The Global Exploration

Roadmap

January 2018
What is New in The Global 

Exploration Roadmap?

This new edition of the Global Exploration 

Roadmap reaffirms the interest of 14 space 

agencies to expand human presence into the 

Solar System, with the surface of Mars as 

a common driving goal. It reflects a coordinated international effort to prepare for space 

exploration missions beginning with the International Space Station (ISS) and continuing 

to the lunar vicinity, the lunar surface, then 

on to Mars. The expanded group of agencies 

demonstrates the growing interest in space 

exploration and the importance of cooperation to realise individual and common goals 

and objectives.

This third edition of the Global Exploration 

Roadmap reflects consensus about the 

importance of the Moon on the pathway 

to Mars and adds refinements in each step 

along this path as agencies continue to make 

individual and collective progress. The roadmap demonstrates how capabilities under 

development or study around the world could 

enable a sustainable future of human and 

robotic space exploration. Refinements in 

this edition include:

• A summary of the benefits stemming from 

space exploration. Numerous benefits will 

come from this exciting endeavour. It is 

important that mission objectives reflect this 

priority when planning exploration missions.

• The important role of science and knowledge gain. Open interaction with the 

international science community helped 

identify specific scientific opportunities 

created by the presence of humans and 

their infrastructure as they explore the Solar 

System. Although summarised here, details 

of this interaction have been published in 

a supplemental white paper on Scientific 

Opportunities Enabled by Human Exploration 

Beyond Low-Earth Orbit which is available 

at www.globalspaceexploration.org.

• The introduction of an international deep 

space Gateway concept. The deep space 

Gateway is a small human-tended facility around the Moon which will play an 

important role in sustainable human space 

exploration. Initially, it supports human and 

robotic lunar exploration in a manner which 

creates opportunities for multiple sectors to 

advance key goals.

• The recognition of the growing private 

sector interest in space exploration. 

Interest from the private sector is already 

transforming the future of low Earth orbit, 

creating new opportunities as space agencies look to expand human presence into 

the Solar System. Growing capability and 

interest from the private sector indicate 

a future for collaboration not only among 

international space agencies, but also with 

private entities pursuing their own goals 

and objectives.

ISECG space agencies envision a future of 

expanding partnerships and collaboration, 

with an increasing number of actors, as a 

means to realise the ambitious shared goal 

of sustainably expanding human and robotic 

presence into the Solar System.

Australia Canada China European Space Agency France

India Italy Japan Republic of Korea

Russia Ukraine United Arab Emirates United Kingdom United States

 THE GLOBAL EXPLORATION ROADMAP
Table of Contents

Chapter 1. Why We Explore 1

Chapter 2. The Mission Scenario 9

Chapter 3. Preparatory Activities 21

Chapter 4. Conclusion 29
 THE GLOBAL EXPLORATION ROADMAP
Chapter 1:

Why We Explore

“The Earth is the cradle of humanity, 

but mankind cannot stay in the 

cradle forever.” 

~ Konstantin Tsiolkovsky 

1
A Shared Roadmap for Expanding Human Presence into the Solar System

The International Space Station (ISS), continuously crewed since 2000, shows the 

benefits and potential of human activity in low 

Earth orbit. The ISS hosts ongoing scientific 

investigations sponsored by government and 

non-government entities. Through international collaboration, over 2,100 such activities 

have been implemented with more ongoing. 

The ISS is an invaluable long-duration flight 

analogue for future human deep space missions enabling research to address human 

health and performance risks as well as 

serving as a testbed for critical technologies. 

It is also used for educational and outreach 

activities, reaching millions of students and 

the interested public around the world each 

year. Lastly, the ISS is facilitating the economic development of low Earth orbit, which 

will remain an important destination for human 

activity and research in space.

ISECG space agencies envision that by the 

mid 2020’s a Gateway in the lunar vicinity will 

open the space frontier for human exploration of the Moon, Mars and asteroids as we 

expand human exploration and commerce 

into deep space. The Gateway will support 

activities on and around the Moon while also 

serving as a technology and operations testbed allowing human explorers to address the 

challenges and risks of deep space exploration and conduct scientific investigation of our 

Solar System.

Utilising the Gateway with a partially reusuable lunar lander (under study by JAXA, 

ESA and Roscosmos), human missions to the 

lunar surface are envisioned. These missions 

will also advance some of the capabilities 

and technologies needed for the exploration 

of Mars. Astronauts can advance the preparatory work of robotic missions in assessing 

the potential for resources on the lunar surface and techniques for using them to make 

exploration sustainable. 

Ambitious visions like the ones shown below 

have the power to unite in a common cause and 

inspire future generations. Human space exploration has fascinated humanity since the start of 

the space age in the 1950’s and inspired a multitude of engaging visions, promoted by individuals, 

space agencies and private sector entities. The 

Global Exploration Roadmap is consistent with 

these visions and represents a common pathway 

which can enable their realisation.

The Global Exploration Roadmap represents a blueprint of next steps for the 

current and next generation of explorers.

Governments, the private sector and academia 

will determine investments and partnerships 

that can translate this blueprint into tangible 

progress extending human presence, with the 

associated benefits.

This shared roadmap embraces government and private sector strategies for 

expanding human presence in low Earth orbit, to the Moon and on to Mars. 

Government investments in space exploration capabilities and missions serve 

an important role by advancing technologies, reducing risks and identifying new 

markets where competition can spur innovation that generates further benefits.

The Moon Village vision entails an incrementally growing ensemble of capabilities 

for multiple uses and is open to multiple users.

The UAE vision of Mars 2117 will drive technologies for space exploration such as 

energy, water and food security that will also benefit life on Earth.

2 THE GLOBAL EXPLORATION ROADMAP
CHAPTER 1

Expanding human presence into the Solar System has the unique 

capacity to inspire citizens around the world to create a better future. 

The knowledge and technologies derived 

from this endeavour expand our understanding of the Universe, create economic 

opportunities and help address grand challenges faced here on Earth. A partnership 

between humans and robots is essential to 

the success of this venture. Robotic missions 

accomplish world-class science while also 

serving as our scouts and proxies, venturing 

first into hostile environments to gather critical information that makes human exploration 

safer. Humans will bring their flexibility, 

adaptability, experience, dexterity, creativity, 

intuition, and the ability to make real time 

decisions to the missions.

The Global Exploration Strategy: the Framework 

for Coordination, released in 2007, presents 

a vision for globally coordinated human and 

robotic space exploration focused on Solar 

System destinations where humans may one 

day live and work. In this global vision, robotic 

missions precede human explorers to the 

Moon, near-Earth asteroids, and Mars in order 

to unveil many of their secrets, characterise 

their environments, and identify risks and 

potential resources. Human exploration then 

follows in a coordinated manner that is affordable and sustainable, which both benefits 

and contributes to space agencies around the 

world achieving their goals and objectives.

The ISECG was established in response to 

the Global Exploration Strategy. The Global 

Exploration Roadmap depicted below has 

been developed to aid in turning this vision 

into reality. While not committing individual 

agencies to specific steps and activities, 

the Global Exploration Roadmap serves as 

a reference for generating innovative ideas 

and solutions to address the challenges 

ahead together.

The Global Exploration Roadmap

IN LEO

ON TO MARS

TO THE MOON

Mars

Orbital Mission

Deep Space Gateway

Human Lunar Surface Exploration

Gateway Moon and Mars Mission Support Operations

Mars

Transportation

Capabilities

Robotic Mars Sample Return

Orion

and SLS

Commercial

Transportation 

Systems

LUNAR SURFACE

LUNAR ORBIT

MARS ORBIT

MARS SURFACE

2020 2030 2040

China Space Station 

Future Platforms 

International Space Station

EARTH ORBIT

Robotic Resource Prospecting Missions

Goal of

Humans on the

Martian Surface

Russian Crew

Transportation System

3
The Benefits of Space Exploration: A grand endeavour pursued by 

nations seeking to gain new knowledge, inspire and drive innovations.

Human and robotic space exploration responds to the deeply rooted quest of humankind for answering questions on the origins and nature of life in 

our Universe and extending human frontiers. Space exploration brings direct and indirect benefits to society. Benefits can be categorized into these 

fundamental areas:

Innovation and Economic Growth. Space exploration is a 

driver for innovation. It has contributed advancements in technologies 

touching every aspect of everyday life, from health and medicine, public 

safety, consumer goods, to energy and the environment, industrial 

productivity and transportation. Space exploration will continue to be an 

essential driver of technology and innovative ideas, providing opportunities for other sectors to partner with the space sector on joint research 

and development. For example, water recycling system innovations 

required to support ISS have resulted in technologies and approaches 

that are applied on Earth for conservation activities and in disaster relief 

areas. Enhancements in water recycling and environmental control 

needed for crew missions into deep space will improve these technologies for terrestrial use, returning these benefits to both the public and 

private sector. New technologies stemming from space exploration also 

benefit other in-space applications for terrestrial use such as satellites 

used for meteorology or communications.

In the last several years, job creation and economic growth have been 

accelerated by private investments in the space sector. Private investments and competition are stimulating the economic development of 

low Earth orbit, generating innovations that promise to make space 

exploration more affordable and sustainable. 

Knowledge Gain. The benefits from space exploration are rooted in 

the generation of new knowledge, which is of intrinsic value to humankind. Scientific knowledge acquired from space expands humankind’s 

understanding and frequently unlocks creative and useful Earth‐based 

applications for society. For example, studies of the human body’s 

response to extended periods in the microgravity environment of the 

ISS are improving our understanding of the aging process. Fundamental 

scientific studies of the Martian environment, its evolution and current 

state represent important benchmarks of terrestrial planetary evolution, 

and hence, provide a model that scientists believe will aid our growing 

Image Credit: Project neuroArm, University of Calgary

Advanced Medical Robotics: Canadian 

medical robotics technology born of Canada’s space robotics designed by MacDonald, 

Dettwiler and Associates, Ltd. (MDA) for the 

U.S. Space Shuttle and the ISS, neuroARM 

(above) is the world’s first robot capable of 

performing surgery inside magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machines, and helps 

neurosurgeons perform precise surgical 

techniques with real-time imagery. A Guided 

Autonomous Robot was also developed 

using this technology and is in clinical trials. 

It works inside an MRI machine and helps 

surgeons locate and identify breast tumours 

and perform highly dexterous, precise 

movements during biopsies.

Image Credit: NASA

Remote Medical Care: Provision of medical care to astronauts in space has similar 

challenges to that provided to patients 

in disaster or remote areas on Earth like 

northern communities in Canada. Vast 

distances and the lack of local access to 

medical specialist expertise and analytical 

and imaging capabilities make it a challenge 

to diagnose and treat an injury or illness. 

Exploration missions will have the additional 

burden of not being able to evacuate sick 

crewmembers back to Earth. Already today, 

medical care has become more accessible 

in remote regions by use of small ultrasound 

units, telemedicine and remote guidance 

techniques pioneered for use on the ISS.

Image Credit: NASA

Water Purification: Whether in the 

confines of the ISS or a tiny village in 

sub-Saharan Africa, drinkable water is vital 

for human survival. Unfortunately, many 

people around the world lack access to 

clean water. Using technology developed 

for the ISS, at-risk areas can gain access 

to advanced water filtration and purification 

systems, making a life-saving difference in 

these communities. The commercialisation 

of this station-related technology has provided aid and disaster relief for communities 

worldwide.

4 THE GLOBAL EXPLORATION ROADMAP
CHAPTER 1

understanding of climate change processes on Earth. In the longer 

term, the knowledge accumulated over many missions and the expansion of human presence into the Solar System will help people gain 

perspective on the fragility and rarity of our ecosphere in the Universe 

and on humankind’s accomplishments, potential, and destiny.

Global Cooperation: Partnership to Address Global 

Challenges. Sustainable space exploration is an inherently worldwide endeavour. The challenges associated with extending human 

presence in a sustainable manner into space are driving the creation 

of new partnerships at all levels of society, including governmental, 

industrial and academic organizations around the world. The ISS is an 

exceptional example of how partners from different cultures can work 

effectively together to advance common goals. Collaborative research 

on the ISS in many disciplines has significantly multiplied the global 

reach of results and knowledge.

Such global cooperation builds on each other’s interests, strengths 

and capabilities, taking advantage of the opportunity to share views 

and leverage both complementarity and diversity. Cooperation among 

different stakeholders has generated synergies along the entire value 

chain, including exchanging know-how on space project best practices, 

and spin-offs of innovative technologies. Newly forged global partnerships may offer resources for addressing the global challenges facing 

humankind today and in the future.

Culture and Inspiration. Space exploration offers a unique and 

evolving perspective on humanity’s place in the Universe. It stimulates 

curiosity and the ability to see the bigger picture. By uncovering new 

information about the beginnings of our Solar System, space exploration brings us closer to answering profound questions that have been 

asked for millennia: What is the physical nature of the Universe? Is the 

destiny of humankind bound to Earth? Are we and our planet unique? 

Is there life elsewhere in the Universe? The excitement and enthusiasm 

generated by space exploration attracts young people to careers in science, technology, engineering and mathematics, and increases public 

interest and support of science and exploration. Motivating our youth to 

study and achieve is a common desire shared by all nations. 

Image Credit: CNES and ESA

Measure of Bone Architecture and Bone 

Quality: During spaceflights, astronauts 

present a fast bone loss, about ten times 

faster than the fastest similar processes on 

Earth. Space research has contributed to 

better understand the effects of mechanical constraints on bone loss. The ERISTO 

project, co-founded by CNES and ESA, 

has enabled the development of innovative 

tools to measure bone architecture and 

bone quality that are currently used preand post-flights as well as for the routine 

practice of clinical medicine. 

Earth Observation: Images from orbit can help with rapid response efforts to floods, fires, 

volcanic eruptions, deforestation, harmful algal blooms and other types of natural events. 

The ISS passes over more than 90 percent of the Earth’s populated areas every 24 hours. 

An imaging system aboard the station, ISS SERVIR Environmental Research and Visualization 

System, captured this photo of Mt. Etna, Italy.

For more information on space exploration benefits:

CNES: https://cnes.fr/en/page-intermediaire/CNESMAG

CSA: http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/about/everyday-benefits-of-space-exploration/

ESA: http://youbenefit.spaceflight.esa.int/

ISECG: http://www.globalspaceexploration.org

JAXA: http://iss.jaxa.jp/kiboresults/benefits/

NASA: https://spinoff.nasa.gov/Spinoff2017/index.html

Roscosmos: https://www.roscosmos.ru/

5
Goals and Objectives

6 THE GLOBAL EXPLORATION ROADMAP

Recognising the importance of 

delivering benefits to stakeholders, space agencies have 

identified five common space 

exploration goals and associated objectives. These goals 

and objectives reflect the integrated nature of science and 

exploration and also build on 

the synergies that exist between 

human and robotic space exploration missions. The formulation 

of goals and objectives is an 

iterative process that reflects 

ongoing refinements as agency 

priorities evolve. 

Expand Human Presence 

into the Solar System

• Ensure continuity for human spaceflight and continued utilisation of low 

Earth orbit

• Enable sustained living and working 

around and on the Moon

• Enable sustainable human missions 

living and working around and on Mars

Understand Our Place 

in the Universe

• Study the origin and evolution of the 

Earth and the Moon system, the Solar 

System and the Universe

• Search for evidence of past or present life and the origin of life on Earth

• Investigate habitability of potential 

human destinations

Image Credit: UAE

Culture and Inspiration: Space is inspiring 

young men and women to pursue careers 

in science, engineering and technology. 

In the space sector of the United Arab 

Emirates, over 40% of the workforce are 

female. Since 2000, the UAE has carried 

out an extensive range of space activities 

with ambitions set significantly higher for 

the future. The development and use of 

space technology will contribute to the 

diversification of the national economy. 

Image Credit: NASA

Temperature-Regulating Fabrics Keep 

Babies Comfortable: Like ice cubes in a 

drink, phase change materials absorb heat 

as they change from solid to liquid, and, 

if exposed to colder temperatures, they 

release that heat as they refreeze. Phase 

change material advancements driven by 

spacesuit needs led to the creation of fabrics incorporating phase change materials, 

most recently commercialised by San Francisco-based Embrace Innovations in wraps 

and blankets that help keep babies at an 

optimal temperature.

Image Credit: CEA

Mars Science: The French ChemCam 

instrument on the Mars Science Laboratory, Curiosity, fires a laser and analyses 

the elemental composition of vaporised 

materials on the surface of Mars. Mars has 

the greatest similarity to Earth in past and 

current planetary processes, and may have 

the best record of when life started in our 

Solar System and of catastrophic change 

in planetary evolution. As we learn more 

about Mars (surface, interior, atmosphere, 

hydrosphere and potential for supporting 

biology) our understanding of the Earth and 

potential risks to this amazing planet will 

be dramatically improved.
CHAPTER 1

Engage the Public

• Inspire and educate

• Create opportunities for participation 

in space exploration 

• Deliver benefits to society

7

Stimulate Economic Prosperity

• Promote industrial capability and 

competitiveness for space exploration

• Facilitate the development of commercial markets at exploration 

destinations

• Promote collaboration with the private 

sector

Foster International Cooperation

• Encourage and embrace the participation of nations in space exploration 

initiatives

• Promote interoperability to increase 

opportunities for international 

partnerships

New Materials for Better Planes: The 

investigation of new metallic alloys such 

as titanium aluminide onboard the ISS 

as well as relevant techniques for their 

utilisation has contributed to the development of new turbine blades for the Airbus 

A320neo. These titanium aluminide blades 

are significantly lighter than the usual 

blades, while showing great strength and 

little corrosion. With the new material, jet 

engines are quieter, more fuel efficient 

and eco-friendly.

Image Credit: ACCESS

Plant Research: Innovation in meeting human needs by more efficient use of mineral, 

water, energy and food resources. The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research 

Organisation (CSIRO) has an extensive program in plant research and works closely with 

industry. CSIRO is the federal government agency for scientific research in Australia. In 

September 2017 the Australian Government announced the formation of the Australian 

Space Agency heralding a new future for Australian space development.
8 THE GLOBAL EXPLORATION ROADMAP
Chapter 2:

The Mission

Scenario

“The journey of a thousand miles 

begins with one step.”

~ Chinese Proverb

9
In Low Earth Orbit, to the Moon, on to Mars 

Several ISECG space agencies are developing 

human space exploration capabilities required 

to venture out beyond low Earth orbit in 

partnership. For NASA, these initial enabling 

capabilities consist of a heavy lift launch 

vehicle (the Space Launch System/SLS), an 

exploration crew vehicle (Orion), and updated 

ground launch systems. NASA’s Space 

Launch System provides a critical heavy-lift 

capability powering people and cargo to the 

Moon and beyond. It also opens new possibilities for other payloads, including robotic 

scientific missions to places like Mars, Jupiter 

and beyond. Offering the highest-ever payload 

mass and volume capability and energy to 

dramatically reduce travel times to deep space 

destinations, SLS is designed to be flexible 

and evolvable in order to meet a variety of 

crew and cargo mission needs.

The Orion Spacecraft is built to take four 

crewmembers farther into space than ever 

before. Orion will serve as the exploration 

vehicle that carries crew beyond the Earth and 

provides safe reentry at the high-return velocities typically needed for deep space missions. 

The Orion service module is built in Europe 

and provides in-space propulsion capability, 

attitude control, power, water and oxygen 

needed for a habitable environment.

Russia will begin testing a new crew transportation system in the early 2020’s. Initial 

flights to the ISS will demonstrate the new 

system that will eventually be used for missions to the Moon. By the end of the 2020’s, 

the Russian super-heavy launch vehicle with 

the crew transportation system will be ready 

for human flights to the Moon. Prior to this, 

several robotic precursor missions will explore 

the Moon’s surface and test technologies as a 

part of the Russian lunar program.

Sustainability Principles

The following set of principles guide development of the Global Exploration Roadmap. 

They represent attributes of a sustainable human space exploration endeavour.

• Affordability–Innovative approaches 

to enable more with available budgets

Cost must be a consideration when formulating exploration programmes as well as 

throughout programme execution. Architectures should favour reusable and reliable 

in-space systems implemented in partnership 

to share cost.

• Exploration Benefit –Meet exploration 

objectives and generate public benefits 

Sustainable human space exploration must 

respond to exploration goals and objectives 

and provide value to the public and other 

stakeholder communities. Synergies between 

space and other domains are crucial.

• Partnerships–Provide early and sustained opportunities for diverse partners

International cooperation is critical for 

enabling and sustaining increasingly complex 

exploration missions. Collaborations should 

consider the long-term interests of each 

partner, large or small. Collaborations with 

the private sector, where goals align, can 

enable new approaches and create markets 

for services to support space exploration.

• Capability Evolution and Interoperability–The step-wise evolution of 

capabilities with standard interfaces

Building upon existing capabilities and 

increasing performance with each step. Using 

common interfaces and modular architectures 

facilitates addition of new partners, reduces 

mass and increases safety.

• Human-Robotic Partnership–Maximise 

synergies between human and robotic 

missions

Combining the unique and complementary 

capabilities of humans and robotic systems 

enables a greater set of goals to be met 

effectively, cost-efficiently and safely. 

• Robustness – Provide resilience to technical and programmatic challenges

Plans and actions must have flexibility to 

cope with unplanned changes or crisis situations, whether due to catastrophic events, 

changes in partner priorities, adjustments in 

available funding or the evolution of objectives. Dissimilar redundancies of critical 

functions should be applied early, where 

practicable.

Orion Spacecraft, NASA, with service 

module provided by ESA.

Russian Crew Transport System, 

Roscosmos.

10 THE GLOBAL EXPLORATION ROADMAP
CHAPTER 2

The Mission Scenario

The ISECG Mission Scenario reflects planned human and robotic missions, as well as conceptual missions under study. While not all agencies 

will participate in all missions, this mission scenario shows an international collaborative effort and consensus on steps to achieving the common 

horizon goal of human missions to explore the surface of Mars. It recognizes the shared importance of low Earth orbit and lunar exploration to the 

sustainability of the endeavour. 

ISECG Mission Scenario

11

China Space Station 

Future Platforms 

Deep Space Gateway

Buildup over series of ights

International Space Station

Robotic

Demonstrator

for Human Lander

Sample Return Mission

Luna 26

Lunar Polar Missions 

Luna 25

LUNAR ORBIT

LUNAR SURFACE

Mars 2020

Mars Moons

eXploration 

Mars Orbiter

Mission–2 EMM Hope

Mars Sample Return

Mars Transport Capabilities

Checkout at Gateway

2020 2030

Human Mission with Cargo

LEGEND

Robotic Mission

Chang’E-4

KPLO

SLIM Luna 27 Resource

Prospecting Mission

Cargo Missions

EM-1

(uncrewed)

EM-2

(rst crew)

MARS ORBIT

Planetary Rovers

Mobility & Habitation

Human Lander

Staged at Gateway

Additional Crew &

Small Cargo Missions 

Additional Crew 

and Cargo Missions

Russian Crew

Transportation 

System 

Commercial launchers not shown

NASA SLS 

& Orion 

SAMPLE RETURN

ISRU Demo

ExoMars

Chandrayaan-2

Chandrayaan-2

InSight HX-1

Polar Sample Return

JAXA’s Resource

Prospector

Commercial

Transportation

Systems

Chang’E-5

MARS SURFACE

The key steps for expanding human presence shown in the ISECG Mission Scenario:

• Lunar Surface Missions: Establish a lunar surface capability

– Support lunar science 

– Prepare and test mission operations for subsequent human 

exploration of Mars and/or long-duration human activities 

on the Moon

– Understand the potential economic implications of lunar 

development and/or commerce

• Humans to Mars: Enable sustainable human missions to Mars

– Missions to Mars orbit and surface

• Low Earth Orbit: Validate needed deep space technologies and capabilities, provide continuity for research in low Earth orbit 

• Robotic Missions

– Demonstrate technologies for human missions

– Perform surveys or sample returns for science as well 

as resource and environment assessment

• Lunar Vicinity: Establish a platform (deep space Gateway) 

– Learn more about living in deep space

– Operate robotic missions to and on the lunar surface

– Stage crewed missions on the lunar surface (Human Lunar Lander)

– Enhance science of the Moon and the Solar System 

– Assemble and check-out of the transport vehicle to Mars
LOW EARTH ORBIT

Low Earth Orbit: Human activity is here to stay.

THE INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION

The ISS provides a variety of equipment and 

systems to support advanced research and 

development activities. There is equipment to 

support life sciences, physical sciences and 

materials science research. Examples are 

on-board capabilities for rodent research, protein 

crystal growth, DNA sequencing, cubesat and 

small spacecraft deployment and additive manufacturing equipment. A steady stream of logistics 

flights brings equipment to the ISS and returns 

investigation samples to support timely opportunities for research and analysis. Information on 

available resources and equipment can be found 

at www.nasa.gov/stationfacilities and on 

individual ISS partner agency websites.

New research modules on the Russian segment 

of the ISS will expand the opportunities for 

research and technology demonstration. New 

commercial capabilities, including European 

and US capabilities, are also being added. New 

US crew and cargo transportation systems are 

anticipated in the future, providing increased 

access and beneficial conditions for users. 

These new crew transportation systems will 

join the Russian Soyuz which has been essential to ISS operations. These are examples of 

the benefits of international partnership.

The ISS is a useful platform for performing 

Earth science, heliophysics, and astrophysics. The ISS is also an essential platform to 

prepare for human space exploration and 

much work remains to be done. Human 

research and exploration technology demonstrations are a significant focus of activity 

onboard the ISS. Maturing life support 

systems from the ISS state of the art to 

the performance and reliability requirements 

of exploration missions is a high priority 

for several space agencies. 

The ISS serves as an innovation platform 

where governmental and non-governmental 

entities alike are exploring opportunities in 

low Earth orbit. Entrepreneurs, innovators, 

pharmaceutical companies and other consumer product researchers are all attracted 

to low Earth orbit for its potential to lead 

to new products, markets and services. 

Over 600 payloads have been delivered to 

the ISS for such purposes. These developments appear to indicate that private sector 

demand, in addition to space agency demand 

for humans and their infrastructure in low 

Earth orbit, will continue far into the future.

International Space Station partner agencies 

are committed to operation of ISS until at least 

2024 and potentially beyond. 

JAXA’s water recovery system technology 

demonstration will be delivered to the ISS 

in 2018.

NASA demonstrates 3-D printing on the ISS.

12 THE GLOBAL EXPLORATION ROADMAP
CHAPTER 2

THE CHINESE SPACE STATION 

In September 2010, the Chinese government 

approved the implementation of their space 

station project. China’s Space Station project 

is organised in two phases: the first phase 

includes the Space Laboratory; the second 

phase includes construction of a Space Station. 

The Tiangong 2 Space Laboratory was launched 

in September 2016. Then, the Shenzhou-11 

crewed spacecraft and cargo spacecraft docked 

with it. The China Space Station consists of 

a core module and two specialised modules. 

The China Space Station will have an orbital 

inclination of 42 degrees and an altitude of 

approximately 340-450 km. The station has a 

design life of 10 years with the ability to extend 

service life through maintenance. After the construction is completed, two or three astronauts 

will live and work continuously for long durations, with the station supporting a maximum 

of six people during periods of crew rotation. 

The station is equipped with an external robotic 

arm and other equipment to support station 

construction, maintenance and operations.

The Space Station phase is divided into three 

sub-phases. In the key technical verification 

phase, the test core module is launched and 

multiple pilot and cargo spacecraft launches 

test the core module to validate astronaut 

long-term presence, regenerative life support 

systems, flexible solar wing and drive mechanism, control of a large flexible structure, 

and space station assembly. Following this 

key technical verification phase, the two 

specialised modules are launched completing 

the construction phase. During this period, 

a number of Shenzhou crewed and cargo 

spacecraft will be launched to support the 

completion of construction tasks and carry 

out scientific and technological experiments 

simultaneously.

When the Space Station construction tasks 

are completed, the operations phase begins. 

The astronaut crew will conduct long-duration 

missions to conduct scientific and technological research and exploration activities. 

On the basis of the existing three-module 

configuration, an additional docking interface 

is available with the capability of docking an 

additional permanent element. The Space 

Station can accommodate other countries’ 

spacecraft access that meets the standards 

of China’s space station and can also be 

equipped with an external experimental platform and experimental equipment. Additional 

modules may be added to the Space Station 

in the future. 

The main scientific research and application 

directions of the Space Station are: space 

medicine, space life science and biotechnology, microgravity fluid physics, space 

material science, microgravity basic physics, 

space astronomy and astrophysics, space 

environment and space physics, aerospace 

components, space geosciences and applications, space-based information technology, new aerospace technologies and new 

applications in space applications.

International cooperation can be based on 

module level cooperation, on other countries’ 

spacecraft visits, on astronaut joint flights, 

and on cooperation in space science and 

space applications research. 

FUTURE PLATFORMS

Several private sector companies have 

announced concepts for commercial platforms, which could be human-tended, to offer 

services to a diverse set of non-government 

and government users. In addition to government users, demand is expected to come 

from private companies conducting research 

or in-space manufacturing, tourism, and other 

commercial initiatives that benefit from access 

to low Earth orbit. The availability of a private 

sector platform or platforms in low Earth 

orbit where government sponsored research 

can be accomplished will be a consideration 

related to ISS lifetime decisions. Ensuring the 

continuity of human spaceflight is another 

major consideration as it is critical to maintain 

the industry capabilities, technologies and 

inspirational and aspirational momentum for 

future generations.

Some agencies are studying future platform 

designs in order to understand future possibilities, either to be realised through government 

investment or in partnership with private sector entities. For example, a post-ISS Russian 

orbital station concept, aimed to continue the 

success of the ISS and to provide transition 

to low Earth orbit utilisation with a wide range 

of benefits for humanity, as well as to create 

additional opportunities for partnership, is 

being studied. The goals of these studies are 

to understand the major characteristics of a 

user-driven platform, and assess possible 

government roles in promoting their availability.

ISECG space agencies are increasingly vocal 

about their need for continued access to low 

Earth orbit beyond the ISS lifetime. Several 

have announced commitments to continue 

research and astronaut development activities with the hopes that these will provide 

encouragement to private sector entities 

studying future platforms. ISECG space 

agencies acknowledge significant developments in the private sector and welcome the 

emerging space economy around humans 

and their infrastructure in low Earth orbit 

as several agencies expand their focus with 

goals and resources toward human exploration of the lunar environment, Mars and 

other destinations.

13
LUNAR VICINITY

The Lunar Vicinity: The next step for advancing and sustaining 

human space exploration goals. 

Both the orbit and the surface of the Moon play important roles in 

sustainable human space exploration. A small human-tended facility 

placed in the lunar vicinity enables human and robotic lunar exploration 

in a manner that creates opportunities for multiple users to advance key 

goals and foster a burgeoning presence of humans in deep space.

In particular, a human-tended facility in the lunar vicinity enables:

• Reusability: The lunar vicinity is an excellent location for staging 

and refurbishment of reusable elements for exploration of the Moon 

and Mars. The location contains stable orbits which are outside of 

Earth’s deep gravity environment and provides a convenient jumping off point for reusable robotic and human lunar landing systems 

including refuelling and servicing between missions. 

• Testing: Deep space electric propulsion systems can be tested. 

Also, the environment of the lunar vicinity is equivalent to what astronauts and spacecraft will experience in deep space. Technologies, 

procedures and risk management protocols can be tested in relative 

proximity to Earth in case of an emergency. Prior to departing for 

2-3 year missions to Mars, in-space capabilities can be tested to 

assure flight readiness.

• Accessibility: The lunar vicinity is reachable by government and 

commercial launch transportation systems promoting robustness and 

opportunity. There are many possibilities for commercial services 

and collaborations between government and the private sector.

Lunar Vicinity Orbits Support a Variety 

of Exploration Objectives

Balancing orbital energy between the Earth and the Moon 

gravity wells, and maintaining favourable communications 

and thermal attributes, are important considerations for lunar 

orbit locations. The most promising locations consist of a 

family of halo orbits around the collinear Earth-Moon Libration points that pass within a few thousand kilometers of the 

lunar surface every seven days. From this home-base orbit, 

the Gateway will be relocated within the lunar vicinity, reaching 

other orbits in support of exploration and objectives while testing 

advanced propulsion technologies needed for space exploration.

14 THE GLOBAL EXPLORATION ROADMAP
CHAPTER 2

An international deep space 

Gateway to the Moon and Mars

A conceptual international deep space Gateway is the next piece of the 

architecture that enables a sustainable and affordable future for human 

space exploration. The first element of the deep space Gateway will be 

a module that uses a high-power solar electric propulsion system and 

provides power, command and data services to the rest of the platform. 

The Gateway will include habitation capabilities to support a crew, a 

science airlock, a robotic arm and capability for spacewalks. The Gateway will provide communication to Earth and the surface of the Moon, 

opening up new opportunities for robotic exploration of the scientifically 

interesting lunar far side and polar regions.

Gateway assembly and operation will be supported by Orion and the 

Space Launch System, as well as other space transport systems. Initially, it will be visited by a crew of four for missions of a minimum of 

30 days at a time. Initial 30 day missions may increase in frequency 

and length of time as the Gateway evolves and additional transportation 

systems become available.

The conceptual Gateway includes interfaces for installation of future 

advanced closed loop life support systems, allowing for testing of new 

systems and longer crew stays at the Gateway. Gateway crews will 

perform science, assess habitation capabilities for future missions, 

and investigate exploration technologies requiring the deep space 

environment for testing. Private entities may also utilise the Gateway 

through public private partnerships. When uncrewed, the Gateway will 

continue to support science and other activities operated from Earth.

Lunar exploration studies by JAXA, ESA, CSA and Roscosmos make 

use of the Gateway for support to reusable human lunar landers and 

robotic exploration of the Moon. The Gateway and its crew can provide 

services and support for future transportation systems heading to Mars.

A concept for the deep space Gateway.

Science enabled at an international deep space Gateway

The lunar vicinity is a vantage point from which to conduct scientific observations of the Moon, the Earth, and the Solar 

System, using instruments externally mounted on the Gateway. A Gateway can be used to receive scientifically valuable 

samples from the lunar surface as well as other Solar System destinations. The Gateway can act as a communication 

relay for smallsats, cubesats and lunar surface assets. The Gateway enables human physiology experiments in a deep 

space environment. The lunar surface could be explored remotely using tele-robotics, including deployment of complex 

surface scientific instrumentation.

Contributions to Mars Mission Readiness

• Transport spacecraft assembly and checkout

• Demonstration of deep space transportation and habitation capabilities

• Autonomous crew operations protocols

• Demonstration of operations with reduced supply chain

• Radiation protection strategies

• Perfection of tele-robotics techniques

• Demonstration of vehicle servicing and refuelling

15
The Lunar Surface: A series of missions to the lunar surface with 

4 crew to explore a cornerstone for Solar System discovery and 

prepare for Mars.

While conducting scientific study of the Moon with capabilities that can evolve for Mars exploration, space agency 

investments will advance technologies and buy down the risks which will enable sustained lunar surface operations 

led by governments or the private sector. 

From the Gateway, lunar surface missions can feature:

• Reusable lunar landers: shifting cost from developing recurring units to enabling other elements such 

as an in-space refuelling infrastructure.

• Decreased risk by making the Gateway available as a crew safe haven in a surface abort scenario.

• A crew of four to maximise exploration return and provide flight opportunities for many partners.

• Advancing and augmenting in-situ resource utilisation activities started by lunar robotic missions.

Potential Landing Sites:

The Moon is scientifically diverse with many places to explore. Interesting locations include the lunar poles (both north and south), volcanic deposits, impact 

craters and basins, and lava tubes or pits. The ability for pressurised rovers to 

move large distances on the surface between crewed missions would enable 

regional scientific exploration.

SPAB West

SPAB NW

SPAB Interior

Antonaidi

SPAB Basin Ring

Malapert

South Pole

Schrödinger

16 THE GLOBAL EXPLORATION ROADMAP
CHAPTER 2

An international architecture for Human Lunar Exploration

Staged at the deep space Gateway, the partially reusable lunar lander would deliver a crew 

of four to locations on the lunar surface which will be chosen for high scientific and exploration 

value. When the crew lands on the surface, two relocatable rovers (first generation designs of 

the future Mars rovers) and supplies to enable an extended stay will be waiting for them. Exploring 

by day, analysing and planning by night, the crew will gather scientific samples and demonstrate 

in-situ resource utilisation techniques for the extended 42 day mission (two Moon days, one 

Moon night). The rovers are moved to meet the next crew, performing science along the way.

Robotic Demonstrator for 

Human Landing Mission

• Demonstrating critical components of crewed 

lander and rover

• Building confidence for operations on the surface 

and in transit to the Gateway

• Delivering of samples from unexplored lunar 

regions to the Gateway

Human Lunar Elements

4 Crew Reusable Ascent Module

3.7 t Dry

6.2 t Bi-prop

9.9 t Total

Descent Module & Cargo Lander

5.4 t Dry

19.7 t LOX/CH4

25.1 t Total

10 t Cargo

2 Crew Pressurized Rover (x2)

5 t each

Lunar Science

The Moon preserves many of the geologic processes that occurred early in our Solar System and during the period when life formed. It preserves a record 

of the impact history over geologic time. Such records have been obliterated on planetary bodies that are active and have atmospheres. The Moon also 

preserves a record of the Sun’s activity in its regolith and the early evolution of terrestrial planets. Volatile deposits at the lunar poles may contain a record 

of the volatiles transported to the inner Solar System. The radio-quiet lunar far side enables astrophysical investigations into the earliest stages of our universe through the deployment of radio telescopes. Human presence on the Moon would permit detailed geologic mapping, the collection of critical samples 

for analysis in Earth-based laboratories, and the emplacement of delicate instrumentation, including seismometers and other geophysical instrumentation.

Contributions to Mars Mission Readiness

• Lander: Liquid Oxygen/Methane engine demonstration, safe ascent from surface and rendezvous with return spacecraft

• Rovers: Long-distance and long-duration mobility, habitation capabilities in dusty environment

• General: Demonstration of safe sample return to Earth, in-situ resource utilisation techniques

• Power: Advanced nuclear power systems

17
Mars: Captivating people all over the world, human exploration 

of Mars would enable detailed in-situ scientific study of the planet 

and drive technologies for Earth and space exploration.

To achieve this ambition, the necessary capabilities should be developed 

in an order that logically fits the evolution of missions of increasing duration, complexity and distance from Earth. At minimum, six elements are 

required to send humans to the Mars surface and back:

1. A deep space transportation vehicle, leveraging work on ISS 

and investments in the deep space Gateway

2. An entry-descent lander, leveraging investments made for robotic 

landers and the human lunar lander

3. A Mars ascent vehicle capability, leveraging investments made 

for the lunar ascent vehicle and Mars sample return

4. Surface habitat and utilities, leveraging investments made for lunar 

vicinity and surface habitation and power generation

5. Mars surface mobility (EVA and rovers), leveraging investments 

made for lunar vicinity and surface EVA and rovers

6. Sufficient reconnaissance (orbital and ground) necessary to support 

human base selection and to inform engineering development of all 

Mars mission elements

Science opportunities at Mars

Mars has the greatest similarity to Earth in past and current planetary processes, and may have the best record of when life started in our Solar System 

and of catastrophic change in planetary evolution. Robotic missions have shown that Mars has significant amounts of buried water which is promising for 

the possible existence of life (past and/or present) and the support of future human explorers. Exploration of Mars will result in answers to profound scientific and philosophical questions such as: How did life start in our Solar System? Did life exist on Mars and does it exist today? What can we learn about 

Earth’s past and future by studying Mars? Building on over 50 years of robotic-enabled science, and eventually sample return, human explorers on the 

surface of Mars will be critical to revealing the subtleties needed to answer these complex and fundamental questions. Humans will make possible intelligent sampling in geologic context, iterative environmental field investigations and sample preparation/analyses. Humans will advance a multi-disciplinary 

set of scientific objectives, such as investigations into astrobiology, atmospheric science, medicine, and geoscience.

With capabilities to travel to Mars, it will be possible to visit some asteroids in their native orbits. These remnants of early Solar System formation 

have scientific interest and may hold resources which will be useful in the future.

Science opportunities at Near-Earth Asteroids 

Near-Earth asteroids exhibit considerable diversity within their population and have witnessed events and conditions throughout the history of the Solar 

System. Human exploration of asteroids will permit placement of complex instruments on the asteroid surface, as well as the ability to sample surface 

and subsurface sites to obtain information on the ancient history of the Solar System that larger and evolved planetary bodies have lost. Samples that 

are carefully chosen by a trained explorer can also help us better understand the thousands of meteorites we already have available for study by scientists, providing geologic context to meteorites that have formed much of the paradigm for the origin of the Solar System. We will also work to better 

understand the internal structures of Near-Earth Asteroids, a vital part of the puzzle needed in order to develop mitigation strategies for addressing 

threats from an Earth-bound asteroid.

18 THE GLOBAL EXPLORATION ROADMAP
CHAPTER 2

Robotic Exploration Missions

Planned future robotic missions to the Moon and Mars are important for answering new science questions and closing strategic knowledge 

gaps related to human space exploration. The agency-led missions referenced below will be joined by numerous other robotic missions and 

cubesats planned by public and private organisations. ISECG space agencies have worked with relevant groups to identify strategic knowledge 

gaps associated with the Moon, asteroids and Mars, which can be accessed at www.globalspaceexploration.org.

Future Lunar Robotic Missions

Mission Agencies/Launch Date Objectives/Strategic Knowledge Gaps Addressed

Chandrayaan-2 ISRO/2018 Polar scientific orbiter, lander, and rover.

Chang’E-4 CNSA/2018 Far side scientific lander and rover. Communications relay satellite.

Chang’E-5 CNSA/2019 Near side sample return.

KPLO KARI/2020 Polar scientific orbiter.

Luna 25/Luna Glob Roscosmos/2020 Lunar volatile prospecting. Soft landing technology demonstration. 

SLIM JAXA/2020 Technology demonstration.

Polar Sample Return CNSA/around 2020 Polar volatiles sample return.

Luna 26/Luna-Resurs 

Orbiter

Roscosmos/2022 Polar scientific orbiter. Polar volatiles mapping.

Resource Prospecting 

Mission

NASA/early 2020’s Polar science, volatile prospecting and acquisition. Drill technology demonstration.

JAXA’s Resource Prospector JAXA/early 2020’s Polar lander and rover. Polar science and volatiles prospecting.

Luna 27/Luna-Resurs 

Lander

Roscosmos, with ESA/2023 Polar science, volatile prospecting and acquisition. Drill technology demonstration.

ISRU Demo ESA/2025 ISRU technology demonstration.

Korea Lunar Lander KARI Technology demonstration.

Luna 28/Luna Grunt Roscosmos Cryogenic polar volatiles sample return.

Mars Sample Return

Mars sample return is a high priority for the global planetary science 

community. It will advance our search for life in the Solar System. The 

mission will also address key decadal survey priorities and allow us to 

understand the mechanical properties of the soil/dust and potential health 

hazards. It will also inform techniques for roundtrip human missions.

Under NASA leadership, mission concepts are under study. At a conceptual 

level, a sequence of three missions is envisioned to collect samples, place 

them into Mars orbit, and return them to Earth. This modular approach is 

robust, with each mission possessing a manageable number of engineering challenges. The approach also allows the sample return campaign 

to proceed at a pace determined by available funding and international 

involvement. The study of Mars as an integrated system is so scientifically 

compelling that it will continue with future missions implementing geophysical and atmospheric networks, providing in-situ studies of diverse sites and 

ample opportunity for additional investigations to be accomplished before 

the arrival of humans to the surface of Mars.

Future Mars Robotic Missions

Mission Agencies/Launch Date Objectives/Strategic Knowledge Gaps Addressed

InSight NASA, with CNES, CSA, DLR/2018 Subsurface geothermal gradient/seismology and internal structure of the planet. Identification of seismic risk at the location. Weather station to monitor weather conditions.

ExoMars ESA/Roscosmos, with ASI, CNES, 

DLR, NASA, UKSA and Spain/2020

Rover with 1.5m drill with instruments to search for bio-signatures, 

subsurface hydrated materials and very shallow ice.

Mars 2020 NASA, with CNES, ASI, Norway and 

Spain/2020

Oxygen processing demonstration, caching samples for later return to Earth.

EMM Hope UAE Space Agency/2020 Synoptic weather views moving through all times of day.

HX-1 China/2020 Orbit, landing and roving mission. Investigate topographical and geological features, 

physical fields and internal structure, atmosphere, ionosphere, climate and environment.

Mars Orbiter Mission-2 ISRO/2022 Orbiter to study the surface and sub-surface features, mineralogy composition and 

upper atmospheric processes.

Mars Moons eXploration JAXA with CNES, NASA and other 

agencies/2024

Sample return from one of the two moons to progress our understanding of planetary 

system formation and primordial material transport.

19
20 THE GLOBAL EXPLORATION ROADMAP
Chapter 3:

Preparatory

Activities

“Man cannot discover new oceans 

unless he has the courage to lose 

sight of the shore.”

~ André Gide

21
Private Sector Initiatives and Partnership Opportunities

The last five years have seen significant growth in private space 

exploration activities. Emerging commercial ventures, start-ups, small 

and medium enterprises, as well as large aerospace companies are 

aiming to benefit from increased interest and commercial potential as 

human presence in space is expanded. These developments are not 

limited to low Earth orbit. Numerous initiatives have early stage private 

funding to advance technologies and system concepts that will help 

make the exploration and economic development of the Moon, asteroids 

and eventually Mars, both affordable and achievable. For example, 

motivated by the Google LunarX Prize, several teams have developed 

small lunar landing and roving devices that represent capabilities which 

could be purchased to achieve commercial or space agency objectives. 

Asteroid mining concepts have illuminated the resource potential of 

these celestial bodies. These initiatives are a significant factor in government planning for future exploration. They present opportunities 

for public-private partnerships that will help achieve ambitious space 

exploration goals and objectives more cost effectively and contribute 

to affordability of the global space exploration endeavour. 

Private sector innovation is a necessary component of making human 

space exploration sustainable and contributing to the opening of new 

markets and economic expansion.

Space agency planning for human exploration can already anticipate 

opportunities for public-private partnerships aimed at strengthening 

the missions defined in this roadmap. Looking one step beyond, the 

availability of commercial services and capabilities may influence architectures and mission approaches. For example, the ability to purchase 

propellant around the Moon, should it develop, will certainly impact 

exploration architectures. Agencies are interested in the following:

1. Space capability development partnerships that lead to the availability of capabilities or services supporting exploration missions: 

a. Cost-sharing to realise a capability or future service that would 

support government and other customers. Examples may include 

power, fuel supply, robotics assembly and servicing, lunar surface 

mobility, etc.

b. Government contribution of technical expertise, facilities, hardware 

or software to the partnership 

2. Commercial space services:

a. Delivery of logistics to the deep space Gateway 

b. Communication services

c. Delivery of instruments or logistics to the surface of the Moon 

and Mars

An international consensus exists on the value of government/private 

sector partnerships. Agencies welcome private sector efforts and the 

innovative ideas that result. Strengthening the space exploration community and promoting the development of new markets in space are 

keys to a sustainable human space exploration effort.

An illumination map of the resource-rich 

areas near the Moon’s south pole. This 

map was created from thousands of 

images taken throughout a lunar year by 

NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter.

22 THE GLOBAL EXPLORATION ROADMAP
CHAPTER 3

In-Situ Resource Utilisation and the Lunar Poles

For several decades, the use of local resources 

at exploration destinations has been studied as 

a way to limit the cost and complexity of bringing all the needed supplies from Earth. Water 

is a high priority resource, as it can be used 

for life support consumables and the production of rocket propellant. While water exists 

on Mars and asteroids (as ice or in hydrated 

minerals), the nearness of the Moon and the 

presence of water ice at the lunar poles has 

placed the exploration for lunar polar volatiles 

as a high priority for ISECG agencies. Study 

of lunar volatiles also opens up new avenues 

of scientific research; such as where do the 

water and other volatiles come from? How did 

they become concentrated in the permanently 

shaded regions?

Other resources, including bulk regolith 

for construction and radiation shielding, 

solar-wind implanted gases, and the many 

chemicals and minerals that make up the 

surface materials on the Moon, Mars and 

asteroids may also be valuable for sustained 

long-term human presence.

Resource Prospecting

Finding useful resources and understanding 

their grade and tonnage is one of the important first steps in determining their potential. 

ISECG agencies with lunar polar robotic missions are working on a coordinated strategy 

to explore multiple sites of high interest where 

orbital data indicates the presence of water 

ice. By targeting different sites on the lunar 

surface, the first missions to reach the lunar 

poles will take one or more of the measurements listed below to allow comparison of 

sites for their resource potential: 

• Bulk Hydrogen within 1 m of the surface

• Volatile inventory

• Geological context

• Geotechnical and physical properties 

of the site 

Subsequent missions could then conduct 

more intensive characterisation at the most 

promising sites, determining the grade and 

tonnage of water ice deposits. Space agency 

missions may be supplemented by targeted 

instrument delivery by commercially available 

lunar landers.

Resource Acquisition and Processing 

Demonstrations

Several upcoming robotic missions include 

capabilities to acquire and process local 

resources. Drills and science instruments on 

Roscosmos’s Luna 27 and NASA’s resource 

prospecting mission will demonstrate the 

thermochemical extraction of water from lunar 

regolith. ESA is also funding an ISRU demonstration mission with a commercial partner to 

produce water or oxygen on the Moon. NASA’s 

Mars 2020 will collect the Mars atmosphere and 

then electrochemically split the CO2 molecules 

into oxygen and carbon monoxide.

If the use of lunar volatiles and other space 

resources is proven to be economically advantageous, it is envisioned that commercial 

companies will collaborate with ISECG agencies in public-private partnerships to develop 

a space-based industry of in-situ resource 

utilisation.

Luna-27, near-term lunar polar volatiles 

prospecting mission.

Exploring and Using Lunar 

Polar Volatiles

ISECG space agencies have been 

working together to better understand 

the potential of lunar polar volatiles. 

International virtual workshops open 

to all have been held to share information and seek consensus on next 

steps. A website has been developed 

to share information on the current 

agency activities and a reference 

library. The website can be accessed 

at https://lunarvolatiles.nasa.gov/.

JAXA’s Resource Prospector Mission is a mission under study.

23
Advanced Technologies

Each step in expanding human presence beyond low Earth orbit relies 

on the readiness of new capabilities and technologies. As no single 

agency has the resources to develop all those critical capabilities, 

appropriately leveraging global investments in technology development 

and demonstration is important. Although technology development 

is a competitive area, space agencies seek to inform their technology 

investment planning, create synergies and maximise their readiness 

to play a critical and visible part in the exploration endeavour. 

Identification of Critical Technology Gaps: Space agencies 

have identified a list of critical technologies related to the missions 

shown in the Global Exploration Roadmap that are currently not available or need to be developed or matured. These technologies are 

considered technology “pulls” and can be mapped to corresponding 

agency technology development activities. By mapping critical technology needs to agency technology development activities, gaps can be 

identified. The Critical Technologies table shown on page 23 summarises many of the critical technology gaps. Technology needs for Mars 

vicinity/surface missions are the main driver and early availability of 

some of the technologies will enhance exploration of the lunar surface.

Assessing and Closing Technology Gaps: The listed critical 

technologies identify a large spectrum of challenges needed to close 

the gap between the state of the art and the technology required for 

the specific mission. The majority of these technologies are actively 

being pursued by multiple ISECG agencies with a robust level of investment and are envisioned to be sufficiently advanced by current or 

planned technology development activities. Several other technologies 

are advancing forward, but with more moderate levels of investment, 

meriting attention to ensure readiness. However, some critical technologies do not yet show a clear path to closure and need particular 

attention by the space exploration community and would benefit 

strongly from coordination and collaboration.

Detailed gap assessments of selected critical technologies have 

shown that:

• Liquid Oxygen/Methane propulsion technologies can make use 

of in-situ propellant production, lead to improved performance, 

and leverage fluid commonality. Technology gaps that need to be 

addressed include throttleable engines, thrusters with integrated 

cryogenic feed systems, long-duration reliable cryogenic refrigeration systems, and high performance pressurization systems that 

improve storage density and reduce mass.

• Dust mitigation technologies are a key enabling factor to perform 

extended duration lunar surface missions. While viable technology 

solutions have been identified by experts, there is a need for the maturation of related technologies to support both lunar and Mars missions. 

No single technology completely solves the challenges of dust, but 

rather a suite of technologies will be required to address them. 

• Autonomous systems enable the crew to conduct operations under 

nominal and off-nominal conditions independent of assistance from 

Earth-based support. Advances in electronics, computing architectures and software that enable autonomous systems to interact with 

humans are needed and can be leveraged from commercial markets 

to support maturation of needed capabilities.

• Tele-robotic operations with time delay can make human-inthe-loop commanding and monitoring of robots at remote distances 

less effective. For safety and efficiency with time delays greater than 

five seconds, it is recommended that robots be operated as autonomously as possible. Terrestrial applications in this area are well 

advanced but on-orbit applications need to be matured.

Partnerships: Terrestrial commercial applications are well developed in several areas related to critical technologies. Fostering 

partnerships among government and commercial organisations will 

advance critical knowledge and accelerate the demonstration of 

spin-in technologies in space in order to verify the performance in a 

flight environment and identify unknown issues specific to operations 

beyond low Earth orbit. Partnerships can also lead to valuable experience and knowledge gap closures, especially in the development 

of standards and common interfaces.

CSIRO Autonomous Systems Research.

24 THE GLOBAL EXPLORATION ROADMAP
CHAPTER 3

The following table highlights technologies identified by the ISECG as critical for future exploration missions. The target performance for each 

technology is based on preliminary analysis for human Moon and Mars missions, and may change as the analysis is iterated further. There are 

technologies where the state of the art is sufficient for near-term lunar operations and opportunities exist to demonstrate advancements needed 

for Mars. For the full Critical Technology Portfolio: www.globalspaceexploration.org

Propulsion, Landing, Return

In-Space Cryogenic Acquisition 

& Propellant Storage

Global Exploration Roadmap

Critical Technologies

(Summary Table)

Spacecraft: MSL class (~900 kg)

Spacecraft: Lunar & Mars 

Landers State-of-the-Art

u-G vapor free liquid tank to propulsion transfer, Efficient low-power LOx & H2 Spacecraft: CPST/eCryo demo storage >1 Yr (Mars)

Spacecraft: Orion Heatshield 

test flight (EFT-1)

Spacecraft: 2.5 kW thruster

(Dawn)

Today

ISS

& Spaceight Heritage

Near-Future

Moon

Vicinity/Surface

Future

Mars

Vicinity/Surface

Throttleable Regen Cooled Engine for Landing

(Lunar Scale)

Throttleable Regen Cooled Engine for Landing

(Mars Scale)

ISS: 7.5 kW/Panel

ISS: Limited On-Board Mgmt 

functions, < 5 s comm delay

ISS: Autonomous docking

ISS: Limited Autonomy

ISS: MTBF <10 E-6,

Monitored/operated by GC

ISS: 42% O2 Recovery from CO2,

90% H2

O Recovery

ISS: Samples to Earth

ISS: First Aid+, return home

ISS: Monitoring by Ground

ISS: Large treadmills, 

other exercise equipment

ISS: Large crew volume, food & 

consumables regular resupply

ISS: Partially protected by Earth

Apollo: (accepted risk)

Ground (DSN): 256 kbs Forward,

10 Mbs Return Link

ISS: Limited capabilities

ISS: Limited to GPS range

Spacecraft: DSN Ranging

ISS: Lithium-ion (-156 C short 

duration), ~167 Wh/Kg

Apollo: limited 3 day crew ops

Rovers: limited mitigation

ISS: +121 to -157 C

ISS: EVA Ops at 0.3 Bar (4.3 Psid)

Apollo: 3 day max (Lunar)

Spacecraft: Lunar and Mars 

Rovers State-of-the-Art

ISS: <1-10 Sec delay for GC Ops

Spacecraft: Lunar/Mars Rovers

ISS: Limited (Robotic support to EVA)

Mars Entry, Descent, and Landing (EDL)

Precision Landing & Hazard Avoidance

Robust Ablative Heat Shield Thermal 

Protection

Electric Propulsion & Power Processing

Mid & High Class Solar Arrays

Autonomous Systems

Autonomous Vehicle System Management

AR&D, Proximity Operations, Target 

Relative Navigation

Liquid Oxygen/Methane Cryogenic 

Propulsion

Beyond-LEO Crew Autonomy

Enhanced Reliability Life Support

Closed-Loop Life Support

In-Flight Environmental Monitoring

Life Support

Long-Duration Spaceflight Medical Care

Long-Duration Behavioral Health 

& Performance

Microgravity Counter-Measures

Deep Space Mission Human Factors

& Habitability

Crew Health & Performance

Space Radiation Protection (GCR & SPE)

Infrastructure & Support Systems

High Data Rate (Forward & Return Links)

Adaptive, Internetworked Proximity 

Communications

In-Space Timing & Navigation

Low Temperature & Long-Life Batteries

Comprehensive Dust Mitigation

Low-Temperature Mechatronics

ISRU: Mars In-Situ Resources

Fission Power (Surface Missions)

Deep-Space Suit

Surface Suit (Moon & Mars)

Next Generation Surface Mobility

Tele-robotic Control of Robotic Systems 

with Time Delay

Robots working side-by-side w/ crew

EVA/Mobility/Robotic

Demonstration of advanced technology

 in deep space environment

Large Robotics >1000 kg;

Human ~40,000 kg

~100 m accuracy, 10’s cm hazard recognition,

Support all lighting conditions

~1000 W/cm2 under 1.0 atmospheric 

pressure

~2,500 W/cm2 under 0.8 atmospheric 

pressure

~10 kW per thruster, High Isp (2000 s)

(for some mission options)

~30-50 kW per thruster

(for some mission options)

High Strength/Stiffness Deployable, 

10-100 kW Class (for some mission options)

Autonomously Deployable, 300+kW Class

(for some mission options)

On-Board Systems Mgmt functions 

(handles > 40 min comm delay)

On-Board Systems Mgmt functions 

(handles > 5 s comm delay)

High-reliability, All-lighting conditions, Loiter w/ zero relative velocity

More robust & reliable components (eliminate dependence on Earth supply logistics)

Increased systems autonomy, failure detection capabilities, and in-flight repairability

Automate 90% of nominal ops 

Tools for crew real-time off-nom decisions

O2/CO2 Loop closure; H2O Recovery further 

closure; Solid Waste, reduce volume/storage

Demonstration of advanced technology

 in deep space environment

On-Board Analysis for Air, Water, Contaminants

Training (pre & in-flight) for medical aspects

Continuous monitoring & decision support

Cognitive performance monitoring

Behavioral health indicators & sensory stim.

Compact devices to assess/limit disorders

Reduced weight/vol. aerobic & resistive eqpt.

Assess human cognitive load, fatigue, health

Optimized human systems factors/interfaces

Demonstration of advanced technology

 in deep space environment

Demonstration of advanced technology

 in deep space environment

Demonstration of advanced technology

 in deep space environment

Demonstration of advanced technology

 in deep space environment

Advanced detection & shielding 

New biomedical countermeasures

Forward: 10’s Mbps; Return: Optical > 1Gb/s

>10’s of Mbps simultaneously between users

Multiple Modes; Store, Forward & Relay

Provide high-spec Absolute & Relative pos’n 

Space-Qualified clocks 10x-100x beyond SOA

Demonstration of advanced technology

 in deep space environment

Demonstration of advanced technology

 in deep space environment

Demonstration of advanced technology

 in deep space environment

Lunar night temperatures and duration

Multiple Active & Passive technologies required

Significant advances in Life cycle

Operations to -230 C (cryo compatible); multi-year life

O2/CH4 generation from atmosphere

LOX/LH2

 generation from soil

Fission Reactor (10’s of kWe)

Potential Test-Bed for Mars Forward,

and enhance lunar missions

Potential Test-Bed for Mars Forward,

and enhance lunar missions

EVA Ops at 0.55 Bar (~8 Psid), extended EVA lifecycle

On-Back regen CO2

 & humidity control, High Specific-Energy Batteries

30 day min duration, improved lower torso 

mobility, dust tolerant

1 year+ duration, thermal insulation 

(CO2

 atmosphere)

Autonomous & Crewed capability, less Ground Control

Extended range, speed, payload; navigate soft/steep varying soils

Few seconds to 10’s of seconds

Dynamic environments w/variable delays & LOC Up to 40 Minutes

EVA control robots w/ no reliance on Ground Control

International standard & protocols

25
Managing Human Health and Performance Risks for Space Exploration

Long-duration missions and planetary operations entail numerous risks 

that must be understood and mitigated in order to maintain the health 

and productivity of crew members. The five human spaceflight hazards 

that need to be considered for any deep space exploration mission are:

1. Radiation– in deep space, radiation exposure is a top concern.

2. Isolation –psychological stress associated with limited space and 

group dynamics.

3. Distance from Earth – some operations in deep space, such as 

medical activities and procedures, are a challenge.

4. Gravity –The different levels of gravity will affect many of the human 

physiological systems. 

5. Environment–hostile and closed environments will affect the overall 

living environment (e.g., toxicology, microbiology, etc.). 

To address these challenges, agencies are actively performing studies 

in laboratories, ground analogues and on board the ISS and other flight 

platforms, including the deep space Gateway.

On the Ground

Isolation facilities are used for studies on 

behavioural performance. The facilities being 

used include the Human Exploration Research 

Analogue in Houston, Texas, and the Institute 

of Biomedical Problems Ground-based 

Experimental Complex in Moscow, Russia.

Other important ground facilities are located in 

Europe. These facilities host studies of musculoskeletal and cardiovascular deconditioning 

and psychological effects of long-term confinement. One example is the MEDES, an 

institute for space medicine and physiology 

in Toulouse, France.

In Flight

Numerous studies are ongoing onboard 

the ISS. Information on past and present 

studies can be found at https://www.nasa.

gov/mission_pages/station/research/

and http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/

Human_Spaceflight/Research.

The first one-year mission has completed 

and preliminary results are interesting. Most 

notably, gene expression in space is altered, 

thereby opening new research possibilities aimed at mitigating health effects of 

long-duration spaceflight and with potential 

applicability to terrestrial health.

Today, bioanalytical and biomonitoring capabilities in space are limited. Canada is focusing on 

in-space analysis capabilities to remove these 

limitations. One example is a bioanalyser for 

space that can measure different populations 

of blood cells and measure diverse proteins 

in a single sample. This eliminates the need 

for storing samples and speeds the analysis. 

Another is a garment that can continuously 

collect an array of physiological data which is 

being developed for testing on ISS. An early 

version of this garment, Astroskin, has been 

used in isolation experiments on Earth. Canada 

is also developing a simple, robust technology 

to isolate biomolecules or cells of interest in 

order to enhance research capabilities on 

ISS and support science and medicine for 

future space exploration. Italy developed and 

positively tested on the ISS (VITA mission) a 

payload consisting in a garment containing 

water as shielding material against radiation, 

and a portable bioanalyzer enabling direct 

analysis of samples, rather than collecting and 

storing samples that will be analyzed upon 

their return to Earth.

NASA’s Human Exploration Research 

Analogue is used several times per year to 

understand and test mitigation strategies 

for human performance risks.

Aquapad: During the ISS Proxima mission, 

CNES, in partnership with the bioMérieux 

company, tested a technology to detect 

microbial contamination of water. The 

technology, which is simple and can be 

stored in ambient conditions, has been 

used on Earth for the detection of cholera 

in high-risk locations.

JAXA’s Multiple Artificial-gravity Research 

System is a rodent habitat for ISS. The 

system includes a centrifuge that allows 

studies from 0 g up to and including 1 g. 

This capability enables investigations 

comparing gravity effects on animals in 

the same space environment with gravity 

as the only variable.

26 THE GLOBAL EXPLORATION ROADMAP
CHAPTER 3

Analogues to Simulate Exploration Destinations and Missions

In addition to analogues used for human health studies, other sites and facilities are in use today by space agencies around the world to simulate a 

variety of scientific, technical and operational activities in preparation for eventual exploration missions. Agencies are regularly sharing information 

related to planning of so-called “analogue” deployments and their associated lessons learned in order to maximise the usefulness of these activities.

Technology Development Analogue 

Tests. Developing new technologies to 

accomplish the challenging missions in space 

can have the added benefit of stimulating new 

economic opportunities on Earth. The German 

Helmholtz Alliance “Robotic Exploration of 

Extreme Environments” (ROBEX) is one example of a collaboration between explorers from 

two different worlds – space and deep sea 

research. Sixteen research institutions, universities, and commercial companies cooperate to 

find solutions for autonomy, navigation, power 

management and communication for not only 

future lunar missions but also applications at 

the bottom of the world’s oceans. 

Analogue Tests of Science Operations 

and Techniques. Achieving the goal of 

learning more about our place in the Universe 

will require human and robotic missions of 

increasing scope and complexity. In many 

cases, this leads to programs with significant 

international collaboration. One of the most 

complex and highly anticipated robotic missions 

on the horizon is the return of surface samples 

from Mars. The Canadian Space Agency 

recently completed a two-part analogue 

mission, the Mars Sample Return Analogue 

Deployment, simulating the sample caching 

and sample collection elements of this mission architecture. An international team of 

collaborators, including NASA/JPL, the UKSA, 

DLR, seven Canadian universities, and three 

American universities, participated in these 

deployments, involving simultaneous activities 

in both Canada and the United States.

Training, Public Engagement, and 

Outreach. Agencies carry out many of their 

analogue missions in a way that can be readily 

grasped by the general public while acquiring 

meaningful information for the programs they 

support. Analogues are also being used to 

draw in the next generation of scientists and 

engineers to add a practical facet to classroom 

learning. The previously described Canadian 

analogue relied on a large contingent of students as an integral part of the accomplishing 

simulation goals. NASA’s Revolutionary 

Aerospace Systems Concepts – Academic 

Linkage program recently hosted a competition for engineering students to conceive and 

demonstrate innovative means for drilling into a 

simulated Martian ice deposit and withdrawing 

water–simulating new approaches to in-situ 

resource utilisation for future human missions– 

using approaches with a logical path to flight 

hardware. The two and one half days of the final 

competition was streamed live over the internet 

on a variety of platforms. This event generated 

over 1.5 million views on social media platforms.

Supporting Decisions Among Options.

Analogues provide a cost-effective means 

of providing information to support strategic 

decisions: from top-level architecture options 

to lower-level system or subsystem options. 

For example, ESA’s Multi-Purpose End-To-End 

Rover Operations Network (METERON) experiment ANALOG-1 (scheduled for mid-2019) is 

designed to generate quantitative information 

supporting decisions regarding human-robotic 

coordinated operations, with a specific focus 

DLR’s rover during the ROBEX analogue on the HERACLES mission.

deployment on Mt. Etna, Italy.

HI-SEAS is a martian simulation on the 

slopes of the Mauna Loa volcano, Hawaii.

The CSA’s Mars Exploration Science Rover 

during the Mars Sample Return Simulation.

Revolutionary Aerospace Systems 

Concepts – Academic Linkage project 

engages students and the public.

27
28 THE GLOBAL EXPLORATION ROADMAP
Chapter 4: 

Conclusion

“Space is indifferent to what we do; it has no 

feeling, no design, no interest in whether or not 

we grapple with it. But we cannot be indifferent 

to space, because the grand, slow march of 

intelligence has brought us, in our generation, 

to a point from which we can explore and 

understand and utilise it. To turn back 

now would be to deny our history, 

our capabilities.”

~ James A. Michener

29
30 THE GLOBAL EXPLORATION ROADMAP

This large cliff is part of the crater wall 

of Antoniadi, a crater within the great 

South Pole-Aitken basin on the Moon. The 

uppermost crater rim rises almost 4km 

above the crater floor. The floor itself happens to be the lowest topographic region 

of the entire lunar surface.
The Global Exploration Roadmap reflects 

international efforts to define a sustainable 

pathway for human exploration of the Solar 

System, with Mars as the horizon goal. 

International cooperation will not only enable 

these challenging missions, but also increase 

the probability of their success. Over time, 

updates to this roadmap will continue to 

reflect the efforts of space agencies to collaboratively develop exploration mission scenarios 

and coordinate their preparation.

Since its inception, space exploration has 

produced numerous benefits for humanity. 

Innovation and economic growth have resulted 

from efforts to solve the challenges of space 

exploration. Knowledge gained has driven scientific and technological innovation that continues 

to contribute to new products and services for 

spaceflight and terrestrial application. Space 

exploration stimulates curiosity about our place 

in the Universe, impacts culture, and inspires 

people on Earth. Overcoming the challenges 

and realising the capabilities needed to explore 

will bring nations together with the capacity to 

address shared challenges and opportunities.

Decisions regarding implementation of specific mission scenarios will follow national 

policy decisions and international consultation, 

but these decisions will be more durable 

and effective if informed by products (architectures, mission designs, etc.) developed 

collectively. International standards will enable 

multiple partners to participate. In the coming 

years, many nations will continue developing domestic policy, regulatory and legal 

frameworks to most effectively implement 

sustainable human space exploration.

Increasingly, space agencies are engaged in 

dialogue with private sector entities that are 

beginning to move forward with plans to invest 

in projects in and beyond low Earth orbit. For 

such private sector efforts to succeed, they 

need the certainty of a long-term governmental commitment to space exploration, the 

continued opportunity to introduce ideas into 

government thinking, and supportive national 

business environments.

While this document does not create commitments of any kind on behalf of any of the 

participants, the Global Exploration Roadmap 

and the coordination that supports its development are important tools for achievement 

of a global, strategic, coordinated, and comprehensive approach to space exploration. 

This and subsequent editions of the Global 

Exploration Roadmap will provide a technical 

basis to inform programmatic discussions 

among agencies. The space agencies participating in the ISECG will continue the dialogue 

to coordinate and advance sustainable space 

exploration, extending human and robotic 

presence into the Solar System.
International Space Exploration

Coordination Group

The Global Exploration Roadmap is a nonbinding product of the International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG) 

space agencies. This third edition will be followed by periodic updates as the content evolves and matures. ISECG is committed 

to the development of products that enable participating agencies to take concrete steps toward partnerships that reflect a 

globally coordinated exploration effort.

Australia Canada China European Space Agency France

India Italy Japan Republic of Korea

Russia Ukraine United Arab Emirates United Kingdom United States

Publishing services provided by: This document is available online at http://www.globalspaceexploration.org

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Headquarters

Washington, DC 20546-0001

www.nasa.gov

NP-2018-01-2502-HQ

G-327035