Aeronautics and Space Report

of the President

Fiscal Year

2020 Activities

Fiscal Year 2020

Activities

Aeronautics and Space Report

of the President
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

The National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 directed 

the annual Aeronautics and Space Report to include a 

“comprehensive description of the programmed activities and 

the accomplishments of all agencies of the United States in the 

field of aeronautics and space activities during the preceding 

calendar year.” In recent years, the reports have been prepared 

on a fiscal-year basis, consistent with the budgetary period now 

used in programs of the Federal Government. This year’s report 

covers activities that took place from October 1, 2019, through 

September 30, 2020. Please note that these activities reflect 

the Federal policies of that time and do not include subsequent 

events or changes in policy.

On the title page, clockwise from the top left: 1. NASA astronauts Douglas Hurley (left) and Robert 

Behnken (right) participate in a dress rehearsal prior to the launch of NASA’s SpaceX Demo-2 mission 

to the International Space Station on May 30, 2020. Credit: NASA/Kim Shiflett. 2. A crew chief relays 

vital position information back to the CH-47 Chinook pilot from his side window as paratroopers from 

the 173rd Airborne Brigade prepare to hook equipment to the underside of the helicopter. Credit: U.S. 

Army/Maj. Robert Fellingham. 3. Artist’s concept of the Ionospheric Connection Explorer (ICON) 

spacecraft in Earth orbit. Credit: NASA Goddard’s Conceptual Image Lab/B. Monroe. 4. NASA’s 

Mars 2020 mission with the Perseverance rover onboard launches from Cape Canaveral Air Force 

Station in Florida on July 30, 2020. Credit: NASA/Joel Kowsky. 5. Burn scars from the SCU and CZU 

Lightning Complex fires in the San Francisco Bay area are shown in a September 26, 2020, naturalcolor image taken by the Operational Land Imager (OLI) on Landsat 8. Credit: Joshua Stevens, using 

Landsat data from the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). 6. A USGS scientist flies a ground-penetrating 

radar system over the Connecticut River on a multirotor drone undergoing testing for the Department 

of the Interior. Credit: USGS/Carole Johnson.
Table of Contents

Table of Conten

The National Space Council v

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 1

Human Exploration and Operations Mission Directorate 1

Science Mission Directorate .

Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate 51

Space Technology Mission Directorate 60

Department of Defense 83

Federal Aviation Administration 113

Department of Commerce . 

Department of the Interior . 

Federal Communications Commission 189

U.S. Department of Agricultur  1

National Science Foundation 209

Department of State 221

Department of Energy 227

Smithsonian Institution . 

Appendices

A-1 U.S. Government Spacecraft Recor  2

A-2 World Record of Space Launches Successful in

Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond . 

B Successful Launches to Orbit on U.S. Vehicle  2

C Human Spaceflights . 

D-1A Space Activities of the U.S. Government—Historical Table of Budg

Authority in Millions of Real-Year Dollars . 

D-1B Space Activities of the U.S. Government—Historical Table of Budg

Authority in Millions of Inflation-Adjusted FY 2020 Dollars . 

D-2 Federal Space Activities Budget . 

D-3 Federal Aeronautics Activities Budget . 

E Memorandum on Space Policy Directive-5: 

Cybersecurity Principles for Space Systems 268

Acronyms 273

vThe National Space Council

The National Space Co

Since its revival by executive order on June 30, 2017, the National Space Council 

advises and assists the President on national space policy and strategy, advises on 

international space activities, and fosters closer coordination and cooperation 

among the domestic civil, national security, and commercial space sectors. The 

Council’s Chair, the Vice President, is supported by the National Space Council 

membership, which includes the heads of the agencies, offices, and departments 

responsible for the United States space enterprise. The Council meets regularly to 

publicly discuss the status of administration priorities and propose new recommendations to the President regarding national space policy and strategy. In addition to 

an audience composed of stakeholders from industry, government, academia, and 

nongovernmental organizations, Council meetings are livestreamed on the internet to encourage public engagement and transparency. The Council is supported 

by a Users’ Advisory Group (UAG) composed of nonfederal senior leaders from 

industry, academia, and other non-governmental organizations. The UAG members are organized into six subcommittees: Exploration and Discovery, National 

Security Space, Economic Development and the Industrial Base, Technology 

and Innovation, Outreach and Education, and Space Policy and International 

Engagement. These subcommittees meet regularly to produce recommendations to 

the National Space Council for consideration.

Meetings of the National Space Council 

The Council met on May 19, 2020, at NASA Headquarters in Washington, 

DC, marking the seventh meeting since the Council’s revival in 2017. Prior to 
viAeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

the meeting, Vice President Mike Pence delivered remarks in which he previewed 

the forthcoming National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and 

Space Exploration Technologies (SpaceX) “Demonstration 2” mission to the 

International Space Station. This was the first crewed launch from American 

soil since the retirement of the Space Shuttle in 2011 and a result of the NASA 

Commercial Crew and Cargo program. The meeting included reports from the 

Department of Energy, Department of Commerce, Department of Defense, 

Department of State, and NASA. During the meeting, departments and agencies 

provided updates on the progress of key programs and milestones across the civil, 

commercial, and national security space sectors. In particular, the Department of 

Commerce released new regulations to improve the licensing process for U.S. commercial remote sensing operations and NASA provided updates on the innovative 

hardware and systems required to implement the administration’s direction for a 

crewed mission to the lunar surface by 2024 and sustained presence on the Moon 

in preparation for missions to Mars. Due to the unprecedented circumstances associated with the COVID-19 pandemic, this was the only Council meeting convened 

in fiscal year (FY) 2020.

Space Policy Directive Implementation 

Recommendations from previous meetings and other administration priorities 

have been articulated in Space Policy Directives (SPDs), of which five were issued 

between 2017 and the end of FY 2020. The implementation of the existing SPDs is 

ongoing and summarized below.

Space Policy Directive-1 (SPD-1) amended the 2010 National Space Policy, also 

known as Presidential Policy Directive-4, to require NASA to expedite and return 

landing Americans on the Moon, to include the first American woman, by 2024, 

followed by a sustainable lunar presence by 2028 in preparation for crewed missions to Mars. To accomplish the goals of SPD-1, the National Space Council has 

actively encouraged NASA to conduct necessary internal reforms and secure the 

unique capabilities of commercial and international partners in the effort. 

Space Policy Directive-2 (SPD-2) requires certain departments and agencies to 

streamline regulatory requirements to ensure there are no undue barriers to the 
vii The National Space Council

acceleration of commercial space activities. As announced at the seventh meeting 

of the National Space Council, the Department of Commerce succeeded in updating its regulations on commercial remote sensing to keep United States industry 

at the forefront in an increasingly competitive global market. The National Space 

Council continues to support the efforts of the Department of Transportation to 

streamline the Federal Aviation Administration’s launch and reentry regulations to 

better reflect the increasing cadence and technological developments of the space 

transportation industry. 

Space Policy Directive-3 (SPD-3) provided for the creation of the Nation’s first 

space traffic management architecture to ensure protection of the national and 

economic security of the United States. Amongst other tasks from SPD-3, the 

Departments of Defense and Commerce were tasked to develop transition plans 

and cooperative agreements to implement SPD-3. 

On February 19, 2019 Space Policy Directive-4 (SPD-4) tasked the Department 

of Defense to create a legislative proposal to establish the United States Space 

Force. With the President’s signature on December 20, 2019, the Space Force was 

legally established as the sixth armed service within the FY 2020 National Defense 

Authorization Act. In January 2020, Vice President Mike Pence swore in General 

John W. “Jay” Raymond as the first Chief of Space Operations of the Space Force 

at the Eisenhower Executive Office Building in Washington, DC.

On September 4, 2020, the President issued Space Policy Directive-5 (SPD-5) 

(Appendix E), which outlined cybersecurity principles for space systems. In particular, SPD-5 recognized that cybersecurity threats to space systems are diverse 

and complex, and emphasized that robust public-private cooperation is essential to 

enhance the security and resilience of the infrastructure that supports space activities. The National Space Council has identified the risks associated with the space 

industrial base, and SPD-5 encourages government and industry to work together 

to combat cybersecurity threats. 

1National Aeronautics and Space Administration

National Aeronautic

Space Administr

NASA

Human Exploration and Operations Mission Directorate

Exploration Systems Development

The Exploration Systems Development (ESD) programs—the Space Launch 

System (SLS), Orion, and Exploration Ground Systems—provide the foundation 

for humanity’s return to the Moon and exploration beyond. Progress steadily continues toward the uncrewed Artemis I mission, the first integrated test of the ESD 

programs that will pave the way for future crewed Artemis missions. 

Orion

Orion will serve as the exploration vehicle that will carry the crew to space, 

provide emergency abort capability, sustain astronauts during their missions, and 

provide safe reentry from deep space return velocities. In fiscal year 2020 (FY 2020), 

NASA, along with the European Space Agency (ESA), assembled, tested, and 

integrated the Orion crew module for the Artemis I mission with the European 

service module. The integrated spacecraft successfully completed simulated inspace environments testing, verifying that Orion’s systems will perform as expected 

during Artemis missions. The campaign was completed ahead of schedule, and the 

spacecraft returned to the space coast for final preparations ahead of integration 

with the SLS rocket. In addition, the Agency completed the following tasks:
2Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

• Successfully tested the jettison motor built by Aerojet Rocketdyne for 

the Launch Abort System (LAS) on Orion. With the series of static tests 

completed, Orion’s LAS jettison motor is qualified and ready for flight on 

the Artemis II mission with astronauts.

• Successfully tested the attitude control motor (ACM) that provides steering for Orion’s LAS during an abort. The 30-second hot fire of the ACM, 

built by Northrop Grumman, was conducted at the company’s facility in 

Elkton, Maryland. This was the third and final test needed to qualify the 

motor for human missions, beginning with Artemis II.

• Completed a rigorous test campaign with the Orion spacecraft at Plum 

Brook Station in Cleveland, Ohio. The test campaign subjected the 

spacecraft to the extreme temperatures and electromagnetic conditions it 

will endure during its uncrewed test flight around the Moon and back to 

ensure it will perform as designed.

• Shipped the launch abort motor for Orion’s LAS from Promontory, Utah, 

to Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Florida to undergo testing in preparation for use on the second Artemis mission. The launch abort motor 

is one of three motors on the LAS and is capable of producing about 

400,000 pounds of thrust to steer and pull the crew module away from 

the rocket.

• Completed testing on a duplicate of Orion called the Structural Test 

Article (STA), needed to verify the spacecraft is ready for Artemis I. The 

STA testing required to qualify Orion’s design began in early 2017 and 

involved 20 tests, using six different configurations—from a single element to the entire full stack, and various combinations in between. At 

completion, the testing verified Orion’s structural durability for all flight 

phases of Artemis I.

• Moved panels for the Artemis II Orion stage adapter to a large, robotic 

welding machine. Three panels were built by AMRO (A Michael Riley 

Operation) Fabricating Corp. in South El Monte, California, and shipped 

to Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC), in Huntsville, Alabama, where 

engineers and technicians from NASA are joining them using a sophisticated friction-stir welding process to form the Orion stage adapter. 
3National Aeronautics and Space Administration

• Completed the cone panel with openings for windows for the Artemis III 

Orion crew module and shipped the panel to the Michoud Assembly 

Facility (MAF), in New Orleans, Louisiana. This is the first element 

machined for the Artemis III mission.

• Installed the spacecraft adapter cone that will connect the Orion spacecraft to its rocket for the Artemis I mission around the Moon. This is 

one of the final major hardware operations for Orion inside the Neil 

Armstrong Operations and Checkout Building at KSC prior to integration with the SLS rocket.

Space Launch System

With the powerful Space Launch System (SLS) rocket and Orion spacecraft 

nearing the end of testing and development, the Agency has the foundation 

needed to send humans back to lunar orbit. Preparations for Artemis I are well 

under way. Production is complete for the SLS engines—composed of four RS-25 

liquid rocket engines, two solid rocket boosters, the massive core stage, and the 

interim cryogenic propulsion stage that provides Orion’s final push toward the 

Moon. In FY 2020 the Agency accomplished the following goals:

• Transported the core stage for the SLS rocket in early January 2021 from 

NASA’s MAF in New Orleans to the Agency’s Stennis Space Center 

(SSC) near Bay St. Louis, Mississippi. This allowed engineers to conduct 

the Green Run test series.

• Completed five of the eight Green Run tests on the core stage of the SLS 

rocket, continuing progress toward a milestone hot fire test in FY 2021. 

The Green Run tests are designed to verify all systems will operate as 

needed ahead of the Agency’s first Artemis launch.

• Completed a structural testing series to evaluate the upper part of the SLS 

rocket and four of the core stage structures. During the test campaign, five 

structural test articles underwent 199 separate test cases and more than 

421 gigabytes of data were collected to add to computer models used to 

design the rocket. The successful completion of SLS structural qualification testing at NASA’s MSFC wraps up the largest test campaign at the 
4Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

Center since tests conducted for the Space Shuttle Program, more than 

30 years ago.

• Awarded a contract to Aerojet Rocketdyne of Sacramento, California, 

to manufacture 18 additional SLS RS-25 rocket engines to support 

Artemis. This modified the initial contract awarded in November 2015 

to recertify and produce a total of 24 engines to support as many as six 

additional flights.

• Planned a letter contract for Northrop Grumman that supports building 

solid rocket boosters for the next six SLS flights. This initial step ensures 

that NASA can build the boosters for future SLS rockets that will be 

needed for the Artemis missions.

• Completed a full-scale booster test for the SLS rocket in Promontory, 

Utah. NASA and Northrop Grumman provided data to evaluate the 

motor’s performance using potential new materials and processes that can 

be incorporated into future boosters.

Exploration Ground Systems

Exploration Ground Systems (EGS), based at KSC in Florida, was established 

to develop and operate the systems and facilities necessary to process and launch 

rockets and spacecraft during assembly, transport, and launch. EGS is preparing 

the infrastructure to support several different kinds of spacecraft and rockets that 

are in development, including the SLS rocket and Orion spacecraft for Artemis I. 

EGS accomplished the following milestones in FY 2020:

• Finished modifications and upgrades to prepare Launch Pad 39B at 

KSC. Engineers replaced or upgraded pad subsystems used for Apollo 

and the Space Shuttle Program to support the powerful SLS rocket and 

multi-user spaceport.

• Simulated critical portions of the countdown to ensure the Artemis I 

launch team is ready to handle any situation on launch day. Launch Team 

Training includes the Simulation Training Team, which combines a mix 

of NASA’s EGS program, civil servants, and contractors with Jacobs under 

the Test and Operations Support Contract.
5National Aeronautics and Space Administration

• Rehearsed booster stacking operations inside the Vehicle Assembly 

Building (VAB) at the Agency’s KSC in preparation for the Artemis I 

launch. The team used full-scale replicas of booster segments, referred to 

as pathfinders, for the practice exercise in one of the tallest sections, or 

high bays, of the VAB, built for stacking rockets.

Advanced Exploration Systems

The Advanced Exploration Systems (AES) Division develops human exploration technology and manages the Gateway program, exploration spacesuit development, the Human Landing System (HLS) program, and surface mobility systems 

development. AES infuses technologies and develops high-priority capabilities 

using a combination of unique in-house activities and public-private partnerships 

to develop and test prototype systems that form the basis for future human spaceflight missions. AES is responsible for Artemis missions beginning with the first 

human lunar landing mission of the program, Artemis III. 

In FY 2020, together with the 23 other space agencies in the International Space 

Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG), NASA authored a supplement to the 

Global Exploration Roadmap (GER). AES teams led the development of this 

supplement and worked with groups throughout the Agency to produce it. The 

GER is a nonbinding document that space agencies coauthor to foster coordination 

and partnership opportunities. The iterative development process of the GER and 

the nine new member agencies that joined ISECG for the 2020 update demonstrate the growing interest in space exploration across the globe and emphasize the 

importance of cooperation to realize individual and common goals and objectives 

for ISECG members.

Exploration Capabilities

AES develops and demonstrates critical human exploration systems in order to 

reduce mission risk, validate operational concepts, leverage partner capabilities, 

and lower life-cycle costs for lunar and other deep space missions. In FY 2020, 

AES continued to advance technologies related to deep space habitats following 

successful completion of ground-based prototype testing, addressed knowledge gaps 
6Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

for lunar environments and resources using low-cost CubeSats, and leveraged the 

International Space Station (ISS) as a testbed to advance the technology readiness 

of deep space systems. The Exploration Capabilities team accomplished the following risk-reduction milestones in FY 2020:

• Completed assembly and testing of two critical life-support subsystems for 

flight to the ISS to demonstrate their reliability in an actual operational 

environment. The 4-Bed CO2 Scrubber, which removes carbon dioxide 

(CO2) from the cabin air, is one of the technologies being considered 

to recover more than 75 percent of the oxygen from CO2. The Brine 

Processor Assembly will recycle 98 percent of the water from concentrated 

urine brine using a semipermeable membrane that allows water to pass 

through into the cabin air. Demonstrating these capabilities is critical 

for achieving closed-loop life support systems for long-duration missions 

to Mars.

• Installed the Spacecraft Atmosphere Monitor (SAM) on ISS and began 

operations. A compact, autonomous, real-time air-quality monitoring 

system, SAM immediately detects trace contaminants that pose potential threats to crewmembers’ well-being. This advancement is critical for 

future human spaceflight missions, especially missions to the Moon and 

Mars, when returning samples to Earth for testing will not be an option.

• Delivered the Universal Waste Management System (UWMS) for launch 

to the ISS. The UWMS is the next-generation space toilet that has been 

redesigned for greater crew comfort, more efficient water recovery, and 

less complex systems that reduce mass, volume, and maintenance time 

requirements. A duplicate UWMS was delivered to be installed on the 

Artemis II Orion, and the system is also compatible with Gateway standards, reducing the need for system redesign across vehicles and missions.

• Installed the Thermal Amine Scrubber (TAS) CO2 removal device on the 

ISS. TAS was developed as a potential successor to the Carbon Dioxide 

Removal Assembly (CDRA) to improve reliability for long-duration missions. NASA’s goal is to develop a CO2

 removal system that is reliable 

for more than three years. In addition, the medical community gave 

engineers the goal of reducing the CO2 partial pressure in a spacecraft 
7National Aeronautics and Space Administration

atmosphere to 2 mmHg for crew health reasons. NASA teams are assess-

ing several systems to improve CO

2

 removal system reliability and reduce 

CO

2

 partial pressure, but TAS is among the most mature and is the first 

to be demonstrated on the ISS. A reliable system that controls CO

2

 at 

2 mmHg is essential for Mars missions.

• Ignited Saffire-IV, the fourth in a series of large-scale, in-space fire 

investigations, after the Northrop Grumman Cygnus cargo spacecraft 

departed from the ISS and before its destructive reentry through Earth’s 

atmosphere. The Saffire experiments test the reliability of fire safety 

measures for spacecraft and provide new data on the behavior of fire in 

space environments. Saffire-IV tested a Smoke Eater filter designed to 

clean up the cabin air after a fire. This experiment was remotely acti-

vated by Northrop Grumman operators, and NASA Glenn Research 

Center Saffire staff helped monitor the experiment as it burned in four 

installments. Saffire-IV burned the same materials that were burned in 

Saffire-II, but at different pressures and oxygen saturation for comparison.

• Continued ground testing of prototype habitats from Boeing, Lockheed 

Martin, Northrop Grumman, and Sierra Nevada Corporation to assess 

their extensibility to lunar surface and Mars transit habitats. The testing 

included creep testing of fabric materials for inflatable habitats and hypervelocity impact testing to characterize structural damage to inflatable 

habitats from micrometeoroid and orbital debris impacts.

• Delivered the Hybrid Electronic Radiation Assessor (HERA) for integra-

tion with the Orion Spacecraft for the Artemis II mission. The HERA 

monitors radiation levels inside Orion to alert the crew of their exposure 

to harmful deep space radiation.

• Began integration and testing of four CubeSats that will be flown on the 

Artemis I mission. These CubeSats will help answer questions about the 

thermal environments and abundance of water ice on the Moon, investi-

gate the effects of deep space radiation on yeast DNA, and demonstrate 

solar sails for low-cost scouting missions to near-Earth asteroids.
8Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

Gateway

In pursuit of a sustainable lunar exploration program, NASA and its international partners have identified the need for an orbiting platform at the Moon that 

will serve as a staging point for astronauts on their way to the lunar surface and as 

an outpost for unprecedented deep space science and technology investigations. 

All major U.S. elements for the integrated Gateway spacecraft are under contract, 

with flight and ground hardware in development. Gateway development leverages 

existing commercial and international partnerships while seeking to forge new 

ones through international agreements with Europe, Canada, Japan, and others. 

In FY 2020, the Agency completed these accomplishments:

• Awarded Northrop Grumman a contract to develop the habitation and 

logistics outpost (HALO), an initial crew cabin for Gateway. 

• Determined that HALO and the power and propulsion element (PPE) 

will launch to space together as the foundation for the initial Gateway 

capability. This eliminates the procurement of one launch vehicle and 

reduces the risk of on-orbit assembly.

• Continued development of the PPE, updating the contract with Maxar 

Technologies to reflect the decision to comanifest the PPE with HALO.

• Delivered first pieces of flight hardware for HALO to Thales Alenia 

Space Italy, a subcontractor for Northrop Grumman that is manufacturing components of the HALO.

• Identified the first two Gateway science payloads. One instrument built 

by NASA and another built by the ESA are designed to observe space 

weather and monitor the Sun’s radiation environment, improving the 

capability to forecast weather for future crew missions.

• Selected SpaceX of Hawthorne, California, as the first U.S. commercial 

provider under the Gateway Logistics Services contract to deliver cargo, 

experiments, and other supplies to the Agency’s Gateway in lunar orbit.

• Held the first Integrated Program-wide Sync Review, demonstrating 

System Definition Review––level maturity across the Gateway Program 

and its projects. Based on this review, the Program, technical authorities, and independent assessment via a Standing Review Board (SRB) 
9National Aeronautics and Space Administration

evaluated the program’s progress and determined Gateway was ready to 

proceed to the next phase of development.

Exploration Extravehicular Mobility Unit 

Under the Gateway Program, NASA is developing a flexible spacesuit architecture with common core subsystems for the spacesuit and vehicle interfaces that 

can be modified to support the needs of specific destinations and vehicles from 

low-Earth orbit (LEO) to the lunar surface. NASA intends to demonstrate the core 

spacesuit technologies and subsystems applicable to both LEO-based operations 

and surface exploration through a series of subsystem demonstrations at the ISS. 

The Exploration Extravehicular Activity (xEVA) Project made significant progress 

in the development of Exploration Extravehicular Mobility Units (xEMUs) and 

vehicle interfaces to spacesuit equipment (VISE) in FY 2020. The NASA-designed 

spacesuit pressure garment will extend the overall sizing range to accommodate a 

more diverse crew population, at the lower and upper bounds of crew anthropometry, while minimizing logistics required. Other key improvements in the xEMU 

over its predecessors include a highly mobile lower torso for walking and kneeling, 

as well as a modular life-support system that allows components to be swapped out 

as technologies mature or mission parameters change without having to redesign 

the entire subsystem. Additionally, the life-support system incorporates many new 

technological innovations to improve overall reliability, safety, and performance. 

NASA reached the following development milestones:

• Issued a request for information (RFI) seeking U.S. industry feedback to 

help refine and mature the acquisition strategy for production and services 

for xEVA hardware to enable a steady cadence of Artemis missions over 

the next decade.

• Completed ground testing and delivered the Spacesuit Evaporation 

Rejection Flight Experiment (SERFE) for launch integration on NG-14. 

The SERFE is designed to demonstrate the complete exploration spacesuit 

thermal loop operations on the ISS in preparation for the lunar surface 

suits that are planned for Artemis III. The thermal control system in the 

current spacesuit is a driver of overall suit reliability. This spacesuit water 

membrane evaporator is the core new technology in the thermal loop 
10Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

and was designed to significantly enhance reliability and the safety of 

the crew.

• Completed the Delta Preliminary Design Review (dPDR) for the xEMU 

to include additional functions to better enable human lunar surface 

exploration. Key products from the dPDR included a final report on successful completion of the Phase 1 Multi-program Safety Review Panel; 

published interface requirements documents between the xEVA system 

and the HLS; updated xEVA System functional requirements; updated 

xEMU functional requirements; revised primary subsystem specification 

documents; and updated the xEVA Operational Concept document. With 

the successful completion of dPDR, the xEVA Project was able to transition to the next phase of the project: the building of the xEMU design 

verification test (DVT) unit.

• Completed primary xEMU component DVT evaluations and began integrating those components into the portable life-support and pressure garment subassembly DVT units.

• Completed a System Requirements Review for VISE in coordination with 

the HLS Program and ISS Program.

Human Landing System

NASA selected three U.S. companies to develop preliminary Human Landing 

System (HLS) designs: Blue Origin of Kent, Washington; Dynetics (a Leidos company) of Huntsville, Alabama; and SpaceX of Hawthorne, California. These teams 

offered three distinct lander and mission designs, which are driving a broad range 

of technology development and will contribute to the sustainability of NASA’s 

lunar surface access architecture. NASA experts worked with the companies to 

streamline the review of deliverables and to impart legacy knowledge as they work 

through a ten-month base period that concluded in February 2021. Throughout the 

base period, NASA teams embedded with the companies co-conducted intensive 

adjudication processes that established design, construction, safety, and health and 

medical standards for each proposed landing system design. The companies also 

provided development and testing schedules; identified top risks; and provided 

plans for safety and mission assurance, verification, validation, and certification. In 
11National Aeronautics and Space Administration

parallel, NASA also worked with the three companies to refine the requirements 

for the Option A solicitation, issued in October 2020. Following the conclusion of 

the base period, NASA will select up to two companies to continue development 

to flight through Option A awards.

NASA and 11 U.S. companies completed work under the Next Space Technology 

Exploration Partnerships (NextSTEP) Appendix E awards. NextSTEP E companies 

conducted technical studies and demonstrations and built and tested systems-level 

ground prototypes for human landers. Results from NextSTEP E provided valuable 

insight into cryogenic fluid management, in-space propellant transfer, automated 

rendezvous and proximity operations, and precision landing and hazard avoidance. 

This work helped the Agency reduce schedule risk and refine its Artemis program 

requirements for the three companies competing to build HLSs.

Surface Mobility Systems

NASA established a human mobility systems project, and its team began collecting and refining requirements for these systems. The Agency issued an RFI for the 

Lunar Terrain Vehicle (LTV), a human-class rover that will extend the exploration 

range of suited crewmembers on the surface of the Moon.

Commercial Spaceflight Development

Commercial Crew Program

NASA’s Commercial Crew Program (CCP) and its commercial partner SpaceX 

accomplished the national goal of returning human spaceflight to U.S. soil. 

Both industry partners, Boeing and SpaceX, continued making technical 

and programmatic progress in maturing and certifying their commercial Crew 

Transportation Systems (CTS). This year, commercial partners transitioned from 

flight hardware production and final acceptance testing to flight demonstration 

missions and system certification. During FY 2020, both partners conducted orbital 

demonstration flights of their CTS.

On December 20, 2019, Boeing conducted their Orbital Flight Test (OFT), an 

uncrewed orbital demonstration flight to the ISS. Due to technical issues during 

launch and early flight, the Starliner spacecraft did not complete its demonstration 
12Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

mission to the ISS and successfully returned to Earth. Though many flight test 

objectives were successfully accomplished, Boeing announced plans to re-fly the 

OFT mission prior to their Crew Flight Test (CFT) mission. Boeing completed 

programmatic and technical milestones during FY 2020, as they continue maturing 

flight systems and resolving identified flight issues in preparation for their upcoming OFT re-flight and CFT demonstration mission.

SpaceX completed several major programmatic and technical milestones and 

conducted major demonstration flights during FY 2020. SpaceX successfully conducted their launch escape demonstration test flight of the Crew Dragon spacecraft 

and Falcon-9 launch vehicle. This was the final major test of SpaceX’s CST prior 

to carrying NASA astronauts to the ISS.

On May 30, 2020, SpaceX launched their Demo-2 mission to the ISS. Demo-2 

carried NASA astronauts Robert Behnken and Douglas Hurley aboard the company’s Crew Dragon spacecraft, returning human space launches to U.S. soil. On 

the following flight day, the Dragon spacecraft autonomously docked to the ISS, 

another U.S. human spaceflight first. At the conclusion of the ISS mission, the 

Demo-2 Dragon autonomously departed the ISS, reentered Earth’s atmosphere, and 

splashed down off the coast of Pensacola, Florida, bringing the historic Demo-2 

mission to a successful conclusion. During FY 2020, NASA certified SpaceX’s CST, 

clearing the way for post-p-certification missions, planned for early FY 2021.

Collaborations for Commercial Space Capabilities

The objective of the Collaborations for Commercial Space Capabilities (CCSC) 

is to advance private-sector entrepreneurial space activities. All CCSC partners 

continue making technical and programmatic progress in maturing their respective 

commercial space capabilities.

Commercial Low-Earth Orbit Development Program 

The Commercial Low-Earth Orbit (LEO) Development Program (CLDP) continues to make steady progress toward realizing NASA’s vision of a self-sustaining 

market in LEO. The CLDP consists of several areas of responsibility to encourage 

and facilitate the development of a robust LEO economy, including demand stimulation, private astronaut missions, commercial element, and free flyer. The program 
13National Aeronautics and Space Administration

awarded eight demand stimulation contracts in areas such as glass optics and alloys, 

semiconductor chip manufacturing, retinal implants, and regenerative medicines. 

Within the last year, the program completed almost a dozen agreements to fly 

commercial-use items to the ISS. The program has also completed the first two 

milestones of the Axiom Space contract for the Commercial Port module. Looking 

forward, the program will continue to work with multiple companies to facilitate 

the execution of private astronaut missions. 

International Space Station

In FY 2020, the ISS celebrated 20 years of continuous human presence in space, 

enabled by NASA and its international partners. The Space Station’s focus continues to be research and technology development in such disciplines as biology 

and biotechnology, Earth and space science, human research, and physical science. 

Exploration research conducted on the Station in FY 2020 included experiments 

to better understand “normal” human adaptations to spaceflight, study how fluid 

shifts affect blood flow in astronauts, and learn how best to grow and harvest vegetables in preparation for long-duration missions. The ISS remains a testbed for 

technology, with FY 2020 seeing the installation of life-support improvements for 

urine distillation and water processing, as well as a biomolecule sequencer, which 

allows astronauts to identify potentially harmful microbes in space without sending 

samples to Earth. Through the end of Expedition 63 (October 2020), the ISS had 

hosted over 3,035 investigations from more than 108 countries/areas. During that 

timeframe, the number of investigators with research on the ISS exceeded 4,000.

Such research is enabled by frequent Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) 

flights from Northrop Grumman and SpaceX. In FY 2020, Northrop Grumman 

and SpaceX completed two cargo flights each to the ISS, totaling more than 

25,700 pounds of science investigations, spacewalking tools, and critical supplies 

delivered. These cargo missions were complemented by those of our partners. 

International partners Roscosmos provided three Progress cargo missions, and the 

Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) was responsible for the H-II Transfer 

Vehicle (HTV-9) mission during FY 2020. Additionally, more than 7,800 pounds 

of investigations and equipment were returned to researchers on Earth by the 
14Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

SpaceX Dragon capsule, while the Northrop Grumman Cygnus and HTV provided 

significant assistance as trash removal mechanisms by performing a destructive 

reentry. These resupply missions enabled ISS crewmembers to support new U.S. 

science investigations to advance human space exploration to the Moon and Mars 

and conduct research sponsored by the U.S. National Laboratory to benefit life 

on Earth. 

In addition to the CRS missions, there was one successful Soyuz crew mission, 

two test flight missions (one crewed, one uncrewed), and three Soyuz crew return 

missions occurring in FY 2020. The departure of Soyuz 58S in October 2019 

denoted the end of Expedition 60. Onboard Soyuz 58S were NASA astronaut Nick 

Hague, Russian Space Agency (Roscosmos) cosmonaut Alexey Ovchinin, and 

visiting astronaut Hazzaa Ali Almansoori from the United Arab Emirates (UAE). 

Soyuz 59S departed the ISS in February 2020, carrying NASA astronaut Christina 

Koch, Soyuz Commander Alexander Skvortsov of Roscosmos, and Luca Parmitano 

of ESA, marking the transition from Expedition 61 to Expedition 62. Koch set 

the record for the longest single spaceflight in history by a woman, a 328-day mission. Soyuz 62S arrived at the ISS in April 2020, carrying NASA astronaut Chris 

Cassidy, along with Anatoly Ivanishin and Ivan Vagner of Roscosmos. They joined 

Expedition 62 Commander Oleg Skripochka of Roscosmos and NASA astronauts Andrew Morgan and Jessica Meir. Shortly after their arrival, the Soyuz 61S 

spacecraft departed in April 2020 carrying the Expedition 62 Crew (Skripochka, 

Morgan, and Meir) and marking the end of Expedition 62. 

The first test flight occurred in December 2019, when Boeing launched their 

uncrewed CST-100 Starliner spacecraft aboard a United Launch Alliance Atlas V 

rocket. However, the Starliner did not reach its planned orbit and therefore did 

not dock with the ISS. The spacecraft remained in a stable configuration and 

completed several test objectives. The spacecraft completed the first land-based 

touchdown of a human-rated space capsule in U.S. history two days after launch, 

wrapping up its OFT mission as part of NASA’s CCP. The other test flight occurred 

in May 2020, when SpaceX launched their Crew Dragon, named Endeavour, to the 

ISS carrying NASA astronauts Robert Behnken and Douglas Hurley, who joined 

Expedition 63 commander and NASA astronaut Chris Cassidy and cosmonauts 

Anatoly Ivanishin and Ivan Vagner of Roscosmos. This SpaceX Demo-2 mission 
15National Aeronautics and Space Administration

was an end-to-end test flight to validate the SpaceX CST, including launch, inorbit, docking, and landing operations, and pave the way for its certification for 

regular crew flights to the Station. For operational missions, Crew Dragon will be 

able to launch as many as four crewmembers and carry more than 220 pounds of 

cargo, enabling the expansion of the number of inhabitants on the ISS, increasing the time dedicated to research in the unique microgravity environment, and 

returning more science back to Earth. While onboard, Behnken and Hurley contributed more than 100 hours to supporting the orbiting laboratory’s investigations, 

participated in public engagement events, and supported four spacewalks. They 

returned to Earth in early August 2020. It is the first time a commercially built and 

operated American crew spacecraft has returned from the ISS to complete a test 

flight, beginning a new era in human spaceflight. Both test missions supported the 

goal of NASA’s CCP to provide safe, reliable, and cost-effective transportation to 

and from the ISS.

In FY 2020, the onboard crew and ground teams supported an unprecedented 13 

spacewalks, or extra-vehicular activities (EVAs). In January 2020, two spacewalks 

completed the final battery installation on the Port Truss (P6) without issue, as 

well as the fourth and final Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS) spacewalk. The 

AMS is a cosmic ray particle physics experiment mounted outside the ISS producing science data that are valuable for the understanding of the formation of the 

universe and inform the search for evidence of dark matter. The AMS series of 

spacewalks completed very difficult tasks that had never been undertaken during 

a spacewalk. NASA succeeded in its endeavor to provide AMS with many more 

years of data collection. 

The last of the lithium ion (LiON) batteries were installed within a four-EVA 

series in July 2020, completing the complement of ISS batteries on the Starboard 

Truss (S4). The new batteries provide an improved and more efficient power capacity for operations. Along with battery installation, the EVA crew moved a number 

of large items outside, including a robotic compatible box called the Robotic Tool 

Stowage that houses two ammonia-sniffing devices, called the Robotic External 

Leak Locators (RELL). They routed cabling for the ISS Ethernet System and prepared the ISS for the Nanoracks Bishop Airlock arrival on the SpaceX-21 mission 

in FY 2021. The new airlock significantly increases the capacity for public and 
16Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

private research on the outside of the orbiting lab. It also enables the deployment 

of larger satellites and the transfer of spacewalking tools and hardware inside and 

outside the Station.

In FY 2020, the ISS Program continued strategic and long-term planning for an 

eventual transition of NASA operations in LEO to a future platform. This includes 

preparing the international partnership to continue joint operations in LEO and 

beyond, ensuring a robust economic demand for services in LEO, and working to 

transition from a government-based economy to a privately based market. 

As part of this, NASA announced a five-point plan to open the ISS for business 

so U.S. industry innovation and ingenuity can accelerate a thriving commercial 

economy in LEO. A wide array of companies expressed interest in pursuing commercial activities, private astronaut missions, and future commercial destinations. 

NASA awarded Axiom Space, Inc., the opportunity to connect their private module to the front of the Station in February 2020, and five companies requested the 

use of the Station for commercial activities, which required the companies to partially pay for the services. In late FY 2020, the ISS Program transferred all work to 

accelerate this thriving commercial economy in LEO to the HEOMD Commercial 

Spaceflight Development Division, with the ISS Program continuing to provide 

support for all initiatives. 

The aforementioned summarizes the many ways the ISS is facilitating the growth 

of a robust commercial market in LEO for research, technology development, and 

crew and cargo transportation, and remains the sole space-based proving ground 

and stepping-stone for achieving the goals of NASA’s Artemis program. 

Human Spaceflight Capabilities

Rocket Propulsion Test

During FY 2020, the Rocket Propulsion Test (RPT) Program safely performed 

793 tests of rocket engines and components at various levels of thrust. Hot fire test 

time totaled 12,600 seconds. In addition to the hot fire tests, RPT facilities performed 658 hours of thermal vacuum testing for vehicle certifications and facility 

checkouts in preparation for the vehicle certifications. These tests were completed 

with only three facility-caused test delays, resulting in a 99.6 percent test stand 
17National Aeronautics and Space Administration

availability, exceeding the Agency performance goal of 90 percent as defined in 

the Space and Flight Support (SFS) section 15-1 of the NASA Management and 

Performance report.

Marshall Space Flight Center

At Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC), a 24" Solid Motor test campaign for 

the Space Launch System (SLS) booster insulation material performance characterization was conducted at the Solid Propulsion Test Article (SPTA) facility. At 

Test Stand 115, Virgin Orbit testing, Boeing thruster testing, Blue Origin nozzle 

testing, and Methane Engine Thrust Assembly testing were completed, and LongLife Additive Manufacturing Assembly engine hardware testing started. At Test 

Stand 116, ESA Vega testing was started and completed, and Blue Origin Thrust 

Chamber Assembly testing was started.

Armstrong Test Facility (formerly Plum Brook Station)

Armstrong Test Facility (ATF) completed thermal vacuum testing of the 

Structural Heat Intercept, Insulation, and Vibration Evaluation Rig (SHIIVER) 

at the In-Space Propulsion (ISP) Facility with Phase II testing being conducted. 

The ISP Facility signed an agreement with Sierra Nevada Corporation to perform thermal vacuum testing of the Dream Chaser Cargo System in FY 2021. 

Work on the ISP steam ejector rehabilitation project is complete. Construction to 

integrate a rental steam plant is in progress to demonstrate facility exhaust capability. A smaller effort to address system thermal expansion and contraction during 

operations remains to be designed and implemented.

ISP provided cost estimate input for three HLS Appendix H Government Task 

Agreements to perform proposed testing for two HLS partners.

Stennis Space Center

Testing for the SLS Core Stage at Stennis Space Center (SSC) was approved 

for COVID-related limited restart of mission-critical work. At the A-1 test facility, restart of the Run Tank Painting construction project was approved, and SLS 

RS-25 engine testing was ongoing. At the B test stands, RS-68 engine testing was 

ongoing, and the SLS Core Stage arrived for Green Run testing. Green Run testing 
18Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

included modal testing, as well as stage avionics power-up and umbilical connections testing. Engine leak checks, hydraulic and thrust vectoring control checkouts, 

countdown simulation, and wet dress rehearsal were completed. In the E complex, 

SSC supported launcher testing and Exploration Upper Stage subscale diffuser 

testing and completed testing of the Subscale Engine Exhaust System.

White Sands Test Facility

The following activities were carried out at White Sands Test Facility (WSTF) 

in FY 2020: 

• Ongoing testing of the Orion ESA Service Module at Test Stand (TS) 

301, including cross feed testing.

• Acceptance testing of the Boeing CST-100 Launch Abort Engine for 

the CCP began testing at TS 301A in early November 2017 and completed testing of the last engine, Post Certification Mission (PCM) 3-4, 

in August 2020.

• Preliminary design reviews and critical design reviews (PDR and CDR) for 

the Small Altitude Steam System Boiler Replacement project.

• Acceptance testing of the Post Certification Mission 3 ship set of the 

Boeing CST-100 Orbital Maneuvering and Attitude Control and Reaction 

Control Systems thrusters for the CCP was completed at TS 401 and TS 

406 in early 2020.

Human Research Program

In FY 2020, NASA sponsored research to mitigate human health and performance risks associated with long-duration spaceflight. Twelve Human Research 

Program (HRP)–sponsored investigations were conducted on the ISS over the 

fiscal year, with three studies completing data collection. Studies completed 

included the Fluid Shifts investigation, which finished its post-flight data collection of its 13th and final subject. Starting with the first yearlong mission crew, this 

study enrolled five Russian cosmonauts and eight U.S. astronauts over five years 

to investigate the effects of spaceflight-induced headward fluid shift on vascular, 

ocular, and central nervous system structure and function. The team included 

researchers from NASA, ESA, and the Institute of Biomedical Problems of the 
19National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Russian Academy of Sciences, as well as multiple U.S. and European universities, 

investigating one of HRP’s highest exploration risks, the Spaceflight Associated 

Neuro-ocular Syndrome (SANS).

In the Autonomous Medical Officer Support (AMOS) study, HRP and the ISS 

Program developed a “quick-start” concept to use the Space Station as an exploration analog to test progressively Earth-independent medical operations. The 

AMOS technology evaluation in April 2020 demonstrated that astronauts can 

utilize a software tool designed to assist minimally trained or untrained users to 

conduct complicated medical procedures autonomously. For the demonstration, the 

crew used AMOS with no preflight training to autonomously perform ultrasound 

imaging of the bladder and kidneys, a plausible Mars mission medical scenario. 

This is the first time that fully autonomous, untrained imaging has been performed 

during spaceflight, and therefore is a major milestone in enabling medical capability for future exploration missions.

Additional ongoing Space Station studies to mitigate the risks of long-duration 

spaceflight included 1) the Food Acceptability Study, investigating how a repetitive menu affects food acceptability; 2) the Spaceflight Standard Measures project, 

which collects a set of core measurements from astronauts to better define human 

spaceflight risks before, during, and after long-duration missions; 3) the Team 

Task Switching Study, assessing the impact on human factors and performance of 

switching crewmembers’ operational tasks to improve individual and team effectiveness; and 4) the Vertebral Strength Study, undertaking pre- and post-flight 

physiological measurements using quantitative computerized tomography (CT) and 

Magnetic Resonance Imaging–based modeling to assess dynamic vertebral strength 

and injury risk following long-duration spaceflight.

HRP-solicited research included the 2020 Human Exploration Research 

Opportunities, or HERO, appendices. Appendix A sought knowledge and characterization of the potential role of sensory stimulation countermeasures within 

crew habitats that may have an impact on brain changes in sensory, cognitive, 

and motor areas in long-duration missions. HERO Appendix C requested proposals for an integrated suite of immune and stress countermeasures for future longduration deep space missions for testing in an Earth-based analog (Palmer Station, 

Antarctica) and will then be tested on the Space Station. Effective strategies were 
20Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

sought in the HERO appendices to adapt stem cell technology to assess the effects 

of radiation quality, chronic low dose–rate exposure, differences in individual susceptibility across multiple tissue types, and individual risk assessment on space 

radiation carcinogenesis.

HRP research publications included “Telomere Length Dynamics and DNA 

Damage Responses Associated with Long-Duration Spaceflight,” which was 

published in Cell Reports. These studies examined telomere length dynamics in 

astronauts pre-flight, during flight, and post-flight, as well as telomerase activity 

oxidative stress. The authors observed that telomeres lengthened during flight and 

were shorter than pre-flight controls after flight. Oxidative stress was also upregulated, indicating that the observed telomere length dynamics may be an adaptive 

response to chronic oxidative stress. These datasets provide a valuable roadmap of 

some of the health risks for long-duration spaceflight.

The purpose of the Science Advances publication, “Genomic Mapping in Outbred 

Mice Reveals Overlap in Genetic Susceptibility for HZE Ion– and Gamma-Ray–

Induced Tumors,” was to study the effects of high-charge and -energy (HZE) particle irradiation in a genetically heterogeneous population and identify regions of 

the genome associated with increased tumor incidence. The study revealed that 

genetic susceptibility plays a significant role in tumorigenesis following radiation, 

rather than radiation type. This study supports the use of human epidemiological 

data exposures to predict cancer risks from galactic cosmic rays astronauts may be 

subjected to on long-duration missions.

A majority of long-duration spaceflight astronauts have developed ocular structural and functional changes, collectively termed SANS. The Ocular Health 

Study was the first prospective research study to investigate these changes in longduration astronauts. Recently, HRP, in collaboration with multiple external scientists, developed a quantitative approach analyzing high-resolution ocular magnetic 

resonance images and published these findings in the journal npj Microgravity. 

Over the past year, ocular and brain structural changes observed in astronauts 

during and after spaceflight that further characterize SANS were also published 

in the journals JAMA-Ophthalmology and Radiology. The methods and outcomes 

described here represent another step forward for the ability to objectively study 

SANS and test the effectiveness of potential countermeasures. Future studies will 
21National Aeronautics and Space Administration

determine if persistence of these structural changes alters ocular function and if 

countermeasures being tested will be effective in preventing SANS. This research 

helps to define key measures and novel tools required to monitor astronaut health 

on long-duration missions and determine the efficacy of countermeasures to protect astronaut health and performance.

HRP funds the Translational Research Institute for Space Health (TRISH) with 

its mission to lead a national effort to translate cutting-edge emerging research 

into mitigation strategies for exploration missions, as well as educate the next 

generation of space biomedical scientists. TRISH focuses on rapidly translating 

fundamental research concepts into practice, thereby generating tangible health 

outcomes to protect astronaut health. The Institute supported a total of 65 science 

and technology projects in FY 2020, with 20 ending in the fiscal year. TRISH also 

administered four solicitations in FY 2020, which included TSRAD-2020, which 

called for program projects utilizing complex human-based models for radiation 

countermeasures; TRISH-IND-2020, which solicited for proposals from U.S.-based 

companies developing behavioral health solutions; TRISH-RFA-2001-PD, inviting 

space health postdoctoral fellowship applicants; and the TRISH Faculty/Scientist 

Exchange, which promoted bidirectional collaborations between NASA intramural scientists and the external community.

In FY 2020, the HRP completed the following key milestones:

• Delivered the Level of Care IV Medical System Foundation, establishing a medical design process to enable the integration of medical capabilities into exploration vehicles and mission design. The medical system 

model provides traceable evidence-based requirements development 

of products that are now being transitioned to the NASA Health and 

Medical Technical Authority for use with the Gateway Crew Health and 

Performance System.

• Completed the Anthropomorphic Test Device Injury Assessment 

Reference Values model to mitigate crew injury during dynamic phases of 

flight. The model allows the identification and update of NASA requirements and standards to address injury risk during dynamic events like 

spacecraft landings and is provided to the Orion and CCP.
22Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

• Used the Space Linear Acceleration Mass Measurement Device to measure the mass of cargo bags planned for return on SpaceX-21. This device 

is typically used to measure astronaut masses, but HRP helped to repurpose the device for use by the CCP. By measuring the mass of cargo bags 

planned for return on SpaceX-21, the Space Station Program and SpaceX 

seek to reduce uncertainties in the vehicle center of gravity that could 

cause instability during reentry for the Dragon2 vehicle.

• Presented the most current evidence for using strict 6 ̊ head-down tilt bedrest. The bedrest analog will be used to test countermeasures against SANS.

• The Multi-model Ensemble Risk Assessment (MERA) team delivered the 

latest update to the cancer risk model to the NASA space radiation operations group. The cancer risk model calculates an astronaut’s risk of cancer 

incidence and cancer mortality from exposure to the space radiation environment. As part of the transition to operations, the MERA team worked 

closely with the operations team to support the implementation of the 

new model into the operational framework.

Space Communications and Navigation

NASA’s Space Communications and Navigation (SCaN) Program is responsible 

for leading the Agency’s space communications and tracking through the management of its space communications networks, as well as developing advanced space 

communications and navigations technology. It also serves as the Agency’s representative in domestic and international fora in the areas of spectrum management; 

space communication architectures and data standards; and positioning, navigation, and timing policy. SCaN continued to lead the development of advanced 

space communication and navigation technology for the benefit of scientific 

and human exploration missions in near-Earth and deep space and commercial 

space enterprises.

NASA operates and maintains three space communication networks—the Near 

Earth Network (NEN), Deep Space Network (DSN), and Space Network (SN)—

composed of a ground network and its on-orbit Tracking and Data Relay Satellites. 

Consistent with prior years’ successes, the three space communications networks 
23National Aeronautics and Space Administration

provided approximately 252,644 tracking passes while maintaining an extremely 

high proficiency level of 99 percent or better, well above the 95 percent requirement, even during the COVID-19 pandemic. In this capacity, NASA served as a 

reliable partner to a wide range of external customers (other U.S. and international 

government agencies and commercial entities) for human exploration, robotic 

spaceflight launches, low-Earth and deep space science, and SmallSats (including 

CubeSats and NanoSats).

Astronauts and spacecraft depend on this reliable uplink and downlink of communications for the delivery of commands and essential crew instructions, as well 

as the retrieval of health and safety information and science data, to individual 

mission control centers. During FY 2020, SCaN networks provided 24/7 global 

near-Earth and deep space communication and navigation (C&N) services to 

more than 100 NASA programs and other U.S. Government, international civil 

space agencies, and commercial missions, including human spaceflight C&N 

requirements of the ISS. Several of these missions have more than one spacecraft, 

although these are counted as a single mission. Also, several missions are supported 

by more than one of the three networks; these are also counted as single missions. 

The networks provided launch and early-orbit telemetry, tracking, and communication services to more than 15 Expendable Launch Vehicles (ELVs) in FY 2020.

The SN began working transition activities with customers in preparation for 

the completion of the Space Network Ground Segment Sustainment (SGSS) project. Activities included support to SGSS for project integration, testing, deployment, training, and transition to operations. After a five-month stand-down of 

on-site work at WSTF due to COVID-19, SGSS finished FY 2020 targeting SN 

Initial Operations Capability in the first half of FY 2021. SCaN’s DSN Aperture 

Enhancement Project continued the addition of two 34-meter antennas at the 

Madrid Deep Space Communications Complex in Spain, which will increase the 

DSN’s capacity to support future human spaceflight and robotics missions. One 

34-meter antenna was transferred to site personnel for maintenance activities and 

initiated Project Interface Testing (PIT) in September 2020 with successful delivery 

to operations on January 22, 2021.

To advance private-sector entrepreneurial space activities, the networks continue to make technical and programmatic progress to mature commercial space 
24Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

capabilities with the reorganization of the networks. At the end of FY 2020, the 

Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) NEN and SN initiated plans to reorganize to 

better align with SCaN’s commercialization plans. Plans call for government assets 

to be operated and maintained by the Advanced Communications Capabilities for 

Exploration and Science Systems (ACCESS) project and the Near Space Network 

(NSN) to serve as the network that will provide Earth proximity communication 

services. The NSN is to provide these services via commercial and government 

ACCESS providers.

NASA continued its leading role in coordinating the development of international space communication architectures and standards, which enable cross 

support and interoperability of systems. This translates into reduced risk for 

missions and hundreds of millions of dollars in savings over a decade for NASA 

without reducing services and coverage for space missions. SCaN’s Data Standards 

Manager served as the chairman of the Management Council for the Consultative 

Committee for Space Data Systems (CCSDS), an international organization of 11 

spacefaring nations chartered in 1982 to develop standards to solve common problems in the development and operation of space data systems. The CCSDS works 

closely with the Interagency Operations Advisory Group (IOAG) to ensure that 

standards are developed in coordination with Agency architecture plans and are 

responsive to Agency space missions. The IOAG is recognized as the international 

advisory body responsible for the coordination of cross support and interoperability 

for space communications and cooperates across the various international exploration fora focused on the coordination of future missions. As NASA’s representative 

to the IOAG, SCAN engaged in key discussions and studies related to interoperability and cross support for future Moon and Mars missions, mission operations, 

optical communications, space internetworking, and other key issues. The IOAG 

takes guidance from the Interoperability Plenary (IOP), which includes representation from the senior leadership of the IOAG agencies. The IOP met in December 

2018 to review the progress of the IOAG since the last IOP meeting three years 

prior and to provide guidance for the coming years. Among other issues, the IOP 

directed the IOAG to engage with industry to develop coordination on deep space 

communication architectures and related communication standards. In response 

to the IOP, the IOAG began this coordination with an industry workshop held in 
25National Aeronautics and Space Administration

September 2019, in connection with its annual meeting held in Cornwall, England, 

hosted by the United Kingdom Space Agency. SCaN serves as the Executive 

Secretariat for the IOAG and continues to coordinate quarterly teleconferences.

SCaN’s advancements in optical communications in FY 2020 have positioned 

the program to complete critical components of the architecture in the near term. 

The Deep Space Atomic Clock (DSAC) was launched on the Orbital Test Bed 

spacecraft on June 25, 2019, and will revolutionize navigation in deep space. With 

the DSAC onboard, a spacecraft traveling beyond Earth orbit will need only a 

one-way signal from Earth to navigate autonomously, which will free up valuable 

time on SCaN’s DSN. DSAC also has a high degree of clock stability, meaning it 

can maintain its accuracy over years. 

The Laser Communication Relay Demonstration (LCRD) passed Mission 

Operations Review in May 2020 and was launched on December 7, 2021. LCRD 

will be NASA’s first long-period optical communications project that will demonstrate benefits for both deep space and near-Earth missions from geosynchronous 

orbit. LCRD will also validate that advanced relay operations are possible and 

could be used for future relays, like at the Moon and Mars. As part of the optical 

communications architecture, SCaN also completed a system critical design review 

for the Integrated LCRD Low-Earth Orbit User Modem and Amplifier Terminal, 

which will be onboard the ISS and communicate directly with LCRD. 

Optical communications enabling NASA’s Artemis mission to the Moon by 

2024 and on to Mars is closer to realization, thanks to leadership and guidance 

provided by SCaN within the Consultative Committee for Space Data Standards 

(CCSDS). This international consortium of the world’s major space agencies and 

commercial partners, whose management council is chaired by SCaN, recently 

released its first two industry standards for interoperable, free-space optical communications. Commonly known in the spacefaring community as Blue Books, the 

CCSDS Recommended Standards publications establish comprehensive technology standards for the international space community. These include highly detailed 

specifications for the manufacture and use of interfaces, technical capabilities and 

protocols, and other controlling standards such as encoding regimes. These publications are the culmination of a multiyear standardization effort in CCSDS, with 

active participation from NASA, ESA, Centre national d’études spatiales (CNES), 
26Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

German Aerospace Center (DLR), JAXA, and others. The standard is designed for 

photon-starved free space optical communications, as occurs for missions to deep 

space, the Moon, and low-power Earth-orbiting missions. Initial missions using the 

standards will include Deep Space Optical Communications and Optical Comm 

on Orion, with a planned ESA mission as well.

SCaN continued to serve as the Agency’s spectrum manager, with responsibility 

for representing NASA’s spectrum interests and negotiating on its behalf with the 

White House, Congress, relevant Government agencies and national regulators, 

and interagency partners in the determination of spectrum allocations. As part 

of the U.S. delegation, SCaN participated in the World Radiocommunication 

Conference (WRC)-19, concluding in November 2019. WRC-19 set protection 

levels for science and weather systems operating in the 24-GHz band that balanced the needs of both the scientific and the commercial uses of the spectrum. 

The adopted regulations support the acquisition of data used for weather prediction, science, and public safety while also allowing development and deployment 

of 5G technologies. The U.S. regulators have expressed commitment to resolving 

any reported interference regardless of the point in time the interference occurs. 

NASA has initiated efforts to monitor any potential impact of 5G systems and is 

committed to working with regulators and industry to facilitate sharing.

SCaN continued leading NASA’s efforts in U.S. interagency and international 

Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT) policy management. Since 2007, it 

has sponsored the National Space-Based PNT Advisory Board, an independent 

Federal Advisory Committee Act (FACA) board, and, as Executive Director, 

coordinated its biannual sessions. Its success led to the NASA Administrator’s 

2019 appointment of SCaN as Executive Secretary of the National Space Council 

UAG, another FACA board. The UAG held its fifth meeting in July 2020, where 

it approved four key recommendations and identified critical areas for cooperation with the PNT Advisory Board in protecting Global Positioning System (GPS) 

space users from harmful interference. NASA continued assisting the USAF 

with the implementation of GPS Block IIIF, the next batch of 22 GPS satellites, 

to protect and improve GPS capabilities to support space users. Efforts include 

1)  preserving current navigation capabilities within the Space Service Volume 

(SSV), the region of space between LEO and Geosynchronous Orbit (GEO); 
27National Aeronautics and Space Administration

2) implementing Laser Retro-reflector Arrays to enable high-precision measurements; and 3) implementing Canadian-furnished GPS Search and Rescue (GPS 

SAR) payloads. NASA continued working with foreign Global Navigation Satellite 

System (GNSS) service providers to develop an Interoperable Multi-GNSS SSV 

that will expand the PNT capabilities beyond what any one GNSS can provide on 

its own. NASA began work on a second edition of “The Interoperable GNSS SSV” 

booklet for release in 2020–2021, which further improves the analyses and expands 

the scope beyond GEO altitude and into lunar space. Other efforts include the 

development of the international GNSS-based Medium Earth Orbit Search and 

Rescue, of which GPS SAR is the U.S. contribution, to locate emergency beacons. 

Space Life and Physical Sciences Research and Applications 

Space Life and Physical Sciences Research and Applications was reorganized 

in July 2020. The HRP was transitioned into the Human Spaceflight Capabilities 

(HSC) office within the HEOMD, while Biological and Physical Sciences was 

moved into the Science Mission Directorate and established as a new division, the 

Biological and Physical Sciences Division.

Biological and Physical Sciences 

Biological and Physical Sciences (BPS) at NASA continues its strategy to explicitly align research on two primary thrusts, enabling exploration and pioneering 

scientific discovery. This structure is in keeping with the framework for research 

prioritization recommended by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, 

and Medicine in their 2011 Decadal Survey for Life and Physical Sciences Research 

at NASA and reaffirmed in their midterm assessment report, released in 2018.

Cold Atom Lab

The Cold Atom Lab (CAL), operating aboard the ISS, had an exceptional year 

in 2020, despite challenging external circumstances, including the necessity, due to 

COVID-19, to command the facility from CAL team members’ homes. Highlights 

included the completion of the first science phase with the initial science module, 

which is the part of the hardware that generates and contains the Bose-Einstein 
28Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

condensates. Also, the project upgraded to a new science module, which added 

the capability of utilizing atom interferometry. CAL investigators published preliminary results in an issue of the science journal Nature, which featured CAL on 

the cover.

Following the successful astronaut integration of the new science module, the 

project team conducted the first demonstration and use of an atom interferometer 

in orbit, whereby an atomic wave packet is split into two spatially separated packets 

and then recombined, producing an interference pattern. Such atom interferometers form the basis of a new generation of exquisitely precise quantum sensors. 

These sensors are particularly well suited for space applications due to the long 

interrogation times available in free fall because sensitivity typically increases as 

the square of this interrogation time. Subsequent measurements conducted by the 

team demonstrated the utility of atom interferometry for measurements of magnetic fields and of the recoil an atom experiences when it emits a photon.

These results herald a future in which space-based quantum sensors become a 

widely used tool for scientists wishing to explore the universe. Applications range 

from tests of general relativity and searches for dark matter and gravitational waves 

to spacecraft navigation and prospecting for subsurface minerals on the Moon and 

other planetary bodies. Indeed, the team pursued measurements in many of these 

areas over the course of 2021.

Beyond long interrogation times, CAL is significant for atomic physics because 

the lack of gravity allows investigators to use vastly weaker traps, as atoms do not 

need to be supported against gravity. This perturbs the system less and allows 

investigations of physics that cannot be studied any other way. One of the most 

significant examples came from the first science phase, where one of the Principal 

Investigators was able to create a Bose-Einstein condensate in a novel trap shaped 

like a bubble. Due to gravity, atoms would fall to the bottom of a trap on Earth and 

researchers could not form a condensate with that shape. Studying the behavior of 

quantum gases in this novel topology may give new insights into the structure of 

neutron stars, which have been theorized to support condensate shells.

Other experimenters this year have worked on perfecting methods to cool and 

manipulate atoms in microgravity, either by expanding the atoms into very weak 

traps or by using a technique called delta-kick cooling, which can be thought of as 
29National Aeronautics and Space Administration

something of a “magnetic freeze ray” for atoms. Delta-kick cooling chilled atoms 

in one direction to temperatures well below 100 pico-Kelvin above absolute zero.

Due to the significant contributions of CAL to atomic and molecular physics, 

as well as its promise as a pathfinder in establishing a future of quantum science in 

space, the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics awarded CAL the 

prestigious Space Science Award in 2020. 

Burn Rate Emulator

ISS experiments obtained unique data focused on fire prevention, especially in 

spacecraft. Data obtained from a flat burner fed by gaseous fuel provided information on both gaseous and solid material flammability, flame ignition, and extinction. Test results are applicable to both partial- and microgravity environments, 

and data on gaseous combustion limits can be applied to both gases and solid 

materials such as paper and plastic. 

Structure and Response of Spherical Diffusion Flames

Another ISS combustion experiment obtained data on chemical kinetics associated with combustion. To study chemical kinetics, researchers use simplified flame 

configurations—gas jet, flat-flame, static and flow reactors—where the flows are 

slower, and the flames are near the extinction limit. In terrestrial laboratories, 

these flames are dominated by buoyancy, so we can only study the chemical kinetics with high accuracy in microgravity.

This information is useful terrestrially in computational simulations to increase 

burning efficiency and reduce pollution. Because the majority of energy use in the 

U.S. economy is still produced by combustion, such as to drive electrical power 

plant boilers or for transportation in internal combustion engines, this information 

has the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions via more efficient fuel use, as 

well as reduce harmful particulate pollution.

Packed Bed Reactor Experiment

Both terrestrial and space-based chemical flow equipment utilize cylinders filled 

with small spheres coated with either reactants or catalysts. Known as packed bed 

reactors, on Earth they form the working heart of chemical reactors and scrubbers. 
30Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

In the microgravity environment, they have been used in hardware such as the 

Volatile Removal Assembly, which converts wastewater to potable water on the 

Space Station, and the intravenous fluid generation hardware that used ISS water 

to produce normal saline that meets all requirements for medical use.

In spite of those successes, engineers do not have a detailed understanding of 

how fluid flows through these systems in microgravity, so space-based systems generally rely on engineering judgment. As a result, NASA conducted the Packed Bed 

Reactor Experiment-2 (PBRE-2) to validate equations that can be used to design 

these reactors for reliable and optimal performance in partial- and microgravity 

conditions. Specific quantities measured in over 1,300 runs included flow pattern 

transitions between bubbly and pulsed flow, pressure drops, and mass transfer rates. 

These tests used 2-mm-diameter beads as opposed to the 3-mm-diameter beads 

that were previously used in the first PBRE. The smaller spheres may have trapped 

gas pockets within the bed, thus not providing fluid access to the entire bed and 

degrading filter performance.

Electrostatic Levitation Furnace/Electromagnetic Levitation Furnace 

U.S.-funded investigations on the ISS to characterize material properties continued in FY 2020 in ESA’s Electromagnetic Levitation facility and started in 

JAXA Electrostatic Levitation Furnace facility. Performing electromagnetic and 

electrostatic levitation in the microgravity environment of the ISS provides an 

opportunity for better understanding the physical properties of metals and bulk 

metallic glasses.

Levitation provides the opportunity to perform “containerless” experiments that 

eliminate the interactions between a sample and the container wall. While levitation experiments can be conducted on Earth, the microgravity environment provides more accurate data because it removes sedimentation effects as the samples 

are melted and solidified.

Levitation experiments in FY 2020 provided data for 1) better manufacturing of cast superalloy components to improve efficiency, safety, and reliability of 

rocket and jet engines; 2) understanding the ability of metallic liquids to form 

bulk metallic glasses, which are an emerging class of materials with several applications, including cryogenic gears for planetary exploration; 3) investigating 
31National Aeronautics and Space Administration

thermophysical properties of high-temperature materials to allow more efficient 

and reliable production of metallic parts using these alloys; and 4) understanding 

and controlling the sources of thermophysical properties measurement error and 

providing a baseline dataset for quantifying uncertainty in measurements.

Gravitational Effects on Distortion in Sintering

Liquid phase sintering, a process to shape or form solid materials, it is a manufacturing mainstay for fabricating a wide array of products such as metal-cutting 

tools, automotive engine connecting rods, and self-lubricating bearings. Future 

applications of liquid phase sintering may include in-space fabrication and repair, 

as well as using lunar regolith as a feedstock to fabricate structures on the Moon 

or using sintered metal powder to fabricate replacement components during 

extraterrestrial exploration.

There is considerable experience with liquid phase sintering on Earth in 1 g, 

but the behavior under reduced gravity conditions is not well understood. To that 

end, the BPS-sponsored Gravitational Effects on Distortion in Sintering (GEDS) 

investigation focuses on determining the underlying scientific principles to forecast 

density, size, shape, and properties for liquid phase sintered bodies over a broad 

range of compositions in microgravity conditions. Processing of the GEDS experiment was completed on the ISS in FY 2020, with the investigation team analyzing 

the samples in FY 2021.

Fundamental Physics

Research community–based Science Definition Teams evaluating a variety of 

potential fundamental physics missions reported on their first-year assessment of 

science objectives, science requirements, and mission concepts in 2020. Detailed 

reports were delivered to NASA in the following research areas:

• Fundamental physics with Optical Clock Orbiting in Space, with a target 

precision of one part in 1,018;

• Deep Space Quantum Link, for fundamental research into quantum 

entanglement over light-second Earth–Moon distances; and

• Dust Research Experiments at the Moon, for studying fundamental interactions between dust, charge, and plasma effects on the lunar surface.
32Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

In addition, a new International Fundamental Physics Science Definition Team 

was established in FY 2020 to determine the research objective, requirements, 

and implementation concept for a COMplex PlAsma FaCiliTy (COMPACT) for 

the ISS.

Space Biofilms

Biofilm growth has been observed on both American and Russian spacecraft as 

well as on the ISS. These biofilms can sometimes jeopardize key equipment like 

spacesuits, water recycling units, radiators, and navigation windows. Biofilm formation also increases the risk of human illness and therefore needs to be understood 

to enable safe, long-duration human space missions.

The Space Biofilms investigation, a collaboration between the Physical Sciences 

and Space Biology programs, characterizes the mass, thickness, and morphology 

of biofilms that form in space by analyzing different microbial species grown on 

different materials. The investigation also aims at elucidating the biomechanical 

and transcriptomics mechanisms involved in biofilm formation in space.

New knowledge from this investigation may lead to improved methods and 

materials for controlling biofilm formation in space. The Space Biofilms investigation was conducted on the ISS in FY 2020 and the results returned to the ground 

for analysis.

Rodent Research

The Rodent Research (RR)-10 mission launched aboard SpaceX-21 to the ISS, 

and the flight study was completed in 2020. RR-10 investigates how spaceflight 

affects the cellular and molecular mechanisms of normal bone tissue regeneration. Bone tissue health depends on regenerative adult stem cells in bone marrow 

(osteoprogenitors) differentiating into mineralizing osteoblasts and balancing bone 

tissue loss due to normal wear and tear.

During spaceflight, microgravity disuse and space radiation can increase bone 

degeneration and hinder stem cell–based bone tissue regeneration, resulting in 

dramatic bone tissue loss. RR-10 aims to increase our mechanistic understanding 

of the biological processes that underlie stem cell–based bone tissue regenerative 

deficits in space. This understanding is critical to further applied research aimed at 
33National Aeronautics and Space Administration

maintaining tissue regenerative health when sending astronauts on long-duration 

space missions. The mission could uncover new ways to improve therapies for 

humans both in space and on Earth by finding candidate next-generation countermeasures and new biomarkers that may be used for diagnostic purposes.

Cell Biology 

The BioScience-04 mission is the first study to investigate the multiplication 

of nervous system stem cells in microgravity. This experiment will test whether 

these important cells from the brain and spinal cord divide faster into daughter 

cells in the microgravity environment of space. In addition, the experiment will 

allow scientists to study the cell-signaling pathways that determine cell function, 

proliferation, and differentiation.

Cell replacement therapies would greatly benefit people with neurological disorders or neurological diseases like multiple sclerosis but are not yet practical because 

no existing method generates stem cells in sufficient numbers quickly enough. This 

mission was launched aboard SpaceX-16 in November 2018 and launched again for 

further study on SpaceX-21 in December 2020, to better understand these cells, 

which are vitally important to nervous system health.

Microbial Research

Candida albicans is a common member of the human gut flora, and more than 

25 percent of the general population has the fungus in their system. For most people, it is a slight annoyance or not a problem at all, but for those with suppressed 

immune systems, a C. albicans infection can be dangerous and potentially even 

life-threatening.

Because the conditions of space weaken the immune systems of spaceflight crewmembers, they face higher risks to their health should they develop infections. 

Given that this common and potentially dangerous microbe could pose a risk to 

astronauts, it is important to gain a clearer picture for planning future spaceflights. 

The Micro-14 life science research mission will characterize changes in the growth 

of C. albicans in microgravity and allow insight into what conditions in the environment influence these changes.
34Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

This Space Biology mission, launched on Space X-21, will identify mechanistic 

pathways associated with adaptation processes that might provide diagnostic and/

or therapeutic insights for controlling and treating yeast infections both in space 

and on Earth.

Deep Space Exploration Research 

In 2020, Space Biology completed development of hardware that will send science experiments to the Moon and back to Earth as part of the Artemis I mission 

to the Moon. Plant seeds, yeast, algae, and fungi will travel in the Artemis crew 

capsule to investigate how the deep space environment, especially radiation, affects 

these specimens.

These studies are key pathfinder investigations that will provide the first data 

on how the cislunar environment impacts biology since the Apollo 17 mission, 

47 years ago. The investigations will use cutting-edge, state-of-the art science techniques, which were not available in 1972, to provide unprecedented data to characterize the physiology, genetics, and mechanisms of life in deep space. The findings 

will be used to define future experiments with the objectives of fostering human 

exploration to the Moon and Mars. Launch is currently targeted for June 2021.

Lunar Exploration Instrument

A new initiative developing a Lunar Exploration Instrument for space biology 

Applications (LEIA) began in earnest in 2020 and will provide a testbed for our 

model organisms beyond low-Earth orbit (BLEO). The project will utilize autonomous radiation-tolerant research hardware compatible with a wide range of flight 

opportunities as part of an essential pivot to keep pace with the upcoming Gateway, 

lunar, and Mars missions actively pursued by NASA and commercial partners.

The first iterations will be based on the successful BioSentinel hardware, with 

increased functionality to be added as the project progresses. A science working 

group has been assembled and is defining science requirements for hardware that 

will support future BLEO research. This group will be an active partner with the 

project and will provide guidance for hardware development for future missions as 

our knowledge evolves.
35National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Spectrum Multi-Spectral Fluorescence Imager

The Spectrum Multi-Spectral Fluorescence Imager was installed during 2020 

and is now ready for use aboard the ISS. Spectrum provides a new, valuable capability for Space Biology researchers to study the effects of microgravity on plants 

and other organisms.

Using Spectrum, scientists can identify which genes are expressed in biological cells through fluorescence imaging. Biological organisms will be grown in 

Spectrum’s environmental chamber under controlled lighting, temperature, 

humidity, and carbon dioxide levels. As these organisms grow, specific genes will 

be activated or “turned on” under microgravity conditions. These activated genes 

will produce proteins labeled with fluorescent markers. These fluorescent proteins 

can be identified using the Spectrum imaging system.

Understanding which genes are expressed in biological cells is key to understanding how biological organisms respond and adapt to the stresses of spaceflight. 

This knowledge will help future space researchers select or genetically engineer 

plants for survival in space—a critical component for food production during longduration space missions or settlements on the Moon or Mars.

Plant Research

Radishes were grown in space for the first time ever in 2020. Radishes are good 

candidate plants to grow on the ISS because they mature quickly (harvest ≤ 28 days 

after planting), their genetic and metabolic information are readily available, they 

are nutritionally desirable, and they provide a wealth of information that can be 

analyzed by biochemical, physiological, and genetic approaches. 

Knowledge from the Plant Habitat-02 study will be essential for the transition from Earth-bound cultivation of plants to growth conditions in space to 

one day support the establishment of human habitats on the Moon, Mars, and 

farther outposts.

GeneLab

The NASA GeneLab open science database (https://genelab.nasa.gov) has been 

increasingly successful in enabling scientific discovery and space exploration 

through multi-omics data mining of its 296 spaceflight datasets. By the end of 
36Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

2020, GeneLab had been the sole source for 50 scientific peer-reviewed articles 

directly linked to datasets. Thirty additional peer-reviewed articles were generated 

from gathering new knowledge on how life adapts to space through the aggregate 

analysis of multiple spaceflight omics datasets (e.g., changes in DNA content, gene 

expression, protein levels) archived in GeneLab.

At the heart of such increase are nine manuscripts, which were part of a special 

issue on space biology in the publication Cell and other Cell Press journals in 

November 2020, with 29 scientific papers and more than 200 authors worldwide. 

Many of these publications were the result of collaborative analysis done by more 

than 120 users from around the world who joined the GeneLab Analysis Working 

Groups and volunteer their expertise in bioinformatics to extract more information 

from these previously published data. 

These findings advance our understanding of key crew-health threats for longduration exploration and demonstrate the power of open science.
37National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Science Mission Directorate

NASA’s Science Mission Directorate (SMD) increases our understanding 

of Earth, the Sun, our solar system, and the universe. Through its partnerships 

with government and research organizations, academia, and industry, both in the 

United States and globally, SMD develops and utilizes space-, air-, ground-, and 

sea-based observatories to gather and analyze data that further our knowledge in 

the areas of Earth and planetary science, heliophysics, and astrophysics. 

In FY 2020, SMD operated 76 missions. These missions are hallmarks of the 

research being done across SMD’s five science divisions: Earth Science, Planetary 

Science, Heliophysics, Astrophysics, and Biological and Physical Sciences. Our 

Earth Science missions study Earth to advance scientific understanding of our 

home planet and identify and address societal challenges caused by evolving climate conditions. Planetary Science missions advance our knowledge of the origins and history of our solar system, identify the potential for life beyond our own 

planet, increase the body of knowledge necessary for humans to explore beyond 

low-Earth orbit, and assess threats to our planet from the impact of near-Earth 

objects. Heliophysics missions study the Sun and how its eruptions affect Earth 

and interplanetary space, while Astrophysics missions further our understanding 

of the universe and our place in it, including searching for other Earth-like planets 

capable of supporting life. Space biology research helps scientists understand the 

effects of microgravity on living systems, while physical science research enables 

scientists to understand the effects of microgravity on physical phenomena, such as 

fluid physics and combustion science.

SMD’s Science Activation program leverages unique science infrastructure, content, and scientific experts to engage with learners of all ages. In FY 2020, working 

with community-based institutions, such as libraries, museums, science centers, 

and planetariums, the Science Activation program continued its work through 31 

cooperative agreements, leveraging more than 220 partners in all 50 states. In 2019, 

the program was assessed by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and 

Medicine and was lauded for its outreach to underserved learners. In addition, the 

Citizen Science Initiative was launched in 2019 and is composed of 22 funded projects that harness the energies of the public and use the rigors of science, resulting 
38Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

in new discoveries. As of March 2020, there have been 43 refereed publications 

with named coauthors who are NASA citizen scientists.

In addition to these divisions, SMD is home to the Exploration Science Strategy 

and Integration Office (ESSIO), the James Webb Space Telescope Program Office, 

the Mars Sample Return Program Office, and the Joint Agency Satellite Division, 

which conducts reimbursable satellite programs with the National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). 

Earth Science

Earth is a dynamic, interconnected, living planet that continues to change, 

due to its own system processes and the impact of humans. The Earth Science 

Division uses data captured by research satellites, airborne and in situ campaigns, 

and integrative research activities to understand Earth systems. A key goal of the 

Earth Science Division is to help inform policy and decision makers for agriculture, water and food security, urban planning, disaster preparedness and response, 

transportation, climate and weather, and many other issue areas that benefit life 

on Earth. Through partnerships with other Federal agencies, academia, industry, 

research organizations, and foreign governments, the Earth Science Division seeks 

to continue to identify and make the observations necessary to understand our 

rapidly evolving planet through the coming decades. Below are several research 

and application highlights from FY 2020.

NASA, NOAA Analyses Show 2019 Is the Second Warmest Year on Record

In January 2020, independent analyses carried out by both NASA and NOAA 

found that Earth’s global surface temperatures in 2019 were the second warmest 

since modern recordkeeping began in 1880. These temperature measurements indicate that the planet’s long-term warming trend is continuing—the past five years 

have been the warmest of the last 140 years. Scientists have used climate models 

and statistical analyses of global temperature data to conclude these increases are 

mostly being driven by human activities, which have increased carbon dioxide and 

other greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere.1

1 https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-noaa-analyses-reveal-2019-second-warmest-year-on-record
39National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Cloud Processes in Western North Atlantic Ocean

From March through May 2020, NASA conducted the Aerosol Cloud meTeorology Interactions oVer the western ATlantic Experiment (ACTIVATE), an airborne 

science campaign to help improve weather and climate predictions using data collected on cloud processes over the western North Atlantic Ocean. ACTIVATE was 

the first NASA field campaign to collect such extensive data of cloud processes in 

a single region.2

Global Survey Using NASA Data Shows Growth of Glacial Lakes

In August 2020, using 30 years of NASA satellite data, researchers working 

under a grant from NASA’s High Mountain Asia Program found that the volume 

of glacial lakes worldwide has increased by approximately 50 percent since 1990 as 

glaciers melt and retreat due to climate change. Published in the journal Nature

Climate Change, these findings will help researchers better understand how glacial 

meltwater is transported to the oceans, leading to improved accuracy of sea-level 

rise estimates and better assessments of the potential hazards to communities 

downstream of these often unstable lakes.3

JASON-2/Ocean Surface Topography End of Life

The Jason-2/Ocean Surface Topography Mission (OSTM), a U.S.-European 

partnership designed to measure sea surface height, successfully ended its mission 

on October 1, 2019. The mission, which launched in 2008, extended the long-term 

record of sea surface height measurements started by the TOPEX/Poseidon and 

Jason-1 missions. Since its launch, Jason-2/OSTM recorded a nearly 2-inch global 

sea-level rise, a critical impact of climate change.4

COVID-19 Response

As the world continues to respond to the COVID-19 pandemic, NASA 

resources have provided unique vantage points in observing the environmental, 

economic, and societal impacts of the coronavirus. For example, NASA’s Ozone 

2 https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/media-invited-to-inside-look-at-nasa-marine-cloud-study

3 https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/global-survey-using-nasa-data-shows-dramatic-growth-of-glacial-lakes

4 https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/ocean-monitoring-satellite-mission-ends-after-11-successful-years
40Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

Monitoring Instrument (OMI) onboard the Aura satellite and the European Space 

Agency’s (ESA) TROPOspheric Monitoring Instrument (TROPOMI) onboard the 

Sentinel-5P satellite collected data that indicated rapidly falling nitrogen dioxide 

levels around the world as people sheltered in place. NASA also funded several 

projects evaluating the impacts of the environment on virus spread, as well as the 

impacts of the pandemic itself, specifically assessing the effect of lockdown measures on food security, fire ecology, urban surface heat, clouds and warming, air 

pollution and precipitation, water quality, and aquatic ecosystems.5,6

In addition, NASA datasets have been used to better understand how 

COVID-19 spread across the globe. The NASA Socioeconomic Data and 

Applications Center launched an interactive mapping tool that researchers have 

used to visualize global age and sex data overlain with updated COVID-19 spread 

data from The Johns Hopkins University of Medicine Coronavirus Resource 

Center. This tool is especially useful for localities that have limited access to spatial 

population data.

NASA, along with ESA and the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency, also 

collaborated on the COVID-19 Earth Observation Dashboard,7 bringing together 

current and historical satellite observations with analytical tools to create a userfriendly resource for both researchers and the general public to better understand 

the impact on the environment and socioeconomic activity caused by the global 

response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Key metrics being tracked include changes 

in air and water quality, climate, economic activity, and agriculture.8

Planetary Science

NASA’s Planetary Science Division advances scientific knowledge of our solar 

system through exploration and research. Pushing the limits of spacecraft and 

robotic engineering, the division’s portfolio of missions explores every major body 

5 https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-monitors-environmental-signals-from-global-response-to-covid-19

6 https://www.nasa.gov/feature/esd/2020/new-projects-explore-connections-between-environment-andcovid-19

7 https://eodashboard.org/

8 https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-partner-space-agencies-to-release-global-view-of-covid-19-

impacts
41National Aeronautics and Space Administration

in the solar system and many smaller ones. The data from these missions support 

research into questions that include the history and continued evolution of planets, 

moons, and small bodies (e.g., asteroids, comets); the origin of life and the potential 

for life elsewhere; and the hazards and resources present as humans explore space. 

In addition, the division’s Planetary Defense Coordination Office identifies threats 

to Earth posed by impacts of near-Earth objects. Following are seven highlights 

from FY 2020:

OSIRIS-REx Prepares to Sample Asteroid Bennu and Make History

In preparation for its October 2020 touch-and-go sample collection from the 

asteroid Bennu, the Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, 

Security, Regolith Explorer (OSIRIS-REx) conducted close flyovers of its primary 

and secondary sampling sites in FY 2020. These flyovers were critical to understanding the hazardous terrain that the spacecraft will need to navigate to collect samples. The mission also conducted two critical rehearsals of the difficult 

maneuvers that were needed to descend to the surface with an extraordinary level 

of accuracy.

Water on Europa

In November 2019, an international team led by scientists at Goddard Space 

Flight Center announced the discovery of water vapor in plumes above the surface 

of Europa. One of Jupiter’s 79 moons, Europa is an important target for exploration 

because it is theorized to have a water-rich ocean in its interior that gives it the 

potential to host life. Plumes have been observed erupting from its surface, but 

until this study, scientists did not have the ability to determine their composition. Confirmation of the presence of water vapor is further evidence in favor of 

an interior ocean and indicates a connection to Europa’s surface, which makes 

NASA’s Europa Clipper mission, launching in 2024 to investigate Europa and its 

habitability in detail, even more exciting.9

9 https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2019/nasa-scientists-confirm-water-vapor-on-europa
42Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

Comet NEOWISE Dazzles During the Summer of 2020

Comet C/2020 F3 (Comet NEOWISE) was discovered on March 27, 2020, by the 

Near-Earth Object Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (NEOWISE) mission during its survey operations to find and characterize small bodies, including asteroids 

and comets, that could pose an impact threat to Earth. Having survived its close 

passage by the Sun, Comet NEOWISE became the most visible northern-hemisphere comet to the naked eye since Comet Hale-Bopp in 1997. During the summer of 2020, it dazzled comet researchers, backyard astronomers, the public, and 

even astronauts on the International Space Station. NASA assets, including the 

Hubble Space Telescope, the Infrared Telescope Facility, Solar and Heliospheric 

Observatory (SOHO), and even the Parker Solar Probe, were used to study the 

structure and composition of Comet NEOWISE.10

Four Possible Missions to Study Secrets of the Solar System Selected for Concept 

Development

In February 2020, NASA selected four planetary science missions submitted to the 

Discovery Program for concept development. The Discovery Program is a competitive program that invites teams of scientists and engineers to design planetary science 

missions under a not-to-exceed cost-cap that further our understanding of the solar 

system and our place within it. The four selections include missions to explore Venus’ 

atmosphere; Venus’ surface; Jupiter’s moon, Io; and Neptune’s moon, Triton.11

Launch of Mars 2020 Perseverance Rover Mission

NASA’s Mars 2020 Perseverance rover launched on July 30, 2020, from Cape 

Canaveral Space Force Station in Florida. The Perseverance rover will seek out 

signs of past microscopic life on Mars, explore the geology of Jezero Crater, an 

ancient lakebed, and demonstrate key technologies that will help us prepare for 

further robotic and eventually human exploration of Mars. The rover will also 

be collecting well-documented, scientifically selected samples for potential future 

return through the Mars Sample Return Campaign. In addition to these objectives, 

10 https://www.nasa.gov/feature/jpl/comet-neowise-sizzles-as-it-slides-by-the-sun-providing-a-treat-forobservers

11 https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-four-possible-missions-to-study-the-secrets-of-the-solarsystem
43National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Perseverance also carried a technology demonstration payload—the Ingenuity 

Mars Helicopter—that will attempt up to five powered, controlled flights. This 

demonstration mission will provide information to advance future human missions 

to Mars. The mission arrived at Mars in February 2021.12

Crustal and Time-Varying Magnetic Fields at the InSight Landing Site on Mars

NASA’s Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat 

Transport (InSight) mission hosts the first magnetometer deployed to the Martian 

surface. In February 2020, scientists announced that its observations reveal a 

Martian crustal magnetic field ten times stronger than anticipated. The main 

source of the field is basement rocks estimated to be at least 3.9 billion years old 

that were likely magnetized by the ancient dynamo in the Martian core. Additional 

magnetic field variations discovered in InSight’s magnetic data appear to be linked 

with ionospheric currents in the atmosphere between 120 km and 180 km above 

the planet’s surface.13

MAVEN Spacecraft Observes Martian Atmospheric Motions in Middle Atmosphere

Images sent in August 2020 from NASA’s Mars Atmosphere and Volatile 

EvolutioN (MAVEN) spacecraft offered scientists the first insights into atmospheric motions in Mars’ middle atmosphere. These observations indicate that 

Mars’ middle atmosphere is influenced by a daily pattern of solar heating and 

impacted by the topography of Mars’ large volcanic mountains. These circulation 

patterns of atmospheric gases help scientists better understand Mars’ atmospheric 

conditions, as well as showing how atmospheric gases are transported around the 

planet and from the surface to the edge of space.14

Heliophysics

The energy from our Sun enables and sustains life on our home planet, while 

also producing radiation and magnetic energy that can impact that same life, 

12 https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-ula-launch-mars-2020-perseverance-rover-mission-to-red-planet

13 https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-020-0537-x#citeas

14 https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/goddard/2020/mars-nightglow
44Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

satellites, and planets’ atmospheres. The Heliophysics Division studies the Sun and 

how it influences the very nature of interplanetary space—and, in turn, the atmospheres of planets and the technology that exists there. Solar activity can interfere 

with satellite electronics, communications, and GPS signals, and it can also impact 

the radiation fields that spacecraft travel through to get to the Moon, Mars, and 

other planets. Included below are four highlights from FY 2020:

Launch of Mission to Study Earth’s Ionosphere

Launched in October 2019, NASA’s Ionospheric Connection Explorer embarked 

on a unique mission to study the ionosphere, a region of space where space weather 

changes can disrupt communications and satellite orbits and increase radiation 

risks to astronauts. Previously, this region was difficult to observe, as spacecraft 

cannot travel within the low parts of the ionosphere, and balloons cannot travel 

high enough.15

Initial Data from Parker Solar Probe Reveal Details of Sun’s Activities

Parker Solar Probe, which was launched in August 2018, is a first-of-its-kind 

mission to “touch” the Sun to understand how energy and heat move through the 

solar atmosphere, the corona, as well as what accelerates solar winds and energetic 

particles. Initial data results were published in December 2019, revealing details on 

how the Sun constantly ejects material and energy that can help scientists advance 

their understanding and prediction of space weather around Earth and explain 

aspects of how stars are created throughout the universe.16

Launch of Joint NASA-ESA Solar Mission

Solar Orbiter, a joint mission between ESA and NASA to study the Sun, was 

launched on February 9, 2020. The spacecraft carries six instruments to capture 

images of the Sun and its surroundings, as well as four instruments to monitor 

the environment around the spacecraft. In mid-June 2020, Solar Orbiter made its 

first close pass of the Sun, capturing the closest images of the Sun ever taken to 

that point and revealing new phenomena scientists have not been able to observe 

15 https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-spacecraft-launches-on-mission-to-explore-frontier-of-space

16 https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2019/nasas-parker-solar-probe-sheds-new-light-on-the-sun
45National Aeronautics and Space Administration

before, including “campfires,” small solar flare–type occurrences. Both agencies are 

committed to publicly sharing the data from this mission as they are transmitted, 

calibrated, and validated, with the first datasets released on September 30, 2020.17

New Space Environment Missions Selection

In August 2020, NASA selected five proposals for mission concept studies to better understand the dynamics of the Sun and the constantly changing near-Earth 

space environment. These studies include missions to expand our knowledge of 

Earth’s space weather system and its interactions with the magnetosphere, solar 

winds, the Sun’s corona, auroras, and the Sun’s poles. Investigators for the selected 

proposals are expected to conduct a nine-month mission concept study, at which 

point NASA will downselect no more than two proposals to go forward to launch.18

Astrophysics

The Astrophysics Division manages studies of the universe, seeking to better 

understand the creation and history of stars and galaxies, as well as our place 

within it. Astrophysics explores how planetary systems can form; how habitable 

environments, similar to our Earth, develop; and whether other worlds contain the 

signatures of life. Below are several significant highlights from FY 2020:

Hubble Discoveries

The Hubble Space Telescope, a revolutionary tool for modern astronomy, celebrated its 30th year in space in April 2020. Hubble has provided astronomers with 

key insights into our universe and our place in time and space. In FY 2020, Hubble 

data and images were used to make three significant discoveries:19

In October 2019, Hubble provided the best view to date of an interstellar comet 

from beyond our solar system. This discovery provides scientists with invaluable 

17 https://sci.esa.int/web/solar-orbiter/-/solar-orbiter-s-first-images-reveal-campfires-on-the-sun; https://

sci.esa.int/web/solar-orbiter/-/solar-orbiter-releases-first-data-to-the-public; https://www.nasa.gov/pressrelease/nasa-esa-to-release-first-images-from-solar-orbiter-mission

18 https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-proposals-for-new-space-environment-missions

19 https://science.nasa.gov/hubble-marks-30-years-space-tapestry-blazing-starbirth
46Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

information about the chemical composition, structure, and dust characteristics of 

planetary objects born in an unknown star system.20

That same month, scientists used Hubble data to make the most accurate measurements to date of how fast gas flows in and out of the Milky Way. Astronomers 

had previously determined that our galaxy undergoes a recycling process of galactic 

gas and had theorized there was an equilibrium of gas inflow and outflow. After 

evaluating ten years of ultraviolet data from Hubble, astronomers were able to 

determine that there is an excess of inflowing gas, the source of which remains 

a mystery. Though the Milky Way is the only galaxy for which we have a full 

accounting of gas inflow/outflow, this information can be used to better understand galaxies across the universe.21

In January 2020, astronomers, using Hubble data, found that dark matter can 

gather in clumps of smaller sizes than previously known, adding to the body of 

knowledge of the nature of dark matter. The significance of this discovery helps 

astronomers expand their understanding of fundamental physics and the nature of 

the universe.22

Pulsar Mission Expands Our Understanding of the Remains of Exploded Stars

NASA’s Neutron star Interior Composition ExploreR (NICER) is changing what 

scientists once knew about pulsars, the dense and whirling remains of exploded 

stars. In December 2019, scientists were able to use data captured by NICER to 

accurately measure both a pulsar’s size and its mass, as well as create the first-ever 

map of hot spots on its surface, integral information to understanding how pulsars 

actually work. NICER was developed to precisely determine the masses and sizes of 

several pulsars, which in turn will help scientists understand the state of matter in 

the cores of neutron stars.23

20 https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2019/hubble-observes-1st-confirmed-interstellar-comet

21 https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2019/milky-way-raids-intergalactic-bank-accounts-hubble-studyfinds

22 https://hubblesite.org/contents/news-releases/2020/news-2020-05

23 https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2019/nasa-s-nicer-delivers-best-ever-pulsar-measurements-1stsurface-map
47National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Spitzer Space Telescope End of Life

After more than 16 years of studying the universe in infrared light, NASA’s 

Spitzer Space Telescope was decommissioned in January 2020. Launched in 2003, 

Spitzer was the most sensitive infrared telescope in history and provided a deeper 

view of the infrared cosmos, studying our own solar system, as well as star and 

planet formation, the evolution of galaxies, and the composition of interstellar 

dust. Among its most significant discoveries, Spitzer detected the largest number 

of terrestrial planets ever found orbiting a single star. In addition, the telescope 

discovered a previously unidentified ring around Saturn. All of Spitzer’s data are 

publicly available, and scientists expect researchers will continue to make discoveries using these data.24

Kepler Data Used to Discover an Earth-Sized Habitable Zone Planet

In April 2020, using early Kepler space telescope data, an international team of 

researchers discovered an Earth-sized exoplanet orbiting in its star’s habitable zone, 

the area around a star where liquid water could exist on a planet. Of all the exoplanets Kepler has found, this one is the most similar to Earth in size and estimated 

temperature, leading scientists to speculate about the possibility of life as we know 

it on this or other similar planets.25

NASA Missions Find First Possible “Survivor” Planet Orbiting White Dwarf Star

In September 2020, using NASA’s Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite and 

the retired Spitzer Space Telescope, an international team of astronomers reported 

what may be the first intact planet found closely orbiting a white dwarf measuring 

only 40 percent larger than Earth. The white dwarf creation process starts when a 

Sun-like star runs out of energy, swelling to a much larger size and forming a cooler 

red giant star. Over time, this red giant ejects its outer layers of gas, losing up to 

80 percent of its mass, with the remaining hot core becoming a white dwarf. This 

process typically leads to any nearby objects being engulfed and incinerated. This 

24 https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-s-spitzer-space-telescope-ends-mission-of-astronomical-discovery

25 https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/earth-size-habitable-zone-planet-found-hidden-in-early-nasa-keplerdata
48Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

discovery provides a target for the James Webb Space Telescope, which will have a 

capability to detect water and carbon dioxide on distant planets.26

Roman Space Telescope Reaches Key Development Milestone

The Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope (Roman) reached a development 

milestone in September 2020 with the completion of its primary mirror, which will 

be used to collect and focus light from cosmic objects in space. This mirror will 

allow Roman to capture images in space with a field of view 100 times greater than 

that of the Hubble Space Telescope but with the same sensitivity and image quality. The telescope will help astronomers better understand dark energy, exoplanets, 

and infrared astrophysics, and it is expected to launch in the mid-2020s.27

Biological and Physical Sciences

The Biological and Physical Sciences Division (BPSD) moved to the Science 

Mission Directorate in July 2020 from its previous home in the Human Exploration 

and Operations Mission Directorate. The division has a twofold mission: 1) to better understand how spaceflight affects living systems and prepare for future human 

exploration missions beyond low-Earth orbit and 2) to advance our understanding 

of physical phenomena in the microgravity environment and underlying space 

exploration technologies, such as power generation and storage, space propulsion, 

life-support systems, and environmental monitoring and control. BPSD’s Space 

Biology research is focused on animal biology; cell and molecular biology; microbiology; plant biology; and developmental, reproductive, and evolutionary biology. 

Physical science research is focused on biophysics, combustion science, complex 

fluids, fluids physics, fundamental physics, and materials science.

In FY 2020, more than a dozen experiments focused on space biology and physical sciences were launched to the International Space Station onboard commercial 

vehicles, as a part of NASA’s Commercial Resupply missions. These experiments 

are integral to understanding the microgravity environment and identifying ways 

26 https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-missions-spy-first-possible-survivor-planet-hugging-white-dwarfstar

27 https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2020/primary-mirror-for-nasas-roman-space-telescope-completed
49National Aeronautics and Space Administration

in which living organisms—plants, animals, and humans—can thrive in spaceflight conditions.28

More information about specific experiments and projects can be found in the 

Human Exploration and Operations Mission Directorate section of this report.

Exploration Science Strategy and Integration Office

In March 2020, the Exploration Science Strategy and Integration Office 

(ESSIO) was created within SMD to help develop and implement a strategy to 

enable robotic and human exploration of the Moon and beyond. In this capacity, 

ESSIO manages the Lunar Discovery and Exploration Program (LDEP) and the 

Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) initiative, both of which work toward 

strategically integrating our science and exploration goals. NASA’s CLPS initiative 

leverages commercial capabilities and technology to deliver scientific instruments 

and technology demonstration missions to the Moon. 

In FY 2020, ESSIO focused its efforts on seeking proposals for demonstration 

missions and awarding contracts to commercial partners for payload delivery services to the Moon, ahead of human exploration of the lunar surface. In April 

2020, NASA published an RFI to gather ideas for potential scientific, exploration, and technology demonstration missions to the Moon through NASA’s CLPS 

initiative29 and received 238 responses from the broad lunar community. Through 

FY 2020, NASA selected three U.S. companies to deliver a total of 24 instruments 

to the lunar surface. These payloads will begin to answer priority scientific questions about planetary science, buy down risk associated with human expeditions 

to the Moon and demonstrate new technologies required for science and space 

exploration activities.30

28 https://www.nasa.gov/feature/slpsra-northrup-grumman-crs-ng-12-experiments-and-payloads; https://

www.nasa.gov/feature/space-life-and-physical-sciences-research-and-applications-mission-payloads-forspacex-19; https://www.nasa.gov/feature/space-life-and-physical-sciences-research-and-applicationsnorthrop-grumman-crs-13; and https://science.nasa.gov/news-article/space-life-and-physical-sciencesresearch-and-applications-spacex-20-experiments-and-payloads

29 https://science.nasa.gov/news-article/request-for-information-payloads-and-research-investigations-on-thesurface-of-the-moon

30 https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-contract-to-deliver-science-tech-to-moon-ahead-ofhuman-missions
50Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

Finally, in June 2020, NASA selected Astrobotic to deliver the Volatiles 

Investigating Polar Exploration Rover (VIPER) to one of the Moon’s poles in late 

2024. Astrobotic will deploy its Griffin Lander to deliver VIPER in order to collect 

data, including the location and concentration of ice, that will be used to inform 

a water resource map of the Moon, a first-of-its-kind effort. This data will also be 

used to identify potential landing sites for future human exploration of the Moon.31

James Webb Telescope Program Office

The James Webb Space Telescope (Webb) achieved two significant development milestones in FY 2020. In October 2019, Webb passed a critical deployment 

test milestone in preparing for its 2021 launch. Engineers and technicians fully 

deployed and tensioned each of the sunshield’s five layers, putting the sunshield in 

the same position it will be in once in space. This was the first time the sunshield 

was deployed and tensioned by the spacecraft electronics and with the telescope 

positioned above it, indicating that the telescope and sunshield are interacting as 

designed and expected.32

In March 2020, Webb fully deployed its primary mirror into the same position it 

will occupy in space, another integral milestone in final tests to prepare the observatory for its launch in 2021. This was the first of two deployment tests for the 

primary mirror, demonstrating that the spacecraft internal systems can command 

the telescope to fully extend and latch the primary mirror.33 Webb launched in 2021. 

Joint Agency Satellite Division

The Joint Agency Satellite Division, together with NOAA, manages the development and launch of reimbursable satellite programs, projects, and instruments. 

More information about these satellite programs can be found in the Department 

of Commerce chapter of this report.

31 https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-astrobotic-to-fly-water-hunting-rover-to-the-moon

32 https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2019/nasa-s-james-webb-space-telescope-clears-critical-sunshielddeployment-testing

33 https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2020/nasa-s-james-webb-space-telescope-full-mirror-deploymenta-success
51National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate 

NASA’s Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate (ARMD) personnel 

remained diligent and worked creatively during FY 2020, even while addressing the 

challenges and limitations of a global pandemic that impeded growth in the industry. Despite the hurdles, NASA Aeronautics persevered to accomplish its mission 

to explore advances in atmospheric flight. As shown by the work in 2020, ARMD 

continued to create solutions for an evolving industry that will lead to more lucrative economic growth and ensure the skies above the United States remain the 

safest and most advanced in the world.

With a wide-ranging research portfolio informed by a comprehensive Strategic 

Implementation Plan aimed at transforming aviation for the 21st century, NASA’s 

flight team during FY 2020 focused on goals in four broad areas requiring scientific 

and engineering investigations:

• Enabling a new market in commercial supersonic air travel over land 

with the help of data gathered by the X-59 Quiet SuperSonic Technology 

(QueSST) airplane, which was under construction during 2020. 

• Leading industry in developing the technology and systems to safely and 

responsibly improve the efficiency of the National Airspace System for 

existing commercial aviation users as well as new users such as Advanced 

Air Mobility (AAM) drones and other new aircraft to conduct missions 

including emergency response, civic resource management, package delivery, and passenger transportation.

• Ushering in the next generation of passenger-carrying aircraft with novel 

innovation in four main focuses: electrified aircraft propulsion, small-core 

gas turbines, transonic truss-braced wings, and composite manufacture 

at a high rate. The Electric Powertrain Flight Demonstration project was 

stood up during the past fiscal year to support research toward some of 

these goals, and progress was made demonstrating integration of more 

environmentally friendly technology on an all-electric general aviation–

sized airplane, the X-57 Maxwell. 
52Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

• Advancing innovation throughout government, industry, and academia, 

and growing the future aerospace workforce through university research 

and exploration of disruptive technologies.

In pursuing these goals and many others, NASA’s team of experts joined their 

talents in partnership with aviation experts and organizations within government, 

industry, and academia.

Quiet Supersonic Flight Over Land

Project teams during 2020 made steady progress with the Low-Boom Flight 

Demonstration mission, which seeks to enable the possibility of boarding a commercial supersonic airliner and flying across the United States twice as fast as a 

traditional jetliner. To support this goal, NASA is building the X-59 airplane, 

whose unique appearance and technology are designed to turn loud sonic booms 

associated with faster-than-sound flight into barely noticeable sonic thumps. The 

X-59 will be flown above select U.S. communities to measure public response to 

its noise. The resulting data and statistics will be presented to regulators, who will 

then consider lifting the ban on supersonic flight over land that has been in place 

since 1973.

During 2020, assembly of NASA’s X-59 QueSST aircraft made great strides at 

Lockheed Martin Aeronautics Company in Palmdale, California. Significant work 

was completed on its wings, cockpit, and other hardware. In addition, NASA 

received delivery of the F414-GE-100 engine for installation into the X-59.

As progress in construction of the X-59 continued, NASA engineers designed 

new systems to support the pilot’s ability to fly the aircraft with limited forward 

visibility. The solution: the eXternal Vision System (XVS), which provides live 

camera views overlaid with flight simulator–like graphics. After successful in-flight 

tests, researchers tested the structural integrity of the XVS through a series of 

vibration tests.34

34 More information is available online at https://www.nasa.gov/X59; https://www.nasa.gov/feature/

nasa-takes-delivery-of-ge-jet-engine-for-x-59/; https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/nasa-marks-continuedprogress-on-x-59; https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/nasas-supersonic-x-59-assembly-team-marks-wingmilestone; and https://www.nasa.gov/feature/langley/shaking-things-up-for-the-x-59-aircraft/.
53National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Advanced Air Mobility 

As more emerging entrants, both commercial and recreational, continue 

to fill the skies and dominate discussions about the future of aviation, NASA 

Aeronautics in 2020 continued to lead the Nation in the area of Advanced Air 

Mobility (AAM) and has continued to prioritize the goal of laying the foundation 

for a safe, reliable, and intelligent National Airspace System in the future.

This leadership role took many forms in 2020, including offering an open invitation for public, private, and academic organizations to collaborate with NASA as 

members of the AAM Ecosystem Working Groups. The primary purpose of the 

working groups is to share input, information, and opinions that may help to accelerate the development of safe, high-volume AAM flight operations in the existing 

and anticipated future national airspace system.

A NASA patent for traffic management of Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) 

vehicles was awarded the 2020 Government Invention of the Year. This technology, called “Unmanned Aerial System Traffic Management to Enable Civilian Low 

Altitude Goods and Service Delivery by UAS,” allows unmanned aerial systems to 

maintain safe and efficient operations for the delivery of goods and services.

NASA researchers conducted Unmanned Aircraft Systems flight tests of drone 

aircraft at Moffett Field at NASA’s Ames Research Center (Ames) in California. 

The purpose of the tests was to investigate the feasibility of a concept called TimeBased Conformance Monitoring. Conformance monitoring is an important task of 

air traffic controllers or traffic management services that will be implemented in 

the future to ensure aircraft are adhering to their assigned flight trajectories. 

NASA’s team at the Airspace Operations Laboratory at Ames developed augmented reality software to make useful information about all kinds of vehicles 

in our skies, like drones, more widely available to those who need it. Whether 

for emergency response or managing air traffic, visualizing complex data through 

augmented reality makes it easier for people on the ground to be aware of the 

operations of the uncrewed vehicles that will increasingly populate our skies.35

35 More information is available online at https://nari.arc.nasa.gov/aam-portal/; https://www.nasa.

gov/uam/; https://www.nasa.gov/ames/utm/; https://www.nasa.gov/feature/utm-awarded-2020-nasagovernment-invention-of-the-year/; and https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/augmented-reality-air-trafficmanagement.
54Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

Electrified Aircraft Propulsion 

With global interest in reducing aviation’s impact on the environment, NASA 

Aeronautics in 2020 contributed to understanding potential solutions with a 

research focus on developing technologies and systems that could be incorporated 

into future airplanes whose propulsion is powered by electricity. One key element 

of this research was centered on the X-57 Maxwell, which is designed to be NASA’s 

first all-electric X-plane.

Significant progress was made in preparation for the X-57. NASA completed 

tasks for the X-57’s functional ground testing, working toward taxi testing and first 

flight. Assembly and qualification tests began on two critical components: the 

electric cruise motors, which will power the X-57 in flight, and the future highaspect-ratio wing that will fly on the aircraft in the X-57’s final configuration. 

Advanced designs that will propel the X-57 underwent wind tunnel testing at 

NASA’s Langley Research Center (Langley) in Virginia. These tests, which took 

place in the Langley Low-Speed Aeroacoustic Wind Tunnel over the course of two 

weeks, were conducted to gather valuable operational and performance data for 

flight conditions. These X-57 tests advanced NASA’s effort to help set certification 

standards for electric aircraft of the future. NASA’s primary goal for the X-57 is 

to share the electric-propulsion design, lessons learned, and airworthiness process 

with regulators as new electric aircraft markets begin to emerge. Knowledge gained 

from the X-57 already is being used by manufacturers of electric vehicles that will 

likely be used in an urban air mobility environment.36

Additional Highlights from NASA ARMD’s Programs

Advanced Air Vehicles Program

NASA research projects for gathering data on aircraft noise and testing an 

air traffic management digital communications tool flew aboard a Boeing 787 as 

part of the company’s 2020 ecoDemonstrator program. Results from these flights 

36 More information is available online at https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/programs_projects/

electric_propulsion/index.html; https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/features/Progress-on-X-57-

Cruise-Motors-and-Wing.html; and https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/all-electric-x-57-propellerdesigns-undergo-wind-tunnel-tests/.
55National Aeronautics and Space Administration

will help continuing development of technology to enable future aircraft designs 

and flight operations that will be quieter and more fuel efficient and will result in 

fewer delays.37

Flying farther, faster, and with less fuel—these are among possible benefits of a 

major collaborative project that had its final review at the beginning of FY 2020. 

For the past five years, NASA partnered with academia, industry, and other government agencies to research advanced composite materials used in aerospace 

construction. Their focus was on reducing the time it takes to develop and certify 

composite materials and structures.38

Aeronautical innovators at Ames assisted with the Mars helicopter Ingenuity. 

Some of the significant technical challenges to overcome were ensuring the vehicle 

could perform a controlled takeoff in the thin Martian atmosphere and designing 

the vehicle to survive bitterly cold Martian nights and to operate largely on its own 

since direct pilot control is not possible.39

Airspace Operations and Safety Program

Under a partnership taking Urban Air Mobility (UAM) forward, researchers 

from Uber and Ames ran tests focused on identifying the kinds of data and information necessary for UAM, where multiple operators of sometimes passenger-sized 

vehicles will need to fly safely together in the airspace. The teams at Ames and 

Uber connected their computer systems and ran through different scenarios that 

UAM operators could encounter. NASA intends to collaborate with many partners 

and ensure airspace operations will meet the needs of multiple use cases and be 

interoperable with the Federal Aviation Administration’s (FAA’s) systems.40

Two industry partners signed information exchange agreements with NASA 

during 2020 that will establish mutually beneficial relationships to accelerate AAM 

operations as part of NASA’s AAM National Campaign. Both partners now join 

other industry partners to prepare for the first campaign beginning in 2022 with 

37 https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/nasa-partners-with-boeing-on-test-flights-to-advance-aviation

38 https://www.nasa.gov/feature/langley/five-year-study-of-advanced-composites-enters-final-review

39 https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/nasa-aeronautics-experts-help-prepare-ingenuity-to-fly-on-mars

40 https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/nasa-and-uber-test-system-for-future-urban-air-transport
56Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

intent to assess operational safety scenarios focused on their respective automation 

and vehicle designs.41

The Airspace Technology Demonstration 2 (ATD-2) project focused on enabling 

the coordination of schedules by those who manage the movement of aircraft from 

an airport gate to a spot in the sky after taking off, where the airplanes can safely 

join with the overhead traffic. By more reliably predicting and scheduling an aircraft’s pushback time to begin taxiing to the runway, traffic could be managed in 

a way that flights can take off without pausing to sit on a taxiway. In a partnership with American Airlines and Charlotte-Douglas International Airport, testing 

has shown that the extra time at the gate for those aircraft involved has run just 

shy of six minutes—time they would have spent waiting on a taxiway burning 

fuel and passengers’ patience, as well as releasing emissions. So far, NASA has 

transferred to the FAA two of three planned packages of knowledge and technology from ATD-2’s three phases for the FAA’s continued evaluation, certification, 

and deployment.42

At Langley, engineers laid the foundation for safe autonomous flight through 

a project called Pathfinder. Pathfinder takes the ideas from separate UAS Traffic 

Management projects and combines them into a single autonomous vehicle that 

communicates with other autonomous vehicles in the airspace during flight. 

Combined, these systems will decrease the risk of a drone flying near manned 

aircraft and over any people below. These projects and technologies are critical to 

decreasing risk while enabling UAS to have access to the national airspace system.43

The Fatigue Countermeasures Lab at Ames studied the way fatigue affects 

people with complex tasks to perform. The realms for these tasks can be as diverse 

as aviation and spaceflight, NASA space mission operations, military settings, and 

the operation of self-driving cars. By learning how sleep, alertness, and circadian 

rhythms interact, the lab team explored solutions to help people manage fatigue 

and do their jobs safely.44

41 https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/features/two-industry-partners-join-advanced-air-mobilityproject.html

42 https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-showcases-benefits-of-air-traffic-management-tools

43 https://www.nasa.gov/feature/langley/blazing-the-trail-of-urban-traffic-management/

44 https://www.nasa.gov/ames/fatigue-countermeasures
57National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Integrated Aviation Systems Program

NASA’s Unmanned Aircraft Systems Integration in the National Airspace 

System (UAS in the NAS) project concluded in September 2020 after nine years 

of successful work. The project identified, developed, and tested technologies and 

procedures to help make it possible for UAS to have routine access to the National 

Airspace System. In 2020, the Systems Integration and Operationalization demonstration activity completed two demonstrations under the UAS NAS project.45

Transformative Aeronautics Concepts Program 

As part of the University Leadership Initiative, NASA selected five teams led by 

university faculty and students to examine a range of technical areas in support of 

the Agency’s aeronautics research goals and strategic research thrusts. During the 

next four years, the project will provide a total of $38.2 million to the selected five 

teams led by the following universities: North Carolina Agricultural & Technical 

State University, Oklahoma State University, Stanford University, the University 

of Delaware, and the University of South Carolina.46

NASA researchers across the country worked together with aerogels to develop 

a conformal antenna under the Conformal Lightweight Antenna Structures for 

Aeronautical Communications Technologies activity within the Convergent 

Aeronautics Solutions project. The team successfully completed five flight tests 

with four antenna configurations in a variety of flight altitudes, and the research 

outcomes and lessons learned have been documented to support aeronautics as 

more companies introduce their UAS.47

NASA’s aeronautical innovators invited university students to propose new 

research ideas that could help them solve some of the biggest technical challenges 

facing 21st-century aviation. Under the University Student Research Challenge 

(USRC), selected student teams were eligible to receive a grant from NASA worth 

up to $80,000, depending on the scope of the proposed project and the ability of 

the team to raise a small portion of that total through crowdfunding. Each USRC 

45 https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/features/UAS-NAS-Research-Begins-New-Era.html and 

https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/features/NASA-Partners-Work-with-FAA-to-Develop-UASRoad-Map.html

46 https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-looks-to-university-teams-to-advance-aviation-technology/

47 https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/features/aerogel-antenna.html
58Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

proposal was required to describe a novel approach to one of ARMD’s six major 

research thrusts.48

NASA received delivery of an HQ-90 quadcopter aircraft at NASA’s Armstrong 

Flight Research Center (Armstrong) in California. The aircraft will perform 

flight tests in a variety of scenarios using the Expandable Variable Autonomy 

Architecture (EVAA) software for the Resilient Autonomy project. EVAA software prioritizes human safety over preventing damage to property, and preventing 

damage is prioritized over the completion of the mission by following a set of programmed rules of behavior. These rules of behavior allow EVAA to better manage 

the mission intent of the flight while always maneuvering within the acceptable 

performance limits of the aircraft.49

In 2020, NASA’s Convergent Aeronautics Solutions project, which is designed 

to give researchers with innovative ideas a chance to prove if their idea is feasible, selected three teams to participate. One of them, called Scalable Traffic 

Management for Emergency Response Operations, or STEReO, began work on 

the tools needed to aid emergency responders in natural disasters such as wildfires 

and hurricanes. Drones (UAS) have great potential to assist emergency responders 

by making their interventions even faster, more targeted, and better able to adapt 

to changing circumstances. These vehicles and the systems that support them 

could multitask in unique ways. STEReO envisions a new ecosystem for emergency 

response that has three broad goals: reduce response times, scale up the role of 

aircraft, and provide operations that can adapt to rapidly changing conditions during a disaster.50

NASA Aeronautics at Home

With the COVID-19 pandemic forcing students of all ages to stay in their 

homes to attend virtual schools and find something to do between classes, NASA’s 

aeronautical educators offered a number of options online for kids and parents 

48 https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/deadline-nears-for-university-student-research-opportunity/

49 https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/features/HQ-90-Arrives-at-AFRC.html and https://www.nasa.

gov/centers/armstrong/features/resilient-autonomy-project-develops-evaa-software.html

50 https://www.nasa.gov/ames/stereo
59National Aeronautics and Space Administration

alike to stay busy, have fun using aviation-themed backgrounds during video calls, 

and learn something more about NASA’s work to improve aviation and make air 

travel safer.51

Also, for National Aviation Day on August 19, 2020, NASA ARMD celebrated 

all things aviation by recognizing pilots and aviators everywhere, including those 

NASA pilots flying in support of projects, including the X-59 QueSST and X-57 

Maxwell. The public was invited to record a selfie video on what they love about 

flying and post it to Twitter or Instagram with the hashtags #PilotsPerspective 

and #NationalAviationDay. Certain videos were shared on ARMD’s Twitter and 

Instagram accounts. Our social media also featured pilots who work at NASA, 

whether flying is involved in their job or not.52

51 Examples include: https://www.nasa.gov/aero-at-home; https://www.nasa.gov/aero/coloring-pages/; 

https://www.nasa.gov/aero/virtualbackgrounds; https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/resources/k-12; and 

https://www.nasa.gov/connect/ebooks/aeronautics_ebooks_archive_1.html

52 https://www.nasa.gov/aeroresearch/honoring-those-with-the-right-stuff-on-national-aviation-day
60Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

Space Technology Mission Directorate 

The Space Technology Mission Directorate (STMD) develops transformative 

space technologies that enhance the capabilities and reduce the cost of NASA, 

commercial, and other Government missions. Technology drives exploration of 

the Moon, Mars, and beyond. Space Technology investments in revolutionary, 

American-made technologies provide solutions on Earth and in space. STMD 

engages and inspires entrepreneurs, researchers, and innovators across the country 

to advance American leadership in space. NASA technology appears in nearly 

every corner of modern life.

In fiscal year (FY) 2020, STMD made significant progress toward NASA’s 

Artemis and deep space missions. In order to enable and enhance the Agency’s 

capabilities, investments focused in four strategic areas: 1) rapid, safe, and efficient space transportation (Go); 2) expanded access to diverse surface destinations 

(Land); 3) sustainable living and working farther from Earth (Live); and 4) transformative missions and discoveries (Explore).

In FY 2020, NASA’s investments in space technology advanced capabilities for 

exploration, and new technology demonstrations, challenges, and partnerships 

helped solve complex challenges needed to fulfill the Agency’s exploration goals.

In FY 2020, STMD had more than 1,400 active project activities, with more 

than 500 different industry partners and 150 different academic partners. In addition, STMD has partnered with 28 other government agencies or departments as 

well as 10 international organizations. In FY 2020, STMD evaluated over 3,700 

proposals and funded over 900 new technology selections, amounting to more than 

$500 million in award investments.

Lunar Surface Innovation Initiative

The Lunar Surface Innovation Initiative (LSII) got under way in FY 2020, 

aiming to spur the creation of novel technologies needed for lunar surface exploration and accelerate the technology readiness of key systems and components. 

LSII activities are implemented through a combination of unique in-house events, 

competitive programs, and public-private partnerships. 
61National Aeronautics and Space Administration

• In February, STMD kicked off its Lunar Surface Innovation Consortium 

(LSIC) with the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory, which will 

team experts from academia, industry, and government to shape the technologies and systems needed to explore the surface of the Moon in new 

ways. The Consortium makes recommendations for a cohesive, executable 

strategy for developing and deploying technologies required for successful 

lunar surface exploration. In its first six months, over 160 organizations 

across the country have participated in LSIC monthly meetings; over 

50 percent of the participants have not previously worked with STMD.

• In July, NASA announced its new lunar surface technology research 

(LuSTR) opportunity, seeking U.S. universities’ ideas to advance technologies needed for sustainable operations on the Moon. In its inaugural 

year, LuSTR seeks proposals relating to in situ resource utilization and 

sustainable power systems. The maximum funding per grant is $2 million 

over two years with awards announced in February 2021.

• LSII funded a public prize competition seeking designs for miniaturized 

payloads for future Moon missions. The “Honey, I Shrunk the NASA 

Payload” challenge sought instrument designs that could help support a 

sustained human lunar presence, demonstrate, and advance the use of 

resources found on the Moon, and enable new science. This ideation challenge received 132 entries from 29 countries. In total, NASA awarded 

$160,000 across 14 different entries and recognized an additional three 

entries with an honorable mention award.53

• Engineers have tested various configurations of a Moon-digging robot 

called RASSOR—short for Regolith Advanced Surface Systems 

Operations Robot—in a large lunar simulant sandbox at NASA’s Kennedy 

Space Center. In May, NASA announced the winners of its RASSOR 

Bucket Drum Design Challenge (funded by LSII and managed by the 

NASA Tournament Lab), which challenged the public to help design a new 

bucket drum, the portion of the robot that captures the regolith and keeps 

it from falling out. Judges from Kennedy’s Swamp Works, who developed 

53 https://www.nasa.gov/mini-moon-payload-designs
62Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

RASSOR and have expertise in in situ resource utilization, reviewed more 

than 350 entries submitted by individuals from around the world.

The Perseverance Rover 

NASA’s Mars 2020 mission launched on July 30 on a United Launch Alliance 

Atlas V rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida. The Perseverance 

rover reached the Red Planet in February 2021, with the tasks of seeking out signs 

of past microscopic life, exploring the diverse geology of Jezero Crater, and demonstrating key technologies that will help us prepare for future robotic and human 

exploration. The mission includes two landing instruments and two technology 

demonstrations funded by STMD:

• The Mars Entry, Descent and Landing Instrumentation (MEDLI) 2 is a 

next-generation sensor suite for entry, descent, and landing. It collected 

temperature and pressure measurements on the heat shield and backshell 

during entry and descent as the spacecraft slowed from 12,500 miles per 

hour to just under two miles per hour in six minutes.

• The Terrain Relative Navigation (TRN) system identified the safest landing spot and sent coordinates to the guidance and navigation computer, 

where the trajectory was set and executed. Using TRN, the Perseverance 

rover was able to land with far less risk in the harsh terrain of Jezero Crater, 

which had been identified by scientists as having more opportunities for 

science and discovery than other less hazardous landing sites.

• The Mars Environmental Dynamics Analyzer makes weather measurements, including on wind speed and direction, temperature and humidity, 

and also measures the amount and size of dust particles in the Martian 

atmosphere.

• The Mars Oxygen In-Situ Resource Utilization Experiment (MOXIE) is 

demonstrating a new, critical capability: making oxygen directly from the 

Martian atmosphere. This means access to air for breathing, but more 

importantly, the vast quantities of it needed to burn the fuel for rocket 

propellant. MOXIE is the first demonstration of its kind—the first test 
63National Aeronautics and Space Administration

of an in situ resource utilization technology to generate mission products 

with local resources—on another world.

Public-Private Partnerships

STMD continued to prioritize funding opportunities for public-private partnerships, focusing on technologies and capabilities needed for a sustainable presence 

on the Moon, showcasing NASA’s commitment to the Nation’s growing commercial space industry today.

• On October 14, STMD announced its selection of 14 American companies, including several small businesses, as partners to develop a range 

of technologies that will help forge a path to sustainable Artemis operations on the Moon by the end of the decade. U.S. industry submitted 

the proposals to the fifth competitive Tipping Point solicitation, and the 

selections have an expected combined award value of more than $370 million. STMD will negotiate with the companies to issue milestone-based 

firm-fixed-price contracts lasting for up to five years.

Technology Demonstration Missions 

The Laser Communications Relay Demonstration (LCRD) mission proposes to 

revolutionize the way we send and receive data, video, and other information, using 

lasers to encode and transmit data at rates 10 to 100 times faster than today’s fastest radio-frequency systems, with significantly less mass and power. While other 

NASA efforts have used optical communications, this will be NASA’s first relay 

system using optical entirely, giving NASA the opportunity to test this method of 

communications and learn valuable lessons from its implementation. Relay satellites create communications links between science and exploration missions and 

Earth, enabling these missions to transmit data to scientists and mission managers 

back home. In July 2020, the LCRD payload was installed and integrated on the 

U.S. Space Force Space Test Program Satellite 6 (STPSat-6) in preparation for its 

December 2021 launch. In August, NASA completed installing the second of two 
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state-of-the-art optical ground stations in Haleakala, Hawaii, that will collect data 

transmitted to Earth by LCRD.

In FY 2020, NASA continued its partnerships with Maxar Technologies and 

Made In Space, Inc., as part of work related to On-Orbit Servicing, Assembly and 

Manufacturing (OSAM)—the second phase of public-private partnerships focused 

on the development of robotic technologies to rapidly, efficiently, and autonomously manufacture and assemble hardware, components, and tools in space. The 

demonstrations will mature technologies with cross-cutting applications for government and commercial missions, including human exploration of the Moon and 

Mars and in-space construction of large telescopes. 

• In July 2019, the OSAM-2 mission was funded to deploy and position in 

orbit a small spacecraft in 2023 that will 3D print two beams. One beam 

will extend nearly 33 feet from the side of the spacecraft and deploy a solar 

array surrogate, and one will extend nearly 20 feet from the other side of 

the spacecraft.

• The OSAM-1 technology demonstration was contracted in January of 

this year and passed an important, internal NASA milestone providing Agency-level approval for the team to begin implementation. The 

OSAM-1 spacecraft and the Space Infrastructure Dexterous Robot payload will refuel a satellite in space, assemble a communications antenna, 

and manufacture a beam. By demonstrating these capabilities, the 

mission is advancing never-before-tested technologies for use in future 

NASA missions.

The Evolvable Cryogenics project was focused on developing, integrating, and 

validating cryogenic fluid management technologies for future NASA mission 

needs. In November 2019, the team successfully completed their acoustic test series 

to simulate launch loads at the Plum Brook Test Facility using the Structural Heat 

Intercept Insulation Vibration Evaluation Rig (SHIIVER). SHIIVER is a cryogenic 

tank for testing technologies and methods for maintaining very cold liquid propellants to be used as fuel for Artemis and deep space missions. Additional SHIIVER 

tests completed in January 2020 demonstrated how the system performed after 

exposure to acoustic launch loads and matured the high vacuum multilayer insulation and vapor cooling system for large scale cryogenic tanks. 
65National Aeronautics and Space Administration

The Space Nuclear Technology portfolio focuses on advancing nuclear fission technology and system capabilities to meet space exploration mission needs. 

STMD is currently engaged in advancing technologies for both nuclear propulsion 

and fission surface power systems with U.S. Department of Energy support to meet 

lunar and Mars exploration goals. Solicitations were expected to be released in 

early FY 2021.

The Deep Space Atomic Clock (DSAC) launched in June 2019 aboard the 

SpaceX Falcon Heavy as part of the U.S. Air Force’s Space Test Program (STP)-2 

mission. The mission was to fly and validate a miniaturized, ultra-precise, mercuryion atomic clock that is orders of magnitude more stable than today’s best spacecraft clocks. DSAC completed its primary mission and has been extended for a 

year. While the team is working to make the clock more stable, its success so far 

is an important step toward a paradigm change in space navigation: making deep 

space vehicles that do not rely on Earth as much for navigation cues.

The Green Propellant Infusion Mission (GPIM) spacecraft also launched as 

part of the Air Force STP-2 mission in June 2019. In a little over a year in space, 

GPIM successfully proved that this never-before-used propellant and propulsion 

system work as intended, demonstrating that both are practical options for future 

missions. While in orbit, GPIM tested a monopropellant, called the Advanced 

Spacecraft Energetic Non-Toxic (ASCENT), and propulsion system, including the 

thrusters, tanks, and valves, by conducting a planned series of orbital maneuvers. 

Attitude-control maneuvers, the process of maintaining stable control of a satellite, and orbit lowering demonstrated the propellant’s pre-mission projected performance, showing a 50 percent increase in gas mileage for the spacecraft compared 

to hydrazine.

Small Spacecraft Technology Program

Over the course of FY 2020, the Small Spacecraft Technology (SST) program; Advanced Space of Boulder, Colorado; Tyvak Nano-Satellite Systems of 

Irvine, California; and Stellar Exploration, Inc., of San Luis Obispo, California, 

continued to make progress on CAPSTONE, a microwave oven–sized CubeSat 

that will serve as the first spacecraft to test a unique, elliptical lunar orbit. As a 
66Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

precursor for Gateway, a Moon-orbiting outpost that is part of the Artemis program, CAPSTONE will help reduce risk for future spacecraft by validating innovative navigation technologies and verifying the dynamics of this halo-shaped orbit. 

CAPSTONE represents a rapid lunar flight demonstration and is scheduled to 

launch in June 2022.

The Pathfinder Technology Demonstrator (PTD) project will test the operation 

of a variety of novel CubeSat technologies in low-Earth orbit, providing significant 

enhancements to the performance of these small and effective spacecraft. Each 

of the planned five PTD missions consists of a 6-unit, or 6U, CubeSat weighing 

approximately 25 pounds and comparable in size to a shoebox. The PTD-1 mission, 

slated for launch in late 2020 aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket, will demonstrate a 

propulsion system with a water-based propellant developed by Tethers Unlimited, 

Inc., in Bothell, Washington. The PTD-1 hardware and payload were delivered to 

KSC in November in preparation for a December launch.

In March 2020, the SST program announced its selection of nine university 

teams for its SmallSat Technology Partnerships initiative to mature new systems 

and capabilities to help pave the way for human and robotic lunar exploration. The 

technology development projects focus on three technical areas related to needs of 

Moon-bound missions: use of small spacecraft to help provide lunar communications and navigation services; small spacecraft propulsion for lunar missions and 

potential return of lunar samples using small spacecraft; and small spacecraft electrical power and thermal management systems tailored for the distant and harsh 

environment between Earth and the Moon.

Originally funded in April 2020 to mature CubeSat payloads through use of 

suborbital flight opportunities, the Payload Accelerator for CubeSat Endeavors 

(PACE) has payloads manifested on both suborbital and orbital flights in late 

2020 and mid-2021 calendar year, respectively. Two PACE payloads, referred to 

as PACE-1, were scheduled for a high-altitude balloon flight in December 2020: 

the Advanced Developments Projects (ADP) avionics suite consisting of radio 

frequency communications, navigation, and attitude determination and control 

systems; and the Intrepid payload, a gamma-ray/neutron particle detector. PACE-1 

was targeted for a June 2021 orbital flight. Both payloads were developed at NASA’s 

Ames Research Center.
67National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Initiated in December 2019, the V-R3x mission is a low-power, low-cost swarm 

of three 1U spacecraft that will demonstrate autonomous networking and radio 

navigation processes that are key to reducing heavy reliance on ground-based infrastructure and increasing the autonomy of large swarms of spacecraft. Both sets of 

engineering and flight models were built over the course of 2020, and the mission 

was scheduled for an orbital launch in December 2020. V-R3x was also scheduled for a follow-on high-altitude balloon flight in February 2021 to demonstrate 

extensible swarm communication and navigation capabilities at >100,000 ft link 

distances with up to five nodes. The V-R3x mission is managed within the PACE 

project and is a collaboration with Stanford University.

Game Changing Development

SPLICE

The Safe & Precise Landing-Integrated Capabilities Evolution (SPLICE) project 

is a suite of precise landing and hazard-avoidance technologies. A combination of 

laser sensors, a camera, a high-speed computer, and sophisticated algorithms will 

give spacecraft the artificial eyes and analytical capability to find a designated 

landing area, identify potential hazards, and adjust course to the safest touchdown 

site. SPLICE will eventually make it possible for spacecraft to avoid boulders, craters, and more within landing areas half the size of a football field already targeted 

as relatively safe. Three of SPLICE’s four main subsystems will have their first 

integrated test flight on a Blue Origin New Shepard rocket during an upcoming 

mission. As the rocket’s booster returns to the ground, after reaching the boundary between Earth’s atmosphere and space, SPLICE’s terrain-relative navigation, 

navigation Doppler lidar, and descent and landing computer will run aboard the 

booster. Each will operate in the same way they will when approaching the surface 

of the Moon. The fourth major SPLICE component, a hazard detection lidar, will 

be tested in the future via ground and flight tests.

TALOS

The Thruster for the Advancement of Low-temperature Operation in Space 

(TALOS) project is developing small thrusters to reduce overall spacecraft mass 
68Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

and power, which will reduce mission costs. The thrusters can make alterations in 

a spacecraft’s flight path or altitude and can be used to enter orbit and descend to 

the surface of another world. They can also serve as main propulsion thrusters for 

landers. Through FY 2020, NASA and Frontier Aerospace performed roughly 60 

hot fire tests on two main propulsion thrusters. The tests took place in a vacuum 

chamber that simulates the environment of space at Moog-ISP in Niagara Falls, 

New York. Engineers collected multiple data streams, including the combustion 

chamber’s pressure and stability and the feed system’s pressure and temperature, 

which delivers propellant from tanks to the thruster. The TALOS project performed engine qualification testing in 2020 and continued in early 2021 to ready 

the thruster design for use on Astrobotic’s Peregrine lunar lander. Astrobotic 

is one of several American companies working with NASA to deliver science 

and technology to the lunar surface through the CLPS initiative, as part of the 

Artemis program.

Astrobee

The Astrobee project is a free-flying robotic system aboard the International 

Space Station that will help astronauts reduce time they spend on routine duties, 

leaving them to focus more on the things that only humans can do. Working 

autonomously or via remote control by astronauts, flight controllers, or researchers 

on the ground, the robots are designed to complete tasks such as taking inventory, 

documenting experiments conducted by astronauts with their built-in cameras, or 

working together to move cargo throughout the Station. Robots like Astrobee will 

play a significant part in the Agency’s mission to return to the Moon under the 

Artemis program and other deep space missions by increasing astronaut productivity and helping maintain spacecraft when astronauts are not aboard. All three 

robots, Bumble, Honey, and Queen, were launched to the Space Station between 

2018 and 2019. In June 2020, astronaut Chris Cassidy performed a series of tests on 

Honey to prepare for full commissioning, like its robotic teammate, Bumble. Soon, 

both will be ready to carry out tasks alongside astronauts on the Space Station. 
69National Aeronautics and Space Administration

PRIME-1

The Polar Resources Ice Mining Experiment-1 (PRIME-1) consists of a lunar 

drill called The Regolith and Ice Drill for Exploring New Terrain (TRIDENT), 

which can core out a hole roughly three feet deep on the lunar surface. The second 

part of the PRIME-1 technology suite is the modified mass spectrometer, called 

MSolo. Mass spectrometers are used to measure the composition or concentration 

of various elements in the atmosphere. In July 2020, NASA put out an RFP asking 

CLPS partners to submit bids to fly PRIME-1 to the Moon by December 2022 to 

help NASA search for ice at the Moon’s South Pole. 

A-PUFFER

The Autonomous Pop-Up Flat-Folding Explorer Robot (A-PUFFER) project was 

designed to scout regions on the Moon and gain intelligence about locations like 

hard-to-reach craters and narrow caves that may be difficult for astronauts to investigate on foot. In addition to larger wheels, each robot has an upgraded onboard 

computer with a wireless radio for communication and a stereo camera for sensing the environment in front of it. In February 2020, engineers began testing the 

upgraded A-PUFFER robots and their new capabilities. During the February testing, a team of three A-PUFFERs successfully trekked the sandy and rocky terrain 

of JPL’s Mars Yard while simultaneously mapping the environment using sensors. 

Their maps were shared with a base station and merged into an integrated map of 

the Mars Yard. Together, this system demonstrates a capability that could robustly 

map parts of the Moon that have not been mapped before.

RAMPT

The Rapid Analysis and Manufacturing Propulsion Technology (RAMPT) 

project is advancing development of an additive manufacturing technique to 3D 

print rocket engine parts using metal powder and lasers. The method, called blown 

powder directed energy deposition, could bring down costs and lead times for producing large, complex engine components like nozzles and combustion chambers. 

Prior developments in additive manufacturing did not have the large-scale capabilities this emerging technology provides. During the summer of 2020, the RAMPT 

team used the technique to produce one of the largest nozzles NASA has printed, 
70Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

measuring 40 inches in diameter and standing 38 inches tall, with fully integrated 

cooling channels. This nozzle was fabricated in record time—just 30 days compared with nearly one year using traditional welding methods—and completion 

occurred a year earlier than scheduled due to the technology advancing rapidly.

BMGG

The Bulk Metallic Glass Gears (BMGG) project is developing special gears that 

can withstand the extreme temperatures experienced during missions to the Moon 

and beyond. The BMGG project team is creating material made of “metallic glass” 

for gearboxes that can function in and survive extreme cold environments without 

heating, which requires energy. Operations in cold and dim or dark environments 

are currently limited due to the amount of available power on a rover or lander. 

The BMGG unheated gearboxes will reduce the overall power needed for a rover 

or lander’s operations, such as pointing antennas and cameras, moving robotic 

arms, handling and analyzing samples, and moving (for a rover). The power saved 

with the BMGG gearbox could extend a mission or allow for more instruments. 

In FY 2020, the team tested the gears at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), 

demonstrating that the gears can withstand impact and freezing temperatures. At 

JPL’s Environmental Test Laboratory, engineers mounted the motor and gearbox 

on a tunable beam designed to measure the response an item has to a shock, or 

forceful impact. The test simulated how the bulk metallic glass gears might behave 

when collecting a regolith sample during the lunar night—which spans roughly 

14 days on Earth—or deploying a science instrument on an ocean world in our 

solar system.

MISSE-15

In June, STMD managed the selection of seven technology experiments, which 

will be tested on the ISS as part of the Materials International Space Station 

Experiment (MISSE)-15 mission. The experiments will be mounted on the exterior 

of the ISS to test the performance and durability of materials and devices—from 

polymers, energy-absorbing materials, radiation protection, and geopolymer lunar 

simulant to solar cell technologies—while exposed to the LEO space environment. 

Results of the on-orbit testing could enable Artemis missions through the study of 
71National Aeronautics and Space Administration

thermal and radiation shielding coatings and fabrics, lightweight materials for solar 

arrays and deployable structures, and more. The next call for MISSE experiments 

was planned for December 2020.

Flight Opportunities

In FY 2020, the Flight Opportunities program facilitated 44 tests of technology development payloads via flights with commercial suborbital providers, 

including three flights on rocket-powered vehicles, three high-altitude balloon 

flights, and eight flights on parabolic aircraft. U.S. commercial vendors providing flight services in the fiscal year included Black Sky Aerospace, Blue Origin, 

Masten Space Systems, Raven Aerostar, UP Aerospace, World View, and Zero 

Gravity Corporation.

• The 2020 Tech Flights solicitation sought promising space technology 

payloads for testing on commercial suborbital vehicles. This year’s solicitation included new elements that allow researchers to participate in their 

technology testing aboard suborbital spacecraft and to add educational 

opportunities to their primary payload. Selections were scheduled to be 

announced in October 2020. 

• Through Flight Opportunities, suborbital flights on commercial vehicles 

continue to provide valuable testing resources for NASA and industry. 

The program’s technology team continues to identify and cultivate key 

innovations that could be essential for missions to the Moon and Mars. 

Several technologies selected for use on lunar landers developed under 

NASA’s CLPS initiative have leveraged suborbital flights for testing. In 

addition, four of the companies providing landers for CLPS and three 

companies involved with development of human landing systems for the 

Artemis program have also leveraged suborbital flights for testing of their 

own innovations.

• In November 2019, UP Aerospace launched its SpaceLoft rocket on 

a flight funded by the company’s NASA Tipping Point award, which 

was supported by Flight Opportunities. Several Flight Opportunities–

supported payloads were also aboard, including the Affordable Vehicle 
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Avionics project from NASA’s Ames Research Center and an autonomous 

flight termination system from NASA Kennedy.

• The Southwest Research Institute successfully demonstrated its miniature 

solar observatory—the Solar Instrument Pointing Platform—on a highaltitude balloon from World View in November 2019.

• Zero Gravity Corporation conducted eight flights in November 2019 

enabling tests for a total of ten Flight Opportunities–supported technologies, all of which were tested on multiple flights.

• A variety of technologies were tested aboard Blue Origin’s New Shepard 

rocket system in December 2019, including an experiment from the 

University of Florida to explore what happens to the genes of organisms 

as they travel from Earth to space and the Orbital Syngas Commodity 

Augmentation Reactor, a system from an Early Career Initiative team 

at NASA Kennedy, designed to convert space waste into valuable gases 

to address logistics challenges associated with long-duration space 

exploration.

• In July 2020, aeroseismometers from Sandia National Laboratory and JPL, 

designed for potential future infrasound investigations on Venus as well as 

other planetary bodies, were flight tested on balloons from Raven Aerostar.

• In September 2020, Psionic tested its navigation doppler lidar technology aboard Masten Space System’s vertical takeoff/vertical landing system called Xodiac. Psionic licensed this technology from NASA in 2016 

and continues to collaborate with NASA’s Langley Research Center to 

advance the technology for both space and terrestrial applications. 

• Also in September, the Aerospace Corporation tested a technology for 

rapid calibration of space solar cells aboard a high-altitude balloon from 

Blacksky Aerospace, the second flight in a series of iterative suborbital tests.

Small Business Innovative Research (SBIR) and Small Business Technology 

Transfer (STTR)

NASA’s SBIR/STTR programs invested more than $211 million in small businesses in FY 2020. Specifically, 351 SBIR and 58 STTR Phase I proposals were 
73National Aeronautics and Space Administration

awarded to 312 U.S. small businesses to establish the scientific, technical, and 

commercial feasibility of each proposed innovation. This investment totaled more 

than $51 million.

• In addition, the program made 140 SBIR and 21 STTR Phase II awards, 

valued at over $120 million, to further expand upon prior Phase I work.

• The program ran a pilot for Phase II Sequential Awards to Advance Moon 

to Mars Objectives. Phase II Sequentials are an opportunity for firms who 

have developed promising technology during their first Phase II contract 

to win a second Phase II award to continue the work. On July 8, NASA 

announced four small businesses were selected to receive contracts totaling $17 million. On September 3, NASA selected an additional three 

small businesses to receive contracts totaling $12 million. The selected 

businesses will mature various lunar-focused technologies related to in situ 

resource utilization, laser communications, and other high-impact technologies for use on the Moon. 

• Through the Phase II Extended/Expanded program, 37 proposals were 

selected to have their Phase II-E option exercised for $9.6 million in SBIR/

STTR funding, which was matched from, and in some cases exceeded by, 

investors outside the program (other NASA programs, other government 

agencies, and commercial investors, among others).

• The Civilian Commercialization Readiness Pilot Program, an additional 

funding opportunity designed to accelerate the transition of SBIR- and 

STTR-funded technologies to commercialization, resulted in seven selections for a total of $4.2 million in SBIR/STTR investment matched by an 

equal amount from outside investors.

• Additionally, 78 Phase III awards were made, leveraging over $35 million 

in non-SBIR/STTR funding.

The program took a number of proactive steps to address the needs of the small 

business research and development community during the coronavirus pandemic. 

• Provided provisional acceptance of deliverables to pay for work performed 

on existing contracts while NASA Centers are operating remotely.

• For Phase I, reduced time between selection and first payment from five 

months to two months.
74Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

• Extended the 2020 Solicitation Phase I due date this spring by one 

month—from March 20 to April 20—to give firms more time to prepare their proposals. With this delay, we saw a 14 percent increase in 

proposals this year and streamlined internal processes so as not to 

delay funding by the full month. 

• The 2021 solicitation has been accelerated to make another funding 

opportunity available sooner. It will open November 9 as opposed to 

the typical January release.

A current focus of the SBIR/STTR program is working with small businesses on 

their research and development to contribute to NASA’s lunar and Mars exploration goals. In FY 2020, NASA announced a number of partnerships with SBIR/

STTR award recipients whose technologies have been selected for a lunar mission 

or could have direct applications. A few examples include the following:

• In June, Astrobotic, a small business based in Philadelphia, was selected to 

deliver NASA’s Volatiles Investigating Polar Exploration Rover, otherwise 

known as VIPER, to the South Pole of the Moon by late 2023. The lunar 

landers were developed by Astrobotic in part with SBIR/STTR awards.

• Another SBIR/STTR company, Honeybee Robotics, based in 

Altadena, California, is one of the providers of the instruments that 

will fly on VIPER.

• An additional SBIR/STTR company was selected under CLPS to provide 

delivery services to the lunar surface to support the use of the Moon as a 

proving ground for systems and technologies that will enable humans to 

explore Mars. Masten Space Systems’ $75.9 million award includes end-toend services for delivery of the instruments, including payload integration, 

launch from Earth, landing on the Moon’s surface, and operation for at 

least 12 days.

Space Technology Research Grants (STRG)

Since its inception in FY 2011, STRG has funded exciting space technology 

research via 773 grants at 118 universities across 45 states and one U.S. territory. 

In FY 2020, NASA made 14 Early Stage Innovations awards, nine Early Career 
75National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Faculty awards, and 63 NASA Space Technology Research Fellowship awards; 

there are currently more than 300 active awards, including four Space Technology 

Research Institutes.

NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts (NIAC)

In FY 2020, NIAC awarded 16 Phase I awards, six Phase II awards, and one 

Phase III award across industry, academia, and NASA Centers, while completing 

twelve 2019 Phase I studies and nine 2018 Phase II studies with three approved 

no-cost extensions.

NIAC announced its FY 2020 Phase I, II, and III award selections in April. The 

program funded 16 new concepts and seven studies that had previously received at 

least one NIAC grant with a combined award value of $7 million to determine the 

feasibility of early stage technologies that could go on to change what is possible 

here on Earth and in the far reaches of space. Fellows’ studies include mapping 

asteroids and other small bodies in the solar system with hopping probes, making 

on-demand pharmaceuticals in space, and extracting water on the Moon. Several 

of the concepts could inform capabilities relevant to the Artemis program.

JPL, under a grant from NIAC, facilitated a citizen science, public competition 

to seek ideas for a mechanical obstacle avoidance sensor that could be incorporated 

into a possible future Venus rover. On July 6, the winners of the “Exploring Hell: 

Avoiding Obstacles on a Clockwork Rover” were announced, featuring three novel 

designs and a number of honorable mentions. In all, 572 entries from a mix of 

teams and individuals were submitted from 82 countries, with ideas that ranged 

from systems of rollers to detect hazards to oversized fenders that would snap the 

rover backward should it hit a boulder.

World Book, Inc., developed a book series called Out of This World, featuring 

stories about the lives and scientific work of NIAC researchers. In 2020, World 

Book began offering virtual access to all eight e-books free of charge as part of the 

“NASA@Home” activities and to support educators, parents, and students during 

the novel coronavirus pandemic.

In June, the NIAC 2021 Phase I solicitation was released, seeking proposals for early stage feasibility studies of visionary concepts that address national 
76Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

government and commercial aerospace goals. Concepts are solicited from any field 

of study that offer a radically different approach or disruptive innovation that may 

significantly enhance or enable new human or robotic science and exploration missions. The 2021 Phase II and Phase III calls for proposals were planned for release 

in December 2020.

On September 22–24, NIAC held its first virtual symposium on Livestream. 

Fellows introduced their multidisciplinary research to a broad global audience 

with concepts covering a wide range of innovations in a diverse range of sciences. Exciting keynote presentations were given from experts in aeronautics and 

advanced technologies, and further information was discussed regarding the latest 

news about NIAC’s exciting progress and plans.

Prizes and Challenges

The Prizes and Challenges portfolio supports the use of public competitions and 

crowdsourcing as tools to advance NASA R&D and serve other mission needs. It 

includes Centennial Challenges, which stimulate research and technology solutions to support NASA missions and inspire new national aerospace capabilities 

through public prize competitions. It also includes the NASA Tournament Lab 

(NTL), which enables employees at NASA and other U.S. Federal agencies to use 

crowdsourcing approaches to procure novel ideas or solutions to serve R&D and 

others efforts in support of the NASA mission.

In FY 2020, NASA opened 35 crowdsourcing and challenge projects using NTL 

capabilities, including several challenges supporting Artemis-related exploration 

activities. Some of these competitions derived from a competitive internal solicitation for ideas to further NASA goals. NTL also launched 25 projects using an internal crowdsourcing platform, NASA@WORK. In April, the Prizes and Challenges 

team coordinated an Agencywide call for ideas on the platform to help the Nation 

with the unprecedented challenge of COVID-19. This call fostered cross-Center 

collaboration and tapped into the skill, energy, and power in NASA’s workforce.

• NASA innovators put forward concepts for sensors that can improve the 

detection of the COVID-19 virus in the environment or a viral infection 
77National Aeronautics and Space Administration

in a person. NASA is working with the National Institutes of Health and 

other external partners to develop at least one of these concepts.

• Many submissions involved the use of 3D printing capabilities at various NASA Centers. These ideas helped inform the Agency COVID-19 

response team’s outlined approach to Center-specific efforts, including the 

formation of Center-level NASA COVID-19 3D Printing Response teams.

• Ames is funding early work on a few monitoring and prediction projects 

relevant to COVID-19 that also have other applications. 

• Additional ideas from the NASA@WORK challenge were also pursued 

through the International Space Apps COVID-19 Challenge hackathon 

May 30–31, which encouraged people around the world to leverage NASA 

and other space agencies’ Earth science data to improve monitoring and 

prediction of the virus spread and impacts.

In FY 2020, NASA continued facilitating several ongoing Centennial Challenges 

and launched one new challenge:

• The Watts on the Moon Challenge, phase 1, opened on September 25, 

2020. This challenge complements ongoing NASA lunar power generation 

technology projects by focusing on technologies to distribute, manage, 

and store energy generated by different sources. The public competition 

will award up to $500,000 for the first phase, in which participants will 

design a flexible and robust system capable of addressing one or more of 

three hypothetical mission activities similar to a real lunar mission. If the 

first phase yields promising concepts, then a second, system development 

and demonstration phase will be open with up to $4.5 million in available 

cash prizes.

• The purpose of the $1 million CO2 Conversion Challenge is to convert 

carbon dioxide into sugars, such as glucose, as a step to creating missioncritical resources. Such technologies will enable the manufacture of products using local, indigenous resources on Mars and Earth by using waste 

and atmospheric carbon dioxide as a resource. Phase 2 of the competition 

launched in September 2019 and seeks to award up to $750,000 to the 

top three teams that demonstrate operational systems. Due to COVID-19, 
78Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

the submission deadline for Phase 2 was extended to December 2020 and 

winners were expected to be announced in April 2021.

• The Vascular Tissue Challenge is a $500,000 competition to create thick, 

vascularized human organ tissue in an in vitro environment to advance 

research and benefit medicine on long-duration missions and on Earth. 

This challenge is ongoing, with teams working to develop functional 

tissues for a liver, pancreas, heart, muscle, kidney, and/or lungs. Due to 

COVID-19, the deadline was extended for teams to attempt to complete 

development of the tissue and prove that they can keep the tissue viable 

and functional for 30 days. Awards were expected to be made to the first 

three teams to achieve the goals by March 2021.

• The Qualification Round of Phase 2 of the $1 million virtual Space 

Robotics Challenge closed in September 2020. The competition focuses 

on advancing robotics software and autonomous capabilities for space 

exploration missions on the surface of distant planets or moons. Phase 2 

Qualification Round winners were scheduled to be announced in January 

2021. The Competition Round was to run January–July 2021, with awards 

made in early FY 2022.

Early Career Initiative

Our Early Career Initiative (ECI) provides the best and brightest of NASA’s 

early career technologists with hands-on technology development opportunities. 

The initiative aims to invigorate NASA’s technological base and best practices 

by partnering early career NASA leaders with external innovators. Started as a 

pilot effort in 2014, the ECI is now a formalized and a growing effort, one that has 

become a wellspring of innovation to help shape our future missions to the Moon 

and Mars. 

The opportunity is publicized through chief technologists at NASA Centers via 

an annual call for proposals in March. Once applications are submitted, an evaluation team scores the proposals, and selections are usually announced in August. In 

FY 2020, seven projects were chosen:

• Development of a Thermal Control System to Survive the Lunar Night
79National Aeronautics and Space Administration

• Extractor for Chemical Analysis of Lipid Biomarkers in Regolith

• In-space Assembly of Perovskite Solar Cells for Very Large Arrays

• Joint Augmented Reality Visual Informatics System, an Exploration 

Extravehicular Mobility Unit

• Mobile Frequency-Modulated Continuous-Wave Light Detection and 

Radar System for Lunar Surface Terrain-Mapping and Navigation

• Modular and Reconfigurable Manipulation System for Autonomous 

In-space Assembly

• Molten Regolith Electrolysis starter device 

STEM Engagement

In FY 2020, STMD invested in and supported a variety of Science, Technology, 

Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Engagement activities, products, and 

opportunities to connect the academic community with NASA space technology. 

Based on the NASA Strategy for STEM Engagement (2020–2023), STMD focused 

on efforts to create unique opportunities for students to contribute to missiondriven work and to engage diverse groups of students in STEM.

• In February 2020, the Breakthrough, Innovative and Game-changing 

(BIG) Idea Challenge, in partnership with the Space Grant project, 

announced nearly $1 million in awards to eight university teams to build 

sample lunar payloads and demonstrate new ways to study the Moon’s 

polar regions. STMD worked with the Office of STEM Engagement 

(OSTEM) to continue our cost-sharing partnership with Space Grant for 

the BIG Idea Challenge 2021, announced in July 2020. This challenge 

offers awards, ranging from $50,000 to $180,000, to university teams to 

propose solutions for lunar dust mitigation technologies. In 2020, BIG Idea 

Challenge worked with OSTEM to stand up NASA’s Artemis Student 

Challenges, a community of activities focused on the Artemis generation. 

BIG Idea Challenge is sponsored by the Game Changing Development 

Program and managed by the National Institute of Aerospace. 

• Additionally, STMD committed nearly $400,000 to four universities

through the Artemis Student Challenges Opportunity competitive 
80Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

solicitation: University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign; University of 

Colorado, Boulder; University of Hawaii, Honolulu; and University of 

Washington, Seattle. Announced in May 2020, selected projects will 

introduce students to topics and technologies critical to the success of the 

Artemis program. 

• In partnership with NASA’s Minority University Research and Education 

Project (MUREP), the MUREP Space Technology Artemis Research 

(M-STAR) activity was established to strengthen and develop the 

research capacity and infrastructure of U.S. Minority Serving Institutions 

and Historically Black Colleges and Universities in areas of strategic 

importance and value to STMD’s missions and technology focus areas. 

In August 2020, M-STAR awarded nearly $604,000 in cooperative agreements to 15 universities for 16 projects that will support the advancement 

of technologies needed for the Agency’s Artemis program. 

• As part of NASA’s celebration of the 50th anniversary of Earth Day, 

STMD collaborated with the National Park Service to issue its new Junior 

Ranger Space Tech Explorer activity sheets, focused on space technology and its connection to life on Earth. The activities were included in 

NASA@Home and STEM@Home initiatives and were released in Spanish 

in honor of Hispanic Heritage Month.

Technology Transfer

The Technology Transfer program worked with engineers and scientists to 

develop and improve existing technology and get it into the hands of businesses 

and the public for the widest possible impact in response to the coronavirus 

global pandemic:

• JPL developed the Ventilator Intervention Technology Accessible Locally, 

or VITAL, prototype, designed to avoid using any of the same parts as 

traditional ventilators. By fall, the design had been licensed by dozens of companies, and one in Brazil was already manufacturing them. 

At NASA’s Johnson Space Center, engineers modified a design for an 

Orion ventilator to create one that uses human power and that can be 
81National Aeronautics and Space Administration

3D printed. It can be used to keep a patient alive for hours and is aimed 

particularly to help in developing countries where access to electronic 

ventilators can be limited.

• NASA’s Glenn Research Center continued a collaboration with a local 

Ohio company on its portable fogger, which can sterilize surfaces. With 

expert consultation from JPL and Glenn, the company updated their 

design to better address airborne contaminants. NASA Glenn also 

worked with Cleveland’s university hospitals to develop new methods and 

technologies for decontaminating personal protective equipment. 

• For some COVID-19 patients who do need supplemental oxygen but 

not ventilators, an oxygen hood can be beneficial. A task force, led by 

NASA Armstrong and including several outside partners, was charged 

with developing a low-cost, easily made, and more robust helmet, without 

impacting the supply chain. 

This year dozens of licenses were signed for the VITAL ventilator, but beyond 

that, the Technology Transfer program far exceeded its goals for licensing and 

software usage agreements. In fact, this year was the highest single year total of 

licenses in the program’s history. In FY 2020, the program signed 171 new licenses 

and 4,616 new Software Usage Agreements.

Also in FY 2020, the Technology Transfer program took over the Regional 

Economic Development program, centralized it, and refocused it to better engage 

with entrepreneurial communities across the United States, with the aim of fostering startup ecosystems, assisting companies with product development, and 

connecting well-positioned entrepreneurs with NASA technologies. Technology 

Transfer teamed up with FedTech this summer for an eight-week training with 

entrepreneurs on commercializing NASA technology. The winning entrepreneurial team created a new company and is now seeking a license for a NASA alloy to 

build better tires.

As part of virtual in-reach to encourage NASA innovators to disclose their 

inventions, the Technology Transfer program launched a new Inventor’s Hall of 

Fame web page, featuring more than 30 of NASA’s most prolific and most impactful inventors, with new inductees to be added every year.
82Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

iTech

Through iTech, STMD discovers and quickly assesses technologies that could 

help NASA accomplish future missions. This initiative connects innovators with 

experts who provide valuable technical feedback and with investors who could 

provide resources to help propel the technologies forward. In FY 2020, iTech hosted 

two cycles of competition: Cycle I focused on artificial intelligence and machine 

learning, biotechnology, system autonomy, advanced manufacturing, and x-factor 

innovations; Cycle II focused on power generation/energy, integrated photonics, 

advanced engineering materials, miniaturized systems, and x-factor innovations. 

The program hosted numerous virtual “Ignite the Night” events throughout the 

year, leading up to its two virtual forums in October 2020.
83Department of Defense

Department of Def

DOD

Aeronautics

Rotorcraft

Army

During FY 2020, Army Aviation supported multiple deployments in U.S. Central 

Command, U.S. European Command, and U.S. Indo-Pacific Command. While 

supporting these deployments, aviation formations conducted home station training for their assigned Divisions and Brigade Combat Teams focused on large-scale 

combat operations to support humanitarian assistance and disaster relief efforts 

and prepared for other contingencies. 

In FY 2020, the Army continued its modernization efforts across the entire 

aviation fleet. Rotary-wing aircraft fielding of the AH-64E Apache, HH/UH-60M 

Black Hawk, CH-47F Chinook, UH-60V Black Hawk, and UH-72A/B Lakota 

ensure that Army aircraft provide capability for decades to come. Unmanned 

Aircraft Systems (UAS) modernization includes improvements to the MQ-1C Gray 

Eagle and the RQ-7B Shadow, supporting enhanced manned-unmanned teaming. 

As the Army modernizes its current fleet of rotary-wing aircraft and UAS, it looks 

to the future with Future Vertical Lift (FVL) initiatives. The FVL Cross-Functional 

Team works closely with industry and is already integrating new technologies into 

the current force.

Program Executive Office (PEO) Aviation’s Apache Helicopter Program 

Manager accepted the 300th AH-64E aircraft from the Boeing Company, and it 

will be assigned to the 82nd Combat Aviation Brigade, Fort Bragg, North Carolina. 
84Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

Fielding throughout U.S. Army Forces Command (FORSCOM) will continue in 

FY 2021 and beyond. In support of the continued fielding of the helicopter, a contract modification was awarded to Boeing fully funding Lot 9, which includes 48 

AH-64E remanufactured aircraft and 12 AH-64E new build aircraft. The Army 

Threat Systems Management Office conducted the AH-64E Version 6 Cyber 

Assessment, marking the conclusion of Follow-On Test and Evaluation II. AH-64E 

Version 6 delivers quality and capability improvements, designed and equipped 

with an open systems architecture including the latest communications, navigation, sensor, and weapon systems. The E-model has multiple upgrades from its predecessors, such as the improved Modernized Target Acquisition Designation Sight/

Pilot Night Vision System, which includes a new integrated infrared laser that 

allows for easier target designation and enhanced infrared imagery capabilities. 

The AH-64E Version 6 also provides Manned/Un-Manned Teaming Extended, 

which allows video from 62 offboard sensors to be seen by the flight crew and 

allows for control of the MQ-1C Gray Eagle and RQ-7B Shadow UAS.

The UH/HH-60 Black Hawk is the Army’s combat utility helicopter. This 

flexible system provides air assault, aeromedical evacuation, command and control, and general support to combat, stability, and multi-domain operations. PEO 

Aviation’s Utility Helicopter Project Office continues to modernize the Black 

Hawk fleet with the UH-60V. The UH-60V updates legacy analog systems to a 

digital and open architecture. This architecture provides commonality with the 

UH-60M with a similar Pilot-Vehicle Interface. The UH-60V is now in the Low 

Rate Initial Production phase with ongoing production at Corpus Christi Army 

Depot (CCAD). The UH-60V completed the first Initial Operational Test and 

Evaluation Flight Testing at Joint Base Lewis-McChord, Washington.

The CH-47F Chinook is the Army’s only heavy-lift cargo helicopter supporting 

combat and other critical operations. The Army completed the final fielding of 

CH-47F Block I aircraft to United States Army Forces Command units and United 

States Army South units in FY 2020. Development of the CH-47F Block II aircraft 

continues to provide an option for future modernization of the cargo fleet when 

that decision is required. 

PEO Aviation’s Aviation Mission Systems and Architecture Project Office and 

the Aviation Ground Support Equipment Product Office successfully completed 
85Department of Defense

Aircraft Notebook (ACN) training and fielding to the U.S. Army Rotary Wing 

fleet. ACN replaced the Unit Level Logistics System–Aviation (Enhanced) system 

and began integrating within Global Combat Support System–Army Increment 2 

in mid-2020. ACN provides a common logistics information system for Army 

Aviation, streamlines user experience, improves record keeping, and provides the 

ability to view aircraft availability in near-real time across the fleet. To date, more 

than 26,500 soldiers and civilians have been trained to use ACN and more than 

9,000 pieces of computer equipment converted. 

Future Vertical Lift

The Future Vertical Lift (FVL) Cross-Functional Team (CFT) is an Army-led, 

multi-service initiative, focused on enhancing vertical lift dominance through 

affordable next-generation assets that provide increased reach, protection, lethality, agility, and mission flexibility. This initiative focuses on addressing aviation 

capability gaps against peer and near-peer competitors. The following four lines 

of effort address these gaps: Future Attack Reconnaissance Aircraft (FARA), 

Future Long Range Assault Aircraft (FLRAA), Future Tactical Unmanned Aerial 

Systems (FTUAS), and Air Launched Effects (ALE) and the Modular Open System 

Architecture (MOSA). This year, four FTUAS industry partners are participating 

in “Buy, Try, Inform” demonstrations within active component Brigade Combat 

Teams to inform user requirements. The first of these demonstrations at the 1st 

Infantry Division was completed in October 2020, and the remaining four demonstrations continued through early 2021. 

Project Convergence (PC) is the Army Futures Command’s annual capstone 

exercise designed to aggressively advance and integrate the Army’s contributions 

to the Joint All Domain Operations concept. This Joint demonstration and experimentation effort ensures that the Army can rapidly and continuously integrate 

and converge effects across all domains—air, land, sea, space, and cyberspace—to 

overmatch our adversaries in competition and in conflict. Over the course of the 

seven-week PC 20 demonstration in August and September, the FVL CFT conducted onsite experimentation, integration, and collaboration at Yuma Proving 

Ground, totaling more than 400 flight hours and 107 sorties and achieving 127 

technical objectives. The synchronization of a surrogate FARA platform, three 
86Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

Gray Eagles, and six ALEs during multiple peer-on-peer vignettes substantiated 

the Army’s ability to extend an air-ground mesh network across 60 kilometers 

and deliver Long Range Precision Fires in support of Joint Force reconnaissance, 

surveillance, target acquisition, and radar defense penetration objectives. These 

demonstrations created cross-domain synergies with space, air, and ground assets 

and proved the ability of the FARA ecosystem to be decisive in the lower tier of 

the air domain. The FVL CFT captured valuable lessons and observations that 

they will incorporate into future ecosystem requirements. Initial planning tasks are 

already under way for PC 21, set to occur in October 2021. 

In March 2020 PEO Aviation announced the downselect from four to two 

vendors in both the FARA CP and FLRAA programs. These remaining industry 

partners will participate in Competitive Development and Risk Reduction activities as they build aircraft prototypes for initial flight testing scheduled for FY 2023. 

The Vice Chief of Staff of the Army approved the FLRAA Abbreviated-Capability 

Development Document (A-CDD) in October 2020, and PEO Aviation expects 

to release a draft Request for Proposal (RFP) to industry in December 2020. The 

FARA CP A-CDD went to the Army Requirements Oversight Council (AROC) 

for consideration in January 2021. Both FARA and FLRAA are scheduled for a 

First Unit Equipped (FUE) in 2028.

Navy

The U.S. Navy (USN) CH-53K Super Stallion program provides nearly three 

times the external lift capacity of the CH-53E, a mission radius of up to 200 nautical miles, and the lift and range to support the future Marine Air Ground Task 

Force. Flight test operations continued throughout 2020 at Naval Air Station 

Patuxent River.

The VH-92 Presidential Helicopter Replacement program continued production 

with the award of LRIP Lot 2 for six operational aircraft in March 2020. 

The V-22 Osprey has been in production for several years, with more than 400 

aircraft delivered to the U.S. Marine Corps (USMC), Air Force, United States 

Special Operations Command, the USN, and the Government of Japan. This 

tiltrotor aircraft provides unique capabilities to the warfighter, combining the 

flexibility of a helicopter with the speed and range of a fixed-wing aircraft. In 
87Department of Defense

addition to the wide range of missions that the aircraft can currently support, new 

capabilities continue to be developed. Upgrades that enable the aircraft to meet 

the USN carrier onboard delivery requirements are complete with the associated 

Development Test commencing in the second quarter and the Operational Test 

planned for 2021. 

The Navy has delivered over 555 domestic MH-60 helicopters and transitioned all Helicopter Sea Combat and Helicopter Maritime Strike squadrons to 

the MH-60R/S. Due to high operational demand and evolving warfighter needs, 

the program has initiated a Service Life Assessment intended to evaluate requirements for a Service Life Extension. These efforts will improve mission systems/

sensors, recapitalize current MH-60 investments to pace the threat, and extend 

the life of MH-60 until the Navy migrates to the Future Vertical Lift-Maritime 

Strike platform.

Fixed Wing

Navy

The P-3C to the P-8A active-duty squadron fleet transition was completed this 

year. Ninety-nine of 119 P-8A aircraft have been delivered to the U.S. Navy and 

12 aircraft were delivered to the Royal Australian Air Force under a cooperative 

agreement. The FMS United Kingdom program has taken delivery of two of nine 

P-8A aircraft.

The E-2D Advanced Hawkeye (AHE) Program has delivered 45 aircraft to date. 

The United States Navy awarded a Multi-Year Procurement Contract in April 

2019 to build 24 E-2D AHE aircraft. A modification to that contract was made 

in September 2019 to add the procurement of nine Japan Foreign Military Sales 

E-2D AHE aircraft. A July 2019 Program of Record (POR) Requirements Review 

Board validated the requirement to procure a total of 86 E-2D AHE aircraft, up 

from the prior 75 aircraft POR. Upgrades to the platform continue as the Navy 

plans to release Delta System/Software Configuration build 3 in the third quarter 

of FY 2020, allowing the E-2D AHE to outpace the evolving threat.

The F/A-18 & EA-18G Program consistently maintained and exceeded the 

Secretary of Defense’s mandate of 80 percent Mission Capability for E/F/G 
88Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

throughout FY 2020. Artifacts and lessons learned were provided to the Naval 

Aviation Enterprise for institutionalization across multiple platforms and organizations. Full funding was provided to Boeing for year two of the FY 2019–awarded 

multi-year contract, obligating $1.23 billion of APN-1 for Lot 44.

Unmanned Aircraft System 

Army

The MQ-1C Gray Eagle Extended Range Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) 

successfully completed a follow-on operational test and evaluation, the third major 

MQ-1C operational test. The test results indicated the MQ-1C Gray Eagle Extended 

Range aircraft is operationally suitable with a combat availability of greater than 

80 percent. The fifth Gray Eagle full rate production contract was awarded to procure 30 Gray Eagle Extended Range Aircraft, 30 Satellite Air Data Terminals, 

two Universal Ground Data Terminals, government-furnished equipment repairs/

maintenance, and associated program management. This contract completed the 

Gray Eagle Army acquisition objective of 204 aircraft. Additional contract actions 

will be to replace attrited air vehicles. The MQ-1C provides the Warfighter with 

dedicated, assured, multi-mission unmanned aircraft system capabilities with the 

extended range variation providing nearly 50 percent greater endurance. The 

Army began experimenting on a Future Tactical Unmanned Aircraft Systems initiative that will eventually replace the RQ-7V2 Shadows in Brigade Combat Teams 

as soon as FY 2025. Currently Shadows are assigned to all Brigade Combat Teams, 

Special Forces Groups, and Combat Aviation Brigades.

Navy

The MQ-4C Triton (formerly Broad Area Maritime Surveillance UAS) will 

develop maritime capable UAS for operational deployment by providing persistent maritime Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) services. 

Along with the P-8A Poseidon, the MQ-4C Triton UAS is an integral part of the 

Maritime Patrol and Reconnaissance Force family of systems and will provide combat information to operational and tactical users such as the Expeditionary Strike 

Group, Carrier Strike Group, and Joint Forces Maritime Component Commander. 
89Department of Defense

Developmental testing on the baseline capability was completed in October 2017, 

and Early Operational Capability was reached in January 2020. The upgraded 

multiple intelligence capability is on track to support the maritime Intelligence, 

Surveillance, Reconnaissance, and Targeting transition plan in FY 2022.

The MQ-8 Fire Scout UAS program provides real-time and non-real-time ISR 

data to tactical users without the use of manned aircraft or reliance on limited 

joint theater or national assets. An MQ-8 system is composed of air vehicles 

(MQ-8B/MQ-8C), a Mission Control Station, Tactical Control System software, 

a Tactical Common Data Link, a UAV Common Automatic Recovery System for 

takeoffs and landings, payloads (electro-optical/infrared/laser designator-range 

finder, Automated Information System [AIS], voice communications relay, radar, 

mine countermeasures, and other specialty payloads), and associated spares and 

support equipment. Fire Scout radar (MQ-8C) provides a 240-degree instantaneous field of view and a range of digital modes to include Maritime Surveillance, 

Synthetic Aperture, Inverse Synthetic Aperture, weather detection, and a ground 

moving target indicator. The MQ-8 launches and recovers vertically and can operate from all suitably equipped air capable ships. Fire Scout is the first platform to 

successfully receive Cybersafe Certification. In addition, MQ-8 has completed Risk 

Management Framework certifications. 

The MQ-25 program is rapidly developing an unmanned capability to embark on 

CVNs (aircraft carriers with nuclear propulsion) as part of the Carrier Air Wing 

(CVW) to conduct aerial refueling as a primary mission and provide ISR capability as a secondary mission. MQ-25 extends CVW mission effectiveness range, 

partially mitigates the current Carrier Strike Group organic ISR shortfall, and fills 

the future CVW-tanker gap, mitigating Strike Fighter shortfall and preserving F/A18E/F fatigue life. MQ-25 will achieve this through the use of a carrier-suitable, 

semi-autonomous (man-in-the-loop, air vehicle executes preplanned missions) 

UAS (provided by the Air System segment) and controlled through existing C4I 

networks from the control systems integrated into the CVNs. MQ-25 will initially 

be integrated aboard Nimitz-class aircraft carriers, followed by Ford-class. The combined Government/Industry team will use modern processes and advanced technology, such as Model Based Systems Engineering and embedded teaming, to keep 

the program on track to be the fastest contract award-to-IOC of any modern major 
90Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

aviation program. To date, T1 has flown 12 flights total, encompassing 27.8 flight 

hours. T1 recently completed modifications in support of MQ-25 requirements and 

will return to test flights in the first quarter of FY 2021. A Gate 6/Configuration 

Steering Board and System Design Review were successfully conducted in March 

2020. Following the System Design Review, the program exercised the options for 

three System Demonstration Test Article (SDTA) air vehicles.

The RQ-21A Blackjack provides runway-independent, persistent maritime and 

land-based tactical Reconnaissance, Surveillance, and Target Acquisition (RSTA) 

data collection, dissemination, and communications relay capabilities to the 

warfighter. The RQ-21A carries an EO/IR payload with a laser rangefinder and 

IR pointer. For the United States Marine Corps, the RQ-21A Blackjack provides 

Marine Expeditionary Force and subordinate commands with a dedicated ISR 

system capable of operating from both L-class ships and remote austere locations 

ashore delivering intelligence products directly to the tactical commander in real 

time. For the Navy, the RQ-21A provides persistent RSTA support for tactical 

maneuver decisions and unit-level force defense/force protection for Navy ships, 

Marine Corps forces ashore, and Navy Special Warfare Units. USMC and NSW 

production deliveries are complete, and Full Operational Capability was declared in 

FY 2020. The systems continue to receive evolving capability upgrades to include 

EO/IR turret and radar and signals payloads. The Blackjack system now has more 

than 16,000 operational flight hours.

Weapons

Army

The Army is actively pursuing advanced precision munitions with longer ranges 

to allow our aircraft to operate outside of threat weapon system effective ranges. 

These precision munitions will make our aircraft more survivable in a peer/nearpeer threat environment and help solve the anti-access, area denial challenge 

posed by current threats, while operating in an enemy integrated air defense system 

environment. Army Aviation is also developing smaller, more versatile modular 

missile technology that allows a more scalable and tailorable precision munition 

for soft/mid-range targets. Tailoring of the munitions will allow a more affordable 
91Department of Defense

precision munition for our UAS. These smaller precision weapons will increase 

lethality and provide more flexibility in targeting. 

The Army began fielding and improving other munitions, including the Joint 

Air-to-Ground Missile (JAGM). The JAGM is a multi-mode guidance munition 

capable of Precision Point and Fire-and-Forget targeting. The multiple sensor 

design provides a capability that enables employment in adverse weather and 

against countermeasures while also affording simultaneous engagements on both 

moving and stationary targets with increased lethality. 

In February 2020, the AROC approved a Directed Requirement (DR) to field 

the Spike Non-Line of Sight (NLOS) missile to our highest priority theaters in 

order to satisfy two COCOM Operational Needs Statements and close one of 

Army Aviation’s identified Large Scale Combat Operations gaps. Spike NLOS is 

an interim Long Range Precision Munition (LRPM) solution that possesses the 

range and many capabilities required for Army Aviation to be successful against 

peer adversaries in conflict. Testing and federation efforts will begin by the 

Apache Program Management office and the Aviation Technology Development 

Directorate in early 2021, with the goal of fielding a limited number of systems in 

priority theaters by 2023. The FVL CFT will conduct a competitive shoot-off in 

2022 that will inform the LRPM Program of Record. 

Flight Test Patriot-27 Event 2 (FTP-27 E2): The Joint Functional Component 

Command Integrated Missile Defense J8 Directorate has been working closely with 

the Missile Defense Agency (MDA) in test planning and execution of new Ballistic 

Missile Defense System capabilities that will enhance regional BMD in all theaters. 

The MDA, in conjunction with the Army, executed Flight Test Patriot-27 Event 2 

(FTP-27 E2) at the White Sands Missile Range and Fort Wingate, New Mexico. 

FTP-27 E2 was a demonstration of Patriot Launch on Remote using Terminal 

High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD) AN/TPY-2 Terminal Mode (TM) track 

and discrimination data. The Black Dagger short-range ballistic missile target was 

launched from Fort Wingate and flew a nominal trajectory. The AN/TPY-2 TM 

radar detected, tracked, and provided discrimination data to the Patriot battery. 

The battery received the data from THAAD, developed a firing solution based on 

remote data, and fired two PAC-3 MSE missiles. 
92Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

Ballistic and Hypersonic Test Support: On October 2, 2019, the Reagan Test 

Site (RTS), located at U.S. Army Garrison–Kwajalein Island, successfully supported Air Force Global Strike Command’s Minuteman III Glory Trip 232 operational test mission. The launch was initiated from Vandenberg Air Force Base, 

California, and impacted at RTS within the Kwajalein Missile Impact Scoring 

System. Glory Trip tests demonstrate the capability of the U.S. intercontinental 

ballistic missile system. 

On March 19, 2020, the RTS located at U.S. Army Garrison–Kwajalein Island 

supported the successful test of the Army and Navy jointly developed hypersonic 

glide body. Information from the test will inform the Department of Defense’s 

(DOD’s) hypersonic technology development. MDA monitored and gathered tracking data from the flight experiment that will inform its ongoing development of 

systems designed to defend against adversary hypersonic weapons. The event was a 

major milestone toward the goal of fielding hypersonic defense against hypersonic 

warfighting capabilities in the early- to mid-2020s. RTS provides test support capabilities found nowhere else in the world and is the Nation’s only long-range capable 

test range. 

Navy

During FY 2020, the Department of the Navy continued to mature its longrange Cruise Missile Strategy. Key developmental and sustainment tenets of this 

strategy include 1) demilitarization of Tomahawk Land Attack/Block III; 2) support 

of Tactical Tomahawk (TACTOM)/Block IV recertification program, and development/fielding of new Block V capabilities through integration of modernization 

and obsolescence upgrades to TACTOM during a midlife recertification program 

(which extends the missile service life an additional 15 years); 3) continued fielding of the Long-Range Anti-Ship Missile (LRASM) as the Offensive Anti-Surface 

Warfare/Increment 1 material solution to meet near- to mid-term anti-access 

Anti-Surface Warfare threats; and 4) development of follow-on Next Generation 

Strike Capability (NGSC) weapons to address future threats and targets in time 

to replace or update legacy weapons while bringing next-generation technologies 

into the Navy’s standoff conventional strike capabilities. NGSC includes capabilities to counter long-term anti-surface warfare threats and a surface- and 
93Department of Defense

subsurface-launched Next Generation Land Attack Weapon (NGLAW) to initially 

complement, and then replace, legacy land attack cruise missile weapon systems. 

TACTOM was originally planned to end production after FY 2018 (Full Rate 

Production [FRP] 15), but the NGLAW Analysis of Alternatives determined that 

Tomahawk, with its planned capabilities upgrades, is an effective long-range strike 

solution into the 2030s. 

LRASM shifted focus from initial development and fielding to obsolescence 

management as components within the baseline system required replacement. 

Modest improvements in performance are expected as well.

Using multi-mode seeker and two-way datalink capabilities, the Joint Small 

Diameter Bomb II (SDB II) program provides an adverse weather, day-or-night 

standoff capability against mobile, moving, and fixed targets and enables target 

prosecution while minimizing collateral damage. During FY 2019, SDB II completed U.S. Air Force (USAF) operational test (OT) flights on the F-15E. The OT 

report and fielding for USAF is expected in early 2021. The Navy began developmental test flights in 2019 on both the F/A-18E/F and the F-35. The Navy is on 

track to field SDB II on the F/A-18E/F in the fourth quarter of FY 2020 and on the 

F-35B in 2021 for USMC. The Navy procured 750 weapons (Lot 5) in 2019 with 

deliveries in 2021. 

The Advanced Precision Kill Weapon System (APKWS) guidance kit transforms 

an unguided 2.75-inch (70-millimeter) rocket into a precision-guided rocket, giving 

warfighters a low-cost surgical strike capability. The APKWS rocket redefines precision by hitting the target with pinpoint accuracy and minimal collateral damage. 

The rocket has been proven in combat for ten years. The Advanced Precision Kill 

Weapon System continued its high level of reliability and lethality as this weapon 

has become one of the key weapons in the current fight against the Islamic State 

(known variously as ISIS and ISIL). The Navy has delivered 40,000 APKWS guidance kits to date to Navy/Marine, Air Force, Army, and Foreign Military Sales 

customers. Efforts are under way to develop a Single Variant guidance kit to replace 

separate Rotary Wing and Fixed Wing versions, increase fleet logistical flexibility, 

and address component part obsolescence. 
94Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

Aviation Survivability Equipment

Army

Aviation Survivability Equipment (ASE) is essential to providing force protection for aircraft against emerging advanced threats. Nowhere is this more evident than in the Concept of Operations (CONOPS) for FVL in Multi-Domain 

Operations (MDO). Therefore, while we continue to maintain capable ASE systems in the current fleet and develop advanced capabilities to counter an everevolving array of threat systems, we are viewing the future of ASE through an 

FVL lens. The Common Missile Warning System (CMWS) continues to provide 

the Army’s fleet with infrared (IR) threat detection with the primary focus on 

Man-Portable Air Defense Systems (MANPADS). CMWS employs a range of 

expendable countermeasures on all platforms with the addition of the Advanced 

Threat IR Countermeasure system on CH-47s to defeat incoming MANPADS. 

Army Aviation has begun receiving production systems of the Common Infrared 

Countermeasure and the initial component deliveries of the Limited Interim 

Missile Warning System, a directed requirement increment intended as a rapid 

capability insertion for improved protection of Army helicopters. Army Aviation 

is also developing requirements for the next-generation ASE systems with an eye 

toward both FVL and the current fleet. Those advanced capabilities have to protect our aircraft and crews against a range of advanced MANPADS as well as 

vehicle-borne systems that include radar, laser, and various passively cued systems. 

FVL efforts provide the ASE program office with a unique opportunity to assess 

offerings from FVL competitors in addition to ongoing developmental programs. 

In the area of radio frequency (RF) systems, the Army completed the validation and verification of the APR-39D(V)2 Radar Warning Receiver and began its 

fielding. APR-39D(V)2 is a bridging capability while we continue development of 

the APR-39E(V)2, Modernized Radar Warning Receiver. Along with advances in 

detection capabilities, the Army is also advancing its threat defeat capabilities with 

the development of a family of Advanced Airborne Expendable Countermeasures 

and is pursuing opportunities to accelerate active RF Countermeasures capabilities. 

Production of an improved counter-RF expendable (Chaff) is expected to field to 

the force in 2024. The fielding of upgraded Chaff and Electronic Countermeasures 
95Department of Defense

will coincide with the improved detection initiatives, with an eye toward implementation in FVL platforms as well as the current fleet. MDO requirements will 

continue to drive Army Aviation science and technology efforts to develop followon systems that are able to detect and defeat a threat system regardless of its targeting and guidance systems, propulsion means, or warhead type.

Propulsion

Army

The Army continues its development of the Improved Turbine Engine (ITE), a 

3,000-shaft-horsepower engine designed to power FARA and replace the current 

GE 701D engine that powers the AH-64 and UH-60 airframes. The ITE is critical 

to the FARA program and supports the Army’s Multi-Domain Operations (MDO) 

concept with increased reach and lethality in its enduring aircraft fleet, specifically 

through lower fuel consumption, higher shaft horsepower, improved sustainability 

and growth margins, and improved performance at 6,000 feet pressure altitude and 

95°F. Having already achieved Program Milestone B and an approved Acquisition 

Program Baseline (APB), the PEO Aviation, Aviation Turbine Engines Project 

Office successfully completed engine fit checks in both the AH-64 and UH-60 and 

Critical Design Reviews (CDR) in 2020. The first engine to test was scheduled for 

delivery to the Army in mid-2021, and current projections indicate that the Army 

will achieve Milestone C and aircraft qualifications on the FARA CP, AH-64, and 

UH-60 in FY 2024.

Space

Army 

Army Astronauts 

Colonel (Dr.) Andrew R. Morgan, U.S. Army, launched onboard the Soyuz 

MS-13 spacecraft from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in southern Kazakhstan on 

July 20, 2019, to the International Space Station (ISS) as a flight engineer for 

Expeditions 60, 61, and 62. When his 272-day mission ended on April 17, 2020, 
96Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

it established COL Morgan as the record holder of the longest-duration single 

spaceflight mission by a currently serving active duty military officer. COL Morgan 

conducted seven spacewalks, totaling 45 hours and 48 minutes, four of which were 

to improve and extend the life of the Station’s Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer as it 

looked for evidence of dark matter in the universe. He established another record 

for the most spacewalks conducted by a U.S. astronaut in a single spaceflight, tying 

the Russian cosmonaut record. COL Morgan’s extended stay in space increased 

the space community’s body of knowledge about how the human body responds to 

long-duration spaceflight through the various investigations he supported, including the Fluid Shifts study. 

Lieutenant Colonel Frank Rubio, U.S. Army, completed his astronaut candidate 

training and on January 10, 2020, earned the designation of NASA astronaut. His 

class of 11 new astronauts are slated for NASA’s Artemis program. 

SpaceX Training with Industry 

In FY 2020, the Army sent its second Space Operations Officer to SpaceX as part 

of its Training with Industry (TWI) fellowship program. TWI is a work-experience 

training program designed to imbed selected officers with industry leaders. This 

exposure gives officers insight into current commercial industry technology processes, business practices, corporate structures and cultures, and various management techniques. During his fellowship with SpaceX, Captain J. Cupit served as 

a mission integration engineer on the Commercial Crew Program (CCP) Mission 

Management Team, and his efforts were crucial in the successful launch of the 

Commercial Crew Demonstration 2 (Demo-2) spacecraft, which restored America’s 

human spaceflight capability. He played a pivotal role in the certification of the 

CCP Demo-2 Dragon spacecraft, which made history on May 30, 2020, when it 

successfully launched two NASA astronauts, Robert Behnken and Douglas Hurley, 

into space and docked with the ISS the following day. Cupit worked with SpaceX 

and NASA engineers to negotiate the testing, qualification, and approval of all 

Demo-2 Dragon change tickets, qualification test plans and reports, and final verification reviews for over 1,000 components. He held daily meetings with NASA 

technical leads to resolve issues with the qualification of the Demo-2 Dragon 

vehicle. Additionally, while working with the CCP Mission Management Team, 
97Department of Defense

he was certified as a Mission Control Operator and participated in Crew/Operator 

Training events in preparation for the Demo-2 Dragon Launch. He also contributed to the certification of the In-Flight Abort Test, which SpaceX and NASA 

conducted to validate the emergency abort capabilities of the Dragon Capsule and 

its ability to separate from the Falcon-9 rocket. SpaceX management hand-picked 

Cupit to serve on SpaceX’s Proposal Team to assist in writing the company’s lunar 

HLS proposal. He developed and wrote the Collaboration Plan and multiple technical sections to establish partnerships between SpaceX and NASA to advance 

technical designs for returning U.S. astronauts to the Moon. His work directly 

contributed to SpaceX being awarded the contract for HLS. Jointly, with the HLS 

certification lead, Cupit created certification and NASA interface processes for 

the new program while leveraging crew program lessons learned, maximizing efficiency, significantly improving communication flow between SpaceX and NASA, 

and reducing internal team administration burden. 

Support to Human Space Flight Operations 

SpaceX’s Demo-2 was the first crewed test flight of the Crew Dragon spacecraft. 

The spacecraft, named Endeavour, launched on May 30, 2020, and carried NASA 

astronauts Douglas Hurley and Robert Behnken to the ISS. Demo-2 was intended 

to complete the validation of crewed spaceflight operations using SpaceX hardware 

and to receive human-rating certification for the spacecraft, including astronaut 

testing of Crew Dragon capabilities on orbit. During the return of Demo-2 on 

August 2, 2020, precautionary Search and Rescue (SAR) forces were postured at 

primary and secondary splashdown locations. The SAR aircraft and vessels employ 

Friendly Force Tracking/Blue Force Tracking (FFT/BFT) systems that provide 

near-real-time location and status of the SAR assets. All of the SAR FFT/BFT 

systems are provisioned to the SMDC Force Tracking Mission Management Center 

(FT-MMC) in Colorado Springs, where the tracking data are managed and disseminated to the USNORTHCOM Common Operational Picture and the other 

tactical displays providing commanders with command-and-control capabilities 

and situational awareness of SAR forces. 
98Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

History of the Transfer of the Army’s Space Mission to NASA 

In July 2020, NASA celebrated the 60th anniversary of the George C. Marshall 

Space Flight Center located on Redstone Arsenal. This anniversary also marked 

a significant milestone in the Army space program. On July 1, 1960, the first day 

of fiscal year 1961, the core of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency/Army Ordnance 

and Missile Command transferred to NASA, becoming the Marshall Space 

Flight Center. 

Air Force

Environmental Monitoring

The Weather System Follow-on (WSF) environmental satellite system follows a two-phased acquisition approach that places the Compact Ocean Wind 

Vector Radiometer (COWVR) technology demonstration on the ISS via the 2021 

installation of the Space Test Program–H8 (STP-H8). The COWVR demonstration is intended to mature the technology and develop ground-processing algorithms. The WSF–Microwave (WSF-M) program will collect critical observations 

on Ocean Surface Vector Winds and Tropical Cyclone Intensity. WSF-M is the 

planned replacement for the legacy WindSat mission as well as the Special Sensor 

Microwave Imager/Sounder sensors, which fly on the Defense Meteorological 

Satellite Program (DMSP) satellites. The first of up to two WSF-M satellites is in 

development, having achieved acquisition Milestone-B in May 2020 and initial 

launch capability in late 2023.

The Electro-optical/infrared Weather System (EWS, formerly WSF-E) prototyping activities were conducted among competing vendors starting in spring of 

2020 that will lead to downselect in early 2021 for prototype launches in 2022 and 

2023. EWS will satisfy DOD’s two highest-priority Space Based Environmental 

Monitoring (SBEM) sensing needs from the family of systems’ “early-morning” 

orbit–Cloud Characterization and Theater Weather Imagery. The initial launch 

capability for EWS that will begin replacement of DMSP is scheduled for 2025. 

Beginning in 2018, the Air Force and NOAA conducted various technical 

interchanges, site surveys, and planning activities for the Electro-optical/infrared Weather System-Geostationary (EWS-G, formerly WSF-G). The intended 
99Department of Defense

purpose of EWS-G is to provide persistent weather monitoring of the CENTCOM 

Area of Responsibility from a dedicated U.S. geostationary SBEM satellite before 

Europe’s Meteosat-8 reaches its projected end of mission. A remote ground station 

in Western Australia became operational in late 2019, supporting tracking, telemetry, and control for EWS-G. EWS-G reached Initial Operational Capability in 

September 2020, providing timely and reliable SBEM capabilities to CENTCOM.

The Space Situational Awareness Environmental Monitoring (SSAEM) program 

is a technology demonstration project to support the international Constellation 

Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere and Climate 2 (COSMIC-2) mission. The SSAEM program provides the acquisition, development, and launch/

on-orbit support of 18 space/terrestrial weather sensors to COSMIC-2 in coordination with National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and 

Taiwan’s National Space Organization (NSPO). COSMIC-2, launched in 2019, 

consists of six satellites in an equatorial, low-Earth orbit with three SSAEM 

sensors in each spacecraft. Final orbital placement of the six satellites occurred 

throughout FY 2020. The sensor types are Tri-Global Navigation Satellite System 

Radio Occultation System, Ion Velocity Meter, and Radio Frequency Beacon. The 

SSAEM sensors will observe ionospheric density, equatorial ionospheric scintillation, and electric field to provide additional space meteorological data to improve 

forecast capabilities and improve warfighter navigation/communication capabilities 

over the next five years. 

Missile Warning/Attack Assessment

The Space Based Infrared System (SBIRS) provides ballistic missile warning and 

defense, battlespace awareness, and technical intelligence for the United States 

and its allies. SBIRS satellites and ground systems provide operational capability today and will continue to incrementally deliver additional capability to the 

warfighter in the future. 

The SBIRS GEO-5 and GEO-6 satellites are in production and are meeting cost 

and schedule objectives. In FY 2020, SBIRS GEO-5 entered space vehicle final 

testing and SBIRS GEO-6 began space vehicle integration and test activities. 

The Space Force is taking projected threats seriously and focusing investments 

on maturing resilient technologies. The Space Force approved acquisition strategies 
100Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

for the Next Generation Overhead Persistent Infrared (Next-Gen OPIR) space and 

ground segments to rapidly prototype these new resilient capabilities. The space 

segment will replenish the SBIRS constellation by delivering five resilient and survivable Missile Warning Satellites (three GEO and two Polar Orbit), with the first 

GEO Satellite to be delivered by FY 2025. In FY 2020, the GEO program completed 

Preliminary Design Reviews for two infrared sensor providers slated for the satellite’s main mission payload. In addition, the Polar program conducted a successful 

System Requirements Review in March 2020. 

The ground segment, Future Operationally Resilient Ground Evolution 

(FORGE), is developing a cyber-secure open OPIR mission framework capable 

of hosting applications and providing services to process mission data for missile 

warning, missile defense, battlespace awareness, and technical intelligence mission areas. In FY 2020, FORGE awarded a contract to develop the mission data 

application framework and successfully demonstrated the capability to command 

and control an SBIRS Highly Elliptical Orbit payload. 

Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT)

The GPS program celebrated its 25th anniversary this year of providing uninterrupted PNT data, free of charge, to users worldwide. GPS has been operational 

since July 1995. The success of the GPS program can be reflected in the total number of GPS receivers produced to date, estimated at more than four billion worldwide. The first three GPS III satellite launches occurred in December 2018, August 

2019, and June 2020, with the fourth planned for the first quarter of FY 2021. These 

launches are ushering in the next generation of GPS technology with significant 

enhancements to the current constellation, including higher-power military signals, new civilian signals, and hosted search-and-rescue payloads. GPS III satellites 

five through ten are in various stages of production with the next launch scheduled 

in July 2021. 

The GPS III Follow-on (GPS IIIF) was approved to enter into the Production and 

Deployment phase. GPS IIIF will provide 22 satellites with an eightfold increase in 

anti-jam performance over current GPS satellites. 
101 Department of Defense

Satellite Communications (SATCOM)

The Advanced Extremely High Frequency (AEHF) system is a joint-service satellite communications system that provides global, survivable, secure, protected, 

and jam-resistant communications for high-priority military ground, sea, and air 

assets. Five on-orbit AEHF satellites augment the existing Milstar constellation, 

providing protected satellite communications for strategic users. The sixth, and 

final, AEHF satellite launched March 26, 2020, and was planned to transition to 

operations in October 2020. 

The Evolved Strategic SATCOM (ESS) program is the disaggregated strategic 

communications follow-on to the AEHF program. The ESS space segment was 

designated a Middle Tier of Acquisition (MTA) Rapid Prototyping Activity, 

which reduces the ESS schedule to deliver the first satellite available for launch 

by approximately two years as compared to a traditional DOD 5000.02 acquisition. 

Three rapid prototyping contracts were awarded in the Fall of 2020. The simultaneous prototyping by three vendors will drive competition that will strengthen the 

industrial base for the follow-on build, integrate and test, and delivery contract. 

The Protected Tactical SATCOM (PTS) program is the disaggregated tactical 

communications follow-on to the AEHF program. PTS will provide worldwide, 

beyond-line-of-sight, anti-jam, low-probability-of-intercept communications to 

tactical warfighters in both benign and contested environments. Designated as 

an MTA Rapid Prototyping Activity, PTS will develop two prototype payloads. 

The Rapid Prototyping activity reduces the PTS schedule to deliver two prototype 

payloads by three years as compared to a traditional DOD 5000.02 acquisition. 

Using Other Transaction Authorities, Northrop Grumman, Boeing, and Lockheed 

Martin received prototype payload development awards in February 2020. 

The Protected Tactical Enterprise Service (PTES) is a ground system that will 

provide anti-jam protection via a Wideband Global Satellite Communications system to tactical warfighters currently unable to operate through interference in antiaccess/area denial operational environments. PTES is an MTA, Rapid Prototyping 

Activity pursuing a prototype capability in the Pacific Theater in early FY 2022. 

The Post-Software Build #1 Decision Review was accomplished in July 2020. 

The Enhanced Polar System (EPS) program, with two hosted payloads on 

orbit and a ground Control and Planning Segment (CAPS), were accepted for 
102Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

operational use on November 19, 2019. EPS replaces the Interim Polar System 

to ensure that critical protected communications requirements above 65 degrees 

north latitude are satisfied for joint forces. The Space Force is procuring two 

replenishment EPS payloads, the Enhanced Polar System-Recapitalization (EPS-R), 

to prevent a MILSATCOM mission gap in the polar region in the 2025 timeframe. 

These EPS-R payloads will be hosted on a Space Norway satellite, promoting U.S. 

policy of strengthening international partnerships, and has the potential for saving 

the U.S. Government $900 million in costs. The EPS-R payload delta-CDR was 

successfully completed in October 2019, and the CAPS CDR supporting EPS-R 

was successfully completed in June 2020. 

The Wideband Global Satellite Communications (SATCOM) (WGS) system 

provides bandwidth to support Unified Combatant Commanders, military services, 

other DOD agencies, and international partners. The space segment operates in 

the X-band and Ka-band with flexible connectivity between bands and coverage 

areas to support and connect users operating worldwide. The WGS satellite program consists of eleven satellites with ten currently on orbit. WGS-10 successfully 

passed operational acceptance on November 19, 2019. The WGS program office 

definitized the firm-fixed-price contract for production of WGS-11+ in February 

2020. Additionally, the WGS program office successfully completed Preliminary 

Design Review for WGS-11+ in July 2020.

The United States Space Force Commercial SATCOM Office (SFCSCO) was 

established under Air Force Space Command (AFSPC) in December 2018 and 

was transferred to the United States Space Force (USSF) upon its establishment 

in December 2019. SFCSCO procures Commercial SATCOM (COMSATCOM) 

for DOD by managing more than 90 active customer contracts, leveraging 40 

COMSATCOM providers. SFCSCO delivers unlimited access to the global 

commercial Iridium Satellite Constellation, providing airtime, secure voice, and 

secure data services for DOD, all Federal agencies, state and local governments, 

and foreign partners (FVEY and NATO). SFCSCO also delivers COMSATCOM 

capabilities through standard and custom contracts including transponder capacity, managed services, and custom solutions.

The Family of Advanced Beyond-Line-of-Sight Terminals (FAB-T) program will 

field nuclear-event-survivable terminals capable of communicating with the Milstar 
103 Department of Defense

and AEHF satellite constellations using jam-resistant, low-probability-of-intercept, 

and low-probability-of-detection waveforms. All 84 planned FAB-T Command Post 

Terminals are now on contract, 33 terminals have been delivered, 18 terminals 

have been installed, and 14 are in operational use. 

Space Access

The National Security Space Launch (NSSL) program continues to successfully place satellites into orbit. There were three launches during FY 2020: United 

Launch Alliance (ULA) successfully launched two National Security Space (NSS) 

launches, and SpaceX launched one.

(Launch Date, Launch Vehicle Configuration, Payload)

• March 26, 2020, Atlas V (551), Advanced Extremely High Frequency 

(AEHF)-6

• June 30, 2020, Falcon 9 Upgrade, Global Positioning System (GPS) III-3 

• May 17, 2020, Atlas V (501), United States Space Force (USSF)-7 

On August 12, 2020, the U.S. Space Force’s Space and Missile Systems Center, 

in partnership with the National Reconnaissance Office’s Office of Space Launch, 

competitively awarded two firm-fixed-price, indefinite delivery requirement contracts to ULA and SpaceX that will provide reliable, innovative, and affordable 

launch services for NSS missions. The Phase 2 Launch Service Procurement was a 

full-and-open best-value-tradeoff competition. This award marks the culmination 

of an innovative acquisition strategy that also used Other Transaction Authority 

investments made via public-private partnerships in Rocket Propulsion Systems 

(awarded February 2016) and Launch Service Agreements (awarded October 2018) 

to end reliance on Russian engines and leverage launch industry innovation.

Since 2016, the Department of the Air Force has actively engaged in evaluating reusable launch systems and establishing common standards consistent with 

NSSL Mission Assurance standards. The successful launch of GPS III-3 on June 30, 

2020—the first NSSL mission to recover flight hardware for future use—returned 

$9.5 million to U.S. taxpayers with no overall change to the mission risk and 

obtained valuable reuse data.
104Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

The Department of the Air Force and SpaceX reached an agreement to reuse 

a SpaceX Falcon 9 booster for GPS III-5 (and GPS III-6, if the contract option 

is exercised). Combined with the booster recovery contract modifications, the 

Falcon 9 booster reuse agreements provide $52.7 million in cash savings.

Rocket Systems Launch Program: The Space Force’s Rocket Systems Launch 

Program (RSLP) continues to provide a low barrier for new entry launch vehicles, 

enabling a diverse vendor pool consisting of both large and small businesses with a 

mixture of mature and emerging launch providers. Examples include the April 2020 

launch services award to VOX Space for the STP-S28 mission and the July 2020 

award to Northrop Grumman to support a tactically responsive mission. RSLP also 

continues with its STP-27RM Monolith mission—the first Rocket Lab launch from 

the United States—planned for spring 2021 from Wallops Flight Facility, Virginia.

Launch Ranges: Range modernization efforts continued in FY 2020 with 

architectural overhauls at the Eastern and Western Ranges with sustainment 

engineering and modification projects to address cybersecurity issues, obsolescent 

technology, and diminishing vendor concerns. Range subsystems modernization 

continued with telemetry, radar, and command site instrumentation and associated software to ensure mission reliability, maintainability, and availability. In 

July 2020, the modernized Cape 1B Command Destruct Antenna operationally 

supported a launch for the first time, in support of the NASA Mars Perseverance 

launch from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (CCAFS). The upgraded antennas 

enable ground control to send a destruct command to errant launch vehicles to 

ensure public safety, while safeguarding against inadvertent destruct commands to 

nominal launch vehicles. The modernization replaced obsolete and unsustainable 

equipment, upgraded communications, and enabled use of the NSA’s latest encryption systems. This critical capability was operationally accepted on May 7, 2020, as 

part of the Eastern Range Command Destruct Modernization project at CCAFS.

Additionally, Eastern and Western Range Network Modernization continued 

with upgrades for mission communications core to provide automated routing versus manual range reconfiguration, centralized network management across the IP 

network, increased bandwidth enabling transport of range data now and in the 

future, and opportunities to modernize information assurance.
105 Department of Defense

Space Rapid Capabilities Office: The Space Rapid Capabilities Office 

(SpRCO) mission focuses on developing and delivering operationally dominant 

space capabilities in support of national defense as directed by the Secretary of 

the Air Force through a Board of Directors (BoD). The BoD is chaired by the 

Secretary of the Air Force with membership that includes the Chief of Space 

Operations; Commander of U.S. Space Command; Assistant Secretary of the Air 

Force for Acquisition, Technology and Logistics; Under Secretary of Defense for 

Acquisition and Sustainment; and Under Secretary of Defense for Research and 

Engineering. Through the BoD, the SpRCO has been assigned and is executing 

programs that fill critical portions of the Space Warfighting CONOPS as defined 

by the Commander of U.S. Space Command. The SpRCO continues to develop 

partnerships with other government organizations, industry, academia, and federally funded research and development centers to aid in the rapid development and 

delivery of U.S. space capabilities at the speed of warfighting relevance.

Space Control

The Counter Communications System (CCS) provides expeditionary, deployable, and reversible counter-space effects applicable across the full spectrum of 

conflict. CCS denies adversary satellite communications in an area of conflict. 

CCS is a key piece of DOD’s space control strategy and has been in operation since 

2004 with the fielding of three Increment 10.0 systems. To date, CCS has gone 

through two subsequent preplanned product improvements and delivered 16 CCS 

Increment 10.2 systems. The Space Force declared it had reached initial operational 

capability with the CCS Block 10.2 on March 9, 2020, and 16 CCS Block 10.2 have 

been fielded and operating at Peterson Space Force Base, Colorado; Vandenberg 

Space Force Base, California; Cape Canaveral Space Force Station, Florida; and 

other deployed locations outside the continental United States. 

The Space Security and Defense Program (SSDP) is a joint DOD and Office of 

the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI) organization, established to function 

as the center of excellence for options and strategies (materiel and non-materiel), 

leading to a more resilient and enduring National Security Space Enterprise. 

The SSDP completed efforts resulting in the delivery and implementation of 
106Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

specific cyber and materiel solutions to emergent capability needs. These include 

the following:

• Developing and accessing protection capabilities, architectures, and 

requirements across the NSS enterprise

• Performing technical analyses, studies, and modeling to inform national, 

DOD, and Intelligence Community policy for enhancing the U.S. space 

protection posture

• Designing and developing tools that provide actionable recommendations 

to individual programs for increasing system resiliency and informing 

investment decisions

• Maturing analytical capability to evaluate resiliency of proposed architectures (both mission-specific and enterprise-wide)

• Developing experiments and exercises to advance space protection 

Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures; Concept of Operations; Space 

Domain Awareness (SDA); and space command and control (C2) systems

• Prototyping C2 and SDA integration solutions to speed information sharing, streamline operations, and shorten decision timelines

• Refining Space C2 requirements based on National Space Defense Center 

experiment results, C2 prototypes, and SDA experiments

The Space C2 system will provide a collaborative environment that will enhance 

and modernize SDA and Battle Management Command and Control capabilities; create decision-relevant views of the space environment; rapidly detect, track, 

and characterize objects of interest; identify/exploit traditional and nontraditional 

sources; perform space threat analysis; and enable efficient distribution of data 

across the Space Surveillance Network. In FY 2020, the Space C2 program delivered key capabilities for theater support and protect-and-defend missions.

Space Domain Awareness

Adversary nations are fielding sophisticated space weapons at a pace our legacy 

SDA and C2 systems cannot currently match. To address the rapidly expanding 

threats to the space enterprise, the Space C2 program will allow the Space Force 

to command and control space control and SDA forces by integrating data for 

commanders. SDA will be an integral tool to help commanders develop courses 
107 Department of Defense

of action to address threats to critical space assets. The program’s new acquisitions approach is an innovative, agile development, security, and operations 

(DevSecOps) effort, linking users with developers to deliver improved and prioritized capabilities to operators on a recurring basis. This pivots future SDA and 

C2 development efforts to a user-driven, rapid-delivery approach leveraging best 

practices in digital engineering to defeat an advancing threat.

Space Fence site 1 was delivered in FY 2020 and provides un-cued surveillance 

of small objects and satellites primarily in low-Earth orbit (LEO) (primary mission), 

as well as medium-Earth orbit (MEO) and geosynchronous-Earth orbit (GEO) (secondary mission), to provide spaceflight safety, early detection, custody of threats, 

and awareness to satellite operators in the human spaceflight regime. Space Fence 

is a high-capacity radar in the Space Surveillance Network (SSN) and provides 

extensive updates to the space catalog, delivers increased sensitivity for new object 

discovery, and delivers optimum orbital coverage, including coverage of much 

lower inclinations of orbiting objects. Space Fence greatly increases the ability to 

understand the space domain battlespace and inform warfighter decisions. The 

increased sensitivity, coupled with increased computing capabilities of the Joint 

Space Operations Center Mission System, improves understanding of the space 

operating environment and associated threats.

The acquisition strategy implemented Better Buying Power—cost, capability, and design trade studies, prototyping, and risk reduction in the System 

Development and Preliminary Design Review phases. Current efforts are focused 

on interim contractor support, software patches, and cybersecurity testing. 

Deep Space Advanced Radar Concept (DARC) is a ground-based Space Domain 

Awareness radar system that detects, tracks, and maintains custody of deep space 

objects 24/7. Two transmit and five receive antennas were built on White Sands 

Missile Range as part of the DARC demonstration prototype. 

Satellite Control Network: Satellite Control Network upgrades continued in 

FY 2020 by transferring two Remote Tracking Station Block Change Hybrids to 

operations at Hawaii and Vandenberg Air Force Base, California. These upgrades 

updated the core electronics to current internet standards while adding automation. The antennas were refurbished with the upgrade. Additionally, two prototype 
108Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

demonstrations showed antenna technologies that support multiple satellite contacts simultaneously from one antenna.

Robert J. Collier Trophy: The Department of the Air Force’s X-37B spaceplane, 

a reusable, multipurpose system that operates without an onboard crew, won the 

prestigious Robert J. Collier Trophy August 13, 2020, for advancing technology 

that pushes “the boundaries of flight and space exploration.” The X-37B provides 

the Department of the Air Force the ability to conduct experiments and perform 

other functions in Earth orbit.

“The X-37B team win of the 2019 National Aeronautic Association, Robert J. 

Collier Trophy exemplifies the kind of lean, agile, and innovative technological 

development our nation needs to secure its interests,” said General John “Jay” 

Raymond, U.S. Space Force Chief of Space Operations.

“Underscoring the importance of space to the nation, the Collier Trophy celebrates the record-setting mission of the X-37B,” Secretary of the Air Force Barbara 

Barrett said. “Most Americans use space daily for navigation, information, and 

communication. Sophisticated and uncrewed, the X-37B advances reusable spaceplane technologies and operates experiments in space that are returned for further 

examination on Earth.”

In all, the spaceplane has flown six missions since being launched for the first 

time on April 22, 2010. In 2019 the X-37B set a new 780-day on-orbit endurance 

record and completed an overflight of the United States, using Federal Aviation 

Administration airspace, before landing at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center. That 

mission broke the previous on-orbit record of 718 days that also was held by the 

X-37B. In all, the program has logged more than 2,865 days and travelled more 

than 1 billion miles on orbit.

Space Development Agency 

The Space Development Agency (SDA) orchestrates the development and fielding of DOD’s future threat-driven National Defense Space Architecture (NDSA), 

a resilient military sensing and data transport capability via a proliferated space 

architecture primarily in LEO. 
109 Department of Defense

Per the administration’s guidance, SDA acts as a constructive disruptor within 

DOD for space acquisition and delivery of advanced space-based capabilities for 

the warfighter. The Space Development Agency’s model solves the Innovator’s 

Dilemma1 problem by allowing disruption to improve upon our current architecture 

while ensuring the current mission is not compromised. To achieve this mission, 

SDA uses novel approaches to accelerate the development and fielding of military 

space capabilities necessary to ensure U.S. technological and military advantage in 

space for national defense. SDA has demonstrated the capacity to accelerate DOD 

acquisition processes through the release of two Broad Agency Announcements 

(BAAs) and four RFPs, as well as the award of seven contracts for space hardware 

since the Agency’s initial appropriation of funds in early CY 2020. SDA employs a 

spiral development approach to elicit warfighter needs and develop and field new 

defense space capabilities in two-year tranches, or capability increments, with 

Tranche 0 launching at the end of CY 2022 and Tranche 1 launching at the end 

of FY 2024. SDA’s first major contract awards for space vehicle acquisition—the 

Tranche 0 Transport and Tracking Layers—each went from solicitation publication 

through the award of multiple contracts in less than 120 days.

SDA is focused on the eight essential capabilities described in the August 2018 

Final Report on Organizational and Management Structure for the National Security 

Space Components of the Department of Defense.

2

 These capabilities include

(1) Persistent global surveillance for advanced missile targeting;

(2) Indications, warning, targeting, and tracking for defense against advanced 

missile threats;

(3) Alternate PNT for a GPS-denied environment;

(4) Global and near-real time space situational awareness;

(5) Development of deterrent capability;

(6) Responsive, resilient, common ground-based space support infrastructure 

(e.g., ground stations and launch capability);

1 Christensen, C. M. (2016). The Innovator’s Dilemma: When New Technologies Cause Great Firms to 

Fail. Boston: Harvard Business Review Press.

2 Department of Defense. (2018). Final Report on Organizational and Management Structure for the 

National Security Space Components of the Department of Defense.
110Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

(7) Cross-domain, networked, node-independent battle management command, control, and communications, including nuclear command, control, and communications; and

(8) Highly-scaled, low-latency, persistent, artificial-intelligence-enabled global 

surveillance.

SDA will not necessarily develop and field all capabilities of the NDSA but 

rather form mission partnerships across the Department to orchestrate these 

efforts, fill gaps in capabilities, and provide the integrated architecture.

Science and Technology

SDA is interested in both broad technology vectors as well as specific, implementable solutions. As the NDSA matures, measurable advances are needed in 

• Global Real-Time Access including, but not limited to, advanced alternate PNT and advanced communication encryption; 

• Comprehensive Space-Based Sensing including, but not limited to, 

hybrid missile tracking architectures and all-weather custody of timesensitive ground targets;

• Advanced Processing and Trusted Autonomy including, but not limited to, software frameworks that enable on-orbit updates and distributed 

onboard processing; and

• Resilient Support and Seamless Interoperability including, but not 

limited to, architecture-wide digital engineering and interfaces/standards 

supporting multi-vendor/industry-wide solutions.

The Naval Research Laboratory is under contract with SDA to develop a 

hardware-in-the-loop/software-in-the-loop testbed for integration and interoperability testing of space vehicles and payloads developed by multiple vendors for the 

NDSA. This testbed will enable integration testing of optical-intersatellite link 

(OISL) implementations to ensure that space communications systems developed 

by different vendors are able to transmit, receive, and process data via optical intersatellite links prior to placing the space vehicles on orbit. 
111 Department of Defense

Missile Warning/Missile Tracking/Missile Defense

The NDSA Tracking Layer will provide global indications, warning, tracking, 

and targeting of advanced missile threats, including hypersonic missile systems. 

The Tracking Layer will include both wide field of view (WFOV) and medium field 

of view (MFOV) OPIR satellites. WFOV OPIR sensors are employed to maximize 

threat missile detection coverage and will cue MFOV OPIR sensors to form target 

tracks with greater precision for dissemination to advanced U.S. weapons systems. 

Tranche 0 of the NDSA Tracking Layer will include eight WFOV OPIR satellites. 

MFOV OPIR capabilities will be derived from MDA’s Hypersonic and Ballistic 

Tracking Space Sensor prototype program and incorporated into future SDA 

Tracking Layer tranches. Tranche 0 will provide advanced missile threat detection 

and tracking capabilities with periodic regional coverage. If funded, SDA plans 

to incrementally improve the coverage of threat missile detection and tracking 

capabilities in subsequent tranches, with persistent regional coverage in Tranche 1 

and persistent global coverage by Tranche 2.

Satellite Communications (SATCOM)

The NDSA Transport Layer will provide assured, resilient, low-latency military 

data and connectivity worldwide to a full range of warfighter applications. On 

August 31, 2020, less than four months after releasing the Tranche 0 Transport 

Layer RFP, SDA awarded firm-fixed-price contracts to teams led by Lockheed 

Martin and York Space Systems for the design, development, and launch of a total 

of 20 space vehicles at an average cost of just $14 million per satellite, including 

non-recurring engineering costs. These space vehicles will be delivered for launch 

in less than two years, and once in orbit will connect to one another and to ground 

terminals via OISLs, which employ free space optical communication to provide 

secure, low-latency, wideband connectivity. Six of the 20 satellites will also have 

Link 16 transmit and receive capabilities to provide real-time dissemination of 

threat missile tracks and time-critical targeting data to warfighting platforms via 

tactical data link.

Modernization of our defense space capabilities and architecture will require 

contributions from a robust and collaborative multi-vendor enterprise. To promote the interoperability of future space-based communications systems, SDA 
112Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

released the open SDA OISL Standard on June 4, 2020, which specifies the NDSA 

Transport Layer’s optical communications interface.

Space Situational Awareness

There have been recent increases in the level of activity in the region of space 

extending beyond geosynchronous orbit to lunar ranges. SDA awarded two contracts for the performance of space situational awareness architecture studies to 

identify effective strategies for persistent observation and deterrence of hostile 

behavior in this cislunar environment.
113 Federal Aviation Administration

Federal Aviat

Administrat

FAA

The mission of the U.S. Department of Transportation’s (DOT’s) Federal 

Aviation Administration (FAA) is to provide the safest, most efficient aerospace 

system in the world. We strive to reach the next level of safety and efficiency and to 

demonstrate global leadership in how we safely integrate new users and technologies into our aviation system. 

FAA in Action: COVID-19 Pandemic

The global spread of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) resulted in a 

dramatic decrease in the movement of people, within the United States as well 

as across international borders. In an attempt to reduce the spread of the virus, 

governments around the globe implemented various measures, including limiting cross-border travel, limiting the size of crowds, employing social distancing 

measures, using personal protective equipment (PPE), and placing restrictions on 

certain sectors of their economies. 

The COVID-19 pandemic dramatically altered the aviation industry. In 

response, the FAA adjusted operations to better support our Nation’s needs, the 

aviation industry, and the safety of the FAA workforce.

In spring 2020, passenger aircraft traffic dropped 96 percent.1 This drop in traffic 

and associated revenues significantly impacted the industry. Through legislation, 

1 FAA Fiscal Year 2020 Performance and Accountability Report (FAA FY 2020 PAR), available at 

https://www.faa.gov/sites/faa.gov/files/about/plans_reports/2020_PAR.pdf (accessed July 25, 2022).
114Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

including the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act, and 

issuances of exemptions and other types of relief, the Federal Government kept 

airports open and aircraft flying. Since the beginning of the pandemic, the FAA 

has played an important role in safeguarding the National Airspace System (NAS).

Protecting the NAS

The DOT, including the FAA, carried out important roles in leading the 

COVID-19 pandemic response in the aviation sector and the wider transportation 

industry. With the passage of the CARES Act, the FAA took the lead in deploying 

to 3,229 airport sponsors a $10 billion aid program designed to preserve America’s 

airports. Due to the dramatic decline in passenger air travel, sources of airport 

revenue declined rapidly. To prevent these airports from shutting down, the FAA 

developed a first-of-its-kind grant program to ensure that public-use airports of all 

sizes had the necessary funds to stay open and operational.

Airports are but one segment of the NAS. Air carriers, while remaining operational, significantly reduced aircraft fleets due to dramatic decreases in passenger 

demand. Operators were forced to take aircraft out of service and the FAA quickly 

had to develop a strategy for safely parking more than 2,000 aircraft without 

impacting ongoing airport operations. 

During the early stages of the pandemic, the composition of air travel quickly 

changed. Cargo traffic surpassed passenger travel2 due to the need to transport 

large amounts of PPE and other medical materials and equipment across the country. To safely meet this critical need, the FAA issued, in a timely manner, numerous grants of exemptions and imposed certain terms, conditions, limitations, and 

mitigations to ensure that operations did not adversely impact safety. The FAA, in 

conjunction with the Federal Emergency Management Agency, coordinated and 

facilitated the distribution of 87 million cloth face coverings to all 14 CFR part 139 

certificated airports with air carrier service. 

The relief the FAA granted enabled air carriers to transport cargo in empty 

passenger aircraft and allowed certain general aviation operators to assist with the 

movement of critical infrastructure and medical supplies. To further support the 

2 FAA FY 2020 PAR.
115 Federal Aviation Administration

transport of critical materials, the FAA granted relief from applicable regulations 

to enable the use of unmanned aircraft systems in novel ways, such as to deliver 

medical tests and medical supplies.

At the same time, the FAA continued its mission to provide the safest air transportation system in the world. In the summer of 2020, the FAA began working to 

address the multitude of safety, logistics, and coordination issues related to ensuring 

the safe, efficient, and expeditious distribution of anticipated COVID-19 vaccines 

by air. The FAA collaborated with air carriers, pharmaceutical manufacturers, and 

Federal government agencies to ensure safe and easy air transport of vaccines once 

they were approved for use.

The FAA also worked closely with the Commercial Aviation Safety Team to 

identify quickly the safety hazards unique to COVID-19, disseminate this information to our international partners, and begin the process of developing mitigations 

to help offset some of the effects of these hazards on the aviation industry and 

its operations.

Early in the COVID-19 pandemic, holders of airman medical certificates began 

to experience difficulty obtaining required medical examinations. The FAA 

quickly developed a policy to extend medical certifications while maintaining 

safety standards. The FAA then reviewed each case to verify the individual was 

medically safe to continue performing safety-sensitive duties.

Protecting FAA Employees

Just as airports, air carriers, and other operators kept operating, so did the FAA. 

Air traffic controllers and other safety professionals perform critical work in managing traffic across the Nation’s skies as well as ensuring the safety of the flying 

public. The FAA’s Airport Certification and Safety inspectors also continued to 

work during this time to perform oversight of airport operators and airfield safety. 

To protect this critical workforce, the FAA took extraordinary steps to ensure the 

safety of its employees.

The FAA first ensured that only employees whose responsibilities required them 

to work from the office were required to do so. This policy lowered the population 

density in FAA buildings to the minimum necessary and protected critical workers.
116Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

The FAA proceeded to modify staffing patterns to protect its workforce further 

and ensure continuity of operations. At larger facilities, the FAA created separate 

pods of controllers who did not interact with each other; thus, if an individual in 

one pod contracted COVID-19, other pods would not be affected. If one pod was 

unable to work due to COVID-19 exposure, another pod could take over its shift. 

Finally, the FAA adopted DOT procedures that allowed the FAA to swiftly separate employees exposed to COVID-19 from other employees. In the first month, 

the agency closed affected facilities for several days while it planned and executed 

cleaning. The agency worked with its janitorial contractors to enhance routine 

cleaning protocols and to have hospital-grade services on call to disinfect facilities 

where employees with presumed or confirmed COVID-19 cases had been present. 

Now, cleaning can be completed in a few hours, generally during an overnight 

shift. During that time, the agency might shift operations to an adjacent facility, 

a contingency site, or a sterile area of the same building. Additionally, the FAA 

supplied PPE to all FAA facilities to ensure that the critical work of managing the 

Nation’s air traffic could continue.

Social distancing guidelines forced the FAA to rethink and re-engineer how it 

conducts some of its work. Many of the FAA’s activities, including continuity of 

aircraft inspections, installation of air traffic control equipment, and public meetings, typically necessitate some degree of face-to-face interaction.

The FAA had to adapt quickly to perform some of these critical activities 

remotely. Safety personnel deployed high-definition cameras to conduct certain 

types of inspections of aircraft. Similar techniques aided inspectors in conducting 

oversight over commercial space launches. For example, FAA inspectors in the 

United States safely oversaw multiple rocket launches in New Zealand.

Major Accomplishments 

Commercial Space

The United States returned to crewed space flights in FY 2020. On May 30, 

2020, astronauts Bob Behnken and Doug Hurley launched to the International 

Space Station aboard the SpaceX Crew Dragon capsule. The event marked the first 
117 Federal Aviation Administration

time a private company launched astronauts into orbit and the first time in nine 

years NASA astronauts launched from U.S. soil on a U.S.-built vehicle. Although 

it did not license this demonstration mission, the FAA worked closely with NASA 

from the beginning of this effort to ensure that commercial crew providers design, 

build, and operate their vehicles while focusing on public safety. 

Commercial space operations in FY 2020 saw a record-breaking 31 launches and 

two reentries. To further support commercial space activities, the FAA promulgated 

a rule to enhance public safety during launch and reentry operations while keeping 

pace with an increasingly complex and diverse commercial space transportation 

industry (14 CFR part 450). The new rulemaking arose from a directive of the 

National Space Council to protect public safety while encouraging American leadership in space commerce. Further, as the FAA implements the new rule it will do 

so with strong emphasis on environmental and stakeholder engagement priorities.

The rule eliminates obsolete requirements, replaces most prescriptive requirements with performance-based criteria, and reduces duplicative regulations. The 

rule will also establish a single set of licensing and safety regulations for several 

types of commercial space operations and vehicles so that one license may support 

multiple launches and reentries at multiple locations.

Data Communications

The FAA moved forward with the en route high-altitude phase of the Data 

Communications (Data Comm) program. The FAA controls high-altitude traffic through a network of 21 Air Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCCs) with 

Frequency Protected Air-Ground Voice Communications. The joint FAA and 

industry team overcame many challenges and achieved full operational capability at Kansas City and Indianapolis ARTCCs in November 2019. Following the 

January 2020 decision to deploy Data Comm at the remaining ARTCCs, training 

and testing commenced at those facilities. The Washington ARTCC achieved 24/7 

operations in March 2020. Unfortunately, the COVID-19 pandemic subsequently 

caused the FAA to pause all training and testing activities at the remaining facilities. Once facility restrictions are removed, the FAA will complete the ARTCC 

deployment as efficiently and safely as possible.
118Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

A supplement to Frequency Protected Air-Ground Voice Communications, Data 

Comm enables controllers to digitally text flight clearance and reroute instructions to multiple aircraft at once. Without Data Comm, a controller reads the 

route of flight to the pilot over a voice radio. Then the pilot is required to read 

those instructions back to the controller to confirm the pilot fully comprehends 

those directions, and then the pilot manually enters the clearance. The longer the 

flight, the more complicated the readback, which increases the possibility of error. 

With Data Comm, air traffic can issue an entire route of flight with a single data 

transmission. Data Comm reduces readback errors and the communication time 

between controllers and pilots, reducing gate delays and taxi-out times and thereby 

improving the overall efficiency of the system.

Sound frequency engineering protections through Data Comm are useful in 

flight because they provide a protected digital link between ground automation 

and flight deck avionics in aircraft cockpits. Using the data link, a controller can 

open the menu, click on an aircraft, update waypoints, and more. When plans 

change, pilots can accept route revisions as many times as necessary during flight 

and on the ground.

Data Comm is deployed at 62 airport towers and has saved more than 2.47 million minutes of radio time between controllers and pilots and more than 1.75 million minutes of airspace-user time. It has reduced carbon dioxide emissions by more 

than 20.31 million kilograms and prevented more than 134,000 readback errors.

Aircraft manufacturers, various general aviation manufacturers, avionics equipment manufacturers, and more than 100 domestic and international operators 

participate in Data Comm. To date, 6,000 domestic, international, and general 

aviation aircraft are equipped to use Data Comm; and pilots, passengers, and the 

aviation system are reaping the benefits. 

Notice to Air Missions (formerly known as Notice to Airmen) Modernization

Notice to Air Missions (NOTAMs) provide pilots, operators, and aircrews with 

essential information regarding unanticipated or temporary changes to services, 

components, or hazards in the NAS that could affect a flight from completing 

as planned. As many pilots will attest, critical safety information provided in 
119 Federal Aviation Administration

NOTAMs can be challenging to understand because the notices appear in all capital letters, using abbreviations, keywords, and shorthand. In recent years, Federal 

legislation has mandated the FAA update its NOTAM system. Specifically, the 

2012 “Pilot’s Bill of Rights” (PL 112-153), as amended by the FAA Reauthorization 

Act of 2018 (PL 115-254), requires the FAA modernize its NOTAM system by 

creating a sole repository in a “public central location to maintain and archive 

all NOTAMs...in a manner that is Internet-accessible, machine-readable, and 

searchable.” Pub. L. 115-254 § 394(b). The legislation also requires the FAA “to 

apply filters so that pilots can prioritize critical flight safety information.” Pub. L. 

112-153 § 3(a)(2). 

In response to these safety concerns and legislative mandates, the FAA 

embarked upon the NOTAM Modernization initiative in 2019 to create a single 

system for entering, processing, and retrieving all NOTAM data, and improving 
120Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

access to and use of safety-critical information for pilots and other users of the 

NAS. The NOTAM Modernization will implement internationally recognized 

standards for formatting NOTAMs. This will make NOTAMs easier to understand 

and will improve the ability to sort, filter, and prioritize NOTAMs. The initiative 

will also overhaul the system’s hardware and software to improve the reliability and 

performance of this safety-critical service. 

To date, the NOTAM Modernization initiative has resulted in several improvements to NOTAMs, including 

• aligning the NOTAM governance and operations offices with 

Aeronautical Information Services to create a single authority for all 

aeronautical information with the power to standardize and ensure compliance with FAA Orders and International Civil Aviation Organization 

(ICAO) requirements; 

• retiring redundant and outdated sources of NOTAM information, including the Pilotweb website and the Notice to Air Mission Publication 

(NTAP), thereby reducing the number of places pilots need to check for 

NOTAMs;

• implementing a cloud-based data connection to the NOTAM system that 

makes it easier to connect to NOTAM data via the FAA’s System Wide 

Information Management infrastructure; and 

• charting and canceling more than 400 permanent (PERM) NOTAMs, 

removing them from the NOTAM system and reducing the number of 

NOTAMs pilots need to read during a pre-flight briefing. 

In addition, NOTAM Modernization has made improvements to related aeronautical information, including synchronizing route data (particularly preferred 

routes and coded departure routes) across various FAA systems and removing 

redundant or outdated NOTAM-related information in the Chart Supplements. 

Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast Equipage

As the FAA successfully continues to deploy major Next Generation Air 

Transportation System (NextGen) programs, it is shifting its focus to operationalizing the benefits of these programs for the flying public. For example, Automatic 
121 Federal Aviation Administration

Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B), which uses GPS technology to 

determine the precise location of aircraft, not only helps meet new needs expected 

with the predicted increase in air traffic in the coming years, but also creates the 

opportunity for future operational benefits.

Compared to radar, ADS-B provides more accurate aircraft monitoring and 

expanded coverage of the skies. ADS-B enables controllers to allow aircraft to 

fly closer together safely, thereby increasing the capacity of the NAS when high 

demand exists. However, this is possible only if aircraft utilizing specific airspace 

within the NAS are equipped with ADS-B. As of January 1, 2020, aircraft flying 

in most controlled airspace must be equipped with ADS-B Out unless otherwise 

authorized by air traffic control.

All U.S. air carrier fleets use aircraft that are now equipped with ADS-B Out. 

General aviation operators that need regular access to controlled airspace also are 

largely equipped with ADS-B-Out, and aircraft needing only occasional access are 

continuing to become equipped. To promote ADS-B equipage, the FAA continues to work with the aviation community to establish action plans, as needed, to 

resolve any remaining equipage challenges.

Shortly after the ADS-B equipage rule took effect on January 1, 2020, the FAA 

started using ADS-B to reduce separation standards from five nautical miles to 

three nautical miles in en route airspace below 23,000 feet at Washington and 

Boston ARTCCs.

Unmanned Aircraft Systems Integration

FAA regulations provide for safe crewed and uncrewed aircraft operations. 

Current regulations for small Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS), or drones, permit certain routine civil operations the FAA considers to be low risk. Operators 

seeking to conduct other operations, such as flying beyond a pilot’s visual line of 

sight, must obtain a waiver from the applicability of certain regulations. Prior to 

beginning operations, UAS operators seeking to operate UAS in controlled airspace must request an authorization from the FAA. These requests are equivalent 

to operators filing flight plans for crewed aircraft prior to taking off. The requests 
122Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

allow the FAA to ensure the airspace is available and safe for the operator to use. 

Certain operations may require both a waiver and an authorization.

The FAA worked with nine state, local, and Tribal governments through 

the UAS Integration Pilot Program (IPP). These organizations, known as Lead 

Participants, partnered with private industry to explore the further safe integration 

of drone operations into the NAS. Over the program’s duration, which began in 

2018 and continued through FY 2020, the FAA enabled multiple novel operations 

within current regulations by issuing grants of exemption, operational waivers, and 

airspace authorizations.

The IPP generated opportunities for a variety of novel operations to occur. For 

example, UPS Flight Forward and Wing Aviation (an air delivery service subsidiary 

of Alphabet) earned the distinction of becoming the United States’ first FAAcertified air carriers authorized to conduct UAS package deliveries. In addition, 

part of the North Carolina Department of Transportation IPP team, UPS Flight 

Forward; and Matternet, a drone manufacturer, conducted routine medical package 

delivery with UAS over the WakeMed medical campus in Raleigh, North Carolina. 

This dramatically reduced delivery times for medical samples.

The insurance company State Farm, a member of the Virginia IPP team, operated UAS over people and beyond visual line of sight of the pilot leveraging visual 

observers to conduct damage assessments following natural disasters. Conducting 

such operations with UAS increased the area that the operator can quickly survey 

and reduces the cost to do so. These successful operations led to a nationwide 

waiver that also covers pre-damage assessments.

The Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma gained a direct economic benefit by using 

UAS to inspect pecan trees. These inspections allowed the Choctaw Nation to 

determine that seemingly diseased trees had healthy crops in their upper levels. 

This improved the crop yield for those trees by 200 percent.

The Chula Vista Police Department, which is part of the San Diego IPP team, 

uses drones successfully to enhance the safety of its police officers and the overall 

community by giving first responders an early assessment when they respond to 911 

calls. For the first 1,000 missions, this system reduced average on-scene response 

time from 6 minutes to 2.2 minutes for priority calls.
123 Federal Aviation Administration

At the Memphis Airport, FedEx enhanced the efficiency and safety of its aircraft inspection process by replacing manual visual inspection by maintenance 

technicians with UAS inspection. Using drones reduced aircraft inspection times 

from three hours to 20 minutes and improved employee safety and data collection.

By the fall of 2020, the Lead Participants had conducted approximately 21,000 

flight operations and tests for mission types that included medical and other package delivery, infrastructure inspections, crowd surveillance, newsgathering, posthurricane damage assessments, and law enforcement response. These partnerships 

and novel operations help advance policy development and enable more complex 

routine drone operations. 

In addition to the success under the IPP, the FAA performed research on applications that would be beneficial to an airport operator. There are several objectives 

for this research, which include determining benefits and limitations, minimum 

performance specifications, and standards for using UAS in each application. In 

FY  2020, the FAA completed UAS obstruction analysis testing at McCormick 

County Airport, South Carolina, to understand the benefits and limitations of 

using UAS to conduct obstruction surveys. The FAA also completed initial UAS 

perimeter security testing at Cape May County Airport, New Jersey, to look at 

perimeter surveillance applications using UAS. The results from this research will 

allow the FAA to develop necessary guidance for airport operators on how to safely 

and effectively use UAS for airport applications.

Airport Safety and Infrastructure Investment

In June 2015, the FAA unveiled the national Runway Incursion Mitigation 

(RIM) program to identify and mitigate risk factors that might contribute to 

runway incursions at specific airports. Runway incursions occur when an aircraft, 

vehicle, or person enters the protected area of an airport designated for aircraft 

landings and takeoffs. Risk factors contributing to runway incursions include 

unclear taxiway markings, airport signage, and more complex issues, such as the 

runway or taxiway layout.

Through collection and review of data, RIM identifies specific airport areas 

with risk factors that could contribute to a runway incursion. The program has an 
124Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

inventory of these airport locations where runway incursions occurred frequently 

and worked with the airport sponsors to develop mitigation strategies. 

As of September 2020, the RIM program decreased runway incursions by 77 percent in total at 58 locations that previously had 674 runway incursions.

More broadly, the Airport Improvement Program (AIP) provides grants for 

infrastructure investments at airports across the country and mitigates safety 

risks at RIM locations. In FY 2020, the FAA issued 1,866 AIP and Supplemental 

Discretionary Program grants, totaling $4.3 billion, to 1,508 airports. These grants 

fund infrastructure projects to meet the needs of airports in support of safety, 

capacity, standards, planning, and environmental mitigation. 

The FAA William J. Hughes Technical Center 

The William J. Hughes Technical Center in Atlantic City, New Jersey, is the 

Nation’s premier air transportation system laboratory. Its professional and diverse 

4,500-person-strong workforce and vast array of world-class laboratories provide 

a state-of-the-art environment that enables research, engineering, development, 

testing, and evaluation of advanced aviation technologies. These combined assets 

deliver NextGen operational capabilities that modernize the NAS. The Technical 

Center provided quality test and evaluation services across 75 acquisition programs 

and delivered more than 130 test products in FY 2020.

In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the Technical Center’s resident SecondLevel Engineering groups worked together to issue guidance for disinfecting NAS 

equipment and a temporary safe reduction of periodic maintenance tasks to help 

foster social distancing at NAS facilities. The groups also provided guidance for 

continued testing of critical NAS modifications while maintaining a safe, socially 

distanced environment at Technical Center lab facilities. The following focus areas 

are key to attaining the Technical Center’s goals: advancing aviation technology, 

cultivating a qualified aviation workforce of the future, capitalizing on partnerships 

and outreach with other government agencies and private parties involved with aviation, and advancing core work that supports the three aforementioned focus areas.

To improve air traffic operations and increase the overall predictability of traffic, 

the Technical Center continues to support the development of Trajectory Based 
125 Federal Aviation Administration

Operations (TBO). TBO is an air traffic management concept that enhances strategic planning of aircraft flows to reduce capacity-to-demand imbalances in the 

NAS and provides tools to air traffic management personnel and controllers to 

help expedite aircraft movement between origin and destination airports. 

Through improved strategic planning and management of traffic flows, TBO 

helps reduce reactive decision making and use of static miles-in-trail restrictions. 

In support of this important initiative, the Technical Center established a TBO 

Integrated Test Environment (TITE) that combines resources and tools at the 

Technical Center with partner agency capabilities. The TITE includes multiple 

hardware and software systems, prototypes, and network topologies (arrangement 

of elements in a communications network) that will enable the FAA to test, evaluate, and develop TBO.

In support of other research and development efforts to advance aviation technology, the Technical Center staff continued testing of alternative non-fluorinated 

fire-fighting foam products in the Aircraft Rescue and Firefighting Test Facility. 

This research responds to high-priority congressional direction to identify and 

enable replacements for Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF) products presently in 

use in aircraft rescue and firefighting. Since January 2020, the facility has worked 

with the Department of the Navy, and the Department of Defense at large, to 

develop a Military Specification for PFAS-free AFFF products.

The National Airport Pavement test facility also conducted testing of emerging and sustainable pavement technologies. This research is focused on improving current processes using recycled aggregate as well as new materials including 

warm-mix asphalt and low-carbon concrete in an effort to reduce the amount of 

embodied carbon during the lifecycle of airport pavements. 

The Technical Center established a new Cooperative Research and Development 

Agreement with Seattle-based magniX, a creator of electric propulsion systems for 

aviation, to advance the understanding of safety risks and hazards associated with 

electric-powered aircraft. This agreement enables a key partnership for governmentindustry collaboration to advance understanding, maturation, and adoption of a 

new aircraft propulsion technology with reduced potential for polluting.

In addition, the Technical Center, along with the Departments of Defense 

(DOD) and Homeland Security (DHS), conducted a series of aviation cyber risk 
126Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

reduction flight tests with military and FAA aircraft. This was a joint interagency 

effort to mitigate data confidentiality, integrity, and availability vulnerabilities that 

puts at risk operational safety, security, and mission success on the ground and in 

the air to help inform policy, rulemaking, training, and regulations and allow for 

the appropriate use of tactics, techniques, and procedures in the aviation ecosystem.

Finally, Technical Center operations significantly enhanced the FAA’s environmental performance by implementing innovative Thermal Conducting Heating 

(TCH) technology to accelerate remediation of spilled jet fuel contamination 

of groundwater. The TCH technology works by heating large areas of soil to 

100 degrees Celsius, thus boiling away hazardous chemicals contaminating the 

ground water. The hazardous vapors created from the heating are captured and 

burned to eliminate any hazardous chemicals or further releases to the environment. The 15-year reduction in cleanup costs presents the agency with a cost 

avoidance of more than $10 million.

The Technical Center’s research, engineering, development, test, and evaluation 

capabilities remain essential to the continued advancement of technologies that 

improve aviation, the environment, and our lives. 

Mike Monroney Aeronautical Center 

The Mike Monroney Aeronautical Center (MMAC) in Oklahoma City, 

Oklahoma, is home to more than 6,000 FAA employees and contractors, performing mission-critical activities to support a diverse customer base, including more 

than 35 Federal agencies in addition to the FAA. The MMAC delivers unique 

functions, including technical training; centralized supply chain management 

and field site services, such as maintenance, repair, overhaul, and distribution; 

financial management shared services and information technology support across 

government; aviation medical and human factors research; and registration of the 

Nation’s civil aircraft and certification of airmen. 

In 2020, MMAC staff successfully met the unprecedented challenge of continuation of services while working primarily remotely. In response to the COVID-19 

pandemic, 75 percent of the MMAC’s employees and contractors quickly transitioned to full-time telework. Other notable FY 2020 accomplishments include 
127 Federal Aviation Administration

the achievement of $51 million in cost savings and avoidance by implementing 

streamlined processes and renegotiating contracts, process automation, utilities 

management, and workforce management improvements. As part of its ISO-9001 

re-certification audit, MMAC also achieved level 5 (maturity level) for management control—level 5 is considered best-in-class across industry.

MMAC Facility Management provides facility-related services and maintenance 

for MMAC’s 137 buildings and 3.4 million square feet of industrial, administrative, 

and laboratory space. In FY 2020, this organization oversaw the MMAC COVID19 response team, enabling 2,000 employees to safely continue working on-site; 

achieved $590,000 cost avoidance in energy costs; and completed 119 construction 

projects, valued at $11.5 million, across the MMAC campus.

The FAA Academy develops and delivers technical training that enables the 

FAA workforce to maintain and safely operate the NAS. In FY 2020, the FAA 

Academy recorded more than 50,000 participant course completions, successfully 

transitioned numerous courses to a variety of virtual learning platforms, and virtually trained more than 3,500 participants.

The Logistics Center is the FAA’s centralized maintenance, repair, and overhaul 

provider for the NAS. In FY 2020, the Logistics Center completed more than 1,630 

on-site restorations to ensure continued operations of the airspace system; tested 

and repaired more than 36,000 critical NAS parts; distributed more than 610,000 

parts across the NAS; and sourced, purchased, and distributed 1.7 million items of 

COVID-19 critical PPE and sanitation supplies worth $12.3 million.

The Enterprise Services Center delivers financial and technology services to 35 

Federal agencies, processing millions of financial transactions. The organization’s 

FY 2020 accomplishments include continued reduction in aggregate costs, reducing pricing to below FY 2017 levels, thereby creating more value for its customers 

and providing $3.7 million in rebates to customers over the past two years; saving 

more than $2.4 million through centralized management of FAA cellular services 

and equipment; collaborating with the Technical Center to increase remote access 

capability from 12,500 to 36,000 users; processing more than $56.6 billion in 

grant payments for DOD, with 100 percent paid on time; processing 101,779 travel 

vouchers across DOT with more than 95 percent on time; and processing 351,925 

cash receipts and 42,608 accounts receivable invoices across DOT.
128Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

The FAA Civil Aerospace Medical Institute (CAMI) located at the MMAC is 

the medical certification, medical/human factors research, education, and occupational medicine wing of the Office of Aerospace Medicine which is an integral part 

of the FAA Aviation Safety (AVS) organization. Its mission is to assure civil aerospace safety through excellence in medical certification, research, and educational 

programs. CAMI is one of the premier civil aerospace medical organizations in the 

world. CAMI’s programs focus on the safety of pilots, flight attendants, air traffic 

controllers, passengers, and the entire human support system that embraces civil 

aerospace transportation. CAMI’s certification, research, and education programs 

help to prevent accidents from human causes, make cabins safer for passengers, 

and prepare pilots and flight attendants for post-accident survival. CAMI supports 

national and international programs to promote interaction between aerospace 

medicine professionals while enabling the exchange of scientific information 

and promoting the FAA’s leading role in civil aerospace medicine worldwide. 

CAMI personnel are pioneering new technologies and scientific developments 

that will lead to new global safety standards as innovations are translated into 

aerospace operations. 

Environment and Energy Research and Development

The FAA’s Office of Environment and Energy continued its work to understand, 

manage, and reduce the environmental impacts of aviation through research, 

technological innovation, policy, and outreach to benefit the public. These efforts 

contribute to the overarching vision to minimize the environmental impact on aviation growth by achieving quiet, clean, and efficient air transportation. The ability 

to manage this growth partly depends on the extent to which the effects of noise 

and emissions are addressed. These efforts are contributing to the United States 

Aviation Climate Action Plan,3 which describes a whole-of-government approach 

to put the sector on a path toward achieving net-zero emissions by 2050. Further, 

FAA, alongside our colleagues at the Office of the Secretary of Transportation, 

are working with others across the Government under the SAF Grand Challenge 

3 https://www.faa.gov/sustainability/aviation-climate-action-plan
129 Federal Aviation Administration

to develop a comprehensive strategy for scaling up sustainable aviation fuels 

(SAF) production.4

To support its work, the Office of Environment and Energy maintains a robust 

research and development program to address issues that focus on reducing the 

impacts of noise and emissions. This research program supports several wellknown initiatives at the forefront of efforts to reduce the environmental impacts 

of aviation:

• The FAA and industry work together through the Continuous Lower 

Energy Emissions and Noise (CLEEN) program to develop technologies 

that enable manufacturers to create aircraft and engines with lower noise 

and emissions and improved fuel efficiency.5

• The Aviation Sustainability Center (ASCENT), also known as the FAA 

Center of Excellence for Alternative Jet Fuels and Environment, is where 

the FAA works with leading universities to improve our understanding of 

the impacts of noise and emissions on the public and use that knowledge 

to develop innovative solutions to reduce those impacts. ASCENT is also 

at the forefront of efforts to develop sustainable aviation fuels.6

• The Commercial Aviation Alternative Fuels Initiative (CAAFI), 

enables the FAA to engage with the commercial aviation and emerging 

alternative fuels industries to advance the development and deployment 

of sustainable aviation fuels.7

The Office of Environment and Energy and our research partners had several 

recent notable successes:

• The Office advanced the FAA’s understanding of the noise and emissions produced by supersonic aircraft and UAS, as well as means to reduce 

these impacts through aircraft design and operational procedures. This 

improved knowledge is enabling the development of regulations to facilitate the introduction of these new entrants into the NAS.

4 https://www.energy.gov/eere/bioenergy/sustainable-aviation-fuel-grand-challenge

5 http://www.faa.gov/go/cleen

6 https://ascent.aero

7 http://caafi.org
130Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

• Through the CLEEN Program, Boeing was able to demonstrate structurally efficient wing technologies and General Electric advanced an integrated aircraft power system designed to support future “more-electric” 

aircraft architectures. These technologies improve fuel efficiency 

and complement other CLEEN technologies that are reducing noise 

and emissions.

• The Office also facilitated the public release of the Aviation 

Environmental Design Tool (AEDT) version 3b software, which includes 

improved aircraft performance and takeoff modeling capabilities. This 

new model allows users across the globe to assess accurately the impacts 

of advanced aircraft operations, such as those being developed as part 

of NextGen.8

• ASTM International approved the D4054 Fast Track Annex for alternative jet fuels. This new Annex expedites the approval of new sustainable 

aviation fuels that have reduced environmental impacts, and reduced 

costs and are drop-in compatible with the current fleet of aircraft.

• ASCENT researchers continued to expand and foster the development 

of knowledge and understanding in a wide range of fields and have 

documented their work in more than 100 publications and conference 

presentations.9

The FAA conducts these activities in close cooperation with other U.S. Federal 

agencies, including NASA; the Departments of Defense, Energy, and Agriculture; 

and international partners, such as Transport Canada. They are also being used 

extensively to support U.S. decision making in domestic and international venues, such as the ICAO Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection, for the 

development of airworthiness standards for aircraft noise and emissions.

8 https://aedt.faa.gov/

9 Information on the research results from ASCENT is available at https://ascent.aero/general-publicresources/.
131 Department of Commerce

Department of Comm

DOC

During FY 2020, the Department of Commerce (DOC) continued to prioritize Strategic Objective 1.1, “Expand Commercial Space Activities.” In furtherance of the objective, the Department continued to revitalize the Office of 

Space Commerce (OSC), participated in the National Space Council to advance 

American leadership in commercial space activities, supported innovative 

American space companies to transform traditional space markets and create new 

ones, developed new capabilities to provide space situational awareness data and 

services to the public, drove and implemented regulatory change, promoted space 

weather and Earth weather innovation, and deepened understanding of global 

space economy trends.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

In FY 2020, NOAA’s satellites remained as critical as ever, monitoring the 

wildland fires in the western United States (witnessing the most burned acres on 

record); hurricanes in the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic and Pacific oceans 

(2020 being the most active Atlantic season on record); flooding for Federal, state, 

and local governments; and the second hottest year on record. Twenty-four-hour 

global coverage from NOAA’s satellites provides the public and partners, such as 

the National Weather Service, with a continuous stream of information used to 

prepare for events impacting our weather, oceans, and climate. NOAA manages 

and operates geostationary environmental satellites and low-Earth orbiting satellites, as well as a deep space satellite for space weather monitoring and forecasting. 
132Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

In FY 2020, NOAA involved the National Weather Service’s Space Weather 

Prediction Center to help DOC address Space Policy Directive-3. Given the exponential growth of the commercial satellite industry and accelerated pace of innovation of these companies, satellite companies are assuming more risk and in turn, 

becoming more vulnerable to minor space weather events. 

In FY 2020, NOAA advanced its efforts to partner with commercial space firms 

on weather innovation. NOAA released its assessment of the Commercial Weather 

Data Pilot Round 2 and issued a solicitation in support of its first commercial radio 

occultation satellite data buy purchase in support of operational weather forecasting. NOAA made contract awards to engage the commercial sector in producing 

new concepts for NOAA’s future space-based observation architecture and solicited 

ideas for future commercial data pilots. NOAA also participated in a new Working 

Group for Interagency Coordination of Commercial Weather Data to pursue common approaches across the government to purchasing space-based commercial 

weather data.

Below is a summary of major accomplishments regarding new NOAA and partner satellite assets in FY 2020.

Geostationary Satellites 

NOAA’s newest Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites, known as 

the GOES-R Series, are providing advanced imagery and atmospheric measurements of Earth’s Western Hemisphere, real-time mapping of lightning activity, and 

improved monitoring of solar activity and space weather. 2020 was the first full 

year to see the new GOES-R capabilities deployed in both the GOES-East and 

West locations. Together, these two satellites provide continuous, real-time observation of hurricanes, thunderstorms, snow, ice, fog, damaging winds, fire, and other 

severe weather conditions across the Americas and Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. 

The GOES satellites provided imagery and critical information about the recordsetting 30 Atlantic basin tropical storms observed in 2020, including the 12 storms 

that struck the United States. They also supported emergency responders controlling extreme wildfires in the western states and farmers dealing with $7 billion of 
133 Department of Commerce

damage from a derecho wind storm. The GOES space weather instruments helped 

to confirm the start of a new solar cycle and monitored intensifying solar activity.

NOAA initiated planning for the Geostationary Extended Observations 

(GeoXO) satellites, the next-generation program to follow GOES-R. The program 

team conducted multiple workshops and surveys to gather user needs, performed 

industry and internal studies to assess satellite and instrument concepts, and finalized the recommended observations and satellite constellation. GeoXO is planning its first launch in 2032 to maintain the continuity of geostationary imagery 

and data.

Following is a list of NOAA geostationary satellites in orbit with date launched:

• GOES West (GOES-S/GOES-17), March 1, 2018

• GOES East (GOES-R/GOES-16), November 19, 2016

• GOES-15 (on-orbit backup), March 4, 2010

• GOES-14 (on-orbit backup), June 27, 2009

Low-Earth Orbiting Satellites 

NOAA’s primary low-Earth orbiting environmental satellites, NOAA-20 and the 

Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership (Suomi NPP), provide global coverage 

with advanced sensors for weather and climate data, collecting information on 

atmospheric temperature and moisture, ocean temperature, wind speed, cloud formation, and drought conditions over the entire Earth. All major numerical weather 

prediction centers around the world use this information as the basis of nearly 

every medium-term weather forecast.

These satellites also play a fundamental role in response and planning for 

extreme weather. Their sounding instruments (the Advanced Technology 

Microwave Sounder and the Cross-track Infrared Sounder) were crucial in providing data on the path, intensity, and structure of hurricanes during one of the most 

intense hurricane seasons in history. And in a record-setting wildfire season in the 

western United States, JPSS Active Fire products and Day/Night band imagery 

from the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) were important tools 

for emergency responders, providing a reliable source of data over a wide range to 

help direct resources and response teams when needed. 
134Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

Meanwhile, the High Resolution Rapid Refresh (HRRR) Smoke Model remains 

invaluable in tracking smoke from fires often thousands of miles away. Now operational at NOAA’s National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) as of 

December 2, 2020, HRRR-Smoke simulates the behavior of wildfire smoke, predicting the amount of smoke produced, the direction it will travel and its plume height. 

This can provide important information on harmful particulates for air quality 

managers as well as flight visibility for aviation forecasters and flight operators. 

VIIRS flood detection continues to play a significant role in providing flood 

extent information. In 2020, this included monitoring the spring ice break-up in 

Alaska and Canada, where restrictions caused impacts on traditional river ice 

monitoring programs. In addition, because floods are common and widespread 

throughout the world, knowledge of the extent of the flood can play a role in 

knowing which population areas are most vulnerable, especially with the added 

complication of the pandemic changing previous evacuation plans. Flood products, 

long proven valuable to the National Weather Service, are also helping internationally, providing an important tool for natural disaster response.

The Vegetation Health Index (VHI) model used NOAA-20 data to show crop 

health around the globe. In 2020, the U.S. Department of Agriculture relied on 

this data to develop estimates of crop production in more than 120 growing regions 

in 35 countries. These estimates informed decisions about planting, food prices, 

and foreign market exports, all of which play an important role in food security. 

The VHI model also informed the U.S. Drought Monitor map. 

In 2020, when other methods of data collection may have been affected or 

limited by COVID-19 restrictions, the combination of the Suomi NPP and 

NOAA-20 satellites flying 50 minutes apart provided a steady stream of critical 

data and products to users. The Ozone Mapping Profiler Suite (OMPS) and VIIRS 

instruments were able to remotely measure reductions in nitrogen oxide as automobile use declined and have shown reduced activity in the changed density of 

nighttime lights. In short, the JPSS satellites allowed for lower latency data and 

increased global coverage for numerical weather models, forecast applications, and 

emergency response.

The Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere, and Climate 

(COSMIC) follow-on COSMIC-2/FORMOSAT-7 constellation provides precision 
135 Department of Commerce

radio occultation soundings to support improved numerical weather prediction 

model forecasts. The program is being conducted under an agreement between 

the American Institute in Taiwan (AIT) and the Taipei Economic and Cultural 

Representative Office (TECRO) in the United States, for which NOAA is 

AIT’s designated representative, and the Taiwan National Space Organization is 

TECRO’s designated representative. The mission consists of six satellites designed 

to improve weather forecasts and space weather monitoring via state-of-the-art 

instruments that provide improved precision and performance, as well as five times 

the number of measurement capabilities, with near-real-time numerical weather 

prediction. By measuring the bending due to refraction of Global Navigation 

Satellite System (GNSS) signals through Earth’s atmosphere, the COSMIC-2 

satellites provide meteorologists with information such as temperature, pressure, 

density, and water vapor, which will help meteorologists better observe, study, and 

forecast severe storms. Temperature measurements derived from radio occultation 

are very accurate and are well-suited to help scientists understand long-term climate changes. Additionally, the COSMIC-2 GNSS receivers are sensitive to space 

weather effects on the ionosphere that can cause regional and local disruption of 

radio communications and affect accuracy of GNSS readings.

Since the launch of the six COSMIC-2/FORMOSAT-7 satellites on June 25, 

2019, the joint program has commissioned the satellites and transitioned them 

incrementally to their operational orbital positions over the course of 19 months. 

The program has been calibrating and validating the data. The neutral atmosphere 

data have been in use operationally by the U.S. National Weather Service, the 

Taiwan Central Weather Bureau, and global weather forecast centers since the 

spring of 2020. COSMIC-2/FORMOSAT-7 data proved to be a valuable new data 

resource during the active Atlantic hurricane season in 2020. As the calibration 

and validation of the space weather data products have progressed, the products 

have been released incrementally.

The Argos Advanced Data Collection System (A-DCS) is a data collection and 

relay program that provides global coverage and platform location services dedicated to studying and protecting the environment. The Argos system supports a 

wide variety of applications, including environmental monitoring, marine fisheries 

applications, and maritime security applications. The Argos system consists of DCS 
136Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

instruments that are hosted on polar-orbiting satellites operated by the European 

Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT), the 

Indian Space Research Organisation, and NOAA in three Sun-synchronous orbits 

that ensure timely reporting at all latitudes. The current DCS instruments on the 

NOAA polar-orbiting satellites (NOAA-15, -18, -19) are operating well beyond their 

design life. To provide continuity of service, NOAA, under an international agreement with the French space agency CNES, is providing accommodation for the 

next Argos DCS payload (Argos-4) on a commercial spacecraft using a U.S. Space 

Force Hosted Payload Solutions contract. In 2018, a delivery order was awarded to 

General Atomics to integrate and launch the Argos-4 payload on the Orbital Test 

Bed-3 spacecraft by October 10, 2022. In 2020, General Atomics completed the 

host spacecraft Critical Design Review, and received the Argos-4 instrument from 

CNES for integration into the spacecraft during 2021.

Metop is a series of three polar-orbiting meteorological satellites that form the 

space segment component of the overall EUMETSAT Polar System. The Metop 

series satellites are part of a joint commitment between NOAA and EUMETSAT 

to fly complementary polar-orbiting satellites. EUMETSAT covers the morning orbit and NOAA covers the afternoon orbit. The third in the Metop series, 

Metop-C, which launched on November 7, 2018, is a new polar-orbiting satellite 

that helps improve complex weather forecasts and models as well as long-term 

climate assessments. This satellite works together with its predecessors (Metop-A 

and -B), as well as Suomi-NPP, NOAA-20, and NOAA legacy satellites, to collect 

more precise weather data as we continue to improve forecast errors from combined 

satellite observations incorporated into models. NOAA supplied four of the 13 

instruments onboard the satellite, including two microwave sensors that measure 

global atmospheric temperature, humidity, and sea ice, as well as a visible/infrared 

radiometer that delivers imagery of clouds, oceans, ice, and land surfaces. The 

last instrument is the Space Environment Monitor (SEM), which monitors space 

plasma and radiation around the spacecraft. Additionally, the satellite’s instruments provide new and improved observations to the National Weather Service 

on atmospheric aerosols, soil moisture, greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide 

and methane, and radio occultation soundings that deliver enhanced vertical temperature and humidity profiles of the atmosphere. The launch was a collaborative 
137 Department of Commerce

effort between NOAA, NASA, and international partners at EUMETSAT and the 

European Space Agency.

The following is a list of NOAA low-Earth orbiting satellites in use with date 

launched:

• NOAA-20 (Joint Polar Satellite System [JPSS]-1), November 18, 2017

• Suomi-NPP, October 28, 2011

• NOAA-19, February 6, 2009

• NOAA-18, May 20, 2005 

• NOAA-15, May 13, 1998

Following are the partnership satellites with which NOAA partnered for launch 

and/or operations, with date launched:

• Jason-CS/Sentinel 6, November 21, 2020

• COSMIC-2, June 25, 2019

• Metop-C, November 6, 2018

• Jason-3, January 17, 2016

• Metop-B, September 19, 2012

• Metop-A, October 19, 2006

Deep Space (Lagrange Point–1) Satellites 

Geomagnetic storms are major disturbances of Earth’s magnetosphere caused by 

shock waves in the solar wind. Geomagnetic storms are the costliest type of space 

weather events as they can cause widespread damage to power grids, satellites, and 

communication and navigation systems. The Deep Space Climate Observatory 

mission is NOAA’s first operational deep space mission. The satellite has become 

America’s primary warning system for solar magnetic storms and solar wind data 

while giving Earth scientists a unique vantage point for studies of the planet’s 

atmosphere and climate.

As part of NOAA’s Space Weather Follow On (SWFO) Program, NOAA is 

partnering with the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) to build two Compact 

Coronagraph (CCOR) instruments for future space weather observations. In 

FY 2019, NRL’s CCOR completed its Critical Design Review, which affirmed that 

the design meets requirements and is ready to proceed with full-scale fabrication, 
138Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

assembly, integration, and testing. In FY 2020, NOAA continued assembly of the 

first CCOR (CCOR-1) and initiated work on a second (CCOR-2). The first CCOR 

will be integrated onto the GOES-U spacecraft, which is planned for launch in 

2024. NOAA is developing the SWFO-L1 mission, which will include CCOR-2 

and a suite of in situ instrumentation to monitor the solar wind. SWFO-L1 will 

launch as a rideshare with NASA’s Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe 

for positioning at the Lagrange-1 point. 

In FY 2020, NOAA, using NASA as its acquisition agent, put all the SWFO L-1 

instruments and spacecraft bus on contract. In FY 2021, NOAA put the Command 

and Control element of the ground segment on contract and continued to work to 

place the SWFO Antenna Network on contract in FY 2021.

Office of Space Commerce

The Office of Space Commerce (OSC) led a Department-wide campaign to 

advance space industry engagement and advocacy, regulatory streamlining, and 

policy development and implementation. The Office’s staffing expanded via crossbureau assignments and contractor hires. The Secretary of Commerce testified 

before Congress and supported legislative proposals in support of the expansion 

and elevation of the Office of Space Commerce. The Department sponsored a 

congressionally mandated, independent study by the National Academy of Public 

Administration that reaffirmed the Office of Space Commerce as the best-suited 

agency to provide space situational awareness support to commercial and civil 

space operations.

The Department made significant strides in preparation for its future role providing space situational awareness (SSA) to commercial operators as directed by Space 

Policy Directive-3. In addition to the efforts mentioned above, the Department 

established the first instantiation of its cloud-based platform to disseminate public 

SSA data; maintained a continuous DOC presence in the Department of Defense’s 

(DOD’s) existing SSA operations center; promoted rules and standards for space 

safety and signed a declaration of intent to cooperate with the French space agency 

Centre national d’études spatiales (CNES) on SSA matters; and engaged industry 

in continuous dialogue about these efforts.
139 Department of Commerce

The Secretary of Commerce participated in the May 2020 meeting of the 

National Space Council, where he announced the publication of new remote sensing licensing rules. The Office of Space Commerce prepared responses to three 

National Space Council tasks to the Secretary, supported the Deputy Secretary in 

National Space Council decision processes, and represented DOC at other White 

House deliberations on space issues, including involvement in several White House 

interagency working groups. Such deliberations led to the release of Presidential 

Executive Orders on “Strengthening National Resilience Through Responsible Use 

of Positioning, Navigation, and Timing Services” and “Encouraging International 

Support for the Recovery and Use of Space Resources,” Space Policy Directive-5 

(“Cybersecurity Principles for Space Systems”), a strategy paper on Moon/Mars 

development, the Artemis Accords for lunar cooperation, and other documents. The Department also participated in international engagements led by 

the National Space Council, including the U.S.-Japan Comprehensive Dialogue 

on Space.

DOC engaged in continuous dialogue with U.S. space companies to understand 

and support their business needs. The Secretary hosted an event on American 

space startups and how the government can leverage their innovation. The 

Secretary visited and participated in ribbon-cutting ceremonies for innovative 

space companies. The International Trade Administration’s SelectUSA program 

successfully attracted foreign space firms to open facilities in the United States. 

The Economic Development Administration issued a matching grant for development of a space innovation hub in Maine. The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office 

(USPTO) supported intellectual property protection that supported innovation 

and drove technological progress to help transform traditional space markets and 

create new markets. DOC made plans to host the second annual Space Enterprise 

Summit at USPTO, but the event was postponed to 2021 due to the pandemic.

Through NOAA, DOC published its final rule streamlining the licensing of 

commercial remote sensing satellite systems, significantly improving U.S. industry competitiveness and fulfilling the President’s direction under Space Policy 

Directive-2. Through the Bureau of Industry and Security and the Office of Space 

Commerce, DOC continued efforts to protect the transfer of sensitive technologies 

while streamlining export control regulations to ensure they do not unnecessarily 
140Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

hamper international business. Through the National Telecommunications and 

Information Administration, DOC took actions to oppose and seek a stay on 

the Federal Communications Commission’s (FCC’s) order authorizing terrestrial 

wireless operations that would cause harmful interference to GPS users. DOC 

participated in the U.S. coordination with other nations and the United Nations 

to promote common approaches to the authorization and supervision of private 

activities in space.

The Commerce Department’s Bureau of Economic Analysis released preliminary 

statistics at the end of 2020 that measured the contributions of space-related industries to the overall U.S. economy after gathering feedback from space stakeholders 

in industry and academia. 

During FY 2020, the Department continued to participate in the national 

management of the GPS as a member of the National Executive Committee for 

Space-Based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing. The Office of Space Commerce 

continued to host the physical offices of the Committee as well as the http://

www.gps.gov website, which remained the leading source of online information 

about GPS.

Space Weather Prediction Center 

NOAA’s Space Weather Prediction Center (SWPC), located in Boulder, CO, 

provides 24/7 impact-based decision support services through timely and accurate 

operational space weather forecasts, watches, warnings, alerts, and real-time space 

weather monitoring for the Federal government, civilian, and commercial sectors, 

exclusive of the responsibilities of the Secretary of Defense. SWPC ensures continuous improvement of operational space weather services, utilizing partnerships, 

as appropriate, with the research community, including academia and the private 

sector, and relevant agencies to develop, validate, test, and transition new technologies, observation platforms, and models from research-to-operations and from 

operations-to-research. SWPC provides the research community with operational 

needs, including information on model and tool performance, observation gaps, 

and other areas for improvement. 
141 Department of Commerce

In FY 2020, the National Weather Service headquarters and SWPC worked 

with the OSC to include space weather in OSC’s efforts to track satellites and 

debris in space and provide conjunction forecasts for space operators as directed by 

Space Policy Directive-3. Space weather data was also the first dataset included in 

the Open Architecture Data Repository (OADR) prototype for commercial space 

situational awareness. Through National Weather Service headquarters, OSC also 

facilitated a Cooperative Research and Development Agreement between SWPC 

and the University of Texas to advance space traffic coordination and collision 

avoidance support services.

National Institute of Standards and Technology

In FY 2020, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) continued to provide wide-ranging contributions to the aerospace industry, academia, 

and Federal agencies with the research, standards, products, services, and guidance 

needed to advance the President’s aeronautics and space agenda.

NIST’s primary contributions were calibrations, technology development, and 

standards development, which are expanded upon below. 

Advanced Manufacturing for Aerospace Applications

In FY 2020, NIST used measurement expertise in mass, force, networking, and 

other areas to partner with multiple industrial aerospace corporations. In addition 

to providing calibration support, NIST’s broad portfolio in advanced manufacturing helped aerospace manufacturing companies address needs in many sectors, 

including additive manufacturing, collaborative robotics, smart manufacturing, 

cybersecurity in manufacturing environments, supply-chain logistics, and largescale manufacturing.

A project is currently under way for NIST to deliver measurement science that 

will establish the foundation for qualification of machines, processes, and parts 

used in advanced manufacturing (AM) at reduced cost. Machines and processes 

used to produce critical components for defense, aerospace, and medical applications must first be formally qualified to demonstrate that a machine or process 
142Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

will function as expected. Currently no AM machines or processes are qualified 

for critical defense or aerospace applications. NIST’s excellence in measurement 

science and its standing as a neutral third party with a broad public forum make 

it the ideal place to develop test methods and protocols, provide reference data, 

and establish minimum requirements needed to achieve lower costs and more 

rapid qualification. 

NIST contributed to workshops with the FAA, DOD, NASA, and aerospace 

industry representatives to identify approaches for qualification and certification of 

additive manufacturing materials, processes, and parts for use in load-bearing and 

mission-critical applications.

NIST research addressed safety standards for robotic manipulators and automated guided vehicles (i.e., mobile platforms) and measurement science to enable 

new capabilities for collaborative robotics of interest to aerospace manufacturers. 

NIST has an ongoing engagement with aerospace companies to identify technical issues and to define requirements for industrial wireless networking, cybersecurity in manufacturing environments, and prognostics and health management 

for manufacturing systems. As one example, NIST and the Boeing Company collaborate on standards development for prognostics and health management (PHM) 

through the ASME PHM Subcommittee.

Much of NIST’s support for the aerospace supply chain came with interactions through the suppliers themselves. In FY 2020, the Hollings Manufacturing 

Extension Partnership (MEP) National Network engaged in 314 projects with 184 

individual manufacturing clients designated with an aerospace North American 

Industry Classification System (NAICS) number 3364. The MEP post-project, a 

follow-up survey of aerospace NAICS companies, revealed that MEP services had 

resulted in the creation or retention of 2,639 aerospace jobs, over $46 million in 

new sales, over $291 million in retained sales, over $73 million in new investment, 

and over $20 million in cost savings.

Aerospace Systems and Supplies

NIST’s contributions to the manufacturing sector were complemented with support for the design, development, and calibration of aerospace systems and supplies. 
143 Department of Commerce

Contributions included collaborative robotics, material development for advanced 

applications, fuel development, weapons calibrations, and thrust calibrations.

In support of materials development and selection, NIST researchers developed 

a new, interactive spreadsheet that will help the U.S. military extinguish aircraft 

and vehicle fires using the latest environmentally friendly chemicals. The spreadsheet has improved functionality and additional fluids compared to the previous 

program, and links to NIST’s REFPROP database containing properties of many 

additional fire-suppressing chemicals and mixtures. 

Aerospace Communications

NIST contributed to the measurement and development of multiple technologies associated with aerospace communications, including advancements in highprecision clocks used in communication.

NIST is developing chip-scale acceleration-measurement devices that could provide backup navigation systems when GPS fails. NIST is also pioneering radically 

new designs for gyroscopes that use extremely small clouds of trapped atoms to 

detect miniscule directional and rotational changes simultaneously in three dimensions. Such devices could enable accurate navigation for aircraft by giving them a 

way to stay on course when no visual or electronic guidance system is available. 

GPS relies on a network of satellites sending out signals timed by atomic clocks. 

The GPS receivers in aircraft need their own onboard timing source to ensure 

that their reception is precisely synchronized with the GPS, and chip-scale atomic 

clocks being developed by NIST can provide dramatically improved accuracy for 

that task.

Calibrations and Sensor Development for Satellites

NIST contributed to satellite and other space hardware in both technology 

development and measurement calibration.

A NIST team pioneered a revolutionary optomechanical accelerometer that uses 

a microscale optical cavity to detect the extremely small motion of a mechanical 

resonator caused by an acceleration. This sensor is designed to be intrinsically 
144Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

self-calibrating, thereby avoiding the need for periodic calibrations and expensive 

calibration equipment. Accurate accelerometers are critically important for navigational guidance in satellites and spacecraft, particularly when GPS service fails 

or is unavailable.

NASA-built CubeSats—small boxy satellites with dimensions as small as 10 centimeters on a side—are already using NIST on a Chip technology: bolometers that 

measure the power of electromagnetic radiation, specifically the irradiance of the 

Sun. The final frontier promises to be a major growth area for quantum-based, 

chip-scale measurement equipment.

In collaboration with researchers from the Naval Research Lab, NIST evaluated a new approach to calibrating solar cells intended to power satellites and 

other spacecraft. The current accepted approach involves aircraft flying high 

in the atmosphere; the laboratory-based method developed by NIST matched 

data from an aircraft-based calibration and could provide developers of photovoltaics for space applications with a significantly more convenient method of 

assessing performance. 

In support of satellite and related missions, NIST provided calibration services 

and research to enable the aerospace industry and Government agencies to obtain 

temperature, pressure, vacuum, humidity, and leak thermodynamic measurements 

traceable to international standards. Calibrations provided traceability to maintain 

quality systems, to maintain process control, and to qualify instrumentation for 

flight and space travel. Industries that rely on this unique calibration capability 

include U.S. aerospace manufacturers, who need to know if their plane materials 

and designs will be able to withstand the massive forces that occur on takeoff and 

during flight.

Support for Extraterrestrial Research

NIST’s support for extraterrestrial research included measurements for extraterrestrial bodies and for the equipment used to observe them, as well as providing the 

data for measurements.

NIST researchers designed a non-image telescope used to measure the spectral irradiance of the Moon, known as the Airborne LUnar Spectral Irradiance 
145 Department of Commerce

(air-LUSI) system. In collaboration with NASA, the telescope was integrated into 

a wing pod of an ER-2 research aircraft to measure spectral irradiance during flight 

and has successfully flown seven times. NIST will use the data collected to develop 

a new SI-traceable dataset of lunar spectral irradiance, allowing the Moon to be 

used as an on-orbit absolute calibration source, leading to more effective and accurate climate and Earth’s weather changes and better data integration from different 

satellite sources. The air-LUSI preliminary data are currently undergoing evaluation by NIST scientists and end-users.

International Trade Administration

The Commerce Department’s International Trade Administration (ITA) Office 

of Transportation and Machinery (OTM) participates in multiple fora regarding the operations and industry development of UAS. OTM participates in the 

interagency UAS Executive Committee, which addresses UAS policy issues. OTM 

participates in the UAS Security Senior Steering Group (UAS Security SSG), 

which implements policy initiatives derived from the Executive Committee. OTM 

provides industry perspective through the SSG and participates in a working group 

to address testing and evaluation of counter-UAS systems to be operated by the 

U.S. Government. OTM also participates in the UAS Standards Collaborative 

(UASSC) hosted by the American National Standards Institute. The UASSC 

coordinates the development of standards and conformity assessment programs 

needed to facilitate the safe integration of UAS into the U.S. National Airspace 

System. Within these groups, OTM provides industry’s perspective on wide-area 

inspection, international coordination, and adaptability to foster the growth of the 

UAS market worldwide.

Throughout the year, OTM organized and led five meetings of ITAC 1. The 

Committee provides advice to the Secretary of Commerce and the U.S. Trade 

Representative on aerospace-related trade policy issues. This year, the Committee 

provided advisory opinions to the Secretary of Commerce and the U.S. Trade 

Representative concerning the U.S.-Kenya and U.S.–United Kingdom free trade 

agreement negotiations, negotiations with the Government of China, the United 

States–Mexico–Canada Agreement, the World Trade Organization (WTO) 
146Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

Aircraft Subsidies case, U.S.-India trade, U.S. trade with Brazil, and European 

Union (EU) defense policies that impact U.S. aerospace trade with Europe.

ITA continues to support the Office of the U.S. Trade Representative on issues 

relating to the enforcement of U.S. rights under the World Trade Organization 

concerning trade in civil aircraft. In particular, OTM provided support in the 

ongoing U.S.-EU trade dispute over subsidies to manufacturers of large civil aircraft, providing industry expertise in areas relating to changes in the market and 

actions of the major stakeholders. OTM reviewed draft lists of items that may be 

included on tariff lists in response to the WTO’s decision against Airbus.

ITA’s Office of Finance and Insurance Industries continued to participate in 

the Group on the Sector Understanding on Export Credits for Civil Aircraft 

(the “Aircraft Sector Understanding” or ASU) at the Organization for Economic 

Cooperation and Development (OECD). The governments of almost all countries with major aircraft manufacturers are signatories to the ASU, an annex 

to the OECD Arrangement on Officially Supported Export Credits, which 

establishes rules for export credit agencies. The OECD rules aim to ensure that 

government-provided export financing is not a competitive factor in civil-aircraft 

sales competitions.

The 2001 ASU continued to function as intended, but the steep drop in aircraft 

demand resulting from the contraction of air travel due to the COVID-19 pandemic 

prompted signatories to consider whether temporary changes were warranted to 

provide liquidity to airline buyers. Export credit financing levels—already at record 

lows due to unrelated interruptions in U.S. and European support for aircraft from 

2016 to 2019—remained low as airlines sought to delay deliveries and postpone 

purchases. Signatories will monitor the demand for air travel and availability of 

commercial aircraft financing in considering further temporary ASU adjustments.

As a member of the U.S. delegation, ITA helped ensure that the interests of 

the industry were addressed during the ASU negotiations, continued to monitor 

implementation, and participated in negotiations of potential ASU adjustments. 

ITA also worked closely with interagency partners to monitor conditions in the aircraft finance market and supported EXIM Bank’s initiatives to provide enhanced 

financing to the aerospace industry and its supply chain.
147 Department of Commerce

ITA and NOAA continued their active participation in the implementation 

of the National Space Council’s policies, which include industrial base and competitiveness issues. To ensure that commercial interests continue to be adequately 

addressed, ITA and NOAA continued to ensure that all of the policies’ implementation actions will improve the U.S. industry’s competitiveness, stimulate the 

American economy, increase exports, and create U.S. jobs.

ITA continued to play an important role in promoting U.S. aerospace trade 

interests as the industry faced mounting competition from abroad. ITA participated 

in and organized trade events and provided advocacy to support U.S. companies 

in international aerospace competitions, including commercial sales for aircraft, 

helicopters, airport construction, communications, remote sensing satellites, commercial projects, and air traffic management projects. At the close of FY 2020, 

ITA’s Advocacy Center had 27 active space-related cases with a total project value 

of $6.6 billion and U.S. export content of $6.2 billion. At the same time, the 

Advocacy Center had 568 active cases in the aerospace and defense sectors.

ITA’s Export Assistance Center in Middletown, Connecticut, hosted a series of 

webinars on the space sector. The first was launched in June 2020 in coordination 

with Congressman Joe Courtney (CT2) and was a 12-month follow-up from the 

successful May 2019 International Space Trade Summit. Congressman Courtney 

moderated the webinar, which featured space industry experts Major General 

Stephen Whiting, Deputy Commander, HQ, U.S. Space Force, and Mr.  Kevin 

O’Connell, Director, Office of Space Commerce, Commerce Department. The 

speakers provided important updates regarding their respective agencies, current 

opportunities and challenges to the space sector, comments regarding the commercial crew launches to the International Space Station, and information on foreign 

space activities. More than 320 individuals registered for the call, including mostly 

small- to medium-sized enterprises. 

In FY 2020, ITA organized and supported the Commerce Department’s participation in the Dubai and Singapore Air Shows and arranged senior-level meetings 

with foreign government and industry officials as well as U.S. industry executives. 

Through a Strategic Partnership with Kallman Worldwide, ITA hosted numerous educational briefings at the shows to help small- and medium-sized businesses 

enter foreign markets. Additionally, ITA/OTM met with numerous U.S. and 
148Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

foreign government and industry officials to discuss ongoing policy issues impacting the competitiveness of U.S. industry. Unfortunately, all other international 

aerospace trade shows were canceled through the rest of the fiscal year due to 

COVID restrictions.

Industry and Trade Promotion

ITA’s Global Aerospace and Defense Team (Global Team) recorded approximately 207 Written Impact Narratives (WIN) in FY 2020. A WIN is an organizational metric that showcases ITA’s contribution to a company’s success. These 

include ITA and particularly Commercial Service personnel-impacted deals 

with small- and medium-sized companies, as well as larger corporations such 

as Bell Helicopter, Boeing, General Dynamics, Lockheed Martin, and United 

Technologies Corporation.

The Global Team held approximately 3,000 counseling sessions with over 2,000 

U.S. aerospace companies, helping them to resolve international trade issues, identify new export markets, and develop strategies for entering those markets.

COVID-19 impacted the ability of the Global Team to participate “in person” at 

most shows, but the team pivoted to provide virtual services. Prior to the pandemic’s impact, team members provided one-on-one counseling sessions, individualized business-to-business meetings with international business partners, and export 

counseling services to U.S. exhibitors at the Dubai Air Show and the Singapore 

Air Show. ITA trade show support generated trade leads for participating companies, allowing them to enter or expand their exports to international markets. 

Virtually, the Global Team conducted numerous webinars for U.S. businesses, 

covering topics such as export controls, advocacy, Mexico’s airport infrastructure, 

defense sales, and regional market entry strategies for Singapore, Taiwan, Japan, 

India, Norway, Denmark, and France. Approximately 1,100 companies registered 

for these virtual events.
149 Department of Commerce

Bureau of Industry and Security

During FY 2020, the Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS) continued to support 

export control reform efforts as they relate to the transfer of jurisdiction of certain 

items from the U.S. Munitions List to the Commerce Control List. Throughout the 

fiscal year, the Departments of State and Commerce, in coordination with other 

interagency partners, reviewed public comments on the spacecraft and related 

items enumerated and described therein submitted in response to published notices 

of proposed rulemaking. The feedback received has informed ongoing interagency 

discussions on streamlining export control regulations for both the U.S. commercial space industry and those of international partners. Consistent with the 

objectives of Space Policy Directive-2, the Departments of State and Commerce 

seek to bolster the U.S. commercial space sector by lowering the administrative 

burden, decreasing regulatory compliance costs, and increasing U.S. exports. BIS 

also participated in the Transportation Technical Advisory Committee discussions, which include aerospace-related topics such as controls on emerging technology for national security reasons in coordination with international export 

control partners.

151 Department of the Interior

Department of the In

DOI

Remotely sensed data and derived information contribute substantially to 

mission-critical work across the Department of the Interior (DOI). This section 

highlights a sampling of DOI remote sensing applications and illustrates a range of 

technology, platforms, and specialized sensors employed.

U.S. Geological Survey

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) is both a user and a provider of remotely 

sensed data. In FY 2020, the USGS manages the Landsat satellite series and a 

web-enabled archive of global Landsat imagery that dates back to 1972. Landsat 

represents the world’s longest continuously acquired collection of spaceborne 

moderate-resolution land remote sensing data, and the entire archive became 

available to the public at no charge in December 2008. The USGS also distributes 

aerial photography through the National Map. The USGS archives and distributes 

historical aerial photography; light detection and ranging (lidar) data; declassified imagery; hyperspectral imagery; data collected by UAS; and imagery from a 

variety of Government, foreign, and commercial satellites. These data were used for 

a wide variety of applications, such as mineral resource development; monitoring 

the health of U.S. and global ecosystems; land-use change; emergency response; 

and assessments of natural hazards such as fires, hurricanes, earthquakes, volcanic 

eruptions, droughts, and floods.
152Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

Advancing a 3D Burn Severity Mapping Capacity

Research by the Fire Science Team at the Earth Resources Observation and 

Science (EROS) Center explores how a 3D characterization of burn severity can 

be integrated into operational mapping programs. Burn severity mapping is commonly informed by changes in vegetation spectral response; the Monitoring Trends 

in Burn Severity program, for instance, relies on pre- and post-fire Landsat image 

pairs to delineate and characterize fire severity. However, satellite-derived spectral response conveys limited information about changes in vegetation structure 

because it only represents the uppermost layer of the canopy. Structural changes 

in the vegetation understory, in particular, may be obscured. In contrast, lidar 

data penetrate the canopy and record the 3D structure of all vegetation layers. 

A comparison of pre- and post-fire lidar data can thus supply information about 

fire-caused structural changes. The complementary information derived from lidar 

and multispectral data can provide a more complete picture of the fuel load and 

burn severity on the landscape. The objective is to learn how pre- and post-fire 

vegetation structure and burn severity are correlated. This correlation will depend 

on a series of factors including vegetation/forest type, severity of burn, time of data 

acquisition, and data acquisition specifications.

A multi-scale research plan focusing on the Legion Lake Fire, which burned 

more than 54,000 acres in the Black Hills of South Dakota, is being implemented 

to explore this approach. Field-based composite burn index, ground-based lidar, as 

well as UAS-based imagery and space-based observations are being used to explore 

how vegetation structure is impacted by fire from the plot level to landscape and 

regional levels. The plot-level observations provide very detailed but highly localized data, which are useful in building initial models. The space-based observations provide data to derive regionally consistent and comprehensive assessments 

of 3D burn severity. The UAS data serve as an important bridge across observation 

and mapping scales. Knowing how observations, correlations, and errors vary over 

spatial scales is critical to developing actionable science products. As the work 

expands, having the UAS capacity to strategically collect targeted data (e.g., before 

and after a prescribed burn) will be immensely valuable for advancing 3D burn 

severity mapping.
153 Department of the Interior

Advancing Interoperability of the Global Landsat Archive

Landsat Collection 2 marks the second major reprocessing event of the USGS 

Landsat archive since 2016, resulting in several data product improvements that 

harness recent advancements in data processing, algorithm development, and data 

access and distribution capabilities. Collection 2 became available to the public 

December 2020 via EarthExplorer. The USGS Landsat no-cost open data policy 

has continued since its inception in 2008. Collection 2 includes Landsat Level-1 

data for all sensors since 1972; and for the first time, it also includes global Level-2 

surface reflectance and surface temperature scene-based products from 1982 to the 

present. Landsat Collection 2

• is a substantial improvement in the absolute geolocation accuracy of 

the global ground reference dataset—improving the interoperability of 

the global Landsat archive spatially and temporally and with Europe’s 

Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission;

• has updated global digital elevation modeling sources; and

• is processed and accessible from a commercial cloud-based environment.

The USGS implemented a Collections-based Landsat archive structure in 

2016 in recognition of the need for consistent Landsat 1–8 sensor data and in 

anticipation of future periodic reprocessing of the archive to reflect new sensor 

An example of Landsat Collection 2 Surface Reflectance and Surface Temperature of the Bremerton, 

Washington, region, derived from Landsat 5 data acquired on October 6, 2010.
154Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

calibration and geolocation knowledge. Current Collection 1–based products, such 

as Landsat 8 and Landsat 7 Level-1, U.S. Landsat Analysis Ready Data, and Level-3 

Science Products, will continue to be generated and remain available for at least 

one year after Collection 2 is publicly released. The Landsat Collection 2 web 

page provides summaries of the characteristics of Landsat Collection 2 Level-1 and 

Level-2 data products.1

Alaska Statewide Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar Elevation Data 

and Satellite Imagery Status

The 3D Elevation Program (3DEP) effort to acquire new statewide Alaska elevation data is complete. The goal of 3DEP is to complete acquisition of nationwide 

lidar (Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar [InSAR] in Alaska) to provide the 

first-ever national baseline of consistent high-resolution elevation data—both bare 

earth and 3D point clouds—collected in a timeframe of less than a decade. The 

USGS coordinated with other Federal agency partners and the State of Alaska to 

fund the acquisition of the Alaska InSAR data from 2010 to 2019. USGS used its 

Geospatial Products and Services Contract to acquire 5-meter resolution elevation data using InSAR sensors flown on aircraft. The products available from the 

Alaska effort include a Digital Terrain Model representing the bare earth, a Digital 

Surface Model representing the tops of vegetation and structures, and an orthorectified radar intensity image. Final data acquisition occurred in late summer 2019. 

The data were processed by the vendors through spring 2020 and are now available 

for users to download free of charge and without use restrictions on The National 

Map.

2

 In FY 2020, USGS and the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) 

began collaborating to acquire a statewide satellite imagery mosaic for Alaska to 

augment the statewide InSAR elevation dataset. Specifications require delivery 

of a 4-band (RGB natural color and near-infrared) mosaic at 0.5-meter resolution, 

orthorectified using InSAR to meet specified accuracy requirements. Source imagery for the mosaic comes from archived satellite scenes acquired predominantly 

from 2017 to present during summer months through a request from the Civil 

1 https://www.usgs.gov/land-resources/nli/landsat/landsat-collection-2

2 https://apps.nationalmap.gov/downloader/
155 Department of the Interior

Applications Committee (CAC) to NGA. Data delivery was completed in spring 

2021. The imagery is displayed on several state and Federal imagery servers for 

the public to view and can be used internally by multiple Federal agencies and 

the State of Alaska. The statewide imagery and InSAR datasets can be used in 

tandem to support a wide variety of mapping, resource management, and public 

safety applications. These Alaska mapping efforts were coordinated through the 

Alaska Mapping Executive Committee (AMEC), an executive body cochaired by 

the Department of the Interior and the Department of Commerce. AMEC members represent multiple Federal agencies and the state.

Crop Water Productivity of the World’s Leading Crops 

The USGS is conducting crop water productivity (CWP; “crop per drop”) studies of the world’s major crops (wheat, rice, corn, soybeans, barley, potatoes, pulses, 

and sugarcane) using multiple-satellite, multiple-resolution remote sensing through 

machine learning algorithms run on cloud-computing platforms such as Google 

Earth Engine. The overarching goal is to understand how crops are using water for 

optimal productivity and how, where, and how much water can be saved through 

increased CWP. The methodology involves mapping crop types, modeling crop 

water use (m3/m2), modeling crop productivity (kg/m2), and mapping CWP (kg/

m3). As a beginning, a meta-analysis of the global CWP was conducted and published.

3

 The meta-analysis established CWP of three of the world’s leading irrigated 

crops (wheat, corn, and rice) based on studies conducted using remote sensing 

data and published in peer-reviewed journals. Together, these three crops occupy 

30.4 percent (569.3 million hectares) of the total global cropland area of 1.873 

billion hectares. This study established that the United States and China are the 

only two countries that have consistently high CWP for wheat, corn, and rice. The 

quantum of water that can be saved from each crop in each country was evaluated by increasing CWP by 10, 20, and 30 percent. Based on data in this study, 

the highest consumers of water for crop production also have the most potential 

for water savings. These countries are United States, India, and China for wheat; 

United States, China, and Brazil for corn; and India, China, and Pakistan for rice. 

3 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17538947.2019.1651912
156Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

For example, even just a 10 percent increase in CWP of wheat grown in India can 

save 6,974 billion liters of water, or the equivalent of 6,974 lakes each of 100 m3 in 

volume. The USGS CWP webpage provides further details.4

Cyanobacteria Assessment Network

Cyanobacterial blooms are a global concern because they pose a threat to human 

and aquatic ecosystem health and cause economic damage. Cyanobacteria can produce toxins potent enough to adversely affect the health of humans, pets, livestock, 

and wildlife. The USGS is collaborating with the U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, NASA, and NOAA on the Cyanobacteria Assessment Network (CyAN) 

project. The overarching goal of this collaborative effort is to detect and quantify 

potentially toxic cyanobacterial blooms using satellite data records to support the 

environmental management and public use of lakes and reservoirs throughout the 

Nation. Data from ocean color instruments on board multiple satellite platforms 

including Landsat, Medium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MERIS), and 

Sentinel-3 are being used to create a protocol for early identification of cyanobacterial blooms in freshwater systems. The protocol will provide early warning indicators of cyanobacterial bloom development at the local scale while maintaining 

continuous national coverage. 

An Android mobile application, titled “CyAN,” is available for download to 

the public. The app provides access to cyanobacteria bloom status on large reservoirs across the country, and a web application is being beta tested. The CyAN 

Field Exploratory Lakes Database (FIELD) Tool is a stand-alone, open-source code 

application for serving up water quality data for the Nation focused on characterizing the uncertainty of satellite-derived products using field and laboratory data 

and automated quality assurance. It automatically calculates trophic status and 

health threshold exceedances due to cyanotoxin presence. National remote sensing 

archives were scheduled to be publicly delivered in FY 2021. CyAN has met the 

NASA application readiness level 9, and information from this project is currently 

being used by several states to identify cyanobacteria blooms and strategically 

4 https://www.usgs.gov/centers/western-geographic-science-center/science/global-crop-water-productivityand-savings
157 Department of the Interior

deploy staff for verification. The results will support decision-making for public 

health protection balanced against socioeconomic needs.5

Development of an Underwater Acoustic Deterrent System for Asian Carp

The USGS Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center (UMESC) is leading a study to construct, deploy, and evaluate an underwater Acoustic Deterrent 

System (uADS) at Lock and Dam 19 (LD19) near Keokuk, Iowa. The uADS will 

be designed with the goal of deterring Asian carp from moving upstream in the 

Upper Mississippi River. The uADS will be evaluated for up to three years for 

its impacts on both native and invasive fish passage and behavior. To design and 

install such a system, details about the condition of the lock approach and substrate 

are necessary. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers locks are not surveyed on a regular 

basis, so additional imaging is helpful for assessing the condition of the structure 

and identifying locations for uADS deployment and attachment. New remote sensing 

science and technology with hydroacoustics 

and lidar was used in support of this Asian 

carp control project.

Because no single tool can provide a comprehensive picture of LD19, UMESC used 

various sensors to effectively map the lock 

and dam approach. Hydroacoustic data, 

including multibeam bathymetry, MEGAimaging side scan, and underwater video, 

were recorded at the same time as terrestrial 

lidar data to produce a detailed picture of 

the lock approach at LD19. Data products 

created from these sensors include digital 

elevation model, hillshade, backscatter, 

5 https://www.epa.gov/water-research/cyanobacteria-assessment-network-cyan; https://www.epa.gov/

water-research/cyanobacteria-assessment-network-mobile-application-cyan-app; https://code.usgs.gov/

water/stats/cyan-database

Hydroacoustic data provide a comprehensive 

picture of Lock and Dam 19 near Keokuk, 

Iowa, to support the construction, deployment, and evaluation of an underwater 

Acoustic Deterrent System (uADS) to prevent Asian carp from moving upstream in 

the Upper Mississippi River.
158Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

bathymetric slope, MEGA-imaging side scan, and underwater videos. These remote 

sensing technologies will be used to evaluate the condition of the concrete sills and 

discharge laterals where the uADS will be installed. Additionally, images of the 

lock gates, ladder wells, and location of an underwater sewer discharge pipe will 

inform uADS installation plans and provide information necessary for deploying 

a sound and fish monitoring array on-site. Collecting these data prior to system 

construction and installation facilitated efficiencies in the uADS construction and 

deployment process, saving both time and money.

Identifying Tipping Points in Sagebrush Ecosystems 

Sagebrush ecosystems provide valuable services to society, including recreational 

and economic opportunities like hunting and fishing, energy development, and 

livestock grazing. Sagebrush ecosystems also provide habitat for wildlife, natural 

systems for carbon sequestration, and resources for human habitation. However, 

sagebrush ecosystems are imperiled, stressed by climate warming and repeated disturbances that modify the landscape and impact these valuable services. The most 

common disturbance is wildfire, which is initiated, exacerbated, and perpetuated 

by the invasion of non-native 

annual grasses. Knowing 

where a tipping point (i.e., a 

long-term or permanent transition) from a species-rich, 

natural system to an invasive 

grass–dominated system 1) has 

occurred, 2) is likely to persist, 

or 3) is likely to happen in the 

near future is critical information for land managers, policy 

makers, and scientists studying 

and making decisions about 

sagebrush ecosystems.

A spatially explicit representation of a time series (2001–

2015) of the probability of sagebrush condition classes in the 

western United States. The figure is a product of satellite and 

abiotic data integrated into a model that was ingested into 

decision-tree and mapping software. The white mask represents areas not classified as sagebrush ecosystem.
159 Department of the Interior

Scientists from the USGS EROS Center and the Bureau of Land Management 

(BLM) conducted a study that used a time series (2001–2015) of temporally rich 

enhanced Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (eMODIS) satellite 

imagery in conjunction with abiotic data integrated into a model that was ingested 

into machine learning and mapping software.6 A spatially explicit, predictive map 

of three classifications of sagebrush condition resulted. The map shows three probabilities (high, moderate, low) for each of the three classes: tipping point, sagebrush 

recovery, and stability. Slightly more than 57 percent of the study area was classified as tipping point and 29 percent as sagebrush recovery during the 15-year 

period. Approximately 14 percent of the study area was classified as stable. The 

stable class occurred mostly at higher elevations where more precipitation falls and 

peak summer temperatures are cooler, allowing native vegetation types to better 

compete against the invading grasses. As climates continue to warm, the environmental advantage for native vegetation at higher elevations may end, and wildfires 

that result in tipping points may occur here.

LANDFIRE 2016 Remap and “Year Capable” Fuels

LANDFIRE’s mission is to provide agency leaders and managers with a common 

“all-lands” dataset (including maps) of vegetation and wildland fire/fuels information for strategic fire and resource management planning and analysis. LANDFIRE 

uses numerous geospatial data sources to develop its products but relies heavily on 

Landsat imagery and spectral indices for vegetation and disturbance mapping in 

addition to lidar for quantifying structural characteristics of the vegetation. Always 

striving to stay up to date, LANDFIRE completed a major milestone of remapping 

all base layers and product suites for the conterminous United States (over 9 billion 30-meter pixels) with circa 2016 imagery (“Remap”) in July 2020. Remap work 

is continuing for Alaska, Hawaii, and insular areas. This amazingly rich dataset 

would not have been possible without remote sensing technology associated with 

Landsat Thematic Mapper, Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus, and Operational 

Land Imager bands. Among the many improvements and innovations as part of the 

LANDFIRE Remap effort for the wildland fire community is a new approach called 

6 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1550742419300843?via%3Dihub
160Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

“Year Capable Fuels” involving Time Since Disturbance for surface and canopy 

fuels. This approach was developed to overcome product latency issues inherent in 

all mapping efforts, accounting for how much time has elapsed since a disturbance 

occurred (Time Since Disturbance) to better represent more current (Effective 

Year) fuel conditions. How is this an improvement? In previous LANDFIRE versions, users had to adjust the fuel products to represent the contemporary condition 

in areas that had experienced disturbance. In Remap, LANDFIRE does this for the 

users, reducing the burden on them and improving performance of fire behavior 

models. Capable Fuels would not be possible without first correctly identifying the 

extent and severity of disturbed areas. This mapping effort is accomplished through 

a number of datasets (such as user-contributed polygons where disturbances have 

occurred) and by using change detection algorithms to identify areas that change 

spectrally between pre- and post-year remotely sensed imagery; analysts then classify them to LANDFIRE severity categories. Subsequently, disturbed areas are 

made to represent an Effective Year using the Time Since Disturbance methodology. For Remap, this means that capable fuels represent the Effective Years of 2019 

and 2020 since delivery of Remap products was in those calendar years. 

LCMAP Collection 1 Product Suite

In 2020, the USGS released new image data products for monitoring land surface change from 1985 to 2017 across the conterminous United States. The Land 

Change Monitoring, Assessment, and Projection (LCMAP) initiative Collection 1 

data release is a major milestone toward LCMAP’s goals of developing the capability to detect and characterize historical land change, producing a suite of validated 

annual land change/land cover maps and area statistics, and modeling past and 

future land change outside the current satellite record.

The power of the Landsat archive is leveraged through use of U.S. Landsat 

Analysis Ready Data (ARD) containing the highest quality radiometric and geometric 30-meter Landsat data processed to a consistent format. A time series of 

all available cloud-/shadow-free observations serves as input for the Continuous 

Change Detection and Classification (CCDC) method, which builds per-pixel 

harmonic time series models of surface reflectance for each Landsat spectral band 
161 Department of the Interior

individually. The model predictions are continuously compared to actual observations over time to detect significant differences across multiple bands representing 

land surface changes. Following identification of changes, boosted decision tree 

machine learning is applied to model coefficients to classify land cover type and 

increase statistical confidence. The application of ARD and CCDC provides a 

systematic and consistent capability revealing land change from the mid-1980s to 

the present at 30-meter resolution.

LCMAP Collection 1 science products include ten annual land change and 

land cover map products for the time period 1985–2017 granularized to the 

150- by 150-kilometer ARD grid and are available from USGS EarthExplorer. 

Independently collected LCMAP Reference Data of 24,971 random locations were 

used to validate land cover accuracy across the full spatial and temporal extent, 

with a final 82.5 percent agreement. The Reference Data, along with annual and 

regional accuracies, are available from USGS ScienceBase. Additional assessments 

of map bias and area statistics are under way, as is the development of methods 

to update LCMAP outputs; product updates through 2019 were expected in the 

coming year.

The USGS is defining requirements for additional capabilities such as monitoring change with lower lead times in rapidly changing areas, improved sensitivity 

for change detection, identification of specific types of change, and development of 

monitoring capabilities to alert relevant land managers to important changing conditions. The LCMAP Collection 1 data release and other capabilities of LCMAP 

enable the USGS to meet increasing demands for timely and frequent integrated 

land cover and land change information.

Mineral Mapping of Lithium-Rich Playas for Lithium Mineral Assessment

Lithium is a critical element for making the high-efficiency batteries used in 

electric cars, cell phones, computers, and solar grid electric storage. The largest 

lithium production in the world comes from lithium-rich brines in playas (dry 

lake beds), such as the Salar de Atacama located in Chile, South America. The 

United States has approximately 110 playas in the western part of the country 

that are of sufficient size to contain lithium-rich brines. This study is developing 
162Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

algorithms to map minerals in playas in the western United States to 

assess lithium potential. Advanced 

Spaceborne Thermal Emission and 

Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) 

data have been used to map minerals at the Salar de Atacama and are 

being used to develop mineral maps 

of important domestic lithium-rich 

playas, including Clayton Valley 

in Nevada. Deposit models suggest that the lithium source at the 

Salar de Atacama is from silica- and 

lithium-rich volcanic tuffs that may 

have been hydrothermally altered. 

ASTER-derived mineral maps of 

the Salar and Clayton Valley show silica-rich hydrothermally altered mineralogy 

that includes alunite, kaolinite, muscovite, epidote, calcite-dolomite (carbonate), 

epidote-chlorite, and hydrothermal quartz (silica). In addition, ASTER mineral 

maps show that the Salar de Atacama and Clayton Valley playas contain halite, 

which suggests that there is enough precipitation and/or ground water and evaporation in the playa to support a sufficient volume of lithium-rich brine.

Monitoring Volcanic Degassing at Mount St. Helens

The USGS–Cascades Volcano Observatory utilizes a multi-rotor UAS outfitted with a miniature USGS-developed multicomponent gas analyzer system 

(MultiGAS) sensor to measure quiescent gas emissions above the 2004–2008 lava 

dome within the crater of Mount St. Helens. These new technologies allowed the 

team to characterize degassing at Mount St. Helens in unprecedented detail. The 

UAS survey confirmed that CO2 emissions from the 2004–2008 lava dome are 

extremely low and that water vapor constitutes the vast majority (over 99 percent) 

of present-day gas emissions. Much of this water vapor is not derived from magma, 

An ASTER mineral map of the Clayton Valley playa, 

which contains the Silver Peak Lithium Mine. The 

background image is ASTER band 3.
163 Department of the Interior

but instead is produced when shallow meteoric and surface waters (such as snowmelt) come in contact with hot dome rocks, generating steam. Results also allow 

scientists to measure fumarolic heat discharge at Mount St. Helens. The UAS fills 

an important monitoring role at volcanoes; its small size and maneuverability allow 

scientists to use portable monitoring technologies like the MultiGAS in hazardous areas. The data are combined with those collected using traditional manned 

aircraft and at permanent monitoring stations to gain a better understanding of gas 

emissions at Mount St. Helens. The successful application of these technologies at 

Mount St. Helens demonstrates the importance of these surveys in the Cascade 

Range and at other active volcanoes around the globe to provide critical monitoring data to forecast volcanic hazards.

Water Use and Land Cover in the Delaware River Basin

The Delaware River Basin (DRB) was chosen as a test site for integrating USGS 

water- and land-use research to advance understanding on the interactions and 

feedbacks among climate, water availability, and land cover. Fundamental interactions can be observed from historical data and simulated using scenarios for 

changes in land use using projections in precipitation and temperature patterns. 

A multi-rotor UAS equipped with a MultiGAS sensor is flown over the 2004–2008 lava dome at 

Mount St. Helens to detect and measure volcanic gas emissions. Water (H2O) vapor (top) and carbon 

dioxide (CO2) concentrations (bottom) measured from the survey are plotted on the right. 
164Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

Scientists at the USGS EROS Center are beginning to apply satellite-derived 

evapotranspiration (ET) information to quantify water demands down to the parcel level. With a greater focus toward a collaborative, interdisciplinary modeling 

framework, they have begun to move toward field-level water accounting by first 

examining mapped relationships between the land cover and land surfaces fluxes 

such as ET. Using the National Land Cover Database, initial work reveals that 

more than 75 percent of the DRB is covered with forests, croplands, and wetlands. Maps and spatial summaries of these dominant classes using time-integrated 

Landsat-based Operational Simplified Surface Energy Balance (SSEBop) ET information (2010–2019 average annual ET) show important patterns in magnitude and 

spatial context within a given cover type. For example, average water consumption 

through ET processes was over 1,000 millimeters/year in wetlands, 900 millimeters/

year for forests, and 800 millimeters/year for cropland. Data insights such as these 

are key to establishing linkages with land use and land cover models in conjunction with models of water 

use and availability. Staff at 

the EROS Center are further developing the methodology to respond to the 

needs of USGS Community 

for Data Integration and 

Earth Monitoring, Analyses 

and Projections initiatives 

to advance integrated predictive modeling research 

for the Nation.

Water Use Mapping at the Landsat Scale for the Nation

The estimation and mapping of ET is an active area of applied USGS research 

in the fields of agriculture and water resources. Specifically, combining remote 

sensing data along with climate and other weather information in a cloud-based 

Delaware River Basin annual evapotranspiration (2010–2019 

average) and land cover distribution. 
165 Department of the Interior

compute framework has illustrated the value of next-generation ET mapping for 

nationwide water use information.

Scientists at the USGS EROS Center are leveraging the thermal (surface temperature) components of the Landsat satellite imagery archive to create ET products using the SSEBop model. Recently, more than 150,000 Landsat images were 

used to generate ten years of annual ET (2010–2019) at unprecedented scale and 

speed. This accomplishment represents the first-ever set of Landsat ET maps for 

the conterminous United States at this spatial (30-meter) resolution and temporal 

(annual) interval. Data will be made freely available with an upcoming product 

and manuscript release.

Evaluations using Eddy Covariance and Water Balance datasets indicated that 

the SSEBop model is strong in explaining spatially variable seasonal trends at local 

and regional levels where water management operates the most. Most importantly, 

in addition to new data understanding and supporting model enhancements, this 

work facilitates broader collective opportunities for those in search of increasing 

timeliness and availability of accurate ET information.

The EROS Center develops and shares these ET products with USGS Water 

Science Centers around the Nation for use in water availability and use studies and 

localized applications. The data are also instrumental for meeting the National 

Annual Total Evapotranspiration using 10-year average (2010–2019) data from the Landsat-based 

Simplified Surface Energy Balance (SSEBop) Actual ET model. 
166Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

Water Census reporting requirements in addition to numerous collaborative efforts 

among various Federal and state agencies, universities, and others.

Bureau of Indian Affairs

The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) applies remote sensing to activities such 

as land use planning, responding to non-point source pollution affecting subsistence hunting and fishing, climate change impacts such as sea-level rise for coastal 

Tribes, location and identification of potential dam hazards, and the generation of 

digital terrain data for the use of open-channel hydraulics. In collaboration with 

other agencies, BIA actively explores ways to improve management using remote 

sensing data and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) technologies.

Quantifying Change in Woodland Canopy Cover 

The San Carlos Apache Tribe in Arizona wants to learn more about the historical characteristics of their woodlands, savannas, and grasslands so they have a 

target for restoration efforts. Restoring juniper woodland to savanna is a focus of 

the Tribe’s intensive management activities, and spatial information that would 

help to determine where best to attempt restoration is needed. Increases in woodland tree cover, grassland encroachment by juniper, and the trees’ negative effects 

on intercanopy herbaceous vegetation are issues that the Tribe is coping with as 

livestock and wildlife often depend upon the diminishing grass cover to survive 

and thrive. To determine changes in woodland canopy cover, researchers from the 

USGS Western Geographic Science Center developed image analysis techniques 

to monitor tree cover for three study areas using aerial imagery from 1935 and 2017 

and compared results over the 82-year interval. The team used Adobe Photoshop 

software in a novel way to create multiple, simple, and reproducible supervised 

classifications that were combined to generate binary canopy maps for each of the 

study areas. Continuous percent cover was then calculated for each 50- by 50-meter 

area within the study areas, and a temporal difference image was generated.

In general, there was a substantial increase in the woodland tree canopy cover 

between 1935 and 2017. For example, in the two woodland-dominated study areas, 
167 Department of the Interior

overall percent tree canopy 

cover estimates increased 

from 18.3 to 38.5 percent 

and 28.3 to 43.3 percent. 

Although the expansive 

grasslands of one site (Big 

Prairie) was encroached by 

juniper trees mostly around 

its periphery, the smaller 

grassland units within the 

former savanna changed 

more substantially since 

1935. Additionally, this 

research provides evidence 

of the success of Tribal 

management efforts at 

Bee Flat, where managed 

landscape canopy cover is 

roughly analogous to the natural savanna tree cover mapped there in 1935. These 

results are important as former savanna areas once dominated by native grasses 

and forbs have been replaced by higher density juniper-pinyon-oak woodlands with 

degraded soils and limited herbaceous understories. The San Carlos Apache Tribe 

intends to use map results from this analysis to help locate other woodland areas 

suitable for restoration. Pinyon-juniper expansion and infilling are increasingly a 

challenge for land managers across the Intermountain West, and historical remote 

sensing information may help provide Tribes with data they need.

Bureau of Land Management 

The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) leverages ground, air, and spaceborne 

remote sensing technologies to support its mission to sustain the health, diversity, and productivity of public lands for the use and enjoyment of present and 

future generations. These technologies include aerial and close-range photography; 

The top image portrays tree canopy cover change in the former 

savanna of the Bee Flat study area. The large area of black in 

the center experienced intensive management to remove juniper 

trees. The bottom image shows tree removal in progress.
168Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

multispectral, hyperspectral, and thermal infrared camera/imaging systems; as well 

as radar and lidar. The BLM also utilizes passive and active imaging system information collected by UAS. Remote sensing data and products are being used to 

address a host of BLM monitoring requirements, including energy development, 

mine production verification, assessment of land cover condition through time, 

and wildfire response and mitigation. Finally, the BLM requires field-based measurements to support management decisions covering vast expanses of land. By 

integrating remote sensing into the BLM’s assessment, inventory, and monitoring 

strategy, field-based data are used to generate information and maps that would 

otherwise be too expensive to produce. The BLM is leveraging remote sensing to 

provide an integrated, quantitative monitoring approach to efficiently and effectively document the impacts from authorized and unauthorized disturbance and 

land treatment activities at local and regional scales.

Emergency Stabilization and Rehabilitation Post-Fire Imagery 

The National Operations Center (NOC) provides remotely sensed geospatial 

data products to support management officials conducting Emergency Stabilization 

and Rehabilitation (ESR) activities on wildfire-affected BLM lands. The ESR 

program is implemented to lessen post-fire effects such as erosion and to restore 

affected habitats. Remote sensing products assist management officials in completing key objectives, including monitoring vegetation treatments and reforestation, 

and rehabilitating land cover. The NOC currently leverages the European Space 

Agency’s Sentinel-2 constellation to provide ESR support to requesting officials. 

Sentinel-2’s spatial, spectral, and temporal resolution make it well-suited for 

wildfire applications. ESR support products include pre- and post-event visible to 

shortwave-infrared imagery, which have been spatially divided to the fire-affected 

area. Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Normalized Burn Ratio 

(NBR), Delta NDVI (dNDVI), Delta NBR (dNBR), and Delta Fire Retardant location products are also derived and disseminated to meet ESR objectives. Custom 

datasets may be developed for field offices with event-specific needs, such as maps 

identifying the spatial extent of bulldozer disturbances. Finally, the NOC provides 

a classification product identifying burned and unburned cover. Compilations of 
169 Department of the Interior

all ESR pre- and post-fire multispectral imagery, and classification data, are published as Image and Map Services, respectively, and made available to all interested 

BLM officials.

Landscape Cover Analysis and Reporting Tools

The BLM NOC, through a NASA ROSES grant, has partnered with USGS and 

UCLA researchers to create an online mapping application called LandCART: 

Landscape Cover Analysis and Reporting Tools. LandCART will enhance the 

BLM’s ability to produce estimates of Assessment, Inventory, and Monitoring 

(AIM) indicators using NASA Earth observation data in places and times where 

in situ data are not available. This tool will address user-defined management questions, particularly trend analysis questions, and provide documentation required by 

NEPA (National Environmental Policy Act). Therefore, LandCART will support 

Sentinel-2 products derived in response to the Ranch Fire in California. 

(A) Pre-fire multispectral image. (B) Post-fire multispectral image. (C) dNBR

from pre- and post-fire NBRs. (D) dFRI identifying fire-retardant applications. 

(E) Bulldozer disturbances. (F) Vector classification identifying burned and

unburned cover.
170Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

exporting of the input and output data, along with information from the underlying algorithm, to ensure reproducibility and appropriate NEPA documentation. 

Predictions will be accompanied by error and confidence estimates to enhance 

their utility in decision making. LandCART is currently in a beta testing stage 

with all the programming, design, and calculations performed in Google Earth 

Engine and the application served in Earth Engine AppsExperimental. The project 

is expected to be published within the Google Cloud Platform once completed. 

Current case studies using LandCART data include sage grouse brood habitat 

mapping and change detection, wild horse and burro habitat mapping, and trend 

analysis of grazing allotments and management decisions for those areas. The project is in its fourth year with the expectation of publishing a fully functional online 

application for use by all BLM staff as well as the general public in FY 2021.

Monitoring Tundra Travel Across the National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska

Alaska is the only Arctic state in the Nation. The Arctic environment presents 

some unique challenges to living, working, and operating, including a lack of road 

infrastructure, high costs of shipping freight, and seasonal daylight limitations during the winter. The Sun drops below the horizon in November and does not rise 

above the horizon until mid-February. 

To help Arctic communities be less isolated during the winter, the BLM Arctic 

District Office (RDO) authorized Community Winter Access Trails (CWAT) for 

public use across the National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska beginning January 2019. 

Made from compacted snow, the CWAT is cheaper and easier to build than ice 

roads, but snow has a shorter operational season, only supports lower ground pressure vehicles, and is prone to soft spots where tires can get stuck. Still, the North 

Slope Borough has found a safe way to build and maintain the routes using tracked 

vehicles. Once the route sets up, it can later be used by passenger vehicles being 

escorted across the right of way on a weekly basis.

The RDO monitors conditions along one of the CWAT corridors using eight 

thermistors and acoustic sensors that provide data on soil temperature, frost depth, 

and snow depths. As the COVID-19 pandemic emerged, the BLM/RDO recognized travel restrictions would prevent these onsite inspections using the installed 
171 Department of the Interior

sensors. To address this limitation, BLM began acquiring Maxar/DigitalGlobe’s 

high-resolution WorldView imagery in early March 2020 under the NextView 

Contract. These images allowed RDO to remotely monitor snow conditions 

along the CWAT, leading to a road closure date in early May, but not before vital 

COVID-19 supplies and emergency freight were transported in from Prudhoe Bay 

to Utqiagvik. RDO field staff utilized the winter imagery to identify specific sites 

for field surveys and monitoring activities as part of the management strategy for 

the right-of-way grant.

Monitoring Jurassic Dinosaur Tracks with UAS

The Red Gulch Dinosaur Tracksite near Shell, Wyoming, showcases an exposed 

dry wash with hundreds of Jurassic, carnivorous dinosaur tracks preserved in the 

rock. The tracks, formed approximately 167 million years ago, were discovered by 

members of the public in 1997. The BLM has created a 40-acre recreation site 

around this quarter-acre tracksite and is tasked with preserving the tracks and 

their value for the public. Stereo image documentation of the site, utilizing a 

variety of ground-based platforms (booms, monopods, tripods), began in 1998. 

In 2000, a blimp-mounted camera and low-flying manned aircraft were used to 

Overview of Community Wide Access Trail (CWAT) monitoring activity. Upper right: 

close-up of observed soft spot near river crossing. Lower right: close-up of Thermistor G2 

site location with pole casting a shadow.
172Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

collect additional imagery. In June 2019, BLM again acquired stereo images over 

the tracksite, but this time using a 3DR Solo UAS. Mapping flights were designed 

to capture stereo imagery from 15, 30, 60, and 125 feet above ground level, resulting 

in orthomosaics of the tracksite with resolutions ranging from 1.5 to 10 millimeters 

ground sample distance (GSD, the measure of a square pixel edge ground coverage). 

Paleontological staff intend to use the resulting orthomosaics and digital surface 

models to better understand the site and measure changes in surface elevation and 

relative relief of the individual tracks to determine how fast they are eroding. Such 

data will assist in management decisions for this popular BLM recreation area.

To survey for additional exposed strata potentially containing dinosaur tracks, 

and to provide baseline imagery for monitoring of the larger Red Gulch Area of

Critical Environmental Concern, BLM staff surveyed an additional 200 acres to 

the east of the tracksite using the 3DR Solo UAS at 1 centimeter GSD, and an 

additional 1,000 acres at 2 centimeters GSD using the newly acquired Firefly Pro 

6S. The Firefly was programmed to fly autonomous mapping missions at 500 feet 

above ground level. A 42-megapixel camera mounted on the aircraft belly acquired 

stereo images at locations determined by the flight plan. With a flight time of 

approximately 30 minutes, each Firefly mission covered approximately 150 acres. 

The ability to acquire 2-centimeter GSD orthoimagery over 1,000 acres in a single 

day greatly expands the remote sensing capability of BLM Wyoming, and in this 

case provides useful monitoring data for the paleontological program.

Bureau of Ocean Energy Management

The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management’s (BOEM’s) Environmental Studies 

Program (ESP) develops, funds, and manages rigorous scientific research specifically 

to inform policy decisions on the development of energy and mineral resources on the 

U.S. Outer Continental Shelf (OCS). BOEM uses remote sensing to inform its research 

covering physical oceanography, atmospheric sciences, biology, protected species, social 

sciences and economics, submerged cultural resources, and environmental fates and 

effects. Mandated by Section 20 of the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act, the ESP 

is an indispensable requirement informing BOEM’s decisions on offshore oil and gas, 

offshore renewable energy, and the marine minerals program for coastal restoration. 
173 Department of the Interior

Assessing the Feasibility of Using Satellite Data for Offshore Air Quality 

Applications

BOEM is required to analyze the air quality impacts from OCS oil and gas 

activities to the states as mandated by the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act. 

To support its air quality regulatory mandate, BOEM is working with the NASA 

Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Laboratory at Goddard Space Flight 

Center to conduct a scoping study that will assess the use of satellite data for offshore air quality assessments. Specifically, this study will determine the feasibility 

of using existing satellite data in offshore environments in the Gulf of Mexico 

region for estimating and monitoring trends of the ground-level concentrations of 

pollutants according to the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) 

(including precursors and visibility pollutants) and to validate the satellite data 

with offshore monitoring in a field campaign. Preliminary results reveal two air 

quality “regimes” in the Gulf of Mexico Region: 1) clean marine, where the wind 

direction is from the south, or ocean based, and 2) polluted continental air, where 

the wind direction is from the north, or land based. A flaring event from two 

oil and gas platforms was successfully detected using satellite-based data from the 

TROPOspheric Monitoring Instrument (TROPOMI) nitrogen dioxide (NO2) sensor and the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite within the Hybrid SingleParticle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory model. At the LUMCON ship port in 

Cocodrie, Louisiana, TROPOMI overpass data show a mean 13 percent difference 

from Pandoras before and during the cruise, confirming an excellent correlation 

between the ship-based Pandora NO2 data and satellite-based TROPOMI NO2 data 

for the offshore environment. These results indicate that TROPOMI is useful to 

BOEM for measuring the Gulf of Mexico and coastal pollution.

Developing Computer Vision and Deep Learning Methods to Improve Aerial 

Surveys of Marine Wildlife

BOEM, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), and USGS are collaborating to foster research on deep learning methods that automate remote sensing 

data for wildlife population surveys. The Atlantic Marine Assessment Program 
174Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

for Protected Species, currently in its third phase, is developing automated ways 

to rapidly filter and subset digital aerial imagery of marine birds, cetaceans, and 

sea turtles. A major challenge for integrating remote sensing methods for largescale population surveys is the tremendous volume of data collected during imagebased surveys and the lack of suitable tools 

for automated filtering of imagery, counting 

detected wildlife targets, and classifying 

wildlife targets. Computer vision, coupled 

with deep learning, shows great promise for 

automating detection and classification of 

wildlife from digital imagery. These agencies 

recognize a set of common wildlife population 

monitoring priorities and shared objectives to 

enhance employee safety and to improve data 

quality. This project is also working to deploy 

remote sensing systems and develop workflows 

for in-flight orthorectification and machine 

learning processing to detect and classify 

wildlife from imagery in near-real time.

Bureau of Reclamation

The Bureau of Reclamation (BOR) uses Landsat data to help monitor consumptive water use throughout the western United States. BOR analysts use Landsat 

imagery to map irrigated crops for estimating water demand and to monitor interstate and inter-basin water compact compliance. The BOR is also involved in 

ecological restoration of a number of rivers in the West. Lidar, multispectral aerial 

imagery, and sonar data are used to generate maps of topography, vegetation, and 

river channel bathymetry, which help guide restoration activities.

Examples of individual sea ducks near Cape 

Cod, Massachusetts. Individual birds were 

delineated with a rectangle and identified 

to the lowest taxonomic level. Additional 

attributes such as age, gender, and activity 

were included when resolvable.

Black scoter; 

adult male; in flight

Black scoter; 

adult male; swimming

Surf scoter; 

adult male; in flight

White-winged scoter; 

adult male; in flight

Common eider; 

adult male; in flight

Common eider; 

juvenile male; in flight
175 Department of the Interior

Estimates of Evapotranspiration and Evaporation along the Lower 

Colorado River

The Colorado River is the principal source of water for agriculture and riparian 

vegetation in Arizona, southern California, and southern Nevada. In the Lower 

Colorado basin, the BOR accounts for water use in each state, verifies water conservation programs, and fulfills other water management information needs. To 

accomplish this, BOR monitors more than 3.5 million acres of agricultural land 

and riparian vegetation along the Lower Colorado River, from Hoover Dam south 

to the international border with Mexico.

Four times per year, BOR performs supervised classifications on every field along 

the mainstem Colorado River, Imperial and Coachella Valleys, and Gila River. This 

is accomplished using a combination of multispectral satellite data, aerial images, 

and ground-based field verifications. Roughly half of the collected verified fields 

are used to train the satellite imagery and determine the crop growing on each 

field for each time period. The other half of verified field data are used to assess the 

accuracy of each classification. Data about the crop type and acreage, along with 

ET crop coefficients, are then used to estimate the ET from crops within each area. 

Total ET from agricultural irrigation is close to 3 million acre-feet per year. The 

most prevalent crops by acreage are alfalfa, lettuce, Sudan grass, small grains, and 

Bermuda grass. BOR also maintains riparian vegetation and open water datasets 

to determine ET and evaporation from these sources. Each year, these datasets are 

updated using the best possible imagery (satellite or aerial) by performing change 

detection analyses. Results from these efforts are reported annually in the report 

“Lower Colorado River Annual Summary of Evapotranspiration and Evaporation.” 

Annual ET from riparian vegetation is usually over 400,000 acre-feet, and annual 

evaporation from open water sources is over 300,000 acre-feet.

This information assists the BOR in meeting its U.S. Supreme Court mandate to 

provide detailed and accurate records of diversions, return flows, and consumptive 

use estimates of water diverted from the mainstem of the Lower Colorado River. 

This program is an example of implementing remote sensing–based methodologies 

to meet the BOR’s water management needs.
176Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), in concert with its international, 

Federal, Tribal, state, local, and non-government organization partners, uses a large 

number of remote sensing technologies to find optimal solutions to monitor and 

manage fish and wildlife populations, habitats, waters, wetlands, and landscapes. 

The FWS uses acoustic GPS and radio telemetry sensors on fish and wildlife for 

time and location information tied to a variety of remote sensing image products, 

such as aerial and satellite optical imagery, as well as thermal, radar, sonar, and 

lidar imagery. This geospatial system of imagery and location is used to map habitats, find invasive plants, determine flight paths of birds and bats, conduct fish and 

wildlife inventories, watch over refuge lands, and monitor trust species. 

Climate and Human Water Use Diminish Wetland Networks Supporting 

Continental Waterbird Migration

Migrating waterbirds moving between upper and lower latitudinal breeding and 

wintering grounds while crossing arid continental interiors rely on a limited network of endorheic lakes and wetlands, which are waterbodies in closed basins with 

no outflow. Recent drying of global endorheic water stores raises concerns over 

The BOR uses remote 

sensing and geographic 

information systems (GIS) 

to map agricultural fields, 

riparian vegetation, and 

open water to estimate 

evapotranspiration and 

evaporation within the 

Lower Colorado Region 

(left). A riparian/open 

water area near the Havasu 

National Wildlife Refuge, 

Arizona, is shown in the 

top right, and an agricultural area near Yuma, 

Arizona, appears in the 

lower right.
177 Department of the Interior

deteriorating migratory pathways, yet few studies have considered these effects at 

the scale of continental flyways. The resiliency of waterbird migration networks 

across western North America was investigated by reconstructing long-term patterns (1984–2018) of terminal lake and wetland surface water area in 26 endorheic 

watersheds. Findings were partitioned regionally by snowmelt- and monsoon-driven 

hydrologies and combined with climate and human water-use data to determine 

their importance in predicting surface water trends. Nonlinear patterns of lake 

and wetland drying were apparent along latitudinal flyway gradients. Pervasive

surface water declines were prevalent in northern snowmelt watersheds (lakes 

–27 percent, wetlands –47 percent), while largely stable in monsoonal watersheds 

to the south (lakes –13 percent, wetlands +8 percent). Monsoonal watersheds 

represented a smaller proportion of total lake and wetland area, but their distribution and frequency of change within highly arid regions of the continental flyway 

increased their value to migratory waterbirds. Irrigated agriculture and increasing 

evaporative demands were the most important drivers of surface water declines. 

Underlying agricultural and wetland relationships, however, were more complex. 

Approximately 7 percent of irrigated lands linked to flood irrigation and water 

storage practices supported 61 percent of all wetland inundation in snowmelt 

watersheds. In monsoonal watersheds, small earthen dams, meant to capture surface runoff for livestock watering, were a major component of wetland resources 

(67 percent) that supported networks of isolated wetlands surrounding endorheic 

lakes. Ecological trends and human impacts identified in this study underscore the 

Magnitude of surface 

water change in the 

western United States 

for 26 endorheic watersheds between 1984–

1999 and 2000–2018. 

Change is partitioned by 

lakes  (a) and wetlands 

(b).  Statistically significant (p < .05) declines are 

shown in red and insignificant declines shown 

in blue. Increases to surface water area are shown 

in bold blue outline.
178Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

importance of assessing flyway-scale change as the model depictions likely reflect 

new and emerging bottlenecks to continental migration.

Enhancing Wetland Mapping in Alaska Through Automation

The majority of America’s wetlands are located in Alaska (65 percent), but to 

date the FWS National Wetlands Inventory (NWI) Program has produced wetland 

data covering only 42 percent of the state. Areas without NWI data include over 

31 million acres of the FWS National Wildlife Refuge System. Lack of wetland data 

limits understanding of habitats and impedes conservation of waterfowl, salmon, 

and big game, which is essential for supporting a stable economy and subsistence 

populations in Alaska. NWI data are also critical for strategic, cost-effective infrastructure development, especially during project planning, mitigation, and permitting stages. For these reasons, complete wetlands data coverage for the state is a 

critical priority for NWI, as well as for other Federal and state agencies and Tribes.

Remotely sensed imagery with a relatively fine spatial resolution is required for 

mapping wetlands, but such imagery has been difficult to obtain for Alaska due in 

part to low Sun angles at high latitudes. Recent advances in satellite remote sensing provide new data to enhance the efficiency of wetland mapping. Specifically, 

the 10-meter synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and multispectral data provided by 

Sentinel-1/-2 on a sub-weekly basis are major improvements over historical data. 

NWI, in partnership with the University of Maryland, recently completed an 

assessment of Landsat, Sentinel-1/-2, and digital elevation data for supporting 

more time- and cost-efficient NWI data production in Alaska. The project focused 

on the Selawik and Arctic National Wildlife Refuges and developed innovative 

algorithms integrated within a streamlined automated workflow supported by a 

high-performance computing system. Maps of vegetation structure, subpixel water 

fraction (SWF), and wetlands were produced for 2016–2020. By providing subpixel 

estimates of fractional water cover within each 10-meter pixel, wetland features 

smaller than 5 meters could be detected. The water regime, vegetation, and wetland 

products were found to be well correlated with field data. The automated workflow 

made it possible to download and process more than 2,000 Landsat and Sentinel 

images for the selected study regions, which required over 1,200 central processing 
179 Department of the Interior

unit hours and more than 10 terabytes of disk storage in a single run. These data 

provide unprecedented spatiotemporal information on wetland hydrology and vegetation dynamics in Alaska and have been well received by stakeholders. NWI is 

currently testing the utility of these products within an operational workflow. 

Lidar and Multispectral Data for Assessing Texas and Oklahoma Songbird 

Habitat and Density

National Wildlife Refuges in Texas and Oklahoma manage forested habitats to 

support priority bird populations in the West Gulf Coastal Plain and Ouachitas 

Bird Conservation Regions. Airborne laser altimetry or lidar can capture details of 

forest structure that determine bird species diversity, densities, and distributions. 

Point cloud information from leaf-on multi-return lidar generates a variety of forest metrics such as tree canopy cover, density, and height, as well as other less 

conventional parameters representing vertical and horizontal habitat structure. 

PlanetScope multispectral imagery provides a high spatial resolution (3-meter) and 

frequently acquired (daily) data source that can add plant phenology and composition information when fused with lidar. Forest management relies on continuous 

forest inventory plots and songbird point counts to monitor habitat conditions and 

species abundance. Synthesis methods in development will pool data resources 

for estimating forest inventory parameters, habitat conditions, bird detection bias, 

availability, and density across each of five refuges. 

Combined and consistent field surveys and remotely sensed data will provide 

robust models of species habitat relationships and value-added data layers useful 

for making land management decisions. Lidar and PlanetScope data and regression tree models showed good performance for estimating basal area and trees per 

acre. Future work will use these and other metrics to estimate songbird habitat 

relationships and density. Project outputs will range from standardized data collection protocols to mapped forest inventory parameters, bird density estimates, 

and information on habitat preferences. Remote sensing applications and songbird 

models will help inform forest management actions most likely to maintain varied 

habitat conditions and songbird populations.
180Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

Modeling Wildlife Habitat Using 3DEP Lidar

Continuous data on vegetation cover, height, and relative density are increasingly sought as useful metrics for determining animal habitat conditions across 

large areas. Airborne lidar multi-return information provides a ready source of 

remotely sensed data that can directly estimate vegetation height and cover at 

appropriate spatial scales. The USGS 3DEP plans to collect lidar across the entire 

United States by 2023, creating an unprecedented opportunity for mapping habitat 

metrics at a fine resolution across entire regions. For this study, the 3DEP lidar 

point cloud data, which contains all the lidar returns from bare earth and vegetation, were processed to create 2-dimensional canopy height raster maps. 

These data are being used to model habitat relationships for the endangered 

golden-cheeked warbler (Setophaga chrysoparia) across its breeding range in the 

juniper-oak woodlands of central Texas. Researchers obtained 33,897 lidar tiles and 

their associated digital elevation model (DEM) from 23 separate lidar collections 

between 2014 and 2018. The lidar data covered 94 percent of the 67,246-squarekilometer warbler breeding range. Canopy height layers were developed at a 1-meter 

grid cell size using freely available FUSION software. Because most lidar collections 

did not have classified vegetation returns, the team isolated vegetation canopy for 

processing by 1) extracting only canopy heights < 40 meters above ground level and 

2) extracting points using a mask of classified vegetation cover previously developed 

at the same resolution from USDA National Agriculture Imagery Program (NAIP) 

color infrared (CIR) digital aerial photography. The resulting canopy height raster 

maps better distinguish tree versus shrub or low canopy cover measured at specific 

heights above ground. 

Adjusted juniper and broadleaf tree canopy cover classified from NAIP CIR and 

attributed with lidar canopy height data are being used to determine the tree height 

threshold that is most favorable for golden-cheeked warbler habitat. Lidar height 

data are particularly important across the western range of this woodland-dwelling 

species, where woody species transition from tree to shrub in response to decreasing precipitation. These habitat metrics will be coupled with more than 1,800-

point count surveys of the golden-cheeked warbler conducted in 2018 to determine 

the distribution of the breeding population and identify desired future conditions 
181 Department of the Interior

conducive to recovery of this species. A spatially explicit map of golden-cheeked 

warbler densities across its breeding range will provide land managers an improved 

understanding of where high-quality habitat currently exists and locations where 

active management could be used to improve habitat conditions.

USFS-NASA Virtual Pitch Fest

The USFS-NASA Virtual Pitch Fest, virtually hosted in early June 2020, was a 

creative collaboration inspired by the need for virtual connection due to COVID19 travel restrictions. The pitch fest provided a platform to share ideas and spark 

new collaborations around using NASA’s remote sensing data products and tools 

to meet pressing land management needs. During the pitch fest, representatives 

from NASA and the USFS highlighted key opportunity areas for increased NASAUSFS coordination and collaboration to support sustainable natural resource management. Participants shared and voted for ideas to pilot NASA technology to help 

address priority land management issues. Up to five ideas from the pitch fest will be 

selected with the goal of coordinating support in the form of expertise, tools, and 

knowledge to streamline these efforts. The virtual meeting was attended by 319 

people from around the globe and had nearly 60 ideas submitted.

Maps showing (a) original and (b) lidar-corrected tree cover classification at a 1-m grid cell size across 

the breeding range of the endangered golden-cheeked warbler.
182Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

National Park Service

The National Park Service (NPS) has a substantial investment in and a long 

history of using aerial and spaceborne remote sensing and GPS technologies. The 

NPS Inventory and Monitoring Program conducts baseline inventories for more 

than 270 parks across the Nation. Remote sensing data are a critical source of 

information regarding geology, soils, vegetation, and infrastructure. Aerial photography and satellite imagery have been utilized to compile vegetation maps—a 

monumental task given the agency has responsibility for more than 30 million 

acres. These data are particularly critical for NPS activities in Alaska because of 

its remote and vast expanses of public land and the fact that the Arctic is warming 

rapidly in response to climate change. The NPS takes advantage of the open and 

freely available Landsat archive to quantify decadal changes in glacier ice cover 

and document land cover change in national park units. The NPS has been DOI’s 

sponsoring agency to map all large wildland and prescribed fires as part of the DOI 

Monitoring Trends in Burn Severity project, using the Landsat archive. GPS supports field data collection, navigation, and search and rescue operations conducted 

by the agency.

Integrating Satellite and GPS Collar Data to Improve Our Understanding of 

Caribou Calving

Caribou (Rangifer tarandus) are an iconic species of the north and an integral 

component of the natural ecosystem and socioeconomic wellbeing of local communities. Alaska is home to 32 different caribou herds, which are identified by 

females returning to specific calving areas each spring to give birth. The Western 

Arctic Herd, in northwest Alaska, is the largest and ranges across a staggering 

150,000-square-mile area. Sound management of a population that relies on such 

a massive landscape that encompasses numerous land management boundaries 

requires an understanding of what areas are utilized for calving and why.

Caribou monitoring uses location data from GPS collars deployed on a subset 

of individuals within the herd. These collars transmit the location of the animal at regular intervals and allow biologists to track nearly real-time movement 
183 Department of the Interior

throughout the year. Recent analytical developments permit the detection of 

calving events from this GPS data alone. With data on when and where females 

birthed calves between 2010 and 2017, scientists can characterize and compare the 

calving areas and examine how they varied across years. Researchers used remotely 

sensed data from the new InSAR elevation model, which was collected from airplanes and provides 5-meter-resolution data for Alaska to measure elevation, terrain 

ruggedness, and solar radiation for the analysis. Coarse land cover classifications 

were included from a composite of classified satellite and aerial photography and 

included vegetation indices from the MODIS sensor NDVI. With NDVI, scientists 

tested whether caribou were selecting for forage quantity (raw NDVI) or for forage 

quality (change in NDVI values across two weeks, indicating new growth).

The team found that calving areas vary from year to year but are centered in a 

consistent area that matches estimates going back to the 1960s. Additionally, calving areas were characterized by a unique combination of physical factors and, most 

importantly, by rapidly greening vegetation at the average time of calving. Results 

suggest that caribou use memory to guide them back to these general calving areas 

The relative probability of caribou calving (lower plot) within the Western Arctic Herd’s range, 

Alaska. The upper three plots illustrate the remote sensing products used in the analysis. The white 

polygon in the lower figure indicates the calving area used every year from 2010 to 2017.
184Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

year after year, at a time when they can access important nutrients after giving 

birth. Annual variation likely arises as their movements are guided by perception 

of conditions that year once they arrive. Integrating animal location data with 

the ever-increasing array of remotely sensed data promises to provide numerous 

insights into animal ecology that help inform sound management decisions for 

multiple species. 

Monitoring of Permafrost Thaw Erosion Features

The NPS Arctic Inventory and Monitoring Network is using high-resolution 

satellite images and historical color infrared aerial photographs to monitor the 

abundance of small landslides resulting from thaw of permafrost. Active-layer 

detachments (ALD) and retrogressive thaw slumps (RTS) are small landslides that 

occur from thaw in permafrost regions. They expose bare soil that can be readily 

mapped on color infrared imagery. NPS mapped the extent of bare soil in thawrelated slope failures in four study areas with continuous permafrost in Alaska’s 

arctic national parks. Aerial photographs from circa 1980, satellite images from 

2006 to 2009, and satellite images from 2018 to 2019 were used. In all four study 

areas, the number of ALD and RTS identified, as well as the area of bare soil they 

exposed, was lower in the most recent sampling episode than in the previous one, 

despite recent record warm conditions. One study area had frozen debris lobes 

(FDLs) in addition to ALD and RTS. In that study area, the bare ground exposed 

by destabilization and rapid movement of FDLs was greatest in the last sampling 

episode, probably from deep thaw. These results show that slopes can re-stabilize 

under warming conditions, if conditions remain cold enough to maintain stable 

permafrost below the active layer.

Quantifying Glacial Lake Outburst Floods

Physical scientists at Kenai Fjords National Park in Alaska have been using 

remote sensing methods to monitor an unnamed glacial ice-dammed lake (IDL) 

and the subsequent glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) that regularly occur at 

Bear Glacier to understand the timing, frequency, and drivers that lead to GLOFs. 
185 Department of the Interior

These floods are occurring in a popular proglacial lake and may pose a risk to 

recreational users.

In 2017, a satellite-linked camera was installed and began e-mailing photos 

daily to be posted on the park’s website. Since then, two GLOFs were documented 

(August 2018 and August 2019). With assistance from the NPS Alaska Regional 

Office, aerial Structure-from-Motion data were acquired after the IDL drained to 

capture high-resolution DEMs and orthophotos of the lake basin. Researchers are 

using monoplotting and GIS software tools to analyze these DEMs and time-lapse 

photos to calculate rates of filling and discharge at the IDL and to estimate downstream flood magnitude. 

Analysis is ongoing as the team continues to measure weekly lake elevations in 

the WSL Monoplotting Tool. Lake elevation values in GIS are developed to create 

polygon contours of the lake and derive IDL volumes with sub-meter accuracy in 

near-real time. By comparing current lake levels to previous GLOF events, park 

managers may be able to better assess the timing of future GLOFs and notify the 

public of a potential GLOF. 

Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement

The Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement (OSMRE) remote 

sensing program provides OSMRE offices, states, and Tribes with the necessary 

tools to use remote sensing technologies to support Titles IV (Abandoned Mine 

Lands) and V (Regulation of Current Mining) of the Surface Mining Control and 

Reclamation Act of 1977. As part of this support, the OSMRE remote sensing program provides high-resolution satellite imagery, aerial photography, and lidar data 

to conduct analysis of terrain, vegetation, and hydrologic function on active mine 

sites to ensure reclamation is consistent with the approved mining permit. These 

data are also used to support inventory, monitoring, and assessment of abandoned 

mine land features to ensure there is no threat to the environment or to health and 

human safety.
186Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

Bird’s-Eye View of a Dye Tracer Test Using UAS

Monastery Run Wetland 1 near Latrobe, Pennsylvania, is a passive mine water 

treatment system constructed in 1997–1998 to treat multiple discharges from an 

abandoned underground mine. The OSMRE Technical Support Division assisted 

the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection (PA DEP) with diagnosing issues and improving the effectiveness of the water treatment system. The 

Wetland 1 system was constructed to provide settling ponds and wetlands with 

sufficient retention time to allow the removal of iron prior to entering Four Mile 

Run River. In July 2019, OSMRE personnel conducted an optical dye tracer test 

to determine the approximate retention time of each of the four cells comprising 

Wetland 1. OSMRE’s UAS was not available during a July 2019 dye test when 

OSMRE and PA DEP personnel added a fluorescent yellow-green dye (Xanthene) 

at the main mine water source in Cell 1. The initial dye tracer test was successful at determining the retention time in Cells 1 and 2. However, the dye became 

extremely diluted and difficult to track in Cells 3 and 4 because of the addition 

of a considerable mine water source 

in Cell 2. Therefore, a second 

dye tracer test was conducted in 

August 2019 with the help of the 

UAS to record the progression 

of dye through Cells 3 and 4. In 

August 2019 the fluorescent dye 

was added at the outfall of Cell 2 

into Cell 3 within the Wetland 1 

treatment system. According to 

the original design information, 

total retention time should be 29 

hours at the peak design flow of 

1,710 gallons/minute (gpm). Based 

on visual dye detection in August 

2019, the retention times in Cells 

3 and 4 were 61 and 66 minutes, 

Images show the dye poured at the inlet, moving 

through the cells to the outfall, captured by UAS video. 

The width of pond at its thickest is approximately 500 

feet, with images oriented clockwise from the top 

toward the SE, NNE, and W.
187 Department of the Interior

respectively. When retention times were totaled from the dye tests for each of the 

four cells, a hydraulic retention time within Wetland 1 was approximately 4.65 

hours. Therefore, the results of the testing indicate that major modifications are 

necessary to the Wetland 1 passive treatment system to improve both retention 

time and aeration for dissolved iron removal.

Virtual Mine Monitoring with Web Map Applications

During the COVID-19 pandemic, the majority of OSMRE employees easily 

transitioned into a maximum telework schedule, and with technology in place to 

stay in contact and have virtual meetings, they have worked successfully on collaborative assignments. On the other hand, employees that have assignments that 

involve travel and being in the field have faced challenges completing some of 

their regular assignments. The OSMRE GIS team has been providing geospatial 

tools and products to support the mine inspectors and other field personnel. One 

example is the creation of web map applications that allow mine inspectors to 

remotely view surface coal mines and do collaborative work with the rest of the 

mine team members.

The web maps are created with ESRI’s Web AppBuilder and are hosted on 

ArcGIS Online. The maps contain several interactive layers:

• Current high-resolution satellite imagery requested through USGS as well 

as previous collections archived in the Global Enhancement GEOINT 

Delivery/EnhancedView Web Hosting Service website.7

• Mid-resolution Sentinel-2 European Space Agency satellite image service. 

The image service has been configured to automatically update with the 

latest image containing less than 20 percent cloud coverage.

• Reference mine data such as the mine permit boundary, pit labels and 

mine features, post-mining land use, bond status, reclamation status, environmental resources monitoring locations, and other mine-specific layers.

Editable point, line, and polygon layers allow users to create new features on the 

map with comments that are saved to the map and viewable by the rest of the mine 

team. The web map applications are simple and offer basic analytical tools (such 

7 https://www.maxar.com/products/global-enhanced-GEOINT-delivery
188Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

as measurement, coordinate conversion, bookmark, and swipe tools). Although 

OSMRE has been using web maps and web map applications for a while now, these 

have rapidly become even more popular recently by allowing field personnel to 

continue to monitor mine sites remotely.
189 Federal Communications Commission

Federal Communicati

Commission

FCC

The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) formulates rules to facilitate the provision of commercial satellite services in the United States. It also 

issues licenses for the deployment and operation of all non-Federal U.S. satellites. Internationally, the FCC coordinates satellite radio-frequency usage with 

other countries. The FCC’s activities in FY 2020 related primarily to commercial communications satellites and Earth observation satellites, as well as 

experimental satellites. 

The FCC took a number of significant actions in administrative and rulemaking 

proceedings in FY 2020, including the following:

• On April 23, 2020, the FCC updated its rules regarding orbital debris mitigation, which were adopted in 2004. The changes are intended to help

ensure the sustainability of space as new satellite constellations proliferate

and innovative satellite technologies emerge. The new rules address several issues, including disclosures regarding collision risks and safety measures, casualty risk assessments, post-mission disposal, spacecraft tracking

and data sharing, and frequency coordination during orbit-raising, among

others. The new rules also clarify that satellite operators should secure

satellite commands against unauthorized access and use and update some

administrative processes. In connection with these rule changes, the

Commission sought further comment on standards for evaluating aggregate constellation risk, satellite maneuverability above a certain altitude

in low-Earth orbit, and indemnification requirements. This action will
190Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

help to ensure that FCC decisions are consistent with the public interest 

in ensuring that space remains viable for future satellites and systems and 

the many services those systems provide to the public. 

• On May 13, 2020, the FCC adopted new rules to further facilitate the 

deployment of Earth Stations in Motion (ESIMs). ESIMs are earth stations located aboard ships, aircraft, and vehicles. The rule changes permit 

ESIMs to operate in additional frequency bands using geostationary orbit 

satellites and establish a regulatory framework for ESIMs to operate using 

nongeostationary orbit satellites. The Commission also sought comment 

on additional rule changes regarding technical rules for ESIMs operating 

with nongeostationary orbit satellites using one portion of the Ka-band. 

• On May 12, 2020, the FCC adopted new rules to ensure that both U.S.-

licensed space stations and non-U.S.-licensed space stations that provide 

service in the U.S. market pay the same regulatory fees. This action is 

intended to encourage regulatory equity between domestic- and foreignlicensed space stations.

• On August 26, 2020, the FCC eliminated a rule that required certain 

fixed satellite service systems using nongeostationary orbits to demonstrate that they were capable of providing coverage to all parts of the 

United States. In doing so, the FCC found that, as a result of substantial 

changes in the satellite marketplace, the rule was no longer serving its 

original purpose. For example, compiled evidence suggested that the rule 

may have actually discouraged or hindered deployment of satellite systems 

designed to improve communications coverage in parts of the country like 

Alaska and the arctic areas, thereby frustrating one of the purposes of the 

rule. The Commission concluded that the rule should be eliminated in 

order to better promote service to more parts of the United States and to 

provide design and operational flexibility for innovative nongeostationary 

orbit satellite systems.

During FY 2020, the FCC issued rulings facilitating the deployment and operations of several nongeostationary satellite systems designed to provide and support 

communications services, including high-speed broadband and the “Internet of 

Things.” These rulings include the following:
191 Federal Communications Commission

• On October 17, 2019, the FCC authorized Swarm Technologies, Inc., to 

construct, deploy, and operate a satellite system consisting of 150 satellites operating at altitudes ranging from 300 kilometers to 550 kilometers 

and utilizing the Very High Frequency band. This nongeostationary orbit 

satellite constellation is intended to provide two-way data communication 

services throughout the United States and the world. 

• On December 19, 2019, the FCC authorized Space Exploration Holdings, 

LLC, to reconfigure its previously authorized satellite constellation to 

increase the number of authorized orbital planes and reduce the number 

of satellites per orbital plane in the 550-kilometer–altitude range. 

• On April 22, 2020, the FCC issued a ruling outlining the conditions under 

which Viasat, Inc., could obtain a license for earth stations in the United 

States for use with its system, which would operate under the authority of 

the Netherlands. The system would consist of 20 satellites, operating at an 

altitude of 8,200 kilometers and utilizing frequencies in the Ka-band and 

V-band. The system would offer broadband services. 

• On May 6, 2020, the FCC issued a ruling outlining the conditions under 

which Hiber, Inc., could obtain a license for earth stations in the United 

States for use with its system, which would operate under the authority of 

the Netherlands. The system would consist of 24 satellites, operating at an 

altitude of approximately 600 kilometers and utilizing frequencies in the 

Ultra-High Frequency (UHF) band. The system would provide consumers 

in the United States and worldwide with connectivity for sensors and 

Internet of Things devices. 

• On May 29, 2020, the FCC issued a ruling outlining the conditions under 

which Myriota Pty., Ltd., could obtain a license for earth stations in the 

United States for use with its system, which would operate under the 

authority of Australia. The system would consist of 26 satellites operating in the UHF band at altitudes between 400 and 600 kilometers. The 

system would provide communications for Internet of Things devices. 

• On July 29, 2020, the FCC authorized Kuiper Systems, LLC (Kuiper), to 

deploy and operate a new nongeostationary orbit satellite system consisting of up to 3,236 satellites operating in low-Earth orbit at altitudes of 
192Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

590 kilometers, 610 kilometers, and 630 kilometers. The FCC authorized 

the Kuiper satellite system to communicate using frequencies in the 

Ka-band. The system would provide high-speed broadband service to consumers, government, and businesses. 

On August 24, 2020, the FCC issued a ruling outlining the conditions under 

which WorldVu Satellites Limited, debtor-in-possession, doing business as OneWeb, 

could obtain a license for earth stations in the United States for use with its system 

that would operate in the V-band, under the authority of the United Kingdom. 

The FCC ruling addressed 1,280 satellites that would operate at an altitude of 

approximately 8,500 kilometers, as well as the addition of V-band communications 

with 720 OneWeb satellites that the Commission previously ruled on, which would 

operate in the Ku-band and V-band. 

In FY 2020, the FCC authorized several other satellite deployments and operations. These authorizations include the following:

• On October 7, 2019, the FCC issued a ruling outlining the conditions 

under which Spire Global, Inc., could obtain a license for earth stations 

in the United States for use with the portion of its remote sensing satellite system designated as the MINAS system, consisting of up to 636 

low-Earth orbit satellites, operating under the authority of Luxembourg at 

altitudes from 385 to 650 kilometers. 

• On March 25, 2020, the FCC authorized Space Logistics, LLC, to construct, deploy, and operate a spacecraft to be used to extend the mission 

lifetime of geostationary satellites by docking with the client spacecraft 

and maintaining the position of the docked spacecraft at its assigned 

orbital location. The authorization includes operations following deployment from the launch vehicle, during orbit-raising maneuvers, and during 

rendezvous and docking with the Intelsat-1002 satellite at the longitude

1° west orbit location.

• On May 27, 2020, the FCC authorized BlackSky Global, LLC, to increase 

the number of satellites in its nongeostationary orbit remote sensing satellite system from 4 satellites to 16 satellites, operating at altitudes ranging 

from 385 to 600 kilometers.
193 Federal Communications Commission

In addition to these commercial operations, the FCC continued to grant applications for experimental operations by non-Federal small satellites. Many of the 

experimental grants by the FCC for small satellite operations were to universities 

and institutions conducting research and developing new spacecraft technologies. 

The satellites’ missions include activities ranging from remote sensing missions, 

such as collecting data about the ionosphere, to missions testing the performance 

of certain technologies in space, such as solar sails, optical communications, and 

propulsion systems. The FCC also granted experimental licenses in FY 2020 for 

inter-satellite communications between existing nongeostationary satellite constellations and experimental small satellites. Other experimental grants by the FCC 

included grants for communications associated with launch vehicles and for the 

testing of new telecommunications satellites and ground terminals, including testing equipment designed to provide satellite connectivity for consumer smartphones 

when those phones are beyond the range of terrestrial base stations.

In FY 2020, the FCC granted several license modifications and special temporary authorizations for satellite networks. Many involved routine testing or redeployment of satellites with a multi-satellite system. Several of these actions warrant 

particular mention:

• October 2, 2019, and May 6, 2020: The FCC granted special temporary 

authority to DG Consents Sub, Inc., relating to the relocation of the 

WorldView-4 nongeostationary orbit satellite due to technical issues with 

the satellite’s control movement gyros.

• October 24, 2019, November 7, 2019, January 30, 2020, February 10, 2020, 

and March 19, 2020: The FCC issued a series of grants of special temporary authority to Space Explorations Holdings, LLC, related to positioning 

and testing of new satellites in its nongeostationary orbit constellation. 

• November 14, 2019, and December 5, 2019: The FCC granted EchoStar 

Satellite Services, LLC (Echostar), special temporary authority to extend 

the service coverage area of the EchoStar 9 satellite at the longitude 121° 

west orbit location to cover the Bahamas for emergency operations following Hurricane Dorian. On January 30, 2020, the FCC granted a license 

modification for Echostar to permanently extend its service coverage to 

this area. 
194Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

• January 19, 2020: The FCC granted DIRECTV Enterprises, LLC, special 

temporary authority to de-orbit the SPACEWAY-1 satellite from the longitude 138.9° west orbit location due to unexpected thermal damage to 

the satellite’s batteries.

• March 16, 2020: The FCC granted a license modification to Planet Labs, 

Inc., to modify the operational orbital altitude range for the SkySat-3 

satellite, to include operations down to an altitude of 400 kilometers 

and to specify a range of authorized orbital locations for the SkySat-16 

to SkySat-21 satellites that would include the inclination range of 40–60 

degrees. The modification enhances the image coverage and resolution of 

Planet Labs’ commercial remote sensing satellites.

• June 9, 2020: The FCC modified the conditions for operations of the O3b 

Limited, Telesat Canada, Audacy Corporation, and Space Exploration 

Holdings, LLC, nongeostationary satellite systems to include additional 

frequencies in the V-band.

The FCC also added non-U.S.-licensed space stations to its permitted list to 

allow the space station to provide domestic and international satellite service 

to U.S. earth stations that have routine technical parameters. These include 

the following:

• On April 8, 2020, the FCC added Eutelsat S.A.’s EUTELSAT 139 West A 

satellite to the permitted list, operating under the authority of France and 

using the Ku-band at the longitude 139° west orbit location. 

• On April 8, 2020, the FCC added Eutelsat S.A.’s EUTELSAT 8 West B 

satellite to the permitted list, operating under the authority of France and 

using the Ka-band at the longitude 8° west orbit location.

• On April 8, 2020, the FCC added Eutelsat S.A.’s 12 West B satellite to 

the permitted list, operating under the authority of France and using the 

Ku-band at the longitude 12.5° west orbit location. 

• On April 29, 2020, the FCC added Intelsat License, LLC’s HISPASAT 

143W-1 satellite to the permitted list, operating under the authority of 

Spain and using the S- and Ku-bands at the longitude 143° west orbit 

location.
195 Federal Communications Commission

• On May 8, 2020, the FCC added SES-17 S.a.r.l.’s SES-17 satellite to the 

permitted list, operating under the authority of Luxembourg and using the 

Ka-band at the longitude 67.1° west orbital location.

197 U.S. Department of Agriculture

U.S. Departme

Agricult

USDA

Agricultural Research Service

The Agricultural Research Service (ARS) is the intramural research branch for 

USDA. There are a wide variety of interactions ARS has with NASA, including 

research on space crop production, astronaut nutrition, biotechnology, earth science, environmental monitoring, space flight, and other issues. 

For many years, ARS has been integral to the calibration and validation of 

earth science products, including soil moisture, evapotranspiration, land cover, 

and drought status. Projects like the Long-Term Agroecosystem Research network 

have been operating watershed-scale networks that have supported field experimentation and remote sensing calibration and validation sites for satellites like the 

Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP) mission. Future NASA satellites will also 

use field experiment data from USDA-managed experiments to develop algorithms 

for retrieval of cropland coverage and soil moisture, including the NASA-ISRO 

Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) mission set to launch in 2024. ARS scientists 

served on multiple satellite science teams, including SMAP, NISAR, Ecostress, and 

Landsat, providing invaluable expertise in agricultural monitoring and interpretation. Currently, the SMAP Validation Experiment 2019–2022 is being conducted 

by ARS in collaboration with NASA to improve the retrieval of soil moisture 

data over mixed agriculture/forest landscapes, like those found along the eastern 

U.S. seaboard. 
198Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

ARS, in collaboration with NASA Applied Sciences Water Resources Program 

under the GRAPEX project, has refined and applied a multi-scale remote sensing 

toolkit for mapping crop water use and crop stress for improved irrigation scheduling and water management in vineyards in the Central Valley of California. This 

toolkit output will eventually be made available to wineries and orchard growers 

throughout California and other western states for improving water management 

and irrigation scheduling through the OpenET platform. This is a public and private partnership involving NASA, USGS, USDA-ARS, Google, Environmental 

Defense Fund, and several universities to provide crop water use data operationally 

to the agricultural industry, water districts, and the public. 

Water quality monitoring is also being developed, starting with drone-based 

systems, with the hope of extending this work to satellite-based products to assess 

harmful algal blooms and contaminated waterways. Carbon monitoring is also a 

focus of research, with ARS leading an effort to provide continental-scale tillage and carbon storage products that will inform assessments of crop yield and 

conservation. The basis of this monitoring is a combination of remote sensing 

observations, models, and ground-based monitoring throughout the United States.

Space crop production is an important and rapidly growing area of synergy 

between ARS and NASA. NASA is evaluating genetically engineered (GE) crops 

developed by ARS for fresh food production for lunar and Martian agriculture. 

ARS’s GE fruit trees not only continuously produce fresh and nutritious produce 

but will help astronauts maintain valuable bone density under microgravity for 

extended periods. Microbes that ARS developed for controlled environment agriculture will also be used by NASA to accelerate plant growth and increase food 

production efficiency under artificial environments. ARS and NASA also collaborate on biocontrol research to eliminate pests that threaten crops grown in space 

during long-term human missions. ARS studied foraging and infection dynamics 

of beneficial nematodes (small round worms) that control insect pests onboard the 

International Space Station (ISS). The research was sponsored by the ISS National 

Lab and NASA. Finally, ARS, NASA, and Disney have joined forces in Orlando at 

the ARS biotechnology research laboratory at EPCOT to communicate the benefits of plant genome editing and biotechnology for exoplanetary agriculture to up 

to 6 million visitors per year. 
199 U.S. Department of Agriculture

Other partnerships of note are the study and development of microgreens to 

improve the diets of astronauts in space with fresh food. NASA has been concerned for years about astronauts who returned to earth having lost significant 

body mass because high CO2 atmospheres of the space station deadened their taste 

receptors and their desire to eat. ARS scientists in Beltsville, Maryland, were the 

first to report that microgreens—a seedling form of fresh vegetables—are 10 to 

14 times more nutrient-dense and aromatic then their mature plant forms. The 

researchers developed a biodegradable, hydrogel-based “artificial soil” that supports 

a full 14-day growth cycle for microgreens, which equals conventional production 

yields without the daily watering requirements. NASA scientists are investigating 

using this technology for producing savory, highly nutritious microgreens during 

space travel.

To improve these collaborations, a Memorandum of Understanding was established between USDA and NASA in 2020, with an annual meeting being held 

each spring to update the various agencies on the collaborations that are ongoing 

and to provide a forum for new partnerships to develop. ARS has served as the 

organizational leader for this endeavor. ARS serves as the primary point of contact 

for USDA on Earth observations with respect to NASA collaborations, including 

serving on the interagency U.S. Group on Earth Observations (USGEO).

Foreign Agricultural Service

The Foreign Agricultural Service’s (FAS) Global Market Analysis (FAS/GMA) 

serves as a major source of objective and reliable global agricultural production 

information to the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) monthly World 

Agricultural Supply and Demand Estimates (WASDE) report, the primary source 

of the USDA’s global commodity outlook. The monthly WASDE report provides 

public access to information affecting world food security and is crucial to decisions 

affecting U.S. agriculture, trade policy, and food aid. FAS/GMA uses satellite imagery at regional, national, and subnational scales to operationally monitor and analyze monthly changes in global crop production. FAS archives and displays global 
200Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

monthly crop production, supply, and distribution (PSD) data from the USDA’s 

WASDE report on the FAS PSD Online web site.1

During 2020, the International Production Assessment Division (IPAD) operated the remote sensing program at FAS/GMA. IPAD is an operational user of 

remotely sensed imagery and processed multiple U.S. and international sources 

of global imagery and satellite-derived weather information. Crop type and crop 

area were primarily mapped by Landsat 7 and 8 and Sentinel 2A and 2B satellites. Global crop conditions and relative crop yields were monitored and measured 

by NASA’s MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) sensor 

onboard the Aqua and Terra satellites. 

The USDA-NASA Global Agricultural Monitoring (GLAM) web system displayed and archived historical NDVI time series imagery from the MODIS-Terra 

(i.e., 2000–present) and MODIS-Aqua (i.e., 2002–present) satellites. The GLAMNDVI-MODIS web interface easily allows public users to analyze and compare current NDVI crop conditions with past years’ NDVI crop conditions.2

FAS/GMA also maintained several public global agricultural datasets by processing, archiving, and displaying a variety of satellite imagery products on the 

FAS/GMA Crop Explorer, Global Agricultural and Disaster Assessment System 

(GADAS), and Global Reservoir and Lake Monitor (G-REALM) web systems. 

Crop Explorer allows public users to monitor, analyze, and display rainfall, temperature, soil moisture, and vegetation conditions by utilizing satellite imagery from 

NASA’s Terra and Aqua satellites.3 Crop Explorer’s global two-layer soil moisture 

product was enhanced by measurements from NASA’s Soil Moisture Active Passive 

(SMAP), which was processed by researchers based at NASA’s Goddard Space 

Flight Center. GADAS is a new state-of-the-art geographic information system that 

displays numerous Earth observation data streams from NASA, NOAA, and other 

agencies, with GIS tools and cropland datasets to support agricultural and disaster 

assessment analysis. GADAS is available to the public online at https://geo.fas.usda.

gov/GADAS/index.html. In addition, G-REALM monitored and displayed reservoir 

1 https://apps.fas.usda.gov/psdonline/app/index.html#/app/home

2 http://glam1.gsfc.nasa.gov/

3 https://ipad.fas.usda.gov/cropexplorer
201 U.S. Department of Agriculture

and lake water heights by utilizing satellite radar altimeter data from NASA’s 

Ocean Topography Experiment/Poseidon, Jason-1, Jason-2, and Jason-3 satellites.4

Forest Service 

As the primary forestry agency of the United States and the largest agency in 

the USDA, the U.S. Forest Service (USFS) continues to sustain the health, diversity, and productivity of the Nation’s forests and grasslands. This work encompasses 

partnerships with states, Tribes, and other Federal agencies to address forestry and 

natural resource issues; administration and management of 155 national forests and 

20 national grasslands collectively known as National Forest System (NFS) lands, 

totaling 193 million acres (146 million forested); and assistance in the stewardship 

of approximately 620 million acres of additional forest lands by other Federal, state, 

Tribal, and community forest agencies and private land owners.

In FY 2020, the USFS collaborated with NASA, NOAA, the USGS, other 

agencies, and other external agency partners and cooperators to apply operational satellite and airborne imagery and the most advanced remote sensing and 

geospatial technologies. 

Specific accomplishments included the following: 

• Planned, organized, and conducted a joint USDA workshop entitled 

USFS-NASA Pitch Fest in June 2020. The two-day workshop and several 

follow-up engagements focused on sharing ideas to foster collaboration 

opportunities between NASA and USDA regarding the use of NASA 

data products and tools to meet pressing land management needs. 

Approximately 50 ideas and project concepts were presented and discussed and are at different stages of review and implementation.

• Collected comprehensive Earth Observing System (EOS), MODIS, and 

Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership (Suomi NPP)–Visible Infrared 

Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) near-real-time data for the United 

States and Canada. Provided and disseminated operational near-real-time 

fire mapping and geospatial data products to fire managers and the public.

4 https://ipad.fas.usda.gov/cropexplorer/global_reservoir/
202Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

• Continued activities with NASA Goddard Space Flight Center’s Direct 

Readout Laboratory under a USFS-NASA interagency agreement to 

test and operationally implement near-real-time satellite data-processing 

technologies, including land, atmospheric, and ocean science processing algorithms for EOS and Suomi NPP sensors, to support evolving resource management and operational information needs. Also 

continued related USFS-NASA coordination to organize and deliver 

webinars on new/refined low-latency science data products, decision 

support systems and other remote sensing science updates to the global 

near-real-time community.

• Continued collaboration with NASA Goddard Space Flight Center 

Terrestrial Information Systems Laboratory/Direct Readout Laboratory 

to complete the development of a NASA-hosted computing platform to 

host Forest Service operational needs for near-real-time satellite data processing, strategic Active Fire Mapping processing, analysis and product 

generation, and forest disturbance monitoring and damage mapping.

• Utilized MODIS and Landsat imagery to conduct coarse-level forest 

damage assessments for large geographic areas of the continental United 

States in the immediate aftermath of significant forest disturbance events 

(e.g., hurricanes, tornadoes). This strategic information supported the 

agency in targeting areas for fuels management activities and/or areas 

where higher-resolution forest damage assessments are required.

• Continued to maintain and distribute 250-meter forest attribute data surfaces derived from MODIS imagery and other geospatial predictor data 

using nearest neighbor imputation methods. 

• Continued to maintain and distribute 250-meter forest carbon estimates 

derived from MODIS imagery and other geospatial predictor data using 

nearest neighbor imputation methods.

• Continued coordination with NASA Ames Research Center to upgrade 

the Automated Modular Sensor (AMS) electronics and sensor components and further develop the AMS firmware and software for onboard 

processing system capabilities and user interface to support operational 

integration flights on USFS aircraft.
203 U.S. Department of Agriculture

• Operationally applied Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM), 

Landsat 8 OLI, and Sentinel 2 imagery to respond to 119 requests to map 

the location, extent, and severity of large wildfires amounting to more 

than 5.2 million acres in FY 2020. These rapid-response products support 

post-fire emergency stabilization/hazard mitigation activities conducted by 

Forest Service Burned Area Emergency Response (BAER) teams.

• Operationally applied Landsat 7 ETM, Landsat 8 OLI, and Sentinel 2 

imagery to map and estimate post-fire basal area loss and canopy cover 

loss for 92 large wildfires totaling over 5.1 million acres in FY 2020. These 

products support forest restoration planning management activities and 

efficient use of resources to support those activities.

• Continued to operationally apply Landsat 4/5 Thematic Mapper (TM), 

Landsat 7 ETM, Landsat 8 OLI, and Sentinel 2 imagery to inventory, 

map, and characterize historical large fires to assess the effectiveness 

of national fire management policies as part of the Monitoring Trends 

in Burn Severity (MTBS) project. MTBS mapping activities through 

FY 2020 included the completion of an additional 1,129 fires, increasing the extent of the historical MTBS data record to include 25,614 fires 

covering more than 184 million acres of burned lands. 

• Coordinated with the University of Maryland, NASA, and the USGS 

under the auspices of a NASA ROSES A35 Wildfires Project to continue 

to refine the Landsat 8 active fire detection algorithm and related fire 

remote sensing science initiatives using NASA and European Space 

Agency (ESA) remote sensing data.

• Continued technical collaboration activities between the USFS and 

NASA Ames Research Center regarding the exchange, technology 

transfer, and implementation of relevant NASA, Forest Service, and 

commercial technologies, capabilities, and emerging data sources. These 

collaboration activities supported manned and unmanned airborne 

remote sensing activities in the USFS and interagency community 

through the Tactical Fire Remote Sensing Advisory Committee. 

• Used imagery from Landsat 8–Operational Land Imager (OLI) and 

the USDA National Agriculture Imagery Program (NAIP) to initiate, 
204Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

complete, and update mid-level vegetation mapping, riparian mapping, land 

cover change, and FSVeg spatial update products for national forest lands 

and adjacent land areas throughout the country. Mapped areas included ten 

National Forests encompassing approximately 10 million acres.

• Initiated effort to conduct Tree Canopy Cover data updates for 2019/2021 

for the contiguous United States, interior Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, 

and the Virgin Islands, using imagery from Landsat and NAIP.

• Used Landsat TM/ETM/OLI and NAIP imagery in conjunction with 

other core geospatial datasets to conduct ecological land-type associations and soil-type mapping on NFS lands in the northeast and western 

United States, which the USFS, Natural Resources Conservation 

Service, and other agencies apply to resource management, planning, and 

decision making.

• Completed and delivered a comprehensive and consistent land-cover/

land-use monitoring system, the Landscape Change Monitoring System

(LCMS), for the continental United States. LCMS utilizes Landsat TM/

ETM/OLI time-series stacks within Google Earth Engine to detect and 

monitor land-cover/land-use change from the mid-1980s to the present 

across all administrative ownerships including CONUS and southeast Alaska. In FY 2020, the 1985–2019 CONUS change product was 

extended to include 2020. This effort is being conducted in collaboration 

with several Federal and academic partners.

• Continued to develop and refine standards and practices for integrating 

light detection and ranging (lidar) into forest and resource management 

(i.e., defining acquisition specifications, data-quality assessment, analysis/

modeling procedures for forest parameters). 

• Continued to expand USFS participation in the USGS 3D Elevation 

Program to ensure consistent acquisition specifications and to minimize 

redundant collections by partnering with other state and Federal entities 

on data acquisitions.

• Continued to provide operational web mapping and data services for 

NAIP imagery. Additionally, provided resource management guidance 

based on airborne imagery, and selected moderate resolution imagery 
205 U.S. Department of Agriculture

from NASA satellite assets for consumption/use by USDA and Bureau of 

Land Management staff. The approximately 1 PB data archive provided 

spatially and temporally comprehensive coverage for the United States 

and is essential for daily USDA and partner operational business information needs.

• Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) and Forest Health Protection (FHP) 

staff continue to utilize CONUS and OCONUS Landsat 8, MODIS, 

and NAIP imagery products to support inventory and monitoring of 

the Nation’s forests, including mapping and use in post stratification to 

improve forest attribute estimates. 

• Conducted a geotechnical evaluation on joint lidar-hyperspectral datasets and analyses for use in forest applications. The pilot study assessed 

the practicality of the use of NASA’s Goddard’s LiDAR, Hyperspectral 

& Thermal Imager (G-LiHT) data for land-cover classification. Results 

of the study indicate integration of G-LiHT lidar and hyperspectral data 

improved land-cover classification accuracy. Additionally, USDA continued ongoing work with NASA scientists to continue to use G-LiHT 

data to augment forest inventory of interior Alaska, including initiating 

investigations for improving carbon monitoring.

• USDA continued in FY 2020 to use NASA G-LiHT data with NAIP 

imagery throughout CONUS to assess and monitor forest conditions. 

• NASA and USDA are continuing a 50-year legacy of collaboration 

regarding public engagement and STEM education around “Moon Trees” 

by again partnering to send tree seeds to space on Artemis I, scheduled to 

launch in August 2022. This collaboration continues the legacy of “Moon 

Trees” grown from seeds that orbited the moon in Apollo 14 in 1971. The 

collaboration connects Artemis I programming to Earth science, conservation education, data literacy, and citizen science, serving both educators and youth nationwide via such programming as the Forest Service’s 

Natural Inquirer Moon Tree Lesson Plans and Learning Modules5 and 

NASA’s Office of STEM Education.

6

5 https://www.naturalinquirer.org/Artemis-Moon-Trees-v-397.html

6 https://www.nasa.gov/stem/about.html
206Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

• NASA hosted a Forest Service Distinguished Visiting Scientist at JPL, 

studying landscapes in the Amazon. 

• USFS scientists serve on the Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation 

(GEDI) science team and use NASA’s GEDI instrument on the 

International Space Station, which collects lidar waveform data for assessing the existing biomass of forests and how changes in this biomass caused 

by human activities or variations in climate may impact atmospheric 

CO2 concentrations. Additionally, the three-dimensional structure of 

forests is a key component of habitat quality and biodiversity at local to 

regional scales.

• USFS helped support NASA’s Carbon Monitoring System (CMS) with 

two USFS scientists serving as team members in Phase 3 CMS in 2020, 

and three scientists as Biomass Working Group Team Lead and participating members. A Forest Service scientist served as co-investigator for 

“Preparing the global CMS Flux system for application to carbon flux 

inventories via regional-scale, observation-based evaluations.”

• The Forest Inventory and Analysis program has 11 agreements to share 

Forest Service data with NASA (JPL, Goddard Flight Center) active in 

FY 2020. Remote sensing scientists often rely on Forest Inventory and 

Analysis field data to calibrate or validate observations, or combine with 

observational data for scientific studies. 

• The USFS/USGS/NASA Silvacarbon partnership for building capacity 

in developing nations in 2020 included hosting the following workshops:

• NASA CMS Science Team Meeting—La Jolla, California—

November 12–14, 2019

• Regional—Collaboration with SERVIR-Mekong: Training on Forest 

Stand Height Estimation Using SAR Data—Bangkok, Thailand—

January 13–15, 2020

• 16th GFOI Regional Workshop—How is REDD+ data used for management, policy, and other reporting mechanisms in Latin America—

Fort Collins, Colorado—January 21–24, 2020
207 U.S. Department of Agriculture

Risk Management Agency

The USDA’s Risk Management Agency (RMA), created in 1996, serves 

America’s agricultural producers through effective, market-based risk management tools to strengthen the economic stability of agricultural producers and rural 

communities. RMA manages the Federal Crop Insurance Corporation (FCIC) to 

provide innovative crop insurance products to America’s farmers and ranchers. 

Geospatial systems and data, including space-based remote sensing systems, have 

played a fundamental role in RMA’s program delivery, particularly in the compliance and oversight program areas.

Through crop insurance, RMA provided assistance to farmers and ranchers 

impacted by natural disasters, including hurricanes and fires. In FY 2020, RMA 

used remote sensing data, such as Landsat, Sentinel-2, MODIS, and high-resolution 

aerial and satellite imagery. Many of these imagery products were collected as a 

result of the USDA’s interagency coordination.

RMA incorporated many different geospatial decision-support products that 

have been provided to the USDA and RMA leadership for situational awareness. 

These products help mitigate many natural disasters that have significant impacts 

to agricultural areas that use crop insurance. The products included impacted 

program estimates, estimated precipitation, and natural-disaster extents with such 

things as flooding, hurricanes, and wildfires. Orthoimagery, elevation data, and 

GPS information were essential geospatial data integrated into RMA program 

applications. RMA offices used geospatial data daily to support crop insurance.

RMA staff were active participants in the Science Teams, such as the USDA 

Soil Moisture Working Group that focuses on the use of data from the NASA 

SMAP mission. As an operational user of remote sensing products, RMA’s participation in these work groups provided insight to scientists in developing applications that benefit crop insurance delivery and oversight, as well as farmers and 

ranchers across America.

In addition, RMA often partnered with scientists and researchers to develop 

products to meet agency business needs, including Oregon State University–

Parameter-elevation Regressions on Independent Slopes Model, University of 
208Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

Illinois, and Tarleton State University–Center for Agribusiness Excellence on 

integrating satellite imagery for enhancing program integrity models.
209 National Science Foundation

National Sc

Foundati

NSF

The National Science Foundation (NSF) continued to serve as the lead Federal 

agency for the support of ground-based astronomy and space science. Through the 

divisions of Astronomical Sciences, Physics, Atmospheric and Geospace Sciences, 

and Polar Programs, the NSF sponsored a broad base of observational, theoretical, 

and laboratory research aimed at understanding the states of matter and physical 

processes in the universe. Areas of research ranged from the most distant reaches of 

the universe and the earliest moments of its existence to nearby stars and planets—

including our own Sun and planetary system—as well as Earth’s atmosphere and 

space environment.

Division of Astronomical Sciences

The Division of Astronomical Sciences (AST), within the Directorate for 

Mathematical and Physical Sciences (MPS), supported the development of 

advanced technologies and instrumentation for astronomical sciences, in addition 

to providing core support for the optical and radio observatories with state-of-theart instrumentation and observing capabilities accessible to the community on 

the basis of scientific merit. The NSF’s national astronomical facilities included 

the National Radio Astronomy Observatory, the Arecibo Observatory, the Green 

Bank Observatory, and the National Solar Observatory. During FY 2020, the 

former National Optical Astronomy Observatories were merged with the Gemini 
210Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

Observatory and operation of the Vera C. Rubin Observatory to form NSF’s 

National Optical-Infrared Astronomy Research Laboratory (NOIRLab).

During FY 2020, AST, in partnership with the European Union, Canada, Japan, 

the Republic of Korea, and Taiwan, continued science operations of the Atacama 

Large Millimeter/Submillimeter Array (ALMA), an interferometric array located 

near San Pedro de Atacama, Chile. ALMA continued to receive a high number of 

observing proposals (approximately 1,600). Capabilities offered to the community 

included simultaneous observations with arrays of 12- and 7-meter-diameter antennas, observations with antenna separations of up to 16 kilometers, and observations at frequencies of up to 900 gigahertz. ALMA continued to provide unique 

insights across a broad range of topics, including planets and planet formation, 

proto-stellar and debris disks, low- and high-mass star formation, stellar evolution, 

normal galaxies, galactic centers, and galaxy formation and evolution. For most 

of FY 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic caused significant issues for ALMA: from 

mid-March 2020 science operations were stopped, and the observatory was closed. 

While no science observations were made, support of the scientific user community continued, and access to the data archives was possible. Toward the end of 

FY 2020, the observatory began working to restart science operations, expected to 

occur by mid-March 2021.

The NSF’s Green Bank Observatory (GBO) continued to operate throughout 

FY 2020, despite COVID-19 pandemic challenges. GBO’s primary instrument is the 

100-meter Green Bank Telescope (GBT), the world’s largest fully steerable singledish radio telescope, operating at frequencies from 0.2 GHz to 116 GHz. The GBT’s 

large sky coverage, very high sensitivity, wide wavelength coverage, and extensive 

suite of instruments enable work in almost all areas of astrophysics, from pulsars 

and very-low-frequency gravitational waves to interstellar chemistry and physics. 

Recent highlights include discovering large carbon-bearing ringed molecules, shedding light on the growth of molecular complexity in space. GBT is complementary 

and synergistic with interferometric arrays. It is a highly sensitive and thus critical 

element in very-long-baseline interferometry, and a bistatic radar receiver for rapid 

and sensitive imaging of near-Earth objects and asteroids. Research and development of radar transmit capabilities at the GBT began in FY 2020, and development 

of a high-power radar for planetary and solar system astronomy is being explored.
211 National Science Foundation

Construction of the NSF’s Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope (DKIST) continued 

through FY 2020, albeit at a slower pace due to delays caused by the COVID-19 

pandemic. The pandemic completely halted on-site construction for a period of 

2.5 months in the third quarter of FY 2020, with on-site activities resuming in 

the fourth quarter. Also in the third quarter, the NSF Acting Director, Dr. Kelvin 

K. Droegemeier, authorized an increase to the award for DKIST construction. 

DKIST is the result of a collaboration of scientists from more than 20 institutions representing a broad segment of the U.S. solar physics community, and it had 

previously earned the strong recommendation of the National Research Council 

of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. After completion, DKIST will be the world’s flagship ground-based solar telescope designed 

specifically for the study of solar magnetic fields on scales as small as 30 kilometers. 

Despite setbacks due to the pandemic, the project is approximately 97 percent 

complete. In FY 2020, the NSF and the DKIST project issued a press release showing the highest-resolution images of the Sun ever recorded and demonstrating the 

imaging capabilities of the observatory. These images were the result of the first 

sunlight campaign designed to test the capabilities of the telescope optics and the 

first of the DKIST instruments to come online, the Visible Broadband Imager. The 

project continues to carry out the critical integration, testing, and commissioning 

phase of construction, with work primarily focused on the remaining three facilityclass instruments and the supporting optical and thermal control systems.

The National Solar Observatory (NSO) is the lead organization for the construction of DKIST and will be responsible for telescope operations when completed. NSO was also impacted by COVID-19, with all staff working from home 

and all non-essential travel cancelled. Despite the pandemic, operations staff were 

able to issue the first call for DKIST cycle-1 observing proposals. More than 100 

proposals were received from U.S. and international investigators. NSO was able 

to test the time allocation and review process, and these proposals marked the first 

science to be executed during the observatory commissioning phase (OCP) when 

the telescope came online in 2021. NSO continues to build up the DKIST Data 

Center infrastructure at its headquarters in Boulder, Colorado. The Data Center is 

expected to process up to 12 terabytes of DKIST data per day.
212Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

Personnel from AST, along with colleagues from the Directorate for Geosciences’ 

Division of Atmospheric and Geospace Sciences (AGS), participated in the 

National Science and Technology Council’s (NSTC) Space Weather Operations, 

Research, and Mitigation (SWORM) multi-agency task force. SWORM developed a 

National Space Weather Strategy and Action Plan (NSW-SAP) and is implementing that plan. SWORM itself has become a working group of the Subcommittee on 

Space Weather, Security, and Hazards (SWSH). AST continues to participate in 

two of the SWORM sub-working groups related to space weather observations and 

research. NSO’s Global Oscillations Network Group (GONG) provides detailed 

synoptic solar data crucial to operational space weather forecasting. Operations of 

the GONG facility are jointly funded through a five-year Interagency Agreement 

between the NSF and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA). This agreement expires in FY 2021: the NSF and NOAA are preparing 

its renewal.

Construction of the Vera C. Rubin Observatory (formerly the Large Synoptic 

Survey Telescope) continued in FY 2020, reaching over 85 percent complete. While 

realized foreseeable risks remained within the originally assigned cost and schedule 

contingencies, the coronavirus global pandemic forced a shutdown of construction 

activity from March 21 through September 27 and delayed the expected completion date by about one year. Just prior to the shutdown, the dome was about a 

month away from closure of the structure, and construction of the telescope mount 

assembly was rapidly advancing. Work on data management development continued with a remote workforce throughout the pandemic. A ramp-up of construction 

activity on the summit began on September 28 under coronavirus protocols. The 

NSF allocated management reserve as a first step in providing additional funds to 

cover impacts of the pandemic. In Rubin Observatory’s planned ten-year prime 

mission, imaging the entire accessible sky many hundreds of times, the multicolor 

survey will populate a science-ready database of unprecedented size, enabling 

breakthrough research in dark energy and dark matter, in galactic structure, and in 

solar system astronomy. The relentless, repeated observations will also open up the 

time domain and revolutionize the study of transient events. The Federal partners, 

the NSF and the Department of Energy (DOE), expect this survey to generate 

about 20 terabytes of data every night, night after night, throughout its operational 
213 National Science Foundation

life. The NSF is funding the telescope, building, site, network and software pipelining, and data management systems that allow specialized access separately for 

research and for education and public outreach. DOE is funding the camera in a 

project led by the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, and the NSF and DOE 

support installation and commissioning together. The pandemic interrupted construction of the camera at SLAC for about two months, and work resumed in May 

under coronavirus protocols. In September, SLAC released the first full images 

taken with the 3,200-megapixel camera. Operations support has been requested 

from both agencies and will be augmented by negotiated non-Federal and international in-kind contributions. Federally funded pre-operations ramp-up activity 

continued in FY 2020.

Also in FY 2020, AST’s Mid-Scale Innovations Program (MSIP) ran its latest 

competition, which resulted in recommendations for 11 new awards, of which six 

continue a previously supported activity and five were for new efforts. The full 

MSIP portfolio now contains more than two dozen activities. Noteworthy are continued operations support for the Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) project, which 

is preparing to announce new results, and for the interferometer of the Center for 

High Angular Resolution Astronomy (CHARA). MSIP supports several Cosmic 

Microwave Background experiments and contributes to the Keck Planet Finder 

instrument as well as a number of survey programs, all of which assist and support 

research from current and future space platforms. MSIP projects related to the 

Arecibo Observatory, including the NANOGrav pulsar timing experiment and the 

enhanced L-band feed instrument, were affected by cable failures toward the end of 

FY 2020 and the collapse of the 305-meter telescope early in FY 2021. This work is 

being redirected to the GBT where feasible. Replanning continues. The MSIP program supports laser surface monitoring and correction at the GBT, which helps all 

of its research, including future planetary radar possibilities. The Next Generation 

EHT (ngEHT) design effort, funded by NSF’s Mid-scale Research Infrastructure 

(MSRI) program, continued in FY 2020.

Repair of the damage to the Arecibo Observatory resulting from Hurricane 

Maria, which hit the island of Puerto Rico in September 2017, began in FY 2018. 

Unfortunately, during the course of the ongoing repairs, on August 10, 2020, 

an auxiliary cable from tower 4 supporting the suspended platform above the 
214Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

305-meter reflector pulled loose from its socket and fell into the reflector below, 

damaging about 250 of the approximately 40,000 aluminum panels that make up 

the dish of the telescope. This cable failure is not thought to have been related 

to the hurricane damage, and investigation of the possible causes is ongoing. 

Following structural analyses to determine if it was safe to approach the dish, the 

failed socket was removed and sent to NASA’s Kennedy Space Center for analysis. 

Engineers designed a stabilization plan, including friction clamps to prevent other 

cable failures where slippages were observed, and cables were ordered and set to be 

installed in December. The implementation of these stabilization efforts was due to 

begin on November 9, 2020, but the telescope collapsed early in FY 2021. Further 

work is still planned, however. 

Division of Physics

MPS’s Division of Physics (PHY) continued to operate its Laser Interferometer 

Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO), which ended its third observational run 

(O3) by the end of March 2020. During the O3 10-month run, LIGO released 56 

trigger alerts, each considered a gravitational-wave event (more than one event per 

week). Starting in April 2020, LIGO is undergoing a series of upgrades collectively 

called “A+,” increasing its sensitivity by about 70 percent and its detection rate by 

a factor of five (to start in summer 2022). In 2020, LIGO published some of the O3 

exceptional events, including the discovery of black holes in the “mass gaps” and 

the first intermediate mass black hole.

Complementing LIGO, PHY, in partnership with AST, continued its funding of 

North American Nanohertz Observatory for Gravitational Waves (NANOGrav). 

NANOGrav uses large radio telescopes to study the arriving clocklike signals from 

more than 80 rapidly spinning pulsars to search for deviations in the timing that 

could indicate the passage of a single gravitational wave through our galaxy or the 

presence of a stochastic background of many gravitational wave sources throughout 

the universe. A typical source of gravitational waves for NANOGrav would be a 

black hole pair with millions of times the mass of the Sun, in contrast to LIGO’s 

tens of times, and the wave itself would have a period of several years. In 2020, 
215 National Science Foundation

NANOGrav published the first evidence of stochastic background detection in the 

analysis of its 12.5-year catalog.

For a description of the IceCube Neutrino Observatory, partially supported by 

PHY, see the Office of Polar Programs section below.

Division of Atmospheric and Geospace Sciences

During FY 2020, the Space Weather Operations, Research, and Mitigation 

(SWORM) Working Group under the Space Weather, Security, and Hazards 

(SWSH) subcommittee within the Committee for Homeland and National 

Security of NSTC began implementing the goals and objectives identified in the 

National Space Weather Strategy and Action Plan (NSW-SAP).1 This new plan 

has three main objectives, the second of which requires agencies to “develop and 

disseminate accurate and timely space weather characterization and forecasts.” The 

NSW-SAP, monitored by the SWORM subcommittee, encourages the NSF to support fundamental research linked to societal needs for space weather information 

and to work with other agencies, specifically to “improve observations and modeling for characterization and forecasting.”

In FY 2020, the NSF continued fulfilling this goal through its science programs in AGS, AST, and the Directorate for Geosciences program Prediction and 

Resilience against Extreme Events. Additional support comes through interagency 

collaborations, such as the joint sponsoring of the Community Coordinated 

Modeling Center located at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center and the NSFDOE plasma partnership.

The NSF, through AGS and AST participation, remained active in SWORM 

activities. Representatives from the NSF participated in the efforts to start implementing the new NSW-SAP. In addition, AGS played a leading role in the publication of the Next Step Space Weather Benchmarks report.2

 The benchmarks 

identified in this report specify the nature and intensity of extreme space weather 

1 Found at https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/National-Space-Weather-Strategyand-Action-Plan-2019.pdf.

2 https://www.ida.org/research-and-publications/publications/all/n/ne/next-step-space-weather-benchmarks
216Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

events and provide a point of reference to improve understanding of their effects. 

This report was the culmination of work by 32 space weather experts who reviewed 

white papers from the international space weather community and a series of workshops that allowed them to identify gaps and recommendations.

The Geospace Section (GS) within AGS supported a wide variety of research 

programs in space science in FY 2020. These included the funding of advanced 

radar systems to study the ionosphere and magnetosphere (Incoherent Scattering 

Radars and Super Dual Auroral Radar Network), ground-based passive and active 

optical equipment and meteor radars to study the neutral upper atmosphere, as well 

as aurora and airglow phenomena, partial support to ground-based solar telescopes 

and instruments, and a wide-ranging portfolio of basic research in space physics. 

Major GS-funded activities in FY 2020 included the Geospace Facilities (GF) program; the Space Weather Research program; the Solar-Terrestrial Research program; 

the Aeronomy and Coupling, Energetics, and Dynamics of Atmospheric Regions 

(CEDAR) programs; and the Magnetospheric Physics (MAG) and Geospace 

Environment Modeling (GEM) program. In collaboration with NASA’s Heliophysics 

Division and NSF’s Divisions of Physics, Astronomical Sciences, and Mathematical 

Sciences and the Office of Advanced Cyberinfrastructure, AGS made six grant 

awards totaling more than $16 million to advance space weather modeling. These 

university-led projects bring together multidisciplinary teams, including partners 

from government and the private sector to integrate the latest statistical analysis 

and high-performance computing methods in space weather modeling.

The Geospace Section runs the Faculty Development in Space Sciences 

Program to ensure the health and vitality of solar and space sciences within university teaching faculties; it offers five-year awards for the creation of new tenuretrack faculty positions within the intellectual disciplines that compose the space 

sciences. In FY 2020, the GS funded one new faculty position to complete the class 

that included six awards funded in the previous fiscal year.

In FY 2020, the GS supported multiple CubeSat missions, including four that 

were selected in the previous fiscal year. The Impulsive Phase Rapid Energetic 

Solar Spectrometer experiment is a CubeSat science mission to study hard x-ray 

emission from solar flares. The Climatology of Anthropogenic and Natural Very 

Low Frequency (VLF) wave Activity in Space CubeSat will measure VLF wave 
217 National Science Foundation

energy that originates from lightning and ground-based transmitters and propagates to the outer reaches of Earth’s magnetic field. The Virtual Super-resolution 

Optics with Reconfigurable Swarms (VISORS) mission supports the use of constellations of CubeSats through designing, building, and operating two satellites that 

together form an ultraviolet telescope for observing the Sun. The Space Weather 

Atmospheric Reconfigurable Multiscale Experiment (SWARM-EX) project provides an important step in the advancement of designing and building CubeSat 

constellations. Both VISORS and SWARM-EX measurements are to be used for 

space weather observation and research.

In FY 2020, the GS continued to support the satellite-based Active 

Magnetosphere and Planetary Electrodynamics Response Experiment (AMPERE), 

which is now in its second implementation phase, AMPERE-II. AMPERE utilized 

the 66 networked satellites of the existing Iridium constellation to create a new 

facility for collecting geomagnetic field data. The AMPERE facility continued to 

provide the first-ever global observations of the electric currents that link Earth’s 

magnetosphere and ionosphere and the first-ever continuous global observations 

for tracking geomagnetic storm-time dynamics. Geomagnetic storms occur when 

charged particles emitted by solar eruptions interact with Earth’s magnetosphere. 

Large geomagnetic storms can cause major disruptions of power and high-frequency 

(HF) communications systems on the ground and degrade the accuracy of satellitebased navigation services. During FY 2020, the data collection for AMPERE continued and the data remained freely available to researchers.

Research facilities remained as the key component of GS efforts. The Geospace 

Facilities program in FY 2020 continued to enable basic research on the structure 

and dynamics of Earth’s upper atmosphere. In particular, the CEDAR and GEM 

programs supported research efforts utilizing these facilities. Throughout FY 2020, 

observations made by the Advanced Modular Incoherent-Scatter Radar (AMISR) 

facility at Poker Flat, Alaska, examined the ionospheric effects of auroral particle 

precipitation in three dimensions. AMISR is ideally situated to observe the properties of the ionosphere in the polar cap, a region that is characterized by high 

ionospheric variability that often causes disruption of important navigation and 

communication systems. 
218Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

AGS continued its support of the U.S. consortium within the international 

Super Dual Auroral Radar Network (SuperDARN), which encompasses more than 

35 radars distributed from mid- through high polar latitudes in both the northern and southern hemispheres. The radars observe a wide range of effects in the 

coupled magnetosphere-ionosphere thermosphere system and produce maps of the 

large-scale circulation of ionospheric plasma. The wider U.S. research community 

is given access to data from the entire set of SuperDARN radars.

In collaboration with the Division of Astronomical Sciences, the GS co-funded 

and supervised a cooperative agreement with a consortium led by the University 

of Central Florida to operate the radar facility at Arecibo. A cable failure that 

occurred at the end of FY 2020 contributed to the catastrophic failure of the 305-

meter dish that supported the radar operations. Plans for how the facility will continue to operate in the future are under careful consideration.

The GS supports additional ground-based infrastructure through magnetometer 

networks. Magnetometers are crucial for understanding space weather impacts 

of geomagnetically induced currents, which can cause power grid outages. The 

FY 2020 support for the Magnetometer Array for Cusp and Cleft Studies allows 

this network to continue into a third decade of operation. Two new magnetometer 

investments include the Surface Magnetic Assessment in Real Time Network, 

which deploys updated magnetometers in an array of 14 new sites in the United 

States and three in Canada, and the Conjugate Experiment to Investigate Sources 

of High-Latitude Magnetic Perturbations, which will be deployed in Antarctica. 

The GS supports SuperMAG, along with ongoing NSF-funded magnetometers, to 

collect and disseminate these important measurements to researchers and space 

weather operators across the country.

In FY 2020, the AGS’s Atmosphere Section (AS) continued to support the 

Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere, and Climate 

(COSMIC). The University Corporation for Atmospheric Research and its collaborator, Taiwan’s National Space Organization (NSPO), designed and built the 

COSMIC six-satellite constellation, which launched on April 14, 2006, with the 

support and assistance of the U.S. Air Force’s Space Test Program. On April 30, 

2020, the mission was formally decommissioned as its last remaining satellite was 

reporting sporadically. Over the course of its life cycle, COSMIC provided more 
219 National Science Foundation

than 6.9 million GPS radio occultation (RO) neutral atmospheric soundings and 

more than 4.6 million ionospheric RO soundings. The COSMIC team is now 

conducting a reprocessing campaign to create whole-mission datasets with consistent and state-of-the-art processing for all the observations generated over the 

14-year mission lifetime. The team also processes data for several other RO satellite 

missions, including South Korea’s KOMPSAT-5 and Spain’s Paz, which are used 

operationally. Support for this activity comes from NASA as well as NSF. The 

follow-on COSMIC 2 tropical mission, with a 30-degree inclination, was launched 

by the USAF on June 25, 2019, and is now producing over 4,000 RO soundings per 

day. The data have been in operational use since March 2020 and started to show 

strong impact to the research community with high interest in using this new dataset to study both the lower atmosphere and ionosphere. The mission is operated 

through a collaboration between NOAA, the USAF, and NSPO.

Office of Polar Programs

For FY 2020, the primary activities of the Office of Polar Programs in groundbased space science and astronomy included continued full-scale observations at 

the U.S. Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station with the 10-meter off-axis radio 

South Pole Telescope (SPT); and the battery of five small-aperture telescopes 

called the Background Imaging of Cosmic Extragalactic Polarization (BICEP) 

Array—wide-field cryogenic refractors with a 55-centimeter aperture and fast 

optics that achieve an order of magnitude increase in throughput. These telescopes 

currently have a total of 5,000 detectors (“pixels”) in their focal planes. Recent 

scientific results from the BICEP Collaboration include deep multi-frequency (95, 

150, 220, and 270 gigahertz) maps of degree-scale B-mode polarization that measure 

gravitational lensing and foregrounds to unprecedented precision. This project also 

produced the deepest-ever maps of cosmic microwave background (CMB) polarization at four different frequencies, or colors, of light. The constraints that BICEP 

telescopes have produced on primordial gravitational waves continue to improve, 

leading the way in probing models of inflation that operate near grand-unified 

theory (GUT) energy scales.
220Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

The SPT continued observations with the third-generation receiver SPT-3G, 

which has a total of 16,000 detectors in its focal plane. Both the SPT and BICEP 

research groups are currently focusing on measurements of the CMB polarization 

anisotropy towards detecting imprints of primordial gravitational waves generated 

during the inflation of spacetime after the Big Bang.

The IceCube Neutrino Observatory (ICNO, jointly operated at the South Pole 

by the NSF’s Office of Polar Programs and Division of Physics) has now collected 

data for ten full years of operation from a complete array of 86 strings of optical 

photodetectors deployed in the ice under the South Pole Station in Antarctica at 

depths between 1.4 and 2.4 kilometers. The existing detector is capable of observing cosmogenic neutrinos with energies of 100 gigaelectronvolts (GeV) to ten petaelectronvolts (PeV).

The ICNO has produced the world’s best limit on the flux of cosmogenic neutrinos, which places very strong constraints on the sources of ultra-high-energy 

cosmic rays. The PeV neutrinos observed by IceCube have a thousand times the 

energy of the highest-energy neutrinos produced with Earthbound accelerators and 

a billion times the energy of the neutrinos detected from supernova SN1987A in 

the Large Magellanic Cloud, the only neutrinos that had been detected on Earth 

from outside the solar system prior to IceCube’s breakthrough. However, the most 

surprising property of these cosmic neutrinos is their large flux rather than their 

high energy or their origination outside our galaxy.

The NSF’s Division of Polar Programs also supports NASA’s Long Duration 

Balloon (LDB) Program in the Antarctic. McMurdo Station provides the necessary logistics for astrophysics payload assembly and final testing and then helps 

launch the balloons and support payload recovery after the flights in various 

regions of the Antarctic continent. A total of 57 LDB science payloads have been 

successfully launched from McMurdo since the first interagency Memorandum of 

Understanding was signed in August 1988.
221 Department of State

Department of

DOS

The Department of State (DOS) carries out diplomatic and public diplomacy 

efforts to strengthen American leadership in space exploration, applications, and 

commercialization by increasing understanding of, and support for, U.S. national 

space policies and programs and to encourage the foreign use of U.S. space capabilities, systems, and services. The Office of Space Affairs within the Bureau of 

Oceans and International Environmental and Scientific Affairs (OES/SA) directly 

supports civil space cooperation through the negotiation of bilateral and multilateral agreements, engagement with partner countries, and by leading U.S. participation in numerous international space and technological activities and international 

organizations. The Office of Emerging Security Challenges within the Bureau of 

Arms Control, Verification and Compliance (AVC/ESC) supports diplomatic and 

public diplomacy engagements to promote space security cooperation, including 

the pursuit of space-related transparency and confidence-building measures as well 

as bilateral and multilateral space security dialogues.

The year 2020 was a uniquely challenging year for face-to-face diplomacy due to 

the COVID-19 pandemic. Globally, governments and organizations like OES/SA 

and AVC/ESC reconfigured their means of work and methods of executing space 

diplomacy. Yet, even with those structural challenges, both offices executed their 

mission within the following activities.
222Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

Bilateral Dialogues

Japan

The usual cadence of in-person bilateral dialogues was interrupted by the travel 

restrictions and health measures instituted to mitigate the spread of COVID-19. 

State transitioned many bilateral dialogues from in-person to virtual. One significant exception was the Seventh Meeting of the Japan-U.S. Comprehensive 

Dialogue on Space. This in-person meeting took place in Tokyo on August 26, 

2020, and was cochaired by representatives from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs 

and National Space Policy Secretariat, Cabinet Office for Japan, and by representatives from the Executive Office of the President’s National Space Council and 

National Security Council for the United States.

At this meeting, both sides provided updates on their respective space policies 

and strategies. Both sides renewed their strong determination to expand bilateral 

cooperation in a variety of areas, including space security, international rulemaking, SSA, space exploration, commercial space activities, and global navigation 

satellite systems, and to seek opportunities for cooperation with third countries 

and in international fora. Both sides engaged in robust bilateral cooperation in 

Earth observation, including weather forecasting, Earth science, land and ocean 

observation, and environmental and space weather monitoring. Japanese and U.S. 

weather and Earth observation satellite arrays are essential systems on which other 

nations rely. Both sides discussed other important issues regarding space utilization, 

such as space resources and the use of space for maritime domain awareness. The 

United States welcomed Japan’s effort to establish a new framework for satellite 

development and demonstration.

Both sides reaffirmed their commitment to the Artemis Program, the U.S.-led 

international space exploration program through which the United States and 

its international and commercial partners will sustainably explore the Moon in 

preparation for a human mission to Mars. Recognizing the increasing importance 

of space for national security as well as the dependence of contemporary society 

on space systems, both sides welcomed significant developments in their respective 

defense institutions, namely, the establishment of the Space Operation Squadron 
223 Department of State

of the Japan Air Self-Defense Force and the Space Command and Space Force 

of the United States. Both sides recognized the role of space applications such as 

satellite-based Earth observation and navigation in the context of solving global 

issues, including achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. 

Luxembourg

On October 22, 2019, leaders of the Luxembourg Space Agency and NASA 

signed a joint statement to pursue a Space Framework Agreement to encourage 

greater bilateral space cooperation with NASA. In addition, Luxembourg, Japan, 

and the United States are the only countries to have dedicated laws on space 

resources. The initiative has attracted more than 50 start-ups from the space sector, 

which came to Luxembourg to take advantage of research grants and other start-up 

subsidies. Luxembourg is one of the original signatories to the Artemis Accords.

Russia

In January 2020, the United States and Russian Federation decided to establish a U.S.-Russia dialogue on space security under the framework of the bilateral 

Strategic Security Dialogue. On June 27, 2020, officials from the Departments of 

State, Defense, and Energy met with Russian counterparts in Vienna, Austria. In 

this meeting, the two sides exchanged views on current and future space threats, 

policies, strategies, and doctrine, and discussed a forward-looking agenda to 

promote safe, professional, and sustainable activities in space. Both delegations 

expressed interest in continuing these discussions and improving communications, 

such as how to enhance communications between the two countries about spacerelated operational issues in order to reduce the risks of misunderstanding, help 

prevent or manage space-related incidents, and prevent inadvertent escalation.
224Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

Multilateral Activities

Artemis Accords

DOS and NASA also concluded negotiations on the Artemis Accords, which 

include principles for lunar exploration. Australia, Canada, Italy, Luxembourg, 

Japan, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, and the United States 

signed the Accords on October 13, 2020. The Accords are a multilateral declaration negotiated under U.S. leadership that provides nonbinding guidance for implementation of the Outer Space Treaty of 1967 and reinforces obligations under the 

Registration Convention and Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts. Countries 

signing the Artemis Accords also publicly endorse principles related to transparency, public release of scientific data, responsible behavior, and support for the 

ability to extract and utilize space resources. 

COSPAS-SARSAT

In 2019, the founding States Parties to the International COSPAS-SARSAT 

Programme Agreement began negotiations for an amendment to the 1988 agreement. Canada, France, Russia, and the United States adapted to virtual negotiations in the fall of 2020 and were able to make progress on the amended agreement 

that governs the search-and-rescue satellite program.

Space Resource Utilization

In April 2020, the administration released Executive Order (EO) 13914 on 

Encouraging International Support for the Recovery and Use of Space Resources, 

reaffirming the long-standing U.S. position on the utilization of space resources for 

civil and commercial purposes and highlighting the administration’s prioritization 

of growing the U.S. space economy. In response to EO 13914, the Office of Space 

Affairs led drafting on a report detailing actions taken by DOS in consultation 

with DOC, the Department of Transportation, and NASA to fulfill executive 
225 Department of State

order responsibilities. The report was submitted to the President via the National 

Space Council in October 2020. 

United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space

In FY 2020, OES/SA continued to lead the U.S. delegation to the United 

Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) and supported its subcommittees, even as the annual meeting of the full committee was 

cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. While COPUOS’s Scientific and 

Technical Subcommittee was able to meet in February 2020, the Committee’s Legal 

Subcommittee was unable to meet. As a result, the United States worked constructively with like-minded countries and the UN Secretariat to advance a UN General 

Assembly resolution adopted in December 2020 that called for the continuity of 

work of the COPUOS as pandemic restrictions continue to lessen in the future.

Space Security and Sustainability

During the 74th session of the UN General Assembly in October 2019, the 

United States worked in the First and Fourth Committees to advance U.S. policy 

principles and goals regarding space security and sustainability. These engagements 

highlighted the U.S. commitment to international cooperation to preserve the 

safety, stability, security, and long-term sustainability of outer space activities. U.S. 

delegations also reiterated the long-standing U.S. commitment to consideration of 

proposals and concepts for arms control measures which are equitable, effectively 

verifiable, and enhance the national security of the United States and its allies.

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, sessions of the Conference on Disarmament 

and the UN Disarmament Commission in 2020 were postponed. In response, State 

continued virtual consultations in virtual formats with like-minded allies on space 

security to prepare for virtual space security discussions during the 75th session of 

the UN General Assembly’s First Committee in October 2020. This diplomatic 

outreach resulted in the adoption of a U.S. co-sponsored resolution on “Reducing 

space threats through norms, rules and principles of responsible behaviors” by the 

full General Assembly on December 7, 2020.

227 Department of Energy

Department of En

DOE

The Department of Energy (DOE) participates in the national effort to enable 

U.S. interests in space. Various organizations within DOE, including the National 

Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA), provide support to NASA that has 

natural synergies with existing programs and capabilities to maximize use of 

national investments in science and technology. DOE support, funded by NASA 

through either Strategic Partnership Programs or Laboratory Directed Research 

and Development, is aligned to four major goals: 

• power the exploration of space,

• support the secure and peaceful use of space,

• solve the mysteries of space, and

• enable the development of space.

Each of these areas has aspects that support NASA’s mission. 

Power the Exploration of Space

DOE, through its Office of Nuclear Energy (NE), supports NASA’s planetary 

science and human exploration programs by maintaining capabilities needed to 

develop, produce, and deliver Radioisotope Power Systems (RPS) for space mission applications. RPS convert the heat from the radioactive decay of plutonium 

(Pu)-238 into electricity and reliably operate for decades in the harsh conditions 

encountered in space or on the surfaces of other planets where solar energy or 

stored energy devices are ineffective or impossible to use. 
228Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

Radioisotope Power Systems Powered Missions

In FY 2020, DOE supported two RPS-powered missions, Mars 2020 and 

Dragonfly, that completed major milestones: 

• DOE successfully fueled the flight multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generator (MMRTG) F-2 for Mars 2020 in August 2019 and completed 

acceptance testing in October 2020, six months ahead of schedule, resulting in a power output of 120 We at 28 V (specified power greater than 110 

We). The flight unit (F-2) was transported to NASA’s KSC in spring 2020. 

DOE/NNSA provided the ground operations support, which consisted 

of a hot-fit-check integration with the Perseverance rover at the Payload 

Hazardous Servicing Facility, storage monitoring for approximately three 

months, and final integration at Space Launch Complex 41 approximately 

one week prior to launch. The Mars 2020 rover was launched successfully 

on July 30, 2020. DOE/NNSA staged technical specialists and sensors in 

the vicinity of the launch site to respond immediately in the unlikely 

event of a launch anomaly. DOE’s portion of the Mars 2020 mission activities was completed $14 million under budget (20 percent under initial 

DOE estimates). 

• DOE formally established a support team for the Dragonfly mission to 

provide an MMRTG-powered dual-quadcopter mission to Saturn’s moon 

Titan. DOE supported multiple mission studies on assessing MMRTG 

compatibility with Titan’s atmosphere, convective cooling versus additional cooling loops for surface operation, and fin length to reduce unnecessary size and weight.

• DOE also supported procurement of additional flight MMRTGs intended 

for potential future missions to maintain the industrial base and reduce 

schedule risk by maintaining an equipment inventory. 

Constant Rate Production 

With NASA funding support, DOE, through NE, continues to invest in RPS 

production infrastructure through the Constant Rate Production (CRP) program. 
229 Department of Energy

In early 2017, DOE and NASA agreed to transition the delivery of RPS from a 

mission-driven approach to a CRP approach. Under the CRP program, components, materials, facilities, and expertise across the plutonium production supply 

chain are managed to produce a steady flow of heat sources, instead of producing 

in response to individual mission needs. The outcome of CRP is an underlying 

base of shelf-ready, flight-quality components that are readily available once NASA 

selects a nuclear-enabled mission, thus reducing overall mission schedule risks. The 

CRP goals are to produce an average of 1.5 kilograms of heat source Pu-238 oxide 

annually by 2026 and to manufacture an average of 10–15 fuel clads (FCs) a year 

(goal demonstrated).

The initial focus of CRP was on exercising the supply chain from start to finish, 

but after its demonstrated success to provide new heat source oxide for the Mars 

2020 mission, the focus shifted in FY 2020 to scaling up production; optimizing 

processes; and maintaining, modernizing, and replacing equipment and infrastructure. In FY 2020, the CRP program key accomplishments included the following:

• Scaling up production capabilities: 

• A second target irradiation campaign in the Advanced Test Reactor 

(ATR) was introduced at the Idaho National Laboratory (INL). 

The ATR, coupled with the High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR) at 

the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), increased the average annual production capability to 700 grams of new-heat-source 

plutonium oxide.

• The Neptunium-237 pellet pressing process at ORNL was automated, 

tripling the number of pellets produced in FY 2020 for inserting into 

targets for irradiation in ATR and HFIR.

• The installation of a plutonium load-out capability at ORNL was 

completed, enabling the handling, packaging, and shipping of larger 

quantities of heat source material necessary for scale-up to meet 

CRP goals.

• Optimizing processes to achieve efficiencies and increase production rates: 

• At the Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL), a Manufacturing 

Management System tool was developed and the Material 
230Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

Management Plan revised to enable and optimize blend plans for heat 

source material.

• Process refinement was conducted by reducing the steps needed for 

chemical processing and separations for producing the plutonium 

heat source material while reducing waste streams. 

• The effects of different target designs and target placement/positions 

in reactors were studied to optimize irradiations in ATR and HFIR. 

• Maintaining, modernizing, and replacing equipment and infrastructure to 

reduce programmatic risk:

• A second pellet press at ORNL was designed and a new Hot Press at 

LANL was installed to eliminate single-point failures in the production process. 

• A new Ultrasonic Tester and welder was procured and installed, the 

Astro furnace was reconfigured, Hot Press 4 was completed, and 

Furnace Line was installed at LANL.

Technical Expertise and Advancements

DOE, through NE and the DOE national laboratories, provided technical expertise, procurement coordination, and planning and support to NASA in conducting 

basic and applied energy conversion research and development to advance stateof-the-art performance in heat-to-electrical-energy conversion. Both static and 

dynamic energy conversion projects are under way at this time; however, dynamic 

conversion, which can achieve higher efficiency, has not been developed to a 

flightworthy status yet. The goal of these investments is to provide higher conversion efficiency and improve mission performance over design life. 

DOE initiated three development efforts that encompass both static and 

dynamic conversion systems: the enhanced multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generator (eMMRTG), the next-generation radioisotope thermoelectric generator (NGRTG), and a dynamic radioisotope power system (DRPS). In FY 2020, the 

eMMRTG project focused on technology transfer from the laboratory to industry. 

The eMMRTG will utilize the MMRTG housing with enhanced thermoelectric 

materials for improved thermoelectric efficiency and degradation. The NGRTG 
231 Department of Energy

project proceeded through Phase 1 of the project to develop concepts of NGRTGs 

and identify areas of risk. The team settled on Phase 2/3 proceeding with wellcharacterized thermoelectric material technologies. The DRPS project focused on 

technology maturation of the conversion system in FY 2020. 

Surface Fission System Development

DOE, through NE and the DOE national laboratories, provides technical 

support for surface fission system development. In FY 2020, DOE completed a 

detailed study on evaluating the ability of various reactor classes to meet a set of 

NASA program requirements for a surface fission system. The study concluded 

that both highly enriched uranium and high-assay low-enriched uranium could 

likely meet the technical parameters and outlined the technical maturation that 

would be required for both. Following this study, NASA and DOE worked toward 

commercializing this fission surface power concept. DOE published a Request for 

Information in July 2020 followed by an industry day in August 2020 to discuss 

the overall goals and direction of the program with industry participants. It was 

attended virtually by more than 20 companies. 

Nuclear Thermal Propulsion System Development

DOE, through NE and the DOE national laboratories, provides technical support for the Nuclear Thermal Propulsion (NTP) system development. In FY 2020, 

DOE completed a series of Sirius-2a irradiations at the INL’s Transient Reactor Test 

Facility (TREAT) and preliminary examination of an advanced nuclear thermal 

propulsion fuel type—a uranium nitride ceramic-metallic test specimen that was 

fabricated at Marshall Space Flight Center. These tests consisted of irradiating a 

single half-inch-tall uranium nitride/molybdenum-tungsten ceramic metallic fuel 

wafer in a static capsule to prototypical temperatures. The Sirius-2 experiments 

are used to evaluate thermal stress cracking of the test specimen, dissociation of 

the uranium nitride fuel, hydriding of the fuel wafer materials, and other signs of 

potential fuel failure.
232Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

DOE and NASA also implemented the Space Nuclear Propulsion fuel and moderator development plan (FMDP) to guide maturation of Space Nuclear Propulsion 

(SNP) reactor materials and components. The FMDP defined 48 individual tasks 

associated with design, fabrication, and testing of reactor components and identified organizations to lead and support work performed under the plan, including 

NASA centers, DOE national laboratories, industry organizations (e.g., Babcock 

and Wilcox Technologies, Inc., Aerojet-Rocketdyne, Inc.), and universities (e.g., 

MIT, University of Tennessee, Knoxville). The integrated FMDP team initiated 

technical analysis and hardware fabrication work to support future nuclear and 

non-nuclear experiments. These preliminary FMDP work activities were focused on 

preparing for capstone tests at TREAT to demonstrate operation of multiple SNP 

fuel and moderator systems under prototypic operating conditions.

Support the Secure and Peaceful Use of Space 

In FY 2020, DOE conducted programs that support NASA missions and are 

synergistic with national security activities. For example, NASA leverages DOEunique engineering, scientific, and computing capabilities for analyzing asteroids 

and planetary defense scenarios. This work helps to develop and exercise capabilities that are relevant to the weapons program, including high-performance computing, two- and three-dimensional simulations, weapon effects, systems engineering, 

and weapon component design.

Planetary Defense

DOE worked with NASA, the Department of Defense, and the Department of 

Homeland Security to develop and implement the actions outlined in the National 

Near-Earth Object Preparedness Strategy and Action Plan. This Strategy and 

Action Plan was developed to help improve our Nation’s preparedness to address 

the hazards of near-Earth object (NEO) impacts. The NEO plan has five strategic 

goals. The two pertaining to DOE focus on improving NEO modeling, predictions, 

and information integration and developing technologies for NEO deflection and 

disruption missions. 
233 Department of Energy

In FY 2020, DOE collaborated with NASA to

• characterize the potentially hazardous asteroid target sets, define mission 

requirements, and identify capability gaps;

• examine the effects of either a kinetic impactor and/or a nuclear detonation, either at the surface or at a standoff distance from a model asteroid, 

using simulations from peta-scale computers at the National Labs; 

• define additional development and system engineering requirements to 

address technical gaps such as arming, fusing, and firing a deflection device;

• participate in planetary defense tabletop exercises and technical interchange meetings;

• advise on risk-assessment analysis and effectiveness of mitigation 

approaches;

• conduct impact studies, which will serve as the initial conditions for 

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) emergency response 

planning if mitigation approaches fail; and

• partner with NASA scientists and engineers to publish refereed technical 

papers.

In addition, DOE continued to support NASA’s Double Asteroid Redirection 

Test, scheduled for a launch in July 2021, by providing essential numerical methods 

and simulation results. 

NASA’s Environmental Continuous Air Monitors

DOE maintained the NASA-owned Environmental Continuous Air Monitors 

for deployment around launch sites in advance of a launch to provide indication of 

a radioactive release, should one occur. NASA agreed to loan these sensors in support of DOE/NNSA’s nuclear incident response mission when they are not being 

used for mission launch support. These devices were upgraded to provide real-time 

associated data telemetry systems and will be interoperable with NNSA’s existing 

data telemetry capability.
234Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

Global Nuclear Monitoring

DOE builds the Nation’s operational sensors to monitor the entire planet from 

space to detect and report surface, atmospheric, or space nuclear detonations. DOE 

develops, builds, and delivers these satellite payloads to meet interagency performance and schedule commitments and provides launch and on-orbit operational 

support for the current generation of the U.S. Nuclear Detonation Detection 

System (USNDS). This information helps to characterize space weather, which 

helps NASA to characterize the radiation environments that NASA space exploration vehicles must endure. DOE also provides much of the underlying science and 

technology capability for space-based detection of foreign nuclear weapon detonations to meet test ban treaty monitoring needs. 

The DOE weapons laboratories—Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL), 

Sandia National Laboratories (SNL), and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 

(LLNL)—supply the science, technology, and engineering required for USNDS. 

LANL and SNL lead the production of sensors, and LLNL contributes to the 

end-to-end modeling of USNDS. These laboratories have a unique and comprehensive understanding of nuclear weapons, as well as the observables associated 

with nuclear detonations and the propagation of signals to sensors. Moreover, these 

laboratories have extensive capabilities in the design, construction, calibration, 

deployment, and operation of satellite-based instruments, along with detailed 

modeling and analysis. To support continuous global monitoring, the operations 

communities routinely receive analysis, insights, and computer codes based on 

this research.

Two distinct sensor suites are built at DOE laboratories to accomplish the 

nuclear detonation reporting mission: the Global Burst Detector (GBD) and the 

Space and Atmospheric Burst Reporting System (SABRS). The GBD is hosted on 

all GPS satellites, and SABRS is carried on satellite hosts in geosynchronous orbit. 

In FY 2020, DOE continued full-scale production and delivery of both sensor 

suites as needed to meet national security requirements. To ensure that the technologies and capabilities developed for the program support the stakeholder needs, 

DOE actively engaged in intergovernmental working groups to reduce duplication 

of effort, refine user requirements, and improve the quality of relevant technologies 
235 Department of Energy

across funding agencies. In order to maintain a vital capability to design and 

implement these systems, DOE supported demonstration-validation payloads 

both to explore new technologies and new sensing modalities and to increase the 

Technology Readiness Level for parts that might be used in future payload designs.

Solve the Mysteries of Space 

In FY 2020, DOE supported numerous activities that contributed to a broad 

range of space interests. These activities included fundamental research of mutual 

interest to NASA and DOE, collaborative research efforts with NASA, and the 

operation of DOE scientific facilities that are available to NASA and the broader 

scientific community for space-related research. 

Plasma Science

DOE, through its Fusion Energy Science program, supports frontier plasma science research that contributes to DOE-NASA mutual interests in the knowledge 

of heliospheric and astrophysical systems. In FY 2020, DOE continued to support 

plasma science research activities at the Large Plasma Device at the Basic Plasma 

Science Facility at the University of California, Los Angeles (controlled studies 

of Alfvén waves); the Magnetic Reconnection Experiment at DOE’s Princeton 

Plasma Physics Laboratory (magnetic reconnection and particle energization processes); the Big Red Plasma Ball and Madison Symmetric Torus experiments at 

the Wisconsin Plasma Physics Laboratory at the University of Wisconsin–Madison 

(high-fidelity measurements of magnetic reconnection, dynamo, turbulence, and 

particle-energization processes); and the Max Planck-Princeton Center for Plasma 

Physics (applications of plasma science to solar and astrophysical problems and 

their connection to fusion science). New knowledge and data derived from these 

experiments and research activities not only contributed to DOE’s mission to 

advance fusion energy science, but also contributed to greater understanding of 

complex space weather phenomena, enabling more accurate models and predictions of this behavior and mitigating the risk to both humans and technology 

operating in the space environment.
236Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

High Energy Physics (HEP) and Astrophysics

In FY 2020, DOE, through its High Energy Physics program, continued to support fundamental physics and high-priority national science objectives. Examples 

of these efforts included the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS) and the Fermi 

Gamma-ray Space Telescope (FGST). AMS science goals include a search for evidence of dark matter and cosmic domains of antimatter, and the origin and characteristics of charged cosmic rays. Extravehicular activities (spacewalks) in the first 

quarter of FY 2020 by NASA to replace the AMS cooling system has enabled it to 

operate beyond 2028. As of 2020, observations of more than 150 billion cosmic-ray 

events have been collected. 

The Large Area Telescope, the primary instrument on FGST, continued successful operations and data analysis, including a study comparing 11 years of data from 

measurements of excess gamma rays from our galaxy’s center to the expected flux 

using models for the Milky Way diffuse emissions. The data were consistent with 

models, but alternative explanations (e.g., dark matter annihilation) could not be 

definitively ruled out. 

Finally, NASA, through its Strategic Astrophysics Technology program, initiated funding in FY 2020 for a project at SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory to 

further develop readout and signal-processing electronics for low-noise cryogenic 

detectors. The work is building on HEP-funded research at SLAC over several 

years to demonstrate and deploy an RF/signal processing system with 4,000-times 

multiplexing for cosmic microwave background observation experiments at the 

South Pole. 

High-Performance Scientific Computing for Cosmology and Astrophysics

DOE, through the Advanced Scientific Computing Research and High Energy 

Physics programs, continued to support analysis of data from the European Space 

Agency–NASA Planck Cosmic Microwave Background mission, which took data 

from 2009 to 2013. In FY 2020, LBNL led the “NPIPE” analysis of the Planckdata, 

which was the first joint analysis of the Planck low- and high-frequency instrument 

data. This analysis resulted in the cleanest sky maps and most precise constraints 
237 Department of Energy

on inflation to date. The software stack developed for this work—called TOAST—

is also being used at the National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center 

(NERSC) for simulations to support the design of and science forecasts for the 

JAXA-led LiteBIRD mission and the proposed NASA probe of inflation and 

cosmic origins mission. Overall, there were more than 20 projects at NERSC in 

FY 2020 supported by NASA.

The Advanced Scientific Computing Research (ASCR) Leadership Computing 

Facilities made significant contributions to space science projects. In FY 2020, 

nearly two dozen projects at the Argonne Leadership Computing Facility and the 

Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility cited funding support from NASA. 

These projects spanned a wide range of topics, highlighted by high-resolution 

models of astrophysical explosions; simulation of the Type 1a supernova double 

detonation model; studies of magnetic reconnection and turbulence in astrophysical phenomena; and studies of radiation hydrodynamics, turbulence phenomena, 

and computational fluid dynamics in a variety of contexts.

As part of DOE’s Exascale Computing Project, DOE’s Argonne National 

Laboratory carried out simulation efforts for NASA missions. For example, the 

Hardware/Hybrid Accelerated Cosmology Code general cosmology simulation 

software, which simulates cosmology data from an initial set of conditions and particles in the early universe, continued to make use of the Summit supercomputer in 

FY 2020 to produce simulations used by ground- and space-based surveys, including 

NASA’s upcoming Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope mission (formerly called 

the WFIRST mission). Simulations that generate extragalactic catalogs tailored 

to specific wavebands and filters were also used in the Roman Space Telescope 

mission. Computer allocations for this work were made through ASCR’s Argonne 

Leadership Computing Challenge program.

Atmospheric Science and Terrestrial Ecology

DOE, through the Biological and Environmental Research program, also 

engaged in many collaborative research efforts with NASA in the areas of atmospheric science and terrestrial ecology. During FY 2020, DOE’s Atmospheric 

Radiation Measurement Research Facility (ARM) and Terrestrial Ecosystem 
238Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

Science (TES) activities continued to support measurements of atmospheric trace 

gases in Oklahoma to improve understanding of the influence of atmospheric 

and terrestrial processes on atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations. 

ARM provided support for ground-based measurements of CO2 in Oklahoma as 

part of the Total Column Carbon Observing Network and supported the launch 

of dedicated radiosonde observations during satellite overpasses at the Southern 

Great Plains, Oklahoma; Graciosa Island, Azores; and Barrow, Alaska, ARM sites 

to obtain profiles of temperature and moisture for the validation of algorithms 

for two sounding instruments on the Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership 

satellite and Joint Polar Satellite System satellites. DOE’s Atmospheric System 

Research activity also supported collaboration with NASA scientists at Goddard 

Space Flight Center, Goddard Institute for Space Studies, and the Jet Propulsion 

Laboratory on studies using ARM and NASA observations to investigate aerosol 

and cloud processes and their role in Earth’s energy balance.

The TES activity supported the Next Generation Ecosystem Experiment-Arctic, 

which continued to collaborate with the NASA Arctic-Boreal Vulnerability 

Experiment to couple real-time ground-based and airborne-based measurements 

of soil moisture, temperature, carbon dioxide, and methane flux over Utqiagvik 

(formerly Barrow) and Nome, Alaska. Finally, TES-supported AmeriFlux Network 

continued to collaborate with the NASA ECOSTRESS mission by sharing 

flux tower measurements such as vegetation cover data and soil moisture data 

that are coupled with water flux/evapotranspiration measurements to serve as 

validation sites.

Nuclear Astrophysics

DOE, through the Nuclear Physics program, supported fundamental research 

on nuclear reactions of astrophysical interest, contributing knowledge to DOE 

and NASA interests in stellar evolution, neutron star mergers, gamma-ray bursts, 

and the composition of interstellar space. DOE contributed to the analysis of data 

from the NASA Messenger Mission to see how well the neutron lifetime can be 

determined from thermal neutrons created by cosmic rays striking the surface of 

Mercury. Additionally, DOE researchers studied the reaction 30Si(p,γ)31P (a proton 
239 Department of Energy

(p) incident on 30Si produces 31P plus a gamma ray(γ)) to determine whether NGC 

2419 is a true globular cluster or multiple stellar populations.

Experimental Facilities for Space Science and Technology Development

DOE continued to work with NASA in several areas to help support NASA’s 

mission interests, providing scientific user facilities, including particle accelerators and ion beams, for biological and electronic systems radiation studies. The 

NASA Space Radiation Laboratory at DOE’s Brookhaven National Laboratory 

(BNL) continued to study the effects of cosmic radiation exposure on astronauts, 

using beams of heavy ions extracted from BNL’s Booster accelerator, part of the 

Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider complex. The work advances the understanding 

of the link between ionizing radiation and cell damage. NASA continued to provide funding in FY 2020 to support the operation of DOE’s 88-inch cyclotron at 

LBNL for electronics space-radiation effects testing, which is necessary for NASA 

mission assurance. 

DOE’s scientific user facilities continued to contribute to NASA’s missions in 

space science and technology development in FY 2020. Representative techniques 

and their applications used in FY 2020 included scattering/diffraction to study the 

structure of space mission materials (e.g., the thermal barrier coating), x-ray and 

electron imaging to study the form and shape of space rock samples, and spectroscopy combined with imaging to study the chemical content of space rock samples. 

As a specific example, scientists at LBNL and NASA used x-rays at the Advanced 

Light Source to explore, via 3D visualizations, how the microscopic structures of 

spacecraft heat shield and parachute materials survive extreme temperatures and 

pressures, including simulated atmospheric entry conditions on Mars. 

Isotope R&D and Production

DOE, through the Office of Isotope R&D and Production, supplied critical isotopes for NASA space-related R&D and applications in FY 2020, such as Helium-3 

for use in cryogenics; Mercury-199 and Mercury-202 for space-qualified atomic 

clocks and atomic clock research; and Rubidium-87 for navigation satellite systems. 
240Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

DOE also monitored the Helium-4 supply chain to ensure adequate supplies for 

production of rocket fuel.

Enable the Development of Space 

In FY 2020, DOE conducted significant industry outreach to identify gaps and 

opportunities to connect its labs and capabilities with space industry counterparts. 

DOE also focused on ensuring that the transfer and commercialization of its technologies were specifically highlighted and supported in policy documents, setting 

the stage for further engagement on space-related activities. 

DOE evaluated opportunities for quantum networking in free space, which 

included space applications and leveraging artificial intelligence. In FY 2020, DOE 

moderated and hosted a public webinar on quantum networks using satellites and 

other free space technologies to discuss potentially transformative opportunities for 

global communications and transportation, including drones, automotive, space, 

air, and marine sectors. The webinar featured speakers from NASA, private industry, and the DOE national labs. 
241 Smithsonian Institution

Smithsonian Insti

The Smithsonian Institution continued to contribute to national aerospace 

goals in FY 2020. The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) is a partner 

of the Center for Astrophysics | Harvard & Smithsonian (CfA) in Cambridge, 

Massachusetts, and represents the largest component of the Smithsonian’s space 

contributors. The organization has more than 300 scientists engaged in a broad 

program of research in astronomy, astrophysics, Earth and space sciences, and science education. The Smithsonian’s National Air and Space Museum (NASM) and 

National Museum of Natural History (NMNH) in Washington, DC, contributed to 

reaching national aerospace goals through their research and education activities.

Six widely reported news stories in FY 2020 featured Smithsonian scientists 

and space historians. SAO astronomers used NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope to 

study the brightest star in the constellation of Orion, the red giant star Betelgeuse. 

During 2019–2020 the star faded dramatically, losing more than two-thirds of its brilliance, a dimming visible even to the naked 

eye that created speculation that the star 

might be about to explode as a supernova. 

The astronomers found that the periods of 

dimming were most likely caused by the 

ejection and cooling of dense hot gases 

that blocked the light. As SAO astronomer 

and project Principal Investigator Andrea 

Dupree explained, “No one knows how a 

star behaves in the weeks before it explodes, 

and there were some ominous predictions 

An artist’s conception of an eruption of 

obscuring material darkening the brightest star in the constellation of Orion, 

Betelgeuse. (Credit: NASA, ESA, and 

E. Wheatley (STScI)
242Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

that Betelgeuse was ready to become a supernova. Chances are, however, that it 

will not explode during our lifetime, but who knows?”

A team including SAO astronomers imaged the triple-star system GW Orionis 

and its warped disk to study how strong disruptions may affect planetary development, as reported in a widely viewed article in Science. The astronomers observed 

the young system (only about one million years old) at optical, infrared, and millimeter wavelengths and showed that the disk has been broken into at least three 

rings. The largest of the rings contains about thirty Earth-masses of material, 

enough for future planet formation.

NMNH scientist Tim McCoy was a Co-Investigator on NASA’s OSIRIS-REx 

mission to the asteroid Bennu, which successfully completed a sample acquisition 

at the Nightingale site on October 20. Plans are for the samples to return to Earth 

in 2023, with the end goal for the Museum to display some samples to the public.

NASM’s Center for Earth and Planetary Science’s (CEPS) newsworthy results 

focused on early findings at the Mars InSight landing site and the processes shaping the landscape there. The work includes study of wind-driven transport of sand 

and dust on and around the landed spacecraft with implications for understanding 

Mars’ geology and climate, as well as mitigating risks to landed instruments and 

future human explorers.

Left: A composite image of a warped planet-forming disc around a young triple star system showing the 

disc’s ringed structure. (Credit: Kraus et al. 2020.) Right: A reconnaissance image of the Nightingale 

sampling site on the asteroid Bennu from a distance of 250 meters. At full resolution, each pixel is 

4 mm. The large, dark boulder in the upper right is 13 meters long. A successful sample retrieval was 

completed on October 20. (Credit: NASA/OSIRIS-REx)
243 Smithsonian Institution

Scientists at SAO used NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory to reveal that the 

giant black hole in the galaxy Messier 87 is propelling particles in jets at speeds 

greater than 99 percent of the speed of light. SAO’s Chandra X-ray Center runs 

the Observatory’s science and flight operations for NASA. The media in FY 

2020 continued their active coverage of the first images of a black hole, made 

by the international Event Horizon 

Telescope consortium led by SAO 

astronomer Shep Doeleman. The 

consortium uses a global array of 

radio telescopes involving dozens 

of institutions, including SAO’s 

Submillimeter Array facility on 

Mauna Kea. The telescopes, in a 

breakthrough discovery, obtained an 

image of the supermassive black hole 

in the center of the galaxy Messier 

87 measuring 6.5 billion times the 

mass of our Sun. Said Dr. Doeleman, 

“We now have access to a cosmic 

laboratory of extreme gravity where 

An image of the InSight lander on Mars, which has been studying the processes shaping the Martian 

landscape. (Credit: NASA)

The first radio-wavelength image of a black hole. This 

supermassive black hole lies at the nucleus of the galaxy Messier 87. The radiation shown here arises from 

hot gas swirling around the black hole. The black hole 

is invisible, but its powerful gravitational field distorts 

the background radiation around it. (Credit: The 

Event Horizon Telescope consortium)
244Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

we can test Einstein’s theory of General Relativity and challenge our fundamental 

assumptions about space and time.”

The Smithsonian plays an ongoing leadership role in space research. 

NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory is operated for NASA by the Smithsonian 

Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) observing critical targets proposed by scientists 

around the world. Chandra continues to operate with high (~70%) efficiency and 

a spatial resolution unmatched by any other x-ray telescope either currently in 

operation or planned for the future; Chandra’s results appear in an average of 480 

highly cited refereed papers per year. In FY 2020, Chandra continued to play a pivotal role in studying celestial targets including comets, black holes, galaxy clusters, 

supernova remnants, supernovae, 

dark matter, and dark energy. Its 

discoveries included x-ray emissions from relativistic jets emitted by supermassive black holes 

in the nuclei of galaxies, complex 

structure in the hot gas in clusters of galaxies, cosmic ray acceleration in supernova remnants, 

and an off-axis jet in a pair of 

merging neutron stars that were 

discovered via their gravitational 

wave emission.

SAO is a key participant in ESCAPE (the Extreme-ultraviolet Stellar 

Characterization for Atmospheric Physics and Evolution), a NASA Small 

Explorer concept employing ultraviolet spectroscopy to explore the high-energy 

radiation environment in the habitable zones around nearby stars, to provide the 

first comprehensive study of the stellar extreme ultraviolet (EUV) environments 

that directly affect the habitability of rocky exoplanets. During 2020, the SAO 

team demonstrated the alignment of the novel Hettrick-Bowyer telescope configuration that would be used by ESCAPE, and also provided and tested mirror 

coating samples.

A Chandra X-ray Observatory image of the jet of particles 

emitted from the black hole at the center of the galaxy 

M87 moving at close to the speed of light. The jet with 

its knots extends over 18,000 light-years. (Credit: NASA/

CXC/SAO/B. Snios et al.)
245 Smithsonian Institution

NASA’s Spitzer Space Telescope was turned off in FY 2020 after 17 years of 

operation, during which period it produced dramatic new views of the universe at 

infrared wavelengths. Spitzer was the fourth and final space telescope in NASA’s 

Great Observatory series. Spitzer’s infrared array camera, IRAC, was developed at 

SAO with Giovanni Fazio as the Principal Investigator and was the only instrument operating after Spitzer ran out of cryogens nearly 12 years ago.

The Solar Dynamics Observatory spacecraft provides better-than-highdefinition-quality images of the Sun’s surface and outer atmosphere, measuring 

physical conditions that help scientists model the stellar wind and its influence on 

the “space weather” around Earth. SAO is a major partner in one of its instruments, 

the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AIA). In FY 2020 its four telescopes photographed the Sun in ten different wavelength bands once every twelve seconds, 

continuing to produce the most spectacular images ever recorded of the active 

surface of the Sun. NASA’s Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS) satellite 

offers a unique view of the Sun’s mysterious chromosphere and transition regions. 

SAO built the telescope feed, and in FY 2020 continued its active role in IRIS 

operations, calibration, and science to provide information on particle acceleration 

in hot coronal loops, and a better understanding of the physical processes powering 

solar flares. During FY 2020, SAO scientists also continued their involvement in 

other solar satellites, including Hinode and the Deep Space Climate Observer.

SAO is a team member on the Lockheed MUSE mission providing members to 

the science team as well as portions of the Context Imager and the Spectrometer 

feed telescope. MUSE was selected for a competitive Phase A in the 2020 NASA 

Heliospheric Medium-Class Explorer (MIDEX) round. The Context Imager, when 

launched, will be the highest resolution EUV solar imager ever placed in orbit, with 

a 0.14 arc seconds per pixel focal plane scale, 4.2 times better than the SDO-AIA 

imagers. The final selection to move forward with construction is to take place in 

2021. In FY 2020, SAO continued to design and build instruments to observe total 

solar eclipses from NSF/NCAR’s Gulfstream V observatory, High-performance 

Instrumented Airborne Platform for Environmental Research (HIAPER). Having 

successfully fielded campaigns in 2017 over the United States and in 2019 over the 

Mid-Pacific, the team prepared a new platform to fly in the 2020 eclipse over South 
246Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

America. It was canceled due to COVID-19 but preparations were made for the 

next solar eclipse over Antarctica in 2021 .

FY 2020 marked continued progress for the Giant Magellan Telescope (GMT), 

on which SAO is a team leader. The GMT is a facility in development for optical 

and infrared observations that will combine seven huge mirrors to create one of the 

world’s largest telescopes. It will address key questions in cosmology, astrophysics, 

and the study of planets outside our solar system. NASA’s space-based James Webb 

Space Telescope and the GMT will provide access to complementary biomarkers 

from exoplanet atmospheres. Five of the seven eight-meter-diameter mirror segments have been fabricated, and three of them have been polished and prepared 

for shipment to the site in Chile.

The Tropospheric Emissions: Monitoring Pollution (TEMPO) mission has made 

excellent progress in FY 2020; it is scheduled for a launch in the next few years. 

The NASA mission will study the constituents of the atmosphere in more detail 

and precision than ever before, compiling a new dataset of atmospheric chemistry 

as measured from space. TEMPO will be the first space-based instrument to monitor major air pollutants across the North American continent every daylight hour 

at high spatial resolution. SAO is also a team member of a successful 2019 NASA 

MIDEX selection, SPHEREx, a space-based telescope that will conduct four all-sky 

infrared spectral surveys of the sky. SAO manages the Science Center for NASA’s 

Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS), which is engaged in a two-year 

mission to discover transiting exoplanets with an all-sky survey. Optical follow-up 

observations of exoplanet candidates found with TESS rely on SAO’s facilities in 

Arizona and Chile to confirm exoplanet classifications.

SAO pursues a wide variety of nationwide STEM education and outreach initiatives, many of which are aimed at broadening public participation in and maximizing the societal benefits of the astrophysics research efforts of the institution. 

The MicroObservatory is a robotic network of telescopes operated by the CfA for 

research and public outreach purposes. Until forced to shut down temporarily due 

to COVID-19, SAO continued its popular monthly Observatory Night lectures and 

observing sessions. Begun by observatory director Harlow Shapley in 1930, these 

public nights offer the local community an opportunity to learn about the latest 

advances in astronomy and to view the Moon, stars, and planets through a variety 
247 Smithsonian Institution

of telescopes. Observatory Night talks also reach worldwide audiences via YouTube. 

“The Dynamic Sun,” an exhibit conceived, designed, and built by SAO researchers, 

features a giant seven- by six-foot video wall intended to create a visceral impact 

and show visitors how an ever-changing Sun affects Earth. The “Dynamic Sun” at 

NASM in Washington, DC, continues to be seen by millions of visitors each year. 

Chandra operates the Data Sonification program that converts data into sound, 

providing the public with a new perspective that enables the vision-impaired to 

appreciate astronomical data.

The Smithsonian’s National Air and Space Museum, despite the obstacles 

encountered in FY 2020, continued its leadership role in educating and inspiring the public, conducting historical and scientific research, and preserving the 

national collection of aerospace objects and documents. Although it was closed 

to the public for much of the year, NASM adapted to the challenges of the times 

by expanding online and digital reach with exciting new programs. The Museum 

continued development of new exhibitions, re-imagining and updating all major 

galleries, to inform and inspire our audiences and bring the diverse stories of air 

and space history and science to new generations of visitors.

Learning at the National Air and Space Museum sparks curiosity and empowers learners to imagine the possibilities of the future. NASM combines one-ofa-kind collections and research to foster lifelong learning. Throughout FY 2020, 

the Education team placed particular emphasis on how to bring meaningful and 

relevant learning opportunities into people’s homes through virtual interactions 

and activities. Examples include family programs, virtual field trips, story times, 

and podcasts.

Soar Together @ Air and Space is a monthly family-focused program. By engaging in these activities and experiences, families can imagine their own futures by 

sharing in the stories of innovators and explorers from diverse backgrounds who 

challenged conventions and changed the world. Each month focuses on a different 

theme. For the foreseeable future, Soar Together will be available online for families 

to participate in no matter where they live. Activities include scavenger hunts, 

videos, and hands-on demonstrations that learners of all ages can do at home.

Virtual Field Trips provide unique opportunities for students to engage with the 

Museum’s content online. Each reservable experience is aligned with national 
248Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

standards and provides a suite of materials surrounding the content area. The 

program engages students through hands-on experiences adapted for completion 

at home, content deep-dives ready for instructional use, artifact immersions, and 

virtual games and activities. In Flights of Fancy Story Time, educators Ann Caspari 

and Diane Kidd tell stories, do sketches, and demonstrate crafts that families can 

enjoy together at home. AirSpace podcasts tell the stories behind the Museum’s 

amazing artifacts, including tales of exploration, human achievement, failure, perseverance, and innovation.

In curatorial and research areas, in FY 2020 the iconic Apollo 11 command 

module Columbia returned to display at NASM’s Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center 

after a five-city tour marking the 50th anniversary of its historic mission. In May 

2020, the Telly Awards recognized Department of Space History content developed through the Smithsonian Channel. “Apollo’s Moon Shot,” a six-part series 

that Space History curator Teasel Muir-Harmony proposed and guided, received 

two Gold Awards, one for Television General—Documentary: Series and one for 

Immersive & Mixed Reality Craft-Use of AR. Likewise, “Black in Space: Breaking 

the Color Barrier,” which debuted in February 2020 with Space History curator 

Cathleen Lewis as a subject matter expert, received a Gold Award for Television 

General—History.

Space History publications in FY 2020 included two significant first books: 

Jennifer Levasseur, Through Astronaut Eyes: Photographing Early Human Spaceflight, 

and Matthew Shindell, The Life and Science of Harold C. Urey. In addition, James 

David published an important article, “Starting to Crack a Hard Target: U.S. 

Intelligence Efforts against the Soviet Missile Program through 1957,” which was 

posted on the National Security Archive website in February 2020. The American 

Astronautical Society announced the winner of the annual Eugene M. Emme 

Astronautical Literature Award, which recognizes outstanding books that advance 

public understanding of astronautics. The 2019 winners were Brian C. Odom 

and Stephen R. Waring, for editing NASA and the Long Civil Rights Movement 

(University Press of Florida, 2019). Space History curators Cathleen Lewis and 

Margaret Weitekamp have chapters in the volume.

Space History curator Martin Collins received a $25,000 award from the 

Smithsonian Provost’s Office to support public programming within the Institution 
249 Smithsonian Institution

and with NASA regarding “Earth Optimism,” an ongoing effort to approach the 

pressing problems of climate crisis and environmental disaster through a focus on 

solutions and success. During the Earth Optimism Summit, more than 55,000 

devices in over 170 countries tuned in to watch 102 hours of live stream. The 

hashtag, #EarthOptimism, reached over 19 million people.

In the area of aeronautics, several significant acquisitions were made to the 

national collection, including the Wing drone, the craft that performed the first 

commercial drone delivery to a U.S. home. Paintings, photographs, and rare aviation posters were added to the Museum’s art collection. Among the highlights is an 

original Alan Bean (1932–2018) painting depicting the cancellation of stamps on 

the surface of the moon by Apollo 15 astronaut Dave Scott and a cancelled stamp 

cover carried to the moon from the same mission. Bean served as lunar module 

pilot on Apollo 12, landing on the moon in November 1969, and returned to space 

for 59 days in 1973 as commander of the second Skylab mission. After his resignation from NASA in 1981, Bean dedicated his life to painting his memories and the 

stories of Apollo missions.

Another important acquisition is a collection of over 100 photographs by Anne 

Noggle (1922–2005) depicting the portraits of women pilots who flew for the 

United States and the Soviet Union during World War II. As a collection, these 

photographs document some of the earliest women pilots to have served for their 

prospective military units and convey a group of women who pursued aviation 

when flying was against the societal norms for women. Anne Noggle is a recognized fine art photographer known for her feminist artwork on women, aging, and 

self-portraiture. Noggle also served as a Woman Airforce Service Pilot from 1943 

to 1944, a stunt pilot and crop duster after the war, and a captain in the U.S. Air 

Force from 1953 to 1959.

Scientists in the Museum’s Center for Earth and Planetary Studies (CEPS) 

participate on the science teams of numerous spacecraft missions and play significant roles in mission operations and planning. John Grant was appointed to 

the Joint NASA/ESA Mars Sample Caching Strategy Steering Committee and 

in that capacity, he works on the strategy for acquiring and caching samples to 

be collected by the Perseverance rover for possible eventual return to Earth. He 

also participates in evaluation of candidate Martian landing sites for future human 
250Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

missions associated with both NASA and SpaceX. NASM scientists are also on the 

science teams for the Europa Clipper, Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (JUICE), Mars 

Science Laboratory (MSL), Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO), Mars 2020 rover 

(Perseverance), InSight, Mars Express, Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO), and 

the proposed Lunar Geophysical Network. NASM scientists are on the teams for 

three of the four NASA Discovery missions that were selected for concept studies: the Trident flyby mission to Neptune’s moon Triton and the Venus missions 

VERITAS and DAVINCI+. In addition, NASM’s director is on the team for the 

NASA New Frontiers Dragonfly mission to Saturn’s moon Titan.

This year’s NASM science research highlights include insights into the development of small rocky planets. In research for the Nature journal Communications 

Earth & Environment, Thomas Watters showed that MESSENGER-era estimates 

of the amount Mercury has contracted due to cooling of its interior are greatly 

exaggerated, suggesting that the planet has retained more primordial heat than 

previously thought. For Mars, several CEPS papers focused on early findings at the 

InSight landing site and the processes shaping the landscape there. In addition, 

CEPS research covered geologic mapping of Mars, Mars fluvial geomorphology and 

landscape evolution, development of science processing for radar sounder data on 

future missions, and radar sounding studies indicating that thick deposits along the 

equator of Mars may have ice buried beneath hundreds of meters of volcanic ash.

The Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History continued, through the 

Department of Mineral Sciences and the Offices of Education and Exhibits, its 

mission of education, research, and curation related to space exploration. In a regular year, approximately one million people visit the Moon, Meteorites and Solar 

System Gallery of the Geology, Gems and Meteorites Hall, where they can see one 

of the finest displays of meteorites anywhere in the world, ranging from presolar 

diamonds separated from the Allende meteorite, to the carbonate-bearing Allan 

Hills 84001 meteorite, which spurred the debate about past microbial life on Mars, 

to impactites including a square-meter section of the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary. 

In FY 2020 the Museum was closed to the public for about 6.5 months due to the 

coronavirus pandemic. As a result, digital outreach was greatly increased, including 

the award-winning “Science How” broadcasts, NMNH social media takeovers, and 

numerous web postings.
251 Smithsonian Institution

The collections of the Division of Meteorites continue to grow. Notably, 

the Smithsonian’s partnership with the NSF and NASA in the U.S. Antarctic 

Meteorite Program surpassed 27,000 individual meteorites collected in Antarctica, 

including samples from Mars, the Moon, and numerous poorly known asteroids. 

Provided free of charge to qualified scientists, these samples have addressed fundamental questions about the origin and evolution of our solar system. Unfortunately, 

the 2020–2021 field season was cancelled due to the pandemic, but meteorites from 

previous years continue to be classified.

Scientists in the Department of Mineral Sciences remain engaged in the study of 

meteorites and asteroids to unravel their origin in the early solar nebula, their evolution on asteroids, the differentiation of asteroids in the early history of the solar 

system, and the geologic evolution of Mars. Glenn MacPherson continues his work 

on understanding processes in the solar nebula and linking observations made in 

the laboratory with those made from astronomical observations. His research is 

focused on a possible periodicity in formation of the solar system’s first components 

related to episodic T Tauri activity observed in forming stars. Catherine Corrigan 

continues her studies of fragments of meteorites formed during melting caused by 

collisions. Age-dating these samples is key to understanding the extent and duration of the intense impact history of the early solar system. She is a Co-Investigator 

in the Apollo Next Generation Sample Analysis Program, studying drill cores collected by Apollo 17 but not opened for 50 years. These cores promise to reveal the 

stratigraphy of the near-surface, including regolith movement, impact gardening, 

and interactions with the solar wind.

NMNH scientists remain actively engaged in spacecraft missions, with Tim 

McCoy serving as Co-Investigator on the OSIRIS-REx and Psyche missions. 

During FY 2020, OSIRIS-REx completed orbital operations around asteroid Bennu 

and was preparing for the sample acquisition at the Nightingale site, which was 

successfully completed on October 20, 2020. Postdoctoral Fellow Erica Jawin 

documented mass movement on the surface of Bennu, demonstrating that mass 

movement is currently the dominant geologic process on this rubble pile asteroid. 

Movement of material from the mid-latitudes to the poles has occurred during 

the most recent spin-up cycle since Bennu has been in near-Earth space. McCoy 

and Jawin are also leading the effort to produce global and site-specific geologic 
252Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

maps that will both document the geologic features and provide context for the 

samples to be returned to Earth in 2023. Discussions with NASA Headquarters 

are also underway for NMNH to be one of the first sites to display a sample from 

Bennu to the public as part of the ongoing education and outreach efforts. The 

Psyche mission, which is now in the spacecraft and instrument fabrication phase 

before a planned 2022 launch, will visit the asteroid of the same name, which is a 

200-kilometer-diameter asteroid thought to be composed of metallic iron, similar 

to Earth’s metallic core. McCoy is leading the efforts to constrain the oxidationreduction conditions of the asteroid, which is a major control on its mineralogy and 

constrains its formation in time and space.
Appendices

253

Appendic

Appendices

255

Appendix A-1

U.S. Government Spacecr

(Includes spacecraft from cooperating countries launched by U.S. launch vehicles.)

Calendar 

Year

Earth Orbita Earth Escapeb

Success Failure Success Failure

1957 0 1 0 0

1958 5 8 0 4

1959 9 9 1 2

1960 16 12 1 2

1961 35 12 0 2

1962 55 12 4 1

1963 62 11 0 0

1964 69 8 4 0

1965 93 7 4 1

1966 94 12 7 1b

1967 78 4 10 0

1968 61 15 3 0

1969 58 1 8 1

1970 36 1 3 0

1971 45 2 8 1

1972 33 2 8 0

1973 23 2 3 0

1974 27 2 1 0

1975 30 4 4 0

1976 33 0 1 0

1977 27 2 2 0

1978 34 2 7 0

1979 18 0 0 0

1980 16 4 0 0

1981 20 1 0 0

1982 21 0 0 0

1983 31 0 0 0

1984 35 3 0 0

1985 37 1 0 0

1986 11 4 0 0

1987 9 1 0 0

1988 16 1 0 0

1989 24 0 2 0

Calendar 

Year

Earth Orbita Earth Escapeb

Success Failure Success Failure

1990 40 0 1 0

1991 32c 0 0 0

1992 26c 0 1 0

1993 28c 1 1 0

1994 31c 1 1 0

1995 24c, d 2 1 0

1996 30 1 3 0

1997 22e 0 1 0

1998 23 0 2 0

1999 35 4 2 0

2000 31f 0 0 0

2001 23 0 3 0

2002 18 0 0 1b

2003 28c, f 0 2 0

2004 8c 0 1 0

2005 10 0 2 0

2006 20d 0 2 0

2007 16 2 2 0

2008 22f 0 0 0

2009 24f 1 0 0

2010 15 0 0 0

2011 16 1 3 0

2012 13 0 0 0

2013 18 0 1 0

2014 22 1 0 0

2015 12 1 1 0

2016 27 3 2 0

2017 20 1 0 0

2018 33 0 3 0

2019g 21 0 0 0

2020 32 3 2 0

TOTAL 1,881 166 118 16

a. The criterion of success or failure used is attainment of Earth orbit or Earth escape rather than judgment of mission success. “Escape” flights include 

all that were intended to go to at least an altitude equal to lunar distance from Earth.

b. This Earth-escape failure did attain Earth orbit and, therefore, is included in the Earth-orbit success totals.

c. This excludes commercial satellites. It counts separately spacecraft launched by the same launch vehicle.

d. This counts various sets of microsatellites as a single payload. 

e. This includes the Small Spacecraft Technology Initiative (SSTI) Lewis spacecraft that began spinning out of control shortly after it achieved Earth orbit.

f. This includes American spacecraft not launched in the United States.

g. Totals updated. Electron launches counted under United States in FY 2019 report now counted under New Zealand. The one previous noted failure 

is also counted as a success given the criterion noted above in footnote a.
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

256

Appendix A-2

World Record of Space Launches S

in Attaining Earth Orbit o

(Enumerates launches rather than spacecraft; some launches orbited multiple spacecraft.)a

Calendar 

Year

United

Statesb

USSR/

CIS Francec Italyc Japan

People’s 

Republic

of China Australia

United

Kingdomc

European 

Space

Agency India Israel Iran

North

Korea

South

Korea

New 

Zealand

1957 2

1958 5 1

1959 10 3

1960 16 3

1961 29 6

1962 52 20

1963 38 17

1964 57 30

1965 63 48 1

1966 73 44 1

1967 57 66 2 1 1

1968 45 74

1969 40 70

1970 28 81 2 1 1 1

1971 30 83 1 2 2 1 1

1972 30 74 1 1

1973 23 86

1974 22 81 2 1

1975 27 89 3 1 2 3

1976 26 99 1 2

1977 24 98 2

1978 32 88 3 1

1979 16 87 2 1

1980 13 89 2 1

1981 18 98 3 1 2 1

1982 18 101 1 1

1983 22 98 3 1 2 1

1984 22 97 3 3 4

1985 17 98 2 1 3

1986 6 91 2 2 2

1987 8 95 3 2 2

1988 12 90 2 4 7

1989 17 74 2 7 1

1990 27 75 3 5 5 1

1991 20 62 2 1 9 1

1992 31 55 2 3 7 2

1993 24 45 1 1 7

1994 26 49 2 5 6 2

1995 27 33 1 2 12 1
Appendices

257

Calendar 

Year

United

Statesb

USSR/

CIS Francec Italyc Japan

People’s 

Republic

of China Australia

United

Kingdomc

European 

Space

Agency India Israel Iran

North

Korea

South

Korea

New 

Zealand

1996 32 25 1 3 10 1

1997 37 28 2 6 12 1

1998 34 24 2 6 11

1999 32 26 4 10 1

2000 30 34 5 12

2001 23 23 1 1 8 2

2002 18 23 3 4 11 1 1

2003 26 21 2 6 4 2

2004 19 22 8 3 1

2005 16 26 2 5 5 1

2006 15 16 5 3 5

2007 25 33 3 13 8 3 1

2008d 19 26 1 11 7 3

2009 25 29 3 4 9 4 1

2010 15 30 2 15 6 1 1

2011 17 33 3 18 7 3 1

2012 13 27 2 19 10 2 1 1

2013e 19 29 3 14 7 3 1

2014e 22 31 4 16 10 4 1

2015f 18 24 4 19 11 5 1

2016f 22 16 4 21 11 7 1 1

2017f 29 18 6 17 11 4

2018f 31 16 6 38 11 7 3

2019g 21 22 2 32 8 6 6

2020 34 15 4 35 6 2 1 1 6

TOTAL 1,643 3,117 10 8 114 363 1 1 289 72 9 5 2 1 15

a. This includes commercial expendable launches and launches of the Space Shuttle as well as launches to useless orbit.

b. Launches from U.S.-Russia joint platform are included in U.S. totals.

c. Since 1979, all launches for ESA member countries have been joint and are listed under ESA.

d. Since 2008, the ESA statistics include the Soyuz launches from Guiana Space Centre.

e. The data published in the FY 2014 report reflect incorrect totals and have been adjusted.

f. Totals adjusted and updated from FY to CY.

g. Totals updated. Electron launches counted under United States in FY 2019 report now counted under New Zealand.

Appendix A-2 (cont.)

World Record of Space Launches S

in Attaining Earth Orbit o

(Enumerates launches rather than spacecraft; some launches orbited multiple spacecraft.)a
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

258

Appendix B

Successful Launches to Orbit on U

October 1, 2019–September 30, 2020

Launch Date

Spacecraft Name

COSPARa Designation

Launch Vehicle Mission Objectives

Apogee and

Perigee (km),

Period (min),

Inclination to Equator (°)b Remarks

October 11, 2019

Ionospheric Connection 

Explorer (ICON)

2019-068A

Pegasus XL

Ionospheric research 601

579

96.5

27.0

Drop launch from Northrop Grumman’s Stargazer 

L-1011.

November 2, 2019

Cygnus CRS-12 (NG 12)

2019-071A

Antares 230+

International Space Station ISS

November 11, 2019

Starlink v1.0 L1

2019-074A–BM

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 551

549

95.6

53.0

First operational group of 60 Starlink internet satellites.

December 5, 2019

Dragon CRS-19 

(SpX 19, Dragon C106-F3)

2019-083A

Falcon 9v1.2

International Space Station ISS

December 17, 2019

JCSat 18/Kacific 1

2019-091A

Kacific 1

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 35,800

35,779

1,436.2

0.08

December 20, 2019

Starliner OFT

2019-094A

Atlas 5-N22 (AV-080)

Uncrewed Orbital Flight 

Test

261

246

89.6

51.6

Returned successfully, but did not complete the planned 

rendezvous and docking with the ISS.

January 7, 2020

Starlink v1.0 L2

2020-001A–BM

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 551

549

90.4

53.0

Second operational group of 60 Starlink internet 

satellites.

January 29, 2020

Starlink v1.0 L3

2020-006A–BM

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 551

549

90.5

53.0

Third operational group of 60 Starlink internet 

satellites.

February 10, 2020

Solar Orbiter (SolO)

2020-010A

Atlas 5-411 (AV-087)

Heliospheric science Heliocentric

February 15, 2020

Cygnus CRS-13 (NG 13, 

SS Robert H. Lawrence)

2020-011A

Antares 230+

International Space Station ISS Demo of crew vehicle.

February 17, 2020

Starlink v1.0 L4

2020-012A–BM

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 551

549

89.9–91.2

53.0

Fourth operational group of 60 Starlink internet 

satellites.

March 7, 2020

Dragon CRS-20 

(SpX 20, Dragon C112-F3)

2020-016A

Falcon 9 v1.2

International Space Station ISS Mission closed out the first SpaceX Cargo Resupply 

Services (CRS-1) contract and use of the company’s 

original cargo Dragon spacecraft type.

a. U.N. Committee on Space Research.

b. Orbital statistics for satellites deployed following delivery aboard ISS re-supply missions are not included. Orbital data are approximate. In some 

instances, satellites have since de-orbited, including some of the individual spacecraft within satellite constellations.
Appendices

259

Launch Date

Spacecraft Name

COSPARa Designation

Launch Vehicle Mission Objectives

Apogee and

Perigee (km),

Period (min),

Inclination to Equator (°)b Remarks

March 18, 2020

Starlink v1.0 L5

2020-019A–BM

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 551

549

92.1

53.0

Fifth operational group of 60 Starlink internet satellites.

March 26, 2020

AEHF 6 and TDO 2

2020-022B, A

Atlas 5-551 (AV-086)

Communications/

Technology Development

35,988

35,586

1,436.1

6.1

The sixth Advanced Extremely High Frequency communications satellite for the U.S. Space Force and the 

second Technology Demonstration Orbiter. Orbital data 

listed is for AEHF 6.

April 22, 2020

Starlink v1.0 L6

2020-025A–BM

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 551

549

95.6

53.1

Sixth operational group of 60 Starlink internet 

satellites.

May 17, 2020

X-37B (OTV-6) 

2020-029A and

FalconSat 8 

2020-029B

Atlas 5-501 (AV-081)

Technology Development/

Military

389

389

92.3

45

The sixth flight of an X-37B Orbital Test Vehicle 

included deployment of the U.S. Air Force Academy’s 

FalconSat 8.

May 30, 2020

Crew Dragon DM-2

2020-033A

Falcon 9 v1.2

International Space Station ISS This commercial Crew Dragon test flight to the 

International Space Station was the first crewed launch 

from the U.S. since the Space Shuttle retired in 2011.

June 4, 2020

Starlink v1.0 L7

2020-035A–BM

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 551 (380–551

549 (378–549)

95.6

53.0

Seventh operational group of 60 Starlink internet 

satellites.

June 13, 2020

Starlink v1.0 L8

2020-038A–BK

SkySat 16, 17, 18

2020-038BL–BN

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications

Earth Observation

551

549

95.6

53.0

Eighth operational group of 58 Starlink internet satellites. The launch included three SkySat Earth observation satellites. Orbital data apply to Starlink.

June 30, 2020

Navstar GPS III-3 

(Navstar 79, USA 304)

2020-041A

Falcon 9 v1.2

GPS 20,199

20,165

718

55.06

July 15, 2020

NROL-129

2020-046A–D

Minotaur 4

Military/Earth Observation 579

569

96.15

54

Four payloads carried into orbit.

July 20, 2020

ANASIS 2 (KMilSatCom 

1, Koreasat 116)

2020-048A

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications/Military 35,792

35,781

1,436.1

0.01

First South Korean military communications satellite.

July 30, 2020

Mars 2020 (Perseverance)

2020-052A

Atlas 5-541 (AV-088)

Mars Lander N/A In addition to the Perseverance rover, the Ingenuity 

helicopter was delivered to the Martian surface and 

became the first helicopter to fly on another world.

August 7, 2020

Starlink v1.0 L9

2020-055A–BJ

BlackSky Global 7 and 8

2020-055BP–BQ

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications

Earth Observation

551

548

95.6

53.0

Ninth operational group of 57 Starlink internet satellites. The launch included two BlackSky satellites. 

Orbital data apply to Starlink.

Appendix B (cont.)

Successful Launches to Orbit on U

October 1, 2019–September 30, 2020
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

260

Launch Date

Spacecraft Name

COSPARa Designation

Launch Vehicle Mission Objectives

Apogee and

Perigee (km),

Period (min),

Inclination to Equator (°)b Remarks

August 18, 2020

Starlink v1.0 L10

2020-057A–BK

SkySat-19, -20, -21

2020-057BQ–BS

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications

Earth Observation

551

548

95.6

53

Tenth operational group of 58 Starlink internet satellites. The launch included three SkySat Earth observation satellites. Orbital data apply to Starlink.

August 30, 2020

SAOCOM 1B

GNOMES 1

EG 1 (Tyvak 0172)

2020-059A–C

Falcon 9 v1.2

Earth Observation/Radar

Earth Science

Communications

608–612

598–606

96.8

97.8

All three satellites are part of larger constellations.

September 3, 2020

Starlink v1.0 L11

2020-062A–BM

Falcon 9 v1.2

Communications 551

548

95.6

53

Eleventh operational group of 60 Starlink internet 

satellites.

Appendix B (cont.)

Successful Launches to Orbit on U

October 1, 2019–September 30, 2020
Appendices

261

Appendix C

Human Spacefli

October 1, 2019–September 30, 2020

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew

Flight Time 

(d:h:min) Highlights

Soyuz MS-16

“Irkut”

Expedition 62, 63

April 9, 2020 Anatoli Ivanishin

Ivan Vagner

Chris Cassidy

195:18:49 First crewed launch with a Soyuz 2.1a rocket.

Crew Dragon C206 

“Endeavour”

SpaceX Demo-2

Expedition 63

May 30, 2020 Douglas Hurley

Robert Behnken

63:23:25 This commercial Crew Dragon test flight, Demonstration 

Mission-2 (DM-2), to the International Space Station was 

the first crewed orbital mission launched from the U.S. since 

the Space Shuttle retirement in 2011.
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

262

Appendix D-1A

Space Activities of the U.S.

HISTORICAL TABLE OF BUDGET AUTHORITY

(in millions of real-year dollars)

FY

NASA 

Total

NASA 

Space DODa Otherb DOEc DOC DOI USDA NSFd DOT Total Space

1959 331 261 490 34 34 785

1960 524 462 561 43 43 1,066

1961 964 926 814 68 68 1,808

1962 1,825 1,797 1,298 199 148 51 3,294

1963 3,673 3,626 1,550 257 214 43 5,433

1964 5,100 5,016 1,599 213 210 3 6,828

1965 5,250 5,138 1,574 241 229 12 6,953

1966 5,175 5,065 1,689 214 187 27 6,968

1967 4,966 4,830 1,664 213 184 29 6,707

1968 4,587 4,430 1,922 174 145 28 0.2 1 6,526

1969 3,991 3,822 2,013 170 118 20 0.2 1 31 6,005

1970 3,746 3,547 1,678 141 103 8 1 1 28 5,366

1971 3,311 3,101 1,512 162 95 27 2 1 37 4,775

1972 3,307 3,071 1,407 133 55 31 6 2 39 4,611

1973 3,406 3,093 1,623 147 54 40 10 2 41 4,863

1974 3,037 2,759 1,766 158 42 60 9 3 44 4,683

1975 3,229 2,915 1,892 158 30 64 8 2 54 4,965

1976 3,550 3,225 1,983 168 23 72 10 4 59 5,376

TQ* 932 849 460 43 5 22 3 1 12 1,352

1977 3,818 3,440 2,412 194 22 91 10 6 65 6,046

1978 4,060 3,623 2,738 226 34 103 10 8 71 6,587

1979 4,596 4,030 3,036 248 59 98 10 8 73 7,314

1980 5,240 4,680 3,848 231 40 93 12 14 72 8,759

1981 5,518 4,992 4,828 234 41 87 12 16 78 10,054

1982 6,044 5,528 6,679 313 61 145 12 15 80 12,520

1983 6,875 6,328 9,019 327 39 178 5 20 85 15,674

1984 7,458 6,858 10,195 395 34 236 3 19 103 17,448

1985 7,573 6,925 12,768 584 34 423 2 15 110 20,277

1986 7,807 7,165 14,126 477 35 309 2 23 108 21,768

1987 10,923 9,809 16,287 466 48 278 8 19 112 1 26,562

1988 9,062 8,322 17,679 741 241 352 14 18 115 1 26,742

1989 10,969 10,097 17,906 560 97 301 17 21 121 3 28,563

1990 12,324 11,460 15,616 506 79 243 31 25 124 4 27,582

1991 14,016 13,046 14,181 772 251 251 29 26 211 4 27,999

a. DOD reported that improvements to the estimating methodology resulted in a change in estimated budget authority and outlays starting in FY 2013.

b. The Other column is the total of the non-NASA and non-DOD budget authority figures that appear in the succeeding columns. The total is 

sometimes different from the sum of the individual figures because of rounding. The Total Space column does not include the NASA Total column 

because the latter includes budget authority for aeronautics as well as space. For the years 1989–97, this Other column also includes small figures for 

the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), as well as $2.1 billion for the replacement of Space Shuttle Challenger in 1987.

c. DOE has recalculated its space expenditures since 1998.

d. The NSF has recalculated its space expenditures since 1980, making them significantly higher than reported in previous years.

* Transition Quarter
Appendices

263

FY

NASA 

Total

NASA 

Space DODa Otherb DOEc DOC DOI USDA NSFd DOT Total Space

1992 14,317 13,199 15,023 798 223 327 34 29 181 4 29,020

1993 14,310 13,064 14,106 731 165 324 33 25 180 4 27,901

1994 14,570 13,022 13,166 632 74 312 31 31 179 5 26,820

1995 13,854 12,543 10,644 759 60 352 31 32 278 6 23,946

1996 13,884 12,569 11,514 828 46 472 36 37 231 6 24,911

1997 13,709 12,457 11,727 789 35 448 42 39 219 6 24,973

1998 13,648 12,321 12,359 839 103 435 43 39 213 6 25,519

1999 13,653 12,459 13,203 982 105 575 59 37 200 6 26,644

2000 13,601 12,521 12,941 1,056 164 575 60 44 207 6 26,518

2001 14,230 13,304 14,326 1,062 145 577 60 36 232 12 28,692

2002 14,868 13,871 15,740 1,180 166 644 64 28 266 12 30,791

2003 15,364 14,360 19,388 1,305 191 649 74 42 337 12 35,053

2004 15,379 14,322 19,115 1,464 209 745 71 61 366 12 34,901

2005 16,198 15,234 19,690 1,551 229 807 70 73 360 12 36,475

2006 16,623 15,765 22,114 1,647 245 860 82 84 364 12 39,526

2007 16,285 15,568 22,418 1,680 200 912 87 65 404 12 39,666

2008 17,117 16,502 24,795 1,698 195 862 90 59 479 13 42,995

2009 17,775 17,275 26,528 1,868 200 1,078 64 27 485 14 45,671

2010 18,725 18,228 26,463 2,057 203 1,261 67 27 484 15 46,748

2011 18,432 17,898 27,234 2,186 229 1,444 66 20 412 15 47,318

2012 17,773 17,203 26,677 2,580 199 1,876 76 7 406 16 46,460

2013 17,395 16,865 10,818 2,578 185 1,865 84 20 409 15 30,261

2014 17,647 17,081 10,400 2,839 174 2,087 82 19 461 16 30,320

2015 18,010 17,359 10,325 3,010 182 2,223 83 19 485 18 30,694

2016 19,285 18,645 6,967 3,159 178 2,346 87 19 508 22 28,771

2017 19,653 18,993 10,316 2,995 172 2,214 85 20 480 24 32,305

2018 20,736 19,976 7,861 2,953 175 2,099 79 16 556 29 30,790

2019 21,500 20,775 9,970 2,604 217 1,667 84 19 581 36 33,349

2020 22,629 21,845 11,900 2,401 195 1,507 84 20 543 52 36,146

Appendix D-1A (cont.)

Space Activities of the U.S.

HISTORICAL TABLE OF BUDGET AUTHORITY

(in millions of real-year dollars)
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

264

Appendix D-1B

Space Activities of the U.S.

HISTORICAL TABLE OF BUDGET AUTHORITY

(in millions of inflation-adjusted FY 2020 dollars)

FY

Inflation 

Factors

NASA 

Total

NASA 

Space DODa Otherb DOEc DOC DOI USDA NSFd DOT Total Space

1959 6.958 2,303 1,816 3,410 237 237 5,462

1960 6.866 3,598 3,172 3,852 295 295 7,319

1961 6.772 6,528 6,271 5,513 461 461 12,244

1962 6.705 12,236 12,048 8,702 1,334 992 342 22,085

1963 6.627 24,339 24,028 10,271 1,703 1,418 285 36,002

1964 6.543 33,368 32,819 10,462 1,394 1,374 20 44,674

1965 6.432 33,768 33,047 10,124 1,550 1,473 77 44,721

1966 6.297 32,586 31,894 10,635 1,348 1,178 170 43,876

1967 6.111 30,347 29,516 10,169 1,302 1,124 177 40,987

1968 5.905 27,087 26,160 11,350 1,029 856 165 1 6 38,538

1969 5.647 22,539 21,585 11,368 962 666 113 1 6 176 33,915

1970 5.360 20,080 19,014 8,995 756 552 43 5 5 150 28,764

1971 5.101 16,890 15,819 7,713 826 485 138 10 5 188 24,358

1972 4.870 16,105 14,956 6,852 650 268 151 29 10 192 22,458

1973 4.668 15,901 14,439 7,577 688 252 187 47 9 193 22,704

1974 4.358 13,234 12,023 7,696 689 183 261 39 13 192 20,407

1975 3.950 12,754 11,513 7,473 623 118 253 32 8 212 19,609

1976 3.692 13,108 11,908 7,322 621 85 266 37 15 219 19,851

TQ* 3.585 3,342 3,044 1,649 154 18 79 11 4 43 4,848

1977 3.443 13,147 11,846 8,306 666 76 313 34 21 222 20,818

1978 3.226 13,098 11,688 8,833 729 110 332 32 26 229 21,250

1979 2.985 13,719 12,030 9,063 740 176 293 30 24 218 21,833

1980 2.745 14,386 12,849 10,565 634 110 255 33 38 198 24,048

1981 2.500 13,796 12,481 12,071 586 103 218 30 40 196 25,138

1982 2.338 14,131 12,925 15,616 731 143 339 28 35 186 29,272

1983 2.240 15,401 14,175 20,204 733 87 399 11 45 191 35,112

1984 2.163 16,130 14,832 22,049 854 74 510 6 41 222 37,734

1985 2.093 15,849 14,492 26,721 1,222 71 885 4 31 230 42,435

1986 2.047 15,977 14,663 28,909 976 72 632 4 47 220 44,548

1987 2.002 21,867 19,637 32,605 933 96 557 16 38 224 2 53,175

1988 1.939 17,573 16,138 34,284 1,437 467 683 27 35 223 2 51,859

1989 1.864 20,443 18,818 33,372 1,044 181 561 32 39 226 6 53,233

1990 1.798 22,156 20,603 28,075 909 142 437 56 45 222 7 49,587

1991 1.736 24,330 22,647 24,617 1,340 436 436 50 45 367 7 48,604

a. DOD reported that improvements to the estimating methodology resulted in a change in estimated budget authority and outlays starting in FY 2013.

b. The Other column is the total of the non-NASA and non-DOD budget authority figures that appear in the succeeding columns. The total is 

sometimes different from the sum of the individual figures because of rounding. The Total Space column does not include the NASA Total column 

because the latter includes budget authority for aeronautics as well as space. For the years 1989–97, this Other column also includes small figures for 

the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), as well as $2.1 billion for the replacement of Space Shuttle Challenger in 1987.

c. DOE has recalculated its space expenditures since 1998.

d. The NSF has recalculated its space expenditures since 1980, making them significantly higher than reported in previous years.

* Transition Quarter
Appendices

265

FY

Inflation 

Factors

NASA 

Total

NASA 

Space DODa Otherb DOEc DOC DOI USDA NSFd DOT Total Space

1992 1.694 24,247 22,354 25,443 1,351 378 554 58 49 306 7 49,147

1993 1.655 23,679 21,617 23,341 1,209 273 536 55 41 298 7 46,168

1994 1.619 23,595 21,088 21,321 1,024 120 505 50 50 291 8 43,434

1995 1.586 21,970 19,891 16,880 1,203 95 558 49 51 441 10 37,974

1996 1.557 21,611 19,565 17,922 1,288 72 735 56 58 359 9 38,775

1997 1.529 20,967 19,052 17,935 1,207 54 685 64 60 336 9 38,194

1998 1.511 20,616 18,611 18,669 1,268 156 657 65 59 322 9 38,548

1999 1.492 20,370 18,588 19,698 1,465 157 858 88 55 298 9 39,751

2000 1.462 19,878 18,300 18,913 1,543 240 840 88 64 302 9 38,756

2001 1.427 20,305 18,984 20,442 1,515 207 823 86 51 331 17 40,941

2002 1.405 20,886 19,485 22,111 1,658 233 905 90 39 374 17 43,253

2003 1.378 21,178 19,794 26,724 1,799 263 895 102 58 465 17 48,317

2004 1.345 20,692 19,270 25,719 1,970 281 1,002 96 82 492 16 46,959

2005 1.306 21,152 19,893 25,712 2,025 299 1,054 91 95 470 16 47,631

2006 1.265 21,023 19,938 27,967 2,083 310 1,088 104 106 460 15 49,988

2007 1.231 20,046 19,163 27,595 2,068 246 1,123 107 80 497 15 48,826

2008 1.206 20,639 19,898 29,897 2,047 235 1,039 109 71 578 16 51,842

2009 1.194 21,217 20,620 31,665 2,229 239 1,287 76 32 579 17 54,515

2010 1.183 22,158 21,570 31,315 2,434 240 1,492 79 31 573 18 55,319

2011 1.160 21,381 20,761 31,591 2,535 266 1,675 77 23 478 17 54,887

2012 1.139 20,245 19,596 30,388 2,939 227 2,137 87 8 462 18 52,922

2013 1.119 19,459 18,866 12,101 2,884 207 2,086 94 22 458 17 33,851

2014 1.097 19,366 18,745 11,413 3,116 191 2,290 90 21 506 18 33,273

2015 1.085 19,540 18,834 11,202 3,266 197 2,412 90 21 526 20 33,302

2016 1.076 20,752 20,063 7,497 3,400 192 2,524 94 20 546 23 30,959

2017 1.057 20,777 20,079 10,906 3,166 182 2,341 90 21 507 26 34,151

2018 1.033 21,423 20,637 8,121 3,051 181 2,169 81 16 574 30 31,810

2019 1.013 21,787 21,052 10,103 2,638 220 1,689 85 19 589 37 33,794

2020 1.000 22,629 21,845 11,900 2,401 195 1,507 84 20 543 52 36,146

Appendix D-1B (cont.)

Space Activities of the U.S.

HISTORICAL TABLE OF BUDGET AUTHORITY

(in millions of inflation-adjusted FY 2020 dollars)
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

266

Appendix D-2

Federal Space Activiti

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year)

Federal 

Agencies

Budget Authority Budget Outlays

2018

actual

2019

actual 

2020

actual

2021

est.

2018

 actual

2019

 actual

2020

 actual

2021

 est.

NASA1 19,976.10 20,775.0 21,845.1 22,442.6 19,109.00 20,886.0 20,698.0 22,789.3 

DOD2 7,861 9,970 11,900 15,500 9,296 9,970 11,900 15,500

DOE 175.39 217 194.76 188.45 165.4 193 198.42 192.58

DOC3 2,139.79 1,697.47 1,507.08 1,526.62 1,721.45 1,538.80 1,605.45 1,804.31

DOI4 78.5 84.3 84.3 84.3 78.5 84.3 84.3 84.3

USDA 15.96 18.47 20.36 17.01 16.08 20.08 14.60 17.01

DOT 28.96 36.45 51.54 44.40 28.96 36.45 51.54 44.40

NSF 555.59 581.08 543.47 550.94 462.15 444.62 550.01 544.01

1. FY 2020 Budget Authority is based on enacted appropriation language in P.L. 116-260. The 2021 NASA Budget Authority and Outlays amounts are 

not estimated but represent actual amounts.

2. DOD submitted estimates as billions of dollars, so the figures are rounded to the nearest hundred million. FY 2020 amounts reflect actual enactment; 

however, FY 2021 is an estimate for future expenditures.

3. DOC Budget Authority reflects the total obligation amounts by fiscal year, i.e., all procurement, acquisition, and construction (PAC) and operations, 

research, and facilities (ORF) fund codes; Outlays reflect all unpaid and paid totals.

4. For the Aeronautics and Space Report of the President, the USGS reports on actual and estimated funding levels (budget authority and outlays) for 

Satellite Operations (space category) and the 3D Elevation Program (3DEP) (aeronautics category).
Appendices

267

Appendix D-3

Federal Aeronautics Activit

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year)

Federal 

Agencies

Budget Authority Budget Outlays

2018

actual

2019

actual 

2020

actual

2021

est.

2018

 actual

2019

 actual

2020

 actual

2021

 est.

NASA1 760 725.0 783.9 828.7 650 709.9 825.9 762.7 

USDA 42.21 61.67 64.96 70.28 47.34 63.16 74.73 70.28

DOD2 51,466 58,236 57,700 57,700 55,208 58,236 56,900 56,900

DOE 0 0 0.91 1.04 0 0 0.91 1.04

DOI3 37.7 37.7 35.7 35.7 37.7 37.7 35.7 35.7 

DOT 3,420.91 3,173.09 3,219.65 3,192.70 2,696.659 2,956.3 2,943.01 2,907.33

1. FY 2020 Budget Authority based on enacted appropriation language in P.L. 116-260. The 2021 NASA Budget Authority and Outlays amounts are not 

estimated but represent actual amounts.

2. DOD submitted estimates as billions of dollars, so the figures are rounded to the nearest hundred million. FY 2020 amounts reflect actual enactment; 

however, FY 2021 is an estimate for future expenditures. 

3. For the Aeronautics and Space Report of the President, the USGS reports on actual and estimated funding levels (budget authority and outlays) for 

Satellite Operations (space category) and the 3D Elevation Program (3DEP) (aeronautics category).
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

268

Appendix E

Memorandum on Space Policy Dir

Cybersecurity Principles for Space Systems

Issued on September 4, 2020

MEMORANDUM FOR THE VICE PRESIDENT

THE SECRETARY OF STATE

THE SECRETARY OF DEFENSE

THE ATTORNEY GENERAL

THE SECRETARY OF COMMERCE

THE SECRETARY OF TRANSPORTATION

THE SECRETARY OF HOMELAND SECURITY

THE DIRECTOR OF THE OFFICE OF MANAGEMENT AND BUDGET

THE ASSISTANT TO THE PRESIDENT FOR NATIONAL SECURITY AFFAIRS

THE DIRECTOR OF NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE

THE DIRECTOR OF THE CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY

THE DIRECTOR OF THE NATIONAL SECURITY AGENCY

THE DIRECTOR OF THE NATIONAL RECONNAISSANCE OFFICE

THE ADMINISTRATOR OF THE NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE 

ADMINISTRATION

THE DIRECTOR OF THE OFFICE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY POLICY

THE CHAIRMAN OF THE JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF

THE CHAIRMAN OF THE FEDERAL COMMUNICATIONS COMMISSION

SUBJECT: Cybersecurity Principles for Space Systems

Section 1. Background. The United States considers unfettered freedom to operate in space vital to 

advancing the security, economic prosperity, and scientific knowledge of the Nation. Space systems 

enable key functions such as global communications; positioning, navigation, and timing; scientific observation; exploration; weather monitoring; and multiple vital national security applications. Therefore, it 

is essential to protect space systems from cyber incidents in order to prevent disruptions to their ability 

to provide reliable and efficient contributions to the operations of the Nation’s critical infrastructure.

Space systems are reliant on information systems and networks from design conceptualization through 

launch and flight operations. Further, the transmission of command and control and mission information 

between space vehicles and ground networks relies on the use of radio-frequency-dependent wireless communication channels. These systems, networks, and channels can be vulnerable to malicious activities 

that can deny, degrade, or disrupt space operations, or even destroy satellites.

Examples of malicious cyber activities harmful to space operations include spoofing sensor data; corrupting sensor systems; jamming or sending unauthorized commands for guidance and control; injecting 

malicious code; and conducting denial-of-service attacks. Consequences of such activities could include 

loss of mission data; decreased lifespan or capability of space systems or constellations; or the loss of 

positive control of space vehicles, potentially resulting in collisions that can impair systems or generate 

harmful orbital debris.

The National Security Strategy of December 2017 states that “[t]he United States must maintain our 

leadership and freedom of action in space.” As the space domain is contested, it is necessary for developers, manufacturers, owners, and operators of space systems to design, build, operate, and manage them so 

that they are resilient to cyber incidents and radio-frequency spectrum interference.
Appendices

269 Space Policy Directive-3 (SPD-3) of June 18, 2018 (National Space Traffic Management Policy), states 

that “[s]atellite and constellation owners should participate in a pre-launch certification process” that 

should consider a number of factors, including encryption of satellite command and control links and 

data protection measures for ground site operations.

The National Cyber Strategy of September 2018 states that my Administration will enhance efforts to 

protect our space assets and supporting infrastructure from evolving cyber threats, and will work with 

industry and international partners to strengthen the cyber resilience of existing and future space systems.

Sec. 2. Definitions. For the purposes of this memorandum, the following definitions shall apply:

(a) “Space System” means a combination of systems, to include ground systems, sensor networks, and 

one or more space vehicles, that provides a space-based service. A space system typically has three segments: a ground control network, a space vehicle, and a user or mission network. These systems include 

Government national security space systems, Government civil space systems, and private space systems.

(b) “Space Vehicle” means the portion of a space system that operates in space. Examples include satellites, space stations, launch vehicles, launch vehicle upper stage components, and spacecraft.

(c) “Positive Control” means the assurance that a space vehicle will only execute commands transmitted by an authorized source and that those commands are executed in the proper order and at the 

intended time.

(d) “Critical space vehicle functions (critical functions)” means the functions of the vehicle that the 

operator must maintain to ensure intended operations, positive control, and retention of custody. The 

failure or compromise of critical space vehicle functions could result in the space vehicle not responding 

to authorized commands, loss of critical capability, or responding to unauthorized commands.

Sec. 3. Policy. Cybersecurity principles and practices that apply to terrestrial systems also apply to space 

systems. Certain principles and practices, however, are particularly important to space systems. For 

example, it is critical that cybersecurity measures, including the ability to perform updates and respond 

to incidents remotely, are integrated into the design of the space vehicle before launch, as most space 

vehicles in orbit cannot currently be physically accessed. For this reason, integrating cybersecurity into 

all phases of development and ensuring full life-cycle cybersecurity are critical for space systems. Effective 

cybersecurity practices arise out of cultures of prevention, active defense, risk management, and sharing 

best practices.

The United States must manage risks to the growth and prosperity of our commercial space economy. To 

do so and to strengthen national resilience, it is the policy of the United States that executive departments and agencies (agencies) will foster practices within Government space operations and across the 

commercial space industry that protect space assets and their supporting infrastructure from cyber threats 

and ensure continuity of operations.

The cybersecurity principles for space systems set forth in section 4 of this memorandum are established 

to guide and serve as the foundation for the United States Government approach to the cyber protection 

of space systems. Agencies are directed to work with the commercial space industry and other nongovernment space operators, consistent with these principles and with applicable law, to further define 

best practices, establish cybersecurity-informed norms, and promote improved cybersecurity behaviors 

throughout the Nation’s industrial base for space systems.

Sec. 4. Principles. (a) Space systems and their supporting infrastructure, including software, should be 

developed and operated using risk-based, cybersecurity-informed engineering. Space systems should be 

developed to continuously monitor, anticipate, and adapt to mitigate evolving malicious cyber activities 

that could manipulate, deny, degrade, disrupt, destroy, surveil, or eavesdrop on space system operations. 
Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

270 Space system configurations should be resourced and actively managed to achieve and maintain an effective and resilient cyber survivability posture throughout the space system lifecycle.

(b) Space system owners and operators should develop and implement cybersecurity plans for their space 

systems that incorporate capabilities to ensure operators or automated control center systems can retain 

or recover positive control of space vehicles. These plans should also ensure the ability to verify the 

integrity, confidentiality, and availability of critical functions and the missions, services, and data they 

enable and provide. At a minimum, space system owners and operators should consider, based on risk 

assessment and tolerance, incorporating in their plans:

(i) Protection against unauthorized access to critical space vehicle functions. This should include 

safeguarding command, control, and telemetry links using effective and validated authentication or 

encryption measures designed to remain secure against existing and anticipated threats during the 

entire mission lifetime;

(ii) Physical protection measures designed to reduce the vulnerabilities of a space vehicle’s command, 

control, and telemetry receiver systems;

(iii) Protection against communications jamming and spoofing, such as signal strength monitoring programs, secured transmitters and receivers, authentication, or effective, validated, and tested 

encryption measures designed to provide security against existing and anticipated threats during the 

entire mission lifetime;

(iv) Protection of ground systems, operational technology, and information processing systems through 

the adoption of deliberate cybersecurity best practices. This adoption should include practices aligned 

with the National Institute of Standards and Technology’s Cybersecurity Framework to reduce the risk 

of malware infection and malicious access to systems, including from insider threats. Such practices 

include logical or physical segregation; regular patching; physical security; restrictions on the utilization of portable media; the use of antivirus software; and promoting staff awareness and training 

inclusive of insider threat mitigation precautions;

(v) Adoption of appropriate cybersecurity hygiene practices, physical security for automated information systems, and intrusion detection methodologies for system elements such as information systems, antennas, terminals, receivers, routers, associated local and wide area networks, and power 

supplies; and

(vi) Management of supply chain risks that affect cybersecurity of space systems through tracking 

manufactured products; requiring sourcing from trusted suppliers; identifying counterfeit, fraudulent, 

and malicious equipment; and assessing other available risk mitigation measures.

(c) Implementation of these principles, through rules, regulations, and guidance, should enhance space 

system cybersecurity, including through the consideration and adoption, where appropriate, of cybersecurity best practices and norms of behavior.

(d) Space system owners and operators should collaborate to promote the development of best practices, 

to the extent permitted by applicable law. They should also share threat, warning, and incident information within the space industry, using venues such as Information Sharing and Analysis Centers to the 

greatest extent possible, consistent with applicable law.

(e) Security measures should be designed to be effective while permitting space system owners and operators to manage appropriate risk tolerances and minimize undue burden, consistent with specific mission 

requirements, United States national security and national critical functions, space vehicle size, mission 

duration, maneuverability, and any applicable orbital regimes.
Appendices

271 Sec.  5. General Provisions. (a) Nothing in this memorandum shall be construed to impair or 

otherwise affect:

(i) the authority granted by law to an executive department or agency, or the head thereof; or

(ii) the functions of the Director of the Office of Management and Budget relating to budgetary, 

administrative, or legislative proposals.

(b) This memorandum shall be implemented consistent with applicable law and subject to the availability 

of appropriations.

(c) This memorandum is not intended to, and does not, create any right or benefit, substantive or procedural, enforceable at law or in equity by any party against the United States, its departments, agencies, or 

entities, its officers, employees, or agents, or any other person.

(d) The Secretary of Commerce is authorized and directed to publish this memorandum in the Federal 

Register.

Donald J. Trump

The White House,

September 4, 2020

273 c Acrony

ronyms

3D three dimensional

3DEP 3D Elevation Program 

A

A-CDD Abbreviated-Capability Development Document 

A-PUFFER Autonomous Pop-Up Flat-Folding Explorer Robot 

AAM Advanced Air Mobility 

ACCESS Advanced Communications Capabilities for Exploration and Science Systems

ACM attitude control motor 

ACN Aircraft Notebook

ACTIVATE Aerosol Cloud meTeorology Interactions oVer the western ATlantic Experiment

A-DCS Advanced Data Collection System

ADS-B Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast

AEDT Aviation Environmental Design Tool

AEHF Advanced Extremely High Frequency 

AES Advanced Exploration Systems 

AFFF Aqueous Film Forming Foam

AFSPC Air Force Space Command

AGS Atmospheric and Geospace Sciences 

AHE Advanced Hawkeye 

AIA Atmospheric Imaging Assembly

AIM Assessment, Inventory, and Monitoring

AIP Airport Improvement Program

air-LUSI Airborne LUnar Spectral Irradiance 

AIS Automated Information System

AIT American Institute in Taiwan 

ALD active-layer detachments 

ALE Air Launched Effects 

ALMA Atacama Large Millimeter/Submillimeter Array

AM advanced manufacturing 

AMEC Alaska Mapping Executive Committee

AMISR Advanced Modular Incoherent-Scatter Radar 

AMOS Autonomous Medical Officer Support

AMPERE Active Magnetosphere and Planetary Electrodynamics Response Experiment 

AMRO A Michael Riley Operation

AMS Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer 

AMS Automated Modular Sensor

AMS Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer 

APB Acquisition Program Baseline

APKWS Advanced Precision Kill Weapon System 

ARD Analysis Ready Data 

ARM Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Research Facility 

ARMD Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate 

AROC Army Requirements Oversight Council

ARS Agricultural Research Service

ARTCC Air Route Traffic Control Center

AS Atmosphere Section

ASCENT Advanced Spacecraft Energetic Non-Toxic
274Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

ASCENT Aviation Sustainability Center

ASCR Advanced Scientific Computing Research 

ASE Aviation Survivability Equipment

AST Division of Astronomical Sciences 

ASTER Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer 

ASU Aircraft Sector Understanding

ATD-2 Airspace Technology Demonstration 2 

ATF Armstrong Test Facility 

ATR Advanced Test Reactor 

AVC/ESC Bureau of Arms Control, Verification and Compliance, Office of Emerging Security 

Challenges

AVS Aviation Safety

B

BAA Broad Agency Announcements 

BAER Burned Area Emergency Response

BIA Bureau of Indian Affairs 

BICEP Background Imaging of Cosmic Extragalactic Polarization 

BIG Breakthrough, Innovative and Game-changing

BIS Bureau of Industry and Security 

BLEO beyond low-Earth orbit 

BLM Bureau of Land Management 

BMGG Bulk Metallic Glass Gears 

BNL Brookhaven National Laboratory 

BoD Board of Directors 

BOEM Bureau of Ocean Energy Management

BOR Bureau of Reclamation 

BPS Biological and Physical Sciences 

BPSD Biological and Physical Sciences Division

C

C2 command and control

C&N communication and navigation 

CAAFI Commercial Aviation Alternative Fuels Initiative

CAC Civil Applications Committee

CAL Cold Atom Lab 

CAMI Civil Aerospace Medical Institute

CAPS Control and Planning Segment

CAPSTONE Cislunar Autonomous Positioning System Technology Operations and Navigation Experiment

CARES Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security

CCAFS Cape Canaveral Air Force Station 

CCDC Continuous Change Detection and Classification 

CCOR Compact Coronagraph 

CCP Commercial Crew Program 

CCS Counter Communications System 

CCSC Collaborations for Commercial Space Capabilities 

CCSDS Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems 

CCSDS Consultative Committee for Space Data Standards 

CDR Critical Design Reviews 

CDRA Carbon Dioxide Removal Assembly

CEDAR Coupling, Energetics, and Dynamics of Atmospheric Regions 

CEPS Center for Earth and Planetary Science

CfA Center for Astrophysics | Harvard & Smithsonian
275 Acronyms

CFT Crew Flight Test 

CFT Cross-Functional Team

CHARA Center for High Angular Resolution Astronomy

CIR color infrared

CLDP Commercial Low-Earth Orbit (LEO) Development Program 

CLEEN Continuous Lower Energy Emissions and Noise

CLPS Commercial Lunar Payload Services 

CMB cosmic microwave background 

CMS Carbon Monitoring System

CMWS Common Missile Warning System 

CNES Centre national d’études spatiales 

CO2 carbon dioxide

COMPACT Complex Plasma Facility

COMSATCOM Commercial SATCOM 

CONOPS Concept of Operations 

CONUS Contiguous United States

COPUOS Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space 

COSMIC Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere, and Climate

COSMIC-2 Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere and Climate 2 

COVID-19 Coronavirus Disease 2019

COWVR Compact Ocean Wind Vector Radiometer 

CRP Constant Rate Production

CRS Commercial Resupply Services 

CT Computerized Tomography

CTS Crew Transportation System

CVN aircraft carrier with nuclear propulsion

CVW Carrier Air Wing 

CWAT Community Winter Access Trails 

CWP crop water productivity

CyAN Cyanobacteria Assessment Network 

D

DARC Deep Space Advanced Radar Concept 

DCS Data Collection and location System 

DEM digital elevation model 

DevSecOps development, security, and operations

DHS Department of Homeland Security

DKIST Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope 

DLR German Aerospace Center

DMSP Defense Meteorological Satellite Program 

dNBR Delta Normalized Burn Ratio 

dNDVI Delta Normalized Difference Vegetation Index

DOC Department of Commerce

DOD Department of Defense

DOE Department of Energy

DOI Department of the Interior 

DOS Department of State 

DOT Department of Transportation

dPDR Delta Preliminary Design Review 

DR Directed Requirement

DRB Delaware River Basin 

DRPS dynamic radioisotope power system

DSAC Deep Space Atomic Clock 
276Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

DSN Deep Space Network 

DVT Design Verification Test

E

ECI Early Career Initiative

EGS Exploration Ground Systems 

EHT Event Horizon Telescope

ELV Expendable Launch Vehicle

eMMRTG enhanced multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generator 

eMODIS enhanced Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer

EO Executive Order 

EO/IR Electro-Optical/Infra-Red

EOS Earth Observing System 

EPS Enhanced Polar System 

EPS-R Enhanced Polar System-Recapitalization 

EROS Earth Resources Observation and Science 

ESA European Space Agency

ESCAPE Extreme-ultraviolet Stellar Characterization for Atmospheric Physics and Evolution

ESD Exploration Systems Development

ESIM Earth Stations in Motion

ESP Environmental Studies Program 

ESR Emergency Stabilization and Rehabilitation

ESS Evolved Strategic SATCOM 

ESSIO Exploration Science Strategy and Integration Office 

ET evapotranspiration

ETM Enhanced Thematic Mapper

EU European Union 

EUV extreme ultraviolet

EUMETSAT European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites 

EVA Extra-Vehicular Activity 

EVAA Expandable Variable Autonomy Architecture 

EWS-G Electro-optical/infrared Weather System-Geostationary 

F

FAA Federal Aviation Administration

FAB-T Family of Advanced Beyond-Line-of-Sight Terminals 

FACA Federal Advisory Committee Act 

FARA Future Attack Reconnaissance Aircraft 

FAS Foreign Agricultural Service

FCC Federal Communications Commission

FCIC Federal Crop Insurance Corporation

FDL frozen debris lobes 

FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency

FFT/BFT Friendly Force Tracking/Blue Force Tracking

FGST Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope 

FHP Forest Health Protection 

FIA Forest Inventory and Analysis 

FIELD Field Exploratory Lakes Database

FLRAA Future Long Range Assault Aircraft 

FMDP fuel and moderator development plan

FORGE Future Operationally Resilient Ground Evolution 

FORSCOM U.S. Army Forces Command 
277 Acronyms

FRP Full Rate Production

FT-MMC Force Tracking Mission Management Center

FTP-27 E2 Flight Test Patriot-27 Event 2 

FTUAS Future Tactical Unmanned Aerial Systems 

FUE First Unit Equipped

FVL Future Vertical Lift

FWS U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

FY fiscal year

G

G-LiHT Goddard’s LiDAR, Hyperspectral & Thermal Imager

G-REALM Global Reservoir and Lake Monitor 

GADAS Global Agricultural and Disaster Assessment System 

GBD Global Burst Detector 

GBO Green Bank Observatory 

GBT Green Bank Telescope 

GE genetically engineered

GEDI Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation

GEDS Gravitational Effects on Distortion in Sintering 

GEM Geospace Environment Modeling

GEO Geosynchronous Earth Orbit

GeoXO Geostationary Extended Observations 

GER Global Exploration Roadmap 

GeV gigaelectronvolts

GF Geospace Facilities

GIS Geographic Information Systems 

GLAM Global Agricultural Monitoring 

GLOF glacial lake outburst flood 

GMA Global Market Analysis 

GMT Giant Magellan Telescope

GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System 

GOES Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites

GONG Global Oscillations Network Group

GPIM Green Propellant Infusion Mission 

GPS Global Positioning System 

GPS IIIF GPS III Follow-on 

GS Geospace Section 

GSD ground sample distance

GSFC Goddard Space Flight Center 

GSSAP Geosynchronous Space Situational Awareness Program 

GUT grand-unified theory

H

HALO habitation and logistics outpost 

HEOMD Human Exploration and Operations Mission Directorate 

HEP High Energy Physics

HERA Hybrid Electronic Radiation Assessor 

HERO Human Exploration Research Opportunities

HF high frequency

HFIR High Flux Isotope Reactor

HIAPER High-performance Instrumented Airborne Platform for Environmental Research

HLS Human Landing System 

HRP Human Research Program 
278Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

HRRR High Resolution Rapid Refresh

HSC Human Spaceflight Capabilities

HTV H-II Transfer Vehicle 

HZE high-charge, and -energy 

I

ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization

ICNO IceCube Neutrino Observatory 

IDL ice-dammed lake 

INL Idaho National Laboratory 

InSAR Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar 

InSight Investigations, Geodesy and Heat Transport 

IOAG Interagency Operations Advisory Group 

IOP Interoperability Plenary 

IPAD International Production Assessment Division

IPP Integration Pilot Program

IR infrared

IRAC infrared array camera

IRIS Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph

ISECG International Space Exploration Coordination Group 

ISP In-Space Propulsion 

ISR Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance 

ISS International Space Station 

ITA International Trade Administration 

ITAC 1 Industry Trade Advisory Committee on Aerospace Equipment

ITE Improved Turbine Engine 

J

JAGM Joint Air-to-Ground Missile 

JAXA Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency 

JPL Jet Propulsion Laboratory

JPPS Joint Polar Satellite System

JUICE Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer

K

KSC Kennedy Space Center 

L

LandCART Landscape Cover Analysis and Reporting Tools

LANL Los Alamos National Laboratory 

LAS Launch Abort System

LCMAP Land Change Monitoring, Assessment, and Projection 

LCMS Landscape Change Monitoring System 

LCRD Laser Communication Relay Demonstration 

LD19 Lock and Dam 19 

LDB Long Duration Balloon 

LDEP Lunar Discovery and Exploration Program

LEIA Lunar Exploration Instrument for space biology Applications

LEO low-Earth orbit 

lidar light detection and ranging

LIGO Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory
279 Acronyms

LiON lithium ion 

LLNL Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 

LRASM Long-Range Anti-Ship Missile 

LRO Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter

LRPM Long Range Precision Munition 

LSIC Lunar Surface Innovation Consortium

LSII Lunar Surface Innovation Initiative

LTV Lunar Terrain Vehicle 

LuSTR lunar surface technology research M

M-STAR MUREP Space Technology Artemis Research

MAF Michoud Assembly Facility 

MAG Magnetospheric Physics 

MANPADS Man-Portable Air Defense Systems 

MAVEN Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN 

MDA Missile Defense Agency 

MDO Multi-Domain Operations 

MEDLI Mars Entry, Descent and Landing Instrumentation

MEO medium-Earth orbit

MEP Manufacturing Extension Partnership 

MERA Multi-model Ensemble Risk Assessment 

MFOV medium field of view 

MISSE Materials International Space Station Experiment 

MMAC Mike Monroney Aeronautical Center

MMRTG multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generator

MODIS Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer

MOSA Modular Open System Architecture

MOXIE Mars Oxygen In-Situ Resource Utilization Experiment 

MPS Directorate for Mathematical and Physical Sciences

MRO Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter

MSFC Marshall Space Flight Center 

MSIP Mid-Scale Innovations Program

MSL Mars Science Laboratory

MTA Middle Tier of Acquisition 

MTBS Monitoring Trends in Burn Severity

MultiGAS multicomponent gas analyzer system 

MUREP Minority University Research and Education Project N

NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standards

NAICS North American Industry Classification System 

NAIP National Agriculture Imagery Program 

NANOGrav North American Nanohertz Observatory for Gravitational Waves

NAS National Airspace System

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

NASM National Air and Space Museum

NBR Normalized Burn Ratio 

NCEP National Centers for Environmental Prediction

NDSA National Defense Space Architecture 

NDVI Normalized Difference Vegetation Index

NE Office of Nuclear Energy

NEN Near Earth Network 
280Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

NEO near-Earth object 

NEOWISE Near-Earth Object Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer 

NEPA National Environmental Policy Act

NERSC National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center 

Next-Gen OPIR Next Generation Overhead Persistent Infrared 

NextSTEP Next Space Technology Exploration Partnerships 

NFS National Forest System 

NGA National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency 

ngEHT Next Generation EHT

NGLAW Next Generation Land Attack Weapon 

NGRTG next-generation radioisotope thermoelectric generator

NGSC Next Generation Strike Capability 

NIAC NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts 

NICER Neutron star Interior Composition ExploreR 

NISAR NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar

NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology 

NLOS Non-Line of Sight 

NMNH National Museum of Natural History

NNSA National Nuclear Security Administration

NO2 nitrogen dioxide

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

NOC National Operations Center 

NOIRLab National Optical-Infrared Astronomy Research Laboratory

NOTAM Notice to Air Mission

NPS National Park Service 

NRL National Research Laboratory

NSF National Science Foundation 

NSN Near Space Network 

NSO National Solar Observatory 

NSPO National Space Organization 

NSS National Security Space

NSSL National Security Space Launch 

NSTC National Science and Technology Council

NSW-SAP National Space Weather Strategy and Action Plan 

NTAP Notice to Air Mission Publication

NTL NASA Tournament Lab

NTP Nuclear Thermal Propulsion 

NWI National Wetlands Inventory 

O

OADR Open Architecture Data Repository

OCP observatory commissioning phase

OCS Outer Continental Shelf

ODNI Office of the Director of National Intelligence

OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development 

OES/SA Bureau of Oceans and International Environmental and Scientific Affairs, Office of Space Affairs

OFT Orbital Flight Test

OISL optical-intersatellite link

OLI Operational Land Imager 

OMI Ozone Monitoring Instrument

OMPS Ozone Mapping Profiler Suite

ORNL Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

OSAM On-Orbit Servicing, Assembly and Manufacturing 

OSC Office of Space Commerce
281 Acronyms

OSIRIS-REx Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, Security, Regolith Explorer 

OSMRE Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement 

OSTEM Office of STEM Engagement 

OSTM Ocean Surface Topography Mission 

OT operational test 

OTM Office of Transportation and Machinery 

P

PA DEP Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection 

PACE Payload Accelerator for CubeSat Endeavors 

PBRE Packed Bed Reactor Experiment

PC Project Convergence 

PCM Post Certification Mission

PDR Preliminary Design Reviews

PEO Program Executive Office 

PeV petaelectronvolts

PHM prognostics and health management 

PHY Division of Physics

PIT Project Interface Testing

PNT Positioning, Navigation, and Timing 

POR Program of Record

PPE power and propulsion element 

PPE personal protective equipment

PRIME-1 Polar Resources Ice Mining Experiment-1 

PSD production, supply, and distribution

PTD Pathfinder Technology Demonstrator 

PTES Protected Tactical Enterprise Service 

PTS Protected Tactical SATCOM 

Pu plutonium

Q

QueSST Quiet SuperSonic Technology 

R

RAMPT Rapid Analysis and Manufacturing Propulsion Technology 

RASSOR Regolith Advanced Surface Systems Operations Robot

RDO Arctic District Office 

RELL Robotic External Leak Locators 

RF radio frequency 

RFI request for information 

RFP Request for Proposal 

RIM Runway Incursion Mitigation

RMA Risk Management Agency 

RO radio occultation

RPT Rocket Propulsion Test 

RPS Radioisotope Power Systems 

RR Rodent Research

RSLP Rocket Systems Launch Program 

RSTA Reconnaissance, Surveillance, and Target Acquisition 

RTS Reagan Test Site 

RTS retrogressive thaw slumps
282Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

S

SABRS Space and Atmospheric Burst Reporting System 

SAF sustainable aviation fuels

SAM Spacecraft Atmosphere Monitor 

SANS Spaceflight Associated Neuro-ocular Syndrome 

SAO Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory

SAR Search and Rescue 

SAR synthetic aperture radar

SBEM Space Based Environmental Monitoring

SBIR Small Business Innovative Research 

SBIRS Space Based Infrared System 

SCaN Space Communications and Navigation 

SDA Space Domain Awareness 

SDA Space Development Agency 

SDB II Small Diameter Bomb II 

SDTA System Demonstration Test Article

SEM Space Environmental Monitor

SERFE Spacesuit Evaporation Rejection Flight Experiment

SFCSCO Space Force Commercial SATCOM Office 

SFS Space and Flight Support 

SGSS Space Network Ground Segment Sustainment 

SHIIVER Structural Heat Intercept Insulation Vibration Evaluation Rig 

SLS Space Launch System 

SMAP Soil Moisture Active Passive 

SMD Science Mission Directorate 

SN Space Network 

SNL Sandia National Laboratories 

SNP Space Nuclear Propulsion 

SOHO Solar and Heliospheric Observatory

SpaceX Space Exploration Technologies 

SPD Space Policy Directives 

SPLICE Safe & Precise Landing - Integrated Capabilities Evolution 

SpRCO Space Rapid Capabilities Office 

SPT South Pole Telescope 

SPTA Solid Propulsion Test Article

SRB Standing Review Board 

SSA space situational awareness 

SSAEM Space Situational Awareness Environmental Monitoring 

SSC Stennis Space Center 

SSG Senior Steering Group

SSDP Space Security and Defense Program 

SSEBop Simplified Surface Energy Balance 

SSN Space Surveillance Network 

SST Small Spacecraft Technology 

SSV Space Service Volume

STA Structural Test Article 

STEM Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics

STEReO Scalable Traffic Management for Emergency Response Operations

STMD Space Technology Mission Directorate 

STO-H8 Space Test Program–H8

STPSat-6 Space Test Program Satellite 6

STRG Space Technology Research Grants 

STTR Small Business Technology Transfer 

Suomi NPP Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership
283 Acronyms

SuperDARN Super Dual Auroral Radar Network

SWARM-EX Space Weather Atmospheric Reconfigurable Multiscale Experiment

SWF subpixel water fraction

SWFO Space Weather Follow On 

SWORM Space Weather Operations, Research, and Mitigation 

SWPC Space Weather Prediction Center

SWSH Space Weather, Security, and Hazards 

T

TACTOM Tactical Tomahawk 

TALOS Thruster for the Advancement of Low-temperature Operation in Space 

TAS Thermal Amine Scrubber 

TBO Trajectory Based Operations

TCH Thermal Conducting Heating

TES Terrestrial Ecosystem Science

TECRO Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office

TEMPO Tropospheric Emissions: Monitoring Pollution

TESS Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite

THAAD Terminal High Altitude Area Defense 

TITE TBO Integrated Test Environment

TM Terminal Mode

TM Thematic Mapper 

TREAT Transient Reactor Test Facility 

TRIDENT The Regolith and Ice Drill for Exploring New Terrain

TRISH Translational Research Institute for Space Health 

TRN Terrain Relative Navigation 

TROPOMI TROPOspheric Monitoring Instrument 

TS test stand 

TWI Training with Industry 

U

uADS underwater Acoustic Deterrent System 

UAE United Arab Emirates 

UAG Users’ Advisory Group 

UAM Urban Air Mobility 

UAS Unmanned Aircraft System

UASSC UAS Standards Collaborative 

UHF Ultra-High Frequency 

ULA United Launch Alliance

UMESC Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center 

USAF U.S. Air Force

USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture

USFS U.S. Forest Service

USGEO U.S. Group on Earth Observations

USGS U.S. Geological Survey 

USMC U.S. Marine Corps 

USN U.S. Navy

USNDS U.S. Nuclear Detonation Detection System 

USPTO U.S. Patent and Trademark Office

USRC University Student Research Challenge 

USSF United States Space Force 

UWMS Universal Waste Management System 
284Aeronautics and Space Report of the President • Fiscal Year 2020 Activities

V

VAB Vehicle Assembly Building 

VHI Vegetation Health Index

VIIRS Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite

VIPER Volatiles Investigating Polar Exploration Rover 

VISE vehicle interfaces to spacesuit equipment

VISORS Virtual Super-resolution Optics with Reconfigurable Swarms

VITAL Ventilator Intervention Technology Accessible Locally

VLF Very Low Frequency 

W

WASDE World Agricultural Supply and Demand Estimates 

WFOV wide field of view

WGS Wideband Global Satellite Communications 

WIN Written Impact Narratives

WRC World Radiocommunication Conference 

WSF Weather System Follow-on 

WSF-M WSF–Microwave 

WSTF White Sands Test Facility 

WTO World Trade Organization 

X

xEMU Exploration Extravehicular Mobility Unit 

xEVA Exploration Extravehicular Activity 

XVS eXternal Vision System

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