini in the 1960s, when the 

first life sciences payload managed at Ames carried sea 

urchin cells in an experiment to investigate the effects 
31

Volume 38, Number 1 First Quarter 2021

of microgravity on fertilization, cell division, differentiation, and growth in a biological system.

Since then, hundreds of space biology experiments 

managed by Ames as well as Kennedy Space Center 

have continued to carry a variety of model organisms 

into space. And when BioSentinel launches under the 

Artemis program, it will mark the first study of the 

biological response to space radiation outside lowEarth orbit (LEO) in almost 50 years. This research in 

space biology continues to expand our understanding 

of fundamental biological mechanisms, adding to 

our knowledge and preparing us for extended human 

spaceflight beyond Earth orbit.

STENNIS SPACE CENTER AND HUMAN SPACEFLIGHT

By Jessica Herr

I

n 1915, the National Advisory Committee for 

Aeronautics (NACA) was created to promote aeronautical research. It existed until 1 October 1958, 

when it was converted to a new agency, the National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The 

primary reason for the conversion was the Soviet 

Union launch of the first humanmade satellite, 

Sputnik, into low-Earth orbit on 4 October 1957. 

There was a congressional review of the American 

space program under way at the time of the Sputnik 

launch, and using the bones of the NACA, a bill was 

presented to President Dwight Eisenhower in July 

1958 to create NASA.

In May 1961, President John F. Kennedy delivered 

a speech before a special joint session of Congress, 

proclaiming that the United States should put a person on the Moon before the decade was out, giving 

NASA less than nine years to achieve this lofty goal. 

In order to do so, the Agency needed to test rockets, 

and in August 1961, an ad hoc committee of members 

from NASA Headquarters and Marshall Space Flight 

Center began the work of finding the perfect location 

to do so.

There were several variables to consider since the rockets would be assembled at the Michoud Assembly 

Facility outside of New Orleans and launched from 

Cape Canaveral, Florida. NASA needed a facility that, 

ideally, would lie between these two places, be situated 

away from a densely populated area because of the 

noise associated with testing rocket engines, have both 

waterway and highway access, have a mild climate so 

testing could conceivably be conducted year-round, 

and have supportive communities nearby.

The beginning of the construction of Mississippi Test Operations. (Photo 

credit: NASA)

On 25 October 1961, NASA announced that a rocket 

test site would be established in Hancock County, 

Mississippi. The site, then known as Mississippi Test 

Operations, now known as Stennis Space Center, 

would be the facility to test every single rocket engine 

that has put astronauts into space from American soil.
32

NASA HISTORY PROGRAM OFFICE — News & Notes

GLENN RESEARCH CENTER AND THE ISS

By Bob Arrighi, ATS

As NASA celebrates the 60th anniversary of human spaceflight and the recently passed 20 years of 

continuous human presence on the International 

Space Station (ISS), Glenn Research Center reflects on 

some of our many contributions to the success of this 

global achievement in human spaceflight.

On 3 and 4 November 2000, the crew of STS97 unfurled the first permanent solar arrays on the 

International Space Station. The football-field-sized 

collection of 32,800 reflective solar cells instantly 

became one of the brightest objects in the night sky 

and the largest electrical power system (EPS) ever 

in space. Glenn (previously named Lewis Research 

Center) has played a significant role in the Station 

from its inception in 1982 to today, most notably the 

development of the EPS.

From 1982 to 1984, Lewis personnel on NASA’s Space 

Station Task Force analyzed options for power and 

propulsion systems. During this period, the Center 

crusaded for the station’s power system assignment. 

After President Reagan formally initiated the Space 

Station Freedom (SSF) program in January 1984, two 

dozen Lewis engineers relocated to Houston to participate in the grueling yearlong Agency effort to define 

the station’s requirements.

In the summer of 1984, NASA divided the SSF project into four work packages and assigned the critical 

electric power package to Lewis. The power system is 

essential for maintaining the station position, operating electronics, and conducting experiments. Lewis 

created the Space Station Freedom Directorate to 

devise a startup system for the station, develop the permanent system using either solar arrays or a solar mirror, and integrate it into various space station designs.

For the next few years, Lewis strove to develop a system to meet the station’s ever-changing power requirements and configurations. This work included the 

design, construction, and testing of the power generation, storage, and distribution systems.

In 1992, Lewis launch vehicle experts made several trips to Moscow to evaluate the Russian Soyuz 

spacecraft as a rescue vehicle for SSF. Their analysis 

demonstrated that the Soyuz could be paired with U.S. 

launch vehicles to reach the SSF.

In early 1993, President Clinton ordered an overhaul 

of the station design. Lewis personnel served on the 

team that reconfigured the design of what would 

become the ISS. During this period, Russia became 

a participant in the station’s activities. Lewis personnel led the Agency’s interactions with the Russians 

and determined that the station’s orbital inclination 

would have to be altered to accommodate Russian 

launch vehicles. In December 1993, Russia became a 

full partner in the station, now named the ISS. Lewis 

led the Agency’s cooperative efforts with the Russians 

for several years.

LEWIS PERSONNEL LED THE 

AGENCY’S INTERACTIONS WITH 

THE RUSSIANS AND DETERMINED THAT THE STATION’S 

ORBITAL INCLINATION WOULD 

HAVE TO BE ALTERED TO 

ACCOMMODATE RUSSIAN 

LAUNCH VEHICLES.

The management structure for the ISS was consolidated in 1994, leading to the disbanding of Lewis’s 

space station directorate. Nonetheless, 100 Lewis 

employees continued to support the development of 
33

Volume 38, Number 1 First Quarter 2021

the ISS power system, which was a larger version of 

the photovoltaic power system that Lewis developed 

for SSF.

The Center developed cathodes for the plasma contactor that prevented electrical charge buildups and 

nickel-hydrogen batteries that stored electrical energy 

for use during the eclipse period of orbit. The operation and deployment of the ISS’s radiator panels were 

verified at the Space Power Facility, and the Station’s 

electronics were tested at the Power Systems Facility.

Construction of the ISS began in 1999, and the first 

occupants arrived in October 2000. The expansion of 

the electric power system in the late 2000s made it the 

brightest object in the sky. The Center remains active 

in ISS operations by continually monitoring the power 

system, utilizing a computer code to predict the power 

level for each orbit and configuration, and analyzing 

the Station’s environment for astronaut health.

The Center has also actively utilized the ISS for 

research. The Fluids and Combustion Facility is a permanent ISS experiment that allows Glenn researchers 

to remotely conduct microgravity experiments in 

space. The Space Communications and Navigation 

testbed tested a communications system that employs 

computer codes to transmit signals. Glenn also introduced a new treadmill harness design for crewmembers for comfort during treadmill exercise in space.

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UPCOMING MEETINGS

The annual meeting of the Organization of American 

Historians will be held virtually 15–18 April 2021. 

Visit https://www.oah.org for more details.

The American Astronautical Society’s annual Goddard 

Memorial Symposium will be held virtually 4–6 May 

2021. Visit https://astronautical.org/events/goddard

for more details. 

The Annual Meeting of the Society of American 

Archivists will be held virtually 2–6 August 2021. 

Visit https://www2.archivists.org/conference for 

more details. 

The annual meeting of the Oral History Association 

will be held virtually in October 2021. Visit https://

www.oralhistory.org/annual-meeting/ for more details.

The annual meeting of the Society for the History 

of Technology will be held 18–21 November 

2021 in New Orleans, Louisiana. Visit https://

www.historyoftechnology.org/annual-meeting for 

more details.
34

NASA HISTORY PROGRAM OFFICE — News & Notes

THE OVERVIEW EFFECT: PERSPECTIVE GAINED 

FROM LOOKING BACK AT EARTH

By: Jacqueline Zito, NASA Headquarters History Spring 2021 Intern

1 John Glenn and Nick Taylor, John Glenn: A Memoir (New York: Bantam Books, 1999), p. 382.

The photo called Earthrise was taken by the Apollo 8 crew on 24 December 1968. (Photo credit: NASA)

After his historic orbit around Earth in 1962, people wanted to know if John Glenn had seen God.

“No,” the Mercury astronaut recalled in his memoir. 

“I didn’t expect to. The God I believe in isn’t so small 

that I would run into him just a little bit above the 

atmosphere.”1 However, Glenn did have an experience 

many would consider spiritual and recalled the indescribable sensation of watching four sunsets in one 

day. The first American to orbit Earth, he returned 

home with a newfound sense of humanity’s place in 

the universe.

Glenn didn’t know it at the time, but he was one of 

the first to experience what would become known as 

the “overview effect.” Officially coined in 1987 by 

space philosopher Frank White, the overview effect 

occurs when astronauts observe Earth from space for 
35

Volume 38, Number 1 First Quarter 2021

the first time.2 Studies published by the American 

Psychological Association have defined the overview 

effect as an astronaut’s “overwhelming emotion and 

feelings of identification with humankind and the 

planet as a whole.”3 From hundreds of miles above 

the planet, nearly all astronauts undergo a cognitive 

shift and are flooded with intense feelings of “universal brotherhood.”4

 There is a realization—almost an 

enlightenment—that every single being that has ever 

lived or died shares an existence on a single blue dot 

in an endless black void. Unity. Ecstasy. Reverence. 

Ultimately, it reinforces the notion that one of the 

most significant consequences of spaceflight occurs 

when an astronaut simply looks back at Earth.

GLENN DIDN’T KNOW IT AT THE 

TIME, BUT HE WAS ONE OF THE 

FIRST TO EXPERIENCE WHAT 

WOULD BECOME KNOWN AS 

THE ‘OVERVIEW EFFECT.’

America was wonder-struck by the early space programs and fixated by nonstop coverage of the astronauts, frequent breakthroughs in aerospace technology, 

and the race to beat the Soviet Union to the Moon. 

It was not until the Apollo 8 mission photographed 

Earthrise that all people began to appreciate the larger 

humanistic perspective. Taken only seven years after 

the first American traveled to space in 1961, Earthrise

is now one of the most famous pictures in photographic history. In colorized film, Earth rises out of 

2 Frank White, The Overview Effect: Space Exploration and Human Evolution (Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and 

Astronautics, Inc., 2014).

3 D. B. Yaden, J. Iwry, K. J. Slack, J. C. Eichstaedt, Y. Zhao, G. E. Vaillant, and A. B. Newberg, “The Overview Effect: Awe and SelfTranscendent Experience in Space Flight,” Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice 3, no. 1 (2016): 1–11.

4 White, The Overview Effect.

5 Steward Brand, The Last Whole Earth Catalogue (New York: Random House, 1971).

6 “Sally Ride Interview,” Scholastic.com, 20 November 1998, http://teacher.scholastic.com/space/sts7/interview.htm (accessed 15 March 

2021).

the Moon’s horizon, a blue-white planet growing out 

of a barren moon in the otherwise black void of space. 

Nothing like the photo had ever been taken before, 

and the world was enthralled. The magazine The Last 

Whole Earth Catalogue described the picture as one 

that “began to bend the human consciousness,”5 and 

for one powerful moment, the overview effect seemed 

transferable.

As the Apollo program chugged forward, however, 

NASA did not focus on the philosophical aspects of 

space exploration. When Neil Armstrong first stepped 

from the Lunar Module onto the surface of the Moon, 

his exclamation of “one small step for man, one giant 

leap for mankind” rang through the American psyche, 

fueling the public appetite for missions that delved 

ever further into space for inspiration, and not glancing back at Earth. This attitude was further reflected 

in NASA’s next achievements: the 1970s were a flurry 

of Moon landings and satellite deployments driven by 

a political and scientific agenda, and the ’80s were distinguished by Space Shuttles and the initiation of the 

International Space Station. Nevertheless, astronauts 

like Sally Ride were “usually at a window looking 

down at Earth.”6

 While NASA focused on exploring 

deep space, astronauts continued to experience the 

psychological impact of the overview effect.

For this reason alone, spaceflight is important. If astronauts return from space having gained only their new 

perspectives and nothing else, then humankind has 

gained something invaluable. As we celebrate the 60th 

anniversary of spaceflight, and in a world marked by 

increasing conflict, the overview effect is a reminder 

that, ultimately, the planet Earth binds us together.
CREATED AND PRODUCED BY:

Catherine Baldwin, Newsletter Editor

Lisa Jirousek, Editor

Michele Ostovar, Graphic Designer

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