Aeronautics and Space Report

of the President

Fiscal Year

2014 Activities
Aeronautics and Space Report

of the President

Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Fiscal Year 2014

Activities
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

The National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 directed 

the annual Aeronautics and Space Report to include a 

“comprehensive description of the programmed activities and 

the accomplishments of all agencies of the United States in the 

field of aeronautics and space activities during the preceding 

calendar year.” In recent years, the reports have been prepared 

on a fiscal-year basis, consistent with the budgetary period now 

used in programs of the Federal Government. This year’s report 

covers activities that took place from October 1, 2013, through 

September 30, 2014. Please note that these activities reflect 

the Federal policies of that time and do not include subsequent 

events or changes in policy.

On the title page, clockwise from the top left: 1. NASA engineers conducting low-light test on new 

technology for the NASA James Webb Space Telescope at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center. 

Credit: NASA/Goddard/Chris Gunn. 2. Nitrogen dioxide data, averaged over 2011 for the northeastern United States. Credit: Goddard’s Scientific Visualization Studio. 3. Hubble Space Telescope 

image of Messier 83, otherwise known as the Southern Pinwheel Galaxy. Credit: NASA, the European 

Space Agency, and the Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA); acknowledgment: William Blair (Johns 

Hopkins University). 4. Engineers at NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, 

lowering one of the largest composite cryotanks ever built into a structural test stand. Credit: NASA/

Marshall. 5. Image of the Gulf of Alaska collected on May 2, 2014, by Aqua–Moderate Resolution 

Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS). Credit: NASA/Goddard/OceanColor/MODIS. 6.  Mid-level 

solar-flare image captured by NASA’s Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) on December 16, 2014. 

Credit: NASA/Goddard/SDO.
Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

Table of Conten

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 1

• Human Exploration and Operations Mission Directorate 1

• Science Mission Directorate  .

• Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate  .

• Space Technology Mission Directorate 53

Department of Defense . 

Federal Aviation Administration 75

Department of Commerce 83

Department of the Interior 101

Federal Communications Commission  . 

U.S. Department of Agricultur . 

National Science Foundation 141

Department of State  . 

Department of Energy  . 

Smithsonian Institution 165

Appendices

• A-1 U.S. Government Spacecraft Recor  1

• A-2 World Record of Space Launches Successful in

Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond . 

• B Successful Launches to Orbit on U.S. Vehicle  1

• C Human Spaceflights . 

• D-1A Space Activities of the U.S. Government—Historical Table of Budg

Authority in Millions of Real-Year Dollars . 

• D-1B Space Activities of the U.S. Government—Historical Table of Budg

Authority in Millions of Inflation-Adjusted FY 2014 Dollars . 

• D-2 Federal Space Activities Budget . 

• D-3 Federal Aeronautics Activities Budget . 

Acronyms 181

1Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

National Aeronautic

Space Administr

NASA

Human Exploration and Operations Mission Directorate

International Space Station

The International Space Station (ISS) continued its focus on research and 

technology development in FY 2014. Space Exploration Technologies Corporation 

(SpaceX) and Orbital Sciences Corporation completed two commercial cargo missions apiece during FY 2014. The ISS also marked 15 years on orbit and 13 years 

of human presence on the ISS in November 2013. In January 2014, the Obama 

administration announced its intention to extend the life of the ISS, scheduled to 

end in 2020, to at least 2024. The extension presents new opportunities to develop 

the tools we need for future missions to deep space and to facilitate commercial 

low-Earth orbit (LEO) activity while reaping large benefits for humanity.

The ISS began FY 2014 with Expedition 37 ISS Commander Fyodor Yurchikhin 

(Roscosmos), Karen Nyberg (NASA), Luca Parmitano (European Space Agency 

[ESA]), Oleg Kotov (Roscosmos), Sergey Ryazanskiy (Roscosmos), and Mike 

“Hopper” Hopkins (NASA) on board. Two Russian Soyuz vehicles, one Russian 

Progress cargo spacecraft, a European Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV), and an 

Orbital Sciences Corporation Cygnus vehicle were all attached to the ISS. The 

Cygnus spacecraft, on its first and only demonstration flight, with 1,300 pounds 

of cargo, including food, clothing, and student experiments, was berthed to the 

ISS. The Cygnus was unloaded and reloaded with trash during its short stay and 
2Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

was released on October 22, 2013, then maneuvered away from the ISS and toward 

a destructive reentry into Earth’s atmosphere on October 23, 2013. Similarly, the 

ATV spacecraft was also loaded with items no longer needed on board the ISS, 

undocked from the ISS, and maneuvered away from the ISS to make a planned 

destructive reentry into Earth’s atmosphere on October 28, 2013. On November 1, 

2013, ISS Commander Fyodor Yurchikhin, Karen Nyberg, and Luca Parmitano 

boarded their Soyuz to move it to another port on the ISS, opening up the primary 

docking port for the next arriving Soyuz.

On November 6, 2013, new ISS Commander Oleg Kotov, Sergey Ryazanskiy, 

Mike Hopkins, Fyodor Yurchikhin, Karen Nyberg, and Luca Parmitano were 

joined by Koichi Wakata (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency [JAXA]), Rick 

Mastracchio (NASA), Mikhail Tyurin (Roscosmos), and the Olympic torch, which 

was taking an out-of-this-world route—as part of the torch relay—to Fisht Stadium 

in Sochi, Russia. Their arrival marked the first time since October 2009 that nine 

people had served together on board the ISS without the presence of a Space 

Shuttle. Cosmonauts Kotov and Ryazanskiy conducted a spacewalk on November 9, 

2013, to participate in the Olympic torch relay, prepare a pointing platform for the 

installation of a high-resolution camera system on a future spacewalk, and deactivate an experiment package. On November 10, 2013, Fyodor Yurchikhin, Karen 

Nyberg, and Luca Parmitano returned to Earth after spending 166 days in space, 

ending Expedition 37. They returned the Olympic torch, which was then used to 

light the Olympic flame at Fisht Stadium in Sochi, Russia, marking the start of the 

2014 Winter Games in February. On November 29, 2013, a Russian Progress vehicle 

carrying three tons of food, fuel, and supplies docked to the ISS. NASA astronauts 

Mastracchio and Hopkins conducted contingency spacewalks on December 21, 

2013, and December 24, 2013, to repair a faulty pump module required for ISS 

cooling. On December 27, 2013, and January 27, 2014, Russian cosmonauts Kotov 

and Ryazanskiy conducted spacewalks to install two high-fidelity cameras, remove 

and install several experiments, and prepare worksites for future spacewalks. The 

spacewalk in December 2013 was the longest Russian spacewalk in history at eight 

hours and seven minutes. Orbital Sciences Corporation’s first cargo delivery flight 

under the Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) contract, carrying 2,780 pounds 

of supplies, including vital science experiments, crew provisions, spare parts, and 
3Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

other hardware, berthed to the ISS on January 12, 2014. After the crew unloaded 

this cargo and reloaded the cargo carrier with items no longer needed on the ISS, 

Cygnus was released using the robotic arm and maneuvered away from the ISS 

toward a destructive reentry on February 18, 2014. Prior to that, a Russian Progress 

vehicle also carrying trash undocked on February 3, 2014, and destructively reentered the atmosphere. Another Russian Progress vehicle carrying several tons of 

supplies replaced it on February 5, 2014. Finally, to close out Expedition 38, ISS 

Commander Oleg Kotov, Sergey Ryazanskiy, and Mike Hopkins undocked their 

Soyuz vehicle from the ISS and landed in Kazakhstan on March 10, 2014.

Expedition 39 began on March 10, 2014. ISS Commander Koichi Wakata, Rick 

Mastracchio, and Mikhail Tyurin remained on board and were joined on March 27, 

2014, by Steve “Swanee” Swanson (NASA), Oleg Artemyev (Roscosmos), and 

Alexander Skvortsov (Roscosmos) when their Russian Soyuz docked to the ISS 

after a two-day rendezvous. On April 7, 2014, a Russian Progress vehicle carrying trash undocked from the ISS and headed toward a destructive reentry; it was 

replaced on April 9, 2014, with another Russian Progress vehicle carrying several 

tons of supplies. A SpaceX Dragon vehicle docked to the ISS on April 20, 2014, 

carrying 5,000 pounds of scientific equipment and supplies, departed on May 

18, 2014, and splashed down in the Pacific Ocean off the Baja California coast, 

returning more than 3,500 pounds of scientific samples and equipment to Earth. 

The Russian Progress vehicle, 53P, undocked on April 23, 2014, and redocked on 

April 25, 2014, after performing testing for the Kurs-NA rendezvous and docking system. Also on April 23, 2014, NASA astronauts Mastracchio and Swanson 

performed a contingency spacewalk to replace a failed multiplexer/de-multiplexer. 

Expedition 39 ended on May 13, 2014, when Koichi Wakata, Rick Mastracchio, 

and Mikhail Tyurin undocked their Soyuz from the ISS and landed in Kazakhstan.

Expedition 40 began on May 13, 2014. ISS Commander Steve Swanson, Oleg 

Artemyev, and Alexander Skvortsov remained on board and were joined on May 

28, 2014, by Max Suraev (Roscosmos), Reid Wiseman (NASA), and Alexander 

Gerst (ESA) when their Russian Soyuz vehicle docked to the ISS. On June 9, 

2014, a Russian Progress vehicle containing trash undocked and destructively 

reentered the atmosphere. On June 19, 2014, cosmonauts Skvortsov and Artemyev 

performed a spacewalk to install an antenna and payload boom, remove and 
4Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

jettison experiments, perform experiments, and take photos of the exterior of the 

Russian Segment. On July 16, 2014, Orbital’s Cygnus berthed to the ISS, carrying 

additional supplies and experiments. On July 21, 2014, a Russian Progress vehicle 

undocked from the ISS and performed a destructive reentry. Another Russian 

Progress vehicle, carrying several tons of supplies, replaced it on July 23, 2014. 

On August 15, 2014, the Orbital Cygnus spacecraft was released and destructively 

reentered the atmosphere. On August 12, 2014, the fifth and final European ATV, 

carrying supplies, docked to the ISS. Cosmonauts Skvortsov and Artemyev performed a spacewalk on August 18, 2014, to install, perform, and retrieve experiments. Expedition 40 ended on September 10, 2014, when Steve Swanson, Oleg 

Artemyev, and Alexander Skvortsov undocked their Soyuz from the ISS and 

landed in Kazakhstan.

Expedition 41 began on September 10, 2014. ISS Commander Max Suraev 

(Roscosmos), Reid “Tonto” Wiseman (NASA), and Alexander Gerst (ESA) 

remained on board. On September 23, 2014, a SpaceX Dragon delivered more than 

2.5 tons of scientific experiments and supplies to the ISS. Barry “Butch” Wilmore 

(NASA), Elena Serova (Roscosmos), and Alexander Samokutyaev (Roscosmos) 

joined them on September 25, 2014, when their Russian Soyuz vehicle docked to 

the ISS.

Research and technology development continued to be the primary focus 

of operations on board the ISS throughout FY 2014. The ISS capitalized on its 

Earth observation capabilities, installing the high-definition, Earth-viewing, fourcamera suite and the ISS Rapid Scatterometer (RapidScat) for measuring ocean 

winds. Rodent research hardware and 20 mice were launched to the ISS, initiating a new era in biomedical research. Europe’s fifth and final ATV launched 

supplies for research, as well as the Exposed Experiment Handrail Attachment 

Mechanism (ExHAM) multipurpose facility for external experiment exposure and 

the Electromagnetic Levitator (ELM) facility for containerless processing.

RapidScat will monitor ocean winds from the vantage point of the ISS. It will 

join other satellite scatterometers that make essential measurements used to support 

weather and marine forecasting, including the tracking of storms and hurricanes. 

It will also help improve our understanding of how interactions between Earth’s 

oceans and atmosphere influence our climate. The high-definition, Earth-viewing, 
5Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

commercially available cameras on the exterior of the ISS stream live video of Earth 

for viewing online. The cameras are enclosed in a temperature-specific housing and 

are exposed to the harsh radiation of space. Analysis of the effect of space on the 

video quality will help engineers decide which cameras are the best types to use on 

future missions.

The Zero Robotics challenge enabled students to utilize the Station as a laboratory to test programming codes from the ground using Synchronized Position 

Hold, Engage, Reorient Experimental Satellites (SPHERES) on the Station. The 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology led competition-engaged students in innovative, complementary learning opportunities, as well as increasing student interest in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM).

Small, relatively inexpensive satellites, collectively referred to as CubeSats, 

provided a variety of technology demonstrations using the NanoRacks Smallsat 

Deployment Program to launch the satellites from the Station’s Japanese 

Experiment Module (JEM) airlock. The NanoRacks Smallsat Deployment Program 

provides inexpensive commercial access to space, via the ISS, for CubeSats to perform Earth and deep space observation. These CubeSats conducted Earth observation missions, tested technologies, and even tweeted from space!

A Veggie plant-growth chamber expanded the plant-growth research capabilities 

on the Station and demonstrated an on-orbit food-production capability for growing fresh produce and other large plants. As NASA moves toward long-duration 

exploration missions, food production will be a resource for crew food consumption 

and could be used by astronauts for recreational gardening activities during longduration space missions.

The Optical Payload for Lasercomm Science (OPALS) investigation is NASA’s 

first optical communication experiment on the ISS. Scientific instruments used in 

space missions increasingly require higher communication rates to transmit gathered data back to Earth to support high-data-rate applications and high-definition 

video streams. Optical communications—also referred to as “lasercom”—is an 

emerging technology in which data are sent via laser beams. This offers the promise of much higher data rates than what is achievable with current radio frequency 

(RF) transmissions.
6Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

NASA’s Rodent Research Facility opens a new era in life science/biomedical 

research studies aboard the Space Station for both NASA scientists and researchers in the commercial sector. The rodent research system enables researchers to 

study the long-term effects of microgravity on mammalian physiology to understand better how microgravity affects various body systems—cardiovascular, endocrine, immune, musculoskeletal, nervous, reproductive, and sensorimotor—and 

to discover what cellular, genetic, and molecular mechanisms are responsible for 

spaceflight-induced changes. Biomedical research conducted in space is essential 

for us to gain a better understanding of the health risks of long-duration spaceflight 

and to develop ways to mitigate those risks.

A 3D printer—the first ever to be flown to space—could change the way NASA 

does business aboard the Space Station. This technology demonstration in space 

will show that a 3D printer can work normally in space and produce parts equal to 

those printed on the ground. Testing on the Station is the first step toward creating 

a working “machine shop” in space. This capability may decrease cost and risk on 

the Station and will be critical when space explorers venture far from Earth.

Planning started for the one-year mission, beginning in March 2015, to help 

scientists better understand the impacts of spaceflight on the human body through 

the study of a pair of identical twins. Astronaut Scott Kelly will spend one year in 

low-Earth orbit aboard the ISS while retired astronaut Mark Kelly, his identical 

twin, will remain on Earth. The twins’ similarity will provide scientists with a 

reduced number of variables and an ideal control group, both important to scientific investigation.

In June 2014, the ISS Program cohosted the 3rd Annual ISS Research and 

Development Conference, including awards for most compelling results from the 

ISS in 2013; top results in biotechnology, health, and education; top discoveries 

in microgravity; and top exploration-related technology-development initiatives 

focusing on commercial and exploration applications.

Launch Services

During FY 2014, the Launch Services Program (LSP) successfully launched 

three major payloads: the Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN), 
7Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite L (TDRS-L), and the Orbiting Carbon 

Observatory 2 (OCO-2). Both MAVEN and TDRS-L launched aboard an Atlas V 

rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida. MAVEN launched on 

November 18, 2013, followed by the replenishment of NASA’s Space Network with 

TDRS-L on January 23, 2014. On July 2, 2014, OCO-2 launched aboard a Delta II 

from Vandenberg Air Force Base (VAFB) in California. The LSP also continued to 

provide launch-related systems engineering, launch integration, and mission design 

and analysis support to over 40 NASA-sponsored missions in various phases of 

development. To find out more about these and other NASA science missions, see 

the Science Mission Directorate (SMD) section in this report.

The LSP continued its efforts to expand the selection of launch vehicles, working across the launch-vehicle industry to support the continued growth of the U.S. 

commercial space sector by providing competitive opportunities to U.S. commercial launch providers. In FY 2014, the program acquired launch services for three 

future science missions: the Interior Exploration Using Seismic Investigations, 

Geodesy and Heat Transport (InSight), the Cyclone Global Navigation Satellite 

System (CYGNSS), and Solar Orbiter. Both InSight and Solar Orbiter will be 

launched by United Launch Services on an Atlas V rocket. InSight will launch 

from VAFB in California followed by Solar Orbiter from the Cape. CYGNSS will 

also launch from the Cape on Orbital Sciences Corporation’s Pegasus-XL.

NASA and LSP are also partnering with several universities to launch small 

research satellites through the Educational Launch of Nanosatellites project and 

the CubeSat Launch Initiative, which provides opportunities for small satellite 

payloads to fly as secondary payloads on upcoming launches. These payloads provide educational opportunities for students in science, technology, engineering, 

and mathematics disciplines. CubeSats have been selected from 29 states across 

the United States, with 32 launched and 22 manifested on NASA, National 

Reconnaissance Office, and U.S. Air Force missions. The LSP is also continuing to 

lead the certification effort of SpaceX’s Falcon 9 v1.1–configuration launch vehicle 

for flight readiness in support of SMD’s Jason-3 mission in 2015.
8Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Advanced Exploration Systems

The Advanced Exploration Systems (AES) Division is pioneering new ways to 

rapidly develop prototype systems, demonstrate key capabilities, and validate operational concepts to reduce the risk and cost of future human exploration missions. 

In FY 2014, the AES Division led the human spaceflight planning for the Agency 

through a detailed campaign and framework for expanding human presence across 

the solar system and to Mars. This framework was the focus of the Agency’s efforts 

to communicate to all its stakeholders the short- and long-term plans for human 

spaceflight. AES also continued the successful execution of 30 research and technology development projects employing 560 civil servants spread across all NASA 

Centers. In FY 2014, the goal was to complete at least 80 percent of the 63 annual 

milestones that the program had established. The team accomplished 51 milestones 

(81 percent) on schedule and within the available resources. Specific achievements 

included the following:

• AES completed 14 flight tests of the Morpheus lander at Kennedy Space 

Center (KSC), including two closed-loop tests of the Autonomous 

Landing and Hazard Avoidance Technology (ALHAT) system. One of 

these tests was at night. Two more closed-loop flight tests are planned 

in November 2014 to verify a fix to the ALHAT navigation system. The 

likely cause of the navigation problem is obscuration of the Doppler light 

detection and ranging (lidar) by the lander’s exhaust plume.

• AES’s Spacecraft Fire Safety project completed the fabrication and assembly of the first of three Saffire flight experiments (Saffire-I) that will study 

large-scale fire propagation in microgravity on the Cygnus vehicle in 2016.

• AES’s public-private partnership with Bigelow Aerospace to demonstrate 

the Bigelow Expandable Activity Module (BEAM) on the ISS progressed 

toward hardware delivery in February 2015. The project completed critical 

design reviews on the primary structure and flight support equipment and 

all structural qualification testing of the module. The Passive Common 

Berthing Mechanism will be integrated with the module in December 

2015. The project remains on track with an aggressive 24-month schedule 

from contract signature to delivery of flight hardware.
9Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

• Working with NASA’s SMD, AES defined system requirements for exploration technology demonstration payloads on the Mars 2020 mission. 

AES participated in the proposal evaluation process for the Mars 2020 

Announcement of Opportunity that resulted in two payloads being competitively selected to address key Strategic Knowledge Gaps. The Mars 

Oxygen in situ resource utilization (ISRU) Experiment (MOXIE) will 

demonstrate the production of oxygen from the Martian atmosphere to 

enable in situ propellant production for future human missions. The Mars 

Environmental Dynamics Analyzer (MEDA) is a surface weather station 

that will measure temperature, pressure, winds, and dust to characterize 

the environmental conditions that may be encountered by human explorers. In addition, AES committed to re-flying the Mars Entry, Descent, 

and Landing Instrumentation (MEDLI) experiment to further characterize the entry environment for future landings on Mars by robotic and 

human missions.

• AES completed the initial formulation and Mission Concept Reviews 

for three CubeSats that will be launched as secondary payloads on 

Exploration Mission-1 (EM-1). The payloads include Biosentinel, which 

will investigate the effects of deep space radiation on simple organisms; 

the Lunar Flashlight, which will search for volatiles in shadowed craters 

on the Moon; and the Near-Earth Asteroid Scout, which will use a solar 

sail to fly by an asteroid.

• AES selected three commercial partners via the Lunar Cargo 

Transportation and Landing by Soft Touchdown (CATALYST) solicitation and awarded nonreimbursable Space Act Agreements to jointly 

develop lunar payload delivery capabilities. NASA will provide engineering expertise, test facilities, software, and loaned hardware to the partners.

• AES completed integrated chamber testing of ISS-derived life-support 

equipment, including a Carbon Dioxide Removal Assembly (CDRA), 

a Trace Contaminant Control (TCC) system, an Oxygen Generator 

Assembly (OGA), and environmental monitoring instruments. These 

life-support systems have less mass and better reliability than the systems 

used on the ISS.
10Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

• AES made advances in water-processing technologies, including the testing of a Cascade Distillation System (CDS) urine processor prototype, 

the preliminary design of a second-generation CDS, the development of a 

“green” (less toxic) urine pretreatment, the design of a urine brine processor, and research into the use of silver as a biocide.

• The AES Resource Prospector formulation progressed this year with the 

continued development of the prospecting instruments and a prototype 

rover, along with conducting a joint study with JAXA to develop concepts 

for the lunar lander.

• AES supported the Asteroid Redirect Mission (ARM) with $25.2 million of related content, including the Goldstone Radar, which has imaged 

53 near-Earth asteroids (NEAs) over the past three years and which 

AES transitioned to SMD halfway through FY 2014. A Broad Agency 

Announcement resulted in 18 industry-led studies of asteroid capture systems, rendezvous sensors, commercial spacecraft buses, and partnership 

opportunities for secondary payloads and enhancing the crewed missions. 

In addition, AES continued efforts in neutral buoyancy testing of the 

Modified Advanced Crew Escape Suit (MACES) to enable short-duration 

extravehicular activity (EVA) from Orion, system concept studies, and the 

formulation of the NEA Scout asteroid precursor mission.

• AES continued to advance next-generation spacesuit capabilities through 

the execution of the Z-2 Suit garment contract, completed the assembly of 

the first Portable Life Support System (PLSS), and initiated testing of the 

PLSS with a mockup spacesuit and human metabolic simulator. AES continued to conduct several underwater tests of the MACES that astronauts 

will use for short-duration EVAs to explore the captured asteroid.

• The AES Core Flight Software team achieved Class A certification of 

core flight software for use on human spaceflight systems such as Orion.

• AES demonstrated automated loading of a 2,000-gallon liquid oxygen (LOX) propellant tank in tests at KSC. This capability will reduce 

ground-operations costs for fueling the Space Launch System (SLS).
11Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

• AES successfully completed ground testing and launch of extended-wear 

clothing for the ISS. The ISS crew is currently testing the extended-wear 

clothing to minimize the mass of clothing on long-duration missions.

• With funding partially provided by AES, the first 3D printer developed for 

use in space was delivered for launch on the SpaceX-4 mission to demonstrate in-space manufacturing of spare parts and tools on the ISS.

• With funding partially provided by AES, the Optical Payload for 

Lasercomm Science (OPALS) demonstrated optical downlink of a video 

file from the ISS and concepts of operation for laser communication from 

a LEO satellite.

• AES developed concepts for an Evolvable Mars Campaign encompassing 

the capabilities of the ISS, Orion, SLS, the Exploration Augmentation 

Module, and ARM. The campaign included a split-habitation-module 

approach, Phobos destinations for early mission capability development, 

and in situ resource utilization for propellant-centric architectures. The 

Evolvable Mars Campaign will ensure that future architectures have sustainable and evolvable capabilities at minimum cost and risk for human 

spaceflight missions.

• Under leadership from AES, the International Space Exploration 

Coordination Group (ISECG) held its semiannual meeting in Tokyo at 

the end of July 2014. The first Science Working Group met to identify the 

charter and strategic plans for ensuring that science goals are addressed 

across the Global Exploration Roadmap (GER). The GER II Workshop, 

held at the Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) in April 2014, successfully 

brought together stakeholders from across the aerospace community, with 

participation from a diverse group of international partners, industry, and 

academia in person and online.

• AES coordinated multiple integration and strategic planning discussions 

for Human Exploration and Operations Mission Directorate (HEOMD) 

leadership and provided content for NASA’s Exploration Forum held on 

April 29, 2014. AES continued the development of the Pioneering Space 

document that is designed to capture and communicate the Agency’s 
12Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

human spaceflight plans with internal and external stakeholders and 

international partners.

• AES led the HEOMD System Maturation Teams to refine the capability 

investment prioritization process and provide data to the Office of the 

Chief Technologist as a foundation for their 2014 technology roadmapping effort. The work of the System Maturation Teams will guide future 

technology investments across HEOMD and the Agency. This information will also affect the Evolvable Mars Campaign effort that AES is leading to identify the decisions and pathways toward a sustainable human 

spaceflight campaign to put humans on Mars.

• AES completed the second international conference on sex and gender 

that assessed the medical effects of prolonged spaceflight on female astronauts. The conference and associated Google hangout were very successful and resulted in six papers for medical journals, including the Journal 

of Women’s Health.

• Other AES activities included the selection of nine new investigator 

teams for the Solar System Exploration Research Virtual Institute to conduct research on the Moon and small bodies; additionally, the Radiation 

Assessment Detector team published a paper in the journal Science on the 

Mars surface radiation environment.

Commercial Crew Development

The Commercial Crew Program facilitates U.S. commercial industry development of safe, reliable, and cost-effective human space transportation to and from 

low-Earth orbit and the ISS. During FY 2014, our commercial partners continued 

to make progress maturing their respective commercial crew transportation systems 

while NASA initiated certification efforts with its partners with a goal of enabling 

crew transportation from U.S. soil in 2017.

Under Commercial Crew Integrated Capability (CCiCap) Space Act Agreements 

(SAAs), our three partners continued to successfully complete technical, programmatic, and financial milestones as they mature their respective commercial crew 
13Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

transportation systems. During FY 2014, our partners successfully completed the 

following milestones:

• Boeing completed pilot-in-the-loop testing, the spacecraft phase 2 safety 

review, and multiple subsystem Critical Design Reviews (CDRs) leading 

to the completion of their CDR Board. During 2014, Boeing successfully 

completed all CCiCap milestones, and their SAA has been finalized.

• Sierra Nevada completed wind tunnel testing of the integrated spaceflight 

system, main propulsion and reaction control system (RCS) risk reduction 

and technology maturation, and RCS and propulsion system testing.

• SpaceX completed its safety review, flight review of the Falcon 9 1.1 

launch vehicle, integrated crew vehicle CDR, operations CDR, and inflight abort-test review.

In December 2013, NASA awarded the first phase of its commercial crew transportation certification effort, Certification Products Contracts (CPC). Under 

these contracts, our partners worked with NASA to develop products required to 

implement the Agency’s flight safety and performance requirements. This includes 

implementation across all aspects of the space system, including the spacecraft, 

launch vehicle, and ground and mission operations. All CPC activities were 

successfully completed and contracts were closed out during the third quarter 

of FY 2014.

In September 2014, NASA announced contracts with Boeing and SpaceX to 

continue development and certification efforts under the Commercial Crew 

Transportation Capabilities (CCtCap) effort, with a goal of ending, in 2017, the 

Nation’s sole reliance on Russia for crew transportation to and from the ISS.

CCtCap will enable NASA to ensure that a partner’s crew transportation 

system is safe, reliable, and cost-effective. The certification process will assess 

progress throughout the production and testing of one or more integrated space 

transportation systems, which include the launch vehicle, the spacecraft, and 

ground operations.
14Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Space Communications and Navigation

In FY 2014, the Space Communications and Navigation (SCaN) Program Office 

focused on the critical sustainability and development of the ground and space 

components of the networks that provide space communications for NASA’s missions. The three networks—the Near Earth Network (NEN), the Space Network 

(SN) Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS), and the Deep Space 

Network (DSN)—continued to meet the space communications needs, such as 

Earth monitoring and support of deep space science missions, of a wide range of 

customers, both internal and external to NASA.

In FY 2014, SCaN maintained at least 99 percent proficiency of all of its networks, providing communication and navigation services to approximately 35 

spacecraft using the DSN, approximately 30 spacecraft using the SN, and approximately 30 spacecraft using the NEN. The DSN is an international network of 

antennas that supports interplanetary spacecraft missions and radio and radar 

astronomy observations for the exploration of the solar system and the universe. 

The network also supports selected Earth-orbiting missions. The SN consists of 

a space segment, composed of the Tracking and Data Relay Satellites (TDRSs), 

and a ground segment, which includes the White Sands Ground Terminals in 

New Mexico and the Guam Remote Ground Terminal. The SN provides communication and navigation services to the robotic missions (e.g., the Hubble Space 

Telescope); the ISS; and 25 NASA, U.S. Government, and commercial launches 

and servicing missions. Using antenna assets located around the world, the NEN 

provides tracking, telemetry, and communications services for orbital missions and 

occasionally suborbital missions.

SCaN completed some key milestones during FY 2014:

• The TDRS-L spacecraft was successfully launched, tested, and accepted 

from the contractor; it achieved its initial operating capability.

• TDRS-M successfully held its System Integration Review and started 

environmental testing.

• The Space Network Ground Segment Sustainment project continued to 

work toward the completion of its technical Critical Design Review.
15Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

• The NEN project successfully completed the new Alaska Satellite Facility 

(ASF) Antenna (AS3). The DSN Aperture Enhancement Project successfully completed its first new 34-meter deep space beam waveguide antenna 

in Canberra, Australia. The new Deep Space Station (DSS)-35 is now 

fully operational and meeting the requirements of NASA’s missions.

• The Lunar Laser Communication Demonstration (LLCD) payload on the 

Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer (LADEE) completed 

its technical objective of transmitting over 600 million bits per second 

from the moon. The LLCD and LADEE mission accomplishments were 

recognized with the Popular Mechanics Breakthrough and the R&D 100 

awards and was nominated for the Collier Trophy.

• The SCaN Test Bed achieved operational capability and began testing 

ways to change the functionality of radios during spaceflight. It demonstrated processing of both Global Positioning System (GPS) and Galileo 

navigation signals on orbit with the same receiver and has assisted 

the Department of Defense (DOD) in the checkout of the new GPS 

Civil signals.

• The Spectrum Management Program continued to work with the White 

House, Congress, national regulators, and interagency partners in implementing the President’s Broadband Initiative. NASA led the executive 

branch’s efforts in several technical compatibility studies, the most critical 

of which focused on the compatibility of introducing new commercial 

broadband systems in the S-band spectrum occupied by TDRSS.

• The Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems (CCSDS) is a major 

international organization that develops internationally agreed-upon and 

interoperable space communications standards that enable joint international missions and reduce cost and risk to space missions. In 2014, SCaN 

engineers led CCSDS working groups in completing many new standards 

and are leading the new working group chartered to develop new standards for optical communications.
16Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Human Spaceflight Capabilities

By the end of FY 2014, the Rocket Propulsion Test (RPT) Program had safely 

performed 322 tests. Test time totaled over 493,000 seconds, with more than 26,800 

seconds of hot fire at various levels of thrust.

In FY 2014, Stennis Space Center (SSC) had several test programs under way, 

including the J-2X and RS-25 in support of the Space Launch System (SLS) 

Program, as well as flight certification testing for the AJ-26 engine in support of a 

reimbursable NASA SAA with Orbital Sciences Corporation. Development testing continued for NASA’s Morpheus lander. New developmental testing for SpaceX 

Corporation began on a reimbursable basis. Refurbishment and repair activities 

continued for critical enabling infrastructure, including replacing both the B-leg 

and the A-leg of the high-pressure industrial water system and restoring the B-2 test 

stand for SLS core stage testing.

In April, the final test of the J-2X engine—a new version of a liquid upper stage 

rocket engine—was completed on the A-2 test stand at SSC, culminating with 

a 125-second test. After completion of that final test, work began on preparing 

the A-2 test stand to be placed in a mothball status for the coming year, FY 2015. 

Throughout FY 2014, after having completed its assigned testing of the J-2X engine, 

the SSC A-1 test stand underwent facility modifications to support testing of the 

RS-25 engine in FY 2015 in support of SLS.

Other activities at SSC included the Orbital Sciences Corporation and Aerojet 

Rocketdyne test firings of the AJ-26 engine. The AJ-26 engine powers the Orbital 

Antares rocket that launches from NASA’s Wallops Flight Facility in support of 

the ISS Commercial Resupply Services project.

On May 22, 2014, an Orbital Sciences Corporation testing of an AJ-26 engine in 

the SSC E-1 Cell 3 test stand experienced a mishap due to an engine overpressure. 

Orbital Sciences Corporation and Aerojet Rocketdyne conducted an investigation 

in order to determine the root cause of the failure, and SSC assessed the resulting 

damage to the E-1 test stand. Repairs, activations, and verification were completed 

on the E-1 test stand by the end of September 2014, and AJ-26 engine E-18 was 

installed and readied for testing in the first week of October 2014.
17Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

At Marshall Space Flight Center, the SLS Scale Model Acoustic Testing 

(SMAT) was conducted to better understand the effects of sound during the launch 

of the new SLS vehicle. Additionally, several advanced rocket engine technologies, 

including components built using Select Laser Melting construction technology, 

were tested.

The Boeing Corporation conducted testing of its orbital maneuvering and 

reaction control system thruster at the White Sands Test Facility (WSTF) as 

part of NASA’s Commercial Crew Program. Also at WSTF, engineers conducted 

tests to support DOD’s Missile Defense Agency engine and thruster program, the 

Peacekeeper safing project, and hot fire test and decontamination efforts for the 

Minuteman life-extension program.

At Plum Brook Station, tests were performed at the B-2 facility to enable the 

testing of large electric propulsion thrusters that may be required for long-duration 

space activities.

Exploration Systems Development

NASA is continuing excellent progress toward developing the capability to send 

humans on exploration missions beyond LEO. The Orion Multi-Purpose Crew 

Vehicle, the SLS that will carry Orion beyond LEO, and the ground systems necessary to integrate and launch the flight systems all made great strides in 2014. The 

first test flight, Exploration Flight Test-1 (EFT-1), remains on schedule for an early 

December launch. The design, manufacturing, and procurement of SLS and Orion 

components for the next flight, Exploration Mission-1 (EM-1), are well under way, 

and construction of the ground support facilities is proceeding on schedule.

Orion: During FY 2014, the assembly of the EFT-1 spacecraft was completed, 

and the test article was delivered for ground operations at Kennedy Space Center 

(KSC) in September in preparation for the early December launch. Prior to delivery, thorough test and checkout steps were successfully completed, including the 

Service Module structural loads test and the Crew Module functional and multipoint random vibration tests. The Delta IV-H rocket that will carry Orion on its 

test flight is on the launch pad. The flight test will also include the proven Launch 

Abort system that has been installed on the EFT-1 Crew Module. This uncrewed 
18Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

flight will test the effectiveness of the largest continuous heat shield ever installed 

on a spacecraft. Furthermore, design work for the EFT-1 spacecraft represents 

nearly 50 percent of the total Orion development work needed for the crew-capable 

version, which will fly for the first time on Exploration Mission 2 (EM-2) in the 

2021 timeframe.

In addition to the EFT-1–related work, Orion accomplished several other major 

milestones in 2014 and accelerated progress toward EM-1 and EM-2. The programlevel delta Preliminary Design Review (PDR), which thoroughly reviewed all new 

design work since 2009 and verified readiness to proceed to detailed design for the 

EM-1 and EM-2 spacecraft, was completed in the summer. Furthermore, Orion 

personnel are continuing to work with the European Space Agency on the Service 

Module, completing a major design review overseas. Negotiations with Orion’s 

prime contractor for integrating the ESA-provided Service Module are expected 

to be complete this fall, with contract definitization by December 31, 2014. EM-1 

critical path manufacturing is under way, including production of a Crew Module 

“pathfinder” pressure vessel.

SLS: In support of EFT-1, the SLS Program produced the stage adapter that 

connects the Orion spacecraft to the Delta IV-H launch vehicle’s upper stage. This 

adapter will be a common design that is also used on EM-1. The adapter was completed in May, was delivered to KSC, and has been mated with the EFT-1 Orion 

Service Module.

For the SLS “Block 1” configuration to be flown on EM-1, the program successfully cleared the Agency’s Key Decision Point C (KDP-C) milestone in August, 

marking the transition from program formulation into implementation. Both 

the Core Stage and Booster elements completed their Critical Design Reviews 

(CDRs) in July and August respectively, which keeps the program on track for the 

program-level CDR in 2015. Preparation for next year’s CDR has been supported 

by a wide range of important hardware testing across NASA, including the last 

buffet wind tunnel test at Langley Research Center, testing of the Core Stage flight 

computers during the spring, and acoustic model testing of SLS during launch 

at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) throughout the year. Production of the 

first pieces of test and actual EM-1 flight hardware is also under way. The Vertical 

Assembly Center (VAC) Tool activation at the Michoud Assembly Facility (MAF) 
19Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

in Louisiana occurred in July, and the first full-duration test weld on the VAC took 

place in September. The VAC is the final of six major welding tools at the MAF 

that will produce the SLS Core Stage structure using less than half the labor of 

Space Shuttle External Tank production. Other major SLS facility work in 2014 

includes the new structural test stands at MSFC, which broke ground in August 

2014. The SLS Program also accomplished much in the area of acquisitions in 2014. 

Contracts for the Core Stage, Interim Cryogenic Propulsion Stage, and Launch 

Vehicle Stage Adapter were definitized during 2014, resulting in all major SLS 

development elements now being under contract.

Ground Systems Development and Operations (GSDO): In 2014, the GSDO 

Program finalized its preparations to recover the EFT-1 Orion spacecraft after 

splashdown. Recovery options, including a Navy landing platform/dock (LPD) well 

deck ship and a supervisor of salvage (SUPSALV) crane lift ship, were thoroughly 

tested in real ocean conditions using an Orion flightlike mock-up. The program 

selected the Navy LPD well deck ship as the primary EFT-1 recovery method, with 

the SUPSALV crane lift ship serving as a backup option.

Like SLS, the GSDO Program also completed its KDP-C review in 2014 and has 

moved from formulation to implementation of the Exploration Ground Systems. 

Preceding the KDP-C review in September, the program-level PDR was completed 

during the spring. Design and construction work on vehicle integration and 

launch facilities for the SLS-Orion flight systems made excellent progress in 2014. 

Modification of the Vertical Assembly Building’s Highbay-3 for the SLS stacking 

and integration platforms was initiated, with demolition, lead paint and asbestos 

abatement, and installation of environmental testing equipment completed. The 

Mobile Launcher construction was approximately 58 percent complete at the end 

of FY 2014. The contract to modify the Ares-I Launch Tower for SLS was awarded 

in September, and construction work will continue into mid-2015.

Also in 2014, GSDO continued its work to establish and develop the 21st 

Century Space Launch Complex (CSLC) partnerships aimed at understanding 

government and commercial ground processing, launch, and range infrastructure 

requirements while implementing the modifications identified during studies conducted in FY 2011 and FY 2012. NASA has also continued to pursue opportunities 

to partner or leverage investments for modernization activities to support safer and 
20Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

more efficient launch operations, enhance payload-processing capabilities, facilitate appropriate private-sector activities, engage in environmental remediation of 

operations, and support the modernization of launch-range capabilities.

Space Life and Physical Sciences Research and Applications

Human Research Program (HRP): Astronaut crews typically spend about six 

months on the ISS. NASA’s first one-year mission to the ISS is scheduled to begin 

in March 2015. In 2014, three key areas were identified as being of particular concern for longer missions and a one-year mission research plan was developed to 

focus on these areas: medical conditions with a temporal trend of increasing severity with time spent in space; behavior and performance issues related to extended 

periods of isolation and confinement; and physiological deconditioning, such as 

deficits in bone, muscle, cardiovascular function, and exercise performance. Due 

to the unique opportunity presented by having an identical twin, Scott Kelly, as 

one of the one-year mission participants while his identical twin brother, retired 

NASA astronaut Mark Kelly, remains on Earth, the HRP has also funded 10 shortterm, first-of-their-kind investigations into the molecular, physiological, and psychological effects of spaceflight in a continuous effort to reduce the health impacts 

of human space exploration.

Visual Impairment Intracranial Pressure (VIIP) syndrome is currently NASA’s 

number-one human spaceflight risk. The syndrome, which is related to microgravity 

exposure, manifests with changes in visual acuity and eye structure. In some cases, 

elevated cerebrospinal fluid pressure has been documented post-flight, reflecting 

increased intracranial pressure (ICP). The operational and research communities 

at NASA are working collaboratively in an effort to understand the mechanisms 

causing VIIP syndrome and to provide mitigation and countermeasures. About 

25 VIIP studies are currently in progress, and five have been completed. Ongoing 

studies include data mining, animal analogs, bed rest and other human microgravity analogs, computer modeling, technology development and flight certification, 

and in-flight studies involving astronaut test subjects. These studies are aimed at 

understanding the interaction of the microgravity environment with the eye, the 

cardiovascular system, and the central nervous system. The main active flight 
21Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

experiment at this time is the Ocular Health study, a prospective investigation 

that aims to identify underlying mechanisms and define the temporal pattern or 

timeline for the appearance and resolution of signs and symptoms.

The Integrated Cardiovascular (ICV) study concluded this year after four years 

on board the ISS. Objectives of the study were to investigate whether heart muscle 

would atrophy during long-duration spaceflight, whether the structure or performance of the heart would be affected, and whether these changes might predispose 

astronauts to the development of rhythm abnormalities. Data obtained during the 

study substantiated the well-described loss of circulating blood volume reflected as a 

change in cardiac filling. The heart also became more spherical. Detailed measures 

of “diastolic function” and “myocardial strain” demonstrated that cardiac function 

was preserved. ICV showed that the change in the work the heart did in space 

relative to the work done on Earth correlated directly with how much mass the 

heart lost or gained during the mission. Overall, ICV has provided one of the most 

comprehensive descriptions of the human heart during long-duration spaceflight.

ISS Research—Space Biology and Physical Sciences: The organization selected 

by NASA to manage non-NASA utilization of the ISS National Laboratory, the 

Center for the Advancement of Science in Space (CASIS), named a new chair for 

its board of directors, General James Abrahamson (retired). The previous board 

chair, France Cordova, moved on to become director of the National Science 

Foundation (NSF).

CASIS also delivered the first commercial rodent research investigation to the 

ISS on the SpaceX-4 flight.

The new space-biology open-science campaign, GeneLab, successfully launched. 

A steering committee was formed comprising members from industry, academia, 

other Government agencies, and CASIS to learn from best practices and leverage existing capabilities while developing a collaborative forward implementation 

approach. A strategic plan was drafted and publicly released, and the platform Web 

site was launched: http://genelab.nasa.gov. The first spaceflight experiments that 

will contribute data to GeneLab launched on SpaceX-4 in September 2014.

A workshop for MaterialsLab, an open science pathfinder for the Physical 

Science Informatics System, was held in Washington, DC, in April 2014. Attendees 

included representatives from NASA, academia, industry, other Government 
22Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

agencies, and CASIS. Recommendations were received for six research theme areas 

from the respective discussion groups: granular materials, glasses and ceramics, 

metals, polymers, biomaterials, and semiconductors. A report of the recommendations was produced. As a result, CASIS released a Materials Science Request 

for Proposals (RFP) of its own. This workshop has led to a Memorandum of 

Understanding (MOU) regarding materials science research on the ISS linking it 

to the Materials Genome Initiative. The workshop was a resounding success.

Multiple investigations for space biology and physical science were delivered to 

the ISS on the SpaceX-4 Dragon capsule.

Science Mission Directorate

NASA leads the Nation on a great journey of discovery, seeking new knowledge and understanding of our sun, Earth, solar system, and the universe—out 

to its farthest reaches and back to its earliest moments of existence. The NASA 

Science Mission Directorate (SMD) and the Nation’s science community use space 

observatories to conduct scientific studies of Earth and the sun from space, to visit 

and return data and samples from other bodies in the solar system, and to peer out 

into the vast reaches of the universe and beyond. With these objectives in mind, 

SMD conducts scientific research and experiments to answer some of humankind’s 

most basic questions. What drives variations in the sun, and how do these changes 

impact the solar system and drive space weather? How and why are Earth’s climate 

and environment changing? How did our solar system originate and change over 

time? How did the universe begin and evolve, and what will be its destiny? How did 

life originate, and are we alone?

SMD uses a fleet of spacecraft and ground stations to observe and capture information about Earth, the sun, our solar system’s planets, and deep space to help 

us learn, answer these and other compelling questions, and address the scientific 

challenges that lie before us. SMD has five program divisions: Astrophysics, Earth 

Science, Heliophysics, Planetary Science, and the Joint Agency Satellite Division 

(JASD). It also has a James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) program office. In 

FY 2014, SMD successfully launched four new space and Earth science missions 

designed to improve our understanding of solar processes, global precipitation, the 
23Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

role of carbon dioxide in the Earth system, and the Martian atmosphere and its 

interactions with the sun and solar wind. SMD lays the intellectual foundation 

for the robotic and human expeditions of the future while meeting current needs 

for scientific information to address national issues such as climate change, space 

weather, and education.

Earth Science Division

Earth is a complex, dynamic system. We continue to learn and to be surprised by 

it. Earth, like the human body, comprises diverse components that interact to form 

a single, interconnected system. At NASA, we strive to understand that interconnectedness. We want to know how Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, 

cryosphere, and biosphere work as a symbiotic system. We also want to comprehend 

how this complex system adapts and changes due to natural and other influences.

From space, NASA satellites can view Earth as a planet and study its myriad 

components, including life. With these tools, the Nation’s scientific community 

can observe and track global-scale changes, connecting cause to effects; study 

regional changes in a global context; and observe how civilization acts as a force 

of change. NASA continues to partner with other agencies to study the Earth 

system—improving our ability to predict climate, weather, and natural hazards—

manage resources, and inform policy makers. NASA’s Earth Science program manages these efforts.

The Earth Science Division (ESD) had numerous successes in 2014, including 

launching the Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) mission, part of a fleet of 

spacecraft designed to observe global precipitation every two to four hours, and the 

Orbiting Carbon Observatory (OCO-2) mission, which will provide the first complete picture of human and natural carbon dioxide sources and sinks and map their 

geographic distribution over time. In July 2014, the GPM mission’s Precipitation 

Processing System at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, 

Maryland, released the Level 2 GPM Microwave Imager (GMI) data to the public. 

The dataset includes precipitation rates, which show how much rain and snowfall 

accumulate over a given time period. NASA’s OCO-2 mission completed its first 

90 days of operations in space. The spacecraft meets or exceeds all functional and 
24Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

performance specifications, and all planned instrument checkout activities have 

been completed. The instrument is making high-precision measurements, and data 

processing is proceeding on schedule. The observatory is now the sixth member of 

the international constellation of Earth-observing satellites commonly referred to 

as the Afternoon Constellation, or “A-Train.”

In 2014, ESD also successfully concluded significant technical reviews for 

upcoming missions, including the Cyclone Global Navigation Satellite System 

(CYGNSS), which will measure ocean surface winds throughout the life cycle of 

tropical storms and hurricanes; the Soil Moisture Active-Passive (SMAP) mission, which will measure surface soil moisture and freeze-thaw states; the Ice, 

Cloud, and Land Elevation Satellite (ICESat-2), which will monitor and assess 

polar ice changes; and the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Follow-On 

(GRACE-FO) mission, which will continue the measurement of Earth’s magnetic 

field. The mission examples in the next section will demonstrate how Earth scientists use existing resources (spacecraft, aircraft, previous studies and data, ground 

stations, etc.) to find new knowledge.

Western Antarctic Ice-Sheet Melting

We know the Earth system is dynamic and changing. We know the planet’s 

climate has changed over time, and today, scientific observations reveal a clear 

warming trend. A warming planet has global impacts, including rising water levels from melting polar ice. In May 2014, NASA and the University of California, 

Irvine (UCI), released a critical study that found a large section of the ice sheet 

in western Antarctica was irreversibly melting. The NASA-UCI study used radar 

observations captured between 1992 and 2011 by the European Earth Remote 

Sensing (ERS-1 and -2) satellites to map the grounding lines’ retreat inland. The 

satellites use a technique called radar interferometry, which enables scientists to 

precisely measure—within less than a quarter of an inch—how much of Earth’s 

surface is moving. Glaciers move horizontally as they flow downstream, but their 

floating portions also rise and fall vertically with changes in the tides. The science 

team mapped how far inland these vertical motions extend to locate the grounding 

lines. Typically, similar studies will view three principal lines of evidence in glacial 

demise: (1) the changes in their flow speeds; (2) how much each glacier floats on 
25Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

seawater; and (3) the slope of the terrain that the glaciers are flowing over, as well 

as its depth below sea level. This study examined the latter two lines and showed 

that, in much the same way a grounded boat can float in shallow water if it sheds 

some weight, these glaciers have lost significant mass and are now floating above 

areas where they used to touch the ground.

To slow or stop these changes requires pinning points—bumps or hills rising 

from the glacier bed that snag the ice from underneath. To locate these points, 

researchers produced a more accurate map of bed elevation that combines ice 

velocity data from ERS-1 and -2 and ice thickness data from NASA’s Operation 

IceBridge mission and other airborne campaigns. The results confirm no pinning 

points are present upstream of the present grounding lines in five of the six glaciers, 

which may ultimately result in the collapse of this sector of western Antarctica 

should these trends continue. NASA’s Operation IceBridge will continue to monitor its evolution closely during this year’s Antarctica deployment, which began in 

October 2014. IceBridge uses a specialized fleet of research aircraft and the most 

sophisticated suite of science instruments ever assembled to characterize changes 

in the thickness of glaciers, ice sheets, and sea ice.

GRACE Measures Colorado River Basin

Just as NASA’s research shows the impact sea-level rise will have on our planet, 

other studies show how the lack of water is also creating impacts. A July 2014 

NASA-UCI study found that more than 75 percent of the water loss in the droughtstricken Colorado River Basin came from underground resources. The study was 

the first to quantify the amount groundwater contributes to the water needs of 

western states.

The research team used data from NASA’s Gravity Recovery and Climate 

Experiment (GRACE) satellite mission to track changes in the mass of the 

Colorado River Basin. Monthly measurements of the change in water mass from 

December 2004 to November 2013 revealed that the basin lost nearly 53 million 

acre feet (65 cubic kilometers) of freshwater, almost double the volume of the 

Nation’s largest reservoir, Nevada’s Lake Mead. More than three-quarters of the 

total (about 41 million acre feet, or 50 cubic kilometers) was from groundwater. 

The basin has been suffering from prolonged, severe drought since 2000 and has 
26Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

experienced the driest 14-year period in the last hundred years. The Colorado 

River Basin supplies water to about 40 million people in seven states. Major cities 

outside the basin also use water from the Colorado River.

Scientists used GRACE much like a scale. Changes in water reserves affect the 

strength of local gravitational attraction. By periodically measuring gravity regionally, GRACE revealed how much of the region’s water storage changed over time. 

The study’s authors used the data to see whether the region was relying on groundwater to make up for the limited surface-water supply, which it had. Combined with 

declining snowpack and a growing population, this reliance will likely threaten the 

long-term ability of the basin to meet the water needs of the region. The Colorado 

River is the only major river in the southwestern United States; its basin supplies 

water to about 40 million people in seven states and irrigates roughly four million 

acres of farmland.

Carbon Tetrachloride (CCl4) Persists

NASA also devotes significant resources to studying the atmosphere’s chemical 

composition. An August 2012 NASA study found that Earth’s atmosphere contains 

an unexpectedly large amount of an ozone-depleting compound from an unknown 

source, even decades after governments banned the compound worldwide. Through 

the 1987 Montreal Protocol, governments created a worldwide ban on various chlorofluorocarbons, including carbon tetrachloride (CCl4

). From 2007 to 2012, parties 

to the Montreal Protocol reported zero new CCl4 emissions. However, new NASA 

research showed that worldwide CCl4 emissions averaged 39 kilotons annually, 

nearly 30 percent of its peak emissions prior to the Protocol going into effect. With 

those results, atmospheric concentrations of CCl4 should have declined by four 

percent annually, not the one percent the observations indicated.

The surprising revelation led the study’s authors to suggest that there were 

either unidentified industrial leakages, large emissions from contaminated sites, 

or unknown CCl4 sources. To investigate the discrepancy, NASA used its 3-D 

Goddard Earth Observing System (GEOS) Chemistry Climate Model, data from 

global networks of ground-based observations, and CCl4 measurements taken 

by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA’s) Earth 

System Research Laboratory and NOAA’s Cooperative Institute for Research in 
27Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

Environmental Sciences at the University of Colorado, Boulder. Not only did 

these model simulations indicate an unidentified source of CCl4 and produce the 

first quantitative estimate of average global CCl4 emission from 2000 to 2012, 

they also found that the chemical stays in the atmosphere 40 percent longer than 

previously thought.

Heliophysics Division

NASA’s Heliophysics Division strives to understand the sun, heliosphere, and 

planetary environments as a single connected system. Our planet and its cousins 

exist under the influence of an active star, which brings both positive and potentially negative effects. While our sun enables and sustains life, it also produces 

streams of high-energy particles and radiation that can harm life or alter its evolution. The Heliophysics Division studies these phenomena to understand how the 

sun functions within its atmosphere and affects the solar system, including Earth. 

By studying the connections between the sun, solar wind, solar plasma, radiation, 

planetary space environments, and our place within the galaxy, we uncover the 

fundamental physical processes that occur throughout the universe. More practicably, understanding the connections between the sun and its planets enables us 

to predict the impacts of solar variability on humans, technological systems, and 

the presence of life itself.

The Heliophysics Division similarly had a successful 2014, which included 

passing key reviews in select missions, including the Magnetospheric Multiscale 

(MMS) Observatory mission, which will use four spacecraft to monitor magnetic 

reconnection, energetic particle acceleration, and turbulence within the magnetosphere; the Solar Orbiter Collaboration Heavy Ion Sensor (HIS), which will study 

the sun at a closer range than any spacecraft before it; and the Solar Probe Plus 

(SPP) mission, which will fly into the sun’s corona. NASA will soon rely on these 

missions to produce numerous data and new science, but several active missions 

continued their successful investigations into 2014. The following examples are of 

current programs and missions involving our study of the sun and its effects on the 

planets and our solar system.
28Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Van Allen Probes

This year, NASA celebrated two years of studying the sun’s influence on our 

planet and near-Earth space with the Van Allen Probes, originally launched in 

August 2012. Shortly after their launch, the probes discovered a new, third radiation belt around Earth. These radiation belts are layers of energetic charged particles held in place by the magnetic field surrounding our planet. The new third 

belt occurred only occasionally but persisted for as long as a month, revealing to 

scientists the dynamic and variable nature of these belts and providing new insight 

into how they respond to solar activity. The Probes continue to elucidate how 

particles in the radiation belts form and change in response to the sun’s energy.

Weighing less than 1,500 pounds (680 kilograms) and designed to weather the 

harsh radiation belt region around Earth, the Probes are providing NASA scientists 

with new information on the connection between this region and Earth’s atmosphere, as well as how space-based technologies may be affected by solar storms and 

other space weather events. We know that solar storms and space weather affect 

communications and Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites and can pose risks 

to humans in low-Earth orbit, but they also affect the belts themselves and can 

cause them to swell dramatically.

The Probes also revealed how very-low-frequency plasma waves sometimes accelerate particles in the heart of the belts to nearly the speed of light. They also 

showed that Earth’s rotation causes a common feature in the inner belt, whereby 

persistent stripe-like structures form, a mechanism previously thought to be incapable of such an effect. Both observations are helping scientists validate theories 

about plasma physics and the acceleration processes happening within the belts 

and are showing new structures and features previously not suspected.

Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph Data

The Van Allen Probes are not the only success story for Heliophysics. NASA’s 

Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS) has provided scientists with five 

new findings that improve our understanding of the sun.

The first result identified heat pockets of 200,000 degrees Fahrenheit, the lowest 

in the solar atmosphere observed by any spacecraft. Scientists refer to the pockets 

as solar heat bombs due to the amount of energy they release in such a short time. 
29Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

Identifying such sources of unexpected heat offers a deeper understanding of the 

heating mechanisms throughout the solar atmosphere.

For its second finding, IRIS observed numerous, small, low-lying loops of solar 

material in the interface region for the first time. The unprecedented resolution 

provided by IRIS enables scientists to improve their understanding of how the solar 

atmosphere is energized.

In the third finding, scientists were surprised to see structures resembling minitornadoes occurring in solar active regions for the first time. These tornadoes 

move at speeds as fast as 12 miles per second and are scattered throughout the 

chromosphere, the layer of the sun just above the surface. These tornados provide 

a mechanism for transferring energy to power the million-degree temperatures in 

the corona.

In the fourth finding, researchers found evidence of high-speed jets at the root 

of the solar wind. These fountains of plasma shoot out of coronal holes, which are 

areas of less dense material in the solar atmosphere and typically thought to be a 

source of the solar wind.

The fifth finding showed the effects of nanoflares throughout the corona. When 

magnetic field lines cross, they explosively realign, causing large solar flares, which 

often send particles out into space at nearly the speed of light. Nanoflares are 

smaller versions that scientists believed were driving coronal heating. For the first 

time, IRIS observations showed that nanoflare events were generating high-energy 

particles that also impact the chromosphere.

Interstellar Boundary Explorer

Our ability to understand our sun and solar system very closely relates to our 

understanding of how the heliosphere and magnetosphere interact. Back in 

2009, NASA researchers using the Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) found 

an uneven distribution of neutral atoms forming a ribbon along the heliospheric 

boundaries. Researchers wondered if this shape might also relate to an unevenness 

seen in cosmic rays. For decades, Earth spacecraft have detected more incoming 

high-energy cosmic rays on one side of the sun than the other. By combining observations from other parts of the Milky Way and IBEX, researchers found that there 
30Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

is a magnetic field nearly perpendicular to the motion of our solar system through 

the galaxy. These results would explain the unevenness we have long observed.

To see if the IBEX data related to the cosmic ray observations, NASA researchers used IBEX data to build a computer model of what the interplanetary magnetic 

field would look like around the heliosphere. The heliosphere distorts the field 

lines, so without the heliosphere, the field lines would be straight and parallel. The 

simulations showed a non-uniform distribution of cosmic ray particles consistent 

with the unevenness seen in previous observations.

Though the simulation does show a potential correlation, it does not prove that 

the heliosphere and interstellar magnetic field are exclusively responsible for the 

cosmic ray distribution mystery. However, this research shows that the magnetic 

configuration of our neighborhood does offer a potential answer. And more, the 

data from IBEX and detectors looking at the cosmic ray distribution work to map 

what our magnetic fields outside the heliosphere look like. Scientists will continue to collect these and other pertinent data, particularly from Voyager 1, the 

only spacecraft to breach the outer limits of the heliosphere, to paint an even 

clearer picture.

Planetary Science Division

Earthbound scientists have long been observing, studying, and even discovering the solar system’s planetary objects. NASA’s Planetary Science Division 

continues to explore this fascinating field and push the limits of spacecraft and 

robotic engineering.

The Planetary Science Division had a successful 2014 that saw the launching 

of the Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN) spacecraft, achieving complete mission success of the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL, known 

as Curiosity), and the passage of critical steps to newer missions, including the 

Origins Spectral Interpretation Resource Identification Security–Regolith Explorer 

(OSIRIS-REx), which will approach, map, and take a sample of a near-Earth asteroid; and the Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat 

Transport (InSight) mission, which will place instruments on the surface of Mars 

to investigate whether Mars’s core is solid or liquid.
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These future missions will produce new information and discoveries, while current missions are providing today’s scientists and researchers with ample data to 

develop new scientific knowledge. The following are some examples of how scientists are using NASA spacecraft to learn about our solar system’s planets, particularly Mars.

Mars 2020

The Mars 2020 mission will send the next NASA rover to the planet, this time 

carrying even more sophisticated instruments to conduct unprecedented science 

and exploration investigations. In April 2014, NASA announced the selected Mars 

2020 rover instruments. NASA chose the seven instruments from 58 proposals, 

twice the typical number submitted for similar competitions in the recent past, 

highlighting the strong interest from the broader scientific community.

Scientists will use the Mars 2020 rover to identify and select a collection of 

rock and soil samples that will be stored for potential return to Earth by a future 

mission. By helping us understand the hazards of Martian dust and by giving us 

the information we need to develop the technology to process carbon dioxide from 

the atmosphere to produce oxygen, the Mars 2020 rover will help advance our 

knowledge of how future human explorers could use natural resources while on the 

surface of the Red Planet. These experiments will help engineers learn how to use 

Martian resources to produce oxygen for human respiration and potentially as an 

oxidizer for rocket fuel.

Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution 

In September, NASA’s MAVEN spacecraft entered Martian orbit to begin 

exploring the tenuous upper atmosphere of the Red Planet. After a 10-month 

journey, MAVEN was successfully inserted into orbit around Mars and began 

transmitting data back to Earth. MAVEN entered a six-week commissioning phase 

that included maneuvering into its final science orbit and testing the instruments 

and science-mapping commands. MAVEN then began its one-Earth-year primary 

mission, taking measurements of the composition, structure, and escape of gases in 

Mars’s upper atmosphere and its interaction with the sun and solar wind.
32Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

MAVEN launched November 18, 2013, from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station 

in Florida, carrying three instrument packages. The Particles and Fields Package 

will characterize the solar wind and the ionosphere of the planet. The Remote 

Sensing Package will identify characteristics present throughout the upper atmosphere and ionosphere. The Neutral Gas and Ion Mass Spectrometer will measure 

the composition and isotopes of atomic particles. The primary mission includes 

five “deep-dip” campaigns, in which MAVEN’s lowest orbit altitude (or periapsis) 

will be lowered from 93 miles (150 kilometers) to about 77 miles (125 kilometers). 

These measurements will provide information down to where the upper and lower 

atmospheres meet, giving scientists a full profile of the upper tier.

Mars Comet Flyby

In October, two NASA and one European spacecraft were privileged to have 

the opportunity to provide the first up-close observations of a comet flyby of Mars, 

gaining new information about the basic properties of the comet’s nucleus and 

directly detecting the effects on the Martian atmosphere. Data from observations 

carried out by NASA’s MAVEN mission, NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter 

(MRO), and a radar instrument on the European Space Agency’s (ESA’s) Mars 

Express spacecraft revealed that debris from the comet added a temporary and very 

strong layer of ions to the ionosphere, the electrically charged layer high above 

Mars. Using these observations, scientists were able to make a direct connection 

from the input of debris from a specific meteor shower to the formation of this kind 

of transient layer in response; that is a first on any planet, including Earth.

Comet C/2013 A1 Siding Spring traveled from the most distant region of our 

solar system and made a close approach to within about 87,000 miles (139,500 kilometers) of the Red Planet, less than half the distance between Earth and our moon, 

and less than one-tenth the distance of any known comet flyby of Earth. Dust from 

the comet impacted Mars and was vaporized high in the atmosphere, producing 

what was likely an impressive meteor shower. This debris resulted in significant 

temporary changes to the planet’s upper atmosphere and possible longer-term perturbations. A host of space- and Earth-based telescopes also observed the unique 

celestial object.
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The MAVEN spacecraft detected the comet encounter in two ways. The remotesensing Imaging Ultraviolet Spectrograph observed intense ultraviolet emission 

from magnesium and iron ions high in the atmosphere in the aftermath of the 

meteor shower. Not even the most intense meteor storms on Earth have produced 

as strong a response as this one. The emission dominated Mars’s ultraviolet spectrum for several hours after the encounter and then dissipated over the next two 

days. MAVEN also was able to directly sample and determine the composition of 

some of the comet dust in Mars’s atmosphere. An analysis of these samples by the 

spacecraft’s Neutral Gas and Ion Mass Spectrometer detected eight different types 

of metal ions, including sodium, magnesium, and iron. These are the first direct 

measurements of the composition of dust from an Oort Cloud comet; the Oort 

Cloud is a spherical region of icy objects believed to be material left over from the 

formation of the solar system, occupying space at a range of 5,000 to 100,000 times 

the distance from Earth to the sun.

Curiosity Arrives at Martian Mountain

On September 11, 2014, after a two-year, nine-kilometer journey, NASA’s Mars 

Curiosity rover reached the base of Mars’s Mount Sharp, a Mount Rainier–sized 

mountain at the center of the vast Gale Crater and the rover mission’s long-term 

prime destination. Curiosity will next examine the mountain’s lower slopes, starting at an entry point near an outcrop called Pahrump Hills. Curiosity currently is 

positioned at the base of the mountain along a pale, distinctive geological feature 

called the Murray Formation. Compared to neighboring crater-floor terrain, the 

rock of the Murray Formation is softer and does not preserve impact scars. As 

viewed from orbit, it is not as well-layered as other features at the base of Mount 

Sharp. Curiosity made its first close-up study of two Murray Formation outcrops, 

both revealing notable differences from the terrain explored by Curiosity during 

the past year. The first outcrop, called Bonanza King, proved too unstable for drilling but was examined by the rover’s instruments and determined to have high silicon content. A second outcrop, examined with the rover’s telephoto Mast Camera, 

revealed a fine-grained, platy surface laced with sulfate-filled veins.

While some of these terrain differences are not apparent in observations made 

by NASA’s Mars orbiters, the rover team still relies heavily on images taken by the 
34Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Agency’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) to plan Curiosity’s travel routes and 

locations for study. For example, MRO images helped the rover team locate mesas 

that are over 60 feet (18 meters) tall in an area of terrain shortly beyond Pahrump 

Hills; the images revealed an exposure of the Murray Formation uphill and toward 

the south. Though this valley has a sandy floor the length of two football fields, 

the team expects it will be an easier trek than the sandy-floored Hidden Valley, 

where, last month, Curiosity’s wheels slipped too much for safe crossing.

Astrophysics Division

The Astrophysics Division looks to the deepest recesses of space to learn about 

the universe and its origins and our place in it. We are starting to investigate the 

very early universe and are close to learning the full history of stars and galaxies. 

We are discovering how planetary systems form and how environments hospitable 

to life develop. Furthermore, we will search for the signature of life on other worlds, 

perhaps to learn that we are not alone.

The Astrophysics Division also had a successful 2014, with the Nuclear 

Spectroscopic Telescope Array (NuSTAR) program fully meeting its mission 

criteria; the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA) collecting 258 hours of research; and two key programs passing review phases, including 

the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), which will replace the Hubble Space 

Telescope to become NASA’s largest space telescope, and the Transiting Exoplanet 

Survey Satellite (TESS), which will complete a two-year survey of our solar neighborhood to discover, potentially, thousands of more exoplanets (planets outside 

our solar system) in orbit around other stars. The following are a few examples of 

ongoing NASA astrophysics programs yielding great scientific discoveries.

Kepler Telescope Discovers First Earth-Sized Planet in “Habitable Zone”

Using NASA’s Kepler Space Telescope, astronomers have discovered the first 

Earth-sized planet orbiting a star in the “habitable zone,” the range of distance 

from a star where liquid water might pool on the surface of an orbiting planet. The 

discovery of Kepler-186f confirms that planets the size of Earth exist in the habitable zone of stars other than our sun. While planets have previously been found 
35Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

in the habitable zone, they are all at least 40 percent larger in size than Earth, 

and understanding their makeup is challenging. Kepler-186f is more reminiscent 

of Earth. And although the size of Kepler-186f is known, its mass and composition 

are not. Previous research suggests that a planet the size of Kepler-186f is likely to 

be rocky.

Kepler-186f resides in the Kepler-186 system, about 500 light-years from Earth 

in the constellation Cygnus. The system is also home to four companion planets, 

which orbit a star half the size and mass of our sun. The star is classified as an M 

dwarf, or red dwarf, a class of stars that makes up 70 percent of the stars in the 

Milky Way Galaxy.

Kepler-186f orbits its star once every 130 days and receives just a third the energy 

from its star that Earth gets from the sun, placing it nearer the outer edge of the 

habitable zone. On the surface of Kepler-186f, the brightness of its star at high noon 

is only as bright as our sun appears to us about an hour before sunset. The four 

companion planets, Kepler-186b, Kepler-186c, Kepler-186d, and Kepler-186e, are 

very close to their sun (orbiting every 4, 7, 13, and 22 days, respectively), making 

them too hot for life as we know it. These four inner planets all measure less than 

1.5 times the size of Earth.

The next steps in the search for distant life include looking for true Earthtwins—Earth-sized planets orbiting within the habitable zone of a sunlike star—

and measuring their chemical compositions. The Kepler Space Telescope, which 

simultaneously and continuously measured the brightness of more than 150,000 

stars, is NASA’s first mission capable of detecting Earth-sized planets around stars 

like our sun.

Kepler Mission Announces a Planet Bonanza: 715 New Worlds

In February, NASA’s Kepler mission announced the discovery of 715 new planets. These newly verified worlds orbit 305 stars, revealing multiple-planet systems 

much like our own solar system. Nearly 95 percent of these planets are smaller 

than Neptune, which is almost four times the size of Earth. This discovery marks a 

significant increase in the number of known small-sized planets more akin to Earth 

than previously identified exoplanets.
36Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Since the discovery of the first planets outside our solar system roughly two 

decades ago, verification has been a laborious planet-by-planet process. Now, scientists have a statistical technique that can be applied to multiple planets simultaneously once they are found in systems that harbor more than one planet around 

the same star. To verify this bounty of planets, a research team at NASA’s Ames 

Research Center analyzed stars with more than one potential planet, all of which 

were detected in the first two years of Kepler’s observations—between May 2009 

and March 2011. The research team used a technique called verification by multiplicity, which relies in part on the logic of probability. Kepler observes 150,000 stars 

and has found a few thousand of those to have planet candidates. If the candidates 

were randomly distributed among Kepler’s stars, only a handful would have more 

than one planet candidate. However, Kepler observed hundreds of stars that have 

multiple planet candidates. Through a careful study of this sample, these 715 new 

planets were verified.

These multiple-planet systems are fertile grounds for studying individual planets 

and the configuration of planetary neighborhoods, providing clues to planet formation. Four of these new planets are less than 2.5 times the size of Earth and orbit 

in their sun’s habitable zone, defined as the range of distance from a star where 

the surface temperature of an orbiting planet may be suitable for life-giving liquid 

water. One of these new habitable zone planets, called Kepler-296f, orbits a star 

half the size of and 5 percent as bright as our sun. Kepler-296f is twice the size of 

Earth, but scientists do not know whether the planet is a gaseous world with a thick 

hydrogen-helium envelope or if it is a water world surrounded by a deep ocean. This 

latest discovery brings the confirmed count of planets outside our solar system to 

nearly 1,700. As we continue to reach toward the stars, each discovery brings us 

one step closer to a more accurate understanding of our place in the galaxy.

NuSTAR Untangles Mystery of How Stars Explode

One of the biggest mysteries in astronomy, how stars blow up in supernova explosions, finally is being unraveled with the help of NASA’s Nuclear Spectroscopic 

Telescope Array (NuSTAR). The high-energy X-ray observatory has created the 

first map of radioactive material in a supernova remnant. The results, from a remnant named Cassiopeia A (Cas A), reveal how shock waves likely rip massive dying 
37Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

stars apart. Cas A was created when a massive star blew up as a supernova, leaving 

a dense stellar corpse and its ejected remains. The light from the explosion reached 

Earth a few hundred years ago, so we are seeing the stellar remnant when it was 

fresh and young.

Supernovas seed the universe with many elements, including the gold in jewelry, 

the calcium in bones, and the iron in blood. While small stars like our sun die less 

violent deaths, stars at least eight times as massive as our sun blow up in supernova 

explosions. The high temperatures and particles created in the blast fuse light elements together to create heavier elements.

NuSTAR is the first telescope capable of producing maps of radioactive elements 

in supernova remnants. In this case, the element is titanium-44, which has an 

unstable nucleus produced at the heart of the exploding star. The NuSTAR map 

of Cas A shows the titanium concentrated in clumps at the remnant’s center and 

points to a possible solution to the mystery of how the star met its demise. When 

researchers simulate supernova blasts with computers, as a massive star dies and 

collapses, the main shock wave often stalls out and the star fails to shatter. The 

latest findings strongly suggest that the exploding star literally sloshed around, 

re-energizing the stalled shock wave and allowing the star to finally blast off its 

outer layers.

The NuSTAR map also casts doubt on other models of supernova explosions in 

which the star is rapidly rotating just before it dies and launches narrow streams 

of gas that drive the stellar blast. Though imprints of jets have been seen before 

around Cas A, it was not known if they were triggering the explosion. NuSTAR 

did not see the titanium, essentially the radioactive ash from the explosion, in narrow regions matching the jets, so the jets were not the explosive trigger.

James Webb Space Telescope

The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) aims to continue with great scientific observations, much like its predecessor, the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). 

The JWST will be a large (with a 6.5-meter-diameter mirror), infrared-optimized 

telescope designed to study and answer fundamental astrophysical questions ranging from the formation and structure of the universe to the origin of planetary 
38Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

systems and the origins of life. A scientific successor to the HST and the Spitzer 

Space Telescope, the JWST observatory will be used by international teams of 

astronomers to conduct imaging and spectroscopic observations in the wavelength 

range of 0.6–27 microns. JWST will help develop, launch, and operate a state-ofthe-art observatory for use by the international astronomy community to significantly advance our understanding of the origin and destiny of the universe; the 

creation and evolution of the first stars and galaxies to form after the Big Bang; 

the formation of stars and planetary systems within the Milky Way Galaxy; and 

characteristics of planetary systems, including our own.

The JWST remains on schedule for launch in October 2018. The program 

achieved several important milestones during FY 2014. During the period of 

October through December 2013, the JWST program completed major pieces of 

ground support equipment for the Integrated Science Instrument Module (ISIM) to 

be used during testing at Johnson Space Center in 2016, delivered the last Primary 

Mirror Segment to Goddard Space Flight Center, and installed new detector focal 

plane arrays into the Near Infrared Camera (NIRCam) earlier than forecasted. 

JWST also completed its Spacecraft Critical Design Review (CDR) in June 2014. 

During the final quarter of FY 2014, two important milestones were accomplished 

in the Integrated Science Instrument Module element: the completion of the 

new near-infrared detectors for the Near InfraRed Spectrograph (NIRSpec) and 

the combined Fine Guidance Sensor (FGS)/Near Infrared Imager and Slitless 

Spectrograph (NIRISS). Additionally, the successful completion of the new 

NIRSpec microshutters means that hardware is well ahead of their need dates. 

With the completion of these items, all hardware elements are now ready for the 

activities that will occur in the first and second quarters of FY 2015 to change 

out science instrument hardware in preparation for the final science instrument 

cryovacuum tests.

Joint Agency Satellite Division

The Joint Agency Satellite Division (JASD) was established in 2010 to more 

efficiently manage NASA’s fully reimbursable satellite and instrument development program, which includes NOAA-funded missions. JASD offers Federal 
39Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

agencies a single interface for planning, development, and management of their 

satellite projects.

In FY 2014, JASD, in partnership with NOAA and the Air Force, launched 

the Total Solar Irradiance Calibration Transfer Experiment (TCTE), which was 

designed to continue measurements of the Total Solar Irradiance (TSI). These 

measurements are used to measure energy output from the sun at all wavelengths, 

which is the primary energy source that drives climate on Earth and determines if solar energy changes influence Earth’s climate. The successful launch 

of TCTE allowed the continuity of a 34-year-long data record of this critical 

TSI measurement.

Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate

The Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate (ARMD) established a new 

strategic vision in the FY 2014 NASA Strategic Plan, which identified six new 

strategic research thrusts: safe, efficient growth in global operations; innovation 

in commercial supersonic aircraft; ultra-efficient commercial vehicles; a transition to low-carbon propulsion; real-time, systemwide safety assurance; and assured 

autonomy for aviation transformation. Each thrust (described below) is designed to 

address an important area of research and technology development that will further U.S. leadership in the aviation industry and enhance global mobility. NASA’s 

research is performed with an emphasis on multi-disciplinary collaboration focused 

on the critical, integrated challenges (aligned to the six research thrusts) referred 

to by NASA as convergent research. Together, these research thrusts combine to 

enable safe, sustainable growth in the overall global aviation system while pioneering transformative capabilities that will create game-changing opportunities.

Significant planning for the reorganization of ARMD research programs to align 

with the new strategic thrusts took place during FY 2014. The new program structure resulting from this effort is planned to be implemented starting in FY 2015.

Thrust 1—Safe, Efficient Growth in Global Operation: Within the United 

States, the Next Generation Air Transportation System, or NextGen, remains the 

focus for a modernized air transportation system that will achieve much greater 

capacity and operational efficiency while maintaining or improving safety and 
40Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

other performance measures. ARMD will contribute specific research and technology to enable the continued development of NextGen and beyond. Internationally, 

similar developments, such as the European Union’s Single European Sky Air 

Traffic Management Research effort, are under way and are being globally harmonized through the International Civil Aviation Organization. The projected 

significant growth in air travel also requires sustained focus on reducing safety 

risks to maintain acceptable levels of safety as demand for air service continues 

to grow. ARMD will work with the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the 

Commercial Aviation Safety Team (CAST), and others to contribute research and 

technology addressing current and future safety risks.

Thrust 2—Innovation in Commercial Supersonic Aircraft: Not only could 

the development of efficient, cost-effective, and environmentally sound commercial supersonic transports be a game changer for transcontinental and intercontinental transportation, but it also could provide an opportunity to maintain 

U.S. leadership in aviation systems. Since commercial overland supersonic flight 

is currently prohibited, ARMD’s strategy for the near term (2015–25) is to focus 

on enabling the establishment of a standard for allowable sonic boom. Because 

international routes compose a major share of the potential market for supersonic 

service, ARMD will work with the international standards community to define 

sonic boom levels that will be acceptable to the public. In parallel, ARMD will 

develop and validate analysis tools and technologies intended to enable the design 

and development of supersonic aircraft with low sonic boom.

Thrust 3—Ultra-Efficient Commercial Vehicles: Large leaps in aircraft efficiency, coupled with reductions in noise and harmful emissions, are critical to 

aviation’s roadmap for greatly improved environmental sustainability. ARMD will 

develop critical technologies to enable future generations of subsonic fixed-wing 

and vertical-lift commercial aircraft that demonstrate the needed improvements in 

environmental impacts.

Thrust 4—Transition to Low-Carbon Propulsion: While high levels of aircraft 

and operational efficiency are required for the future, they will not be enough to 

produce absolute reductions in carbon emissions. Therefore, ARMD seeks both 

to enable the use of alternative fuels and to foster a fundamental shift to aircraft 
41Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

propulsion systems that have the potential to produce very low levels of carbon 

emissions relative to the energy used.

Thrust 5—Real-Time Systemwide Safety Assurance: Commercial aviation 

is the safest mode of travel. This accomplishment results from decades of continuous improvement through proactively managing hazards, incidents, and risk 

of accidents. With technology advancements in sensors, networking, data mining, 

prognostics, and other analytic techniques, the aviation community can now envision a day when it can recognize safety risks as they develop in real time in order 

to implement strategies that prevent risks from becoming safety issues. ARMD will 

lead systems research in this technology area and demonstrate the feasibility of 

integrated, systemwide safety assurance.

Thrust 6—Assured Autonomy for Aviation Transformation: Ever-increasing 

levels of automation and autonomy are transforming aviation, and this trend will 

continue to accelerate. The safe integration of unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) 

into the National Airspace System (NAS), for example, requires research in 

several areas, including communications, human-machine interfaces, sense-andavoid capabilities, and separation assurance. ARMD will lead in the research and 

development of new technologies for the safe integration of UAS in the NAS, 

innovative systems verification and validation, advanced human-machine interface 

harmonization, and highly reliable trusted systems.

A report titled “Autonomy Research for Civil Aviation: Toward a New Era of 

Flight” was published by the National Research Council (NRC) in FY 2014 as a 

result of ARMD’s request to convene a committee to develop a national research 

agenda for autonomy in civil aviation. Increasingly Autonomous (IA) systems—

characterized by their ability to perform more complex mission-related tasks with 

substantially less human intervention for more extended periods of time, sometimes at remote distances—are being envisioned for aircraft and for air traffic management and other ground-based elements of the NAS. The report recommended 

a national research agenda in autonomy including eight high-priority research 

projects that should be executed by those in government, industry, and academia 

who are involved in the research, development, manufacture, certification, and 

regulation of IA technologies. In a parallel effort to the NRC study, ARMD established an Inter-Center Autonomy Study Team (ICAST) to assess what technical 
42Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

challenge areas NASA should address. The results of the ICAST effort were 

combined with the NRC study and will be used to further define research efforts 

related to autonomy in aviation.

Aviation Safety Program

The simulation of large transport airplanes in upset conditions remains a topic 

of high interest to commercial aviation as part of the effort to reduce the risk 

of fatal loss-of-control accidents. During FY 2014, the Aviation Safety Program 

demonstrated an aerodynamic model that can enable stall recovery training for 

commercial airline pilots, surpassing the capabilities of current-day simulators. The 

model was determined to be of sufficient fidelity for application to a flight training 

simulator environment, based on recommended simulator certification criteria for 

stalls, being developed by relevant technical research and training organizations. 

The model data were validated by subscale aircraft flight tests, as well as other 

flight test and accident data.

NASA has partnered with engine manufacturers and other Government agencies to conduct Vehicle Integrated Propulsion Research (VIPR) testing with the 

goal of advancing the commercialization and acceptance of propulsion health 

management technologies. This partnership provides a means to test and evaluate 

emerging health-management technologies on a commercial engine, incorporating 

new sensors directly into the engine and evaluating advances in engine diagnostics. During FY 2014, NASA and its partners engaged in detailed planning for 

VIPR testing scheduled for FY 2015. This will be the third in a series of three 

tests, begun in FY 2011, that are related to propulsion health management and 

will include the planned ingestion of volcanic ash into an aircraft-mounted engine 

during a ground test.

Current methods of lightning protection for composites result in unwanted additional weight. NASA is conducting research on a new multifunctional lightning 

strike protection method for aircraft that can also detect and diagnose damage to 

composite structures. Since composites do not have the conductivity of aluminum, manufacturers embed a metal mesh (typically aluminum or copper) on the 

surface of the composite material. The mesh adds conductivity that helps prevent 
43Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

lightning from creating catastrophic damage, but it also adds weight. The new 

method applies a SansEC (sans [without] electric connection) sensor, made of a 

thin, lightweight copper foil, to an aircraft surface, forming a “Smart Skin” layer. 

The conductive, damage-tolerant sensors are capable of determining the physical 

characteristics of the material upon which they are placed, and they can detect and 

diagnose damage in composite materials. Research conducted in FY 2014 demonstrated that the new method successfully meets lightning strike protection requirements with less weight than current methods, and it also detected and diagnosed 

damage scenarios including delamination, punctures, and rips.

During the past 20 years, the aviation industry has documented more than 

200 incidents in which turbofan jet engines have lost power during high-altitude 

flights. For many of these events, the aircraft were flying in the vicinity of heavy 

storm clouds, but with little activity showing on the weather radar at their flight 

altitude. NASA is part of an international team working to improve aviation safety 

by analyzing high-altitude ice crystals using a specially equipped French Falcon 20 

aircraft. The primary goal of the FY 2014 flight campaign, conducted in Darwin, 

Australia, during its summer months, was to collect data on the characteristics of 

weather known to produce high ice water icing conditions. Investigators tested the 

theory that the damage to the engines occurs when planes fly through clouds with 

high concentrations of small ice crystals. The crystals are drawn into the engines, 

where they melt on the warm surfaces inside. This liquid moisture cools the engine 

interior enough to allow ice formation, which degrades engine performance. 

NASA contributed to the European-led High Altitude Ice Crystals (HAIC)/

High Ice Water Content (HIWC) flight campaign by providing instrument and 

meteorological ground support, sensors expertise, satellite imagery, data analysis 

from the Falcon’s onboard weather radar, and cloud expertise using flight data to 

improve modeling algorithms to predict the high ice concentrations. NASA also 

supplied an isokinetic probe that measured the total water content in clouds that 

have high concentrations of ice crystals in the vicinity of oceanic and continental 

thunderstorms. The data captured during this campaign add to the ground-based 

icing research that NASA has already conducted on a full-scale engine under highaltitude ice crystal icing conditions in NASA’s Propulsion Systems Laboratory. This 

research will help the aviation community to better understand the meteorological 
44Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

conditions that cause high concentrations of crystals in certain areas, advancing 

the development of technologies that may someday be able to detect the presence 

of ice crystals or lessen their effects in flight.

NASA’s data-mining research focuses on identifying precursors that often provide an early indication of an impending event that could pose a safety concern. 

Accurate and timely identification of precursor conditions will be a key capability 

in the drive toward more real-time systemwide safety assurance. NASA has developed a suite of capable algorithms that can look for precursors among different data 

types across thousands of recorded flights. In FY 2014, NASA developed methods to improve the reliability of predicting future events through the identification of specific precursors. In particular, NASA examined connections between 

overspeeds and underspeeds (potential safety events) and data patterns occurring 

earlier in the flight (precursors). NASA also expanded its capability to identify 

unusual events (anomalies) in radar track data. This class of algorithms will be 

instrumental in developing broader systemwide safety capabilities that consider 

both onboard and air traffic data.

Through development and testing, NASA also is addressing key challenges 

associated with verification and validation (V&V) methods essential for meeting 

the extremely high levels of safety required for flight-critical systems operating in 

NextGen. During FY 2014, NASA demonstrated use of one of these advanced 

software assurance techniques, Compositional Verification, through the testing of 

an entire flight control system. Compositional Verification enables a system-level 

software safety assessment by breaking down the system into component parts and 

examining the safety properties of each of those components. Formal methods such 

as Compositional Verification allow for more comprehensive and more efficient 

verification and validation of flight-critical systems.

Airspace Systems Program

During FY 2014, NASA continued progress toward Air Traffic Management 

Technology Demonstration-1 (ATD-1), which aims to improve arrival operations 

efficiency while increasing arrival throughput using integrated aircraft-based and 

ground-based automation technologies. The Airspace Systems Program successfully 
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completed a full-scale simulation of air traffic operations utilizing all technologies 

and procedures under development for ATD-1. This marks the end of the first 

phase of demonstration activities that involved the development of prototype 

systems, the integration of all of the technologies, and initial human-in-the-loop 

(HITL) simulations in NASA laboratories. The next phase will involve the development of the demonstration systems, follow-on simulations using FAA facilities 

and personnel, the flight testing of avionics, and the shadow testing of the integrated system. The last phase will finalize the demonstration plans and culminate 

in a field trial in a controlled yet realistic operational environment. Initiated by 

ARMD in FY 2011, ATD-1 is planned to be completed in FY 2017 with a final 

technology transfer to the FAA of an integrated set of terminal arrival tools that 

will allow arriving aircraft to safely fly closer together on more fuel-efficient routes 

to increase capacity; reduce delay; and minimize fuel burn, noise, and greenhouse 

gas emissions. One of the ATD-1 tools, Terminal Sequencing and Spacing (TSS), 

was delivered to the FAA’s Time-Based Flow Management Program and included 

more than 100 technical and programmatic documents. The official ceremony of 

transfer to the FAA was held in July 2014. TSS technology provides information 

to controllers about the speeds they should assign to aircraft as they follow fuelefficient, continuous-descent arrival procedures while passing through a region of 

airspace covering a distance from an airport of about 50 miles.

NASA’s Spot and Runway Departure Advisor (SARDA) is designed to help tower 

controllers improve the efficiency of airport surface operations. Reducing taxi times 

will help to eliminate unnecessary fuel burn, resulting in fewer emissions and less 

impact on the environment. During FY 2014, NASA completed three in a series of 

six HITL experiments using the Agency’s Future Flight Central facility to simulate 

SARDA-enabled operations at the US Airways ramp tower at Charlotte-Douglas 

International Airport. The simulations focused on using a four-sector (ramp) configuration during 2-hour-long scenarios that included arrival and departure rushes 

and turnaround traffic. Arrival and departure rushes examined the usability and 

functionality of NASA’s new touchscreen-based user interface for ramp controllers, 

known as the Ramp Traffic Console, while turnaround traffic evaluated the first 

build of the ramp scheduler, which provides gate pushback advisory times to ramp 

controllers. NASA received positive feedback from the simulation participants. 
46Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

The next HITL simulation will incorporate a more advanced scheduler, providing 

new and enhanced advisories to ramp and tower controllers.

Transition to NextGen is vital to improving system performance, meeting continued growth in air traffic, and increasing the Nation’s mobility to support economic progress. Current modernization of the National Airspace System (NAS) 

is based on evolutionary changes; only one or two major system or technology 

upgrades are introduced at a time to ensure seamless integration and transition. 

There are significant technical risks to inserting multiple technologies simultaneously because the combined integrated impact of future concepts and technologies 

cannot be fully anticipated with current state-of-the-art modeling and simulation 

capabilities. To accelerate the transformation of the NAS, NASA is developing the 

Shadow Mode Assessments Using Realistic Technologies for the National Airspace 

System (SMART-NAS) capability, a live, virtual, and constructive environment 

where alternative future concepts, technologies, air-ground, and human-machine 

architectures can be examined in an integrated fashion to assess NAS-level performance and benefits. As a first step toward development, NASA made awards 

in FY 2014 to four teams tasked with developing an innovative NAS modeling 

architecture that will use a real-time, one-way feed of live aircraft traffic data and 

allow shadow mode testing of advanced, gate-to-gate concepts in an integrated 

fashion to accelerate the application of NextGen technologies.

The Precision Departure Release Capability (PDRC) reduces departure delays, 

fuel consumption, and emissions by enabling efficient aircraft departure and merging into open slots in the congested overhead traffic stream. During FY 2014, the 

Airspace Systems Program conducted research to develop and evaluate PDRC 

enhancements and extend the PDRC concept toward an Integrated Arrival/

Departure/Surface (IADS) scheduling capability. Significant progress was made in 

the development of an operational concept, scheduling algorithm, and prototype 

decision-support tool for Tactical Departure Scheduling–Terminal (TDS-T)—a 

key component of an IADS scheduling concept. TDS-T builds on the PDRC core 

foundation to extend the time-based control of departures to multiple airports, 

with various levels of surveillance equipage, within a terminal area. An initial 

shadow evaluation was conducted at the NASA North Texas Research Station, 

during which traffic management supervisors and front-line managers from the 
47Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

Dallas/Fort Worth (DFW) Terminal Radar Approach Control (TRACON) facility, 

as well as control towers at DFW and Dallas Love airports, all interacted with the 

TDS-T prototype. Provided feedback will be used to further refine the concept 

and technology.

Fundamental Aeronautics Program

During FY 2014, NASA’s Fundamental Aeronautics Program continued to conduct research and provide leadership in efforts to overcome the barriers to successful commercial supersonic aircraft. These include environmental barriers such as 

sonic boom, airport noise, and high-altitude emissions, as well as efficiency barriers 

related to airframe, propulsion, and supersonic operations in the National Airspace 

System. Although work continues in all of these areas, NASA’s current focus is 

on the most significant barrier: sonic boom noise caused by the presence of shock 

waves when an aircraft flies faster than sound. The disturbance caused by sonicboom noise led to the implementation of FAA and international restrictions that 

essentially banned commercial supersonic flight over land, which in turn severely 

limited the potential market for civil supersonic aircraft. The program’s sonic boom 

research addresses two of the most important aspects of the problem with the goal 

of creating key data that regulators can use to create a noise-based standard for certifying overland flight. The first aspect is understanding the sonic boom’s acoustics 

and its impact on a community below, including how people react to hearing sonic 

booms when outside or indoors, and how quiet a boom needs to be before it is not 

considered an annoyance. The second aspect is developing and validating tools 

and techniques to enable the design of supersonic aircraft that produce acceptable 

sonic-boom noise.

In the sonic-boom response area, the FY 2014 efforts focused on understanding 

people’s response to sonic booms heard indoors. The NASA Interior Effects Room 

(IER) was used during FY 2014 to study people’s levels of annoyance in reaction 

to simulated sonic-boom noise of varying degrees. A major accomplishment in 

FY 2014 was the development and validation of software that can simulate sonicboom-induced exterior pressure loading on buildings, transmission through building partitions (walls, windows, etc.), interior radiation of the transmitted pressures, 
48Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

and the resulting indoor acoustic environment. This software will enable researchers to generalize results from the IER to a wider variety of building sizes and types.

In FY 2014, the low-sonic-boom design tool research continued to progress 

toward the completion of a set of enhanced capabilities for full supersonic vehicle 

analysis. Building on previous airframe tool development, the team conducted a 

series of wind tunnel tests to validate tools used to predict the impact of engine 

inlet and nozzle flow on the overall sonic-boom signature.

Continued success in research into the two key aspects of the sonic-boom barrier 

has led NASA to consider what the next logical step toward the development of a 

sonic-boom standard might be. The conclusion reached is that a flight demonstration of low-boom technology is the only way to achieve full validation and collect 

the required community response data in the most realistic environment—that 

of people in their own homes in any typical community. In FY 2014, the program 

completed a feasibility study for a Low Boom Flight Demonstration (LBFD). The 

purposes of this study were to develop a solid set of requirements for an LBFD, study 

conceptual designs that could meet these requirements, and determine if such a 

demonstration would be affordable. Two airframe contractor teams and an internal NASA team participated. The teams were able to identify feasible approaches 

based on new low-boom airframe designs that utilize a significant amount of existing components, such as engines, landing gear, and cockpit systems. The teams 

determined that the requirements of the LBFD could be accomplished with a 

relatively small and therefore affordable demonstrator aircraft. Follow-on efforts, 

aimed at refining the proposed concepts and identifying design risk areas, have 

been initiated. This effort is part of NASA’s overall approach to making informed 

decisions about a future LBFD.

The Fundamental Aeronautics Program conducted detailed structural analyses 

and wind tunnel testing for the truss-braced-wing airliner concept in NASA’s 

Transonic Dynamics Tunnel. This concept was developed in partnership with 

Boeing as part of the Subsonic Ultra Green Aircraft Research (SUGAR) effort 

under NASA’s Advanced Concept Studies for 2035 Subsonic Commercial 

Transport (N+3).1

 The truss-braced wing is a promising technology for lighter1. The vehicles represent a research and development generation known as “N+3,” denoting three 

generations beyond the current commercial transport fleet.
49Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

weight, lower-drag capability in transport aircraft. Post-test analysis verified 

the high-fidelity finite element model of the structure, as well as the favorable 

weight estimates of the wing concept that support the fuel-burn benefits of this 

aircraft configuration.

Additionally, the Fundamental Aeronautics Program conducted analysis and 

testing in NASA’s 14×22-Foot Subsonic Wind Tunnel, which showed the aerodynamic benefits of the D8 concept with its “double-bubble” lifting fuselage and 

unique propulsion system placement. This concept was developed in partnership 

with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), also as part of NASA’s 

Advanced Concept Studies for 2035 Subsonic Commercial Transport (N+3). The 

design replaces the traditional cylindrical fuselage with two partial cylinders placed 

side by side, and the engines sit atop the rear of the fuselage, rather than slung 

beneath the wing, to make use of a technique called Boundary Layer Ingestion, 

where slower-moving air from the wake of the fuselage enters the engines, resulting 

in less fuel consumption for the same amount of thrust. The analysis indicated an 

approximate seven percent benefit in mechanical power of the propulsor when 

comparing a podded engine configuration to the integrated engine configuration. 

Additional tests and analyses are planned in order to expand the characterization 

of the aerodynamic benefit and reduce uncertainty.

Further, the Fundamental Aeronautics Program released a report called “CFD 

Vision 2030 Study: A Path to Revolutionary Computational Aerosciences,”2

 which 

discussed the need to substantially improve the current computational fluid 

dynamics, or CFD, tools in order to meet the challenge of designing future air 

vehicles that will cut fuel consumption, reduce polluting emissions, and fly more 

quietly. The dilemma is that today’s CFD, which simulates airflow around an airplane and through its jet engines, is largely designed to deal with aircraft sporting 

traditional tube-and-wing configurations. And even then, CFD’s full effectiveness through all phases of flight is limited. The report also discussed how new 

algorithms must be written to take advantage of the ever-increasing speed and 

complexity of future supercomputers.

Alternative Fuel Effects on Contrails and Cruise Emissions II (ACCESS II) 

flight testing, staged in FY 2014 from Palmdale, California, was the latest in a 

2. Available at http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20140003093.pdf.
50Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

series of ground and flight tests that began in 2009 to study emissions and contrail formation from new blends of aviation fuels that include biofuel from renewable sources. The ACCESS II campaign is a joint effort under the Fundamental 

Aeronautics Program involving NASA and international partners including the 

German Aerospace Agency (DLR) and the National Research Council (NRC) 

of Canada.

ACCESS I testing, conducted in 2013, showed that the biofuel blends tested 

may substantially reduce the emissions of black carbon, sulfates, and organics. 

The ACCESS II experiment gathered additional data, confirming the results of 

ACCESS I. Information also was gathered to aid in developing theories about contrail formation.

Four research aircraft were involved in the ACCESS II campaign: DLR’s Falcon 

20-E5, NRC’s CT-133, NASA’s four-engine DC-8 flying laboratory, and NASA’s 

HU-25C Guardian. Flying as high as 40,000 feet, the DC-8’s four CFM56 engines 

burned a mix of different fuel blends (either traditional Jet A fuel or a 50-50 blend 

of Jet A and renewable alternative fuel of hydro-processed esters and fatty acids 

produced from camelina plant oil), while the Falcon, Guardian, and CT-133 measured emissions and observed contrail formation from the DC-8.

Understanding the characteristics of burning alternative fuel could enable 

their widespread use as they become more readily available and cost-competitive 

with conventional jet fuels. This research supports the strategic vision of NASA’s 

Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate, part of which is to enable the transition 

of the aviation industry to alternative fuels and low-carbon propulsion systems. 

As part of an international team involved in this research, NASA will share its 

findings with the 24 member nations that make up the International Forum for 

Aviation Research (IFAR). DLR and NRC are participating members of IFAR, and 

NASA is the current chair.

As a promising technology for improving the efficiency of N+3 aircraft designs, 

the Fundamental Aeronautics Program is investing in hybrid gas-electric propulsion system technologies. In FY 2014, studies were completed that resulted in a 

viable conceptual design for a superconducting generator, and work was begun 

to establish a superconductor alternating current (AC) loss facility at the Center 

for Advanced Power Systems (Florida State University). The generator concept 
51Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

established the feasibility of a fully superconducting electric generator to be used 

in a distributed propulsion aircraft configuration. This is a concept that would 

allow multiple electric motors to drive many distributed fans to be used in an 

ultra-efficient hybrid electric aircraft. Additionally, a selection was made to begin 

contractual work on a low-emission, fuel-flexible combustor through the NASA 

Research Announcement process.

Integrated Systems Research Program

The Integrated Systems Research Program’s Environmentally Responsible 

Aviation project focuses on technologies that can simultaneously reduce aircraft 

fuel burn, noise, and emissions. During FY 2014, the project demonstrated, through 

analysis and testing, that the Ultra High Bypass (UHB) propulsion systems can 

be integrated with Hybrid Wing Body (HWB) concepts to meet fuel-burn and 

noise goals. HWB configurations hold the promise of significantly reducing the 

environmental impact for commercial transport aircraft, offering advantages in 

noise reduction and fuel-burn reduction not available to today’s more standard 

tube-and-wing aircraft configurations. Additionally, the UHB engine offers the 

potential to dramatically reduce fuel burn and noise compared to the version of the 

aircraft engine commonly used by airliners today. In FY 2014, NASA continued its 

investigation of UHB technologies by conducting a wind tunnel test of a secondgeneration UHB engine model with optimized fan exit guide vanes. NASA used 

this test to determine the effectiveness of those configurations to reduce noise and 

their impact on the performance of the engine. The wind tunnel results agreed 

with those predicted by state-of-the-art tools. Data from the test will contribute to 

a comprehensive performance database for Modern Ultra High Bypass Propulsor 

technologies that will be used by NASA and industry to update systems studies.

The integration of UAS into the NAS will represent a significant step in 

enabling more automation throughout the NAS. ARMD’s UAS-NAS project contributes capabilities that reduce technical barriers related to the safety and operational challenges associated with enabling routine UAS civil access to the NAS. 

During FY 2014, NASA’s UAS-NAS project conducted an integrated human-inthe-loop simulation as a precursor to a series of flight test campaigns, which will 
52Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

progressively increase the complexity of UAS integration testing that will occur 

over the next two years. The FY 2014 test campaign had three objectives. The first 

was to evaluate air traffic controllers’ acceptance of UAS maneuvers performed in 

order to remain “well clear” of other traffic. The second objective was to examine the effects of advanced traffic displays and tools on the ability of UAS pilots 

to remain well clear of traffic. Finally, the test collected performance metrics to 

determine the interoperability of the UAS sense-and-avoid algorithms and current 

collision-avoidance algorithms. This testing featured the use of the project’s operationally relevant environment, called the Live Virtual Constructive-Distributed 

Environment (LVC-DE). For this test campaign, the LVC-DE included a proofof-concept UAS Ground Control Station and virtual traffic. UAS pilots and air 

traffic controllers participated as test subjects. This was a significant step in the 

development of findings and data associated with the sense-and-avoid, communications, and human system integration performance requirements and guidelines.

In addition, the Integrated Systems Research Program successfully conducted a 

formulation review that approved the implementation of the Advanced Composites 

project. The goal of this five-year project is to reduce the time required for the 

certification of innovative composite materials and structures.

Aeronautics Test Program

During FY 2014, NASA continued to plan and execute targeted investments in 

its capabilities so that the Nation’s aeronautics community would have the tools 

to deliver technology innovations and breakthroughs necessary to address the 

increasingly complex research and development challenges associated with safe 

and effective real-world flight.

Two major activities centered on improvements to data acquisition, capability 

control systems, and the testing of flow quality. First, NASA validated upgrades 

in the data acquisition and control systems for the 10×10-Foot Supersonic Wind 

Tunnel (10×10′ SWT). This upgrade was part of an aggressive program to replace 

obsolete data acquisition and controls, and the 10×10′ SWT was selected as the 

“pilot” tunnel for the wider implementation of a state-of-the-art high-speed data 

acquisition system. The performance of the upgraded 10×10′ SWT will enable 
53Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

ARMD to address the Supersonics Thrust and Technical Challenges in the 

new Strategic Implementation Plan and answers a recommendation from the 

Department of Defense (DOD)–NASA National Partnership for Aeronautical 

Testing Supersonic Assessment for improved supersonic testing capability.

NASA also validated improvements to data accuracy and repeatability, flow 

quality, and productivity at the National Transonic Facility (NTF). These investments improved the tunnel’s speed measurement system through upgraded sensors 

and improved flow quality and repeatability through hardware upgrades. The performance range of a test model was extended through active vibration dampening 

and continuous movement capability. Data accuracy and repeatability were also 

improved through enhanced data-processing equipment and techniques. These 

upgrades enable NASA to increase the accuracy, productivity, and reliability of 

high-Reynolds-number testing at one of the Nation’s most specialized facilities.

Investments in the 10×10′ SWT and NTF will extend the relevancy and availability of current ground-testing capabilities to support the research, development, 

testing, and engineering milestones of NASA and DOD programs and are representative of the strategy to utilize targeted investments to sustain the relevancy of 

testing capabilities for the Nation’s aeronautics community.

Space Technology Mission Directorate

NASA’s Space Technology Mission Directorate (STMD) made major strides 

in 2014, pioneering new technologies and capabilities that added breadth to the 

Nation’s space activities, as well as advancing current and future NASA missions. 

The Directorate is engaged in nine major technology-development programs that 

are under way at each of NASA’s ten Centers located across the United States. 

STMD plays a key role in NASA’s contribution to the Nation’s innovation economy 

through its involvement in several national initiatives, including the Advanced 

Manufacturing Partnership and the National Robotics Initiative.

The Low Density Supersonic Decelerator (LDSD) crosscutting demonstration 

mission successfully flew a rocket-powered, saucer-shaped test vehicle into near 

space in late June from the U.S. Navy’s Pacific Missile Range Facility on Kauai, 

Hawaii. The first of the three experimental test flights planned for this project was 
54Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

designed to determine if the vehicle could reach the altitudes and airspeeds needed 

to test two new breakthrough technologies for landing large payloads on the surface of Mars: the Supersonic Inflatable Decelerator (SIAD) and the Supersonic 

Disk Sail Parachute.

In FY 2014, NASA’s commercial partners completed the testing and validation 

of two new, advanced solar-array systems to further its Solar Electric Propulsion 

project. NASA is working with private companies to develop large, flexible, 

radiation-resistant solar arrays that can be stowed into small, lightweight packages 

for launch. Once deployed, the arrays will provide greater solar power to spacecraft 

than ever attained before. This advanced propulsion project is developing critical 

technologies to enable cost-effective new trips to asteroids, Mars, and beyond. Solar 

electric propulsion also will support a wide variety of commercial spaceflight activities, helping power and guide American commercial spacecraft well into the 21st 

century. NASA’s new system will use ten times less propellant than a comparable, 

conventional chemical propulsion system.

NASA completed the fabrication and integration of a 12.5-kilowatt-class Hall 

thruster in 2014, providing more than twice the power of the current state-of-theart designs. The integration and testing of a 300-volt Power Processing Unit also 

were completed in an effort to more efficiently convert energy on solar electric 

propulsion–powered spacecraft.

The Game Changing Development (GCD) Program produced over 26 new technical “first-in-the-world accomplishments” across a variety of technical areas and 

more than 150 technical papers at 116 technical conferences. In 2014, NASA and 

Boeing collaborated to successfully design and fabricate the largest out-of-autoclave 

composite cryogenic propellant tank ever manufactured. The 18-foot (5.5-meter)-

diameter tank endured a rigorous series of tests over the course of five months 

to replicate the physical stresses launch vehicles experience during flight. This 

structurally efficient design has verified NASA’s capability to develop a large-scale 

cryogenic tank that is 30 percent lighter than the state of the art, with a 25 percent 

reduction in production costs.

The GCD program also had the opportunity to test its technologies in space 

as payloads delivered to the International Space Station via commercial supply 

missions. In August, high-tech legs were attached to the torso of Robonaut 2; these 
55Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

will provide the mobility and flexibility the humanoid robot needs to help astronauts with regular and repetitive tasks inside the Space Station. The NASA 3D 

Printer, developed by Made in Space, arrived at the ISS in September aboard a 

commercial carrier. Matured and tested through the Small Business Innovation 

Research (SBIR) and Flight Opportunities programs, this revolutionary manufacturing technology could provide the capability for the in-space production of 

replacement parts and tools.

NASA selected 522 proposals for a projected total investment of $142 million 

in awards in FY  2014, including 312 SBIR and 32 Small Business Technology 

Transfer (STTR) General Phase I proposals for award to 257 U.S. small businesses 

to conduct feasibility studies. In addition, 109 SBIR and 23 STTR General Phase II 

proposals were selected for negotiations to further expand upon their Phase I proposals. The year 2014 also marked the start of the Commercialization Readiness 

Program at NASA, which contributed $3.1 million to nine infusion and commercialization projects, five of which fell within Space Technology Mission Directorate 

technology areas.

In the Small Spacecraft Technology area, the program completed the demonstration of PhoneSat CubeSats, both off-the-shelf smartphones serving as an 

onboard control system to create an extremely low-cost but capable satellite. The 

program sponsored 13 collaborative projects teaming universities and NASA 

researchers in small spacecraft technology development. In 2014, through STMD’s 

Flight Opportunities Program, commercial partners flew 38 technologies on four 

different commercial platforms. NASA also contracted with four companies to 

integrate and fly technology payloads on commercial suborbital reusable platforms.

STMD fostered 45 activities with 43 other Government agencies. It also evaluated over 2,000 proposals and funded more than 600 selections for awards.

Since 2011, STMD has engaged in more than 450 activities with over 120 accredited universities throughout the country to enable future missions and maintain 

NASA’s continued leadership in space. The Space Technology Research Grants 

(STRG) Program continues to engage the entire spectrum of academic researchers; 

the program has funded research at 86 universities across 38 states with a total 

of 284 grants since its inception. STRG funded 71 new grants during the previous fiscal year to address the Agency’s most difficult space technology challenges, 
56Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

including 54 graduate research fellowships, seven early-career faculty awards, and 

ten early-stage innovation awards. Technical highlights of the awards included a 

robotic field testing of autonomous science and navigation software, the assembly 

of a full six-cell 2D truss using intelligent robots that guide placement and alignment and provide support during the welding of truss members, and the testing 

of first-generation corrosion-resistant membranes to recover water from urine and 

urine brines through osmosis.
57Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

Department of Def

DOD

Aeronautics Activities

Fixed-Wing Aircraft

The Department of Defense continued flight test evaluations of the three F-35 

Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) variants: the F-35A conventional takeoff and landing, 

the F-35B short takeoff and vertical landing, and the F-35C aircraft carrier variant. 

The first live-fire launch of an AIM-120 air-to-air missile from an F-35A occurred 

on October 30, 2013.

The Navy’s F-35C carrier aircraft completed its initial sea trials aboard the USS 

Nimitz. This was a major achievement following the redesign of the arresting hook 

system in 2012. While the Navy has been operating tactical jet aircraft from aircraft carriers for many decades, the F-35C represents a new frontier for naval aviation, integrating a stealth aircraft with an aircraft carrier. As such, many geometric 

challenges result from the shape of a low observable platform coupled with the 

need to retract the arresting hook within an enclosed bay and a single engine configuration. The combination of these constraints creates an arresting hook that is 

significantly shorter in length and positioned closer to the main landing gear than 

in legacy platforms. To further complicate the matter, the volume available in the 

arresting hook bay is so tight that complicated, folding mechanisms are required, 

necessitating a robust balancing of system performance and strength requirements. These factors make what is a seemingly routine task, engaging the Cross 

Deck Pendant (CDP) of an Arresting Gear System on an aircraft carrier, a much 

more significant engineering challenge. To meet the challenge, the Government/
58 industry team had to develop new modeling and analytical techniques to guide the 

design iterations and predict performance ahead of testing. The successful developmental tests during initial sea trials build confidence in the analytical methods, 

which translates into improved future aircraft designs (e.g., Unmanned Carrier 

Launched Airborne Surveillance and Strike aircraft), and preserve the viability of 

the F-35C.

Looking at large aircraft development, the Air Force continued work on the 

KC-46 aerial tanker and C-5 cargo aircraft. The KC-46 program initiated the 

build of four Engineering and Manufacturing Development aircraft in 2014. The 

Air Force started the Reliability Enhancement and Re-engining Program (RERP) 

modification on the first of two C-5C aircraft used to transport outsized NASA 

cargo. The RERP-modified C-5C aircraft will be redesignated as the C-5M. The 

C-5M will have increased range, payload, takeoff thrust, climb performance, and 

fuel efficiency while extending service life until at least 2040.

Rotorcraft

Rotorcraft acquisition, in FY 2014, was highlighted with the Air Force award 

to Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation of a contract to develop a personnel recovery 

vehicle, the HH-60W, based upon the UH-60M platform. The HH-60W will support the Combat Search and Rescue mission.

Rotorcraft development advanced significantly in 2014. The Joint Multi-Role 

(JMR) Technology Demonstrator (TD) program progressed toward flight test. This 

program is a Science and Technology effort designed to demonstrate transformational vertical lift capabilities to prepare DOD for decisions regarding the replacement of the current vertical lift fleet. The TD is composed of two main efforts. 

First, the Air Vehicle Demonstration (AVD) contributed to the design and evolution of enabling technologies for next-generation rotorcraft. Second, the Mission 

Systems Architecture Demonstration (MSAD) will define and exercise architectures and processes for acquisition of a next-generation mission equipment package.

The TD aircraft configurations and technologies will demonstrate vehicle concepts that have a carrying payload of 12 troops and four crewmembers, hover out 

of ground effect (HOGE) at an ambient condition of 6,000 feet and 95 degrees 
59Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

Fahrenheit, 2,100-nautical-mile self-deployment range, and speed of at least 

230 knots. The real challenge is to meet the hover, cruise, and speed specifications at an affordable cost. JMR TD efforts were tailored to characterize vehicle 

flight performance and efficiency, verify analytical tools and methods, and reduce 

the technical risk of continued vehicle development in expectation of the Future 

Vertical Lift (FVL) program of record.

The aircraft flown during the AVD effort is a technology demonstrator, as 

opposed to a prototype (Y-plane) or an X-plane. The TD is an aircraft sized to 

a realistic, representative set of capabilities that demonstrate innovative features 

and advanced technologies to meet specific goals. The aircraft is sized appropriately to understand interactional aerodynamics and loads along with stability and 

control issues.

Technology Investment Agreements (TIAs) were awarded to four industry teams 

to cover the entire scope of work through the flight test. The initial design and risk 

reduction (ID&RR) work was completed in FY 2014, and two of the four vendors 

will continue the program through flight testing.

Through this program, the Army demonstrated significant advances in technologies that will improve helicopter safety, survivability, mission performance, 

and maintainability.

DOD conducted significant research and development efforts in 2014 with the 

goal of increasing operational capabilities in degraded visual environments (DVE). 

Together with the Air Force and industry partners, the Army completed the 3D 

Landing Zone (3D-LZ) Joint Capability Demonstration at Yuma Proving Ground. 

The 3D-LZ system integrates advanced pilot display symbology with digital terrain 

elevation data (DTED), advanced guidance algorithms, and Laser Detection and 

Ranging (LADAR) sensor imagery on a panel-mounted display to enhance pilot 

situational awareness and cueing in DVE. Significant improvements in landing 

performance and reductions in pilot workload were demonstrated in full brownout landings of the UH-60 Black Hawk at Yuma. The Army also demonstrated 

Modernized Control Laws (MCLAWS) for the Black Hawk that further improve 

flight performance and reduce pilot workload in DVE as part of the test at Yuma. 

The Air Force Research Laboratory also successfully tested a first-of-its-kind, 
60 LADAR-based system, as part of a Joint Capability Technology Demonstration, 

which allows for rotary wing operations in DVE.

In addition to the service efforts, DARPA’s Multifunction Radio Frequency 

(MFRF) program also seeks to overcome the challenges of operating helicopters in 

DVE encountered in severe weather, in dust kicked up during takeoff and landing, 

and in conditions of poor visual terrain contrast. During 2014, MFRF completed 

successful flight demonstrations on a UH-60L Black Hawk combat helicopter. 

MFRF enhances the survivability and combat effectiveness of helicopters facing 

degraded visibility. The program develops multifunction sensor technology that 

powers sensor packages small, light, and efficient enough for installation on existing and future helicopter designs, enabling pilots to do the following:

• Take off, fly, and land safely in degraded and zero-visibility conditions.

• Avoid collisions with other aircraft, terrain, and humanmade obstacles 

(e.g., power lines). 

• Improve target detection, identification, and engagement.

The Synthetic Vision Avionics Backbone (SVAB) technology portion of the 

program provides these capabilities. The SVAB technology demonstration fused 

millimeter-wave radar with multiple terrain databases and onboard platform navigation to create high-resolution 2D and 3D visualizations of local environmental 

conditions. Pilots referred to the visualizations, in real time, to distinguish terrain features (slope, roughness, landing suitability), detect objects in a landing 

zone, detect and avoid obstacles, and navigate in GPS-denied conditions. The 

software architecture of the SVAB also demonstrated plug-and-play sensor control 

and display.

In a related effort, the Army demonstrated a complete autonomous resupply mission on a Black Hawk helicopter and developed Obstacle Field Navigation (OFN) 

and Safe Landing Area Determination (SLAD) algorithms, which were integrated 

with a long-range LADAR sensor on the RASCAL JUH-60 research helicopter, 

enabling high-speed autonomous flight in mountainous terrain.

Aerodynamic developments in rotorcraft were highlighted by the Army’s Active 

Rotor Components Demonstration (ARCD) Hub Mounted Vibration Suppressor 

(HMVS) and their Active Flow Control research. In conjunction with Sikorsky 

Aircraft, ARCD demonstrated significant reductions in structural loads and 
61Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

vibration on a Black Hawk helicopter. The ability to significantly reduce loads 

with Load Alleviating and Damage Adaptive Control Laws was also part of the 

Combat Tempered Platform Demonstration (CTPD) program. Active Flow Control 

research demonstrated 20 percent reductions in helicopter drag and downloading 

in forward flight using the NASA Langley 14×22-Foot Subsonic Wind Tunnel. 

This research is aiding the development of the next generation of active flow control actuators for rotary wing applications. The Army is collaborating with the 

Israel Ministry of Defense (MOD) on this development.

In software development, the Army released version 4.2 of its “Helios” modeling 

and simulation software for rotorcraft aeromechanics. In addition to previously 

existing capabilities for high-fidelity simulations of full-vehicle rotor and fuselage 

combinations, Helios v4.2 adds an option to bring NASA’s overset grid computational fluid dynamics flow solver (OVERFLOW) into the Helios framework. This 

addition of OVERFLOW to Helios allows for faster and more accurate simulations 

of rotor blade aerodynamics.

Hypersonics

The U.S. Army Space and Missile Defense Command/Army Forces Strategic 

Command conducted extensive wind tunnel testing at three U.S. facilities during FY 2014 in preparation for the Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) 

Conventional Prompt Global Strike (CPGS) funded Advanced Hypersonic 

Weapon (AHW) Flight Test-2 (FT-2). This test was designed to collect data on 

hypersonic boost-glide technologies for long-range atmospheric flight. NASA’s 

Data Parallel Line Relaxation (DPLR) Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) code 

was used to develop aerodynamic and aerothermal flight predictions. The glidebody model (with extensive instrumentation) was tested in continuous flow and 

blow-down wind tunnel facilities at high Mach numbers. This testing provided 

valuable data used to verify CFD modeling and simulation results and identify 

aerodynamic uncertainties.

The Air Force Research Lab (AFRL) partnered with NASA Langley Research 

Center and NASA Glenn Research Center on hypersonic research in 2014. AFRL 

in-house resources, combined with funding provided to NASA, enabled near-term 
62 expendable weapons and far-term reusable vehicles for atmospheric flight and 

access to space. Accomplishments from this arrangement include CFD analysis of 

the scramjet engines for AFRL’s missile-sized X-51A Scramjet Engine Demonstrator 

(SED) program and the Robust Scramjet program, and testing and analysis to characterize the distortion of the air entering a high-speed turbine engine.

Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS)

On May 29, 2014, the Navy and Northrup Grumman X-47B team were presented 

with the 2013 Robert J. Collier Trophy. The Collier Trophy is awarded annually 

by the National Aeronautic Association “for the greatest achievement in aeronautics or astronautics in America, with respect to improving the performance, efficiency, and safety of air or space vehicles, the value of which has been thoroughly 

demonstrated by actual use during the preceding year.” The X-47B Unmanned 

Combat Air System Demonstrator (UCAS-D) has shown the feasibility of operating unmanned aircraft from Navy aircraft carriers. This demonstration program 

has paved the way for the Unmanned Carrier-Launched Airborne Surveillance and 

Strike (UCLASS) program that is developing the first unmanned aircraft that will 

be fully integrated into the carrier air wing and represents a major milestone in the 

evolution of naval aviation.

Other naval UAS developments in 2014 included the Autonomous Airborne 

Cargo Utility System (AACUS) Innovative Naval Prototype (INP) being developed under a five-year program. This program will deliver a sensor package and 

software suite designed to enable unmanned rotary wing aircraft to perform autonomous takeoff, navigation, approach, and landing to an unprepared landing site 

while performing the assault support mission. Two successful Phase I demonstrations of the prototype were held at Marine Corps Base Quantico in Virginia during 

February and March 2014.

Aurora Flight Sciences demonstrated its Tactical Autonomous Aerial Logistics 

System (TALOS) on the Boeing Unmanned Little Bird aircraft, and Lockheed 

Martin demonstrated the Open-Architecture Planning and Trajectory Intelligence 

for Managing Unmanned Systems (OPTIMUS) on the Kaman K-Max aircraft. 

Aurora Flight Science’s contract option was exercised (April 30, 2014) to perform 
63Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

Phase II, which focuses on capability expansion and technology maturation on the 

same aircraft.

Flight testing of the Orion UAV progressed following the aircraft’s first flight 

on August 24, 2013. The aircraft has made ten successful test flights. Orion has 

expanded its flight-testing envelope to allow for low-speed flight, which is important as Orion has now demonstrated flight at its speed for maximum endurance. 

Performance estimates from these low-speed flights indicate that the goal of fiveday endurance at 20,000 feet with a 1,000-pound payload is now attainable.

The first not-under-live-local-control flight of the Air Force’s QF-16 target drone 

was accomplished on September 19, 2013. This significant flight was a critical part 

of the Air Force’s efforts to replace the aging QF-4.

In FY 2014, the Aerial Reconfigurable Embedded System (ARES) program 

(formerly, the Transformer [TX] program) completed the critical design review, 

conducted component wind tunnel testing, fabricated custom components, and 

acquired power plant and drive-train components. ARES is a vertical takeoff and 

landing (VTOL) flight module designed to operate as an unmanned platform capable of transporting a variety of payloads up to 3,000 pounds. The ARES VTOL 

flight module is designed to have its own power system, fuel, digital flight controls, 

and remote command-and-control interfaces. Twin tilting ducted fans provide 

efficient hovering and landing capabilities in a compact configuration, with rapid 

conversion to high-speed cruise flight.

Aircraft Engines, Subsystems, Components, and Other

Aeronautical Developments

The Air Force Research Laboratory’s Adaptive Versatile Engine Technology 

(ADVENT) program successfully completed ground testing of core and engine 

technology demonstrators in FY 2014. The ADVENT technologies will enable a 

25 percent reduction in specific fuel consumption and a 30 percent increase in 

operating range for next-generation combat aircraft. The core engine achieved 

all major test objectives while demonstrating key technologies such as lightweight, heat-resistant ceramic matrix composite materials, cooled cooling air, and 

advanced compressor aerodynamics. Following the core testing, the world’s first 
64 adaptive cycle engine completed testing and accomplished nearly all critical test 

objectives, including a demonstration of the adaptive fan technology, variable 

engine features, and three-stream heat sink capacity throughout the engine operating range. A fully detailed assessment of the engine’s performance is in progress 

at AFRL.

Risk reduction component testing and core engine preliminary design reviews 

were completed under AFRL’s Adaptive Engine Technology Development (AETD) 

program. AETD provides technology maturation and risk reduction for fuelefficient adaptive component technologies for low-risk accelerated engine developments supporting multiple future combat aircraft. Key deliverables include an 

acquisition quality engine preliminary design and critical risk-reduction ground 

testing of adaptive fans and core components by 2016.

Airborne Weapons Systems and Missiles

The B-2 Defensive Management System (DMS) is a principal enabler for aircraft survivability for the B-2 stealth bomber. The legacy DMS Threat Emitter 

Locator System (TELS) detects, identifies, and locates enemy radar systems and 

provides real-time threat avoidance, threat warning, and threat situational awareness information to the aircrew via the Tactical Situation Display. The B-2 DMS 

Modernization program will address current system limitations by replacing TELS 

and its associated antennas with a more current electronic support measures subsystem and antennas for improved threat detection.

Aircraft Safety and Survivability

The Navy recently completed a technology demonstration of the Joint Precision 

Approach and Landing System (JPALS). The ship-based JPALS included auto 

landings by F/A-18C Hornets on the deck of the aircraft carrier USS Theodore 

Roosevelt. JPALS is a GPS-based precision approach and landing system that will 

help ship-based aircraft land in all weather conditions, initially providing guidance 

to a decision height of 200 feet and half-nautical-mile visibility. While JPALS was 

originally a tri-service program with multiple increments, it has been restructured 
65Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

into one increment to support the F-35B and F-35C, as well as UCLASS aircraft. 

JPALS will allow for coupled, auto-landing functionality via two-way data link.

A dramatic reduction in pilot workload during F/A-18 carrier landings was demonstrated in flight simulations at the Naval Air Warfare Center, Aircraft Division, 

Patuxent River, Maryland. Sponsored by the Office of Naval Research, the 

Maritime Augmented Guidance with Integrated Controls for Carrier Approach 

and Recovery Precision Enabling Technologies (MAGIC CARPET) project 

developed a combination of integrated direct lift control, flight path control augmentation, and ship-relative heads-up display, which allowed pilots to consistently 

conduct precision landings on the carrier with minimal pilot compensation. This 

capability is now planned for implementation in operational F/A-18E/F/G and 

F-35C aircraft. Greater ease in carrier landings will result in enhanced safety and 

the ability to shift valuable training resources from carrier qualification to complex 

mission training.

The Air Force completed testing and began fielding of the Automatic Ground 

Collision Avoidance System (Auto GCAS) on its Block 40/50 F-16s. If the system 

determines that there is an impending controlled flight into terrain (CFIT), the 

flight controls automatically roll the aircraft upright and pull up to avoid a ground 

collision. Auto GCAS is a significant improvement to F-16 flight safety since an 

estimated 25 percent of aircraft losses and 75 percent of all F-16 fatalities are caused 

by CFIT.

Automatic Air Collision Avoidance System (Auto ACAS), flight testing was 

performed at Edwards Air Force Base (AFB) from March to September of 2014. A 

total of 32 flight test missions were conducted. Twelve of the flights consisted of 

flying a single F-16 against a virtual target to gather an initial assessment on algorithm performance and act as a safety buildup to two-ship testing. The remainder 

of the testing consisted of 19 two-ship flights and 1 three-ship flight where the collision avoidance algorithm was evaluated for both collision avoidance performance 

and nuisance potential.
66 Space Activities

Launch and Range Operations and Spacelift Developments

The Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV) program continued to successfully place satellites into orbit during FY 2014. United Launch Alliance (ULA) 

continued its record of 100 percent success, with 12 launches. Eight of these 

launches were national security space (NSS) missions. These launches included 

three GPS IIF launches.

In FY 2014, the Airborne Launch Assist Space Access (ALASA) completed 

the preliminary design review for the demonstration system, developed detailed 

planning and operations concepts for testing, and conducted second- and thirdgeneration engine tests.

The ALASA program makes access to space more affordable by reducing the 

cost per launch to less than $1 million per flight, improves the responsiveness of 

space access by reducing the interval from call-up to launch to a single day, escapes 

the limitations of fixed launch sites by achieving a greater flexibility in the direction and location of launch, and demonstrates the ability to move its operations 

from one airfield to another in 12 hours.

Range modernization efforts continued in FY 2014 with the following activities:

• The awarding of the Modernization Eastern Range Network (MEN) contract ($44 million) in November 2013, which will upgrade the Eastern 

Range (ER) mission communications core to address obsolescence issues 

and improve cyber protection.

• The awarding of the ER Command Destruct Modernization (ERCDM) 

contract ($45 million) in September 2014, which will resolve obsolete 

range safety and positive control assets used to terminate an errant 

vehicle, if necessary, in order to ensure public safety during space and ballistic missile launches. Additionally, ERCDM will improve the ER cyber 

posture with the introduction of newer, more secure destruct codes for 

NSS missions.
67Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

• The delivery of a new weather computer at the Eastern Range, which 

resolved an obsolescence issue and eliminated a constant threat of launch 

delay with the legacy computer.

• The commissioning of a new 44-foot antenna and a new Command 

Transmitter site on the Western Range.

• The successful transitioning of EELVs to GPS Metric Tracking, which 

eliminated the reliance on legacy radars for tracking EELV launches for 

the purposes of protecting public safety.

• The continued development of multiple recapitalization projects designed 

to improve various range assets conducted under the Air Force’s Spacelift 

Range System Contract (SLRSC). The Spacelift Range System (SLRS, 

which is also known as the Launch and Test Range System [LTRS]) is 

composed of 11 subsystems at the Eastern and Western Ranges (headquartered at Patrick AFB, Florida, and Vandenberg AFB, California, respectively) that provide tracking, telemetry, flight safety, and other support 

to space launches, ballistic missile tests, and aeronautical testing. SLRS 

supports NASA satellite and International Space Station (ISS) crew 

resupply launches.

The National Space Transportation Policy (NSTP) signed by the President on 

November 21, 2013, included guidance for DOD and NASA to continue to enhance 

the space launch infrastructure, including investing in the modernization of current infrastructure to meet evolving space transportation needs and capabilities.

Position, Navigation, and Timing (PNT)

In September 2014, the GPS III Navigation Panel arrived at the Lockheed 

Martin facility in Denver to undergo thermal vacuum testing. The modernized 

GPS III satellite program provides a Standard Positioning Service to a broad spectrum of civil and Government users. It will also transmit a new civil signal (L1C), 

which is compatible with the European Galileo satellite navigation signal, E1. L1C 

is also compatible with those signals planned for broadcast on Japan’s Quasi-Zenith 

Satellite System, which is meant to augment GPS services. Once implemented, the 

common civil signal will be jointly broadcast by up to 60 satellites from both GPS 
68 and Galileo constellations, further increasing the accuracy and availability of civil 

PNT solutions. In addition, the Air Force successfully launched a fifth, sixth, and 

seventh GPS Block IIF satellite in February, May, and August.

In 2014, the Air Force moved forward with a revised acquisition approach that 

will put M-Code (military) GPS receivers into users’ hands up to five years ahead 

of schedule. The Military GPS User Equipment (MGUE) Increment 1 program 

began in September 2012. It is the first increment of M-Code-capable GPS user 

equipment that will deliver significantly improved capability to counter current 

and emerging PNT threats and enable military operations in GPS-denied and 

Navigation Warfare environments, where current and legacy receiver performance 

would be compromised.

Satellite Communications (SATCOM)

The Advanced Extremely High Frequency (AEHF) satellite 3 was launched on 

September 18, 2013, and was transferred to operational control in March 2014. The 

constellation achieved early operational use of AEHF satellites 1–3 in May 2014. 

The AEHF Program Office also successfully completed Integrated Multi-Service 

Operational Test and Evaluation (MOT&E) on September 26, 2014. Furthermore, 

the Program Executive Officer (PEO) for Space Systems certified the AEHF system 

ready for Air Force Operational Test and Evaluation Center (AFOTEC)–Dedicated 

MOT&E on October 16, 2014.

The Enhanced Polar System (EPS) successfully achieved its acquisition 

Milestone B on April 30 and passed its critical design review (CDR) on July 22. 

In support of these acquisition milestones, the first payload was successfully integrated onto the host spacecraft in FY 2014 and is now ready to support the host’s 

launch date in FY 2015. EPS will replace the interim polar system (IPS) to ensure 

that critical protected communications requirements, above 65° north latitude, are 

satisfied for joint warfighters.

The Wideband Global SATCOM (WGS) system declared Full Operational 

Capability (FOC) on May 12, 2014. The WGS system met all requirements for FOC 

declaration as outlined in the approved WGS Initial Operating Capability (IOC)/

FOC Plan. WGS is a high-capacity and very flexible, “commercial-like” SATCOM 
69Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

system supporting various missions of the Unified Combatant Commanders 

(UCCs), military services, and other agencies. The WGS is composed of space, 

control, and terminal segments. The space segment consists of five DOD-owned 

“commercial-like” communication satellites that supplement existing DODowned Wideband SATCOM systems by providing military X-band and Ka-band 

broadcast services.

The Navy’s Satellite Communications program office oversaw continued production of three Mobile User Objective System (MUOS) satellites at the Lockheed 

Martin Space Systems facility in Sunnyvale, California. Two MUOS satellites are 

already on orbit and available for operational use, two satellites are scheduled to 

launch in 2015, and the last scheduled launch is set for 2016. MUOS provides 

narrowband communications using two separate payloads, a legacy UHF capability 

and a new Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA) payload. The 

MUOS constellation will replace the aging UHF Follow-On (UFO) constellation 

and allow time for the joint force to transition from UFO and other legacy systems 

to WCDMA’s more modern cellular phone technology and its increased capability.

Indications and Warning

The Space Based Infrared System (SBIRS) provides missile warning and supports missile defense, technical intelligence, and battlespace awareness mission 

areas. The nominal constellation consists of four Geosynchronous Earth Orbit 

(GEO) satellites, two hosted sensors in Highly Elliptical Orbit (HEO), and associated ground elements.

GEO-1 and GEO-2 satellites are operating on orbit, having been certified for 

operations in August 2013 and December 2013, respectively. GEO-3 and GEO-4 

satellites and HEO-4 replenishment payload all continue production with no major 

issues. After extensive negotiations, the Air Force awarded a fixed-price contract 

for a block buy of GEO-5 and GEO-6 satellite production in June 2014 that saved 

the Government 1.5 billion dollars compared to the initial cost estimate for two 

individual satellite buys. The Air Force also continued development of the ground 

segment with a goal of consolidating the operations into a single source for processing and dissemination of fused Overhead Persistent Infrared (OPIR) data. With an 
70Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

eye towards maintaining this vital national capability, the department also initi-

ated an analysis of alternatives in 2014 to examine the way ahead for the OPIR 

enterprise beyond GEO-6.

Satellite Control and Space Situational Awareness

The Air Force Satellite Control Network (AFSCN) is a globally distributed network of control nodes and tracking stations that deploys, commands, and controls 

over 170 satellites. NASA is one of the many customers utilizing the AFSCN for 

launch and on-orbit satellite operations.

The AFSCN consists of 15 antennas in eight locations around the globe. In 

January 2014, Air Force Space Command (AFSPC) operationally accepted four 

Remote Tracking Station Block Change (RBC) upgrades, replacing the end-oflife tracking systems with new electronics, antennas, and radomes (Oakhanger, 

England; Kaena Point, Hawaii; New Boston, New Hampshire; and Guam, Northern 

Mariana Islands). For the remaining seven systems, the Air Force will retain the 

legacy antennas and replace the electronics so that all 15 antennas will have the 

same core system of electronics. In FY 2014, the Air Force installed and initiated 

checkout of two of the seven hybrid RBCs (Diego Garcia and Hawaii) and awarded 

a contract for a third hybrid RBC at Vandenberg AFB, California.

In FY 2014, the Air Force awarded a contract to Honeywell to develop a new 

Enhanced High Power Amplifier (eHPA). The AFSCN is considered the “9-1-1” 

of space because its high power capability can be used to make contact with tum-

bling and nonresponsive satellites when normal power levels are inadequate. The 

eHPA project develops a replacement for the obsolete, existing HPAs to ensure 

this capability is available to the worldwide network and 170 satellites well into the 

next decade. This effort will develop a single article and will be the basis for future 

eHPA procurements in the out years.

In August 2014, the Air Force awarded a $13 million Unified S-Band (USB) 

contract to Honeywell to incorporate dual-band capability into the Transportable 

Remote Tracking Stations (RTS) for S-band waveform uplink and downlink of 

command, ranging, telemetry, and tracking of spacecraft. This award is for a single 

article only.
71Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

Following the program’s restructure in 2012, the Family of Beyond Line of Sight 

Terminals (FAB-T) program selected Raytheon as the production contractor for 

the FAB-T Command Post Terminals (CPTs) in June 2014. The program completed 

flight testing in 2014. The FAB-T CPT will provide command and control of the 

AEHF constellation of protected, survivable SATCOM satellites and provide command and control of nuclear forces to the President.

In November 2012, the Joint Space Operations Center (JSpOC) Mission System 

(JMS) Increment 1 program delivered a space-situational-awareness system capable 

of command and control of space forces and predictive battlespace management 

to JSpOC. JMS uses a service-oriented architecture and common operating picture 

that is tailorable by the user. JMS is an Agile IT program, delivering capabilities 

in a series of increments. Increment 1 has been in continuous use since November 

2012 and has operated for over 10,000 hours without critical failure and supported 

multiple high-profile events throughout 2013. In 2014, Increment 2 is replacing the 

legacy systems with a modernized, scalable, extensible, and sustainable platform.

Two Geosynchronous Space Situational Awareness Program (GSSAP) satellites were launched aboard AFSPC-4 from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, 

Florida, on July 28, 2014. GSSAP satellites support Joint Functional Component 

Command for Space (JFCC Space) tasking to collect Space Situational Awareness 

(SSA) data, allowing for more accurate tracking and characterization of humanmade orbiting objects. From a near-geosynchronous orbit, they have a clear, unobstructed, and distinct vantage point for viewing Resident Space Objects (RSOs) 

without the interruption of weather or the atmospheric distortion that can limit 

ground-based systems.

The Space Fence engineering, manufacturing, development, production, and 

deployment contract was awarded to Lockheed Martin on June 2, 2014. The Space 

Fence radar system will improve SSA ground capabilities by providing un-cued surveillance of small objects and satellites in low- and medium-Earth orbit to provide 

spaceflight safety, early detection and custody of threats, and awareness to satellite 

operators in the crewed spaceflight regime. IOC is planned for FY 2019, and site 1 

will be located on Kwajalein Atoll, Republic of Marshall Islands.

In early FY 2014, Secretary of Defense Chuck Hagel and Australian Defense 

Minister David Johnston signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) 
72 approving the relocation of the Space Surveillance Telescope (SST) from White 

Sands Missile Range, New Mexico, to the Harold E. Holt Naval Communication 

Station in Exmouth, Western Australia. This move represents a significant initiative under the Australia-U.S. Space Situational Awareness Partnership and will 

provide an important capability for both Australia and the United States. The 

United States and Australia enjoy an increasingly fruitful relationship in the SSA 

mission area. C-band radar is the first major shared capability for both nations. 

The radar will soon become the only U.S. near-Earth-dedicated SSA sensor in 

the Southern Hemisphere. C-band radar will provide excellent satellite detection 

tracking and identification capability along with extremely accurate space object 

positional data, as well as the ability to increase maneuver detection and conjunction assessment capabilities. SST technology enables faster discovery and tracking 

of previously unseen, hard-to-find small objects in geosynchronous orbits. SST is 

another step forward with Australia and is a cornerstone to fulfilling SSA requirements to find, fix, track, and characterize deep space small objects. In 2014, an 

MOU was signed by the Air Force and the Defense Advanced Research Projects 

Agency (DARPA) outlining a cooperation plan between the organizations in the 

deployment of SST. The system leverages multiple technology improvements to 

provide orders-of-magnitude enhancements in search rate and sensitivity compared 

to existing ground telescopes. Australia will operate both systems in partnership 

with the United States.

In 2014, other SSA modernization efforts included the successful operational acceptance of the Ground-based Electro Optics Deep Space Surveillance 

(GEODSS) Sensor Controller Group Service Life Extension Program (SLEP). 

This capability replaces aging and unsupportable mission-critical subsystems 

with modern sustainable components to allow the system to continue providing 

time-critical deep space tracking information. The system is currently starting the 

design process for an additional SLEP of its Data Processing Group. In addition, the 

Eglin Radar is nearing completion of a SLEP of its Control and Signal Processor 

to extend the life of the phased array radar dedicated to finding and tracking nearEarth and deep space objects.
73Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

Other Space Developments

In 2014, the Operationally Responsive Space (ORS) Office continued to support 

the on-orbit operations of the ORS-1 satellite, which launched in June 2011 from 

NASA’s Wallops Flight Facility in Virginia. Although designed with a service life 

of two years, ORS-1 continued to support U.S. Central Command through 2014. 

Additionally, ORS continued to directly support Joint Force Commander needs 

with the development of ORS-5 to satisfy a validated U.S. Strategic Command 

need. ORS-5 will demonstrate SSA (wide-area search capability) of the geosynchronous orbit belt with a small satellite in low-Earth orbit. ORS-5, scheduled to launch 

in 2017, will also provide risk reduction to the Space Based Space Surveillance 

Follow-On (SBSS FO) program and develop and demonstrate ORS enablers and 

principles. Beyond ORS-5, the ORS Office will continue operations at Kirtland 

AFB, New Mexico, providing enabler development; continuing the transferring of 

technology, lessons learned, ideologies, etc., to existing space programs; and infusing the ORS precepts into all space programs.

The Air Force Ground Based Strategic Deterrent team completed a low-cost, 

reduced-scope Analysis of Alternatives to examine options for a follow-on to the 

Minuteman III intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM). The analysis was completed on time and recommended a new missile system to provide increased capability while complementing Minuteman III basing and physical specifications.

The Space Security and Defense Program (SSDP) is a joint DOD and Office of 

the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI) organization established to function 

as the center of excellence for options and strategies (materiel and nonmateriel), 

leading to a more resilient and enduring National Security Space Enterprise. In the 

past year, the program implemented cyber support to defensive space alternatives 

and provided assessments and solutions for hosted payloads. Additionally, SSDP 

is conducting a number of campaign-specific efforts that integrated intelligence 

with operations to ensure the resilience of space systems in a contested environment. As a result of SSDP efforts, rapid prototyping capabilities were developed 

and integrated for key space mission areas. SSDP developed and delivered validated 

response options to Combatant Commanders (COCOMs) for emerging threats 
74 and fully incorporated a pathfinder process for integrating new and revised space 

concepts into U.S. Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM) operations and plans.

In the last few years, the Army has been involved in research and technology 

efforts to explore military utility for small satellite concepts. The Army is exploring 

ways that space-based information can be shared quickly and in direct response to 

communications and/or imagery needs of the tactical ground force commander. 

The goal is for small satellites to be under the direct control of a tactical ground 

force commander who has a mobile antenna and handheld device or laptop computer. Persistent capability can be provided through optimized constellations of 

these small satellites arrayed to support designated regions of interest.

In FY 2014, five of these small satellites were placed in orbit by two different 

launch vehicles. The five satellites represented four different designs and all used 

the standard 3U cube satellite structural configuration. The results of these flights 

were mixed, but all continued to substantiate the thesis that small CubeSat-class 

satellites can perform relevant military functions for U.S. ground warfighters. In 

FY 2014, three advanced versions of the U.S. Army Space and Missile Defense 

Command (SMDC) Nanosatellite Program (SNaP) communications CubeSat 

were developed and built. All three were manifested for an Atlas V launch during FY 2015. The deployment of these advanced CubeSats will commence the 

Military Utility Assessment of SNaP. The two Kestrel Eye Block II imaging spacecraft are nearing completion and also are manifested for launch in FY 2015. Like 

SNaP, Kestrel Eye will be the focus of a Military Utility Assessment. The SoldierWarfighter Operationally Responsive Deployer for Space (SWORDS) small tactical launch system successfully completed initial first stage engine testing on a test 

stand at the Marshall Space Flight Center. Work completed on SWORDS will be 

made available to future launch vehicle technology.
75Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

federal aviaTion

Administrat

FAA

NextGen

Houston Metroplex

In 2014, the Federal Aviation Administration’s (FAA) Next Generation Air 

Transportation System, or NextGen, saw tremendous successes with its Metroplex 

project. A metroplex is a large, metropolitan area with multiple airports in close 

proximity, with shared airspace, that form a system serving one or more major cities. A metroplex has at least one, but often two or more, major commercial airports.

Each metroplex has its own unique system of airports, aircraft, weather patterns, 

and geography that have to be considered. Additionally, each metroplex contends 

with multiple airports that share the same airspace. All of these factors can lead to 

congestion, reduced efficiencies, and delays.

In collaboration with the aviation industry, the FAA has identified 14 metroplexes where improved performance will benefit not only the region, but the entire 

national airspace system.

The FAA’s goal is to improve the way aircraft navigate these complex areas to 

make flight routes and airport access more efficient. This new way of operating can 

reduce fuel burn and emissions and improve on-time performance.

The solutions, built on precise satellite-based navigation, smooth out flightpaths 

and limit costly level-offs. By realigning conventional routes and shifting airspace 

boundaries, the FAA continues to use NextGen solutions to make air travel more 
76 efficient. This includes improving traffic flow on the airport surface, using new 

standards to increase arrival and departure options, and creating faster connections to the most efficient flightpaths.

In one of the agency’s first airspace redesigns, Houston Metroplex launched 61 

new routes into and out of the area’s four airports in spring 2014. The initiative 

includes an improved merging technique that begins aligning planes hundreds of 

miles away.

The new flightpaths streamline arrivals and departures at George Bush 

Intercontinental, David Wayne Hooks Memorial, William P. Hobby, and Sugar 

Land Regional airports. These procedures no longer use the familiar zigzag pattern 

to cross over a series of navigation aids installed on the ground. Instead, aircraft 

using the Global Positioning System (GPS) for satellite navigation can now fly 

directly on paths that FAA designers and controllers, as well as airlines, have determined to be the best courses. New arrival paths allow for a continuous descent 

instead of the frequent level-offs required in the past. Guidance systems know 

where the aircraft is located to within a matter of feet.

This new technology allows for greater predictability, which may provide pilots 

and controllers with more time to focus on landing.

The FAA is also using the clock to get the best use possible of the new procedures. The agency leveraged an existing tool that is being upgraded with Time 

Based Flow Management (TBFM) capability to help manage an aircraft’s flight to 

Houston—in some cases, even before the plane takes off.

Today, a flight leaving Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International will get 

NextGen help from TBFM as controllers in the tower consult with controllers who 

will clear departing aircraft into an overhead stream of air traffic.

One of the functions of TBFM is to determine the best takeoff time for a departing aircraft to merge into high-altitude traffic. Aircraft merging is similar to a car 

on a ramp merging with fast-moving cars on a highway.

Once the aircraft is cruising along smoothly at high altitude, TBFM keeps an 

eye on things.

As the aircraft gets within a few hundred miles of Houston, TBFM is crunching 

numbers to look at the route of flight, speed, and how winds at cruising altitude 

are affecting the aircraft’s progress. The goal is to establish the time at which the 
77Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

aircraft should arrive on the runway. When the aircraft begins flying one of the 

new arrival procedures, it is not likely to need to hold, which burns time and fuel 

while the aircraft waits to land.

Houston Metroplex data have yet to be aggregated and analyzed, but so far, the 

new approach seems to be living up to its promise of increased fuel efficiency, less 

noise, and reduced emissions.

ADS-B in the Gulf of Mexico

In February 2014, aircraft equipped with Automatic Dependent Surveillance—

Broadcast (ADS-B), a key NextGen technology, began taking advantage of more 

direct routes over the Gulf of Mexico.

When other flights have to divert around thunderstorms in the Gulf, ADS-B–

equipped flights maintain direct routes, saving time and fuel. There are radar coverage gaps offshore in the Gulf of Mexico, so air traffic controllers cannot normally 

track aircraft continuously with the necessary precision to enable such slight diversions to the south. A thunderstorm would normally require controllers to reroute 

a flight to where there is radar coverage, thus adding time to a trip and causing 

the airliner to burn extra gallons of jet fuel, pumping additional pounds of exhaust 

emissions into the atmosphere.

But flights equipped with ADS-B transmit the aircraft’s position to radio stations on the ground—or, in the case of the Gulf of Mexico, to ADS-B radio 

stations installed on offshore oil rigs—every second. ADS-B has position accuracy 

to within a few feet—much more accurate than radar tracking. Additionally, radar 

can track aircraft only up to about 200 miles offshore.

Performance-Based Navigation

Performance-Based Navigation (PBN) addresses ways to leverage emerging technologies, such as satellite-based Area Navigation (RNAV) and Required Navigation 

Performance, to improve access and flexibility for point-to-point operations.

Throughput is the average number of flights that pass through an airport 

on a daily basis. When you increase the throughput during busy periods, more 
78 passengers and cargo get off the ground and to their destinations on time. In 

January 2014, at Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, the FAA put in place a 

NextGen procedure that triples the number of departures the airport can accommodate, a significant increase in the airport’s throughput.

This NextGen procedure makes it possible for flights to take off with less distance 

between each aircraft—one nautical mile compared to the standard three nautical 

miles. This shorter distance enables an increase of 15 to 20 percent in departures 

per hour when the airport is congested compared to conventional methodology.

The majority of aircraft operating at Dallas/Fort Worth are equipped to fly this 

RNAV procedure, which uses satellites and onboard equipment to ensure that the 

aircraft navigate and remain on a precise path. RNAV procedures for both departures and arrivals are available at many airports around the country. The difference at Dallas/Fort Worth is that the RNAV procedure starts on the runway and 

continues as the aircraft ascends into high-altitude airspace, whereas conventional 

RNAV procedures begin once the aircraft is airborne.

“RNAV off the ground” is especially helpful during peak traffic hours or when 

traffic picks up following periods of bad weather, such as thunderstorms. Once 

the weather clears, aircraft can take off faster than before the implementation of 

RNAV off the ground.

Because aircraft do not have to wait as long on the taxiways, with their engines 

running, before they can take off, RNAV off the ground means aircraft burn less 

fuel—which also means reduced exhaust emissions.

Another RNAV off the ground benefit is that there is less communication necessary between controllers and departing pilots. With conventional departures, 

controllers tell the pilots what their heading will be and the pilots acknowledge the 

heading instruction by repeating it back to the controller. The RNAV procedure 

has a predetermined flight track programmed into the aircraft’s flight management 

system, which reduces the number of verbal communications required and the risk 

of miscommunication.
79Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

Office of Commercial Space Transportation

In 2014, the FAA’s Office of Commercial Space Transportation (AST) continued to promote U.S. commercial space transportation, licensing 12 orbital commercial space launches: a Minotaur launch from Wallops Flight Facility (WFF) 

in Virginia; three Falcon 9 launches from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station 

(CCAFS) in Florida; an Antares launch from WFF; a Zenit-3SL from Sea Launch’s 

floating launch platform in the Pacific Ocean; an Antares 120 launch from WFF; 

four Falcon 9 Version 1.1 (Falcon 9 v1.1) launches from CCAFS; and an Atlas 

V-401 from Vandenberg Air Force Base (VAFB) in California. There were seven 

permitted suborbital commercial space launches: a Grasshopper launch from the 

Space Exploration Technologies Corporation’s (SpaceX) test facility in McGregor, 

Texas; a SpaceShipTwo launch from Mojave Air and Space Port in California; and 

five Falcon 9-R launches from the Space X test facility in McGregor, Texas. No 

fatalities, serious injuries, or significant property damage to the uninvolved public 

occurred during any of these events. AST safety inspectors were on-site for each 

launch, ensuring public safety by verifying operator compliance with FAA regulations and with the terms and conditions of their specific licenses or permits.

AST granted six new launch licenses for SpaceX Falcon 9 v1.1 launches from 

CCAFS; for SpaceX Dragon pad abort testing from CCAFS; for SpaceX to 

conduct two Falcon 9 v1.1 launches of SES-8 and Thaicom-6 from CCAFS; to 

SpaceX for Falcon 9 v1.1 launches of Orbcomm-1 and Orbcomm-2 from CCAFS; 

to SpaceX for Falcon 9 v1.1 launches of AsiaSat-8, AsiaSat-6, and TurkmenSat-1 

from CCAFS; and to Orbital Sciences Corporation (OSC) for Antares 130 

launches from WFF. Two reentry licenses were granted: to SpaceX for the reentry 

of its Dragon Capsules and to United Launch Alliance (ULA) for the reentry of 

its Orion capsule. One launch license renewal was granted to OSC for Pegasus 

launches from the U.S. Army Kwajalein Atoll/Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile 

Test Site. A launch site operator license was granted to the Midland International 

Airport in Texas, bringing the total number of FAA licensed “spaceports” to nine. 

Launch site operator licenses were renewed for Spaceport America in New Mexico 

and the Mojave Air and Space Port.
80 AST issued new experimental permits to Blue Origin for New Shepard launches 

at its West Texas site and to SpaceX for Falcon 9-R launches from its test facility 

in McGregor, Texas. A permit renewal was granted to SpaceShipTwo launches 

from Mojave Air and Space Port. AST also issued two safety approvals for commercial spaceflight training services: one to Black Sky Training and one to 

Waypoint 2 Space.

AST inspectors conducted 223 safety inspections on over 57 different types of 

FAA-regulated activities. The goal of every AST safety inspection is to ensure 

public safety by verifying FAA licensee and permittee compliance with FAA 

regulations and license/permit terms and conditions. Inspections were conducted at various locations, including Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida; 

Vandenberg Air Force Base, California; Wallops Flight Facility, Virginia; Kodiak, 

Alaska; and other sites in Texas, California, Florida, and New Mexico.

To support all new and renewed licenses in FY 2014, AST carried out several 

environmental reviews, including the Final Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) 

and Record of Decision (ROD) for the SpaceX launch facility in Texas; the Final 

Environmental Assessment (EA) and Finding of No Significant Impact (FONSI) 

for Midland International Air and Spaceport, Texas; the Final Supplemental 

EA and FONSI for Blue Origin’s West Texas Launch Site; and the Final EA and 

FONSI for SpaceX’s Dragon Fly Operations at the McGregor Test Site, Texas. AST 

also issued FONSIs for the Final EA for SpaceX’s Dragon Crew Pad Abort Tests at 

CCAFS, Florida, and a Supplemental EA for SpaceX’s Falcon 9 Vehicle Operations 

at CCAFS.

Also in 2014, the FAA continued support of its Center of Excellence for 

Commercial Space Transportation (COE CST), which enables the FAA to work 

with universities and their industry partners to conduct research in environment 

and aviation safety, as well as other activities to ensure a safe and efficient air transportation system. The COE CST, working with nine member universities, provides 

grants in four distinct research areas: space traffic management and operations; 

space transportation operations, technologies, and payloads; human spaceflight; 

and space transportation industry viability. A unique attribute of the COE program is the one-to-one matching requirement for every Federal dollar granted to 

a COE university. The matching requirement can be satisfied through direct or 
81Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

in-kind contributions from any non-Federal funding source, including industry, 

universities, or state and local government organizations. Researchers from the 

University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB), one of the COE CST member universities, received special recognition in 2014 for research on space travel effects on 

individuals with preexisting conditions.

In FY 2014, no new Space Transportation Infrastructure Matching (STIM) grant 

proposals were solicited and no new awards were made.

Another AST accomplishment in 2014 was the publication Recommended 

Practices for Human Spaceflight Occupant Safety. The document is intended to 

facilitate discussions between Government, industry, and academia on how best 

to increase the safety of commercial human spaceflights. It gathers data and lessons learned from more than 50 years of human spaceflight and 100 years of aviation. The publication marked the culmination of a three-year effort performed in 

partnership with stakeholders from Government, industry, and academia. Further, 

these recommended practices offer a framework that space vehicle developers and 

operators may find useful in the preparation of industry consensus standards.

Information about the FAA Office of Commercial Space Transportation, regulations, reports, and other documents can be found at http://faa.gov/go/space.

83Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

epar men of Commer e

DOC

During FY 2014, the Department of Commerce (DOC) continued its cooperation with the Department of State and other Federal agencies to dramatically 

reform the U.S. satellite export control regime. In May 2014, DOC’s Bureau of 

Industry and Security published interim final regulations updating the Commerce 

Control List to include many space-related items that were previously controlled as 

defense articles under the U.S. Munitions List of the International Traffic in Arms 

Regulations. The new rules took effect in June and November of 2014, delivering 

tremendous regulatory relief to the U.S. space industry following 15 years of highly 

restrictive export controls.

In June 2014, the Secretary of Commerce informed U.S. remote sensing company DigitalGlobe of the Government’s decision to reduce the resolution limits 

on the sale of U.S. satellite imagery. DOC played a pivotal role in the interagency 

deliberations leading to the establishment of the new 0.25-meter-resolution limit 

for electro-optical, panchromatic imagery sold by U.S. firms on the open, commercial market. The ability to sell sharper imagery internationally will help U.S. 

industry maintain its global leadership in commercial remote sensing, consistent 

with the U.S. Commercial Remote Sensing Space Policy.

In November 2013, DOC participated in the rollout of the President’s National 

Space Transportation Policy, which provides updated guidance to Federal 

departments and agencies on the development and use of commercial and 

Government space transportation systems. DOC contributed to the development of the policy, including its commercial guidelines designed to promote U.S. 

launch industry robustness, cost effectiveness, innovation, entrepreneurship, and 

international competitiveness.
84Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Throughout FY 2014, DOC continued to participate in the national management 

of the Global Positioning System (GPS) as a member of the National Executive 

Committee for Space-Based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing, the senior body 

that advises and coordinates Federal agencies on GPS matters. DOC participated 

in the committee’s March 2014 meeting and participated in interagency working 

groups established to ensure the resilience of U.S. critical infrastructure against 

potential GPS disruptions. DOC continued to host the secretariat of the National 

Executive Committee and participate in its daily operations, including hosting the 

http://www.gps.gov Web site.

DOC participated in bilateral consultations, led by the State Department, 

with Europe to discuss cooperation on space and satellite navigation. DOC also 

cochaired two meetings of a U.S.-European working group on trade issues affecting 

GPS and Europe’s Galileo satellite navigation system.

In February 2014, DOC’s Bureau of Industry and Security published the first set 

of analytical results from its “Deep Dive” survey of the U.S. space industrial base.

In 2012–13, the Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS), in partnership with the 

United States Air Force, NASA, and the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO), 

led an interagency effort to study the U.S. space industrial base; the study culminated in 2014. The principal goal of the assessment was to gain an understanding 

of the intricate supply-chain network supporting the development, production, and 

sustainment of products and services across the defense, intelligence, civil, and 

commercial space sectors. This joint effort, called the U.S. Space Industry “Deep 

Dive” Assessment, allowed BIS to map the space industrial-base supply chain in 

unprecedented detail while also benchmarking trends in business practices, competitiveness issues, financial health, and other areas, across many tiers of the industrial base. This project provided defense, intelligence, and civil U.S. Government 

(USG) stakeholders with a single, consistent source of information highlighting 

interdependencies between agencies and over 200 USG space programs, including 

several National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) programs.

The “Deep Dive” study was designed to generate a consistent source of data 

to support the objectives of different space-related stakeholders across the USG 

while also providing information on issues that have traditionally been supported 

only by anecdotal evidence. BIS utilized its authority delegated under the Defense 
85Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

Production Act of 1950, as amended (50 U.S.C. app. Sec. 2155), to design, distribute, and collect surveys of commercial companies, universities, nonprofit organizations, and USG agencies with equities in the space industrial base. Overall, nearly 

3,800 organizations submitted complete survey responses, which detailed not only 

the specific products and services they provided but also their critical suppliers, 

financial statement line items, R&D and capital investments, employment data, 

and other performance criteria.

Key findings from the “Deep Dive” assessment include the following:

• There is a high degree of subcontractor overlap across the space industrial base.

• High financial risk among a portion of suppliers is evident not only 

between defense, intelligence, and civil space programs but also across all 

16 major categories of space-related products and services.

• Organizations that are more dependent on space-related business exhibit 

greater signs of financial stress.

• Uncertainty about the long-term outlook of the USG space program limits industry’s ability to plan investment and R&D and inhibits their desire 

to enter/remain in the space market.

• An aging workforce and lack of properly skilled workers are major challenges to the long-term health of the U.S. space industrial base, especially for space-related national security programs and participating 

USG agencies.

• USG space acquisition practices are costly, hinder competition, and limit 

industry’s desire to remain in or enter the space market.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) environmental satellites are key tools for forecasting weather, analyzing climate, and 

monitoring hazards worldwide. In FY 2014, NOAA satellites were as critical as 

ever, monitoring the severe drought and wildfires in the West, a crippling ice storm 

in Atlanta, and multiple hurricanes near and over the Hawaiian islands. Twentyfour-hour global coverage from NOAA’s satellites provides scientists and managers 
86Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

with a continuous stream of information used in preparation for events that will 

impact our climate, weather, and oceans. NOAA manages and operates three primary types of environmental satellites: Geostationary Operational Environmental 

Satellites (GOES), Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellites (POES), 

and ocean altimetry (Jason).

NOAA’s Geostationary Satellites

GOES continuously monitor the Western Hemisphere by circling Earth in a 

geosynchronous orbit 22,000 miles above the equator, meaning they remain over 

one position on the surface by orbiting at a speed matching that of Earth’s rotation. Imagery and data from GOES are used for short-term weather forecasting and 

severe storm tracking. GOES imagery is also used to estimate rainfall during thunderstorms and hurricanes for flash flood warnings as well as snowfall accumulation 

and overall snow cover in cold climates. This information helps meteorologists 

issue winter storm warnings and spring snow-melt advisories. In FY 2014, GOES-15 

flew at 135° west longitude and served as “GOES-West,” while GOES-13 flew at 75° 

west and served as “GOES-East.”

NOAA’s Polar-Orbiting Satellites

POES circle Earth in an almost north-south orbit at an altitude of approximately 

517 miles, passing close to both poles. Earth constantly rotates counterclockwise 

underneath the path of the satellites, affording each satellite a different view with 

each orbit. It takes the satellites approximately 1.5 hours to complete a full orbit. 

In a 24-hour period, the 14 orbits of each polar-orbiting satellite provide two complete views of weather around the world. POES provides full global coverage with 

advanced sensors for weather and climate data, collecting information on temperature, atmospheric conditions, wind speed, cloud formation, and drought conditions 

over the entire Earth. These data are used by all major numerical weather prediction (NWP) centers around the world, forming the basis of nearly every mediumterm weather forecast.
87Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

On May 1, 2014, the Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership (Suomi NPP) 

satellite took over as NOAA’s primary operational polar-orbiting satellite. Suomi 

NPP is a joint NOAA-NASA mission and serves as a bridge between NOAA’s 

current fleet of polar-orbiting satellites and the upcoming next-generation Joint 

Polar Satellite System (JPSS). NOAA-19, NOAA’s previous primary operational 

polar-orbiting satellite, remains a critical part of NOAA’s polar constellation and 

provides valuable contributions to National Weather Service forecasts.

NOAA’s Ocean Altimetry Satellite

NOAA, in partnership with NASA, Centre National d’Études Spatiales 

(CNES), and the European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological 

Satellites (EUMETSAT), operates Jason-2, a sea surface topography mission that 

flies an altimeter to provide high-precision measurements of sea surface height. 

Because the temperature of the ocean and ocean currents can change the height of 

the sea and because these characteristics can affect the world’s weather, including 

tropical storms, Jason-2 has been crucial to improvements in weather modeling and 

tropical storm–intensification forecasting. In October 2013, the Jason-2 partners 

agreed to extend Jason-2 operations until June 2015.

NOAA’s Additional Space-Based Capabilities

In addition to those three main types of environmental satellites, NOAA, 

together with international partners, flies two other types of instruments on some 

of its satellites.

Argos is a data collection and location relay system administered under an agreement between NOAA and CNES initiated in 1974. Through the Argos program, 

CNES provides sensors for flight on NOAA, EUMETSAT, and Indian Space 

Research Organisation (ISRO) satellites. These sensors collect a wide variety of 

in situ measurements, including data on atmospheric pressure, sea temperature, 

ocean-current velocity, animal migration patterns, and river water levels.

The Search and Rescue Satellite-Aided Tracking system (COSPAS-SARSAT) 

is an international system that uses satellites to locate emergency beacons carried 
88Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

by ships, aircraft, or individuals and communicate location information to searchand-rescue authorities. The system has rescued over 37,000 people worldwide since 

1982. The governing parties of the system are the United States (NOAA), France 

(CNES), Russia (Federal State Unitary Enterprise Morsviazsputnik), and Canada 

(National Search and Rescue Secretariat). NOAA provides space on its polarorbiting satellites for the French processor and Canadian receiver.

Additionally, on November 19, 2013, NOAA’s Total solar irradiance Calibration 

Transfer Experiment (TCTE) was launched from NASA’s Wallops Flight Facility. 

TCTE, developed in partnership with NASA, is a JPSS-funded mission designed 

to continue measurements from space of the total energy output of the sun. These 

measurements are used to measure light from the sun at all wavelengths, which 

is the primary energy source that drives climate on Earth, and determine if solar 

changes influence Earth’s climate.

International Agreements

On October 31, 2013, NOAA and the European Space Agency (ESA) completed 

an exchange of letters to facilitate continued collaboration on ESA’s CryoSat mission. ESA has made data from CryoSat, a remarkable satellite designed to study ice, 

available to the world on a free, full, and open basis. Thanks to this data policy and 

the efforts of scientists from ESA and NOAA’s Center for Satellite Applications 

and Research (STAR), NOAA created CryoSat ocean products that are now 

employed by ocean modeling and forecast centers worldwide, including NOAA’s 

National Weather Service, to enhance near-real-time marine and hurricane forecasts. This is a great example of the benefits of international partnerships and open 

data policies, and this new arrangement will allow our collaboration with ESA to 

continue and grow.

Other Accomplishments

In May 2014, the COSPAS-SARSAT rescue network was one of two inductees into the Space Foundation’s Space Technology Hall of Fame at the Space 
89Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

Foundation’s 30th Space Symposium. The honor recognizes technologies originally 

developed for space applications that now improve life on Earth.

Extreme drought worsened in California’s Central Valley throughout FY 2014. This image compares 

January 13, 2013, and January 13, 2014, snow cover, a vital source of water for the region, as seen by the 

Suomi NPP satellite’s VIIRS instrument. (NOAA)

National Institute of Standards and Technology

In FY 2014, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) continued to provide Federal agencies and the aerospace industry with the research, 

guidance, standards, products, and services needed to advance the President’s 

aeronautics and space agenda. These wide-ranging outputs fall into four main categories: 1. calibrations and measurements for the aerospace industry, 2. calibrations 

of satellite sensors, 3. development of astronomical and satellite sensors, and 4. support of manufacturing technology.

NIST Calibrations and Measurements for the Aerospace Industry

According to Boeing, traceable NIST measurements (mass, force, vibration, 

acoustics, electricity, thermometry, humidity, flow, pressure, viscosity, fluid density, radiometry, and length) are essential for aircraft manufacturing. For instance, 

in the manufacture of the company’s new 787 airplanes, every tool used in the 
90Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

assembly process has been calibrated in Boeing’s metrology laboratories with direct 

traceability to NIST. Other direct applications of NIST measurements included 

the use of NIST-calibrated weights to support wind tunnel applications; weighing 

airplanes; and torque, pressure, and force measurements. NIST is working with the 

Department of Defense (DOD) and Boeing on the applicability of laser-scanning 

technology for the dimensional measurement of aircraft components. The work 

includes developing calibration methodologies and facilities for laser-scanner systems and national and international standardization of their measurement accuracy. NIST collaborated jointly with the National Transportation Safety Board 

(NTSB) and Boeing on the investigation of potential sources of the major battery thermal runaways that resulted in the grounding of the 787 airplanes by the 

Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in January of 2013.

NIST provides airspeed, hydrocarbon-liquid-flow, and gas-flow measurements 

through calibrations of anemometers used at airports, on aircraft, and in wind 

tunnels. The hydrocarbon-liquid calibration service tests flow meters that are used 

to measure jet fuel (for example, turbine meters that are used to evaluate jet engine 

performance on test stands).

NIST conducted joint research with Pratt & Whitney to develop and validate 

new standard measurement methods to evaluate the performance of complex 

(5-axis) machine tools. The results of this joint research were used in the development of American National Standards Institute (ANSI)/American Society of 

Mechanical Engineers (ASME) and International Organization for Standardization 

(ISO) standards for 5-axis machine tool evaluation and geometric error correction.

NIST contributed to discussions with the Federal Aviation Administration 

(FAA); the Department of Defense (DOD); the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration (NASA); and aerospace industry representatives, including 

Honeywell Aerospace, Lockheed Martin, and Northrop Grumman, to identify 

proposed approaches for the qualification and certification of additive manufacturing materials, processes, and parts for use in load-bearing and mission-critical 

applications. NIST is collaborating with NASA Glenn Research Center (GRC) 

on spacecraft fire-detection research. NASA and NIST first developed the Smoke 

Aerosol Measurement Experiment (SAME) with smoke and aerosol measurement 

instruments to characterize smoke properties from overheated spacecraft materials 
91Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

aboard the International Space Station (ISS). NIST is also working with the 

Boeing Company to understand the suppression of fires in aircraft cargo bays.

NIST collaborated with members of the Additive Manufacturing Consortium 

(AMC), including aerospace companies General Electric Aviation, Rolls-Royce, 

and United Technologies Aerospace, to conduct round-robin testing and determine 

the mechanical properties of Inconel 625 parts made using the direct metal laser 

sintering process.

NIST collaborated with the U.S. Department of Energy to develop measurement 

methods and experimental data to improve the machining of high-performance 

materials, such as titanium and nickel-based alloys. The preliminary reference 

data will be disseminated for review through industry members of the NIST Smart 

Machining Consortium, which includes key aerospace companies such as Boeing, 

Pratt & Whitney, and General Electric, prior to official publication.

Several partners in the aerospace community took advantage of the unique 

capabilities of the NIST Center for Neutron Research to study a number of aerospace challenges.

• Researchers used neutron imaging in continuing studies of alkali metal 

heat pipes that cool the leading edge of hypersonic aircraft.

• NIST, along with members from Marshall Space Flight Center, used neutron imaging to study the water distribution in proton-exchange membrane fuel-cell flow fields and gas diffusion layer, and they are collaborating 

with the NIST imaging group to develop a neutron microscope. NIST also 

partnered with Edwards Air Force Base to use small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) to measure electrically conducting nanocomposites.

• A collaboration with Glenn Research Center studied the synthesis and 

properties of several proton-exchange membranes for fuel-cell technology. Other material-engineering projects include collaboration with 

Northwestern University to develop phase-equilibria and diffusionmobility descriptions of a new class of high-temperature superalloys for 

turbine engines.

NIST continues to develop and characterize measurement methods for advanced 

optics used in aerospace and space applications. In collaboration with NASA, 

NIST developed a method that employs a mirror with a special height-relief pattern 
92Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

to assess the capability of inspection equipment to measure fine surface features 

on optical surfaces. NIST also collaborated with NASA, supported by funding 

through NASA’s Innovative Partnerships Program, to develop a new interferometric method to precisely measure the form errors of mandrels needed for the fabrication of x-ray mirrors for future spaceborne x-ray telescopes.

NIST continues to work with EMCORE Corporation of Albuquerque, New 

Mexico, to space-qualify its solar cells’ irradiation by an electron beam from the 

NIST Van de Graaff accelerator. NIST also worked with Goddard Space Flight 

Center to determine the radiation sensitivity of an ion mass spectrometer.

NIST Calibrations of Satellite Sensors

NIST provided calibration support for the infrared and optical sensors for several satellite missions under development: the Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS), 

the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite-R Series (GOES-R), and 

the Landsat Data Continuity Mission (LDCM). NIST-calibrated optical apertures 

were flown on the latest Total Irradiance Monitor (TIM) launched into space in 

2014, which made measurements of the amount of solar power per unit area that 

reaches Earth.

NIST, in partnership with the University of New Mexico, Harvard University, 

and the Smithsonian Institution, continued a program to improve the absolute 

radiometric calibration of stars for applications that include satellite-sensor calibration, dark-energy research, and nighttime aerosol monitoring. NIST began making 

accurate measurements of the amount of light from the moon with the goal of 

enabling the moon to serve as a calibration source for satellite sensors while they 

are in space.

Scientists from NIST, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and the California Institute 

of Technology collaborated on the pre-launch and post-launch calibration of the 

Cosmic Infrared Background Experiment (CIBER), which was flown for the final 

time in June 2013. The NIST calibration has enabled a detailed analysis of the 

CIBER data, and with the analysis, the CIBER team will release a catalog of several 

hundred calibrated stars to the astronomical community.
93Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

NIST continued its collaboration with NOAA on the calibration of the Marine 

Optical Buoy (MOBY) used in the vicarious calibration of ocean-color measurements provided by satellite sensors. NIST is participating in the MOBY Refresh 

effort. NIST continued to collaborate with NASA on the calibration and characterization of the Ocean Radiometer for Carbon Assessment (ORCA), a hyperspectral ocean-color imaging system under development at NASA through the 

Instrument Incubator Program.

NIST has started the calibration of the Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas 

Experiment (SAGE) III.

NIST’s Synchrotron Ultraviolet Radiation Facility (SURF) III was used as a 

source of soft x-rays and extreme ultraviolet (EUV) light to calibrate mirrors, filters, detectors, and spectrometers used in NASA and NOAA spacecraft. NASA 

and its contractors were the most prolific users of SURF III in 2013 and amassed 

over 800 hours of beam usage. Calibrations included the instrumentation for the 

EUV Variability Experiment (EVE) aboard NASA’s Solar Dynamics Observatory 

(SDO) and the EUV and X-ray Irradiance Sensor (EXIS) and Solar Ultraviolet 

Imager (SUVI) now being built for NOAA’s GOES-R satellite mission.

NIST performed calibrations necessary to support the infrared remote sensing 

systems for the Missile Defense Agency.

NIST continued the development and deployment of measurement methods 

to provide for microwave radiometers as deployed on numerous U.S. operational 

weather and research satellite assets within NOAA, NASA, and DOD. Working 

with colleagues at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center through an ongoing Memorandum of Understanding (MOU), NIST demonstrated microwave 

brightness-temperature (radiance) calibrations for the remote sensing bands.

NIST Development of Astronomical and Satellite Sensors

NIST is collaborating with NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center to develop 

photodetectors for space applications. NIST designed and fabricated nanotextured 

gallium nitride (GaN) and GaN nanowires that serve as raw materials for photocathode detectors. Goddard collaborators activated the material with cesium and 

packaged the units into complete imaging systems.
94Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

NIST is teaming with Northrop Grumman and the University of Maryland to 

develop the next generation of high-sensitivity solar-blind ultraviolet (UV) photodetectors using robust wide-band-gap materials.

NIST collaborated with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) on the development of superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPDs). In FY 2013, 

NIST characterized various JPL devices. NIST also packaged some JPL devices 

with NIST’s self-aligned single-mode optical-fiber packaging program. NIST also 

began joint development with JPL of small arrays of SNSPDs.

NIST developed new detectors based on the voltage-biased superconducting 

transition-edge sensor (TES). NIST has developed integrated TES polarimeters 

for measuring polarization of the cosmic microwave background (CMB). NIST is 

providing Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices (SQUIDs) and SQUIDbased multiplexers to many researchers, both at NASA Centers (Goddard, JPL) 

and in academia. NIST is also using its SQUID expertise to assist Goddard in the 

development of magnetic micro-calorimeters. NIST continues work on new concepts to achieve on-chip electrical cooling of cryogenic detectors. More recently, 

NIST demonstrated the first cooling by tunnel junctions of a macroscopic stage 

that can support user-supplied payloads.

NIST has worked to develop microsensor technology for use in planetary exploration missions. With NASA funding from the Planetary Instrument Definition 

and Development Program (PIDDP), operation of the microsensor arrays was 

demonstrated under simulated Martian conditions (CO2-rich background, low 

temperature and pressure).

NIST has initiated the “NIST Participation in NASA’s Support of ESA ISS 

Clock Projects”—an integrated program supporting science and operational goals 

of ESA’s Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space (ACES) and the Space Optical Clock 

(SOC) program in close collaboration and coordination with ESA, NASA, and 

global participants. NIST continues preparations to host an ACES Microwave 

Link Ground Terminal (MWL GT) and to participate in ACES/Microwave Link 

(MWL) time and frequency transfers, as well as international clock comparisons. 

NIST is performing research, development, and evaluation of an ytterbium (Yb) 

optical lattice clock as a candidate for the Space Optical Clock program. NIST will 

demonstrate a high-performance optical microcomb that could be used in space for 
95Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

direct comparisons of optical and microwave clocks, in collaboration with scientists at the California Institute of Technology.

NIST helped resolve long-standing discrepancies in the data used to determine temperature and other properties of hot astronomical objects observed by 

the Chandra X-ray Observatory and other x-ray missions. NIST created, in the 

laboratory, atoms in the same extremely hot form as that found in high-energy 

astrophysical environments. NASA partially funded this effort, which was carried 

out in collaboration with the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics and 

the Argonne National Laboratory.

NIST Manufacturing Extension Partnership

In FY 2014, NIST Manufacturing Extension Partnership (MEP) centers engaged 

in 230 projects with 158 individual manufacturing companies designated with an 

aerospace North American Industry Classification System number (NAICS 3364). 

The NIST MEP post-project, followup survey of aerospace NAICS companies 

revealed that MEP services resulted in the creation or retention of 5,200 aerospace 

jobs, over $138 million in new sales, nearly $251 million in retained sales, over $144 

million in new investment, and nearly $51 million in cost savings.

International Trade Administration

Industry and Trade Policy

The Office of Transportation and Machinery (OTM) pursued multiple paths to 

promote exports of products and services that will support the Next Generation Air 

Transportation System. OTM created and published an online NextGen Solutions 

Vendors Guide to help foreign customers identify U.S. companies that can provide products that meet the requirements of the International Civil Aviation 

Organization’s (ICAO) Aviation System Block Upgrade (ASBU) technology 

roadmaps. In 2014, OTM participated in the 2nd World Air Traffic Management 

Congress in Madrid, Spain, to cohost (with the Aerospace Industries Association) 

a networking reception for foreign Air Navigation Service Providers to meet with 
96Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

industry and hear from the senior Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) leadership, such as the Assistant Administrator for NextGen, Ed Bolton. OTM also took 

the opportunity to learn about the particular air-navigation procurement needs of 

specific countries, counsel individual companies on NextGen-related prospects, 

and recruit participants for the NextGen Solutions Vendors Guide while at the 

Congress. OTM also participated in a number of domestic conferences and exhibitions (such as the 58th Air Traffic Control Association Conference and Exhibition 

and the 2014 Air Transportation Information Exchange Conference) to discuss the 

future of the NextGen market with individual companies.

Additionally, OTM worked with the FAA, the Transportation Security 

Administration (TSA), and the State Department in preparation for the 38th ICAO 

Assembly in September 2013, providing the International Trade Administration 

(ITA) perspective on aviation safety, aviation security, air-navigation policy and 

procurement, and the economics of air transportation. ICAO formally endorsed 

the ASBU roadmaps at the Assembly.

OTM also participated in the Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UASes) Symposium 

and the Association for Unmanned Vehicle Systems International (AUVSI) 

Unmanned Systems 2014 Conference to engage with Government, academic, 

and industry stakeholders within the UAS community, to learn more about the 

projected market for UASes, to hear about the latest roadmaps for the technology, 

and to recruit participants for the NextGen Solutions Vendors Guide (particularly 

the section on Remotely Piloted Aircraft). Specifically, OTM cultivated contacts 

with various state business-development offices at Unmanned Systems 2014, with 

particular emphasis on the regions represented in the FAA’s six UAS test sites.

OTM renewed a Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) with Embry-Riddle 

Aeronautical University (ERAU) to share data and aerospace information and to 

promote the competitiveness, sustainability, and innovation of the U.S. aerospace 

manufacturing industry. The renewed MOA includes an addendum detailing a 

new virtual research partnership program in which ERAU-Worldwide students will 

research topics suggested by ITA.

Throughout the year, OTM organized and led three meetings of the Industry 

Trade Advisory Committee for Aerospace Equipment (ITAC 1). The committee 
97Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

provides advice to the Secretary of Commerce and the U.S. Trade Representative 

on aerospace-related trade policy issues.

ITA continues to support the Office of the U.S. Trade Representative on issues 

relating to the enforcement of U.S. rights under the World Trade Organization 

concerning trade in civil aircraft. In particular, OTM has provided support for 

the ongoing U.S.-EU trade dispute over subsidies to manufacturers of large civil 

aircraft, providing industry expertise in areas relating to changes in the market and 

actions of the major stakeholders.

ITA’s OTM and Office of Finance and Insurance Industries (OFII) continued 

to participate in the Group on the Sector Understanding on Export Credits for 

Civil Aircraft (the “Aircraft Sector Understanding” or ASU) at the Organization 

for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). The governments of almost 

all countries with major aircraft manufacturers are signatories to the ASU, an 

annex to the OECD Arrangement on Officially Supported Export Credits, which 

establishes rules for export credit agencies. The OECD rules aim to ensure that 

government-provided export financing is not a competitive factor in civil-aircraft 

sales competitions. A new ASU, which had been completed in early 2011, went 

into full effect in 2013, and its effects were still being observed in 2014. As a member of the U.S. delegation, ITA helped ensure that the interests of industry were 

addressed as the new ASU was implemented and monitored; ITA also provided 

advice on how Export-Import (Ex-Im) Bank programs affect the aerospace industry.

In May 2014, ITA organized an aerospace and aviation equipment trade mission 

to Brazil. The purpose of the mission was to introduce U.S. firms to Brazil’s readily 

expanding market for aerospace and aviation products and services. The mission to 

Brazil was designed for U.S. aviation and aerospace manufacturers and service providers, particularly small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), interested in longterm business opportunities in Brazil, as well as the trade associations/organizations 

that represent them. Targeted sectors included aircraft parts (particularly for the 

aftermarket), business aviation, general aviation and helicopters, airspace and air 

traffic flow management, ground support equipment, baggage handling systems, 

meteorological information management, surveillance and satellite navigation, and 

airport/aviation security.
98Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

ITA and NOAA continued their active participation in the implementation of 

the current National Space Policies, which include industrial base and competitiveness issues. ITA’s OTM actively participated in the implementation of several 

actions that were identified in the June 2010 National Space Policy, which revised 

and updated several aspects of the previous policies. In order to ensure that commercial interests continue to be adequately addressed, OTM and NOAA continued to ensure that all of the policies’ implementation actions would improve U.S. 

industry’s competitiveness, stimulate the American economy, increase exports, 

and create U.S. jobs. ITA actively participated in the review of November 2013 

National Space Transportation Policy, led by the White House, and, within that 

review, sought to ensure that the policy encouraged U.S. commercial growth in 

that sector.

OTM continues to represent commercial remote sensing satellite industry interests within the Remote Sensing Interagency Working Group (RSIWG), led by the 

State Department. The RSIWG coordinates policy for the export of commercial 

remote sensing satellite systems and negotiates government-to-government agreements that address the safeguarding of those systems’ technology. The RSIWG 

consulted with several foreign countries on satellite cooperation and met with 

industry representatives to understand the impact on related businesses.

ITA continued to play an important role in promoting U.S. aerospace trade 

interests as the industry faced mounting competition from abroad. ITA participated 

in and organized trade events and provided advocacy to support U.S. companies 

in international aerospace competitions, including commercial sales for aircraft, 

helicopters, airport construction, communications, remote sensing satellites, commercial projects, and air traffic management projects.

In July 2014, ITA organized and supported the Commerce Department’s participation in the Farnborough International Air Show and arranged senior-level 

meetings for the Deputy Under Secretary for International Trade with foreign 

government and industry officials as well as U.S. industry executives. ITA’s OTM 

met with numerous U.S. and foreign government and industry officials to discuss 

ongoing policy issues impacting the competitiveness of U.S. industry.
99Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

Industry and Trade Promotion

ITA’s Global Aerospace and Defense Team recorded approximately 200 export 

successes in FY 2014. An export success is an activity in which Department of 

Commerce personnel effectively assist a U.S. company with identifying new 

international sales channels or resolving an issue that is hindering an export sale. 

Commercial Service (CS) personnel facilitated deals with small- and medium-sized 

companies, as well as larger corporations such as Bell Helicopter, Boeing, General 

Dynamics, Lockheed Martin, and United Technologies Corporation.

The Global Team held over 800 counseling sessions with U.S. aerospace companies, helping them to resolve international trade issues, identify new export 

markets, and develop strategies for entering those markets.

The Global Team participated in over 35 domestic and international aerospace 

trade events at which team members supported U.S. industry with one-on-one 

counseling sessions, arranged individualized business-to-business meetings with 

international business partners, and provided additional export counseling services. ITA trade show support generated hundreds of trade leads for participating 

companies, allowing them to enter or expand their exports to international markets. These international trade events included the Farnborough International Air 

Show, the Seoul Airshow, the Singapore Airshow, La Feria Internacional del Aire y 

del Espacio in South America (FIDAE), the Aircraft Interior Show, and the Africa 

Aerospace and Defense Summit, among others. The Global Team also released 

the second edition of its Aerospace Resource Guide, profiling market opportunities in over 40 countries. This resource was well received by industry and will be 

expanded upon in FY 2015.

Bureau of Industry and Security

On May 13, 2014, the Department of Commerce published an interim final rule 

adding controls to the Export Administration Regulations (EAR) for spacecraft 

and related items that the President has determined no longer warrant control 

under United States Munitions List (USML) Category XV—spacecraft and related 

items. New Export Control Classification Numbers (ECCNs) 9A515, 9B515, 9D515, 
100Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

and 9E515, created by this rule, and existing ECCNs on the Commerce Control 

List (CCL) now control such items. This rule also revised various sections of the 

EAR to provide the proper level of control for the new ECCNs. This rule was published in conjunction with the publication of a Department of State Directorate of 

Defense Trade Controls rule revising USML Category XV to control those articles 

the President has determined warrant control on the USML. Both rules are part 

of the President’s Export Control Reform Initiative. This rule was published as 

an interim final rule because the Departments of Commerce and State acknowledged that additional internal analysis of and industry input regarding the control 

threshold for various aspects of the amendments were warranted, particularly with 

respect to civil and commercial remote sensing satellites and civil and commercial 

spaceflight-related items. The Departments did not want to wait until this review 

was done to publish this rule in final form because of the substantial national and 

economic security benefits that will flow from the various amendments to the 

controls on satellites and related items. This rule had two effective dates: June 27, 

2014, for controls on radiation-hardened microelectronic circuits and November 10, 

2014, for the remainder of the rule. The following items were transferred from the 

USML to the Commerce Control List:

• Satellites

∙ Commercial communication satellites

∙ Lower-performance remote sensing satellites

∙ Planetary rovers

∙ Planetary and interplanetary probes

• Related systems for the above

∙ Ground control systems

∙ Training simulators

∙ Test, inspection, and production equipment

∙ Noncritical software for production, operation, or maintenance

∙ Noncritical technology for development, production, installation, 

operation, or maintenance

∙ Radiation-hardened microelectronics

• Parts and components of satellite buses and payloads not listed on the USML
101 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

Department of the In

DOI

Remotely sensed data and derived information contribute significantly to 

mission-critical work across the Department of the Interior (DOI). Satellite and 

other remotely sensed data allow an unparalleled synoptic view of Earth and Earth 

processes that can be collected routinely in a calibrated and standardized manner. Translating these data into information that is meaningful and useful to land 

managers is an important focus of DOI employees. This section highlights a sample 

of DOI remote sensing applications and illustrates a range of technology, platforms, 

and specialized sensors employed. DOI personnel use remote sensing technology to 

evaluate and monitor changing land-surface and natural-resource conditions over 

the vast areas for which DOI has responsibility.

U.S. Geological Survey

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) is both a user and a provider of remotely 

sensed data. The USGS manages the Landsat satellite series and a Web-enabled 

archive of global Landsat imagery dating back to 1972. The entire Landsat archive 

became available for downloading at no charge in December 2008, and by the end 

of September 2014, more than 20 million Landsat scenes had been downloaded by 

the user community. The USGS also distributes current and historical aerial photography and light detection and ranging (lidar) data; declassified satellite imagery; 

hyperspectral imagery; data collected by unmanned aircraft systems; and imagery 

from a variety of government, foreign, and commercial satellites. These data are 

used for a wide variety of applications, including U.S. and global ecosystem health 

monitoring; land-use and climate-change analysis; emergency response; mineral 
102Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

resource development; and the assessment of natural hazards such as fires, hurricanes, earthquakes, droughts, and floods.

Landsat Satellites

The Landsat Program is a joint effort of the USGS and the National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration (NASA) to use Earth-observing satellites to capture, 

process, and freely distribute land-surface image data. Landsat imagery enables 

users to derive information about local and global conditions, including land use, 

land cover, crop vigor, forest health, invasive plant and insect spread, surface-water 

area and quality, irrigation water use, flood extent, drought-status, wildfire, and 

many other image-data applications.

Under the Landsat Program partnership, NASA develops and launches Earthobserving instruments and spacecraft, and the USGS develops the associated satellite ground systems. In addition, the USGS conducts satellite flight operations; 

operates and maintains the ground systems; and manages image-data reception, 

processing, archiving, and distribution. For 42 years, a primary objective of the 

Landsat Program has been to record changing land-surface conditions across the 

global land surface through the collection of consistently calibrated image data.

Each image in the Landsat archive at the USGS Earth Resources Observation 

and Science (EROS) Center near Sioux Falls, South Dakota, covers over 12,000 

square miles at a resolution of 30 meters, wherein each image pixel covers about 

the same area as a 90- by 90-foot baseball diamond. In 2014, the USGS gradually 

increased the collection and processing volume for Landsat 7 to over 400 images 

per day and increased Landsat 8 (launched by NASA in February 2013) from a 

post-launch 400 per day to over 700. By comparison, when Landsat 7 was launched 

in 1999, 100 images per day were added to the archive. With increasing amounts of 

current and historical imagery available from the Landsat archive, and thanks to 

NASA’s improvements for Landsat 8 that include crisper images, better resolution 

of snow- and ice-covered regions, improved detection of water-column constituents 

such as algae, and better cloud screening, users downloaded 5.6 million images in 

the six-month period from March through August 2014. For more information, visit 

http://landsat.usgs.gov/.
103 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

Landsat imagery can be an important tool to help evaluate the areas altered by 

fire and can assist in response planning and identifying areas of further risk. Future 

images from Landsat will also be helpful for monitoring the land recovery after 

major fires such as this.

Responders in semi-arid 

east-central Oregon fought 

several separate fires that 

were started by lightning 

near Malheur Lake on July 

14, 2014. The combination 

of high winds, low humidity, and high temperatures 

made firefighting work 

difficult. These Landsat 

images were acquired on 

July 1, 2014 (top image), 

and again on July 17, 2014 

(bottom image). Malheur 

Lake is in the center of 

both images. The large 

fire scars visible in the 

lower image show the area 

burned within the Buzzard 

Complex fire event as of 

July 17.

Assessment of Carbon Sequestration Potentials in the Eastern United States

As part of an effort to fulfill the requirements of section 712 of the Energy 

Independence and Security Act (EISA) of 2007, the USGS is conducting a comprehensive national assessment of potentials for carbon (C) sequestration and 

reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) (carbon dioxide [CO2

], methane 

[CH4], and nitrous oxide [N2O]). This assessment covers all major terrestrial ecosystems (forests, grasslands/shrublands, agricultural lands, and wetlands) and aquatic 
104Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

ecosystems (rivers, streams, lakes, estuaries, and coastal waters) from 2001 to 2050 

in the eastern United States.

These maps show the spatial distribution of the average annual carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous 

oxide fluxes and their total global warming potential from 2001 to 2005 in the eastern United States.

Like two previous regional assessments—Great Plains and the western United 

States—this project applies the General Ensemble biogeochemical Modeling 

System (GEMS) to simulate ecosystem biogeochemical cycles, including carbon 

stock and fluxes and GHG emissions under various land-use/land-cover change 

and climate-change scenarios. The scenarios were developed in accordance with 

storyline A1B, A2, or B1 from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 
105 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (http://www.grida.no/publications/other/

ipcc_sr/?src=/climate/ipcc/emission/index.htm). More detailed information on the 

assessment of carbon sequestration potentials in the eastern United States can be 

found in the U.S. Geological Survey report of Zhu and Reed, 2014, at http://dx.doi.

org/10.3133/pp1804.

National Land Cover Database 2011

The USGS, working in partnership with the Federal interagency MultiResolution Land Characteristics Consortium (MRLC), has completed the production of the National Land Cover Database (NLCD) 2011 for the contiguous 

United States. The NLCD serves as the definitive Landsat-based, 30-meter-pixelresolution, land-cover database for the Nation. NLCD 2011 products derived from 

nominal 2011 Landsat data depict 16 classes of land cover, define the degree of surface imperviousness in urban areas, and quantify the amount of tree canopy cover.

NLCD 2011 innovations include integration with previous NLCD versions to 

provide a 10-year land-cover change story for our Nation at five-year intervals, a 

quicker production time over previous efforts, more comprehensive change and 

image analysis methods resulting in more accurate products, a more comprehensive 

update of the imperviousness product resulting in more accurate products for each 

era in the last 10 years, and the first-ever change analysis of Alaska. In late 2014, 

NLCD 2011 will be released for Alaska, quantifying land-cover change within the 

state between 2001 and 2011. Overall, NLCD remains a substantially evolving and 

important database to a wide range of users, making it essential to thousands of 

applications. It is used to inform a variety of investigations, from monitoring forests 

to modeling water runoff in urban areas. For more information on NLCD and to 

obtain NLCD data, visit http://www.mrlc.gov/.

Using the Moon to Calibrate Earth Observations

The USGS Astrogeology program maintains the highest-quality data on the 

brightness of the moon via the Lunar Calibration Program. These data are used to 

calibrate many spaceborne Earth-observing instruments, including the Operational 
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Land Imager (OLI) on Landsat 8, as well as the NASA remote sensing instruments Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) on the Suomi National 

Polar-orbiting Partnership (NPP) satellite and Moderate Resolution Imaging 

Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on the Terra and Aqua satellites. Lunar calibration 

is planned by virtually all future operational satellite missions, including those 

belonging to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 

(GOES-R Advanced Baseline Imager); NASA (VIIRS on the Joint Polar Satellite 

System); the European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological 

Satellites (EUMETSAT) (Meteosat Third Generation Flexible Combined Imager 

and EUMETSAT Polar System); and Japanese, Chinese, and Indian meteorological agencies. Consistent calibration is essential for comparing data collected by 

different instruments over decadal timescales, thus allowing climate and land-use 

changes to be accurately assessed. Lunar calibration provides a reliable method 

for maintaining long-term and consistent calibration of visible and near-infrared 

imaging instruments. For more information, visit http://www.moon-cal.org/.

Response to Landslide Emergencies

Photograph from aerial survey showing the upper 

parts of the landslide that occurred near Oso, 

Washington, on March 22, 2014. This photo 

was taken on March 27, 2014. Credit: Jonathan 

Godt, USGS

Remotely sensed data and technologies are critical for a science-driven emergency 

response to landslide disasters. Topography derived from lidar and Interferometric 

Synthetic Aperture Radar (IFSAR), optical imagery, and the Global Positioning 

System (GPS) can provide fundamental information to aid in the forecasting of 

and response to landslide activity. High-resolution topography collected before 

and after landslide movement can 

be differenced to obtain estimates of 

deposit thickness. For example, maps 

of deposit thickness derived from 

lidar data were used to develop safer 

and more efficient search strategies 

following the March 2014 landslide 

near Oso, Washington. The response 

to the Oso landslide relied on GPS 

technologies, which were used to 
107 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

detect small (less than a few centimeters) displacements in and around the slide. 

This information was critical to the near-real-time assessment of additional landslide movement, which potentially threatened the month-long search operations 

there. Similar maps were developed for the Collbran landslide in western Colorado 

in May of 2014 by taking the difference between pre- and post-event IFSAR and 

lidar data. Color optical imagery is being used to map the occurrence and extent 

of debris flows generated by record-breaking rainfall in September 2013 in the 

Colorado Front Range. These maps, combined with new lidar topography, are a 

basis for debris-flow hazard assessments. 

Alaska Volcano Observatory

Composite satellite image of Pavlof Volcano showing the extent of the lava flows on the northeast 

flank. The base image was collected by DigitalGlobe’s Worldview-2 satellite on May 9, 2014 (prior to 

the onset of eruptive activity), and is overlaid with a Landsat 8 thermal infrared image collected early 

in the morning on June 24, 2014. The thermal infrared sensor measured the heat given off by the stillwarm lava flow. The length of the longest branch of the lava flow is about 5 kilometers (3 miles). Note 

that the lava flow appears to have traveled under the ice on the upper flank of the volcano.

The Alaska Volcano Observatory utilizes satellite remote sensing to aid in monitoring the 52 historically active volcanoes that comprise the 2,500-kilometer-long 

Aleutian Arc in Alaska. The primary volcanic hazard is to aviation along the 
108Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

busy North Pacific air routes, and remote sensing provides information that is used 

to detect volcanic unrest, to characterize the magnitude of the activity, and to 

determine whether hazardous ash (rock) is being erupted. For more information, 

visit https://www.avo.alaska.edu/.

Lower Colorado River Spring Pulse Flow

The Lower Colorado River High Flow Experiment in Mexico is a collaborative 

monitoring project with teams of scientists from governments, universities, and 

nonprofits on both sides of the border. The goal of the project is to document postflow changes in the vegetation and riparian habitat along the lower Colorado River 

in response to a pulse flow mandated by the “Minute 319” international agreement.

Satellite-based vegetation indices (NDVI and EVI) derived from MODIS (daily 

coverage at 250-meter resolution) 

and Landsat 8 (30-meter resolution at 

16-day intervals) data are mathematically combined to produce synthetic 

images with high spatial and temporal resolution. NDVI and EVI data 

for each river reach from 2000 to the 

present were collected for specific 

target areas that included restoration 

sites, vegetation transect sites, and 

bird observation sites.

The Colorado River is identifiable as a stream 

ending in the upper middle portion of this image, 

in the U.S.-Mexico border area. The dark feature 

(lower left) is not a stream, but a tributary of the 

main body of the Sea of Cortez in Mexico, which 

is just beyond the lower edge of the image. Credit: 

Francisco Zamora, Sonoran Institute, with aerial 

support by Lighthawk

The time series of satellite data 

revealed a steady decrease of green 

vegetation in all river reaches since 

the flood years of 1997–2000. The 

loss of vegetation vigor has been 

accompanied by a loss of bird habitat 

from 2002 to the present and has led 

to a lowering of evapotranspiration 

(ET) in each river reach. The pulse 
109 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

flood was designed to restore some of the vegetation vigor and to germinate new 

cohorts of native trees throughout the river reaches. Early positive results are 

apparent in the zones of inundation. Over time, upstream groundwater recharge 

is expected to restore productivity in downstream river reaches. Over a period of 

years, a pulse flow should enhance the productivity of the groundwater-dependent 

riparian vegetation. The riparian vegetation along the Colorado River provides 

important habitat for many species and is a critical fly-way for many migratory birds.

Estimating the Temperature Response of 2,368 Lakes to Climate Change

Surface freshwaters support rich biodiversity and provide many important ecosystem services. Documented warming of inland waters is widespread and can 

reduce water quality and negatively impact cold-water fish. While national-scale 

monitoring programs exist for the Nation’s rivers and streams (http://waterdata.

usgs.gov/), lake temperature monitoring is comparatively rare. In order to evaluate 

climate impacts on lake temperatures from 1979 to 2011, mechanistic models for 

thousands of lakes were automatically parameterized using two primary sources 

of remote sensing data: Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection 

Radiometer (ASTER) elevation data were used to estimate the degree of wind 

sheltering for lakes due to local canopy and topography effects, and water clarity 

was calculated based on Landsat imagery. This effort resulted in the publication 

of the article “Simulating 2,368 Temperate Lakes Reveals Weak Coherence in 

Stratification Phenology,” available online at http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/

article/pii/S0304380014003664.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), in concert with its international, 

Federal, tribal, state, local, and nongovernmental organization partners, uses a 

large number of remote sensing technologies to find optimal solutions to watch 

over and manage our fish and wildlife populations, habitats, waters, wetlands, and 

landscapes. The FWS utilizes acoustic GPS, as well as radio telemetry sensors, 

on fish and wildlife for time and location information tied to a variety of remote 
110Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

sensing image products, such as aerial and satellite optical imagery, in addition 

to thermal, radar, sonar, and lidar imagery. This temporal and geospatial system 

of imagery and location is used to map habitats, find invasive plants, determine 

flightpaths of birds and bats, conduct fish and wildlife inventories, watch over refuge lands, and monitor trust species.

Finding the Elusive and Endangered Iowa Pleistocene Snail

This image shows an Iowa Pleistocene Snail on a leaf in northeast Iowa.

The Iowa Pleistocene Snail is a remnant of the last Ice Age and was believed 

to be extinct; however, it was discovered in 1955 and placed on the Endangered 

Species List in 1977. The only known living populations are found on several 

north-facing algific talus slopes in northeastern Iowa and northwestern Illinois. 

Although the snails’ known populations appear to be somewhat stable over the 

last few decades, the larger question is whether they will survive climatic changes 

in the future. Since the last survey was over a decade ago, resurveys are being 

conducted to assess the stability of the existing populations and attempt to find 

additional groups. Thermal, lidar, aerial, and satellite imagery are being used 

to search for additional algific habitats and snail populations and to document 
111 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

current habitat conditions. For more information, visit http://www.fws.gov/midwest/

endangered/Snails/iops_fct.html.

Using Lidar-Derived Metrics for Habitat Management Plans

Airborne lidar can be processed to yield a broad array of forest canopy structure 

metrics that are important for wildlife management. These high-quality data layers 

can be assessed in models to identify important habitat relationships. For goldencheeked warblers at Balcones Canyonlands National Wildlife Refuge near Austin, 

Texas, the amount of canopy cover at greater than or equal to 1 meter above ground 

was an important predictor of population density. The draft Habitat Management 

Plan for the Refuge is incorporating this knowledge by including an objective of 

increasing canopy cover at this level across the 7,500 hectares of juniper-oak woodlands managed for this species. The successional stage of each refuge tract was 

assessed from the lidar-derived canopy cover layer using zonal statistics in ArcGIS. 

Canopy cover greater than 80 percent (i.e., the highest quality habitat) was found 

over about 45 percent of the warbler management areas. About 22 percent of the 

warbler management areas had canopy cover between 60 and 80 percent, indicating a successional vegetation stage, and the remaining third hosted lower-quality 

habitat. These analyses are critical for helping management know where to focus 

efforts to maximize the growth of diverse juniper-oak woodlands.

Ecology of Southwestern Golden Eagles Based on Satellite Telemetry

Shortages of data on survival rates, mortality factors, habitat selection, and 

dispersal and migration movements hinder decisions for managing golden eagle 

populations in the western United States. To help fill these information gaps, 

83 golden eagle nestlings were fitted with satellite transmitters in the Southern 

Rockies/Colorado Plateau region during 2010–14. Nearly one-half million hourly 

GPS locations of the eagles, accurate to within 20 meters, have been collected via 

the Argos satellite system.
112Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Initial findings indicate relatively low first-year survival but greater survival 

thereafter. Chief mortality factors include power-line electrocution or collision, 

shooting, and poisoning, though cause of death is unknown in some cases. Nearly 

all eagles remain within 60 miles of their sites of origin as juveniles and subadults. 

However, about 40 percent of the eagles annually migrate northward 250 to 

750 miles for summer, movement behavior previously unknown for the species and 

one having key implications for risk and population mixing.

Project data are helping to form underpinnings of continental-scale “metaanalyses.” For example, identifying key migration corridors or overlap between 

highly valued habitat and potential development can aid decisions for conserving areas most important to the eagle. The FWS and collaborators currently are 

expanding this work in other western regions.

In this image, satellite telemetry 

shows the annual migrations 

between Arizona and Wyoming 

by a subadult female golden eagle.

Utilizing Lidar to Model Flood Inundation on Flint Hills 

National Wildlife Refuge

Flint Hills National Wildlife Refuge is located in east-central Kansas near the 

town of Hartford and sits within and upstream of the John Redmond Reservoir, 

which is managed by the Army Corps of Engineers for flood control. Dramatic 

fluctuations in the reservoir are common with large rain events, which adds 
113 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

complexity to effectively managing the refuge for migratory birds and other wildlife. In addition, the base conservation pool level was recently raised 2 feet to 1,041.

This flood inundation model shows low and high reservoir levels on Flint Hills National Wildlife Refuge.

To better understand these fluctuations and their impact, the FWS used lidarderived elevation data collected in 2010 and 2011 to model inundation across the 

refuge at all reservoir levels. Combining historical reservoir elevation allows flooding frequency and duration to be estimated and visualized by refuge staff. This 

information is being used by refuge staff as they develop goals and objectives for 

habitat management and inventory and monitoring plans; it also helps to facilitate 

continued communication between staff and the Army Corps of Engineers.

Documenting 2014 Flood Event on Ouray National Wildlife Refuge Using Landsat 8

Ouray National Wildlife Refuge is located in northeastern Utah along the 

Green River near the town of Vernal. River dynamics are a major driver in forming 

and sustaining ecological processes that directly influence floodplain habitats and 

the wildlife they support. In addition to supporting numerous migratory birds, the 

refuge also plays an important role in conservation efforts for four endangered 

Colorado River fish, particularly razorback suckers. Refuge floodplain bottoms fill 
114Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

when the river floods, providing key brood-rearing 

habitat for juvenile fish.

The refuge is located in 

the overlap region between 

two Landsat 8 satellite 

footprints; therefore, the 

refuge is imaged every 7 to 

9 days instead of every 16 

days. The frequent coverage and relatively cloud-free 

conditions of this dryland 

environment provide a 

time series of imagery that 

is useful for documenting 

flooding events. Because 

of the rapid processing and 

posting of the Landsat data 

by the USGS (typically less than 12 hours after image capture), staff can compare 

the images with on-the-ground observations in near-real time, which enhances 

their knowledge of the flooding event and the floodplain system itself. Flood entry 

points and duration and extent of flooding are also documented from this imagery.

This Landsat 8 image, captured June 14, 2014, shows the maximum extent of flooding.

Helicopter Unmanned Aerial System to Map Pitcher’s Thistle

Pitcher’s thistle, a threatened native plant that grows on beaches and grassland 

dunes along the shorelines of Lake Michigan, Lake Superior, and Lake Huron, is an 

important food source for certain birds and small mammals. Although once fairly 

common in the sand dune ecosystems of Michigan, its numbers have declined in 

recent decades due to habitat destruction associated with shoreline development, 

recreational use, and invasive plant species. The FWS classified the thistle as a 

threatened species in 1996.
115 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

Benjamin Heumann, director of Central Michigan University’s Center for 

Geographic Information Science, led a team of geography graduate students at 

Wilderness State Park near Carp Lake. They flew a vertical camera on board a 

helicopter UAS, which took thousands of aerial photos that the researchers will 

use to map all locations of Pitcher’s thistle.

For more information, visit http://media.cmich.edu/news/science-in-the-sky.

Benjamin Heumann, director of CMU’s 

Center for Geographic Information Science 

at Wilderness State Park, flies an unmanned 

aerial vehicle along the Lake Michigan shoreline. The helicopter’s onboard camera took 

thousands of aerial photos that the researchers will use to map all locations of Pitcher’s 

thistle, a threatened native plant that grows 

on beaches and grassland dunes along the 

shoreline of Lake Michigan. Credit: Steve 

Jessmore/Central Michigan University

Bureau of Land Management

The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) requires field-based measurements 

to support management decisions covering vast expanses of land. By integrating 

remote sensing into BLM’s Assessment, Inventory, and Monitoring strategy, fieldbased monitoring data are leveraged to generate information and maps that would 

otherwise be too expensive to produce. BLM is developing a core set of integrated 

and scalable remote sensing tools that will provide an integrated, quantitative 

monitoring approach to efficiently and effectively documenting the impacts from 

authorized and unauthorized disturbance and land-treatment activities at local and 

regional scales.

Remote Sensing Characterization and Monitoring of Shrubland/Grassland 

Components Across the Western United States

BLM has partnered with the USGS and the Multi-Resolution Land 

Characteristics Consortium (MRLC) in a multi-year mapping and monitoring 

program to better characterize shrubland and grassland ecosystems in the western 

United States. For several management objectives in semi-arid to arid ecosystems, 
116Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

BLM requires more detailed 

information about land cover 

and vegetation than is currently 

offered in existing national 

products (e.g., the National 

Land Cover Database [NLCD] 

and the Landscape Fire and 

Resource Management Planning 

Tools Project  [LANDFIRE]).

To address this need, BLM 

began collaborating in 2013 

with the USGS and MRLC to 

create remote sensing–based 

products showing western 

shrublands and grasslands at 

2-meter and 30-meter spatial 

resolutions that quantify perpixel estimates of several main shrubland components, including total shrubs, sagebrush, herbaceous cover, annual vegetation cover, litter, bare ground, and shrub 

height. Although mapping the entire western United States with these methods 

will take approximately five years to complete, the project will provide valuable 

baseline data and the ability to monitor the landscape components long-term. This 

project is a key component of BLM’s landscape monitoring strategy and integral to 

the Bureau’s efforts within the sage-grouse initiative.

This map depicts the tentative schedule for the grass/shrub 

mapping effort.

Initial products were developed in 2013 for southwestern Idaho, southeastern 

Oregon, northwestern Nevada, and northeastern California. This initial mapping 

area was used to develop and refine operational procedures for mapping in subsequent years. The 2014 products include the Mojave Desert, the Great Basin, western 

Utah, and southern Idaho, which cover significant portions of greater sage-grouse 

and desert tortoise habitats. The products derived from this mapping effort will be 

integrated into the NLCD for future updates and used to improve characterization of 

grassland and shrubland ecological systems within the LANDFIRE program.
117 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

BLM/BIA Cadastral Surveys with Remote Sensing Imagery Assistance

BLM Utah is currently involved in ongoing survey projects with the Bureau 

of Indian Affairs (BIA). Many of the rivers are located in very steep sandstone 

cliff formations that are hundreds of feet deep and are dangerous or inaccessible 

to surveyors. To delineate the current shorelines of some of the most challenging 

areas along the San Juan and Green Rivers, we used National Agriculture Imagery 

Program (NAIP) 2011 imagery. The imagery was georectified using ground survey 

data—X, Y, and Z coordinates—collected at accessible field points that were distinctive on the aerial photographs. We used image processing within a Geographic 

Information System (GIS) environment to georectify the NAIP 1-meter imagery 

by matching control point locations on the imagery model to the survey data. The 

shoreline was manually digitized from the rectified aerial photography, creating a 

linear dataset, which was then reincorporated into the cadastral model.

State-of-the-Art Techniques Used to Document New Dinosaur Tracksite in 

Moab Field Office

On the left is a photogrammetric image of a large theropod 

track from the Mill Canyon Tracksite. Distortions from camera 

lens have been removed from this image, making precise direct 

measurements of length and width possible. On the right is a photogrammetrically derived, three-dimensional digital-point cloud 

that duplicates the surface at a submillimeter level. This track is 

just over 3 centimeters at the deepest point.

In 2009, a remarkable new dinosaur tracksite was discovered by BLM staff on 

lands administered by the Moab Field Office. The Mill Canyon Dinosaur Tracksite 

is one of the largest multitaxic tracksites in North 

America, preserving 10 

different types of tracks, 

including those of various 

dinosaurs, birds, and crocodiles. Over 200 tracks 

are preserved in an area of 

approximately 500 square 

meters in the 112-millionyear-old Lower Cretaceous 

Ruby Ranch Member of 
118Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

the Cedar Mountain Formation. The site is being studied by an international team, 

led by Dr. Martin Lockley of the University of Colorado at Denver.

Starting in 2013, BLM’s National Operations Center (NOC) and Wyoming State 

Office worked to thoroughly document the site with stereo photography. Digital 

images were processed using photogrammetric software to render high-resolution, 

three-dimensional images of the surface and associated tracks. This imagery will be 

used by BLM for documentation, research, monitoring, and management purposes.

Remote Sensing–Based Indicator for Mid-Scale Monitoring of

Sagebrush Habitat

The BLM and USFS Greater Sage-Grouse Monitoring Plan is designed to 

monitor the implementation and evaluate the effectiveness of actions to conserve 

the species and its habitat. A multi-scale monitoring approach is necessary as 

sage-grouse are a landscape species, locating themselves within the environment 

based on a hierarchy of features from broad-scale to site-specific. Conservation 

is therefore scale-dependent, and conservation actions to benefit populations are 

implemented within seasonal habitats.

Sage-grouse populations have been found to be more resilient in areas where an 

adequate percentage of the landscape is sagebrush. The current geographic extent 

of sagebrush vegetation within the rangewide distribution of sage-grouse populations was derived from the Existing Vegetation Type (EVT) layer in LANDFIRE 

(version 1.2). From LANDFIRE EVT, sage-grouse experts identified the ecological 

system attributes that could potentially support sagebrush vegetation and provide 

suitable seasonal habitat for the sage-grouse. A total of 20 ecological systems were 

used to derive the sagebrush vegetation layer.

This sagebrush layer (see figure) allows the estimation of existing sagebrush percentage, as well as other landscape indicators, such as patch size and number, patch 

connectivity, linkage areas, and landscape matrix and edge effects. As conservation and restoration efforts change land use and land cover, the sagebrush layer will 

be updated in synchrony with LANDFIRE updates, allowing the determination of 

trends in cover across a variety of reporting scales.
119 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

This map displays the final 2012 sagebrush base layer, which shall be updated over time to monitor 

the availability of sagebrush for sage-grouse planning efforts. For reference purposes, the LANDFIRE 

BioPhysical Setting is also displayed and highlights large chunks of sagebrush that have been lost.

U.S. Bureau of Reclamation

The Bureau of Reclamation (BOR) uses Landsat data to help monitor consumptive water use throughout the western United States. BOR analysts use Landsat 

imagery to map irrigated crops for estimating water demand and to monitor interstate and interbasin water compact compliance. The BOR is also involved in the 

ecological restoration of a number of rivers in the west. Lidar, multispectral aerial 

imagery, and sonar data are used to generate maps of topography, vegetation, and 

river channel bathymetry, which guide restoration activities.
120Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Lower Colorado River Agriculture Monitoring and Water-Use Estimates

The Colorado River is the principal source of water for irrigation and domestic 

use in Arizona, southern California, and southern Nevada. In order to account for 

water use by each state and individual water user and to verify fallowed lands for 

conservation programs and other water management analysis needs, the Bureau 

of Reclamation routinely monitors more than 3.5 million acres of agriculture and 

riparian vegetation along the Lower Colorado River from the Hoover Dam south 

to the international border. Multispectral satellite images are analyzed in combination with other spatial data in a GIS environment to generate information 

regarding crop and riparian types, acreages, and associated water-use estimates. 

This information assists the BOR in meeting its U.S. Supreme Court mandate to 

provide detailed and accurate records of diversions, return flows, and consumptive 

use estimates of water diverted from the mainstream of the Lower Colorado River. 

For more information, visit http://www.usbr.gov/lc/region/g4000/wtracct.html.

Siletz River Terrain

The Siletz River is located in west-central Oregon. The Siletz Tribe has 

requested technical assistance through the BOR’s Tribal Assistance Program to 

evaluate hydraulic and geomorphic processes along the Siletz River. Historical 

aerial photos of the river will be evaluated to document geomorphological changes 

and the spread of invasive species over several decades. Bathymetric survey data 

will be combined with lidar data to build a complete topographic surface from 

which cross-section geometry data will be extracted and used to support hydrologic 

modeling of the river. The technical information from the evaluation will help 

guide the development of management alternatives to improve salmonid habitat 

in the study area.

Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement

The Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement (OSMRE) remote 

sensing program provides OSMRE offices, states, and tribes with the necessary 
121 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

tools to use remote sensing technologies to support Titles IV (Abandoned Mine 

Lands) and V (Regulation of Current Mining) of the Surface Mining Control and 

Reclamation Act of 1977 (SMCRA). As part of this support, the OSMRE remote 

sensing program provides high-resolution satellite imagery, aerial photography, and 

lidar data to conduct analyses of terrain, vegetation, and hydrologic function on 

active mine sites to ensure that reclamation is consistent with the approved mining permit. These data are also used to support the inventory, monitoring, and 

assessment of abandoned mine land features to ensure that there is no threat to the 

environment or to health and human safety.

Unmanned Aircraft System for Stream and Coal Waste Reclamation

A. This image shows a point cloud 

of XYZ locations of a section of 

the stream in Dillon Canyon. 

The 3D representation is viewed 

in Global Mapper version 15.2. 

B. This photo shows the ground of 

the same section with a close-up 

of willows (5–10 feet tall) and 

archaeological structure. C. This 

image displays data validation 

of vegetation species, height, 

diameter, and GPS location. 

D. Researchers take stream crosssection measurements to compare 

with a topographic surface model.

This project explores the use of a UAS to map stream channel morphology and 

monitor revegetation at the Dillon and Dutchman Canyons, which were once part 

of a larger coal-mining site in Vermejo Park Ranch, near Raton, New Mexico. A 

fixed-wing Trimble UX5 Aerial Imaging Rover UAS with a 1-meter wingspan and 

electric pusher propeller was deployed at the site in August 2014. A 16.1-megapixel 

compact camera (with a 15-millimeter lens) mounted in the UX5 was used to 

take high-resolution images along a programmed 30-minute flightpath over the 

0.16-square-mile reclamation study area. Several geographically overlapping images 

were used to generate a dataset of points with XYZ values. Each point was attributed with Red, Green, and Blue spectral values and classified as either bare ground 

or vegetation. Vegetation height was summarized by subtracting the elevation 

between points classified as bare ground from those classified as vegetation. Ground 
122Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

control produced a mean 0.44 (± 0.23)-foot vertical accuracy, and at-ground sensor resolution was 0.13 foot. Ground validation included vegetation sampling and 

stream channel cross-sections. The data will be used to map the topography of the 

post-construction reclamation and aid the vegetation classification of a WorldView2 

satellite image acquired within two weeks of the UAS deployment. Compared to 

both traditional aerial photogrammetry and satellite imagery, the increased spatial 

resolution of UAS-acquired imagery is anticipated to add significant value to reclamation monitoring as well as the detection of mining and archaeological features. 

For more information, visit http://www.emnrd.state.nm.us/MMD/AML/amlmain.html.

National Park Service

The National Park Service (NPS) has a significant investment and long history in using aerial and spaceborne remote sensing and GPS technologies. The 

NPS Inventory and Monitoring Program conducts baseline inventories for more 

than 270 parks spanning over 30 million acres of public lands. Remote sensing 

data are a critical source of information regarding geology, soils, vegetation, and 

infrastructure. Aerial photography and satellite imagery have been utilized to compile vegetation maps; 10 million acres are currently mapped, and 8.5 million acres 

are under way, with 12 million remaining. These data are particularly critical for 

NPS activities in Alaska. The NPS takes advantage of the free Landsat archive 

to quantify decadal changes in glacier ice cover and document land-cover change 

in national park units. The NPS has been the DOI sponsoring agency to map all 

large wildland and prescribed fires as part of the DOI Monitoring Trends in Burn 

Severity project, using the Landsat archive. GPS supports field data collection, 

navigation, and search-and-rescue operations across the agency.

Classifying Slope in Sensitive Volcanic Terrain Using Aerial Lidar Data

Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument, located near Flagstaff, Arizona, is 

composed of many unique and sensitive volcanic features. Recreational activities, 

such as off-trail hiking, have the potential to degrade these features, especially on 

steep and barren slopes of unconsolidated volcanic scoria, cinder, and ash. Many of 
123 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

these features are on a scale not captured 

in the available 10-meter-resolution 

elevation models. Funding from the 

NPS Intermountain Region Natural 

Resource Small Park Program was used 

to acquire new aerial lidar over 10,000 

acres at an average density of 8 points 

per meter. The 0.5-meter-resolution data 

were classified to generate bare-earth 

terrain models. Based upon observations of erosion on existing trails, areas 

classified with slope exceeding a threshold of 14 percent were identified as 

vulnerable to erosion. Monument managers are using this information to plan 

trails and backcountry access. The lidar 

dataset covered the entire monument 

area and has potential uses for other 

programs, such as preserving cultural 

resources, managing vegetation, and 

planning for new facilities.

This figure shows a general analysis sequence 

used to identify vulnerable areas.

Terrestrial Lidar Scanning to Document Historic Structures at Camp Tulelake

The Tule Lake Unit of the World War II (WWII) Valor in the Pacific National 

Monument is documenting the current condition of three historic structures at 

the Camp Tulelake area of the monument using terrestrial lidar. The lidar data 

were acquired by Epic Scan of Medford, Oregon, in cooperation with the Oregon 

Institute of Technology. During WWII, Camp Tulelake was converted from a 

former California Conservation Corps camp to a high-security prisoner of war 

(POW) camp, first housing Italian POWs and then German POWs. The camp was 

also used at various times to house Japanese American strikebreakers and other 

prisoners from the nearby Tule Lake Segregation Center, a Japanese American 
124Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

confinement site during WWII. The monument’s staff is developing a General 

Management Plan to determine the future disposition and use of these structures.

To support management planning and the process of nominating the site to the 

National Register of Historic Places, detailed drawings of the structure’s existing 

conditions are required. The three structures are in varying stages of deterioration, 

and high-resolution laser scan data were collected to create orthographic drawings 

and 3D visualizations of the three structures. Data collected from this project, 

along with the drawings, will be crucial for the development of plans for stabilization and possible restoration of the structures.

This barn interior elevation view shows surface coverings and extracted framing.

This mess hall exterior elevation view shows surface coverings and extracted building feature outlines.
125 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

Federal Communicati

Commission

FCC

The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) formulates rules to facilitate 

the provision of commercial satellite services in the United States. It also issues 

licenses for the deployment and operation of all nongovernmental U.S. satellites. 

Internationally, the FCC coordinates satellite radio-frequency usage with other 

countries. The FCC’s accomplishments for FY  2014 related primarily to commercial communications and remote sensing satellites, as well as amateur and 

experimental satellites.

The FCC took several significant actions in administrative and rule-making 

proceedings in FY 2014. On November 1, 2013, the FCC proposed rule changes 

that would allow GlobalStar, Inc., to operate a low-power, terrestrial-based network 

using portions of the radio-frequency spectrum licensed to it in the 2.4-gigahertz 

(GHz) range, as well as adjacent unlicensed frequencies in that range.

On December 12, 2013, the FCC proposed rules to modify restrictions on the airborne use of mobile devices. The proposed rule changes addressed radio-frequency 

aspects of such operations, but consumer use of mobile devices aboard airborne 

aircraft would be subject to individual deployment decisions by airlines and by 

any Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and Department of Transportation 

(DOT) rules limiting such use. Also relevant to communications during flight, the 

FCC issued rules on April 17, 2014, giving primary status in the 14.0- to 14.5-GHz 

radio-frequency band to earth stations aboard aircraft. This primary allocation 

will facilitate the availability of in-flight Internet service for passengers and crew 

aboard commercial and private airplanes.
126Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

On September 30, 2014, the FCC proposed changes to satellite licensing rules. 

The proposed changes sought to revise or streamline many licensing and operating rules for satellites and earth stations in order to facilitate the introduction of 

new satellite services, lower costs and regulatory burdens, and promote competition 

among satellite communication service providers. One proposal sought to reduce 

delays for U.S. satellite operators filing with the International Telecommunication 

Union (ITU) and thereby achieve an improved negotiating posture in the international coordination process. Other proposed revisions focused on the performance 

bond required in connection with satellite authorizations and on technical rules 

concerning 2° spacing between certain geostationary satellites.

The FCC authorized a number of commercial communication satellite deployments and operations. These authorizations included the following:

• December 16, 2013: To Intelsat License, LLC, to construct, deploy, and 

operate a Ka-band satellite at the longitude 89.1° west orbit location. 

Intelsat License, LLC, subsequently surrendered that authorization at the 

deadline for submitting the required performance bond.

• April 4, 2014: To SES Americom, Inc., to operate the SES-3 satellite, 

located at the longitude 103.1° west orbit location, for telemetry, tracking, 

and command, and to use the Ku-band to prepare for later operations as 

a replacement C-/Ku-band satellite. The FCC also exchanged letters with 

Canada’s licensing authority, Industry Canada, concerning the current 

and anticipated operations of the SES-3 satellite, which includes a station 

licensed by Industry Canada.

• August 14, 2014: To Intelsat License, LLC, to construct, deploy, and operate a C-/Ku-band satellite at the longitude 95.05° west orbit location.

During FY 2014, the FCC continued to authorize amateur and experimental 

operations by nongovernmental small satellites, which includes satellites within 

the categories of picosatellites, nanosatellites, and CubeSats. These satellites operate in low-Earth orbit. Many of the experimental licenses were given to universities 

and research institutions seeking to provide educational opportunities for engineering students or for purposes of technology demonstration. The satellites’ missions included performing geospatial imaging, monitoring solar radiation, detecting 

particles, testing two-way communications between satellites, gathering data that 
127 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

may be useful in predicting meteorological events, and testing emerging technologies for future missions. On December 3, 2013, the FCC granted its first commercial service license involving CubeSats to Planet Labs, Inc., for the deployment 

and operation of multiple CubeSats for Earth imaging. This initial authorization 

involved the deployment of the satellites from the International Space Station. 

The FCC authorized an additional deployment on June 18, 2014. During a threemonth period in late 2013 and early 2014, three launches placed more than 100 

small satellites in orbit for a variety of U.S. and international operators. More than 

half of the satellites were authorized by the FCC.

In FY 2014, the FCC also authorized communications operations for commercial 

space launches by Orbital Sciences Corporation and SpaceX, including for cargo 

supply missions to the International Space Station and for the launch of the commercial SES-8 satellite to geostationary orbit.

The FCC granted a number of license modifications and special temporary 

authorizations for satellite networks. Many involved routine testing or redeployment of satellites within a multi-satellite system. Several of these actions, however, 

warrant particular mention:

• October 23, 2013: The FCC granted authority to Intelsat License, LLC, to 

operate its satellite, Intelsat 10, at the longitude 47.5° east orbit location 

in accordance with the ITU filings of Germany.

• January 30, 2014: The FCC granted Iridium Constellation, LLC, authority 

to reconfigure its constellation of low-Earth orbit satellites by operating 

some satellites in tandem arrangements with existing satellites that are 

partially impaired.

• February 20, 2014: The FCC authorized DIRECTV to reorient its 

DIRECTV 5 satellite in order to improve signal reception in Puerto Rico.

• June 6, 2014: The FCC authorized DG Consents Sub, Inc., to modify the 

orbit of a satellite within its system of Earth exploration satellites in order 

to achieve optimal imaging and satisfy its contractual agreements with 

other Federal agencies.

• July 30, 2014: The FCC authorized EchoStar to repoint its EchoStar 15 

satellite at the longitude 45.1° west orbit location in order to optimize 

service coverage for Brazil.
128Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

• July 31, 2014: The FCC authorized Iridium Constellation, LLC, to modify 

its orbital debris mitigation plan for up to 10 satellites in its existing 

low-Earth orbit satellite system. The revised plan involves the disposal 

of the satellites in an orbit that will result in reentry into Earth’s atmosphere within 25 years, rather than the approximately 2 years specified 

in the prior plan. This modification enables that group of 10 satellites to 

continue providing service after the originally planned date for disposal 

while Iridium Constellation, LLC, constructs and launches new satellites, 

planned for deployment by May 2017. The remainder of the original satellites in the system will be disposed of according to the prior plan.

• August 11, 2014: The FCC authorized EchoStar Satellite Operating 

Corporation to operate its EchoStar 6 satellite at the longitude 96.2° 

west orbit location. The operations are part of a cooperative arrangement 

between EchoStar and SES Satellites (Bermuda), Ltd., which is authorized by Bermuda to operate a satellite network at the longitude 96.2° west 

orbit location.

The FCC added several non-U.S.-licensed space stations to its permitted space 

station list to allow the space stations to provide domestic and international satellite service to U.S. earth stations that have routine technical parameters, as follows:

• December 12, 2013: The FCC added ViaSat, Inc.’s planned VIASAT-2 

satellite to the permitted list, operating under the authority of the United 

Kingdom and using the Ka-band at the longitude 69.9° west orbit location.

• December 12, 2013: The FCC added ViaSat, Inc.’s planned VIASAT-3 

satellite to the permitted list, operating under the authority of the United 

Kingdom and using the Ka-band at the longitude 79.3° west orbit location. 

ViaSat, Inc., subsequently declined that grant at the deadline for submitting a required performance bond.

• December 20, 2013: The FCC added HISPASAT, S.A.’s satellite 

Amazonas-1 to the permitted list, operating under the authority of 

Spain and using the Ku-band at the longitude 36.0° west orbit location. 

Amazonas-1 was subsequently removed from the permitted list on June 

12, 2014, because it was no longer operating at the longitude 36.0° west 

orbit location.
129 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

• February 4, 2014: The FCC modified the permitted list to reflect the 

relocation of the New Skies Satellites B.V. NSS-806 satellite, operating 

under the authority of the Netherlands and using the C-/Ku-band, to the 

longitude 47.5° west orbit location.

• June 18, 2014: The FCC added ViaSat, Inc.’s planned VIASAT-KA 

89W satellite, operating under the authority of the United Kingdom 

and using the Ka-band at the longitude 88.9° west orbit location, to the 

permitted list.

• September 18, 2014: The FCC added Inmarsat Hawaii’s planned 

INMARSAT-KA 63W satellite to the permitted list, operating under the 

authority of the United Kingdom and using the Ka-band at the longitude 

62.85° west orbit location. Inmarsat Hawaii subsequently surrendered that 

authorization at the deadline for submitting a required performance bond.

On May 14, 2014, the FCC also granted O3b Limited a rule waiver to permit 

it to test a new maritime satellite communication service to passengers and crew. 

The O3b satellite system is authorized by the United Kingdom to operate in 

the Ka-band.

131 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

USDA

Farm Service Agency

Geospatial systems and data played a fundamental role in the management of 

Farm Service Agency (FSA) programs in 2014. Since the 1930s, the agency has 

been tasked with administering farm commodity, credit, conservation, disaster, 

and loan programs as laid out by Congress through a network of Federal, state, and 

county offices.

FSA’s core spatial dataset, the Common Land Unit (CLU) layer, a nationally 

consistent digital dataset representing farm and field boundaries, was integrated 

with associated nonspatial farm data in a common foundational system in 2014. 

This major modernization effort allowed field offices to update farm, producer, 

and CLU records through a common process, improving data accuracy and 

update timeliness.

Remotely sensed data, such as from Moderate Resolution Imaging 

Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and Advanced Wide Field Sensor (AWiFS), and 

locally collected high-resolution aerial imagery are examples of imagery sources 

used during periods of 2014 disaster recovery to support disaster programs such as 

Emergency Loan and Emergency Conservation Programs.

As the primary source of aerial imagery for the U.S. Department of Agriculture 

(USDA), FSA administered the National Agriculture Imagery Program (NAIP), 

leveraging partnership funds from other Federal, state, and local entities to acquire 

imagery during the growing season over the continental United States. In 2014, 
132Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

FSA acquired nearly 1.5 million square miles of four-band (natural color and nearcolor infrared) imagery in 23 states. FSA also began to pilot a unique and innovative addition to NAIP in 2014 called the Early Access Web Services (EAWS). 

EAWS provided minimally processed NAIP imagery via Web service protocols on 

average between two and seven days after acquisition. This practice allowed FSA 

and partner agencies to perform time-sensitive work with the most current imagery 

available months in advance of receiving production-level NAIP imagery. In addition to distributing the most up-to-date NAIP imagery, FSA also hosted a large 

imagery archive that was accessible to Federal agencies and the public through the 

USDA Geospatial Data Gateway.

Foreign Agricultural Service

The Foreign Agricultural Service’s (FAS) Office of Global Analysis (OGA) 

served as a major source of objective and reliable global agricultural production 

information for the World Agricultural Outlook Board (WAOB), the primary 

source of the USDA’s global commodity outlook. The outlook reports provided 

public access to information affecting world food security and were crucial in decisions affecting U.S. agriculture, trade policy, and food aid. The reports’ contents 

included regional, national, and subnational monitoring and analysis of crop conditions, yield potential, and the impact of events affecting crop production.

In addition, the FAS OGA provided support and maintenance of the USDA’s 

global database of crop area, production, supply, and distribution (PSD); weather 

and soil moisture; monthly crop growth stage and harvest calendars; global agricultural monitoring (GLAM); global reservoir and lake monitor; and vegetation 

index monitor. The successful production of agricultural commodity outlook 

and the maintenance of global agricultural datasets were fulfilled using a variety of satellite Earth observation data. These included information from NASA’s 

Earth satellite-observing systems (Landsat, MODIS Aqua and Terra, Topography 

Experiment [TOPEX]/Poseidon, Jason, and Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission 

[TRMM] satellites), NOAA’s satellite data (Advanced Very High Resolution 

Radiometer [AVHRR]), and other international datasets (Indian Remote Sensing 

[IRS]–AWiFS, Linear Imaging Self-Scanner [LISS], Satellite Pour l’Observation de 
133 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

la Terre [SPOT] 4 and 5, Deimos-1, and UK-DMC2). The Deimos-1 and UK-DMC2 

satellite imagery was primarily used to study and analyze the 2014 U.S. crop season, an annual comprehensive program undertaken by the National Agricultural 

Statistics Service (NASS).

The satellite imagery resources were managed through the USDA’s Satellite 

Imagery Archive (SIA) program. The SIA program was established by the USDA’s 

Remote Sensing Coordinating Committee (RSCC), which is chaired by the 

USDA’s Office of the Chief Information Officer. The SIA fulfilled its mission 

of providing USDA-wide cost-effective data-sharing of satellite data through the 

centralized purchasing, receipt, inventory, storage, and dissemination of satellite 

imagery to USDA agencies. The following agencies participated in the program: 

the Foreign Agricultural Service (FAS), the Risk Management Agency (RMA), 

the National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS), the Forestry Service (FS), 

the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), the Agricultural Research 

Service (ARS), and the Farm Service Agency (FSA).

The success of the USDA’s SIA was also a practical demonstration of collaborative agreements with NASA, NOAA, the USGS, and the National GeospatialIntelligence Agency (NGA). During this period of reporting, the USDA satellite 

imagery library enabled all USDA agencies to access satellite imagery at substantially reduced individual agency cost. The key performance indicators of the program were measured by timely distribution and receipt of requested satellite imagery 

and the provision of bulk satellite imagery at a measurable economic benefit to the 

USDA agencies. In addition, the FAS OGA performed the physical management 

of the SIA facility and the online Archive Explorer (AE) system at http://www.

pecad.fas.usda.gov/archive_explorer/. The Archive Explorer, a Web-enabled browseand-search tool, allowed users to browse, select, and retrieve the contents of the 

Satellite Imagery Archive.

USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service

NASS used remote sensing data to construct and sample area frames for agricultural statistical surveys, estimated crop area and yield, and continued contributing 

to a NASA science grant on fallowed California agricultural land. Additionally, 
134Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

NASS published papers on a new automatic stratification method, enhancing agricultural geospatial data dissemination using geospatial Web services. and making 

the Cropland Data Layer (CDL) accessible and actionable in education. NASS 

used remote sensing data and techniques to improve the quality and accuracy of 

its agricultural statistics. For example, NASS used Landsat imagery, digital NAIP 

orthophoto quadrangles, and other remotely sensed inputs for the contiguous 

United States (CONUS) and Puerto Rico to select the yearly area-based samples 

for the June Agricultural Survey. In addition, NASS updated new area-based sampling frames for Alabama and North Carolina.

NASS fully implemented the CDL-based automated stratification method 

into area frame operations, with new state area frames built at reduced cost with 

improved objectivity, efficiency, and accuracy. The CDL data are used as the basis 

for the objective stratification of NASS Area Frame primary sampling units rather 

than visual interpretation of aerial photography or satellite data.

The remote sensing acreage estimation program used Disaster Monitoring 

Constellation (DMC) and USGS Landsat data to produce crop acreage estimates 

for crops at the state and county levels for 41 states during the 2014 crop year. 

Acreage estimates were created for 17 different crops covering all market-sensitive 

crops and states. With the expanded coverage and timeliness, NASS’s Agricultural 

Statistics Board (ASB) was able to utilize the remote sensing acreage indications as 

independent input for setting the official estimates for its monthly Crop Production 

Reports. Analysts derived remote sensing–based acreage indications from the 

CDL. Primary satellite imagery inputs were from the Foreign Agricultural Service’s 

Satellite Imagery Archive, which provided 1,562 DMC images through a cooperative partnership while utilizing 6,624 Landsat 8 images from the U.S. Geological 

Survey. In addition, NASS distributed the CDL for 48 states to stakeholders for 

the previous 2013 crop season via the USDA Geospatial Data Gateway and the 

CropScape data visualization portal at http://nassgeodata.gmu.edu/CropScape.

NASS utilized NASA MODIS Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) 

products for modeling corn and soybean yield indications over the 12 largest production states. Updated yield estimates were delivered operationally to the ASB 

as an independent indication for setting official August, September, and October 
135 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

yield estimates by state, district, and county. MODIS Land Surface Temperature 

(LST) products served as an independent variable for yield estimation.

The Web-based national vegetation condition geospatial portal VegScape (http://

nassgeodata.gmu.edu/VegScape) continued to deliver timely crop condition vegetation indices based on MODIS daily, weekly, and biweekly products throughout 

the growing season. VegScape showed crop condition/vegetation greenness and 

drought anomaly assessments. NASS continued work on a NASA science grant 

titled “Fallowed Area Mapping for Drought Impact Reporting and Decision 

Making,” to which NASS contributed monthly growing season CDL-based fallowed land estimates for California water resource stakeholders.

Forest Service

As the primary forestry agency of the United States and the largest agency in 

the USDA, the U.S. Forest Service (USFS) continues to sustain the health, diversity, and productivity of the Nation’s forests and grasslands. This work is conducted 

via three specific agency mission areas: Research and Development (USFS R&D), 

the National Forest System (NFS), and State and Private Forestry (USFS S&P).

USFS R&D conducts research to address forestry and natural resource issues 

both internationally and domestically, including the development of relevant science and technologies. Partnerships with states, tribes, and other Federal agencies, 

as well as universities and private industry, are integral to accomplishing the USFS 

R&D mission. Additionally, the USFS administers and manages 155 national 

forests and 20 national grasslands collectively known as NFS lands. These lands 

encompass 193 million acres in 44 states and Puerto Rico and are managed for the 

purpose of sustainable multiple uses to meet the diverse needs of people. Lastly, 

USFS S&P provides assistance to private land owners and state, tribal, and community forestry agencies in the stewardship of approximately 500 million acres of 

non-Federal forest lands throughout the United States. This assistance includes 

the provision of information and support to partner agencies to protect forests from 

wildland fires, insects, disease, and invasive plants.

To address the information needs of these USFS mission areas in FY 2014, the 

USFS collaborated with NASA, NOAA, the USGS, and other agencies to apply 
136Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

operational satellite and airborne imagery and the most advanced remote sensing 

and geospatial technologies. Specific FY 2014 USFS accomplishments are summarized below.

• Collected comprehensive Earth Observing System (EOS) MODIS and 

Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership (Suomi NPP) Visible Infrared 

Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) direct broadcast data for the United 

States and Canada, as well as operational processing and dissemination of 

near-real-time fire mapping and geospatial data products to fire managers 

and the general public (http://activefiremaps.fs.fed.us).

• Continued activities with NASA Goddard Space Flight Center’s Direct 

Readout Laboratory under a USFS-NASA interagency agreement to 

test and operationally implement direct-readout technologies to support 

resource management, including land, atmosphere, and ocean science processing algorithms for EOS and Suomi NPP sensors (http://directreadout.

fs.fed.us).

• Continued operational processing and analysis of MODIS imagery for 

detection of forest damage and changing forest health conditions in our 

Nation’s forests (http://foresthealth.fs.usda.gov/portal/Flex/FDM?dL=0).

• Continued to distribute 250-meter forest attribute data surfaces derived 

from MODIS imagery and other geospatial predictor data using nearest 

neighbor imputation methods (http://data.fs.usda.gov/geodata/rastergateway/

forest_type/index.php).

• Continued to distribute 250-meter forest carbon estimates derived from 

MODIS imagery and other geospatial predictor data using nearest neighbor imputation methods (http://data.fs.usda.gov/geodata/rastergateway/

biomass/index.php).

• Continued conducting operational crewed wildfire mapping missions in 

FY  2014 using the Autonomous Modular Sensor (AMS) via coordination between the USFS, NASA Ames Research Center, and the NASA 

Airborne Sciences Program.

• Coordinated with NASA Ames Research Center in FY  2014 to further develop the AMS onboard processing system capabilities and user 
137 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

interface to support additional testing and integration flights on USFS 

aircraft for eventual operational use in FY 2015.

• Continued coordination with NASA Goddard Space Flight Center on 

testing and evaluation of the Multi-Angle Implementation of Atmospheric 

Correction (MAIAC) for MODIS and its potential use for land and atmosphere remote sensing applications.

• Coordinated with NASA Goddard Space Flight Center to evaluate 

test data collected by the Goddard LiDAR Hyperspectral and Thermal 

(G-LiHT) sensor for potential land remote sensing and resource management applications.

• Operationally applied Earth Observing-1 (EO-1) Advanced Land Imager 

(ALI), Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM), and Landsat 8 

Operational Land Imager (OLI) imagery to respond to approximately 160 

requests by the USFS to map the location, extent, and severity of large 

wildfires in 2013 and 2014 to support post-fire emergency stabilization/

hazard mitigation activities and forest restoration planning/management activities (http://www.fs.fed.us/eng/rsac/baer and http://www.fs.fed.us/

postfirevegcondition).

• Continued to operationally apply Landsat 4/5 Thematic Mapper (TM) 

and Landsat 7 ETM imagery to inventory, map, and characterize historical large fires to assess the effectiveness of national fire management policies as part of the Monitoring Trends in Burn Severity (MTBS) project. 

MTBS mapping activities through FY  2014 include the completion of 

18,500 historical fires (~130 million burned acres) spanning 1984 to 2013 

(http://www.mtbs.gov).

• Coordinated with the University of Maryland and NASA to implement 

the 375-meter VIIRS I-band active fire detection product as part of operational USFS strategic fire detection and monitoring program activities 

(http://activefiremaps.fs.fed.us).

• Coordinated with the University of Maryland, NASA, and the USGS 

to execute and test Landsat 8 prototype active fire detection algorithms 

and evaluate derived output products to support USFS operational fire 

support activities.
138Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

• Continued technology transfer activities between the USFS and NASA 

Ames Research Center regarding unmanned aircraft systems (UASes) 

and related technologies under the auspices of the NASA-USFS Wildfire 

Research Applications Partnership and a USFS-NASA interagency agreement (http://geo.arc.nasa.gov/sge/WRAP/index.html).

• Coordinated with NASA Ames Research Center on advancing the 

Wide Area Imager (WAI) (developed under the NASA Small Business 

Innovation Research [SBIR] program) to a higher technical readiness 

level (TRL) and phasing into USFS tactical fire-mapping operations in 

FY 2015–16.

• Used Landsat 5 TM, Landsat 8 OLI, and National Agriculture Imagery 

Program (NAIP) imagery to initiate and complete mid-level vegetationmapping products for National Forest lands and adjacent land areas 

throughout the country.

• Used Landsat 5 TM, Landsat 8 OLI, and NAIP imagery to model Tree 

Canopy Cover (TCC) for the entire contiguous United States and Alaska 

as part of the Multi-resolution Land Characteristics Consortium (MRLC) 

National Land Cover Database 2011 update.

• Completed an assessment in coordination with the Environmental 

Protection Agency (EPA) of the effects of land-cover change on water 

quality using Landsat TM/ETM time-series stacks to detect and monitor 

forest land-cover change in the Lake Superior and Lake Michigan watersheds from the mid-1980s to present. This activity has been extended to 

include Lake Huron, Lake Erie, and Lake Ontario and will include implementing automated change-detection capabilities in Google Earth Engine.

• Used Landsat TM/ETM/OLI and NAIP imagery in conjunction with 

other core geospatial datasets to conduct ecological and soil-type mapping 

on NFS lands, which are used by the USFS, NRCS, and other agencies for 

resource management, planning, and decision making (http://www.fs.fed.

us/eng/rsac/programs/teui/about.html).
139 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

• Continued to generate forest-disturbance products based on analysis of 

Landsat TM/ETM time-series stacks using the Vegetation Change Tracker 

(VCT) to support carbon and biomass monitoring for 55 selected forested 

sites across the United States in support of the North American Forest 

Dynamics (NAFD) Project (http://daac.ornl.gov/NACP/guides/NAFD_

Disturbance_guide.html).

• Continued to develop standards and practices for integrating lidar into 

forest and resource management (e.g., defining acquisition specifications, 

performing data quality assessment, and creating analysis/modeling procedures for forest parameters). This work is relevant to recent and potential 

USFS–NASA JPL lidar collaboration, such as the acquisition and processing of hyperspectral imagery (AVIRIS) and lidar data for the 2013 Rim 

Fire and 2014 King Fire in California.

• Identified potential partnership opportunities with the NASA Applied 

Remote Sensing Training (ARSET) program that would enhance NASA 

and Forest Service Remote Sensing training programs and leverage 

existing Forest Service training investments to increase awareness about 

emerging technologies and practical resource applications.

141 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

a ional ien e

Foundati

NSF

The National Science Foundation (NSF) continued to serve as the lead Federal 

agency for the support of ground-based astronomy and space science. Through the 

divisions of Astronomical Sciences, Atmospheric and Geospace Sciences, Polar 

Programs, and Physics, the NSF sponsored a broad base of observational, theoretical, and laboratory research aimed at understanding the states of matter and 

physical processes in the universe. Areas of research ranged from the most distant 

reaches of the universe and the earliest moments of its existence to nearby stars 

and planets—including our own sun and planetary system—and Earth’s atmosphere and space environment.

Division of Astronomical Sciences

The Division of Astronomical Sciences (AST) within the Mathematics and 

Physical Sciences (MPS) Directorate supported the development of advanced 

technologies and instrumentation for astronomical sciences, in addition to providing core support for the optical and radio observatories whose state-of-the-art 

instrumentation and observing capabilities are accessible to the community on the 

basis of scientific merit. The NSF’s national astronomical facilities included the 

National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO), the Arecibo Observatory (AO), 

the National Optical Astronomy Observatory (NOAO), and the National Solar 

Observatory (NSO). The NSF also served as the executive agency for the Gemini 

Observatory—an international partnership operating optical/infrared telescopes in 
142Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

both the Northern and Southern hemispheres—providing the United States’ share 

of support for the program.

AST, in partnership with Europe, Canada, Japan, and Taiwan, brought construction close to completion on the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array 

(ALMA), an interferometer located near San Pedro de Atacama, Chile. FY 2014 

saw the delivery of the remaining site infrastructure. Science operations continued, 

concurrently with commissioning, using a 32-element subset of the full array.

AST continued its oversight of the Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope (DKIST; 

previously referred to as the Advanced Technology Solar Telescope, or ATST), 

the next-generation U.S. ground-based solar telescope. The DKIST, the result of 

collaboration by scientists from more than 20 institutions representing a broad 

segment of the U.S. solar physics community, had previously earned the strong 

recommendation of the National Research Council of the National Academy of 

Sciences. When completed in 2019, the DKIST will be the world’s flagship groundbased telescope designed specifically for the study of solar magnetic fields on scales 

as small as 30 kilometers. In August of 2013, the National Science Board approved 

a new baseline cost for the DKIST project of $344.13M. The fabrication of the 

major telescope subsystems and instruments is ongoing, as is construction of the 

facility on the Haleakala site. The project is currently on budget and is scheduled to begin operations by mid-2019. Construction of the DKIST facility is led by 

the National Solar Observatory (NSO). In August of 2014, the National Science 

Board approved the renewal of the cooperative agreement for the operations and 

management of the NSO for a period of 10 years. The approved budget includes a 

funding ramp for the DKIST operations beginning in FY 2015 and increasing to a 

steady-state cost of approximately $17 million in FY 2019, with costs beyond 2019 

adjusted for inflation.

Through its funding of the NSO, AST also supports continuous long-term 

observations of the sun vital to the accurate prediction of space weather. The 

NSO Integrated Synoptic Program (NISP) consists of the Synoptic Optical 

Investigations of the Sun (SOLIS) telescope and the six international stations of 

the Global Oscillations Network Group (GONG) located in California, Hawaii, 

Western Australia, India, the Canary Islands, and Chile. The NISP program provides detailed synoptic solar data to support space weather researchers in their 
143 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

efforts to understand solar eruptions and their effect upon Earth and to apply that 

knowledge to the protection of satellites, astronauts, land-based power systems, and 

Earth’s climate.

FY 2014 was a very successful year for the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope 

(LSST) project, starting with NSF’s Final Design Review in December 2013, leading to National Science Board approval in May, and culminating in a construction 

award from NSF’s Major Research Equipment and Facilities Construction account 

on August 1, 2014. This project will use a purpose-built wide-field survey telescope 

and a 3.3-gigapixel camera supplied by NSF’s Federal partner, the Department of 

Energy (DOE) Office of High Energy Physics (HEP), to image the entire accessible 

sky repeatedly for at least 10 years, producing 20 to 40 terabytes of data every night. 

The LSST database will enable breakthrough research not just in cosmology (dark 

energy and dark matter), but also in galactic structure and solar system astronomy. 

As well, LSST opens up the time domain and will revolutionize the study of transient events. DOE’s camera, led by the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) 

National Accelerator Laboratory, has been under development for several years 

and will shortly start Major Item of Equipment funding. The review to set the final 

camera cost and the approval of that not-to-exceed number are planned for early in 

FY 2015. Planning and coordination between the agencies have led to the current 

construction schedule, with engineering “first light” expected in FY 2020. Two 

years of commissioning is needed to ensure robust, reliable functioning of the endto-end system so that the survey can start relentless observing, night after night, in 

2022. The NSF’s responsibilities include the telescope, the site, and data management, including separate specialized access for research and for education and public outreach uses. As noted, DOE’s HEP is supplying the camera. Private funding 

has been crucial for early, long-lead-time items, especially the innovative primarytertiary mirror. The two agencies will support installation and commissioning. 

Operations funding from the agencies will be augmented by several international 

partners, whose contributions are currently being negotiated. LSST continues to 

attract strong support from the research and education communities worldwide.

The Atacama Cosmology Telescope (ACT) is a 6-meter-diameter millimeterwave telescope located at 5,200 meters (17,000 feet) on Cerro Toco in the Atacama 

Desert of northern Chile, near the ALMA site. It is designed to measure minute 
144Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

variations in the intensity of the cosmic microwave background (CMB, the radiation at microwave wavelengths that is a remnant of the Big Bang) to study how the 

universe began, what it is made of, and how it evolved to its current state. ACT is a 

dedicated special-purpose telescope and is equipped with a state-of-the-art customized camera with detectors cooled to one-tenth of a degree above absolute zero. In 

FY 2014, the project fielded, observed with, and analyzed data from a new type of 

camera called ACT Polarimeter (ACTPol), measuring the best spectrum of cosmic 

background E-mode polarization yet made. The ACTPol receiver is a sophisticated 

new design based on a dilution refrigerator, which allows the detectors to operate 

with very low noise at a cryostat temperature of 100 millikelvins.

The Polarization of Background Radiation (POLARBEAR) telescope is a 

3-meter-diameter off-axis millimeter-wave antenna designed to measure, like 

ACTPol, the polarization of CMB radiation. The observatory is located near the 

ACT and ALMA facilities on the Chilean Atacama plateau. The telescope is 

being used to measure the polarization of the cosmic microwave background to 

search for “B-modes,” which will open up a new window on the early universe 

and the physics of cosmic inflation if detected. Unlike previous CMB telescopes, 

POLARBEAR was designed for a very large field of view to accommodate a large 

imaging camera. Wide-area coverage is key to obtaining a broad sampling of the 

microwave background sky and high signal-to-noise measurements. In FY 2014, 

the project made the first independent (i.e., not reliant on correlations with other 

datasets) detection of B-modes caused by gravitational lensing of the CMB. This 

is an interesting finding in itself and a step toward the detection of primordial 

B-modes that are a signal of gravitational waves produced during inflation. The 

lensing B-modes are at smaller angular scales than the hypothesized primordial 

ones, and by being somewhat less challenging to detect, they are an excellent test 

of the telescope and detector systems. (Other news on B-mode investigations can 

be found in the Division of Polar Programs section below.)

Division of Atmospheric and Geospace Sciences

The Division of Atmospheric and Geospace Sciences’ (AGS) high-altitude aircraft, the Gulfstream V (GV), is a highly modified and instrumented midsize jet 
145 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

operated by the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), a Federally 

Funded Research and Development Center of the NSF. The GV is FAA-certified 

to operate at altitudes of up to 51,000 feet, and its ability to fly for long durations 

(over 12 hours) and long distances (over 6,000 kilometers) while carrying scientific 

payloads of up to 6,000 pounds has enabled scientific research previously not possible with existing platforms. During FY 2014, the GV conducted long-duration 

flights for the Deep-Propagating Gravity Wave Experiment over New Zealand 

(DEEPWAVE-NZ), carrying airborne lidars and a mesospheric temperature mapper to study the dynamics of gravity waves from Earth’s surface through the lower 

thermosphere. The GV also participated in the Convective TRansport of Active 

Species in the Tropics (CONTRAST) campaign, in conjunction with NASA’s 

Airborne Tropical TRopopause EXperiment (ATTREX) study using the Global 

Hawk aircraft based in Guam.

The AGS Geospace Section (GS) supported a wide variety of research programs 

in space science in FY 2014. These included the funding of advanced radar systems 

to study the ionosphere and magnetosphere, ground-based optical equipment to 

study the aurora and airglow, partial support to ground-based solar telescopes and 

instruments, and a wide-ranging portfolio of basic research in space physics. Major 

GS-funded activities in FY 2014 included the Geospace Facilities (GF) program; the 

Space Weather Research (SWR) program; the Coupling, Energetics, and Dynamics 

of Atmospheric Regions (CEDAR) program; the Geospace Environment Modeling 

(GEM) program; and the Solar, Heliosphere, and INterplanetary Environment 

(SHINE) program.

The National Space Weather Program (NSWP) is a multiagency Federal program aimed at mitigating the adverse effects of space weather on the Nation’s 

technological infrastructure by providing timely, accurate, and reliable space environment observations, specifications, and forecasts.

Throughout FY 2014, the Community Coordinated Modeling Center (CCMC) 

for space weather research, cosponsored by the NSF and NASA and located at 

NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, continued to provide the research community with access to state-of-the-art space weather models and conducted important model-validation activities necessary for transitioning research models into 

operational use.
146Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Research facilities remained as the key component of GS efforts. The Geospace 

Facilities program in FY 2014 continued to enable basic research on the structure 

and dynamics of Earth’s upper atmosphere. In particular, the CEDAR and GEM 

programs conducted research efforts utilizing these facilities. Throughout FY 2014, 

observations made by the Advanced Modular Incoherent-Scatter Radar (AMISR) 

at Poker Flat, Alaska, demonstrated the unique capabilities of this new instrument, 

including its ability to image the ionospheric effects of auroral particle precipitation in three dimensions. These observations provided a wealth of data particularly 

useful to modelers interested in validating space weather models. A second AMISR 

system has been operating at Resolute Bay in Arctic Canada since 2009. This radar 

is ideally situated to observe the properties of the ionosphere in the polar cap, a 

region that is characterized by high ionospheric variability that often causes disruption of important navigation and communication systems.

In FY 2014, GS continued to support its program for CubeSat-based small satellite science missions for geospace and atmospheric research and education. During 

FY 2014, two projects continued to operate successfully in space and two new missions were launched. All provided high-quality observations and scientific findings. 

Another two excellent CubeSat science projects were started in FY 2014, adding 

new capabilities and breadth to the overall CubeSat program that, with this addition, encompassed a total of 12 CubeSat projects.

GS continued support for the satellite-based Active Magnetosphere and 

Planetary Electrodynamics Response Experiment (AMPERE) through FY 2014. 

AMPERE utilized the 66 networked satellites of the existing Iridium constellation 

to create a new facility for collecting geomagnetic field data. The AMPERE facility has provided the first-ever real-time observations of the electric currents that 

link Earth’s magnetosphere and ionosphere and the first-ever continuous, global 

observations for tracking geomagnetic storm-time dynamics. Geomagnetic storms 

occur when charged particles emitted by solar flares interact with Earth’s magnetosphere. Such storms can cause major disruptions of power and communications 

systems on the ground. The AMPERE data server facility has been established and 

placed online, and data for the years of 2010–13 have been made freely available 

to researchers, with new data being added continually. During FY 2014, a new fiveyear award was made for the continuation of the project as AMPERE-II.
147 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

The GS solar physics community also continued to benefit from the Division of 

Astronomical Sciences’ ongoing efforts to develop and manage the DKIST (Daniel 

K. Inouye Solar Telescope) being constructed in Hawaii. Also in FY 2014, GS continued to provide oversight for much-needed upgrades at the Owens Valley Solar 

Array in California.

In FY 2014, the AGS Atmosphere Section (AS) continued to support the 

Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere, and Climate 

(COSMIC). The University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR) and 

its collaborator, Taiwan’s National Space Organization (NSPO), designed and 

built the COSMIC six-satellite constellation, which was launched on April 14, 

2006, with the support and assistance of the U.S. Air Force’s (USAF) Space Test 

Program (STP). Shortly thereafter, data became available from the three payloads: 

the special space-based GPS radio occultation (RO) receivers, the so-called Tiny 

Ionosphere Photometers, and the Tri-Band Beacons. These data have been provided freely to the world scientific community.

COSMIC radio occultation data have been assimilated at many operational 

weather prediction centers, including the U.S. National Centers for Environmental 

Prediction (NCEP), the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts 

(ECMWF), Météo France, the United Kingdom Met Office, the Meteorological 

Service of Canada, Taiwan’s Central Weather Bureau, and others. All of these 

centers have reported that RO data are having a significant positive impact on 

numerical weather forecasts. In ionospheric studies, COSMIC RO data have accelerated the development of physical models for space weather prediction by providing dense, accurate, and global electron density measurements. These data are used 

for model testing and initialization, including the response of the global ionosphere 

to the impact of solar storms.

During FY 2014, all six COSMIC satellites were operating and providing data. 

On average, COSMIC produced from 1,500 to 2,000 GPS RO soundings per 

day. Ninety percent of these were processed and delivered to operational centers 

within 3 hours. COSMIC has supported more than 1,100 registered users from 52 

countries. In collaboration with UCAR’s Unidata, COSMIC soundings have been 

provided in real time to support the university community.
148Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Division of Polar Programs

For FY 2014, the primary activities of the Division of Polar Programs (PLR) in 

ground-based space science and astronomy included continued full-scale observations at the U.S. Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station with the 10-meter off-axis 

radio telescope and with the battery of five small-aperture (25-centimeter) telescopes called the Small Polarimeter Upgrade for DASI (Degree Angular Scale 

Interferometer) (SPUD)/Keck Array. Currently, both the South Pole Telescope 

(SPT, with the SPTpol receiver) and SPUD are focused on cosmic microwave 

background (CMB) polarization measurements. The High Elevation Antarctic 

Terahertz (HEAT) robotic telescope at Ridge A continued data collection through 

FY 2014. The IceCube Neutrino Observatory (ICNO) also continued data collection of high-energy neutrino events through FY 2014.

Recent scientific results from SPT include publications on the rest-frame submillimeter spectrum of high-redshift dusty star-forming galaxies, as well as on the 

measurements of secondary CMB anisotropies from the 2,500-square-degree SPTSunyaev-Zel’dovich (SZ) effect survey. The SPT team is working hard at characterizing the CMB’s B-mode polarization spectrum, cross-correlating their observations 

with the B-mode polarization data recently published by the Background Imaging 

of Cosmic Extragalactic Polarization 2 (BICEP2)/SPUD team. In March 2014, this 

team announced the detection of B-mode polarization at degree angular scales 

by BICEP2 and published a paper on the subject in Physics Review Letters. This 

announcement caused news headlines worldwide as the BICEP2 group claimed that 

they might have provided the first direct evidence of cosmic inflation by detecting 

in their data the imprints of primordial gravitational waves. These results are currently under scrutiny by other experiments, including SPTpol, POLARBEAR, and 

ACTPol instruments.

The IceCube Neutrino Observatory (jointly operated at the South Pole by PLR 

and the NSF’s Division of Physics) has now collected data for almost four years 

from a complete array of 86 strings of optical photodetectors deployed in deep ice 

under the South Pole Station in Antarctica at a depth between 1.4 and 2.4 kilometers. The ICNO Collaboration reported in FY 2014 that more neutrino-induced, 

very-high-energy events were added to the previously published 28 events; a new 
149 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

paper will be submitted for publication shortly. The team analyzed neutrino events 

that exceeded 50 teraelectronvolts (TeV) and came from anywhere in the sky. (One 

electronvolt [eV] is the energy an electron or proton gains when it is accelerated by 

a voltage of 1 volt; 1 TeV is a trillion eV; 2 eV is about the energy of a photon in 

the visible orange light band.) While most of the neutrinos observed by IceCube 

exhibit energies in the range expected for atmospheric neutrinos from decays of 

particles produced in extensive air showers by cosmic rays, the energies of the 

recently discovered events are indicating that their likely origin is either from far 

away in the Milky Way Galaxy or from extragalactic events.

151 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

Department of

DOS

The Department of State (DOS) carries out diplomatic efforts to support U.S. 

space policies and programs internationally. DOS supports U.S. civil space activities through the negotiation of bilateral and multilateral agreements with partner 

countries and leads U.S. participation in numerous international space and technological activities and international organizations. DOS also maintains outreach 

programs to advance U.S. space and foreign policy objectives.

DOS continued to lead the U.S. delegation to the United Nations Committee 

on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS) plenary and its two subcommittees—Legal (LSC) and Scientific and Technical (STSC). With numerous 

countries and private-sector entities now engaged in space activities, DOS considers promoting the safe and responsible use of space by all current and future 

spacefaring nations a vital goal. During COPUOS 2013, State continued with U.S. 

participation in the Working Group on Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space 

Activities (LTS). This working group was tasked with examining and proposing 

voluntary best-practices guidelines to ensure the safe and sustainable use of outer 

space for peaceful purposes and the benefit of all countries. The LTS Terms of 

Reference were finalized in 2011, and the Working Group continued to make 

measured progress in this year’s STSC and COPUOS sessions. Most notably, the 

Working Group’s four expert groups completed their work on consensus reports 

containing recommendations for long-term sustainability guidelines. The work of 

the expert groups formed the basis for an extended set of informal and formal 

sessions of the full LTS Working Group during this year’s COPUOS STSC and plenary sessions. These sessions provided an opportunity for all COPUOS members 

to review the chair’s proposed consolidation of guidelines. DOS will continue with 
152Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

its participation in the Working Group and informal meetings in FY 2015 to seek 

consensus on the guidelines.

DOS continued to promote space weather as an important foreign policy topic 

worldwide and during COPUOS. The STSC completed its multi-year work plan 

in 2013, in which the United States played a leading role. As a follow-on to the 

International Space Weather Initiative (ISWI), and with support from the United 

Nations (UN) Office for Outer Space Affairs, the U.S. organized a two-day 

expert meeting on the margins of STSC in 2014 titled “Improving Space Weather 

Forecasting in the Next Decade,” which brought together 42 scientists from 21 

countries. The meeting recommended continued access to observations of transients in the inner heliosphere; the hosting and sharing of data for space weather 

research and forecasting facilitated through existing virtual observatories; the continued deployment of new instruments, along with education and public outreach, 

through ISWI; and the improvement of forecasting and “nowcasting,” including 

for space weather at other planets, with emphasis on supporting robotic exploration. The United States proposed to hold a special one-day workshop titled “Space 

Weather Services to Build Global Resilience,” on the margins of the 52nd session 

of the STSC in 2015, as part of the Space Weather agenda item. The proposed 

workshop aims to enhance the participation of COPUOS member states in space 

weather service activities, consistent with the LTS proposed draft guidelines. The 

U.S. also engaged in side meetings with delegations from Canada, Japan, India, 

Pakistan, Iraq, South Africa, the Republic of Korea, and Saudi Arabia to promote 

cooperation in space weather research.

During the 53rd session of the LSC in 2014, the State Department promoted 

the continuation of the item entitled “Review of the International Mechanisms 

for Cooperation in the Peaceful Exploration and Use of Outer Space,” which has 

allowed the United States to maintain a leadership role in shaping the course of the 

LSC. The review provided other delegates with a comprehensive overview of the 

current status of national space laws and regulations and helped member states in 

understanding the different approaches taken at the national level to the development of national space-related regulatory frameworks. Also, during this year’s LSC, 

under the agenda item entitled “General Exchange of Information on Non-Legally 
153 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

Binding United Nations Instruments on Outer Space,” DOS highlighted positive 

examples of U.S. cooperation and participation in international mechanisms and 

forums, demonstrating that much productive cooperation occurs through legally 

nonbinding mechanisms and providing information that may be useful to states 

with less experience in civil space cooperation.

The United States hosted the first-ever International Space Exploration Forum 

(ISEF) at the U.S. Department of State in Washington, DC, on January 9, 2014. 

DOS organized and chaired the forum, bringing together ministers and high-level 

officials from 35 spacefaring nations and international bodies to talk about the 

opportunities and challenges they share. It featured high-level policy discussions 

about the future of space exploration, developments in robotic space exploration, 

extending humanity’s reach beyond low-Earth orbit, the role of commercial industry in space exploration, and the importance of international cooperation.

Keynote speeches were made by Deputy Secretary of State William Burns, 

NASA Administrator Charles Bolden, and Presidential Science Advisor John 

Holdren, who announced that the United States was committed to extending 

operations on the International Space Station until 2024. The ISEF participants 

agreed that space exploration benefits all humankind and that it is essential for 

governments to work together internationally to advance shared objectives for 

space exploration. Such collaboration has facilitated the development of new technologies, realized commercial opportunities, identified opportunities for shared 

missions such as the ISS, and inspired younger generations to undertake the challenge of space exploration.

In June 2014, the United States and the European Union (EU) held the third 

plenary session under the 2004 U.S.-EU Global Positioning System (GPS)-Galileo 

Cooperation Agreement. The goal of the plenary, chaired for the United States by 

the State Department, was to hear progress reports from working groups and provide updated guidance for future working group activities. Progress has been made 

in the working groups since the second plenary meeting on radio-frequency compatibility coordination, the use of GPS-Galileo Time Offset (GGOT) messages to 

improve interoperability, market access issues, the publication of an assessment of 

joint GPS-Galileo performance, the provision of integrity on the basis of combined 
154Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

use of GPS and Galileo, and the definition of a global navigation satellite system 

(GNSS) Space Service Volume (SSV) to enable the use of GNSS services in the 

space domain out to geostationary orbit (GEO) altitudes.

The United States and the EU also held their seventh Civil Space Dialogue 

meeting in June 2014, chaired by the DOS and the European Commission. Topics 

of discussion included satellite-based search and rescue; future space research 

projects; and mutual concerns about space weather, Earth observation, and datasharing policies. The parties also discussed preparations for the ninth meeting of 

the International Committee on GNSS (ICG), which will take place November 

10–14, 2014, in Prague, noting European regulatory body development of standards 

for pseudolites that could potentially create harmful interference for GNSS signals 

and agreeing to closely coordinate in the run-up to the ICG meeting. The United 

States also affirmed its interest in negotiating possible access to the EU Galileo 

Public Regulated Service (PRS) signal and undertook exploratory talks with the 

EU Commission and various member states.

The DOS organized a half-day “U.S.-Japan Workshop on Satellite Remote 

Sensing” in Washington with a Japanese delegation of more than 20 officials and 

remote sensing experts. The workshop allowed a comprehensive discussion of U.S. 

and Japanese Earth observation programs including data policy and a long-awaited 

Japanese policy for licensing commercial remote sensing satellite systems. U.S. and 

Japanese civil remote sensing agencies restated their commitment to continue one 

of the world’s most productive bilateral relationships on Earth observation.

In May 2014, the United States participated in the first formal bilateral meeting 

with China to discuss civil GNSS cooperation. Topics discussed at this meeting 

included compatibility and interoperability of civil signals between the BeiDou 

Navigation Satellite System (BDS) and GPS; their respective augmentation systems and civil aviation applications; monitoring and assessment; spectrum protection; interference detection and mitigation; ICG and associated Providers’ Forum 

activities; and activities related to the International Civil Aviation Organization 

(ICAO), the International Maritime Organization (IMO), the International 

Telecommunication Union (ITU), and other pertinent international multilateral 

forums. Following the meeting, a joint statement was signed, highlighting the 

intent to continue discussions and cooperation through regular meetings.
155 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

The DOS organized and cochaired the first U.S. and Republic of Korea civil 

space bilateral dialogue on July 1. The central focus of the dialogue was to discuss 

respective national space policy developments and explore potential areas of bilateral cooperation.

Finally, DOS continued to promote the use of GPS in Africa, working through 

the AfricaArray consortium and the United Nations Office of Outer Space 

Affairs. AfricaArray is a public-private partnership led by academic researchers 

at the University of the Witwatersrand in South Africa and Pennsylvania State 

University in the United States; it is focused on supporting training and research 

in Earth, atmospheric, and space sciences in Africa. At the ninth AfricaArray 

annual meeting, held in January 2014 in Johannesburg, DOS facilitated the travel 

of scientists from many African countries to participate in workshops on GPS 

applications on a broad spectrum of Earth and space sciences.

157 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

Department of En

DOE

The Department of Energy (DOE) participates in the national effort to further 

U.S. interests in space. Three organizations within DOE provide this capability: the National Nuclear Security Administration’s (NNSA) Office of Defense 

Nuclear Nonproliferation Research and Development, the Office of Science, and 

the Office of Nuclear Energy.

Office of Defense Nuclear Nonproliferation Research

and Development

The Nuclear Detonation Detection program builds the Nation’s operational 

sensors to monitor the entire planet from space to detect and report surface, 

atmospheric, or space nuclear detonations (NuDets). The Space-Based Nuclear 

Detonation Detection subprogram provides much of the Nation’s capability to 

detect, report, locate, and identify nuclear explosions using orbiting satellites. 

The Office of Defense Nuclear Nonproliferation Research and Development 

(DNN R&D) develops, builds, and delivers these satellite payloads to meet interagency performance and schedule commitments and provides launch and onorbit operational support for the current generation of the U.S. NuDet Detection 

System (USNDS).

Since the Vela satellite program in 1960, NNSA and its predecessors have provided the underlying science and technology capability for space-based detection 

of foreign nuclear weapon detonations to meet test-ban-treaty monitoring needs.

Modern systems include capabilities to support military missions. These efforts 

span decades of overlapping generations of instruments deployed on multiple 
158Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

platforms in different orbital configurations. NNSA continues full-scale production and delivery of sensor packages to ensure that payloads are ready, as needed, 

to meet national security requirements. To ensure that the technologies and capabilities developed for the program support stakeholder needs, DNN R&D actively 

engages in intergovernmental working groups that reduce duplication among 

agencies, bring new user requirements to the fore, and improve the quality of relevant technology across the funding agencies. Strong synergy exists between the 

work performed in the USNDS program and planetary science and astrophysics. 

The current gamma ray spectrometers used for USNDS share their heritage with 

the NASA Swift mission, which evolved from earlier USNDS sensors. This mission exemplifies how collaboration between national laboratories and NASA for 

astrophysics has benefited USNDS capabilities and vice versa. Additionally, the 

NASA Living With a Star program contributes to, and is benefited by, the NNSAdeveloped payloads that monitor and operate in the near-Earth space environment.

The NNSA weapons laboratories—most notably Los Alamos National 

Laboratory (LANL) and Sandia National Laboratories (SNL)—supply the science, technology, and engineering required for USNDS, with Lawrence Livermore 

National Laboratory (LLNL) contributing to the end-to-end testing of USNDS. 

These NNSA laboratories have unique and comprehensive capabilities in understanding nuclear weapons, as well as the signatures and observables associated with 

a nuclear detonation and the propagation of signals from the weapon to the sensor. Moreover, these laboratories provide capabilities in the design, construction, 

calibration, deployment, and operation of satellite-based detection instruments, 

along with detailed modeling and analysis. As the basis for 24/7/365 global monitoring, the user/operations communities routinely receive analysis, insights, and 

computer codes based on this research. These capabilities represent an important 

noncommercial source of national space expertise and competency that NNSA is 

committed to sustaining and nourishing.

Two payloads built by NNSA at these laboratories accomplish the NuDets reporting mission—the Global Burst Detector (GBD) and the Space and Atmospheric 

Burst Reporting System (SABRS). The GBD payload is hosted on all GPS satellites. The SABRS payload is carried on satellite hosts in geosynchronous orbit. In 

order to maintain a vital capability to design and implement these systems, DNN 
159 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

R&D supports demonstration-validation payloads to explore new technologies and 

new sensing modalities and to increase the technology readiness level (TRL) for 

parts that might be used in future payload designs.

Office of Science

The DOE Office of Science (SC) supports several activities that contribute 

to a broad range of space interests. These activities include SC fundamental 

research that is of mutual interest to the NASA mission and NASA researchers, collaborative research efforts with NASA, and the operation of SC scientific 

facilities that are available to NASA and the broader scientific community for 

space-related research.

SC supports fundamental research in plasma science that contributes to 

SC-NASA mutual interests in knowledge of magnetospheric/ionospheric, solar, 

and astrophysical systems. A major area of research supported by SC’s Office of 

Fusion Energy Sciences (FES) is centered on developing a comprehensive understanding of astrophysical magnetized-plasma processes, including particle acceleration in cosmic gamma-ray bursts, magnetic reconnection and turbulent processes 

in Earth’s magnetosphere and the solar corona, the formation and evolution of 

astrophysical jets, and dynamo processes creating planetary/galactic magnetic 

field structures. Some specific examples are 1) large-scale plasma simulation codes 

that are applied to study space weather; 2) the Large Plasma Device (LAPD) at 

the Basic Plasma Science Facility (BaPSF) at the University of California, Los 

Angeles, which enables controlled studies of Alfven waves that carry energy and 

momentum from the sun to Earth and throughout the universe; 3) the Magnetic 

Reconnection Experiment (MRX) at Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory (PPPL), 

which permits laboratory studies of magnetic reconnection and particle energization processes in Earth’s magnetotail and solar flares; 4) the Magneto-Rotational 

Instability (MRI) facility, also at PPPL, which elucidates the physics of accretion 

disks around black holes; and 5) the Max Planck–Princeton Plasma Physics Center, 

which is a newly established center at PPPL in partnership with the Max Planck 

Society in Germany that specifically explores the application of plasma science to 

astrophysical problems and their connections to fusion science. In addition, FES 
160Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

sponsors unmagnetized-plasma research that uses lasers and light-source x-rays to 

probe the properties of warm dense matter similar to that found in planetary cores.

Projects funded by the Office of Science and executed through joint collaboration with NASA include the development of experimental techniques of 

fundamental physics for use in space to investigate high-priority national science 

objectives. Examples of these efforts include the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer 

(AMS) and the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope (FGST). The AMS, also 

designated AMS-02, is a particle physics experiment designed and built primarily by SC and launched on the NASA Space Shuttle in May 2011. AMS-02 is 

now mounted on the International Space Station, where it searches for various 

types of unusual matter by measuring cosmic rays. Among the experiment’s science 

goals are the search for evidence of dark matter and cosmic domains of antimatter. A Memorandum of Understanding between DOE and NASA defines NASA’s 

responsibilities to include provision of power, data handling, and other services on 

the International Space Station, while DOE’s responsibilities include experiment 

operation and data analysis. Recent results (September 2014) of precision measurements by AMS of the positron fraction in primary cosmic rays, based on the 

analysis of 41 billion particles detected, provide new insights into the nature of the 

mysterious excess of positrons observed in the flux of cosmic rays, which could be 

due to dark matter. The Large Area Telescope (LAT), the primary instrument on 

NASA’s FGST, is a particle physics detector in space to study the gamma-ray sky. 

SC managed the LAT fabrication and now operates the LAT Science Operations 

Center. Researchers use the data to learn about high-energy acceleration mechanisms generated by supermassive black holes and supernovae and to search for 

dark matter. Their December 2013 results on the origin of cosmic rays were one 

of Science magazine’s 2013 “Top 10 Science Breakthroughs of the Year.” Results on 

indirect searches for dark matter are expected in the coming year.

The Office of Science and NASA engage in many collaborative research efforts 

in the area of atmospheric science and environmental phenomena. In 2014, SC’s 

Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) activity provided support for the 

NASA Integrated Precipitation and Hydrology Experiment (IPHEX). ARM provided an aircraft sensor to measure total condensed water and a ground-based 

microwave radiometer to measure column water vapor and liquid water for the 
161 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

IPHEX campaign. These measurements will be used to improve and validate models 

of cloud and precipitation processes. SC’s ARM and Terrestrial Ecosystem Science 

(TES) activities supported aircraft measurements of atmospheric trace gases in 

Oklahoma to improve understanding of the influence of atmospheric and terrestrial 

processes on atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations. Flights were coordinated 

with the NASA Tropospheric Emission Sounder for the testing of carbon dioxide 

retrievals. ARM and TES also provided support in 2014 for ground-based measurements of carbon dioxide in Oklahoma; Darwin, Australia; and Manacapuru, Brazil, 

as part of the Total Column Carbon Observing Network (TCCON), which will be 

used to validate NASA’s Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 (OCO-2) satellite. SC’s 

ARM activity includes support for two sites (Southern Great Plains and Barrow, 

Alaska) that host measurement instrumentation that provide validation of the 

Cross-track Infrared Sounder and Advanced Microwave Sounder, which will fly 

on NASA’s National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System 

(NPOESS) satellite and will provide profiles of temperature and moisture. The 

TES activity also supported nine university awards through the joint-interagency 

Carbon Cycle Science topic of the 2014 NASA Research Opportunities in Space 

and Earth Sciences (ROSES) solicitation. SC’s Next Generation Ecosystem 

Experiment (NGEE)–Arctic coupled real-time, ground-based measurements of soil 

moisture, temperature, carbon dioxide (CO2), and methane (CH4) flux while the 

NASA Carbon in Arctic Reservoirs Vulnerability Experiment (CARVE) collected 

airborne measurements over Barrow, Alaska. SC’s NGEE-Arctic scientists also 

participated in the science definition team for the upcoming NASA Arctic-Boreal 

Vulnerability Experiment (ABoVE).

Since astronauts are spending more time in space, NASA has long been engaged 

in working on ground-based studies to understand the possible risks to human 

beings exposed to space radiation. The Office of Science has been working with 

NASA in a couple of areas to help support NASA’s mission interests in this area 

of concern. SC provides scientific user facilities for the scientific community, 

including particle accelerators and ion beams for biological and electronic systems 

radiation studies. NASA Space Radiation Laboratory (NSRL), a leading facility for 

radiobiology studies in the United States, was established at DOE’s Brookhaven 

National Laboratory (BNL) to study the radiobiological effects of using beams 
162Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

of heavy ions extracted from BNL’s Booster accelerator that are also produced to 

deliver into SC’s Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC) facility. A recent upgrade 

mutually beneficial to both NSRL and RHIC, jointly funded by NASA and DOE, 

was the construction of an Electron Beam Ion Source (EBIS). The newly commissioned EBIS at BNL significantly extends the range of ion species available for 

both radiological effects research and fundamental nuclear science, advancing the 

NASA and SC missions. Electronics space radiation effects testing that is necessary for mission assurance occurs at several DOE accelerator facilities, including 

BNL and the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory’s 88-inch cyclotron. SC also 

supports fundamental research on nuclear reactions of astrophysical interest contributing to SC-NASA mutual interests in the knowledge of stellar evolution and 

the composition of interstellar space. In addition, since FY 2001, DOE and NASA 

have engaged in coordinated efforts to better understand and predict the health 

risks associated with exposure to low-dose radiation. SC’s Low Dose Radiation 

Research Program has coordinated with NASA’s Space Radiation Project within 

NASA’s Human Research Program. The SC Low Dose program focuses on doses 

of radiation measured at or below current workplace exposure limits; current collaborations are limited due to a decreasing emphasis on human radiation research 

within SC’s research portfolio.

Office of Nuclear Energy

The Office of Nuclear Energy (NE) supports NASA’s planetary science and 

human exploration programs by maintaining the necessary nuclear facilities’ infrastructure capabilities to produce and deliver radioisotope power systems (RPSs) and 

by assisting special-purpose fission power system technology development efforts 

for Federal user agencies, such as NASA. The RPS infrastructure capabilities, 

funded by NASA and managed by NE, support NE’s production of RPSs for current 

space mission applications. The Office of Nuclear Energy also conducts research 

and development for NASA-funded RPS and space reactor power and propulsion 

systems technology programs.

NE and its predecessors have provided RPSs that have safely enabled deep space 

exploration and national security missions for over five decades. The RPSs convert 
163 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

the heat from the natural radioactive decay of plutonium (Pu)-238 into electricity. RPSs are capable of producing either heat or electricity for decades under the 

harsh conditions encountered in deep space or on the surfaces of other planets. 

They have proven to be safe, reliable, and maintenance-free in missions to study 

the moon and all the planets in the solar system except Mercury. In FY 2015, the 

RPS-powered spacecraft on the Pluto New Horizons mission will give humanity its 

first up-close view of Pluto.

There are five currently operating spacecraft that utilize RPSs in different stages 

of their mission lives. The Mars Science Laboratory rover, named Curiosity, landed 

on Mars in August 2012. Curiosity is the largest and most capable rover ever sent 

to another planet and is powered by a Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric 

Generator (MMRTG) that was designed, built, and delivered by NE. It has completed its primary mission phase and is currently exploring Mount Sharp, in Gale 

Crater on Mars. Voyagers 1 and 2, each powered by three Multihundred-Watt 

Radioisotope Generators (RTGs), left Earth in 1977 to conduct a grand tour of the 

outer planets. Voyager 2 is continuing to explore the heliosheath on the edge of the 

solar system, while Voyager 1, at more than 12 billion miles from Earth, is the farthest humanmade object from Earth and, as of August 2012, the first such object to 

enter interstellar space. Both spacecraft remain operational and are sending back 

useful scientific data after over 37 years of operation; they are expected to continue 

functioning until 2025. The Cassini mission launched in 1997 and entered orbit 

around Saturn in 2004. The Cassini spacecraft uses three General Purpose Heat 

Source (GPHS)–RTGs and is the largest spacecraft ever launched to explore the 

outer planets. It is successfully returning data and images of Saturn and its surrounding moons using a broad range of scientific instruments, and it is expected 

to continue to operate until at least 2017. The Pluto New Horizons spacecraft, 

launched in 2006 and powered by a single GPHS-RTG, is the fastest spacecraft 

to ever leave Earth. New Horizons has already returned images and scientific data 

from Jupiter and will continue its journey of 3 billion miles to study Pluto and its 

moon, Charon, achieving its closest encounter with Pluto in July 2015.

NE is currently preparing for the next RPS-powered mission, a Mars rover 

mission to launch in 2020. Like the Curiosity rover, the Mars 2020 rover will be 

powered by an MMRTG. NE is preparing the nuclear risk assessments to support 
164Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

environmental and nuclear launch approval processes. With NASA funding 

support, NE is also making enhancements to the current RPS production infrastructure by upgrading equipment for more robust operations. Although NASA 

made a budget-driven decision to terminate the Advanced Stirling Radioisotope 

Generator (ASRG) system development project in FY 2014, NE continues to work 

with NASA to investigate advances in both thermoelectric and Stirling powerconversion technologies that could result in more efficient and capable RPSs for 

NASA’s long-term exploration goals.

The stockpile of Pu-238 used to power RPS missions to explore the solar system 

and for other Government applications is limited. NE is working with NASA to 

re-establish domestic Pu-238 production in order to ensure continued availability of these power systems for future science missions. NASA is fully funding the 

costs to re-establish this national production capability, a project that began in 

FY 2011. The Pu-238 Supply Project will use existing facilities at the Oak Ridge 

National Laboratory (ORNL) and Idaho National Laboratory to produce Pu-238. 

In 2014, the project completed qualification of the neptunium-237 target design 

and initiated testing of chemical processing steps needed to recover Pu-238 from 

the irradiated targets.

NE has been working closely with NASA to develop a technology that has the 

potential to significantly advance human exploration capabilities. NASA’s Nuclear 

Cryogenic Propulsion Stage project, commonly known as Nuclear Thermal 

Propulsion (NTP), utilizes a nuclear reactor to provide nearly double the thrust 

of conventional chemical engines, potentially reducing transit times to Mars by 

50 percent. NE and DOE national laboratories are providing key support in the 

areas of reactor modeling, as well as fuel development and qualification. In 2014, 

the project successfully fabricated and heat-treated a graphite composite fuel element. Fabrication of the composite fuel element represents a significant step in 

re-establishing the fabrication processes used on previous NTP programs.
165 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

Smithsonian Insti

The Smithsonian Institution continued to contribute to national aerospace 

goals through the activities of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory 

(SAO), which, together with the Harvard College Observatory in Cambridge, 

Massachusetts, forms the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (CfA). 

Through this organization, more than 300 scientists engaged in a broad program of 

research in astronomy, astrophysics, Earth and space sciences, and science education. The Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum (NASM) in Washington, 

DC, also contributed to national aerospace goals through its research and education activities.

The biggest news story coming out of SAO in FY 2014 was the detection of 

B-mode polarization in the cosmic microwave background. This exquisitely precise measurement, accomplished with a telescope located at the South Pole, had 

two key implications. If confirmed by other teams, it will represent the first direct 

evidence for cosmic inflation—a hyper-expansion of the universe in the first trillionth of a trillionth of a trillionth of a second. It also represents the first direct 

image of gravitational waves, which are ripples in the fabric of space-time.

SAO continued to conduct cutting-edge research in the field of exoplanets, or 

planets orbiting distant stars. In FY 2014, SAO astronomers reported their discovery of the first mega-Earth, a rocky planet weighing 17 times as much as Earth, 

which theory said could not exist. Researchers also provided new evidence that red 

dwarf stars would not be good places to look for habitable worlds because of harsh 

stellar winds that would scour nearby planets.

SAO astronomers detected a mysterious x-ray signal that could be a sign of dark 

matter. Additionally, they used the MMT telescope1

 to identify the first runaway 

1. “MMT” is now simply the name of the telescope; it is no longer an acronym.
166Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

star cluster, which has been ejected from its home galaxy at a speed of more than 

2 million miles per hour.

SAO scientists also investigate the best methods of science education. In 

FY 2014, they showed that students grasp the unimaginable emptiness of space 

more effectively when they use tablet computers such as iPads to explore 3D simulations of the universe, compared to traditional classroom instruction. This finding 

suggests that iPads (and other tablets) can improve student understanding of challenging scientific concepts like astronomical scale.

NASA’s Spitzer Space Telescope continued to produce exciting new views of the 

universe at infrared wavelengths. Spitzer is the fourth and final space telescope in 

NASA’s Great Observatory series. Spitzer’s Infrared Array Camera (IRAC) was 

developed at SAO and constructed at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. 

SAO scientists, in collaboration with the Spitzer Science Center, continue to play 

an important role in the operation of IRAC, the data analysis, and the data’s use 

for astronomical observations.

In FY 2014, SAO scientists and their collaborators used the Spitzer Space 

Telescope to observe the near-Earth asteroid 2011 MD. It is important to know the 

physical properties of this asteroid because it is one of the candidates for NASA’s 

Asteroid Redirect Mission. This mission will capture an asteroid with a spacecraft 

and place it in orbit around the moon; later, astronauts will be sent to study it. 

Spitzer’s observations determined that 2011 MD is about 6 meters in diameter and 

has a very low density, about the same as water. This implies it has a mass of 

50–350 metric tons and has the consistency of a pile of rubble.

SAO astronomers also conducted a multi-wavelength study of galaxies with the 

Hubble Space Telescope and Spitzer. They discovered four amazingly bright galaxies that existed only 500 million years after the Big Bang and, for the first time, 

measured their abundance of stars and star formation rate. The remarkable brightness of these galaxies will enable deep spectroscopy with the James Webb Space 

Telescope to determine their nature.

A combination of observations from Spitzer and the Hubble Space Telescope 

Cosmic Assembly Near-Infrared Deep Extragalactic Legacy Survey was used to 

discover a galaxy that was rapidly forming stars 700 million years after the Big 

Bang. The galaxy has a significant abundance of elements heavier than hydrogen 
167 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

and helium, as well as a surprisingly high star formation rate of about 330 solar 

masses per year, which is more than 100 times as great as the rate seen in the Milky 

Way Galaxy. Such a galaxy is unexpected that early in the universe’s existence and 

suggests that the early universe may harbor a larger number of intense sites of star 

formation than expected.

SAO astronomers also conducted a multi-wavelength study of galaxies with 

Spitzer. They specifically examined galaxies heavier than 1 billion suns at distances 

of 4 to 7 billion light-years. The results showed that massive quiescent galaxies were 

already in place by 5 billion years after the Big Bang, but lower-mass galaxies generally ceased their star formation at later epochs.

On July 23, 2014, the Smithsonian celebrated the 15th anniversary of the launch 

of the Chandra X-ray Observatory aboard Space Shuttle Columbia. Chandra’s 

unique ability to make high-precision x-ray images of cosmic phenomena has established it as one of the most versatile and powerful tools for astrophysical research 

in the 21st century.

From the brink of space-time around black holes, to the mysterious dark matter 

that controls the evolution of galaxies, to the outer reaches of the known universe, 

the Chandra X-ray Observatory is deepening our understanding of the behavior of 

matter and energy under conditions that cannot be probed on Earth.

Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) scientists and engineers played 

a vital role—along with partners at NASA, industry, and universities—in the 

design, development, and building of Chandra. Today, SAO hosts the Chandra 

X-ray Center, which operates the observatory for NASA, a task that includes managing the satellite, processing the data, and distributing it to scientists around the 

world for analysis.

In FY 2014, scientists using Chandra made many significant discoveries. Among 

them was one of the strongest cases yet that the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way is producing a powerful jet of high-energy particles. Another 

team of scientists used Chandra to take another important step in black hole 

research: the first direct measurement of the spin of a black hole some 6 billion 

light-years from Earth. This accomplishment will help astronomers better understand how black holes grow over time.
168Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Also during FY 2014, astronomers studied the details of how star clusters—similar to the one in which our sun formed—come into being. Other researchers used 

Chandra to study how stars end their lives, including when the most massive ones 

explode as supernovas and disperse their elements into space for the next generation of stars and planets to incorporate. This ability to study stars from birth to 

death is just one example of how Chandra continues to be an invaluable asset a 

decade and a half after it was launched into space.

The Solar Dynamics Observatory provides better-than-HD-quality images of the 

sun’s surface and outer atmosphere. SAO is a major partner in the Atmospheric 

Imaging Assembly (AIA)—a group of four telescopes that photograph the sun in 

10 different wavelength bands, or colors, once every 12 seconds.

The Hinode mission is a joint U.S.-Japan-Europe mission designed to study the 

detailed physics of the sun’s atmosphere. SAO is the lead institution on the X-ray 

Telescope (XRT) on the Hinode spacecraft. The XRT is a telescope that images 

energetic x-rays that are produced in the hottest parts of the sun’s corona.

AIA and Hinode XRT observations formed the basis of new computer models of 

the sun’s magnetic field. These models show how magnetic energy is stored in the 

corona, along with the conditions that are needed to release the energy quickly in 

flares and coronal mass ejections.

In FY 2014, the XRT provided stunning images of the structure of regions of 

activity in the sun’s atmosphere. These regions are locations where large solar eruptions originate. The images from the XRT allowed scientists to systematically study 

the structure and evolution of the magnetic fields within these regions, leading to a 

better understanding of the conditions that can cause large eruptions.

NASA’s Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS) satellite provided a new 

view of the sun’s mysterious chromosphere and transition regions. SAO built the 

telescope feed and has an active role in IRIS operations, calibration, and science.

In public outreach, SAO continued its popular monthly Observatory Night lectures and observing sessions. Begun by observatory director Harlow Shapley in 

1930, these public nights offer the local community an opportunity to learn about 

the latest advances in astronomy and to view the moon, stars, and planets through 

a variety of telescopes.
169 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

The outreach program in FY 2014 with the greatest public impact addressed 

these questions: “What is a planet? And does Pluto qualify?” The event and associated in-person audience vote were covered by several hundred media outlets, with 

unique viewers and readers totaling over 700 million. Another program with significant impact recognized the 50th anniversary of the discovery of the cosmic 

microwave background. Four leading cosmologists, including one of the Nobel 

Prize–winning discoverers, offered presentations.

SAO also provided occasional Author’s Night programs, as well as Sci-fi Movie 

Nights that explored the theme “Everything I learned about science, I learned at 

the movies.”

In FY 2014, the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum (NASM) continued to educate and inspire the public through exhibits, research, and education 

programs, including discovery stations, lecture series, family educational events, 

publications, and intern training. In July, NASM opened the new exhibition 

“Hawaii By Air,” which tells the story of the development of air travel to Hawaii 

and how air travel transformed the islands. In commemoration of the 10th anniversary of the Mars Exploration Rover landings, NASM presented “Spirit and 

Opportunity: 10 Years Roving on Mars,” an exhibit featuring spectacular images 

that chronicle the rovers’ missions. “Repairing Hubble,” an exhibit displaying the 

Wide-Field Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) and Corrective Optics Space Telescope 

Axial Replacement (COSTAR) instruments formerly aboard the Hubble Space 

Telescope, was opened in April. At the museum’s Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center, 

the newly restored World War II dive-bomber, the Curtiss SB2C-5 Helldiver, went 

on display. This historic aircraft is the first restoration at the Mary Baker Engen 

Restoration Hangar, where visitors can view expert conservators and restorers 

at work.

NASM celebrated the fifth anniversary of the Public Observatory Project, now 

renamed the Phoebe Waterman Haas Public Observatory in honor of the pioneering American astronomer. Through this educational program, the public can view 

astronomical objects with the observatory’s telescope and participate in interactive 

activities guided by astronomy educators.
170Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

In anticipation of New Horizons’ encounter with Pluto next year, NASM hosted 

a lecture presentation called “Exploring Pluto and Its Satellites at the Solar System’s 

Frontier,” and the museum is developing an exhibit around a full-scale model of the 

New Horizons spacecraft. In addition, NASM curator Michael Neufeld published 

an article on the history of the mission, “First Mission to Pluto: Policy, Politics, 

Science and Technology in the Origins of New Horizons, 1989–2003.”

Staff members in NASM’s Center for Earth and Planetary Studies (CEPS) 

continued to serve on the science teams of several spacecraft missions. Dr. John 

Grant is a participating scientist for the Mars Exploration Rover (MER) mission 

that is currently operating on Mars. He is a chair of the MER Science Operations 

Working Group, and in that capacity, he leads day-to-day science planning for the 

Opportunity rover. He conducts real-time mission planning from a data station 

installed on-site at CEPS. In addition, he is cochair of the Mars 2020 Landing 

Site Steering Committee. CEPS staff members are also on the science teams for 

the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL), the Mars Advanced Radar for Subsurface 

and Ionosphere Sounding (MARSIS) instrument on Mars Express, both the High 

Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) and Shallow Subsurface Radar 

(SHARAD) instruments on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO), the radar 

sounder on ESA’s Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (JUICE), the Lunar Reconnaissance 

Orbiter (LRO), and the MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry, and 

Ranging (MESSENGER) mission to Mercury.

CEPS continued its active research program in planetary and terrestrial geology 

and geophysics using remote sensing data from Earth-orbiting satellites, as well as 

piloted and unpiloted space missions. The scope of research activities included 

work on the moon, Mars, Earth, and Mercury. Research topics included geologic 

mapping of Mars; comparative planetology; radar imaging of the moon and Mars; 

Mercury structural studies; and Martian fluvial, aeolian, volcanic, polar, and alluvial features.
171

Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

ppendice
172Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Appendix A-1

U.S. Government Spacecr

(Includes spacecraft from cooperating countries launched by U.S. launch vehicles.)

Calendar Year

Earth Orbita Earth Escapeb

Success Failure Success Failure

1957 0 1 0 0

1958 5 8 0 4

1959 9 9 1 2

1960 16 12 1 2

1961 35 12 0 2

1962 55 12 4 1

1963 62 11 0 0

1964 69 8 4 0

1965 93 7 4 1

1966 94 12 7 1b

1967 78 4 10 0

1968 61 15 3 0

1969 58 1 8 1

1970 36 1 3 0

1971 45 2 8 1

1972 33 2 8 0

1973 23 2 3 0

1974 27 2 1 0

1975 30 4 4 0

1976 33 0 1 0

1977 27 2 2 0

1978 34 2 7 0

1979 18 0 0 0

1980 16 4 0 0

1981 20 1 0 0

1982 21 0 0 0

1983 31 0 0 0

1984 35 3 0 0

1985 37 1 0 0

1986 11 4 0 0

1987 9 1 0 0

1988 16 1 0 0

1989 24 0 2 0

1990 40 0 1 0

1991 32c 0 0 0

1992 26c 0 1 0

1993 28c 1 1 0

1994 31c 1 1 0

1995 24c, d 2 1 0

1996 30 1 3 0

1997 22e 0 1 0

1998 23 0 2 0

1999 35 4 2 0

2000 31f 0 0 0

2001 23 0 3 0

2002 18 0 0 1b

2003 28c, f 0 2 0

2004 8c 0 1 0

2005 10 0 2 0

2006 20d 0 2 0

2007 16 2 2 0

2008 22f 0 0 0

2009 24f 1 0 0

2010 15 0 0 0

2011 16 1 3 0

2012 13 0 0 0

2013 18 0 1 0

2014 (through September 30, 2014) 19 0 0 0

TOTAL 1,733 157 110 16

a. The criterion of success or failure used is attainment of Earth orbit or Earth escape rather than judgment of mission success. “Escape” flights 

include all that were intended to go to at least an altitude equal to lunar distance from Earth.

b. This Earth-escape failure did attain Earth orbit and, therefore, is included in the Earth-orbit success totals.

c. This excludes commercial satellites. It counts separately spacecraft launched by the same launch vehicle.

d. This counts various sets of microsatellites as a single payload.

e. This includes the Small Spacecraft Technology Initiative (SSTI) Lewis spacecraft that began spinning out of control shortly after it achieved Earth orbit.

f. This includes American spacecraft not launched in the U.S.
173 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

Appendix A-2

World Record of Space Launches S

in Attaining Earth Orbit o

(Enumerates launches rather than spacecraft; some launches orbited multiple spacecraft.)a

Calendar 

Year

United

Statesb

USSR/

CIS Francec Italyc Japan

People’s 

Republic

of China Australia

United

Kingdomc

European 

Space

Agency India Israel Iran

North

Korea

South

Korea

1957 2

1958 5 1

1959 10 3

1960 16 3

1961 29 6

1962 52 20

1963 38 17

1964 57 30

1965 63 48 1

1966 73 44 1

1967 57 66 2 1 1

1968 45 74

1969 40 70

1970 28 81 2 1 1 1

1971 30 83 1 2 2 1 1

1972 30 74 1 1

1973 23 86

1974 22 81 2 1

1975 27 89 3 1 2 3

1976 26 99 1 2

1977 24 98 2

1978 32 88 3 1

1979 16 87 2 1

1980 13 89 2 1

1981 18 98 3 1 2 1

1982 18 101 1 1

1983 22 98 3 1 2 1

1984 22 97 3 3 4

1985 17 98 2 1 3

1986 6 91 2 2 2

1987 8 95 3 2 2

1988 12 90 2 4 7

1989 17 74 2 7 1

1990 27 75 3 5 5 1

1991 20 62 2 1 9 1

1992 31 55 2 3 7 2

1993 24 45 1 1 7

1994 26 49 2 5 6 2

1995 27 33 1 2 12 1

1996 32 25 1 3 10 1

1997 37 28 2 6 12 1

1998 34 24 2 6 11

1999 32 26 4 10 1

2000 30 34 5 12

2001 23 23 1 1 8 2

2002 18 23 3 4 11 1 1

2003 26 21 2 6 4 2

2004 19 22 8 3 1

2005 16 26 2 5 5 1

2006 15 16 5 3 5

2007 25 33 3 13 8 3 1

2008 19 26 1 11 7 3

2009 25 29 3 4 9 4 1

2010 15 30 2 15 6 1 1

2011 17 33 3 18 7 3 1

2012 13 27 2 19 10 2 1 1

2013 15 21 3 8 6 2 1

2014* 23 30 2 12 9 4 1

*(through September 30, 2014)

TOTAL 1,485 2,997 10 8 86 191 1 1 229 40 7 3 1 1

a. This includes commercial expendable launches and launches of the Space Shuttle as well as launches to useless orbit.

b. Launches from U.S.-Russia joint platform included in U.S. totals.

c. Since 1979, all launches for ESA member countries have been joint and are listed under ESA.
174Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Appendix B

Successful Launches to Orbit on U

October 1, 2013–September 30, 2014

Launch Date

Spacecraft Name

COSPAR* Designation

Launch Vehicle Mission Objectives

Apogee and

Perigee (km),

Period (min),

Inclination to Equator (°) Remarks

November 18, 2013

MAVEN

2013-063A

Atlas 5-401

Planetary exploration n/a Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN 

(MAVEN)

November 20, 2013

STPSAT-3

2013-064A

Minotaur 1 

Military 491

489

94.1

40.5

U.S. Air Force Space Test Program (STP)

Additional payloads 2013-064B-H,a

2013-064J-N,b 2013-064P-Z,c

 and 

2013-064AA-AEd

December 3, 2013

SES 8

2013-071A

Falcon 9 v1.1

Communications 35,791

35,783

1,436.1

0

First launch of SpaceX’s upgraded Falcon 9 

rocket from Space Launch Complex 40 

(SLC-40) at Cape Canaveral

SpaceX’s first geostationary transfer orbit 

mission after successfully restarting the 

second stage of the launch vehicle

December 6, 2013

NROL 39 (USA 247)

2013-072A

Atlas 5-501

Surveillance/Military n/a Also known as Topaz, part of the National 

Reconnaissance Office’s Future Imagery 

Architecture program

Additional payloads 2013-072B-Ne

January 6, 2014

Thaicom 6

2014-002A

Falcon 9 v1.1

Communications 35,798

35,776

1,436.1

0.1

January 9, 2014

Cygnus/Orb 1

2014-003A

Antares 120 

International Space Station 407

402

92.7

51.6

First of eight commercial cargo resupply 

missions to the International Space Station 

under the NASA Commercial Resupply 

Services (CRS) contract

January 24, 2014

TDRS-L (TDRS 12)

2014-004A

Atlas 5-401

Communications 35,805

35,772

1,436.2

6.8

Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS)

February 21, 2014

GPS 2F-5 (NAVSTAR 69)

2014-008A

Delta 4M+4,2

Navigation 20,209

20,155

718.0

54.9

Global Positioning System (GPS) or 

Navigation System using Timing And 

Ranging (Navstar)

April 3, 2014

DMSP 5D-3 F19 (USA 249)

2014-015A

Atlas 5-401

Military n/a Defense Meteorological Satellite Program 

(DMSP) 

April 10, 2014

NROL 67 (USA 250)

2014-020A

Atlas 5-541

Surveillance/Military n/a

April 18, 2014

CRS-3 Dragon

2014-022A

Falcon 9 v1.1

International Space Station 410

398

92.7

51.7

Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) 

mission to the ISS

Additional payloads 2014-022B-Ff

* U.N. Committee on Space Research

a. Included PHONESAT 2.4, CAPE 2, DRAGONSAT, KYSAT II, TJ3SAT, ORSES, and ORS TECH 1

b. Included SENSE SV1, NPS-SCAT, PROMETHEUS 1–4, PROMETHEUS 1–2, and SENSE SV2

c. Included PROMETHEUS 1–5, PROMETHEUS 1–6, COPPER, ORS TECH 2, HORUS, BLACK KNIGHT, PROMETHEUS 1–7, 

TRAILBLAZER, PROMETHEUS 1–8, SWAMPSAT, and HO'OPONOPONO 2

d. Included FIREFLY, CHARGERSAT, PROMETHEUS 1-1, VERMONT LUNAR, and PROMETHEUS 1–3

e. Included FIREBIRD A, FIREBIRD B, AEROCUBE 5A, AEROCUBE 5B, ALICE, SNAP-3, MCUBED-2, CUNYSAT-1, IPEX, SMDC ONE 2.4, 

TACSAT 6, and SMDC ONE 2.3

f. Included SPORESAT, TSAT, ALL STAR/THEIA, PHONESAT 2.5, and KICKSAT
175

Launch Date Apogee and

Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

Spacecraft Name Perigee (km),

COSPAR* Designation Period (min),

Launch Vehicle Mission Objectives Inclination to Equator (°) Remarks

May 17, 2014 Navigation 20,193

GPS 2F-6 (Navstar 70) 20,171

2014-026A 718.0

Delta 4M+4,2 55.1

May 22, 2014 Surveillance/Military n/a

NROL 33 (USA 252)

2014-027A

Atlas 5-401

July 2, 2014 Earth Science 703 Orbiting Carbon Observatory (OCO) 2

OCO 2 702

2014-035A 98.8

Delta 2 98.2

July 13, 2014 International Space Station 407 Additional payload 2014-038B (O3B FM7)

Cygnus/Orb-2 386

2014-039A 92.5

Antares 120 51.7

July 14, 2014 Communications 729 Stats specific to Orbcomm FM 109 

Orbcomm (FM 103-104, 106-107, 706 (2014-040A)

109, 111) 99.1

2014-040A-F 47.0

Falcon 9 v1.1

July 28, 2014 Military n/a 2 Geosynchronous Space Situational 

GSSAP/ANGELS (USA 253-255) Awareness Program (GSSAP) satellites

2014-043A-C Autonomous Nanosatellite Guardian 

Delta 4M+4,2 for Evaluating Local Space (ANGELS) 

nanosatellite

August 2, 2014 Navigation 20,191

GPS 2F7 (NAVSTAR 71) 20,174

2014-045A 718.0

Atlas 5-401 55.0

August 5, 2014 Communications 35,794 Asia Satellite Telecommunications Company 

AsiaSat 8 35,780 (AsiaSat)

2014-046A 1,436.1

Falcon 9 v1.1 0

August 13, 2014 Earth Science 614

Worldview 3 612

2014-048A 97.0

Atlas 5-401 98.0

September 7, 2014 Communications 35,791

AsiaSat 6 35,783

2014-052A 1,436.1

Falcon 9 v1.1 0

September 17, 2014 Communications n/a

CLIO (USA 257)

2014-055A

Atlas 5-401

September 21, 2014 International Space Station 412 Carried the ISS-Rapid Scatterometer 

CRS-4 Dragon 403 (RapidScat) instrument as a replacement for 

2014-056A 92.7 NASA's QuikScat satellite

Falcon 9 v1.1 51.6

Appendix B (cont.)

Successful Launches to Orbit on U

October 1, 2013–September 30, 2014
176Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Appendix C

Human Spacefli

October 1, 2013–September 30, 2014

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew

Flight Time 

(d:h:min) Highlights

Soyuz TMA-11M

(Expedition 38)

November 7, 2013 Richard Mastracchio

Koichi Wakata

Mikhail Tyurin

187:22:44 Successful rendezvous with Cygnus/Orb-1.

Launched the Olympic Torch Relay for 

the 2014 Winter Games in Sochi, Russia 

(returned on Soyuz TMA-09M).

Performed the second CubeSat deployment.

Soyuz TMA-12M

(Expedition 39)

March 25, 2014 Alexander Skvortsov 

Oleg Artemyev

Steve Swanson

169:5:6 CRS-3 Dragon became the first flight to use 

the Falcon 9 v1.1 rocket.

The High-Definition Earth Viewing (HDEV) 

investigation installed four commercially 

available high-definition cameras on the 

exterior of the space station to stream live 

video of Earth online.

ISS used the new Pre-Determined Debris 

Avoidance Maneuver capability to move 

away from space debris.

Soyuz TMA-13M

(Expedition 40)

May 28, 2014 Reid Wiseman 

Maxim Suraev

Alexander Gerst

165:7:1 Delivered the ISS-Rapid Scatterometer (ISSRapidScat) to monitor ocean winds, which 

reused leftover hardware from the QuikScat 

scatterometer and demonstrated a unique 

way to replace an instrument aboard an aging 

satellite.

The Vegetable Production System (Veggie) 

produced the first salad greens, which may be 

used to further human habitability in space.

Soyuz TMA-14M

(Expedition 41)

September 25, 2014 Barry Wilmore 

Elena Serova 

Alexander Samoukutyaev

n/a The Meteor Composition Determination 

(Meteor) payload enabled the first spacebased observations of meteors entering 

Earth’s atmosphere using high-resolution 

video and image analysis.

First female cosmonaut to visit the ISS.
177 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

Appendix D-1A

Space Activities of the U.S.

HISTORICAL TABLE OF BUDGET AUTHORITY

(in millions of real-year dollars)

FY

NASA 

Total

NASA 

Space DOD Othera DOEb DOC DOI USDA NSFc DOT Total Space

1959 331 261 490 34 34 785

1960 524 462 561 43 43 1,066

1961 964 926 814 68 68 1,808

1962 1,825 1,797 1,298 199 148 51 3,294

1963 3,673 3,626 1,550 257 214 43 5,433

1964 5,100 5,016 1,599 213 210 3 6,828

1965 5,250 5,138 1,574 241 229 12 6,953

1966 5,175 5,065 1,689 214 187 27 6,968

1967 4,966 4,830 1,664 213 184 29 6,707

1968 4,587 4,430 1,922 174 145 28 0.2 1 6,526

1969 3,991 3,822 2,013 170 118 20 0.2 1 31 6,005

1970 3,746 3,547 1,678 141 103 8 1 1 28 5,366

1971 3,311 3,101 1,512 162 95 27 2 1 37 4,775

1972 3,307 3,071 1,407 133 55 31 6 2 39 4,611

1973 3,406 3,093 1,623 147 54 40 10 2 41 4,863

1974 3,037 2,759 1,766 158 42 60 9 3 44 4,683

1975 3,229 2,915 1,892 158 30 64 8 2 54 4,965

1976 3,550 3,225 1,983 168 23 72 10 4 59 5,376

TQ* 932 849 460 43 5 22 3 1 12 1,352

1977 3,818 3,440 2,412 194 22 91 10 6 65 6,046

1978 4,060 3,623 2,738 226 34 103 10 8 71 6,587

1979 4,596 4,030 3,036 248 59 98 10 8 73 7,314

1980 5,240 4,680 3,848 231 40 93 12 14 72 8,759

1981 5,518 4,992 4,828 234 41 87 12 16 78 10,054

1982 6,044 5,528 6,679 313 61 145 12 15 80 12,520

1983 6,875 6,328 9,019 327 39 178 5 20 85 15,674

1984 7,458 6,858 10,195 395 34 236 3 19 103 17,448

1985 7,573 6,925 12,768 584 34 423 2 15 110 20,277

1986 7,807 7,165 14,126 477 35 309 2 23 108 21,768

1987 10,923 9,809 16,287 466 48 278 8 19 112 1 26,562

1988 9,062 8,322 17,679 741 241 352 14 18 115 1 26,742

1989 10,969 10,097 17,906 560 97 301 17 21 121 3 28,563

1990 12,324 11,460 15,616 506 79 243 31 25 124 4 27,582

1991 14,016 13,046 14,181 772 251 251 29 26 211 4 27,999

1992 14,317 13,199 15,023 798 223 327 34 29 181 4 29,020

1993 14,310 13,064 14,106 731 165 324 33 25 180 4 27,901

1994 14,570 13,022 13,166 632 74 312 31 31 179 5 26,820

1995 13,854 12,543 10,644 759 60 352 31 32 278 6 23,946

1996 13,884 12,569 11,514 828 46 472 36 37 231 6 24,911

1997 13,709 12,457 11,727 789 35 448 42 39 219 6 24,973

1998 13,648 12,321 12,359 839 103 435 43 39 213 6 25,519

1999 13,653 12,459 13,203 982 105 575 59 37 200 6 26,644

2000 13,601 12,521 12,941 1,056 164 575 60 44 207 6 26,518

2001 14,230 13,304 14,326 1,062 145 577 60 36 232 12 28,692

2002 14,868 13,871 15,740 1,180 166 644 64 28 266 12 30,791

2003 15,364 14,360 19,388 1,305 191 649 74 42 337 12 35,053

2004 15,379 14,322 19,115 1,464 209 745 71 61 366 12 34,901

2005 16,198 15,234 19,690 1,551 229 807 70 73 360 12 36,475

2006 16,623 15,765 22,114 1,647 245 860 82 84 364 12 39,526

2007 16,285 15,568 22,418 1,680 200 912 87 65 404 12 39,666

2008 17,117 16,502 24,795 1,698 195 862 90 59 479 13 42,995

2009 17,775 17,275 26,528 1,868 200 1,078 64 27 485 14 45,671

2010 18,725 18,228 26,463 2,057 203 1,261 67 27 484 15 46,748

2011 18,432 17,898 27,234 2,186 229 1,444 66 20 412 15 47,318

2012 17,773 17,203 26,677 2,580 199 1,876 76 7 406 16 46,460

2013 17,395 16,865 10,818 2,578 185 1,865 84 20 409 15 30,261

2014 17,647 17,081 10,400 2,839 174 2,087 82 19 461 16 30,320

a. The Other column is the total of the non-NASA and non-DOD budget authority figures that appear in the succeeding columns. The total is 

sometimes different from the sum of the individual figures because of rounding. The Total Space column does not include the NASA Total column because the latter includes budget authority for aeronautics as well as space. For the years 1989–1997, this Other column also includes small 

figures for the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Also includes $2.1 billion for the replacement of Space Shuttle Challenger in 1987.

b. The DOE has recalculated its space expenditures since 1998.

c. The NSF has recalculated its space expenditures since 1980, making them significantly higher than reported in previous years.

* Transition Quarter
178Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Appendix D-1B

Space Activities of the U.S.

HISTORICAL TABLE OF BUDGET AUTHORITY

(in millions of inflation-adjusted FY 2014 dollars)

FY

Inflation 

Factors

NASA 

Total

NASA 

Space DOD Othera DOEb DOC DOI USDA NSFc DOT Total Space

1959 6.281 2,079 1,639 3,078 214 214 4,931

1960 6.186 3,242 2,858 3,471 266 266 6,595

1961 6.101 5,881 5,650 4,966 415 415 11,031

1962 6.018 10,983 10,815 7,812 1,198 891 307 19,824

1963 5.957 21,881 21,601 9,234 1,531 1,275 256 32,366

1964 5.885 30,012 29,518 9,410 1,253 1,236 18 40,181

1965 5.814 30,523 29,872 9,151 1,401 1,331 70 40,424

1966 5.714 29,569 28,941 9,651 1,223 1,068 154 39,814

1967 5.593 27,777 27,016 9,308 1,191 1,029 162 37,515

1968 5.428 24,897 24,045 10,432 946 787 152 1 5 35,422

1969 5.248 20,945 20,058 10,564 894 619 105 1 5 164 31,516

1970 5.017 18,795 17,797 8,419 708 517 40 5 5 141 26,924

1971 4.761 15,764 14,764 7,199 771 452 129 10 5 176 22,734

1972 4.532 14,986 13,916 6,376 604 249 140 27 9 178 20,897

1973 4.325 14,731 13,377 7,019 637 234 173 43 9 179 21,034

1974 4.146 12,591 11,439 7,322 655 174 249 37 12 183 19,416

1975 3.871 12,499 11,284 7,324 611 116 248 31 8 208 19,219

1976 3.509 12,457 11,317 6,959 591 81 253 35 14 208 18,866

TQ* 3.281 3,058 2,786 1,509 141 16 72 10 3 39 4,436

1977 3.186 12,164 10,960 7,685 617 70 290 32 19 206 19,261

1978 3.061 12,428 11,090 8,381 692 104 315 31 24 217 20,163

1979 2.868 13,180 11,557 8,706 711 169 281 29 23 209 20,974

1980 2.655 13,911 12,425 10,216 614 106 247 32 37 191 23,254

1981 2.442 13,474 12,190 11,789 572 100 212 29 39 191 24,551

1982 2.225 13,445 12,297 14,857 696 136 323 27 33 177 27,850

1983 2.082 14,310 13,172 18,773 681 81 371 10 42 177 32,626

1984 1.994 14,868 13,672 20,325 787 68 470 6 38 205 34,784

1985 1.926 14,583 13,335 24,587 1,124 65 815 4 29 211 39,046

1986 1.864 14,551 13,354 26,329 889 65 576 4 43 201 40,571

1987 1.822 19,905 17,875 29,679 849 87 507 15 35 204 2 48,403

1988 1.783 16,153 14,834 31,513 1,321 430 627 25 32 205 2 47,668

1989 1.727 18,942 17,436 30,921 967 168 520 29 36 209 5 49,325

1990 1.661 20,467 19,032 25,934 840 131 404 51 42 205 7 45,806

1991 1.603 22,462 20,907 22,726 1,237 402 402 46 42 338 6 44,871

1992 1.548 22,159 20,428 23,251 1,235 345 506 53 45 280 6 44,914

1993 1.511 21,619 19,736 21,310 1,104 249 489 50 38 272 6 42,151

1994 1.476 21,501 19,216 19,429 933 109 460 46 46 265 7 39,579

1995 1.444 20,008 18,114 15,372 1,096 86 508 45 46 401 9 34,582

1996 1.414 19,635 17,775 16,283 1,171 65 667 51 52 326 8 35,229

1997 1.388 19,032 17,294 16,281 1,096 49 622 58 54 305 8 34,671

1998 1.364 18,619 16,809 16,861 1,145 141 593 59 53 291 8 34,815

1999 1.348 18,399 16,790 17,793 1,323 142 775 80 50 270 8 35,906

2000 1.331 18,099 16,662 17,221 1,405 218 765 80 59 275 8 35,288

2001 1.304 18,553 17,346 18,678 1,385 189 752 78 47 302 16 37,408

2002 1.273 18,927 17,658 20,037 1,502 211 820 81 36 339 15 39,197

2003 1.253 19,249 17,991 24,291 1,635 239 813 93 53 422 15 43,918

2004 1.229 18,907 17,607 23,500 1,800 257 916 87 75 450 15 42,907

2005 1.200 19,432 18,276 23,622 1,861 275 968 84 88 432 14 43,758

2006 1.163 19,335 18,337 25,722 1,916 285 1,000 95 98 423 14 45,975

2007 1.127 18,345 17,538 25,254 1,893 225 1,027 98 73 455 14 44,685

2008 1.097 18,775 18,100 27,197 1,862 214 945 99 65 525 14 47,160

2009 1.075 19,102 18,565 28,509 2,007 215 1,158 69 29 521 15 49,081

2010 1.062 19,890 19,362 28,109 2,185 216 1,339 71 28 514 16 49,655

2011 1.053 19,410 18,847 28,678 2,301 241 1,521 70 21 434 16 49,827

2012 1.033 18,357 17,768 27,554 2,664 206 1,938 78 7 419 17 47,987

2013 1.015 17,658 17,120 10,818 2,617 188 1,893 85 20 415 15 30,555

2014 1.000 17,647 17,081 10,400 2,839 174 2,087 82 19 461 16 30,320

a. The Other column is the total of the non-NASA and non-DOD budget authority figures that appear in the succeeding columns. The total is sometimes different from the sum of the individual figures because of rounding. The Total Space column does not include the NASA Total column 

because the latter includes budget authority for aeronautics as well as in space. For the years 1989–1997, this Other column also includes small 

figures for the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Also includes $2.1 billion for replacement of Space Shuttle Challenger in 1987.

b. The DOE has recalculated its space expenditures since 1998.

c. The NSF has recalculated its space expenditures since 1980, making them significantly higher than reported in previous years.

* Transition Quarter
179 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

Appendix D-2

Federal Space Activiti

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year)

Federal 

Agencies

Budget Authority Budget Outlays

2012

actual

2013

actual1

2014

actual

2015

est.

2012

 actual

2013

 actual

2014

 actual

2015

 est.

NASA2 17,203 16,865.2 17,080.5 16,909.5 16,606 16,989 16,558.7 16,392.9

DOD3,4 26,677 10,818 10,400 9,600 26,457 10,299 9,900 9,200

DOE 199 185 174 169 158 183 174 30

DOC5 1,876 1,864.8 2,087.1 2,247.9 1,074.3 1,130.5 1,167.3 1,257.2

DOI6 76 84 82 81 76 81 81 81

USDA 6.7 19.6 19.3 19.2 17.3 17 18.7 18.7

DOT 16 15 16 17 16 15 16 17

NSF7 406 409 461 477 489 387 391 417

1. FY 2013 figures incorporate the effect of sequestration.

2. The FY 2015 estimate is based on the prior year’s Outlays versus Budget Authority.

3. Does not include Department of Defense (DOD) or Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI) intelligence programs. DOD FY 2014 

and FY 2015 figures for Budget Authority and Outlays are estimated at the time of preparing this report. Improvements to the estimating methodology resulted in a change in estimated Budget Authority and Outlays starting in FY 2013. 

4. At the time of preparing this report, DOD submitted estimates as billions of dollars, so the figures are rounded to the nearest hundred million.

5. The Budget Outlays columns reflect dollars “costed” in a fiscal year specific to that same fiscal year’s appropriated dollars.

6. The numbers for FY 2014 Actual and Outlays are estimates for both satellite and aerial funding.

7. “Actual” = actual obligations.
180Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

Appendix D-3

Federal Aeronautics Activit

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year)

Federal 

Agencies

Budget Authority Budget Outlays

2012

actual

2013

actual1

2014

actual

2015

est.

2012

 actual

2013

 actual

2014

 actual

2015

 est.

NASA2 570 529.5 566 551.1 584 558.4 538.7 524.5

USDA 36.9 33.1 34.4 25.4 36.8 30.2 32.6 23.8

DOD3 14,221 82,730 75,500 66,900 13,509 91,120 75,700 66,200

DOI4 27 29 31 31 27 28 30 30

DOT 2,884 2,758 2,744 2,746 3,102 2,990 2,851 2,848

1. FY 2013 figures incorporate the effect of sequestration.

2. The FY 2015 estimate is based on the prior year’s Outlays versus Budget Authority.

3. DOD FY 2014 and FY 2015 figures for Budget Authority and Outlays are estimated at the time of preparing this report. Improvements to the estimating methodology resulted in a change in estimated Budget Authority and Outlays starting in FY 2013.

4. At the time of preparing this report, DOD submitted estimates as billions of dollars, so the figures are rounded to the nearest hundred million.

5. The numbers for FY 2014 Actual and Outlays are estimates for both satellite and aerial funding.
181 c Fiscal Year 2014 Activiti

ronyms

3D-LZ 3D Landing Zone

A

AACUS Autonomous Airborne Cargo Utility System

ABoVE Arctic-Boreal Vulnerability Experiment

AC alternating current

ACCESS Alternative Fuel Effects on Contrails and Cruise Emissions

ACES Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space

ACT Atacama Cosmology Telescope

ACTPol ACT Polarimeter

ADS-B Automatic Dependent Surveillance—Broadcast

ADVENT Adaptive Versatile Engine Technology

AE Archive Explorer

AEHF Advanced Extremely High Frequency

AES Advanced Exploration Systems

AETD Adaptive Engine Technology Development

AFB Air Force Base

AFOTEC Air Force Operational Test and Evaluation Center

AFRL Air Force Research Lab

AFSC Air Force Space Command

AFSCN Air Force Satellite Control Network

AGS Division of Atmospheric and Geospace Sciences

AHW Advanced Hypersonic Weapon

AIA Atmospheric Imaging Assembly

ALASA Airborne Launch Assist Space Access

ALHAT Autonomous Landing and Hazard Avoidance Technology

ALI Advanced Land Imager

ALMA Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array

AMC Additive Manufacturing Consortium

AMISR Advanced Modular Incoherent-Scatter Radar

AMPERE Active Magnetosphere and Planetary Electrodynamics Response Experiment

AMS Autonomous Modular Sensor; Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer

ANSI American National Standards Institute

AO Arecibo Observatory

APL Applied Physics Laboratory

ARCD Active Rotor Components Demonstration

ARES Aerial Reconfigurable Embedded System

ARM Asteroid Redirect Mission; Atmospheric Radiation Measurement

ARMD Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate

ARS Agricultural Research Service

ARSET Applied Remote Sensing Training

AS Atmosphere Section

AS3 Alaska Satellite Facility Antenna

ASB Agricultural Statistics Board

ASBU Aviation System Block Upgrade

ASF Alaska Satellite Facility

ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers

ASRG Advanced Stirling Radioisotope Generator

AST Office of Commercial Space Transportation; Division of Astronomical Sciences

ASTER Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer
182Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

ASU Aircraft Sector Understanding

ATD-1 Air Traffic Management Technology Demonstration-1

ATST Advanced Technology Solar Telescope (now DKIST)

ATTREX Airborne Tropical TRopopause EXperiment

ATV Automated Transfer Vehicle

Auto ACAS Automatic Air Collision Avoidance System

Auto GCAS Automatic Ground Collision Avoidance System

AUVSI Association for Unmanned Vehicle Systems International

AVD Air Vehicle Demonstration

AVHRR Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer

AWiFS Advanced Wide Field Sensor

B

BaPSF Basic Plasma Science Facility

BDS BeiDou Navigation Satellite System

BEAM Bigelow Expandable Activity Module

BIA Bureau of Indian Affairs

BICEP2 Background Imaging of Cosmic Extragalactic Polarization 2

BIS Bureau of Industry and Security

BLM Bureau of Land Management

BNL Brookhaven National Laboratory

BOR Bureau of Reclamation

C

C carbon

CARVE Carbon in Arctic Reservoirs Vulnerability Experiment

CASIS Center for the Advancement of Science in Space

CAST Commercial Aviation Safety Team

CCl4 carbon tetrachloride

CCAFS Cape Canaveral Air Force Station

CCiCap Commercial Crew Integrated Capability

CCL Commerce Control List

CCMC Community Coordinated Modeling Center

CCSDS Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems

CCtCap Commercial Crew Transportation Capabilities

CDL Cropland Data Layer

CDP Cross Deck Pendant

CDR Critical Design Review

CDRA Carbon Dioxide Removal Assembly

CDS Cascade Distillation System

CEDAR Coupling, Energetics, and Dynamics of Atmospheric Regions

CEPS Center for Earth and Planetary Studies

CFA Center for Astrophysics

CFD computational fluid dynamics

CFIT controlled flight into terrain

CH4 methane

CIBER Cosmic Infrared Background Experiment

CLU Common Land Unit

CMB cosmic microwave background

CNES Centre National d’Études Spatiales

CO2 carbon dioxide

COCOM Combatant Commander

COE CST Center of Excellence for Commercial Space Transportation
183 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

CONTRAST Convective TRansport of Active Species in the Tropics

CONUS contiguous United States

COSMIC Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere, and Climate

COSTAR Corrective Optics Space Telescope Axial Replacement

CPC Certification Products Contracts

CPGS Conventional Prompt Global Strike

CPT Command Post Terminal

CRS Commercial Resupply Services

CS Commercial Service

CSLC 21st Century Space Launch Complex

CTPD Combat Tempered Platform Demonstration

CYGNSS Cyclone Global Navigation Satellite System

D

DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency

DASI Degree Angular Scale Interferometer

DEEPWAVE-NZ Deep-Propagating Gravity Wave Experiment over New Zealand

DFW Dallas/Fort Worth

DKIST Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope

DLR German Aerospace Agency

DMC Disaster Monitoring Constellation

DMS Defensive Management System

DNN R&D Office of Defense Nuclear Nonproliferation Research and Development

DOC Department of Commerce

DOD Department of Defense

DOE Department of Energy

DOI Department of the Interior

DOS Department of State

DOT Department of Transportation

DPLR Data Parallel Line Relaxation

DSN Deep Space Network

DSS Deep Space Station

DTED digital terrain elevation data

DVE degraded visual environments

E

EA Environmental Assessment

EAR Export Administration Regulations

EAWS Early Access Web Services

EBIS Electron Beam Ion Source

ECCN Export Control Classification Number

ECMWF European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts

EELV Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle

EFT-1 Exploration Flight Test-1

eHPA Enhanced High Power Amplifier

EIS Environmental Impact Statement

EISA Energy Independence and Security Act

ELM Electromagnetic Levitator

EM-1 Exploration Mission-1

EM-2 Exploration Mission 2

EO-1 Earth Observing-1

EOS Earth Observing System

EPA Environmental Protection Agency
184Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

EPS Enhanced Polar System

ER Eastern Range

ERAU Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University

ERCDM Eastern Range Command Destruct Modernization

EROS Earth Resources Observation and Science

ERS Earth Remote Sensing

ESA European Space Agency

ESD Earth Science Directorate

ET evapotranspiration

ETM Enhanced Thematic Mapper

EU European Union

EUMETSAT European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites

EUV extreme ultraviolet

eV electronvolt

EVA extravehicular activity

EVE EUV Variability Experiment

EVI Enhanced Vegetation Index

EVT Existing Vegetation Type

ExHAM Exposed Experiment Handrail Attachment Mechanism

EXIS EUV and X-ray Irradiance Sensor

F

FAA Federal Aviation Administration

FAB-T Family of Beyond Line of Sight Terminals

FAS Foreign Agricultural Service

FCC Federal Communications Commission

FES Office of Fusion Energy Sciences

FGS Fine Guidance Sensor

FGST Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope

FIDAE La Feria Internacional del Aire y del Espacio

FOC Full Operational Capability

FONSI Finding of No Significant Impact

FS Forestry Service

FSA Farm Service Agency

FT-2 Flight Test-2

FVL Future Vertical Lift

FWS Fish and Wildlife Service

G

G-LiHT Goddard LiDAR Hyperspectral and Thermal

GaN gallium nitride

GBD Global Burst Detector

GCD Game Changing Development

GDEM2 Global Digital Elevation Map Version 2

GEM Geospace Environment Modeling

GEMS General Ensemble biogeochemical Modeling System

GEO geostationary orbit; Geosynchronous Earth Orbit

GEODSS Ground-based Electro Optics Deep Space Surveillance

GEOS Goddard Earth Observing System

GER Global Exploration Roadmap

GF Geospace Facilities

GGOT GPS-Galileo Time Offset
185 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

GHG greenhouse gas

GHz gigahertz

GIS Geographic Information System

GLAM global agricultural monitoring

GMI GPM Microwave Imager

GNSS global navigation satellite system

GOES Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites

GOES-R Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite-R Series

GONG Global Oscillations Network Group

GPHS General Purpose Heat Source

GPM Global Precipitation Measurement

GPS Global Positioning System

GRACE Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment

GRACE-FO Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Follow-On

GRC Glenn Research Center

GS Geospace Section

GSDO Ground Systems Development and Operations

GSSAP Geosynchronous Space Situational Awareness Program

GV Gulfstream V H

HAIC High Altitude Ice Crystals

HDEV High-Definition Earth Viewing

HEAT High Elevation Antarctic Terahertz

HEO Highly Elliptical Orbit

HEOMD Human Exploration and Operations Mission Directorate

HEP Office of High Energy Physics

HiRISE High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment

HIS Heavy Ion Sensor

HITL human-in-the-loop

HIWC High Ice Water Content

HMVS Hub Mounted Vibration Suppressor

HOGE hover out of ground effect

HRP Human Research Program

HST Hubble Space Telescope

HWB Hybrid Wing Body I

IA Increasingly Autonomous

IADS Integrated Arrival/Departure/Surface

IBEX Interstellar Boundary Explorer

ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization

ICAST Inter-Center Autonomy Study Team

ICBM intercontinental ballistic missile

ICESat-2 Ice, Cloud, and Land Elevation Satellite

ICG International Committee on GNSS

ICNO IceCube Neutrino Observatory

ICP increased intracranial pressure

ICV Integrated Cardiovascular

ID&RR initial design and risk reduction

IER Interior Effects Room

IFAR International Forum for Aviation Research
186Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

IFSAR Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar

IMO International Maritime Organization

INP Innovative Naval Prototype

InSight Interior Exploration Using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat Transport

IOC Initial Operating Capability

IPHEX Integrated Precipitation and Hydrology Experiment

IPS interim polar system

IRAC Infrared Array Camera

IRIS Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph

IRS Indian Remote Sensing

ISECG International Space Exploration Coordination Group

ISEF International Space Exploration Forum

ISIM Integrated Science Instrument Module

ISO International Organization for Standardization

ISRO Indian Space Research Organisation

ISRU in situ resource utilization

ISS International Space Station

ISWI International Space Weather Initiative

ITA International Trade Administration

ITAC 1 Industry Trade Advisory Committee for Aerospace Equipment

ITU International Telecommunication Union

J

JASD Joint Agency Satellite Division

JAXA Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

JEM Japanese Experiment Module

JFCC Space Joint Functional Component Command for Space

JMR Joint Multi-Role

JMS Joint Space Operations Center Mission System

JPALS Joint Precision Approach and Landing System

JPL Jet Propulsion Laboratory

JPSS Joint Polar Satellite System

JSF Joint Strike Force

JSpOC Joint Space Operations Center

JUICE Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer

JWST James Webb Space Telescope

K

KDP-C Key Decision Point C

KSC Kennedy Space Center

L

LADAR Laser Detection and Ranging

LADEE Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer

LANDFIRE Landscape Fire and Resource Management Planning Tools

LANL Los Alamos National Laboratory

LAPD Large Plasma Device

LAT Large Area Telescope

LBFD Low Boom Flight Demonstration

LDCM Landsat Data Continuity Mission

LDSD Low Density Supersonic Decelerator
187 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

LEO low-Earth orbit

lidar light detection and ranging

LISS Linear Imaging Self-Scanner

LLCD Lunar Laser Communication Demonstration

LLNL Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory

LOX liquid oxygen

LPD landing platform/dock

LRO Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter

LSC Legal Subcommittee (United Nations)

LSP Launch Services Program

LSST Large Synoptic Survey Telescope

LST Land Surface Temperature

LTRS Launch and Test Range System

LTS Working Group on Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities (United Nations)

Lunar CATALYST Lunar Cargo Transportation and Landing by Soft Touchdown

LVC-DE Live Virtual Constructive-Distributed Environment

M

MACES Modified Advanced Crew Escape Suit

MAF Michoud Assembly Facility

MAGIC CARPET Maritime Augmented Guidance with Integrated Controls for Carrier Approach and Recovery 

Precision Enabling Technologies

MAIAC Multi-Angle Implementation of Atmospheric Correction

MARSIS Mars Advanced Radar for Subsurface and Ionosphere Sounding

MAVEN Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution

MCLAWS Modernized Control Laws

mcm million cubic meters

MEDA Mars Environmental Dynamics Analyzer

MEDLI Mars Entry, Descent, and Landing Instrumentation

MEN Modernization Eastern Range Network

MEP Manufacturing Extension Partnership

MER Mars Exploration Rover

MESSENGER MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry, and Ranging

MFRF Multifunction Radio Frequency

MGUE Military GPS User Equipment

MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology

MMRTG Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator

MMS Magnetospheric Multiscale

MOA Memorandum of Agreement

MOBY Marine Optical Buoy

MOD Ministry of Defense

MODIS Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer

MOT&E Multi-Service Operational Test and Evaluation

MOU Memorandum of Understanding

MOXIE Mars Oxygen ISRU Experiment

MPS Mathematics and Physical Sciences

MRI Magneto-Rotational Instability

MRLC Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics Consortium

MRO Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter

MRX Magnetic Reconnection Experiment

MSAD Mission Systems Architecture Demonstration

MSFC Marshall Space Flight Center

MSL Mars Science Laboratory
188Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

MTBS Monitoring Trends in Burn Severity

MUOS Mobile User Objective System

MWL GT Microwave Link Ground Terminal

N

N2O nitrous oxide

NAFD North American Forest Dynamics

NAICS North American Industry Classification System

NAIP National Agriculture Imagery Program

NAS National Airspace System

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NASM National Air and Space Museum

NASS National Agricultural Statistics Service

NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research

NCEP National Centers for Environmental Prediction

NDVI Normalized Difference Vegetation Index

NE Office of Nuclear Energy

NEA near-Earth asteroid

NEN Near Earth Network

NextGen Next Generation Air Transportation System

NFS National Forest System

NGA National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency

NGEE Next Generation Ecosystem Experiment

NIRCam Near Infrared Camera

NIRISS Near Infrared Imager and Slitless Spectrograph

NIRSpec Near InfraRed Spectrograph

NISP NSO Integrated Synoptic Program

NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology

NLCD National Land Cover Database

NLDAS-2 North American Land Data Assimilation System Version 2

NNSA National Nuclear Security Administration

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NOAO National Optical Astronomy Observatory

NOC National Operations Center

NPOESS National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System

NPS National Park Service

NRAO National Radio Astronomy Observatory

NRC National Research Council

NRCS Natural Resources Conservation Service

NRO National Reconnaissance Office

NSF National Science Foundation

NSO National Solar Observatory

NSPO National Space Organization (Taiwan)

NSRL NASA Space Radiation Laboratory

NSS national security space

NSTP National Space Transportation Policy

NSWP National Space Weather Program

NTF National Transonic Facility

NTP Nuclear Thermal Propulsion

NTSB National Transportation Safety Board

NuDets nuclear detonations

NuSTAR Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array

NWP numerical weather prediction
189 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

O

OCO-2 Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2

ODNI Office of the Director of National Intelligence

OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

OFII Office of Finance and Insurance Industries

OFN Obstacle Field Navigation

OGA Oxygen Generator Assembly; Office of Global Analysis

OLI Operational Land Imager

OPALS Optical Payload for Lasercomm Science

OPIR Overhead Persistent Infrared

OPTIMUS Open-Architecture Planning and Trajectory Intelligence for Managing Unmanned Systems

ORCA Ocean Radiometer for Carbon Assessment

ORNL Oak Ridge National Laboratory

ORS Operationally Responsive Space

OSC Orbital Sciences Corporation

OSD Office of the Secretary of Defense

OSIRIS-REx Origins Spectral Interpretation Resource Identification Security–Regolith Explorer

OSMRE Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement

OTM Office of Transportation and Machinery

OVERFLOW overset grid computational fluid dynamics flow solver

P

PBN Performance-Based Navigation

PDR Preliminary Design Review

PDRC Precision Departure Release Capability

PEO Program Executive Officer

PIDDP Planetary Instrument Definition and Development Program

PLR Division of Polar Programs

PLSS Portable Life Support System

PNT Position, Navigation, and Timing

POES Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellites

POLARBEAR Polarization of Background Radiation

POTUS President of the United States

POW prisoner of war

PPPL Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory

PRS Public Regulated Service

PSD production, supply, and distribution

Pu plutonium

R

R&D research and development

RapidScat Rapid Scatterometer

RBC Remote Tracking Station Block Change

RCS reaction control system

RERP Reliability Enhancement and Re-engining Program

RF radio frequency

RFP Request for Proposals

RGB red-green-blue

RHIC Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider

RMA Risk Management Agency

RNAV Area Navigation

RO radio occultation
190Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

ROD Record of Decision

ROSES Research Opportunities in Space and Earth Sciences

RPS radioisotope power system

RPT Rocket Propulsion Test

RSCC Remote Sensing Coordinating Committee

RSIWG Remote Sensing Interagency Working Group

RSO Resident Space Object

RTG Radioisotope Generator

RTS Remote Tracking Stations

S

S&P State and Private Forestry

SAA Space Act Agreement

SABRS Space and Atmospheric Burst Reporting System

SAGE Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment

SAME Smoke Aerosol Measurement Experiment

SANS small-angle neutron scattering

SansEC sans electric connection

SAO Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory

SARDA Spot and Runway Departure Advisor

SARSAT Search and Rescue Satellite-Aided Tracking

SATCOM Satellite Communications

SBIR Small Business Innovation Research

SBIRS Space Based Infrared System

SBSS FO Space Based Space Surveillance Follow-On

SC Office of Science

SCaN Space Communications and Navigation

SDO Solar Dynamics Observatory

SED Scramjet Engine Demonstrator

SHARAD Shallow Subsurface Radar

SHINE Solar, Heliosphere, and INterplanetary Environment

SIA Satellite Imagery Archive

SIAD Supersonic Inflatable Decelerator

SLAC Stanford Linear Accelerator Center

SLAD Safe Landing Area Determination

SLEP Service Life Extension Program

SLRS Spacelift Range System

SLRSC Spacelift Range System Contract

SLS Space Launch System

SMAP Soil Moisture Active-Passive

SMART-NAS Shadow Mode Assessments Using Realistic Technologies for the National Airspace System

SMAT Scale Model Acoustic Testing

SMCRA Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977

SMD Science Mission Directorate

SMDC Space and Missile Defense Command

SMEs small- and medium-sized enterprises

SN Space Network

SNaP Space and Missile Defense Command Nanosatellite Program

SNL Sandia National Laboratories

SNSPD superconducting nanowire single-photon detector

SOC Space Optical Clock

SOFIA Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy

SOLIS Synoptic Optical Investigations of the Sun

SpaceX Space Exploration Technologies Corporation
191 Fiscal Year 2014 Activities

SPHERES Synchronized Position Hold, Engage, Reorient Experimental Satellites

SPOT Satellite Pour l’Observation de la Terre

SPP Solar Probe Plus

SPT South Pole Telescope

SPT-SZ South Pole Telescope–Sunyaev-Zel’dovich

SPUD Small Polarimeter Upgrade for DASI

SQUID Superconducting Quantum Interference Device

SSA Space Situational Awareness

SSC Stennis Space Center

SSDP Space Security and Defense Program

SST Space Surveillance Telescope

SSV Space Service Volume

STAR Center for Satellite Applications and Research

STEM science, technology, engineering, and mathematics

STIM Space Transportation Infrastructure Matching

STMD Space Technology Mission Directorate

STP Space Test Program

STRG Space Technology Research Grants

STSC Scientific and Technical Subcommittee (United Nations)

STTR Small Business Technology Transfer

SUGAR Subsonic Ultra Green Aircraft Research

Suomi NPP Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership

SUPSALV supervisor of salvage

SURF Synchrotron Ultraviolet Radiation Facility

SUVI Solar Ultraviolet Imager

SVAB Synthetic Vision Avionics Backbone

SWORDS Soldier-Warfighter Operationally Responsive Deployer for Space

SWR Space Weather Research

SWT Supersonic Wind Tunnel

SZ Sunyaev-Zel’dovich T

TALOS Tactical Autonomous Aerial Logistics System

TBFM Time Based Flow Management

TCC Trace Contaminant Control; Tree Canopy Cover

TCCON Total Column Carbon Observing Network

TCTE Total solar irradiance Calibration Transfer Experiment

TD Technology Demonstrator

TDRS Tracking and Data Relay Satellite

TDRS-L Tracking and Data Relay Satellite L

TDRSS Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System

TDS-T Tactical Departure Scheduling–Terminal

TELS Threat Emitter Locator System

TES transition-edge sensor; Terrestrial Ecosystem Science

TESS Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite

TeV teraelectronvolt

TIA Technology Investment Agreement

TIM Total Irradiance Monitor

TM Thematic Mapper

TOPEX Topography Experiment

TRACON Terminal Radar Approach Control Facilities

TRL technical readiness level; technology readiness level

TRMM Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission

TSA Transportation Security Administration
192Aeronautics and Space Report of the President

TSS Terminal Sequencing and Spacing

TX Transformer

U

UAS unmanned aircraft system(s)

UCAR University Corporation for Atmospheric Research

UCAS-D Unmanned Combat Air System Demonstrator

UCC Unified Combatant Commander

UCI University of California, Irvine

UCLASS Unmanned Carrier-Launched Airborne Surveillance and Strike

UFO UHF Follow-On

UHB Ultra High Bypass

ULA United Launch Alliance

UN United Nations

UNCOPUOS United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space

USAF U.S. Air Force

USB Unified S-Band

USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture

USFS U.S. Forest Service

USG U.S. Government

USGS U.S. Geological Survey

USML United States Munitions List

USNDS U.S. NuDet Detection System

USSTRATCOM U.S. Strategic Command

UTMB University of Texas Medical Branch

UV ultraviolet

V

V&V verification and validation

VAC Vertical Assembly Center

VAFB Vandenberg Air Force Base

VCT Vegetation Change Tracker

VIIP Visual Impairment Intracranial Pressure

VIIRS Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite

VIPR Vehicle Integrated Propulsion Research

VTOL vertical takeoff and landing

W

WAI Wide Area Imager

WAOB World Agricultural Outlook Board

WCDMA Wideband Code Division Multiple Access

WFF Wallops Flight Facility

WFPC 2 Wide-Field Planetary Camera 2

WGS Wideband Global SATCOM

WSTF White Sands Test Facility

X

XRT X-ray Telescope

Y

Yb ytterbium
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