Aeronautics and Space Report

of the President

Fiscal Year

2021 and 2022

 Activities

Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022

Activities

Aeronautics and Space Report

of the President
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

The National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 directed 

the annual Aeronautics and Space Report to include a 

“comprehensive description of the programmed activities and 

the accomplishments of all agencies of the United States in the 

field of aeronautics and space activities during the preceding 

calendar year.” In recent years, the reports have been prepared 

on a fiscal-year basis, consistent with the budgetary period 

now used in programs of the Federal Government. This year’s 

report covers activities that took place in two fiscal years, from 

October 1, 2020, through September 30, 2022. Please note that 

these activities reflect the Federal policies of that time and do 

not include subsequent events or changes in policy.

On the title page, clockwise from the top left: 1. Two U.S. Air Force F-35A Lightning II aircraft and 

two French Rafale aircraft break formation during flight over France, May 18, 2021, during a multinational exercise. Credit: Air Force Staff Sgt. Alexander Cook. 2. Revealed on July 12, 2022, this 

image captured in infrared light by NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope shows the nearby, young, 

star-forming region NGC 3324 in the Carina Nebula revealing previously obscured areas of star birth. 

Credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, and STScI. 3. A UAS is seen flying into a smoke plume at Pebble Hill 

location Block B/Unit C2, Tall Timbers Research Station. Credit: USGS/Todd Hoefen. 4. A Falcon 9 

rocket launches from Cape Canaveral Space Force Station, Florida, on January 31, 2022. Credit: Joshua 

Conti, Space Force. 5. The GOES-17 satellite captured this image of the enormous cloud generated 

by the underwater eruption of the Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai volcano on January 15, 2022. Credit: 

NASA Earth Observatory image by Joshua Stevens using GOES imagery courtesy of NOAA and 

NESDIS. 6. This image taken by a camera aboard the descent stage of the Mars 2020 spacecraft shows 

NASA’s Perseverance rover just before touching down on Mars on February 18, 2021. Credit: NASA/

JPL-Caltech.
Table of Contents

Table of Conten

The National Space Council v

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 1

Human Exploration and Operations Mission Directorate in Fiscal Year 2021 1

Exploration Systems Development Mission Directorate in FY 2022 29

Space Operations Mission Directorate (SOMD) in FY 2022 43

Science Mission Directorate .

Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate 69

Space Technology Mission Directorate 78

Department of Defense 97

Federal Aviation Administration 133

Department of Commerce . 

Department of the Interior . 

Federal Communications Commission 231

U.S. Department of Agricultur  2

National Science Foundation 261

Department of State 275

Department of Energy 287

Smithsonian Institution . 

Appendices

A-1 U.S. Spacecraft Recor  3

A-2 World Record of Space Launches Successful in

Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond . 

B-1 Successful Launches to Orbit on U.S.Vehicles in Fiscal Year 202  3

B-2 Successful Launches to Orbit on U.S.Vehicles in Fiscal Year 202  3

C-1 Human Spaceflights in Fiscal Year 2021 . 

C-2 Human Spaceflights in Fiscal Year 2022 . 

D-1A Space Activities of the U.S. Government—Historical Table of Budg

Authority in Millions of Real-Year Dollars . 

D-1B Space Activities of the U.S. Government—Historical Table of Budg

Authority in Millions of Inflation-Adjusted FY 2021 Dollars . 

D-1C Space Activities of the U.S. Government—Historical Table of Budg

Authority in Millions of Inflation-Adjusted FY 2022 Dollars . 
ivAeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

D-2 Federal Space Activities Budget . 

D-3 Federal Aeronautics Activities Budget . 

E-1 Memorandum on Space Policy Directive-6: 

National Strategy for Space Nuclear Power and Propulsion . 

E-2 Memorandum on Space Policy Directive-7: 

The United States Space-Based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing Policy 353

Acronyms 365
vThe National Space Council

The National Space Co

Revived by executive order on June 30, 2017, and renewed on December 1, 2021, 

the National Space Council advises and assists the President on national space 

policy and strategy, including advising on international space activities and fostering closer coordination and cooperation among the domestic civil, national security, and commercial space sectors. The Council’s Chair, Vice President Kamala 

Harris, is supported by the National Space Council membership, which includes 

the heads of the agencies, offices, and departments responsible for the United 

States space enterprise. 

The Council meets regularly to publicly discuss the status of administration 

priorities and propose recommendations to the President regarding national space 

policy and strategy. In addition to an audience composed of stakeholders from 

industry, government, academia, and nongovernmental organizations, Council 

meetings are livestreamed on the internet to encourage public engagement 

and transparency. 

The Council is supported by a Users’ Advisory Group (UAG) composed of 

nonfederal representatives of industries and other persons involved in aeronautical 

and space activities. The UAG members are organized into six subcommittees: 

Exploration and Discovery; National Security Space; Economic Development 

and the Industrial Base; STEM Education, Diversity, and Inclusion; Climate and 

Societal Benefits; and Data and Emerging Technology. These subcommittees meet 

regularly to produce recommendations to the National Space Council for consideration. The UAG’s first meeting was held on February 23, 2023. The meeting 

was largely focused on planning by the UAG and its six subcommittees on topics 

ranging from national security to education. 
viAeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Meetings of the National Space Council 

The Council met on December 1, 2021, at the U.S. Institute of Peace in 

Washington, DC, marking the first meeting of the Biden-Harris Administration. 

Council members discussed developing norms of behavior to promote peaceful 

exploration of space and reduce the risk of miscalculation or conflict in space; the 

use of Earth observation data collected from space to address the climate crisis; and 

the use of space activities to enhance education in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. 

The Council met for the second time in FY 2022 on September 9, 2022, at the 

NASA Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, where Vice President Harris 

announced new commitments by the U.S. Government and the private sector 

to advance American leadership in space. During the meeting, Space Council 

members discussed advancing the Council’s priorities in expanding Space STEM 

education and workforce development, human space exploration, and rules for 

commercial novel space activities.

Key Announcements

Space Priorities Framework. On December 1, 2021, the White House released 

the United States Space Priorities Framework, a document laying out the 

Administration’s all-of-government approach to ensuring that space activities create opportunities that benefit the American people and the world. The Framework 

guides the Council’s efforts, maintaining focus on advancing and synchronizing 

U.S. civil, commercial, and national security space activities.

International Space Station Extension. On December 31, 2021, the BidenHarris Administration announced its commitment to extend International Space 

Station operations through 2030 and to work with international partners to enable 

continuation of the groundbreaking research being conducted in this unique orbiting laboratory through the rest of the decade. 

National Security Norms in Space. On April 18, 2022, Vice President Harris 

announced that the United States commits to not conduct destructive, directascent anti-satellite (ASAT) missile testing and commits to establish this as a 
vii The National Space Council

new international norm for responsible behavior in space. The Vice President also 

called on other nations to make similar commitments and to work together in 

establishing this as a norm, making the case that such efforts benefit all. Since this 

announcement, four allies have made similar pledges to not conduct destructive 

ASAT testing that could create space debris in orbit.

Updated Rules Framework for Commercial Space. On August 12, 2022, Vice 

President Harris announced the start of an interagency process led by the National 

Space Council to develop a new rules framework for commercial space activities. 

1National Aeronautics and Space Administration

National Aeronautic

Space Administr

NASA

Human Exploration and Operations Mission Directorate in Fiscal 

Year 2021

Exploration Systems Development

The Exploration Systems Development (ESD) programs—the Space Launch 

System (SLS), Orion, and Exploration Ground Systems (EGS)—provide the foundation for humanity’s return to the Moon and exploration beyond. Progress steadily 

continued toward the uncrewed Artemis I mission, the first integrated test of the 

ESD programs that will pave the way for future crewed Artemis missions.

Orion

Orion will serve as the exploration vehicle that will carry Artemis crews to 

space, provide emergency abort capability, sustain astronauts during their missions, and provide safe reentry from deep space return velocities. In fiscal year 

2021 (FY 2021), NASA finished integration of the Orion spacecraft, completing 

the Artemis I Orion stack. After final assembly and testing at Kennedy Space 

Center’s (KSC) Neil Armstrong Operations and Checkout Building, the spacecraft 

was moved to the center’s Multi-Payload Processing Facility and underwent fueling 

commodity servicing. It was then transferred to the Launch Abort System Facility, 

where the launch abort system was integrated with the spacecraft. In FY 2021, 

NASA also:
2Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

• Completed a series of four water impact drop tests with a test version 

of the Orion capsule at NASA’s Langley Research Center in Hampton, 

Virginia. The test data will help engineers better understand what Orion 

and its crew may experience when landing in the Pacific Ocean after 

Artemis missions to the Moon and will help feed final computer models 

for loads and structures prior to the Artemis II flight test.

• Installed a new Orion spacecraft simulator at the agency’s Johnson Space 

Center (JSC) in Houston, Texas. The simulator provides the ability for 

astronauts, engineers, and flight controllers to train and practice for scenarios they may face during Artemis missions to the Moon. The interior 

of the simulator is outfitted with Orion’s display and control system and 

crew seats to mimic what astronaut will experience during liftoff to the 

lunar vicinity and on their way back home to Earth.

• Completed the pressure vessel for the Artemis III mission at NASA’s 

Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans. The pressure vessel is the 

primary structure for Orion’s crew module, joined together using stateof-the-art welding by technicians from lead contractor Lockheed Martin. 

With the Artemis I and II spacecraft manufactured as part of the design 

and development phase, the Artemis III pressure vessel is the first crew 

module structure off the line in the long-term production phase.

• Shipped the Artemis III European Service Module structure from Thales 

Alenia Space in Turin, Italy, to Airbus facilities in Bremen, Germany, 

where it will undergo final integration before shipment to KSC in Florida.

• Began the first series of human-in-the-loop testing with astronauts and 

Orion engineers at JSC to prepare for crucial docking and undocking 

operations in lunar orbit.

Space Launch System

With the powerful SLS rocket and Orion spacecraft nearing the end of testing 

and development, NASA has the foundation needed to send humans back to lunar 

orbit. At the end of FY 2022, preparations for Artemis I were well under way, as the 

Artemis I SLS rocket completed testing and was delivered to KSC for integration. 

In FY 2021, the agency:
3National Aeronautics and Space Administration

• Conducted a successful full-duration hot fire test of the Artemis I core 

stage on March 18, 2021, at Stennis Space Center (SSC). All four RS-25 

engines, in the same configuration launched for the Artemis I mission, 

successfully ignited. With the completion of this hot fire test, all eight 

tests that comprised the Green Run testing campaign were completed, 

verifying all systems were operational ahead of the Artemis I launch.

• Shipped the core stage of the  SLS rocket to KSC on April 27, 2021. 

Engineers with EGS and lead contractor Jacobs off-loaded the core stage 

and moved it to the center’s Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) for integration atop the mobile launcher with the completed stack of solid rocket 

boosters ahead of the Artemis I launch. 

• Continued stacking of the Artemis I rocket stages, including the Launch 

Vehicle Stage Adapter (LVSA), the Interim Cryogenic Propulsion Stage 

(ICPS), and the Orion mass simulator, and completed the first integrated 

power-up. The initial power-up was a significant checkpoint in pre-launch 

processing, marking the beginning of the systematic checkouts of the 

vehicle and ground systems.

Exploration Ground Systems

Exploration Ground Systems (EGS), based at KSC, was established to develop 

and operate the systems and facilities necessary to process and launch rockets and 

spacecraft during assembly, transport, and launch. EGS prepared the infrastructure 

to support government and commercial spacecraft and rockets in development, 

including the SLS rocket and Orion spacecraft for Artemis I. In FY 2021, NASA 

performed the following tasks:

• Completed stacking of the twin  SLS solid rocket boosters for NASA’s 

Artemis I mission. Over the course of several weeks, technicians inside 

the VAB lifted and placed ten booster segments and nose assemblies on 

the mobile launcher.

• Transported the SLS core stage from the Pegasus Barge into the KSC 

VAB, where it was lifted to vertical position and stacked between the twin 

solid rocket boosters on the mobile launcher. 
4Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

• Integrated Artemis I critical flight hardware components, including the 

LVSA, Interim Cryogenic Propulsion Stage (ICPS), and Orion Stage 

Adapter (OSA). 

• Conducted simulations of crucial portions of the Artemis I countdown to 

ensure launch team readiness on launch day. Engineers and test directors 

from KSC, JSC, and Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) came together 

to perform the first joint launch countdown simulation for Artemis I.

• Retracted all access platforms in High Bay 3 of the VAB for testing ahead 

of the launch of Artemis, including the integrated modal test to enable 

the flight software and navigation systems teams to collect data used to 

guide the rocket through launch and ascent. 

• Continued building the new liquid hydrogen (LH2) storage tank at 

Launch Complex 39B at KSC capable of holding 1.25 million gallons of 

usable LH2 to support future launches from the pad, including Artemis 

missions to the Moon and on to Mars.

Advanced Exploration Systems

Through FY 2021 the Advanced Exploration Systems (AES) Division was 

responsible for programs critical to Artemis and NASA’s Moon to Mars exploration, including the Human Landing System (HLS), Gateway, exploration spacesuit development, and surface mobility systems development. In FY 2021, the AES 

team developed and matured high-priority capabilities foundational for future 

human spaceflight, in an integrated manner, beginning with the Artemis III mission. The AES Systems Engineering and Integration (SE&I) team successfully 

completed the initial baseline of the AES Concept of Operations and Systems 

Engineering Management Plan (SEMP). Both documents are cornerstones for the 

integration of multiple diverse teams and programs into a cohesive campaign of 

missions under Artemis.

Human Landing System

The Human Landing System (HLS) Program is responsible for the spacecraft 

that will carry Artemis astronauts from lunar orbit to the Moon’s surface and back 
5National Aeronautics and Space Administration

again safely. In FY 2021, the HLS Program team made significant strides to procure 

innovative systems to return humans to the Moon. The agency:

• Released a solicitation for the first lander that will take humans back 

to the Moon on the Artemis III mission. After evaluating the proposals received, NASA selected SpaceX to continue development. The 

Government Accountability Office (GAO) and Court of Federal Claims 

later affirmed this selection, allowing NASA teams to continue collaborating closely with SpaceX as they develop their human landing 

system, Starship.

• Selected five U.S. companies to advance sustainable human landing 

system concepts, conduct risk-reduction activities, and provide feedback 

on NASA’s requirements to cultivate industry capabilities for crewed 

lunar landing missions. The companies that received awards were Blue 

Origin Federation of Kent, Washington; Dynetics (a Leidos company) of 

Huntsville, Alabama; Lockheed Martin of Littleton, Colorado; Northrop 

Grumman of Dulles, Virginia; and SpaceX of Hawthorne, California. 

The selected companies began development of lander design concepts, 

evaluating their performance, design, construction standards, mission 

assurance requirements, interfaces, safety, crew health accommodations, 

and medical capabilities. This work will help mitigate lunar lander risks 

by conducting critical component tests and advancing the maturity of 

key technologies.

Gateway

In pursuit of a sustainable human exploration program, NASA identified the 

need for Gateway—humanity’s first space station in lunar orbit. Gateway will provide multipurpose support for a long-term human return to the lunar surface and 

serve as a proving ground and staging point for sustainable deep space exploration. 

In FY 2021, the Gateway team moved forward with growing existing and establishing new international and commercial partnerships, while teams around the world 

began assembling and testing the initial elements of the station.
6Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Habitation and Logistics Outpost and Power and Propulsion Element

Habitation and Logistics Outpost (HALO) will provide command, control, and 

data-handling capabilities, energy storage and power distribution, thermal control, communications, and tracking capabilities. It will be equipped with three 

docking ports for visiting vehicles and future modules, as well as space for science 

and stowage. In FY 2021, NASA finalized a contract with Northrop Grumman 

to develop HALO. Power and Propulsion Element (PPE), which is being built by 

Maxar Technologies, is a 60-kilowatt-class solar electric propulsion spacecraft that 

will provide power, high-speed communications, attitude control, and the capability to move the Gateway to different lunar orbits, providing more access to the 

Moon’s surface than ever before. Funded by NASA’s Space Technology Mission 

Directorate (STMD) under a Tipping Point public-private partnership, Maxar 

Technologies and Busek Co. conducted the initial phases of testing for the PPE 

6-kilowatt (kW) solar electric propulsion (SEP) subsystem, validating all major elements that will propel NASA’s Gateway around the Moon. The multiweek test was 

the first time the hardware was operated as a fully integrated string representative 

of the flight system.

PPE and HALO will be integrated on Earth and launch together to be pre-staged 

in lunar orbit. In FY 2021, NASA announced the selection of SpaceX to provide 

launch services for these foundational elements. Northrop Grumman will be 

responsible for attaching and testing HALO and PPE and will lead the integrated 

spacecraft turnover and launch preparation with SpaceX and support activation 

and checkout of HALO during the flight to lunar orbit. Thales Alenia Space, in 

coordination with prime contractor Northrop Grumman, initiated the assembly of 

HALO in FY 2021.

International Partnerships 

The Gateway team moved forward to solidify agreements that will help build 

the station collaboratively, growing partnerships that have been established for the 

International Space Station (ISS) and forging new ones. In FY 2021, NASA signed 

three Memoranda of Understanding (MOUs) with international partners, finalizing agreements to collaborate in the development, construction, and provisioning 

of Gateway. The specific objectives of Gateway MOUs are to provide a general 
7National Aeronautics and Space Administration

description of the Gateway and the elements composing it; provide the basis for 

cooperation between the Parties and the other Gateway partners in the detailed 

design, development, operation, and utilization of Gateway; detail the commitments and responsibilities of the parties to one another and to other Gateway 

partners; establish the management structure and interfaces necessary to ensure 

effective planning and coordination for the detailed design, development, operation, and utilization of the Gateway; and ensure that the Gateway is operated in 

a manner that is safe, sustainable, and efficient. The agreements were signed with 

the following partners:

• ESA, which will contribute habitation and refueling modules, enhanced 

lunar communications to the Gateway, and two more Orion Service 

Modules for Artemis missions. The ESA-provided International 

Habitation module, I-HAB, will enhance Gateway capabilities for scientific research, life-support systems, and crew living quarters, capabilities 

that are necessary for longer-duration crewed Gateway missions. An ESAprovided refueling module will also include crew observation windows for 

lunar image capture and maintenance.

• The Canadian Space Agency (CSA), which will provide Gateway with 

an advanced external robotics system including a next-generation robotic 

arm, Canadarm3. Canadarm3 will move end-over-end to reach many parts 

of Gateway’s exterior, where its anchoring “hand” will plug into specially 

designed interfaces. CSA also will provide robotic interfaces for Gateway 

modules, which will enable payload installation including that of the first 

two scientific instruments launching on the inaugural Gateway elements.

• The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), which will provide 

I-HAB’s environmental control and life-support system, batteries, thermal 

control, and imagery components, all of which will be integrated into 

the module by ESA prior to launch. These capabilities are critical for 

sustained Gateway operations during crewed and uncrewed time periods.

With these partners, NASA held the inaugural Gateway Multilateral Program 

Board meeting with international partner program managers from all four agencies. 

The partners discussed the Gateway schedule and were provided with an update 

on the PPE/HALO co-manifested vehicle and the Utilization Coordination Panel.
8Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Gateway Science Utilization 

In addition to progress on major elements, NASA selected the first three science instruments for Gateway. Two of them, the Heliophysics Environmental and 

Radiation Measurement Experiment Suite (HERMES) and the European Radiation 

Sensors Array (ERSA), will fly outside Gateway to monitor the Sun’s radiation 

environment and space weather. HERMES, led by NASA’s Goddard Space Flight 

Center (GSFC), will monitor lower-energy solar particles critical to scientific investigations of the Sun, including the solar winds. ERSA, led by ESA, will monitor 

radiation at higher energies with a focus on space weather. The Internal Dosimeter 

Array (IDA) will fly inside the HALO to allow for the study of radiation shielding 

effects and improve radiation physics models for cancer, cardiovascular, and central 

nervous system effects, helping assess crew risk on exploration missions. IDA is 

being built by ESA, with additional science instruments from JAXA.

Exploration Extravehicular Activity

The Exploration Extravehicular Activity (xEVA) project is responsible for the 

development of systems to support spacewalks on exploration missions, including 

the advanced spacesuits, tools, and interfaces that will be used for the first moonwalk ever performed by a woman and a person of color. In FY 2021, the xEVA 

project took the first steps to revolutionize the way NASA procures spacesuits and 

related systems. In FY 2021, the agency:

• Performed a series of simulated Extravehicular Activities (EVAs) with the 

Spacesuit Evaporation Rejection Flight Experiment (SERFE). SERFE is 

a high-fidelity representation of the Exploration Portable Life Support 

Subsystem (xPLSS) Primary Thermal Control Loop (PTCL) that was 

installed on the ISS in order to gather data on performance in microgravity. This series of simulated EVAs focused on stressing the system for the 

maximum EVA duration with heat loads at the high end of metabolic profiles. Another unit is run simultaneously on the ground to provide control 

data. NASA has established an EVA technical library, where these and 

other data relating to spacewalk systems development is being housed so 

that future EVA system providers can access it.
9National Aeronautics and Space Administration

• Successfully performed the first pressurized evaluation of the Pressure 

Garment System (PGS) Design Verification and Testing (DVT) unit 

with engineering test subjects. The PGS DVT allows NASA engineers 

to evaluate technology designed to keep astronauts safe in hazardous deep 

space conditions. This is another project that contributes data to the 

accessible library.

• Released a Request for Proposal (RFP) asking companies to compete for 

NASA’s future purchase of spacesuits and support services for spacewalks 

on the ISS, during Artemis lunar surface missions, and as needed on 

Gateway in lunar orbit. NASA is embracing commercial partnerships 

to optimize spacesuit technology and inspire innovation while building 

on more than 55 years of lessons learned during spacewalks. NASA will 

continue in-house risk reduction efforts in parallel with the services procurement and will make data available for use by commercial companies 

from its design and development work.

Lunar Terrain Vehicle

The Lunar Terrain Vehicle (LTV) is an unpressurized rover that Artemis astronauts will operate on the Moon while wearing spacesuits. Based on experience from 

the Apollo Moon landings, the addition of this mode of transportation will greatly 

increase the exploration range that astronauts can reach, enabling more exploration and science capability. In FY 2021, the LTV project team gathered information 

to enable the most effective procurement strategy possible for acquisition of the 

vehicle. In FY 2021, the agency released an update to the LTV unpressurized rover 

Request for Information (RFI). The update enabled NASA to conduct one-on-one 

meetings with industry to discuss solutions in providing the LTV as a commercial 

service or as a product NASA would purchase and own. NASA continued engagement with a follow-on industry day. The LTV RFI will help shape the Artemis 

mobility plans and ultimately achieve the greatest scientific and exploration value 

across at least a decade of missions.
10Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

AES Exploration Capabilities

Exploration Capabilities projects develop and demonstrate critical human 

exploration systems in order to reduce mission risk, validate operational concepts, 

leverage partner capabilities, and lower life-cycle costs for lunar and deep space 

missions. In FY 2021, under AES, these projects continued to advance deep space 

technologies through ground-based prototype testing, utilization of the ISS as a 

test bed, and preparation of payloads set to fly on Artemis I. In FY 2021, NASA 

launched the following AES exploration capabilities payloads to the ISS:

• The Universal Waste Management System (UWMS) is a demonstration 

of a compact toilet designed to require less maintenance and to integrate 

with multiple vehicles (including the Artemis II Orion spacecraft).

• The Spacecraft Fire Experiment-V investigation was installed to examine 

fire growth in the pressures and oxygen concentrations expected in future 

exploration spacecraft while demonstrating fire detection, combustion 

product monitoring, and post-fire cleanup using hardware similar to that 

planned for future spacecraft.

• The Airborne Particulate Monitor (APM) is a compact instrument developed to provide long-term monitoring of the number, concentration, and 

approximate size of airborne particles in microgravity environments such 

as those found in spacecraft cabins.

• The 4-bed Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Scrubber was successfully activated and 

the desiccant wheel on the Thermal Amine Scrubber was replaced on 

the ISS. The two exploration CO2 scrubber candidate systems were set 

to run for at least three years to demonstrate their reliability. The data 

from this testing will feed a downselect to determine the best scrubber for 

continued development for exploration missions.

• The Brine Processor Assembly (BPA) is designed to recover water from 

urine brine, the content left over after current water recovery processes 

are completed. BPA enabled NASA to reach its goal of recovering 

98 percent of water, supporting increased loop closure for exploration lifesupport systems.

• The Hybrid Electronic Radiation Assessor (HERA) is a radiation sensor, 

planned for use on Gateway.
11National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Also in FY 2021, the agency:

• Successfully operated the Mars Oxygen ISRU (In-Situ Resource 

Utilization) Experiment (MOXIE) aboard the Perseverance rover, funded 

jointly with STMD. MOXIE demonstrated the first production of oxygen 

from the atmosphere of Mars when it produced 5.4 grams of oxygen in 

just under an hour. While more analysis is needed to precisely determine 

the purity of the oxygen, preliminary indications are that the product was 

between 98.8 and 100 percent pure. This demonstration will enable in situ 

production of oxygen for future crews to breathe and propellants for future 

exploration vehicles to launch from Mars.

• Began 3D printing of a mockup Mars habitat that will be used for the 

Crew Health and Performance Exploration Analog (CHAPEA). The 

objectives for CHAPEA are to characterize the risk of the planned exploration food system in relation to crew health and performance and to 

inform NASA standards associated with vehicle mass and volume requirements. Four volunteers will live in CHAPEA for 387 days, and they will 

conduct simulated EVAs and teleoperate distant drones.

• Selected ten projects under Project Polaris to give early career employees 

hands-on experience in the development and management of technology activities. These projects will involve 60 early career employees across 

eight NASA centers.

In FY 2021, the agency delivered four AES exploration capabilities Artemis I 

payloads: Lunar IceCube, BioSentinel, LunIR, and NEA Scout.

• Lunar IceCube is designed to search for water and other volatiles in ice, 

liquid, and vapor states using an infrared spectrometer. Lunar IceCube 

will attempt to fly over the lunar surface in a low-perilune, highly inclined 

orbit and return valuable data to inform future Artemis missions.

• BioSentinel, a shoebox-sized CubeSat, will perform the first long-duration 

biology experiment in deep space. BioSentinel will carry yeast to fill 

critical gaps in knowledge about the health risks in deep space posed by 

space radiation.

• LunIRwill make a flyby of the Moon, mapping its surface using a miniature high-temperature Mid-Wave Infrared sensor. These data could help 
12Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

in identifying landing sites for future Moon missions and potential risks to 

astronauts on their journey to the lunar surface. Following its flyby, LunIR 

will perform maneuvers and operations that could also help design future 

space missions, both crewed and robotic.

• Near-Earth Asteroid (NEA) Scout will map a target near-Earth asteroid 

for imaging. The spacecraft will observe the asteroid’s position in space, 

its shape, rotational properties, spectral class, local dust and debris field, 

regional morphology, and regolith properties. A key element of the mission will be a solar sail—a thin and light material that uses photons from 

the Sun and their momentum to propel the small craft.

Systems Engineering and Integration Office

The Systems Engineering and Integration (SE&I) Office was responsible for 

ensuring agency strategy and goals are addressed in HEOMD mission objectives, 

architectures, requirements, acquisition strategies, and partnerships, while ensuring 

cross-directorate integration on these products.

Strategy and Architectures 

The Strategy and Architectures team was responsible for developing human mission architectures for the Moon and Mars and formulating new elements to enable 

future missions. In FY 2021, this team:

• Conducted quarterly Sync Point Reviews in October 2020, January 2021, 

April 2021, and July 2021. The Sync reviews provided opportunity for 

the lunar and Mars architecture teams to share formulation data and the 

past quarter’s analyses, synchronize commonalities between the architectures, baseline the Strategic Analysis Cycle manifest, and set priorities 

for the next quarter. Between Sync Point Reviews, the Lunar and Mars 

Architecture Teams dedicated time to updating and informing programs 

and offices across the agency on the latest analysis, forward work, and 

opportunities for engagement in the architecture.

• Advanced habitation concept development with U.S. companies. Under 

NextSTEP Appendix  A, the habitation team worked with Lockheed 
13National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Martin, Sierra Nevada, and Boeing. Work with these companies included 

ongoing prototype testing, risk-reduction studies, and two-way exchanges 

regarding NASA’s ground rules and assumptions for both in-space and 

surface habitation systems. Under a non-reimbursable space act agree-

ment, the habitation team also conducted discussions with Blue Origin 

regarding habitation and life-support systems concepts.

• Conducted regular meetings under a feasibility study with JAXA to determine the potential for JAXA to provide a pressurized rover for Artemis. • Conducted regular meetings with ESA to discuss the potential for ESA 

to provide the European Large Logistics Lander (EL3) to support Artemis 

logistics needs on the lunar surface.

• Conducted a kickoff meeting with Agenzia Spaziale Italiana (ASI). Under 

an agreement between NASA and ASI, the two agencies are conducting 

feasibility studies on possible Italian contributions to the Artemis archi-

tecture, such as development of lunar surface habitation capabilities and 

associated technologies for short-duration crewed missions to the lunar 

surface, and lunar telecommunications support.

• Sixty-six student proposals were received for the 2020–2021 Revolutionary 

Aerospace Systems Concepts–Academic Linkage University design com-

petition on “Deep Space Mission Concepts.” Topics included a minimal 

lunar surface habitat, minimal Mars ascent vehicle, crewed Venus flyby 

mission, crewed mission to Ceres, and lunar sample collection and deliv-

ery to the ISS. The Strategy and Architecture Team reviewed the propos-

als and selected 16 finalists who competed for the top prize. University of 

Puerto Rico–Mayagüez took first place and University of Texas at Austin 

took second place.

• The Mars Architecture Team engaged in discussions with American rap-

per, singer, songwriter, and record producer Pharrell Williams to establish 

YellowHab, an educational institution for underserved students in grades 

3–5 in Norfolk, Virginia. 
14Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Capabilities Integration 

The Capabilities Integration team was responsible for identifying, tracking, and 

advocating for key capabilities across NASA to fulfill human spaceflight mission 

plans. The team:

• Conducted agencywide data calls to establish a comprehensive list of 

capability gaps that represent the difference between today’s capabilities 

and those we will need to conduct future human missions in deep space. 

The list included 308 gaps, spanning 17 technical areas in the domains 

of knowledge, architecture, technology, development, and engineering.

• Began coordination with STMD to combine human spaceflight capability 

gaps and space technology gaps into one system for collaborative tracking.

Science and Technology Utilization

Science and Technology Utilization was responsible for integrating NASA’s 

science and technology utilization needs into the human spaceflight strategy. 

This team:

• Established the Cross-Artemis Site Selection Analysis Team (CASSA) 

to evaluate launch and landing options near the lunar South Pole for the 

2024–2026 timeline. With membership from HEOMD, Science Mission 

Directorate (SMD), and STMD leadership, CASSA established multidisciplinary figures of merit and communicated the figures of merit through 

all affected programs and projects.

• Established the Utilization Coordination and Integration Group, a crossdirectorate group that identifies NASA’s science and utilization goals and 

flight-specific priorities that will be enabled by human missions.

• Participated in Technical Interchange Meetings with Mohammad bin 

Rashid Space Centre (United Arab Emirates [UAE]) about the use of 

analogs in preparing for human missions in deep space. The meetings 

were in support of UAE’s requirements development for a Mars Science 

City analog facility outside Dubai. 

• Participated on the Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) Manifest 

Selection Board to represent the directorate’s interests in both proposed 
15National Aeronautics and Space Administration

candidate payloads and nominated candidate payloads to fly on flights 

commissioned by SMD.

Technical Integration

The Technical Integration team was responsible for identifying, documenting, 

and providing technical direction across the directorate. The team:

• Issued HEOMD-007, Strategic Campaign Operations Plan for Exploration, 

which connects NASA’s strategic plan and policy with HEOMD activities and implementation within the divisions and corresponding programs 

across the directorate.

• Revised HEOMD-004, Human Exploration Requirements to ensure elements in formulation were extensible to support functions needed in later 

missions of longer surface durations and greater surface infrastructure.

• Issued the following Decision Memoranda/Management Directives: 

HEO-DM-1005, Suitport Study; HEO-DM-1004, Planning Guidance 

for Artemis Mission Durations as Testbeds to Reduce Risks for Human 

Missions to Mars; HEO-DM-1006, Updated Exploration Atmospheres; 

HEO-DM-1007, Lunar Communication Relay; HEO-DM-1008, Integrated 

Exploration Capabilities Gap List; and HEO-MD-1000, HEO Document 

Flowdown.

Commercial Spaceflight Development

Commercial Crew Program

FY 2021 has been an extremely exciting timeframe for NASA’s Commercial 

Crew Program (CCP), working toward our goal of enabling U.S. Commercial Crew 

transportation, where NASA is one of many customers of a robust U.S. commercial 

space industry. 

Our Commercial Crew partner, SpaceX, completed all certification design, testing, and demonstration requirements and has been certified to carry NASA and 

International Partner astronauts on ISS crew rotation missions. 

On November 16, 2020, SpaceX launched their Crew-1 mission, their first operational Post Certification Mission (PCM). Dragon spacecraft Resilience carried four 
16Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

ISS astronauts from KSC Pad 39A to the ISS. This mission marked the first ISS 

Commercial Crew rotational mission. 

SpaceX launched their second PCM, the Crew-2 mission, on April 23, 2021. 

The Crew-2 mission, flying aboard Dragon Endeavour, represented the first reuse 

of a SpaceX Crew Dragon, having previously flown NASA crew on the Demo-2 

mission. After Endeavour docking and ISS handover, Crew-1 Dragon Resilience 

astronauts departed the ISS and landed off the coast of Florida on May 2, 2021.

Boeing has flown the reflight of their Orbital Flight Test Mission (OFT-2) and is 

making progress toward their Crew Flight Test (CFT), moving closer to completing 

their certification effort.

International Space Station (ISS)

Over more than two decades, the ISS has evolved into an advanced microgravity laboratory for human space operations and science. The space station offers 

researchers worldwide the opportunity to utilize the unique environmental conditions of low-Earth orbit (LEO), supporting hundreds of experiments across every 

major scientific field at any given time. The station’s ability to foster research has 

aided in the growing commercial space economy, allowing new players to enter 

the space marketplace and launching flourishing businesses back on Earth. The 

research done on the ISS advances scientific understanding of our planet, improves 

human health, develops cutting-edge technologies, and inspires and educates the 

leaders of tomorrow through its successful international partnerships; it is part of 

a legacy that will be felt for decades to come. Through the end of Expedition 63 

(October 2020), the ISS had hosted more than 3,040 investigations from more than 

109 countries/areas. 

Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) flights from Northrop Grumman and 

SpaceX are invaluable to enabling the research and provide needed supplies and 

hardware for ISS operations. In FY 2021, Northrop Grumman and SpaceX launched 

three cargo flights each to the ISS, totaling more than 42,500 pounds of science 

investigations, spacewalking tools, and critical supplies delivered. These cargo missions were complemented by those of our International Partners. Roscosmos provided two Progress cargo missions and a significant undock of Progress 77P, which 
17National Aeronautics and Space Administration

undocked the Docking Compartment 1 module to make room for the Multipurpose 

Laboratory Module, which docked in July 2021. Additionally, more than 10,000 

pounds of investigations and equipment were returned to researchers on Earth by 

the SpaceX Dragon capsule, while the Northrop Grumman Cygnus and Progress 

spacecraft provided significant assistance as trash removal mechanisms by performing destructive reentries. These resupply missions enabled ISS crewmembers to 

support research, maintenance, and other operational tasks.

In addition to the CRS missions, there were two successful Soyuz crew rotation 

missions in FY 2021. The departure of Soyuz 62S in October 2020 denoted the 

end of Expedition 63. Onboard Soyuz 62S were NASA astronaut Chris Cassidy

and cosmonauts Anatoly Ivanishin and Ivan Vagner of the Russian Space Agency 

Roscosmos, who had arrived on the ISS six months earlier. Marking the transition 

from Expedition 64 to Expedition 65, the Soyuz 63S spacecraft departed the ISS in 

April 2021. The Soyuz 63S, which arrived in October 2020, carried NASA astronaut Kate Rubins and cosmonauts Sergey Ryzhikov and Sergey Kud-Sverchkov 

of Roscosmos. 

There were significant crew rotation flights via NASA’s CCP during FY 2021. 

During Expedition 64, the arrival of SpaceX Crew 1 in November 2020 aboard the 

Crew Dragon was the first operational commercial mission to the space station 

with four crew members, expanding a long-duration Expedition crew to seven people for the first time. The crew, consisting of NASA astronauts Michael Hopkins, 

Victor Glover, and Shannon Walker, along with Soichi Noguchi of JAXA, spent 

six months aboard the ISS. Their splashdown off the coast of Florida, aboard the 

SpaceX Crew Dragon spacecraft Resilience, was the first nighttime splashdown of 

a U.S. crewed spacecraft since Apollo 8’s predawn return in the Pacific Ocean on 

December 27, 1968.

In April 2021, the SpaceX-Crew2 mission carried NASA astronauts Shane 

Kimbrough and Megan McArthur, JAXA astronaut Akihiko Hoshide, and ESA 

astronaut Thomas Pesquet to the ISS. They joined the Expedition 65 members 

aboard the station. Utilizing the SpaceX Crew Dragon spacecraft Endeavour, this 

would be the second long-duration mission to fly as part of NASA’s CCP, continuing to provide the capability of regularly launching humans from American soil.
18Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

For the second consecutive year, the onboard crew and ground teams supported 

13 spacewalks, or EVAs, ten of which were American EVAs. The first 2021 U.S. 

spacewalk in January performed several tasks, including the installation of an 

antenna on the station’s Columbus module. A few days later, astronauts conducted 

another spacewalk that completed a two-year effort to upgrade the batteries of 

the station’s power system, replacing 48 aging nickel-hydrogen batteries with 24 

new lithium-ion batteries and adapter plates. With the battery work complete, the 

focus turned to solar array augmentation discussed below. Another focus of the 

FY 2021 spacewalks was to complete tasks to service the station’s cooling system 

and communications gear. Spacewalkers successfully vented the early ammonia 

system, relocated one of its jumper lines, and serviced the Columbus Bartolomeo 

payload platform, including routing three of four cables on the Payload Position 

interface and configuring a cable for an amateur radio system. They replaced a 

wireless antenna assembly on the Unity module and installed hardware to provide 

additional structural integrity on the airlock.

There were six U.S. EVAs that focused on the augmentation of six of the eight 

existing power channels of the space station with new solar arrays, which were 

delivered on SpaceX’s 22nd CRS mission. The current solar arrays are functioning 

well but have begun to show signs of degradation, as expected in their 15-year 

service life design. The new solar arrays, a larger version of the Roll-Out Solar 

Array (ROSA) technology, will be positioned in front of six of the current arrays, 

ultimately increasing the station’s total available power from 160 kilowatts to up to 

215 kilowatts and ensuring sufficient power supply for NASA’s exploration technology demonstrations. The spacewalks in June 2021 installed and deployed two 

of the six new arrays and successfully assembled and attached support brackets in 

preparation for future installation of additional ISS ROSA (iROSA) solar arrays.

In FY 2021, the ISS National Laboratory (ISSNL) flew 88 payloads, the secondmost ever launched in a single fiscal year, despite the COVID-19 pandemic 

sweeping the nation. The ISSNL Space Station Explorer education program 

engaged nearly 3.8 million people. Furthermore, 70 percent of the participants 

in the Space Station Explorers programs were female and 40 percent represented 

underserved communities.
19National Aeronautics and Space Administration

All except one action from the ISSNL Independent Review Team (IRT) were 

closed in FY 2021. Changes to the Center for the Advancement of Science in 

Space (CASIS), the management entity of the ISSNL, were implemented as a 

result of the IRT in FY 2021. These included naming an Interim Chief Executive 

Officer, who oversaw the recruitment search for the permanent Chief Executive 

Officer, who took office in FY 2021. The CASIS Board was restructured under new 

leadership, and an ISSNL User Advisory Committee was created. Additionally, the 

NASA Liaison position was moved from the Commercial Spaceflight Division to 

the ISS Division.

Human Spaceflight Capabilities

Human Research Program

The Human Research Program (HRP) conducts research and gathers scientific 

findings that aid in developing procedures and mitigations to lessen the effects 

of the space environment on the health and performance of humans working 

in microgravity and other space settings. With the goal of traveling to Mars and 

beyond, the Program also utilizes ground research facilities, the ISS, and other 

ground-based analog environments to develop procedures and to further research 

areas that are unique to Mars. 

In FY 2021, HRP completed the following key milestones:

• Astronaut Mark Vande Hei, who completed 355 days in space on March 

30, 2022, participated in studies of an enhanced diet during spaceflight 

and its impact on human immune response and nutritional status, menu 

fatigue and food acceptability over time in a closed food system, core 

measurements to characterize the human body’s adaptations, analysis of 

injuries to the crew during Soyuz landings, continuous fresh-food production and supplementation to astronaut diets, and the maintenance of 

biological specimens over an extended period to support studies on physiological changes.

• The JSC Human Exploration Research Analog (HERA) facility conducts 

four 45-day missions per year as part of a campaign of research where four 

crewmembers participate in a simulated mission studying the effects of 
20Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

isolation and confinement. HERA Campaign 6 was initially delayed due 

to COVID-19, and FY 2021 was spent preparing for campaign recruiting 

and screening crewmembers and determining how to conduct the missions safely. Campaign 6 Mission 1 began in September 2021.

• New research was initiated in FY 2021 to award $20.8 million to fund 22 

proposals from 20 institutions in 13 states as a result of the 2019 Human 

Exploration Research Opportunity (HERO).

• HRP supported the first ambient blood samples to be returned on a 

SpaceX cargo flight, providing another return option for these critical 

samples for a mid-mission data collection. 

• The ISS Fluid Shifts inflight study completed its final data collection that 

helped characterize spaceflight-induced fluid shifts and their relationship 

to eye and brain structural changes or Spaceflight Associated Neuroocular Syndrome (SANS).

• The Level of Care IV Medical System Foundation to the Human Health 

and Performance Directorate Gateway Crew Health and Performance 

Systems Manager was completed. This foundation provided a model-based 

systems engineering tool for requirements management.

• HRP worked with the German Aerospace Center (DLR) to conduct a 

series of 30-day strict head-down-tilt bed rest campaigns at the :envihab 

facility in Cologne, Germany. Investigations included sensorimotor, cardiovascular, musculoskeletal, and behavioral responses; immunological 

function; and visual impairment to study potential countermeasures (CM) 

for Spaceflight Associated Neuro-ocular Syndrome (SANS). SANS is a 

unique syndrome observed in spaceflight in which changes have been 

found in the shape of the eye over time, a pattern of changes and symptoms that have been replicated in :envihab bed rest campaigns by following the strict head-down-tilt protocol. The SANS CM study consists of 

four campaigns, with Campaign 1 completed in October 2021.

Rocket Propulsion Test

The Rocket Propulsion Test (RPT) Capability Portfolio Program is responsible 

for strategic management and sustainment of NASA’s expertise and facilities 
21National Aeronautics and Space Administration

for testing of rocket engines. In FY 2021, RPT test facilities supported NASA, 

Commercial, Defense, and NASA International Space Partner requirements for 

purposes of component, engine, and rocket stage level of testing. RPT delivered 

test capabilities to support technology advancement, capability demonstration, 

risk retirement, and hardware qualification and launch readiness for more than 

500 tests (over 20,000 seconds).

The most significant accomplishment of FY 2021 was the successful hot fire of 

the SLS core stage (four RS-25 engines) on the B-2 test stand at SSC in Mississippi. 

This test was a critical qualification milestone ahead of the agency’s Artemis 1 mission. Another important achievement was completion of a series of seven Artemis 

RS-25 engine tests on the SSC A-1 Test Stand to evaluate manufacturing changes 

to the RS-25 engines in demonstration and verification of engine capabilities. 

In the SSC Complex-E Test Stands where engines of lesser thrust capacity and 

components are tested, testing for multiple commercial partners and subscale diffuser testing to validate the test system configuration for the Exploration Upper 

Stage (EUS) were conducted. At MSFC, Test Stands 115 and 116 completed tests 

primarily of NASA developmental hardware and commercial subscale engines and 

components. White Sands Test Facility (WSTF) personnel completed a series of 

Service Module tests for the ESA and in support of the Department of Defense’s 

Minuteman Aging Surveillance Program. At the Glenn Research Center’s 

Armstrong Test Facility, revitalization of the In-Space Propulsion Facility (ISPF) 

steam ejector system continued, as well as preparatory work for proto-qualification 

testing of the Sierra Nevada Dream Chaser Cargo System (DCCS) in the ISPF.

Launch Services Program

NASA’s Launch Services Program (LSP) unites scientific and robotic spacecraft 

customers’ needs with the appropriate rocket, managing the process to ensure the 

spacecraft is placed in orbit around Earth or the Sun, or powered to destinations 

deeper into the solar system. The LSP continuously works with the U.S. commercial launch industry, assessing their designs and providing advice in an effort 

to expand the selection of domestic launch vehicles available to NASA’s missions, 

thereby nurturing a competitive commercial launch service environment. 
22Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

In FY 2021, LSP successfully launched two NASA science missions. Sentinel-6 

Michael Freilich launched aboard a Falcon 9 Full Thrust in November 2020, followed by Landsat-9 aboard an Atlas V in September 2021. Both missions launched 

from Vandenberg Space Force Base (VSFB) in California. LSP also acquired a total 

of three new launch services for NASA missions. All three services were competitively awarded launch services task orders under the NASA Launch Services 

(NLS)  II contract for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA), NASA’s HEOMD, and the Science Mission Directorate (SMD), respectively. The Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite U (GOES-U) 

will launch aboard a Falcon Heavy in April 2024; the Gateway’s PPE and HALO 

launching aboard a Falcon Heavy in November 2024, in support of the agency’s 

Artemis Program; followed by the Spectro-Photometer for the History of the 

Universe, Epoch of Reionization, and Ices Explorer (SPHEREx) spacecraft, along 

with the secondary payload Polarimeter to Unify the Corona and Heliosphere 

(PUNCH), which will launch aboard a Falcon 9 Full Thrust in February 2025. 

GOES-U and PPE+HALO are planned for launch from KSC in Florida, and 

SPHEREx and PUNCH will launch from VSFB. In addition to awarding NLS contracts, NASA also awarded two other one-off contracts for SMD’s Time-Resolved 

Observations of Precipitation structure and storm Intensity with a Constellation 

of SmallSats (TROPICS) and Europa Clipper missions. Along with full end-to-end 

launch service management, the program also offers advisory support, expertise, 

and knowledge to NASA programs and projects utilizing launch services not procured and managed by LSP. As of the end of FY 2022, the program was currently 

providing these advisory services to several programs and missions, including the 

ISS Cargo Resupply Service missions; the CCP, Artemis, and Gateway Programs; 

and SMD’s James Webb Space Telescope and the NASA–Indian Space Research 

Organization Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) mission.

The Venture Class Launch Services (VCLS) contracts were established to foster 

a commercial launch market dedicated to flying small-satellite payloads. VCLS 

serves as an alternative to the current rideshare approach, in which one or more 

CubeSats or other small payloads take advantage of excess payload capacity on a 

rocket whose primary mission is to launch a larger satellite. The VCLS rockets 

also serve as a cost-effective launch option for small-satellite primary missions with 
23National Aeronautics and Space Administration

a higher risk tolerance. In December 2020, NASA awarded a follow-on contract 

to VCLS called VCLS Demonstration 2 (VCLS Demo 2) to Astra Space Inc. of 

Alameda, California; Relativity Space Inc. of Long Beach, California; and Firefly 

Black LLC of Cedar Park, Texas. In January 2021, Virgin Orbit’s LauncherOne 

launch vehicle (the second mission under the original VCLS contract) successfully 

launched ten NASA CubeSats to LEO.

In addition, NASA and LSP continue to partner with several universities and 

NASA Centers to launch small research satellites through the CubeSat Launch 

Initiative (CSLI), providing rideshare opportunities for small-satellite payloads to 

fly on upcoming launches when space is available. These partnerships have provided regular educational opportunities for students in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics disciplines, thereby strengthening the Nation’s future 

workforce. As of the end of FY 2021, CubeSats have been selected from 42 states, 

the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico, with 124 missions launched and 38 

manifested on NASA, National Reconnaissance Office, U.S. Air Force, and commercial missions. In FY 2021, 20 CSLI CubeSat missions were launched.

Certification activities are also ongoing with United Launch Alliance’s Vulcan, 

SpaceX’s Falcon Heavy, and Alpha’s Firefly launch vehicles. Planning activities 

for certification of Blue Origin’s New Glenn launch vehicle is also underway. 

Certifying a provider’s launch vehicle enhances NASA’s understanding of commercially built launch vehicles and enables LSP to better identify and manage launch 

risks. Certification also enhances competition, as it results in multiple qualified 

launch vehicles and launch providers. The LSP will continue to work toward certifying new commercial launch vehicles to launch high-value payloads.

Space Communications and Navigation

NASA’s Space Communications and Navigation (SCaN) program is responsible 

for leading NASA’s space communications, navigation, and tracking activities 

in support of NASA’s missions, including human space exploration and science 

missions. SCaN develops advanced space communication and navigation (C&N) 

technology, such as optical and quantum communications technologies, and serves 

as the agency’s representative in domestic and internationals forums related to 
24Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

spectrum management; space communication architectures and data standards; 

and position, navigation, and timing (PNT) policy.

SCaN operates and maintains two space communications networks—the Deep 

Space Network (DSN) and the Near Space Network (NSN). The NSN is composed of ground networks supporting Direct-to-Earth (DTE) communications and 

the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS) system, which provide space relay 

communications to spacecraft below geosynchronous orbit.

In FY 2021, SCaN completed the following: 

• Provided 234,046 tracking passes for 300,773 hours of service while maintaining an extremely high proficiency level of over 99 percent, well above 

the 95 percent requirement.

• Completed 31,314 passes for 22,135 hours of service provided by SCaN’s 

commercial DTE partners at a proficiency rate of 99.89 percent.

• Provided 24/7 global near-Earth and deep space communication and 

navigation services to more than 100 NASA programs and other U.S. 

Government, international civil space agencies, and commercial missions. This support included human spaceflight C&N requirements of the 

ISS, commercial crew launches, and science missions including the Mars 

Perseverance rover.

• Provided launch and early-orbit telemetry, tracking, and communication services to more than 6 Expendable Launch Vehicles and 11 human 

spaceflight missions through its networks.

• Worked transition activities with NSN customers in preparation for the 

completion of the Space Network Ground Segment Sustainment (SGSS) 

project, including support to SGSS for project integration, testing, deployment, training, and transition to operations.

• Transferred a new 34-meter antenna at the Madrid Deep Space 

Communications Complex to site personnel for maintenance activities 

and successfully delivered for operations on January 22, 2021. The new 

antenna, Deep Space Station 56 (DSS-56) supports the required network 

capacity increase for the Artemis missions.

• Reorganized SCaN’s operations at GSFC, home of the former Near-Earth 

Network (NEN) and Space Network (SN), to better align with SCaN’s 
25National Aeronautics and Space Administration

commercialization plans. Established the Advanced Communications 

Capabilities for Exploration and Science Systems (ACCESS) project to 

operate and maintain NASA’s government-owned, contractor-operated 

ground- and flight-based systems. The ACCESS project is a service pro-

vider to the Exploration and Space Communications’ NSN, which orches-

trates mission communications services through both government and 

commercial assets.

• Awarded six Space Act Agreements with a combined value of $278.5 mil-

lion for in-space demonstrations of commercial SATCOM capabilities to 

transition NASA away from TDRS later in the decade. Partners include 

Inmarsat, Kuiper Government Solutions, SES Government Solutions, 

Space Exploration Technologies, Telesat U.S. Services LLC, and Viasat 

Incorporated. NASA expects each company to match or exceed Agency 

contributions during the five-year development and demonstration period, 

totaling more than $1.5 billion of cost-share investment.

• Completed an Agency Acquisition Strategy Council Acquisition Strategy 

Meeting, subsequent Procurement Strategy Meeting, and industry days to 

release an Indefinite Delivery/Indefinite Quantity contract for near-Earth 

and Lunar C&N services as part of SCaN’s transition to commercial services in the near-Earth domain by 2030.

• Delivered the first formal Artemis communications loading analysis to 

HEOMD and SMD. The analysis identified emerging risks to Artemis 

related to DSN and NSN capacity available to support the multiple 

Artemis flight vehicles, including the SLS, Orion, Gateway, HLS, and the 

LTV. SCaN is working with HEOMD and SMD to translate any identi-

fied capacity or capability risk into mitigation approaches to enable the 

Artemis campaigns while minimizing potential impacts to the rest of the 

agency. SCaN continues to update the Artemis loading analysis product 

as user needs and manifest dates are updated by HEOMD.

• Supported the Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems 

(CCSDS), an international organization of 11 spacefaring nations, with 

representation from SCaN as the General Secretary of the CCSDS 

Management Council.
26Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

• Supported the Interagency Operations Advisory Group (IOAG) as NASA’s 

representative to ensure data and communications standards are developed in coordination with agency architecture plans. SCaN engaged in 

key discussions and studies related to interoperability and cross-support for 

future Moon and Mars missions, mission operations, optical communications, space internetworking, and other key issues. SCaN also continued to 

serve as the Executive Secretariat for the IOAG. The IOAG conducted six 

virtual meetings to advance the work of the various working groups in FY 

2021. The IOAG is primarily focused on lunar communications, including 

developing a joint lunar communications architecture with defined spectrum and standards to enable interoperability. Another group focused on a 

similar architecture for Mars and beyond. The IOAG welcomed its newest 

observer agency, the Australian Space Agency (ASA), in FY 2021.

• Published the LunaNet Interoperability Specification Document as a 

starting point for technical discussions among industry and government 

experts from around the world regarding lunar communications architecture. LunaNet is a planned lunar communications and navigation architecture that brings networking, PNT, and science services to the Moon. 

It is based on a framework of mutually agreed–upon standards, protocols, 

and interface requirements that enable interoperability and missions to 

benefit from a diverse set of government and commercial service providers.

• Advanced studies for the 2023 World Radiocommunication Conference 

(WRC-23) to investigate the feasibility of using Fixed Satellite Service 

(FSS) systems to provide space-to-space communications support to science missions. The ability to exchange data via existing FSS providers 

allows space users the flexibility to connect to additional networks based 

on mission needs and not be limited to a single network solution.

• Established a Lunar Spectrum Manager (LSM) to coordinate, study, and 

identify appropriate frequency bands to support the lunar architecture, 

including communication, position, navigation, and science services. The 

institution of a globally adopted lunar spectrum plan is essential for an 

interference-free and sustainable environment for all lunar missions—federal, international, and commercial.
27National Aeronautics and Space Administration

• Coordinated with the National Telecommunications and Information 

Administration (NTIA) to gain support and partnership for NASA’s LSM 

to enable technical pre-coordination for all federal missions to the lunar 

region ahead of the regulatory filing process.

• SCaN sponsored the Lunar GNSS Receiver Experiment (LuGRE), which 

was selected as one of ten payloads on Firefly Aerospace’s Blue Ghost 

Mission-1, to land on the Moon in 2024. The experiment will validate 

the use of Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) signals to support 

navigation and science throughout cislunar space and the lunar surface.

• Renewed the charter of the National Space-Based PNT Advisory Board 

(PNTAB) and expanded its membership to reflect the added priorities in 

Space Policy Directive 7. Since 2007, SCaN has supported PNTAB as its 

Executive Director.

• Supported the Deep Space Atomic Clock (DSAC) mission as it completed 

its extended mission and further cemented its record-setting long-term 

stability performance, reducing ground support costs by servicing multiple 

assets in a single antenna footprint.

Realignment of NASA’s Exploration Programs

In FY 2021, after careful consideration, NASA’s leadership team decided to 

organize the agency’s exploration programs into two separate mission directorates, replacing the Human Exploration and Operations Mission Directorate: a 

Space Operations Mission Directorate (SOMD) will focus on launch and space 

operations, including the International Space Station (ISS), the commercialization 

of low-Earth orbit, and, eventually, sustaining operations in the vicinity of the 

Moon; and an Exploration Systems Development Mission Directorate (ESDMD) 

will define and manage systems development for programs critical to NASA’s 

Artemis program and plan for NASA’s Moon to Mars exploration approach in an 

integrated manner.

NASA is set on returning astronauts to the Moon as preparation for future missions to Mars, and this reorganization positions NASA and the United States for 

future exploration while supporting the continued commercialization of space and 
28Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

research on the ISS. Creating two separate mission directorates ensures these critical areas have focused oversight teams in place to support and execute for mission 

success. This approach allows one mission directorate to operate in space while the 

other builds future space systems, so we have a constant cycle of development and 

operations to advance our goals in space exploration. 
29National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Exploration Systems Development Mission Directorate in FY 2022 

(Formerly Part of HEOMD)

Common Exploration Systems Development (Formerly Exploration Systems 

Development)

The Common Exploration Systems Development (CESD) programs—the SLS, 

Orion, and Exploration Ground Systems—provide the foundation for humanity’s 

return to the Moon and exploration beyond. Progress steadily continued toward 

the uncrewed Artemis I mission, the first integrated test of the CESD programs 

that paves the way for future crewed Artemis missions.

Orion

Orion serves as the exploration vehicle that will carry the crew to space, provide 

emergency abort capability, sustain astronauts during their missions, and provide 

safe reentry from deep space return velocities. In FY 2022, NASA, along with the 

ESA, continued preparations for the Artemis I launch including integration and 

checkout, while concurrently completing work on Artemis II, III, and IV. The 

integrated Artemis I spacecraft was moved from the Launch Abort System Facility 

at KSC to the Vehicle Assembly Building, where engineers and technicians successfully secured the Orion spacecraft atop the fully assembled SLS rocket and 

completed stacking of the Artemis I vehicle. In FY 2022, the agency also:

• Completed payload integration and finalization of preparations for the 

Artemis I launch.

• Completed the shipment of the Artemis II European Service Module 

(ESM) to KSC. Built by teams at ESA and aerospace corporation Airbus, 

the ESM will be used with NASA’s Orion spacecraft for Artemis II, the 

first Artemis mission flying crew aboard Orion.

• Completed the shipment of the Artemis III crew module pressure vessel from NASA’s Michoud Assembly Facility (MAF) in New Orleans to 

KSC. The pressure vessel is the underlying frame of the crew module that 

provides an airtight, habitable space for astronauts during the mission.
30Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

• Began and made significant progress welding the crew module pressure 

vessel for Artemis IV at NASA’s MAF Facility in New Orleans.

• Powered on the crew module and ESM for the Artemis II mission for the 

first time inside the Neil Armstrong Operations and Checkout Building 

at KSC. Initial power-on tests verify the health and status of Orion’s core 

computers and power and data units, and ensure the systems communicate precisely with one another to accurately route power and functional 

commands throughout the spacecraft.

• Successfully tested the abort motor built by Northrop Grumman for 

the launch abort system at the company’s facility in Promontory, Utah. 

During the third and final static hot fire test under ambient conditions, 

the abort motor produced nearly 400,000 pounds of thrust during a foursecond burn and verified a new insulation material in the motor casing 

and exhaust manifold. The system is now qualified and ready for flight on 

missions with astronauts, beginning with Artemis II.

• Completed the shipment of the Artemis IV ESM structure from Thales 

Alenia Space in Turin, Italy, to Airbus facilities in Bremen, Germany, 

where it will undergo final integration before shipment to KSC.

Space Launch System

The powerful SLS rocket and Orion spacecraft represent NASA’s foundation for 

sending humans back to lunar orbit. Stacking, mating, integration, and checkout 

were completed for the SLS rocket. The wet dress rehearsals and launch attempts 

provided tremendous learning for cryo-loading operations. 

In FY 2022, the agency successfully demonstrated cryogenic operations 

with a tanking test during which bleed kick start and pre-press test were 

successfully completed. 

In FY 2022, NASA continued to make progress on launch vehicle components 

for Artemis II, III, and IV.

• Structural assembly of the Artemis III core stage liquid hydrogen tank was 

completed, and the engine section underwent bracket and other hardware installation. The forward skirt barrel section for Artemis IV was 

also completed.
31National Aeronautics and Space Administration

• Began testing of critical components for the Block 1B.

• Successfully conducted the static test of Flight Support Booster-2 at 

Northrop Grumman’s plant in Promontory, Utah, on July 21, 2022, testing components and materials slated for use in flights beyond Artemis III.

• Completed and placed in storage all ten booster motor segments for 

Artemis III.

• Completed and shipped for integration into the Core Stage all four 

RS-25 engines for Artemis II and completed three of the four engines for 

Artemis III.

• Completed acceptance review for RS-25 engines scheduled to fly on the 

Artemis III mission, while also delivering the first valve actuator for installation into RS-25 Restart Certification engine 10001 for testing later this year.

In FY 2022, NASA continued work to establish the Agency Baseline 

Commitment (ABC) for SLS Block 1B.

Exploration Ground Systems

EGS, based at KSC in Florida, was established to develop and operate the systems and facilities necessary to process and launch rockets and spacecraft during 

assembly, transport, and launch. In FY 2022, the agency:

• Completed stacking the Orion Stage Adapter and Orion and performed 

the integrated vehicle interface verification test, end-to-end communications test, countdown sequence test, core stage Program Specific 

Engineering Test, flight termination test part 1, and wet dress rehearsal.

• Performed rollout of the SLS rocket and Orion spacecraft for the first 

two Artemis I launch attempts. Following attempts completed cryogenic 

tanking demonstration at Pad 39B and met all objectives in preparation 

for the third Artemis I launch attempt.

• Completed construction of the LH2 tank at Pad 39B, capable of 

storing 1.25 million gallons of liquid hydrogen, supporting future 

Artemis missions.

• Completed Underway Recovery Test 9, verifying the Exploration Ground 

System’s recovery operations for Artemis I.

• Continued work on establishing the ABC for the Mobile Launcher-2.
32Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Artemis Campaign Development (formerly Advanced Exploration Systems)

Through FY 2022, the ESDMD’s Artemis Campaign Development (ACD) 

Division was responsible for programs that will establish sustainable human exploration through Artemis missions, including the Human Landing System (HLS), 

Gateway, exploration spacesuit development, and surface mobility systems development. ACD’s work is composed of the former AES portfolio, with the addition 

of responsibility for integration work beginning with the Artemis III mission. In 

FY 2022, the ACD team developed and matured high-priority capabilities foundational for future human space exploration and continued planning and integration 

for Artemis missions beginning with Artemis III.

Human Landing System

In FY 2022, the HLS Program team made significant strides to procure innovative systems to return humans to the Moon, including increasing opportunities for 

U.S. companies to participate in this history-making work. In FY 2022, the agency:

• Signed contracts with the five companies that were previously selected 

in FY 2021 to advance sustainable HLS concepts, conduct risk-reduction 

activities, and provide feedback on NASA’s requirements to cultivate 

industry capabilities for crewed lunar landing missions. The NASA HLS 

team conducted reviews with the companies throughout FY 2022.

• Continued to work with SpaceX as they develop their landing system for 

Artemis III. NASA leadership made several site visits to SpaceX facilities, 

meeting with the teams to confirm the status of timelines and milestones.

• Updated the approach for obtaining sustaining lunar landing services for 

missions beyond Artemis III. While the overall strategy remains the same, 

NASA separated the development of sustaining landers from the purchase 

of recurring services. This change allowed the agency to open a new sustaining lander acquisition to U.S. industry, excluding SpaceX, which has 

an opportunity to build a sustaining lander through a built-in option under 

its current contract for an initial lander. The requirements for sustaining 

landers are more advanced than the initial lander requirements, including 

capabilities to accommodate additional crew, and docking to the Gateway. 
33National Aeronautics and Space Administration

This updated approach increased competition and industry flexibility to 

achieve the agency’s exploration goals under Artemis. The separate procurement for recurring services flights will begin at a later date.

Gateway

Assembled by NASA and its international and commercial partners during 

Artemis missions, Gateway will serve as humanity’s first lunar orbiting space station. It will provide multipurpose support for a long-term human return to the 

lunar surface serving as a proving ground and staging point for sustainable deep 

space exploration. In FY 2022, the Gateway team continued building a strong 

coalition of international and commercial partners, while teams around the world 

continued assembly and testing of the initial elements of the station.

Habitation and Logistics Outpost and Power and Propulsion Element 

The agency completed the Critical Design Review (CDR) of HALO. NASA and 

partner teams continued development of HALO systems and hardware, including 

the HALO Lunar Communication System (HLCS). The HLCS, an ESA contribution, is a communications relay to Earth and will launch on the outside of HALO, 

providing multiple paths of communication between expeditions on the lunar 

surface and the Gateway. The HLCS will be capable of providing live HD video 

streaming, allowing people around the world to view the Moon like never before. 

NASA continued PPE electric propulsion system testing for both the 12 kilowatt 

and 6 killowatt electric propulsion components.

International Partnerships 

NASA supported ESA in their successful completion of the International 

Habitat (I-HAB) system-level Preliminary Design Review (PDR). The board, which 

was led by the ESA with NASA participation, noted challenges for launch mass 

but identified actions and mitigation options to address them, demonstrating successful integration of the teams. I-HAB entered the next stage of design, and the 

Gateway team performed a series of subsystem PDRs. These reviews contributed to 

Gateway’s PDR-informed Sync Review, another critical milestone and marker of 

collaboration across all the teams.
34Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Exploration Extravehicular Activity 

In FY 2022, NASA stood up the EVA and Human Surface Mobility (HSM) 

Program (EHP) supporting both the Space Operations Mission Directorate and 

the Exploration Systems Development Mission Directorate. The program is composed of several key elements, including ISS EVA, Exploration EVA, or xEVA; the 

LTV; and EVA and HSM technology development and partnerships. The team is 

responsible for development of safe, reliable, and effective capabilities that allow 

astronauts to survive and work outside the confines of a base spacecraft in order to 

explore on and around the Moon. The new program worked to establish the team 

necessary to continue the work of the xEVA and LTV projects and began developing business rhythms. In FY 2022, NASA: 

• Completed a human-in-the-loop check-out of the 20-foot Chamber, a 

facility used to evaluate new pre-breathe protocols at varying vehicle and 

suit pressures to minimize decompression sickness risk to crew when conducting lunar surface EVAs during Artemis missions. 

• Released the xEVA Services (xEVAS) Request for Proposal (RFP). NASA 

invited companies to compete to provide next-generation spacesuits and 

spacewalk systems for work outside the ISS, exploration of the lunar surface on Artemis missions, and potential Gateway EVAs. After evaluating the proposals, NASA announced the selection of Axiom Space and 

Collins Aerospace. The contract enables the selected vendors to compete 

for task orders for missions that will provide a full suite of capabilities for 

NASA’s spacewalking needs during the period of performance through 

2034. The agency awarded the first task order on the xEVAS contract to 

Axiom Space. Axiom was selected to develop a next-generation Artemis 

spacesuit and supporting systems, and to demonstrate their use on the 

lunar surface during Artemis III. 

• Completed assembly of the Exploration Extravehicular Mobility Unit 

(xEMU) integrated Design Verification Testing (DVT) unit—used to 

test spacesuit technology in an integrated manner. The team exceeded 

expectations by verifying additional components and functions. As with 

all other NASA risk reduction efforts in this area, the results will be made 

available to xEVAS contract vendors through the EVA technical library.
35National Aeronautics and Space Administration

• Completed “survive the night” investigations to determine the requirements the LTV must meet in order to withstand long, cold lunar nights. 

The LTV team is collaborating with the Volatiles Investigating Polar 

Exploration Rover (VIPER) team to understand the different strategies to 

survive extended periods of darkness and cold.

• Completed the sixth and final on-orbit testing cycle of the Spacesuit 

Evaporation Rejection Flight Experiment (SERFE) ISS payload, which 

represents all the primary components of the xEMU thermal control 

system. The ISS SERFE payload successfully performed a total of 25 simulated EVAs with no maintenance over a period of 2 years. The unit was 

returned from the ISS for analysis. All findings will be published by the 

EHP EVA Development Project to the EVA Technical Library and made 

available to the Exploration EVA Services (xEVAS) contractor teams. 

AES Exploration Capabilities

Exploration Capabilities projects continue to be critical to NASA’s preparation for long-duration human exploration missions to the Moon and Mars. In 

FY 2022, under ACD, these projects continued to advance deep space technologies 

for human health, safety, and productivity through ground-based prototype testing, utilization of the ISS as a test bed, and preparation of payloads set to fly on 

Artemis I. In FY 2022, the agency:

• Launched ACD exploration capabilities payloads to the ISS and continued work with projects including:

• The eXposed Root On-Orbit Test System (XROOTS), which investigates hydroponic and aeroponic techniques to grow plants without 

soil or other growth media. 

• An advanced hydrogen sensor used to detect leaks from the Oxygen 

Generation Assembly. The current hydrogen sensors drift and must 

be replaced every 210 days; the new sensor does not need to be 

changed as often.

• The Hybrid Electronics Radiation Assessor (HERA) payload. The 

HERA team received a Space Flight Awareness Team Award for 

hardware delivery and operations.
36Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

• The Crew Health and Performance Exploration Analog (CHAPEA), 

which received thousands of applications for the 1-year simulated 

mission. 3D printing of the habitat was completed, the airlock module 

of the habitat was installed, and a sandbox with enclosing dome has 

been built for simulated spacewalks.

• NASA contributed to South Korea’s Korea Pathfinder Lunar Orbiter 

(KPLO) mission, successfully launched in FY 2022. NASA supplied one of 

five instruments aboard KPLO, the ShadowCam, which will image lunar 

ice in permanently shadowed craters. The Science Mission Directorate 

(SMD), in partnership with ACD, also supported the mission with the 

competition and selection of nine additional participating scientists to 

support NASA’s ShadowCam instrument as well as the four other KPLO 

instrument science teams. SMD has provided three years of funding for 

additional support. 

All four ACD exploration capabilities Artemis I payloads, Lunar IceCube, 

BioSentinel, LunIR, and NEA Scout, were successfully integrated into the SLS 

rocket’s Orion stage adapter in preparation for launch. In November 2021, Popular 

Science recognized Near-Earth Asteroid (NEA) Scout as one of the greatest innovations of FY 2022.

Systems Engineering and Integration Office 

Due to a directorate reorganization in September 2021, the Human Exploration 

and Operations Systems Engineering and Integration (SE&I) Office functions were 

redistributed to two new offices—the Architecture Development Office (ADO) 

and the Technical Integration Office (TIO)—in the newly established Exploration 

Systems Development Mission Directorate.

Architecture Development Office

ADO is responsible for architecture development for future human missions to 

Mars and integration with the international partner strategy. In FY 2022, ADO:

• Conducted quarterly Sync Point Reviews in October 2021, January 2022, 

March 2022, and July 2022. The Sync reviews provided the opportunity 
37National Aeronautics and Space Administration

for the lunar and Mars architecture teams to share formulation data and 

the past quarter’s analyses, synchronize commonalities between the archi-

tectures, baseline the Strategic Analysis Cycle manifest, and set priorities 

for the next quarter. • Between Sync Point Reviews, the Lunar and Mars Architecture 

Teams dedicated time to updating and informing programs and offices 

across the agency on the latest analysis, forward work, and opportuni-

ties for engagement in the architecture. Under existing Space Act 

agreements, the Lunar and Mars Architecture Teams also were able 

to engage with U.S. companies to discuss architecture approaches.

• The Mars Architecture Team engaged in topics of significant internal 

interest, including NASA’s Office of Planetary Protection’s updated 

ground rules for human missions to Mars, Mars mission abort sce-

narios, propulsion system trades, cryo-fluid management, surface 

power, communications delays, crew health and performance, and 

medical systems.

• The Mars Architecture Team also consulted with the Mars Sample 

Return team and Mars Ingenuity team to identify synergies between 

the robotic missions and future human missions and possible enhance-

ments to the human architecture enabled by the robotic missions.

• The Lunar Architecture Team assessed and shared results of surface 

habitat mass reduction strategies, surface architecture, infrastructure, 

logistics, and science deployment considerations. 

• Continued Technical Interchange Meetings with the Japan Aerospace 

Exploration Agency (JAXA) regarding concept of operations, require-

ments, landed mass, lunar night survival, and medical capabilities for an 

Artemis pressurized rover. An expanded agreement included the abil-

ity for JAXA astronauts and engineers to participate in NASA’s Desert 

Research and Technology Studies (D-RATS) in Arizona. As feasibility 

discussions mature for the potential for JAXA to provide the Artemis 

pressurized rover, the field test in Arizona provides a hands-on experience 

for NASA and JAXA to conduct field research on the pressurized rover’s 

functionality, capabilities, and limitations. 
38Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

• Released the Strategic Campaign Operations Plan for Exploration 

(SCOPE) on the NASA Technical Reports Server. SCOPE ensures a 

common baseline for discussions with existing and potential partners who 

may offer contributions to Artemis or initial human missions to Mars. 

The document introduces exploration goals, as well as ground rules and 

assumptions, across four human exploration campaign segments ranging 

from low-Earth orbit to Mars.

• Conducted technical exchanges with the CSA related to lunar surface 

mobility use cases for robots as future contributions to the surface architecture. A study agreement is in work to continue conversations and 

determine the desired contributions. 

• Held discussions with Agenzia Spaziale Italiana (ASI) regarding potential 

lunar surface habitation collaboration, including their proposed MultiPurpose Habitation module. 

• Continued discussions with Mohammad Bin Rashid Space Centre regarding their plans for a “Mars City” near Dubai that can be used to conduct 

Mars analog missions. 

• Conducted technical exchanges with the ESA on potential contributions including a cislunar transit vehicle (CLTV) and the European Large 

Logistics lander (EL3). The EL3 would be nominally used to support 

logistics delivery to the lunar surface. The CLTV could be used to move 

elements between low-Earth orbit and cislunar space.

• Hosted an architecture overview with the Taiwan Space Agency.

• Supported an initial virtual meeting with representatives from the State 

Space Agency of Ukraine (SSAU) and related Ukrainian space organizations. The two sides exchanged a summary of current activities and 

plans related to the Moon; Ukraine has signed the Artemis Accords. The 

Ukrainian side presented several capabilities they believe could form the 

basis of a lunar partnership with NASA sometime in the future.

• Forty-one student proposals were received for the 2021–2022 Revolutionary 

Aerospace Systems Concepts–Academic Linkage University design 

competition in four categories: Portable Utility Pallet, Universal Sample 

Containment System, Mars Water-Based In-Situ Resource Utilization 
39National Aeronautics and Space Administration

(ISRU) Architecture, and Suitport Logistics Carrier. ADO selected 15 

finalists. Massachusetts Institute of Technology took the top prize with 

the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign taking second place. 

• ADO took an active role in the development of the agency’s Moon to 

Mars Objectives, including objectives development, U.S. and international stakeholder feedback, and subsequent dispositioning, to arrive at a 

revised set of objectives that Deputy Administrator Pam Melroy released 

at the International Astronautical Congress in September.

Technical Integration Office

TIO is responsible for directorate-level systems engineering and integration and 

requirements, pre-formulation of future elements, science and technology utilization integration, and capabilities integration.

In FY 2022, TIO completed the following: 

Concept Development/Pre-Formulation

• Executed Phase 3 extensions for Next Space Technologies for Exploration 

Partnerships (NextSTEP) Appendix A for Boeing, Lockheed Martin, and 

Sierra Nevada Corporation. The Period of Performance extends through 

January 2023.

• Supported full-scale structural design, sub-scale inflatable structure burst 

tests, and material component creep testing with Lockheed Martin.

• Supported the successful burst test of Sierra Space’s one-third-scale 

inflatable softgoods structure as part of their work under NextSTEP 

Appendix A. 

• Continued technical interchange meetings with Boeing regarding the 

company’s surface and transit habitat concepts. 

• Observed the first-ever demonstration of in-space structural metal cutting 

by NextSTEP-2 Appendix A partner Nanoracks, which conducted their 

Outpost Mars Demo-1 flight as part of their final work under NextSTEP 

Appendix A.

• Took an active role in the development of NASA’s Moon to Mars 

Objectives, including objectives development, U.S. and international 
40Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

stakeholder feedback and subsequent dispositioning, to arrive at a revised 

set of objectives that Deputy Administrator Pam Melroy released at the 

International Astronautical Congress in September.

• Refurbished the Constellation-era lunar pressurized rover prototype for 

use in the October 2022 D-RATS analog mission.

Science and Technology Utilization

• Completed a lunar lighting assessment in support of the LTV “Survive 

the Night” Study. The lunar lighting assessment will continue as related 

to overall Artemis planning and landing site analyses. The Science and 

Technology Utilization (S&TU) team provided the lighting assessment to 

directorate management and other agency-wide stakeholders developing 

systems intended to operate at or near the lunar South Pole. 

• Released Artemis III Candidate Landing Regions. Through the ongoing 

Cross-Artemis Site Selection Analysis Team, S&TU led the downselect 

to 13 candidate regions near the lunar South Pole that are accessible for 

Artemis III throughout FY 2022 and provide significant scientific value. 

Regions are approximately 15 × 15 km, and each region has multiple 

potential landing sites, which have an approximately a 100 m radius.

• Co-hosted, with the Human Research Program, “Spaceflight for 

Everybody” Symposium on November 8–10, 2021. The purpose was to 

communicate the current state of NASA spaceflight health knowledge. 

It was emphasized that diversity and inclusion involve more than sex, 

gender, age, ability, ethnicity, and race, but includes diversity and inclusion of thoughts and ideas. More than 900 participants registered for 

the symposium.

• Participated in Office of Planetary Protection discussions related to 

human missions to Mars. 

• Co-hosted the first “Science Objectives for Human Exploration of Mars 

Workshop” to ensure community input and early integration of science 

into the exploration architectures for the first human mission to Mars.

• Released HEOMD-410, Lunar Traverse Data Book V1. Across Artemis, 

many different organizations are analyzing similar traverses, with different 
41National Aeronautics and Space Administration

purposes, and these traverses represent the highest-priority requests from 

four different organizations in SMD and in ESDMD.

• Supported SMD-led, agency-level response to the National Academies 

of Science Planetary Science Decadal Survey 2023–2032, which was 

the first planetary science decadal that included a dedicated chapter on 

human exploration. 

• Based on documented utilization stakeholder objectives and architecture 

needs (HEOMD-006 Annex 1), S&TU defined a series of utilization 

requirements that were further developed within TIO and reviewed for 

inclusion in the HEOMD-004.

Requirements

• Issued HEO-003: Crewed Deep Space Systems Human Rating 

Certification Requirements and Standards for NASA Missions. HEO-003 

is a consolidated set of technical requirements, standards, and processes 

that NASA Program Managers shall implement for human rating certification of Crewed Deep Space Systems.

• Issued Revision C of HEO-004, Human Exploration Requirements, 

which defined needs of the architecture in establishing an Artemis Base 

Camp. HEO-004 captures requirements controlled by the former Human 

Exploration and Operations Mission Directorate (HEOMD) for the 

Programs responsible for design, development, and operation of systems to 

meet HEOMD goals and objectives.

• Issued HEOMD-006, Exploration Systems Development Mission 

Directorate Utilization Plan. HEO-006 identifies and describes NASA’s 

science and technology utilization goals and objectives that will be 

enabled by human missions, as defined by SMD, STMD, and ESDMD. 

• Issued the following Decision Memoranda/Management Directives: 

ESDMD-407, Strategy & Architectures Mars-Specific Ground Rules 

and Assumptions; ESDMD-408, Strategy & Architectures Overarching 

Ground Rules and Assumptions; ESDMD-410, Lunar Surface Exploration 

Planning: Terrain Characteristics; ESDMD-411, Representative 

Utilization Instruments for the LTV and Pressurized Rover; ESDMD-415, 
42Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Reference Surface Activities for Crewed Mars Mission Systems and 

Utilization; and ESDMD-417, Integrated Utilization Study Requirements 

for the Pressurized Rover.

Standards

• Released International Docking System Standard Interface Definition 

Document, Rev F. This standard is the result of a collaboration of by 

the ISS Program International Partners to establish a standard docking 

interface to enable on-orbit crew rescue operations and joint collaboration endeavors utilizing different spacecraft. Rev F captures the ongoing 

development work in cislunar space (Gateway, Orion, HLS). 

• Released International Space Power System Interoperability Standards, 

Rev A.

Capabilities Integration

• Issued an FY 2022 agency-wide data call, collecting 425 capability gaps 

and comparing them to the FY 2021 gaps to arrive at an updated consolidated set. 

• Worked with the STMD Strategic Planning and Integration office to 

define and execute a major update to STMD’s STARPort database environment to allow for integration of ESDMD capability gaps from the 

HEOMD-405 FY 2022, Integrated Exploration Capabilities Gap List with 

STMD’s gap process. This allows for tighter integration across the directorates, reduced duplication of work for updating and adding gaps, and 

easier tracking of gap closure activities.
43National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Space Operations Mission Directorate (SOMD) in FY 2022 

(Formerly Part of HEOMD)

International Space Station

The ISS continues to generate numerous benefits that improve individual lives 

on Earth, inspire the next generation of scientists and engineers, foster international collaboration, and enable future exploration deeper into the solar system. 

Knowledge is being generated in scientific fields from cell biology to cosmology. 

New technology is being developed and demonstrated with applications as wideranging as communications, power generation, agriculture, and medicine. 

In FY 2022, Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) flights from SpaceX and 

Northrop Grumman launched a total of three cargo flights to the ISS, totaling 

approximately 26,000 pounds of science investigations, spacewalking tools, and 

critical supplies delivered. Also in FY 2022, Northrop Grumman’s Cygnus spacecraft completed its first limited reboost of the ISS. Cygnus’s gimbaled delta velocity 

engine was used to adjust the space station’s orbit through a reboost of the altitude 

of the space station. This capability works in concert with Russian propulsion systems that provide attitude control during the reboost. This Cygnus mission is the 

first to feature this enhanced capability as a standard service for NASA, following 

a test of the maneuver that was performed in 2018 during Cygnus’s ninth resupply 

mission. Another first in FY 2022 was the successful cycle of the Bishop Airlock, 

which deployed the Nanoracks’ technology to eject approximately 172 lbs of waste 

from the station. This successful test in July 2022 was intended to demonstrate a 

more efficient and sustainable model for eliminating waste aboard the station and 

highlight a critical new function and utility for future commercial space stations.

Additional cargo missions were complemented by NASA’s Partners. Roscosmos 

provided three Progress cargo missions. Nearly 10,000 pounds of investigations and 

equipment were returned to researchers on Earth by the SpaceX Dragon capsule, 

while the Northrop Grumman Cygnus and Progress spacecraft provided significant 

assistance as trash removal mechanisms by performing a destructive reentry. These 

resupply missions enabled ISS crewmembers to support research, maintenance, and 

other operational tasks. 
44Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

International Partners and NASA’s Commercial Crew Program (CCP) provide crew rotation missions to the ISS. The goal of NASA’s CCP is safe, reliable, 

and cost-effective transportation to and from the ISS. This already has provided 

additional research time and has increased the opportunity for discovery aboard 

humanity’s microgravity testbed for exploration, including helping NASA prepare 

for human exploration of the Moon and Mars. During Expedition 66, the SpaceX 

Crew-3, consisting of NASA astronauts Raja Chari, Tom Marshburn, and Kayla 

Barron, and ESA astronaut Matthias Maurer, arrived in the Dragon Endurance 

spacecraft in November 2021 and ultimately spent 177 days in orbit. At the time 

of docking, they joined the Expedition 66 crew consisting of Mark Vande Hei

of NASA and cosmonauts Anton Shkaplerov and Pyotr Dubrov of Roscosmos. 

NASA astronaut Mark Vande Hei ended his record-breaking time on the ISS with 

a parachute-assisted landing on the steppe of Kazakhstan on the morning of March 

30, 2022, along with Anton Shkaplerov and Pyotr Dubrov. Vande Hei arrived at 

the ISS in April 2021, spending 355 days in low-Earth orbit (LEO), breaking the 

previous record held by retired NASA astronaut Scott Kelly by 15 days.

In April 2022, the SpaceX Crew-4 mission launched to the station with NASA 

astronauts Bob Hines, Kjell Lindgren, and Jessica Watkins, as well as ESA astronaut Samantha Cristoforetti. Lindgren, Hines, Watkins, and Cristoforetti joined 

the Expedition 67 crew of Raja Chari, Thomas Marshburn, and Kayla Barron, 

all of NASA, Matthias Maurer of ESA, and cosmonauts Oleg Artemyev, Sergey 

Korsakov, and Denis Matveev of Roscosmos. For a short time, the number of crew 

on the space station increased to 11 people until NASA’s SpaceX Crew-3 departed. 

These CCP-enabled crew missions contribute to a host of science and maintenance 

activities and technology demonstrations.

Roscosmos also provided Soyuz crew rotation missions in FY 2022. The Soyuz 

66S mission consisted of Roscosmos cosmonaut Alexander Misurkin and spaceflight participants Yusaku Maezawa and Yozo Hirano. The latter two astronauts 

made their trek into space under a contract between Space Adventures and 

Roscosmos. Expedition 66 ended with the departure of Soyuz 65S in March 

2022. Onboard Soyuz 65S were NASA astronaut Mark Vande Hei, along with 

Anton Shkaplerov and Pyotr Dubrov of Roscosmos. Marking the transition from 

Expedition 67 to Expedition 68, the Soyuz 67S spacecraft departed the ISS in 
45National Aeronautics and Space Administration

September 2021. The Soyuz 67S, which arrived in March 2022, carried Roscosmos 

cosmonauts Oleg Artemyev, Denis Matveev, and Sergey Korsakov.

In FY 2022, there were a total of nine spacewalks supported by the onboard 

crew and ground teams. Three of those were U.S. EVAs. The first U.S. spacewalk 

in December 2021 focused on replacing an S-band Antenna Subassembly with 

a spare already available on the station’s truss structure. The second U.S. spacewalk continued to prepare the space station for upcoming solar array upgrades

by assembling and installing modification kits. The crew built a support bracket 

onto which a future ISS Roll Out Solar Array (iROSA) will be mounted. So far, 

two of six iROSAs have been deployed on station with four additional arrays to 

be delivered. The arrays will ultimately augment six of the station’s eight power 

channels, increasing the station’s total available power from 160 kilowatts to up to 

215 kilowatts. In the third U.S. spacewalk, the crew installed hoses on a Radiator 

Beam Valve Module that routes ammonia through the station’s heat-rejecting radiators to keep systems at the proper temperature. The crew members also installed 

a power and data cable on the Columbus module’s Bartolomeo science platform, 

replaced an external camera on the station’s truss, and conducted other upgrades 

to station hardware.

During the latter spacewalk, the crew noticed a thin layer of moisture inside ESA 

astronaut Matthias Maurer’s helmet after station airlock re-pressurization following 

the nearly seven-hour spacewalk. NASA identified the event as a close call and 

immediately declared a stop to all future planned U.S. Operating Segment spacewalks pending an investigation into the cause. NASA returned water samples and 

some suit hardware to Earth with Soyuz 65S and NASA’s SpaceX Crew-3 mission 

and then returned the spacesuit as part of the agency’s SpaceX CRS-25 mission for 

detailed analysis. Based on the findings, the team has updated operational procedures and developed new mitigation hardware to minimize scenarios where integrated performance results in water accumulation, while absorbing any water that 

does appear. These measures will help contain any liquid in the helmet to continue 

to keep crew safe. Given the results of the investigation, the additional operational 

procedures, and mitigation hardware, the NASA management team concurred and 

approved return to normal operations. The first planned spacewalk is targeted no 

earlier than November 2022 to continue the work to install the next iROSA.
46Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Despite continued challenges from COVID-19, the ISS National Laboratory 

has been flying science, technology demonstrations, and education programs for 

the benefit of humanity. In FY 2022, the ISS National Laboratory extended the 

Cooperative Agreement with the Center for the Advancement of Science in Space 

(CASIS) through 2027, to help manage the U.S. segment of the ISS. In FY 2022, 

all the actions from the CASIS Independent Review Team (IRT) have been officially closed. The last of these actions was creating a streamlined Cooperative 

Agreement between NASA and CASIS, which was completed in the fourth quarter of FY 2022. All actions from the FY 2021 Government Accountability Office 

(GAO) review have been responded to. 

Culminating several years of technical analysis and stakeholder coordination, on 

December 31, 2021, the Biden-Harris administration announced that the United 

States would continue to operate the ISS through 2030. This extension allows 

time to fully realize the potential of the ISS, including in technology development 

for Artemis, benefits for humanity, and commercial development. This extension 

will allow time for Commercial LEO Destinations (CLD) to come online toward 

the end of the decade to ensure there is no gap in U.S. human spaceflight capability in LEO. On August 9, 2022, the President signed the CHIPS and Science 

Act into law, which contained a NASA Authorization Act. This Act formalized 

Congress’s consent to operate ISS through 2030. NASA continues to work with its 

International Partners to work with their respective governments to secure their 

own formal extensions of ISS. NASA is also working with the same partners to 

strategize what future international cooperation in LEO would look like on future 

U.S. CLDs. 

Launch Services Office

In FY 2022, NASA’s Launch Services Program (LSP) successfully launched three 

NASA science missions and one weather satellite for NOAA. The Lucy spacecraft 

launched aboard an Atlas V from Cape Canaveral Space Force Station (CCSFS) 

in October 2021. The Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART) mission launched 

in November 2021, followed by the Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer (IXPE) 

mission in December 2021. Both DART and IXPE launched aboard a Falcon 9 
47National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Full Thrust launch vehicle, DART from Vandenberg Space Force Base (VSFB) 

in California, and IXPE from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. The LSP 

also managed the launch service for the Space Technology Mission Directorate’s 

(STMD’s) Cislunar Autonomous Positioning System Technology Operations 

and Navigation Experiment (CAPSTONE) CubeSat. CAPSTONE successfully 

launched aboard Rocket Lab’s Electron Rocket from Mahia, New Zealand, in June 

2022. In addition to launching NASA’s science and technology spacecraft, LSP 

acquired one new launch service for NASA’s Science Mission Directorate (SMD). 

The launch service for the Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope (RST) is a competitively awarded launch services task order under the NASA Launch Services II 

contract. RST will launch aboard a Falcon Heavy in October 2026.

Along with full end-to-end launch service management, the program also offers 

advisory support, expertise, and knowledge to NASA programs and projects utilizing launch services not procured and managed by LSP. The program is currently 

providing these advisory services to several programs and missions, including the 

ISS Cargo Resupply Services missions; the CCP, Artemis, and Gateway Programs; 

as well as SMD’s NASA–Indian Space Research Organization Synthetic Aperture 

Radar (NISAR) mission. LSP also provided advisory support to SMD’s James Webb 

Space Telescope, which successfully launched aboard an Ariane V from Kourou, 

French Guiana, in December 2021.

NASA has also selected 12 companies to provide launch services under the 

Venture-Class Acquisitions of Dedicated and Rideshare (VADR) contract. This 

contract will enable regular, competitive acquisition of commercial launch services for small payloads, such as those successfully demonstrated through the 

VCLS contracts. The VADR contract was awarded in FY 2022 and will provide 

a broad range of Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)–licensed commercial 

launch services capable of delivering payloads ranging from CubeSats to Class D 

missions to a variety of orbits. Firm-fixed-price task orders will be issued to 

provide the launch services under these contracts for NASA’s risk-tolerant missions. Launches under the VADR contract will align with commercial practices, 

using less NASA oversight to achieve lower launch costs. Award selections are 

ABL Space Systems of El Segundo, California; Astra Space, Inc., of Alameda, 

California; Blue Origin Florida LLC of Merritt Island, Florida; L2 Solutions LLC 
48Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

of Houston; Northrop Grumman Systems Corporation of Chandler, Arizona; 

Phantom Space Corporation of Tucson, Arizona; Relativity Space, Inc., of Long 

Beach, California; Rocket Lab USA, Inc., of Long Beach, California; Spaceflight, 

Inc., of Seattle; Space Exploration Technologies Corp. (SpaceX) of Hawthorne, 

California; United Launch Services LLC of Centennial, Colorado; and Virgin 

Orbit LLC of Long Beach, California. In August 2022, SMD’s Total and Spectral 

Solar Irradiance Sensor 2 (TSIS-2) mission was awarded to SpaceX for a Falcon 9 

Full Thrust VADR launch service. TSIS-2 is planned for launch from CCSFS in 

August 2024. In September 2022, NASA selected Firefly Space Transport Services, 

a wholly owned subsidiary of Firefly Aerospace, Inc., to provide launch services 

under the VADR contract utilizing their Alpha rocket.

In addition, NASA and LSP continue to partner with several universities and 

NASA Centers to launch small research satellites through the CubeSat Launch 

Initiative (CSLI). As of the end of FY 2022, 148 CubeSats have been launched from 

42 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico, with 32 missions manifested 

on NASA, National Reconnaissance Office, U.S. Space Force, and commercial 

missions. In FY 2022, 18 CSLI CubeSat missions were launched. 

In October 2022, SpaceX completed certification of its Falcon Heavy launch 

vehicle. GOES-U will be the first LSP-managed mission to launch aboard a Falcon 

Heavy in 2024. Certification activities are also ongoing with ULS’s Vulcan, Alpha’s 

Firefly, and ABL Space Systems’ RS-1 launch vehicles. Planning activities for certification of Blue Origin’s New Glenn and Rocket Lab’s Electron launch vehicles 

are also in the works. 

Human Spaceflight Capabilities

Human Research Program

In FY 2022, the HRP completed the following key milestones:

• Conducted two Human Exploration Research Analog (HERA) campaigns 

in FY 2022. The campaigns included a variety of research studies including team functioning and behavioral health, effects of crew autonomy on 

performance and behavior, lack of privacy, and the effectiveness of tools 

and technologies in supporting an autonomous team.
49National Aeronautics and Space Administration

• Continued an international collaboration with DLR to conduct a series 

of 30-day strict head-down-tilt bed rest campaigns at the :envihab facil-

ity in Cologne, Germany, to study potential countermeasures (CM) for 

Spaceflight Associated Neuro-ocular Syndrome (SANS). The SANS CM 

study consists of four Campaigns, with Campaign 2 completed in February 

2022, Campaign 3 expected to start January 2023, and Campaign 4 in 

April 2023. NASA’s research complements several DLR studies taking 

place during these campaigns.

• Conducted the study of Validation of the Multisystem Countermeasures 

Protocol for Spaceflight at the National Science Foundation’s Antarctic 

Stations at Palmer Station (Palmer Immune Countermeasures) during 

Antarctic winter-over. Evaluation included the effectiveness of a suite 

of countermeasures to mitigate the negative effects of isolation and con-

finement on human immune system functionality; an adaptation of the 

immune system observed with long-duration stays both on the ISS and 

at Palmer Station. In addition, HRP Human Health Countermeasures 

Palmer Immune Pilot Study conducted a second winter-over data collec-

tion at Palmer Station focusing on team problem solving in long-duration 

isolated and confined environments.

• Conducted three HRP-funded NASA Space Radiation Laboratory 

(NSRL) campaigns (21C, 22A, and 22B) in FY 2022. A total of 14 teams 

(10 funded by NASA) completed studies during 21C, utilizing approxi-

mately 190 hours of beam time. These unique dose-rate studies are critical 

for adequate characterization of space radiation health risks, especially 

given the new space radiation standard allowing astronauts to accumulate 

up to 600 mSv over a career. These doses are recognized as substantially 

increasing health risks associated with radiation on Earth; however, our 

understanding of how the space radiation environment impacts health 

outcomes under chronic dose rate conditions is still evolving. Results from 

these studies will be used to inform agency decision makers on the risks 

to crew for long-duration missions that may surpass the 600 mSv limit.

• Coordinated with NASA’s White House Liaison and Office of Science 

and Technology Policy to support NASA’s point of contact in presenting 
50Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

NASA’s involvement in President Biden’s Cancer Cabinet as part of the 

Moonshot Initiative. NASA was invited to participate.

• Completed the technology demonstration of the reusable Handheld 

Electrolyte and Lab Technology for Humans (rHEALTH) ISS operations 

in May 2022. The analyzer was developed with NASA HRP sponsorship 

and the Small Business Innovative Research program. This technology 

has the potential to reduce conditioned-stowage requirements for Artemis 

missions. The rHEALTH analyzer is a miniature flow cytometer for biomarker identification.

Rocket Propulsion Test

The RPT Capability Portfolio Program is responsible for strategic management 

and sustainment of NASA’s expertise and facilities for testing of rocket engines. 

In 2022, RPT test facilities continued to support NASA, Commercial, Defense, 

and NASA International Space Partner requirements for purposes of component, 

engine, and rocket stage level of testing. RPT delivered test capabilities to support 

technology advancement, capability demonstration, risk retirement, and hardware 

qualification and launch readiness for more than 595 tests (over 32,823 seconds). 

Testing of rocket engines and components for NASA and its collaborative commercial partners on the Artemis Program were of predominant importance in 

2022. RPT continued to provide testing of the Aerojet Rocketdyne RS-25 engines 

in the A-1 Test Stand at the Stennis Space Center (SSC) in Mississippi. This 

testing provided performance data on a variety of new engine components developed with advanced manufacturing techniques in support of the Artemis Program. 

Modification to the SSC B-2 Test Stand, used to facilitate the SLS four-engine 

Core Stage test in 2021, continued throughout FY 2022, in support of a similar 

integrated upper stage test of the Exploration Upper Stage (EUS) engine and plume 

management system. The interstage test article, an important element of that 

planned test, arrived and will be mounted into the test stand prior to integration of 

the four RL-10 EUS engines. Elsewhere at SSC, in the E-Complex, diffuser testing 

was conducted to validate the system design planned for the EUS test on the B-2 

test stand. Commercial activity in other cells in the E-Complex supported a variety 

of commercial engine, turbo-pump, thruster, and component test requirements.
51National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Test stands at other NASA Centers were also busy in 2022. At MSFC, testing 

supported both NASA internal and collaborative projects to advance manufacturing and development techniques through the testing of engine components, including rocket nozzles. Testing was conducted in evaluation of liquid rocket engines in 

landers and on-orbit stages and spacecraft as well as on solid rocket motor nozzle and 

insulation materials. At WSTF, testing in support of NASA, International Partner, 

and commercial and defense customers were supported in hot firings, acceptance 

testing, and qualification of thrusters and thruster system components. Testing 

supported developmental thrusters that advanced low-temperature operations 

and nano-satellite propulsion. Minuteman III Propulsion System Rocket Engine 

deactivating propulsion stages to an inert state in support of de-militarization also 

continued. At Glenn Research Center’s Armstrong Test Facility, preparatory work 

for proto-qualification testing of the Sierra Nevada Dream Chaser Cargo System 

(DCCS) in the In-Space Propulsion Facility (ISPF) continued as well as thermalvacuum test support for balloon payload program elements.

Commercial Space Division

Commercial Crew Program

In FY 2022, NASA’s Commercial Crew partner, SpaceX, began flying their 

operational Post Certification Missions (PCM) to and from the ISS. 

SpaceX Crew-2 astronauts boarded the Dragon spacecraft Endeavour, departed 

the ISS, and returned to Earth, off the coast of Florida, on November 9, 2021, 

bringing the Crew-2 mission to a successful conclusion. On November 11, 2021, 

SpaceX launched the Crew-3 mission, aboard Dragon Endurance, carrying four 

astronauts to the ISS. SpaceX launched the Crew-4 mission on April 27, 2022, 

carrying astronauts aboard the Dragon Spacecraft Freedom on its inaugural 

flight. Crew-4 is noteworthy in that it was the first Commercial Crew PCM flying 

International Partners astronauts (three NASA astronauts and one ESA astronaut). After Crew-4 ISS docking, Crew-3 astronauts boarded Endurance for their 

return trip home. Crew-3 successfully landed off the coast of Florida on May 6, 

2022. Crew-4 is currently planned to return to Earth after Crew-5, Endurance, 

arrives at the ISS.
52Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

A summary of NASA’s Commercial Crew Missions in FY 2022 

by SpaceX Spacecraft

Spacecraft Name ISS Crew Missions

Dragon Resilience Crew-1

Dragon Endeavour Demo-2, Crew-2

Dragon Endurance Crew-3, Crew-5

Dragon Freedom Crew-4

Boeing launched their demonstration flight repeat, Orbital Flight Test-2 (OFT-2), 

on a flight to the ISS on May 19, 2022, to demonstrate a complete ISS transportation mission, including launch; free flyer ops; Space Station approach; docking; 

docked operations; and departure, entry, descent, and landing. After completion 

of mission objectives, OFT-2 successfully landed at White Sands Missile Range on 

May 25, 2022. This clears the path forward for Boeing’s Crew Flight Test (CFT) 

demonstration mission, carrying NASA astronauts to and from the ISS.

Space Communications and Navigation

In FY 2022, SCaN completed the following:

• Operated SCaN’s networks above the 95 percent network proficiency 

requirement, achieving 98 percent or better across the Deep Space 

Network (DSN) and Near Space Network (NSN), while continuing 

to execute plans to build, augment, or upgrade critical network assets 

including completed construction on the new 34-meter DSN antenna 

in Madrid; started construction on a new DSN antenna at Goldstone, 

completed upgrades to two other DSN antennas; and augmented four 

11.3-meter NSN antennas to enable Ka-band capabilities.

• Supported launch and operations of multiple high-profile science and 

human exploration missions, including the James Webb Space Telescope 

(JWST) launch and first images, the Double Asteroid Redirect Test 

(DART) tracking for impact, and the Lucy Mission launch. SCaN worked 

with ESDMD to capture, in a services requirements document and concept of operations, the critical lunar relay capabilities and planning for 

Artemis missions.
53National Aeronautics and Space Administration

• Completed down-selection and award to Johns Hopkins University 

Applied Physics Laboratory (JHU/APL) for the flight demonstration of a 

wideband/multilingual communications terminal. The selection occurred 

after the successful completion of ground demonstrations in 2021 by both 

NASA’s Glenn Research Center and JHU/APL. The JHU/APL team com-

pleted a mission Critical Design Review (CDR) in September 2022. 

• Began operations of Deep Space Station 53 (DSS-53) at the Madrid 

Deep Space Communications Complex in Madrid, Spain. This 34-meter 

antenna is the fourth of six new beam waveguide antennas providing 

backup to the DSN’s larger 70-meter antennas while adding about eight 

percent capacity to the DSN. 

• Launched the Laser Communications Relay Demonstration (LCRD) 

mission aboard the U.S. Department of Defense’s Space Test Program 

Satellite 6 (STPSat-6) on December 7, 2021. In May 2022, LCRD passed 

certification to begin experiments. LCRD is NASA’s first long-period 

optical communications project to demonstrate the benefits of optical 

communication systems for both deep space and near-Earth missions, uti-

lizing advanced relay operations that could be used for future relay systems 

at the Moon and Mars. 

• Launched the TeraByte InfraRed Delivery (TBIRD) payload on May 

25, 2022, as part of the Pathfinder Technology Demonstrator 3 (PTD-3) 

mission on SpaceX’s Transporter-5 rideshare mission. TBIRD demon-

strated 100 gigabit-per-second (Gbps) downlink rates, with plans to reach 

200 Gbps—the fastest downlink rate ever achieved by NASA.

• Completed the NavCube3-mini Technology Readiness Level 6 test 

campaign for the cislunar-capable weak-signal, multi-Global Navigation 

Satellite System (GNSS) receiver in September 2022. Awarded a patent 

for “Miniaturized Multi-Band Space GNSS Receiver.” This receiver plans 

to reduce the burden on terrestrial networks providing navigation and 

timing services to cislunar/lunar users.

• Co-organized and held an Optical and Quantum Communications 

Forum with NASA’s Australian counterparts, including the newly formed 

ASA, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation 
54Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

(CSIRO), and numerous Australian universities on July 21–22, 2022. The 

forum focused on sharing recent work, discussing common interests, and 

identifying technology gaps as future collaboration opportunities.

• Collaborated with the Mobile Satellite Service community to progress early studies for space-to-space communications identified as a 

potential future agenda item for the 2027 World Radiocommunication 

Conference (WRC-27).

• Codified the Lunar Spectrum Manager role within U.S. regulatory bodies, as well as internationally within the Space Frequency Coordination 

Group (SFCG), an organization under the IOAG. SCaN led efforts to 

establish a Lunar Spectrum Plan later adopted by the SFCG.

• Supported Boeing and CCP post-landing test objectives for Orbital Test 

Flight-2 (OFT-2) through the Search and Rescue (SAR) Mission Office.

• Led NASA delegation to the 15th meeting of United Nations (UN) 

International Committee on GNSS (ICG). 

• Secured appointment of nine new members to National Space-Based PNT 

Advisory Board (PNTAB) and organized two sessions.

• Renewed the charter of the National Space Council User’s Advisory 

Group (UAG) for 2022–2023, coordinated membership nominations, 

and secured appointment of the new Chair. SCaN supports UAG as its 

Executive Secretary.

• Collaborated with the Office of the General Counsel (and the Office of 

International and Interagency Relations) to negotiate with the Kingdom 

of Spain the renewal of both the government-to-government treaty and 

the 10-year contract, expiring in 2024, to operate the DSN site in Madrid.
55National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Science Mission Directorate

NASA’s Science Mission Directorate (SMD) increases our understanding of 

Earth, the Sun, our solar system, and the universe. Through its partnerships with 

government and research organizations, academia, industry, and non-profit philanthropies both in the United States and globally, SMD develops and utilizes space-, 

air-, ground-, and sea-based observatories to gather and analyze data that further 

our knowledge in the areas of Earth and planetary science, heliophysics, astrophysics, and biological and physical sciences. 

In FY 2021 and FY 2022, SMD operated 70 missions across SMD’s five science 

divisions: Earth Science, Planetary Science, Heliophysics, Astrophysics, and 

Biological and Physical Sciences. Earth Science missions study Earth as a system 

to advance scientific understanding of our home planet and identify and address 

societal challenges caused by climate change. Planetary Science missions advance 

our knowledge of the origins and history of our solar system, identify the potential for life beyond our own planet, increase the body of knowledge necessary for 

humans to explore beyond low-Earth orbit, and assess threats to our planet from 

the impact of near-Earth objects. Heliophysics missions study the Sun and how its 

activity affects Earth and interplanetary space, while Astrophysics missions further 

our understanding of the universe and our place in it, including searching for other 

Earth-like planets capable of supporting life. Space biology research helps scientists 

understand the effects of microgravity on living systems, while physical science 

research enables scientists to understand the effects of microgravity on physical 

phenomena, such as fluid physics and combustion science.

In addition to these divisions, SMD is home to the Exploration Science Strategy 

and Integration Office (ESSIO), the James Webb Space Telescope Program Office, 

the Mars Sample Return Program Office, and the Joint Agency Satellite Division, 

which conducts reimbursable satellite programs with the National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). 

SMD’s Science Activation program leverages unique science infrastructure, 

content, and scientific experts to engage with learners of all ages. In FY 2021 and 

FY 2022, working with community-based institutions, such as libraries, museums, 

science centers, and planetariums, the Science Activation program continued its 
56Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

work through 37 cooperative agreements, leveraging more than 268 partners in all 

50 states. In addition, the Citizen Science Initiative is composed of 29 funded projects that harness the energies of the public and use the rigors of science, resulting 

in new discoveries. As of September 2022, there have been 86 refereed publications 

with 410 named coauthors who are NASA citizen scientists.

Earth Science

Earth is a dynamic, interconnected, living planet that continues to change, 

due to its own system processes and the impact of humans. The Earth Science 

Division uses data captured by research satellites, airborne and in situ campaigns, 

and integrative research activities to understand Earth systems. A key goal of the 

Earth Science Division is to help inform policy and decision makers to benefit life 

on Earth in areas such as agriculture, water and food security, urban planning, 

disaster preparedness and response, transportation, climate and weather, and many 

other areas. Through partnerships with other Federal agencies, academia, industry, 

research organizations, non-profit philanthropic organizations, and international 

governments, the Earth Science Division seeks to continue to identify and make 

the observations necessary to understand our rapidly evolving planet through 

the coming decades. Below are several research and application highlights from 

FY 2021 and FY 2022.

Earth System Observatory

In response to a key recommendation from the most recent decadal survey, 

NASA is designing a new set of integrated Earth missions called the Earth System 

Observatory (ESO), which will provide key data as we address climate change, 

prepare for and respond to natural hazards, fight and mitigate forest fires, and 

improve agricultural processes. The missions will be organized around five major 

Earth systems: aerosols; clouds, convection and precipitation; mass changes, such 

as ice sheet melt and groundwater depletion; surface biology and geology; and surface deformation and change. The first in this series of missions is a partnership 

with the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), the NASA-ISRO Synthetic 
57National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Aperture Radar (NISAR), which uses two radar systems to measure changes in 

Earth’s surface to within less than half an inch.

Next Earth Venture Mission Selected

In November 2021, NASA selected a new Earth Venture Mission. Investigation 

of Convective Updrafts (INCUS) will study tropical storms and thunderstorms in 

order to improve their inclusion in weather and climate models, seeking to understand how they form and what causes them to intensify. INCUS will consist of 

three SmallSats flying in a tight formation and is expected to launch in 2027.

EMIT Studies Desert Dust and Methane

The Earth Surface Mineral Dust Source Investigation (EMIT) is an Earth 

Venture Instrument mission to map the surface mineralogy of arid dust source 

regions via imaging spectroscopy. The maps of the source regions will be used to 

improve forecasts of the role of mineral dust in the radiative forcing (warming or 

cooling) of the atmosphere. EMIT was launched to the International Space Station 

(ISS) in July 2022 aboard a SpaceX Cargo Dragon. Since its installation on the ISS, 

EMIT has demonstrated great potential for methane detection by identifying more 

than 50 “super-emitters”—facilities, equipment, and other infrastructure typically 

in the fossil-fuel, waste, or agriculture sectors that emit methane at high rates. 

Launched Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich

In November 2020, NASA launched the European Space Agency satellite 

Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich. The satellite was named in honor of the late NASA 

Earth Science Division Director, who promoted international partnerships to 

strengthen our understanding of Earth. Through a NASA and NOAA partnership, the radar altimeter will continue the nearly 30-year record of satellite sea 

level measurements until at least 2030. Since its commissioning, the satellite has 

returned the most precise sea level rise data ever, and this continuous record is a 

critical foundation for understanding changes in sea level rise globally.
58Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

NASA Analysis Shows 2020 Tied for the Warmest Year on Record

In January 2021, independent analyses carried out by both NASA and NOAA 

found that Earth’s global surface temperatures in 2020 were tied with 2016 for the 

warmest since modern recordkeeping began in 1880. These temperature measurements indicate that the planet’s long-term warming trend is continuing—the past 

seven years have been the warmest seven years on record. Global shutdowns related 

to the COVID-19 pandemic reduced particulate air pollution in many areas, allowing more sunlight to reach the surface and producing a small but potentially significant warming effect. These shutdowns also appear to have reduced the amount 

of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in 2020, but cumulative CO2 concentrations 

continued to increase.1

COVID-19 Impacts on the World

NASA continued to explore how the COVID-19 pandemic impacts our environment in FY 2021 and FY 2022. In June 2021, NASA, ESA, and JAXA hosted 

an Earth Observation Dashboard Hackathon. During the weeklong event, teams 

worked to solve socioeconomic and environmental challenges using information 

from the dashboard, which contained data gathered during the pandemic. More 

than 4,300 people from 132 countries participated, focusing on seven areas that saw 

changes due to the pandemic: air quality, water quality, economic impact, agricultural impact, greenhouse gases, social impacts, and interconnected Earth impacts.

Planetary Science

NASA’s Planetary Science Division advances scientific knowledge of our solar 

system through exploration and research. Pushing the limits of spacecraft and 

robotic engineering, the division’s portfolio of missions explores every major body 

in the solar system and many smaller ones. The data from these missions support 

research into questions that include the history and continued evolution of planets, 

moons, and small bodies (e.g., asteroids, comets); the origin of life and the potential 

for life elsewhere; and the hazards and resources present as humans explore space. 

In addition, the division’s Planetary Defense Coordination Office identifies threats 

1 https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/2020-tied-for-warmest-year-on-record-nasa-analysis-shows
59National Aeronautics and Space Administration

to Earth posed by impacts of near-Earth objects. Following are highlights from 

FY 2021 and FY 2022.

OSIRIS-REx Samples Asteroid Bennu

On October 20, 2020, the Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource 

Identification, Security, Regolith Explorer (OSIRIS-REx) successfully conducted 

its touch-and-go sample collection from the asteroid Bennu. It departed Bennu on 

May 10, 2021, for Earth and will return the sample on September 24, 2023.

Landing on Mars and Sample Collection by the Perseverance Rover

On February 18, 2021, the Mars 2020 Perseverance Rover successfully landed 

in Jezero Crater on the surface of Mars, where it is seeking out signs of ancient 

microscopic life on the planet, exploring the geology of Jezero Crater, and demonstrating key technologies that will help us prepare for further robotic and eventually human exploration of Mars. As of October 2022, the rover has collected 

14 scientifically selected rock samples for future return through the Mars Sample 

Return Campaign. Perseverance also carried the Ingenuity Mars Helicopter, a 

technology demonstration that has accomplished more than 30 flights across the 

surface of Mars, testing how to fly in the thin atmosphere of Mars and helping to 

scout sample sites for Perseverance.

DART Crashes into Dimorphos...on Purpose

On September 26, 2022, the Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART) spacecraft crashed into Dimorphos, the smaller of two asteroids in a binary system (that 

is no danger to Earth), to test one technique humanity could use to deflect an 

asteroid heading for Earth. Dimorphos, the size of a football stadium, orbits a larger 

asteroid, Didymos, and the DART spacecraft impact was planned to change the 

period of its orbit such that ground-based telescopes could observe the change. 

Early data returns confirm that DART’s impact changed the orbit of Dimorphos 

by approximately 32 minutes. Images provided by the ATLAS Telescope in South 

Africa and the Italian LICIACube, which rode with DART, showed ejecta from 

the impact. 
60Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Two Missions to Venus Selected for Discovery Program

In June 2021, NASA announced the final selections of two planetary science 

missions submitted to the Discovery Program, a competitive program that invites 

teams of scientists and engineers to design planetary science missions under a notto-exceed cost-cap that further our understanding of the solar system and our place 

within it. The two selected missions will explore our nearest planetary neighbor, 

Venus. DAVINCI is an atmospheric probe that will measure the layers of Venus’s 

atmosphere as it plunges to the surface, and VERITAS will explore Venus’s surface 

and interior as it orbits the planet.

Lucy Launches to the Trojan Asteroids

The Lucy spacecraft launched in October 2021 and will tour two sets of Trojan 

asteroids, the L4 cloud in 2027–28 and the L5 cloud in 2033, visiting seven Trojan 

asteroids in total. It will also fly near a main belt asteroid in 2025 on its way to 

the outer solar system. Lucy is named after the fossilized skeleton of an early hominin found in Ethiopia, and just as the Lucy fossil provided unique insights into 

humanity’s evolution, the Lucy mission promises to revolutionize our knowledge of 

planetary origins and the formation of the solar system, including Earth.

Juno Flies Close to Jupiter’s Moon, Europa

On September 29, 2022, the Juno mission conducted a flyby of Jupiter’s moon 

Europa, providing the first up-close images in more than 20 years and a view of 

the moon’s heavily fractured crust of ice. Images show dark stains in the ice possibly linked to eruptions originating below the moon’s surface, as well as indications of penetrating high-energy particles from the severe radiation environment 

around Jupiter. NASA’s Europa Clipper mission, due to launch in 2024, will travel 

to Europa to take detailed measurements to investigate whether the moon could 

have conditions suitable for life. 

Crustal and Time-Varying Magnetic Fields at the InSight Landing Site on Mars

NASA’s Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat 

Transport (InSight) mission hosts the first magnetometer deployed to the Martian 

surface and has been measuring the geology and seismology of Mars for almost four 
61National Aeronautics and Space Administration

years. InSight has detected more than 1,300 Marsquakes, and on May 4, 2022, it 

measured the largest quake ever detected, estimated to be magnitude 5. InSight has 

also “heard” meteoroids hitting the Mars surface. InSight gradually lost power due 

to dust on its solar panels, and NASA officially retired this mission in December 

2022, after more than four years of collecting unique science on Mars .

Heliophysics

The energy from our Sun enables and sustains life on our home planet while 

also producing radiation and magnetic energy that can impact that same life. The 

Heliophysics Division studies the Sun and its influences on the very nature of 

interplanetary space and, in turn, the atmospheres of planets and the technology 

that exists there. Solar activity can interfere with satellite electronics, communications, and GPS signals, and it can also impact the radiation fields that spacecraft 

travel through to get to the Moon, Mars, and other planets. Included below are four 

highlights from FY 2021 and FY 2022.

DRIVE Science Centers

NASA selected three hubs for the Diversify, Realize, Integrate, Venture, Educate 

(DRIVE) Science Centers, a key recommendation in the 2013 Solar and Space 

Physics Decadal Survey: Consequences Of Fields and Flows in the Interior and 

Exterior of the Sun (COFFIES) at Stanford University, Center for Geospace 

Storms at Johns Hopkins University, and Our Heliospheric Shield at Boston 

University. The Centers use the wide range of scientific, computational, and educational expertise in their diverse science teams to address “grand challenge” science goals in the field of heliophysics. They bring synergistic, coordinated efforts to 

achieve innovative, breakthrough solar and geospace science that is both ambitious 

and achievable. 

Space Weather Program Created

NASA merged existing space weather research activities under the new NASA 

Space Weather Program within the Heliophysics Division to provide an improved 

framework to transition NASA research to NOAA and DOD operations and to 
62Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

inform future research goals. NASA has a long history of working with NOAA, 

DOD, and other stakeholders to increase our understanding of how the Sun 

impacts our everyday lives on Earth. The Program manages the joint NASANOAA Research-to-Operations-to-Research (R2O2R) program that ensures 

integration of new science into space weather prediction models and informs 

future areas of research for the solar and space physics science community. The 

Program also manages the Agency’s overall space weather efforts in support of the 

PROSWIFT Act, which provides a foundation for heliophysics research at NASA. 

The Program is also supporting the Heliophysics Environmental and Radiation 

Measurement Experiment Suite (HERMES) instrument for the Lunar Gateway, 

which will measure space weather impacts to humans and spacecraft systems in 

orbit around the Moon as part of NASA’s Moon to Mars campaign. HERMES will 

be the first NASA scientific investigation as part of Gateway.

ICON Studies Earth’s Ionosphere

Launched in October 2019, NASA’s Ionospheric Connection Explorer (ICON) 

embarked on a mission to study the ionosphere, a region of space where space 

weather and terrestrial weather interact, and changes in ionospheric properties can 

disrupt communications and satellite orbits and increase radiation risks to astronauts. The ionosphere is an extremely dynamic place with the push and pull of 

Earth’s weather and the Sun’s impacts, and ICON will measure the forces leading 

to these changes. Recent data from ICON show the first direct measurements of 

this wind-driven dynamo in space. These new results from ICON will help improve 

predictions of the ionosphere, which are critical to understanding how signals used 

by space-based communication and navigation systems travel through this environment. ICON even measured impacts to the ionosphere from the Tonga-Hunga 

Ha’apai volcano eruption that occurred in January 2022.

Data from Parker Solar Probe Reveal Details of Sun’s Activities

Parker Solar Probe is a first-of-its-kind mission to “touch” the Sun to understand how energy and heat move through the solar atmosphere, the corona, as 

well as what accelerates solar winds and energetic particles. Three years after 

launch, Parker Solar Probe has now flown within the Sun’s inner corona, sampling 
63National Aeronautics and Space Administration

particles and fields still bound to the Sun’s atmosphere. During Parker’s eighth 

flyby of the Sun on April 28, 2021, the spacecraft detected the conditions scientists had long awaited, indicating that it had passed beyond the Alfvén critical 

surface into the solar atmosphere. Since its launch in 2018, the spacecraft has set 

records for the fastest man-made object and closest approach to the Sun, coming 

to within 5.3 million miles, in addition to producing groundbreaking science. As 

of September 2022, Parker has completed 13 perihelia, or closest approaches to 

the Sun, and has provided valuable information about the structure of coronal 

mass ejections. Solar Cycle 25 began at the end of December 2019, and Parker 

is expected to witness an increasing number of solar events as the Sun’s activity 

ramps up. 

New Space Environment Missions Selection

In February 2022, NASA selected two missions to better understand the dynamics of the Sun and the constantly changing near-Earth space environment. The 

Multi-slit Solar Explorer (MUSE) will seek to understand the heating of the Sun’s 

corona, why it’s millions of degrees hotter than the Sun’s surface, and the forces 

leading to eruptions in the corona. HelioSwarm is a constellation of nine spacecraft that will measure the magnetic fields and turbulence in the solar wind. These 

missions will provide deeper insights into our universe and offer critical information to help protect astronauts, satellites, and communications signals such as GPS.

Astrophysics

The Astrophysics Division manages studies of the universe, seeking to better 

understand the creation and history of stars and galaxies, as well as our place 

within it. Astrophysics explores how planetary systems can form, how habitable 

environments develop, and whether other worlds contain the signatures of life. 

Below are significant highlights from FY 2021 and 2022.

IXPE Imaging the Extreme Universe

The Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer (IXPE) launched in December 2021 

and sent back its first science images in February 2022. IXPE, a partnership with 
64Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

the Italian Space Agency, is on a quest to study some of the most mysterious and 

extreme objects in the universe, using the polarization of light to provide insight 

into our understanding of x-ray production in objects such as neutron stars and 

pulsar wind nebulae, as well as stellar and supermassive black holes.

SOFIA End of Mission

The Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA), a 2.5-meter 

telescope inside a Boeing 747 aircraft, allowed astronomers to see into the universe 

from above Earth’s atmosphere, which blocks infrared light. The mission was completed at the end of FY 2022, with flights ending on September 29, 2022. Since its 

first observations in 2010, SOFIA has revealed the presence of water on the sunlit 

Moon and cosmic magnetic fields, and it has even allowed scientists to analyze 

Pluto’s atmosphere.

COSI Selected to Study the Milky Way

The Compton Spectrometer and Imager (COSI) mission was selected in October 

2021 from the Astrophysics Explorers Program to continue into development. 

COSI is a gamma ray telescope that will investigate star birth and death in our 

own galaxy, the Milky Way, as well as the formation of chemical elements. COSI 

is scheduled to launch in 2025.

Hubble Continues Apace

The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) continues to produce a wide variety of 

exciting science since its launch in 1990. These many years of observations have 

allowed astronomers to narrow the expansion rate of the universe to a precision 

of just over 1 percent, allowing them to predict that the universe will double in 

size every 10 billion years. Begun in November 2020, HST’s Ultraviolet Legacy 

Library of Young Stars as Essential Standards (ULLYSES) program will use ultraviolet emissions from the hottest and most energetic material in newly formed and 

forming stars to better understand how stars form and to trace material accreting 

onto new stars. In October 2021, Hubble observed ice sublimating off the surface of 

Europa, a moon of Jupiter that is a target in the search for life in our solar system. 

In 2022, after six years of analyzing Hubble data, scientists were able to calculate 
65National Aeronautics and Space Administration

the mass of a black hole “wandering” around our galaxy, which is 5,000 light-years 

away from Earth. This calculation helps us better characterize other stellar-mass 

black holes that are spread throughout the galaxy. After decades in orbit, Hubble 

keeps revealing new science about the universe, our galaxy, and even Earth’s neighboring planets.

Roman Space Telescope Reaches Key Development Milestone

The Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope (Roman) passed its Critical Design 

Review in late September 2021, allowing engineers to begin the process of assembling and testing the observatory. The telescope will help astronomers better 

understand the nature of dark energy and exoplanet diversity, and it is expected to 

launch in 2027.

Biological and Physical Sciences

The Biological and Physical Sciences Division (BPSD) has a twofold mission: 

1) to better understand how spaceflight affects living systems and prepare for future 

human exploration missions beyond low-Earth orbit and 2) to advance our understanding of physical phenomena in the microgravity environment and underlying 

space exploration technologies, such as power generation and storage, space propulsion, life-support systems, and environmental monitoring and control. BPSD’s 

space biology research is focused on animal biology; cell and molecular biology; 

microbiology; plant biology; and developmental, reproductive, and evolutionary 

biology. Physical science research is focused on biophysics, combustion science, 

complex fluids, fluids physics, fundamental physics, and materials science.

Exploring the Fifth State of Matter

The Cold Atom Lab (CAL) on ISS studied for the first time the properties of 

ultra-cold atoms in a “bubble” geometry that can be created only in microgravity. This research aims to explore new boundaries of quantum science, such as 

what happens when atoms interfere with themselves on the surface of a bubble. 

Additionally, CAL produced the first dual-species quantum gas in space. After 

replacing and characterizing the microwave source that improved the cooling and 
66Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

manipulation of cold quantum gases, CAL was able to produce the first dual-species 

atom interferometer and Bose-Einstein condensates in space, as well as improving 

the atom interferometer contrast by a factor of two. These are key steps on the path 

to producing and studying weakly bound multi atom states, quantum simulation 

of complex systems, and gravity science as both a quantum gravimeter and as a 

testbed for testing current theories of gravity. 

Thriving in Deep Space

First Plants Grown in Lunar Regolith: Researchers from the University of 

Florida grew Arabidopsis thaliana plants in regolith gathered during Apollo missions. This research builds, in part, upon BPSD-supported space- and ground-based 

plant investigations and capabilities. This milestone could provide critical insights 

for growing plants on the Moon during future Artemis missions, as well as contribute to advancements in agriculture on Earth.

Tissue Chips for Joint Research Studies: In March 2022 a multi-agency collaboration led to the award of 8 contracts on 3-D Tissues and Microphysiological 

Systems. This solicitation is in partnership with the NIH, FDA, BARDA, and 

NASA to extend the longevity of these advanced in vitro platforms. This will 

allow NASA to study the effect of spaceflight stressors, such as combined radiation 

and microgravity, using human analog models to support astronaut healthcare for 

long-duration deep space exploration missions. The extended tissue chip lifespan 

would enable researchers to assess the effects of acute and chronic stressors over 

longer periods of time.

Benefiting Life on Earth

In 2021, 11 years of research was completed using the Light Microscopy Module 

on the ISS, which supported 40 experiments performed by eight countries. Results 

of these experiments produced nearly perfect colloidal crystals that resolved theoretical debates in physics and material science and aided the development of optical 

switches and battery electrodes. This research also led to three patents.
67National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Exploration Science Strategy and Integration Office

The Exploration Science Strategy and Integration Office (ESSIO) was created 

within SMD to help develop and implement a strategy to enable robotic and human 

exploration of the Moon and beyond. In this capacity, ESSIO manages the Lunar 

Discovery and Exploration Program (LDEP) and the Commercial Lunar Payload 

Services (CLPS) initiative, both of which work toward strategically integrating 

our science and exploration goals. NASA’s CLPS initiative leverages commercial 

capabilities and technology to deliver scientific instruments and technology demonstration payloads to the Moon’s surface. 

In FY 2021 and FY 2022, ESSIO awarded several CLPS contracts to deliver 

instruments to the lunar surface as well as selecting science instrument suites from 

the Payloads and Research Investigations on the Surface of the Moon (PRISM) 

Program. Three instrument suites were selected in June 2021 for PRISM-1 for 

delivery to the Moon in 2024: Lunar Vertex, the Lunar Interior Temperature and 

Materials Suite (LITMS), and the Farside Seismic Suite (FSS). Two instruments 

were selected in June 2022 from the PRISM-2 call for proposals to be delivered in 

2026: Lunar Vulkan Imaging and Spectroscopy Explorer (Lunar-VISE) and Lunar 

Explorer Instrument for space biology Applications (LEIA). PRISM-2 offered the 

opportunity to propose instruments to be deployed on a rover, establishing mobility 

as an additional CLPS service to be provided by commercial industry.

James Webb Space Telescope Program Office

On December 25, 2021, the James Webb Space Telescope (Webb) was successfully launched from Kourou, French Guiana, by Arianespace. The launch and 

subsequent unfolding and commissioning proceeded nearly flawlessly, and the 

mission released its first stunning scientific images in July 2022. Webb performed 

50 major deployments using 178 release mechanisms, 155 motors, and 600 pulleys 

to enable the telescope to unfold and unfurl, and its success was the product of 

decades of work by thousands of scientists and engineers. Webb is already changing textbooks in its first months of work. Its launch trajectory was so accurate 

that Webb has over 20 years of fuel, more than doubling its potential lifetime of 
68Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

scientific discovery. In August 2022, the 

James Webb Telescope Program Office 

was discontinued with the successful 

commissioning of Webb, and continued 

management has returned to SMD’s 

Astrophysics Division.

Mars Sample Return Program Office

The Mars Sample Return (MSR) 

Program Office was created in 2020 

to lead and organize NASA’s efforts 

around the Mars Sample Return 

Campaign, which is a partnership with 

the European Space Agency (ESA). NASA and ESA will launch two spacecraft 

to the Red Planet to retrieve the scientifically selected samples collected by the 

Perseverance rover, both those already collected and those to be collected as it 

continues its planned surface science mission. The MSR Program will launch the 

contained samples into Mars orbit, using an Earth Return spacecraft to rendezvous 

with and capture them while in orbit around Mars, and then bring them safely 

to Earth. In November of 2020, an MSR Independent Review Board released its 

report, and the Program has been implementing the recommendations as well as 

making progress on mission formulation. The Program entered Phase B in October 

of 2022 following agency Key Decision Point-B. MSR is set to enter its development 

phase at the end of 2023.

Joint Agency Satellite Division

The Joint Agency Satellite Division, together with NOAA, manages the development and launch of reimbursable satellite programs, projects, and instruments. 

More information about these satellite programs can be found in the Department 

of Commerce chapter of this report.

On July 12, 2022, NASA revealed the deepest and sharpest infrared image of the distant 

universe to date, captured by the James Webb 

Space Telescope. Webb’s First Deep Field teems 

with thousands of galaxies, including the faintest 

objects ever observed in the infrared.
69National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate

NASA’s Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate (ARMD) during FY 2021 

and FY 2022 continued to make progress on its innovative vision of cleaner, safer, 

and more advanced air travel and atmospheric flight at every altitude above the 

United States.2

Alongside partners and aviation experts in government, industry, and academia, NASA’s aeronautics team further researched and developed new ideas 

and capabilities in its wide-ranging portfolio guided by a comprehensive Strategic 

Implementation Plan to transform aviation for the 21st century.3

During FY 2021 and FY 2022, ARMD initiated several new efforts through the 

Sustainable Flight National Partnership (SFNP) with industry, academia, and 

other agencies to accomplish the global aviation community’s aggressive goal of 

net-zero carbon emissions by 2050. ARMD also continued to transform global aviation through three other broad areas of scientific and engineering work focused 

on Advanced Air Mobility, quiet supersonic flight, and Air Traffic Management.4

Sustainable Flight National Partnership

NASA Aeronautics initiated several focused projects during 2021 to enable 

greater efficiency and reduced environmental impact of aviation under the SFNP. 

Its goal is to achieve net-zero carbon emissions in aviation by 2050 by enabling 

next-generation sustainable aviation practices that make aviation more environmentally friendly. As part of SFNP, NASA is contributing viable solutions in 

four main areas of technology: electrified aircraft propulsion, small-core gas turbines, advanced high-efficiency airframes, and manufacturing of composites at a 

high rate.

5

2 https://www.nasa.gov/topics/aeronautics/index.html

3 https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/strategy

4 https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/sustainable-aviation-np/, https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/

solicitations

5 https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/programs/iasp/epfd, https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/nasas-hytecto-help-jets-burn-less-fuel, https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/nasa-to-increase-sustainable-aircraftmanufacturing-with-hicam
70Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

In 2022, NASA announced plans to partner with industry to build the 

Sustainable Flight Demonstrator (SFD). This will be a full-scale technology demonstrator built to test an ultra-efficient aerodynamic design and possibly other new 

related technologies to solve the challenges of integrating those technologies and 

prove their predicted benefits in flight.6

Researchers continued testing one of those high-efficiency airframe concepts

during FY 2022: transonic truss-braced wings. Preliminary assessments indicate 

a single-aisle aircraft with this configuration would be 5 to 10 percent more fuelefficient than a similarly sized airliner because of its differently shaped wings.

7

NASA also continued to support more widespread adoption of sustainable 

aviation fuels (SAF), studying emissions from current-generation aircraft using 100 

percent SAF. NASA also conducted joint research with the German Aerospace 

Center to demonstrate that cleaner-burning jet fuels made from sustainable sources

can produce 50 to 70 percent fewer ice crystal contrails, a major source of pollution 

at cruising altitude.8

Advanced Air Mobility

NASA advanced concepts and technologies for Advanced Air Mobility (AAM) 

help emerging aviation markets safely develop an air transportation system that 

moves people and cargo between places previously not served or underserved by 

aviation using revolutionary new aircraft that are only just now becoming possible. 

NASA advanced key technologies critical to safely and responsibly facilitate the 

introduction of new aircraft at lower altitudes operating in urban environments in 

the National Airspace System (NAS). It will enable such aircraft to conduct missions including emergency response, civic resource management, and sustainably 

transporting packages and passengers.9

6 https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/programs/iasp/sfd/description/

7 https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/ttbw-prepares-for-more-tests, https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/

ames/bracing-for-fuel-efficient-flight, https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/an-artistic-view-of-the-ttbw

8 https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/nasa-tests-sustainable-aviation-fuel-emissions, 

https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-dlr-study-finds-sustainable-aviation-fuel-can-reduce-contrails

9 https://www.nasa.gov/aam, https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/features/aam-looks-towardautomation.html, https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/features/aam-plans-for-vertiports.html
71National Aeronautics and Space Administration

As interest rises for using drones and other unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) 

for these purposes, NASA’s AAM mission has continued to lead the vision for 

this transformation of our cities, towns, and rural areas by finding ways to make it 

sustainable, accessible, reliable, and, above all, safe.

10

Through the X-57 Maxwell, NASA’s first all-electric airplane, NASA is establishing a reference platform for integrated approaches of distributed electric propulsion technologies and sharing design and airworthiness process with regulators 

and standards organizations to support industry development of AAM vehicles. In 

2021, NASA completed high-voltage testing, during which all the aircraft’s systems 

were powered up and its propellers spun under electrical power for the first time. 

The X-57 is expected to make its first flight during FY 2023.11

NASA and the FAA signed an agreement to collaborate on the AAM National 

Campaign. The campaign is providing insight to the aviation community into the 

evolving regulatory and operational environment to support technology development and adaptation, as well as promoting public confidence in AAM through 

technology demonstrations. Five state and local governments signed agreements 

with NASA to begin examining how AAM can be a part of their infrastructure.12

In preparing for the AAM National Campaign’s first set of demonstrations, 

called NC-1, researchers conducted the National Campaign Integrated Dry Run

tests. These tests provided important baseline data and information to researchers 

and their industry partners.

13

NASA then conducted developmental flight tests with partner Joby Aviation

using their electric vertical take-off and landing vehicle to generate data and further mature National Campaign flight scenarios and related operational protocols. 

10 https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/features/releases-new-concept-image-for-aam.html, 

https://www.nasa.gov/feature/for-advanced-air-mobility-safety-is-paramount

11 https://www.nasa.gov/specials/X57/, https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/features/x-57-high-voltagetesting-concludes.html

12 https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/nasa-and-faa-sign-collaborative-agreements, https://www.nasa.

gov/aamnationalcampaign, https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/programs/iasp/aam/nasa-to-help-localgovernments-plan-for-advanced-air-mobility

13 https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/features/national-campaign-dry-run-tests-conclude.html, 

https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/features/national-campaign-adds-partners.html
72Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

NASA has continued to conduct tests and collaborate with partners in government, industry, and academia.14

Quesst

NASA continued its work to enable a new market in commercial supersonic 

air travel over land. The Quesst mission (formerly known as Low-Boom Flight 

Demonstration) seeks to usher in this new era by demonstrating that loud sonic 

booms can be reduced to quiet sonic “thumps.”15

NASA plans on demonstrating quiet supersonic technology is possible with the 

help of data gathered by the X-59 airplane, currently under construction and targeted to make its first flight during 2023. The uniquely designed X-59 aircraft will 

first be test-flown to gather data on these sonic thumps and then flown over select 

communities to gauge the public’s reaction. The agency will share survey data with 

regulators to support adoption of new rules that lift the ban on supersonic travel 

over land.16

In 2021, the mission saw developments in the assembly of the X-59 aircraft at 

Lockheed Martin’s Skunk Works facility in California. Components such as the 

aircraft’s nose and environmental systems were installed. For the first time, the 

aircraft supported its own weight after the removal of external supports, and its 

onboard systems were powered up. Additionally, the X-59’s eXternal Vision System 

completed flight testing onboard a test aircraft and is ready for installation into the 

X-59. Due to the aircraft’s long, pointed airframe, the cockpit has no forward-facing 

window. Instead, state-of-the-art cameras and a 4K video monitor allow the pilot to 

see what is ahead in virtually the same detail as a real window.17

14 https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/features/nasa-and-joby-complete-flight-tests.html, and https://

www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-tests-advanced-air-mobility-automation-concepts-with-sikorsky-and-darpa

15 https://www.nasa.gov/subject/7566/supersonic-flight/, https://www.nasa.gov/X59, and https://www.

nasa.gov/feature/new-name-same-great-supersonic-mission

16 https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-in-your-neighborhood-event-brings-x-59-to-the-people

17 https://www.nasa.gov/feature/x-59-resembles-actual-aircraft, https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/x-59-

nose-makes-an-appearance, https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/lbfd/nasa-x-59-assembly-continues-withinstallation-of-supersonic-technologies, https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/nasa-x-59-stands-on-its-own, 

https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-completes-tests-of-x-59-external-vision-system
73National Aeronautics and Space Administration

To conduct Quesst’s mission, NASA researchers selected ground recording equipment and developed the Airborne Location Integrating Geospatial 

Navigation System (ALIGNS). ALIGNS is a visual navigation system allowing a 

supersonic aircraft to detect another’s shockwave. The system will be used in-flight 

to study the X-59’s acoustics.18

In 2022, the X-59 was transported to Fort Worth, Texas, for key structural tests. 

Upon returning to its assembly facility in California, the aircraft has continued the 

assembly process, and more key research and tests were conducted.19

Air Traffic Management

NASA continued to transform the NAS in FY 2021 and FY 2022 through several 

Air Traffic Management research activities exploring how to improve airspace and 

airport operations by reducing emissions, saving fuel, reducing passenger delays, 

and easing airport operations.20

NASA initiated work toward the future transformation of the NAS through the 

announcement of its “Sky for All” vision. To help develop this vision, NASA has 

asked for broad community input through a publicly accessible website on what the 

future of air travel should look like by mid-century. After the website went live, 

NASA received a great volume of input from industry, academia, and other government agencies on how a futuristic mid-century NAS beyond the 2035 timeframe 

could come to fruition. Additionally, NASA held several successful virtual events 

and webinars.21

For nearer-term adoption, NASA transferred to the FAA procedures and technology developed by our Airspace Technology Demonstration project. Beginning 

in 2017, NASA investigated new methods to reduce emissions and delays in commercial aviation by using new air traffic management procedures at three major 

18 https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/features/how-nasa-will-measure-quiet-supersonic-flight.html, 

https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/feature/nasa-precise-positioning-system-for-supersonic-science

19 https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/nasa-x-59-calls-on-texas-for-key-testing, https://www.nasa.gov/

centers/armstrong/features/x-59-returns-to-california.html, https://www.nasa.gov/feature/low-speedwind-tunnel-test-provides-important-data

20 https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/programs/aosp

21 https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/nasa-invites-collaboration-to-define-future-of-air-travel, https://nari.

arc.nasa.gov/skyforall/
74Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

U.S. airports. Now proven, these procedures were handed to the FAA to be implemented at 27 major airports across the country.

22

Highlights from NASA ARMD’s Programs

Advanced Air Vehicles Program

A one-megawatt electric motor that could help propel more environmentally 

friendly and economically sustainable aircraft was tested in 2021. The focus was on 

an electric machine that can work either as an electric motor to turn propellers and 

large engine fans or a generator to produce one million watts of power—enough to 

power 760 average U.S. households.23

Using its wind tunnels in 2021, NASA successfully created a new design for a 

wing’s leading edge that can significantly reduce the noise created by large jets. 

Since airport landing fees are largely tied to noise levels, this could help reduce 

costs and quiet the noise for residents near airports.24

In 2022, NASA conducted its High Ice Water Content research activity through 

a flight series using its DC-8 Airborne Science Laboratory aircraft. The aircraft 

flew through large thunderstorms over the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean 

carrying researchers and experiments to study the conditions in which airborne 

ice crystals accumulate inside a jet engine. NASA is seeking to understand this 

phenomenon in order to provide jet engine manufacturers with the information 

they need to mitigate the issues associated with ice accumulation.25

Airspace Operations and Safety Program

In 2021, the Air Traffic Management–Exploration project completed its X3 series 

of flight demonstrations to enable Advanced Air Mobility operations and started 

the next series, X4. X3 focused on simulated scenarios in air traffic management 

22 https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-transfers-air-traffic-management-tool-updates-to-faa/, https://

www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/programs/aosp/atd, https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/nasa-testing-savesairlines-one-million-gallons-of-jet-fuel, https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-delivers-on-making-gate-togate-flights-more-efficient

23 https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/nasa-tests-machine-to-power-the-future-of-aviation-propulsion

24 https://www.nasa.gov/feature/langley/nasa-tests-new-quiet-wing-design

25 https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/nasa-studies-source-of-ice-crystals-in-high-places
75National Aeronautics and Space Administration

such as rerouting aircraft and taking off from vertiports, and X4 advances these 

tests by introducing more tasks such as information sharing.26

NASA established a research transition team with counterparts at the FAA in 

2021 to explore upper Class E Traffic Management capabilities. Together, the group 

has worked on applying the successful work of the Unmanned Aircraft Systems 

Traffic Management project to the unique environment of upper Class E airspace, 

where military aircraft, remotely-piloted research aircraft, and perhaps soon commercial supersonic jets would share the same space.27

Integrated Aviation Systems Program

In 2021, NASA awarded grants to two U.S. companies to support the Electrified 

Powertrain Flight Demonstration (EPFD) project to help mature electrified aircraft 

propulsion. EPFD seeks to serve as a catalyst to introduce electrified aircraft propulsion to U.S. aviation fleets no later than 2035.28

The Systems Integration and Operationalization series, a collaboration with the 

FAA and industry, concluded in 2021. The series conducted flight demonstrations 

of unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) to demonstrate potential public and economic benefit of UAS operations. The final demonstration saw a remotely piloted 

aircraft inspect a gas pipeline over a rural area in California.29

Transformative Aeronautics Concepts Program

The Scalable Traffic Management for Emergency Response Operations 

(STEReO) team in 2021 conducted a successful workshop with wildfire experts in 

California on all the ways STEReO can help wildfire management and prevention 

efforts. The team also partnered with the U.S. Forest Service, conducting simulated flight tests of UAS using data from real-world firefighting aircraft.30

26 https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-sets-stage-for-future-flights-auditions-advanced-air-mobility-tech

27 https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/nasa-working-to-bring-air-mobility-vision-to-stratospheric-heights

28 https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-issues-contracts-to-mature-electrified-aircraft-propulsiontechnologies

29 https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/features/gas-pipeline-inspections-simulated.html

30 https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/wildfire-workshop-accelerates-nasa-firefighting-solutions
76Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

The first round of University Leadership Initiative (ULI) grants began their project close-outs with NASA in 2021, having started in 2017. ULI is helping university 

researchers and students, and even younger kids, to become included in solving 

real-world aeronautical challenges. The sixth round of participants was announced 

in 2022.31

As part of the Convergent Aeronautics Solutions project, NASA researchers 

made significant progress in developing a novel solid-state battery during 2021 and 

2022, exceeding their initial research goals and garnering interest from government, industry, and academia. Unlike lithium-ion batteries, which have liquid in 

their components, solid-state batteries do not overheat, catch fire, or lose capacity 

over time—making them a contender for use in electric airplanes.32

NASA Aeronautics at Home (STEM)

As the COVID-19 pandemic affected students of all ages, NASA’s aeronautical 

educators offered a number of options online for kids and parents alike to stay busy 

and have fun using aviation-themed backgrounds during video calls, and in the 

process learn something more about NASA’s work to improve aviation and make 

air travel safer. A few examples include a paper model and a 3D-printable model of 

the X-59 created by a NASA intern.33

In addition to these at-home activities, NASA Aeronautics offers educational 

activities and curriculum to educators year-round.34

Additional STEM and Workforce Development Highlights

In 2021, the Advanced Air Mobility project held a poster contest for kids in 

grades 6–12 who, in the spirit of transforming our skies, were challenged to create 

31 https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-university-initiative-showing-its-worth, https://www.nasa.gov/

aeroresearch/uli-researchers-pay-it-forward-to-high-schoolers

32 https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/nasa-solid-state-battery-research-exceeds-initial-goals-draws-interest

33 https://www.nasa.gov/aero-at-home, https://www.nasa.gov/aero/coloring-pages/, https://www.nasa.

gov/aero/virtualbackgrounds, https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/resources/k-12, https://www.nasa.gov/

connect/ebooks/aeronautics_ebooks_archive_1.html, https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/x59-paper-desktop-model_1.pdf, and https://www.nasa.gov/feature/x-59-3d-printing

34 https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/new-aeronautics-activities-for-the-back-to-school-season
77National Aeronautics and Space Administration

an original artistic depiction of what Advanced Air Mobility looks like and how it 

is being accomplished. The project also held a career day with several speakers from 

NASA to help inspire, educate, and involve prospective aeronautical innovators.35

Starting in 2021, the Quesst mission created an ongoing interview series named 

The Quiet Crew, which showcases a member of the team of aeronautical innovators working on the X-59 or another aspect of the Quesst mission.36

NASA Aeronautics’ Strategic Communications team created successful outreach initiatives, products, and resources to spread the word of NASA’s aeronautics research activities. For example, the Dream with Us design challenge asked 

students across the United States to come up with original designs and concepts 

for the future of aviation, and winners were announced in 2022. In 2022, NASA 

Aeronautics launched the new Flight Log Experience. Participants who sign up 

online build their own flight log, including having their names flown onboard 

NASA’s research aircraft, X-planes, and other Advanced Air Mobility flights. 

Each participant receives a printable, shareable “boarding pass” upon completion 

of the flight, and opportunities to earn “endorsement” badges for the completion 

of STEM-related activities.37

35 https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/advanced-air-mobility-holding-poster-contest, https://www.nasa.gov/

feature/advanced-air-mobility-career-day-held-in-may

36 https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLiuUQ9asub3QzXTLxiWkei0b_2FAO6NqM

37 https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/dream-with-us-design-challenge, https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/

dream-with-us-2022-winners, https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/sign-up-to-fly-with-nasa-using-theflight-log-experience, https://www.nasa.gov/flightlog/
78Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Space Technology Mission Directorate 

Technology drives exploration and the space economy. NASA’s Space 

Technology Mission Directorate (STMD) aims to transform future missions while 

ensuring American leadership in aerospace.38 STMD’s portfolio structure and 

programs develop, demonstrate, and transfer new space technologies that benefit 

NASA, commercial, and other government missions. STMD supports and invests 

in diverse ideas from entrepreneurs, researchers, and innovators across the country, 

providing solutions to challenges on Earth and in space. 

In FY 2021 and FY 2022, NASA’s investments in space technology demonstrated 

and advanced new capabilities, supported prize competitions, and initiated partnerships that helped solve complex challenges needed to fulfill the agency’s goals 

in space.

The Perseverance Rover 

After a seven-month journey, the Perseverance rover landed safely on Mars on 

February 18, 2021. Since landing, technologies on the rover have helped achieve 

science objectives and prepare for future robotic and human exploration. Many 

STMD programs supported research, testing, and development of various instruments, and funded two landing systems and two technology demonstrations:

• NASA’s Perseverance rover was able to use its new Terrain-Relative 

Navigation technology to avoid hazards and find a safe place to land in 

Jezero Crater on Mars.39 The system allowed the descending robot to visually map the Martian landscape, identify hazards, and then choose a safe 

place to land without human assistance. The autonomous system allows 

for safer landing in areas with hazardous terrain during future missions to 

the Moon, Mars, and beyond.

• The Mars Entry, Descent, and Landing Instrumentation (MEDLI) 2 collected temperature and pressure measurements on the heat shield and 

38 https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/home/index.html

39 https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/Terrain_Relative_Navigation
79National Aeronautics and Space Administration

backshell during entry and descent as the spacecraft slowed from 12,500 

mph to just under two mph in six minutes. They are NASA’s first-ever 

measurements of heat experienced by the backshell of an entry vehicle. 

All the sensors operated as expected during landing—every sensor 

returned a clean, high-quality signal. Post-landing, the MEDLI2 team analyzed the flight data to reconstruct the entry environment, vehicle aerodynamics, and atmospheric properties. The results will feed forward into 

the design of future missions, such as Mars Sample Return and Dragonfly.

• The Mars Oxygen In-Situ Resource Utilization Experiment (MOXIE) is 

demonstrating a new, critical capability: producing oxygen directly from 

the carbon dioxide–rich atmosphere. This technology is the first step to 

providing air for breathing, but more importantly, the vast quantities of 

oxygen needed to burn as fuel for rocket propellant for the long return 

flight home from Mars. Its first successful demonstration was in April 

2021.40 As of November 2022, MOXIE completed 12 runs and, during 

its 11th, hit a record when it briefly produced oxygen at a rate of nearly 

10.5 grams per hour. MOXIE has produced a cumulative total of 140 minutes of breathable oxygen for an astronaut.

• The Mars Environmental Dynamics Analyzer (MEDA) weather station 

contains a suite of environmental sensors to record dust levels and six 

atmospheric conditions: wind (both speed and direction), pressure, relative humidity, air temperature, ground temperature, and radiation (from 

both the Sun and space). While on Mars, MEDA has continuously measured the wind, ultraviolet, infrared radiation, the temperature profile 

in the lower atmosphere, pressure, and relative humidity, and it has also 

imaged the Martian sky. With each of the recorded sols, the team generates short weather reports.

41 With MEDA’s weather reports, engineers now 

have atmospheric data from three different locations on the Red Planet, 

the locations of Perseverance, Curiosity, and NASA’s InSight lander, 

which hosts the Temperature and Wind sensors for InSight (TWINS). 

40 https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-s-perseverance-mars-rover-extracts-first-oxygen-from-red-planet

41 https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/weather/
80Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

The trio of weather stations has enabled a deeper understanding of 

Martian weather patterns, events, and atmospheric turbulence that could 

influence planning for future missions. MEDA’s information has also 

helped decide the best atmospheric conditions for the Mars Helicopter 

Ingenuity flights.

Public-Private Partnerships

On October 14, 2020, STMD announced its selection of 14 American companies, including several small businesses, as partners to develop a range of technologies to help forge a path to sustainable Artemis operations on the Moon by the 

end of the decade.42 U.S. industry submitted the proposals to the fifth competitive 

Tipping Point opportunity, and the selections had a combined award value of about 

$370 million.

On November 10, 2020, STMD announced its selection of 17 U.S. companies for 

20 partnerships to mature industry-developed space technologies for the Moon and 

beyond through the 2020 Announcement of Collaboration Opportunity (ACO).43

NASA and industry teams will design a 3D printing system for NASA’s Artemis 

lunar exploration program, test a simple method for removing dust from planetary 

solar arrays, mature a first-stage rocket recovery system for a small satellite launch 

provider, and more. The partnerships employ unfunded Space Act Agreements 

to accelerate the development of emerging space capabilities. In February 2022, 

STMD released Announcements for Partnership Proposals (AFPP) to advance 

Tipping Point technologies and ACO to be selected in 2023.

Technology Demonstrations 

The Green Propellant Infusion Mission (GPIM) spacecraft also came to a successful end and re-entered Earth’s atmosphere on October 20, 2020.44 While in 

42 https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-announces-partners-to-advance-tipping-point-technologies-forthe-moon-mars/

43 https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/new-nasa-partnerships-to-mature-commercial-space-technologiescapabilities

44 https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/tdm/green/gpim-nears-completion.html
81National Aeronautics and Space Administration

orbit, GPIM tested a monopropellant, called the Advanced Spacecraft Energetic 

Non-Toxic (ASCENT), and propulsion system, including the thrusters, tanks, and 

valves, by conducting a planned series of 40 orbital maneuvers. GPIM successfully 

proved that a never-before-used propellant and propulsion system work as intended, 

demonstrating both are practical options for future missions. The mission demonstrated the propellant’s projected performance, showing a 50 percent increase in 

gas mileage for the spacecraft compared to hydrazine. 

On September 18, 2021, after over two years of pushing the timekeeping frontiers 

in space, NASA’s Deep Space Atomic Clock mission came to a successful end.

45

The payload validated a miniaturized, ultra-precise, mercury-ion atomic clock that 

is orders of magnitude more stable than today’s best spacecraft clocks.

STMD continued advancing In-space Servicing, Assembly and Manufacturing 

(ISAM) technologies for future flight demonstrations.46 In December 2021, Redwire 

completed its Mission Design Review for the On-orbit Servicing, Assembly, 

and Manufacturing-2 (OSAM-2) technology demonstration. In February 2022, 

OSAM-1 successfully completed a Mission Critical Design Review. The milestone 

demonstrated that the maturity of the design for the spacecraft is appropriate to 

support proceeding with fabrication, assembly, integration, and testing.

The Laser Communications Relay Demonstration (LCRD) mission is revolutionizing the way we send and receive data, video, and other information, using 

lasers to encode and transmit data at rates 10–100 times faster than today’s fastest radio-frequency systems, with significantly less mass and power. While other 

NASA efforts have used optical communications, this is NASA’s first relay system using optical entirely, giving NASA the opportunity to test this method of 

communications and learn valuable lessons from its implementation. The payload 

launched aboard the U.S. Department of Defense Space Test Program-3 mission 

on December 7, 2021.47 The LCRD payload completed the mission activation phase 

and proceeded into the experiment phase in June 2022.48

45 https://www.nasa.gov/feature/jpl/working-overtime-nasa-s-deep-space-atomic-clock-completes-mission

46 https://nexis.gsfc.nasa.gov/isam/index.html

47 https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-s-laser-communications-tech-science-experiment-safely-inspace-0

48 https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2022/the-future-of-laser-communications
82Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

The goal of the Deep Space Optical Communications (DSOC) technology demonstration is to test the viability of laser communications capabilities for deep space 

exploration.49 Engineers completed integrating the DSOC payload with the Psyche 

mission spacecraft and completed ground environmental testing in FY 2022. In 

June 2022, NASA announced a delay of the Psyche mission launch attempt, which 

was unrelated to the DSOC payload.50 The DSOC technology demonstration will 

continue as planned on the new Psyche asteroid mission launch target date in 

October 2023.

The Cryogenic Fluid Management (CFM) Portfolio project seeks to mature 

technologies essential to NASA’s future missions in science and exploration that 

utilize both chemical and nuclear in-space propulsion, landers, and in situ resource 

utilization. Significant accomplishments through FY 2021 and FY 2022 included 

the completion of thermodynamic testing in May 2022 of a 20W 20K cryocooler, 

which demonstrated the desired lift capacity and specific mass key performance 

parameters. Four 2020 CFM Tipping Points contracts were executed with Eta 

Space, SpaceX, Lockheed Martin, and United Launch Alliance (ULA), making 

technical progress through design reviews and preparing for the first flight demonstration of the portfolio.

In FY 2021, two key components of the Low-Earth Orbit Flight Test of an 

Inflatable Decelerator (LOFTID), the flexible thermal protection system and 

inflatable structure, were completed and delivered to NASA’s Langley Research 

Center in Hampton, Virginia.51 Over the course of the year, engineers tested the 

complete system to ensure LOFTID was flight ready for its launch on a ULA 

Atlas V rocket as part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

Joint Polar Orbiting Satellite System-2 mission in November 2022. In September 

2021, NASA and ULA dedicated the LOFTID mission to Bernard Kutter, ULA’s 

manager of advanced programs, who passed away in 2020 and had been a key 

champion of the technology.

NASA led an effort, working with the Department of Energy (DOE), to advance 

Space Nuclear Technologies. The government team released a request for proposals 

49 https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/tdm/dsoc/index.html

50 https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-announces-launch-delay-for-psyche-asteroid-mission

51 https://www.nasa.gov/low-earth-orbit-flight-test-of-an-inflatable-decelerator
83National Aeronautics and Space Administration

and, in July 2021, selected three reactor design concept proposals for a nuclear thermal propulsion system.52 The reactor is a critical component of a nuclear thermal 

engine, which would utilize high-assay low-enriched uranium fuel. The contracts, 

awarded through the DOE’s Idaho National Laboratory (INL), were each valued at 

approximately $5 million. The companies will produce a conceptual reactor design 

that could support future mission needs: 

• BWX Technologies, Inc., of Lynchburg, Virginia (the company partnered 

with Lockheed Martin). 

• General Atomics Electromagnetic Systems of San Diego (the company 

partnered with X-energy LLC and Aerojet Rocketdyne). 

• Ultra Safe Nuclear Technologies of Seattle (the company partnered with 

Ultra Safe Nuclear Corporation, Blue Origin, General Electric Hitachi 

Nuclear Energy, General Electric Research, Framatome, and Materion). 

In June 2022, NASA and DOE, working together to advance Space Nuclear 

Technologies, announced the selection of three design concept proposals for a 

fission surface power system design that could be ready to launch by the end of 

the decade for a demonstration on the Moon.53 DOE’s Idaho National Laboratory 

awarded 12-month contracts to the following companies to each develop preliminary designs:

• Lockheed Martin of Bethesda, Maryland (the company partnered with 

BWXT and Creare).

• Westinghouse of Cranberry Township, Pennsylvania (the company partnered with Aerojet Rocketdyne).

• IX of Houston, Texas, a joint venture of Intuitive Machines and X-Energy 

(the company partnered with Maxar and Boeing).

The contracts, awarded through the DOE’s Idaho National Laboratory, are each 

valued at approximately $5 million. The contracts fund the development of initial 

design concepts for a 40-kilowatt class fission power system planned to last at least 

ten years in the lunar environment. 

52 https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-announces-nuclear-thermal-propulsion-reactor-concept-awards

53 https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-announces-artemis-concept-awards-for-nuclear-power-on-moon/
84Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Technology Maturation

STMD launched the Lunar Surface Innovation Initiative (LSII) in FY 2020 to 

spur the creation of novel technologies needed for lunar surface exploration and 

accelerate the technology readiness of key systems and components.54

• LSII has awarded more than $300 million through STMD programs to 

establish collaborations across industry and academia. 

• In March 2021, NASA selected five companies to mature vertically 

deployable solar array systems for the lunar surface under the Vertical 

Solar Array Technology (VSAT) project.55 In August 2022, NASA 

selected three companies—Astrobotic Technology, Honeybee Robotics, 

and Lockheed Martin—to further advance work on deployable solar array 

systems that will help power the agency’s human and robotic exploration 

of the Moon under Artemis.56 The agency will award a total of $19.4 million to three companies to build prototypes and perform environmental 

testing, with the goal of deploying one of the systems near the Moon’s 

South Pole near the end of this decade. 

• In March 2021, STMD expanded its partnership with the Johns Hopkins 

Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) to provide science and engineering integration expertise for lunar surface technology maturation. APL 

continued to operate the Lunar Surface Innovation Consortium (LSIC) 

through FY 2022, convening monthly focus groups and hosting workshop 

groups focused on lunar surface technology development.57 LSIC meetings were held biannually in the spring and fall with different capability 

focus areas.

• In March 2021, NASA announced six inaugural Lunar Surface 

Technology Research (LuSTR) awards.58 The grants of up to $2 million 

over two years, made to U.S. universities, sought to advance technologies 

54 https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/Lunar_Surface_Innovation_Initiative

55 https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-industry-to-mature-vertical-solar-array-technologies-for-lunar-surface

56 https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/three-companies-to-help-nasa-advance-solar-array-technology-for-moon

57 https://lsic.jhuapl.edu/

58 https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/strg/lustr
85National Aeronautics and Space Administration

related to in situ resource utilization and power systems needed for sustainable operations on the Moon. In February 2022, three LuSTR grants 

were awarded to U.S. universities to advance autonomous construction, 

resource extraction, and extremely cold electronics technologies needed 

for sustainable operations on the Moon.

Game Changing Development

The Safe and Precise Landing Integrated Capabilities Evolution (SPLICE) 

project is a suite of precision landing and hazard-avoidance technologies.59 The 

system consists of a high-performance computer, lasers, a camera, and other sensors. SPLICE could be used by planetary spacecraft to avoid boulders, craters, and 

other obstacles in landing areas. Through FY 2021, SPLICE was tested on two Blue 

Origin New Shepard rocket flights, which enabled the advancement of the navigation system for use on the Moon on commercial landers.

The Polar Resources Ice Mining Experiment-1 (PRIME-1) consists of a lunar 

drill and mass spectrometer.60 In October 2021, NASA selected Intuitive Machines 

of Houston to deliver PRIME-1 to the Moon under the agency’s Commercial Lunar 

Payload Services initiative. The delivery of the ice-mining experiment will help 

NASA search for ice at the Moon’s South Pole and, for the first time, harvest water 

from below the surface. On November 3, 2021, NASA and Intuitive Machines 

announced the landing site location for PRIME-1, located at the lunar South Pole 

on a ridge not far from Shackleton crater.61 The team continued working toward 

delivery of PRIME-1 hardware to Intuitive Machines in the summer of 2023.

The Moon to Mars Planetary Autonomous Construction Technology 

(MMPACT) project aims to develop, deliver, and demonstrate on-demand capabilities to protect astronauts and create infrastructure on the lunar surface via 

construction of landing pads, habitats, shelters, roadways, and more using lunar 

regolith-based materials. In October 2020, NASA announced it is working with 

Austin-based construction technologies startup ICON via MMPACT on early 

59 https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game_changing_development/projects/SPLICE/about

60 https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game_changing_development/projects/PRIME-1/

61 https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-intuitive-machines-announce-landing-site-location-for-lunar-drill/
86Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

research and development of a space-based construction system that could support 

future exploration of the Moon and Mars. ICON is testing lunar soil simulant with 

various processing and printing technologies. In March 2021, a team of students 

from colleges and universities across the United States tested a 3D-printed launch 

and landing pad to see how it holds up to a hot rocket engine at Camp Swift in 

Bastrop, Texas.62 The team won funding to print and test a small-scale prototype 

with help from the MMPACT project, ICON, and the Sounding Rocketry Team at 

Texas A&M University in College Station.

The Integrated System for Autonomous and Adaptive Caretaking (ISAAC) 

team is developing autonomous software to help monitor and maintain exploration spacecraft and habitats during long-duration deep space missions, particularly 

during extended periods when astronauts are away.63 In April 2021, Bumble, one of 

the free-flying Astrobee robots aboard the International Space Station, was put to 

the test to investigate a simulated anomaly. In the simulation, the station’s life support systems detected a high concentration of carbon dioxide.64 Bumble navigated 

the station to find the location designated as a “vent” and used computer vision 

to automatically detect the foreign object blocking the vent, an “astronaut sock.” 

Bumble called for help to clear the blockage. Additionally, Bumble completed a 

survey of part of the space station’s Japanese Exploration Module and built a highresolution multi-sensor 3D map. It ultimately persevered and completed its mission 

objectives, with a little timely help from ground operators. The demonstrations 

marked the end of the first phase of testing for the ISAAC software. 

In August 2022, STMD and NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern 

California selected Microchip Technology Inc. of Chandler, Arizona, to develop 

a High-Performance Spaceflight Computing processor that will provide at least 

100 times the computational capacity of current spaceflight computers.65 This key 

capability would advance all types of future space missions, from planetary exploration to lunar and Mars surface missions. 

62 https://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/news/releases/2021/nasa-partners-test-3d-printed-rocket-paddesigned-by-artemis-generation-students.html

63 https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game_changing_development/projects/ISAAC

64 https://www.nasa.gov/collection-asset/integrated-system-for-autonomous-and-adaptive-caretakingresearch-project-completes

65 https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-next-generation-spaceflight-computing-processorcontract/, https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/game_changing_development/projects/HPSC/
87National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Small Spacecraft Technology

The Small Spacecraft Technology program launched two successful technology demonstrations, the first Pathfinder Technology Demonstrator (PTD-1) and 

V-R3x, in January 2021.66 The projects were facilitated by the program’s Payload 

Accelerator for CubeSat Endeavors (PACE) initiative. PTD-1 became the first to 

demonstrate a water-based electrolysis propulsion system on any type of spacecraft. 

The V-R3x trio of three CubeSats demonstrated new technologies and techniques 

for radio networking and navigation.

The Cislunar Autonomous Positioning System Technology Operations and 

Navigation Experiment (CAPSTONE) technology demonstration launched aboard 

Rocket Lab’s Electron rocket from the Rocket Lab Launch Complex 1 on the 

Mahia Peninsula of New Zealand on June 28, 2022.67 CAPSTONE will serve as the 

first spacecraft to test a unique, elliptical lunar orbit. As a pathfinder for Gateway, a 

Moon-orbiting outpost that is part of the Artemis program, CAPSTONE will help 

reduce risk for future spacecraft by validating innovative navigation technologies 

and verifying the dynamics of this halo-shaped orbit. CAPSTONE navigated an 

unusual yet efficient deep space route to the Moon. This route, called a ballistic lunar transfer, or BLT, follows gravitational contours in deep space and allows 

spacecraft to reach their destination expending little energy. The trajectory was 

designed by Advanced Space, a Colorado small business that owns and operates 

CAPSTONE on behalf of NASA. Toward the end of FY 2022, CAPSTONE performed six maneuvers to line up its trajectory for orbit insertion, with the team 

adapting to unexpected challenges to keep CAPSTONE on track to the spacecraft’s arrival to the Moon. 

The TeraByte InfraRed Delivery (TBIRD) communications system launched on 

May 25, 2022, as part of the Pathfinder Technology Demonstrator (PTD) series of 

missions that will test the operation of a variety of novel CubeSat technologies 

in low-Earth orbit.68 Aboard PTD-3, the second to launch in the series, TBIRD 

66 https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small_spacecraft/Pathfinder_Technology_Demonstrator/, 

https://www.nasa.gov/ames/v-r3x

67 https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small_spacecraft/capstone, https://www.nasa.gov/pressrelease/capstone-launches-to-test-new-orbit-for-nasa-s-artemis-moon-missions

68 https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2022/cubesat-set-to-demonstrate-nasas-fastest-laser-link-from-space
88Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

has already demonstrated a 100 Gbps optical downlink and is intended to achieve 

200 Gbps data downlink rate, which will be the fastest ever optical downlink from 

low-Earth orbit.

The CubeSat Proximity Operations Demonstration (CPOD) mission will demonstrate for the first time an entire sequence of rendezvous, proximity operations, 

and docking (RPOD) maneuvers using two 3U CubeSats.69 This flight demonstration will validate and characterize miniature low-power proximity operations technologies applicable to future missions. CPOD was launched on May 25, 2022, and 

preparations for the demonstration continued through the end of the fiscal year.

The CubeSat Laser Infrared CrosslinK (CLICK) mission will demonstrate 

technology to advance communication between small spacecraft as well as the 

capability to gauge their relative distance and location.70 CLICK A, the first of two 

sequential demonstrations, is a risk reduction mission that will test elements of the 

optical communications system with a single 3U CubeSat. CLICK B/C will subsequently demonstrate full-duplex optical communication crosslink between two 3U 

CubeSats in low-Earth orbit. CLICK-A was launched to the International Space 

Station on July 14, 2022, and deployed on September 6. Spacecraft commissioning is complete, and the mission team continued preparing for the demonstration 

through the end of the fiscal year.

NASA awarded a contract to Rocket Lab USA to launch the Advanced 

Composite Solar Sail System (ACS3) from New Zealand in summer 2023.71 The 

ACS3 demonstration will test the in-space deployment of composite boom technology. When deployed, ACS3’s four composite booms support an 80-square-meter 

aluminized polymer solar sail, which will produce thrust from reflected sunlight. 

The ACS3 team completed receipt testing on ACS3’s spacecraft bus, flight dispenser fit-check, and continued boom fabrication through FY 2022.

69 https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small_spacecraft/cpod_project.html

70 https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small_spacecraft/cubesat_laser_infrared_crosslink/

71 https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/small_spacecraft/ACS3
89National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Flight Opportunities

The Flight Opportunities program rapidly demonstrates promising technologies 

for space exploration, discovery, and the expansion of space commerce.72

• In FY 2021, the Flight Opportunities program supported 84 tests of 

technology payloads via flights with commercial suborbital providers, 

including nine flights on rocket-powered vehicles, nine high-altitude balloon flights, and 14 parabolic flights. U.S. commercial vendors providing 

flight services in the fiscal year included AM0CAL, Blue Origin, Masten 

Space Systems, Near Space Corp., Raven Aerostar, UP Aerospace, Virgin 

Galactic, World View, and Zero Gravity Corporation.

• In FY 2022, the Flight Opportunities program supported 97 tests of technology payloads via 27 flights with commercial suborbital providers. These 

tests advanced technologies across a variety of disciplines and applications, including in-space manufacturing techniques, an atmospheric sensor for collecting climate data, innovations for sustaining human health 

in space, a payload return capsule, and small spacecraft systems. U.S. commercial vendors that successfully flew Flight Opportunities–supported 

payloads included Astrobotic (formerly Masten Space Systems), Near 

Space Corporation, Aerostar, World View, and Zero Gravity Corporation.

In FY 2022, in partnership with the Small Spacecraft Technology program, 

Flight Opportunities began offering researchers access to flight tests for payloads 

hosted on orbital platforms through its annual TechFlights solicitation.73

Winners of the inaugural NASA TechLeap Prize, Autonomous Observation 

Challenge No. 1, tested their technologies on high-altitude balloon flights in 

Summer 2022, less than a year after the competition was launched.74 The challenge asked innovators to propose observation technologies that could be used on 

small spacecraft to autonomously detect, locate, track, and collect data on transient events on Earth and beyond. Flight Opportunities also launched its second 

TechLeap competition, Nighttime Precision Landing Challenge No.1, in February 

72 https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/flightopportunities/index.html

73 https://www.nasa.gov/center/armstrong/features/space-tech-for-suborbital-flight.html

74 https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/features/techleap-challenge-winners-advance.html
90Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

2022, to identify low-cost sensing systems that can map terrain like the Moon’s 

rocky surface in the dark from an altitude of 250 meters or higher.75 Three winners 

were selected in July 2022, with flight tests planned for Spring 2023.

Early Stage Innovations and Partnerships

NASA’s Small Business Innovative Research (SBIR)/Small Business Technology 

Transfer (STTR) program invested more than $411 million in small businesses 

and research institutions in FY 2021 and FY 2022.76 Specifically, 583 SBIR and 109 

STTR Phase I contracts were awarded to 585 U.S. small businesses and research 

institutions to establish the scientific, technical, and commercial feasibility of each 

proposed innovation. Additionally, the program made 266 SBIR and 42 STTR 

Phase II awards to further expand upon prior Phase I work. More than $83 million 

was awarded via post-Phase II opportunities to continue technology development 

towards a NASA mission and/or commercialization. In FY 2022, 24 percent of the 

selected research institutions were classified as Minority Serving Institutions and 

25 percent of the selected small businesses were from underrepresented groups, 

including minority- and women-owned businesses. 

In June 2021, astronauts installed new ISS Roll-Out Solar Arrays (iROSA) on 

the space station.77 The technology was supported by multiple awards from the 

NASA SBIR/STTR program to Deployable Space Systems dating back to 2009. 

The company has since been acquired by large business Redwire Corporation. 

STMD investments also supported a ground demonstration in 2014.

Since its inception in FY 2011, Space Technology Research Grants (STRG) has 

funded exciting space technology research via 936 grants at 123 universities across 

45 states and Puerto Rico.78 Two new Space Technology Research Institutes were 

selected in FY 2021:79

75 https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/features/techleap-lunar-landings.html

76 https://sbir.nasa.gov/

77 https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/Rolling_Out_a_Path_to_Future_Space_Travel

78 https://www.nasa.gov/strg

79 https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/strg/New_Space_Tech_Research_Institutes_to_Advance_

Electric_Propulsion_Entry_Systems
91National Aeronautics and Space Administration

• The Advanced Computational Center for Entry System Simulation 

(ACCESS) Institute will advance the analysis and design of NASA entry 

systems by developing a fully integrated, interdisciplinary simulation 

capability focusing on thermal protection systems and prediction of the 

extreme environments experienced during atmospheric entry. 

• Joint Advanced Propulsion Institute (JANUS) will work to overcome 

limitations in ground testing of high-power electric propulsion systems 

and to improve our understanding of the reliability and performance of 

these devices when operating in the vacuum of space.

The NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts (NIAC) program’s early-stage 

investments funded transformative space technology concepts to bolster technology development, economic growth, and the expansion of national aerospace 

capabilities.80 Each year, these visionary ideas from innovators across America are 

chosen for their potential to revolutionize future NASA missions through development of bold, but credible, early-stage breakthrough technologies. 

• In FY 2021, NIAC awarded sixteen Phase I awards, six Phase II awards, 

and one Phase III award totaling $7 million across industry, academia, and 

NASA centers. Fellows completed sixteen 2020 Phase I studies, six 2019 

Phase II studies, and two 2019 Phase III studies.

• In FY 2022, NIAC awarded twelve Phase I awards, five Phase II awards, 

and one Phase III award totaling $7.1 million across industry, academia, 

and NASA centers. Fellows also completed sixteen 2021 Phase I studies, 

six 2020 Phase II studies, and one 2020 Phase III study.

Prizes, Challenges, and Crowdsourcing (PCC) conducts and promotes the use 

of prize competitions, challenges, and crowdsourcing projects as tools to advance 

NASA R&D and serve other mission needs. The program had banner years in 

FY 2021 and FY 2022, working on 106 projects, receiving 10,910 solutions, and 

awarding more than $8.2 million using procurement and prize authorities. NASA 

employees who used the PCC toolkit to solve a problem or meet a need reported 

a collective savings to NASA of almost $5 million when compared to using traditional methods.

80 https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/niac/index.html
92Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

PCC contributed to agency exploration priorities, facilitating several shortand long-duration challenges that will enable a long-term presence at the Moon 

and future human exploration of deep space destinations. Challenges like Lunar 

TORCH and Watts on the Moon awarded over $500 thousand to members of the 

public for ideas on power management.81 Others like Space Robotics and Break the 

Ice Lunar Challenge awarded over $1 million for lunar excavation and resource 

transportation.82 Even further, challenges like the CO2 Conversion Challenge, 

Vascular Tissue Challenge, and Deep Space Food Challenge provided a head start 

on solving deep space issues where resources are scarce. 83

The Center Innovation Fund (CIF) provides annual seed funding to each NASA 

Center and NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, stimulating workforce creativity 

and innovation by developing transformative technologies that may enhance 

or enable future NASA missions and advance national aerospace capabilities.84

Since its inception in 2011, CIF has transitioned more than 250 projects to other 

NASA programs, industry partners, academia, and other government agencies. 

The program has generated over 300 NASA New Technology Reports and 350 

publications, 90 patents and patent-pending applications, over a dozen commercial 

licenses, and 2 spin-off companies. Recent CIF highlights include the award of a 

patent for a print-assisted photovoltaic assembly that has recently been licensed 

by Astrobotic for lunar surface missions, industry partner commercialization of a 

compact fiber optic sensing system previously developed for use on multiple NASA 

platforms, and superconducting readout circuit for superconducting nanowire 

single photon detectors (SNSPD) arrays that led to a collaboration with MIT and 

NIST. This latter project received a $5 million DARPA award to develop largeformat SNSPD focal plane arrays and superconducting electronics.

As an element of CIF, the Early Career Initiative (ECI) provides the opportunity 

for NASA early career civil servants to propose and work on two-year technology 

81 https://www.nasa.gov/lunar-torch-challenge-winners, https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/

centennial_challenges/watts-on-the-moon/index.html

82 https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/centennial_challenges/space_robotics/index.html, https://

www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/centennial_challenges/break-the-ice/index.html

83 https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/centennial_challenges/co2challenge/index.html, https://

www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/centennial_challenges/vascular_tissue.html, https://www.nasa.gov/

directorates/spacetech/centennial_challenges/spacefood/index.html

84 https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/innovation_fund/index.html
93National Aeronautics and Space Administration

projects with industry and academic partners, engage in hands-on technology 

development, and employ innovative approaches to project management. Initiated 

as a pilot effort in 2014, ECI has funded 25 highly innovative projects through 

FY 2022 and recently selected 5 new projects to start in FY 2023. To date ECI projects have published over 80 papers and 19 NASA New Technology Reports, resulting in 3 U.S. patents with an additional 5 patent applications pending. Highlights 

for FY 2022 include the completion of a thermal control heat pipe system that will 

be flown on the commercial Astrobotic Peregrine 1 mission, the development of 

advanced rotor blades for a Mars rotorcraft currently being evaluated for use on 

the Mars Sample Return Helicopter, and a NASA Science Mission Directorate 

PICASSO award to further develop a planetary sensor package based on ECIdeveloped multifunctional nanosensor technology. Designed to invigorate NASA’s 

technology base and champion innovative management processes, NASA’s early 

career innovators continue to deliver advanced hardware solutions to invigorate 

our national aerospace mission capabilities.

In FY 2021 and FY 2022, the NASA Technology Transfer (T2) program saw 

record-breaking years of transferring technologies and software to industry and 

entrepreneurs.85 T2 executed 400 licensing agreements, with 211 in FY 2021, the 

most the program had ever achieved in a fiscal year. T2 released a record-breaking 

10,209 software usage agreements (SUAs). NASA’s Spinoff publication launched 

a revamped website to coincide with the 2020 release of the new book.86 The 2021 

edition featured success stories of 45 companies using NASA technology, expertise, 

and research to create new products and services for consumers across the world.

STEM Engagement

NASA’s Breakthrough, Innovative, and Game Changing (BIG) Idea Challenge, 

now in its eighth year, invites university students to tackle some of the most critical needs facing space exploration and to propose unique technology solutions. 

BIG Idea is sponsored by NASA through a collaboration between STMD’s Game 

85 https://technology.nasa.gov/

86 https://spinoff.nasa.gov/spinoff/archives
94Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Changing Development program and the Office of STEM Engagement’s National 

Space Grant College and Fellowship Project program. Throughout FY 2021 and 

FY 2022, activities spanned four different challenge cycles focused on lunar exploration technology concepts like dust mitigation solutions and innovative robotic 

systems that go beyond traditional wheeled rovers and move in different ways. In 

August 2022, NASA launched the 2023 competition, which invites students to 

design a metal production line on the Moon—from extracting metal from lunar 

minerals to creating structures and tools.87

In 2021, NASA launched the TechRise Student Challenge, inviting teams 

of students in grades 6 through 12 to design, build, and launch climate, remotesensing, and space exploration experiments on suborbital rockets and highaltitude balloon flights.88 TechRise is sponsored and managed by STMD’s Flight 

Opportunities program. 

• In January 2022, NASA selected 57 winning teams in the first TechRise 

Student Challenge.89 These represented more than 600 students in grades 

6 through 12 from 37 U.S. states and territories. Winning proposals 

included measurement of greenhouse gases, space farm irrigation systems, 

lunar dust mitigation, exploration of human health in space, and examination of the effects of microgravity on physical phenomena ranging from 

the behavior of waves in liquids to the effectiveness of ink jet printing. 

Throughout 2022, students worked with TechRise technical advisors to 

build their payloads, which are slated to fly on a suborbital rocket or highaltitude balloon flight test in 2023.

• In August 2022, NASA launched the second TechRise Challenge for 

student teams to submit experiment ideas for high-altitude balloon flight 

tests. Winners will be announced in January 2023.

STMD continued to support outreach to underrepresented and underserved 

communities in STEM, including working with NASA’s Minority University 

Research and Education Project (MUREP). In July 2021, the MUREP Space 

Technology Artemis Research, or M-STAR, initiative awarded cooperative 

87 https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-seeks-student-ideas-for-extracting-forging-metal-on-the-moon

88 https://www.nasa.gov/techrise-student-challenge

89 https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-seeks-student-experiments-to-soar-in-second-techrise-challenge
95National Aeronautics and Space Administration

agreements to seven Minority Serving Institutions, including two Historically 

Black Colleges and Universities, for projects that will support STMD and advance 

lunar technologies.90 Nearly $3.5 million was to be distributed to the selected universities over two years. M-STAR is the result of STMD’s continued partnership 

with MUREP, supporting the agency’s efforts to broaden participation and support 

diversity, equity, inclusion, and accessibility across NASA. In FY 2022, STMD 

supported the HBCU/MSI Technology Infusion Road Tour with senior leadership 

presenting at three different virtual and hybrid road tour events in November 2021, 

April 2022, and September 2022.

First Woman Graphic Novel

October 2021 marked the launch of NASA’s first interactive graphic novel, First 

Woman: NASA’s Promise for Humanity.

91 The print and digital versions of the 

graphic novel were made available in English and Spanish, with an audio version of 

the story on NASA’s SoundCloud and an application with extended reality features 

in the Apple and Google Play stores. In addition to connecting with new audiences 

and encouraging STEM literacy, First Woman reflects the diversity, equity, and 

inclusion that are critical to NASA’s future. The graphic novel’s protagonist, Callie 

Rodriguez, is a female astronaut of Afro-Latina heritage who becomes the first 

woman on the Moon.

90 https://www.nasa.gov/stem/murep/projects/mstar.html, https://www.nasa.gov/stem/murep/mstar/feature/

nasa-awards-grants-to-minority-serving-institutions-to-support-artemis-space-tech

91 https://www.nasa.gov/specials/calliefirst/

97Department of Defense

Department of Def

DOD

Aeronautics

Rotorcraft

Army

Army Aviation remains committed to modernization and readiness advancements 

to increase the capabilities and lethality of Aviation forces in multi-domain operations and large-scale combat operations. The Aviation enterprise is doing this while 

maintaining a global presence and ensuring world-class support to soldiers on the 

ground and our multi-national partners. Army Aviation remains deployed in support 

of U.S. Central Command (USCENTCOM), U.S. European Command, and U.S. 

Indo-Pacific Command (USINDOPACOM). While supporting these deployments, 

aviation formations conduct home station training for their assigned Divisions and 

Brigade Combat Teams focused on large-scale combat operations, support humanitarian assistance and disaster relief efforts, and train for other contingencies.

The Army continues its modernization efforts across the entire aviation fleet. 

Rotary-wing aircraft fielding of the AH-64E Apache, HH/UH-60M Blackhawk, 

CH-47F Chinook, UH-60V BlackHawk, and UH-72A/B Lakota ensure that Army 

aircraft provide capability for decades to come. Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) 

modernization includes improvements to the MQ-1C Gray Eagle and the RQ-7B 

Shadow, supporting enhanced crewed-uncrewed teaming. As the Army modernizes 

its current fleet of rotary-wing aircraft and UAS, it looks to the future with Future 

Vertical Lift (FVL) initiatives. The FVL Cross-Functional Team works closely with 

industry and is already integrating new technologies into the current force.
98Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

The AH-64D/E is the Army’s attack and reconnaissance helicopter. The Army 

continues to field the newest AH-64E version 6 to active and National Guard 

units. The Army recently completed fielding the AH-64E Version 6 to Army 

units in Korea and the South Carolina National Guard. Fielding of Version 6 will 

continue in FY 2023 and beyond. AH-64E Version 6 delivers quality and capability improvements to include the latest communications, navigation, sensor, and 

weapon systems. The E-model has multiple upgrades from its predecessors, such as 

the improved Modernized Target Acquisition Designation Sight/Pilot Night Vision 

System, which includes a new integrated infrared laser that allows for easier target 

designation and enhanced infrared imagery capabilities. The AH-64E Version 6 

also provides Crewed/Uncrewed Teaming Extended, which allows video from 62 

off-board sensors to be seen by the flight crew and allows for control of the MQ-1C 

Gray Eagle and RQ-7B Shadow UAS.

The UH/HH-60 Black Hawk is the Army’s combat utility helicopter. This flexible system provides air assault, aeromedical evacuation, command and control, 

and general support to full-spectrum operations across the multi-domain environment. The Program Executive Office for Aviation’s Utility Helicopter continues to 

modernize the Black Hawk fleet with the UH-60V. The UH-60V updates legacy 

analog systems to a digital and open architecture. This architecture provides commonality with the UH-60M with a similar Pilot-Vehicle Interface. The UH-60V 

is now in the Low Rate Initial Production (LRIP) phase with ongoing production at Corpus Christi Army Depot. The UH-60V completed the second Initial 

Operational Test and Evaluation Flight Testing from July 11 to August 8, 2022, at 

Fort McCoy, Wisconsin. 

The CH-47F Chinook is the Army’s only heavy-lift cargo helicopter supporting 

combat and other critical operations. Fielding continues in FY 2022 and concludes 

in FY 2025 with the delivery of five CH-47F Block I aircraft to select units as 

Repair Cycle Float assets. As fielding of the Block I aircraft wraps up, development 

of the CH-47F Block II aircraft continues to provide an option for future modernization of the cargo fleet when that decision is required.

PEO Enterprise Information Systems successfully completed Aircraft Notebook 

training and fielding to the U.S. Army Rotary Wing fleet. Aircraft Notebook 

replaces the Unit Level Logistics System–Aviation (Enhanced) system and began 
99Department of Defense

integrating within Global Combat Support System–Army Increment 2 in mid2020. Aircraft Notebook provides a common logistics information system for Army 

Aviation, streamlines user experience, improves record keeping, and provides the 

ability to view aircraft availability in near-real time across the fleet. To date, more 

than 26,500 soldiers and civilians have been trained to use Aircraft Notebook and 

more than 9,000 pieces of computer equipment have been converted. 

Future Vertical Lift

The Future Vertical Lift Cross-Functional Team is an Army-led, multi-service 

initiative focused on enhancing vertical lift dominance through affordable nextgeneration assets that provide increased reach (speed, range, and endurance), 

protection, lethality, agility, and mission flexibility. The Cross-Functional Team 

addresses aviation capability gaps against peer and near-peer competitors through 

four signature modernization efforts: (1) Future Attack Reconnaissance Aircraft 

(FARA), (2) Future Long Range Assault Aircraft (FLRAA), (3) Future Tactical 

Unmanned Aerial Systems (FTUAS) and Air Launched Effects (ALE), and (4) the 

Modular Open System Approach (MOSA). 

Fielding of the first units for FARA and FLRAA is programmed for FY 2030. 

At the end of FY 2022, FARA’s competitive prototypes were more than 90 percent 

complete and on schedule for first test flights in FY 2023. Following a successful Joint Multi-Role Technology Demonstrator Program and Phase I Competitive 

Design and Risk Reduction, FLRAA’s Request for Proposal was released in July 

2021. FLRAA source selection was still underway, and the contract award decision was expected in FY 2023. FTUAS completed a year-long “Buy, Try, Inform” 

approach to replace the legacy RQ-7B Shadow, informing an approved Abbreviated 

Capability Document and a Directed Requirement resulting in a two-year program 

acceleration to field initial capability in FY 2023. MOSA capabilities were also 

successfully demonstrated in FY 2022, and the 700+ member Government and 

Industry MOSA Acquisition Working Group set defined standards. 

In September 2021, the Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments released 

Living Within One’s Means: Revisiting Defense Acquisition and Affordability: A Case 

Study of the Army’s Future Vertical Lift Program. The report found the Army is 

in a window of opportunity to simultaneously procure FARA and FLRAA while 
100Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

remaining in the multi-decade low average of aviation procurement budgets. It 

also stated MOSA can reduce long-term sustainment costs while enabling mission 

flexibility and rapid upgrades at the speed of relevancy. 

The Cross-Functional Team continues its campaign of learning through 

ongoing demonstration and experimentation. Significant 2022 events included 

Experimental Demonstration Gateway Event (EDGE) 22, building on EDGE 21 

and Project Convergence 21 the previous year. EDGE 22 featured a partnered 

stakeholder approach with over 23 Department of Defense organizations, as well 

as seven international military partners focused on interoperability of FVL capabilities in joint and combined operations. Other focus areas included advanced 

teaming of Air Launched Effects with improved collaborative behaviors, extending 

and thickening aerial tier network, enhanced sustainment, electronic warfare, and 

multi-intelligence sensing, reach, and lethal and non-lethal effects. In support of 

these efforts, EDGE 22 involved robust data collection from the Army’s Test and 

Evaluation Command, providing feedback on the 83 learning demands and 34 

first-time events. 

Project Convergence remains Army Futures Command’s annual capstone 

experiment, a critical component in the campaign of learning that demonstrates 

the ability to overmatch adversaries in competition and conflict. At the most 

recent Project Convergence 22, three use cases incorporated 14 FVL technologies focused on combined joint all domain situational awareness, joint suppression 

of enemy air defenses, and expanded maneuvering. Distinct capabilities included 

more advanced employment of FARA’s Modular Effects Launcher, ALE, A3I Gray 

Eagle, Kraus Aero K1000 solar-powered UAS (network relay/ISR), extending the 

aerial tier network and data packaging, Full Spectrum Targeting, and multiple 

Electronic Warfare effects. Initial planning is already underway for EDGE 23 

focused on Project FEN (Future Vertical Lift Ecosystem Network), Project A2AD, 

and increased joint and allied participation. 

Navy

The CH-53K Super Stallion completed Initial Operational Test and Evaluation 

(IOT&E), and the U.S. Marine Corps (USMC) declared Initial Operational 

Capability (IOC) in April 2022. Production continued with the award of Low-Rate 
101 Department of Defense

Initial Production (LRIP) Lot 6 for 11 aircraft. With nearly three times the 

external lift capacity of the CH-53E and a mission radius of up to 200 nautical miles, the CH-53K has the lift and range to support the future Marine Air 

Ground Task Force. Developmental test operations continue at Naval Air Station 

Patuxent River.

The Marine Corps declared IOC for the VH-92A in December 2021 and is conducting the White House Military Office commissioning process. All LRIP Lot 1 

aircraft and associated equipment completed deliveries in May 2022. Total VH-92A 

inventory will be 23 aircraft. Developmental test operations continue at Naval Air 

Station Patuxent River.

In FY 2022, the U.S. Navy V-22 variant, the CMV-22, completed its first operational deployment alongside the F-35C on the USS Carl Vinson and its second 

deployment aboard the USS Abraham Lincoln. The Navy declared IOC for the 

CMV-22 B in December 2021. More than 400 V-22 aircraft have been delivered 

to the U.S. Marine Corps, the Air Force, the United States Special Operations 

Command, the U.S. Navy, and the Government of Japan. This tiltrotor aircraft 

provides unique capabilities to the warfighter, combining the flexibility of a helicopter with the speed and range of a fixed-wing aircraft.

In FY 2022, the Navy began conducting an Analysis of Alternatives for a Future 

Vertical Lift Maritime Strike (FVL(MS)) platform. FVL(MS) will fill capability 

gaps when the MH-60 and MQ-8 fleets begin to reach their end of service life.

The Marine Corps declared IOC for the AGM-179A Joint Air-to-Ground Missile 

on the AH-1Z Viper in March 2022.

In the fall of 2018, the United States commenced the effort to recapitalize its 

Advanced Helicopter Training System. The Navy pursued a non-developmental 

approach and received the first aircraft delivery in FY 2021. The Navy has 

accepted 25 TH-73A helicopters through FY 2022. The Navy is now using the 

same approach, and is in source selection, to recapitalize its Multi-Engine Training 

System to replace the aging T-44 aircraft. 
102Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Fixed Wing

Navy

The F-35 Joint Strike Fighter Program continued Initial Operational Test and 

Evaluation in FY 2021 and FY 2022, making significant progress. Following the 

August 2021 demonstration of the F-35B’s first-of-its-kind ability to operate on 

international vessels, the U.S. Marine Corps conducted F-35B operations on the 

Japanese ship JS Izumo in October 2021. The F-35 Joint Strike Fighter Program 

continued Initial Operational Test and Evaluation throughout FY 2022 and is 

pressing towards a Milestone C decision planned for the end of CY 2023. 

As of September 30, 2022, 63 F-35Cs have been delivered, eight of which were 

delivered in FY 2022. Navy and Marine Corps F-35C squadrons executed the first 

two F-35C deployments during FY 2022. The Navy’s first operational F-35C squadron, Strike Fighter Squadron 147, embarked aboard USS Carl Vinson (CVN 70) 

for the first F-35C deployment in August 2021, returning home in February 2022. 

The Marine Corps’ first operational F-35C unit, Marine Strike Fighter Squadron 

314, onboard USS Abraham Lincoln (CVN 72) deployed for the second F-35C 

deployment in January 2022, returning home in August 2022. Additionally, the 

third operational F-35C squadron, Strike Fighter Squadron 97, was designated Safefor-Flight in February 2022. 

For F-35B, the Marine Corps completed the first joint UK/US F-35B deployment aboard HMS Queen Elizabeth (R08) from May to December 2021. In April 

2022, 20 USMC F-35Bs participated in the Operational Test (OT-D1) of the Key 

Performance Parameter for F-35 integration aboard USS Tripoli (LHA-7). This 

demonstration of the “Lightning Carrier” concept increases operational flexibility 

for combatant commanders and adds complexity to adversary planning. 

The E-2D Advanced Hawkeye (AHE) Program has delivered 56 USG aircraft to 

date on the Multi-Year Procurement Contract the United States Navy awarded in 

2019. Upgrades to the platform continued in FY 2022 as the Navy built and fielded 

multiple Delta System/Software Configuration (DSSC) releases to pace future 

threats and sustain platform performance.

In FY 2022, the Navy continued its Service Life Extension Program of the E-6B 

while initiating the recapitalization for National Command and Control Aircraft.
103 Department of Defense

The F/A-18 and EA-18G Program continues to sustain the Secretary of Defense 

mandate of 80 percent Mission Capability for E/F/G aircraft. In FY 2022, the program focused on ways to increase reliability and time on wing. In addition, the 

program’s Integrated Supply Chain Management success has been replicated across 

multiple platforms and organizations. Additionally, in FY 2022 the F/A-18E/F and 

EA-18G pursued Service Life Modification efforts to extend these aircraft to 10,000 

flight hours along with upgrading the F/A-18E/F aircraft to the Block 3 configuration capability. 

Army

In the area of High Altitude, the U.S. Army Space and Missile Defense 

Command (USASMDC) is planning to leverage the new development area of 

Stratospheric Solar-Powered Fixed Wing Aircraft. In FY 2022, USASMDC began 

the initial stages of development by documenting requirements and developing 

a concept of operations. USASMDC will develop and demonstrate payloads on 

those platforms to assess their capability to support functional areas, such as data 

communications, Assured Positioning Navigation and Timing, and Intelligence 

Surveillance and Reconnaissance for tactical applications. 

Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS)

Army

The sixth MQ-1C Gray Eagle Full Rate Production (FRP) contract was awarded 

to procure 11 Gray Eagle Extended Range aircraft. This contract will fulfill the 

Gray Eagle Army Acquisition Objective of 204 aircraft. The MQ-1C provides the 

warfighter with dedicated, assured, multi-mission Reconnaissance, Surveillance, 

and Target Acquisition (RSTA) capabilities with the extended-range variation 

providing nearly 50 percent greater endurance. The Army is continuing its fielding 

of the MQ-1C Extended Range until late FY 2023. 

The Army began testing multiple FTUAS that will eventually replace the 

RQ-7Bv2 Shadows in Brigade Combat Teams as early as FY 2023. A multi-vendor 

competitive prototype effort is underway for a selection of an Increment One 

vehicle that will be fielded to a select number of Brigade Combat Teams. The 
104Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Increment One will provide a runway-independent, expeditionary, on-the-move 

capability with lower acoustic signature, much lower equipment density, and transformational user interfaces. Followed by a more capable Increment Two, Program 

of Record by 2025. Currently, Shadows are assigned to all Brigade Combat Teams, 

Special Forces Groups, and Combat Aviation Brigades. The Shadow Block III will 

replace the RQ-7Bv2 in the Combat Aviation Brigades and Special Forces Groups. 

The Shadow Block III upgrade provides a new engine and propeller, reducing the 

acoustic signature, an upgraded payload, weatherization (2 inches per hour), and an 

upgraded communications relay package. Fielding began in early FY 2022 and will 

continue to field until FY 2024.

Navy

The MQ-4C Triton (formerly Broad Area Maritime Surveillance UAS) is 

completing development, production, and fielding to provide a UAS meeting 

the requirements for persistent global maritime Intelligence, Surveillance, and 

Reconnaissance (ISR) services. Along with the P-8A Poseidon, the MQ-4C Triton 

UAS is an integral part of the Maritime Patrol and Reconnaissance Force (MPRF) 

family of systems and will provide combat information to operational and tactical 

users such as Expeditionary Strike Groups, Carrier Strike Groups, and Joint Forces 

Maritime Component Commanders. The MQ-4 Early Operational Capability 

(EOC) assets have been operational in the Seventh Fleet Area of Responsibility 

(AOR) since January 2020. The EOC deployed assets will return to the continental United States (CONUS) in October 2022. The upgraded multiple intelligence 

(Multi-Int) capability began Flight Test in early 2022. 

The MQ-8 Fire Scout UAS program provides real-time and non-real-time ISR 

data to tactical users without the use of crewed aircraft or reliance on limited joint 

theater or national assets. An MQ-8 system is composed of air vehicles (MQ-8B/

MQ-8C), a Mission Control Station, Tactical Control System software, a Tactical 

Common Data Link, a UAV Common Automatic Recovery System for takeoffs 

and landings, Payloads (electro-optical/infra-red/laser designator-range finder, 

Automated Information System (AIS), voice communications relay, RADAR, 

Mine Countermeasures, and other specialty Payloads), and associated spares 

and support equipment. Fire Scout RADAR (MQ-8C) provides a 240-degree 
105 Department of Defense

instantaneous field of view and a range of digital modes to include Maritime 

Surveillance, Synthetic Aperture, Inverse Synthetic Aperture, weather detection, 

and ground moving target indicator. The MQ-8 launches and recovers vertically 

and can operate from all suitably equipped air-capable ships (SEACS). MQ-8C 

achieved IOC on June 28, 2019, and achieved IOC for the Surface Warfare (SUW) 

increment in June 2022. The SUW increment includes the MQ-8C Endurance 

Upgrade Increment air vehicle plus the AN/ZPY-8 Surface Search AESA Radar. 

The SUW Increment provides improved maritime search capability and synthetic 

aperture radar (SAR)/inverse synthetic aperture radar (ISAR) imagery allowing the 

user to classify targets. 

The MQ-25 program is rapidly developing an uncrewed capability to embark on 

CVNs (aircraft carriers with nuclear propulsion) as part of the Carrier Air Wing 

(CVW) to conduct aerial refueling as a primary mission and provide ISR capability as a secondary mission. MQ-25 extends CVW mission effectiveness range, 

partially mitigates the current Carrier Strike Group organic ISR shortfall, and fills 

the future CVW-tanker gap, mitigating Strike Fighter shortfall and preserving F/A18E/F fatigue life. MQ-25 will achieve this through the use of a carrier-suitable, 

semi-autonomous (man in the loop, air vehicle executes preplanned missions) UAS 

(provided by the Air System segment) and controlled through existing Command, 

Control, Communications, Computers, and Intelligence networks from the control 

systems integrated into the CVNs. MQ-25 will initially be integrated aboard Nimitzclass aircraft carriers followed by Ford-class. In December 2021, the Navy completed 

an Unmanned Carrier Aviation Demonstration (UCAD) with the Boeing-owned 

Test Article (T1) aboard the USS George H.W. Bush (CVN 77). The Joint Precision 

Approach and Landing System surrogate testing was also completed with CVN 77 

in that same period. During the in-port portion of the UCAD, the functionality of 

the Ground Control Station (GCS) was demonstrated. Once underway, T1 completed a series of test points that evaluated the functionality and capabilities of the 

deck handling system during both day and nighttime operations. Six GCS assets 

were delivered and installed this year, and the successful first-time control of the 

MQ-25 Hardware-in-the-Loop with the GCS was completed in June 2022. 

The MQ-9 Marine Corps Block V (Extended Range) Marine Air Ground 

Task Force (MAGTF) UAS Expeditionary (MUX) Medium Altitude Long 
106Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Endurance (MALE), or MUX MALE, program will provide MALE capability in 

the USINDOPACOM Area of Responsibility in support of USMC Force Design 

2030 requirements. The MQ-9 system will serve as a key enabler for USMC/Navy 

Expeditionary Advanced Base Operations (EABO), Distributed Maritime Operations 

(DMO), and Littoral Operations in a Contested Environment (LOCE) concepts. In 

FY 2022, two MQ-9A transitioned from commercially leased to government-owned 

assets and flew nearly continuous operations supporting Combatant Command 

(CCMD) objectives. In late FY 2023, the early operational capability of Increment I 

is planned. Increment I builds off the transition of two MQ-9A this year and includes 

GCS and payload/sensor capabilities that consist of Electro-Optical/Infrared (EO/

IR), Lynx Radar, and SkyTower I (Airborne Network Extension [ANE]). Eight additional MQ-9A were placed on contract in FY 2022, with an additional ten MQ-9A 

planned to be transferred from the U.S. Air Force (USAF) beginning in FY 2023. 

Weapons

Army

The Army is actively pursuing advanced precision munitions with longer ranges 

to allow our aircraft to operate outside of threat weapon system effective ranges. 

These precision munitions will make our aircraft more survivable in a peer/nearpeer threat environment and help solve the anti-access, area denial challenge 

posed by current threats, while operating in an enemy integrated air defense system 

environment. Army Aviation is also developing smaller, more versatile modular 

missile technology that allows a more scalable and tailorable precision munition 

for soft/mid-range targets. Tailoring of the munitions will allow a more affordable 

precision munition for our UAS. These smaller precision weapons will increase 

lethality and provide more flexibility in targeting. 

Army began fielding and improving other munitions, including the Joint Air-toGround Missile (JAGM). The JAGM is a multi-mode guidance munition capable of 

Precision Point and Fire and Forget targeting. The multiple sensor design provides 

a capability that enables employment in adverse weather and against countermeasures while also affording simultaneous engagements on both moving and stationary targets with increased lethality. 
107 Department of Defense

In February 2020, the Army Requirements Oversight Council approved a 

Directed Requirement to field the Spike Non-Line of Sight (NLOS) missile to 

our highest-priority theaters in order to satisfy two COCOM Operational Needs 

Statements and close one of Army Aviation’s identified Large Scale Combat 

Operations gaps. Spike NLOS is an interim Long Range Precision Munition solution that possesses the range and many capabilities required for Army Aviation 

to be successful against peer adversaries in conflict. Testing and federation 

efforts by the Apache Program Management office and the Aviation Technology 

Development Directorate began in FY 2021, with the goal of fielding Initial 

Operational Capability in priority theaters by 2023. Competitive long-range precision munition shoot-off is ongoing at Dugway Proving Ground, Utah, that will 

inform the Program of Record. 

Navy

During FY 2022, the Department of the Navy continued to mature its long-range 

Cruise Missile Strategy. Key developmental and sustainment tenets of this strategy 

include demilitarization of Tomahawk Land Attack/Block III; award of the third 

lot of Tactical Tomahawk (TACTOM)/Block IV recertification missiles, which 

enable the remaining 15 years of the missile’s service life as well as allow for the 

upgrade to Block V; and continued fielding of the Long-Range Anti-Ship Missile 

(LRASM) as the Offensive Anti-Surface Warfare/Increment 1 material solution to 

meet near- to mid-term anti-access Anti-Surface Warfare (ASuW) threats.

TACTOM Block V production has commenced with contract awards in fiscal 

years 2020 to 2022. The FY 2022 procurement includes the first TACTOM missiles 

procured by other service partners. 

In January 2019, the Department of the Navy entered into Engineering and 

Manufacturing Development of the Advanced Anti-Radiation Guided Missile–

Extended Range (AARGM-ER). Combining proven AARGM sensor technology with a new rocket motor and warhead will provide a weapon with increased 

effective range, higher speed, and greater survivability to improve the Navy’s 

Suppression and Destruction of Enemy Air Defenses (SEAD/DEAD) mission while 

optimizing affordability and risk. During FY 2022, AARGM-ER continued development testing and a contract for Low Rate Initial Production Lot 2 was awarded 
108Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

to the prime contractor, Northrop Grumman Defense Systems. The program is 

currently projected to achieve Initial Operational Capability (IOC) in late 2023.

In FY 2022, LRASM shifted focus from initial development and fielding to rapid 

incremental upgrades and obsolescence management to continue to ensure weapon 

effectiveness as the threat evolves. Additional improvements in performance, 

range, and survivability, and the addition of a land attack capability, are underway. 

Additional platform integration efforts and execution of the first LRASM foreign 

military sale case ensure versatility in employment.

Using multi-mode seeker and two-way datalink capabilities, the Joint Small 

Diameter Bomb II (SDB II) program provides an adverse weather, day-or-night 

standoff capability against mobile and fixed targets and enables target prosecution while minimizing collateral damage. The SDB II program completed USAF 

operational test flights in FY 2022 and fielding on the F-15E in FY 2022. The Navy 

began developmental test flights in 2019 on both the F/A-18E/F and the F-35B, 

and it is on track to field SDB II on the F-35B in FY 2022 for USMC and on the 

F/A-18E/F in FY 2023. The Navy will have taken delivery of 840 weapons with an 

additional 123 being delivered through December 2022. 

Aviation Survivability Equipment

Army

Aviation Survivability Equipment (ASE) is essential to provide protection for 

aircraft against current and emerging advanced threats. The focus of Army ASE 

is to ensure the current fleet of aircraft remain protected against threats while 

developing to integrate ASE on Future Vertical Lift aircraft. Current fielded ASE 

systems include the Common Missile Warning System (CMWS), Limited Interim 

Missile Warning System (LIMWS), Advanced Threat Infrared Countermeasures 

(ATIRCM), Common Infrared Countermeasure (CIRCM), APR-39C(V)1/4 and 

APR-39D(V)2 Radar Warning Receivers (RWR), and AVR-2B Laser Detection 

System (LDS). 

CMWS and LIMWS are missile warning systems that detect and protect the 

aircraft from advanced Infrared (IR) threats in combination with CIRCM or 

ATIRCM and flares. LIMWS is the directed requirement to provide advanced 
109 Department of Defense

protection on currently deployed aircraft until development of an Improved Threat 

Detection System (ITDS). LIMWS has begun fielding in FY 2022 and is scheduled 

to continue until inventory is exhausted. CIRCM and ATIRCM are both Laser 

Jammers for IR missiles and provide the first line of defense for defeat. ATIRCM is 

only fielded to the CH-47 fleet and has begun transition to upgrade to CIRCM this 

fiscal year. ATIRCM is scheduled for divestiture by the end of FY 2024. CIRCM 

has reached a major milestone by reaching Initial Operating Capability (IOC) by 

completing one Combat Aviation Brigade’s worth of aircraft at the end of FY 2022. 

CIRCM will be fielded on all aviation rotary wing platforms from the current fleet.

APR-39C(V)1/4 is a radar warning system alerting aircrews of Radio Frequency 

(RF) threats. APR-39D(V)2 is an interim solution procured from the Navy’s RWR 

Program, which is currently fielding and is expecting to complete First Unit 

Equipped by the second quarter of FY 2023. APR-39E(V)2 is in development, and 

an A-Kit prototype has been installed on the AH-64E V6 Apache. 

AVR-2B LDS provides aircrew with an alert of laser energy from enemy weapon 

systems and is factory modified on the AH-64 and UH-60. It has begun fielding on 

CH-47 Aircraft in FY 2022.

Looking to future development of systems, the requirements call for Modular 

Open System Approach (MOSA) and Future Airborne Compliance Environment 

(FACE) to reduce cost of systems and upgrades, as well as allow for rapid software 

and hardware upgrades to counter emerging threats on the battlefield. 

Propulsion

Army

The Improved Turbine Engine program entered the Engineering and 

Manufacturing Development phase in January 2019 and successfully completed 

Critical Design Review (CDR) in July 2020 in a virtual environment despite 

COVID-19 impacts. The research, development, testing, and evaluation funding provides for engine development, qualification, and aircraft integration. 

Additionally, Future Years Defense Program (FYDP) funding begins initial procurement and supports organic depot tooling, Developmental Testing completion, milestone C, and Low-Rate Initial Production. For FY 2022, the Army restored funding 
110Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

from an FY 2020 rescission and FY 2021 mark, but the milestone C schedule has 

slipped from July 2024 to November 2024 due to the delayed funding. FY 2021 

consisted of First Engine to Test hardware deliveries, component testing, engine 

assembly, and instrumentation. First Engine to Test initiation slipped from October 

2021 to January 2022 due to hardware delays resulting from COVID-19 impacts. 

Engine testing required to achieve Preliminary Flight Rating to support future vertical lift flight testing occurred in FY 2022 and extends to FY 2023. The improved 

turbine engine has completed 103 running hours with 117 successful starts. 

Space

Environmental Monitoring

Space Force

The Weather System Follow-on (WSF) program is composed of two acquisition activities: the Compact Ocean Wind Vector Radiometer (COWVR) technology demonstration and the WSF-Microwave (WSF-M) program. COWVR 

manifested on the Space Test Program–Houston 8 (STP-H8) and launched to the 

International Space Station (ISS) in December 2021. The COWVR demonstration 

is intended to mature smaller microwave sensors and develop ground-processing 

algorithms. WSF-M will collect critical observations on Ocean Surface Vector 

Winds and Tropical Cyclone Intensity, replacing the Special Sensor Microwave 

Imager/Sounder (SSMIS) sensors that fly on the Defense Meteorological Satellite 

Program (DMSP) satellites. WSF-M also includes a payload to assess Energetic 

Charged Particles in low-Earth orbit (LEO), addressing one space weather monitoring capability and supporting Space Domain Awareness. The first of up to two 

WSF-M satellites is scheduled to achieve initial launch capability in late 2023.

The Electro-Optical/Infrared (EO/IR) Weather System (EWS) program’s prototyping activities have continued throughout FY 2022. The first EWS prototype will 

launch in 2023 to evaluate CubeSat-class EO/IR sensors and weather data utility. 

The second EWS prototype will launch by 2025 for on-orbit operationalization. 

EWS will replace DMSP’s Operational Linescan System (OLS) sensors for EO/IR 

capabilities, addressing the DOD’s two highest-priority Space Based Environmental 
111 Department of Defense

Monitoring (SBEM) sensing needs from the Family of Systems’ “early morning” 

orbit—Cloud Characterization and Theater Weather Imagery. Additionally, in 

FY 2022, the EWS program completed a Weather Data as a Service (WxDaaS) 

pilot to determine the viability of buying EO/IR weather data from a commercial 

source. The collective EWS efforts will complement the SBEM Family of Systems 

to obtain and share weather data among civil agencies and foreign partners.

The EWS-Geostationary (EWS-G) non-materiel solution is the product of cooperation between the Department of the Air Force (DAF) and the National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Using a residual NOAA Geostationary 

Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES), EWS-G provides persistent weather 

monitoring portions of the U.S. Central Command (USCENTCOM) and U.S. 

Indo-Pacific Command (USINDOPACOM AOR) from a dedicated U.S. geostationary SBEM satellite. A remote ground station in Western Australia became 

operational in late 2019, supporting tracking, telemetry, and control for EWS-G. 

EWS-G reached Full Operational Capability in November of 2020, providing 

timely and reliable SBEM capabilities to USCENTCOM. 

The Space Situational Awareness Environmental Monitoring (SSAEM) program 

is a technology demonstration project to support the international Constellation 

Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere and Climate 2 (COSMIC-2) mission. The SSAEM program provides the acquisition, development, and launch/

on-orbit support of 18 space/terrestrial weather sensors to COSMIC-2 partnership 

in coordination with NOAA and Taiwan’s National Space Organization (NSPO). 

In June 2019, COSMIC-2 launched six satellites in an equatorial LEO with three 

SSAEM sensors in each spacecraft.

Missile Warning/Attack Assessment

Space Force

The Space Based Infrared System (SBIRS) provides ballistic missile warning and 

defense, battlespace awareness, and technical intelligence for the United States 

and its allies. SBIRS satellites and ground systems provide operational capability today and will continue to deliver additional capability to the warfighter in 

the future. 
112Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

The SBIRS Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO)-5 and GEO-6 production contract was awarded on June 24, 2014, using a six-year Efficient Space Procurement 

(ESP) that provided a cost avoidance of $521 million. The SBIRS GEO constellation is nearing completion. GEO-5 was launched in FY 2021 and operationally 

accepted in FY 2022. Near the end of FY 2022, GEO-6 successfully launched out 

of Cape Canaveral and is currently undergoing on-orbit testing and calibration. 

The U.S. Space Force (USSF) is taking projected threats seriously and focusing 

investments on maturing resilient technology. The Space Force approved acquisition strategies using Middle Tier of Acquisition (MTA) authorities for the Next 

Generation Overhead Persistent Infrared (Next-Gen OPIR) space and ground segments to rapidly prototype these new resilient capabilities. The space segment will 

replenish the SBIRS constellation by delivering five resilient and survivable Missile 

Warning Satellites (three GEO and two Polar Orbit), with the first GEO Satellite 

to be delivered by 2025. In FY 2022, most of the space vehicle flight hardware was 

assembled and integrated for the first GEO satellite.

The Ground Segment, Future Operationally Resilient Ground Evolution 

(FORGE), is developing a cyber-secure open OPIR mission framework capable 

of hosting applications and providing services to process mission data for missile 

warning, missile defense, battlespace awareness, and technical intelligence mission areas. In FY 2022, FORGE awarded and kicked off the contract to provide 

mission data processing applications. Also in FY 2022, FORGE continued to 

deliver increased mission data procession application framework capabilities to the 

Government’s Tools, Application, and Processing Lab. The combined mission data 

processing effort is foundational to ensuring a ground solution that supports the 

first GEO satellite launch in 2025.

In collaboration with key stakeholders and considering emerging threat assessments, rigorous analysis and wargaming in FY 2021 were used in FY 2022 to define 

a more resilient and more defendable Missile Warning/Missile Tracking architecture. That analysis and wargaming drove a monumental mission area architecture 

pivot from a geosynchronous and highly elliptical force presentation to a proliferated low and medium Earth orbit force design. Resilient Missile Warning/Missile 

Tracking is on an accelerated path to fielding a resilient and enhanced capability 

that allows for detection of new and emerging threats, such as hypersonics. In 
113 Department of Defense

FY 2022, Resilient Missile Warning/Missile Tracking leveraged multiple on-orbit 

demonstrations as the program ramped up acquisition efforts for the low and 

medium Earth orbit (MEO) satellites. This new architecture is fielded by the Space 

Force’s Space Systems Command and the Space Development Agency (SDA). The 

first LEO satellite capability demonstration will launch in FY 2023, followed by 

MEO satellite launches in FY 2026.

Positioning, Navigation, and Timing

Space Force

The Global Positioning System (GPS) program entered its 28th year of providing 

uninterrupted Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT) data, free of direct user 

fees, to users worldwide. GPS has been operational since July 1995. The success of 

the GPS program is reflected in the total number of GPS receivers produced to 

date, estimated at more than four billion worldwide. The first five GPS III satellite 

launches occurred in December 2018, August 2019, June 2020, November 2020, 

and June 2021, ushering in the next generation of GPS technology with significant 

enhancements to the current constellation, including higher-power military signals 

and a new civilian signal. GPS satellites six through ten were in various stages 

of production in FY 2022, and the next GPS III satellite (Space Vehicle (SV) 6) 

launched in January 2023. GPS III SVs 7–9 have been delivered to the Government 

and are available for launch (AFL). 

In FY 2022, the GPS III Follow-on (GPS IIIF) continued with the Production 

and Deployment phase, with a planned production of 22 satellites adding increased 

anti-jam performance and hosting a search and rescue payload developed through 

international partnership. The first two GPS IIIF satellites are expected to be delivered to the Government and AFL in FY 2026.

The GPS Next-generational Operational Control System (OCX) is a modernized 

ground system that will enable the effective use of the latest military and civilian 

GPS signals while providing significantly improved cyber resiliency. OCX Block 0 

successfully performed the launch and on-orbit checkout of the first five GPS III 

satellites. The OCX Block 1/2 development phase is projected for completion in 

FY 2024, signaling the transition of the program into integration, test, deployment, 
114Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

and transition to operation. OCX 3F, a modification to OCX to enable launch and 

command and control of GPS IIIF vehicles, awarded a contract to Raytheon in 

April 2021 and is projected to complete development in FY 2025.

The Military GPS User Equipment (MGUE) program’s first ground systems 

card completed Technical Requirements Verification in March 2019, signifying 

its readiness for integration into Department of Defense platforms. These military 

GPS receiver cards will provide users with access to higher-power military signals 

and are more jam-resistant than previous generations. Aviation and maritime variants of the card are projected for completion in FY 2024. The MGUE Increment 2 

program awarded three contracts in November 2020 for the Miniature Serialized 

Interface (MSI) with Next-Generation Application Specific Integrated Circuit 

(ASIC) to L3Harris, Raytheon, and BAE Systems.

Army

The U.S. Army Space and Missile Defense Command (USASMDC) made 

progress in the area of PNT support from the technology development effort 

called Gunsmoke. By the end of FY 2022, USASMDC concluded the Gunsmoke-J 

CubeSat experiments. Each Gunsmoke-J satellite was about the size of a loaf of 

bread and was used to demonstrate that tactical support capability was feasible 

from such a small satellite form factor. This particular effort was a Joint Capability 

Technology Demonstration (JCTD) producing a Joint Military Utility Assessment 

(JMUA) report. The effort was successful in achieving some key major objectives.

Satellite Communications (SATCOM)

Space Force

The Evolved Strategic SATCOM (ESS) program is the disaggregated strategic 

communications follow-on to the Advanced Extremely High Frequency (AEHF) 

program. ESS will provide survivable, secure, and jam-resistant communication for 

strategic users and provide nuclear command, control, and communications; it will 

also increase protected satellite communications resiliency and cybersecurity. ESS 

awarded three rapid prototyping contracts to Northrop Grumman, Boeing, and 

Lockheed Martin in late FY 2020 and early FY 2021. The simultaneous prototyping 
115 Department of Defense

and the emphasis on a modular open systems approach creates competition that 

drives innovation and strengthens the industrial base for the follow-on build, integrate and test, and delivery contract. In June 2022, the Space Service Acquisition 

Executive approved the acquisition strategy for the ground segment to begin the 

planning phase of the Software Acquisition Pathway. The planning phase consists 

of an 18-month period to develop a ground reference architecture to ensure compliance with current standards and to define responsibilities of integration and test for 

all systems and interfaces to ensure mission success. 

The Mobile User Objective System (MUOS) provides ultra-high frequency 

(UHF) satellite communications for the joint warfighter, enabling beyond-lineof-sight communications and communications-on-the-move. MUOS has two 

payloads, a UHF Legacy payload that augments the UHF Follow-On (UFO) constellation, and a Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA) payload 

that enables 3G-like voice and data services. MUOS has five on-orbit satellites and 

reached full operational capability in 2019. The Space Force is planning a Service 

Life Extension (SLE) that will extend the WCDMA capability to 2034 by developing and launching two replenishment satellites. The SLE satellite contract award 

will occur no earlier than FY 2025, with planned launches in FY 2030 and FY 2031 

respectively. The SLE milestone decision authority (MDA) was transferred to the 

Space Service Acquisition Executive in FY 2021; FY 2022 was the first year of Space 

Force funding. In July 2022, the Space Service Acquisition Executive approved 

the acquisition strategy to begin the early design and risk reduction phase. This 

phase will address unknowns associated with satellite redesign challenges such as 

component obsolescence, modernization, and production readiness of unique UHF 

satellite attributes. Additionally, the Space Force initiated a Narrowband analysis 

of alternatives in FY 2022.

The Wideband Global SATCOM (WGS) system provides high-capacity and 

bandwidth SATCOM capability to support Unified Combatant Commanders’, military services’, other DOD agencies’, and international partners’ global operations. 

The space segment operates in the military X-band and Ka-band with flexible connectivity between bands and coverage areas to support classified and unclassified 

data distribution and backhaul communications for users worldwide. WGS is a 

highly successful satellite program with ten operational satellites on orbit and the 
116Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

eleventh currently in development. WGS has strong international partner support. 

Nine countries committed funding in 2022 to help fund WGS-11 in exchange for 

a percentage of WGS constellation access. Additionally, the WGS program office 

successfully completed the Critical Design Review on December 13, 2021, and is 

on track to launch in 2024. 

The Protected Tactical Enterprise Service (PTES) develops the ground infrastructure providing near-term and enduring operational benefits while laying the 

foundation for future Protected Tactical SATCOM (PTS) space and terminal segments. PTES will deliver a software-intensive ground system to provide worldwide, 

protected communications to tactical and expeditionary warfighters operating in 

anti-access/area denial environments who are currently unable to operate through 

interference. PTES is frequency agnostic and will use the Protected Tactical 

Waveform (PTW) to enable anti-jam capability over the existing WGS system, 

commercial SATCOM systems, and the future PTS system. In FY 2022, PTES 

continued development to operationalize the PTW over WGS in 2024, and PTES 

will expand to include medium and geosynchronous Earth orbit commercial 

capability integration efforts starting in FY 2023. On June 18, 2018, the Service 

Acquisition Executive designated PTES as a Middle Tier of Acquisition (MTA) 

Rapid Prototyping Activity and authorized PTES to pursue a prototype capability in late FY 2022. On August 12, 2021, the Program Office completed the first 

over-the-air PTW connectivity with the first production-article Joint Hub. On 

September 8, 2021, the Program Office completed the Joint Hub End-Crypto Unit 

(ECU) critical design review. The program is on track to reach IOC in FY 2024.

The Protected Tactical SATCOM (PTS) program is the disaggregated protected 

tactical communications follow-on to the AEHF program and will also provide 

Ka-band SATCOM capability. PTS will provide advanced SATCOM capabilities 

to tactical users in anti-access/area denial environments leveraging the resilient 

PTW. PTS will also provide worldwide, beyond-line-of-sight, improved anti-jam, 

low probability of intercept communications to expeditionary and tactical warfighters operating in close proximity to adversarial jammers. It will do this through 

on-board signal processing and advanced beam-forming using a distributed, diversified, and agile constellation of hostable payloads and high-capacity free-flyers. PTS 

is using digital engineering to increase speed and agility of system development. 
117 Department of Defense

In November 2018 the first phase of PTS was designated as an MTA Rapid 

Prototyping Activity to deliver two prototype payloads for launch in FY 2024. 

On March 31, 2021, Space Systems Command selected Northrop Grumman and 

Boeing to continue to Critical Design Review (CDR) to produce a PTS free-flyer 

and a hosted payload on WGS-11, respectively. Northrop Grumman and Boeing 

completed the Critical Design Reviews in October 2021 and December 2021, 

respectively. Both contractors remain on track to have PTS prototype payloads 

available for launch in FY 2024.

In November 2020, U.S. Space Command accepted the Enhanced Polar System 

(EPS) program for operational use, with two hosted payloads on orbit and a ground 

Control and Planning Segment (CAPS). EPS replaces the Interim Polar System 

to ensure that critical protected communications requirements above 65 degrees 

north latitude are satisfied for joint forces. The Space Force is procuring two 

replenishment EPS payloads, the Enhanced Polar System-Recapitalization (EPS-R), 

to prevent a military satellite communications (MILSATCOM) mission gap in the 

polar region in the 2025 timeframe. These EPS-Recapitalization (EPS-R) payloads 

will be hosted on a Space Norway satellite, promoting U.S. policy to strengthen 

international partnerships, and potentially saving $900 million in costs for the 

U.S. Government. In November 2021 the Program Office successfully completed 

the Pre-Ship Review (PSR) for payload 2. In June 2022 the Program Office delivered payload 1 for integration with the Space Norway vehicle. Payload 2 will be 

delivered late October 2022.

The United States Space Force Commercial SATCOM Office (SFCSCO) was 

established under Air Force Space Command (AFSPC) in December 2018 and 

transferred to the USSF upon its establishment in December 2019. SFCSCO procures Commercial SATCOM (COMSATCOM) for the DOD by managing over 90 

active customer contracts, leveraging 40 COMSATCOM providers, and delivering over 10 GHz of bandwidth. SFCSCO delivers access to the global commercial 

Iridium Satellite Constellation providing airtime for secure voice, and secure data 

services for the DOD, federal agencies, state and local governments, and foreign 

partners (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the North 

Atlantic Treaty Organization), leveraging a family-plan contract agreement. 

SFCSCO also delivers COMSATCOM capabilities through standard and custom 
118Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

contracts including transponder capacity, managed services, and custom solutions. 

In FY 2022, SFCSCO continued to advance the USSF’s vision for an enterprise 

approach to the procurement, delivery, and management of SATCOM capabilities 

as the best means to create a responsive environment to Combatant Commands 

(CCMDs) and other users across the spectrum of conflict.

COMSATCOM Enterprise Integration of Fighting SATCOM delivers mission 

applications enabling warfighters to operate in all conditions by leveraging responsive DOD and commercial SATCOM as a single enterprise. Fighting SATCOM 

Enterprise integrates a set of tools that provide SATCOM capability to global warfighters, restore services within tactically relevant timelines, and improve resilience 

and operational agility in Contested Degraded and Operationally Limited (CDO) 

environments. Enterprise Management and Control (EM&C) applications provide 

the foundational framework for a SATCOM integrated Command and Control 

(C2) system that enables the end-to-end sensor-to-shooter execution and facilitates 

timely, quality-driven battlespace decisions for SATCOM allocation and use. In 

FY 2022, EM&C executed six prototypes to help develop advanced software capabilities that enable responsive and resilient SATCOM for various space warfighting 

entities. Furthermore, EM&C awarded two contract modifications to develop a 

mission profile registry service and expand its mission planning capabilities. At the 

end of FY 2022, EM&C successfully deployed its visualization suite with an initial 

set of prototypes onto Secure Internet Protocol Router Network (SIPRNet) for user 

feedback and testing.

The Family of Advanced Beyond-Line-of-Sight Terminals (FAB-T) program 

will field nuclear-event-survivable terminals capable of communicating with the 

Milstar and AEHF satellite constellations using jam-resistant, low-probability-ofintercept, and low-probability-of-detection waveforms. On February 7, 2019, the 

Milestone Decision Authority approved the procurement of all FAB-T Command 

Post Terminals (CPTs) during Low-Rate Initial Production. All 84 planned terminals are now on contract, 72 terminals have been delivered, 44 terminals have 

been installed, and 41 are in operational use. 
119 Department of Defense

Space Access

Space Force

National Security Space Launch: The National Security Space Launch (NSSL) 

program continues to successfully place satellites into orbit, launching 93/93 successful missions since its onset. As of September 30, 2022, there were six launches 

during FY 2022: 

• December 7, 2021 Atlas V, Space Test Program-3 

• January 21, 2022 Atlas V, USSF-8 

• February 2, 2022 Falcon 9, NROL-87 

• April 17, 2022 Falcon 9, NROL-85 

• July 1, 2022 Atlas V, USSF-12 

• August 4, 2022 Atlas V, SBIRS GEO-6 

On August 12, 2020, under the Phase 2 contract, the U.S. Space Force’s (USSF) 

Space Systems Command (SSC), in partnership with the National Reconnaissance 

Office’s (NRO) Office of Space Launch, competitively awarded two Firm-FixedPrice, Indefinite Delivery Requirement contracts to United Launch Alliance 

(ULA) and SpaceX to provide reliable, innovative, and affordable launch services 

for National Security Space (NSS) missions. Launch service task orders are awarded 

annually via the NSSL Phase 2 contract. Eight launches were awarded through 

the FY 2022 mission assignment board: ULA was awarded GPS III-7, USSF-23, 

USSF-43, WGS-11+, and USSF-16; SpaceX was awarded USSF-124, USSF-62, and 

SDA-T1TLA. ULA continues to make progress towards the development of the 

Vulcan Launch Vehicle, to include Cat C capability, through the Launch Service 

Agreement (LSA) Other Transaction Authority (OTA). 

June 2021 marked the first NSS launch on a reused booster. The DAF has 

actively engaged in evaluating reusable launch systems and establishing common standards consistent with NSSL Mission Assurance standards since 2016. 

Beginning in 2020, the Space Force worked with SpaceX to recover the first two 

boosters from the GPS III-3 (June 2020) and GPS III-4 (November 2020) missions. 

The June 2021 GPS III-5 launch was the first NSS launch on a reused booster. 
120Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

These three launches provided vital data to maintain mission assurance for launch 

vehicle reuse on the Phase 2 contract and beyond. 

SSC’s Mission Manifest Office maximizes the use of all spacelift capacity and 

acts as the single point of entry for all DOD satellites. In FY 2021, the Mission 

Manifest Office deployed small satellites from the USSF’s SBIRS GEO-5 and 

NASA’s Landsat 9 launches, demonstrating their capability to flexibly deliver 

cutting-edge technology to space and work across Government organizations to 

do so. 

On September 24, 2021, SSC awarded four OTA development agreements 

for next-generation rocket engine testing (SpaceX) and upper stage resiliency 

enhancements (Blue Origin, ULA, and Rocket Lab). These development efforts 

will advance the domestic launch vehicle industrial base and foster competition 

for the Phase 3 procurement. 

The NSSL Phase 3 procurement strategy continued its development in FY 2022 

for a contract award in the fourth quarter of FY 2024 to procure launch services in 

FY 2025 and beyond. The NSSL Phase 3 strategy will be the follow-on to the NSSL 

Phase 2’s ordering period that ends FY 2024.

Rocket Systems Launch Program: The Space Force’s Rocket Systems Launch 

Program (RSLP) continues to provide a low barrier for new entry launch vehicles, 

enabling a diverse vendor pool consisting of both large and small businesses with a 

mixture of mature and emerging launch providers. On September 29, 2022, RSLP 

awarded a launch service contract to Firefly to support the USSF’s VICTUS NOX 

Tactically Responsive Space mission with a 24-hour “call up” to launch, scheduled 

for 2023. RSLP continued its record of success with three additional space launches 

in FY 2022: 

• November 20, 2021 LV007, Space Test Program (STP)-27AD2

• January 13, 2022 LauncherOne, STP-VPB 

• July 2, 2022 LauncherOne, STP-S28A 

Launch Ranges: Range modernization efforts continued in FY 2022, implementing the Chief of Space Operations’ Range of the Future (ROTF) vision for 

the Eastern and Western Ranges. This vision ensures that range instrumentation 

will not be a limiting factor in launch range capacity and launch cadence. In 2022, 
121 Department of Defense

Range Services Hosting Platform earned operational acceptance. This upgrade 

provides a common platform for all range customers and operators. It also provides automated routing versus manual range reconfiguration, allowing centralized 

network management across the IP network, additional capacity, plug-and-play 

for range users, and modernized information assurance. Range Command and 

Destruct modernization was operationally accepted at the Cape 1B site, replacing 

obsolete equipment critical for range safety. These efforts enhance compatibility 

with commercial systems and increase launch throughput on both Ranges, continuing progress to meet the ROTF vision. 

Space Rapid Capabilities Office: The Space Rapid Capabilities Office (RCO) 

mission focuses on developing and delivering operationally dominant space 

capabilities in support of national defense as directed by the Secretary of the Air 

Force through a Board of Directors (BoD). The BoD is chaired by the Secretary 

of the Air Force with membership that includes the Chief of Space Operations; 

Chief of Staff, United States Air Force; Commander of U.S. Space Command; 

Assistant Secretary of the Air Force for Acquisition, Technology and Logistics; 

Assistant Secretary of the Air Force for Space and Integration; Undersecretary of 

Defense for Acquisition and Services; and Undersecretary of Defense for Research 

and Engineering. Through the BoD, the Space RCO has been assigned and is 

executing programs that fill critical portions of the space architecture as defined 

by the Commander U.S. Space Command to allow fulfillment of the joint, military 

operational needs for national defense. The Space RCO continues to develop partnerships with other government organizations, industry, academia, and Federally 

Funded Research and Development Centers to aid in the rapid development and 

delivery of U.S. space capabilities at the speed of warfighting relevance.

Space Control

Space Force

Space Innovation, Integration, and Rapid Technology Development (SIIRTD) 

delivers Standard Space Trainers (SSTs) and Distributed Mission Operations–

Space (DMO-S) capabilities to the warfighter and provides cutting-edge analysis 

with critical Modeling and Simulation (M&S) tools providing analytic rigor that 
122Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

support the command’s warfighter strategies. SIIRTD had a very successful FY 2022 

with several major accomplishments:

• Held an M&S capabilities Industry Day for the Virtual Space Range, promoting competition across training solutions;

• Delivered 14 software releases across four MILSATCOM missions, and 12 

software releases for SBIRS;

• Delivered 10 software releases of Black Horizon gaming app on SSTs and 

mobile devices; and

• Upgraded Early Warning Radar (UEWR) at Beale Air Force Base, Clear 

Space Force Station, and Thule Air Base.

The Counter Communications System (CCS) provides expeditionary, deployable, and reversible counter-space effects applicable across the full spectrum of 

conflict. CCS denies adversary satellite communications in an area of conflict. 

CCS is a key piece of the DOD’s space control strategy and has been in operation 

since 2004 with the fielding of three Increment 10.0 systems. To date, CCS has 

gone through two subsequent preplanned product improvements and delivered 16 

of 16 CCS Increment 10.2 systems. 

Space Command and Control: The Space Command and Control (C2) system 

will provide a collaborative environment that will enhance and modernize Space 

Domain Awareness (SDA) and Battle Management Command and Control capabilities; create decision-relevant views of the space environment; rapidly detect, 

track, and characterize objects of interest; identify/exploit traditional and nontraditional sources; perform space threat analysis; and enable efficient distribution 

of data across the Space Surveillance Network.

This mission area encompasses both operational and tactical echelon C2. 

Supported by the Space C2 acquisition program, C2 investment activities deliver 

capability in support of multiple C2 nodes, to include the National Space Defense 

Center (NSDC). In addition, programs like Enterprise Ground Services (EGS) 

provide tactical C2 capability, and investment activities occur at the Research and 

Development Space and Missile Operations (RDSMO) offices. 

To address the rapidly expanding threats to the space enterprise, the Space C2 

program will allow the Space Force to command and control space control and 

SDA forces by integrating data for commanders. Future SDA and C2 development 
123 Department of Defense

efforts are pivoting to a user-driven, rapid delivery, development security and operations (DevSecOps) approach leveraging best practices in digital engineering to 

defeat an advancing threat. Also included in this mission area is the Unified Data 

Library (UDL) program. Initiated as a prototype effort, the UDL provides a single 

source for accessing and managing all data in support of USSF operational systems. 

UDL is a cloud-based, cyber-accredited, multi-classification, data store that facilitates universal data access.

In FY 2022 the Space C2 program obtained operational acceptance of Warp 

Core, a Data as a Service (DaaS) platform for data ingestion, retention, processing, normalization, analysis, and visualization across the global space enterprise. 

Warp Core is used by over 3,000 users in the USSF, North American Aerospace 

Defense Command/U.S. Northern Command (NORAD/USNORTHCOM), and 

the DAF. The program also began Development, Test and Evaluation (DT&E) 

of the Advanced Tracking and Launch Analysis System (ATLAS), a significant 

operational C2 SDA capability that will allow for the decommissioning of legacy 

systems. In April 2022 the program delivered its third annual report to Congress. 

This third report addressed recommendations from a Government Accountability 

Office review of the first two annual reports. Regarding UDL, in February 2022 

UDL established a direct connection with Space Fence, a Kwajalein Atoll–based 

SDA sensor, which will continue to expand capability to share Space Surveillance 

Network data. In FY 2022 more than 70 applications used UDL data. 

In FY 2022, the Satellite Control Network (SCN) began development of the 

Enterprise Resource Management system to automate scheduling and connectivity 

of the network with a minimum viable product planned for 2024. The Federal 

Augmentation service effort to use NOAA antennas to augment the SCN completed its preliminary design review. In FY 2022 the SCN began the Modular 

Transitional Remote Tracking Station upgrade at Diego Garcia, providing a modern and more cyber secure architecture using one core commanding and telemetry 

data handling system for all antennas at a site. Software-defined radios are the 

key component to this upgrade that will replace obsolete equipment and facilitate 

future growth.
124Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Space Domain Awareness

Space Force 

Space Domain Awareness (SDA) is the identification, characterization, and 

understanding of any factor, passive or active, associated with the space domain 

that could affect space operations. To address the rapidly expanding threats to 

the space enterprise, SDA is pivoting to protect and defend against threats by 

aligning materiel and non-materiel needs to deliver parallel operational requirements simultaneously and equipping decision-makers with access to integrated 

data from diverse ground-based and space-based sensors. In FY 2022, the USSF 

continued to partner with industry and allies to augment the Space Surveillance 

Network (SSN), exploit data, host payloads on non-traditional satellites, and place 

assets in new locations that would allow for persistent space control activities. 

The Space Surveillance Telescope (SST) completed Operational Acceptance 

in September 2022. Under the Maintenance of Space Situational Awareness 

Integrated Capabilities (MOSSAIC) contract, sustainment, modifications, and 

development continued across the SSN in FY 2022 to include upgrades to the 

Ground-Based Electro-Optical Deep Space Surveillance (GEODSS) system. 

Furthermore, USSF continues to invest in government-owned, exquisite systems 

such as SILENTBARKER, the Geosynchronous Space Situational Awareness 

Program (GSSAP), and the Deep Space Advanced Radar Capability (DARC). 

SILENTBARKER is a collaborative program between the USSF and National 

Reconnaissance Office (NRO) to satisfy common DOD and Intelligence 

Community (IC) requirements, which include maintaining custody of threats 

in Geosynchronous Orbit (GEO) and providing indications and warning. 

SILENTBARKER initial baseline launch is planned for FY 2023. The contract for 

SILENTBARKER expansion was awarded in FY 2021 with a projected launch in 

FY 2026. 

Geosynchronous Space Situational Awareness Program (GSSAP) vehicles operate in the near-GEO regime and provide the United States with an operational 

capability to support U.S. Space Command’s space surveillance operations as a 

dedicated space-based SSN sensor. GSSAPs 5 and 6 launched from Cape Canaveral 

Air Force Station in January 2022 and were operationally accepted by Space 
125 Department of Defense

Operations Command. From near-GEO, GSSAP has a clear, unobstructed, and 

distinct vantage point for viewing Resident Space Objects without the interruption 

of weather or the atmospheric distortion that can limit ground-based systems. The 

enhanced maneuverability of GSSAP also allows rendezvous and proximity operations to enable on-orbit object characterization and anomaly resolution. 

Deep Space Advanced Radar Capability (DARC) will be a ground-based SDA 

radar system consisting of three geographically separated sites around the world 

that deliver deep space satellite tracking and custody capabilities. DARC will provide a critical, advanced, 24/7, all-weather radar system capability to counter existing and emerging threats in deep space. SSC awarded the Site 1 Prime Integrator 

Contract in February 2022. Site 1 will be in Australia and is expected to complete 

development in FY 2025. The planned location for Site 2 is the United Kingdom, 

and Site 3 is in the United States.

Army

The USASMDC made progress in the area of Space Situational Awareness 

support for the tactical warfighter from the technology development effort called 

Lonestar. The first Lonestar satellite, which is about the size of two loaves of 

bread, completed environmental testing and end-to-end testing earlier in FY 2022. 

The satellite was then launched into orbit on July 1, 2022, aboard a Virgin Orbit 

Launcher One mission, which was provided as a launch opportunity by the 

Department of Defense Space Test Program. The satellite has successfully completed the bus and payload checkout phase and is currently in payload characterization and performance assessment. This particular effort is planned to be completed 

in FY 2023.

Defensive Cyber Operations–Space 

In FY 2022, Defensive Cyber monitoring and protection capabilities were 

deployed at Schriever and Buckley Space Force Bases to protect space operations 

centers. A total of 11 network enclaves are protected to date. These systems enable 

cyber operators in Delta 6 Mission Defense Teams to monitor networks to detect, 

isolate, and recover from attacks.
126Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Space Development Agency 

Experimental Systems

Prototype On-orbit Experimental Testbed (POET). POET was launched on 

a YAM-3 satellite in FY 2021 and continues to conduct first-of-its-kind demonstrations. POET is a payload system demonstrating an experimental processor and 

application for edge computing capabilities as required by Space Development 

Agency’s (SDA) Custody and Battle Management, Command, Control, and 

Communications (BMC3) layers. With POET’s checkout and commissioning 

completed in early FY 2022, POET demonstrated cloud segmentation algorithms 

on-orbit. This success led to additional funding from a government partner and 

successfully demonstrated the first on-orbit data fusion via the United States 

Marine Corps Multi-Sensor Correlator Tracking Algorithms from Raytheon 

Solipsys with sensor data loaded via dockers. SDA continues to identify additional 

experiments suitable to be conducted on POET and to identify additional mission 

partners interested in taking advantage of the on-orbit capability. 

Prototype Infrared Payload (PIRPL). SDA’s experimental system called PIRPL 

was launched in FY 2021. After completing system checkout, PIRPL began collecting infrared (IR) image data in November 2021 and downlinked its data during 

collection. This IR data collection was the first-of-its-kind from low-Earth orbit 

(LEO) and will be instrumental going forward to help understand how to separate 

advanced missile targets from the rapidly changing Earth background. These data 

continue to be used to inform IR scene models and optimization of image processing algorithms to suppress IR backgrounds that enable tracking of hypersonic and 

advanced missiles from LEO. 

Mandrake II. A pair of space vehicles nicknamed Mandrake II, launched in partnership with the Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) and Defense Advanced 

Research Projects Agency (DARPA), are currently flying two SA Photonics optical 

communication terminals (OCTs) with DARPA Blackjack heritage. Mandrake II 

launched in FY 2021 and began initialization and key component checkout of the 

propulsion system and OCTs the following quarter. In FY 2022 Mandrake II demonstrated space-to-space and space-to-ground optical links. Mandrake II continues 
127 Department of Defense

to perform ongoing data quality experiments to inform SDA’s Tranche 0 and 

Tranche 1 transport layer space vehicle deployments. 

Tranche 0 (T0) 

T0 Transport Layer (T0TL). York Space Systems and Lockheed Martin are 

delivering ten T0TL space vehicles (SV) each. Both contractors successfully completed their Test Readiness Reviews (TRR) in FY 2022 and are currently completing assembly, integration, and test (AI&T) of the SVs prior to delivery to the 

launch site and integration with the SpaceX Falcon-9 launch vehicle. York will be 

delivering eight T0TL SVs for the first launch scheduled for December 2022. York’s 

remaining two SVs and Lockheed Martin’s SVs will be delivered for the second 

launch scheduled for March 2023. Each vendor is also providing three SVs with 

a Link 16 payload to demonstrate this warfighter-critical tactical data link from 

space, enabling true beyond-line-of-sight operations for the first time.

T0 Tracking Layer. SpaceX and L3Harris are funded to build four Tracking SVs, 

each with a wide field of view (WFOV) infrared payload. Each vendor completed 

its Production Readiness Review (PRR) in FY 2022 and is currently completing 

AI&T of the SVs prior to delivery to the launch site for integration with the launch 

vehicle. SpaceX is delivering two SVs for the first launch. All remaining SVs will 

be launched on the final March 2023 launch. 

T0 Support. Tranche 0 has basing locations at Blossom Point Test Facility 

(BPTF) and University of Alaska-Fairbanks’ Alaska Satellite Facility (UAF ASF). 

Test Readiness Review (TRR) for the T0 ground segment was successfully held 

in mid–FY 2022. The Ground Segment installation of Optical Ground Terminal 

(OGT) 1 at Midway Research Center, Stafford, Virginia, was completed in FY 2021, 

and a second OGT was installed at AFRL Remote Maui Experiment (RME) Site 

(Maui, Hawaii) in December 2021. Two radio frequency (RF) antennas were also 

installed at the Alaska site in August 2022 and September 2022, with a third RF 

antenna to be installed at BPTF in FY 2023. Software builds for the two vendors 

launching space vehicles on Launch 1 (SpaceX and York) have been completed and 

will support the SVs when they are on orbit. 
128Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Tranche 1

T1 Transport (T1TL). T1TL SVs are similar to those in T0TL with targeted 

technology enhancements, mission-focused payload configurations, increased integration, and greater production efficiencies. The T1TL is providing global communications access and delivering persistent regional encrypted connectivity in 

support of warfighter missions around the globe by serving as the backbone for 

Joint All Domain Command and Control (JADC2) built on low-latency data transport, sensor-to-shooter and direct-to-weapon connectivity. SDA released a T1TL 

Request for Proposals (RFP) in October 2021 and subsequently re-released it as an 

Other Transaction (OT) RFP in November 2021. Lockheed Martin, York Space 

Systems, and Northrop Grumman were awarded contracts in February 2022 worth 

approximately $1.8 billion in total. Each awardee will build and deliver 42 SVs to 

be launched beginning in late FY 2024. The SVs will create a mesh network of 126 

optically interconnected nodes that will provide a low-latency, resilient, high-datavolume transport communication system. York and Lockheed Martin completed 

their Preliminary Design Reviews (PDR) before the end of FY 2022, with Northrop 

Grumman completing theirs in early FY 2023. The T1TL is planned to consist of 

six near-polar orbital planes of SVs in a 1,000 km altitude proliferated low-Earth 

orbit (pLEO) constellation, linked together to form a global space mesh network. 

Each of the six planes will contain 21 T1TL SVs. Enhancing the T0 development, 

each T1TL SV also carries a Link 16 payload, enabling global access to the tactical 

data network for the warfighter. In addition, each SV also carries a second Global 

Positioning System (GPS) receiver so that beginning with Tranche 1, SDA will 

provide continuous GPS situational awareness data from a global perspective. 

T1 Operations and Integration (O&I). Operation of the T1 Enterprise and 

future capability layers and tranches will be conducted from two functionally 

equivalent, geographically separated, Government-owned and Contractor-operated 

(GOCO) SDA Operations Centers (OC) via globally dispersed RF and optical 

ground entry points. SDA selected Redstone Arsenal, Alabama (South OC), and 

Grand Forks Air Force Base, North Dakota (North OC), as operational sites in 

early FY 2022. SDA conducted site surveys and is working toward completing the 

Network Design. T1 O&I will establish an integrated ground segment and provide 

operations and sustainment support for the complete T1 system. An RFP for T1 
129 Department of Defense

O&I was released in January 2022 with a $324.5 million cost-plus-fixed-fee contract 

awarded to General Dynamics Mission Systems (GDMS) in May 2022. GDMS has 

partnered with Iridium and will build the software and systems to manage and 

operate the SDA OCs and GEPs. Additionally, SDA requires SVs from multiple 

sources in multiple configurations to operate in an integrated fashion through 

a common ground system; therefore, GDMS will collaborate with each space 

vehicle provider to integrate Ground Segments with partner interfaces. GDMS 

will rely on their established process to deliver planned mission capabilities with 

Iridium’s commercially proven systems to monitor the constellation and to manage the Enterprise, mission, and payload data. GDMS completed their Systems 

Requirement Review (SRR) in August 2022. 

T1 Tracking. The primary mission objective of the T1 Tracking Layer program 

is to baseline an initial operational infrared missile warning and tracking capability designed to mature into a robust resilient target tracking solution that closely 

integrates with the T1 Transport Layer to deliver low-latency sensor-to-shooter 

connectivity in support of military operations around the world. In February 2022, 

SDA’s Warfighter Council (WFC) concurred with SDA’s minimum viable product 

for the T1 Tracking Layer. Funding was secured using the Middle Tier Acquisition 

(MTA) pathway to acquire the T1 Tracking prototype systems, and SDA released 

an OT RFP for the T1 Tracking Layer in March 2022. Two bidders were awarded 

contracts for a total of $1.3 billion. L3Harris and Northrop Grumman will build 

and deploy 14 SVs each (for a total of 28) with a wide field of view (WFOV) IR 

payload for missile warning, detection, and tracking. In addition to the WFOV 

SVs, each contractor will also build and deploy two additional SVs with a medium 

field of view (MFOV) IR payload for detecting dimmer targets and providing track 

quality data for fire control handoff. The T1 Tracking Layer will consist of four 

planes of seven WFOV SVs and one MFOV SV, launched to 1,000 km. This set of 

SVs forms the initial element of the pLEO portion of a Space Warfighting Analysis 

Center force design representing an integrated approach to advanced missile detection, tracking, and defeat. 

Tranche 1 Demonstration and Experimentation System (T1DES). As part of 

WFC concurrence to the T1TL minimum viable product proposal from SDA in 

March 2021, T1DES was created, which will have the capability to leverage the 
130Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

low-latency data transfer, beyond-line-of-sight (BLOS) command and control infrastructure established by the T1TL program to field and connect additional SVs 

with different mission payload configurations. A final OT RFP was released in June 

2022, and York Space Systems was awarded the contract before the end of FY 2022 

for a total cost of $200 million. York will deliver 12 T1DES SVs and support launch 

integration, ground systems, and operations and sustainment services. T1DES 

SVs will integrate with T1TL through the use of interoperable OCTs, networking 

and data routing, and ground system operations. T1DES SVs will host mission 

payloads serving Integrated Broadcast Service–LEO (IBS-L) and Tactical Satellite 

Communication (TACSATCOM) missions. York will deliver three T1DES SVs 

to launch with each of four sets of T1 Tracking Layer SVs and to deploy into and 

operate from four orbital planes.

Additional Noteworthy Progress

National Defense Space Architecture (NDSA) Experimental Testbed 

(NExT). NExT leverages NDSA’s low-latency data transfer and BLOS communications infrastructure to collect and move mission data to the tactical edge on 

relevant timelines. The goal of NExT is to field and connect SVs with emerging 

mission partner-developed and -provided payload capabilities in support of DOD 

end users. An OT RFP was released in June 2022 for the development, manufacture, deployment, and operations of ten NExT SVs and mission-enabling ground 

systems. Ball Aerospace Technologies Corp. was awarded a $176 million contract 

at the end of FY 2022 for this effort. 

Tranche 2 (T2) framework. In FY 2022, SDA began drafting the T2 framework. 

The Tranche 2 Transport Layer will complete the global pLEO mesh communications data transport capability required by the warfighter for worldwide operations. 

It will provide persistence and is sized to support at least two adversarial campaigns 

plus future proliferation of prototypes demonstrated in T1 and additional advanced 

tactical data links and/or waveforms.

FY 2022 Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR)/Small Business 

Technology Transfer (STTR) efforts. SDA awarded a total of 33 SBIR/STTR 

awards in FY 2022. Awards topics included Integrated Architecture Technologies 

for Modeling, Simulation and Analysis of future NDSA constellations; Free-Space 
131 Department of Defense

Optical Communication (FSOC) Technology for Optical Intersatellite Links 

(OISL); L-Band Multiband/Interleaved Electronically Scanned Array (ESA) 

Antenna; Advanced Space Mesh Networking; Target Recognition and 

Acquisition in Complex Environments (TRACE); Mesh Network NSA Certifiable 

Cryptographic Solution (Crypto); Compact Passive Polarimetric Microwave 

Radiometer and Sounder (CP2MRS); and Commercial SAR and Scatterometry 

(COSAS). In each case, SDA is encouraging small business partners to focus on 

key technology developments suitable for deployment on orbit with the goal of 

increasing warfighter capability.

133 Federal Aviation Administration

Federal Aviat

Administrat

FAA

The U.S. Department of Transportation’s Federal Aviation Administration 

(FAA) provides the safest, most efficient aerospace system in the world. The 

COVID-19 pandemic significantly affected air travel, the aviation industry, and the 

FAA, and the last few years have tested our collective resolve, flexibility, and resiliency. By 2022, the aviation industry and the nation were well on the road to recovery: air traffic had gradually returned and was slightly below pre-pandemic levels. 

In November 2021, President Joseph Biden signed the Infrastructure Investment 

and Jobs Act, also known as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL). The BIL gives 

the FAA $25 billion over five years for air traffic control facilities, airport infrastructure grants, and investments in airport terminals and airport-owned towers. 

The first installment of funds for FAA-owned facilities covered power systems, fuel 

tanks, environmental control systems, mechanical systems, radio and radar towers, 

and unstaffed buildings that house and protect critical equipment. On December 

16, 2021, the FAA announced $2.89 billion provided under BIL to pay for runways, 

taxiways, and aprons—as well as terminal, intermodal, and roadway projects—

for airports. On July 7, 2022, we awarded nearly $1 billion across 85 airports for 

improving airfield safety through terminal relocation, replacing aging facilities, 

improving energy efficiency, encouraging competition, and expanding access for 

people with disabilities.
134Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Work continued on expanding and operationalizing NextGen during the reporting period.1

 For example, the FAA activated Data Communications capability at 

Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport in 2021. In 2022, the capability extended to Jacksonville and Palm Beach international airports, and Oakland 

and Minneapolis en route centers. The FAA has published 353 Performance Based 

Navigation (PBN) routes for cruising altitudes and 9,401 PBN departure, arrival, 

and approach procedures. We completed the Metroplex program that started in 

2010 by closing out the 11th and final project in South-Central Florida in 2022. We 

also authorized the Established on Required Navigation Performance (EoR) separation standard at Los Angeles International Airport in 2021, and Houston expanded 

EoR operations to all four available downwind directions in 2022. With the installation of the Standard Terminal Automation Replacement System (STARS) at the 

Grand Canyon control tower in 2021, the FAA completed the system’s nationwide 

rollout. STARS is now operational at more than 500 FAA and 200 Department of 

Defense facilities. With the foundational NextGen infrastructure in place, we are 

closer to our vision of managing air traffic more strategically through Trajectory 

Based Operations.2

COVID-19

The FAA moved to a maximum telework posture during the COVID-19 pandemic, but many FAA employees must be on-site to perform their duties. Air traffic 

controllers, for example, must physically be at their stations to direct traffic. Early 

in the pandemic, when air traffic plummeted, the FAA adjusted the number of 

personnel on shifts to match the reduced demand, allowing us to reduce crews’ 

potential exposure to one another. As air traffic began to return, we increased 

staffing to match demand and used new federal protocols based on more data to 

protect our team. We used personal protective equipment, implemented frequent 

1 The Next Generation Air Transportation System is the FAA’s ongoing multibillion-dollar infrastructure program to modernize the U.S. National Airspace System, fundamentally changing the 

way we see, navigate, and communicate in the nation’s skies. For more information, see: https://

www.faa.gov/nextgen

2 Trajectory Based Operations is an air traffic management method for strategically planning 

and managing flights throughout the operation by using time-based management, information 

exchange between air and ground systems, and the aircraft’s ability to accurately navigate in time 

and space. For more information, see: https://ww.faa.gov/go/tbo
135 Federal Aviation Administration

cleanings, and tracked COVID-19 cases. The FAA prioritized flights carrying 

COVID-19 vaccines. We offered around-the-clock air traffic services to keep air 

cargo moving seamlessly and to provide personnel critical to the nation’s response 

to, and recovery from, COVID-19. 

Still, the FAA always strives to ensure the safety of its employees, and at the 

height of the pandemic, to minimize contamination risk, the FAA paused inperson controller training. To further reduce the number of personnel at facilities, 

the FAA also paused the deployment of new systems at air traffic control facilities. 

We employed remote capabilities for everything from system testing to conducting 

safety panels and site surveys. These decisions allowed the FAA to ensure continuity of operations throughout the National Airspace System, even under the once 

unthinkable stresses the last three years have placed on the system.

These measures, while necessary, came with a cost. Controllers require a lengthy 

training program tailored to their specific facility, and the consequences of the 

training pause will take years to fully rectify. The pandemic caused the postponement of many new technologies, and the FAA is working diligently with industry 

to prioritize these new technologies for deployment. In April 2022, FAA tasked its 

NextGen Advisory Committee to advise on industry’s key priorities. The committee’s feedback has helped us reassess our near-term priorities as we emerge from the 

COVID-19 pandemic. This invaluable feedback ensures we have the right balance 

between sustaining operations and investing in operationalizing NextGen.

Commercial Space 

Commercial rocket launches achieved new highs in 2022 with 74 launches and 

reentries from several companies, 10 more than in 2021. The FAA continued its 

perfect record of ensuring zero fatalities, serious injuries, or significant property 

damage to the uninvolved public during licensed or permitted space launch and 

reentry activities. 

In addition to the growth in the number of commercial space operations, the 

complexity of the missions seeking FAA approval continues to change dramatically. The FAA continued preparation for a dynamic, rapidly maturing set of future 

missions, which include orbital and suborbital space tourism, interplanetary travel, 
136Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

space-based internet services, commercial space stations, and innovative new 

designs for traditional launch systems.

In May 2021, four astronauts—one from the European Union, one from Japan, 

and two from the United States—reached the International Space Station aboard 

a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket as part of the Crew-2 mission. It was the first FAAlicensed U.S. commercial space mission to fly an astronaut from the European 

Space Agency. SpaceX continued to provide spaceflight capability to NASA astronauts and the International Space Station, launching its fourth crewed mission 

in April 2022 and 25th cargo resupply mission in July 2022. This capability eliminates the United States’ dependence on high-cost Russian transportation to the 

International Space Station. Boeing continued to develop its commercial capsule 

and demonstrated a second orbital flight for NASA in May 2022.

In 2021 and 2022, private space companies continued to expand commercial 

space transportation activities: 

• On July 11, 2021, Virgin Galactic launched the SpaceShipTwo rocket carrying two pilots and four crew into suborbital space. The launch from 

Spaceport America in New Mexico was an operational test before establishing scheduled commercial spaceflights. 

• On July 20, 2021, Blue Origin sent off its New Shepard suborbital launch 

vehicle from its West Texas site. The flight carried four passengers, including the oldest and youngest people ever to fly into space. It also included 

the first person designated as a spaceflight participant under FAA rules. 

Blue Origin completed six launches of the New Shepard, each carrying 

multiple spaceflight participants. 

• SpaceX continued the development of a reusable super-heavy lift launch 

system, known as the Starship. This system is designed to be the world’s 

most powerful rocket. 

• Virgin Orbit launched its fifth licensed mission from the Mojave Air and 

Space Port in California in July 2022. 

As more rocket launch operators seek to share the nation’s airspace, the FAA has 

deployed the space data integrator (SDI). This software delivers real-time telemetry 

data from the vehicle operator to the FAA Air Traffic Control System Command 

Center. The Command Center is in charge of overseeing and coordinating all of 
137 Federal Aviation Administration

the air traffic across the National Airspace System. Delivered data includes vehicle 

position and speed as well as indicators if the vehicle deviates from its expected 

flight path. This information enables the FAA to follow the progress of the vehicle 

along its planned path and monitor whether the vehicle is performing as expected. 

Launch and reentry vehicle operators voluntarily deliver telemetry data via SDI, 

and in 2021, the FAA partnered with the Alaska Aerospace Corporation, Astra, 

Blue Origin, and SpaceX to deliver their data for integration into SDI. This tool 

can inform the use of time-based launch/reentry procedures (TBLP) as well as the 

dynamic launch and reentry windows (DLRW) that the FAA used at launch sites 

in Boca Chica and Van Horn in Texas. TBLP and DLRW are ways the FAA uses 

data about launch and reentry operations to minimize the amount of time airspace 

is closed to other commercial users.

The FAA continues to improve its processes to accommodate the commercial 

space industry’s massive growth. One example of this improvement is the implementation of Title 14 Code of Federal Regulations Part 450. First published in 

March 2021, Part 450 is a performance-based licensing structure for commercial 

spaceflight launch and reentry operations. This new regulation overhauls the FAA 

licensure of commercial space launches and consolidates four prescriptive rules into 

one performance-based standard. With performance-based regulations, the FAA 

focuses on achieving results rather than trying to mandate the specific processes or 

technologies used to achieve those results. Companies can launch the same vehicle 

or family of vehicles multiple times after demonstrating how they meet established 

safety criteria. Additionally, Part 450 licenses can be modified for new conditions 

instead of requiring commercial spaceflight providers to apply for a new license. 

While this streamlines the process for applicants, it creates new challenges for the 

FAA as the agency must be able to quickly review the modifications and determine 

the safety of systems that may not conform to traditional launch and reentry standards. The FAA granted the first Part 450 license to Astra in February 2022.

Uncrewed Aircraft Systems

It’s hard to understand just how big of a leap integration of uncrewed aircraft systems (UAS), or drones as they are commonly known, has taken since the first FAA 
138Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

regulations regarding UAS (Registration and Marking Requirements for Small 

Uncrewed Aircraft interim final rule) appeared in 2015. In 2016, the FAA enabled 

limited operations for small UAS with a new set of regulations that are commonly 

called the “small UAS rule.” In 2021, the FAA took strides toward integrating 

this new entrant into the nation’s airspace. Finalized rules for Operation of Small 

Uncrewed Aircraft Systems (sUAS) Over People (amendment to Title 14 Code of 

Federal Regulations Part 107) and UAS Remote Identification (Title 14 Code of 

Federal Regulations Part 89) will further UAS integration. 

The original Part 107 regulations authorized only certain types of operations. 

Flying under Part 107 meant staying in Class G airspace (airspace not managed 

by the air traffic control) unless authorized by the FAA, flying during the day, 

and keeping the UAS within the pilot’s line of sight. If an operator wanted to fly 

over people, at night, or beyond their visual line of sight, they needed to request 

a waiver or an exemption from the FAA. The amendment to Part 107 permitted 

UAS operators to fly in more situations, increasing the economic and recreational 

potential of drones. Now allowed under this new rulemaking activity, routine night 

operations began in the spring of 2021.

Keeping pace with the UAS industry means the FAA had to adjust its development models to put those enabling regulations into action. The Low Altitude 

Authorization and Notification Capability, or LAANC, was established in 2017 to 

facilitate automated airspace access for commercial and recreational sUAS operations. Through a cohort of FAA-approved UAS Service Suppliers, LAANC streamlines the airspace access process to provide near real-time authorizations to small 

UAS pilots. Through rapid development and deployment of enhancements, as well 

as working directly with industry, LAANC adapted to reflect the aforementioned 

2021 regulations updates and enabled automated access to controlled airspace for 

commercial night operations in September of 2021. In parallel, as a response to the 

Drone Advisory Committee recommendation, the FAA refined the UAS Facility 

Maps that establish maximum altitudes for UAS operations in controlled airspace 

to increase the granularity of available airspace, opening up a considerable volume 

of airspace for near-real time access. As a result of these enhancements, the demand 

for using automated process has grown significantly, reaching 1 million of airspace 

authorizations processed in LAANC in February of 2022.
139 Federal Aviation Administration

Publishing the Remote Identification (ID) of Uncrewed Aircraft Final Rule was 

the next incremental step toward further integration of uncrewed aircraft in the 

national airspace. Remote ID is a digital “license plate” for an uncrewed aircraft. 

With Remote ID, law enforcement and national security partners will have a better 

way to locate the operator, determine if a drone is being operated inappropriately 

or without permission, and respond if necessary. The operator’s UAS serial number 

and location information will be available to anyone within range with Remote ID 

broadcast receiver technology on their personal wireless device, such as a smartphone. However, only authorized government agencies and law enforcement can 

request more detailed registration information from the FAA. Full Remote ID compliance will become mandatory September 16, 2023. 

One of the next steps in UAS integration involves beyond visual line-of-sight 

(BVLOS) operations, which are permitted only with a waiver. In June 2021, the 

FAA chartered a new Aviation Rulemaking Committee (ARC) to help the agency 

develop a regulatory path for routine BVLOS operations. The BVLOS ARC was 

tasked with the following:

• Identifying safety and environmental considerations for BVLOS UAS 

operations, accounting for the security needs of the U.S. government.

• Identifying societal benefits for BVLOS UAS operations.

• Recommending requirements and providing the rationale for such requirements to enable BVLOS drone operations.

• Submitting a recommendation report to the FAA.

The BVLOS ARC’s final report was published in March 2022. This report represents a huge milestone in laying the foundation for BVLOS operations of drones 

in the national airspace. The report’s diverse perspectives will inform the FAA’s 

approach to safe drone integration and will help pave the way for routine package 

delivery, infrastructure inspection, and other more complex drone operations. The 

FAA’s next challenge is to consider these recommendations as it develops a path 

toward flexible performance-based regulations that enable scalable drone operations. Stakeholder outreach is an important part of this effort. To that end, the 

FAA conducted two listening sessions with a broad segment of industry stakeholders to collect necessary feedback on the ARC report.
140Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

The aviation industry is ready and willing to provide resources, technology, and 

expertise to scale BVLOS; many companies, communities, and industrial sectors 

have invested substantial resources in developing UAS technologies to realize 

these benefits. The ARC’s recommendations and industry feedback are now under 

consideration as FAA has begun to map out a new regulatory framework to regulate drones, enhance safety, and promote sustainable transportation solutions—all 

while ensuring America’s continued leadership in aviation innovation.

The FAA has also been working with the Federal Communications Commission 

(FCC) and the National Telecommunications and Information Administration to 

develop federal rules for UAS communication links in the 5030–5091 MHz band. 

This has involved technical studies and working with industry partners through 

the Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics (RTCA). These regulatory efforts 

will promote safety within the commercial proliferation of UAS technologies. 

Aircraft Certification Reform 

The FAA understands and embraces the need to promote and sustain the primacy of safety, as well as continuous and proactive risk management throughout 

its workforce, across industry, and with other aviation authorities. We continue to 

improve and refine our certification and safety oversight processes using a comprehensive approach to implementing the provisions from the Aircraft Certification, 

Safety, and Accountability Act and the various recommendations we received from 

recent investigations and independent reviews. In doing so, we have identified the 

following general themes:

• Treat aircraft as complex systems, with full consideration of how all the 

elements in the operating system interact.

• Integrate human factors considerations more effectively throughout all 

aspects of the design and certification process.

• Improve the agency’s oversight process by ensuring the coordinated and 

flexible flow of data and information.

• Focus on the workforce of the future and develop expertise to evaluate 

technological advances.
141 Federal Aviation Administration

Among the FAA’s many notable accomplishments in fiscal years 2021 and 

2022 are:

• Rescinding on November 18, 2020, the FAA order that grounded the 

Boeing 737 MAX after a crash in Indonesia in 2018 and in Ethiopia in 

2019 together killed 346 people. The FAA also published an airworthiness directive that specified the steps U.S. operators must accomplish 

before returning their existing fleet of 737 MAX airplanes to service. The 

decision to unground the airplane was based on the FAA’s thorough and 

deliberate safety processes. The design and certification of this aircraft 

included an unprecedented level of concurrent and independent reviews 

by aviation authorities around the world. Those regulators have indicated 

that Boeing’s design changes, together with the changes to crew procedures and training enhancements, give them the confidence to validate 

the aircraft as safe to fly in their respective regions.

• Bolstering the FAA’s organization designation authorization (ODA) 

program through various efforts, including publishing policy to prevent 

interference with ODA unit members and to facilitate open communication between unit members and the FAA. These efforts are part of the 

agency’s work to fortify the FAA’s ODA program to drive consistency and 

transparency in how the FAA appoints, manages, and oversees designees.

• Implementing the voluntary safety reporting program (VSRP), allowing 

confidential reporting of identified safety concerns for all FAA Office 

of Aviation Safety employees. The Aviation Safety VSRP emphasizes 

risk-based, data-driven decisions and is structured to ensure alignment 

and integration with other activities across the FAA. Similar to other 

voluntary safety reporting programs, the Aviation Safety VSRP uses an 

event review team, which is an independent body composed of FAA 

Aviation Safety management and union representatives. This team analyzes reported safety concerns and determines, through consensus, the 

need for corrective actions or other outcomes.

• Issuing the draft flightpath management advisory circular, which guides 

operators to help pilots maintain manual flight operations skills and avoid 

becoming overly reliant on automation. The advisory provides a single 
142Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

framework for operations and training programs. The draft advisory circular was developed based on recommendations received from the Air 

Carrier Training Aviation Rulemaking Committee and includes recommended practices for flightpath management that can be incorporated 

into training programs and operational procedures.

5G

On January 19, 2022, 5G telecommunications services launched in 46 U.S. 

markets using frequencies in a radio spectrum known as the C-band. The C-band 

spectrum is adjacent to the band used by aircraft radio altimeters, which raised 

concerns about potentially hazardous interference by 5G transmitters. The FAA 

requires radio altimeters to be accurate and reliable. Because the agency is charged 

with ensuring the safety of all aircraft equipment, the rollout of the C-band wireless network required extensive cooperation between equipment manufacturers, 

wireless companies, and the FAA.

Because the deployment involved changes in power levels on the frequencies 

near the aviation spectrum, the FAA restricted certain safety-sensitive flight operations that rely on radio altimeters. The FAA continues to work to safely reduce the 

effects of this disruption. The FAA firmly believes that 5G and the U.S. aviation 

system can co-exist, and the agency has made significant progress in support of 

this goal since January 2022. Daily collaboration between experts from the FAA 

and the wireless companies helped refine our risk-assessment model near runways. 

The FAA and telecommunication companies have also partnered and shared data 

in order to run important technical tests and develop safeguards. This enabled the 

wireless companies to turn on the maximum number of transmitters while protecting aviation safety.

As of October 2022, wireless companies have activated nearly 97 percent of their 

installed network of more than 51,000 transmitters. Key stakeholders in the aviation and wireless industries identified a process that will continue to protect commercial air travel from disruption by 5G C-band interference while also enabling 

wireless companies to enhance service around certain airports. 
143 Federal Aviation Administration

In the long term, the FAA expects to establish a new performance standard for 

altimeters in the presence of a 5G C-band. The FAA continues to use the information and lessons learned from the 5G launch to better prepare for spectrum and 

aircraft equipage policies in the future. We plan to use the same framework of interaction between the FAA, original equipment manufacturers, and wireless companies as a template for engaging new entrants—a process that has already begun.

Workforce Development

When commercial aviation passenger levels rebounded in 2022, workforce 

challenges manifested as widespread flight cancellations and delays. Well before 

COVID-19, Congress anticipated these challenges and established two grant programs through Section 625 of the FAA Reauthorization Act of 2018 to expand the 

aviation workforce. The Aircraft Pilots Workforce Development Grants program 

encourages students to become pilots, aerospace engineers, or uncrewed aircraft 

systems operators. The Aviation Maintenance Technical Workers Workforce 

Development Grants program helps prepare tomorrow’s aviation maintenance 

technicians. The FAA provides these grants to academia and the aviation 

community to help prepare a more inclusive talent pool of pilots and aviation 

maintenance technicians.

In 2022, the FAA awarded the first $10 million in Aviation Workforce 

Development Grants to more than 30 educational institutions across the country. 

The FAA published the Notice of Funding Opportunity for a second round of 

grants in April 2022, with another $10 million available, and received applications 

in June.

In addition to these grant programs, the FAA established a new prototype program 

to assist military veterans who hope to become commercial aircraft pilots. Known as 

the Veterans Pilot Training Pilot Program, the program’s main goals are to:

• Recruit and enroll veterans in a program that will support their successful 

completion of an air transport pilot certification. 

• Provide metrics, data, and feedback on the feasibility and viability 

of a larger-scale program to inform and improve the program’s future 

implementation. 
144Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

In July 2022, the FAA awarded a four-year cooperative agreement to the 

University of North Dakota, an accredited flight school, to begin this program. 

The FAA is committed to creating bridges to the civilian workforce for veterans 

returning from service and assisting their transition into new career paths that 

provide long-term stability through ladders of opportunity at home.

The FAA is also working to attract young talent for careers at the FAA. The 

FAA’s Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) Aviation and Space 

Education (AVSED) Program is an integral part of FAA outreach to the national 

education system. The program introduces students to aviation and aerospace 

careers and promotes STEM education through outreach events such as the Adopta-School program. Through this program, FAA employees volunteer to collaborate 

with classroom teachers to present lessons that foster curiosity about aviation. 

Examples of these lessons include:

• Why air traffic control is important to the safe operation of the National 

Airspace System and how controllers use problem-solving skills to keep 

aircraft safe on the ground and in the air.

• How aviation maintenance technicians use STEM skills, tools, and technologies in their jobs.

• How drones are used in the community, how they can be operated safely, 

and how various professions use drones to help with their work.

These lessons show that STEM skills can translate directly to careers in the 

FAA. Through these kinds of workforce development programs, the FAA will 

ensure the pipeline for aviation professionals remains healthy, diverse, and inclusive for decades to come.

Sustainability in Aviation

The FAA is committed to making aviation cleaner, quieter, and more sustainable. At the United Nations Climate Change Conference in November 2021, U.S. 

Secretary of Transportation Pete Buttigieg released the U.S. Aviation Climate 

Action Plan. This plan aims to achieve net-zero greenhouse gas emissions from 

U.S. aviation by 2050.
145 Federal Aviation Administration

The FAA has several programs committed to realizing net-zero greenhouse emissions by 2050. The first is the creation of sustainable aviation fuel (SAF), which 

can be used today without modifying existing aircraft. SAF can be made from a 

range of raw materials, including crops, agricultural residue, and waste products. 

SAF produced from renewable and waste materials will have a significant effect 

on our effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Such fuels will be crucial to the 

aviation industry’s ability to meet the net-zero emissions goal, and they have the 

potential to completely eliminate emissions. 

Related, the FAA also supports research for piston aircraft to operate safely 

without leaded gasoline and encourages actions that minimize exposure to aircraft lead emissions. In 2022, the FAA approved supplemental type certificates 

that allow General Aviation Modifications Inc.’s 100-octane unleaded fuel to be 

used in every general aviation spark-ignition engine and every airframe powered by 

those engines. It marked an important step toward eliminating the use of leaded 

fuel in aviation.

In September 2021, the departments of Transportation, Energy, and Agriculture 

signed a memorandum of understanding to co-lead a government-wide SAF grand 

challenge to dramatically expand SAF production to three billion gallons per year 

by 2030 and meet 100 percent of aviation fuel needs by 2050. The FAA is a proud 

participant in the SAF grand challenge, which promises to reduce cost, enhance 

sustainability, and expand production and use of SAF that achieve a minimum 

of 50 percent reduction in lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions compared to conventional fuel. The SAF grand challenge and the increased production of SAF 

will play a critical role in a broader set of actions by the U.S. government and the 

private sector to push U.S. aviation toward net-zero emissions and full decarbonization by 2050. SAF provisions in the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022, including tax 

incentives and grant programs, will help scale up the production and use of SAF 

and support the goals of the SAF grand challenge.

The Continuous Lower Energy, Emissions, and Noise (CLEEN) Program is the 

FAA’s principal effort to accelerate the development of new aircraft and engine 

technologies that reduce noise, emissions, and fuel burn. Through the first two 

phases of this cost-share partnership, industry contributed $388 million to the 

CLEEN Program, far exceeding the FAA contribution of $225 million. The FAA 
146Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

initiated CLEEN Phase III in 2021, and will spend more than $125 million through 

2026, matched by industry, on the development of more aircraft technologies that 

reduce the effects of aviation on the environment. 

Internationally, the FAA provides leadership in developing and establishing the 

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) technology-based standards to 

reduce aircraft greenhouse gas emissions. Domestically, the FAA collaborates with 

the Environmental Protection Agency to promulgate ICAO standards into U.S. 

regulations. On June 15, 2022, the FAA released for public comment a notice of 

proposed rulemaking to establish certification requirements for our nation’s first 

fuel efficiency standard for civil airplanes. This rulemaking activity is based on 

ICAO’s airplane carbon dioxide emissions standard from 2017 and will mandate 

U.S. airplane manufacturers to use fuel-efficient technologies in newly built airplanes. Concurrently, the FAA is leading the development of a more stringent 

regulatory level to ICAO’s standard, expected in 2025.

The FAA is reducing its own emissions by installing renewable energy at its 

facilities and purchasing carbon-free electricity. In 2022, work continued on solar 

farm installations at FAA facilities in Guam and Hawaii, which will increase the 

current 6,200 megawatt-hours of renewable electricity already produced. Other 

large-scale solar farms are being planned and designed at the FAA Mike Monroney 

Aeronautical Center and the Boston Consolidated Terminal Radar Approach 

Control Facility.
147 Department of Commerce

Department of Comm

DOC

The Department of Commerce’s (DOC) mission is to create the conditions for 

economic growth and opportunity for all communities. Through its 13 bureaus, the 

Department works to drive U.S. economic competitiveness, strengthen domestic 

industry, and spur the growth of quality jobs in all communities across the country. 

During FY 2021 and FY 2022, the DOC continued its efforts to promote responsible U.S. innovation, investment, and space operations, and engage commercial 

efforts in support of U.S. government missions and the U.S. economy in alignment 

with Secretary Gina Raimondo’s Strategic Goal 1, “Drive U.S. Innovation and 

Global Competitiveness” and Strategic Objective 1.7, “Advance U.S. leadership in 

the global commercial space industry.” 

The Department has employed its multifaceted tools to strengthen the competitiveness of U.S. businesses, communities, and workers, while also engaging allies 

and partners to promote innovation, sustainability, and global security for the U.S. 

space economy. 

The Department’s wide-ranging contributions include the development of 

products, services, technologies, and standards in coordination with the National 

Space Council, under the leadership of Vice President Harris, and in accordance 

with the U.S. Space Priorities Framework to bolster the health and vitality of the 

U.S. space sectors—civil, commercial, and national security—for the benefit of the 

American people.
148Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Twenty-four-hour global coverage from NOAA’s operational environmental satellites provides the public and partners with a continuous stream of information 

used to prepare for events impacting our weather, oceans, and climate. NOAA 

manages and operates geostationary environmental satellites, low Earth orbiting 

satellites, and a deep space satellite for space weather monitoring and forecasting. 

Below is a summary of major accomplishments regarding new NOAA and partner 

satellite assets in FY 2021 and FY 2022.

Office of Space Commerce

The Office of Space Commerce (OSC) is the principal unit for space commerce policy activities within the DOC. Its mission is to foster the conditions 

necessary for the economic growth and technological advancement of the U.S. 

commercial space industry. The Office is leading efforts for the U.S. government 

for developing commercial space situational awareness and space traffic management services, growing U.S. commercial space solutions, championing space safety 

and sustainability, and ensuring sound U.S. government space policy development 

and implementation.

Developing Space Situational Awareness and Space Traffic Management Services

Supporting basic Space Situational Awareness (SSA) data and basic Space 

Traffic Management (STM) services: In partnership with industry, government, 

and academia, the OSC is implementing an operational public SSA and STM 

services system through the development of an open architecture data repository 

(OADR). The OADR is a cloud-based architecture using government and commercial data, software, and services. This public-private collaboration continues to 

evolve through ongoing research, integration, and testing to advance capabilities 

for SSA and STM through the OADR. These combined efforts will improve SSA 

data interoperability and increase SSA data sharing. On September 9, 2022, the 

Department of Commerce signed a Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) with the 

Department of Defense formalizing the organizations’ relationship for basic SSA, 
149 Department of Commerce

STM, and coordination for civil and commercial entities. The agreement defines 

how the two departments will work cooperatively to implement the National Space 

Council’s Space Policy Directive 3 (SPD-3). SPD-3 seeks to advance SSA and STM 

science and technology; provide federally-supported basic SSA data and STM services to the public; and improve SSA data interoperability to enable greater SSA 

data sharing.

Supporting the operational use of commercial SSA data: The OSC issued 

a Request for Proposals (RFP) related to its effort to establish the OADR and 

conduct pilots, prototypes, and experiments to fulfill its obligations under SPD-3. 

Commercial data are being acquired, processed, evaluated, assessed for potential 

operational uses, and archived to assess the impact of data variations on SSA 

forecast models. Commercial data buys have included observation data from low 

Earth orbit on September 7, 2022, and an additional five contracts for data from 

geostationary Earth orbit on September 12, 2022. 

Developing STM standards and practices: The OSC and the National Institute 

of Standards and Technology (NIST) have coordinated input from the U.S. government for the development of internationally accepted common standards, best 

practices, and guidelines. Through engagement with standards-developing organizations such as the International Organization of Standardization (ISO) and 

ASTM International, DOC is helping to deliver the best globally accepted and 

internationally-agreed upon technical solutions to the space community through 

voluntary consensus-building processes. In addition, OSC and NIST have supported reviews of current capabilities and the development of new approaches for 

the integration of open-access data meshing practices for space data operations, 

interoperability, and communications. OSC also provided input to the planning for 

the National Geospatial Agency’s Space Standards Working Group on Geospatial 

Intelligence standards. 

Growing U.S. Commercial Space Solutions

Developing commercial space weather pilots: The OSC supported efforts for 

NOAA awards of three Commercial Weather Data Pilot (CWDP) space weather 

contracts to GeoOptics Inc. (Pasadena, CA), Space Sciences and Engineering LLC, 

PlanetiQ (Golden, CO), and Spire Global Subsidiary, Inc. (San Francisco, CA). 
150Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

NOAA’s Commercial Data Program (CDP) supports CWDP studies to demonstrate 

the quality and impact of commercial data on NOAA’s weather forecast models. 

Awardees will provide near real-time radio occultation (RO) measurements from 

Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) receivers that will enable NOAA to 

derive ionospheric products that meet the current and anticipated needs of operational space weather models and applications.

Using radio occultation data through data purchases: The OSC supported 

efforts for the RFPs for the second purchase of space-based commercial RO data 

for use in NOAA’s operational weather forecasts. NOAA will process commercial near-real-time satellite-based GNSS RO and ionospheric measurements into 

neutral atmosphere and space weather products. These derived products will be 

fed into NOAA’s operational data systems, including weather and space weather 

analysis and prediction systems, and used for weather, climate, and atmospheric 

research purposes.

Championing Space Safety and Sustainability 

Supporting in-space servicing, assembly, and manufacturing: The OSC supported the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy Interagency 

Working Group on the development of the In-space Servicing, Assembly, and 

Manufacturing (ISAM) National Strategy issued in April 2022. The document lays 

out a national strategy to ensure U.S. leadership in ISAM and ensures applications 

are maintained and expanded for future use. The Office also contributed to the 

working group’s implementation plan development. 

Mitigating the impact of orbital debris: The OSC participated regularly in the 

Orbital Debris R&D Interagency Working Group led by the White House Office of 

Science and Technology Policy. The Office supported the development of the July 

2022 National Orbital Debris Mitigation Plan, a national effort to meet the United 

States’ space sustainability priorities to mitigate, track, and remediate debris. In 

addition, the OSC partnered with NASA’s Heliophysics Division to initiate a crosscutting strategic activity for basic R&D to address scientific questions on how the 

space environment impacts SSA and orbital debris.
151 Department of Commerce

Ensuring Sound U.S. Government Space Policy Development and Implementation

Supporting space companies through advocacy: The OSC engaged in dialogue 

with U.S. space companies and organized several government-industry events. 

The first symposium (May 5, 2021) focused on the latest cyber threats to space 

infrastructure, existing space cybersecurity policies, and industry cybersecurity 

experience and mitigation strategies tailored to emerging and start-up companies. 

The second symposium (October 13, 2021) expanded upon the first symposium by 

focusing on applied cyber best practices, including a specific focus on cyber standards, the standards process, standards bodies, regulations, and federal acquisition 

requirements as they apply to commercial space. The third symposium (June 16, 

2022) broadened into a global view of cybersecurity threats, geopolitical awareness, 

actionable ideas for securing space businesses and open data systems, and discussions of recent cyber legislation and executive orders. This symposium included a 

panel of international cybersecurity experts from several allied nations. Each event 

had more than 1,000 registered attendees from around the world. 

In addition, the OSC Director signed a joint project agreement to collaborate 

with the Satellite Industry Association, the American Astronomical Society, the 

International Astronomy Union Center for the Protection of Dark and Quiet Skies, 

NIST, and the National Science Foundation to kick off the “Effects of Satellites on 

Astronomy Symposia” series. The OSC and NIST hosted a workshop on June 28, 

2022, to engage with the satellite industry and astronomy community to examine 

how commercial space companies can participate in efforts to preserve astronomical observational data quality and analysis through technological innovations, 

measurements, best practices, and collaborative coordination among multiple 

stakeholders. OSC has taken a leadership role by expanding the dialogue between 

astronomers and the commercial space industry on how best to minimize impacts 

to optical and radio astronomy while enabling the satellite industry to successfully 

execute their business models.

Advancing export control for U.S. businesses: The OSC provided subject matter experts to assist the DOC Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS) in numerous 

export control reform working groups. OSC helped advocate for, with adequate 

technical justification, the transfer of certain U.S. space-related technology from 

the International Trafficking in Arms Regulations (ITAR) to the DOC Export 
152Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Administration Regulations (EAR) with the goal of maximizing U.S. industry 

competitiveness in overseas markets.

Engaging with the international space program community and leadership: 

The OSC collaborated with the European Space Surveillance and Tracking 

Consortium on assessing the risk of in-orbit collisions and uncontrolled reentry 

of space debris into the Earth’s atmosphere, and detecting and characterizing inorbit fragmentation with Consortium EU member states represented through their 

national designated entities: France (CNES), Germany (German Space Agency at 

DLR), Italy (ASI), Poland (POLSA), Portugal (PT MoD), Romania (ROSA) and 

Spain (CDTI).

The Director of the OSC participated in the World Satellite Business Week 

(WSBW) and International Astronautical Congress (IAC) in Paris, France, in 

September 2022. Throughout the duration of these conferences, the OSC Director 

and staff joined in meetings with leadership from the European Union Space 

Surveillance and Tracking program, international space agencies, and other businesses. At the WSBW, there were over 1,200 business leaders and more than 450 

public and private organizations attending the meeting, with 190 top-executive 

speakers from around 50 countries speaking throughout the four-day program. For 

the IAC, over 6,500 delegates were in attendance. The OSC also participated in 

a free, open to the public, “Space for All” day that included meetings with astronauts, virtual reality experiences, and many other opportunities for the public to 

learn about space. 

The OSC Director provided the keynote address on the current state-of-the-field 

for SSA and the DOC’s efforts in this area at the 2022 Advanced Maui Optical 

and Space Surveillance Technologies (AMOS) Conference, Maui, Hawaii, in 

September 2022. The Director and staff also participated in executive meetings 

with businesses, government agencies, and foreign governments to share information on the DOC’s role with industry, government, and academia on publicly available SSA and space traffic management services.

The OSC Director also provided a presentation for the George Washington 

University Elliot School of International Affairs symposium “After the KE-ASAT 

Moratorium: What Next?” Symposium on August 24, 2022. The Director discussed 

the role of the government in space standards and norms of behavior. The event 
153 Department of Commerce

was open to the public with over 250 people in attendance and broadcast as a 

webinar to engage the international community in the dialogue.

The OSC actively participated in multilateral organizations such as the U.S. 

Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS) and in bilateral 

working groups and ad hoc engagements to support expert exchanges in collaboration with interagency partners, led by the U.S. Department of State. In addition, 

the Office participated in the Space Five meetings with Canada, New Zealand, 

Australia, and the United Kingdom. Topics discussed included SSA, space cybersecurity, on-orbit authorization, space resource use and policies and regulations for 

future U.S. orbital operations in key orbits for maneuver-based missions such as 

orbital servicing, survey, and assembly.

Geostationary Satellites 

NOAA’s latest generation of Geostationary Operational Environmental 

Satellites, known as the GOES-R Series, are providing advanced imagery and 

atmospheric measurements of Earth’s Western Hemisphere, real-time mapping of 

lightning activity, and monitoring of solar activity and space weather. Together, 

the GOES-East and GOES-West satellites provide continuous, real-time observation of hurricanes, thunderstorms, snow, ice, fog, damaging winds, fire, and other 

severe weather conditions and environmental hazards from the west coast of Africa 

to New Zealand. 

On March 1, 2022, GOES-T, the third satellite in the GOES-R Series, launched 

from Cape Canaveral Space Force Station. It was renamed GOES-18 once it 

reached geostationary orbit and is currently undergoing post-launch checkout 

and testing of its instruments and systems. NOAA plans for GOES-18 to replace 

GOES-17 as the GOES-West operational satellite in January 2023. GOES-17 will 

then become the primary on-orbit standby satellite. 

GOES-U, the final satellite in the GOES-R Series, is in final development and is 

fully integrated and beginning environmental testing in preparation for a planned 

April 2024 launch. 

The GOES satellites provided imagery and critical information during the busy 

2021 Atlantic hurricane season that produced 21 named storms, including seven 
154Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

hurricanes. They also supported emergency responders controlling extreme wildfires in the western states and provided early warning of severe weather outbreaks 

across the nation. The GOES space weather instruments monitored intensifying 

solar activity and supported geomagnetic storm warnings as Solar Cycle 25 was 

reaching solar maximum. 

NOAA’s Geostationary Extended Observations (GeoXO) mission, the next generation program to follow the GOES-R Series, was formally initiated in November 

2021. During the formulation phase, the program is refining mission requirements, 

detailing acquisition strategies, schedules, and cost estimates, completing resource 

planning and risk management, and confirming technology readiness. The GeoXO 

team is collaborating with industry partners on definition-phase studies for the 

spacecraft and each of the five planned instruments. The program was formally 

approved in December 2022 through its Milestone 2 review with Deputy Secretary 

Graves, and is now moving into the implementation phase of the mission. The 

first GeoXO launch is planned for 2032 to maintain continuity of geostationary 

observations. 

Following is a list of NOAA geostationary satellites on orbit with date launched:

• GOES-18 (GOES-T) March 1, 2022

• GOES West (GOES-S/GOES-17) March 1, 2018

• GOES East (GOES-R/GOES-16) November 19, 2016

Low Earth Orbiting Satellites

NOAA’s latest generation of low Earth orbiting operational environmental satellites, the Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS), represents significant technological 

and scientific advancements in observations used for severe weather prediction 

and environmental monitoring. JPSS satellites circle the Earth from pole-to-pole 

and cross the equator 14 times daily in the afternoon orbit—providing full global 

coverage twice a day with advanced sensors for weather and climate data, collecting information on temperature, atmospheric conditions, wind speed, cloud formation, and drought conditions over the entire Earth. All major numerical weather 

prediction centers around the world use this information as the basis of nearly 

every medium-term (three to seven days in advance) weather forecast. NOAA-20 
155 Department of Commerce

and Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership (Suomi NPP) are the primary low 

Earth orbiting operational environmental satellites and NOAA’s National Weather 

Service (NWS) uses this data as critical input for numerical forecast models. These 

forecasts enable emergency managers to make timely decisions to protect American 

lives and property, including early warnings and evacuations. Polar satellites are 

considered the backbone of the global observing system. 

The JPSS-2 satellite, which is the third in the JPSS series, was launched in 

November 2022 from Vandenberg Space Force Base in California and will ensure 

continuity of the JPSS measurements into the future. Once the JPSS-2 satellite 

reaches polar orbit, it will be renamed NOAA-21. NOAA-21 will provide continuity of observations from NOAA-20 and Suomi-NPP. NOAA plans to place 

NOAA-21 in a quarter orbit ahead of Suomi-NPP, and NOAA 20 will be a quarter orbit behind Suomi-NPP. Upon successful launch and on-orbit checkout of its 

instruments and systems, NOAA-21 will become the primary operational satellite, 

NOAA-20 will become the primary on-orbit standby satellite, and Suomi-NPP will 

become the secondary on-orbit standby satellite in low Earth orbit.

The Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere, and Climate 

(COSMIC) follow-on COSMIC-2/ FORMOSAT-7 constellation provides precision 

radio occultation soundings from equatorial orbit to support improved numerical weather prediction model forecasts. The program is being conducted under 

an agreement between the American Institute in Taiwan (AIT) and the Taipei 

Economic and Cultural Representative Office (TECRO) in the United States, for 

which NOAA is AIT’s designated representative, and the Taiwan Space Agency 

(TASA) is TECRO’s designated representative. The mission consists of six satellites designed to improve weather forecasts and space weather monitoring via stateof-the-art instruments that measure Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) 

signal refraction in the atmosphere. By having five times the number of measurement capabilities, the instruments provide improved precision and performance as 

well as near real time information about the Earth’s atmosphere to support numerical weather prediction. By measuring the bending due to refraction of GNSS signals through Earth’s atmosphere, the COSMIC-2 satellites provide meteorologists 

with information such as temperature, pressure, density, and water vapor that help 

them better observe, study, and forecast severe storms. Temperature measurements 
156Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

derived from radio occultation are very accurate and are well-suited to help scientists understand long-term climate changes. Additionally, the COSMIC-2 GNSS 

receivers are sensitive to space weather effects on the ionosphere that can cause 

regional and local disruption of radio communications and affect accuracy of 

GNSS readings.

Since the launch of the six COSMIC-2/ FORMOSAT-7 satellites on June 25, 

2019, the joint program has commissioned the satellites and transitioned them 

incrementally to their operational orbital positions over the course of 19 months. 

During this time, the program has been calibrating and validating the data and 

has also been incrementally releasing space weather data products. The neutral 

atmosphere data has been used operationally by the NWS, the U.S. Air Force, 

the Taiwan Central Weather Bureau, and global weather forecast centers since 

the spring of 2020. The Joint Program declared Full Operational Capability in 

September 2021. COSMIC-2/FORMOSAT-7 data proved to be a valuable new data 

resource during the active Atlantic hurricane season. 

The Argos Data Collection and location System (DCS) is a satellite- and terrestrial-based system that collects, processes, and disseminates environmental data 

from fixed and mobile platforms located around the world. Terrestrial platforms 

make various environmentally based measurements and then upload short duration messages to Argos instruments on satellites in low-Earth orbit. The Argos 

system supports a wide variety of applications including environmental monitoring, marine fisheries applications, and maritime security applications. The Argos 

system consists of DCS instruments that are hosted on polar-orbiting satellites 

operated by EUMETSAT, the Indian Space Research Organisation, and NOAA 

in three sun-synchronous orbits that ensure timely reporting at all latitudes. The 

current DCS instruments on the NOAA polar-orbiting satellites (NOAA-15, -18, 

-19) are operating well beyond their design life. To provide continuity of service, 

NOAA, under an international agreement with the French space agency CNES, 

is providing accommodation for the next Argos DCS payload (Argos-4) on a commercial spacecraft using a U.S. Space Force Hosted Payload Solutions contract. In 

2018, a delivery order was awarded to General Atomics to integrate and launch the 

Argos-4 payload on the Orbital Test Bed-3 spacecraft by October 10, 2022. The 

launch took place on October 7, 2022 from Mahia Peninsula, New Zealand.
157 Department of Commerce

Metop is a series of three polar-orbiting meteorological satellites that form 

the space segment component of the overall European Organisation for the 

Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT) Polar System. The Metop 

series satellites are part of a joint commitment between NOAA and EUMETSAT 

to fly complementary polar-orbiting satellites. EUMETSAT covers the morning orbit and NOAA covers the afternoon orbit. The third in the Metop series, 

Metop-C, which launched on November 7, 2018, is a new state-of-the-art polarorbiting satellite that helps improve complex weather forecasts and models as well 

as long-term climate assessments. This satellite works together with its predecessor (Metop-B), as well as Suomi-NPP, NOAA-20, and NOAA legacy satellites, to 

collect more precise weather data as we continue to improve forecast errors from 

combined satellite observations incorporated into models. NOAA supplied four 

of the 13 instruments onboard the satellite, including two microwave sensors that 

measure global atmospheric temperature, humidity, and sea ice, as well as a visible/

infrared radiometer that delivers imagery of clouds, oceans, ice, and land surfaces. 

The last instrument is the Space Environment Monitor (SEM), which monitors 

space plasma and radiation around the spacecraft. Additionally, the satellite’s 

instruments provide new and improved observations to the National Weather 

Service on atmospheric aerosols, soil moisture, greenhouse gases such as carbon 

dioxide and methane, and radio occultation soundings that deliver enhanced vertical temperature and humidity profiles of the atmosphere. The launch was a collaborative effort between NOAA, NASA, and international partners at EUMETSAT 

and the European Space Agency. 

This next generation, following on from the EUMETSAT Polar System program, 

will secure the continuation of meteorological observations from the polar orbit in 

the 2024–2043 timeframe.1 It will bring observations to a new standard, through 

the suite of innovative European instruments flown on the Metop-SG spacecraft. 

The mission (known as the EUMETSAT Polar System-Second Generation or 

EPS-SG) is composed of two series of spacecraft, Metop-SG A and B, flying on the 

same mid-morning orbit, like the current Metop satellites. The orbit height is in the 

range 823–848 km (dependent on latitudes). There will be three satellites each of 

1 https://www.eumetsat.int/metop
158Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Metop-SG A and Metop-SG B. Under the Joint Polar Satellite agreement between 

NOAA and EUMETSAT, both organizations will establish and operate a Joint 

Polar System composed of EUMETSAT’s Metop-Second Generation (Metop-SG) 

satellites, NOAA’s JPSS satellites, and shared ground systems and services. Joint 

operations will include cross support for data acquisition and spacecraft monitoring 

through European and U.S. ground stations located in Svalbard, Spitzbergen, and 

McMurdo, Antarctica. 

The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) Global Change Observation 

Mission–Water Satellite 1 (GCOM-W) project is a 13-year mission with a series 

of three satellites that aims to measure global-scale water-cycle changes over a 

long period of time. The GCOM-W1 is the first satellite in the GCOM-W series 

and was launched in May 2012 by JAXA. The Advanced Microwave Scanning 

Radiometer 2 (AMSR2) onboard the GCOM-W1 satellite provides observations of 

water vapor, cloud liquid water, precipitation, sea surface temperature, sea surface 

wind speed, sea ice concentration, snow depth, and soil moisture. The current 

cooperative activity will be extended into the future with the new generation 

Global Observing SATellite for Greenhouse gases and Water cycle (GOSAT-GW) 

(scheduled to be launched in Japanese Fiscal Year 2023- April 1, 2024–March 

31, 2025). JAXA will continue to transmit the Advanced Microwave Scanning 

Radiometer 3 (AMSR3) data from the GOSAT-GW satellite to NOAA’s ground 

receiving sites in the Arctic Circle and the United States. 

The following is a list of NOAA low-Earth orbiting satellites in use with date 

launched:

• NOAA-20 (Joint Polar Satellite System [JPSS]-1) November 18, 2017

• Suomi-NPP October 28, 2011

• NOAA-19 February 6, 2009

Following are the satellites with which NOAA partnered for launch and/or 

operations, with launch date:

Currently in use

• Jason-CS/Sentinel 6 November 21, 2020

• COSMIC-2, June 25, 2019

• Metop-C November 6, 2018
159 Department of Commerce

• GCOM-C December 23, 2017

• Jason-3 January 17, 2016

• Metop-B September 19, 2012

• GCOM-W May 18, 2012

Planned

• GOSAT-GW 2024

• Metop-SG A1 December 2024

• Metop-SG B1 2025

• Metop-SG A2 2031

• Metop-SG B2 2032

• Metop-SG A3 2038

• Metop-SG B3 2039

In 2021, a Low Earth Observing (LEO) satellite portfolio was proposed to 

complement the current, ongoing program of record (i.e., Polar Weather Satellites) 

and to fund gap mitigation and risk reduction activities along with supporting 

continuity of observations from LEO. Nearly every product category and subcategory across the thematic areas described in the NESDIS Level Requirements 

relies on observational measurements from LEO. These measurements help fulfill 

NESDIS’ commitment to United States statutes, Executive Branch policies and 

plans, Department of Commerce (DOC) primary mission essential functions and 

strategic plans, and NOAA Mission Service Areas. The LEO Program was charged 

to develop fast, responsive missions that can take advantage of the emerging commercial small spacecraft capabilities and commercial satellite operations marketplace and evaluate whether these type of lower-oversight, higher-risk acquisition 

approaches can be effectively integrated into the Program of Record data product 

generation and distribution capabilities. With a primary objective of testing new 

ways of doing business and new technologies, a secondary benefit, if successful, 

would be to address the potential disruption of sounding data in the late afternoon/early-morning caused by the retirement of the existing Polar Operational 

Environmental Satellites (POES) assets expected in late calendar year 2024. To 

serve as a pathfinder for LEO program acquisitions and to address the coverage 

gap, NESDIS authorized the QuickSounder mission to fly an existing Advanced 
160Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Technology Microwave Sounder (ATMS) engineering development unit on a 

NASA Rapid Spacecraft Development Office procured spacecraft operating in the 

late afternoon/early morning polar sun-synchronous orbit. Additionally, the LEO 

program started holding several user engagement workshops to solicit feedback 

from users and practitioners of LEO data, to better understand how the current 

data are used and the needs for future enhanced observations of oceans, land, and 

the atmosphere to improve NOAA’s products and services. 

Space Weather Observations 

Geomagnetic storms are major disturbances of Earth’s magnetosphere caused by 

shock waves in the solar wind. Geomagnetic storms are the costliest type of space 

weather events as they can cause widespread damage to power grids, satellites, and 

communication and navigation systems. The Deep Space Climate Observatory 

mission is NOAA’s first operational deep space mission. The satellite has become 

America’s primary warning system for solar magnetic storms and solar wind data 

while giving Earth scientists a unique vantage point for studies of the planet’s 

atmosphere and climate.

As part of NOAA’s Space Weather Follow On (SWFO) Program, NOAA is 

partnering with the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) to build three Compact 

Coronagraph (CCOR) instruments for future space weather observations. In 

FY 2020, NOAA continued assembly of the first CCOR (CCOR-1) and initiated 

work on a second (CCOR-2). In FY 2022, the first CCOR was integrated onto the 

GOES-U spacecraft which is planned for launch in 2024. NOAA is developing the 

SWFO-L1 mission which will include CCOR-2 and a suite of in situ instrumentation to monitor the solar wind. SWFO-L1 is planned for launch in 2025 as a rideshare with NASA’s Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe for positioning at 

the Lagrange-1 point. In FY 2020, NOAA, using NASA as its acquisition agent, 

awarded contracts for all the SWFO-L1 instruments and spacecraft. In FY 2021, 

NOAA awarded contracts for the Command and Control element of the ground 

segment and the SWFO Antenna Network. 

The Space Weather Next (SW Next) Program is a loosely-coupled program 

implemented under the joint NOAA-NASA Space Weather Observations (SWO) 
161 Department of Commerce

Programs Division. SW Next will provide NOAA space weather observations 

through a comprehensive architecture and coordinated multi-mission program to 

ensure space weather products are available to meet user requirements. The program is in the formulation stage and is refining mission requirements, schedules, 

cost estimates, resource planning, among other activities in this stage. The program formulation was responsive to the Promoting Research and Observations of 

Space Weather to Improve the Forecasting of Tomorrow (PROSWIFT) Act (2020), 

which specified NOAA as providing space weather observational data continuity 

and enhanced space weather capability. In FY 2022, the SW Next program successfully completed its Mission Concept Review on August 16, 2022, and Key Decision 

Point 0 on September 21, 2022.

To maintain data continuity and provide enhancements for high-priority space 

weather observations, SW Next could potentially include observations in low 

Earth orbit (LEO), geosynchronous orbit (GEO), L1 orbit, as well as observations 

collected off the Sun-Earth Line (off-SEL) such as Lagrange point 5 (L5).

L1 Series: The L1 Series Project will develop, build, and deploy a series of 

dedicated space weather observatories to meet user requirements for continuity of 

observations at L1 beyond the SWFO-L1 mission. Each observatory will include 

capabilities similar to SWFO-L1 plus the priority enhancement of an instrument 

for x-ray irradiance measurements, as well as accommodations for an instrument 

of opportunity. Under the signed NOAA–ESA Agreement on Cooperation on 

Space-based Space Weather Observations, ESA will provide an X-ray Flux Monitor 

instrument that will fly on the first L1 Series observatory. 

L5 Compact Coronagraph: SW Next, in partnership with NRL, will build 

and deliver the third Compact Coronagraph to ESA as part of the February 2022 

NOAA–ESA Agreement, to be flown on ESA’s Vigil mission to L5. The ESA 

agreement includes the provision for exchange of data from the Vigil and future 

missions, which will fulfill NOAA requirements for off-SEL observations. 

National Institute of Standards and Technology

In FY 2021 and FY 2022, the National Institute of Standards and Technology 

(NIST) continued to provide wide-ranging contributions to the aerospace industry, 
162Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

academia, and Federal agencies with the research, standards, products, services, 

and guidance needed to advance the President’s aeronautics and space agenda.

As detailed in the following sections, NIST’s primary contributions are in the 

areas of advanced manufacturing, systems and supplies, communications, and 

extraterrestrial research. In these areas, NIST provides much-needed calibrations, 

technology development, and technical guidance, and standards. 

Advanced Manufacturing for Aerospace Applications

In FY 2020, NIST used measurement expertise in mass, force, networking, and 

other areas to partner with multiple industrial aerospace corporations. In addition 

to providing calibration support, NIST’s broad portfolio in advanced manufacturing helped aerospace manufacturing companies address needs in many sectors, 

including additive manufacturing, collaborative robotics, smart manufacturing, 

cybersecurity in manufacturing environments, supply-chain logistics, and largescale manufacturing.

NIST is currently working to deliver measurement science that will establish 

the foundation for qualification and certification of machines, processes, and parts 

used in additive manufacturing (AM) at reduced cost. Machines and processes 

used to produce critical components for defense, aerospace, and medical applications must first be formally qualified and certified to demonstrate that a machine 

or process will function as expected. Currently, qualification and certification 

of AM machines and processes for critical defense or aerospace applications are 

very expensive and time-consuming, and the ever-increasing pace of technological change compounds the difficulty. NIST’s excellence in measurement science 

and its standing as a neutral third party with a broad public forum make it the 

ideal place to develop test methods and protocols, provide reference data, and 

establish minimum requirements needed to achieve lower costs and more rapid 

qualification. 

In FY 2021 and FY 2022, the NIST Metals-based Additive Manufacturing Grant 

Program awarded nearly $8,000,000 in funds to academia. These grants, in combination with NIST’s robust AM research program, enable NIST to address barriers 

to the adoption of AM, including surface finish and quality issues, dimensional 
163 Department of Commerce

accuracy, fabrication speed, and material properties of manufactured parts, all of 

which have extensive applications in the aerospace sector.

NIST contributed to workshops with the FAA, DOD, NASA, and aerospace 

industry representatives to identify approaches for qualification and certification 

of additive manufacturing materials, processes, and parts for use in load-bearing 

and mission-critical applications. As a result of these activities, NIST is actively 

engaged with U.S. regulatory agencies, government laboratories, academia, and 

industry to develop a qualification and certification roadmap for AM aeronautics 

applications. In FY 2022, NIST awarded nearly $300,000 to the University of New 

Hampshire to explore new paradigms in manufacturing for the equitable commercialization, industrialization, and democratization of in-space manufacturing.

NIST founded and leads the Additive Manufacturing Benchmark Series (AM 

Bench) that partners with DOD, DOE, NASA, academia, and industry to produce 

rigorous measurement data that industry uses to validate AM simulation codes. In 

FY 2022, eight sets of measurement data were released along with simulation challenge problems that garnered 138 submissions from the international AM modeling 

community. At the 2022 AM Bench conference, NASA and the Federal Aviation 

Administration (FAA) partnered with NIST to hold an embedded workshop on 

qualification and certification for aeronautics applications.

NIST research addressed safety standards for robotic manipulators and automated guided vehicles (i.e., mobile platforms) and measurement science to enable 

new capabilities for collaborative robotics of interest to aerospace manufacturers.

NIST has robust, ongoing engagement with aerospace companies to identify 

technical issues and to define requirements for industrial wireless networking, 

cybersecurity in manufacturing environments, and prognostics and health management for manufacturing systems. For example, NIST and The Boeing Company 

collaborate on standards development for prognostics and health management 

(PHM) through the ASME PHM Subcommittee. In addition, NIST and the 

Aerospace Corporation collaborated with the OSC, NOAA, to build a satellite 

navigation reference database. NIST also provided technical guidance on appropriate architecture for building a distributed-but-federated data system. 

Much of NIST’s support for the aerospace supply chain came from direct interactions with the suppliers. In FY 2021 and FY 2022, the Hollings Manufacturing 
164Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Extension Partnership (MEP) National Network engaged in 622 projects with 424 

individual manufacturing clients designated with an aerospace North American 

Industry Classification System (NAICS) number 3364. Seventy-five percent of 

these clients were small manufacturers (those with fewer than 100 employees). In 

FY 2021 and FY 2022, MEP services resulted in the creation or retention of 3,268 

aerospace jobs over $1.5 billion in new and retained sales, over $109 million in new 

investment, and over $46 million in cost savings.

Aerospace Systems and Supplies

NIST’s contributions to the manufacturing sector were complemented with support for the design, development, and calibration of aerospace systems and supplies. 

Contributions included collaborative robotics, material development for advanced 

applications, fuel development, weapons calibrations, and thrust calibrations. NIST 

provides 30–70 laser power and energy meter calibrations to aerospace industry and 

Department of Defense customers each year supporting both laser weapons systems 

and target designation systems.

Newly developed NIST Standard Reference Materials (SRMs) include several 

metal SRMs supporting the manufacturing of aerospace alloys, especially the nonferrous ones in SRM categories 102.1, Aluminum Base Alloys, and 102.16 Titanium 

Base Alloys. In addition, NIST SRM 1617b, Sulfur in Kerosine (High Level) is used 

by the aviation industry in the U.S. because it is classified as “Jet A” aviation fuel 

by ASTM D1655 (and other standards). Sulfur is the only certified value in this 

material related to regulatory compliance, but there has been much interest in the 

industry, both in the civil and military aviation sectors, to blend traditional and 

renewable feedstock blends. Also, the NIST Glass SRM 610 is aboard the Mars 

Perseverance Rover and is being used to calibrate measurements of the elemental 

chemistry in Martian rock samples.

Calibrations and Sensor Development for Satellites

NIST contributed to satellite and other space hardware in both technology 

development and measurement calibration.
165 Department of Commerce

A NIST team pioneered a revolutionary optomechanical accelerometer to detect 

the extremely small accelerations that are intrinsically self-calibrating, thereby 

avoiding the need for periodic calibrations and expensive calibration equipment. 

The team also developed a new photonic readout system to measure large accelerations with extreme precision as required for aerospace applications. Accurate 

accelerometers are critically important for navigational guidance in satellites and 

spacecraft, particularly when GPS service fails or is unavailable.

NASA-built CubeSats—small boxy satellites with dimensions as small as 10 centimeters on a side—are already using NIST on a Chip instruments: bolometers that 

measure the power of electromagnetic radiation, specifically the irradiance of the 

sun. In FY 2022, the Compact Total Irradiance Monitor (CTIM) CubeSat instrument was launched demonstrating next-generation technology for monitoring total 

solar irradiance.

In FY 2022, NIST began offering a Calibration Service that can be used by 

developers of photovoltaics in space applications to assess the efficiency of their 

devices. This work was motivated by work between NIST and the Naval Research 

Lab. The current accepted approach involves aircraft flying high in the atmosphere; the laboratory-based method developed by NIST matched data from an 

aircraft-based calibration and provides developers of photovoltaics for space applications a significantly more convenient method of assessing performance. 

NIST is collaborating with the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics 

(LASP), NASA’s Earth Science Technology Office, and NASA’s Langley Research 

Center to extend the Earth Radiation Budget data record. NIST is designing and 

fabricating detectors for the Libera mission, which will provide data continuity 

for this essential climate variable. NIST scientists are working to extend these 

detectors’ capabilities by developing arrays that will provide additional information 

about the impact of clouds on these measurements. 

NIST is collaborating with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) on the development of superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPDs). SNSPDs 

are a type of single-photon detector with extremely low noise and very-high-speed 

response. These devices are of interest to JPL for space communications and to 

NIST for various quantum information experiments. In FY 2021 and FY 2022, 

NIST and JPL also demonstrated SNSPDs with high performance to wavelengths 
166Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

as long as 10 μm. These detectors are of interest for space-based applications such 

as chemical sensing and exoplanet spectroscopy. In FY 2021 and FY 2022, NIST 

and JPL, with funding from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency 

(DARPA) Invisible Headlights program, explored techniques for reading out large 

arrays of SNSPDs and understanding the limitations on autonomous vehicle performance that can be achieved using arrays of SNSPDs.

In support of satellite and related missions, NIST provided calibration services and research to enable the aerospace industry and Government agencies to 

obtain optical properties of materials, temperature, pressure, vacuum, humidity, 

and thermodynamic measurements of leaks traceable to international standards. 

Calibrations provided traceability to maintain quality systems, to maintain process 

control, and to qualify instrumentation for flight and space travel. Industries that 

rely on this unique calibration capability include U.S. aerospace manufacturers, 

who need to know if their plane materials and designs will be able to withstand the 

massive forces that occur on takeoff and during flight.

In FY 2022, NIST contributed to several of NASA’s projects including helping to provide the cryogenic readout circuitry for the successful flight of NASA’s 

Micro-X sounding rocket and advancing the Athena X-ray satellite mission. NIST 

improved the maturity of two different types of far-infrared detectors that are compatible with space missions, including an upgrade to the High-resolution Airborne 

Wideband Camera Plus (HAWC+) far-infrared camera on NASA’s Stratospheric 

Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA) airborne observatory. NIST is 

developing a variety of future-looking technologies for NASA to study the cosmic 

microwave background, advancements in sensor cooling, and readout circuits that 

will enable larger arrays of faster-responding sensors.

NIST calibrates equipment related to space commerce. The NIST Synchrotron 

Ultraviolet Radiation Facility (SURF III) was used to perform vacuum ultraviolet 

calibrations of the LASP Extreme Ultraviolet and X-ray Irradiance Sensors (EXIS) 

instrument, which is critical for space weather predictions. The NIST Greenhouse 

Gas Measurements Program supported NASA’s Orbiting Carbon Observatory 

(OCO) Missions by enabling atmospheric scientists to track sources and sinks of 

greenhouse gases across the globe, observations that are crucial for precise and 

accurate calibration of satellite instruments and sensors.
167 Department of Commerce

To address the complexities of integrating greenhouse gas concentration data 

with that observed from low Earth orbiting and geosynchronous Earth orbiting 

satellites, NIST has been building its Urban Dome Testbeds to be used as a tool to 

link surface emissions measurements to satellite observations.

Standards and Guidance for Reliable and Secure Space Commerce

NIST contributes extensively to two important technical standards that are 

heavily used by the aerospace industry: Managed model-based 3D engineering

(ISO 10303-242) and the Object Management Group’s Systems Modeling Language. 

NIST also led the development of the IEEE P1451.5p Standard for Radio Frequency 

Channel Specifications for Performance Assessment of Industrial Wireless Systems so 

that wireless communications users will have greater assurance of reliability under 

the difficult wireless channel conditions found in operational technology environments typical in aerospace manufacturing.2

NIST published several reports that have applications in aerospace. NIST produced the Foundational PNT Profile: Applying the Cybersecurity Framework for the 

Responsible Use of Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT) Services in response 

to the Executive Order (EO) 13905, Strengthening National Resilience Through 

Responsible Use of Positioning, Navigation and Timing Services to reduce the disruption or manipulation of PNT services. Satellite Ground Segment: Applying the 

Cybersecurity Framework to Assure Satellite Command and Control applied the 

NIST Cybersecurity Framework (CSF) to the ground segment of space operations. 

Introduction to Cybersecurity for Commercial Satellite Operations presented a specific method for applying the NIST CSF to commercial space business. Finally, 

Cybersecurity Framework Profile for Hybrid Satellite Networks Annotated Outline

identified an approach to assess the cybersecurity posture of Hybrid Satellite 

Networks (HSN) systems.3

2 https://www.iso.org/standard/66654.html, https://www.omgsysml.org/, and https://standards.ieee.org/

ieee/1451.5p/10702/#:~:text=This%20standard%20includes%20a%20model,of%20the%20radio%20

channel%20environment.

3 https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/ir/2023/NIST.IR.8323r1.pdf, https://www.federalregister.gov/

documents/2020/02/18/2020-03337/strengthening-national-resilience-through-responsible-use-ofpositioning-navigation-and-timing, https://csrc.nist.gov/publications/detail/nistir/8401/draft, https://

csrc.nist.gov/publications/detail/nistir/8270/draft, and https://csrc.nist.gov/publications/detail/whitepaper/2022/07/12/cybersecurity-profile-for-hsn-draft-annotated-outline/draft
168Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Support for Extraterrestrial Research

NIST’s support for extraterrestrial research included providing data and 

measurements for extraterrestrial bodies and support for the equipment used to 

observe them.

NIST researchers made significant progress on two related projects to measure 

the spectral irradiance of the Moon, allowing the Moon to be used as an on-orbit 

absolute calibration source for Earth-viewing satellites. This will lead to more 

effective and accurate monitoring of Earth’s climate and weather changes and better data integration from different satellite sources. In one project, the Airborne 

LUnar Spectral Irradiance (air-LUSI) system flew a campaign in FY 2022 for four 

successful nights of data collection from the NASA ER-2 high-altitude aircraft. In 

the other project, NIST has set up a lunar spectral irradiance (LUSI) measurement 

system on a site managed by NOAA on Mauna Loa (MLO) in Hawaii. The system 

is remote controlled, allowing data collection on any good-weather nights. This 

new MLO-LUSI system will augment the Air-LUSI data set by providing much 

more frequent measurements.

In FY 2022, NIST provided calibration support to NASA Langley Research 

Center and their industry contractor, L3Harris Corporation, for the Cross-track 

Infrared Sounder (CrIS) that is part of the NASA/NOAA Joint Polar Satellite 

System (JPSS). NIST performed on-site operation of a NIST-developed cryogenic 

thermal-infrared transfer radiometer at L3Harris for calibration of the radiometric 

standard used by the CrIS instrument team.

NIST provided calibration support to NASA Goddard Space Flight Center for 

spectral/radiometric calibration of several Earth-observing instruments through a 

facility that provides a source of tunable, high-power, uniform radiance for calibrating satellite sensors.

NIST researchers, in collaboration with the Lunar Planetary Institute, the 

University of Chicago, and Oak Ridge National Laboratory, studied the presence 

and distribution of hydrogen-bearing materials in meteorites. NIST contributed to 

workshops with NASA, International Space Station National Laboratory (ISSNL), 

other agencies, and the broader industry to identify opportunities for increased 

collaboration and advanced biomanufacturing in space. NIST also participated 
169 Department of Commerce

in the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy organized workshop 

on Microgravity R&D to help inform a national strategy to ensure sustainable 

microgravity R&D platform access.

International Trade Administration

The Commerce Department’s International Trade Administration (ITA) Office 

of Transportation and Machinery (OTM) participates in multiple fora, providing 

industry’s perspective regarding the operations and industry development of UAS. 

OTM participates on the interagency UAS Executive Committee, which addresses 

UAS policy issues, and the UAS Security Senior Steering Group (SSG), which 

implements policy initiatives derived from the Executive Committee. OTM provides industry perspective through the SSG and participates in a working group 

to address testing and evaluation of counter-UAS systems to be operated by the 

U.S. Government. OTM supports the development of standards and conformity 

assessment programs through participation in the UAS Standards Collaborative 

(UASSC) hosted by the American National Standards Institute. OTM also 

supports rulemaking through participation in the Beyond Visual Line of Sight 

Aviation Rulemaking Committee.

OTM supported the August 2022 White House Summit on Advanced Air 

Mobility and participated in an ongoing National Security Council-led effort to 

create and implement the Domestic Counter-UAS National Action Plan. Finally, 

OTM continues to collaborate with the Defense Innovation Unit on facilitating 

exports of Blue sUAS and other proven commercial capabilities, as appropriate. 

Throughout FY 2022, OTM organized and led three meetings of the Industry 

Trade Advisory Committee on Aerospace Equipment (ITAC 1). ITAC 1 provides advice to the Secretary of Commerce and the U.S. Trade Representative 

on aerospace-related trade policy issues. In FY 2022, the charter for ITAC 1 was 

renewed and the members were vetted and reappointed. Due to the rechartering 

process, there were no meetings in FY 2021. The Committee provided advisory 

opinions to the Secretary of Commerce and the U.S. Trade Representative concerning the U.S.-United Kingdom free trade agreement negotiations, negotiations 

with the Government of China, the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement, 
170Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

the World Trade Organization (WTO) Aircraft Subsidies case, and European 

Union (EU) defense policies that impact U.S. aerospace trade with Europe, supply 

chain issues and the aerospace industry initiatives that have a positive impact on 

the environment.

ITA continues to support the Office of the U.S. Trade Representative (USTR)

on issues relating to the enforcement of U.S. rights under the World Trade 

Organization Agreement on Trade in Civil Aircraft. Following the resolution of 

the case between Boeing and Airbus, ITA has supported USTR in working group 

meetings with European Union and United Kingdom counterparts to ensure that 

the agreement is not newly violated. 

ITA’s Office of Finance and Insurance Industries continued to participate 

in the Group on the Sector Understanding on Export Credits for Civil Aircraft 

(the “Aircraft Sector Understanding” or ASU) at the Organization for Economic 

Cooperation and Development (OECD). The governments of almost all countries 

with major aircraft manufacturers are signatories to the ASU, an annex to the 

OECD Arrangement on Officially Supported Export Credits, which establishes rules 

for export credit agencies. The OECD rules aim to ensure that government-provided 

export financing is not a competitive factor in civil-aircraft sales competitions.

OECD discussions continued to focus on the negative impact of the COVID19 pandemic on demand for aircraft and the accompanying financial strains in 

the aircraft sector. Export credit financing levels—already at record lows due in 

part to unrelated interruptions in U.S. and European support for aircraft from 

2016 to 2019—remained low as airlines sought to delay deliveries and postpone 

purchases. ASU signatories discussed, but did not adopt, temporary ASU adjustments, favoring appropriate responses by national governments. For its part, EXIM 

Bank enacted COVID-19 emergency response facilities that supported the working 

capital, supply chain, and financing needs of several U.S. aircraft manufacturers 

and foreign airline buyers. Signatories will continue to monitor the role of export 

credit financing as demand for air travel and the availability of commercial aircraft 

financing evolve. 

ASU signatories also discussed necessary technical adjustments, most notably 

the need to replace references to the discontinued London Interbank Offered Rate 

(LIBOR) in the ASU text with appropriate replacement benchmark interest rates. 
171 Department of Commerce

This issue remained under discussion as countries continued to develop various 

LIBOR alternatives.  

As a member of the U.S. delegation, ITA helped ensure that industry interests 

were represented during the ASU discussions, continued to monitor implementation, and participated in negotiations of potential ASU adjustments. ITA also 

worked closely with interagency partners to monitor conditions in the aircraft 

finance market and supported EXIM Bank’s COVID-19 initiatives to provide 

enhanced financing support to the U.S. aerospace industry and its supply chain.

ITA and NOAA continued their active participation in the implementation 

of the National Space Council’s policies, which include industrial base and competitiveness issues. ITA and NOAA address commercial interests by continuing 

to ensure that all of the policies’ implementation actions are improving the U.S. 

industry’s competitiveness, stimulating the American economy, increasing exports, 

and creating U.S. jobs.

ITA continued to play an important role in promoting U.S. aerospace trade 

interests as the industry faced mounting competition from abroad. ITA participated 

in and organized trade events and provided advocacy to support U.S. companies 

in international aerospace competitions, including commercial sales for aircraft, 

helicopters, airport construction, communications, remote sensing satellites, commercial projects, and air traffic management projects. At the close of FY 2021, ITA’s 

Advocacy Center had 31 active space-related cases with a total project value of 

$5.8 billion and U.S. export content of $5.3 billion. At the same time, the Advocacy 

Center had 550 active cases in the aerospace and defense sectors. At the close of FY 

2022, the Advocacy Center had 28 active space-related cases with a total project 

value of $5.6 billion and U.S. export content of $5.1 billion. Also at the close of FY 

2022, the Advocacy Center had 493 active cases in the aerospace and defense sectors.

Industry and Trade Promotion

ITA’s Global Aerospace and Defense Team (Global Team) recorded approximately 

261 Written Impact Narratives (WIN) in FY 2021 and is on-track to submit more 

in FY 2022 with 211 WINs submitted by the third quarter of FY 2022. A WIN is 

an organizational metric that showcases ITA’s contribution to a company’s success. 
172Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

These include ITA, and particularly Commercial Service personnel-impacted deals, 

with small- and medium-sized companies, as well as with larger corporations.

The Global Team held approximately 2,487 counseling sessions with over 1,633 

U.S. aerospace, defense, and space companies in FY 2021 and held approximately 

3,003 counseling sessions with over 1,364 U.S. companies by the third quarter of 

FY 2022, helping them to resolve international trade issues, identify new export 

markets, and develop strategies for entering those markets.

Global Team members provided one-on-one counseling sessions, individualized 

business-to-business meetings with international business partners, and export 

counseling services to U.S. exhibitors at 54 shows worldwide in FY 2022. ITA trade 

show support generated trade leads for participating companies, allowing them to 

enter or expand their exports to international markets. Virtually, the Global Team 

conducted 14 webinars for U.S. businesses, covering topics such as export controls, 

advocacy, defense sales, and regional market entry strategies. Approximately 3,580 

companies registered for these virtual events.

Bureau of Industry and Security

During FY 2022, the Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS) continued to support 

the U.S. Munitions List/Commerce Control List efforts as they relate to spacecraft. 

Throughout the fiscal year, the Departments of State and Commerce, in coordination with other interagency partners, reviewed public comments on spacecraft 

and related items enumerated and described therein submitted in response to 

published notices of proposed rulemaking. The feedback received has informed 

ongoing interagency discussions on streamlining export control regulations for 

both the U.S. commercial space industry and those of international partners. 

Consistent with the objectives of Space Policy Directive-2, the Departments of 

State and Commerce seek to bolster the U.S. commercial space sector by lowering 

the administrative burden, decreasing regulatory compliance costs, and increasing U.S. exports. BIS also participated in the Transportation Technical Advisory 

Committee discussions, which included aerospace-related topics such as controls 

on emerging technology for national security reasons in coordination with international export control partners.
173 Department of the Interior

Department of the In

DOI

Remotely sensed data and derived information contribute substantially to 

mission-critical work across the Department of the Interior (DOI). This section 

highlights a sample of DOI remote sensing applications and illustrates a range of 

technology, platforms, and specialized sensors employed.1

U.S. Geological Survey

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) is both a user and a provider of remotely 

sensed data. The USGS manages the Landsat satellite series and a web-enabled 

archive of global Landsat imagery that dates back to 1972. Landsat represents the 

world’s longest continuously acquired collection of spaceborne moderate-resolution 

land remote sensing data, and the entire archive became available for download 

at no charge in December 2008. The USGS also distributes aerial photography 

through the National Map. It archives and distributes historical aerial photography; 

lidar data; declassified imagery; hyperspectral imagery; data collected by UAS; and 

imagery from a variety of Government, foreign, and commercial satellites. These 

data are used for a wide range of applications, such as mineral resource development; monitoring the health of U.S. and global ecosystems; land-use change; 

emergency response; and assessments of natural hazards such as fires, hurricanes, 

earthquakes, droughts, and floods.

1 Any use of trade, firm, or product names in this narrative is for descriptive purposes only and does 

not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.
174Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

2021: Alaska Statewide Satellite Imagery Mosaic Acquired

The USGS has acquired an updated statewide satellite imagery mosaic for 

Alaska. The 4-band (red, green, blue, and near-infrared) 0.5-meter ground resolution mosaic was orthorectified using recently acquired statewide InSAR data to 

meet desired accuracy requirements. Source imagery for the mosaic comes from 

archived satellite scenes acquired predominantly from 2017 to the present during 

summer months. Older scenes were used to fill gaps in more recent scenes present 

due to persistent cloud cover over some locations in Alaska. The mosaic is licensed 

for public viewing and is available through the USGS National Map Viewer and 

the State of Alaska’s Geoportal. 

Additional imagery services provided by the State of Alaska allow noncommercial users with Geospatial Information Systems (GIS) to link to and use the 

imagery as a backdrop within their GIS applications. Also, agencies participating in 

the Alaska Mapping Executive Committee (AMEC), an executive body co-chaired 

by the Department of the Interior and the Department of Commerce, are licensed 

to receive a copy for internal use. The powerful combination of an updated statewide imagery mosaic and the recently completed statewide InSAR dataset that was 

acquired under direction of the USGS 3D Elevation Program supports a wide variety of mapping, resource management, and public safety applications.2

 These two 

substantial Alaska mapping efforts have been coordinated through the AMEC, 

whose members represent multiple Federal agencies and the State of Alaska.

2022: Consumptive Use of Water by Riparian Vegetation on the Navajo Nation

Water use estimates are valuable to the Navajo Nation in adjudicating water 

rights and other environmental policy decisions. Estimates of actual evapotranspiration (ETa), precipitation, and consumptive use of riparian vegetation are used 

to assist the decision-making process by natural resource managers and water 

resources planners tasked with managing habitat and water resources. Vegetation 

2 https://www.usgs.gov/core-science-systems/ngp/user-engagement-office/alaska-mapping-initiative and 

https://www.usgs.gov/3d-elevation-program
175 Department of the Interior

on select riparian reaches of Little Colorado River tributaries, streams, and springs 

was delineated into two classes, trees and shrubs, using a 2019 summer scene from 

National Agricultural Imagery Program (NAIP) data (1 meter resolution) and then 

rasterized using Landsat-8 OLI (30 meter) to estimate ETa for 2014–2020.3 The 

objectives were to estimate the riparian land cover area for trees and shrubs, calculate their corresponding daily and annual water use, and derive riparian consumptive use in acre-feet (AF).

This project used indirect remote sensing methods based on two sources of gridded weather data, Daymet (1 kilometer) and PRISM (4 kilometer), to determine 

potential evapotranspiration and precipitation, as well as Landsat measurements of 

vegetation greenness using the two-band Enhanced Vegetation Index. Estimates of 

water use for the riparian vegetation range from 31,648 AF (“conservative”; using 

Daymet) to 36,983 AF (“best-approximation”; using Daymet) to 41,585 AF (“bestapproximation”; using PRISM).4

2022: Detecting Early Season Invasive Plants Using Remote Sensing to Inform 

Monitoring, Control, and Restoration

Detecting invasive annual grasses on public lands in the western United States 

is a problem for land managers. Early season invasives (ESI) can out-compete 

native species for resources including water, and in many climates these nonnative 

species are expanding at a rapid rate. To address these challenges, managers may 

use high-resolution data on ESI cover to quantify change as well as develop and 

prioritize management strategies. USGS scientists are developing a pilot project 

to test and fine-tune methods, using spatially and temporally appropriate remote 

sensing platforms, to map early season/winter annual invasive vegetation (including cheatgrass, desert alyssum, and annual wheatgrass) in the Greater Yellowstone 

Ecosystem with managers at Yellowstone National Park.

The workflow for ESI mapping uses the new Harmonized Landsat Sentinel-2 

(HLS) provisional products available through NASA and higher-resolution 

3 https://www.usgs.gov/centers/eros/science/usgs-eros-archive-aerial-photography-national-agricultureimagery-program-naip

4 https://prism.oregonstate.edu/
176Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

multispectral images from Planet. The HLS project provides consistent surface 

reflectance (SR) data from the Operational Land Imager (OLI) aboard the joint 

NASA/USGS Landsat 8 satellite and the Multi-Spectral Instrument aboard the 

European Space Agency’s Copernicus Sentinel-2A and Sentinel-2B satellites. 

Harmonization of these two datasets shows great potential for mapping ESI due to 

its enhanced temporal frequency, which allows more cloud-free imagery dates and 

a greater chance of detecting early season peak greenness without obstruction from 

clouds. Similarly, the higher-resolution imagery from Planet allows the identification and detection of smaller cheatgrass patches in specific areas of interest. The 

co-production of actionable science to generate methods to identify early season 

invasives may inform natural resource management and make technical contributions to time series remote sensing.

2021: Developing High-resolution Vegetation Cover Maps for Greater Sagegrouse Habitat

Accurate maps of seasonal habitat for greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) are of paramount importance to conservation efforts in sagebrush ecosystems across the Great Basin, particularly for habitat assessments and mitigation 

efforts. However, the ability to model sage-grouse habitat at the fine spatial scales 

necessary for microhabitat assessment may be constrained by the spatial and 

spectral resolution of most remotely sensed measurements of vegetation composition. As a continuation of previous shrub mapping efforts, the USGS Western 

Ecological Research Center is utilizing multispectral imagery from UAS collected 

by the Center for Transformative Environmental Monitoring Programs at the 

University of Nevada, Reno, and WorldView satellite imagery from Maxar, Inc., to 

generate fractional cover maps containing detailed vegetation components. These 

high-resolution fractional cover maps will identify sagebrush, non-sagebrush shrub, 

forbs, and grasses. Estimates of vegetation components in training plots derived 

from ultra-high-resolution (less than three-centimeter) UAS imagery and objectbased image analysis are applied to high-resolution (two-meter) WorldView scenes 

using regression tree (RT) models. The approach yields fractional estimates of vegetation cover at a resolution that more closely correlates with actual microhabitat 
177 Department of the Interior

conditions compared to other widely available fractional products better suited for 

macrohabitat applications. An advantage of the UAS-RT approach is that large 

volumes of training data can be collected rapidly from UAS compared to traditional ground-based vegetation surveys, which could ultimately yield previously 

lacking estimates of microhabitat availability across macrohabitat or landscape 

level extents.

2021: Early Warning eXplorer for Food Security Monitoring

Climate-related impacts on food security and water availability continue to 

affect many parts of the globe. Several regions, including sub-Saharan Africa, are 

not only susceptible to these impacts, but also may lack the ability to monitor 

climate-related risk. Earth observation (EO) satellites have been instrumental in 

offering large-scale monitoring capabilities for analysis of rainfall, evapotranspiration, vegetation condition, soil moisture, and other agro-climatological factors 

that impact food and water security in these data-sparse regions. The USGS and 

colleagues at the University of California Santa Barbara Climate Hazards Center 

have developed the Early Warning eXplorer (EWX) tool to address these regional 

monitoring limitations by providing easy access to and analysis of EO information in support of the U.S. Agency for International Development Famine Early 

Warning Systems Network (USAID FEWS NET).

The EWX implementation is based on three primary components. The first is 

the EWX Viewer, which is accessible via an internet browser and offers the ability 

to visualize various datasets in map form and to derive time series summaries for 

Derivation of training plot vegetation cover estimates: (A) Example of Big Sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) in ultra-high-resolution UAS imagery. (B) Object-based image analysis (OBIA) classification 

of sagebrush features. (C) Calculated percentage of sagebrush cover per 2-meter WorldView pixel.
178Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

desired spatial domains (such as administrative units and crop zones). In addition 

to visualization and analysis, the viewer also provides the ability to download gridded data for specified subset areas. The second component is the GeoEngine processing server, which is at the heart of the EWX system. It provides web services, 

the graphical user interface, file system management, and time series analysis, as 

well as storage and retrieval of outputs to and from the EWX database. The third 

component, Support Applications, includes a map server, GeoServer instance, and 

a PostgreSQL open-source object-relational database for managing statistics and 

file systems, all while routinely monitoring for new and/or modified EO inputs from 

various FEWS NET science sources. 

Major strides have been made in terms of development and real-time availability 

of remote sensing–based EOs; however, access to those datasets and their applications for informed decision making is limited. The EWX is a web service that aims 

to both fill the in situ data gap and facilitate application of EO information for 

decision making to support mitigating the most adverse impacts of climate extreme 

events and climate adaptation.

2021: Evaluating Crop Residue Bands for the Landsat Next Mission

Non-photosynthetic vegetation (NPV) includes the residual material left on a 

field after crop harvest, such as stalks, stubble, and seeds. Satellite-based detection 

and mapping of NPV supports better understanding of soil health; adoption of 

conservation tillage practices; and vegetation dynamics in cropland, pasture, and 

rangeland settings. Lignin and cellulose, which are associated with NPV, display 

an absorption feature near 2,100 nm that can be accurately measured using narrowband shortwave infrared (SWIR) indices. However, no current satellites are capable 

of providing narrow-band SWIR reflectance data at large scales. 

A Landsat Next expert review panel was convened in 2020–2021 to focus on 

the use of narrowband SWIR reflectance to measure ligno-cellulose absorption 

features. Using a published dataset of 916 surface reflectance spectra collected from 

agricultural fields that ranged from 0 to 100 percent NPV cover, researchers calculated mean reflectance for five SWIR bands (2,040, 2,100, 2,210, 2,260, and 2,330 

nm) at varying bandwidths ranging from 10 to 50 nm. These band centers were 
179 Department of the Interior

chosen based on demonstrated NPV characterization performance from previous 

missions like ASTER, WorldView-3, and Hyperion. Using these band centers to 

calculate 13 NPV indices, the study evaluated the effects of bandwidths, atmospheric impacts, sensor signal-to-noise ratios, fractional green vegetative cover, and 

background soil reflectance on the ability of SWIR-derived indices to measure 

fractional NPV on agricultural fields and assessed spectral continuity with the 

existing Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager band 7. The best performing 3-band 

combination was adopted in the Landsat Next draft science requirements. 

The results showed these three narrow-band SWIR solutions would provide a 

greatly improved capability for detecting crop residue cover based on characterization of ligno-cellulose absorption features. The resulting tools can enable managers 

to monitor the adoption of conservation tillage practices, as well as the effects of 

grassland management, through accurate global characterization of NPV. 

2022: Evaluating Distribution and Niche Space of Eastern and Western Joshua 

Trees in the Mojave Desert

Understanding species status and forecasting range shifts for plants and animals is supported by accurate species distribution information, particularly at the 

margins of species ranges. However, most distribution studies rely on sparse species occurrence datasets from herbarium records and public databases, along with 

statistically derived “pseudoabsences.” True absence data are rarely available. Most 

distribution analyses rely on statistical species distribution models (SDM). While 

environmental covariates used to fit SDMs are increasingly precise due to satellite 

data, the availability of species occurrence records is still a large source of bias in 

model predictions. 

The first hybrid distribution models were produced for eastern and western 

Joshua Trees (Yucca brevifolia and Y. jaegeriana, respectively) using empirical data 

supplemented by statistical species distribution modeling. Joshua trees are iconic 

and keystone species of the desert southwest and were recently petitioned for listing under the Endangered Species Act by DOI’s Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) 

due to multiple threats across the range of both species. The hybrid models use 

as input a high-resolution grid of current adult Joshua tree distribution derived 
180Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

from intensive visual searches of publicly available satellite imagery evaluated 

for accuracy with ground truthing and other sources of distribution data. While 

most of the distributions were mapped empirically at a quarter-kilometer resolution across the study area, one large and important area has unacceptable remote 

sensing imagery quality. The research team used empirically derived data to model 

distributions across the region of poor image quality to create a complete model 

across the ranges of both Joshua tree species. The statistically modeled area is of 

particular ecological and management significance because the two species distributions overlap there and it guides where hybrid plants with characteristics shared 

by both species may occur. 

The models resulting from this work identify key environmental gradients shaping the distributions of each species for comparison. Annual temperature, precipitation, and aridity best predicted occupied habitat across the species’ ranges. While 

the environmental niches for Y. brevifolia and Y. jaegeriana were similar in terms 

of total aridity, they differed with respect to seasonal precipitation and temperature tolerances, suggesting a potential for disparate responses to climate change. 

The maps are the primary distribution information available for the FWS’ Species 

Status Assessment. The high-resolution distributions can be used to empirically 

track changes in Joshua tree populations at the leading and trailing edges of the 

species distributions in relation to climate change and habitat disturbances. In the 

coming decades, numerous species and their associated communities may undergo 

fundamental shifts in distribution, particularly in extreme ecosystems where species have little room for migration. Such shifts are likely to create complex vegetation dynamics at range margins, where competition and lag effects are expected in 

response to climate change and associated disturbances. 

2022: Evaluating Landscape Change Following 

Catastrophic Fires in National Parks

The western United States, including California, has experienced extreme 

weather events that have resulted in catastrophic and deadly fires. These destructive fires have resulted in loss of life and properties, as well as burning through 

some of the most iconic landscapes within the National Park Service (NPS). 
181 Department of the Interior

This ongoing project measures the impact and landscape response of these fires 

on three National Parks in California. Whiskeytown National Recreation Area 

burned in 2018, when 97 percent of the park’s mixed coniferous communities 

were impacted. Lava Beds National Monument burned in 2020, when 70 percent 

of its sagebrush and native grassland ecosystem were impacted. Also in 2020, 

more than 43,000 acres were burned across the Mojave National Preserve, damaging one of the most extensive and robust Joshua tree stands. The USGS is 

providing technical support and using multi-scale remote sensing tools to assess 

1) fire impacts to vegetation and cultural resources and 2) vegetation landscape 

recovery or change. USGS staff are conducting field surveys of topography, fire 

effects on vegetation, and vegetation recovery following fire. Results of the field 

surveys are being paired with data collected using UAS and satellite imagery 

to create spatial products at different scales. This information is directly being 

used by NPS staff to inform management intervention and plan for recovery. 

This year, Worldview 2 imagery was acquired for Lava Beds National Monument 

and Mojave National Preserve to delineate the fire extent across these remote 

regions. UAS acquisition occurred in Whiskeytown for the third sampling year, 

which is being paired with Landsat imagery to estimate forest change and recovery. Field surveys were done for ground validation for all three locations. With 

the continued threats of wildfire to DOI lands, a multi-scale approach can help 

inform ecosystem change, landscape conversion, and management intervention 

to prevent invasive species expansion.

2022: Exotic Annual Grass Phenology in Western United States Rangelands

Developing spatial datasets (maps) of exotic annual grass (EAG) phenology 

allows researchers and land managers to track the timing and progression of EAG 

growing-season dynamics year to year. Changing phenology patterns can indicate 

changing environmental conditions such as progressively warming temperatures, 

which can cause the growing season to start earlier. In the western United States, 

EAGs have invaded shrub ecosystems for more than a century, and in that time a 

positive feedback cycle between fire and EAGs has developed. This feedback cycle 

has resulted in increased fine fuels that have led to increased wildfire frequency. If 
182Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

the growing season starts earlier in areas invaded by EAGs, the fire season could be 

extended and fire frequency could increase.

This project uses Harmonized Landsat 8/Sentinel-2 (HLS) satellite data to 

develop near-seamless, cloud-free Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) 

data, which measure vegetation greenness. NDVI data are used to build a model 

training dataset of phenology metrics in EAG invaded areas. Analysts examined 

NDVI profiles at more than 11,000 pixels to identify NDVI-based metrics for 4,014 

training data points, stratified by ecoregion. The training data points were then 

incorporated into a machine-learning framework along with environmental variables like elevation and solar radiation to develop models of phenology metrics. 

The model algorithms were then input into mapping software and extrapolated 

over the entire study area, creating Start of Season Time (SOST) and five other 

phenology metrics for 2017–2021. Two metrics, Amplitude and Duration, were calculated and mapped using SOST and End of Season Time data. The EAG phenology metrics are tested as drivers in a model that estimated the abundance (percent 

cover) of EAG. Adding the metrics as drivers showed promise as the model accuracy improved. The EAG phenology metrics time series can increase understanding 

of EAG dynamics and help land managers develop plans to protect entities deemed 

valuable to society like natural habitat, wildlife, recreational areas, and air quality.

Maps are available through ScienceBase-Catalog: USGS Rangeland Exotic 

Plant Monitoring System.5

2021: Exploring VIIRS Continuity with MODIS in an Expedited Capability 

for Monitoring Drought-Related Vegetation Conditions

Scientists have effectively monitored vegetation dynamics using remotely sensed 

time-series vegetation index (VI) data for several decades. Drought monitoring has 

been a common application of VI data; perhaps the most used VI data, Normalized 

Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), serves as an input for drought-stress models 

such as the Vegetation Drought Response Index (VegDRI). NDVI composites from 

the expedited Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (eMODIS) satellite 

5 https://www.sciencebase.gov/catalog/
183 Department of the Interior

platform were a main input for the VegDRI model, but as the MODIS satellite platforms approach the end of their missions, replacement satellite data were needed 

to continue developing VegDRI. The USGS Earth Resources Observation and 

Science (EROS) Center developed a parallel temporal version of eMODIS by utilizing data from the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) platform. 

The expedited VIIRS (eVIIRS) product consists of 7-day rolling NDVI composites 

at 375-meter and 1-kilometer spatial resolution.

The EROS researchers developed a simple, robust algorithm to transform eVIIRS 

NDVI to eMODIS-like NDVI. (The transformed eVIIRS NDVI is referred to as 

eVIIRS′.) They then designed a research study to test eVIIRS′ NDVI for use in the 

VegDRI drought monitoring production system. The geometric mean regression 

(GMR) transformation algorithm was developed from three years (2016–2018) of 

eVIIRS 375-meter and eMODIS 250-meter NDVI data. After transforming 2020 

eVIIRS to eVIIRS′ using the GMR transformation algorithm, the NDVI values 

showed improved results with the mean bias error decreasing by more than 62 percent and the root mean square error (RMSE) decreasing by more than 17 percent. The VegDRI map using eVIIRS′ data showed similar results compared to the 

VegDRI map using eMODIS data. Also, when eMODIS was replaced with eVIIRS′

in the VegDRI model, the relative RMSE equaled 18 percent, which indicated the 

replacement of eMODIS with eVIIRS′ was a good fit for VegDRI. 

The approach used to modify data inputs into the VegDRI model by using 

eVIIRS′ NDVI in place of eMODIS NDVI data demonstrates the ease of use of 

the GMR transformation for data continuity and longevity.6 The transformation may allow eVIIRS to continue the more-than-20-year time series of eMODIS 

NDVI data.

2021: Fusion of Spaceborne Lidar and Optical Data for Complete 

Vegetation Maps

Vegetation structure is a key attribute of forested ecosystems, influencing habitat suitability, water quality and runoff, microclimate, and wildfire behavior. The 

6 https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13061210
184Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Fire-Science Team at the USGS EROS Center is fusing spaceborne lidar and 

passive optical data to create spatially complete maps of vegetation structure at 

30-meter resolution. These maps will allow land managers to make informed decisions and provide key inputs to fire simulation models. 

The Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation (GEDI) is a lidar instrument 

aboard the International Space Station that makes direct observations of the vertical structure of vegetation on Earth’s surface. GEDI is a sampling mission, illuminating sparsely distributed 25-meter-diameter footprints. The spatial sparsity of 

GEDI motivates the fusion of spatially complete optical data from Landsat 8. The 

optical bands of Landsat 8 are correlated with the vegetation variables of interest, 

allowing statistical models to learn this correlation where GEDI and Landsat 8 

overlap and then make predictions where Landsat 8 data are present but GEDI 

data are not. In addition, the inherent spatial correlation of the GEDI observations can be used to interpolate variation in vegetation structure not explained 

by the Landsat 8 optical bands. The result is a statistical modeling procedure that 

produces spatially complete maps of vegetation structure at the 30-meter resolution 

of Landsat.

Predictions of canopy height at 30-meter resolution across the Black 

Hills, South Dakota.
185 Department of the Interior

The ability of the procedure to map canopy height was tested across the Black 

Hills of South Dakota, an area with coarsely varied canopy structure. Test data 

consisting of ten percent of the GEDI observations within the Black Hills were 

withheld and predicted with the remaining GEDI observations in addition to 

Landsat imagery of the area. The method predicted canopy height with a mean 

absolute error of 0.84 meter, demonstrating accurate prediction. A complete map 

of canopy height for the entire Black Hills was then generated.

2022: Hyperspectral Imaging of Critical Mineral Resources from Outcrop 

to Satellite

Mineral resources are essential for the security and economic prosperity of the 

United States. The Nation relies heavily on imports of critical minerals. Novel 

methods to characterize new mineral resources may support meeting the expected 

national and global demands and an anticipated shift to a renewable energy 

economy. Imaging spectroscopy (hyperspectral imaging) is a rapidly advancing 

technology that is increasingly applied at many points in the life cycle of minerals: remote sensing for exploration, laboratory scanning for drill core characterization, spectral identification of minerals in hand specimens, and exploitation 

of archives of airborne and satellite imagery. Imaging spectroscopy can assist in 

the mineral characterization of abandoned, legacy, and un-reclaimed mines and 

their potential for critical minerals, which is a recent focus of the USGS Mineral 

Resources Program (MRP) and the Energy and Minerals Mission Area. The project 

“Hyperspectral Imaging of Mineral Resources from New and Old Origins: Minerals 

for the Nation’s Economy and Utilization of Legacy Mine Lands” is producing maps 

of surface mineralogy from existing hyperspectral data covering the largest contiguous area of hyperspectral imagery that has ever been assembled for the United 

States: over 380,000 square kilometers in California and Nevada. These data can 

be used to develop new methods to map critical minerals, including minerals critical for battery fabrication, and to evaluate resources available from waste on legacy 

mine lands. In association with the Earth Mapping Resources Initiative project, 

the coverage will be expanded in the western United States to cover an additional 

500,000 square kilometers over the next five years.
186Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

2022: Landsat Collection 2 Level-3 Dynamic Surface Water Extent

The Landsat Collection 2 Level-3 Dynamic Surface Water Extent (DSWE) product provides raster layers relating to surface water inundation per pixel in Landsat 

data. Aquatic researchers and land managers who require habitat information can 

use DSWE to predict and understand impacts by changes in surface water extent. 

DSWE provides surface water inundation for Landsat data acquired for the conterminous United States (CONUS), Alaska, and Hawaii from 1984 to the present. 

Several improvements were made to the Collection 2 DSWE product. Overall, 

there is high agreement between Collection 1 and Collection 2 for the high confidence water class. Some of the changes include using the Collection 2 Digital 

Elevation Model (DEM) and masking developed urban areas from some classes 

in the interpreted layer. For more information and to learn how to download the 

DSWE science product, please visit the Landsat Collection 2 Dynamic Surface 

Water Extent Science Product website.

7

2022: Landsat Collection 2 Normalized Difference Snow Index

Landsat Collection 2 Normalized Difference Snow Index (NDSI) data are 

now available through the USGS EROS Center Science Processing Architecture 

(ESPA) on-demand interface. NDSI is the normalized difference between spectral 

bands green (G) and the shortwave infrared (SWIR). NDSI is useful for separating snow from vegetation, soils, and other spectral signatures and is delivered as 

a single band. The probability that snow is present is proportional to how close 

the NDSI pixel value is to 1 (range –1 to 1). NDSI is derived from Level-2 Surface 

Reflectance and is available globally for Landsat 4–9. Visit the Landsat Surface 

Reflectance-Derived Spectral Indices webpage for information on product constraints, citations, and reference information.8

7 https://www.usgs.gov/landsat-missions/landsat-collection-2-level-3-dynamic-surface-water-extent-scienceproduct

8 https://www.usgs.gov/landsat-missions/landsat-surface-reflectance-derived-spectral-indices
187 Department of the Interior

2021: Informing Hurricane Flooding and Sea-Level Rise Vulnerability 

Fusing remote sensing products from different satellite sensors allows the development of enhanced maps of the current distribution of coastal wetland plants and 

more accurate models of coastal elevations. This critical information about vulnerability to sea-level rise and hurricane flooding is being used by DOI partners and 

State and local agencies to improve management in a changing climate. In 2021, 

USGS scientists developed a ten-meter-resolution vegetation classification model 

using wet- and dry-season imagery from Sentinel-1 (SAR data) and Sentinel-2 (multispectral data) acquired from 2015 to 2017 (before Hurricane Irma in September 

2017). The model successfully distinguished mangroves from grassland habitats 

and shows where mangroves have expanded their inland range into fresh and salt 

marshes across National Park Service and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service lands.

Coastline elevation is an important characteristic for understanding floods 

in tidal wetlands. Even small biases in elevation estimates can translate to large 

differences in modeled inundation time, which is a crucial metric for estimating 

future flooding vulnerability. Elevation data are usually derived from airborne 

lidar, but dense vegetation blocks the lidar signal from reaching the soil surface, 

causing a positive bias in bare-earth digital elevation models (DEMs). Using a 

statistical model (LEAN: Lidar Elevation Adjustment using NDVI) and ground 

Example of the Landsat Collection 2 Normalized Difference Snow Index (NDSI) in the Boise 

National Forest, Idaho. Left: Landsat Collection 2 Surface Reflectance using the short-wave infrared, 

near infrared, and red bands (Bands 6|5|4). Right: Landsat Collection 2 NDSI.
188Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

calibration datasets, USGS scientists developed a new DEM for southwest Florida 

that accounts for the bias from vegetation. The LEAN model assumes that plant 

density is correlated with the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), 

calculated from National Agriculture Imagery Program (NAIP) imagery. LEAN 

effectively calibrates lidar-derived DEMs to the input survey-grade ground elevation data. 

2021: Land Change Assessments and Applications Supported by LCMAP 

Science Products

The USGS Land Change, Monitoring, Assessment, and Projection (LCMAP)

project recently released an updated suite of land surface change science products based on the Landsat archive.9

 The most recent LCMAP science collection 

includes ten annual land change and land cover map products for the time period 

1985–2019 for the conterminous United States. The integrated products are the 

basis for applications and assessments designed to promote an understanding of 

the basic drivers of change, identify potential consequences of change on human 

and natural systems, and offer greater insight into the impacts and feedbacks of 

climate change. LCMAP leverages the USGS Landsat Program’s decades of land 

imaging, time-series modeling, and USGS EROS Center scientific expertise. The 

annual land cover, and its change, through 2018 was validated using published 

reference data, providing quantitative measures of product accuracy. An update to 

the product suite was released in late 2021. 

LCMAP supports and engages with the user community through various forms 

of communication, including instructional videos that describe the land change 

products, workflows to expedite common data processing and analysis routines, and 

stakeholder workshops. The EROS Center provides geospatial products through 

a number of public-facing websites, including USGS’s EarthExplorer, LCMAP’s 

Web Viewer, and website download access for each annual product compiled for 

the entire conterminous United States. The LCMAP team also established a collaboration with researchers from the National Center for Atmospheric Research. 

9 https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/lcmap
189 Department of the Interior

This effort focuses on developing methodology to improve and enhance tools that 

enable the management community to visualize, summarize, and incorporate land 

surface change information through time.

Having access to an annual time series of land cover and surface change enables 

assessments of land change to improve understanding of their causes and consequences. Several published assessments incorporated annual LCMAP land surface 

change products. The publications range from new insights on how urban heat 

islands affect surrounding rural land cover to how droughts with hotter temperatures impact the extent of tree cover within an endemic California forest type.

10

The latter research analyzed LCMAP land change data, geospatial climatic data, 

and wildfire mapping to reach their conclusions. 

2021: Landsat Burned Area Products

The USGS Geosciences and Environmental Change Science Center and the 

EROS Center have led the development, validation, and production of the Landsat 

Burned Area products.

11 The products identify burned areas in Landsat images, 

which have a spatial resolution of 30 meters and a temporal resolution of 16 days or 

more, depending on cloud cover.12 Fires are frequently unreported; consequently, 

existing fire databases are often incomplete. Furthermore, these databases often 

have location errors and records may be duplicated. The Landsat Burned Area 

products provide new and unique information about spatial and temporal patterns 

of fire occurrence that existing fire databases may lack, especially in areas where 

fire information can be incomplete, such as the Great Plains and in the western 

and southeastern United States.

The Landsat Burned Area products have been produced since 1984 for 

CONUS.13 Scene-level products are available through the USGS EarthExplorer, 

and annual composites are available through the USGS ScienceBase Catalog. 

10 https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/lcmap/science/lcmap-change-stories, https://www.tandfonline.

com/doi/full/10.1080/15481603.2021.1903282, and https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/

fclim.2021.689945/full

11 https://www.usgs.gov/landsat-missions/landsat-burned-area-science-products

12 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2020.111801

13 https://www.usgs.gov/landsat-missions/landsat-burned-area-science-products
190Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

2022: Mapping the World from Satellites: Helping Us Understand Global Food 

and Water Security in the Twenty-first Century

As world population continues to increase, Earth Observing (EO) satellitederived data are crucial for assessing and managing global food and water security 

in an inter-connected world of virtual land and water trades and related interdependencies of countries and people to meet the food and nutritional needs 

of increasingly sophisticated populations of the 21st century. Exciting new EO 

technologies and tools bring together big-data analytics, machine learning/deep 

learning/artificial intelligence, and cloud computing to gather and analyze data of 

the entire planet at the highest known spatial, spectral, radiometric, and temporal 

resolutions. This research, conducted under the global food security support analysis data project, helps realize the power of this paradigm shift in EO technologies 

Examples of the Landsat Burned Area annual composite products. 
191 Department of the Interior

and tools to map and manage global agricultural croplands and their water use for 

food and water security in the 21st century. 

Global cropland products derived from Landsat and Sentinel data are available 

at www.croplands.org, such as the global cropland extent product. Other products 

include irrigated and rainfed, cropping intensities, and crop types.14 These products 

are produced at the global, continental, and regional level. Each product has thorough accuracy assessments, and multiple other products, such as cropland areas and 

other agricultural statistics, are derived from them. 

2022: Monitoring and Assessing Urban Heat Island Variations and Effects in 

the United States

The main cause of enhanced warming across urban areas has been widely documented as the conversion of natural land cover to developed land composed of built 

structures such as buildings, roads, and other infrastructure. These anthropogenic 

features absorb and reemit the heat from the Sun more than natural landscapes, 

resulting in urban heat islands (UHIs). The UHI effect has a profound impact on 

the lives of urban residents and can exacerbate the risk of heat-related mortality 

associated with global climate change. Among the many damaging weather-related 

extremes, heat waves have the potential to cause a substantial effect on human 

health, energy demand, and human and ecosystem health challenges. As the climate of Earth warms, hotter-than-usual days and nights are becoming more common, and heat waves are expected to become more frequent and intense. Measures 

of UHI intensity complement trends in urban temperature as indicators to examine 

the effects of changing climate conditions over time. 

The USGS and United States Environmental Protection Agency are monitoring 

and assessing UHI effects in the United States by integrating long-term Landsat 

surface temperature data and annual land cover change information from the 1980s 

to the present. The integration of surface temperature and land cover dynamics 

provides fundamental measurements for UHI intensity and temporal trends in any 

urban location. The UHI change analysis also identifies thermal characteristics 

14 https://www.usgs.gov/apps/croplands
192Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

in the urban-wildland interface and UHI hotspots that are vulnerable to intense 

heat waves. Annual UHI patterns and trends are created as indicators of the effect 

of climate variation on a wide range of ecosystems processes, particularly if these 

extreme warming events occur frequently and more quickly than society and ecosystems can adapt. 

A data processing and analysis system has been developed at the USGS EROS 

Center. The system processes all Landsat surface temperature records in 50 cities 

in the conterminous United States. By comparing surface temperatures in urban 

and nonurban areas, UHI intensities and their temporal trends were calculated 

between 1985 and the 2010s in six prototype cities: Atlanta, Georgia; Houston, 

Texas; Minneapolis, Minnesota; Sioux Falls, South Dakota; Phoenix, Arizona; 

and Seattle, Washington. Different patterns of long-term trends of UHI intensities 

have been found in these six cities. Temporal variations of UHI intensity indicate 

positive trends in five cities with magnitudes of 0.2–0.6 degree per decade but a 

slightly negative trend in Phoenix.15 The positive trends of UHI intensity are more 

apparent in warm and wet climate regions than in dry regions. 

The primary product of annual means of mean and maximum surface temperatures for the 50-city dataset has been released to the public through a USGS data 

publication.16 The prototype approach has been published in peer-reviewed journal articles and implemented to investigate UHI in selected cities in the United 

States. The prototype results of UHI intensity change from the six selected cities 

have been provided to the U.S. Global Climate Research Program 5th National 

Climate Assessment. 

2021: Monitoring Tsunamigenic Landslide Hazards 

In Prince William Sound in southern Alaska, climate change–driven glacial 

retreat is exposing steep, unstable slopes that could generate tsunamis if they failed 

rapidly and entered the fjords. One such area is the Barry Arm fjord, where the 

rapid retreat and thinning of the Barry Glacier is associated with several slope 

15 https://doi.org/10.3133/fs20213031

16 https://www.sciencebase.gov/catalog/item/5de81991e4b02caea0ece36a
193 Department of the Interior

instabilities that threaten nearby communities, infrastructure, and marine interests. The largest of these landslides, measuring over 2 kilometers in width, moved 

120 meters between 2010 and 2017 as the Barry Glacier retreated from the base of 

the slope.17 This landslide initiated a State and Federal multi-agency response in 

2020, which included ground-based, aerial, and satellite monitoring efforts; community stakeholder involvement; and public outreach. In May of 2020, the USGS 

began monitoring the landslide movement using RADARSAT-2 synthetic aperture 

radar (SAR) satellite data. 

Maps of monthly landslide movement (interferograms) were created using 

interferometric SAR (InSAR) processing, which measures changes in the ground 

surface using the difference in the phase of the returning waves in the line of 

sight of the satellite radar sensor. Between late May and September, the landslide 

experienced little to no downslope movement. In October, InSAR monitoring captured landslide-wide downslope movement. Using several SAR scenes from both 

the RADARSAT-2 and Sentinel-1 satellites, USGS scientists determined that the 

center of the landslide had moved about 30 centimeters. Subsequent modeling of 

landslide failure and tsunami scenarios has shown that a tsunami would impact 

much of the Prince William Sound, with wave heights of over 200 meters in the 

northern part of Barry Arm fjord and peak heights of over 2 meters offshore the 

town of Whittier.18 Monitoring active landslides with SAR data such as those in 

the Prince William Sound can improve emergency management efforts, landslide 

failure forecasts, and slope stability and tsunami modeling. 

2022: Multiscale Spectroscopy of Intertidal Biofilm Quantity, Quality, 

and Composition

Microbial biofilm communities composed of bacteria, diatoms, protozoa, and 

fungi inhabit the surface of intertidal mudflats and represent a large proportion 

of shorebirds’ diets. Given their major role in intertidal food webs, understanding biofilm distribution, quantity, and nutritional value for shorebirds is of vital 

17 https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL089800

18 https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20211071
194Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

importance. South San Francisco Bay is home to the largest tidal wetland restoration project in the western United States, the South Bay Salt Pond Restoration 

Project, where a key uncertainty is whether adjacent mudflats will be a sediment 

source for the restoration, leading to erosion and potential impacts to biofilm. 

Given this uncertainty, the objective of this study is to identify seasonal and spatial variations in biofilm distribution, quantity (chlorophyll-a [chl-a]: an indicator 

of biomass), quality (lipids, total organic carbon, and glucose content) and community composition through development and scaling of multi-temporal, multispectral and hyperspectral algorithms. In a collaboration among the USGS Western 

Ecological Research Center (WERC), the USGS Western Geographic Science 

Center, the USGS National Uncrewed Aircraft Systems (UAS) Project Office, the 

USGS Geology, Geophysics, and Geochemistry Science Center, and California 

State University Monterey Bay, biofilm parameters are being modeled at different scales using data from field spectroscopy, ground-based imaging spectroscopy 

(HySpex, five millimeter), the Resonon Pika-L hyperspectral sensor aboard UAS 

(four centimeter), airborne imaging spectroscopy (AVIRIS-NG, four meter) and 

Sentinel-2 (ten meter). 

A time series of biofilm percent cover was created through the use of multiple 

end member spectral feature analysis and Sentinel-2 data. Overall biofilm cover 

appears highest in the late spring and early summer, then drops off dramatically 

in the fall and winter months. Sentinel-2 chl-a maps were generated using the soil 

adjusted vegetation index, which will be used in an analysis to identify the best 

image spatial resolution for biofilm by observing the loss of information as a function of ground sample distance across sensors. This work is part of a WERC-led 

project entitled “Quantifying Drivers and Stressors of Intertidal Biofilm Resources 

at the Largest Tidal Wetland Restoration on the U.S. West Coast.” Results will 

support measurement and visualization of habitat quality for shorebirds and understanding of the influence of wetland restoration activities on biofilm resources.
195 Department of the Interior

2022: On-Demand Provisional Landsat Actual Evapotranspiration for 

Global Extent

Provisional actual evapotranspiration (ETa) products derived from Landsat 

remote sensing and weather data are now available for public download at a global 

extent for all Landsat satellite data, including Landsat 9, dating back to 1984. The 

USGS EROS Science Processing Architecture (ESPA) On Demand Interface19

provides higher-level science products derived from Landsat satellite data and 

actual evapotranspiration modeled with the Operational Simplified Surface Energy 

Balance (SSEBop) approach. These products have been released as a Provisional 

Level-3 Science product for any Landsat image in the archive. Landsat ETa is crucial for measuring water use and critical hydrologic components of the water budget 

for agricultural and natural landscapes at higher resolution. This product utilizes 

Collection 2 Level 2 Landsat Surface Temperature data and improved parameterization and advancements in the SSEBop modeling approach to better estimate 

ETa regardless of landcover type, season, location, or time period. These products

have been validated using in situ eddy covariance flux tower data and found to 

estimate ETa within 20 percent of the ground station ETa at daily time steps. Basinscale evaluation of the SSEBop model across 1,000 watersheds in the conterminous 

United States has provided accuracies within 5 percent on an annual basis.20

The EROS center distributes the Landsat-based ETa on request, and it is available for public download through the ESPA website providing an efficient and 

high-quality product for land and water resource managers and researchers to 

download without requiring advanced knowledge in programing, remote sensing, or ET modeling to create the product themselves. This product is provided 

at the overpass level (a single Landsat observation) and simply requires a list of 

the Landsat Collection 2 Level 2 Product IDs to place an order and initiate a 

download. It is useful for estimating field-scale consumptive water use, assessing 

historical water use, and planning water allocations to improve agricultural water 

management under a changing climate. 

19 https://espa.cr.usgs.gov/index/

20 https://www.usgs.gov/landsat-missions/landsat-provisional-actual-evapotranspiration
196Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

2021: Parcel-based Modeling of Land Use, Water Use, and Water Availability

The intersection of land use, water use, water availability, and climate change 

demands attention as resource constraints increasingly threaten human health 

and welfare. Long-term analyses of historical-to-current feedbacks among land use, 

water resources, and climate may support managers’ ability to anticipate potential 

feedbacks that could threaten human activities in the future. Remote sensing provides the consistent, synoptic data coverage to support analyses of land use and 

hydrologic change under a changing climate. Anticipatory, scenario-based models 

can leverage remote sensing–based analyses to explore potential futures and facilitate planning and mitigation activities. 

The USGS EROS Center completed long-term modeling in the Delaware River 

Basin (DRB) using remotely sensed observations of landscape change to inform a 

spatially explicit model that temporally extended the land cover record both backward and forward in time. In FY 2021, work focused on linking monitoring and 

modeling of water use and water availability with the EROS Forecasting Scenarios 

of land use (FORE-SCE) model. The goal is to move toward true parcel-based 

water accounting, where water use and water availability are tracked at the field 

level, informing scenarios of future agricultural and landscape change under a 

changing climate. 

The initial focus is on assessing feedbacks between water use and land use using 

a remote sensing–based approach for determining evapotranspiration. Two different approaches were applied in the DRB: the Vegetation ET (VegET) model 

and the operational Simplified Surface Energy Balance (SSEBop) model. VegET 

is a water-balance approach that uses remote sensing to categorize land-surface 

phenology and precipitation inputs, while SSEBop is an energy-balance approach 

that uses land-surface temperature from remote sensing. Each characterized ET 

and water use for the DRB, with an intersection of ET and land use quantifying 

water use trends by land use type over time. Investigations into models of water 

availability were also started, with PRMS, MODFLOW, and MODSIM identified 

as key models for potential model integration with FORE-SCE, with model choice 

dependent upon scale of application. FY 2021 work focused on exploring the conceptual and practical issues of water availability model coupling with FORE-SCE, 
197 Department of the Interior

with formal coupling initiated in FY 2022. Continuing work strives to improve 

the representation of feedbacks between land use, water use, water availability, 

and climate.

2021: Pre-fire, Post-fire, and Forest Recovery Using Lidar and Burn 

Severity Analysis

The 2012 Pole Creek Fire in the Deschutes National Forest in Oregon continues 

to provide an exceptional opportunity to study wildland fire effects with remote 

sensing data. This project builds upon wildland fire remote sensing research by 

addressing novel questions through the analysis of pre-fire, post-fire, and a new 8+ 

year post-fire forest recovery lidar acquisition. Lidar will also be fused with optical 

remote sensing data, such as the recently approved Planet and WorldView highresolution multispectral imagery. Through the analysis of lidar from the recovery of 

the forest, researchers are assessing how pre-fire conditions and forest management 

activities affected the recovery potential and outcomes for a variety of forest types 

and along a gradient of burn severity measures.

Recently published research from this project used multitemporal lidar and corresponding field data to estimate fuel consumption for the 2012 Pole Creek Fire in 

Oregon and portions of the 2011 Las Conchas Fire in New Mexico.21 Additionally, 

estimates for change in aboveground biomass were compared to energy release estimates using fire radiative energy observations from Moderate Resolution Imaging 

Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellites to mechanistically derive a combustion 

coefficient for top-down estimation. Past research efforts included the evaluation 

of lidar- and Landsat-derived burn severity indices, as well as fuel treatment and 

mountain pine beetle infestation effects on fire severity using multitemporal lidar 

data. This research is quantifying how pre-fire forest condition affects burn severity 

and how various remote sensing techniques can be used to explain fire patterns 

and improve modeling and remote sensing of wildland fire for natural resource 

management and forest ecology.

21 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0034425720304879?via%3Dihub
198Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

2021: Rangeland Condition Monitoring Assessment and Projection (RCMAP) 

Rangeland ecosystems in the western United States are vulnerable to climate 

change, fire, and anthropogenic disturbances, yet available geospatial data for 

assessing trends in condition, fire risk, and management practices may not be 

sufficient to inform management practices. To address this need, scientists from 

the USGS EROS Center and the Bureau of Land Management developed the 

Rangeland Condition Monitoring Assessment and Projection (RCMAP) project.22

This project quantifies the percent cover of rangeland components across the western United States using Landsat imagery from 1985 to 2020. The RCMAP product 

suite includes eight fractional components (annual herbaceous, bare ground, herbaceous, litter, non-sagebrush shrub, perennial herbaceous, sagebrush, and shrub) 

and the temporal trends of each, along with rule-based error maps. An automated 

method was developed to identify change in spectral conditions between each year 

in the Landsat archive and the circa 2016 base year. Results showed the net cover 

of shrub, sagebrush, and litter significantly (p < 0.05) decreased across the range, 

while bare ground and herbaceous cover had no significant change and annual 

herbaceous cover significantly (p < 0.05) increased. Change was ubiquitous, with 

a mean of 92 percent of pixels with some change and 38 percent of pixels with 

significant change (p < 0.05). However, most change was gradual; well over half 

of pixels had a range of less than 10 percent, and most change occurred outside of 

known disturbances such as fires and vegetation treatments.

RCMAP fractional component time-series data spanning 1985–2020 and trends 

analysis products are now available for download and on the rangelands viewer 

application.23 This dataset is designed for out-of-the-box application and provides a 

foundation for both historical and future monitoring at ecosystem scales, including 

research in sage-grouse habitat and population dynamics, restoration success, and 

treatment effect.

22 https://www.usgs.gov/publications/rangeland-condition-monitoring-assessment-and-projection-rcmap

23 https://www.sciencebase.gov/catalog/item/636a6727d34ed907bf6a6859
199 Department of the Interior

2022: Real-time Coastal Change Forecasts for Puerto Rico

The island of Puerto Rico is subject to numerous natural hazards, including 

hurricanes, coastal erosion, and flooding. Information on how the island’s coastal 

environments respond to these events is critical for bolstering coastal resilience. 

Due to the dynamic nature of the coast, continuous monitoring with remote sensing technology may support rapid assessment of real-time change and maximize 

data collection, especially when used to guide critical decisions about emergency 

preparedness, response, recovery, and threats to economic security. 

Scientists at the USGS St. Petersburg Coastal and Marine Science Center 

mounted cameras on Puerto Rico coasts to record and measure how far the waves 

reach up the beach as well as how the coast changes in response to waves and 

storms. They also installed oceanographic buoys offshore of the beach that send 

back data in real time on wind, waves, and water levels. These remotely sensed 

data help scientists better understand the processes involved in coastal change, 

improve the accuracy of water level and coastal change forecasts on the island, and 

provide these data rapidly to local stakeholders—which is especially important 

when a storm is approaching. These data are becoming increasingly important 

with climate change effects such as increased frequency and intensity of tropical 

storms and hurricanes compounded by the effects of sea-level rise. The scientists 

also use satellite data in conjunction with historical imagery to study shoreline 

change over long- and short-term time scales to help identify areas that are most 

vulnerable to these changes.24

This information can help residents of the territory to be more prepared for and 

resilient to these hazards. The team worked with other groups across the bureau to 

compile information on natural hazards and resources relevant to the island and 

share them via a series of bilingual web pages.

25 These pages are being disseminated 

to local partners and organizations, including those in historically underserved 

communities, so they have direct access to USGS science and can make informed 

decisions when preparing for future natural disasters. 

24 https://geonarrative.usgs.gov/puertoricoshorelinechange/

25 https://www.usgs.gov/mission-areas/natural-hazards/science/puerto-rico-natural-hazards-coastal-peligrosnaturales-de
200Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

2021: Release of Landsat Collection 2 U.S. Analysis Ready Data

Landsat Collection 2 (C2) U.S. Analysis Ready Data (ARD) became available 

in fiscal year 2021 and are the most recent publicly released Landsat science products. Landsat C2 U.S. ARD are prepackaged and pre-processed bundles of tiled 

Landsat data products that make the Landsat archive more accessible and easier 

to analyze, and they reduce the amount of time users spend on data processing for 

time-series analysis. The bundled data tiles consist of surface reflectance, surface 

temperature, top of atmosphere reflectance, brightness temperature, and quality 

assessment data that are consistently processed using per-pixel solar zenith angle 

corrections, gridded to a common cartographic projection, and accompanied by 

appropriate metadata to enable further processing while retaining traceability of 

data provenance. Subsequently, numerous products are derived from ARD that 

are used as direct inputs to monitoring and assessment activities, including maps 

of land cover and land cover change; spectral indices; temporal composites; and 

higher-level science products such as burned area, dynamic surface water extent, 

and fractional snow-covered area. Landsat C2 U.S. ARD are generated in the 

Albers Equal Area (AEA) Conic map projection for CONUS and Hawaii. Alaska 

is generated in Alaska Albers map projection. They are processed directly from 

Level-1 AEA scenes through Level-2 products using the World Geodetic System 

1984 datum. The products cover CONUS (1982–present), Alaska (1984–present), 

and Hawaii (1989–1993 and 1999–present). The tiles are units of uniform dimension bounded by static corner points in a defined grid system. An ARD tile is 

defined as 5,000 × 5,000 30-meter pixels. 

For additional information about Landsat science products, visit the Landsat 

Missions website.

26

2021: Remote Sensing Model Evaluation for NetET Irrigation Water Use for 

the Nation

The USGS Water Availability and Use Science Program (WAUSP) systematically provides information that allows water resource managers to assess availability 

26 https://www.usgs.gov/core-science-systems/nli/landsat
201 Department of the Interior

of the Nation’s water. The USGS focuses on development of advanced techniques 

for evapotranspiration (ET) estimates to better measure various agricultural-based 

water budget components for informing decision makers. Specifically, National 

Water Census (NWC) goals support systematic geospatial analysis and evaluation of joint performance of the Operational Simplified Surface Energy Balance 

(SSEBop) and Vegetation ET (VegET) models for quantifying net irrigation water 

use, also referred to as NetET.

Scientists at the USGS EROS Center are leveraging MODIS (250-meter) and 

Landsat (30-meter) remote sensing data to generate model analysis products such 

as VegET (rainfall-based ET), SSEBop ET (total water use), and NetET (irrigation water use), along with rainfall and other ancillary datasets. Project cloudprocessing components are used for creating more accurate and timely raster 

data maps for CONUS for 2015 annual ET, a target study evaluation year. Data 

summation and integration includes national-scale irrigation layer masks within 

hydrologic unit boundaries (HUC12) for evaluation of measurements at consistent 

and appropriate scales.

Annual irrigation water use for 2015 summarized by hydrologic unit code level 12 (HUC12).
202Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Results include accuracy assessment feedbacks of NetET information products 

for the improvement and implementation of current and future national water 

accounting methods applying satellite-driven techniques. This work supports and 

advances ongoing investigation of the relationships between optical and thermal 

datasets for ET modeling, including performance of the SSEBop ET and VegET 

models using best available physical and process parameters.

The EROS Center develops and shares these NetET products with USGS 

Water Science Centers and NWC partners around the Nation for evaluation and 

water use reporting needs.27 For successful development and integration of such 

new accounting methods for NWC components, multi-layered collaboration from 

technical components to project coordination is instrumental for ensuring data 

aggregation and assimilation with other Federal, State, regional, local, and Tribal 

resource managers.

2022: Remote Sensing Time Series Research for Land Change 

Science Products

The USGS’s Land Change, Monitoring, Assessments, and Projections (LCMAP) 

project was instituted to monitor and assess land use and land cover change 

through time, to promote understanding of the causes and consequences of land 

change and to offer insight into the interactions between land change and climate 

change. LCMAP utilizes all available observations produced by the USGS Landsat 

Program to monitor change and to produce annual land change products. The land 

cover expertise of the USGS EROS Center is involved to assess the causes and 

consequences of the observed historical change. In 2022, LCMAP released updated 

products covering a 37-year record from 1985 to 2021.28 The LCMAP product suite 

includes ten annual land change and land cover maps. The annual land cover 

from 1985 to 2017 was formally validated using a reference dataset produced by 

interpreters.29 Collection of updated reference data for validation for 2018 to 2021 

was launched in 2022. 

27 https://www.usgs.gov/water-resources/water-availability-and-use-science-program

28 https://doi.org/10.5066/P9C46NG0

29 https://doi.org/10.5066/P9ZWOXJ7
203 Department of the Interior

LCMAP has recently developed modifications for the change detection methodology used to produce land change maps. The modified method (Band-First 

Probability) calculates the statistical test for change to reduce the effect of differences in the number of available observations on change detection. Since the 

availability of remote sensing observations varies across space and time, it is useful to have a methodology that is consistent across a variety of scenarios, especially given increases of data availability with additional new satellite data (e.g., 

Sentinel-2 from the European Space Agency).

Information from the LCMAP product suite enables unique applications and 

assessments of land change. For example, LCMAP change information was transformed to indicate the duration of tree cover regrowth after disturbance across 

CONUS forested regions (Zhou et al., 2022).30 The average tree regrowth period 

was estimated and validated. Trees in the southeast United States took five years to 

recover on average, which is faster than in other regions of the country. The Pacific 

Northwest coastal region was another main area of tree regrowth where trees often 

took multiple decades to recover.

2021: Surface Flow Velocities from Space

Conventional, field-based streamflow monitoring in remote, inaccessible locations such as Alaska poses logistical challenges and makes remote sensing an 

appealing alternative means of collecting hydrologic data. In an ongoing effort 

to develop non-contact methods for measuring river discharge, researchers evaluated the potential to estimate surface flow velocities from satellite video of a large, 

sediment-laden river in Alaska via particle image velocimetry (PIV) using video 

acquired by the Planet Labs SkySat constellation. In this setting, naturally occurring sediment boil vortices produced distinct water surface features that could be 

tracked from frame to frame as they were advected by the flow, obviating the need 

to introduce artificial tracer particles. In this study, a refined end-to-end workflow 

involved stabilization and georeferencing, image preprocessing, PIV analysis with 

an ensemble correlation algorithm, and post-processing of PIV output to filter 

30 https://doi.org/10.1080/15481603.2022.2083790
204Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

outliers and scale and georeference velocity vectors. Applying these procedures 

to image sequences extracted from satellite video allowed production of highresolution surface velocity fields. Field measurements of depth-averaged flow velocity were used to assess accuracy.

Results confirmed the importance of preprocessing images to enhance contrast 

and indicated that lower frame rates (e.g., 0.25 Hertz) led to more reliable velocity 

estimates because longer capture intervals allow more time for water surface features to translate several pixels between frames, given the relatively coarse spatial 

resolution of the satellite data. Although agreement between PIV-derived velocity 

estimates and field measurements was weak (R2 = 0.39) on a point-by-point basis, 

correspondence improved when the PIV output was aggregated to the cross-sectional scale. For example, the correspondence between cross-sectional maximum 

velocities inferred via remote sensing and measured in the field was much stronger 

(R2 = 0.76), suggesting that satellite video could play a role in measuring river 

discharge.31 Examining correlation matrices produced as an intermediate output 

of the PIV algorithm yielded insight on the interactions between image frame 

rate and sensor spatial resolution, which must be considered in tandem. Further 

research and technological development may improve the ability to measure surface flow velocities from satellite video and provide a viable tool for streamflow 

monitoring in certain fluvial environments.

2021: Surface Water Inundation of California’s Croplands

California’s croplands cover roughly 3.8 million hectares (ha) with crop products 

valued at $33 billion according to the USDA’s 2017 Census of Agriculture. Because 

of the value of these areas, monitoring surface water inundation in croplands is 

of interest for disaster preparedness and water management. Sources of inundation include both intentional irrigation and unintentional flooding. Irrigation 

accounts for most intentional water inundation in California’s croplands, since 

nearly 90 percent of crops grown in California rely on irrigation. Surface irrigation, 

31 https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/70220904
205 Department of the Interior

whereby fields are flooded and water flows across the surface, is the most common 

type of irrigation practiced in the state.

While many crops are intentionally inundated, unintentional flooding is also a 

threat to agricultural yields. More than 1.1 million ha of California’s croplands, representing nearly $7 billion in crop value, are located within a 500-year flood plain. 

Although drought conditions are predicted to increase in frequency as the climate 

changes, so too are extreme precipitation events that contribute to flooding. As 

a result, monitoring surface water inundation that results from flooding can help 

farmers and resource managers with risk assessments for crop types and locations. 

Using satellite imagery, patterns of surface water inundation can be observed in 

California’s croplands at frequent time scales across the entire state. Researchers 

examined eight different crop types to extract patterns of inundation from 2003 

to 2020. They then utilized the computational power of a cloud-based imageprocessing platform to quantify monthly composite images of surface water and 

extract inundation for each crop type. 

Results indicate that rice crops have high winter and spring surface water inundation, which was expected based on typical irrigation patterns.32 Relatively high 

surface water inundation was also found in grain and field crop types. During 

winter months, citrus crop parcels show a mean inundation between 1 and 1.3 percent, suggesting unintentional flooding. Regions with high proportions of surface 

water extent in relation to crop area include the northern Sacramento River valley, 

where rice is predominantly grown, and the southern San Joaquin River valley, 

which produces a large portion of the state’s deciduous and grain crops.

2022: U.S.-Mexico Transboundary Landcover Map

Knowledge about vegetation distributions and dynamics is critical for guiding 

land management and conservation decisions. Current resources in the Sonoran 

and Mojave Deserts Bird Conservation Region (BCR 33, in North American Bird 

Conservation Initiative designations) are insufficient due to the area’s low vegetative 

cover, complex vegetation communities, and the discontinuity in data availability 

32 https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2352938522001458
206Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

across the United States (U.S.) and Mexico border. Existing geospatial data and 

tools are often inadequate for supporting critical habitat-related work. This research 

produced the first high-resolution, continuous United States–Mexico land cover 

map of BCR 33 by prototyping new methods for desert vegetation classification 

using a Random Forest (RF) machine learning approach. The RF classification 

model was based on multitemporal Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager spectral 

and vegetation index data from 2013 to 2020, augmented with phenology metrics 

tailored to capture the unique growing seasons of desert vegetation; it can classify 

31 different land cover class types within the Sonoran and Mojave Deserts BCR. 

The model results portrayed the vegetation cover at a much finer resolution 

than existing land cover maps from the United States and Mexico portions of the 

study area. This approach helped identify small habitat pockets, including riparian communities, which are critically important for desert wildlife and are often 

misclassified or nonexistent in current maps. These results supported the assumption that land cover labels provided within the U.S. portion of the study area were 

representative of vegetation south of the border, allowing for the extension of the 

U.S. classification system into the Mexican region of BCR 33. While the results 

were mostly consistent with respect to the Gap Analysis Project (a program to keep 

common species common) Landfire classification of the region, they did highlight 

the need for a unified land cover classification scheme across the United States 

and Mexico portions of BCR 33. This application and tools serve as a resource to 

the stakeholders, regional agencies, and non-governmental organizations involved 

in this research, in support of habitat conservation and land management efforts 

within this sensitive Sonoran and Mojave Deserts BCR.

2021: Tracking Rates of Post-fire Conifer Regeneration Distinct from 

Deciduous Vegetation Recovery 

Post-fire shifts in vegetation composition or successional trajectory will have 

broad impacts for carbon storage, hydrology, nutrient cycling, and wildlife habitat. 

However, information characterizing post-fire recovery patterns and their drivers is 

lacking over large spatial extents. Researchers tracked dual-season rates of post-fire 

recovery for more than 12,500 burned points across the western United States. 
207 Department of the Interior

Landsat imagery collected when snow cover was present was used in combination 

with growing season imagery to distinguish evergreen vegetation from deciduous 

vegetation. The analysis sought to (1) identify spatial and temporal patterns in 

the rate of post-fire recovery across the western United States, (2) relate remotely 

sensed patterns to plot-scale, field-measured patterns of post-fire re-vegetation, and 

(3) model variability in post-fire rates of recovery as a function of burn severity, site 

conditions, and climatological factors.

The post-fire recovery under snow cover was indicative of evergreen regeneration, while the rate of recovery in the growing season primarily represented understory vegetation (grass, herbaceous, shrubs). Furthermore, the rates of recovery in 

the growing season were only weakly correlated with the rates of recovery under 

snow cover. The seasonal distinction in vegetation type had important implications for understanding the drivers of post-fire recovery. Although temperature 

was important in both seasons, the seasons showed opposite directionality, with 

warmer conditions associated with faster rates of evergreen regeneration and cooler 

conditions associated with faster rates of deciduous recovery. The temperature 

finding suggests that in snowy, mountainous areas, conifer regeneration may react 

differently to warming temperatures compared to deciduous species. Efforts that 

use both growing season and snow cover Normalized Difference Vegetation Index 

to evaluate post-fire recovery can help guide predictions of where active vegetation management could be focused at the scale of the western United States. This 

approach provides a powerful tool to inform landscape-scale, post-fire analysis and 

monitor long-term impacts of fires on ecosystems across the West.

2021: Walruses Are Visible in Satellite Imagery When They Rest on Shore in 

Large Numbers

During late summer and autumn, Pacific walruses are resting on shore north 

of the Bering Strait more often and in larger numbers in both the United States 

and Russia. Historically, walruses rested primarily on floating sea ice over their 

offshore foraging grounds in this region, but climate warming has reduced availability of sea ice. With greater numbers of walruses gathering on shore, USGS 

scientists and collaborators are capitalizing on the opportunity to improve walrus 
208Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

population monitoring. The USGS has evaluated optical and radar satellite imagery ranging in pixel resolutions from 40 meters to about 1 meter for the detection 

and quantification of large walrus groups resting on shore. The USGS flew UAS 

orthoimagery surveys and was able to use these images to validate satellite imagery 

interpretation. The debut study site at Point Lay, Alaska, was optimal for remote 

sensing because the beach is fine-grained with negligible topography. Range-wide 

walrus population monitoring efforts, however, would require reconnaissance of 

haulouts (the large congregations of walruses on beaches), which are anticipated 

to be more challenging to imagery interpretations due to variable beach substrates 

and adjacent bluffs.

2022: Wildfire and Smoke Affect Bird Migration in Western North America

The 2020 Western fire season was among the most extreme on record. More 

than 100 fires were active in September; the majority occurred in California, 

Oregon, and Washington, where over 16,000 square kilometers burned. The 2020 

fire season exemplified patterns of increased wildfire size, number, timing, return 

frequency, and extent, which are linked to climate-driven changes in precipitation 

and temperature affecting fire ignition and severity. Wildfires have increasingly 

coincided with the start of fall migration and may present a growing risk to migrating birds. For example, the fall migration of the tule goose (Anser albifrons elgasi), a 

subspecies of greater white-fronted goose (A. albifrons), occurred as smoke plumes 

from the wildfires reached the greatest extent. 

The tule goose has a limited breeding range near the Cook Inlet in Alaska, 

and only a few thousand individuals exist, resulting in a designation as a Species 

of Concern in California, where the wintering population resides within the 

Sacramento Valley. Beginning in the fall of 2018, biologists with the Western 

Ecological Research Center have worked with California and Oregon wildlife 

departments to radio-collar and track tule geese from their principal stopover site 

at Summer Lake, Oregon. This region is used during both fall and spring migrations by virtually all tule geese as they transit between Alaska and California. 

In 2020, migrating geese encountered dense smoke extending into the Pacific 

Ocean and across migratory routes off the coast of Vancouver Island, British 
209 Department of the Interior

Columbia, Canada, and Washington, United States. Comparison of GPS tracks 

from collared geese and the High-Resolution Rapid Refresh with Smoke model 

allowed description of individual response to dense wildfire smoke. Over the next 

several weeks, individuals encountering the smoke demonstrated several atypical responses, including back-tracking and travelling around mountain ranges, 

extended at-sea stopovers off the Washington coast, approximately 4,000-meter 

(13,000-foot) flights over the smoke plumes, and loss of orientation toward traditional stopover areas (Summer Lake, Oregon). In total, these effects resulted in 

over 25 percent longer migration paths and a doubling of the migration duration 

between Alaska and Summer Lake. The detours are estimated to have resulted in 

an energetic deficit that could increase mortality or lower reproductive outputs and 

would require at least 4–6 days of elevated feeding activity to offset.33 Monitoring 

of migratory bird populations using telemetry applications informs managers of the 

potential risk of wildfires to migrating bird populations.34

33 https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecy.3552

34 https://www.usgs.gov/news/national-news-release/wildfire-smoke-disrupts-bird-migration-west

Dense smoke (more than 161 micrograms per cubic meter) from wildfires in September 2020 covered an extent equivalent to 64 percent of California, Nevada, Oregon, and Washington combined. 

Migration paths of tule geese (Anser albifrons elgasi) in 2020 (yellow in right panel) were more disorganized and resulted in longer migration times and distance flown relative to migration paths occurring 

in 2019 (blue in left panel), when dense smoke did not occur along migration routes. See study: https://

doi.org/10.1002/ecy.3552
210Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Bureau of Indian Affairs

The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) applies remote sensing to activities such 

as land use planning, responding to non-point source pollution affecting subsistence hunting and fishing, climate change impacts such as sea-level rise for coastal 

Tribes, location and identification of potential dam hazards, and the generation of 

digital terrain data for the use of open-channel hydraulics. In collaboration with 

other agencies, BIA actively explores ways to improve management through remote 

sensing data and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) technologies.

2022: Wildfire and Climate Resilience on the San Carlos Apache Reservation 

The USGS is working with the San Carlos Apache Tribe (SCAT) to identify 

parts of the SCAT reservation more vulnerable to wildfire. The collaboration 

has worked to identify restoration activities to improve climate resilience. The 

USGS used satellite imagery and watershed modelling to help the Tribe’s natural 

resource managers prioritize areas for firebreak and water detention installations 

along large rivers. The results have demonstrated that such nature-based solutions 

can boost resilience to wildfire by increasing water availability and reducing water 

stress, while also preventing post-fire flooding and erosion. The Forest Resources 

Department within the San Carlos Apache Tribe is engaged in preventative thinning of vegetation and resource-benefit burns, which the USGS has also shown to 

reduce wildfire intensity. The United States Forest Service (USFS) is now using 

this guidance to consider expanding similar nature-based practices to forest service 

lands in collaboration with the BIA.

2022: Woodland Tree Cover Change Study Informs Restoration Activities

The San Carlos Apache Tribe wants to learn more about the historical characteristics of their woodlands, savannas, and grasslands so they have a target for 

restoration efforts. Restoring juniper woodland to savanna is a focus of the Tribe’s 

intensive management activities. To determine changes in woodland canopy cover, 

this research developed and applied novel image geospatial analysis techniques 
211 Department of the Interior

to monitor tree cover for three study areas using 1935 and 2017 aerial imagery 

and compared results over the 82-year interval.35 In general, the results depict a 

substantial increase in the woodland tree canopy cover in former savannas and 

encroachment of juniper trees into grasslands. Additionally, they show evidence of 

the success of Tribal woodland management efforts on Bee Flat, where managed 

landscape canopy cover is analogous to the natural savanna tree cover mapped 

there in 1935. These results are important as former savanna areas once dominated 

by native grasses and forbs have been replaced with higher-density juniper-pinyonoak woodlands, along with degraded soils and limited herbaceous understories. 

The San Carlos Apache Tribe intends to use map results from this analysis to help 

locate other woodland areas suitable for restoration and as a current inventory and 

historical baseline of its Tribal woodlands. Pinyon-juniper expansion and infilling 

are increasingly a major challenge for land managers across the Intermountain 

West, and historical information from remote sensing may help provide muchneeded data.

Bureau of Land Management 

The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) leverages ground, air, and spaceborne 

remote sensing technologies to support its mission to sustain the health, diversity, 

and productivity of public lands for the use and enjoyment of present and future 

generations. These technologies include aerial and close-range photography; multispectral, hyperspectral, and thermal infrared camera/imaging systems; and radar 

and lidar. The BLM also utilizes passive and active imaging system information 

collected by UAS. Remote sensing data and products are being used to address a 

host of BLM monitoring requirements, including energy development, mine production verification, assessment of land cover condition through time, and wildfire response and mitigation. Finally, the BLM requires field-based measurements 

to support management decisions covering vast expanses of land. By integrating 

remote sensing into the BLM’s Assessment, Inventory, and Monitoring strategy, 

field-based data are used to generate information and maps that would otherwise 

35 https://doi.org/10.3390/land10040393
212Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

be too expensive to produce. The BLM is leveraging remote sensing to provide an 

integrated, quantitative monitoring approach to efficiently and effectively document the impacts from authorized and unauthorized disturbance and land treatment activities at local and regional scales.

2021: Cheatgrass Mapping

The invasion of exotic annual grasses is a widespread problem across the western United States. Of particular concern is cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), which 

produces continuous mats of fine, highly flammable vegetation that can drive wildfires. To identify persistent and dense coverage of cheatgrass across Canyon County 

in southeastern Utah, the Canyon Country Fuels Program built a district-wide 

model based on previous research that sought to Detect Early Season Invasives 

(DESI). The model uses Landsat imagery to identify areas where vegetation 

greens up in early spring and is dry by early summer, which is a pattern typical of 

cheatgrass phenology, in contrast to perennial grasses. The model was based on 

similar research conducted through a NASA Space Grant Consortium Research 

Fellowship that looked strictly at national parks in southeastern Utah.36 Expanding 

the scope to include a wider geographic and administrative range helps agencies 

like the BLM monitor and adaptively manage areas where cheatgrass is likely 

dominant. The broad range of ecozones in the extent of the model does result in 

false positives of DESI, particularly in riparian and agricultural zones. Nonetheless, 

DESI enables the rapid monitoring of large areas that would be difficult to cover 

with ground-based surveys, allowing managers to identify regional patterns and 

distributions of invasive cheatgrass. 

2021: Collaborative Landslide Inventory Mapping

Landslides are a major geologic hazard in Oregon. To reduce the risk from 

future landslides, an accurate and complete landslide inventory is a fundamental 

requirement. In 2015, the BLM Coos Bay District began a multiyear collaborative 

36 https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/spacegrant/2017/Session4/5/
213 Department of the Interior

landslide inventory mapping project with the Oregon Department of Geology 

and Mineral Industries (DOGAMI). The BLM Coos Bay District has land in 

Douglas, Coos, and Curry Counties in Oregon. All three counties have relatively 

weak geologic units, steep topography, and high annual precipitation, and they 

are subject to large subduction zone earthquakes; they thus have relatively high 

landslide hazards. 

The project has two primary goals: to create a detailed landslide inventory and to 

provide real-world training to students studying geologic hazards. The initial phase 

completed mapping in three watersheds that cover an area of 278.32 square miles, 

documenting 1,163 historic locations and 2,984 landslide deposits. The landslide 

deposits cover 15 percent of the watersheds, or 41.05 square miles. However, the 

individual watersheds range in landslide density from approximately 2 to 32 percent. Four more watersheds were mapped since the initial phase completion and 

publication in 2017. 

To make these data easily accessible, they are published as a DOGAMI Open 

File Report and then compiled into the next Statewide Landslide Information 

Database of Oregon release.37

2022: Completion: LandCART (Landscape Cover Analysis and 

Reporting Tools)

The BLM National Operations Center (NOC), through a NASA Research 

Opportunities in Space and Earth Sciences (ROSES) grant, partnered with the 

USGS and University of California, Los Angeles, researchers to create an online 

mapping application called LandCART: Landscape Cover Analysis and Reporting 

Tools. LandCART V1.0 was released on February 16, 2022, as the NASA ROSES 

grant came to an end. LandCART enhances the BLM’s ability to produce estimates of Assessment, Inventory, and Monitoring (AIM) indicators using NASA 

Earth observation data in places and times where in situ data are not available. 

The tool is being used to address user-defined management questions—particularly 

change and trend analysis questions—and to provide documentation required by 

37 https://www.oregongeology.org/pubs/ofr/p-O-17-04.htm and https://gis.dogami.oregon.gov/maps/slido/
214Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

NEPA (National Environmental Policy Act). LandCART supports exporting of the 

predicted data with associated metadata compliant with Federal Geographic Data 

Committee (FGDC) standards to ensure reproducibility and appropriate NEPA 

documentation. Predictions are accompanied by error and confidence estimates to 

enhance their utility in decision making. 

Four tools are available in the LandCART app: 

1. The LandCART Cover Tool calculates an AIM indicator for one location 

at one time. It produces a predicted indicator map, a distribution histogram, and simple summary statistics. 

2. The LandCART Cover Change Tool calculates an AIM indicator for one 

area at two different times. It produces two indicator maps, a difference 

map, and comparative histograms; conducts a two-sample KolmogorovSmirnoff test of differences for the histograms; and conducts a one-sample 

Kolmogorov-Smirnoff test for similarity between the difference histogram 

and a normal distribution. 

3. The LandCART Time Series Tool calculates a time series for a chosen 

AIM indicator and a difference map to illustrate what change has taken 

place between the first and last step of the time series. It produces multiple 

indicator maps and comparative histograms for each time step in the time 

series, plots the time series median values, and conducts a Sen’s slope test 

for trend. Annual predictions can be developed for 1984 to the present. 

4. The LandCART Spatial Compare Tool calculates an AIM indicator 

for two different locations at one time. It produces two indicator maps 

and comparative histograms and conducts a Kolmogorov-Smirnoff test 

of differences for the histograms. LandCART is a powerful tool for land 

managers to include in a decision-making framework for ecological transformation and adaptive management.38

2021: Monitoring Managed Lands Using Synthetic Aperture Radar

The emergent proliferation of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) imaging systems, 

related advancements in image processing and exploitation capabilities, and the 

38 The application can be accessed at http://landcart.org.
215 Department of the Interior

increasing availability of analysis-ready SAR data products have enhanced the 

BLM’s ability to use remote sensing–derived information to support resource management. SAR is valuable to land managers for multiple reasons: 1) the data can 

be collected regardless of time of day or weather condition, unlike optical imagery, 

which requires clear daytime conditions; 2) SAR systems that can transmit and 

receive multiple polarization states offer the ability to differentiate and classify land 

cover types; and 3) Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) techniques 

can be used to resolve fine-scale surface changes over time. 

Two important examples where SAR imagery is being used to help address key 

BLM management concerns are wetlands monitoring and wildfire management. 

Sentinel-1, a moderate-resolution SAR constellation offering repeat, consistent 

worldwide coverage, is being used for each of these applications. 

Wetland inundation dynamics mapping leverages Sentinel-1’s spatial resolution, 

polarization, and revisit capabilities to provide a further understanding of surface 

water cover trends. 

The National Operations Center (NOC) also uses Sentinel-1 to develop products that support the BLM’s Emergency Stabilization and Rehabilitation (ESR) program, as well as for other post-fire monitoring activities. Change detection analysis 

of pre- and post-fire SAR imagery is used to delineate burn extents. Coherence 

products developed using InSAR techniques are used to provide fire severity 

estimates for affected rangeland and forest cover. InSAR coherence tends to be 

negatively correlated with severity, so extremely low coherence values typically 

represent moderate- to high-severity burned areas. Sentinel-1 SAR products are 

especially useful for post-fire management when electro-optical imagery is unavailable or unreliable due to weather and fire effects. 

Bureau of Ocean Energy Management

The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management’s (BOEM) Environmental Studies 

Program (ESP) develops, funds, and manages rigorous scientific research specifically to inform policy decisions on the development of energy and mineral 

resources on the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf. BOEM uses remote sensing to 

inform its research covering physical oceanography, atmospheric sciences, biology, 
216Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

protected species, social sciences and economics, submerged cultural resources, and 

environmental fates and effects. Mandated by Section 20 of the Outer Continental 

Shelf Lands Act, the ESP is an indispensable requirement informing BOEM’s decisions on offshore oil and gas, offshore renewable energy, and the marine minerals 

program for coastal restoration. Through its ESP, BOEM has provided over $1 billion for research to this end since its inception in 1973.

2022: Mapping at Sea Wildlife Communities from Air and Space 

The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

deployed very-high-resolution, multi-camera sensor arrays on fixed-winged aircraft to develop digital aerial imagery surveys in support of the Atlantic Marine 

Assessment Program for Protected Species (AMAPPS). In 2021, AMAPPS collected more than 1.8 million images from aerial surveys over the Atlantic Ocean 

Outer Continental Shelf, which includes data from migratory, summer, and winter 

seasons. The U.S. Geological Survey and University of California Berkeley are 

developing annotation databases using the imagery and training machine learning 

algorithms for the automated detection and classification of seabirds, marine mammals, and sea turtles at sea. Automating these steps improves processing efficiency 

because the data volume prohibits manual processing, as less than three percent of 

imagery contains images of wildlife. A central imagery database is active and will 

enable the coordination of data annotation by experts from multiple agencies and 

institutions to develop species-level classifications. The project plan is to investigate unsupervised data selection and active semi-supervised learning to optimally 

grow the model with larger-scale data and more wildlife targets of interest. The 

results will improve knowledge of seabird, cetacean, and sea-turtle distribution and 

abundance to inform environmental assessments and impact analyses of offshore 

energy development and other population assessments.39

The recent advancements in very-high-resolution (VHR) satellite imagery 

have tremendous potential for the development of an operational system to detect 

39 https://www.usgs.gov/centers/upper-midwest-environmental-sciences-center/science/deep-learningautomated-detection-and
217 Department of the Interior

marine mammals worldwide. Recent research has demonstrated the feasibility 

of identifying whales from VHR satellite imagery using manual and machine 

learning approaches. The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, in collaboration with NOAA Fisheries, the Naval Research Laboratory, and the British 

Antarctic Survey, has been exploring developing an operational system to detect 

marine mammals from VHR imagery. While still in the early stages, the project 

has acquired large volumes of Maxar imagery over known seasonal aggregations 

of the North Atlantic right whale, the Cook Inlet beluga whale, and bowhead 

whales from WorldView-3, WorldView-2, and GeoEye satellites. Work with Maxar’s 

GeoHive platform is being finalized to crowdsource the annotation of this imagery 

to build up a sample dataset of satellite imagery containing whales. Creating an 

extensive, standardized dataset of high-quality annotations is a precursor to successful machine learning approaches.40

Bureau of Reclamation

The Bureau of Reclamation (BOR) uses Landsat data to help monitor consumptive water use throughout the western United States. BOR analysts use Landsat 

imagery to map irrigated crops for estimating water demand and to monitor interstate and inter-basin water compact compliance. The BOR is also involved in 

ecological restoration of a number of rivers in the West. Lidar, multispectral aerial 

imagery, and sonar data are used to generate maps of topography, vegetation, and 

river channel bathymetry, which help guide restoration activities.

2022: Estimates of Evapotranspiration Along the Lower Colorado River

The Colorado River is the principal source of water for agriculture and riparian 

vegetation in Arizona, southern California, and southern Nevada. In the Lower 

Colorado River Basin, the BOR accounts for water use in each state, verifies water 

conservation programs, and fulfills other water management information needs. 

40 https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/new-england-mid-atlantic/science-data/artificial-intelligence-detectingmarine-animals-satellites
218Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

To accomplish this suite of responsibilities, BOR monitors more than 3.5 million 

acres of agricultural land, riparian vegetation, and open water areas along the 

Lower Colorado River, from Hoover Dam south to the international boundary 

with Mexico.

Four times per year, BOR performs supervised classifications on every field of 

rotational crops along the main-stem Colorado River, Imperial and Coachella 

Valleys, and Gila River. This task is conducted using a combination of multispectral satellite data (Landsat 7 and 8, Sentinel-2), aerial imagery from the National 

Agriculture Imagery Program, and ground-based field verifications. Roughly half 

of the collected verified fields are used to train the satellite imagery and determine 

the crop growing on each field for each time period. The other half of verified field 

data is used to assess the accuracy of the classifications. Fields that have static crops 

such as citrus and dates are manually mapped each year. Changes in these crops are 

identified during field verification trips and through inspection of high-resolution 

satellite imagery (primarily WorldView).

Data about the crop type and acreage, along with evapotranspiration (ET) crop 

coefficients, are then used to estimate the ET from crops within each area. Total 

ET from agricultural irrigation is typically close to three million acre-feet per year. 

The most prevalent crops by acreage are alfalfa, lettuce, Sudan grass, small grains, 

and Bermuda grass. 

BOR also maintains riparian vegetation and open water datasets to determine 

ET and evaporation from these sources. Each year, these datasets are updated using 

the best possible imagery (satellite or aerial) by performing change detection analyses. Results from these efforts are reported annually in the report “Lower Colorado 

River Annual Summary of Evapotranspiration and Evaporation.” Annual ET from 

riparian vegetation is usually more than 400,000 acre-feet, and annual evaporation 

from open water sources is more than 300,000 acre-feet.

This information assists the BOR in meeting its U.S. Supreme Court mandate to 

provide detailed and accurate records of diversions, return flows, and consumptive 

use estimates of water diverted from the main stem of the Lower Colorado River. 

This program is an example of implementing remote-sensing-based methodologies 

to meet the BOR’s water management needs.41

41 https://www.usbr.gov/lc/region/g4000/wtracct.html
219 Department of the Interior

Fish and Wildlife Service

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), in concert with its international, 

Federal, Tribal, state, local, and non-government organization (NGO) partners, 

uses many remote sensing technologies to find optimal solutions to monitor and 

manage fish and wildlife populations, habitats, waters, wetlands, and landscapes. 

The FWS utilizes acoustic GPS, as well as radio telemetry sensors on fish and 

wildlife for time and location information tied to a variety of remote sensing image 

products such as aerial and satellite optical imagery, thermal, radar, sonar, and lidar 

imagery. This time and geospatial system of imagery and location is used to map 

habitats, find invasive plants, determine flight paths of birds and bats, conduct fish 

and wildlife inventories, watch over refuge lands, and monitor trust species. 

2021: Development of an Automated and Cloud-Based Remote Sensing 

Routine for Surface Water Monitoring in Alaska Refuges

The potential for large changes in the amount and distribution of surface water 

in arctic landscapes is high given climate-induced changes in permafrost. Because 

changes in surface water have broadscale implications for the structure and function of ecosystems, understanding and tracking surface water change is a high 

priority for some Alaskan refuges. As such, the primary objective of this project is 

to build an end-to-end, scalable remote sensing infrastructure that allows for the 

efficient production of cloud-free, high-resolution composite imagery with associated surface water estimates for refuge lands across Alaska. To accomplish this 

goal, the Google Earth Engine JavaScript platform is used to script a process for 

querying, filtering, and extracting water pixels from dense stacks of multi-temporal 

and multispectral, ten-meter-resolution, Level-1C imagery from the European Space 

Agency’s Sentinel-2 mission. The team employs a cloud detection algorithm to 

mask out cloudy pixels from all available images and achieve a cloud-free composite for a given timestep and over an entire region. Surface water features are 

then extracted using an automatic image thresholding approach based on the 

Normalized Difference Water Index calculated from each composite’s green and 

near-infrared (NIR) bands. To mitigate misclassification of persistent burned areas 
220Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

and topographic shading as water, the process automatically masked out areas in 

the resulting surface water extraction that are identified as either severe burns from 

a Normalized Burn Ratio calculated from each composite’s NIR and SWIR bands 

or areas representing steep topography as observed in an InSAR-derived slope map. 

The algorithm returns a cloud-free color-infrared image composite and final surface 

water extraction for each timestep specified by the user.

To better understand the uncertainty of extracted surface water outputs, they 

are validated against ground truth water features digitized from high-resolution, 

co-occurring airborne imagery (downsampled to match target resolution) in a 

4.7-square-kilometer region of Alaska’s Tetlin National Wildlife Refuge (NWR). 

This initial validation shows a precision of 97 percent, recall of 81 percent, intersection over union of 79 percent, and overall pixel accuracy of 97 percent. The 

current methodology appears to be excluding waterbodies smaller than 2 acres. 

Future efforts will employ Sentinel-1 SAR imagery to increase the amount of usable 

Google Earth Engine outputs displaying (top left) 2016 Sentinel-2 color-infrared summer image composite in Tetlin NWR; (top right) automatic surface water extraction for 2016 summer composite; 

(bottom) surface water occurrence for summer composites (2016–2020).
221 Department of the Interior

imagery and higher-resolution commercial datasets for observations of finer-scale 

surface water dynamics. An immediate priority is to evaluate the spatiotemporal 

changes of surface water estimates observed within Tetlin NWR as an initial case 

study. This work should provide an operational workflow and a product that provides surface water estimates at temporal and spatial resolutions useful for current 

and future management and modeling efforts.

2022: Inundation Frequency Explorer: Landscape Scale Assessment Using a 

Google Earth Engine App 

In large river ecosystems, the timing, extent, duration, and frequency of floodplain inundation greatly affect the quality of fish and wildlife habitat and the 

supply of important ecosystem goods and services. Seasonal high flows provide 

connectivity from the river to the floodplain, and seasonal inundation of the 

floodplain governs ecosystem structure and function. River regulation and other 

forms of hydrologic alteration have altered the connectivity of many rivers with 

their adjacent floodplain. These changes impact the function of wetlands on 

the floodplain and, in turn, impact the mainstem river function. Conservation 

and management of remaining floodplain resources can be improved through a 

better understanding of the spatial extent and frequency of inundation at scales 

that are relevant to the species and/or ecological processes of interest. Spatial data 

products describing dynamic aspects of floodplain inundation are, however, not 

widely available. 

Google Earth Engine provides cloud-based access to a vast catalog of satellite 

imagery. Sentinel-2 imagery can be used to evaluate the extent of inundation for 

any single cloud-free image. Relative inundation frequency can then be estimated 

by stacking many images captured under varying hydrologic conditions. Details of 

this workflow have been published,42 and the results are now available online as a 

Google Earth Engine App.43 The App allows the user to analyze inundation conditions anywhere in CONUS using their own spatial and temporal specifications to 

42 https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/rra.2987

43 https://yallen.users.earthengine.app/view/inundation-frequency-explorer---sentinel-2
222Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

customize the results. With publication of the Inundation Frequency Explorer App, 

technology that was once a static product available to only a single user is now 

freely available online. 

2021: Lidar and PlanetScope Fusion to Classify Forest Types 

Mixed composition and bottomland hardwood forests are essential to maintaining imperiled songbird populations on Texas and Oklahoma National Wildlife 

Refuges (NWR). Point-count data were collected for focal songbird species on five 

refuges together with remotely sensed data to estimate densities and model habitat 

relationships. Forest vegetation was classified into general composition categories 

that may influence avian species distributions, including deciduous forest, coniferous forest, and wetland vegetation. To develop mapped categories, researchers 

used PlanetScope 4-band (red, green, blue, and near-infrared channels) analytic 

basemaps for generating monthly modified triangular vegetation index 2 (MTVI2) 

and time series MTVI2 minimum, maximum, and amplitude (that is, minimum 

to maximum) values. Laser altimetry data from airborne lidar was used to generate a canopy height model (CHM) and 3D voxel metrics associated with canopy 

leaf area index and density. All data were developed and combined at 4-meter 

pixel resolution. Classification training and test data for mapped categories were 

Monthly analytic basemap from composite PlanetScope imagery (a) and general vegetation categories mapped for the Neches River NWR (b). Analytic basemaps are corrected using radiometric 

normalization. 
223 Department of the Interior

developed from satellite and high-resolution (less than 1-meter pixels) aerial imagery. The preliminary classification model for Neches River NWR using supervised 

random forest classification trees showed good results with model accuracy ranging from 82 to 84 percent correctly classified pixels from training samples left 

“out-of-bag” with replacement. Sparse test data held out of model training yielded 

77 percent overall accuracy. The most important variable for separating coniferous 

and deciduous forest was MTVI2 coefficients of variation from a one-year growing 

season cycle and lidar CHM. Wetlands showed complex relationships to individual 

MTVI2 dates, and lidar metrics were less important for this vegetation category. 

Mapped categories provide accurate but general vegetation categories for evaluating 

habitat conditions and spatial patterns through time. Detailed classification models 

to distinguish tree species groups or wetland types will require field data or measures associated with inundation patterns to help distinguish potential composition differences. Eight-channel PlanetScope imagery aboard the recently launched 

SuperDove satellites may further aid mapping detailed vegetation categories in 

these environments.

2021: Mapping Endangered Species Potential Habitat

Nearly 1 million Attwater’s greater prairie-chickens (Tympanuchus cupido 

attwateri) once occupied 6 million acres of coastal prairie grasslands in Texas and 

Louisiana. Loss and fragmentation of habitat nearly drove this species to extinction, and it was listed as endangered in 1967. Today, two populations have been 

established in the wild through release of captive-reared birds. Establishment of 

additional populations is limited by the availability of grassland habitat, much of 

which has been degraded through invasion by woody species. 

This project identified areas of potential habitat throughout the historical range 

for consideration as additional release sites. Woody vegetation encroachment was 

assessed using the 2016 National Land Cover Database derived from Landsat imagery and the 2019 Global Forest Canopy Height layer derived from NASA Global 

Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation (GEDI) satellite-based lidar. 

The probability of use of grassland habitat by greater prairie-chickens for 

annual mating rituals (“booming grounds”) and nest sites declines sharply as tree 
224Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

canopy cover exceeds two percent. Based on this knowledge, potential habitat was 

delineated as shrub/scrub, herbaceous, or hay/pasture, with less than two percent 

canopy cover taller than three meters within one kilometer. The largest patch of 

this potential high-quality habitat consisted of 41,877 acres within Goliad County, 

Texas. Additional large patches meeting the criteria were located in Texas north of 

Anahuac National Wildlife Refuge (30,030 acres) and west of the Whitmire Unit 

of Aransas National Wildlife Refuge (16,632 acres). This assessment reaffirmed 

that Goliad County retains the greatest extent of potential high-quality habitat 

and provided a map of additional areas to evaluate for use as future release sites.44

National Park Service

The National Park Service (NPS) has a substantial investment in and a long 

history of using aerial and spaceborne remote sensing and GPS technologies. The 

NPS Inventory and Monitoring Program conducts baseline inventories for more 

than 270 parks across the Nation. Remote sensing data are a critical source of 

information regarding geology, soils, vegetation, and infrastructure. Aerial photography and satellite imagery have been utilized to compile vegetation maps, 

a monumental task given that the agency has responsibility for over 30 million 

acres. These data are particularly critical for NPS activities in Alaska because of 

its remote and vast expanses of public land and the fact that the Arctic is warming 

rapidly in response to climate change. The NPS takes advantage of the open and 

freely available Landsat archive to quantify decadal changes in glacier ice cover 

and document land cover change in national park units. The NPS has been the 

DOI’s sponsoring agency to map all large wildland and prescribed fires as part of 

the DOI Monitoring Trends in Burn Severity project, using the Landsat archive. 

GPS supports field data collection, navigation, and search and rescue operations 

conducted by the agency.

44 https://ecos.fws.gov/docs/tess/species_nonpublish/995.pdf
225 Department of the Interior

2022: Mapping 35 Years of Alaska’s Changing Glaciers

Glaciers are important sentinels of a changing climate, crucial components of 

the global cryosphere and integral to the ecosystems of their local landscapes. 

Until now, the commonly used methods for mapping glacier change were laborintensive and thus limited in temporal and spatial scope. This work addresses some 

of those limitations by developing a novel deep learning–based method called 

GlacierCoverNet, a deep neural network that relies on an extensive, purpose-built 

training dataset. Using this model, project scientists mapped glaciers at a temporal 

cadence of every two years for the state of Alaska. 

The workflow consisted of a series of algorithms that create a spectrally 

homogenous time series of optical imagery, followed by an initial classification 

of debris-free and debris-covered glacier ice using a deep neural network. The 

initial optical imagery time series was created from the Landsat archive using 

the LandTrendr algorithm run on the Google Earth Engine platform. To train 

the deep learning model, a training dataset was constructed of predictor variables 

from LandTrendr outputs, topographic information, and class labels based on the 

Randolph Glacier Inventory. 

LandTrendr data characterize changes in debris-free glaciers and supraglacial 

debris over the last 35 years.45 The deep learning model could produce maps comparable to existing approaches in the capture of areal extent but without manual 

editing. The overall model accuracy was 97 percent when compared to existing 

products with 6 and 9 percent omission and commission rates in the southern 

portion of Alaska. Overall, glacier-covered area retreated by 8,425 square kilometers (–13 percent) between 1985 and 2020, and supraglacial debris expanded by 

2,799 square kilometers (64 percent) during the same period across the state of 

Alaska. The largest net glacier loss occurred in the most heavily glaciated areas of 

southcentral Alaska. The largest changes in overall glacier-covered area occurred 

in the mid elevations of 800–2,200 meters and in the last decade as mean annual 

temperatures have increased more rapidly. 

45 https://www.fs.usda.gov/pnw/tools/landtrendr-and-timesync
226Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

2022: Monitoring of Permafrost Ice Wedge Degradation in the Arctic 

National Parks

Ice wedges, a common type of ground ice in permafrost regions, are susceptible 

to thaw and can be an early warning sign of permafrost loss. They are also responsible for much of the unique polygonal patterned ground in the Arctic. The NPS 

Arctic Inventory and Monitoring Network (ARCN) monitors ice wedges by remote 

sensing at three study areas in northern Alaska. Network scientists monitor ice 

wedge degradation by analyzing the presence and location of small ponds that form 

in depressions left behind when wedges melt. Comparison of images from around 

1950 (aerial photographs) with high-resolution satellite images from 2006–2009 

(Ikonos) and 2019–2020 (Worldview-2) showed significant degradation in one study 

area between 1950 and 2006–2009, but little new degradation in any of the areas 

between 2006–2009 and 2019–2020.46 This result was surprising given record warm 

temperatures in the study area during 2014–2019. Apparently, the recent warming 

did not force the ice wedges to cross any thresholds that would trigger immediate 

and widespread visible changes. However, new drainage channels continued to 

form by linkage of pits from previous ice-wedge degradation, and in one case this 

led to drainage of a lake.

2022: Quantifying 38 Years of Seasonal Glacier Change

Glaciers are an iconic part of the landscape in southcentral Alaska and cover 

approximately half of Kenai Fjords National Park. Glaciers play a role in local 

terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems and are one of the highlights for 

local tours. Like most glaciers in Alaska, the glaciers in Kenai Fjords have been 

shrinking. Although these changes have been documented via repeat photos and 

have been quantified in decadal and multi-decadal studies, annual changes of most 

glaciers in the fjords were previously unquantified. 

The project team developed a database of annual and, when imagery was available, seasonal terminus positions for 19 maritime glaciers in Kenai Fjords National 

Park from the last 38 years. Landsat 4–8 imagery from 1984 through 2021 was used 

46 https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/permafrost-resource-brief.htm
227 Department of the Interior

to manually map the lower glacier ice margins and to measure seasonal changes 

of each glacier. Glacier retreat rates were compared based on termination types. 

Of these glaciers, six were tidewater, three were lake-terminating, six were landterminating, and four terminated in more than one environment throughout the 

study period. The mapped ice margins were used to quantify seasonal terminus 

position and areal change, including distinguishing between ice loss at glacier 

termini and along glacier margins. Overall, 13 glaciers substantially retreated, 14 

lost substantial area, and only two underwent both net advance and area gain. 

The glaciers that had insubstantial length and area changes were predominantly 

tidewater, and the glaciers that experienced the greatest rates of change were laketerminating. Cumulatively, the lower reaches of these 19 glaciers lost 42 square 

kilometers of ice, which was nearly evenly distributed between the terminus and 

the lateral margins.

Maps of all seasonal outlines traced for the 19 glaciers in the study. The color scale ranges from purple 

as the oldest (1984) to red as the youngest (2021). Glacier reference lines are shown in white. Maps 

(a) and (n) are shown at 1:250,000 scale, and all others are at 1:100,000 scale. The base image is a 

hillshade of a DEM from a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service–led structure-from-motion data acquisition 

in 2016.
228Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

The rapid rate of glacier change and subsequent land cover changes are highly 

visible to visitors and park managers at Kenai Fjords National Park. This study 

quantifies those changes in terms of glacier length and area and highlights the 

value of continuous monitoring in dynamic landscapes such as Kenai Fjords 

National Park.

2022: Satellite Images Solve the Mystery of Water Chemistry Change in an 

Alaskan Lake

Scientists from the National Park Service had been monitoring water quality 

in a small lake in Yukon-Charley Rivers National Preserve since 2005, when they 

noticed a sudden and persistent increase in the ionic concentration beginning in 

2019. The specific conductance of the lake water increased from less than 200 

MicroSiemens per centimeter (μS/cm) in 2005–2018 to about 700 μS/cm in 2022. 

Examination of high-resolution Worldview-2 and Planet satellite images revealed 

that two small patches of dead vegetation, suspected to be new groundwater seeps, 

appeared at the foot of a slope near the lake in 2019. Field visits to the seeps 

revealed that the dead vegetation was caused by water with conductance in excess 

of 6,000 μS/cm, and flow paths to the lake confirm that the seeps are the source of 

the ions in the lake. The images also revealed that water lilies (Nuphar lutea) disappeared from the lake, coincident with the rise in conductance and in accordance 

with their known sensitivity to high ionic concentrations. The seeps probably 

formed in response to permafrost thaw that occurred due to climate warming and 

wildfires in the lake’s watershed.47

Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement

The Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement (OSMRE) remote 

sensing program provides OSMRE offices, states, and Tribes with the necessary 

tools to use remote sensing technologies to support Titles IV (Abandoned Mine 

Lands) and V (Regulation of Current Mining) of the Surface Mining Control and 

47 https://www.nps.gov/im/cakn/shallowlakes.htm
229 Department of the Interior

Reclamation Act of 1977. As part of this support, the OSMRE remote sensing program provides high-resolution satellite imagery, aerial photography, and lidar data 

to conduct analysis of terrain, vegetation, and hydrologic function on active mine 

sites to ensure reclamation is consistent with the approved mining permit. These 

data are also used to support inventory, monitoring, and assessment of abandoned 

mine land features to ensure there is no threat to the environment or to health and 

human safety.

2022: CubeSat Imagery Captured 35 Minutes Apart Shows Mining Activity

OSMRE has a contract with a CubeSat imaging company, Planet Labs, for 

access to PlanetScope SuperDove CubeSat imagery.48 The PlanetScope CubeSats 

are small, inexpensive imaging satellites about the size of a shoebox that are 

launched on a regular basis to provide electro-optical imagery of the entire Earth 

every day. At the end of their operational life of a few years, the CubeSats are 

de-orbited and replenished with new ones. As the CubeSat numbers grow, the temporal coverage grows. The spatial resolution of SuperDoves is three- to five-meter 

ground sample distance. This image below shows two scenes captured 35 minutes 

apart by two SuperDoves, of a coal mine. The left image was captured on June 

48 Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply 

endorsement by the U.S. Government.

The left image was captured on June 21, 2022, at 11:02 AM local time, and the right image was 

captured 35 minutes later at 11:37 AM. Note the changes within the yellow and white outlined areas. 

Image source: Planet Labs
230Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

21, 2022, at 11:02 AM local time, and the right image was captured at 11:37 AM 

local time. Comparing the two scenes shows active mining, demonstrated by the 

readily observed position changes of the dragline and other mining equipment. 

Note the surface change within the yellow outlined area as well as the position of 

the dragline equipment within the white outlined area. CubeSats provide temporal 

capabilities for electro-optical imaging that enhance OSMRE’s ability to observe 

mining and reclamation activities for mines that are remote and difficult to access. 

Daily imagery improves the ability of OSMRE to evaluate mining production activity as well as measure the performance of reclamation processes over time.

2022: Using Synthetic Aperture Radar and Electro-optical Images to Observe 

Critical Infrastructure on Former Coal Mines 

Electro-optical satellite imagery is available commercially in spatial resolutions 

down to 25 centimeters. However, electro-optical satellite imaging is hampered 

by clouds. OSMRE has purview of two mine sites in the state of Washington over 

which it has been difficult to obtain cloud-free imagery. OSMRE worked with the 

Civil Applications Committee to evaluate solutions for overcoming the limitations 

of electro-optical imaging by using high-resolution SAR. SAR is an active remote 

sensing system, which means it is essentially a radio-image that is not hampered 

by clouds. Knowing the physical properties and surface characteristics observable 

within the specific radio-frequency band as well as application of advanced multilooking techniques, SAR can aid in observing features that can be difficult to see 

in electro-optical imagery. OSMRE tasked a Planet Labs SkySat electro-optical collection, which was collected nearly a month later on December 29, 2021. OSMRE 

is working to incorporate more SAR products into the virtual inspection workflow, 

particularly for critical infrastructure and emergency situations. Access to both 

SAR and electro-optical helps OSMRE meet its mission requirements under the 

Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 and better prepare for climatic impacts on active, inactive, and abandoned coal mines in the United States.
231 Federal Communications Commission

Federal Communicati

Commission

FCC

The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) formulates rules to facilitate the provision of commercial satellite services in the United States. It also 

issues licenses for the deployment and operation of all non-Federal U.S. satellites. 

Internationally, the FCC coordinates satellite radio-frequency usage with other 

countries. The FCC’s activities in FY 2021 and 2022 related primarily to commercial communications satellites, including satellites providing broadband service, as 

well as experimental satellites.

The FCC took a number of significant actions in administrative rulemaking 

proceedings in FY 2021 and FY 2022, including the following: 

• On November 18, 2020, the FCC adopted revisions to its rules to streamline the authorization process for satellites and certain types of earth 

stations by creating an optional process for applicants to obtain a single 

unified license covering satellite and earth station operations.

• On November 19, 2021, the FCC proposed revisions to its rules to expand 

use of certain frequencies in the 17 GHz band by geostationary orbit satellites operating in the fixed-satellite service, and on August 3, 2022, the 

FCC adopted these revisions. The FCC adopted rules that would facilitate sharing in this frequency band between the fixed-satellite service and 

other services and alleviate the growing need for additional spectrum in 

the fixed-satellite service, enabling greater flexibility and efficiency for 

advanced satellite system operations for the benefit of American consumers. Also on August 3, 2022, the Commission sought comment on 
232Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

a proposal to expand use of certain frequencies in the 17 GHz band to 

include non-geostationary satellites operating in the fixed-satellite service.

• On December 15, 2021, the FCC proposed new rules applicable to nongeostationary orbit satellite systems operating in the fixed-satellite service. 

The FCC proposed rules that would provide additional clarity regarding 

the radiofrequency interference protection afforded to various satellite 

systems operating in the fixed-satellite service, with a goal of facilitating 

deployment of systems capable of providing broadband and other services 

on a global basis and promoting competition among systems, including 

market entry of new competitors.

• On August 8, 2022, the FCC initiated a new proceeding concerning space 

innovation, in particular seeking comment on the opportunities and 

challenges of in-space servicing, assembly, and manufacturing (ISAM) 

activities. The FCC sought information on the status of ISAM capabilities, how the FCC can support its sustainable development, and what 

tangible economic and societal benefits may result from development of 

these capabilities.

• On September 29, 2022, the FCC adopted revisions to its orbital 

debris mitigation rules requiring operators of commercial, experimental, and amateur satellites in low-Earth orbit to dispose of satellites 

within five years following completion of their mission. This revision 

updates the prior benchmark of 25 years for low-Earth orbit satellite 

post-mission disposal.

During FY 2021 and 2022, the FCC issued rulings facilitating the deployment 

and operations of several non-geostationary systems designed to provide and support communications services, including high-speed broadband, the “Internet of 

Things,” and connectivity for cellular devices. These rulings include the following:

• On January 8, 2021, and April 23, 2021, the FCC granted a request from 

Space Exploration Holdings, LLC (SpaceX), for modification of its authorization for a non-geostationary orbit constellation utilizing Ku- and Ka-band 

spectrum in order to slightly reduce the number of satellites in the constellation, modify the operational altitude specified for a portion of the constellation from the 1,100–1,300 kilometer range to the 540–570 kilometer range, 
233 Federal Communications Commission

and modify certain other technical parameters. The FCC also approved, 

subject to conditions, SpaceX’s plan for satellite orbital debris mitigation. 

• On November 2, 2021, the FCC authorized The Boeing Company to construct, deploy, and operate a new non-geostationary orbit satellite system 

consisting of up to 132 satellites operating at an altitude of approximately 

1,056 kilometers and 15 satellites in a highly inclined orbit operating at 

altitudes between approximately 27,355 and 44,221 kilometers, utilizing 

the Ka-band and V-band. The Boeing Company would provide broadband 

and communications services to residential, commercial, institutional, 

governmental, and professional users in the United States and globally.

• On November 18, 2021, the FCC issued a ruling outlining the conditions 

under which Kinéis can obtain a license for earth stations in the United 

States, including Internet of Things devices, to communicate with its 

constellation of up to 25 satellites authorized by France.

• On September 16, 2022, the FCC authorized Lynk Global, Inc., to deploy 

and operate a constellation of ten non-geostationary, low-Earth orbit 

satellites that would provide satellite connectivity for cellular devices in 

certain areas outside of the United States.

The FCC also granted authority for the operations of non-geostationary satellites, including small satellites, in low-Earth orbit for remote sensing and other 

activities. Specifically:

• On October 8, 2020, the FCC authorized Loft Orbital Solutions Inc. to 

construct, deploy, and operate one non-geostationary orbit satellite to be 

known as YAM-2, at an altitude of approximately 550 kilometers, to conduct imaging and experimental operations.

• On October 9, 2020, the FCC authorized Astro Digital US, Inc., to operate its non-geostationary orbit remote sensing Landmapper BC-5 satellite 

using additional frequencies and also modified certain license conditions.

• On December 17, 2020, the FCC authorized Capella Space Corp. to 

construct, deploy, and operate a low-Earth orbit, non-geostationary orbit 

satellite, at an altitude of approximately 525 kilometers, for the purpose of 

conducting Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) imaging. The FCC authorized Capella Space Corp. to construct, deploy, and operate additional 
234Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

satellites to operate in its constellation on May 4, 2021, December 15, 

2021, and May 11, 2022.

• On December 18, 2020, the FCC authorized R2 Space, Inc., to construct, 

deploy, and operate one low-Earth orbit, non-geostationary orbit satellite, 

at an altitude of approximately 550 kilometers, for the purpose of conducting SAR imaging.

• On May 24, 2021, the FCC authorized Loft Orbital Solutions Inc. to 

construct, deploy, and operate one non-geostationary orbit satellite to 

be known as YAM-3, at an altitude of approximately 525 kilometers, to 

conduct imaging and experimental operations.

• On December 13, 2021, the FCC authorized Umbra Lab Inc. to construct, 

deploy, and operate two satellites as part of a constellation of low-Earth 

orbit, non-geostationary orbit satellites for purposes of conducting SAR 

imaging. On March 28, 2022, the FCC authorized Umbra Lab LLC 

to construct, deploy, and operate the remaining four satellites in its 

constellation. 

• On December 2, 2021, the FCC authorized ICEYE US, Inc., to deploy and 

operate a low-Earth orbit satellite, deployed to an altitude of approximately 

550 kilometers, for the purpose of conducting SAR imaging. On April 21, 

2022, the FCC authorized deployment and operation of two additional 

ICEYE US, Inc., satellites, and on August 4, 2022, the FCC authorized an 

additional satellite as part of the ICEYE US, Inc., satellite constellation. 

• On May, 11, 2022, the FCC authorized Spaceflight, Inc., to deploy and 

operate a spacecraft known as Sherpa-AC1, deployed to an altitude of 

approximately 550 kilometers, for a period of up to one year, with operations including demonstration of a space-based position, navigation, and 

timing signal.

In FY 2021 and FY 2022, the FCC authorized a number of other commercial 

communications satellite deployments and operations. These authorizations 

included the following:

• June 17, 2021: To Intelsat License LLC, as debtor-in-possession, to construct, deploy, and operate a C-band satellite to be located at the longitude 121.0° west orbit location.
235 Federal Communications Commission

• October, 21, 2021: To Intelsat License LLC, as debtor-in-possession, to 

construct, deploy, and operate a C-band satellite to be located at the longitude 129.0o west orbit location.

• February 28, 2022: To Intelsat License LLC, to construct, deploy, and 

operate a C- and Ku-band satellite to be located at the longitude 91.0o 

west orbit location.

• March 14, 2022: To SES Americom, Inc., to construct, deploy, and operate 

four C-band replacement satellites: SES-18 at the longitude 131o west orbit 

location, SES-19 at the longitude 103.05o west orbit location, SES-20 at 

the longitude 135o west orbit location, and SES-21 at the 103.05o west 

orbit location. 

• June 16, 2022: To SES Americom, Inc., to deploy, test, and operate an 

additional C-band satellite to be located at the longitude 135o west orbit 

location.

In addition to these commercial operations, the FCC continued to grant 

applications for experimental operations by non-Federal satellites. Many of the 

experimental grants were to universities and institutions conducting research and 

developing new spacecraft technologies. The satellites’ missions include activities 

ranging from remote sensing missions to missions testing the performance of certain technologies in space, such as hyperspectral imaging, satellite deployers, and 

propulsion systems. 

The FCC also granted authority for several Earth stations in the United States 

to communicate with the Astroscale Ltd. ELSA-d spacecraft, operated under the 

authority of the United Kingdom. The ELSA-d spacecraft is designed to conduct 

demonstrations of rendezvous operations and debris removal in space. 

In FY 2021 and FY 2022, the FCC granted several license modifications and 

special temporary authority authorizations for satellite networks. Many involved 

routine testing or redeployment of satellites with a multi-satellite system. Several of 

these actions warrant particular mention:

• On December 14, 2020, the FCC granted the request of Hawkeye 

360, Inc., for modification of the license for its low-Earth orbit nongeostationary orbit satellite system to reflect changes to satellite antennas 

for sensing operations. On May 5, 2021, the FCC granted another license 
236Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

modification to Hawkeye 360, Inc., to reflect further changes to the satellite antennas and updates to the satellite propulsion system.

• On October 30, 2020, May 14, 2021, and January 10, 2022, the FCC 

granted the request of Spire Global, Inc., for modification of the grant 

of market access for its non-geostationary satellite orbit MINAS satellites to permit deployment of additional satellites, operating under the 

authority of Luxembourg. Also on October 30, 2020, and May 14, 2021, 

the FCC granted Spire Global, Inc.’s request for modification of its 

non-geostationary orbit LEMUR constellation to permit deployment of 

additional satellites. 

• On December 7, 2020, and July 1, 2021, the FCC granted the request 

of Swarm Technologies, Inc., for modification of the license for its nongeostationary satellite constellation to reflect technical changes to the 

satellites, including addition of a propulsion system.

• On May 28, 2021, the FCC granted special temporary authority to 

Spaceflight, Inc., to deploy and operate two non-geostationary orbit spacecraft, known as the Sherpa-FX2 and Sherpa-LTE1. The FCC authorized 

the Sherpa-FX2 to operate for a period of less than 24 hours to deploy up 

to 25 spacecraft. The FCC authorized the Sherpa-LTE1 to operate for a 

period of up to 180 days in order to deploy up to 10 spacecraft and conduct 

additional testing. The FCC extended special temporary authority for the 

Sherpa-LTE1 on July 21, 2022, for an additional 180 days, and again on 

November 3, 2022, for an additional 180 days. 

• On May 28, 2021, the FCC granted Astro Digital US, Inc.’s request for 

modification of its license to permit the launch and operation of two additional satellites for technology demonstration missions.

• On December 20, 2021, the FCC granted special temporary authority 

to Spaceflight, Inc., to deploy and operate a spacecraft, known as the 

Sherpa-LTC1, for up to 180 days, including to deploy up to ten spacecraft 

and for communications during additional testing and de-orbit.

• On March 2, 2022, the FCC granted special temporary authority to 

Spaceflight, Inc., to deploy and operate a non-geostationary satellite, 
237 Federal Communications Commission

known as the Sherpa-FX5, to deploy eight spacecraft over a period not to 

exceed 36 hours.

• On April 8, 2022, the FCC granted the request of Maxar License Inc. for 

modification to update the orbital parameters for its non-geostationary 

orbit WorldView-Legion satellite constellation, which will conduct remote 

sensing operations. 

• On April 28, 2022, the FCC granted special temporary authority to 

Momentus Space LLC to deploy and operate a spacecraft known as 

Vigoride-3 for a period of up to 180 days in order to deploy up to nine 

spacecraft. On June 9, 2022, July 13, 2022, August 17, 2022, and September 

15, 2022, the FCC granted special temporary authority to Momentus 

Space LLC to operate the Vigoride-3 using additional frequencies in order 

to recover communications following a satellite anomaly.

• On August 18, 2022, the FCC granted special temporary authority to 

Intelsat License LLC to conduct operations with the Galaxy 15 satellite 

outside of its previously assigned longitude due to a satellite anomaly. 

The FCC also added non-U.S.-licensed space stations to its permitted list to 

allow the space station to provide satellite service to U.S. earth stations that have 

routine technical parameters. These include the following: 

• On November 10, 2021, the FCC added Telesat Canada’s ANIK F1 satellite to the permitted list, operating under the authority of Canada and 

using the Ka-band at the longitude 109.2° west orbit location. 

• On February 3, 2022, the FCC added Astranis Bermuda Ltd.’s Arcturus 

satellite to the permitted list, operating under the authority of Bermuda 

and using the Ku-band at the longitude 163° west orbit location.

• On March 3, 2022, the FCC added Embratel TVSAT Telecomunicações 

S.A.’s Star One C4 satellite to the permitted list, operating under the 

authority of Brazil and using the Ku-band at the longitude 70o west orbit 

location. The grant was subsequently surrendered on March 31, 2022. 

• On March 10, 2022, the FCC added Hispamar Satelites, S.A.’s Amazonas 

Nexus satellite to the permitted list, operating under the authority of 

Brazil and using the Ka- and Ku-bands at the longitude 61.0° west orbit 

location. 
238Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

• On May 3, 2022, the FCC added Avanti Hylas 2 Ltd.’s HYLAS-4 satellite to the permitted list, operating under the authority of the United 

Kingdom and using the Ka-band at the longitude 35.5° west orbit location. 

• On October 6, 2022, the FCC added Embratel TVSAT Telecomunicações 

S.A.’s Star One D2 satellite to the permitted list, operating under the 

authority of Brazil and using the Ku-band at the longitude 70° west orbit 

location. 
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U.S. Departme

Agricult

USDA

USDA’s mission is to provide “leadership on food, agriculture, natural resources, 

rural development, nutrition, and related issues based on public policy, the best 

available science, and effective management.” The statement indicates that the 

organization seeks the best strategies to induce growth and progress in all the areas 

that it oversees.

Remotely sensed data and derived information directly support mission-critical 

work of the USDA. A wide variety of data and technology, including aerial and 

satellite imagery, high-quality elevation data, uncrewed vehicles, and ground-based 

collections validated with GPS, are used in daily operations that impact mission 

elements including forest fire management, pandemic response, conservation, 

climate change resilience, smart agriculture, rural development, invasive species 

eradication, emergency response, carbon sequestration, greenhouse gas management, food safety, and food security. 

Agricultural Research Service

The Agricultural Research Service (ARS) is the intramural research branch 

for USDA involved with Earth science, environmental monitoring, spaceflight, 

and advanced analytics. For many years, ARS has been integral to the calibration 

and validation of Earth science products, including soil moisture, evapotranspiration, land cover, and drought status data products. Research undertaken by the 

Long Term Agroecosystem Research Network has supported field experimentation 
240Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

and remote sensing calibration and validation for satellites like the Soil Moisture 

Active Passive (SMAP) mission. ARS scientists collaborated with NASA on field 

experimentation to develop algorithms for retrieval of cropland coverage and soil 

moisture data for satellites in development, including the NASA-ISRO Synthetic 

Aperture Radar (NISAR) mission, set to launch in 2024. ARS scientists served on 

multiple satellite science teams, including those for SMAP, NISAR, Ecostress, and 

Landsat, providing invaluable expertise in agricultural monitoring and interpretation. In FY 2021 and FY 2022, the SMAP Validation Experiment 2019–2022 was 

led by ARS to improve the retrieval of soil moisture data over mixed agriculture/

forest landscapes, like those found along the eastern seaboard of the United States.

ARS, in collaboration with NASA’s Applied Sciences Water Resources Program 

under the GRAPEX project, has generated vegetation indices using the harmonized Landsat and Sentinel-2 data product for study sites across several states, 

including California, Michigan, Oklahoma, and Wyoming, to support grape and 

grazing projects. Crop emergence dates were estimated on a biweekly basis during 

the growing season, for the five Corn Belt states at a 30 m resolution and delivered to the National Agricultural Statistical Service for state-level crop progress 

reports. ARS generated daily evapotranspiration products over the Continental 

United States using GOES thermal imagery in combination with other visible and 

near-infrared satellite products. These were downscaled to field scale (~30 m) and 

contributed to the OpenET (EvapoTranspiration) project. 

ARS scientists also used satellite data to map historical and near-real-time rangeland conditions in the Central Great Plains to generate robust models and to track 

the dynamic nature of herbaceous biomass, forage quality, and fractional ground 

cover at sub-pasture scales.

Another contribution of note is the study and development of microgreens 

to improve the diets of astronauts on the ISS with fresh food. ARS scientists in 

Beltsville, Maryland, have been working on improving the growth and nutritional 

value of these microgreens, with space-based testing on the horizon.

Carbon monitoring is also a focus of research, with ARS leading an effort to 

provide continental-scale tillage and carbon storage products that will inform 

assessments of crop yield and conservation. The basis of this monitoring is a combination of remote sensing observations, models, and ground-based monitoring 
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throughout the United States. This work includes studies on carbon modeling and 

land surface flux based on data from in situ sensors and space-based instruments 

on the Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2 and -3 missions. 

To improve these collaborations, a Memorandum of Understanding was established between USDA and NASA in 2020, with annual meetings being held each 

spring to update the various agencies on the collaborations that are happening, as 

well as providing a forum for new partnerships to develop. ARS has served as the 

organizational leader for this endeavor. ARS serves as the primary point of contact 

for USDA on Earth observations with respect to NASA collaborations, including 

serving on the interagency U.S. Group on Earth Observations (USGEO) and the 

current Earth Observation Assessment Working Group.

National Agricultural Statistics Service

As the statistical agency for USDA and an official source of comprehensive 

information, National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS) data are used to 

support research, education, and advocacy for the future of agriculture throughout 

the country. 

The NASS used remote sensing data to construct and sample area frames for 

agricultural statistical surveys; estimate crop area and yield; monitor crop condition, area, and soil moisture via data-visualizations; impute for survey non-response; 

and provide geospatial data products and disaster assessments for hurricanes, wildfires, and disaster events. NASS used Landsat imagery, digital NAIP imagery, and 

other remotely sensed inputs for the conterminous United States (CONUS) to 

select the yearly area-based samples for the 2021 and 2022 June Area Survey and 

the 2022 Census of Agriculture. In addition, NASS finished updating a new areabased sampling frame for Louisiana and Puerto Rico.

The remote sensing acreage estimation program used satellite imagery from the 

Landsat 8 and 9 and Sentinel-2 A and B missions to produce crop acreage estimates 

for crops at state and county levels. Remote sensing–based acreage indications for 

all states were derived from the Cropland Data Layer (CDL) for all market-sensitive 

crops. The NASS Agricultural Statistics Board (ASB) utilized the remote sensing 

acreage indications as independent input for setting official estimates for monthly 
242Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

crop production reports. In addition, NASS distributed the CDL for 48 states to 

stakeholders for the 2020 and 2021 crop seasons via the USDA Geospatial Data 

Gateway, CroplandCROS, and CropScape.

1

NASS, working cooperatively with USDA/ARS, brought a newly developed website called CroplandCROS online in 2021. Both CroplandCROS and CropScape 

continued to provide data users with access to a variety of geospatial resources and 

information, including all historical CDL data, derivative cultivated data-layer, and 

crop-frequency data-layer products. These web applications offer advanced tools 

such as interactive visualization, web-based data dissemination, and geospatial queries. They deliver crop-specific land-cover data and visualization tools directly to 

the agricultural community via a web browser without needing specialized expertise or GIS software.

In 2021, NASS developed new 30-meter crop-type prediction layers and corresponding entropy (uncertainty) layers derived from historic CDLs using machine 

learning techniques. The new geospatial products are called Predictive CDLs 

(PCDLs). In 2021, the new PCDLs were produced for 12 major corn production 

states. The PCDLs were added to a tool used by NASS statisticians for manual 

imputation and editing of farmer reports during the June Area Survey, NASS’s 

largest annual survey. In 2022, the PCDLs were produced for the 48 conterminous 

states and made available for internal use for the June Area Survey.

In FY 2021 and FY 2022, geospatial decision-support data products were delivered for disaster inundation and wildfire assessments to assess impacts on agriculture from Hurricanes Delta and Zeta (October 2020), Delta Regional Flooding 

(June 2021), Western U.S. Drought and Extreme Heat Event (July/August 2021), 

Hurricane Ida (August 2021), Kansas Wildfires (December 2021), Kentucky 

Tornadoes (December 2021), Texas Wildfires (March 2022), Midwest Flooding 

(July/August 2022), and Hurricanes Fiona and Ian (September 2022). The products 

included crop and pastureland inundation assessments, estimated precipitation 

totals, impacted crop acreage maps and tables, and wind swaths or surface winds 

overlaid onto crop areas over impacted areas.2 This information was used to assess 

1 https://croplandcros.scinet.usda.gov and https://nassgeodata.gmu.edu/CropScape

2 https://www.nass.usda.gov/Research_and_Science/Disaster-Analysis/
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U.S. Department of Agricultu

real-time storm inundation or wildfire impact over crop and pasturelands and 

shared with both USDA and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA).

NASS utilized NASA MODIS NDVI and the NASA Global Inventory 

Modeling and Mapping Studies (GIMMS) Global Agricultural Monitoring application for modeling corn and soybean yield estimates covering the 16 largest corn 

and 11 largest soybean production states. Updated yield estimates were delivered 

operationally to the ASB as an independent indication for setting official August, 

September, and October yield estimates by state and county.

The web-based national vegetation condition geospatial portal VegScape

continued to deliver timely crop condition vegetation indices based on MODIS 

daily, weekly, and biweekly products throughout the growing season.3 VegScape 

showed crop condition/vegetation greenness and drought anomaly assessments. 

Additionally, NASS continued monitoring the ongoing California drought, providing monthly growing-season CDL-based fallowed-land estimates for California 

water resource stakeholders.

CropCASMA was publicly released on April 1, 2021, providing both volumetric and categorical topsoil and subsoil moisture from the NASA SMAP mission.4

The development of CropCASMA originated from a NASA Western Water 

Applications Office Grant titled “Higher Spatial and Temporal Resolution Soil 

Moisture Product,” for FY 2018–FY 2021 (Grant # NNG18JA25P). CropCASMA 

was used to assess excessive heat and drought events as well as regional flooding based on observed soil moisture. For example, CropCASMA was used for 

nine weekly assessments of the Western U.S. Drought and Extreme Heat Event 

between July and August 2021 and posted on the NASS Disaster Analysis website.

5

 CropCASMA was customized to deliver daily and weekly updates based on 

the NASS crop reporting period of Monday through Sunday. The Arkansas and 

California Regional Field Offices now incorporate CropCASMA percentages of 

soil moisture into their weekly Crop Progress and Condition Reports.

3 https://nassgeodata.gmu.edu/VegScape

4 https://nassgeo.csiss.gmu.edu/CropCASMA/

5 https://www.nass.usda.gov/Research_and_Science/Disaster-Analysis/2021/index.php#Western_US_

Drought
244Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Research efforts began on the NASA AIST grant titled “Digital Twin 

Infrastructure Model for Agricultural Applications” during late FY 2022. The purpose of this project is to develop a digital twin infrastructure by integrating land/

hydrology process models, agricultural models, and remote sensing information to 

develop an agricultural productivity modeling system over CONUS. The predicted 

county-level yield will potentially provide complementary information to in-season 

NASS Crop Production reporting.

Risk Management Agency

The USDA’s Risk Management Agency (RMA), created in 1996, serves 

America’s agricultural producers through effective, market-based risk management tools to strengthen the economic stability of agricultural producers and rural 

communities. RMA manages the Federal Crop Insurance Corporation to provide 

innovative crop insurance products to America’s farmers and ranchers. Geospatial 

systems and data, including space-based remote sensing systems, have played a 

fundamental role in RMA’s program delivery, particularly in the compliance and 

oversight program areas.

Through crop insurance, RMA provided assistance to farmers and ranchers 

impacted by natural disasters, including hurricanes and fires. In FY 2021 and 

FY 2022, RMA used remote sensing data from Landsat, Sentinel-2, MODIS, and 

others, as well as high-resolution aerial and satellite imagery. Many of these imagery products were collected because of the USDA’s interagency coordination.

RMA incorporated many different geospatial decision-support products that 

have been provided to the USDA and RMA leadership for situational awareness. 

These products help mitigate many natural disasters that have significant impacts 

to agricultural areas that use crop insurance. The products included impacted 

program estimates; estimated precipitation; and natural-disaster extents for flood 

events, hurricanes, and wildfires. Ortho-imagery, elevation data, and GPS information were essential geospatial data integrated into RMA program applications. 

RMA offices used geospatial data daily to support crop insurance.

RMA staff were active participants in science teams, such as the USDA Soil 

Moisture Working Group, and the USGEO Earth Observation Assessment. As an 
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operational user of remote sensing products, RMA’s participation in these working groups provided insight to scientists in developing applications that benefit 

crop insurance delivery and oversight, as well as benefiting farmers and ranchers 

across America.

In addition, RMA often partnered with scientists and researchers to develop 

products to meet agency business needs on integrating satellite imagery for enhancing program integrity models.

Foreign Agricultural Service

The Foreign Agricultural Service’s Global Market Analysis (FAS/GMA) serves 

as a major source of objective and reliable global agricultural production information to the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) monthly World Agricultural 

Supply and Demand Estimates (WASDE) report, the primary source of the USDA’s 

global commodity outlook. The monthly WASDE report provides public access to 

information affecting world food security and is crucial to decisions affecting U.S. 

agriculture, trade policy, and food aid. FAS/GMA uses satellite imagery at regional, 

national, and subnational scales to operationally monitor and analyze monthly 

changes in global crop production. FAS archives and displays global monthly crop 

production, supply, and distribution (PSD) data from the USDA’s WASDE report 

on the FAS PSD Online website.6

During FY 2021 and FY 2022, the International Production Assessment Division 

(IPAD) operated the remote sensing program at FAS/GMA. FAS/IPAD is an operational user of remotely sensed imagery for estimating seasonal crop yield and area 

and displayed global imagery products on several application web sites. Global 

crop conditions and relative crop yields were primarily monitored and measured 

by NASA’s MODIS sensors onboard the Aqua and Terra satellites. Crop type and 

crop area were primarily mapped and estimated from Landsat 7 and 8 and Sentinel 

2A and 2B satellite imagery. 

6 https://apps.fas.usda.gov/psdonline/app/index.html#/app/home
246Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

FAS/GMA is also the host for Crop Explorer,

7 12 Commodity Explorers,8

 and 

the Global Agricultural and Disaster Assessment System (GADAS)9 web application systems. Crop Explorer allowed public users to monitor and analyze seasonal 

rainfall over global croplands and extreme temperatures that may cause crop 

damage. The 12 Commodity Explorers web apps are crop-specific and monitored 

Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) crop conditions over global croplands for corn, wheat, rice, cotton, soybeans, barley, palm oil, rapeseed, sorghum, 

sunflower seeds, peanuts, and millet. GADAS is a state-of-the-art geographic 

information system that displays numerous Earth observation data streams from 

NASA, NOAA, and other agencies, with GIS tools and cropland datasets to support agricultural and disaster assessment analysis. 

FAS/GMA also maintained several public global agricultural datasets that were 

processed, archived, and displayed from a variety of satellite imagery products. The 

USDA-NASA Global Agricultural Monitoring (GLAM)10 and Global Reservoir 

and Lake Monitor (G-REALM)11 web systems are hosted and operated by NASA’s 

Goddard Space Flight Center and display time series satellite data and products 

over global croplands and major inland water bodies. The GLAM-NDVI-MODIS 

web interface system compares current vegetation conditions with past years by utilizing NDVI satellite imagery from NASA’s MODIS-Terra and MODIS-Aqua satellite systems. In addition, G-REALM monitors and displays reservoir and lake water 

heights by utilizing satellite radar altimeter data from NASA’s Ocean Topography 

Experiment/Poseidon, Jason-1, Jason-2, and Jason-3 satellites.

Farm Service Agency

The Farm Service Agency (FSA) administers several safety net, price support, conservation, disaster assistance, and loan programs as laid out by Congress 

through a network of Federal, state, and county offices. Land-based information 

7 https://ipad.fas.usda.gov/cropexplorer/

8 https://ipad.fas.usda.gov/cropexplorer/cropview/

9 https://geo.fas.usda.gov/GADAS/index.html

10 http://glam1.gsfc.nasa.gov/

11 https://ipad.fas.usda.gov/cropexplorer/global_reservoir/
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has always played a fundamental role in daily operations and administration of 

those programs. FSA used a diverse set of remotely sensed data, typically from 

traditional aerial images, to support a wide variety of agency activities, including 

efforts to record producer-reported crop plantings. 

FSA did not directly operate any crewed aircraft or drones this past reporting 

period; however, it did issue several remote sensing contracts to acquire airborne 

imagery that required the use of the National Airspace System (NAS). The main 

contracts supported orthorectified imagery collection for the National Agriculture 

Imagery Program (NAIP). NAIP is a multi-department-funded program that provides current high-resolution imagery of CONUS, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and U.S. 

Virgin Islands into the public domain. The NAIP imagery is collected every two 

years for CONUS and every four years for Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and U.S. Virgin 

Islands. NAIP is used by nearly all civilian Federal agencies as a base layer in their 

geographic information system (GIS) to support a wide variety of activities, such 

as conservation and land management. Complete border-to-border coverage under 

NAIP requires broad access to restricted and other special-use airspace. Data from 

several military areas are not typically collected due to national security concerns. 

In 2022, imagery for Edwards Air Force Base, California; Vandenberg Space Force 

Base, California; Fort Bragg, North Carolina; and Nevada Test and Training 

Range, Nevada, were not collected due to restricted airspace.

In 2022, FSA used high-resolution aerial and satellite imagery as well as satellite 

data to support disaster recovery programs, including Emergency Farm Loans and 

the Emergency Conservation Programs, on an ad hoc basis. In addition to the 

civilian-managed space-based systems, FSA received imagery from the National 

Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) through Maxar’s Global Enhanced 

GEOINT Delivery (G-EGD) (formerly known as Digital Globe’s Enhanced View 

Web Hosting Service), along with Maxar’s VIVID Web Map Service. FSA also provided geospatial decision-support products to FSA leadership for situational awareness during natural disasters. The products included impacted program estimates, 

estimated precipitation, and natural disaster extents for flood events, tornadoes, 

hurricanes, and wildfires. 

FSA uses Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT) equipment to collect, 

update, and maintain data for agency programs. Some of these uses include the 
248Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

following: Common Land Unit data, compliance programs, ground control points, 

disaster support, and conservation programs. The data may be a single point or 

an area. Support data such as photographs and attribute information may also be 

included. Funding, administration, training, and maintenance of the PNT equipment and software are largely done by FSA at the national level with extensive 

coordination and involvement of the FSA state personnel. Coordination, research, 

joint acquisition, and other involvement also occurs with NRCS, FPAC, and at 

times other government agencies. Almost all of the data collection and use of the 

equipment are done by FSA state and service center personnel. Major equipment 

and/or software acquisitions by FSA have occurred in 2001, 2014, 2019, and 2021, 

with additional acquisitions planned for 2023 and beyond. 

Forest Service

As the primary forestry agency of the United States and the largest agency in 

the USDA, the U.S. Forest Service (USFS) continues to sustain the health, diversity, and productivity of the Nation’s forests and grasslands. This work encompasses 

partnerships with states, tribes, and other Federal agencies to address forestry and 

natural resource issues; administration and management of 155 national forests and 

20 national grasslands collectively known as National Forest System (NFS) lands, 

totaling 193 million acres (146 million forested); and assistance in the stewardship 

of approximately 620 million acres of additional forest lands by other Federal, state, 

Tribal, and community forest agencies and private land owners.

In FY 2021 and FY 2022, the USFS collaborated with NASA, NOAA, the 

USGS, other agencies, and other external agency partners and cooperators to apply 

operational satellite and airborne imagery and the most advanced remote sensing 

and geospatial technologies. 

Specific accomplishments included the following: 

• Within the Applied Earth Observations Innovation Partnership 

(AEIOP),12 the Forest Service co-hosted a series of monthly webinars during the fall and winter of 2021–2022 to highlight available Earth 

12 https://pikesmeetings.wixsite.com/aeoip
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observation missions and data, demonstrate the utility of Earth observation data to address land management needs, and share successful applications of Earth observations into operational land management decision 

making. 

• The AEOIP hosted a virtual workshop: Integrating Remote Sensing Data for 

Land Management Decision-Making in March 2022. The workshop enabled 

participants to build connections across the research-to-applications 

spectrum with subject matter experts from a variety of Federal agencies 

and other affiliations, and continued partnership efforts to promote interagency collaboration within the Earth Observations (EO) applications 

field. The workshop included interactive panels and guided discussion sessions that addressed ways to improve research-to-operations pathways and 

highlighted new tools and techniques to promote NASA EO data uptake. 

The overarching goal of the workshop was to foster improved communication and collaboration between data providers and data users.

• Partnered with NASA to provide comprehensive Earth Observing System 

Terra and Aqua MODIS and Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership 

(Suomi NPP) and NOAA-20 VIIRS near-real-time imagery and active 

fire data for the United States and Canada. This partnership included 

efforts to provide a web portal to visualize and disseminate these data. 

Additional efforts included 1) coordination with partners to develop and 

integrate ultra-real-time MODIS and VIIRS active fire detection data, 

which provides fire detection data within one to two minutes of satellite 

observation; 2) integration of low-latency imagery and data products at 

relatively higher spatial resolution, such as true- and false-color composite 

Harmonized Landsat Sentinel-2 imagery and Landsat active fire detection data; 3) optimization and integration of near-real-time harmonized 

geostationary active fire detection data from GOES 16/17 ABI, Himawari 

AHI, and Meteosat SEVIRI; and 4) inclusion of near-real-time geocolor 

GOES imagery. Provided and disseminated operational near-real-time fire 

mapping and geospatial data products to fire managers and the public.

• Collaborated with the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Terrestrial 

Information Systems Laboratory/Direct Readout Laboratory to complete 
250Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

the development of a NASA-hosted computing platform to serve Forest 

Service operational needs for near-real-time satellite data processing; strategic Active Fire Mapping processing, analysis, and product generation; 

and forest disturbance monitoring and damage mapping. This operational 

platform, the Fire Information for Resource Management System Fire 

Map, allows online users to view near-real-time fire vector data within 

approximately three hours of satellite overpass and raster imagery within 

four to five hours.13 Also available for download on this site is the full 

archive of global active fire detections from MODIS and VIIRS. 

• Utilized MODIS and Landsat imagery to conduct coarse-level forest 

damage assessments for large geographic areas of the continental United 

States in the immediate aftermath of significant forest disturbance events 

(e.g., hurricanes, tornadoes). This strategic information supported the 

agency in targeting areas for fuels management activities and/or areas 

where higher-resolution forest damage assessments are required.

• Continued coordination with NASA Ames Research Center to upgrade 

the Automated Modular Sensor (AMS) electronics and sensor components and further develop the AMS firmware and software for use on 

USFS aircraft.

• Operationally applied Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM), 

Landsat 8/9 Operational Land Imager (OLI), and Sentinel 2 imagery 

to respond to 224 requests to map the location, extent, and severity of 

large wildfires amounting to more than 9.2 million acres in FY 2021 and 

FY 2022. These rapid-response products support post-fire emergency stabilization/hazard mitigation activities conducted by Forest Service Burned 

Area Emergency Response (BAER) teams. 

• Operationally applied Landsat 7 ETM, Landsat 8/9 OLI, and Sentinel 2 

imagery to map and estimate post-fire basal area loss and canopy cover 

loss for 208 large wildfires totaling more than ten million acres in FY 2021 

and FY 2022. These products support forest restoration planning management activities and efficient use of resources to support those activities.

13 https://firms.modaps.eosdis.nasa.gov/
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• Continued to operationally apply Landsat 4/5 Thematic Mapper (TM), 

Landsat 7 ETM, Landsat 8/9 OLI, and Sentinel 2 imagery to inventory, 

map, and characterize historical large fires to assess the effectiveness 

of national fire management policies as part of the Monitoring Trends 

in Burn Severity (MTBS) project. MTBS mapping activities through 

FY 2021 and FY 2022 included the completion of more than 6,400 new 

and/or revised fire mappings, increasing the extent of the historical MTBS 

data record to include 29,533 fires covering more than 205 million acres 

of burned lands. 

• Coordinated with NASA and the USGS to implement the Landsat active 

fire detection algorithm and the operational production of active fire 

detection data at the USGS EROS Data Center. Operational production 

covers all of CONUS, southern Canada, and northern Mexico. The value 

of this product is greatly enhanced by USGS EROS efforts to provide 

near-real-time Landsat 8 and Landsat 9 OLI imagery within 20 minutes 

of satellite overpass.

• Continued technical collaboration activities between the USFS and 

NASA Ames Research Center regarding the exchange, technology 

transfer, and implementation of relevant NASA, Forest Service, and 

commercial technologies, capabilities, and emerging data sources. These 

collaboration activities supported crewed and uncrewed airborne remote 

sensing activities in the USFS and interagency community through the 

Tactical Fire Remote Sensing Advisory Committee. 

• Used imagery from Landsat 8 OLI and the USDA National Agriculture 

Imagery Program (NAIP) to initiate, complete, and update mid-level vegetation mapping, riparian mapping, land cover change, and FSVeg spatial 

update products for national forest lands and adjacent land areas throughout the country. Mapped areas included 12 National Forests encompassing 

approximately 25 million acres.

• Worked toward publishing tree canopy cover data updates for 2019/2021 

for the contiguous United States, interior Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, 

and the Virgin Islands, using imagery from Landsat and NAIP.
252Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

• Used Landsat TM/ETM/OLI and NAIP imagery in conjunction with 

other core geospatial datasets to conduct ecological land-type associations and soil-type mapping on NFS lands in the northeast and western 

United States, which the USFS, Natural Resources Conservation 

Service, and other agencies apply to resource management, planning, and 

decision making.

• Completed and delivered a comprehensive and consistent land-cover/

land-use monitoring system, the Landscape Change Monitoring System

(LCMS), for the continental United States. LCMS utilizes Landsat TM/

ETM/OLI time-series stacks within Google Earth Engine to detect and 

monitor land-cover/land-use change from the mid-1980s to the present 

across all U.S. administrative ownerships, including CONUS, southeast Alaska, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. In FY 2022, the 

1985–2020 CONUS change product was extended to include 2021. 

This effort is being conducted in collaboration with several Federal and 

academic partners.

• Continued to develop and refine standards and practices for integrating 

lidar into forest and resource management (i.e., defining acquisition specifications, data-quality assessment, analysis/modeling procedures for forest 

parameters). 

• Continued to expand USFS engagement in the USGS 3D Elevation 

Program as it transitions to the USGS 3D Hydrography Program to 

ensure consistent acquisition specifications and to minimize redundant 

collections by partnering with other state and Federal entities on data 

acquisitions.

• Continued to provide operational web mapping and data services 

for NAIP and other high-resolution aerial and satellite imagery data. 

Additionally, provided resource management guidance based on airborne 

imagery and selected moderate-resolution imagery from NASA satellite 

assets for consumption/use by USDA and Bureau of Land Management 

staff. The approximately one petabyte data archive provided spatially and 

temporally comprehensive coverage for the United States and is essential 

for daily USDA and partner operational business information needs.
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U.S. Department of Agricultu

• Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) and Forest Health Protection (FHP) 

staff continue to utilize Landsat 8/9 OLI, Terra and Aqua MODIS, and 

NAIP imagery products to support inventory and monitoring of the 

Nation’s forests, including mapping and use in post stratification to 

improve forest attribute estimates. 

• USDA continued ongoing work with NASA scientists to use NASA 

Goddard’s LiDAR, Hyperspectral and Thermal (G-LiHT) imager to collect data that augments the forest inventory of interior Alaska, which 

includes investigations for improving carbon monitoring.

• NASA and USDA are continuing a 50-year legacy of collaboration 

regarding public engagement and STEM education around “Moon Trees” 

by again partnering to send tree seeds to space on Artemis I, originally 

scheduled to launch in August 2022. This collaboration continues the legacy of “Moon Trees” grown from seeds that orbited the Moon in Apollo 14 

in 1971. The collaboration connects Artemis I programming to Earth 

science, conservation education, data literacy, and citizen science, serving both educators and youth nationwide via such programming as the 

Forest Service’s Natural Inquirer Moon Tree Lesson Plans and Learning 

Modules14 and NASA’s Office of STEM Education.

15

• USFS scientists serve on the Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation 

(GEDI) science team. NASA’s GEDI instrument on the International 

Space Station collects lidar waveform data for assessing the existing 

biomass of forests and how changes in this biomass caused by human 

activities or variations in climate may impact atmospheric CO2 concentrations. Additionally, these investigations of the three-dimensional 

structure of forests help elucidate habitat quality and biodiversity at local 

to regional scales.

• USFS supports NASA’s Carbon Monitoring System (CMS) program with 

two USFS scientists serving as team members in Phase 3 CMS through 

2023 and three scientists serving as Biomass Working Group Team 

14 https://www.naturalinquirer.org/Artemis-Moon-Trees-v-397.html

15 https://www.nasa.gov/stem/about.html
254Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Lead and participating members. A Forest Service scientist serves as coinvestigator for “Preparing the global CMS Flux system for application to 

carbon flux inventories via regional-scale, observation-based evaluations.”

• Under the 2020 Resources Planning Act, the Forest Inventory Analysis 

team is undertaking national reporting of carbon using FS-FIA and 

Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) data together with 

Landsat. 

• The Forest Inventory and Analysis program has an agreement to share 

Forest Service data with NASA (JPL, Goddard Space Flight Center). 

This agreement allows the Forest Inventory Assessment Program to 

monitor all of Alaska’s forests using a subset of field plots. Remote sensing scientists often rely on Forest Inventory and Analysis field data to 

calibrate or validate observations or combine with observational data for 

scientific studies.

• SilvaCarbon is an interagency technical cooperation program of the U.S. 

Government to enhance the capacity of selected tropical countries to 

measure, monitor, and report on carbon in their forests and other lands. 

The USFS, USGS and NASA partnership hosted the following workshops during fiscal year 2022:

• Forest Carbon Measurement and Monitoring Research, Tools and 

Methods Workshop – February 14–16, 2002; University of Maryland.

• Forest Carbon Measurement and Monitoring Research, Tools and 

Methods Workshop – April 19–22, 2002; Oregon State University.

• Remote Sensing Tools and Technical Assistance Webinar; June 14, 

2022; Latin America and Caribbean Region.

• Silvacarbon/Committee on Earth Observation Satellites (CEOS) 

Regional Workshop – Biomass Measurements; June 27–July 2, 2022; 

Asuncion, Paraguay.

• Regional Seminar on Experience Exchange in FREL/FRL and 

REDD+ Technical Annex Assessment for the UNFCCC and Other 

Initiatives; June 30, July 7, July 14, and July 21, 2022; Online.

• Regional Seminar on Gender, Forests, and Carbon; September 22 and 

September 29, 2022; Online.
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U.S. Department of Agricultu

Natural Resources Conservation Service

NRCS helps America’s farmers, ranchers, and forest landowners conserve the 

Nation’s soil, water, air, and other natural resources. To fulfill this mission, NRCS 

assesses, acquires, develops, interprets, analyzes, and delivers natural-resource 

information to enable knowledge-based natural-resource planning and decision 

making at all landscape levels. Various types of geospatial systems, data, and information are crucial to the successful delivery of NRCS services.

Orthoimagery, elevation data, and Global Positioning Systems are essential 

geospatial data integrated into NRCS program applications, service centers, 

state offices, and national centers. Since the 1930s, NRCS (formerly the Soil 

Conservation Service) used aerial photography and orthoimagery for conservation 

and soil survey purposes. Today, NRCS offices use geospatial data daily to support 

conservation programs.

NRCS coordinates acquisitions of orthoimagery and digital elevation data with 

other Federal and state agencies through interagency committees like the National 

Digital Orthoimagery Program (NDOP) and the USGS 3D Elevation Program 

(3DEP). Participation in NDOP and 3DEP assists NRCS in maximizing geospatial 

investments and avoiding duplication of acquisitions for orthoimagery and digital 

elevation datasets.

Aerial Imagery

In FY 2022, NRCS executed a contract to acquire high-resolution digital aerial 

photography (four-inch ground-resolving distance) for more than 70,000 sites in 

the contiguous United States, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands, and Hawaii. NRCS 

started using digital cameras for natural color aerial imagery acquisitions in 2020. 

The digital imagery is interpreted at one of NRCS’s three Remote Sensing Labs. 

The resulting data were sent to the Center for Survey Statistics and Methodology 

at Iowa State University for compilation and statistical estimation.16

16 https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/national/technical/nra/nri/
256Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

In FY 2022, NRCS surpassed 5.7 million acres on approximately 24,290 conservation easements enrolled in NRCS agricultural conservation easement programs. 

Also, in FY 2022, NRCS acquired 15-cm high-resolution direct digital imagery for 

22,648 conservation easements covering approximately 4.7 million acres. Starting 

in FY 2023, through the Agricultural Conservation Easement Program–Wetland 

Reserve Easements (ACEP-WRE), the Healthy Forest Reserve Program (HFRP), 

and the Emergency Watershed Protection Program–Floodplain Easements (EWPPFPE), and all Farm Bill 2018 Regional Conservation Partnership Program (RCPP) 

U.S.-held easements, RCPP-HFRP, and RCPP-WRE easements, NRCS will hold 

title or enforcement rights to approximately 19,783 Stewardship Land easements 

covering more than 3.7 million acres nationally. Stewardship land easements are 

U.S.-held easements where the agency (as NRCS, the Soil Conservation Service, 

or the Commodity Credit Corporation) is named as grantee on the conservation 

easement deed. The remainder, approximately 3,908 easements covering approximately 1,316,195 acres, consist primarily of the Agricultural Conservation Easement 

Program–Agricultural Land Easements (ACEP-ALE) and Farm and Ranchland 

Protection Program (FRPP) easements. These are Non-Stewardship Lands where 

the United States is not named as a grantee and a cooperating entity as grantee is 

responsible for monitoring. NRCS has a contingent right of enforcement. NRCS 

has long-term responsibility through annual monitoring of these conservation 

easements to ensure the objectives of each easement program and relevant easement authorities, as well as legal requirements, are being met. Additionally, NRCS 

is required to annually report the “condition” of its stewardship lands as required 

by the Statement of Federal Financial Accounting Standards 29. Through NRCS 

agricultural conservation easement programs, the NRCS and its cooperating entity 

partners are providing protection to more than five million acres nationally. The 

number of easements and number of acres of conservation easements that require 

annual monitoring increase every fiscal year.17 Use of high-resolution aerial photography is a major component of conservation easement monitoring for both onsite monitoring and off-site “remote” monitoring events. 

17 Information on easement programs can be found at https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/

national/programs/easements/.
257

U.S. Department of Agricultu

The National Agriculture Imagery Program (NAIP) is a high-resolution imagery 

program that usually collects data during leaf-on time periods during the summer 

months. This dataset is the foundation layer for geospatial data used in USDA 

offices and those of our cooperators. NRCS; USFS; USGS-DOI; and the NAIP 

Leader, FSA, have successfully funded and supported NAIP since the program’s 

inception in 2003. NAIP orthoimagery is used extensively within NRCS and is 

at most NRCS offices in the continental United States. NAIP orthoimagery is 

delivered to NRCS at a 0.6-meter/60-cm or higher ground resolution and with four 

multispectral bands (Natural Color and Color Infrared [CIR]). NRCS makes use of 

NAIP in many programs, such as the Web Soil Survey and Conservation Planning, 

and it is used as the base imagery for NRI for orthorectification.18 NRCS makes 

NAIP data available to the public via compressed county imagery mosaics on the 

USDA Geospatial Data Gateway.

19 In FY 2022, NAIP collected imagery covering 

18 states. All were collected at 0.6-meter or higher resolution and in four multispectral bands (Natural Color and CIR). NAIP collects data from all areas of the 

United States, including agricultural land, public lands (Federal, state, and local), 

and urban areas.

Satellite Imagery

Starting in 2021 and continuing in 2022 NRCS responded to geospatial imagery needs from all states and territories, including Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin 

Islands, Guam, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, American 

Samoa, and all Federated States of Micronesia and the Marshall Islands. NRCS 

requires 60-cm or higher resolution imagery for most agency programs. Acquisition 

of imagery in non-CONUS areas was challenging because of their remoteness 

and weather. NRCS used satellite imagery from the Maxar EnhancedView Web 

Hosting Service and purchased imagery from commercial sources for areas such 

as these and lands with restricted airspace.20 NRCS also used Maxar imagery for 

pre- and post-event disaster response and in cases where other imagery is outdated.

18 https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/national/cgate/

19 https://gdg.sc.egov.usda.gov/

20 https://evwhs.digitalglobe.com
258Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Elevation

NRCS has national requirements for high-quality elevation data, and the agency 

has a national strategy to acquire, integrate, and deliver high-quality digital elevation data that meet the agency’s geospatial requirements. High-quality digital 

elevation data support the agency’s business activities by improving employee effectiveness and efficiency in helping our customers. NRCS participates in the USGS 

3DEP to acquire high-quality 3D elevation data through remote sensing.21 The map 

depicts areas of actual lidar topographic acquisition projects that NRCS and 3DEP 

partners have completed or are in work in FY 2022.

By the end of FY 2022, 3DEP and its partners significantly increased its lidar 

coverage with 89 percent of the continental United States and Hawaii now complete or in progress. Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (IfSAR) for Alaska 

is 100 percent complete. NRCS contracted $29.2 million of the $87.7 million total 

3DEP investments for FY 2022 awards. The goal of 3DEP is to complete the acquisition of nationwide lidar (IfSAR in Alaska) in eight years to provide the first-ever 

21 https://nationalmap.gov/3DEP/
259

U.S. Department of Agricultu

national baseline of consistent high-resolution elevation data—both bare-earth 

and 3D point clouds—collected in a timeframe of less than a decade.

Use of Positioning, Navigation, and Timing Signals from Space

The United States Global Positioning System (GPS) is the primary source of 

space-based signals for Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT). The NRCS utilizes GPS signals from space as well as the FAA Wide Area Augmentation Service 

signals and ground-based cellular Real Time Kinematic corrections to space-based 

PNT to put conservation practices on the ground daily in every state of the United 

States as well as in the Caribbean and Pacific basins. The use of PNT services 

continues to support the NRCS mission of “Helping People Help the Land.”22

22 See https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/national/newsroom/features/?cid=nrcseprd1441031

for more information regarding NRCS conservation activities enabled and enhanced by GPS PNT 

services.

261 National Science Foundation

National Sc

Foundati

NSF

The National Science Foundation (NSF) continued to serve as the lead Federal 

agency for the support of ground-based astronomy and space science. Through 

the divisions of Astronomical Sciences, Physics, and Atmospheric and Geospace 

Sciences, and the Office of Polar Programs, the NSF sponsored a broad base of 

observational, theoretical, and laboratory research aimed at understanding the 

states of matter and physical processes in the universe. Areas of research cover the 

most distant reaches of the universe and the earliest moments of its existence, all 

the way to nearby stars and planets, including our Sun and its planets, as well as 

Earth’s atmosphere and its space environment.

Division of Astronomical Sciences

The Division of Astronomical Sciences (AST), within the Directorate for 

Mathematical and Physical Sciences (MPS), supported the development of 

advanced technologies and instrumentation for astronomical sciences, in addition 

to providing core support for the optical and radio observatories with state-of-theart instrumentation and observing capabilities accessible to the community on 

the basis of scientific merit. The NSF’s national astronomical facilities included 

the National Radio Astronomy Observatory, the Arecibo Observatory, the Green 

Bank Observatory, the National Solar Observatory, and NSF’s National OpticalInfrared Astronomy Research Laboratory (NOIRLab).
262Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

During FY 2021 and FY 2022, AST, in partnership with the European Union, 

Canada, Japan, the Republic of Korea, and Taiwan, continued science operations 

of the Atacama Large Millimeter/Submillimeter Array (ALMA), an interferometric 

array located near San Pedro de Atacama, Chile. ALMA continued to receive a 

record number of observing proposals (approximately 1,800) and requests for time. 

Capabilities offered to the community included simultaneous observations with 

arrays of 12- and 7-meter-diameter antennas, observations with antenna separations of up to 16 kilometers, and observations at frequencies of up to 900 gigahertz. 

During this period, ALMA provided unique insights across a broad range of topics, 

including planets and planet formation, proto-stellar and debris disks, low- and highmass star formation, stellar evolution, normal galaxies, galactic centers, and galaxy 

formation and evolution. ALMA’s frequency range and unique capabilities allowed 

discoveries in molecular chemistry, in particular about the formation of exoplanets. 

Science highlights include the discovery of circumplanetary disks (disks of material around exoplanets where moons are forming), observations of the supermassive 

black hole in the center of our Milky Way galaxy, and large galaxies in the early universe, observations that will complement those by the James Webb Space Telescope.

The Very Large Array (VLA), located in central New Mexico, continued to 

offer capabilities to the radio astronomy community with its twenty-eight 25-meterdiameter antennas operating in the frequency range 74 megahertz to 50 gigahertz, 

and with array sizes between 600 meters and 21 kilometers. The VLA investigates 

a wide range of astronomical objects, including radio galaxies, quasars, pulsars, 

supernova remnants, gamma-ray bursts, stars, the Sun and planets, astrophysical 

masers, black holes, and hydrogen gas in the Milky Way galaxy and other galaxies. The ongoing VLA Sky Survey is expected to discover ten million new radio 

sources and provide useful support to future observations by the Rubin Observatory 

and other multi-messenger astronomy projects. Highlights include the discovery in 

a distant galaxy of the most powerful pulsar known and growing insight into the 

nature of the enigmatic objects called Fast Radio Bursts (FRBs).

The Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA) consists of ten 25-meter-diameter 

antennas spread across the continental United States, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and 

Hawai’i. It operates between 0.3 gigahertz and 96 gigahertz and makes ultra-highresolution observations of astronomical objects. For example, VLBA observations 
263 National Science Foundation

provide accurate distance measurements of distant sources, as well as those in our 

solar system, and highly accurate measurements of Earth’s location in the universe. 

Highlights include the first 3D view of a binary star-exoplanet system, movies of 

relativistic jets emitted from near supermassive black holes, and the first direct 

distance measurement of a magnetar.

NSF’s Green Bank Observatory (GBO) is a federally funded research and development center located in Green Bank, West Virginia. The main instrument at 

GBO is the 100-meter Green Bank Telescope (GBT), the world’s largest fully steerable single-dish radio telescope, operating at frequencies from 0.2 GHz to 116 GHz. 

The GBT’s large sky coverage, very high sensitivity, wide wavelength coverage, and 

extensive suite of instruments enable work in nearly all areas of astrophysics, from 

pulsars and long wavelength gravitational waves to interstellar chemistry and physics. Recent highlights include results from sensitive spectral surveys that continue 

to uncover ever larger carbon-bearing molecules, shedding light on the growth of 

molecular complexity in space. The GBT is complementary and synergistic with 

interferometric arrays. It is a highly sensitive and thus critical element in verylong-baseline interferometry and, as such, has recently contributed to imaging a 

new, distant black hole. It also serves as a bistatic radar receiver for rapid and sensitive imaging of near-Earth objects and asteroids. Within the past two years, radar 

transmit capabilities have been demonstrated by means of a low-power prototype 

radar that yielded the sharpest images of the Moon captured from the surface of 

Earth. Motivated by these developments, designs of high-power radar systems for 

planetary and solar system astronomy are being explored.

Construction of the NSF’s Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope (DKIST) continued through FY 2021 and was officially completed on November 20, 2021. Despite 

some minor delays due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the DKIST staff completed 

close-out and punch-list activities scheduled for January and early February of 2022. 

NSF’s Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope conducted its first science observations 

on February 23, 2022, signaling the official start of the operations commissioning phase, which will last 12–18 months. The National Solar Observatory (NSO), 

which operates DKIST for the NSF, issued a press release marking the event.1

1 https://nso.edu/press-release/us-nsf-daniel-k-inouye-solar-telescope-begins-science-operationscommissioning-phase/
264Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

The first science observations included two of DKIST’s four first-light instruments, including the Visible Spectro-Polarimeter and Visible Broadband Imager 

(VBI). Shown below is an image of a sunspot taken during these first science observations. The image was recorded with the VBI instrument observing at the blue 

end of the spectrum (450 nanometers). Details as small as 20 kilometers are visible 

in this image of the solar photosphere. Coincidentally, NASA’s Parker Solar Probe 

was flying through the solar corona on one of its periodic close approaches during 

the DKIST observations.

DKIST is the result of a collaboration of scientists from more than 20 institutions representing a broad segment of the U.S. solar physics community, and it had 

previously earned the strong recommendation of the National Research Council 

of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. DKIST is now 

the world’s flagship ground-based solar telescope designed specifically for the study 

of our Sun and its magnetic fields.

Staff from AST and from the Directorate for Geosciences’ Division of 

Atmospheric and Geospace Sciences (AGS) participated in the National Science 

and Technology Council’s (NSTC) Space Weather Operations, Research, and 

Mitigation (SWORM) Working Group under the Space Weather, Security, and 

Image of a sunspot taken at 450 nm with the DKIST Visible Broadband 

Imager (VBI) instrument during the first science observations on February 

23, 2022.
265 National Science Foundation

Hazards (SWSH) subcommittee. SWORM continues to implement their National 

Space Weather Strategy and Action Plan (NSW-SAP). NSO’s Global Oscillations 

Network Group (GONG), supported by NSF and the National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), continued their support for operational 

space weather forecasting. The NSF-NOAA agreement was renewed in FY 2021. 

GONG end-of-life is expected in the early 2030s, and SWORM has drafted a continuity of observations document. Concerns about a possible gap in critical data 

were raised within SWORM after the next-generation GONG (ngGONG) facility 

was first proposed unsuccessfully to NSF. An updated SWORM implementation 

plan will include follow-on actions, such as strengthening the partnership between 

NSF, NOAA, and the Department of the Air Force (DAF).

Construction of the Vera C. Rubin Observatory (formerly the Large Synoptic 

Survey Telescope) continued in FY 2021 and FY 2022, although delayed and 

slowed by the COVID-19 global pandemic. The project has been re-baselined with 

COVID-induced delays totaling nearly two years with completion now projected 

late in FY 2024, and NSF has authorized additional funding to cover the full costs 

of COVID-19 impacts. Construction of the dome passed the milestone of closure, 

and the interior is thus protected from weather while the last details of the dome 

are completed. The telescope mount assembly is nearly complete, and the commissioning camera has been installed for the first time. Development of the data management system has continued apace. NSF’s Federal partner, the Department of 

Energy (DOE), is funding the camera and maintenance of the U.S. data facility in 

a project led by the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, and the NSF and DOE 

support installation and commissioning together. NSF is funding the telescope, 

building, site, network and software pipelining, and data management systems 

that allow specialized access separately for research and for education and public 

outreach. Operations support has been requested from both agencies and will be 

augmented by negotiated non-Federal and international in-kind contributions. 

Federally funded pre-operations ramp-up activity continued through FY 2022.

In Rubin Observatory’s planned ten-year prime mission, imaging the entire 

accessible sky nearly a thousand times, the multicolor survey will populate a 

science-ready database of unprecedented size, enabling breakthrough research in 

dark energy and dark matter, in galactic structure, and in solar system astronomy. 
266Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

The relentless, repeated observations will also open up the time domain and revolutionize the study of transient events. Rubin will also support planetary defense. 

Assuming other existing near-Earth object (NEO) efforts continue, by the end of 

Rubin Observatory’s prime mission, the catalogue for objects larger than 140 meters 

across should be about 75 percent complete for NEOs (about 80 percent for potentially hazardous asteroids [PHAs]). Without Rubin Observatory, the completeness 

would be about 60 percent for NEOs (about 65 percent for PHAs). NSF and DOE 

expect this survey to generate about 20 terabytes of data every night, night after 

night, throughout its operational life.

AST’s Mid-Scale Innovations Program (MSIP) did not run a planned competition in FY 2022, but continued several relevant projects, all of which were affected 

by COVID-19 to a variable extent. Operations support for the Event Horizon 

Telescope (EHT), a planet-sized very-long-baseline interferometer experiment, 

was joined by development funding for an expanded EHT, supported by the NSFwide Mid-scale Research Infrastructure program. Extending EHT to even longer 

baselines will require space-based components. MSIP supports several Cosmic 

Microwave Background experiments, the Keck Planet Finder instrument, the 

interferometer of the Center for High Angular Resolution Astronomy, and several 

survey programs, which assist research from current and future space platforms.

Emergency clean-up at the Arecibo Observatory (AO) was completed in spring 

2022, and a Salvage Survey Committee was established.2 The Thornton Tomasetti 

Forensic Investigation into the collapse of the 305-meter telescope at the AO was 

made publicly available on 25 July 2022.3 This report identified several issues relating to the suspension cable-attachment sockets, possibly exacerbated by natural 

disasters, rather than attributing the platform collapse to structural problems with 

the cables themselves.

In the first half of 2021 NSF organized a workshop to explore ideas for future 

scientific, educational, and cultural activities at AO. The NSF encouraged participants to continue to explore concepts and to submit proposals. One initiative, the 

Center for Advanced Radio Sciences and Engineering, was awarded in FY 2022 

2 Their report is available at https://www.naic.edu/documents/AOSSC_REPORT_FINAL20220325.pdf.

3 Available at https://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/arecibo/Arecibo-Telescope-Collapse-ForensicInvestigation-508c.pdf.
267 National Science Foundation

to the University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez. This new center will develop tools 

for spectrum monitoring and radio frequency interference mitigation, to resolve 

spectrum sharing and coexistence issues, and to improve the performance of radio 

science observations.

The Ángel Ramos Foundation Science and Visitor’s Center at AO reopened to 

the public, with appropriate COVID-19 restrictions, on March 10, 2022. Scientists 

and engineers at AO continue to analyze and publish research based on the large 

amount of archival data, along with existing instrumentation such as the 12-meter 

telescope, the optical facility, and the lidar facility.

NSF is partnering with NASA to fund an aerospace study of the existing capabilities for planetary defense. This study will begin in FY 2023, and its findings will 

help to inform future investments.

AST also hosts NSF’s Electromagnetic Spectrum Management Unit (ESMU), 

allowing NSF to serve as the primary U.S. government agency responsible for protecting and enhancing electromagnetic spectrum access for ground-based astronomy, and working more broadly to enable the spectrum access needed for research 

and development endeavors in other disciplines. ESMU engages in domestic and 

international spectrum management, including leading the U.S. delegation to the 

ITU-R Working Party 7D for Radio Astronomy, coordinating frequency assignments domestically with ground-based astronomy sites, chairing an NSF-wide ESM 

coordination group, and examining future astronomical facilities in cislunar space, 

especially on the far side of the Moon. The ESMU provides spectrum management 

support for the entire NSF.

The ESMU provided significant contributions to a comprehensive review of 

U.S. space-based operations and spectrum use issued in FY 2021 by the National 

Telecommunications and Information Administration.4

The cross-directorate SWIFT program (Spectrum and Wireless Innovation 

enabled by Future Technologies) invested $16 million in FY 2020 and $11.5 million in FY 2021 for research on effective spectrum utilization and coexistence 

techniques. The multi-disciplinary Spectrum Innovation Initiative (SII) began in 

4 https://www.ntia.gov/blog/2021/ntia-releases-comprehensive-review-us-space-based-operations-andspectrum-use
268Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

FY 2020 to promote dynamic and agile spectrum utilization while ensuring innovation and security for all users. SII includes the National Radio Dynamic Zones program, to advance dynamic spectrum sharing, building toward a permanent national 

facility for innovative systems that use or manage spectrum. Early investigations 

supported in FY 2020 and FY 2021 paved the way to a full program solicitation in 

FY 2022. SII’s National Center thrust seeks to establish the first national center 

for wireless spectrum research, to connect the academic research community with 

nationwide challenges, and to grow the spectrum workforce. Planning grants were 

made in FY 2020, and a single $25 million award in FY 2021 set up SpectrumX, an 

NSF Spectrum Innovation Center. The Integrative Activities part of SII promotes 

increased and more effective use of the spectrum for passive and active applications, especially of a cross-disciplinary nature. Finally, the Workforce Development 

thrust encourages developing a skilled and diverse workforce through education 

and training programs.

NSF’s NOIRLab co-hosts the Centre for the Protection of the Dark and 

Quiet Sky from Satellite Constellation Interference (CPS) of the International 

Astronomical Union (IAU). The IAU CPS aims to mitigate the impact of satellite constellations on ground-based astronomical observations, including those by 

amateur astronomers and the general public.

Division of Physics

MPS’s Division of Physics (PHY) continued to operate its Laser Interferometer 

Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO), completing its third observational run 

(O3). During the O3 10-month run, LIGO released 56 trigger alerts for gravitational-wave events, a rate of more than one per week. LIGO has now identified 90 

events corresponding to mergers of black holes and neutron stars. In April 2020, 

LIGO started on the A+ upgrades, increasing sensitivity by about 70 percent and 

the detection rate five-fold. LIGO and its European and Japanese counterparts 

Virgo and KAGRA will resume observations in March 2023. This new run (O4) 

will include about half of the A+ upgrades, with the rest being completed for the 

O5 run to be carried out in 2025.
269 National Science Foundation

Complementing LIGO, PHY, in partnership with AST, continued its funding of the North American Nanohertz Observatory for Gravitational Waves 

(NANOGrav), which monitors a large number of pulsars for timing deviations 

caused by gravitational waves. NANOGrav earlier published the first evidence of 

a stochastic background detection, and confirmation is anticipated around the end 

of FY 2022 or the beginning of FY 2023.

For a description of the IceCube Neutrino Observatory, partially supported by 

PHY, see the Office of Polar Programs section below.

Division of Atmospheric and Geospace Sciences

The Division of Atmospheric and Geospace Sciences (AGS) within the NSF 

Directorate for Geosciences funded a wide variety of research and research infrastructure programs in space science and space weather in FY 2021 and FY 2022. 

Additionally, AGS funding supported several hundred faculty members and students in U.S. universities and helped diversify the current and future space workforce. The Geospace Section (GS) within AGS provided continued funding for 

seven Faculty Development in Space Sciences awards that support the creation 

of new tenure-track faculty positions to ensure the health and vitality of solar and 

space sciences within U.S. universities.

The GS funds a wide-ranging portfolio of basic research in space physics through 

the Space Weather Research, the Solar-Terrestrial Research, the Aeronomy, and 

the Magnetospheric Physics programs. In FY 2022, these GS programs collaboratively issued a solicitation, titled “Grand Challenges in Integrative Geospace 

Sciences: Advancing National Space Weather Expertise and Research toward 

Societal Resilience.” The solicitation resulted in seven awards to U.S. universities 

totaling more than $11 million to advance space weather modeling, in collaboration with partners from government and the private sector. These new awards will 

broaden participation in space weather science and education through support of 

early career researchers and those traditionally underrepresented in STEM, including female scientists, students, and other researchers at minority-serving institutions, and those at universities in EPSCoR states.
270Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

The GS also continued to support a wide array of research infrastructure and 

facilities that are the foundation of NSF-supported geospace research. These 

include advanced radar systems to study the ionosphere and magnetosphere, 

including Incoherent Scattering Radars (ISRs) and the Super Dual Auroral Radar 

Network (SuperDARN), ground-based optical and meteor radio instruments to 

study the neutral upper atmosphere as well as aurora and airglow phenomena, and 

partial support to ground-based solar telescopes and instruments. Three ISR facilities at Poker Flat, Alaska; Millstone Hill Observatory, Massachusetts; and near 

Jicamarca, Peru, are respectively in the polar cap, subauroral zone, and equatorial 

region, ideally situated to observe the properties of the ionosphere in the three 

distinct regions.

In FY 2021 and FY 2022, the GS continued funding three large-scale magnetometer networks: the Magnetometer Array for Cusp and Cleft Studies, the Surface 

Magnetic Assessment in Real Time Network, and the Conjugate Experiment to 

Investigate Sources of High-Latitude Magnetic Perturbations (a collaboration with 

the United Kingdom). The combined magnetometer arrays cover large areas in 

both hemispheres to monitor global magnetic perturbations. These projects play 

a crucial role in space research and are also great opportunities to train our future 

experimentalists. In addition, the GS supports SuperMAG in collecting and disseminating these vital magnetic measurements to researchers and space weather 

operators across the country. Another funded project, Active Magnetosphere and 

Planetary Electrodynamics Response Experiment (AMPERE-III), provides global 

and continuous measurements of the Birkeland currents using magnetic field data 

from the commercial satellites of the Iridium constellation. The GS also supported 

an NSF-NASA-NOAA sponsored Ideas Workshop on Geomagnetically Induced 

Currents (GIC) and the Power Grids in November 2022 to address research-tooperations challenges. This workshop brings together scientific researchers and 

power grid operators to develop new solutions for GIC effects on the power grid.

In FY 2021 and FY 2022, the GS continued its support of seven CubeSat missions, all selected in previous fiscal years. These include the IMpulsive Phase Rapid 

Energetic Solar Spectrometer experiment to study hard X-ray emission from solar 

flares; the Climatology of Anthropogenic and Natural Very Low Frequency (VLF) 

wave Activity in Space, which measures VLF wave energy that originates from 
271 National Science Foundation

lightning and ground-based transmitters and propagates to the outer reaches of 

Earth’s magnetic field; the Virtual Super-resolution Optics with Reconfigurable 

Swarms mission consisting of two satellites that together form an ultraviolet telescope for observing the Sun; and the Space Weather Atmospheric Reconfigurable 

Multiscale Experiment project that is a pilot to create constellations of small satellites to monitor ionospheric disturbances.

The National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) is funded by the AGS. 

The High-Altitude Observatory (HAO) at NCAR supports its mission to “understand and quantify the impact of solar variability on Earth’s atmosphere across 

temporal scales” by observing and modeling the Sun-Earth system and potentially 

devastating effects on Earth, people, and technology. HAO continues to support 

Mauna Loa Solar Observatory’s instrumentation and its related data-sharing website. HAO has also made progress on closing the science gap focused on the coronal magnetic field in preparation for the Coronal Solar Magnetism Observatory 

(COSMO), a proposed synoptic facility to measure magnetic fields and plasma 

properties in the large-scale solar atmosphere. HAO is conducting the COSMO 

Site and Design Advancement (COSADA) project, which in FY 2022 started site 

surveys with remote observing instrumentation to determine scientifically optimal 

locations for COSMO. This instrumentation is deployed to measure atmospheric 

conditions critical to the operation of coronagraph telescopes, such as aerosol content, sky brightness, cloud cover, and atmospheric stability. Another critical part of 

COSADA is to finalize the design of the proposed 1.5-meter Large Coronagraph.

In FY 2021, the AGS’s Atmosphere Section (AS) continued to support the 

Data Analysis and Archive Center (CDAAC) for the six-satellite Constellation 

Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere, and Climate (COSMIC). 

COSMIC was launched in 2006 and fully decommissioned in 2020, producing 

close to 7 million GNSS radio occultation (RO) neutral atmosphere soundings 

and over 4.6 million ionospheric soundings over its lifetime. The COSMIC team 

is now conducting a reprocessing campaign to create whole-mission datasets with 

consistent and state-of-the-art processing for all the observations generated over 

the mission lifetime. The team also processes data for several other RO satellite 

missions, including South Korea’s KOMPSAT-5 and Spain’s Paz, which are used 

operationally. NSF also supports processing for the follow-on COSMIC-2 mission, 
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with high-gain RO receivers flying over the tropics producing over 5,000 occultations per day along with path-integrated electron content above the satellites. 

The satellites also include ion velocity meters as secondary payloads. The work 

includes development of new ionospheric products, characterization of ionospheric 

variability and irregularities, and new retrieval techniques. The mission is operated through a collaboration between NOAA, the USAF, and the National Space 

Program Office (NSPO) of Taiwan.

During FY 2021 and FY 2022, AGS and AST staff represented NSF on the 

Space Weather Operations, Research, and Mitigation (SWORM) Subcommittee 

within the Committee on Homeland and National Security of NSTC. AGS continued, including through the aforementioned programs, to implement the goals 

and objectives identified in the National Space Weather Strategy and Action 

Plan (NSW-SAP).5 NSF focuses on the NSW-SAP objective to “improve observations and modeling for characterization and forecasting” of space weather. In 

FY 2022, AGS provided equal funding, along with NASA and NOAA, for the 

Space Weather Roundtable of the National Academy of Science, as mandated 

by the Promoting Research and Observations of Space Weather to Improve the 

Forecasting of Tomorrow (PROSWIFT) Act signed into law in October 2020.

AGS continued other interagency collaborations, such as the joint sponsorship 

of the Community Coordinated Modeling Center located at NASA’s Goddard 

Space Flight Center and the NSF-DOE plasma partnership.

Office of Polar Programs

In FY 2021 and FY 2022, the primary activities of the Office of Polar Programs 

in ground-based space science and astronomy included observations at the U.S. 

Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station with the 10-meter off-axis radio South Pole 

Telescope (SPT) and the battery of small-aperture telescopes called the Background 

Imaging of Cosmic Extragalactic Polarization (BICEP) Array. Recent scientific 

results from the SPT and BICEP Collaborations include deep multi-frequency sky 

5 https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/National-Space-Weather-Strategyand-Action-Plan-2019.pdf
273 National Science Foundation

maps of the cosmic microwave background (CMB)’s B-mode polarization that take 

into account gravitational lensing and foregrounds to unprecedented precision. 

The constraints that SPT and BICEP telescopes have produced on primordial 

gravitational waves continue to improve, leading the way in probing models of 

inflation that operate near grand unified theory (GUT) energy scales.

The IceCube Neutrino Observatory (ICNO), jointly operated at the South Pole 

by the NSF’s Office of Polar Programs and Division of Physics, has now collected 

data for 12 full years of operation from a complete array of 86 strings of optical 

photodetectors deployed in the ice under the South Pole Station in Antarctica 

at depths between 1.4 and 2.4 kilometers. The existing detector can observe cosmogenic neutrinos with energies ranging from 100 gigaelectronvolts (GeV) to 

tens of petaelectronvolts (PeV). The PeV neutrinos observed by IceCube have a 

thousand times the energy of the highest-energy neutrinos produced by existing 

particle accelerators and a billion times the energy of the neutrinos detected from 

supernova SN1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud, the only neutrinos that had 

been detected on Earth from outside the solar system prior to IceCube’s breakthrough. In FY 2022, for the first time, the IceCube Collaboration found evidence 

of high-energy neutrino emission from the NGC-1068 (Messier 77) active galaxy 

in the constellation Cetus. First spotted in 1780, this galaxy is located 47 million 

light-years away from Earth, and it is one of the most familiar and well-studied 

galaxies. The new results, published in Science, show the excess of 79 neutrinos at 

the teraelectronvolt energies above the background flux which were interpreted as 

associated with the active galaxy core. This flux of high-energy neutrinos is more 

than an order of magnitude higher than the upper limit on emissions of teraelectronvolt gamma rays from this source.

The NSF’s Office of Polar Programs also supports NASA’s Long Duration 

Balloon (LDB) Program at the U.S. Antarctic Program’s McMurdo Station, providing all necessary logistical support for the LDB astrophysical and space science 

payload assembly and final testing, as well as assisting with the balloon launches 

and follow-up payload recovery after a flight is terminated in various regions 

of the Antarctic continent. A total of 57 LDB science payloads have been successfully launched from McMurdo since the first interagency Memorandum of 

Understanding was signed in August 1988.
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The Office of Polar Programs support for all LDB activities during two austral 

summer seasons, 2020/2021 and 2021/2022, was canceled because of the COVID-19 

pandemic. The return of LDB is planned for the 2022/2023 austral summer.
275 Department of State

Department of

DOS

The Department of State (DOS) carries out diplomatic and public diplomacy 

efforts to strengthen American leadership in space exploration, applications, and 

commercialization by increasing understanding of, and support for, U.S. national 

space policies and programs and to encourage the foreign use of U.S. space capabilities, systems, and services. The Office of Space Affairs within the Bureau of 

Oceans and International Environmental and Scientific Affairs (OES/SA) directly 

supports civil space cooperation through the negotiation of bilateral and multilateral agreements, through engagement with partner countries, and by leading U.S. 

participation in numerous international space and technological activities and 

international organizations. The Office of Emerging Security Challenges within 

the Bureau of Arms Control, Verification and Compliance (AVC/ESC) supports 

diplomatic and public diplomacy engagements to promote space security cooperation, including the pursuit of space-related transparency and confidence-building 

measures as well as bilateral and multilateral space security dialogues.

Bilateral Dialogues

Europe (European Union and European Commission)

OES/SA and AVC/ESC hosted the 11th U.S.-EU Space Dialogue on June 28–29, 

2022, the first such dialogue in three years. The event brought together U.S. and 

European space officials and experts to discuss trans-Atlantic civilian and security issues, including space security challenges related to the Russian invasion of 

Ukraine. The civil space discussion for the U.S. side was led by OES Principal 
276Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Deputy Assistant Secretary Jennifer R. Littlejohn and the security track by AVC 

Acting Deputy Assistant Secretary Eric Desautels. The European delegation was 

led by European Commission Directorate General for Defense Industry and Space 

(DG-DEFIS) Acting Director for Space Paraskevi Papantoniou and European 

External Action Service (EEAS) Special Envoy for Space Dr. Carine Claeys. The 

meeting agenda included a broad spectrum of civil space issues of high priority for 

both sides of the Atlantic, including GPS-Galileo collaboration, continued joint 

work on Earth observation programs such as Landsat and Copernicus, space cyber 

security, space traffic coordination, space-related critical infrastructure security 

and resilience, SSA data sharing, collaboration in international fora such as the 

United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS), 

Group on Earth Observations (GEO), Committee on Earth Observation Satellites 

(CEOS), International Committee on GNSS (ICG), and more. The meeting closed 

with concurrence on a list of action items that will guide this strategic, transAtlantic partnership until the next meeting to be held in Brussels in the summer 

of 2023.

Science Envoy Virtual Symposium

OES/SA organized a virtual roundtable on November 1, 2021, under the 

U.S. Science Envoy Program, entitled “Symposium on the Intersection of Earth 

Observation from Space and Climate Change: U.S. and European Opportunities 

and Challenges.” The 90-minute event was co-organized with the Office of Science 

and Technology Cooperation (STC) and was hosted by the U.S. Space Envoy and 

former NASA Administrator, Mr. Charles Bolden. The Trans-Atlantic event 

successfully highlighted opportunities for U.S.-European space collaborations on 

satellite Earth observations to better address global environmental challenges, specifically those related to climate change.

The event included a roundtable discussion on a broad spectrum of topics, 

including U.S. international space cooperation, the U.S.-EU bilateral science relationship, climate change research, challenges and opportunities to open distribution and sharing of satellite data, and the role of international space agreements. 

All participants highlighted the importance of continued diplomatic and scientific 

collaborative arrangements that promote the leadership role of U.S. and European 
277 Department of State

space agencies in multilateral partnerships with other countries around the globe, 

including groups such as the Group on Earth Observations (GEO), the Committee 

on Earth Observations (CEOS), the Consultative Group on Meteorological 

Satellites (CGMS), the Disaster Charter on Space and Major Disasters, the United 

Nations Office of Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), the World Meteorological 

Organization, and many others.

Japan

The usual cadence of in-person bilateral dialogues was interrupted by the travel 

restrictions and health measures instituted to mitigate the spread of COVID-19. 

DOS transitioned many bilateral exchanges from in-person to virtual in FY 2021. 

The number and range of in-person exchanges increased in FY 2022 as public 

health restrictions eased in many regions. On July 20–21, 2022, State led a U.S. delegation to a U.S.-Japan Space Security Dialogue in Tokyo. Building upon high-level 

commitments on the importance of space cooperation, participants exchanged 

views on their space security policies and discussed ways to deepen cooperation 

on space domain awareness, as well as joint responses to serious threats in the 

space domain.

The two sides also exchanged their views on cooperation in the international 

arena aimed at preserving and ensuring a safe, secure, stable, and sustainable space 

domain, establishing norms of responsible behaviors in space, and on strengthening cooperation with third countries. Both sides have concurred to steadily 

advance their cooperation in bilateral and multilateral contexts.

The participants to the space security dialogue included representatives of the 

Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Defense, National Space Policy Secretariat 

of the Cabinet Office, and National Security Secretariat from the Japanese side, 

and the Department of State and Department of Defense from the U.S. side.

Philippines

The United States government conducted two virtual briefings with the 

Philippines. In May, NASA and DOS delivered the Artemis Accords to the 
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government of the Philippines. In June, at the request from the newly formed 

Philippines’ national space agency, the Office of Space Affairs conducted an information session on regional space cooperation.

Republic of Korea

The United States government organized and led a bilateral technical exchange 

with the Republic of Korea (ROK) in September 2021 to discuss coordination 

and cooperation related to GPS and the Korea Positioning System (KPS). The 

United States signed a Joint Statement of Cooperation on GPS and KPS following 

a Presidential Summit in May 2021, which was reaffirmed earlier this year with a 

commitment to hold the technical meeting. The KPS will be a regional system 

providing service over East Asia and the Pacific. Given the strategic importance of 

this region, the DOD is looking into the feasibility of enhanced cooperation with 

the ROK on KPS.

Singapore

Resulting from Vice President Harris’s visit in the summer of 2021, in August of 

that year the United States held a virtual discussion on possible areas for bilateral 

cooperation on civil and commercial space activities in preparation for the upcoming first civil space bilateral dialogue for 2023.

Taiwan

The United States government conducted a three-day official visit from the 

Minister of Science and Technology and the head of Taiwan’s national space organization in early June 2021. Assistant Secretary Monica Medina for the Bureau 

of Oceans, International Environmental, and Scientific Affairs raised priority 

areas of science and technology and space cooperation with Taiwan, including 

advanced semiconductor chip design and fabrication and collaboration with USGS 

on Landsat 9 on potential data sharing. The representatives from Taiwan also paid 

a courtesy visit with all the interagency space partners, including the Executive 
279 Department of State

Secretary of the National Space Council, NASA’s Administrator, NOAA’s 

Administrator, and the Director of the USGS. 

Thailand

In April 2021, the United States government conducted a workshop on Space 

Laws and Policies with Thailand. Thailand provided an overview of its Draft 

National Space Master Plan, which includes Thailand’s strategy for developing space policies and laws to advance their civil, commercial, and national 

security objectives.

In July 2021, the United States hosted a second virtual workshop with several 

Thai agencies to discuss opportunities for business growth and partnership in the 

burgeoning commercial space industry where the Director of Space Commerce 

gave an overview of U.S. efforts to support space commerce. The event drew several dozen attendees from the Thai government, industry, and academia.

Vietnam

At the request from the Vietnamese government, the United States conducted 

two separate events. First, a virtual workshop held in early February 2021 focused 

exclusively on the development of a national space policy. Second, a three-part 

civil space bilateral dialogue was held to discuss Vietnam’s space strategy, development goals, and priorities. Participants from Vietnam included representatives from 

more than 50 ministries, government agencies, and national universities.

Multilateral Activities

Artemis Accords

Inspired by NASA’s Artemis program, the Artemis Accords promote peaceful cooperation in space exploration and scientific endeavors in the 21st century and aim to increase the safety of operations, reduce uncertainty, and 

promote the sustainable and beneficial use of space for all of humanity. Since 
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concluding negotiations on the Artemis Accords with Australia, Canada, Italy, 

Japan, Luxembourg, the United Arab Emirates, and the United Kingdom in 

October 2020, DOS and NASA welcomed 13 additional signatories by the end 

of FY 2022: Bahrain, Brazil, Colombia, France, Israel, the Republic of Korea, 

Mexico, New Zealand, Poland, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, and Ukraine. 

DOS continues to work with NASA to share the Accords with a range of 

prospective signatories.

As a high-level, whole-of-government political commitment, the Artemis 

Accords provide nonbinding guidance for the implementation of the Outer Space 

Treaty of 1967, also reinforcing obligations set out in the Agreement on the Rescue 

of Astronauts, Liability Convention, and Registration Convention. To affirm the 

benefits of coordination via multilateral forums such as the UNCOPUOS, in 

December 2020 the U.S. Mission to the United Nations submitted the text of the 

Artemis Accords to the UN Secretary General to be distributed to UN Member 

States as an official UN document. This undertaking promotes transparency and 

provides an opportunity for a constructive, multilateral exchange of views on the 

Artemis Accords and the development of an international regime for norms and 

rules for civil space activities.

Association of Southeast Asian Nations

In July 2022, the State Department and NASA held a virtual briefing with 

nine Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) member states on the 

Artemis Accords. OES Assistant Secretary Medina opened the meeting by reaffirming the U.S. commitment to work with international community members 

such as the ASEAN nations “to uphold and strengthen a rules-based international 

order for space exploration and peaceful use.” NASA emphasized that the Artemis 

Accords represent shared principles for responsible behavior to govern the use of 

outer space and that all countries, regardless of the extent of their space sector, 

are welcome to become signatories to the agreement. As a follow up, requested by 

the ASEAN Secretariat, on October 5, 2022, the State Department and NASA 

delivered a second briefing to the ASEAN Committee on Space Applications on 

programs to assess the contribution of deforestation to atmospheric CO2 emissions, 
281 Department of State

to determine how much carbon forests will absorb in the future, and to assess how 

habitat degradation will affect global biodiversity. The U.S. presentations focused 

on NASA’s Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation (GEDI). The briefing generated strong interest among the ten ASEAN nations, with both Singapore and 

Indonesia expressing support for further bilateral cooperation with the United 

States on GEDI.

International Committee on GNSS

In October 2022, the State Department led the U.S. delegation to the 16th 

annual meeting of the International Committee on Global Navigation Satellite 

Systems (ICG-16), held in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. Among other things, 

State supported U.S. efforts to promote development of positioning, navigation, 

and timing capabilities extending into cislunar space in support of lunar exploration. State also supported efforts to expand the membership of the ICG to include 

the Republic of Korea (approved at ICG-16) and Pakistan (still pending).

United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space

2021 Sessions

Scientific and Technical Subcommittee: The United States continued to display its leadership in the exploration and peaceful use of outer space while promoting commercial space activity and responsible behavior during the 58th session 

of the UNCOPUOS Scientific and Technical Subcommittee (STSC), held in a 

largely virtual format in Vienna April 19–30, 2021. During plenary exchanges 

and a half-day symposium on human space exploration, the United States and 

many of its partners promoted the Artemis program’s ambitious space exploration 

agenda and sought to expand international support and participation in the program. The United States used the STSC to highlight the different components of 

Artemis, ranging from the scientific importance of In-orbit Servicing, Assembly, 

and Manufacturing (ISAM) to the high-level goals of the Artemis program, following the principles of the Artemis Accords. The United States promoted and 

encouraged other countries to implement the 21 Long-Term Sustainability (LTS) 
282Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

guidelines of outer space activities. These guidelines, based on “bottom-up” best 

practices developed cooperatively with other space actors, support U.S. efforts to 

develop non–legally binding international norms or rules for responsible behavior 

consistent with the existing legal regime. 

Legal Subcommittee: The 60th session of the UNCOPUOS Legal 

Subcommittee (LSC) was held virtually May 31–June 11, 2021. The U.S. delegation’s efforts focused on promoting the Artemis Accords, engaging in the 

discussion of space resource use, and continued work on the Space2030 agenda. 

Artemis Accords partner Canada hosted a roundtable discussion featuring the 

U.S. delegation and other Artemis Accords signatories to discuss why they joined 

the Accords and the importance of multilateral agreement. The event was the 

most attended technical presentation at the LSC and presented an opportunity 

to showcase that the Accords are open to any country willing to abide by the 

principles. Under the agenda item on the potential legal models for activities in 

exploration, exploitation, and utilization of space resources, the U.S. delegation 

contributed to the discussion and promoted the establishment of a working group. 

Finally, consensus was reached on several outstanding items within the Space2030 

Agenda. The goal of the Agenda is a greater promotion of space as a driver of 

sustainable development.

Full Committee: The United States, in coordination with like-minded government delegations, advanced its space policy objectives during the 64th session 

of the UNCOPUOS, held in Vienna, Austria, in a hybrid format August 25–

September 3, 2021. The committee adopted the “Space2030 Agenda” and made 

progress on the work plan for the Space Resources Working Group and the organization of the Long-Term Sustainability for Outer Space Working Group. The 

meeting’s hybrid format facilitated broad and high-level participation, including 

NASA Administrator Nelson’s delivery of the U.S. statement, which highlighted 

U.S. priorities and welcomed the newest Artemis Accords signatories. The U.S. 

delegation delivered ten statements to highlight U.S. priorities on agenda items 

including climate change, nuclear power sources, and exploration and innovation in space. The United States amplified the principles of the Artemis Accords 

with a display in the Vienna International Center rotunda that received praise 

from partners.
283 Department of State

2022 Sessions

Scientific and Technical Subcommittee: The 59th session of the UNCOPUOS 

STSC was held in Vienna February 7–18, 2022, and served as an opportunity to 

continue advancing U.S. priorities in outer space. The United States provided a 

forceful rebuke of Russia’s November 2021 destructive anti-satellite missile test and 

was joined by several other delegations in highlighting Russia’s continued irresponsible actions in outer space. The U.S. delegation also continued promoting 

the Artemis Accords and program and welcomed the adoption of the terms of 

reference, methods of work, and workplan for the recently revived LTS working 

group. The Committee also opened a new agenda item on “Dark and Quiet Skies” 

to discuss the effects of large satellite constellations on terrestrial-based astronomy, 

where the United States highlighted the efforts by U.S. commercial industry coordination with the astronomical community to proactively address these concerns.

Legal Subcommittee: The 61st session of the UNCOPUOS LSC was held in 

hybrid format March 28–April 8, 2022. Condemnation of Russia’s invasion of 

Ukraine featured heavily but did not derail the proceedings or report. The United 

States displayed its leadership in the exploration and peaceful use of outer space 

while promoting commercial space activity and responsible behavior throughout 

the two-week meeting. During plenary exchanges, many members used their general statements to condemn Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. The United States and 

like-minded partners called for Russia to immediately halt its military operations 

in and to withdraw its forces from Ukraine. Russian rights of reply prompted two 

in-person walkouts of the primary conference room with the U.S. delegation joining on both occasions.

The United States used the LSC to highlight the 2021 U.S. Space Priorities 

Framework’s commitment to promote U.S. leadership in the international community and to uphold and strengthen a rules-based international order for space. 

The U.S. delegation explored ways to synchronize messaging among the Artemis 

Accords signatories in UNCOPUOS. The United States also actively participated 

in the Working Group on Legal Aspects of Space Resource Activities, which 

reached consensus on its methods of work and five-year work plan to implement 

the mandate and terms of reference endorsed by the full Committee in June 

2021. Despite attempts to erase report language on the activities of a specific 
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non-governmental organization (NGO) and change modalities for NGO participation in future LSC meetings by Turkey and Russia, the body adopted a consensus 

report that reflected U.S. and like-minded priorities.

Full Committee: The United States, in coordination with like-minded government delegations, advanced its space policy objectives during the 65th session of 

the UNCOPUOS meeting held in Vienna in a hybrid format June 1–10, 2022. The 

war against Ukraine prompted tense discussions throughout the session; 23 countries openly condemned Russia’s further invasion of Ukraine. Additionally, eight 

nations rebuked Russia’s November 2021 destructive direct-ascent anti-satellite 

(ASAT) missile test, which generated thousands of pieces of debris. In an apparent 

effort to distract from the broad criticism of their actions in Ukraine as well as 

their reckless generation of space debris in low-Earth orbit, Russia engaged in a 

series of unhelpful theatrics to sidetrack the Committee and peddle disinformation. 

Fortunately, the Committee was able to reach consensus on its final report and 

endorse a draft for the United Nations General Assembly titled “Space and Global 

Health Resolution” despite Russia’s fervent opposition. Canada, Japan, the United 

Kingdom, and the United States submitted a conference room paper encouraging 

the UN Secretary General’s Office to update UNOOSA and the Committee on 

planning for the “Summit of the Future” space-track event envisioned for late 2023. 

The key concepts of this paper garnered widespread support and were noted in the 

final UNCOPUOS report.

Space4Women/UNOOSA

The United States government joined the UN and ROK in co-sponsoring a 

Space4Women Experts Group in Daejeon, Korea, in mid-August 2022 to raise 

awareness of the significant gender disparity in the space sector, focusing specifically on the Asia Pacific region. This effort, which falls under the UN Capacity 

Building Initiative, seeks to create a policy road map to help countries encourage 

women and girls to pursue STEM education and address gender equality in the 

space sector. A total of 78 participants representing 32 nations attended the conference. UNOOSA and SA met to discuss the possibility of bringing the project 

to the United States in 2025. Canada is scheduled to host the project in 2023, 

followed by Israel in 2024.
285 Department of State

Space Five

In September 2022, the State Department led the U.S. delegation to the Space 

Five meetings in London, United Kingdom. It was the first in-person meeting of 

the Space Five nations (Australia, Canada, United Kingdom, United States, and 

New Zealand) since the onset of the pandemic. The various delegations shared 

views and best practices on a number of topic areas, including space regulatory 

frameworks, cybersecurity for space systems, and space situational awareness.

Space Security

During the 75th and 76th sessions of the UN General Assembly, the United 

States worked in the First and Fourth Committees to advance U.S. policy principles and goals regarding space security and sustainability. These engagements 

highlighted the U.S. commitment to international cooperation to preserve the 

safety, stability, security, and long-term sustainability of outer space activities. U.S. 

delegations also reiterated the long-standing U.S. commitment to consideration of 

proposals and concepts for arms control measures that are equitable and effectively 

verifiable and that enhance the national security of the United States and its allies.

The U.S. commitment to international leadership in promoting norms, rules, 

and principles of responsible behavior in outer space was highlighted in the Space 

Priorities Framework adopted by the National Space Council in December 2021. 

The priorities framework highlights the importance of international engagement 

to strengthen global governance and the rules-based international order for space.

To advance these efforts, Vice President Harris announced on April 18, 2022, 

that the United States commits not to conduct destructive, direct-ascent ASAT 

missile testing, and that the United States seeks to establish this as a new international norm for responsible behavior in space. The Vice President also called on 

other nations to make similar commitments and to work together in establishing 

this as a norm, making the case that such efforts benefit all nations. 

At the Biden-Harris Administration’s first National Space Council meeting 

in December 2021, Vice President Harris tasked the National Security Council 

staff to work with the Department of State, the Department of Defense, and other 
286Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

national security agencies to develop proposals for national security space norms 

that advance U.S. interests and preserve the security and sustainability of space. 

The commitment on destructive, direct-ascent missile testing is the first initiative 

under this effort. The United States is the first nation to make such a declaration 

and was subsequently joined by a number of allies. These allies also joined the 

United States in co-sponsoring a resolution for the 77th session of the UN General 

Assembly urging all nations to make a similar commitment. This resolution was 

endorsed in the General Assembly’s First Committee on November 2, 2022. 

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, sessions of the Conference on Disarmament 

and the UN Disarmament Commission in 2021 were postponed. In response, State 

continued virtual consultations in virtual and hybrid formats with like-minded 

allies on space security to prepare for virtual space security discussions during the 

75th and 76th sessions of the UN General Assembly’s First Committee in October 

2020 and 2021. This diplomatic outreach resulted in the adoption of U.S. cosponsored resolutions on “Reducing space threats through norms, rules and principles of responsible behaviors” by the full General Assembly on December 7, 2020, 

and December 24, 2021. The 2021 resolution established an Open-Ended Working 

Group, which held meetings in Geneva in April and September 2022. At these 

meetings, the United States took a leadership role in efforts to encourage other 

nations to join in the U.S. commitment to refrain from destructive direct-ascent 

missile testing.
287 Department of Energy

Department of En

DOE

The Department of Energy (DOE) participates in the national effort to enable 

U.S. interests in space. Various organizations within DOE, including the National 

Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA), provide support to NASA via existing programs and capabilities to maximize use of national investments in science 

and technology. DOE directly supports research and the operations of facilities 

at our National Laboratories and U.S. universities that contribute to advancing 

NASA missions. Additionally, DOE’s laboratories conduct research activities and 

technology development activities supported directly by NASA through Strategic 

Partnership Projects.1 Finally, DOE’s laboratories conduct research selected and 

supported by their Laboratory Directed Research and Development programs that 

aligns with NASA missions. Overall, this portfolio of work within the DOE is 

aligned to four major goals: 

• power the exploration of space,

• support the secure and peaceful use of space,

• solve the mysteries of space, and

• enable the development of space.

Each of these areas has aspects that support NASA’s overall mission. 

1 See https://science.osti.gov/lp/Strategic-Partnership-Projects and https://www.energy.gov/nnsa/strategicpartnership-projects-spp for further information. Strategic Partnership Projects was previously known 

as Work for Others prior to December 2016. 
288Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Power the Exploration of Space

DOE, through its Office of Nuclear Energy (NE), supports NASA’s planetary 

science and human exploration programs by maintaining capabilities needed to 

develop, produce, and deliver Radioisotope Power Systems (RPS) for space mission 

applications. RPS convert heat from the radioactive decay of plutonium (Pu)-238 

into electricity and reliably operate for decades in the harsh conditions encountered in space or on the surfaces of other planets where solar energy or stored 

energy devices are impractical or impossible to use. 

Radioisotope Power Systems Powered Missions

DOE continued to support close-out activities after the launch of the Mars 

2020 mission, completing the post-launch activities 20 percent below the initial 

cost estimate. DOE also worked on National Security Presidential Memorandum 

(NSPM-20) implementation in support of NASA missions including environmental analysis and development of a standard Documented Safety Analysis for Light 

Weight Radioisotope Heater Units (LWRHUs) as well as General Purpose Heat 

Source (GPHS) modules. In FY 2021 and FY 2022, DOE did the following:

• Conducted accident analysis and programmatic environmental analysis 

for the Dragonfly mission.

• Supported Multi-mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator 

(MMRTG) compatibility assessments with the Titan atmosphere and 

progressed towards fabrication of an electrically heated MMRTG flight 

unit with mission-unique features for Dragonfly.

• Supported the development of a GPHS Radioisotope Heater Unit (RHU) 

concept for future missions and developed an updated model and system 

requirements.

Constant Rate Production 

With funding support from NASA, DOE through NE continued to maintain 

RPS production capability through the Constant Rate Production (CRP) program 
289 Department of Energy

with the primary focus on scaling up production; optimizing processes; and maintaining, modernizing, and replacing equipment and infrastructure. DOE supported 

the following CRP activities in FY 2021 and FY 2022 to meet CRP goals of 1.5 kg/

year average annual production rate of heat source plutonium oxide and average 

annual production of 10–15 fueled clads/year:

• Conceptual design, mockups, and irradiation of Neptunium (Np)-237 targets for irradiation in the South Flux Trap of the Advanced Test Reactor 

(ATR) were completed at the Idaho National Laboratory (INL) as part of 

the second target irradiation campaign in the ATR. 

• Flight-quality fuel clads (FC) were manufactured and packaged at LANL 

and shipped to INL in support of the Dragonfly mission.

• Additional Np-237 targets were irradiated in the High Flux Isotope 

Reactor at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL).

• Process refinements while reducing waste streams were performed by 

reducing the chemical processing and separation steps needed in the production of plutonium heat source material. 

• The production of specialized components, including Carbon-bonded 

Carbon Fiber, iridium alloy blanks/foils, Clad Vent Sets, and LWRHU 

clad components, continued to be maintained at ORNL.

• Plans were developed at LANL to reduce manufacturing risks and risks 

from aging systems and equipment, such as replacing the Astro Furnaces 

and Limited Volume Chilled Circulating Water Systems and installing 

the Hot Press Furnace Line.

RPS Technology Development Activities

DOE in FY 2021 and FY 2022, through NE and the DOE national laboratories, 

continued to provide technical expertise, procurement coordination, and planning 

and support to NASA in conducting basic and applied energy conversion research 

and development to advance state-of-the-art performance in heat-to-electricalenergy conversion. Both static and dynamic energy conversion projects are under 

way with the goal of providing higher conversion efficiency and improving mission performance over design lifetime. DOE launched three development efforts 
290Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

that encompass both static and dynamic conversion systems: the enhanced multimission radioisotope thermoelectric generator (eMMRTG), the next-generation 

radioisotope thermoelectric generator (NGRTG), and a dynamic radioisotope 

power system (DRPS). 

The eMMRTG project was discontinued in FY 2021 based on performance of 

the eMMRTG technology testing and the start of the Skutterudite Technology 

Maturation effort to advance some of the technologies from the eMMRTG project. 

The NGRTG project proceeded with the development of concepts and identification of risks of NGRTGs for phase 1 of the project, as well as issuance of a contract to develop NGRTG design with well-characterized thermoelectric material 

technologies to mitigate design risks (i.e., refurbish an existing GPHS-RTG unit as 

Mod-0 in design development). 

The DRPS project focused on technology maturation of the conversion system 

and hardware testing, including controller architecture trade and design changes 

to improve convertor and electronic efficiencies. 

Surface Fission System Development

DOE, through NE and the DOE national laboratories, provides technical support for fission surface system development. In FY 2021, DOE published a draft 

Request for Proposal (RFP) for industry comment. This draft RFP garnered 

responses from over a dozen companies, and the feedback was incorporated to 

support a revised, final RFP. 

In FY 2022, DOE and NASA selected proposals to design a fission surface power 

(FSP) system for lunar power applications. The goal of the FSP project is to demonstrate a 40 kW-electric nuclear reactor on the Moon by the end of the decade. DOE 

awarded 12-month design contracts valued at $5 million each to three teams for 

their design proposals.2 The contracts were awarded in September 2022.

In addition, DOE published a Technology Maturation Plan (TMP) in July 2022; 

this document provided technical direction for government-funded technology 

2 https://inl.gov/article/battelle-energy-alliance-nasa-select-industry-partners-to-design-nuclear-powersystem-for-lunar-applications/
291 Department of Energy

development efforts that support FSP. The TMP also provided budget and schedule 

estimates to NASA to support planning for six years of development efforts. 

Nuclear Thermal Propulsion System Development 

DOE, through NE and the DOE national laboratories, provides technical support for Nuclear Thermal Propulsion (NTP) system development. In FY 2021 and 

FY 2022, DOE focused on experimental activities and contract design.

Experimental Activities: DOE completed irradiation testing of the Sirius-2b 

and Sirius-3 fuel samples in the Transient Reactor Test (TREAT) facility at INL. 

The Sirius samples were made at NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center and 

machined at INL for testing. The tests involved heating the samples to simulate 

NTP operational conditions to determine the limits of fuel performance. The tests 

were successful, with no fuel failures due to rapid heating and high temperatures. 

DOE also completed fabrication and assembly of the Sirius-2c fuel sample. 

Contract Design: DOE also worked with NASA on the RFP development and 

contract procurement for NTP reactor design activities. The design contracts were 

issued by INL to industry teams led by BWX Technologies, Inc.; General Atomics, 

Inc.; and Ultrasafe Nuclear Technologies, Inc. The contracts were fixed-price 

awards of $5 million each with a one-year performance period and included development of reactor designs, manufacturing and testing plans, and miscellaneous 

information associated with NTP reactor technology development. 

Support the Secure and Peaceful Use of Space 

In FY 2021 and FY 2022, DOE conducted programs that support NASA missions 

and are synergistic with national security activities. For example, NASA leverages DOE-unique engineering, scientific, and computing capabilities for analyzing 

asteroids and planetary defense scenarios. This work helps to develop and exercise 

capabilities that are relevant to the weapons program, including high-performance 

computing, two- and three-dimensional simulations, weapon effects, systems engineering, and weapon component design.
292Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Planetary Defense

DOE worked with NASA, the Department of Defense, and the Department of 

Homeland Security to develop and implement the actions outlined in the National 

Near-Earth Object Preparedness Strategy and Action Plan. This Strategy and 

Action Plan was developed to help improve our Nation’s preparedness to address 

the hazards of near-Earth object (NEO) impacts. The NEO plan has five strategic 

goals. The two pertaining to DOE focus on improving NEO modeling, predictions, 

and information integration and developing technologies for NEO deflection and 

disruption missions. 

In FY 2021 and FY 2022, DOE collaborated with NASA to:

• characterize the potentially hazardous asteroid target sets, define mission 

requirements, and identify capability gaps;

• examine the effects of either a kinetic impactor and/or a nuclear detonation, either at the surface or at a standoff distance from a model asteroid, 

using simulations from peta-scale computers at the National Labs; 

• define additional development and system engineering requirements to 

address technical gaps such as arming, fusing, and firing a deflection 

device;

• participate in planetary defense tabletop exercises and technical interchange meetings;

• advise on risk-assessment analysis and effectiveness of mitigation 

approaches;

• conduct impact studies, which will serve as the initial conditions for 

FEMA emergency response planning if mitigation approaches fail; and

• partner with NASA scientists and engineers to publish refereed 

technical papers.

In addition, DOE continued to support NASA’s Double Asteroid Redirection 

Test (DART) by providing essential numerical methods and simulation results. The 

details of DOE’s technical support to DART impact modeling were documented 

through peer-reviewed papers. On September 26, 2022, the DART spacecraft 

successfully impacted asteroid Dimorphos. DOE expertise is being leveraged to 
293 Department of Energy

simulate the impact in 3D, with high-fidelity representations of the DART spacecraft and the rubble pile asteroid target.

NASA’s Environmental Continuous Air Monitors

DOE maintained the NASA-owned Environmental Continuous Air Monitors 

for deployment around launch sites to provide indication of a radioactive release, 

should one occur. NASA agreed to loan these sensors in support of DOE/NNSA’s 

nuclear incident response mission when those devices are not being used for mission launch support. These devices were upgraded to provide real-time associated 

data telemetry systems and will be interoperable with NNSA’s existing data telemetry capability.

Global Nuclear Monitoring

DOE builds the Nation’s operational sensors to monitor the entire planet from 

space to detect and report surface, atmospheric, or space nuclear detonations. DOE 

develops, builds, and delivers these satellite payloads to meet interagency performance and schedule commitments and provides launch and on-orbit operational 

support for the current generation of the U.S. Nuclear Detonation Detection 

System (USNDS). This information helps to characterize space weather, which 

helps NASA to characterize the radiation environments that NASA space exploration vehicles must endure. DOE also provides much of the underlying science and 

technology capability for space-based detection of foreign nuclear weapon detonations to meet test ban treaty monitoring needs. 

The DOE weapons laboratories—LANL, Sandia National Laboratories (SNL), 

and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL)—supply the science, technology, and engineering required for USNDS. LANL and SNL lead the production 

of sensors, and LLNL contributes to the end-to-end modeling of USNDS. These 

laboratories have a unique and comprehensive understanding of nuclear weapons, 

as well as the observables associated with nuclear detonations and the propagation 

of signals to sensors. Moreover, these laboratories have extensive capabilities in 

the design, construction, calibration, deployment, and operation of satellite-based 
294Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

instruments, along with detailed modeling and analysis. To support continuous 

global monitoring, the operations communities routinely receive analysis, insights, 

and computer codes based on this research.

Two distinct sensor suites are built at DOE laboratories to accomplish the 

nuclear detonation reporting mission: the Global Burst Detector (GBD) and the 

Space and Atmospheric Burst Reporting System (SABRS). The GBD is hosted on 

all GPS satellites, and SABRS is carried on satellite hosts in geosynchronous orbit. 

In FY 2021 and FY 2022, DOE continued full-scale production and delivery of 

both sensor suites as needed to meet national security requirements. To ensure 

that the technologies and capabilities developed for the program support the 

stakeholder needs, DOE actively engaged in intergovernmental working groups 

to reduce duplication of effort, refine user requirements, and improve the quality 

of relevant technologies across funding agencies. To maintain a vital capability 

to design and implement these systems, DOE supported demonstration-validation 

payloads both to explore new technologies and new sensing modalities and to 

increase the Technology Readiness Level for parts that might be used in future 

payload designs.

Varied Extraterrestrial Off-Nominal Mission (VENOM) Preparedness

NNSA is engaged with NASA to develop and execute a facilitated discussion on 

a varied extraterrestrial off-nominal mission (VENOM) scenario. The discussion 

will address a U.S. government response to an off-nominal return of an adversary’s 

space item within the United States. The scenario will include a space item from 

a foreign nation with an unknown payload, considered a mixed hazard threat containing one or more chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear materials. The 

discussion will focus on the roles and responsibilities of U.S. government departments and agencies in the recovery and collection of the space item(s) and the 

related payload. This effort will continue into FY 2023.
295 Department of Energy

Solve the Mysteries of Space 

In FY 2021 and FY 2022, DOE supported numerous activities that contributed 

to a broad range of space interests. These activities included fundamental research 

of mutual interest to NASA and DOE, collaborative research efforts with NASA, 

and the operation of DOE scientific facilities that are available to NASA and the 

broader scientific community for space-related research. 

During the first quarters of FY 2021 and FY 2022, the Science and Innovation 

Working Group (SIWG) met to discuss new opportunities for collaboration, 

receive updates on existing joint efforts, and discuss other agency activities of 

mutual interest. The SIWG was established in the October 2020 Memorandum 

of Understanding between DOE and NASA with the purpose of identifying areas 

of mutual interest in science and technology development that would benefit from 

greater coordination and collaboration between the agencies. The SIWG is led 

by the Director of DOE’s Office of Science and the Associate Administrator of 

NASA’s Science Mission Directorate, with participation from senior leaders from 

both agencies’ core science programs. 

Plasma Science

DOE, through its Fusion Energy Science program, supports frontier plasma science research that contributes to DOE-NASA mutual interests in the knowledge 

of heliospheric and astrophysical systems. In FY 2021 and FY 2022, DOE continued to support plasma science research activities at the Large Plasma Device at 

the Basic Plasma Science Facility at the University of California, Los Angeles 

(controlled studies of Alfvén waves); the Big Red Plasma Ball and Madison 

Symmetric Torus experiments at the Wisconsin Plasma Physics Laboratory at 

the University of Wisconsin–Madison (high-fidelity measurements of magnetic 

reconnection, dynamo, turbulence, and particle-energization processes); and the 

Magnetorotational Instability (MRI) Experiment (accretion or accumulation processes involving star and planet formation) and Magnetic Reconnection (MRX) 

Experiment (magnetic reconnection and particle energization processes) devices at 

the Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory (PPPL). NASA has made a few multi-year 
296Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

awards to PPPL to support research focusing on predicting the potentially damaging 

effects of blasts of subatomic particles from the Sun. These awards have extended 

PPPL’s extensive history in space and astrophysical plasma research involving 

magnetic reconnection, through laboratory experiments using the MRX experiment and analyses of observation data from NASA’s Magnetospheric Multiscale 

(MMS) mission. PPPL, which has been collaborating with the MMS mission since 

it was launched in 2015, is now installing the Facility for Laboratory Reconnection 

Experiment, a new and more powerful version of MRX. 

In FY 2022, PPPL researchers, through laboratory experiments using the MRI, 

discovered an instability mechanism believed to be behind astrophysical disk 

accretion rates. New knowledge and data derived from these experiments and 

research activities not only contributed to DOE’s mission to advance fusion energy 

and plasma science, but also contributed to greater understanding of complex 

space weather phenomena, enabling more accurate models and predictions of this 

behavior, and mitigating the risk to both humans and equipment operating in the 

space environment.

High Energy Physics (HEP) and Astrophysics

In FY 2021 and FY 2022, DOE, through its High Energy Physics (HEP) program, continued to support fundamental physics and high-priority national 

science objectives. Examples of these efforts included the Alpha Magnetic 

Spectrometer (AMS), located on the International Space Station, and the Fermi 

Gamma-ray Space Telescope (FGST), a “free flyer” in orbit approximately 565 km 

above Earth. 

The AMS science goals include a search for evidence of dark matter and cosmic 

domains of antimatter, as well as the measurements of different types of cosmic 

nuclei as a function of location in Earth’s atmosphere, which may be of interest for 

astronaut safety considerations. An extravehicular activity (EVA) was carried out 

by NASA in FY 2020 to replace the AMS cooling system, enabling it to operate 

beyond 2028. As of the end of FY 2022, observations of more than 210 billion 

cosmic-ray events have been collected. 
297 Department of Energy

The AMS can determine the types and locations of cosmic nuclei (e.g., finding 

differing amounts of lithium, carbon, and oxygen inside and outside the south 

Atlantic anomaly). At the February 2020 Space Weather Operations, Research, 

and Mitigation Interagency Working Group meeting, NASA and other agencies 

expressed a strong interest in the AMS measurements of space radiation as a function of location in Earth’s atmosphere. In FY 2021, conversations between the AMS 

experiment, NASA, and HEP continued making AMS data publicly available. 

During FY 2022, the DOE continued to work with NASA and the AMS 

Collaboration to ensure the AMS scientific data is stored in a publicly accessible archive to maximize scientific return to the greater science community. In 

December 2021, the scientific case for a potential upgrade to AMS was considered 

in a DOE review. The panel reviewed the proposal favorably assuming it would be 

constructed and installed in a timely manner. Installation of this upgrade would 

require an additional EVA orbital crew for installation, and DOE and NASA have 

initiated those discussions.

The Large Area Telescope (LAT), the primary instrument on FGST, entered its 

15th year of successful operations and data analysis on such topics as searches for 

dark matter and high-energy particle acceleration mechanisms. Following NASA’s 

senior review in early 2022, FGST was approved for an extension of operations 

through at least 2026. DOE will continue to support critical science operations for 

the LAT at the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory (SLAC). 

DOE continued its role building and operating ground-based observatories (in 

partnership with the National Science Foundation) to carry out microwave, optical and near-infrared imaging, and spectroscopic surveys. HEP-supported scientists 

at DOE National Labs and U.S. universities continue to carry out simulations 

and data analysis for these surveys. Of interest to all three agencies is combining 

simulations and data analyses from the Vera C. Rubin Observatory, the Euclid 

Mission, the Nancy G. Roman Space Telescope, and others, to enhance the scientific impact for studies such as the nature of dark energy, dark matter searchers, and 

the inflationary era in the early universe. Scientists supported by all three agencies 

continue working together towards this goal. 

Of particular interest to NASA will be the comprehensive census of near-Earth 

objects, including asteroids and comets, from the ground-based Rubin Observatory 
298Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

(survey to start in late 2024).3 Rubin Observatory’s ten-year survey, along with 

existing searches of objects larger than 140 meters in diameter, will discover and 

catalog approximately 75 percent of near-Earth objects and 80 percent of potentially hazardous asteroids (PHA) with orbits having a high probability of crossing 

Earth’s path someday.

During the second quarter of FY 2021, DOE and NASA jointly published 

a Request for Information (RFI) on collaborative activities that could further 

advances in high-energy physics and space-based astrophysics in support of shared 

science goals. The RFI focused on three major areas: potential lunar surface missions on the lunar far side; space-based probes of fundamental physics on the 

International Space Station; and synergies in the usage of data from the Rubin 

Observatory, Roman Space Telescope, and Euclid missions. While the responses 

to the RFI did not offer new science opportunities, it did reinforce the need for 

DOE and NASA to collaborate on planning novel science proposals and to 

increase interagency communication with regards to each agency’s technology 

development activities. 

In FY 2021, DOE and NASA began development of the Lunar Surface 

Electromagnetics Experiment at Night (LuSEE-Night) mission in partnership with 

Space Sciences Laboratory in Berkley, California. The mission will deliver a new 

instrument package, developed through a partnership of two DOE laboratories, 

that will be capable of observing and characterizing the long-wavelength radio 

signal in the ultra-low-noise environment of the lunar far-side at night. Such measurements are not possible on Earth or in low-Earth orbit due to interference from 

Earth’s ionosphere. The LuSEE-Night mission will be sent to the Moon in 2025 

via a Commercial Lunar Payload Services launch. This pathfinder mission will 

potentially make the first measurement of the predicted 21-cm signal from the 

cosmic Dark Ages, a time between when the first atoms formed and when stars and 

galaxies formed (approximately 370,000 years to approximately 1 billion years after 

the Big Bang).

In FY 2022, DOE and NASA continued development of the LuSEE-Night mission. DOE roles on LuSEE-Night, including the science antennae and associated 

3 NASA was directed in 2005 to catalog 90 percent of potentially hazardous asteroids.
299 Department of Energy

instrumentation, were approved and funded within the FY 2022 omnibus appropriations bill. The new instrument package will be developed through a partnership of two DOE laboratories.

Finally, NASA, through its Strategic Astrophysics Technology program, initiated funding in FY 2020 for a project at SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory to 

further develop readout and low-noise signal-processing electronics for cryogenic 

detector arrays for far infrared and x-ray space missions, as well as other broadband radio frequency (RF) applications in space. The work builds on HEP-funded 

research at SLAC to demonstrate and deploy an RF/signal processing system 

with 4,000-times multiplexing for cosmic microwave background observation 

experiments at the South Pole. In FY 2021, SLAC developed and tested a Radio 

Frequency System on a Chip (RFSoC) with space-grade components. In FY 2022, 

testing and validation of the RFSoC was completed and preparation for radiation 

hardness testing was put in place to establish its viability through NASA’s technology readiness level 6.

High-Performance Scientific Computing for Cosmology and Astrophysics

DOE, through the Advanced Scientific Computing Research and High Energy 

Physics programs, continued to support analysis of data from the European Space 

Agency–NASA Planck Cosmic Microwave Background mission, which collected 

data from 2009 to 2013. 

The National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center (NERSC) at 

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory made significant contributions to science funded by NASA, conducted by NASA researchers and of direct relevance 

to NASA projects and missions. In FY 2021, NERSC hosted 24 researchers from 

NASA research centers, 23 projects that received NASA funding, and an additional 15 with relevance to NASA programs. In FY 2022, NERSC hosted 22 

researchers from NASA research centers, 16 projects that received NASA funding, and an additional 13 with direct relevance to NASA programs. Among the 

projects: continued analysis of Planck Cosmic Microwave Background mission 

data, designing the next-generation Probe Class satellite mission, work on the 

Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite, Hubble data analysis, putting constraints on 
300Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Dark Energy, Earth Systems modeling, reactive subsurface geological fluid flows, 

magnetic reconnection and space weather, modeling atmospheric molecular line 

absorption, and simulating high redshift line intensity mapping as will be observed 

by the NASA SPHEREx (Spectro-Photometer for the History of the Universe, 

Epoch of Reionization and Ice Explorer) mission set to launch in 2024. NERSC 

led a discussion at a workshop for the NASA Open-Source Science Initiative Data 

Computing Architecture Study in September 2022. Since 2020, more than 300 

refereed scientific publications have referenced both NERSC and NASA.

The Advanced Scientific Computing Research (ASCR) Leadership Computing 

Facilities, as part of DOE’s Exascale Computing Project, made significant contributions to space science projects. As part of the DOE Exascale Computing 

Project, the two Advanced Scientific Computing Research Leadership Computing 

Facilities—the Argonne Leadership Computing Facility and the Oak Ridge 

Leadership Computing Facility—made significant contributions to space science 

projects. Cumulatively at the two facilities, twenty-four and nineteen projects cited 

support from NASA in FY 2021 and FY 2022, respectively. These projects spanned 

a wide range of topics to help NASA’s Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope (formerly called WFIRST) and SPHEREx missions. For example, the Hardware/Hybrid 

Accelerated Cosmology Code general cosmology simulation software, which simulates cosmology data from an initial condition set in the early universe, continued 

to make use of the Summit supercomputer in FY 2021 and FY 2022 to produce 

simulations used by ground- and space-based surveys. Simulation-based extragalactic catalogs tailored to specific wavebands and filters were used to make synthetic 

datasets for these missions. Computer allocations for this work were made through 

the ASCR Argonne Leadership Computing Challenge program.

Atmospheric Science and Terrestrial Ecology

DOE, through the Biological and Environmental Research program, also 

engaged in many collaborative research efforts with NASA in the areas of atmospheric science and terrestrial ecology. During FY 2021 and FY 2022, DOE’s 

Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) User Facility and Environmental 

System Science (ESS) activity (formerly known as Terrestrial Ecosystem Science) 
301 Department of Energy

continued to support measurements of atmospheric trace gases in Oklahoma to 

improve understanding of the influence of atmospheric and terrestrial processes 

on atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations. ARM provided support for 

ground-based measurements of CO2 in Oklahoma as part of the Total Column 

Carbon Observing Network and supported the launch of dedicated radiosonde 

observations during satellite overpasses at the Southern Great Plains, Oklahoma; 

Graciosa Island, Azores; and Utqiagvik (formerly Barrow), Alaska, ARM sites to 

obtain profiles of temperature and moisture for the validation of algorithms for two 

sounding instruments on the Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership satellite 

and Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS) satellites. 

ARM and NASA researchers collaborated on preparation and planning for the 

coordinated DOE-led Tracking Aerosol Convection Experiment (TRACER) and 

NASA-led TRACER–Air Quality field campaigns in Houston, Texas, to study 

atmospheric composition and aerosol impacts on convective storms. Although the 

official TRACER campaign start date was delayed until October 1, 2021, due to 

the COVID-19 pandemic, ARM supported deployment of ground-based lidar from 

the NASA Tropospheric Ozone Lidar Network system during FY 2021 and made 

preliminary data taken during the TRACER installation period available to NASA 

researchers. DOE’s Atmospheric System Research activity also supported collaboration with NASA scientists at Goddard Space Flight Center, Goddard Institute 

for Space Studies, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory on studies using ARM and 

NASA observations to investigate aerosol and cloud processes and their role in 

Earth’s energy balance.

The ESS activity supported the Next Generation Ecosystem Experiments-Arctic, 

which continued to collaborate with the NASA Arctic-Boreal Vulnerability 

Experiment to couple real-time ground-based and airborne-based measurements of 

soil moisture, temperature, carbon dioxide, and methane flux over Utqiagvik and 

Nome, Alaska. 

Finally, the ESS-supported AmeriFlux Network continued to collaborate with 

the NASA ECOsystem Spaceborne Thermal Radiometer Experiment on Space 

Station (ECOSTRESS) mission by sharing flux tower measurements such as vegetation cover data and soil moisture data that are coupled with water flux/evapotranspiration measurements to serve as validation sites.
302Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

Nuclear Astrophysics and Nuclear Data

DOE, through the Nuclear Physics (NP) program, supported fundamental 

research on nuclear reactions of astrophysical interest, contributing knowledge 

to DOE and NASA interests in stellar evolution, neutron star mergers, gammaray bursts, and the composition of interstellar space. Neutron stars are extremely 

condensed stellar objects at supranuclear densities. The nucleon density is so high 

in supranuclear matter that the mean internucleon separation becomes less than 

the range of internucleon forces, suggesting more exotic forms of matter within 

neutron stars. Researchers supported by the Office of Science’s Nuclear Physics program leveraged electromagnetic radiation data from NASA’s Neutron Star Interior 

Composition ExploreR (NICER) installed on the ISS to study the properties of 

such supranuclear systems. 

Through outreach, DOE and NASA staff have worked together in the Nuclear 

Data InterAgency Working Group, a Federal-level working group led by DOE’s NP 

program in the Office of Science, to coordinate and prioritize nuclear data needs 

for Federal programs. In FY 2021, discussions began on how to address nuclear 

data needs for human spaceflight safety and electronics protection from radiation, 

including from cosmic ray interactions with spacecraft. Nuclear data needs were 

also identified for space-based nuclear reactors, which have some overlaps with 

Earth-based systems. In FY 2022, discussions progressed, and initial planning began 

on a potential data collection activity to address these needs. Nuclear data needs 

for space applications were included in the interim report from the Nuclear Science 

Advisory Committee charge on nuclear data needs, published in September 2022.

Experimental Facilities for Space Science and Technology Development

DOE continued to work with NASA in several areas to help support NASA’s 

mission interests, providing scientific user facilities, including particle accelerators 

and ion beams, for biological and electronic systems radiation studies. The NASA 

Space Radiation Laboratory (NSRL) at DOE’s Brookhaven National Laboratory 

(BNL) continued to study the effects of cosmic radiation exposure on astronauts, 

using beams of heavy ions extracted from BNL’s Booster accelerator, part of the 
303 Department of Energy

Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider complex.4 The work advances the understanding of 

the link between ionizing radiation and cell damage. NASA continued to provide 

funding in FY 2021 and FY 2022 to support the operation of DOE’s 88-inch cyclotron at LBNL for electronics space-radiation effects testing, which is necessary for 

NASA mission assurance. 

DOE’s scientific user facilities continued to contribute to NASA’s missions in 

space science and technology development in FY 2021 and FY 2022. Representative 

techniques and their applications used in FY 2021 included the first neutron diffraction experiment in the High Flux Isotope Reactor at ORNL to characterize 

neptunium dioxide (NpO2) and the use of infrared spectroscopy and single-shot 

and time-resolved synchrotron x-ray diffraction at the Advanced Photon Source 

at Argonne National Laboratory to discover that an iron-rich Earth rock sample 

contained stored water, with possible implications for water content of related rocks 

on Mars.5

Representative techniques and their applications used in FY 2022 included 

nanoscale infrared (IR) spectroscopy and imaging techniques at the Advanced 

Light Source at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory to reveal the chemical 

history of a carbonaceous chondrite meteorite, as well as in situ x-ray diffraction 

at the Advanced Photon Source at Argonne National Laboratory to study the 

phase behavior of iron-iron (II) sulfide (Fe-FeS) under pressures and temperatures 

expected to exist in the cores of rocky planets.6

Isotope Program

DOE, through the Isotope Program (IP), supplied critical isotopes for NASA 

space-related research, development, and applications in FY 2021 and FY 2022, 

4 A recent paper highlighting research at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lssr.2022.09.001 describes the 

development of a galactic cosmic ray simulator for modeling space missions. 

5 More information is available at https://www.aps.anl.gov/APS-Science-Highlight/2021-08-04/earthlyrocks-point-way-to-water-hidden-on-mars.

6 Investigators found that water played a key role in the meteorite’s evolution, laying groundwork 

for further work on asteroid samples to be returned to Earth by NASA in 2023. https://als.lbl.gov/

nanoscale-infrared-study-of-meteorite-mineralogy/. The investigators identified Fe2S and a novel 

Fe12S7 phase at these conditions, revealing that a wide variety of core structures are possible with 

minor changes in sulfur content for S-rich planetary cores. https://www.aps.anl.gov/APS-ScienceHighlight/2022-08-15/fe-fes-phase-equilibria-and-eutectic-melting-relations-in.
304Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

such as Helium-3 for use in cryogenics and Rubidium-87 for navigation satellite 

systems. The DOE IP advanced the availability of long-lived isotopes for nuclear 

batteries and power sources that may be of interest to NASA in the future, including Americium-241, Strontium-90, and Promethium-147. DOE also monitored the 

Helium-4 supply chain to ensure adequate supplies for the production of rocket fuel.

Enable the Development of Space 

In FY 2021 and FY 2022, DOE, through the Office of Technology Transitions, 

conducted significant industry outreach to identify gaps and opportunities to connect its labs and capabilities with space industry counterparts. DOE also focused 

on ensuring that the transfer and commercialization of its technologies were 

specifically highlighted and supported in policy documents, setting the stage for 

further engagement on space-related activities. 

DOE evaluated opportunities for quantum networking in free space, which 

included space applications and leveraging artificial intelligence. In FY 2021, DOE 

continued its collaboration with the space and quantum communities and the 

national labs through workshops on quantum entanglement and quantum networks in space, helping to facilitate public-private partnerships. AI applications 

and deployments in space are part of these discussions, and specific use cases are 

under development.

In FY 2021 and FY 2022, DOE, through the Solar Energy Technologies Office 

(SETO), worked on reducing the cost and increasing the efficiency of III-V photovoltaic cells, as well as improving the efficiency and stability of perovskite solar 

cells, including perovskite cells on lightweight and flexible substrates. In FY 2021, 

the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) completed the development of 

a Dynamic Hydride Vapor Phase Epitaxy (D-HVPE) procedure for high throughput and high materials utilization epitaxial growth of III-V layers. In FY  2022, 

NREL focused on supporting substrate reuse research, reducing cell costs, and 

optimizing III-V multijunction cell efficiency for terrestrial applications. SETO 

continued to serve as vice chair of the Interagency Advanced Power Group’s 

Renewable Energy Conversion Working Group with focus groups on space solar 

and perovskite photovoltaics. 
305 Smithsonian Institution

Smithsonian Insti

The Smithsonian Institution continued to contribute to national aerospace 

goals in FY 2021 and FY  2022. The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory 

(SAO) is a partner of the Center for Astrophysics | Harvard & Smithsonian 

(CfA) in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and represents the largest component of the 

Smithsonian’s space contributors. The organization has more than 300 scientists 

engaged in a broad program of research in astronomy, astrophysics, Earth and 

space sciences, and science education. The Smithsonian’s National Air and Space 

Museum and National Museum of Natural History (NMNH) in Washington, DC, 

contributed to reaching national aerospace goals through their research and education activities.

Five widely reported news stories in FY 2021 and 2022 featured Smithsonian scientists and space historians. SAO astronomers used NASA’s Transiting Exoplanet 

Survey Satellite (TESS) and the IRAC camera on the Spitzer Space Telescope to 

detect and characterize a giant planet, about the size of Jupiter, tightly orbiting a 

white dwarf star every 1.4 days. The 

widely reported discovery, published 

in Nature, is remarkable because 

all the thousands of other known 

exoplanets orbit stars that are not 

in advanced old age. A white dwarf 

marks the final phase of life for a Sunlike star and follows aging processes 

that destroy most orbiting planets. 

The unexpected discovery of this 

planet so close to its white dwarf star 

An artist’s conception of the white dwarf star 

WD1856+534 (left) and the giant Jupiter-size planet 

(right) that orbits it every 1.4 days. (Credit: NASA) 
306Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

implies some unusual mechanism may have captured the planet from much farther 

away and may more broadly play a role in the development of planetary systems 

like our own.

SAO controls the science and operations of the Chandra X-ray Observatory for 

NASA. In FY 2021 and 2022 SAO astronomers, following up on Chandra observations of the galaxy Centaurus A, used radio data to obtain a unified description of 

the gas and dust that are accreting onto the vicinity of its supermassive black hole 

and the hot gas that is ejected from the nucleus in the form of powerful bipolar jets. 

SAO astronomers have been conducting coordinated monitoring of flare activity from the four million solar-mass black hole 

(SMBH) at the center of our Milky Way galaxy, 

located about 25,000 light-years away, with 

NASA’s Spitzer Space Telescope and Chandra 

X-ray Observatory. In FY 2021 and 2022 they 

published their results and models of the physical mechanisms present. Images of this black 

hole were also published for the first time in 

this period: SAO astronomers leading the Event 

Horizon Telescope consortium, and its dozens 

of collaborating institutions, used the global 

An image of the galaxy Centaurus A showing the dark dust lane crossing 

the galaxy and dramatic, bright jets streaming out from its supermassive black hole nucleus. (Credit: X-ray: NASA/CXC/SAO; Optical: Rolf 

Olsen; Infrared: NASA/JPL-Caltech)

The supermassive black hole at the center of our Milky Way galaxy as imaged 

with the Event Horizon Telescope. The 

black hole itself is invisible, but radiation from the hot gas around it is bent 

and distorted, creating a “shadow” of 

the object. (Credit: The Event Horizon 

Telescope consortium) 
307 Smithsonian Institution

array of radio telescopes to image the SMBH. The dramatic picture revealed the 

“shadow” of the Milky Way’s supermassive black hole, and in spring 2022, it was 

reproduced in newspapers around the world.

NMNH scientists using NASA’s OSIRIS-REx mission produced the first geologic 

map of the 490-meter-diameter “rubble pile” asteroid Bennu, made of fragments 

held together by gravity. The mission will return samples to Earth, and this map 

will provide context for the sample studies, as well as offer a blueprint for future 

asteroid mapping. There are more small rubble pile asteroids in the solar system 

than planets, moons, and larger asteroids combined.

During FY 2021 and FY 2022, the National Air and Space Museum focused 

on the revitalization and transformation of its National Mall building, including 

the development of new exhibit galleries at one of the most visited museums in 

the world.

The Smithsonian continued to play a leadership role in space research during 

FY 2021 and FY 2022. SAO scientists have been active participants in the research 

of NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope, launched in December 2021, and have 

published more than 100 journal articles so far on their discoveries, including the 

first definitive measurement of the carbon dioxide level in an exoplanet atmosphere and studies of atmospheres around other exoplanets. Scientists imaged 

distant galaxies in the very young universe with JWST and reported finding many 

more bright galaxies than had been expected, prompting a reevaluation of how the 

A geologic map of the asteroid Bennu. Smooth areas are shown in pink, rugged areas in blue, and 

craters are outlined in blue. (Credit: NASA, NMNH, Jawin, McCoy, et al.)
308Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

early cosmos evolved. Other SAO discoveries with JWST uncovered new details 

about nearby star-forming regions and bright nebulae. NASA’s Chandra X-ray 

Observatory, operated for NASA by the SAO, observes critical targets proposed 

by scientists around the world. Chandra continues to operate with high (about 

70 percent) efficiency and a spatial resolution unmatched by any other X-ray telescope either currently in operation or planned for the future. Chandra’s results 

appear in an average of 480 highly cited refereed papers each year. In FY 2021 

and FY  2022, Chandra enabled astronomers from around the world to observe 

X-rays emitted by a wide range of cosmic objects to tackle important astrophysical 

questions ranging from the first detection of X-rays from Uranus to the discovery 

of a huge jet from a black hole almost 13 billion light-years from Earth. Scientists 

used Chandra to study the effects of host stars on planets that orbit them and 

gained a deeper understanding of the process that drives the explosions of massive stars. They learned more about the center of the Milky Way galaxy and the 

supermassive black hole that resides there, and about how some of the largest 

structures in the universe—galaxy clusters—grow and evolve. SAO is a key participant in the Extreme-ultraviolet Stellar Characterization for Atmospheric Physics 

and Evolution (ESCAPE) mission, a NASA Small Explorer concept employing 

The new Kenneth C. Griffin Exploring the Planets gallery in the National Air and Space Museum. 
309 Smithsonian Institution

ultraviolet spectroscopy to explore the high-energy radiation environment in the 

habitable zones around nearby stars, to provide the first comprehensive study of the 

stellar extreme ultraviolet (EUV) environments that directly affect the habitability 

of rocky exoplanets. During FY 2021 and 2022, SAO participated in the ESCAPE 

Phase A study. SAO completed mirror coating test samples and measurements, as 

well as mirror alignment tests. SAO also supported the production of the Phase A 

Report in both scientific and technical sections and supported and participated in 

the site visit that formed part of the Phase A review.

The Parker Solar Probe continues to orbit the Sun and to set records as the 

fastest human-made object and the closest a spacecraft has ever approached the 

Sun. SAO built and operates the Solar Probe Faraday Cup instrument and leads 

the “SWEAP” suite of instruments that measures the Sun’s thermal plasma. 

These instruments endure an extremely harsh environment while making groundbreaking scientific measurements about the fundamental processes taking place 

in the solar corona and interplanetary space. During FY 2021 and FY 2022, the 

mission completed 7 solar encounters and 2 Venus flybys that brought the probe to 

within just 13.3 solar radii, more than 4 times closer than any previous spacecraft. 

In April of 2021, the spacecraft entered an extended region of sub-Alfvénic plasma 

(a region dominated by the Sun’s magnetic field) and thus made the first measurements from within the solar corona. This was the first in situ observation of the 

solar plasma that eventually becomes the solar wind.

The Solar Dynamics Observatory spacecraft provides better-than-highdefinition-quality images of the Sun’s surface and outer atmosphere, measuring 

physical conditions that help scientists model the stellar wind and its influence 

on the “space weather” around Earth. SAO is a major partner for one of its instruments, the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly. In FY 2021 and FY 2022 its four telescopes continued to photograph the Sun in ten different wavelength bands once 

every 12 seconds, continuing to produce the most spectacular images ever recorded 

of the active surface of the Sun. NASA’s Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph 

(IRIS) satellite offers a unique view of the Sun’s mysterious chromosphere and transition regions. SAO built the telescope feed, and in FY 2021 and FY 2022 continued 

its active role in IRIS operations, calibration, and science to provide information 

on particle acceleration in hot coronal loops and a better understanding of the 
310Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

physical processes powering solar flares. During FY 2021 and FY 2022, SAO scientists also continued their involvement in other solar satellites, including Hinode 

and the Deep Space Climate Observer. 

FY 2021 and FY 2022 marked continued progress for the Giant Magellan Telescope 

(GMT), for which SAO is a team leader. The GMT is a facility in development for 

optical and infrared observations that combines seven huge mirrors to create one 

of the world’s largest telescopes to address key questions in cosmology, astrophysics, 

and the study of planets outside our solar system. The sixth of the seven 8.4-meterdiameter mirror segments began fabrication in early 2021; the other fabricated mirrors are in various stages of preparation for shipment to the site in Chile. 

SAO leads NASA’s first Earth Venture Instrument, Tropospheric Emissions: 

Monitoring of Pollution (TEMPO) satellite mission as the Principal Investigator 

(PI) institution and heads the retrieval algorithm and calibration effort of the 

MethaneSAT satellite mission. TEMPO and MethaneSAT will provide revolutionary measurements of greenhouse gases and aerosols that are important for 

understanding air quality and climate change, allowing us to better fight against 

air pollution and global warming. During FY 2021 and 2022 the TEMPO mission 

made excellent progress. The instrument has been fully integrated into its satellite 

host and has finished spacecraft thermal vacuum testing. Launch-ready science 

algorithms have been completed, and ground systems, including the Instrument 

Operation Center and Science Data Processing Center, hosted at SAO, are to 

be completed soon for the Operation Readiness Review. TEMPO is scheduled to 

launch on a SpaceX Falcon 9 on March 1, 2023, providing the first-ever hourly daytime observations of atmospheric pollution from a geostationary orbit over North 

America. MethaneSAT is an Environmental Defense Fund mission funded by philanthropic donors to address climate change. The mission objective is to measure 

the methane emissions of more than 80 percent of the global oil and gas sector and 

produce actionable data to reduce oil and gas methane emissions by 45 percent by 

2025. The instrument has been mostly built and is waiting for integration with 

the spacecraft bus working toward a launch by SpaceX in October 2023. SAO has 

been involved in the MethaneSAT project since its inception in 2015, including 

feasibility studies, and led the building of its airborne precursor instrument called 

MethaneAIR. SAO is leading the MethaneSAT/MethaneAIR retrieval algorithm 
311 Smithsonian Institution

development and instrument validation of the MethaneSAT mission. MethaneAIR 

will continue to fly on a dedicated plane routinely for 40–60 hours per month to 

complement MethaneSAT and double methane observations.

SAO is responsible for orchestrating the follow-up observations needed to confirm and characterize the planet candidates identified by NASA’s TESS, now in 

its fifth year of operation. This effort continued in FY 2021 and FY 2022 with 

the TESS Follow-up Observing Program Working Group, which has more than 

600 members based at observatories all around the world. SAO’s telescopes at the 

Whipple Observatory on Mount Hopkins in Arizona play a major role in this work. 

A recent milestone passed in FY 2022 by the TESS mission was paper number 1000 

published in a refereed journal. SAO is a member of the NASA MIDEX SPHEREx 

mission team and, during FY 2021 and FY 2022, continued to develop plans for this 

space-based telescope to conduct four all-sky infrared spectral surveys.

SAO continued to pursue a wide variety of nationwide STEM education and 

outreach initiatives in FY 2021 and FY 2022, many of which are aimed at broadening public participation in and maximizing the societal benefits of the astrophysics 

research efforts of the institution. The Chandra X-ray Observatory continues to 

lead in engaging the public. One example is the “sonification” of astronomical 

data—translating visual images into sequences of musical tones, making the images 

accessible to those with visual impairment. Chandra sonifications, including of the 

black hole in the Perseus cluster, appeared across social and traditional media in 

2022. Stories about this Chandra-led project appeared in hundreds of outlets around 

the globe, including The New York Times, CNN, and NBC. The MicroObservatory 

is a robotic network of telescopes operated by the CfA for research and public outreach purposes. In the last 5 years, YouthAstroNet has reached nearly 4,500 youth 

in more than 20 states. Participating locations include museums, libraries, and 

community centers. Activities include digital image analysis to enhance and take 

measurements of astronomical images. Educational research studies investigate the 

impact of pre-college in-school and out-of-school activities on interest in pursuit of 

STEM careers and adequacy of preparation for success in college STEM courses, 

particularly for groups historically underrepresented in the sciences. Nationwide 

classroom studies examine teacher subject-matter knowledge and their decisions to 

utilize differing pedagogies for their effect on student learning.
312Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

During FY 2021 and FY 2022, the National Air and Space Museum, one of the 

most visited museums in the world, focused on the revitalization and transformation of its National Mall building (NMB), including the development of new 

exhibit galleries. The NMB has been closed for construction since March 28, 2022. 

The west end of the building is now complete, and eight exhibits opened to the 

public on October 14, 2022:

• The Wright Brothers and the Invention of the Aerial Age

• Early Flight

• America by Air

• Thomas W. Haas We All Fly

• Nation of Speed

• One World Connected

• Destination Moon

• Kenneth C. Griffin Exploring the Planets

The east end of the NMB will remain closed for construction until 2025. 

Information about this project can be found at https://airandspace.si.edu/

about-transformation.

Meanwhile, the Museum began planning the Bezos Learning Center that will 

be added to the east end of the NMB, thanks to a generous donation of $200 million from Amazon founder and executive chairman Jeff Bezos. This is the largest 

donation to the Smithsonian since its founding in 1846 and includes $130 million 

for the Bezos Learning Center and $70 million for the NMB.

The Museum’s Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly, Virginia, remained 

open to the public during 2022, showcasing the Space Shuttle Discovery, Lockheed 

SR-71 Blackbird, Grumman F-14D(R) Tomcat, and numerous other aircraft 

and spacecraft.

While these projects progressed, the Museum’s curators and scientists continued 

their groundbreaking research in aeronautics history, space history, and planetary 

geology. This expertise informs new exhibit galleries, scholarly publications, collections, and public outreach. 

Aeronautics Department curator Dr. John Anderson won the 2021 American 

Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Summerfield Book Award for his book, 

Hypersonic and High Temperature Gas Dynamics, 3rd ed. Curator Dr.  Michael 
313 Smithsonian Institution

Hankins published his book, Flying Camelot: The F-15, the F-16, and the 

Weaponization of Fighter Pilot Nostalgia. The Museum collected a Wild-Leitz Kern 

DRS-15 Analytic Stereoplotter (dual head) and Bausch & Lomb Stereo Zoom 

Transfer System, late 20th- and early 21st-century tools that were used to analyze 

aerial and satellite photography. “Pride of the West” muslin fabric that covered 

the 1903 Wright Flyer when flown at Kitty Hawk on December 17, 1903, was also 

collected. Dr. Alex Spencer acquired a collection of artifacts and archival materials 

related to James E. Purton’s service as a B-17 waist gunner in the 91st Bombardment 

Group and prisoner of war during World War II.

The Museum collaborated with the Consulate of Mexico and Brownsville 

Museum of Fine Arts in Brownsville, Texas, to mount the temporary exhibit 

“Women in Aviation and Space History” at the South Padre Island/Brownsville 

International Airport. This exhibit features 32 women from the Museum’s Women 

in Aviation and Space History webpage, plus additional female pioneers.

The American Astronautical Society selected Department of Space History 

curator Dr. Teasel Muir-Harmony’s book Operation Moonglow as the winner of the 

Eugene M. Emme Astronautical Literature Award for 2020. Curator Dr. Martin 

Collins’s book, A Telephone for the World: Iridium, Motorola, and the Making of a 

Global Age, won the 2021 William and Joyce Middleton Electrical Engineering 

History Award from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. Two new 

curators joined the Department of Space History. Dr. Colleen Anderson is the 

curator of Post-1945 Rocketry. Her research focuses on how science and technology 

have shaped Germany’s roles in the wider world. Dr. Andrew Meade McGee joined 

the department as the curator of the History of Computing, including guidance 

and navigation artifacts. He is a historian of the politics, culture, and technology 

of 20th-century United States.

The Museum’s Center for Earth and Planetary Studies (CEPS) hired two new 

geologists in FY 2022. Dr. Sharon Purdy received a NASA Early Career Award and 

was selected as a participating scientist on NASA’s Curiosity rover mission to Mars. 

Dr. Emily Martin received a $515,000 NASA grant to map Saturn’s moon Dione 

and participated in the “Ocean World and Dwarf Planet” panel on the Planetary 

Science and Astrobiology Decadal Survey.
314Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

CEPS scientists participated on 11 NASA and international mission teams to 

Venus, the Moon, Mars, Jupiter, and the asteroid Bennu. Dr. Bruce Campbell is 

a radar system co-lead on the VERITAS mission to Venus, now in development. 

His precise measurement of the rotation of Venus earned him a Smithsonian 

Secretary’s Research Prize in 2021. Dr. Thomas Watters led the investigation of 

very young faults on the Moon by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, including 

their possible seismic hazards. On Mars, Dr. John Grant constrained erosion of the 

InSight landing site, helped to guide the Curiosity rover’s exploration of rocks that 

may record the ancient drying of Mars, and led the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter 

HiRISE camera imaging of landscape evolution and landing sites. Dr. Erica Jawin 

published a global geologic map of the rubble-pile asteroid Bennu and serves as a 

Science Team member on the OSIRIS-REx extended mission to asteroid Apophis, 

OSIRIS-APEX. Working with an international team, Dr. Bob Craddock helped to 

develop some of the first models that matched the early climate of Mars to geologic 

features on the surface, where an ancient ocean supported occasional rainfall.

Each June, the Museum marks the anniversary of Dr. Sally K. Ride’s first look 

back at Earth from space by organizing virtual and in-person events to mark Sally’s 

Night. This year, “Sally’s Night” began with a celebration at Nationals Park during the Nationals afternoon game against the Milwaukee Brewers. Sally’s sister, 

Rev. Dr. Bear Ride, threw out the first pitch. The impetus for Sally’s Night came 

from Dr. Emily Margolis, the American Women’s History Initiative curator who 

works with both the Aeronautics and Space History departments at the Museum 

as well as the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory.

Leveraging one-of-a-kind collections and research, learning at the National Air 

and Space Museum sparks curiosity and empowers learners to imagine the possibilities of the future. Throughout 2021 and 2022, the Education team connected 

with learners virtually while reintroducing onsite programming at the Udvar-Hazy 

Center and throughout the DC area while the NMB was closed for construction. 

Soar Together @ Air and Space, the Museum’s content-themed, monthly familyfocused program, invited families to imagine their own futures by exploring stories 

of innovators and explorers from diverse backgrounds who challenged conventions 

and changed the world. The Museum’s lecture programming launched a new hybrid 

format beginning in 2022 with the popular four-part Exploring Space series, which 
315 Smithsonian Institution

saw more than 375 onsite attendees and 20,000 online viewers between the live 

presentation and views post-presentation. In 2022, the Museum’s lectures reached 

nine times the number of pre-pandemic individuals as a result of this hybrid model.

The NMB closure gave the Education team an opportunity to take the Museum’s 

learning “on the road.” The Museum’s Explainers, college and high school students 

who facilitate hands-on learning with visitors, facilitated nearly 6,800 interactions 

with the Museum’s Spacesuit at the Smithsonian Visitors Center in “the Castle.” 

Reserved online programming provided unique opportunities for students located 

outside the national capital region to engage with the Museum’s content. During 

the 2021–2022 school year, the Museum engaged 3,367 groups serving 17,098 participants, from 48 states, Puerto Rico, and nine countries. 

The Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History (NMNH) continued, 

through the Department of Mineral Sciences and the Offices of Education and 

Exhibits, its mission of education, research, and curation related to space exploration. In a regular year, approximately one million people visit the Moon, Meteorites 

and Solar System Gallery of the Geology, Gems and Meteorites Hall, where they 

can see one of the finest displays of meteorites anywhere in the world, ranging from 

presolar diamonds separated from the Allende meteorite, to the carbonate-bearing 

Allan Hills 84001 meteorite, which spurred the debate about past microbial life 

on Mars, to impactites including a square-meter section of the Cretaceous-Tertiary 

(K–T) boundary. In FY 2021 the Museum was closed to the public for the first 

8.5 months due to the coronavirus pandemic. As a result, digital outreach was 

greatly increased, including the award-winning “Science How” broadcasts, NMNH 

social media takeovers, and numerous web postings. The staff of the National 

Museum of Natural History did not return to regular work at the Museum until 

late April 2022, an absence of 25 months. 

The collections of the Division of Meteorites continue to grow. Notably, 

the Smithsonian’s partnership with the NSF and NASA in the U.S. Antarctic 

Meteorite Program surpassed 27,000 individual meteorites collected in Antarctica, 

including samples from Mars, the Moon, and numerous poorly known asteroids. 

Provided free of charge to qualified scientists, these samples have addressed fundamental questions about the origin and evolution of our solar system. Unfortunately, 

the 2021–2022 and 2022–2023 field seasons were cancelled due to the pandemic 
316Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

and higher-priority science activities on the continent, respectively, but meteorites 

from previous years continue to be classified. 

Scientists in the Department of Mineral Sciences remain engaged in the study of 

meteorites and asteroids to unravel their origin in the early solar nebula, their evolution on asteroids, the differentiation of asteroids in the early history of the solar 

system, and the geologic evolution of Mars. Glenn MacPherson continues his work 

on understanding processes in the solar nebula and linking observations made in 

the laboratory with those made from astronomical observations. His research is 

focused on a possible periodicity in formation of the solar system’s first components 

related to episodic T Tauri activity observed in forming stars. Catherine Corrigan 

continues her studies of fragments of meteorites formed during melting caused by 

collisions. Age dating these samples is key to understanding the extent and duration of the intense impact history of the early solar system. She is a Co-Investigator 

in the Apollo Next Generation Sample Analysis Program, studying drill cores collected by Apollo 17 but not opened for 50 years. These cores promise to reveal the 

stratigraphy of the near-surface, including regolith movement, impact gardening, 

and interactions with the solar wind. NMNH scientists remain actively engaged in 

spacecraft missions, with Tim McCoy serving as Co-Investigator on the OSIRISREx and Psyche missions. In the first month of FY 2021, OSIRIS-REx completed 

sample acquisition at the Nightingale site on asteroid Bennu, departing Bennu 

in May 2021 for the return journey to Earth with its precious sample. NMNH is 

slated to be one of the first sites to display a sample from Bennu to the public as 

part of the ongoing education and outreach efforts. The Psyche mission, which was 

scheduled for an FY 2022 launch, has been delayed to sometime in the 2023–2024 

timeframe. It will visit the 200-kilometer-diameter asteroid of the same name, 

which is thought to be composed of metallic iron, similar to Earth’s metallic core. 

McCoy is leading the efforts to constrain the oxidation-reduction conditions of the 

asteroid, which is a major control on its mineralogy and constrains its formation 

in time and space.
Appendices

317

Appendic

Appendices

319

Appendix A-1

U.S. Spacecraf

(Includes spacecraft from cooperating countries launched by U.S. launch vehicles.)

Calendar 

Year

Earth Orbita Earth Escapeb

Success Failure Success Failure

1957 0 1 0 0

1958 5 8 0 4

1959 9 9 1 2

1960 16 12 1 2

1961 35 12 0 2

1962 55 12 4 1

1963 62 11 0 0

1964 69 8 4 0

1965 93 7 4 1

1966 94 12 7 1b

1967 78 4 10 0

1968 61 15 3 0

1969 58 1 8 1

1970 36 1 3 0

1971 45 2 8 1

1972 33 2 8 0

1973 23 2 3 0

1974 27 2 1 0

1975 30 4 4 0

1976 33 0 1 0

1977 27 2 2 0

1978 34 2 7 0

1979 18 0 0 0

1980 16 4 0 0

1981 20 1 0 0

1982 21 0 0 0

1983 31 0 0 0

1984 35 3 0 0

1985 37 1 0 0

1986 11 4 0 0

1987 9 1 0 0

1988 16 1 0 0

1989 24 0 2 0

1990 40 0 1 0

Calendar 

Year

Earth Orbita Earth Escapeb

Success Failure Success Failure

1991 32c 0 0 0

1992 26c 0 1 0

1993 28c 1 1 0

1994 31c 1 1 0

1995 24c, d 2 1 0

1996 30 1 3 0

1997 22e 0 1 0

1998 23 0 2 0

1999 35 4 2 0

2000 31f 0 0 0

2001 23 0 3 0

2002 18 0 0 1b

2003 28c, f 0 2 0

2004 8c 0 1 0

2005 10 0 2 0

2006 20d 0 2 0

2007 16 2 2 0

2008 22f 0 0 0

2009 24f 1 0 0

2010 15 0 0 0

2011 16 1 3 0

2012 13 0 0 0

2013 18 0 1 0

2014 22 1 0 0

2015 12 1 1 0

2016 27 3 2 0

2017 20 1 0 0

2018g 33 0 3 0

2019g 21 0 0 0

2020f,g 32 3 2 0

2021f,g 45 3 3 0

2022f,g 81 2 4 0

TOTAL 2,007 171 125 16

a. The criterion of success or failure used is attainment of Earth orbit or Earth escape rather than judgment of mission success. “Escape” flights include 

all that were intended to go to at least an altitude equal to lunar distance from Earth.

b. This Earth-escape failure did attain Earth orbit and, therefore, is included in the Earth-orbit success totals.

c. This excludes commercial satellites. It counts separately spacecraft launched by the same launch vehicle.

d. This counts various sets of microsatellites as a single payload. 

e. This includes the Small Spacecraft Technology Initiative (SSTI) Lewis spacecraft that began spinning out of control shortly after it achieved Earth orbit.

f. This includes American spacecraft not launched in the United States.

g. Totals indicate number of launches rather than enumerating individual objects launched.
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

320

Appendix A-2

World Record of Space Launches S

in Attaining Earth Orbit o

(Enumerates launches rather than spacecraft; some launches orbited multiple spacecraft.)a

Calendar 

Year

United

Statesb

USSR/

CIS Francec Italyc Japan

People’s 

Republic

of China Australia

United

Kingdomc

European 

Space

Agency India Israel Iran

North

Korea

South

Korea

New 

Zealand

1957 2

1958 5 1

1959 10 3

1960 16 3

1961 29 6

1962 52 20

1963 38 17

1964 57 30

1965 63 48 1

1966 73 44 1

1967 57 66 2 1 1

1968 45 74

1969 40 70

1970 28 81 2 1 1 1

1971 30 83 1 2 2 1 1

1972 30 74 1 1

1973 23 86

1974 22 81 2 1

1975 27 89 3 1 2 3

1976 26 99 1 2

1977 24 98 2

1978 32 88 3 1

1979 16 87 2 1

1980 13 89 2 1

1981 18 98 3 1 2 1

1982 18 101 1 1

1983 22 98 3 1 2 1

1984 22 97 3 3 4

1985 17 98 2 1 3

1986 6 91 2 2 2

1987 8 95 3 2 2

1988 12 90 2 4 7

1989 17 74 2 7 1

1990 27 75 3 5 5 1

1991 20 62 2 1 9 1

1992 31 55 2 3 7 2

1993 24 45 1 1 7

1994 26 49 2 5 6 2

1995 27 33 1 2 12 1
Appendices

321

Calendar 

Year

United

Statesb

USSR/

CIS Francec Italyc Japan

People’s 

Republic

of China Australia

United

Kingdomc

European 

Space

Agency India Israel Iran

North

Korea

South

Korea

New 

Zealand

1996 32 25 1 3 10 1

1997 37 28 2 6 12 1

1998 34 24 2 6 11

1999 32 26 4 10 1

2000 30 34 5 12

2001 23 23 1 1 8 2

2002 18 23 3 4 11 1 1

2003 26 21 2 6 4 2

2004 19 22 8 3 1

2005 16 26 2 5 5 1

2006 15 16 5 3 5

2007 25 33 3 13 8 3 1

2008d 19 26 1 11 7 3

2009 25 29 3 4 9 4 1

2010 15 30 2 15 6 1 1

2011 17 33 3 18 7 3 1

2012 13 27 2 19 10 2 1 1

2013 19 29 3 14 7 3 1

2014 22 31 4 16 10 4 1

2015 18 24 4 19 11 5 1

2016 22 16 4 21 11 7 1 1

2017 29 18 6 17 11 4

2018 31 16 6 38 11 7 3

2019 21 22 2 32 8 6 6

2020 34 15 4 35 6 2 1 1 6

2021 43 24 3 52 7 1 5

2022 76 21 62 5 4 1 1 9

TOTAL 1,762 3,162 10 8 117 477 1 1 301 77 9 5 2 1 29

a. This includes commercial expendable launches and launches of the Space Shuttle as well as launches to useless orbit.

b. Launches from U.S.-Russia joint platform are included in U.S. totals.

c. Since 1979, all launches for ESA member countries have been joint and are listed under ESA.

d. Since 2008, the ESA statistics include the Soyuz launches from Guiana Space Centre.

e. Electron launches from New Zealand are listed under New Zealand.

Appendix A-2 (cont.)

World Record of Space Launches S

in Attaining Earth Orbit o

(Enumerates launches rather than spacecraft; some launches orbited multiple spacecraft.)a
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

322

Appendix B-1

Successful Launches to Orbit on U

October 1, 2020–September 30, 2021 (FY 2021)

Launch Date

Spacecraft Name

COSPARa Designation

Launch Vehicle Mission Objectives Remarks

October 3, 2020

Cygnus CRS-14

Bobcat 1

DESCENT

Lemur-2 (Baxter-Oliver)

Lemur-2 (Djara)

NEUTRON 1

SATLLA 1

SPOC

2020-069

Antares 230+

ISS Resupply

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Earth Observation

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Education

Technology Demonstration

Cargo resupply. Docked with ISS for 115 days. Carried seven CubeSats that 

were subsequently deployed on November 5, 2020.

October 6, 2020

Starlink v1.0 L12-1 to -60

2020-070

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 12th launch of 60 Starlink Block v1.0 satellites.

October 18, 2020

Starlink v1.0 L13-1 to -60

2020-073 

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 13th launch of 60 Starlink Block v1.0 satellites.

October 24, 2020

Starlink v1.0 L14-1 to -60

2020-074

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 14th launch of 60 Starlink Block v1.0 satellites.

October 28, 2020

CE-SAT 2B

Flock-4e’ 1 to 9

2020-077

Electron KS

Earth Observation

Earth Observation

Group of ten CubeSats launched from Mahia, New Zealand.

November 5, 2020

GPS-III 4

2020-078

Falcon 9 v1.2

Navigation Medium Earth orbit satellite operated by the U.S. Space Force.

November 13, 2020

USA 310 (NROL 101)

2020-083

Atlas-5(531)

Reconnaissance National Reconnaissance Office satellite in Molniya orbit.

November 16, 2020

Crew Dragon 1

2020-084

Falcon 9 Block 5

ISS Crew Rotation See Appendix C for details.

November 20, 2020

Dragracer A and B

BRO 2 and 3

Mandrake 1

SpaceBEE 22 to 39

SpaceBEE NZ 1 to 6

APSS 1

Gnome Chompski

2020-085

Electron KS

Technology Demonstration

Signals Intelligence

Technology Demonstration

Communications

Communications

Ionospheric Research

Mass Simulator

Group of 31 SmallSats launched from Mahia, New Zealand.

November 21, 2020

Jason-CS A (Sentinel 6A)

2020-086

Falcon-9 v1.2

Oceanography Ocean surface topography satellite operated in partnership between NOAA, 

NASA, EUMETSAT, ESA, CNES, and industry.

a. U.N. Committee on Space Research.
Appendices

323

Launch Date

Spacecraft Name

COSPARa

 Designation

Launch Vehicle Mission Objectives Remarks

November 24, 2020

Starlink v1.0 L15-1 to -60

2020-088 

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 15th launch of 60 Starlink Block v1.0 satellites.

December 6, 2020

Dragon CRS-21

2020-093

Falcon 9 v1.2

ISS Resupply Cargo resupply. This first flight of the cargo version of Dragon 2 docked with 

ISS for 38 days and landed on January 14, 2021. Onboard was the Bishop commercial airlock module, installed on the ISS on December 20, 2020.

December 10, 2020

Orion 10

2020-095

Delta-4H

Reconnaissance Signals intelligence satellite in geosynchronous orbit.

December 13, 2020

SXM-7

2020-096

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications Spacecraft failure occurred during in-orbit testing.

December 15, 2020

StriX-α

2020-098

Electron KS

Earth Observation Japanese satellite launched from Mahia, New Zealand.

December 19, 2020

USA 312 and USA 313

2020-101

Falcon 9 v1.2

Reconnaissance NROL-108 mission.

January 1, 2021

Türksat 5A

2021-001

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications Turkish satellite in geosynchronous orbit.

January 17, 2021

CACTUS 1

CAPE 3

ExoCube 2

MiTEE

PICS 1 and 2

PolarCube

Prometheus 2.8

Prometheus 2.11

Q-PACE

RadFxSat 2

TechEdSat 7

2021-002

LauncherOne

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Atmospheric Research

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Microgravity Research

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Test of LauncherOne rocket carrying ten CubeSats as part of NASA’s ELaNa 

20 mission.

January 20, 2021

GMS-T

2021-004

Electron KS

Communications Prototype LEO broadband communications satellite launched from Mahia, 

New Zealand.

January 20, 2021

Starlink v1.0 L16-1 to -60

2021-005

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 16th launch of 60 Starlink Block v1.0 satellites.

Appendix B-1 (cont.)

Successful Launches to Orbit on U

October 1, 2020–September 30, 2021 (FY 2021)
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

324

Launch Date

Spacecraft Name

COSPARa

 Designation

Launch Vehicle Mission Objectives Remarks

January 24, 2021

Starlink v1.0 R1-1 to -10

QPS-SAR 2

Capella 3 and 4

ICEYE X8 and X9

XR 1

GHGSat C2

Hawk 2A, 2B, and 2C

Astrocast 0101 to 0105

PTD 1

Prometheus 2.10

ARCE 1A, 1B, and 1C

SpaceBEE 40 to 75

Charlie

Hiber 4

ASELSAT

PIXL 1

SOMP 2b

IDEASSat

YUSAT 1

UVSQ-SAT

V-R3x 1, 2, and 3

Flock-4s 1 to 48

Kepler 8 to 15

Lemur-2 130 to 137

2021-006

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications

Earth Observation

Earth Observation

Earth Observation

Earth Observation

Earth Observation

Technology Demonstration

Communications

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Communications

RF Sensing

Remote Sensing

Earth Observation

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Communications

Earth Observation

Communications

Earth Observation

Rideshare launch with 143 SmallSats in total.

February 4, 2021

Starlink v1.0 L18-1 to -60

2021-009

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 17th launch of 60 Starlink Block v1.0 satellites.

February 16, 2021

Starlink v1.0 L19-1 to -60

2021-012

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 18th launch of 60 Starlink Block v1.0 satellites.

February 20, 2021

Cygnus CRS-15

MMSATS-1

ThinSat-2 x9

GuaraniSat 1

Gunsmoke J2

Hirogari

IT-SPINS

Maya 2

MYSat 2

ORCA 6 and 7

RSP 01

STARS EC

TAU-SAT 1TSURU

WARP 01

2021-013

Antares 230+

ISS Cargo Resupply

Earth Observation

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Ionospheric Research

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Education

Technology Demonstration

Cargo resupply docked with ISS for 131 days. The 23 SmallSats on board the 

Cygnus spacecraft were deployed from the ISS subsequent to docking.

March 4, 2021

Starlink v1.0 L17

2021-017

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 19th launch of 60 Starlink Block v1.0 satellites.

March 11, 2021

Starlink v1.0 L20

2021-018

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 20th launch of 60 Starlink Block v1.0 satellites.

Appendix B-1 (cont.)

Successful Launches to Orbit on U

October 1, 2020–September 30, 2021 (FY 2021)
Appendices

325

Launch Date

Spacecraft Name

COSPARa

 Designation

Launch Vehicle Mission Objectives Remarks

March 14, 2021

Starlink v1.0 L21

2021-021

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 21st launch of 60 Starlink Block v1.0 satellites.

March 22, 2021

BlackSky 7

Centauri 3

Myriota 7

RAAF-M2 A and B

Gunsmoke-J 3

Veery RL-1

Pathstone

2021-023

Electron Photon-LEO

Earth Observation

Internet of Things

Internet of Things

Technology Demonstration

Reconnaissance

Earth Observation

March 24, 2021

Starlink v1.0 L22

2021-024

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 22nd launch of 60 Starlink Block v1.0 satellites.

April 7, 2021

Starlink v1.0 L23

2021-027

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 23rd launch of 60 Starlink Block v1.0 satellites.

April 23, 2021

Crew Dragon 2

2021-030

Falcon 9 v1.2

International Space Station 

Crew Rotation

Second operational Crew Dragon mission (see Appendix C).

April 26, 2021

KH-11 18

2021-032

Delta 4H (upg)

Reconnaissance National Reconnaissance Office satellite.

April 29, 2021

Starlink v1.0 L24

2021-036

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 24th launch of 60 Starlink Block v1.0 satellites.

May 4, 2021

Starlink v1.0 L25

2021-038

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 25th launch of 60 Starlink Block v1.0 satellites.

May 9, 2021

Starlink v1.0 L27

2021-040

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 26th launch of 60 Starlink Block v1.0 satellites.

May 15, 2021

Starlink v1.0 L26

Capella 6

GeoStare 2

2021-041

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications

Earth Observation

Astronomy

27th launch of 52 Starlink Block v1.0 satellites.

Capella 6 is part of a constellation of synthetic-aperture radar Earth observation satellites.

GeoStare 2 is a 6U CubeSat that carries a miniature space telescope.

May 18, 2021

SBIRS-GEO 5

TDO 3 and 4

2021-042

Atlas 5(420)

Early Warning

Technology Demonstration

SBIRS-GEO is a geosynchronous satellite operated by the U.S. Space Force.

Appendix B-1 (cont.)

Successful Launches to Orbit on U

October 1, 2020–September 30, 2021 (FY 2021)
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

326

Launch Date

Spacecraft Name

COSPARa

 Designation

Launch Vehicle Mission Objectives Remarks

May 26, 2021

Starlink v1.0 L28

2021-044

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 28th launch of 52 Starlink Block v1.0 satellites.

June 3, 2021

Dragon CRS-22

G-Satellite 2

MIR-SAT1

RamSat

SOAR

2021-048

Falcon 9 v1.2

ISS Resupply

Space Advertising

Technology Demonstration

Education

Technology Demonstration

Cargo resupply.

Docked with ISS for 36 days. Landed July 10, 2021. The four CubeSats were 

deployed from the ISS later in June 2021.

June 6, 2021

SXM-8

2021-049

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications Sirius XM satellite in geosynchronous orbit.

June 13, 2021

Odyssey (TacRL 2)

2021-051

Pegasus-XL

Space Domain Awareness Technology demonstration satellite for the U.S. Space Force’s tactically responsive launch program (TacRL).

June 15, 2021

USA 316, 317, 318

2021-052

Minotaur-1

Reconnaissance National Reconnaissance Office satellites.

June 17, 2021

GPS-3 5

2021-054

Falcon 9 v1.2

Navigation GPS satellite in Medium Earth Orbit.

June 30, 2021

HALO-Net FFS

Gunsmoke-J 4

CNCE 1 and 3

Brik 2

STORK 4 and 5

2021-058

LauncherOne

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Earth Observation

Payload consisted of seven CubeSats.

June 30, 2021

ION-SCV 003

Sherpa-FX 2

Sherpa-LTE 1

Starlink v1.5 R1-1 to -3

Aurora (Shasta)

Capella 5 (Whitney 3)

GNOMES 2

Hawk 3A, 3B, 3C

Umbra-SAR 2001

YAM 2 and 3

ÑuSat 19 to 22

ICEYE X11 to X15

TUBIN (Tubsat 27)

Mandrake 2A and 2B

LINCS 1 and 2

PACE 1

TROPICS 01

D2/AtlaCom 1

EG 3 (Tyvak 0173)

Centauri 4 (Tyvak 0210)

CubeSat Deployer

CubeSat Deployer

Space Tug

Communications

Earth Observation

Earth Observation

Radio Occultation

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Earth Observation

Earth Observation

Technology Demonstration

Laser Communications

Laser Communications

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Internet of Things

Dedicated SmallSat Rideshare mission. 

(continued)

Appendix B-1 (cont.)

Successful Launches to Orbit on U

October 1, 2020–September 30, 2021 (FY 2021)
Appendices

327

Launch Date

Spacecraft Name

COSPARa

 Designation

Launch Vehicle Mission Objectives Remarks

Lynk 06 (Shannon)

Astrocast 0201 to 0205

Lemur-2 140 to 145

Painani 2

SpaceBEE 88 to 111

SpaceBEENZ 7 to 10

Tenzing (Tanker 001)

ARTHUR 1

Faraday Phoenix

KSM 1A, 1B, 1C, 1D 

Tiger 2 (Ayan-21)

NAPA 2 (RTAF-SAT 2)

Spartan

Neptuno (NEPT 1)

W-Cube

Ghalib

QMR-KWT

2021-059

Falcon 9 v1.2

Technology Demonstration

Communications

Earth Observation

Technology Demonstration

Communications

Communications

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Earth Observation

Navigation

Technology Demonstration

Earth Observation

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Education

July 29, 2021

Monolith

2021-068

Electron KS

Technology Demonstration USAF Research Laboratory (AFRL) microsatellite technology demonstration 

launched from New Zealand.

August 10, 2021

Cygnus CRS-16

PIRPL

2021-072

Antares 230+

ISS Resupply

Technology Demonstration

Cargo resupply docked with ISS for 100 days. PIRPL was a multispectral camera initially mounted on the outside of the Cygnus spacecraft.

August 29, 2021

Dragon CRS-23

CAPSat

PR_CuNaR 2

SPACE-HAUC

CUAVA 1

Binar 1

Maya 3 and 4

2021-078

Falcon 9 v1.2

ISS Resupply

Quantum Annealing

Education

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Cargo resupply that landed on October 1, 2021.

The seven CubeSats on board were launched from the ISS in October 2021.

September 14, 2021

Starlink v1.5 G2-1

2021-082

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications First launch of 51 Starlink Block v1.5 satellites featuring laser inter-satellite 

links.

September 16, 2021

Crew Dragon Inspiration4

2021-084

Falcon 9 v1.2

Space Tourism Four civilian passengers (see Appendix C).

September 27, 2021

Landsat 9

CuPID

CUTE

Cesium Satellite 1 and 2

2021-088

Atlas 5(401)

Earth Observation

Space Weather

Astronomy

Technology Demonstration

USGS-operated Earth observation satellite launched with four CubeSats.

Appendix B-1 (cont.)

Successful Launches to Orbit on U

October 1, 2020–September 30, 2021 (FY 2021)
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

328

Appendix B-2

Successful Launches to Orbit on U

October 1, 2021–September 30, 2022 (FY 2022)

Launch Date

Spacecraft Name

COSPARa Designation

Launch Vehicle Mission Objectives Remarks

October 16, 2021

Lucy

2021-093

Atlas-5(401)

Asteroid Observation NASA Discovery Program mission to observe main belt asteroids and Jupiter 

Trojan asteroids.

November 11, 2021

Crew Dragon 3

2021-103

Falcon 9 v1.2

International Space Station 

Crew Rotation

Third operational Crew Dragon mission (see Appendix C).

November 13, 2021

Starlink v1.5 G4-1-1 to -53

2021-104

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications Second launch of 53 Starlink Block v1.5 satellites.

November 18, 2021

BlackSky 10 and 11

2021-106

Electron KS (R)

Earth Observation Launched from Mahia, New Zealand.

November 20, 2021

STP 27AD2

2021-108

Astra Rocket 3.3

Flight Test First Rocket 3 launch to successfully reach orbit. STP-27AD2 collected data on 

the rocket’s performance during launch.

November 24, 2021

DART

LICIACube

2021-110 

Falcon 9 v1.2

Asteroid Redirect Test

Asteroid Flyby

Mission to impact Dimorphos, a small asteroid orbiting Didymos. LICIACube 

is a CubeSat launched on board DART to image the effects of DART’s impact.

December 2, 2021

Starlink v1.5 G4-3-1 to -48

BlackSky 12 and 13

2021-115

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications

Earth Observation

Third launch of 48 Starlink Block v1.5 satellites.

Two Earth observation microsatellites that make up part of the BlackSky 

constellation were also launched.

December 7, 2021

STPSat 6

LDPE 1 (ROOSTER 1)

Ascent

2021-118

Atlas 5(551)

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Two U.S. Space Force satellites launched to geosynchronous orbit. STPSat 6 

hosts NASA’s Laser Communications Relay Demonstration payload, and the 

Ascent CubeSat was deployed from LDPE-1 in January 2022.

December 9, 2021

BlackSky 14 and 15

2021-120

Electron KS

Earth Observation Launched from Mahia, New Zealand.

December 9, 2021

IXPE (SMEX 14, Explorer 97)

2021-121

Falcon 9 v1.2

X-ray Astronomy X-ray observatory led by NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center.

December 18, 2021

Starlink v1.5 G4-4-1 to -52

2021-125

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications Fourth launch of 52 Starlink Block v1.5 satellites.

December 19, 2021

Türksat 5B

2021-126

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications Geosynchronous Turkish communications satellite.
Appendices

329

Launch Date

Spacecraft Name

COSPARa

 Designation

Launch Vehicle Mission Objectives Remarks

December 21, 2021

Dragon CRS-24

DAILI

FEES 2

GASPACS

GT 1

Light 1

PATCOOL

TARGIT

2021-127

Falcon 9 v1.2

ISS Resupply

Ionospheric Research

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Earth Observation

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Cargo resupply docked with ISS for 32 days. Landed January 24, 2022.

The seven CubeSats on board were deployed from the ISS in early 2022.

January 6, 2022

Starlink v1.5 G4-5-1 to -49

2022-001

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications Fifth launch of 49 Starlink Block v1.5 satellites.

January 13, 2022

Umbra 02

Capella 7 and 8

ICEYE X14 and X16

Sich 2-1

ION-SCV 004

Dodona (La Jument 2)

STORK 1 and 2

LabSat

SW1FT

VZLUSAT 2

ETV A1

BRO 5

HYPSO 1

Kepler 16 to 19

Flock-4x 1 to 44

Lemur-2 146 to 150

DEWA-Sat 1

NuX 1

IRIS A

MDASat 1a, 1b, and 1c

Gossamer Piccolomini

Tevel 1 to 8

Challenger

Delfi-PQ 1

Unicorn 2A, 2D, and 2E

FossaSat 2E1 to 2E6

MDQube-SAT 1

SATLLA 2A and 2B

Unicorn 1

EASAT 2

HADES

Grizu-263a

PION-BR 1

SanoSat 1

Tartan-Artibeus 1

USA 320 to 323

2022-002

Falcon 9 v1.2

Earth Observation

Earth Observation

Earth Observation

Earth Observation

CubeSat Deployer

Technology Demonstration

Earth Observation

Technology Demonstration

Earth Observation

Technology Demonstration

Earth Observation

Signals Intelligence

Earth Observation

Communications

Earth Observation

Earth Observation

Technology Demonstration

Internet of Things

Technology Demonstration

AIS Tracking

Technology Demonstration

Amateur Radio

Earth Observation

Technology Demonstration

Earth Observation

Internet of Things

Technology Demonstration

Education

Technology demonstration

Amateur Radio

Amateur Radio

Education

Technology Demonstration

Amateur Radio

Technology Demonstration

Unknown

Dedicated SmallSat Rideshare mission.

January 13, 2022

PAN A and B

GEARRS 3

TechEdSat 13

ADLER 1 (Lemur-2)

STORK 3

SteamSat 2

2022-003

LauncherOne

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Space Debris Measurement

Earth Observation

Technology Demonstration

Launch of seven CubeSats.

Appendix B-2 (cont.)

Successful Launches to Orbit on U

October 1, 2021–September 30, 2022 (FY 2022)
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

330

Launch Date

Spacecraft Name

COSPARa

 Designation

Launch Vehicle Mission Objectives Remarks

January 19, 2022

Starlink v1.5 G4-6-1 to -49

2022-005

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications Sixth launch of 49 Starlink Block v1.5 satellites.

January 21, 2022

GSSAP 5 and 6

2022-006

Atlas 5(511)

Space Surveillance Two space surveillance satellites operated by the U.S. Space Force in geosynchronous orbit.

January 31, 2022

CSG 2

2022-008

Falcon 9 v1.2

Earth Observation COSMO-SkyMed second-generation (CSG) satellite part of the Italian Space 

Agency’s Earth observation constellation.

February 2, 2022

USA 326 (NROL 87)

2022-009

Falcon 9 v1.2

Reconnaissance National Reconnaissance Office payload.

February 3, 2022

Starlink v1.5 G4-7-1 to -49

2022-016

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications Seventh launch of 49 Starlink Block v1.5 satellites. The majority of satellites 

were lost due to a geomagnetic storm.

February 19, 2022

Cygnus CRS-17

KITSUNE

NACHOS

IHI-Sat

2022-015

Antares 230+

ISS Resupply

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Cargo resupply docked with the ISS for 127 days.

Three CubeSats onboard were deployed at a later date.

February 21, 2022

Starlink v1.5 G4-8-1 to -46

2022-016

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications Eighth launch of 46 Starlink Block v1.5 satellites.

February 25, 2022

Starlink v1.5 G4-11-1 to 50

2022-017

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications Ninth launch of 50 Starlink Block v1.5 satellites.

February 28, 2022

StriX β

Electron KS

Earth Observation Japanese synthetic aperture radar satellite launched from Mahia, New Zealand.

March 1, 2022

GOES 18 (GOES T)

2022-021

Atlas-5(541)

Meteorology NOAA satellite for meteorological forecasting in geosynchronous orbit.

March 3, 2022

Starlink v1.5 G4-9-1 to -47

2022-022

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications Tenth launch of 47 Starlink Block v1.5 satellites.

March 9, 2022

Starlink v1.5 G4-10-1 to -48

2022-025

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 11th launch of 48 Starlink Block v1.5 satellites.

Appendix B-2 (cont.)

Successful Launches to Orbit on U

October 1, 2021–September 30, 2022 (FY 2022)
Appendices

331

Launch Date

Spacecraft Name

COSPARa

 Designation

Launch Vehicle Mission Objectives Remarks

March 14, 2022

S4 Crossover

OreSat 0

SpaceBEE 112 to 127

SpaceBEENZ 11 to 14

2022-026

Astra Rocket 3.3

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Communications

Communications

22 payloads launched from the Pacific Spaceport Complex in Alaska.

March 19, 2022

Starlink v1.5 G4-12-1 to -53

2022-029

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 12th launch of 53 Starlink Block v1.5 satellites.

April 1, 2022

EnMAP

ÑuSat 23 to 27

GNOMES 3

Hawk 4A, 4B, and 4C

Lynk 05 

ION-SCV 005 

KSF 2A to 2D

PlantSat

SUCHAI 2 and 3

MP42

ARCSAT

Spark 1

Pixxel-TD 2 

BRO 7

AlfaCrux

BDSAT (CZE-BDSAT)

SpaceBEE 128 to 139

2022-033

Falcon 9 v1.2

Earth Observation

Earth Observation

Radio Occultation

Signals Intelligence 

Communications

CubeSat Deployer

Navigation

Biological Research

Ionospheric Research

Internet of Things

Technology Demonstration

Internet of Things

Earth Observation

Signals Intelligence 

Communications

Technology Demonstration

Communications

Dedicated SmallSat Rideshare mission.

April 2, 2022

BlackSky 16 and 17

2022-034

Electron KS

Earth Observation Launched from Mahia, New Zealand.

April 8, 2022

Crew Dragon Ax1

2022-037

Falcon 9 v1.2

Private Spaceflight Axiom Mission 1 (see Appendix C).

April 17, 2022

Intruder 13A and 13B

2022-040

Falcon 9 v1.2

Electronic Signals Intelligence Launch of two National Reconnaissance Office satellites.

April 21, 2022

Starlink v1.5 G4-14-1 to -53

2022-041

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 13th launch of 53 Starlink Block v1.5 satellites.

April 27, 2022

Crew Dragon 4

2022-042

Falcon-9 v1.2

International Space Station 

Crew Rotation

Fourth operational Crew Dragon mission (see Appendix C for details).

April 29, 2022

Starlink v1.5 G4-16-1 to -53

2022-045

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 14th launch of 53 Starlink Block v1.5 satellites.

Appendix B-2 (cont.)

Successful Launches to Orbit on U

October 1, 2021–September 30, 2022 (FY 2022)
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

332

Launch Date

Spacecraft Name

COSPARa

 Designation

Launch Vehicle Mission Objectives Remarks

May 2, 2022

E-Space Demo 1 to 3

BRO 6

AuroraSat 1 

SpaceBEE 140 to 155

SpaceBEENZ 15 to 22

Unicorn 2

MyRadar 1

TRSI 2 and 3

Copia

2022-047

Electron KS

Technology Demonstration

Signals Intelligence

Technology Demonstration

Communications

Communications

Earth Observation

Technology Demonstration

Amateur Radio

Technology Demonstration

SmallSat Rideshare mission.

May 6, 2022

Starlink v1.5 G4-17-1 to -53

2022-049

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 15th launch of 53 Starlink Block v1.5 satellites.

May 13, 2022

Starlink v1.5 G4-13-1 to -53

2022-051

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 16th launch of 53 Starlink Block v1.5 satellites.

May 14, 2022

Starlink v1.5 G4-15-1 to -53

2022-052

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 17th launch of 53 Starlink Block v1.5 satellites.

May 18, 2022

Starlink v1.5 G4-18-1 to -53

2022-053

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 18th launch of 53 Starlink Block v1.5 satellites.

May 19, 2022

Starliner OFT-2

2022-055

Atlas 5(N22)

Orbital Flight Test Uncrewed orbital flight test of Starliner spacecraft. Successfully docked with 

the ISS on May 21 and landed on May 25, 2022.

May 25, 2022

Umbra 03

ICEYE 17 to 20, 24

ÑuSat 28 to 31

GHGSat C3, C4, and C5

Hawk 5A, 5B, 5C

CICERO-2 1 and 2

Sherpa-AC 1

ION-SCV 006

Guardian 1

SBUDNIC

Vigoride 3

SelfieSat

FossaSat 2E7 to 2E13

Veery FS-1

Urdaneta-Armsat 1

Spark 2

AMS

CNCE 4 and 5

Platform 1

BroncoSat 1

Foresail 1

Planetum 1

SPiN 1 (MA61C)

Connecta T1.1

Earth Observation

Earth Observation

Earth Observation

Earth Observation

Signals Intelligence 

Radio Occultation

CubeSat Deployer

CubeSat Deployer

Earth Observation

Earth Observation

Space Tug

Education

Internet of Things

Technology Demonstration

Earth Observation

Internet of Things

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Education

Technology Demonstration

Internet of Things

Dedicated SmallSat Rideshare mission with 59 small satellites and hosted 

payloads.

(continued)

Appendix B-2 (cont.)

Successful Launches to Orbit on U

October 1, 2021–September 30, 2022 (FY 2022)
Appendices

333

Launch Date

Spacecraft Name

COSPARa

 Designation

Launch Vehicle Mission Objectives Remarks

Centauri 5

Lemur-2 152 to 156

VariSat 1C

PTD 3

CPOD A and B

OMD 1

2022-057

Falcon 9 v1.2

Internet of Things

Earth Observation

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

June 8, 2022

Nilesat 301

2022-061

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications Egyptian communications satellite launched to geosynchronous orbit.

June 17, 2022

Starlink v1.5 G4-19-1 to -53

2022-062

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 19th launch of 53 Starlink Block v1.5 satellites.

June 18, 2022

SARah 1

2022-063

Falcon 9 v1.2

Reconnaissance German reconnaissance satellite.

June 19, 2022

USA 328 to 331

Globalstar M087

2022-064

Falcon 9 v1.2

Military

Communications

Launch of four undisclosed military satellites and a Globalstar communications 

satellite.

June 28, 2022

CAPSTONE

Lunar Photon

2022-070

Electron Photon-IP

Technology Demonstration

Space Tug

NASA CubeSat launched to lunar orbit from Mahia, New Zealand, with Lunar 

Photon acting as an upper stage for deploying the CAPSTONE payload.

June 29, 2022

SES 22

2022-071

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications Satellite owned by Luxembourgish satellite telecommunications network 

provider SES.

July 1, 2022

WFOV-T

USSF-12 Ring

USA 337

2022-073

Atlas 5(541)

Early Warning

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Three satellites launched to geosynchronous orbit.

July 2, 2022

Recurve

Slingshot 1

Gunsmoke-L 1

NACHOS 2

MISR-B 1

CTIM-FD

GPX 2

2022-074

LauncherOne

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Earth Observation

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Launch of seven SmallSats.

July 7, 2022

Starlink v1.5 G4-21-1 to -53

2022-076

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 20th launch of 53 Starlink Block v1.5 satellites.

Appendix B-2 (cont.)

Successful Launches to Orbit on U

October 1, 2021–September 30, 2022 (FY 2022)
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

334

Launch Date

Spacecraft Name

COSPARa

 Designation

Launch Vehicle Mission Objectives Remarks

July 11, 2022

Starlink v1.5 G3-1-1 to -46

2022-077

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 21st launch of 46 Starlink Block v1.5 satellites.

July 13, 2022

USA 334

2022-079

Electron KS

Reconnaissance National Reconnaissance Office payload launched from Mahia, New Zealand.

July 15, 2022

Dragon CRS-25

BeaverCube

CapSat 1

CLICK A

D3

FUTABA

HSU-SAT 1

JAGSAT 1

TUMnanoSAT

2022-081

Falcon 9 v1.2

ISS Resupply

Technology Demonstration

Education

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Education

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration

Cargo resupply docked with ISS for nearly 33 days. Landed August 20, 2022. 

The eight CubeSats on board were deployed from the ISS in August and 

September of 2022.

July 17, 2022

Starlink v1.5 G4-22-1 to -53

2022-083

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 22nd launch of 53 Starlink Block v1.5 satellites.

July 22, 2022

Starlink v1.5 G3-2-1 to -46

2022-084

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 23rd launch of 46 Starlink Block v1.5 satellites.

July 24, 2022

Starlink v1.5 G4-25-1 to -53

2022-086

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 24th launch of 53 Starlink Block v1.5 satellites.

August 4, 2022

USA 335

2022-091

Electron KS

Reconnaissance National Reconnaissance Office payload launched from Mahia, New Zealand.

August 4, 2022

SBIRS-GEO 6

2022-092

Atlas 5(421)

Early Warning Geosynchronous satellite operated by the U.S. Space Force.

August 4, 2022

KPLO (Danuri)

2022-094

Falcon 9 v1.2

Lunar Orbiter Korea Pathfinder Lunar Orbiter (KPLO) or Danuri is South Korea’s first lunar 

orbiter.

August 10, 2022

Starlink v1.5 G4-26-1 to -52

2022-097

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 25th launch of 52 Starlink Block v1.5 satellites.

August 12, 2022

Starlink v1.5 G3-3-1 to -46

2022-099

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 26th launch of 46 Starlink Block v1.5 satellites.

Appendix B-2 (cont.)

Successful Launches to Orbit on U

October 1, 2021–September 30, 2022 (FY 2022)
Appendices

335

Launch Date

Spacecraft Name

COSPARa

 Designation

Launch Vehicle Mission Objectives Remarks

August 19, 2022

Starlink v1.5 G4-27-1 to -53

2022-101

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 27th launch of 53 Starlink Block v1.5 satellites.

August 28, 2022

Starlink v1.5 G4-23-1 to -54

2022-104

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 28th launch of 54 Starlink Block v1.5 satellites.

August 31, 2022

Starlink v1.5 G3-4-1 to -46

2022-105

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 29th launch of 46 Starlink Block v1.5 satellites.

September 5, 2022

Starlink v1.5 G4-20-1 to -51

Sherpa-LTC 2

2022-107

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications

Space Tug

30th launch of 51 Starlink Block v1.5 satellites.

September 11, 2022

Starlink v1.5 G4-20-1 to -34

BlueWalker 3

2022-111

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications

Communications

31st launch of 34 Starlink Block v1.5 satellites.

BlueWalker 3 is a prototype for a mobile communications constellation.

September 19, 2022

Starlink v1.5 G4-34-1 to -54

2022-114

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 32nd launch of 54 Starlink Block v1.5 satellites.

September 24, 2022

KH-11 19

2022-117

Delta 4H (Upg.)

Reconnaissance National Reconnaissance Office satellite.

September 24, 2022

Starlink v1.5 G4-35-1 to -52

2022-119

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 33rd launch of 52 Starlink Block v1.5 satellites.

Appendix B-2 (cont.)

Successful Launches to Orbit on U

October 1, 2021–September 30, 2022 (FY 2022)
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

336

Appendix C-1

Human Spacefli

October 1, 2020–September 30, 2021 (FY 2021)

Spacecraft/Mission Launch Date Crew

Flight Time 

(d:h:min) Highlights

Soyuz MS-17

Expedition 63, 64

October 14, 2020 Sergei Kud-Sverchkov

Kathleen Rubins

Sergei Ryzhikov

184:23:10 Quickest crewed trip to the ISS, docking just over 

three hours—or two orbits—after launch. 

Crew Dragon C207 

“Resilience”

SpaceX Crew-1

Expedition 64, 65

November 16, 2020 Victor Glover

Michael Hopkins

Soichi Noguchi

Shannon Walker

167:6:29 First operational commercial crew flight.

Soyuz MS-18 

Expedition 64, 65, 66

April 9, 2021 Oleg Novitsky

Pyotr Dubrov

Mark Vande Hei

190:20:53 Russian film director Klim Shipenko and actress Yulia 

Peresild returned on Soyuz MS-18 with Oleg Novitsky.

Crew Dragon C206 

“Endeavour”

SpaceX Crew-2

Expedition 65, 66

April 23, 2021 Akihiko Hoshide

Shane Kimbrough

Megan McArthur

Thomas Pesquet

199:17:43 The longest spaceflight by a U.S. crewed spacecraft. 

Due to launch delays for Crew-3, Crew-2 returned to 

Earth before the arrival of Crew-3 at the ISS.

Shenzhou 12 June 17, 2021 Liu Boming

Nie Haisheng

Tang Hongbo

92:4:11 First crewed flight to the Tianhe core module of the 

Tiangong space station.

Crew Dragon 

“Resilience”

Inspiration4

September 16, 2021 Hayley Arceneaux

Jared Isaacman

Sian Proctor

Christopher Sembroski

2:23:3 The first orbital spaceflight with only private citizens 

aboard.

Note: Suborbital human spaceflights are not included.
Appendices

337

Appendix C-2

Human Spacefli

October 1, 2021–September 30, 2022 (FY 2022)

Spacecraft/Mission Launch Date Crew

Flight Time 

(d:h:min) Highlights

Soyuz MS-19 

Expeditions 65, 66

October 5, 2021 Yulia Peresild (returned 

in Soyuz-MS 18)

Klim Shipenko 

(returned in Soyuz-MS 

18)

Anton Shkaplerov

176:02:33 Departing crew included one cosmonaut and two 

Russian travelers who filmed a movie in space and 

returned on Soyuz-MS-18. Pyotr Dubrov and Mark 

Vande Hei returned to Earth on Soyuz MS-19 with 

Shkaplerov.

Shenzhou 13 October 15, 2021 Ye Guangfu

Wang Yaping

Zhai Zhigang

182:09:32 Second flight to the first module of the Tiangong space 

station. This mission included the first spacewalk by a 

female Chinese astronaut.

Crew Dragon 3 

“Endurance”

Expeditions 66, 67

November 11, 2021 Kayla Barron

Raja Chari

Thomas Marshburn

Matthias Maurer

176:02:39 Maiden flight of the Endurance spacecraft. It was commanded by Raja Chari on his first trip to space.

Soyuz MS-20 December 8, 2021 Yozo Hirano

Yusaku Maezawa

Aleksandr Misurkin

11:19:34 Crew included one Russian cosmonaut and two 

Japanese space tourists.

Soyuz MS-21

Expeditions 66, 67

March 18, 2022 Oleg Artemyev

Sergey Korsakov

Denis Matveev

194:19:02 First time three Russian cosmonauts flew together to 

the ISS.

Crew Dragon Axiom 

Mission 1 (Ax1) 

“Endeavour”

April 8, 2022 Larry Connor

Michael Lopez-Alegria

Mark Pathy

Eytan Stibbe

017:01:48 Delivered one astronaut and three space tourists to 

the ISS.

Crew Dragon 4 

“Freedom”

Expeditions 67, 68

April 27, 2022 Samantha Cristoforetti 

Bob Hines

Kjell Lindgren

Jessica Watkins

170:13:03 Maiden flight for the Freedom spacecraft.

Shenzhou 14 June 5, 2022 Chen Dong

Cai Xuzhe

Liu Yang

181:17:19 Third crewed mission to the Tiangong Space Station 

with a focus on station construction. Included three 

spacewalks.

Soyuz-MS 22

Expeditions 67, 68

September 21, 2022 Dmitri Petelin

Sergei Prokopyev

Francisco Rubio 

187:21:52 The Soyuz capsule suffered a leak due to a micrometeoroid strike while docked to the ISS and returned to 

Earth uncrewed. Soyuz MS-23 was launched uncrewed 

to replace it.

Note: Suborbital human spaceflights are not included.
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

338

Appendix D-1A

Space Activities of the U.S.

HISTORICAL TABLE OF BUDGET AUTHORITY

(in millions of real-year dollars)

FY

NASA 

Total

NASA 

Space DODa Otherb DOEc DOC DOI USDA NSFd DOT Total Space

1959 331 261 490 34 34 785

1960 524 462 561 43 43 1,066

1961 964 926 814 68 68 1,808

1962 1,825 1,797 1,298 199 148 51 3,294

1963 3,673 3,626 1,550 257 214 43 5,433

1964 5,100 5,016 1,599 213 210 3 6,828

1965 5,250 5,138 1,574 241 229 12 6,953

1966 5,175 5,065 1,689 214 187 27 6,968

1967 4,966 4,830 1,664 213 184 29 6,707

1968 4,587 4,430 1,922 174 145 28 0.2 1 6,526

1969 3,991 3,822 2,013 170 118 20 0.2 1 31 6,005

1970 3,746 3,547 1,678 141 103 8 1 1 28 5,366

1971 3,311 3,101 1,512 162 95 27 2 1 37 4,775

1972 3,307 3,071 1,407 133 55 31 6 2 39 4,611

1973 3,406 3,093 1,623 147 54 40 10 2 41 4,863

1974 3,037 2,759 1,766 158 42 60 9 3 44 4,683

1975 3,229 2,915 1,892 158 30 64 8 2 54 4,965

1976 3,550 3,225 1,983 168 23 72 10 4 59 5,376

TQ* 932 849 460 43 5 22 3 1 12 1,352

1977 3,818 3,440 2,412 194 22 91 10 6 65 6,046

1978 4,060 3,623 2,738 226 34 103 10 8 71 6,587

1979 4,596 4,030 3,036 248 59 98 10 8 73 7,314

1980 5,240 4,680 3,848 231 40 93 12 14 72 8,759

1981 5,518 4,992 4,828 234 41 87 12 16 78 10,054

1982 6,044 5,528 6,679 313 61 145 12 15 80 12,520

1983 6,875 6,328 9,019 327 39 178 5 20 85 15,674

1984 7,458 6,858 10,195 395 34 236 3 19 103 17,448

1985 7,573 6,925 12,768 584 34 423 2 15 110 20,277

1986 7,807 7,165 14,126 477 35 309 2 23 108 21,768

1987 10,923 9,809 16,287 466 48 278 8 19 112 1 26,562

1988 9,062 8,322 17,679 741 241 352 14 18 115 1 26,742

1989 10,969 10,097 17,906 560 97 301 17 21 121 3 28,563

a. DOD reported that improvements to the estimating methodology resulted in a change in estimated budget authority and outlays starting in FY 2013.

b. The Other column is the total of the non-NASA and non-DOD budget authority figures that appear in the succeeding columns. The total is 

sometimes different from the sum of the individual figures because of rounding. The Total Space column does not include the NASA Total column 

because the latter includes budget authority for aeronautics as well as space. For the years 1989–97, this Other column also includes small figures for 

the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), as well as $2.1 billion for the replacement of Space Shuttle Challenger in 1987.

c. DOE has recalculated its space expenditures since 1998.

d. The NSF has recalculated its space expenditures since 1980, making them significantly higher than reported in previous years.

e. Budget Authority amounts do not include supplemental or emergency-designated funding.

* Transition Quarter
Appendices

339

FY

NASA 

Total

NASA 

Space DODa Otherb DOEc DOC DOI USDA NSFd DOT Total Space

1990 12,324 11,460 15,616 506 79 243 31 25 124 4 27,582

1991 14,016 13,046 14,181 772 251 251 29 26 211 4 27,999

1992 14,317 13,199 15,023 798 223 327 34 29 181 4 29,020

1993 14,310 13,064 14,106 731 165 324 33 25 180 4 27,901

1994 14,570 13,022 13,166 632 74 312 31 31 179 5 26,820

1995 13,854 12,543 10,644 759 60 352 31 32 278 6 23,946

1996 13,884 12,569 11,514 828 46 472 36 37 231 6 24,911

1997 13,709 12,457 11,727 789 35 448 42 39 219 6 24,973

1998 13,648 12,321 12,359 839 103 435 43 39 213 6 25,519

1999 13,653 12,459 13,203 982 105 575 59 37 200 6 26,644

2000 13,601 12,521 12,941 1,056 164 575 60 44 207 6 26,518

2001 14,230 13,304 14,326 1,062 145 577 60 36 232 12 28,692

2002 14,868 13,871 15,740 1,180 166 644 64 28 266 12 30,791

2003 15,364 14,360 19,388 1,305 191 649 74 42 337 12 35,053

2004 15,379 14,322 19,115 1,464 209 745 71 61 366 12 34,901

2005 16,198 15,234 19,690 1,551 229 807 70 73 360 12 36,475

2006 16,623 15,765 22,114 1,647 245 860 82 84 364 12 39,526

2007 16,285 15,568 22,418 1,680 200 912 87 65 404 12 39,666

2008 17,117 16,502 24,795 1,698 195 862 90 59 479 13 42,995

2009 17,775 17,275 26,528 1,868 200 1,078 64 27 485 14 45,671

2010 18,725 18,228 26,463 2,057 203 1,261 67 27 484 15 46,748

2011 18,432 17,898 27,234 2,186 229 1,444 66 20 412 15 47,318

2012 17,773 17,203 26,677 2,580 199 1,876 76 7 406 16 46,460

2013 17,395 16,865 10,818 2,578 185 1,865 84 20 409 15 30,261

2014 17,647 17,081 10,400 2,839 174 2,087 82 19 461 16 30,320

2015 18,010 17,359 10,325 3,010 182 2,223 83 19 485 18 30,694

2016 19,285 18,645 6,967 3,159 178 2,346 87 19 508 22 28,771

2017 19,653 18,993 10,316 2,995 172 2,214 85 20 480 24 32,305

2018 20,736 19,976 7,861 2,953 175 2,099 79 16 556 29 30,790

2019 21,500 20,775 9,970 2,604 217 1,667 84 19 581 36 33,349

2020 22,629 21,845 11,900 2,401 195 1,507 84 20 543 52 36,146

2021 23,271 22,443 15,100 2,459 211 1,516 84 27 576 44 40,002

2022e 24,041 23,161 15,500 2,528 236 1,596 85 20 547 45 41,188

Appendix D-1A (cont.)

Space Activities of the U.S.

HISTORICAL TABLE OF BUDGET AUTHORITY

(in millions of real-year dollars)
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

340

Appendix D-1B

Space Activities of the U.S.

HISTORICAL TABLE OF BUDGET AUTHORITY

(in millions of inflation-adjusted FY 2021 dollars)

FY

Inflation 

Factors

NASA 

Total

NASA 

Space DODa Otherb DOEc DOC DOI USDA NSFd DOT Total Space

1959 7.172 2,374 1,872 3,514 244 244 5,630

1960 7.077 3,708 3,270 3,970 304 304 7,544

1961 6.980 6,729 6,464 5,682 475 475 12,621

1962 6.911 12,612 12,418 8,970 1,375 1,023 352 22,763

1963 6.830 25,087 24,766 10,587 1,755 1,462 294 37,108

1964 6.744 34,394 33,827 10,783 1,436 1,416 20 46,047

1965 6.630 34,805 34,063 10,435 1,598 1,518 80 46,096

1966 6.490 33,587 32,874 10,962 1,389 1,214 175 45,225

1967 6.299 31,280 30,423 10,481 1,342 1,159 183 42,246

1968 6.087 27,919 26,964 11,698 1,060 883 170 1 6 39,722

1969 5.821 23,232 22,248 11,718 992 687 116 1 6 181 34,957

1970 5.525 20,697 19,598 9,271 779 569 44 6 6 155 29,648

1971 5.258 17,409 16,305 7,950 851 500 142 11 5 194 25,106

1972 5.020 16,600 15,415 7,063 670 276 156 30 10 198 23,148

1973 4.812 16,389 14,883 7,810 709 260 192 48 10 199 23,402

1974 4.492 13,641 12,392 7,932 710 189 269 40 13 198 21,034

1975 4.071 13,146 11,867 7,702 642 122 261 33 8 219 20,212

1976 3.806 13,511 12,274 7,547 641 88 274 38 15 226 20,461

TQ* 3.696 3,444 3,138 1,700 159 18 81 11 4 44 4,996

1977 3.549 13,551 12,210 8,561 687 78 323 35 21 229 21,457

1978 3.325 13,500 12,047 9,104 751 113 342 33 27 236 21,903

1979 3.077 14,141 12,399 9,341 763 182 302 31 25 225 22,504

1980 2.830 14,828 13,244 10,889 654 113 263 34 40 204 24,787

1981 2.577 14,220 12,865 12,442 604 106 224 31 41 202 25,910

1982 2.410 14,565 13,322 16,096 754 147 349 29 36 192 30,171

1983 2.309 15,874 14,611 20,824 755 90 411 12 46 196 36,191

1984 2.229 16,625 15,288 22,726 880 76 526 7 42 229 38,894

1985 2.157 16,336 14,938 27,542 1,259 73 912 4 32 237 43,738

1986 2.109 16,468 15,114 29,798 1,006 74 652 4 49 227 45,917

1987 2.063 22,539 20,240 33,607 961 99 574 17 39 231 2 54,809

1988 1.999 18,113 16,634 35,337 1,481 482 704 28 36 230 2 53,452

1989 1.921 21,071 19,396 34,397 1,076 186 578 33 40 233 6 54,869

a. DOD reported that improvements to the estimating methodology resulted in a change in estimated budget authority and outlays starting in FY 2013.

b. The Other column is the total of the non-NASA and non-DOD budget authority figures that appear in the succeeding columns. The total is 

sometimes different from the sum of the individual figures because of rounding. The Total Space column does not include the NASA Total column 

because the latter includes budget authority for aeronautics as well as space. For the years 1989–97, this Other column also includes small figures for 

the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), as well as $2.1 billion for the replacement of Space Shuttle Challenger in 1987.

c. DOE has recalculated its space expenditures since 1998.

d. The NSF has recalculated its space expenditures since 1980, making them significantly higher than reported in previous years.

* Transition Quarter

Note: Inflation factors calculated using data from Table 10.1—Gross Domestic Product and Deflators Used in the Historical Tables: 1940–2028 available 

at https://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/budget/historical-tables/
Appendices

341

FY

Inflation 

Factors

NASA 

Total

NASA 

Space DODa Otherb DOEc DOC DOI USDA NSFd DOT Total Space

1990 1.853 22,837 21,236 28,937 937 146 450 57 46 229 7 51,111

1991 1.789 25,078 23,342 25,373 1,382 449 449 52 47 378 7 50,097

1992 1.746 24,992 23,040 26,224 1,392 389 571 59 51 315 7 50,657

1993 1.706 24,406 22,281 24,058 1,247 281 553 56 43 307 7 47,586

1994 1.669 24,320 21,736 21,976 1,056 124 521 52 52 300 8 44,768

1995 1.635 22,645 20,502 17,398 1,240 98 575 51 52 454 10 39,141

1996 1.604 22,275 20,166 18,473 1,328 74 757 58 59 370 10 39,967

1997 1.576 21,611 19,637 18,486 1,244 55 706 66 61 346 9 39,368

1998 1.557 21,249 19,183 19,242 1,307 160 677 67 61 332 9 39,733

1999 1.538 20,995 19,159 20,303 1,510 161 884 91 57 308 9 40,973

2000 1.506 20,489 18,862 19,495 1,590 247 866 90 66 311 9 39,947

2001 1.471 20,929 19,567 21,070 1,562 213 849 88 53 341 18 42,199

2002 1.448 21,527 20,084 22,790 1,709 240 932 93 41 385 17 44,582

2003 1.421 21,828 20,402 27,545 1,854 271 922 105 60 479 17 49,801

2004 1.387 21,328 19,862 26,509 2,030 290 1,033 98 85 508 17 48,402

2005 1.346 21,802 20,505 26,502 2,088 308 1,086 94 98 485 16 49,095

2006 1.304 21,669 20,550 28,827 2,147 319 1,121 107 109 474 16 51,524

2007 1.269 20,662 19,752 28,443 2,131 254 1,157 110 82 513 15 50,326

2008 1.243 21,273 20,509 30,816 2,110 242 1,071 112 73 595 16 53,435

2009 1.230 21,869 21,254 32,638 2,298 246 1,326 79 33 597 17 56,190

2010 1.220 22,839 22,233 32,277 2,508 248 1,538 82 32 590 18 57,019

2011 1.196 22,038 21,399 32,562 2,613 274 1,726 79 23 493 18 56,574

2012 1.174 20,867 20,198 31,321 3,029 234 2,203 89 8 477 19 54,548

2013 1.153 20,056 19,445 12,473 2,972 213 2,150 97 23 472 17 34,891

2014 1.131 19,961 19,321 11,764 3,211 197 2,361 93 21 521 18 34,295

2015 1.118 20,141 19,413 11,546 3,366 204 2,486 93 21 542 20 34,325

2016 1.109 21,389 20,679 7,727 3,504 197 2,602 96 21 563 24 31,910

2017 1.090 21,415 20,696 11,241 3,264 187 2,412 93 22 523 26 35,201

2018 1.065 22,081 21,271 8,371 3,145 186 2,235 84 17 592 31 32,787

2019 1.044 22,456 21,699 10,413 2,719 227 1,741 88 19 607 38 34,832

2020 1.031 23,324 22,516 12,266 2,476 201 1,553 87 21 560 54 37,257

2021 1.000 23,271 22,443 15,100 2,459 211 1,516 84 27 576 44 40,002

Appendix D-1B (cont.)

Space Activities of the U.S.

HISTORICAL TABLE OF BUDGET AUTHORITY

(in millions of inflation-adjusted FY 2021 dollars)
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

342

Appendix D-1C

pa e ivi ies of he . . overnmen

HISTORICAL TABLE OF BUDGET AUTHORITY

(in millions of inflation-adjusted FY 2022 dollars)

FY

Inflation 

Factors

NASA 

Total

NASA 

Space DODa Otherb DOEc DOC DOI USDA NSFd DOT Total Space

1959 7.693 2,546 2,008 3,769 262 262 6,039

1960 7.591 3,978 3,507 4,258 326 326 8,092

1961 7.487 7,217 6,933 6,094 509 509 13,536

1962 7.412 13,527 13,319 9,621 1,475 1,097 378 24,415

1963 7.326 26,908 26,563 11,355 1,883 1,568 315 39,801

1964 7.233 36,889 36,282 11,566 1,541 1,519 22 49,388

1965 7.111 37,331 36,535 11,192 1,714 1,628 85 49,441

1966 6.961 36,025 35,259 11,758 1,490 1,302 188 48,506

1967 6.756 33,550 32,631 11,242 1,439 1,243 196 45,312

1968 6.528 29,945 28,920 12,547 1,137 947 183 1 7 42,605

1969 6.243 24,918 23,862 12,568 1,064 737 125 1 6 195 37,494

1970 5.926 22,199 21,020 9,944 836 610 47 6 6 166 31,800

1971 5.639 18,672 17,488 8,527 913 536 152 11 6 208 26,928

1972 5.384 17,805 16,534 7,575 718 296 167 32 11 212 24,827

1973 5.161 17,579 15,963 8,376 761 279 206 52 10 213 25,100

1974 4.818 14,631 13,292 8,508 761 202 289 43 14 212 22,561

1975 4.367 14,099 12,728 8,261 689 131 279 35 9 235 21,679

1976 4.082 14,491 13,164 8,095 687 94 294 41 16 242 21,946

TQ* 3.964 3,694 3,365 1,823 170 20 87 12 4 48 5,359

1977 3.807 14,534 13,096 9,182 737 84 346 38 23 246 23,014

1978 3.566 14,480 12,921 9,765 806 121 367 36 29 253 23,492

1979 3.300 15,167 13,299 10,019 818 195 323 33 26 241 24,137

1980 3.035 15,904 14,205 11,679 701 121 282 36 42 219 26,585

1981 2.764 15,252 13,798 13,345 648 113 240 33 44 216 27,791

1982 2.585 15,622 14,289 17,264 808 158 375 31 39 206 32,361

1983 2.476 17,026 15,671 22,336 810 97 441 12 50 211 38,817

1984 2.391 17,832 16,397 24,375 944 81 564 7 45 246 41,716

1985 2.314 17,521 16,022 29,540 1,350 79 979 5 35 254 46,912

1986 2.262 17,663 16,211 31,960 1,079 79 699 5 52 244 49,249

1987 2.213 24,175 21,709 36,046 1,031 106 615 18 42 248 2 58,786

1988 2.144 19,428 17,841 37,901 1,589 517 755 30 39 247 2 57,331

1989 2.060 22,600 20,804 36,893 1,154 200 620 35 43 249 6 58,851

a. DOD reported that improvements to the estimating methodology resulted in a change in estimated budget authority and outlays starting in FY 2013.

b. The Other column is the total of the non-NASA and non-DOD budget authority figures that appear in the succeeding columns. The total is

sometimes different from the sum of the individual figures because of rounding. The Total Space column does not include the NASA Total column 

because the latter includes budget authority for aeronautics as well as space. For the years 1989–97, this Other column also includes small figures for 

the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), as well as $2.1 billion for the replacement of Space Shuttle Challenger in 1987.

c. DOE has recalculated its space expenditures since 1998.

d. The NSF has recalculated its space expenditures since 1980, making them significantly higher than reported in previous years.

e. Budget Authority amounts do not include supplemental or emergency-designated funding.

* Transition Quarter

Note: Inflation factors calculated using data from Table 10.1—Gross Domestic Product and Deflators Used in the Historical Tables: 1940–2028 available 

at https://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/budget/historical-tables/
Appendices

343

FY

Inflation 

Factors

NASA 

Total

NASA 

Space DODa Otherb DOEc DOC DOI USDA NSFd DOT Total Space

1990 1.988 24,494 22,777 31,037 1,005 157 483 62 50 246 8 54,819

1991 1.919 26,898 25,036 27,214 1,482 482 482 56 50 405 8 53,733

1992 1.872 26,806 24,712 28,127 1,494 418 612 64 54 338 7 54,333

1993 1.829 26,177 23,898 25,804 1,337 302 593 60 46 329 7 51,039

1994 1.790 26,085 23,313 23,571 1,132 132 559 55 55 321 9 48,017

1995 1.753 24,288 21,990 18,661 1,330 105 617 54 56 487 11 41,981

1996 1.721 23,892 21,629 19,814 1,424 79 812 62 64 397 10 42,867

1997 1.691 23,179 21,062 19,828 1,335 59 757 71 66 371 10 42,225

1998 1.670 22,791 20,575 20,639 1,402 172 726 72 65 357 10 42,616

1999 1.649 22,519 20,550 21,777 1,620 173 948 97 61 330 10 43,946

2000 1.616 21,976 20,231 20,909 1,706 265 929 97 71 334 10 42,845

2001 1.577 22,447 20,987 22,599 1,675 229 910 95 57 366 19 45,261

2002 1.553 23,089 21,541 24,444 1,832 258 1,000 99 43 413 19 47,817

2003 1.524 23,412 21,882 29,544 1,989 291 989 113 64 514 18 53,415

2004 1.487 22,876 21,304 28,433 2,178 311 1,108 106 91 544 18 51,915

2005 1.444 23,384 21,993 28,426 2,239 331 1,165 101 105 520 17 52,657

2006 1.398 23,241 22,042 30,918 2,303 343 1,202 115 117 509 17 55,263

2007 1.361 22,161 21,185 30,507 2,286 272 1,241 118 88 550 16 53,978

2008 1.333 22,817 21,997 33,052 2,263 260 1,149 120 79 639 17 57,313

2009 1.320 23,456 22,796 35,007 2,465 264 1,423 84 35 640 18 60,267

2010 1.308 24,497 23,846 34,620 2,691 266 1,650 88 35 633 20 61,157

2011 1.282 23,637 22,952 34,924 2,803 294 1,852 85 25 528 19 60,679

2012 1.259 22,382 21,664 33,594 3,249 251 2,362 96 8 511 20 58,507

2013 1.237 21,512 20,856 13,378 3,188 229 2,306 104 25 506 19 37,423

2014 1.213 21,409 20,723 12,617 3,444 211 2,532 99 23 559 19 36,784

2015 1.199 21,602 20,821 12,384 3,610 218 2,666 100 23 582 22 36,816

2016 1.190 22,941 22,180 8,288 3,758 212 2,791 103 23 604 26 34,226

2017 1.169 22,969 22,198 12,057 3,501 201 2,588 99 23 561 28 37,755

2018 1.142 23,679 22,811 8,977 3,372 200 2,397 90 18 634 33 35,160

2019 1.120 24,079 23,267 11,166 2,916 243 1,867 94 21 651 41 37,350

2020 1.105 25,010 24,144 13,152 2,655 216 1,666 93 23 601 57 39,951

2021 1.069 24,884 23,998 16,146 2,629 226 1,621 90 29 615 47 42,773

2022e 1.000 24,041 23,161 15,500 2,528 236 1,596 85 20 547 45 41,188

Appendix D-1C (cont.)

Space Activities of the U.S.

HISTORICAL TABLE OF BUDGET AUTHORITY

(in millions of inflation-adjusted FY 2022 dollars)
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

344

Appendix D-2

Federal Space Activiti

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year)1

Federal 

Agencies

Budget Authority Budget Outlays

2020

actual

2021

actual 

2022

actual2

2023

est.

2020

 actual

2021

 actual

2022

 actual

2023

 est.

NASA3 21,845 22,443 23,887 25,039 20,698 21,486 22,588 23,575 

DOD4 11,900 15,100 15,500 21,700 11,900 15,500 16,700 21,700

DOE 195 211 236 225 198 207 240 246

DOC 1,507 1,516 1,596 1,753 1,605 1,438 1,582 1,753

DOI5 84 84 85 92 84 84 85 92

USDA 20 27 20 20 15 27 20 20

DOT 52 44 45 48 52 44 45 48

NSF 544 576 547 528 550 544 540 527

1 Amounts rounded to the nearest million.

2 Budget Authority amounts do not include supplemental or emergency-designated funding.

3 FY 2021 Budget Authority based on enacted appropriation language in P.L. 116-260, FY 2022 Budget Authority based on enacted appropriation language in P.L. 117-103, and FY 2023 Budget Authority based on enacted appropriation language in P.L. 117-328.

4 DOD submitted estimates in billions of dollars, so the figures are rounded to the nearest hundred million.

5 For the Aeronautics and Space Report of the President, the USGS reports on actual and estimated funding levels (budget authority and outlays) for 

Satellite Operations (space category) and the 3D Elevation Program (3DEP) (aeronautics category).
Appendices

345

Appendix D-3

Federal Aeronautics Activit

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year)1

Federal 

Agencies

Budget Authority Budget Outlays

2020

actual

2021

actual 

2022

actual2

2023

est.

2020

 actual

2021

 actual

2022

 actual

2023

 est.

NASA3 784 829 881 935 826 763 808 804 

USDA 65 69 74 65 69 75 76 65

DOD4 57,700 60,600 56,200 56,500 56,900 56,900 52,400 56,500

DOE 1 2 3 6 1 1 2 4

DOI5 36 36 40 43 36 36 40 43 

DOT 3,220 3,193 3,121 3,179 2,943 2,907 3,232 3,179

1 Amounts rounded to the nearest million.

2 Budget Authority amounts do not include supplemental or emergency-designated funding.

3 FY 2021 Budget Authority based on enacted appropriation language in P.L. 116-260, FY 2022 Budget Authority based on enacted appropriation language in P.L. 117-103, and FY 2023 Budget Authority based on enacted appropriation language in P.L. 117-328.

4 DOD submitted estimates in billions of dollars, so the figures are rounded to the nearest hundred million.

5 For the Aeronautics and Space Report of the President, the USGS reports on actual and estimated funding levels (budget authority and outlays) for 

Satellite Operations (space category) and the 3D Elevation Program (3DEP) (aeronautics category).
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

346

Appendix E-1

Memorandum on Space Policy Dir

National Strategy for Space Nuclear Power and Propulsion

Issued on December 16, 2020

MEMORANDUM FOR THE VICE PRESIDENT

THE SECRETARY OF STATE

THE SECRETARY OF DEFENSE

THE SECRETARY OF COMMERCE

THE SECRETARY OF TRANSPORTATION

THE SECRETARY OF ENERGY

THE DIRECTOR OF THE OFFICE OF MANAGEMENT AND BUDGET

THE ASSISTANT TO THE PRESIDENT FOR NATIONAL SECURITY AFFAIRS

THE ADMINISTRATOR OF THE NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE 

ADMINISTRATION

THE CHAIRMAN OF THE NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION

THE DIRECTOR OF THE OFFICE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY POLICY 

SUBJECT: National Strategy for Space Nuclear Power and Propulsion

Section 1. Policy. The ability to use space nuclear power and propulsion (SNPP) systems safely, securely, 

and sustainably is vital to maintaining and advancing United States dominance and strategic leadership 

in space. SNPP systems include radioisotope power systems (RPSs) and fission reactors used for power or 

propulsion in spacecraft, rovers, and other surface elements. SNPP systems can allow operation of such 

elements in environments in which solar and chemical power are inadequate. They can produce more 

power at lower mass and volume compared to other energy sources, thereby enabling persistent presence 

and operations. SNPP systems also can shorten transit times for crewed and robotic spacecraft, thereby 

reducing radiation exposure in harsh space environments.

National Security Presidential Memorandum-20 (NSPM-20) of August 20, 2019 (Launch of Spacecraft 

Containing Space Nuclear Systems), updated the process for launches of spacecraft containing space 

nuclear systems. It established it as the policy of the United States to “develop and use space nuclear 

systems when such systems safely enable or enhance space exploration or operational capabilities.”

Cooperation with commercial and international partners is critical to achieving America’s objectives for 

space exploration. Presidential Policy Directive 4 of June 28, 2010 (National Space Policy), as amended 

by the Presidential Memorandum of December 11, 2017 (Reinvigorating America’s Human Space 

Exploration Program), established it as the policy of the United States to “[l]ead an innovative and sustainable program of exploration with commercial and international partners to enable human expansion 

across the solar system and to bring back to Earth new knowledge and opportunities.”

This memorandum establishes a national strategy to ensure the development and use of SNPP systems 

when appropriate to enable and achieve the scientific, exploration, national security, and commercial 

objectives of the United States. In the context of this strategy only, the term “development” includes the 

full development process from design through testing and production, and the term “use” includes launch, 

operation, and disposition. This memorandum outlines high-level policy goals and a supporting roadmap 

that will advance the ability of the United States to use SNPP systems safely, securely, and sustainably. 
Appendices

347 The execution of this strategy will be subject to relevant budgetary and regulatory processes and to the 

availability of appropriations.

Sec. 2. Goals. The United States will pursue goals for SNPP development and use that are both missionenabling and ambitious in their substance and their timeline. These goals will enable a range of existing 

and future space missions, with the aim of accelerating achievement of key milestones, including in-space 

demonstration and use of new SNPP capabilities. This memorandum establishes the following such goals 

for the Nation:

(a) Develop uranium fuel processing capabilities that enable production of fuel that is suitable to lunar 

and planetary surface and in-space power, nuclear electric propulsion (NEP), and nuclear thermal propulsion (NTP) applications, as needed. These capabilities should support the ability to produce different 

uranium fuel forms to meet the nearest-term mission needs and, to the extent feasible, should maximize 

commonality — meaning use of the same or similar materials, processes, designs, or infrastructure — 

across these fuel forms. To maximize private-sector engagement and cost savings, these capabilities should 

be developed to enable a range of terrestrial as well as space applications, including future commercial 

applications;

(b) Demonstrate a fission power system on the surface of the Moon that is scalable to a power range of 

40 kilowatt-electric (kWe) and higher to support a sustained lunar presence and exploration of Mars. To 

the extent feasible, this power system should align with mission needs for, and potential future government and commercial applications of, in-space power, NEP, and terrestrial nuclear power;

(c) Establish the technical foundations and capabilities — including through identification and resolution 

of the key technical challenges — that will enable options for NTP to meet future Department of Defense 

(DoD) and National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) mission requirements; and

(d) Develop advanced RPS capabilities that provide higher fuel efficiency, higher specific energy, and 

longer operational lifetime than existing RPS capabilities, thus enabling survivable surface elements to 

support robotic and human exploration of the Moon and Mars and extending robotic exploration of the 

solar system.

Sec. 3. Principles. The United States will adhere to principles of safety, security, and sustainability in its 

development and use of SNPP systems, in accordance with all applicable Federal laws and consistent with 

international obligations and commitments.

(a) Safety. All executive departments and agencies (agencies) involved in the development and use of 

SNPP systems shall take appropriate measures to ensure, within their respective roles and responsibilities, 

the safe development, testing, launch, operation, and disposition of SNPP systems. For United States 

Government SNPP programs, the sponsoring agency holds primary responsibility for safety. For programs 

involving multiple agencies, the terms of cooperation shall designate a lead agency with primary responsibility for safety in each stage of development and use.

(i) Ground development. Activities associated with ground development, including ground testing, 

of SNPP systems shall be conducted in accordance with applicable Federal, State, and local laws and 

existing authorities of regulatory agencies.

(ii) Launch. NSPM-20 established safety guidelines and safety analysis and review processes for Federal 

Government launches of spacecraft containing space nuclear systems, including SNPP systems, and 

for launches for which the Department of Transportation has statutory authority to license as commercial space launch activities (commercial launches). These guidelines and processes address launch 

and any subsequent stages during which accidents may result in radiological effects on the public or 
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

348 the environment — for instance, in an unplanned reentry from Earth orbit or during an Earth flyby. 

Launch activities shall be conducted in accordance with these guidelines and processes.

(iii) Operation and disposition. The operation and disposition of SNPP systems shall be planned and 

conducted in a manner that protect human and environmental safety and national security assets. 

Fission reactor SNPP systems may be operated on interplanetary missions, in sufficiently high orbits, 

and in low-Earth orbits if they are stored in sufficiently high orbits after the operational part of their 

mission. In this context, a sufficiently high orbit is one in which the orbital lifetime of the spacecraft 

is long enough for the fission products to decay to a level of radioactivity comparable to that of 

uranium-235 by the time it reenters the Earth’s atmosphere, and the risks to existing and future space 

missions and of collision with objects in space are minimized. Spacecraft operating fission reactors 

in low-Earth orbits shall incorporate a highly reliable operational system to ensure effective and controlled disposition of the reactor.

(b) Security. All agencies involved in the development and use of SNPP systems shall take appropriate 

measures to protect nuclear and radiological materials and sensitive information, consistent with sound 

nuclear nonproliferation principles. For United States Government SNPP programs, the sponsoring 

agency holds primary responsibility for security. For programs involving multiple agencies, the terms 

of cooperation shall designate a lead agency with primary responsibility for security in each stage of 

development and use. The use of highly enriched uranium (HEU) in SNPP systems should be limited 

to applications for which the mission would not be viable with other nuclear fuels or nonnuclear power 

sources. Before selecting HEU or, for fission reactor systems, any nuclear fuel other than lowenriched 

uranium (LEU), for any given SNPP design or mission, the sponsoring agency shall conduct a thorough 

technical review to assess the viability of alternative nuclear fuels. The sponsoring agency shall provide 

to the respective staffs of the National Security Council, the National Space Council, the Office of 

Science and Technology Policy, and the Office of Management and Budget a briefing that provides 

justification for why the use of HEU or other non-LEU fuel is required, and any steps the agency has taken 

to address nuclear safety, security, and proliferation-related risks. The Director of the Office of Science 

and Technology Policy shall ensure, through the National Science and Technology Council, that other 

relevant agencies are invited to participate in these briefings.

(c) Sustainability. All agencies involved in the development and use of SNPP systems shall take appropriate measures to conduct these activities in a manner that is suitable for the long-term sustainment of 

United States space capabilities and leadership in SNPP.

(i) Coordination and Collaboration. To maximize efficiency and return on taxpayer investment, the 

heads of relevant agencies shall seek and pursue opportunities to coordinate among existing and future 

SNPP development and use programs. Connecting current efforts with likely future applications will 

help ensure that such programs can contribute to long-term United States SNPP capabilities and leadership. Agencies also shall seek opportunities to partner with the private sector, including academic 

institutions, in order to facilitate contributions to United States SNPP capabilities and leadership. To 

help identify opportunities for collaboration, the heads of relevant agencies should conduct regular 

technical exchanges among SNPP programs, to the extent that such exchanges are consistent with 

the principle of security and comply with applicable Federal, State, and local laws. Agencies shall 

coordinate with the Department of State when seeking opportunities for international partnerships.

(ii) Commonality. The heads of relevant agencies shall seek to identify and use opportunities for commonality among SNPP systems, and between SNPP and terrestrial nuclear systems, whenever doing so 

could advance program and policy objectives without unduly inhibiting innovation or market development, or hampering system suitability to specific mission applications. For example, opportunities 

for commonality may exist in goals (e.g., demonstration timeline), reactor design, nuclear fuels (e.g., 

fuel type and form, and enrichment level), supplementary systems (e.g., power conversion, moderator, 
Appendices

349 reflector, shielding, and system vessel), methods (e.g., additive manufacturing of fuel or reactor elements), and infrastructure (e.g., fuel supply, testing facilities, launch facilities, and workforce).

(iii) Cost-effectiveness. The heads of relevant agencies should pursue SNPP development and use 

solutions that are cost-effective while also consistent with the principles of safety and security. For 

any program or system, the heads of such agencies should seek to identify the combination of in-space 

and ground-based testing and certification that will best qualify the system for a given mission while 

ensuring public safety.

Sec. 4. Roles and Responsibilities. (a) The Vice President, on behalf of the President and acting through 

the National Space Council, shall coordinate United States policy related to use of SNPP systems.

(b) The Secretary of State shall, under the direction of the President, coordinate United States activities 

related to international obligations and commitments and international cooperation involving SNPP.

(c) The Secretary of Defense shall conduct and support activities associated with development and use of 

SNPP systems to enable and achieve United States national security objectives. When appropriate, the 

Secretary of Defense shall facilitate private-sector engagement in DoD SNPP activities.

(d) The Secretary of Commerce shall promote responsible United States commercial SNPP investment, 

innovation, and use, and shall, when consistent with the authorities of the Secretary, ensure the publication of clear, flexible, performance-based rules that are applicable to use of SNPP and are easily navigated. 

Under the direction of the Secretary of Commerce, the Department of Commerce (DOC) shall ascertain 

and communicate the views of private-sector partners and potential private-sector partners to relevant 

agency partners in order to facilitate public-private collaboration in SNPP development and use.

(e) The Secretary of Transportation’s statutory authority includes licensing commercial launches 

and reentries, including vehicles containing SNPP systems. Within this capacity, the Secretary of 

Transportation shall, when appropriate, facilitate private-sector engagement in the launch or reentry 

aspect of SNPP development and use activities, in support of United States science, exploration, national 

security, and commercial objectives. To help ensure the launch safety of an SNPP payload, and consistent 

with 51 U.S.C. 50904, a payload review may be conducted as part of a license application review or may 

be requested by a payload owner or operator in advance of or apart from a license application.

(f) The Secretary of Energy shall, in coordination with sponsoring agencies and other agencies, as appropriate, support development and use of SNPP systems to enable and achieve United States scientific, 

exploration, and national security objectives. When appropriate, the Secretary of Energy shall work 

with sponsoring agencies and DOC to facilitate United States private-sector engagement in Department 

of Energy (DOE) SNPP activities. Under the direction of the Secretary of Energy and consistent with 

the authorities granted to DOE, including authorities under the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 (AEA), as 

amended, 42 U.S.C. 2011, et seq., DOE may authorize ground-based SNPP development activities, including DOE activities conducted in coordination with sponsoring agencies and private-sector entities. As 

directed in NSPM-20, the Secretary of Energy shall maintain, on a full-cost recovery basis, the capability 

and infrastructure to develop, furnish, and conduct safety analyses for space nuclear systems for use in 

United States Government space systems.

(g) The Administrator of NASA shall conduct and support activities associated with development and 

use of SNPP systems to enable and achieve United States space science and exploration objectives. The 

Administrator of NASA shall establish the performance requirements for SNPP capabilities necessary to 

achieve those objectives. When appropriate, the Administrator of NASA shall facilitate private-sector 

engagement in NASA SNPP activities, and shall coordinate with the Secretary of Commerce and, as appropriate, the Secretary of State and the Secretary of Energy, to help facilitate private-sector SNPP activities.
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

350 (h) The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) has statutory authority under the AEA for licensing and 

regulatory safety and security oversight of commercial nuclear activities taking place within the United 

States. The NRC should, as appropriate and particularly in circumstances within NRC authority where 

DOE regulatory authorities cannot be applied, enable private-sector engagement in SNPP development 

and use activities in support of United States science, exploration, national security, and commercial 

objectives.

(i) The Director of the Office and Science and Technology Policy shall coordinate United States policy 

related to research and development of SNPP systems.

Sec. 5. Roadmap. The United States will pursue a coordinated roadmap for federally-supported SNPP 

activities to achieve the goals and uphold the principles established in this memorandum. This roadmap 

comprises the following elements, which the relevant agencies should pursue consistent with the following objective timeline, subject to relevant budgetary and regulatory processes and to the availability of 

appropriations:

(a) By the mid-2020s, develop uranium fuel processing capabilities that enable production of fuel that is 

suitable for lunar and planetary surface and in-space power, NEP, and NTP applications, as needed.

(i) Identify relevant mission needs. DoD and NASA should provide to DOE any mission needs (e.g., 

power density, environment, and timelines) relevant to the identification of fuels suitable for planetary 

surface and in-space power, NEP, and NTP applications.

(ii) Identify candidate fuel or fuels. DoD and NASA, in cooperation with DOE and private-sector 

partners, as appropriate, should identify candidate fuel or fuels to meet the identified mission requirements. This review and assessment should account for current and expected United States capabilities 

to produce and qualify for use candidate fuels, and for potential commonality of fuels or fuel variants 

across multiple planetary surface and in-space power, in-space propulsion, and terrestrial applications.

(iii) Qualify at least one candidate fuel. DoD and NASA, in cooperation with DOE and private-sector 

partners, as appropriate, should qualify a fuel or fuels for demonstrations of a planetary surface power 

reactor and an in-space propulsion system. While seeking opportunities to use private-sector-partner 

capabilities, agencies should ensure that the Federal Government retains an ability for screening and 

qualification of candidate fuels.

(iv) Supply fuel for demonstrations. DOE, in cooperation with NASA and DoD, and with privatesector partners, as appropriate, should identify feedstock and uranium that can be made available for 

planetary surface power and in-space propulsion demonstrations. DOE shall ensure that any provision 

of nuclear material for SNPP will not disrupt enriched uranium supplies for the United States nuclear 

weapons program and the naval propulsion program, and that SNPP needs are included among 

broader considerations of nuclear fuel supply provisioning and management.

(b) By the mid- to late-2020s, demonstrate a fission power system on the surface of the Moon that is scalable to a power range of 40 kWe and higher to support sustained lunar presence and exploration of Mars.

(i) Initiate a surface power project. NASA should initiate a fission surface power project for lunar 

surface demonstration by 2027, with scalability to Mars exploration. NASA should consult with DoD 

and other agencies, and with the private sector, as appropriate, when developing project requirements.

(ii) Conduct technology and requirements assessment. NASA, in coordination with DoD and other 

agencies, and with private-sector partners, as appropriate, should evaluate technology options for a 

surface power system including reactor designs, power conversion, shielding, and thermal management. NASA should work with other agencies, and private-sector partners, as appropriate, to evaluate 

opportunities for commonality among other SNPP needs, including in-space power and terrestrial 
Appendices

351 power needs, possible NEP technology needs, and reactor demonstrations planned by NASA, other 

agencies, or the private sector.

(iii) Engage the private sector. DOE and NASA should determine a mechanism or mechanisms for 

engaging with the private sector to meet NASA’s SNPP surface power needs in an effective manner 

consistent with the guiding principles set forth in this memorandum. In evaluating mechanisms, DOE 

and NASA should consider the possibility of NASA issuing a request for proposal for the development 

and construction of the surface power reactor system or demonstration.

(iv) System development. NASA should work with DOE, and with other agencies and private-sector 

partners, as appropriate, to develop the lunar surface power demonstration project.

(v) Conduct demonstration mission. NASA, in coordination with other agencies and with privatesector partners, as appropriate, should launch and conduct the lunar surface power demonstration 

project.

(c) By the late-2020s, establish the technical foundations and capabilities — including through identification and resolution of the key technical challenges — that will enable NTP options to meet future DoD 

and NASA mission needs.

(i) Conduct requirements assessment. DoD and NASA, in cooperation with DOE, and with other 

agencies and private-sector partners, as appropriate, should assess the ability of NTP capabilities to 

enable and advance existing and potential future DoD and NASA mission requirements.

(ii) Conduct technology assessment. DoD and NASA, in cooperation with DOE, and with other 

agencies and private-sector partners, as appropriate, should evaluate technology options and associated 

key technical challenges for an NTP system, including reactor designs, power conversion, and thermal 

management. DoD and NASA should work with their partners to evaluate and use opportunities for 

commonality with other SNPP needs, terrestrial power needs, and reactor demonstration projects 

planned by agencies and the private sector.

(iii) Technology development. DoD, in coordination with DOE and other agencies, and with privatesector partners, as appropriate, should develop reactor and propulsion system technologies that will 

resolve the key technical challenges in areas such as reactor design and production, propulsion system 

and spacecraft design, and SNPP system integration.

(d) By 2030, develop advanced RPS capabilities that provide higher fuel efficiency, higher specific energy, 

and longer operational lifetime than existing RPS capabilities, thus enabling survivable surface elements 

to support robotic and human exploration of the Moon and Mars and extending robotic exploration of 

the solar system.

(i) Maintain RPS capability. Mission sponsoring agencies should assess their needs for radioisotope 

heat source material to meet emerging mission requirements, and should work with DOE to jointly 

identify the means to produce or acquire the necessary material on a timeline that meets mission 

requirements.

(ii) Engage the private sector. NASA, in coordination with DOE and DOC, should conduct an assessment of opportunities for engaging the private sector to meet RPS needs in an effective manner 

consistent with the guiding principles established in this memorandum.

(iii) Conduct technology and requirements assessment. NASA, in coordination with DOE and DoD, 

and with other agencies and private-sector partners, as appropriate, should assess requirements for 

next-generation RPS systems and evaluate technology options for meeting those requirements.

(iv) System development. DOE, in coordination with NASA and DoD, and with other agencies and 

private-sector partners, as appropriate, should develop one or more next-generation RPS system or 
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

352 systems to meet the goals of higher fuel efficiency, higher specific energy, and longer operational 

lifetime for the required range of power.

Sec. 6. Implementation. The Vice President, through the National Space Council, shall coordinate 

implementation of this memorandum.

Sec. 7. General Provisions. (a) Nothing in this memorandum shall be construed to impair or otherwise 

affect:

(i) the authority granted by law to an executive department or agency, or the head thereof; or

(ii) the functions of the Director of the Office of Management and Budget relating to budgetary, 

administrative, or legislative proposals.

(b) This memorandum shall be implemented consistent with applicable law and subject to the availability 

of appropriations.

(c) This memorandum is not intended to, and does not, create any right or benefit, substantive or procedural, enforceable at law or in equity by any party against the United States, its departments, agencies, or 

entities, its officers, employees, or agents, or any other person.

(d) The Secretary of Energy is authorized and directed to publish this memorandum in the Federal 

Register.

Donald J. Trump
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353

Appendix E-2

Memorandum on Space Policy Dir

The United States Space-Based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing Policy 

Issued on January 15, 2021

MEMORANDUM FOR THE VICE PRESIDENT

THE SECRETARY OF STATE

THE SECRETARY OF DEFENSE

THE ATTORNEY GENERAL

THE SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR

THE SECRETARY OF COMMERCE

THE SECRETARY OF TRANSPORTATION

THE SECRETARY OF ENERGY

THE SECRETARY OF HOMELAND SECURITY

THE DIRECTOR OF THE OFFICE OF MANAGEMENT AND BUDGET

THE DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE

THE ASSISTANT TO THE PRESIDENT FOR NATIONAL SECURITY AFFAIRS

THE ADMINISTRATOR OF THE NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE 

ADMINISTRATION

THE CHAIRMAN OF THE JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF

THE CHAIRMAN OF THE FEDERAL COMMUNICATIONS COMMISSION

SUBJECT: Space Policy Directive 7, The United States Space-Based Positioning, Navigation, 

and Timing Policy

This Space Policy Directive establishes implementation actions and guidance for United States spacebased positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT) programs and activities for United States national and 

homeland security, civil, commercial, and scientific purposes. This policy complements the guidance 

set forth in Executive Order 13905 of February 12, 2020 (Strengthening National Resilience through 

Responsible Use of Positioning, Navigation, and Timing Services), and the intersector guidance for 

Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) included in the December 9, 2020, National Space Policy. 

This policy supersedes National Security Presidential Directive-39 (NSPD-39) of December 15, 2004 

(United States Space-Based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing Policy).

Section 1. Scope. This policy directive provides guidance for:

(a) sustainment and modernization of the Global Positioning System (GPS) and federally developed, 

owned, and operated systems used to augment or otherwise improve GPS;

(b) implementation and operation of capabilities to protect United States and allied access to and use of 

GPS for national, homeland, and economic security, and to deny adversaries hostile applications use of 

United States space-based PNT services; and

(c) United States participation in international cooperative initiatives regarding foreign space-based PNT 

services and foreign use of GPS and its augmentations.
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

354 Sec. 2. Definitions. For purposes of this document:

(a) “PNT service” refers to any system, network, or capability that provides a reference to calculate or 

augment the calculation of longitude, latitude, altitude, or transmission of time or frequency data, or any 

combination thereof.

(b) “Primary PNT Service” refers to an independent PNT service chosen by a user or system operator 

as the preferred source of PNT information. A primary PNT service is expected to provide sufficient 

accuracy, availability, integrity, or other characteristics important to the user.

(c) “Augmentation” refers to any system that provides users of PNT signals with additional information 

that enables users to obtain enhanced performance when compared to the un-augmented signals from 

a primary PNT service alone. These improvements include improved accuracy, availability, integrity, 

and reliability, and independent integrity monitoring and alerting capabilities for critical applications. 

Augmentation systems inherently rely on a primary PNT service to operate.

(d) “Alternative PNT Service” refers to a PNT service that has the capability to operate completely 

independent of, or in conjunction with, other PNT services. Multiple, varied PNT services used in combination may provide enhanced security, resilience, assurance, accuracy, availability, and integrity. An 

alternative PNT service allows a user to transition from the primary source of PNT signals in the event 

of a disruption or manipulation.

(e) “Interoperable” refers to the ability of multiple, independent PNT services and their augmentations to 

be used together to provide better capabilities at the user level than would be achieved by relying solely 

on a single service or signal.

(f) “Compatible” refers to the ability of multiple, independent PNT services and their augmentations to 

be used separately or in combination with each other without interfering with any individual service, and 

without adversely affecting the United States and allied military employment of PNT, commonly referred 

to as Navigation Warfare.

(g) “Navigation Warfare” or “NAVWAR” refers to the deliberate defensive and offensive action to assure 

and prevent positioning, navigation, and timing information through coordinated employment of space, 

cyberspace, and electronic warfare. Desired effects are generated through the coordinated employment 

of components within information operations, space operations, and cyberspace operations, including 

electronic warfare, offensive and defensive space operations, and computer network operations.

Sec. 3. Background. The multi-use services provided by GPS are integral to United States national 

security, economic growth, transportation safety, and homeland security. These services are essential but 

largely invisible elements of worldwide economic infrastructures.

(a) Responsible use of Space–Based PNT.

(i) GPS is a key component of multiple sectors of United States critical infrastructure, as identified 

in Presidential Policy Directive-21 (PPD-21) of February 12, 2013 (Critical Infrastructure Security 

and Resilience) and stated in EO 13905. Cascading effects from extended PNT service disruption 

or denial can adversely affect all sectors. Autonomous vehicles on land, sea, and air have begun to 

rely on GPS for navigation, positional awareness, and other vehicle capabilities. Additionally, many 

information systems rely on the GPS timing signal to enable both fixed and mobile communications. 

An extended outage of GPS, or extended period of spoofed or manipulated GPS signals, could cause 

severe economic losses and put lives at risk.

(ii) GPS remains critical to United States national security. Its applications are integrated into virtually every facet of United States military operations. United States and allied military forces will 
Appendices

355 continue to equip and train for the responsible use of GPS and alternative PNT services to support 

mission operations.

(iii) The widespread and growing dependence on GPS by military, civil, and commercial applications, 

systems, and infrastructure make the performance of many of these systems inherently vulnerable if 

disruption or manipulation of GPS signals were to occur. GPS users must plan for potential signal loss 

and take reasonable steps to verify or authenticate the integrity of the received GPS data and ranging 

signal, especially in applications where even small degradations can result in loss of life. In addition, 

whether designed for military capabilities or not, signals from PNT services and their augmentations 

provide inherent capabilities that may be used by adversaries, including enemy military forces and 

terrorist groups.

(b) Space Applications. Applications for GPS now extend beyond Earth. The Terrestrial Service Volume 

of GPS, defined as the volume from the ground to an altitude of 3,000 kilometers, has become an integral 

component for space launch operations. Use of GPS is expanding into the Space Service Volume (SSV), 

which extends from 3,000 km to geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO), despite reduced line-of-sight visibility and lower received signal power. Satellites rely on GPS for navigation, attitude control, space situational awareness, and new space science applications such as radio occultation. Consistent with Space 

Policy Directive-1 (SPD-1) of December 11, 2017 (Reinvigorating American’s Human Space Exploration 

Program) and Space Policy Directive-3 (SPD-3) of June 18, 2018 (National Space Traffic Management 

Policy) PNT services will also play an important role in space traffic management and future applications in the Cislunar Service Volume, which extends from GEO out to and including the Moon’s orbit. 

For requirements necessary to support these emerging applications, agencies should coordinate through 

standard GPS requirements processes.

(c) Foreign Space-Based PNT. Emerging foreign space-based PNT services could enhance or undermine 

the future utility of GPS. The United States will continue to encourage the development of foreign 

space-based PNT services based on GPS and their responsible use in non-military applications with allied 

and likeminded nations. Use of multiple, varied PNT services can result in better performance in terms 

of user accuracy, availability, and resilience. However, the United States Government does not assure 

the reliability or authenticity of foreign PNT services. Although foreign space-based PNT services may 

be used to complement civil GPS service, receiver manufacturers should continue to improve security, 

integrity, and resilience in the face of growing cyber threats. Thus, incorporation of foreign PNT in multiconstellation devices should be designed in a manner that precludes potential degradation of essential 

user capabilities resulting from possible foreign global navigation satellite system (GNSS) origins. The 

United States will maintain awareness of the risks and potential benefits associated with the use of 

foreign space-based PNT services and continue to promote and support the responsible use of GPS as the 

pre-eminent space-based PNT service.

(d) United States Policy and Management Framework.

(i) The United States continues to improve and maintain GPS and its augmentations to meet growing national, homeland, and economic security requirements as well as other civil requirements, and 

to enable diverse commercial and scientific applications. In parallel, the United States continues 

to improve capabilities to deny adversary access to space-based PNT services, particularly including 

services that are openly available and can be readily used by adversaries or terrorists, to threaten the 

security of the United States. The United States is addressing risks associated with dependence on 

space-based PNT and fostering responsible use approaches to PNT service acquisition, integration, 

and deployment across critical infrastructures. The United States is also encouraging the development 

of alternative approaches to PNT services and security that can incorporate new technologies and 

services as they are developed, such as quantum sensing, relative navigation and private or publicly 

owned and operated alternative PNT services.
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

356 (ii) The diverse requirements for and multiple applications of space-based PNT services require stable 

yet adaptable policies and management mechanisms. Therefore, the United States Government will 

continue to support a policy and management framework governing GPS and its augmentations that 

meets increasing and varied domestic and global requirements.

Sec. 4. Policy Goals and Guidance. The goal of this policy is to maintain United States leadership in 

the service provision, and responsible use of global navigation satellite systems, including GPS and foreign 

systems. To this end, the United States Government shall:

(a) Provide continuous worldwide access to United States space-based GPS services and governmentprovided augmentations, free of direct user fees, and provide open, free access to information necessary to 

develop and build equipment to use these services;

(b) Operate and maintain the Global Positioning System in accordance with United States law to satisfy 

civil, homeland security, and national security needs, consistent with published performance standards 

and interface specifications;

(c) Improve NAVWAR capabilities to deny hostile use of United States Government space-based PNT 

services, without unduly disrupting civil and commercial access to civil PNT services outside an area of 

military or homeland security operations;

(d) Improve the performance of United States space-based PNT services, including developing more 

robust signals that are more resistant to disruptions and manipulations consistent with United States and 

allied national security, homeland security, and civil purposes;

(e) Improve the cybersecurity of GPS, its augmentations, and United States Government owned GPSenabled devices, and foster private sector adoption of cyber-secure GPS enabled systems through system 

upgrades and incorporation of cybersecurity principles for space systems, interface specifications, and 

other guidance that prescribes cybersecurity for user equipment;

(f) Protect the spectrum environment that is currently used by GPS and its augmentations, and work with 

United States industry to investigate additional areas of the radio spectrum which could increase GPS 

and PNT resilience;

(g) Invest in domestic capabilities and support international activities to detect, mitigate, and increase 

resilience to harmful disruption or manipulation of GPS, and identify and implement, as appropriate, 

alternative sources of PNT for critical infrastructure, key resources, and mission-essential functions;

(h) Maintain GPS and its augmentations for use by United States critical infrastructure to enhance safety 

of life functions and operational efficiency, consistent with PPD-21;

(i) Engage with international GNSS providers to ensure compatibility, encourage interoperability with 

likeminded nations, promote transparency in civil service provision, and enable market access for United 

States industry. Encourage foreign development of PNT services and systems based on GPS and the 

inclusion of GPS as an essential element in systems that integrate multiple PNT services. At a minimum, 

seek to ensure that all foreign systems are compatible with GPS and its augmentations, that they do not 

interfere with GPS military and civil signals, and that mutual security concerns are addressed to prevent 

hostile use of United States space-based PNT services;

(j) Promote the responsible use of United States space-based PNT services and capabilities for applications at the Federal, State, and local level, consistent with Executive Order 13905; and
Appendices

357 (k) Promote United States technological leadership in the provision of space-based PNT services and in 

the development of secure and resilient end user equipment.

Sec. 5. Management of Space-Based PNT Services.

(a) The National Space-Based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing Executive Committee (Executive 

Committee) is the interagency body responsible for guiding and preserving whole-of-government interests 

in the provision of space-based PNT services, augmentations, and space-based alternatives. The Deputy 

Secretaries of the Department of Defense and the Department of Transportation, or their designated 

representatives, shall co-chair the Executive Committee.

(b) In addition to the Co-Chairs, the members of the Executive Committee shall be at the deputy secretary level or equivalent from the Department of State, the Department of the Treasury, the Department 

of Justice, the Department of the Interior, the Department of Agriculture, the Department of Commerce, 

the Department of Energy, the Department of Homeland Security, the Office of the Director of National 

Intelligence, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, or their designated representatives, and the heads of other executive departments and agencies (agencies) invited by 

the Co-Chairs. The Administrator of the National Telecommunications and Information Administration 

shall serve as an ex officio member consistent with the Administrator’s duties to advise the President on 

telecommunications and information policy issues.

(c) Components of the Executive Office of the President, including the Office of Management and 

Budget, the National Space Council staff, the National Security Council staff, the Office of Science 

and Technology Policy, and the National Economic Council staff, may participate by invitation of the 

Co-Chairs as observers and advise the Executive Committee on Presidential policy implications. The 

Chairman of the National Space-Based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing Advisory Board (or designated representative) shall be invited in an advisory role representing non-governmental considerations. 

The Co-Chairs may also invite the Chairman of the Federal Communications Commission to participate 

on the Executive Committee as appropriate. The Executive Committee shall convene at least once each 

year and as required on the advice of the Executive Steering Group, as described in Section 5(e).

(d) The Executive Committee shall make recommendations on sustainment, modernization, and policy 

matters regarding United States space-based PNT services to its member agencies, and to the President, 

through the Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs, or the Executive Secretary of the 

National Space Council, as appropriate. In addition, the Executive Committee will advise and coordinate with and among the agencies responsible for the strategic decisions regarding policies to maintain 

and improve United States leadership in the provision of space-based PNT infrastructures and services, 

including GPS, its augmentations and United States Government owned and operated space-based PNT 

systems and applications, security for these services, and their relationships with foreign space-based PNT 

services. Specifically, the Executive Committee shall:

(i) Ensure that national security, homeland security, and civil requirements receive full and appropriate consideration in the decision-making process and facilitate the integration and deconfliction of 

these requirements for space-based PNT capabilities, as required;

(ii) Coordinate individual Departments’ and Agencies’ space-based PNT program plans, requirements, 

budget considerations and policies;

(iii) Every four years provide the Executive Secretary of the National Space Council a report assessing current and planned civil space-based PNT services and whether they are projected to remain 

competitive with foreign space-based PNT services;
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

358 (iv) Promote, review, and implement plans to modernize United States space-based PNT infrastructure and services, including development, deployment, and operation of new or improved, or both, 

national security and public safety services;

(v) In coordination with the Office of Science and Technology Policy, promote research and development on next-generation technologies and on workforce development to ensure continued United 

States leadership in space-based PNT technologies;

(vi) Review proposals from and provide recommendations to agencies for international cooperation 

in coordination with the Department of State, as well as PNT spectrum management and protection 

issues in coordination with the Department of Commerce; and

(vii) Maintain and receive advice from the National Space-Based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing 

Advisory Board (Advisory Board). The Advisory Board shall be composed of experts from outside the 

United States Government, and shall be chartered as a Federal Advisory Committee. The Advisory 

Board shall seek input from state and local governments, industry, and academia on developments in 

the application of space-based PNT technologies and advise the Executive Committee on policy and 

service impacts.

(e) The Executive Committee shall maintain an Executive Steering Group composed of officials designated by the agencies that constitute the Executive Committee. The Executive Steering Group shall 

meet as needed to determine tasks and topics that require consideration of the Executive Committee. The 

agenda for Executive Steering Group meetings shall be approved by steering group members or their designees in advance. The Executive Steering Group, operating on a consensus basis, shall build consensus 

and work to resolve issues on behalf of the Executive Committee while establishing priorities and deconflicting tasks across the interagency members and the National Space-Based Positioning, Navigation, and 

Timing Coordination Office. When the Executive Steering group members cannot achieve consensus 

on proposals, budget recommendations, or policy, or in the event of critical events affecting United 

States space-based PNT architecture or services, the group shall recommend supplemental meetings of 

the Executive Committee to address relevant issues.

(f) The National Space-Based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing Coordination Office (NCO) shall 

support the meetings and functions of the Executive Committee and Executive Steering Group. It shall 

be led by a full-time Director assigned from the Senior Executive Service from an agency other than 

the Department of Defense, and include a Deputy Director assigned from the Department of Defense. 

Agencies represented on the Executive Committee shall assign staff to the NCO, as appropriate and 

consistent with applicable law, on a defined duration as required for task completion with appropriate 

technical expertise. The Executive Committee shall determine the resources for the NCO, including 

funding, location, staffing, and composition, consistent with this directive.

(g) The NCO shall serve as the Secretariat for the Executive Committee and shall perform functions 

delegated by the Executive Committee and Executive Steering Group. Agencies shall provide appropriate 

information to the NCO to ensure interagency transparency about space-based PNT programs, plans, 

policies, budget allocations, and activities affecting mutual interests or interagency dependencies. The 

NCO will coordinate the development and dissemination of strategic messaging and educational materials to support trust and adoption of United States space-based PNT services.

(h) The Executive Committee shall advise on and coordinate the interdepartmental resource allocation for GPS and its augmentations. The Secretary of Defense shall have primary responsibility for 

providing resources for development, acquisition, operation, sustainment, and modernization of GPS. 

The Secretary of Transportation shall continue to provide resources to the Secretary of Defense for 

assessment, development, acquisition, implementation, operation, and sustainment of GPS civil signal 

performance monitoring and any additional designated GPS civil capabilities that have exclusively civil 
Appendices

359 (non-military) application consistent with interagency agreements. GPS augmentations and other unique 

PNT capabilities shall be funded by any agency requiring those services or capabilities, including out-year 

procurement and operations costs. Any new technical features proposed and funded by the civil agencies 

shall not unduly degrade or displace existing or planned national security functions of GPS. Resource 

issues will be resolved through the regular budget process.

(i) Within 120 days of publication of this directive, the Executive Committee shall publish an implementation plan to enact over a five-year period all provisions of this directive. Further, the Executive 

Committee will update the charter of both the Executive Committee, Executive Steering Group, and 

NCO consistent with the provisions within this Directive.

Sec. 6. Foreign Access to United States Space-based PNT Capabilities.

(a) Exports of any United States PNT capabilities included on the United States Munitions List 

or the Commerce Control List will continue to be licensed pursuant to the International Traffic in 

Arms Regulations or the Export Administration Regulations, as appropriate, and in accordance with 

all existing laws and regulations. Export controls shall be updated to ensure that unnecessary controls 

that undermine or restrict the resilience and global use of civil GPS are reduced or eliminated without 

compromising United States navigation warfare, national security, or homeland security.

(b) As a general guideline, most exports of civil, mass-market space-based PNT capabilities that are currently available or are planned to be available in the global marketplace will continue to be considered 

favorably. Exports of sensitive dual-use or advanced PNT information, systems, technologies, and components will be considered on a case-by-case basis in accordance with existing laws and regulations, as well 

as relevant national security and foreign policy goals and considerations.

Sec. 7. Agency Roles and Responsibilities. Agencies shall allocate the resources required to fulfill the 

objectives of this policy, subject to the availability of funds appropriated for that purpose.

(a) The Secretary of State shall:

(i) In cooperation with the Secretary of Defense, the Secretary of Transportation and the heads of 

other appropriate agencies, promote the use of GPS and its augmentation services and standards with 

foreign governments and other international organizations, and encourage the development of foreign 

civil PNT services and systems based on GPS;

(ii) Take the lead for negotiating with foreign governments and international organizations regarding 

civil and, as appropriate and in coordination with the Secretary of Defense, military PNT matters, 

including coordinating interagency review of:

(A) Instructions to United States delegations for bilateral and multilateral consultations relating 

to the planning, management, and use of GPS, other global and regional navigation satellite 

systems, and their augmentation systems;

(B) International agreements, arrangements, and public statements with foreign governments and 

international organizations regarding the planning, operation, management, or use of GPS, other 

global and regional navigation satellite systems, and their augmentation systems; and

(iii) Participate with the Secretary of Defense in PNT dialog with allies, especially NATO relations.

(b) The Secretary of Defense shall:

(i) Have responsibility for the development, acquisition, operation, security, and continued modernization of GPS, while facilitating appropriate civil and homeland security representation and participation in these activities and any decisions that affect civil and homeland security equities;
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

360 (ii) Develop, acquire, operate, realistically test, evaluate, and maintain NAVWAR capabilities and 

other capabilities required to:

(A) Effectively utilize GPS services in the event of an adversary or other jamming, disruption, or 

manipulation;

(B) Develop effective measures to counter adversary efforts to deny, disrupt, or manipulate PNT 

services;

(C) Identify, locate, and mitigate, in coordination with other agencies, as appropriate, any intentional disruption or manipulation that adversely affects use of GPS for military operations;

(iii) Ensure the earliest operational availability for modernized military and NAVWAR capabilities;

(iv) Train, equip, test, and exercise United States military forces and national security capabilities in 

operationally realistic conditions that include denial or degradation of GPS. In cooperation with the 

Secretary of Transportation and the Secretary of Homeland Security, and as appropriate, with the 

Secretary of State, develop guidelines that facilitate these activities and NAVWAR training, testing, 

demonstrations, and exercises without unduly disrupting or degrading homeland security and civil 

services and operations, either internationally or domestically;

(v) Encourage use of GPS national security services by allied military forces to facilitate interoperability between United States and allied forces and capabilities, and to maintain their use as the 

pre-eminent military space-based PNT capability;

(A) Consistent with the guidance in Section 6 of this directive, make GPS national security services, user equipment, information, and technology available for use by allied military forces; and

(B) Work with allies to monitor access to national security services and user equipment to limit 

the potential for adversaries to use these capabilities against United States and allied military 

forces;

(vi) Maintain the commitment to discontinue the use of the feature known as Selective Availability;

(vii) In coordination with the Department of Transportation, maintain safety-of-life backwards compatibility commitments to enable continued international acceptance of civil and military GPS PNT 

services in civil airspace;

(viii) Facilitate access to appropriate levels of national security services and user equipment at the 

Federal level to meet critical requirements for emergency response and other homeland security purposes, and, on an exceptional basis, for civil purposes, including State or local emergency response in 

accordance with established memorandums of understanding;

(ix) Develop improved and dedicated national security PNT capabilities, including more diverse, flexible, and capable signals and services;

(x) In coordination with the Secretary of Transportation, provide estimates of GPS program costs 

based on the Department of Transportation’s strategy and future requirements to implement GPS data 

and signal authentication and reflect strategy consistent with the Federal Radio Navigation Plan or 

its successor;

(xi) Maintain lead responsibility for negotiating with foreign defense organizations for any cooperation 

regarding access to or information about GPS military services;

(xii) In cooperation with other agencies, as appropriate, assess the utility and feasibility of hosting 

secondary payloads on GPS satellites, including those intended to enhance global search and rescue 

capabilities for all users. No secondary payload may adversely affect the performance, schedule, or cost 

of GPS, or its signals or services. Resources required for the assessment, development, acquisition, 
Appendices

361 integration, and operation of secondary payloads shall be the responsibility of the sponsoring agency 

or agencies; and

(xiii) In coordination with the Secretary of State and the Secretary of Commerce, and with all agencies who are members of the Executive Committee having been notified, maintain the Department 

of Defense’s lead responsibility for Radio Frequency compatibility coordination with other Radio 

Navigation Satellite Services (RNSS) who operate or intend to operate in the RNSS radio frequency 

bands utilized by GPS.

(c) The Secretary of Commerce shall:

(i) Promote United States industry access to foreign markets for space-based PNT goods and services 

while adopting a risk management approach to United States national security concerns;

(ii) Invest in research and development on next-generation technologies that could enhance GPS 

applications for commercial use;

(iii) Represent United States commercial interests with other agencies in the requirements review of 

GPS and its related augmentations;

(iv) In coordination with the Secretary of State, the Secretary of Defense, the Secretary of 

Transportation, and the Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, seek 

to protect the radio frequency spectrum used by GPS and its augmentations through appropriate 

domestic and international spectrum management and regulatory practices;

(v) In coordination with the Secretary of Defense, the Secretary of Transportation, the Secretary of 

Homeland Security, and the Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 

facilitate cooperation between the United States Government and the United States private sector as 

appropriate to identify mutually acceptable solutions that will preserve existing and evolving uses of 

space-based PNT services, while allowing for the development of other non-interfering technologies 

and services that depend on use of the radio frequency spectrum;

(vi) In cooperation with the Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 

develop, and provide to the Secretary of Transportation, requirements for use of GPS and its augmentations to support civil space systems; and

(vii) In cooperation with the heads of other agencies, as appropriate, develop guidelines to improve the 

cybersecurity of PNT devices, including their capability to detect and reject manipulated or counterfeit signals, and promote the responsible use of space-based PNT services and capabilities for applications that support national security, economic growth, transportation safety, and homeland security 

as directed in Executive Order 13905.

(d) The Secretary of Transportation shall:

(i) Have lead responsibility for the development of requirements for civil applications from all United 

States Government civil agencies;

(ii) Ensure, in coordination with the Secretary of Defense and the Secretary of Homeland Security, 

the performance monitoring of United States civil space-based PNT services;

(iii) Consistent with the guidance in section 6 of this directive, and in coordination with the Secretary 

of State, facilitate international participation in the development of civil transportation applications 

using United States space-based PNT services;

(iv) Consistent with the background provided in section 3 of this directive, and in coordination with 

the Secretary of State and the Secretary of Defense, ensure that international transportation initiatives consider the dual-use nature of space-based PNT services, particularly including services that 
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

362 are openly available and can be readily used by adversaries or terrorists to threaten the security of the 

United States;

(v) Ensure, in coordination with the Secretary of Defense, that public safety service applications 

based on United States space-based PNT services meet or exceed internationally recognized standards 

as required to meet mission requirements, including those used for aviation, maritime, and surface 

transportation applications;

(vi) In cooperation with the heads of other agencies, as appropriate, promote the responsible use of 

United States and foreign civil space-based PNT services and capabilities for transportation safety as 

directed in EO 13905;

(vii) Represent the civil agencies in the development, acquisition, management, and operations of 

GPS and its augmentations;

(viii) In coordination with the Secretary of Defense and the Secretary of Homeland Security and the 

heads of other agencies, as appropriate, implement Federal and facilitate State, local and commercial 

capabilities to monitor, identify, locate, and attribute space-based PNT service disruption and manipulations within the United States that adversely affect use of space-based PNT for transportation safety, 

homeland security, civil, commercial, and scientific purposes;

(ix) Ensure the earliest operational availability for modernized civil signals and services on GPS and 

its augmentations, in coordination with the Secretary of Defense;

(x) In coordination with the Secretary of Defense, assess and assist, as appropriate, in the international acceptance of using the military PNT services of GPS for operations in civil airspace;

(xi) Facilitate international coordination for the development of monitoring standards for space-based 

PNT services;

(xii) Maintain awareness of the risks and potential benefits associated with the use of foreign spacebased PNT services, and

(xiii) In coordination with the Secretary of Defense and the Secretary of Homeland Security, develop 

and validate requirements and a funding strategy to implement data and signal authentication of civil 

GPS and wide area augmentations for homeland security and public safety purposes consistent with 

the Federal Radionavigation Plan or its successor plan.

(e) The Secretary of Homeland Security shall:

(i) Identify space-based PNT requirements for homeland security purposes to the Secretary of 

Transportation;

(ii) In coordination with the Secretary of Transportation, and with the heads of other agencies, as 

appropriate, promote the responsible use of GPS and other PNT services, consistent with EO 13905;

(iii) In coordination with the Secretary of Defense and the Secretary of Transportation, and in cooperation with the Secretary of Commerce:

(A) Ensure that mechanisms are in place to monitor, identify, locate, and attribute space-based 

PNT service disruptions and manipulations within the United States that can cause significant 

disruption to United States critical infrastructure and scientific purposes; and

(B) Develop procedures to notify the civil sectors and Federal, State, local, territorial and tribal 

agencies when space-based services have anticipated disruptions or are deemed to be no longer 

reliable.

(iv) In coordination with the Secretary of Defense, the Secretary of Commerce, and the Secretary 

of Transportation, develop and maintain capabilities, procedures, and techniques for, and routinely 
Appendices

363 exercise, civil contingency responses to ensure continuity of operations in the event that access to 

GPS services are disrupted or manipulated;

(v) In coordination with the Secretary of Defense and the Secretary of Transportation, and in cooperation with the heads of other agencies, as appropriate, coordinate the use of existing and planned 

capabilities to identify, locate, and attribute any disruption or manipulation of GPS and its augmentations within the United States that significantly affects homeland security or critical infrastructure;

(vi) In coordination with the Secretary of Transportation, provide to the Executive Committee 

resourcing recommendations based on the Department of Transportation’s strategy and future 

requirements to implement data and signal authentication and reflect that strategy consistent with 

the Federal Radionavigation Plan or its successor plan;

(vii) In coordination with the Secretary of Defense, the Secretary of Transportation, and the Director 

of National Intelligence, promptly notify the Secretary of Defense, the Administrator of the National 

Telecommunications and Information Administration, the Chairman of the Federal Communications 

Commission, the Director of National Intelligence, and the heads of other relevant agencies in cases 

of significant domestic or international disruption to or manipulation of United States space-based 

PNT services to enable appropriate investigation, notification, or enforcement action.

(f) The Director of National Intelligence shall identify, monitor, and assess the development of foreign 

threats to the use of GPS PNT architectures and related services, and provide information to assist the 

Secretary of Defense in development of countermeasures.

(g) The Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration shall:

(i) In cooperation with the Secretary of Commerce, develop and provide to the Secretary of 

Transportation technical requirements for the use of GPS and its augmentations to support civil and 

commercial space systems;

(ii) In cooperation with the Secretary of Defense, the Secretary of Commerce, and the Secretary of 

Transportation, develop requirements for GPS support of space operations and science in higher orbits 

within the SSV and beyond to cislunar space; and

(iii) In cooperation with the Secretary of State, the Secretary of Defense, the Secretary of Commerce, 

and the Secretary of Homeland Security, sustain and modernize search and rescue and distress alert 

and location capabilities and programs that operate as secondary payloads on GPS satellites.

Sec. 8. Notification of Harmful Disruption or Manipulation. Agencies detecting or receiving domestic 

or international reports of harmful disruption or manipulation of United States space-based PNT services shall provide timely reports to the Secretary of Homeland Security, the Secretary of Defense, the 

Secretary of Transportation, and the Director of National Intelligence. Upon notification:

(a) The Secretary of Commerce, and the Chairman of the Federal Communications Commission in 

cooperation with the heads of other agencies as appropriate, shall take appropriate and legally permissible actions required to mitigate harmful disruption or manipulation of United States space-based PNT 

services within the United States.

(b) The Secretary of State shall, as appropriate, notify or coordinate the notification of foreign governments and international organizations in the event of harmful disruption or manipulation of United 

States space-based PNT services caused by foreign government or commercial activities.

(c) The Secretary of Homeland Security, when appropriate, shall notify the civil sectors and United 

States Government agencies of the disruption.
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

364 Sec. 9. General Provisions. (a) Nothing in this directive shall be construed to impair or otherwise affect:

(i) the authority granted by law to an executive department or agency, or the head thereof; or

(ii) the functions of the Director of the Office of Management and Budget relating to budgetary, 

administrative, or legislative proposals.

(b) This directive shall be implemented consistent with applicable law and subject to the availability of 

appropriations.

(c) This directive is not intended to, and does not, create any right or benefit, substantive or procedural, 

enforceable as law or in equity by any party against the United States, its departments, agencies, or entities, its officers, employees, or agents, or any other person.

Donald J. Trump
365 c Acrony

ronyms

3DEP 3D Elevation Program 

A

AAM Advanced Air Mobility 

ABC Agency Baseline Commitment

ACCESS Advanced Communications Capabilities for Exploration and Science Systems

ACCESS Advanced Computational Center for Entry System Simulation

ACD Artemis Campaign Development

ACEP-ALE Agricultural Conservation Easement Program–Agricultural Land Easements

ACEP-WRE Agricultural Conservation Easement Program–Wetland Reserve Easements

ACO Announcement of Collaboration Opportunity

ACS3 Advanced Composite Solar Sail System

ADO Architecture Development Office

AEA Albers Equal Area

AEHF Advanced Extremely High Frequency 

AEOIP Applied Earth Observations Innovation Partnership

AES Advanced Exploration Systems 

AF acre-feet

AFPP Announcements for Partnership Proposals

AFRL Air Force Research Laboratory

AFSPC Air Force Space Command

AGS Atmospheric and Geospace Sciences 

AHE Advanced Hawkeye 

AI&T assembly, integration, and test

AIM Assessment, Inventory, and Monitoring

Air-LUSI Airborne LUnar Spectral Irradiance 

AIS Automated Information System

AIT American Institute in Taiwan 

ALE Air Launched Effects 

ALIGNS Airborne Location Integrating Geospatial Navigation System

ALMA Atacama Large Millimeter/Submillimeter Array

AM additive manufacturing 

AM Bench Additive Manufacturing Benchmark

AMAPPS Atlantic Marine Assessment Program for Protected Species

AMEC Alaska Mapping Executive Committee

AMOS Advanced Maui Optical and Space Surveillance Technologies

AMPERE Active Magnetosphere and Planetary Electrodynamics Response Experiment 

AMS Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer 

AMS Automated Modular Sensor

AMSR Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer

ANE Airborne Network Extension

AO Arecibo Observatory

AOR Area of Responsibility

APM Airborne Particulate Monitor

ARC Aviation Rulemaking Committee 

ARCN Arctic Inventory and Monitoring Network

ARD Analysis Ready Data 
366Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

ARM Atmospheric Radiation Measurement 

ARMD Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate 

ARS Agricultural Research Service

AS Atmospheric Section

ASA Australian Space Agency

ASAT anti-satellite

ASB Agricultural Statistics Board

ASCENT Advanced Spacecraft Energetic Non-Toxic

ASCR Advanced Scientific Computing Research 

ASE Aviation Survivability Equipment

ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations

ASI Agenzia Spaziale Italiana

ASIC Application Specific Integrated Circuit

AST Division of Astronomical Sciences 

ASTER Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer 

ASU Aircraft Sector Understanding

ASuW Anti-Surface Warfare

ATF Armstrong Test Facility 

ATIRCM Advanced Threat Infrared Countermeasures

ATLAS Advanced Tracking and Launch Analysis System

ATMS Advanced Technology Microwave Sounder

ATR Advanced Test Reactor 

AVC/ESC Office of Emerging Security Challenges Bureau of Arms Control, Verification and 

Compliance

AVSED Aviation and Space Education

B

BAER Burned Area Emergency Response

BCR bird conservation region

BIA Bureau of Indian Affairs 

BICEP Background Imaging of Cosmic Extragalactic Polarization 

BIG Breakthrough, Innovative, and Game-changing

BIL Bipartisan Infrastructure Law

BIS Bureau of Industry and Security 

BLM Bureau of Land Management 

BLOS beyond line-of-sight

BLT ballistic lunar transfer

BMC3 Battle Management, Command, Control, and Communications

BNL Brookhaven National Laboratory 

BoD Board of Directors 

BOEM Bureau of Ocean Energy Management

BOR Bureau of Reclamation 

BPA Brine Processor Assembly

BPSD Biological and Physical Sciences Division

BPTF Blossom Point Test Facility

BVLOS beyond visual line-of-sight

C

C2 Command and Control

C&N communication and navigation 

CAL Cold Atom Lab 

CAPS Control and Planning Segment

CAPSTONE Cislunar Autonomous Positioning System Technology Operations and Navigation Experiment 
367 Acronyms

CASIS Center for the Advancement of Science in Space

CASSA Cross-Artemis Site Selection Analysis Team

CCMD Combatant Command

CCOR Compact Coronagraph 

CCP Commercial Crew Program 

CCS Counter Communications System 

CCSDS Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems 

CCSFS Cape Canaveral Space Force Station 

CDL Cropland Data Layer

CDO Contested Degraded and Operationally Limited

CDP Commercial Data Program

CDR Critical Design Review

CEOS Committee on Earth Observations

CEPS Center for Earth and Planetary Studies

CESD Common Exploration Systems Development

CfA Center for Astrophysics | Harvard & Smithsonian

CFM Cryogenic Fluid Management

CFT Crew Flight Test 

CGMS Consultative Group on Meteorological Satellites

CHAPEA Crew Health and Performance Exploration Analog

CHM canopy height model

CIF Center Innovation Fund

CIRCM Common Infrared Countermeasure

CLD Commercial LEO Destinations

CLEEN Continuous Lower Energy, Emissions, and Noise

CLICK CubeSat Laser Infrared CrosslinK

CLPS Commercial Lunar Payload Services 

CLTV cislunar transit vehicle

CM countermeasures

CMB cosmic microwave background 

CMS Carbon Monitoring System

CMWS Common Missile Warning System 

CNES Centre National d’Études Spatiales 

CO2 carbon dioxide

COCOM Combatant Command

COFFIES Consequences Of Fields and Flows in the Interior and Exterior of the Sun

COMSATCOM Commercial SATCOM 

CONUS continental United States or conterminous United States

COSADA COSMO Site and Design Advancement

COSAS Commercial SAR and Scatterometry

COSI Compton Spectrometer and Imager

COSMIC Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere, and Climate

COSMIC-2 Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere and Climate 2 

COSMO Coronal Solar Magnetism Observatory

COVID-19 coronavirus disease 2019

COWVR Compact Ocean Wind Vector Radiometer 

CP2MRS Compact Passive Polarimetric Microwave Radiometer and Sounder

CPOD CubeSat Proximity Operations Demonstration

CPS Centre for the Protection of the Dark and Quiet Sky from Satellite Constellation Interference

CPT Command Post Terminals

CrIS Cross-track Infrared Sounder

CRP Constant Rate Production

CRS Commercial Resupply Services 

CSA Canadian Space Agency

CSF Cybersecurity Framework
368Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation

CSLI CubeSat Launch Initiative 

CTIM Compact Total Irradiance Monitor

CVN aircraft carriers with nuclear propulsion

CVW Carrier Air Wing 

CWDP Commercial Weather Data Pilot

D

D-RATS Desert Research and Technology Studies

DAF Department of the Air Force

DARC Deep Space Advanced Radar Capability 

DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency

DART Double Asteroid Redirection Test

DCCS Dream Chaser Cargo System

DCS Data Collection and location System 

DEM digital elevation model 

DESI Detect Early Season Invasives

DevSecOps development security and operations

DG-DEFIS European Commission Directorate General for Defense Industry and Space

DKIST Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope 

DLR German Aerospace Center

DLRW dynamic launch and reentry windows

DMO Distributed Maritime Operations

DMO-S Distributed Mission Operations–Space

DMSP Defense Meteorological Satellite Program 

DOC Department of Commerce

DOD Department of Defense

DOE Department of Energy

DOGAMI Department of Geology and Mineral Industries

DOI Department of the Interior 

DOS Department of State 

DRB Delaware River Basin 

DRIVE Diversify, Realize, Integrate, Venture, Educate

DSAC Deep Space Atomic Clock 

DSN Deep Space Network 

DSOC Deep Space Optical Communications

DSSC Delta System/Software Configuration

DSWE Dynamic Surface Water Extent

DT&E Development, Test and Evaluation

DTE Direct to Earth

DVT Design Verification and Testing or Design Verification Test

E

EABO Expeditionary Advanced Base Operations

EAG exotic annual grass

EAR Export Administration Regulations

ECI Early Career Initiative

ECOSTRESS ECOsystem Spaceborne Thermal Radiometer Experiment on Space Station

ECU End-Crypto Unit

EDGE Experimental Demonstration Gateway Event

EEAS European External Action Service

EGS Exploration Ground Systems 

EHP EVA and HSM Program
369 Acronyms

EHT Event Horizon Telescope

EL3 European Large Logistics Lander

EM&C Enterprise Management and Control

EMIT Earth Surface Mineral Dust Source Investigation

eMMRTG enhanced multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generator 

eMODIS expedited Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer

EO Earth observation

EO Executive Order 

EOC Early Operational Capability

EO/IR Electro-Optical/Infrared

EoR Established on Required Navigation Performance

EOS Earth Observing System 

EPFD Electrified Powertrain Flight Demonstration

EPS Enhanced Polar System 

EPS-R Enhanced Polar System-Recapitalization 

EPS-SG EUMETSAT Polar System-Second Generation

EROS Earth Resources Observation and Science 

EROS-ISP Earth Resources Observation and Science Center–Imaging Spectroscopy Project 

ERSA European Radiation Sensors Array

ESA Electronically Scanned Array

ESA European Space Agency

ESCAPE Extreme-ultraviolet Stellar Characterization for Atmospheric Physics and Evolution

ESD Exploration Systems Development

ESDMD Exploration Systems Development Mission Directorate

ESMU Electromagnetic Spectrum Management Unit

ESI early season invasives

ESM European Service Module

ESO Earth System Observatory

ESP Environmental Studies Program 

ESP Efficient Space Procurement

ESPA EROS Center Science Processing Architecture

ESR Emergency Stabilization and Rehabilitation

ESS Environmental System Science

ESS Evolved Strategic SATCOM 

ESSIO Exploration Science Strategy and Integration Office 

ET evapotranspiration

ETa actual evapotranspiration

ETM Enhanced Thematic Mapper

EU European Union 

EUMETSAT European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites 

EUS Exploration Upper Stage

EUV extreme ultraviolet

EVA Extravehicular Activity 

eVIIRS expedited Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite

EWPP-FPE Emergency Watershed Protection Program–Floodplain Easements

EWS Electro-optical/infrared Weather System

EWS-G Electro-optical/infrared Weather System-Geostationary 

EWX Early Warning eXplorer

EXIS Extreme Ultraviolet and X-ray Irradiance Sensors

F

FAA Federal Aviation Administration

FAB-T Family of Advanced Beyond-Line-of-Sight Terminals 

FACE Future Airborne Compliance Environment
370Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

FARA Future Attack Reconnaissance Aircraft 

FAS Foreign Agricultural Service

FC fuel clads

FCC Federal Communications Commission

FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency

FEN Future Vertical Lift Ecosystem Network

FGDC Federal Geographic Data Committee

FGST Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope 

FHP Forest Health Protection 

FIA Forest Inventory and Analysis 

FLRAA Future Long Range Assault Aircraft 

FORE-SCE Forecasting Scenarios of land use

FORGE Future Operationally Resilient Ground Evolution 

FRB Fast Radio Burst

FRP Full Rate Production

FRPP Farm and Ranchland Protection Program

FSA Farm Service Agency

FSOC Free-Space Optical Communication

FSP Fission surface power

FSS Farside Seismic Suite

FSS Fixed Satellite Service

FTUAS Future Tactical Unmanned Aerial Systems 

FVL Future Vertical Lift 

FVL(MS) Future Vertical Lift Maritime Strike

FWS U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

FY fiscal year

FYDP Future Years Defense Program

G

G-LiHT Goddard’s LiDAR, Hyperspectral and Thermal Imager

G-REALM Global Reservoir and Lake Monitor 

GADAS Global Agricultural and Disaster Assessment System 

GAO Government Accountability Office

GBD Global Burst Detector 

GBO Green Bank Observatory 

GBT Green Bank Telescope 

GCOM-W Global Change Observation Mission–Water Satellite

GCS Ground Control Station

GDMS General Dynamics Mission Systems

GEDI Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation

GEO Geosynchronous Earth Orbit

GEO Group on Earth Observations

GEODSS Ground-Based Electro-Optical Deep Space Surveillance

GeoXO Geostationary Extended Observations 

GeV gigaelectronvolts

GIC Geomagnetically Induced Currents

GIMMS Global Inventory Modeling and Mapping Studies

GIS Geographic Information Systems 

GLAM Global Agricultural Monitoring 

GMA Global Market Analysis 

GMR geometric mean regression

GMT Giant Magellan Telescope

GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System 

GOCO Government-owned and Contractor-operated
371 Acronyms

GOES Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites

GONG Global Oscillations Network Group

GOSAT-GW Global Observing SATellite for Greenhouse gases and Water cycle

GPHS General Purpose Heat Source

GPIM Green Propellant Infusion Mission 

GPS Global Positioning System 

GPS IIIF GPS III Follow-on 

GS Geospace Section 

GSFC Goddard Space Flight Center 

GSSAP Geosynchronous Space Situational Awareness Program 

GUT grand unified theory

H

HALO Habitation and Logistics Outpost 

HAO High-Altitude Observatory

HAWC+ High-resolution Airborne Wideband Camera Plus

HEOMD Human Exploration and Operations Mission Directorate 

HEP High Energy Physics

HERA Human Exploration Research Analog

HERA Hybrid Electronic Radiation Assessor 

HERMES Heliophysics Environmental and Radiation Measurement Experiment Suite

HERO Human Exploration Research Opportunity

HFRP Healthy Forest Reserve Program

HLCS HALO Lunar Communication System

HLS Harmonized Landsat Sentinel

HLS Human Landing System 

HRP Human Research Program 

HSM Human Surface Mobility

HSN Hybrid Satellite Networks

HST Hubble Space Telescope

I

I-HAB International Habitation Module or International Habitat

IAC International Astronautical Congress

IAU International Astronomical Union

IBS-L Integrated Broadcast Service–LEO

IC Intelligence Community

ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization

ICG International Committee on GNSS

ICNO IceCube Neutrino Observatory 

ICON Ionospheric Connection Explorer

ICPS Interim Cryogenic Propulsion Stage

IDA Internal Dosimeter Array

IfSAR Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar

INCUS Investigation of Convective Updrafts

INL Idaho National Laboratory 

InSAR Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar 

InSight Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat Transport 

IOAG Interagency Operations Advisory Group 

IOC Initial Operational Capability

IOT&E Initial Operational Test and Evaluation

IP Isotope Program

IPAD International Production Assessment Division
372Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

IR infrared

IRIS Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph

iROSA ISS Roll-Out Solar Array

IRT Independent Review Team

ISAAC Integrated System for Autonomous and Adaptive Caretaking

ISAM In-space Servicing, Assembly and Manufacturing

ISAR inverse synthetic aperture radar

ISO International Organization of Standardization

ISPF In-Space Propulsion Facility

ISR Incoherent Scattering Radars

ISR Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance 

ISR&T Intelligence, Surveillance, Reconnaissance, and Targeting

ISRO Indian Space Research Organization

ISRU In-Situ Resource Utilization

ISS International Space Station 

ISSNL ISS National Laboratory

ITA International Trade Administration 

ITAC 1 Industry Trade Advisory Committee

ITAR International Trafficking in Arms Regulations

ITDS Improved Threat Detection System

IXPE Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer

J

JADC2 Joint All Domain Command and Control

JAGM Joint Air-to-Ground Missile 

JANUS Joint Advanced Propulsion Institute

JAXA Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency 

JCTD Joint Capability Technology Demonstration

JHU/APL John Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory

JMUA Joint Military Utility Assessment

JPL Jet Propulsion Laboratory

JPSS Joint Polar Satellite System

JSC Johnson Space Center

JWST James Webb Space Telescope 

K

KPLO Korea Pathfinder Lunar Orbiter

KPS Korea Positioning System

KSC Kennedy Space Center 

L

L5 Lagrange point 5

LAANC Low Altitude Authorization and Notification Capability

LandCART Landscape Cover Analysis and Reporting Tools

LANL Los Alamos National Laboratory 

LASP Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics

LAT Large Area Telescope

LCMAP Land Change Monitoring, Assessment, and Projection 

LCMS Landscape Change Monitoring System 

LCRD Laser Communication Relay Demonstration 

LDB Long Duration Balloon 

LDEP Lunar Discovery and Exploration Program
373 Acronyms

LDS Laser Detection System

LEAN Lidar Elevation Adjustment using NDVI

LEIA Lunar Explorer Instrument for space biology Applications

LEO low-Earth orbit 

LH2 liquid hydrogen

LIBOR London Interbank Offered Rate

LIGO Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory

LIMWS Limited Interim Missile Warning System

LITMS Lunar Interior Temperature and Materials Suite

LLNL Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 

LOCE Littoral Operations in a Contested Environment

LOFTID Low-Earth Orbit Flight Test of an Inflatable Decelerator

LRASM Long-Range Anti-Ship Missile 

LRIP Low Rate Initial Production

LSA Launch Service Agreement

LSIC Lunar Surface Innovation Consortium

LSII Lunar Surface Innovation Initiative

LSC UNCOPUOS Legal Subcommittee

LSM Lunar Spectrum Manager

LSP Launch Services Program 

LTS Long-Term Sustainability 

LTV Lunar Terrain Vehicle 

LuGRE Lunar GNSS Receiver Experiment

Lunar-VISE Lunar Vulkan Imaging and Spectroscopy Explorer

LuSEE-Night Lunar Surface Electromagnetics Experiment at Night

LUSI Lunar Spectral Irradiance

LuSTR Lunar Surface Technology Research

LVSA Launch Vehicle Stage Adapter

LWRHU Light Weight Radioisotope Heater Unit M

M&S Modeling and Simulation

M-STAR MUREP Space Technology Artemis Research

MAF Michoud Assembly Facility 

MAGTF Marine Air Ground Task Force

MALE Medium Altitude Long Endurance

MDA milestone decision authority 

MEDA Mars Environmental Dynamics Analyzer

MEDLI Mars Entry, Descent, and Landing Instrumentation

MEO medium Earth orbit

MEP Manufacturing Extension Partnership 

MFOV medium field of view 

MGUE Military GPS User Equipment

MILSATCOM military satellite communications

MLO Mauna Loa

MMPACT Moon to Mars Planetary Autonomous Construction Technology

MMRTG multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generator

MMS Magnetospheric Multiscale

MOA Memorandum of Agreement

MODIS Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer

MOSA Modular Open System Approach

MOSSAIC Maintenance of Space Situational Awareness Integrated Capabilities

MOU memorandum of understanding

MOXIE Mars Oxygen In-Situ Resource Utilization Experiment 
374Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

MPRF Maritime Patrol and Reconnaissance Force

MPS Directorate for Mathematical and Physical Sciences

MRI Magnetorotational Instability

MRP Mineral Resources Program

MRX Magnetic Reconnection

MSFC Marshall Space Flight Center 

MSI Miniature Serialized Interface

MSIP Mid-Scale Innovations Program

MSR Mars Sample Return

MTA Middle Tier of Acquisition 

MTBS Monitoring Trends in Burn Severity

MTVI2 modified triangular vegetation index 2

Multi-Int multiple intelligence

MUOS Mobile User Objective System

MUREP Minority University Research and Education Project 

MUSE Multi-slit Solar Explorer

MUX MAGTF UAS Expeditionary

N

NAICS North American Industry Classification System 

NAIP National Agriculture Imagery Program 

NANOGrav North American Nanohertz Observatory for Gravitational Waves

NAS National Airspace System

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

NASS National Agricultural Statistics Service

NBR Normalized Burn Ratio 

NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research

NDOP National Digital Orthoimagery Program

NDSA National Defense Space Architecture 

NDSI Normalized Difference Snow Index

NDVI Normalized Difference Vegetation Index

NE Office of Nuclear Energy

NEA Near-Earth Asteroid

NEN Near Earth Network 

NEO near-Earth object 

NEPA National Environmental Policy Act

NERSC National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center 

NetET irrigation water use

NExT National Defense Space Architecture (NDSA) Experimental Testbed

Next-Gen OPIR Next Generation Overhead Persistent Infrared 

NextSTEP Next Space Technology Exploration Partnerships 

NFS National Forest System 

NGA National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency

NGO non-governmental organization

NGRTG next-generation radioisotope thermoelectric generator

NIAC NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts 

NICER Neutron Star Interior Composition ExploreR 

NIR near-infrared

NISAR NASA–Indian Space Research Organization Synthetic Aperture Radar

NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology 

NLOS Non-Line of Sight 

NLS NASA Launch Services

NMB National Mall building

NMNH National Museum of Natural History
375 Acronyms

NNSA National Nuclear Security Administration

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

NOC National Operations Center 

NOIRLab National Optical-Infrared Astronomy Research Laboratory

NORAD North American Aerospace Defense Command

NORTHCOM U.S. Northern Command

NP Nuclear Physics

NPS National Park Service 

NPV Non-photosynthetic vegetation

NRCS Natural Resources Conservation Service

NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory

NRL Naval Research Laboratory

NRO National Reconnaissance Office

NSF National Science Foundation 

NSN Near Space Network 

NSO National Solar Observatory 

NSPM National Security Presidential Memorandum

NSPO National Space Program Office 

NSRL NASA Space Radiation Laboratory

NSSL National Security Space Launch 

NSTC National Science and Technology Council

NSW-SAP National Space Weather Strategy and Action Plan 

NTIA National Telecommunications and Information Administration

NTP Nuclear Thermal Propulsion 

NWC National Water Census

NWR National Wildlife Refuge

NWS National Weather Service

O

O&I Operations and Integration

OADR open architecture data repository

OC Operations Center

OCO Orbiting Carbon Observatory

OCT optical communication terminal

OCX Operational Control System

ODA organization designation authorization

OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development 

OES/SA Bureau of Oceans and International Environmental and Scientific Affairs Office of Space 

Affairs

off-SEL off the Sun-Earth Line

OFT Orbital Flight Test

OGT Optical Ground Terminal

OISL Optical Intersatellite Links

OLI Operational Land Imager 

ORNL Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

OSA Orion Stage Adapter

OSAM On-Orbit Servicing, Assembly and Manufacturing 

OSC Office of Space Commerce

OSIRIS-REx Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, Security, Regolith Explorer 

OSMRE Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement 

OT operational test 

OT Other Transaction

OTA Other Transaction Authority

OTM Office of Transportation and Machinery 
376Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

P

PACE Payload Accelerator for CubeSat Endeavors 

PBN Performance Based Navigation

PCC Prizes, Challenges, and Crowdsourcing 

PCDL Predictive Cropland Data Layer

PCM Post Certification Mission

PDR Preliminary Design Review

PEO Program Executive Office 

PeV petaelectronvolts

PGS Pressure Garment System

PHA potentially hazardous asteroid

PHM prognostics and health management 

PHY Division of Physics

PI Principal Investigator

PIRPL Prototype Infrared Payload

PIV particle image velocimetry

pLEO proliferated low-Earth orbit

PNT Positioning, Navigation, and Timing 

PNTAB PNT Advisory Board

POES Polar Operational Environmental Satellites

POET Prototype On-orbit Experimental Testbed

PPE power and propulsion element 

PPPL Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory

PRIME-1 Polar Resources Ice Mining Experiment-1 

PRISM Payloads and Research Investigations on the Surface of the Moon

PROSWIFT Promoting Research and Observations of Space Weather to Improve the Forecasting of 

Tomorrow

PRR Production Readiness Review

PSD production, supply, and distribution

PTCL Primary Thermal Control Loop

PTD Pathfinder Technology Demonstrator 

PTES Protected Tactical Enterprise Service 

PTS Protected Tactical SATCOM 

PTW Protected Tactical Waveform

Pu plutonium

PUNCH Polarimeter to Unify the Corona and Heliosphere

R

R2O2R Research-to-Operations-to-Research

RASC-AL Revolutionary Aerospace Systems Concept–Academic Linkage

RCMAP Rangeland Condition Monitoring Assessment and Projection

RCO Rapid Capabilities Office

RCPP Regional Conservation Partnership Program

RF radio frequency 

RF Random Forest

RFI request for information 

RFP Request for Proposal 

RFSoC Radio Frequency System on a Chip

rHEALTH reusable Handheld Electrolyte and Lab Technology for Humans

RHU Radioisotope Heater Unit

RMA Risk Management Agency 

RME Remote Maui Experiment

RMSE root mean square error
377 Acronyms

RO radio occultation

ROK Republic of Korea

ROSA Roll-Out Solar Array

ROSES Research Opportunities in Space and Earth Sciences

ROTF Range of the Future

RPOD rendezvous, proximity operations, and docking

RPS Radioisotope Power Systems 

RSLP Rocket Systems Launch Program 

RST Roman Space Telescope

RSTA Reconnaissance, Surveillance, and Target Acquisition 

RT regression tree 

RTCA Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics

RWR Radar Warning Receivers S

S&TU Science and Technology Utilization

SABRS Space and Atmospheric Burst Reporting System 

SAF sustainable aviation fuels

SANS Spaceflight Associated Neuro-ocular Syndrome 

SAO Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory

SAR Search and Rescue 

SAR synthetic aperture radar

SATCOM satellite communications

SBEM Space Based Environmental Monitoring

SBIR Small Business Innovative Research 

SBIRS Space Based Infrared System 

SCaN Space Communications and Navigation 

SCAT San Carlos Apache Tribe

SCN Satellite Control Network

SCOPE Strategic Campaign Operations Plan for Exploration

SDA Space Development Agency 

SDA Space Domain Awareness

SDB II Small Diameter Bomb II 

SDI space data integrator

SDM species distribution models

SE&I Systems Engineering and Integration

SEACS suitably equipped air-capable ships

SEM Space Environment Monitor

SEMP Systems Engineering Management Plan

SEP solar electric propulsion

SERFE Spacesuit Evaporation Rejection Flight Experiment

SETO Solar Energy Technologies Office

SFCG Space Frequency Coordination Group

SFCSCO Space Force Commercial SATCOM Office 

SFD Sustainable Flight Demonstrator

SFNP Sustainable Flight National Partnership

SGSS Space Network Ground Segment Sustainment 

SII Spectrum Innovation Initiative

SIIRTD Space Innovation, Integration, and Rapid Technology Development

SIPRNet Secure Internet Protocol Router Network

SIWG Science and Innovation Working Group

SLE Service Life Extension

SLS Space Launch System 

SMAP Soil Moisture Active Passive 
378Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

SMBH supermassive black hole

SMD Science Mission Directorate 

SN Space Network 

SNL Sandia National Laboratories 

SNSPD superconducting nanowire single photon detector

SOFIA Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy

SOMD Space Operations Mission Directorate

SOST Start of Season Time

SpaceX Space Exploration Technologies 

SPD Space Policy Directive

SPHEREx Spectro-Photometer for the History of the Universe, Epoch of Reionization, and Ices Explorer

SPLICE Safe and Precise Landing Integrated Capabilities Evolution 

SPT South Pole Telescope 

SR surface reflectance

SRM Standard Reference Material

SRR Systems Requirement Review

SSA space situational awareness 

SSAEM Space Situational Awareness Environmental Monitoring 

SSAU State Space Agency of Ukraine

SSC Space Systems Command

SSC Stennis Space Center 

SSEBop Operational Simplified Surface Energy Balance 

SSG Senior Steering Group

SSMIS Special Sensor Microwave Imager/Sounder

SSN Space Situational Awareness Network 

SST Space Surveillance Telescope

SST Standard Space Trainer

STARS Standard Terminal Automation Replacement System

STC Office of Science and Technology Cooperation

STEM science, technology, engineering, and mathematics

STEReO Scalable Traffic Management for Emergency Response Operations

STM Space Traffic Management

STMD Space Technology Mission Directorate 

STRG Space Technology Research Grants 

STP-H8 Space Test Program–Houston 8

STPSat Space Test Program Satellite

STSC UNCOPUOS Scientific and Technical Subcommittee

STTR Small Business Technology Transfer 

sUAS Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems or Small Uncrewed Aircraft Systems

Suomi NPP Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership

SuperDARN Super Dual Auroral Radar Network

SURF III Synchrotron Ultraviolet Radiation Facility

SUW Surface Warfare

SWFO Space Weather Follow On 

SWIFT Spectrum and Wireless Innovation enabled by Future Technologies

SWIR shortwave infrared

SW Next Space Weather Next

SWO Space Weather Observations

SWORM Space Weather Operations, Research, and Mitigation 

SWSH Space Weather, Security, and Hazards 

T

T0TL T0 Transport Layer

T1DES Tranche 1 Demonstration and Experimentation System
379 Acronyms

T2 Technology Transfer

TACSATCOM Tactical Satellite Communication

TACTOM Tactical Tomahawk 

TBIRD TeraByte InfraRed Delivery

TBLP time-based launch/reentry procedures

TDRS Tracking and Data Relay Satellite

TECRO Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office

TEMPO Tropospheric Emissions: Monitoring of Pollution

TESS Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite

TIM Technical Interchange Meeting

TIO Technical Integration Office

TM Thematic Mapper 

TMP Technology Maturation Plan

TRACE Target Recognition and Acquisition in Complex Environments

TRACER Tracking Aerosol Convection Experiment

TREAT Transient Reactor Test

TRISH Translational Research Institute for Space Health 

TROPICS Time-Resolved Observations of Precipitation structure and storm Intensity with a 

Constellation of SmallSats

TRR Test Readiness Review

TSIS-2 Total and Spectral Solar Irradiance Sensor 2

TWINS Temperature and Wind sensors for InSight

U

UAE United Arab Emirates 

UAF ASF University of Alaska-Fairbanks’ Alaska Satellite Facility

UAG User’s Advisory Group 

UAS Unmanned Aircraft Systems or Uncrewed Aircraft Systems

UASSC UAS Standards Collaborative 

UCAD Unmanned Carrier Aviation Demonstration

UEWR Upgraded Early Warning Radar

UFO UHF Follow-On

UHF Ultra-High Frequency 

UHI urban heat island

ULA United Launch Alliance

ULI University Leadership Initiative

ULLYSES Ultraviolet Legacy Library of Young Stars as Essential Standards

UN United Nations

UNCOPUOS United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space 

UNOOSA United Nations Office of Outer Space Affairs

USAF U.S. Air Force

USAID FEWS NET U.S. Agency for International Development Famine Early Warning Systems Network

USASMDC U.S. Army Space and Missile Defense Command

USCENTCOM U.S. Central Command

USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture

USFS U.S. Forest Service

USGEO U.S. Group on Earth Observations

USGS U.S. Geological Survey 

USINDOPACOM U.S. Indo-Pacific Command

USMC U.S. Marine Corps 

USNDS U.S. Nuclear Detonation Detection System 

USSF United States Space Force 

USTR U.S. Trade Representative

UWMS Universal Waste Management System 
380Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2021 and 2022 Activities

V

VAB Vehicle Assembly Building 

VADR Venture-Class Acquisitions of Dedicated and Rideshare

VBI Visible Broadband Imager

VCLS Venture Class Launch Services 

VegDRI Vegetation Drought Response Index

VegET vegetation evapotranspiration

VENOM varied extraterrestrial off-nominal mission

VHR very-high-resolution

VI vegetation index

VIIRS Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite

VIPER Volatiles Investigating Polar Exploration Rover 

VLA Very Large Array

VLBA Very Long Baseline Array

VLF Very Low Frequency 

VSAT Vertical Solar Array Technology

VSFB Vandenberg Space Force Base

VSRP voluntary safety reporting program

W

WASDE World Agricultural Supply and Demand Estimates 

WAUSP Water Availability and Use Science Program

WCDMA Wideband Code Division Multiple Access

WERC Western Ecological Research Center

WFC Warfighter Council

WFOV wide field of view

WGS Wideband Global Satellite Communications 

WIN Written Impact Narratives

WRC World Radiocommunication Conference 

WSBW World Satellite Business Week

WSF Weather System Follow-on 

WSF-M WSF–Microwave 

WSTF White Sands Test Facility 

WTO World Trade Organization 

WxDaaS Weather Data as a Service

X

xEMU Exploration Extravehicular Mobility Unit 

xEVA Exploration Extravehicular Activity 

xEVAS Exploration Extravehicular Activity Services

xPLSS Exploration Portable Life Support Subsystem

XROOTS eXposed Root On-Orbit Test System

NP-2023-04-3118-HQ