The Autobiography 

of 

Robert C. Seamans, Jr. 

Robert C. Seamans, Jr. 

The NASA History Series 

NASA History Office 

Office of Policy and Plans 

NASA Headquarters 

Washington, DC 

1996 
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data 

Seamans, Robert C. 

Aiming at Targets: The Autobiography of Robert C. Seamans, Jr./ 

Robert C. Seamans, Jr. 

p. cm.-(The NASA History Series) (NASA SP: 4106) 


Includes index. 


1. Seamans, Robert C. 2. Astronautics-United States-Biography. 

3. United States. National Aeronautics and Space AdministrationOfficials and employees-Biography. 4. United States. Air ForceOfficials and employees-Biography. I. Title. II. Series. 

III. Series: NASA SP: 4106. 


TL789.85.S43A3 1996 


629.4'092-dc20 


[B] 96-419

C

For sale by the U.S. Government Printing Office 


Superintendent of Documents, Mail Stop: SSOP, Washington, DC 20402-9328 


ISBN 0-16-048907-5 
CHAPTER ONE: LIFTOFF 3 


CHAPTER TWO: THE NASA YEARS 

CHAPTER THREE: THE AIR FORCE YEAR

CHAPTER FOUR: REENTRY 199 

APPENDIX A: Selected Documents 229 


APPENDIX B: Biographical Appendix 257 

APPENDIX c: Chronology for Robert C. Seamans, J

INDEX 269 

ISBN 0-16-048907-5 

90000 


9 801 

B

and friends. That is a large audience. By his own coun

diate family numbers twenty-four, not counting brothers 

and their families. His friends are uncounted but surely 

dreds. As one of them and as a colleague at NASA, I am 

honored that he asked me to write this foreword. 

While written in Bob's unique and informal style, this 

phy has significance for many readers beyond his large cir

ily and friends. Leaders and students of large, complex te

endeavors should be able to learn much from reading ho

the daunting technical and management challenges in his c

title of this book implies, Bob has always set high goals for 

then kept his eyes focused on both the necessary deta

broader picture. His ability to shift smoothly among jobs t

seemingly disparate abilities and skills speaks volume

insight, dedication, and enthusiasm for achievement. 

The book spans a truly remarkable life story. Bob f

through his growing up, education, and early professiona

life. Next he focuses on the crucial years when he was the g

ager of NASA. Then he moves on to his career in the top 

Air Force, the National Academy of Engineering, and 

Research and Development Administration. Finally, he to

later leadership activities in the academic and business w

Aiming at Targets is a series of fascinating topical vig

ing his professional life. Taken together, like broad brush

impressionist painting, they give a better picture of Bob S

his work than a detailed recitation of facts and dates could 

lll 
successes and laid the groundwork for the greater successes that ca

later. 

Also on the serious side, while secretary of the Air Force, Bob h

to face policy differences on the Vietnam War, both on the job a

within his family. He writes of this frankly and kindly. As the bo

moves on through Bob's career, there are explanations, spiced w

lively anecdotes, of what he did in each of his jobs. These are w

amplified in the appendices. All of this is written with unfailing mo

esty, which understates Bob's accomplishments and makes it all lo

easier than it was. 

Most of all, what comes through is the happy and productive l

of a fortunate man-fortunate in his abilities, in opportunities to app

them, and in his wonderful wife and family. They, as well as everyo

interested in the work with which Bob Seamans was involved, are fo

tunate to have this engrossing personal account. 

IV 
key points in time. Walter Schier, Deputy General Couns

interviewed me along with others in our agency soon after 

President Kennedy. After I retired from NASA, NASA hist

Emme and I had an exchange. Similar exit interviews too

my leaving as secretary of the Air Force and as admini

Energy Research and Development Administration. In all 

script was delivered to me for editing. These transcripts a

archives of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (M

For interested researchers, the archival collection i

Headquarters History Office has numerous papers, m

tographs, and other records related to my tenure there. Ya

MIT, and the Air Force Historical Research Center at 

Base in Alabama also house some key papers from my ca

I served at NASA for over seven years and four mon

first in the Eisenhower administration for Administra

Glennan and then in the Kennedy and Johnson admin

James E. Webb. After we all had retired from NASA, Ji

historian, sold Keith and me on a program for interview

so key individuals at NASA. This record, obtained in in

historian Martin Collins, is being edited for future hist

Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Mu

edited transcripts (in my case resulting from twenty-n

questioning) may be obtained from the archivist at the m

Retirement, I've found, is not a simple process. One d

walk through a gateway into a beautiful garden and disc

now has time to meditate. But several years ago, I reali

v 
elephant, most have told only part of the story. How was the progra

perceived by those who managed it, and how did they execute the

responsibilities? What is known about the forces that motivated fou

U.S. presidents and leading members of Congress to embark on such 

major scientific and technical enterprise? I have attempted to answ

these larger questions from the perspective of my place as a participan

Some felt that my autobiography should be stripped of fami

anecdotes and written for a larger audience. I chose to include the

stories because my family life has always been of the greatest impo

tance to me. Not only has it been interwoven with my professional lif

it has fed and nurtured that life. I could not write the story of "m

life" without giving my family a prominent place. 

Since my first years at MIT, my wife, Gene, has played a hug

role-as supportive friend and excellent counselor-in all of m

endeavors, including the writing of this autobiography. She ha

become familiar with all of the enterprises with which I've bee

involved. Most important of all, she has been the fairy godmothe

holding our family together. Her "Seamans Messenger" is eagerl

awaited not only by members of our immediate family, but also b

brothers, sisters, nieces, and nephews. She has been a motivator an

inspiration for all of us. 

Our five children also have been key actors in this story. Eac

offered his or her suggestions and wise counsel as I wrote this man

uscript. They and their spouses are now our closest friends. Th

twelve grandchildren for whom they are responsible are becomin

fascinating individuals. 

Vl 
well as W.S. Moody and the other volunteers in the U

Historical Support Office for providing important details

thanks also go to Jim Harrison and Julie Merrill at M

Laboratory for assistance in preparing the map of South

to Richard P. Hallion and Herman R. Walk at the Air F

Office for their expert advice. I am also very grateful fo

efforts of the NASA Headquarters printing and graphics 

ing Michael Crnkovic, Jonathan Friedman, Jim Har

Hamilton, Craig Larsen, Jane E. Penn, and Kelly Rindfu

Finally, I recognize that there were many in governm

and academe who made this story come true. I have men

in the text, but let me offer my thanks to three others 

mentioned. Mary Traviss was my secretary for much o

NASA. Each day she told me where to go and what to d

detailed log of my activities and was able to convert my 

into readable prose. David Williamson, my assistant at 

think and write analytically. He could differentiate betw

and a true crisis. He served NASA well and faithfully fo

after I left, in the face of serious medical proble

James Elms was an important player at NASA, serving 

Robert R. Gilruth at the Johnson Space Center and di

Electronic Research Center in Cambridge, Massachusetts

be written about his important role in both capacities. 

more than a line manager. He was a confidant who se

sounding board and advisor during critical times. 

Willis Shapley is also mentioned in the text. In the ea

was the chief examiner of NASA in the Bureau of the Bud

Vll 
viii 
-Henry Van Dyke (1852-1933) 

poet and clergyman 

IX 



H 

ple who have made the most of what they have. In 

example from my youth was the Boston Bruins' Eddie S

Bruins were down by a goal in the middle of the third 

crowd would start chanting, "We want Shore! We w

Sooner or later, Eddie Shore would wind up from behind 

carry the puck the length of the ice, and (more often 

seemed) score the tying goal. Terrific! 

In my chosen field of aeronautics, the Wright Brother

heroes, taking on the Smithsonian Institution. These we

who made bicycles, but they went up against the Washin

gentsia. Charles A. Lindbergh had a similar story, a nobo

ceeded despite great odds. Competing against se

experienced airmen, such as Navy flier Richard E. Byrd, 

ace Rene Fonck, and stunt flier Clarence E. Chamber

Lindbergh became the first pilot to fly nonstop from N

Paris. Motivated in part by a $25,000 prize originally off

by a New York hotelier from France, the twenty-

Lindbergh accomplished his amazing feat by insisting 

standards for his specially built airplane. 

During World War II, tremendous heroes emerged as 

the war, the great challenge was to break the sound barr

my work at the Massachusetts Institute of Technolo

became involved in studying why an airplane became un

as it approached the speed of sound. What a thrill it wa

the tape recording of Chuck Yeager's commentary as 

3 
review of his record showed me that he was a West Pointer with a do

torate from Harvard University. By the time he retired, he had be

promoted to four-star general. Willie Smith was a person who ma

the most of what he had, a true hero. 

In our family we had an example of heroism ready at han

General George S. Patton, Jr., married my wife Gene's aunt, Beatri

Ayer. World War II made General Patton a national hero. After th

war, he came home for about a week, landing at Bedford Airpor

Proud citizens lined virtually his entire route from Bedford to th

Hatch Shell on the Charles River Esplanade in Boston, where he spok

that afternoon. Gene's parents, Mr. and Mrs. Keith Merrill, hosted 

party for him at their home, Avalon, in Beverly Farms, Massachusett

in the days following. Because meat was still unobtainable, we slaug

tered some live chickens, due to war rationing. The next morning, 

Sunday, the general spoke at a service at St. John's Church in Bever

Farms. Afterwards we had dinner at Woodstock, Gene's aunt's hom

in Prides Crossing. In the middle of dinner the general pointed his fin

ger at me and said, "I want you to know that when I came into th

family, my father-in-law was very much against war. I told him what 

was trying to do in World War I, and he finally said, 'Well, just mak

sure that, if you're going to be a soldier, you be the best soldier you ca

be.' The most wonderful thing about this family," the general went on

"is that it energizes people to do the best they can." 

I've certainly found that to be true. I couldn't possibly have ma

ried a more supportive person than Gene, and I am very grateful a

well for the support of her mother, her brother Keith, her sister Romey
jppy pp

the timing of professional opportunities. Napoleon, wh

was brought to his attention for possible promotion, used 

il heureux?" ("Is he lucky?") What he was looking for we

somehow or other, achieved their objectives. In that sense 

too, I have been pretty lucky. When there was a job to be 

not like to sit around debating; I liked to move ahead. 

When I was eleven and going to the Tower School, o

charged with selling advertisements for the school ma

Turret. I trotted around to the retail businesses in town 

them all to advertise. The other kids selling ads found th

they knocked I had been there before them. I came into s

whole sheaf of orders and by far the most change in my po

page ad cost eight dollars. 

I don't know why Charles Stark ("Doc") Draper picke

first of a series of projects at MIT during and after W

Perhaps I was lucky in that, but I usually did get the job 

project led to another with greater responsibilities. Whe

came up from the Pentagon to look at something we were 

Doc used to say, "We're like little boys on the sidewalk w

fire engines go by." What he meant was that something be

happening and we were little more than observers, happy 

Bigger and bigger engines came past me. Finally there wa

NASA. In this case, I wasn't watching from the sidewalk. I 

and in the cab. But still like the little kid on the sidewalk

times when all I could do was watch with amazement. 
Bank, a relatively small institution in Chelsea, Massachusetts. He al

served as a judge on the local court. Apparently, people didn't wor

as much about conflicts of interest in those days. 

My grandfather died when I was seven years old, having suffer

from a bad heart for many years. He used to spend summers in Europ

taking hot baths and other "cures." My parents told me that, upon h

annual return from Europe, he always seemed worse than when 

had left to go overseas. He would return to his apartment and go 

bed. After three or four days of this, he would start picking up th

phone and calling business associates. Then he might have a boa

meeting or two in his bedroom, and before long, he would be back 

his chauffeured car finding out what was going on. With this involv

ment, he would come alive again. To me, this has always been 

interesting commentary on the importance of remaining active. 

I wasn't aware of all of my grandfather's business dealings, bu

know that he played the piano, and I do remember that he taught m

the Lord's Prayer. He was always reading four or five differe

books-a novel, a book of poetry, one on history, a great variety 

things. He liked to work his way through all of them simultaneousl

My Parents 

My mother's maiden name was Pauline Bosson (1894-1969

Although born in Chelsea, Massachusetts, she spent considerable tim

in Geneva, Switzerland, when she was a very young girl. She spo

French before she spoke English. When she finally went to elementa
very contrary. We learned as kids that if we had a choice of 

wanted B, we had only to say that we wanted A. She would 

us for a while, whereupon we would say, "Okay, if you ins

B." In some ways, she was a pessimist. It was her view th

was over on July 5. "It's downhill all the way from he

would say. Somehow that summed up her view of life. 

My father, Robert Channing Seamans (1893-1968), 

mild-mannered man that he seldom fought back when Mot

contentious. They had been married only a short while wh

decided to splurge on their meager income and buy a roast 

overcooked it, but when Father carved it, he characteris

"This is wonderful, Polly!" She said, "You know it's not

stuck a fork through it, took it out, and tossed it into th

Coming back into the dining room, she took her corset of

it at him, so annoyed was she by his forbearance. 

My parents first met at a dance in Salem. As Grandfa

was a director of the Naumkeag Mills, chaired by my 

Henry Benson, the Bensons invited Mother to visit them in 

to attend the dance. Mother said she didn't want to go, b

insisted: "Polly, it's important to me that you go." Later, M

invited back to the Bensons and went more willingly the 

subsequent times. Father knew another young woman 

Rantoul, who had a sports roadster. According to Mother, 

to tantalize her by driving by the Benson home with Ellie R

he knew Mother was visiting and might be looking out the 

At the time of their meeting my father was a student 
baby baptized today?" Grandmother agreed and brought father o

to Aunt Rebe's house. When the bishop asked the godmother, A

Rebe, for the child's name, she said Robert Channing, not Hu

Gerrish! Apparently Grandmother accepted the choice. I've always b

very grateful to Aunt Rebe that my name is not Hugh Gerrish, thou

Channing was never a family name before that christening. As far as 

know, it came straight out of the blue and into Aunt Rebe's head. 

Grandmother Seamans, whose maiden name was Carol

Broadhead (1859-1949), was a real sport. On one occasion, wh

barnstorming pilots arrived at the Beverly airfield to take people 

rides in their old open-air two-seaters, she climbed aboard in her lo

flowing dress and had a grand time. Her husband, my grandfath

Francis Augustus Seamans (1860-1931), ran Perrin Seamans a

Company, a Boston hardware supply store. 

Father went to Salem High School, Noble and Greenough, a

Harvard College. He became interested in architecture as an und

graduate and wanted to continue his studies in this directi

Grandfather Seamans, who had never gone to college himself, figu

a bachelor's degree was more than a man needed anyway, and he w

certainly not about to send his son to graduate school! So Fat

became a certified public accountant. 

Early on, he served as a bank examiner. About the time I beca

conscious of what he was doing, he was working in a brokerage hou

in Boston. After the stock market crash of 1929, however, he lost 

job. The following yea-r my father went back to work on a suppose

short-term assignment for the County Savings Bank, the bank found
western Massachusetts. Mother and Father came out to 

said they weren't sure they could keep me in the school. T

and board amounted to about $650, and the school wa

amount to $750. While visiting me, Mother and Father w

headmaster to say they didn't see how they could poss

additional $100. I found out afterwards that I had bee

stay on for a while at the $650 level. 

My Brothers 

I was born in Salem, Massachusetts, on October 30, 191

of three boys. When I came home from boarding schoo

time at age thirteen, my brothers, Peter (born February 1

Donald (born January 19, 1927), were waiting for me 

door. I remember very distinctly being amazed at how 

were. Peter is five years younger than I, Donny eight ye

We didn't have a great deal in common in those days, bu

developed many common interests. 

I got to know Peter better earlier because we were c

The two of us weren't always very kind to our genial broth

wanted to join us, we would make up excuses to keep 

example, at Christmas time we would claim we were w

presents. Donny went to Bowdoin College. Gene and I d

Brunswick, Maine, where Bowdoin is located, not long 

graduated. I knew Bowdoin had just changed presiden

into a Western Union office and sent Donny a telegram 
which point his wife, Beverly, put an end to it (except for the fin

riposte from Brunswick, Maine!). About the second time we starte

teasing Donny in her presence, she lowered the boom. She's a ve

strong-minded person and a talented sculptor. 

Boyhood 

Like several of my boyhood friends, I was an electric-train buff. In th

wintertime we would go up in different attics and lay down track an

run locomotives all over the rafters. 

In the summertime, starting when I was eight years old, I was se

off to Kingswood Camp in Bridgeton, Maine, where there were lots 

sports. I enjoyed these, as I did the carpentry program, where we bu

model boats. Some of my friends back in Salem were very clever at mak

ing model biplanes, and I also joined in with them. We were all hand

with tools. There was a weather vane over our house in Salem that 

built when I was about nine years old. It didn't fall apart immediately

As a boy, I was an avid reader of Popular Mechanics, and thus deve

oped an early interest in machinery. With another friend of mine, I bu

crystal radio sets. By the time I was ten or eleven years old, I had figure

out how to use one tube for amplification. With a headset I reached th

point where I could actually distinguish stations. This was a great step fo

ward. I couldn't always tell what the music was or what the speaker w

saying, but at least I could tell if I was listening to music or to convers

tion! I used to hide under the covers of the bed at night and listen to rad

programs, then pretend I was asleep if somebody came into the room. 
father loved numbers. As secretary of the race comm

Eastern Yacht Club, he enjoyed calculating daily average

boats. His only sibling, Uncle Dick Seamans, was one 

accountants in the business, head of his own firm, Seama

and Tuttle, in Boston. 

Tower School 

From my earliest life in Salem, Massachusetts, I went to 

School, a private elementary school about five blocks from 

Street house. (Tower has since moved to Marblehead.) On 

in kindergarten Ms. Runette and Ms Luscomb, who ran 

took a look at me as I came in the door. "He's so tall," o

said. "Start him in first grade." Consequently, I was alway

young for my class. 

Tower provided a very good basis for going on to high 

college. It was imaginatively run, with much emphasis g

ativity over and above learning by rote. We made a lot of 

papier-mache. We put on many plays, too, for which our 

ers had to make all kinds of costumes and endure our acti

The academic curriculum went in very strongly for Gre

ogy. We studied Homer's Odyssey and other classics in g

We recited a lot of the material and acted out the storie

Greece became almost contemporary in our minds. Tow

quite a good French program, which would have served m

later years if more had been spoken. 
let fever. A sign was tacked on the front of our house readi

"Beware." We were quarantined! Father was allowed to go to wo

but Mother had to stay in the house with me. 

After about a week I started having a problem with my left ear

specialist, Dr. Tolman, drained it. Then one afternoon Stumpy Re

handyman to Dr. Phippen, my regular doctor, began bringing a lo

equipment into my bedroom. "What's going on?" I asked. 

All he would say was: "I feel awful sorry for you, son." 

When Stumpy left, I called Mother and asked what was up. Te

came to her eyes. "I just wish it was me having surgery and 

you," she said. 

I couldn't be taken to the hospital for surgery because I was still c

tagious with scarlet fever. So Dr. Tolman, Dr. Phippen, and a couple 

their associates came and performed a mastoidectomy, the surgi

removal of infected bone behind my ear. A mastoidectomy seldom 

performed nowadays, because penicillin is so effective. But back then 

only thing a doctor could do was hammer away at the bone and rem

the infected area. In later years, my parents often recalled the sicken

sensation of sitting in the living room and hearing the sound of pou

ing overhead. Finally they couldn't stand it any longer and climbed 

winding stairs to my room. From outside the door, they heard one of 

doctors say, "It's lucky we operated today. There wouldn't have b

any hope tomorrow." But I recovered without undue complications
parents first rented it. 

It was in Marblehead as a youth that I started sailing 

a lot of tennis. Lots of Marblehead kids age ten and up 

same kind of boat, a Brutal Beast. We would go charging 

harbor, racing and bumping into the big boats at ancho

and raced whenever we weren't playing tennis. David Ives 

tually bought a slightly bigger T-boat. For the first month

last in every race. We realized we must be improving the d

still read the name on the stern of the next-to-last boat as i

finish line. A great accomplishment! Before we were throu

most of the cups that could be won. But that took several 

rience and a new set of sails. 

Kent School 

It was presumed that after the eighth grade at Tower, I w

Kent, an Episcopal boarding school in Connecticut atten

first cousin on my mother's side, Dave Bosson. He was q

who did very well at Kent both academically and athleti

had another cousin, James Otis ("Jim") Seamans, who go

wherever he went. I was always being compared with the t

and didn't measure up very well. This didn't bother me ver

I could tell that it was of some concern to my parents. 

Kent School had church services every day and was 

Episcopal priest named Father Sill, whom I always pictu

robes slightly stained by tobacco. My father took me to see 
everybody else. I had never noticed what the denomination was. S

answered, "I'm not quite sure, but I think it begins with a P." 

"Oh, you must be a Presbyterian." 

I said, "No, I don't think that sounds right." 

He hemmed and hawed a bit, then said, "You're not Episcopali

are you?" 

"That sounds right," I said. "I think that's what I am." 

When I arrived home several days later, I found Mother in tea

She had just received a letter from Kent informing her that my app

cation for admission had been rejected, although they had "enjoy

having Bobby there." I received a very low mark on the mathemat

exam, but did better in English and Latin. The letter indicated tha

seemed a bit immature, and I was encouraged to reapply the follow

year. When I told my parents about my encounter with Father S

they figured that was what had done it. This was no laughing mat

to them. I'm sure they felt that the Seamans family had not measu

up to the Bosson standard. What's more, my application to Kent h

cost them $50, plus a donation for the new school chapel. 

Lenox School 

After hearing the bad news, my parents immediately whisked me of

the Lenox School in Lenox, Massachusetts, for an interview. Nobo

ever asked me what school I wanted to attend. I had been sent to ca

for four years, and nobody had asked for my views on that either. A

boy in that time and place, I didn't have much control over my destin
ter at St. Mark's. Mr. Thayer felt that there was a need 

that would admit boys who could not afford to go, for o

another, to St. Mark's, Groton, Middlesex, or the like, as 

who needed remedial training. The result, Lenox, was l

somewhat inferior. 

It was a self-help school. The students did absolutely 

except cooking and laundry. We set the tables and washed, th

swept the floors and mopped them. We had "work holiday

Saturdays, when we boys might have wanted to be out 

things. All day we raked and generally cleaned up the gr

result of my Lenox education, I can wash a dish better tha

know. After my wedding, I made the mistake of demonstrati

relative inefficiency in the kitchen by showing her how to w

Served me right-1 ended up washing them for a good stretc

School began in mid-September, and we all stayed on c

December 20, except when parents came to take us out to 

those days there wasn't a Massachusetts Turnpike, and it w

struggle for my parents, with two younger sons in tow, to ge

For more than three months it was no weekends, no Thank

going home. I remember thinking in September that I was go

the next fourteen weeks-roughly l/300th of my whole life s

cerated! Still, Lenox was a remarkable school, and it gave m

ful background. I had some very good masters during my five 

A student tends to get a reputation in a given area, whi

very hard to change. I got a reputation for not being to

English. Mr. ("Snark") Clark, the head of the English d
enough in mathematics my sophomore year that Mr. Monks, wh

taught the course, thought it would be a good thing, as an experimen

for me to take the college boards in math two years early. So tha

could do so, I stayed in school one extra week and went over the juni

and senior math curricula. As soon as I left the exam room, I knew th

I had made one stupid mistake in proving a geometry theorem. I got 

85; if not for that mistake, I would have had 100. After that, the he

of the math department gave me and one other boy special problem

because we had already fulfilled the school's math requirement. 

The Lenox subject that I found most interesting was senior physi

also taught by Mr. Monks, who was a great academic inspiration, esp

cially in my area of greatest interest. As headmaster and minister, 

also had an influence on my sense of values. One time, I came in fro

football and was the last person to leave the locker room, which was 

the basement of the main building. I noticed a big electric switch, a

just for the fun of it I pulled it. It turned off all the lights in the scho

Subsequently, there was an inquiry to determine who had perpetrat

the deed. We students were all assembled in the dining hall and we

told we were going to stay there until the culprit owned up. I confess

and was given my punishment. The earthworks dam that contained t

water for our natural ice-hockey rinks tended to leak. I was tasked w

digging a trench all the way around the dam and filling it with clay 

order to stop the leaking. I spent several weekends at the dam acco

plishing this. What did Mr. Monks have to do with all th

Remarkably, he came down to the dam and worked alongside me. 
cousin Jim Seamans, who had been an excellent student at E

who had entered Harvard the same year I did, hadn't done 

the exam and was required to take the course. Everybo

Seamans family was convinced that somehow the two exa

had been swapped! What really happened was this. The colle

in those days weren't the multiple-choice, true-or-false affair

The questions were substantive and required essay-type an

the English exam, we were asked to discuss books of fou

kinds. With my background in Sacred Studies, I selected fou

the Bible. This staggered the examiners, or so I was told afte

"Snark" Clark, who knew the teacher who had read my pa

The training I had received at boarding school was so m

than that given in most high schools that my freshman year a

was straightforward. My roommate, Stratton Christens

worked hard and got good grades. I was reasonably straitlac

ing at night and going to classes in the day, while trying to c

football, hockey, and baseball. I didn't do very well in colle

ics, but I did get out there and play the game. The summer a

man year I didn't have anything to do, so I took a full-credit 

surveying given at Squam Lake in New Hampshire. I foun

nating. I got to know Professor Albert Haertline quite well, 

director and a Harvard classmate of my father. He was an 

civil engineering type, who wore knickers and big boots an

hike up and down through the woods, surveying. I also got t

number of students who were already concentrating in engi

pursued engineering studies from there on. 
ist approach to engineering allowed me to sample different fie

electrical, mechanical, civil, and aeronautical engineering. I discov

that I was especially interested in aeronautics, as taught by Bill Bo

He wasn't a charismatic figure, but he had considerable technical 

ity. After serving as a naval captain in World War II, he went out 

and became one of the key people in the Autonetics Division at N

American Aviation. 

With extra credit for the summer surveying program and for 

advanced English course I had taken in place of the freshman 

credit writing course, I entered my sophomore year with six of the 

teen credits needed to graduate. So I thought, why hang around? W

not polish it off in three years? That meant taking five full courses 

of my last two years. Against everyone's advice, I took six courses 

ing the second half of sophomore year. One of the six was Astron

2a, which included a section on celestial navigation. In one of the 

assignments, we were put in a hypothetical boat off Bermuda, giv

lot of star sights, and asked to determine where we would make l

fall. The night before the exam I still had not done the assignm

Nor had I studied for the exam. I had learned that the best way fo

to study under that kind of last-minute pressure was to work for 

or three hours, catch a couple of hours' sleep, then get up and w

again-alternating work and sleep throughout the night. This t

however, I was in such deep trouble that I got hardly any sleep a

The following morning I was so afraid that I would fall asleep du

the exam that I filled an ink bottle with whiskey and drank some 

odically during the exam to stay awake. Not very smart. 
to play in. I played until three in the morning and never fe

in my life. I did pass all six courses that spring semester, bu

particularly well in any of them. 

Rheumatic Fever 

During that summer of 1938, my pace never let up. Right 

I went down to New London for the crew races, then ra

Boston in a friend's sailboat. I arrived back in Salem just 

an usher at my cousin's wedding. Two days later, I was 

good ship Columbus of the German-American Line, 

Plymouth, England, with my friends David Ives and Joh

The itinerary called for me to meet my parents and bro

Continent after a bicycle tour of England with Dave and 

three of us didn't live a very healthy life on shipboard. W

the cheapest room on the boat, sleeping in a tripledeck

waterline. It was so horrible in third class that we found 

into first class and from there into tourist class. The stew

class were always rather suspicious of us when they came 

at five o'clock, but we stuck close to some girls who were 

first class with their parents, so the stewards couldn't kic

met a second set of girls, who also provided cover for u

class. That was a lot of fun. 

As soon as we got to Plymouth, we hopped on rented 

went tearing off over hilly country, ending up in a little 

Launcestown. That night I was as dizzy as I had ever b
bail me out. 

I told my mother about my poor physical condition, and she insist

that I go to a doctor in Berlin. He told my mother, "Oh, he's fine. All th

boy needs is some mountain climbing." Later that summer 

Switzerland, where Father and Donny joined us, we did do some clim

ing. On one expedition, while roped together on a snowfield on our w

up the Breithorn, I said that there was something very wrong. A gui

took me back to the hotel, where my condition did not improve. 

We went on to Italy where we spent two weeks on the Mediterranea

Then we sailed home aboard the Italian liner Saturnia. By the time we g

back to Marblehead, the exhaustion I felt was indescribable. I slept 

night and woke up feeling worse than when I went to bed. I went to s

Dr. Cadis Phipps. He said that I had endocarditis, whatever that was, a

that I should take it easy. Under his care, I found my third year at colle

very different from the other two. I could not exercise. If I went out a

rowed a short distance, I felt weird. I continued to go north on weeken

with my friends, but I couldn't ski. When I tried to, I got a very unplea

ant disembodied sensation. So I took pictures instead. On the positive sid

I spent more time studying than I had during my sophomore year. As 

result I finished up my final year at Harvard in 1939 getting good grade

I missed graduating with honors, but I did manage to complete my stu

ies within the three-year period I had set myself. 

1 Once, when sightseeing with us, Grandmother made a memorable pronounceme

While viewing a monument in what is now Innsbruck, Austria, one of us asked h

what it was. She answered, "I don't know what it is, children, but it's very importan
doing many thoughtful things for me, so that I got to know 

ple better than before. I also did a lot of reading that I otherw

have done. I had several friends in the medical profession wh

material to read. I started thinking of shifting from engineer

icine, assuming I would eventually be up and around again. 

My parents refused to be disheartened. They set abou

best cardiologist available. Dr. Phipps was a good doctor

point we knew he wasn't our doctor, because he couldn't 

in a helpful way what was going on. After a lot of investiga

ents found Dr. Paul Dudley White, one of the great cardiol

the King of Sweden had a heart problem, he called on Pau

how to get him to come from Boston to Salem to see me? B

cidence our next-door neighbor, Dick Wiswall, had been 

roommate at Middlesex School. Through him we got a ho

I asked my parents not to tell me what day Dr. White 

because I was sure that it would worsen my condition by 

apprehensive. I wanted him to see me under the best possibl

On the walls of my room, I had pictures I had taken o

ing and sailing. When Dr. White came in at long last, he be

menting on them. I responded by saying, "I guess I'll nev

do that sort of thing again." 

"Well, how do we know?" he said. "Let's take a loo

out his stethoscope and listened. "That's a really pep

heart," he said. He had some tests run. Soon he had d

condition as rheumatic fever. He did not prescribe any ph

or surgical remedy but rather encouraged me to slowly g
active again, with Dr. Whites blessing. I played a little bit of tenni

was able to sail with no ill effects. Every time I tried something n

and got away with it, I thought, "This is terrific. I never really thoug

I was going to be able to do this again." I went back to Harvard th

summer to take courses in biology and botany, prerequisites if I w

going to pursue my new interest in medicine. It was a pleasant expe

ence. I particularly enjoyed the course in biology. 

Gene 

I had other pleasant experiences that summer, all stemming from 

encounter the previous fall, while I was recuperating in bed. I h

received an invitation to the coming-out party of Rosemary Merr

who summered at her parents' Prides Crossing home known 

Avalon. Mother, who had known Mrs. Merrill since their da

together at Miss May's School, called for me to say that I would 

unable to attend. Not long after that, I got word that Mrs. Merrill w

coming over to see me. Little did I know that a very beautiful ninetee

year-old by the name of Rosemary was coming along. Romey, as s

was called, was very striking-with black hair, a lovely face, and a 

of bounce. Within the next few months, she visited me two or thr

2 	Years later, I ran into White's assistant, Dr. Conger Williams, who showed me the 

cards White had kept on my case. "We weren't really sure what to do with you," 

confessed. Evidently Dr. White almost decided to put me in a hospital and 

catheters into my heart to determine what was going on. In those days that wo

have been a pretty extreme measure, although it's common practice today. 
invited me to sit down in the extensive living room. Euge

younger sister, who was known as Gene, was called 

dressed in a paint-spattered smock. She had her own s

house, devoted exclusively to her painting. As we sat the

didn't have the finesse to excuse myself after a moderate t

else could Mrs. Merrill do? She asked if I would like to st

"That would be wonderful!," I said. 

Unfortunately, Romey had to leave to go racing in Ma

I had lunch with Gene and Mr. and Mrs. Merrill. After

asked to join them on the porch. 

"Sure!" I said. They asked if I had ever played Chines

had; so we had a game and a cup of coffee. Finally I did 

realizing how displeased Gene had been to have left her p

erence to an uninvited stranger. 

Mother was very curious about such social encounter

I got home she asked me about my visit. Didn't Romey h

Had I met her? What was she like? I said, "Well, she's a lit

and quite young." I really didn't have a very clear impres

after that first visit, but when I was invited to Avalon on 

occasions later that summer, I came to realize that my f

tions of her were inaccurate, to say the least. 

Postgraduate Studies 

When September 1940 rolled around, I had to make a de

future. I talked to my old undergraduate advisor, Profess
As a doctor, I'm sure I would have liked working with people and try

ing to figure out what their problems were. But it appeared to me the

(and still appears to me now) that there's a lot more mathematics 

engineering, that medical practice is much more a question of remem

bering things-anatomy, symptoms, prescriptions, and so on. I'm su

a practitioner has to be fairly nimble mentally. But doctors are ofte

writing a prescription they've memorized for a set of symptom

they've also memorized. 

The upshot of my meeting with Haertline was that I decided to g

back to Harvard to do graduate work in aeronautical engineerin

under Bill Bollay. I was not quite sure that I was physically ready fo

a full load, so I signed up for just two graduate courses that fall. 

good friend and classmate of mine, Richard E. ("Dick") Lewis, wa

entering the same program. The day after the semester began, he sai

"I wonder if we're doing the right thing. If we're really interested i

this field, shouldn't we be at MIT?" 

By this time I had realized that Professor Bollay's course in aeronaut

cal engineering was not very different from what we had taken as unde

graduates. The other course I had signed up for was being given Friday

and Saturdays by an adjunct professor coming up from the Chance

Vought Corporation in Stamford, Connecticut. Dick quite rightly sai

"Look, if you go over to MIT, you're going to have full-time faculty mem

bers, not adjunct professors." Then he said, "I'm going over to MIT th

afternoon to see the dean of admissions. Do you want to come along?" 

I knew very little about the institute, but I said, "Sure, why not?" S

we went over to Dean B. Alden Thresher's office; 
read the MIT catalog and went around to the departmen

Thresher had recommended. I did some bargaining over e

and quickly found that I was well beyond the sophomo

last stop was at the office of Professor R. H. Smith, act

what was then called aeronautical engineering (now aero

astronautics). By this point, I was beginning to visualize m

one undergraduate year at MIT. I liked what I saw, wal

down the corridors: all those labs and machine shops! C

Pierce Hall, the single building devoted to engineering 

MIT had so many interesting alternatives and possibilitie

Smith said, "I just can't understand why you want to b

graduate. Why don't you come here as a graduate student?" T

fine to me. "Let me call Thresher," he said, picking up the ph

He and the dean had quite an argument on the phone. 

Smith turned to me and asked, "Have you had descriptive 

"Sure, I've had it," I answered. 

When he finally hung up, Smith said, "We can admit 

uate studies in aeronautical engineering." I later learned 

prerogative of each department to admit whomever they w

graduate school. 

"Well, all right," I said, "but now, how long do you 

take me to get a master's degree? You've seen my record.

3 Dick Lewis received his master's degree from Harvard in 1941, desig

Chance Vought during World War II, and had a successful career 

industry. 
taking a full set of courses. I did well. I had a cumulative average 

4.8 (on a scale of 0 to 5). I not only enjoyed the courses, I worked ha

at them and didn't fool around with a lot of other things. 

Doc Draper 

Dr. Charles Stark ("Doc") Draper, the instrumentation professor, w

a Stanford University graduate with a bachelor's degree in psycholog

After Stanford, he came through Cambridge on a lark, stopped 

MIT, and decided he wanted to study there. Before he was through, 

had taken more MIT courses for credit than anybody has ever tak

before or since, earning a B.S. in electrochemical engineering in 192

an M.S. without specification of department in 1928, and an Sc.D. 

physics in 1938. He became especially interested in propulsion a

engines. He found that there were no reliable instruments to tell 

research engineer, much less a pilot, how an engine was performing. 

pilot himself, Doc became increasingly interested in gyroscopes, ho

zon indicators, and the like. Then he moved into the field of fire co

trol, the science of aiming guns at moving targets. 

I didn't get a chance to see Doc Draper before my first day 

classes at MIT, but I did attend the first lecture in his introducto

course in instrumentation, number 16.41. (Everything at the institu

is by the numbers!) It was standing room only in the largest clas

room in the building. Doc Draper came bouncing in wearing a gre

eyeshade. He was quite short of stature and heavyset, but I could s

right away that he was one of the most dynamic people I had ev
his lab work into the classroom. I quickly realized that I w

with somebody who had never practiced but with a pers

leading the pack and telling you what he was doing. I re

ently to him than I had to other, more theoretically orie

sors. Doc Draper was making a living doing something im

I wanted was to know more about it myself. 

The Instrumentation Lab was working with the Sperr

Company on vibration-measuring equipment, so we st

soon experimenting with accelerometers and vibration pi

the electronics connected with them. The lab was also do

work (which we students had nothing to do with) on ant

control for the British navy. Why the British navy? Becau

Corporation, which manufactured the U.S. Navy guns

use, had convinced our military that their system-muc

plicated (and therefore more expensive!) than Doc's sys

only option. After Pearl Harbor (December 7, 1941), the 

commandeered all foreign research, and Doc Draper's 

work was turned over to our military by fiat. 

That first year of graduate studies at MIT was far a

most exciting academic year I had ever had. For exam

course in Laplace transforms and spent a whole wee

problems using the theory of complex variables. Sudde

stood this type of mathematics, and the power of it was 

lation to me. To think of the problems it could solve! 

could match the excitement of instrumentation. The real 

to do the studies, then actually build the hardware b
working either for an aircraft or instrumentation company or for t

National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). The who

business was fascinating. 

In Love 

I didn't miss watching any varsity games while I was at Harvard. Duri

the fall of 1940, while I was beginning my work at MIT, I invited thr

young women to go to three different games with me. While at a pa

at Avalon, I invited Gene Merrill. She didn't answer yea or nay rig

away, but as I was leaving through the foyer, I felt a hand on my sho

der. It was Gene, saying she would like to go to the game. I had a wo

derful time with her that Saturday afternoon. We drove to Cambridge 

my old beaten-up Dodge coupe and parked near Leverett House. Af

the game, we came out to the car and found a window smashed. Seve

things had been stolen, but fortunately Gene's fur coat was not one 

them. It was a cold night, and on the drive back to Avalon she had to 

a little bit closer to me than she otherwise might have. 

Before Christmas 1940, I was invited to Gene's coming-out party 

Washington. By then I had developed a strong interest in her, and I w

disappointed by my three days there. I found her a bit distant. I cam

up with the idea of taking a trip to Annapolis in order to have 

opportunity to be alone with Gene. My cousin Jim Seamans lived the

and I thought that the hour's drive back and forth would give us 

chance to talk. When I broached the subject, Gene said, "I've talked 

Mother, and she said take the station wagon"-meaning I was to 
p

y

being invited to race with him more than ever. The Merrill

risers, while we Seamanses were just the opposite. I got ph

quarter to seven, when everybody in our house was sou

was Keith asking if I could go racing with him. When we 

behold, the crew would be Keith, Gene, and myself. I inv

few dances, and we got to know one another quite well. 

Once we went with Keith and another young woman 

in Boston to hear Ruby Newman and his orchestra. The m

at midnight. When Gene and I got in my car to drive home

if she would be at all interested in going over to MIT to 

ratory where I was working. I simply wanted to stretch o

for me a most enjoyable evening. By the time we got to A

about 2:30 a.m. I began walking Gene to the front door, w

saw the silhouette of Mrs. Merrill in her bathrobe, stan

doorway. Gene surreptitiously put her hand behind her b

tured to me to back off and get going. A couple of days 

next saw Gene, she told me that her father had grilled he

out and contents of my MIT lab. Apparently Gene satis

talking about the stroboscope and other equipment. A

when we were out bicycling in Topsfield a bit later in the d

Merrill thought appropriate, she was interrogated again. 

I realized by late in the summer that things were dev

which I had never been involved before. I had never kno

woman so well, nor had I ever had such a good time with 

know to what extent Gene or I was taking the lead. I guess it 
It would be great if you could start right away. I was assigned 

Professor Homer Oldfield, whom everyone called Barney, after 

famous racetrack driver of an earlier era. I spent my days in the bas

ment of the building testing the performance of vibration-measurin

equipment. Just outside my door was the place where all the trash 

the building was collected. This work environment wasn't very attra

tive or aromatic, but it was satisfying getting some good, hard da

and checking it against theory. The people in the lab, together with th

faculty, were a great group with which to work. Early on, Doc Drap

sent me over to three of his friends in electrical engineering: Edgerto

Greer, and Germashausen. They turned out to be the. founders 

EG&G, a very successful corporation. The scope of what was goin

on at MIT was at least an order of magnitude greater than what I ha

experienced in engineering at Harvard. 

Soon, to my amazement, Barney Oldfield wasn't around ver

much. He seemed to be in and out, mostly out, leaving me alone wi

the equipment in the basement. He probably knew he was about to b

called up into the Army Signal Corps and was straightening out h

affairs. About six weeks after my arrival, Barney was in the Army. Do

Draper came to me and asked if I would be interested in teaching 

Barney's place. I said I would. As fall rolled around, I found myself a

instructor at MIT! That first semester, I helped teach 16.41, the bas

instrumentation course. I began by grading papers and setting up th

lab experiments to be carried out by the students. By the followin

spring I was in front of a class, doing some of the teaching myself. 

My master's thesis, which I completed the following year, had th
parents had rented from friends in Marblehead. We had a 

planned for the weekend, but at one point early on, we dr

Revere Beach, stopped in the big parking lot there, and l

the ocean. I led up to the big question gently. "I want to a

thing," I said, "and I would like you to think about it be

ing." I was afraid I was going to get the wrong answer, na

I thought that I would like at least to enjoy the weekend

Gene later told me that she had had a very hard time n

right off the bat. Without giving me an answer, she got bac

for Washington with her mother and with Romey, who ha

to visit the Merrills' Prides Crossing neighbor Caleb Lorin

way to Washington, Romey told Mrs. Merrill that Caleb h

to her. Gene couldn't resist telling her mother that I had pro

same day. A weekend or two later Gene came back for ano

accepted my proposal. (Caleb got the same answer from R

and I went out for a bike ride that weekend. When we 

heard on the radio that the Japanese had attacked Pearl H

Caleb and I were invited to the Hillsboro Club in Pom

Florida, to spend Christmas with the Merrills. I couldn't imag

home for Christmas; I had always had Christmas dinner w

aunt Rebe Benson and about fifty or sixty other family mem

Gene I would leave Boston on Christmas afternoon and be 

over New Year's. During the previous month I had been very 

not written many letters. I arrived in Florida, not knowing t

told her family about our intentions. On the second or third d

"Don't you think it's time you had a chat with Mother and 
don't think this meeting is going anywhere," and got up and walk

out the door. Gene could tell something was wrong the momen

rejoined her. We walked about a hundred yards down the beach, a

I became violently sick to my stomach. 

Wonderfully, Mrs. Merrill stepped in as intermediary and arrang

another meeting of the four of us together. We had a lovely lunch t

following day, and I was elated by the outcome. 

During my visit, Gene and I used her painting as a pretext for g

ting away alone together. After I had driven Gene on three or four co

secutive days of artistic expeditions, her mother very sweetly sai

"Gene, I think it's about time you showed us what you've been pain

ing." There was nothing to show, but Gene did a very quick and ski

ful job on a fresh canvas and managed to pass it off as her work for t

week. I still treasure that picture. 

That spring my parents had a party for Gene, so that all of m

friends in Marblehead and Salem could meet her. Mr. and Mrs. Merr

came north with Gene and stayed with us for a few days 

Marblehead. Father and Mr. Merrill got along very well. At one poi

Mr. Merrill said, "Bob, your son probably figures that I've been pret

rough on him, but I think that young men these days have it much to

easy. A fellow has to realize that when he takes on responsibility f

someone for the rest of his life, it isn't something to be done casually

I found out later that Mrs. Merrill's father, Frederick Ayer, had giv

Mr. Merrill somewhat the same treatment. Mr. Merrill had be

forced to wait a couple of years before marrying Gene's mother. 

We formally announced our engagement on March 22. I dro
of the storm, a lot of people called to say they couldn't m

party, and we spent the whole morning shoveling sn

Merrills' driveway. It was a wonderful party anyway. 

World War II 

Gene and I came together during a highly volatile period 

try. Immediately after Pearl Harbor, people were signing 

tary service in droves. This marked a huge turnarou

sentiment within a year. 

Many of us in the Harvard class of 1940 had taken 

A with Professor Holcomb during our freshman year (1

remember Holcomb saying, "Look to your left, boys; 

right. One of the three of you won't be here when you g

was right. We graduated two-thirds of those who started. 

"Get out those brass buttons and shine them up. You're a

in the military before you know it." This was met with a

sal disbelief. It didn't bother any of us as much as the tho

might not graduate. · 

Even after Hitler began storming across Europe, the fe

pus was: "We're not going to get involved in this mess." A

ation ceremonies in June 1940, a graduate from the c

talked about World War 1-how his generation had done 

how it now was up to our generation to do its share. We s

"You're not going to see us going over there and getting k

During the summer of 1940, before graduate school
but by then I was an instructor and involved with classified work f

the armed services. MIT rank-ordered all employees of draft ag

according to who was needed most to help with the war effort. Th

Selective Service used this to determine who would be more valuab

out of uniform. MIT had me in the top echelon of those who were 

draft age. As a result, I was never drafted. Later in the war, when I g

to know an Air Force colonel while working on a gunsight for fight

aircraft, I explored with him the possibility of getting into the A

Force. "No," he said, "you're doing more good staying at MIT." 

It was not an easy time. My brother Peter and my brother-in-la

Caleb Loring were in the Navy. My cousin Jim Seamans transferr

from Harvard to Annapolis, where he graduated in January 194

Two weeks after graduation he was aboard the destroyer Truxto

when it rammed into rocks off Newfoundland. He was one of tw

officers who survived. Covered with diesel fuel, he swam for shore 

a blinding blizzard and high seas. As he got near land, he heard som

body say, "I'll be right there, Bud," and then he blacked out. He wo

up in somebody's farmhouse with frostbitten feet and hands. 

The impact of the war was everywhere, and we were inundat

with thousands of such stories. In March 1942, after my engagement 

Gene had been formally announced in Washington, my college room

mate Strat Christensen rode back north with me on the train as far 

Philadelphia. I went on to Boston. By the time of our June weddin

Strat's ship had been sunk by a German submarine, leaving only tw

survivors. I would have preferred to serve in the military; however, I h

the satisfaction of performing several jobs for the armed service
minister, who knew my field was aeronautics, got me goin

propeller drives an airplane. Otherwise, it would have been 

My brother Peter was my best man. Donny was one of 

had prescribed cutaways for my ushers. Mother thought tha

teen years old and pretty big, ought to go to the wedding in a

lar and shorts. He announced that under no circumstance

appear at the wedding dressed in that fashion! He was eithe

an usher in a cutaway, or he wasn't going. My other usher

Merrill, Caleb Loring, my cousin Jim Seamans, my old T

classmate (and the future author of such plays as Billy Budd) 

and my two bicycling companions, David Ives and Johnny B

The church held just so many people. The decisions 

would sit in which pew were hotly debated. About ten me

Avalon staff were jammed into the back row. At the very 

to everyone's surprise and delight, Gene's godfather, Adm

Land, unexpectedly announced that he and his wife, Betty, 

it. That threw off the whole seating arrangement until it 

to put an additional row of chairs in front of the first pew

The church was jammed on one of the hottest days on 

ministers performed the ceremony-the Reverend Frede

from our church in Salem and the minister at St. John's, th

Bradford Burnham. I remember seeing Jim Seamans in hi

form, looking white as a sheet. He was apparently still reco

the lively bachelor's party several nights before. I thought h

to faint. About the only other thing I remember of the serv

ing very, very pleased as Gene and I left the church and wal
doorway of the Hart House was very narrow, and the granite step

leading up to it were steep. Mr. Eades, the manager, held the door ope

for me, but I failed to maneuver Gene and myself through the door. S

he invited us to use the back door. "That will be just fine," I sai

What he didn't tell me was that the back door opened directly into 

screened porch filled with diners, who were surprised and delighted 

watch a bride and groom perform for them. 

We stayed at the Hart House for a couple of days, then we

directly to the North Station in Boston, where we boarded a train f

Lodge Grass, Montana. We spent a week with Nan Bosson Duell, m

first cousin, and her husband, Wally, at their ranch on the Crow rese

vation. Then we headed for Pasadena. We spent a night in Butt

Montana, waiting for our train connection to California. We were o

the platform in a small crowd of people at six o'clock the followin

morning when a man staggered over to us and said loudly, "I thin

we've got some newlyweds here! How long have you been married

We had been married exactly one week. 

We were met at the Los Angeles station at 7 a.m. by about thir

of Gene's cousins, curious to meet the groom and brimming wi

warm enthusiasm. That summer they included us in many happ

events. After purchasing a temperamental1936 Dodge coupe, we we

able to explore that area of California. We spent several days in Ind

with Gene's aunt, Bea Patton. In the 110-degree heat, she provided 

retreat for her husband, the general, who had established the Dese

Training Center nearby in order to condition thousands of troops f

the impending North African invasion. We rode in a tank, and Gen
the vibration pickups I had been working on in the Instr

Laboratory. The company had been using equipment simila

to explore for oil; now it was getting into flight instrum

forming a new company (eventually spun off) called C

Engineering. I spent my summer helping Consolidated get e

When Gene and I returned from the west coast in S

worked for about a year with Walter McKay, a professo

mentation. Our project was to help determine why some N

were falling apart or going out of control when they w

pulled out of high-speed dives. We worked on developing 

to be mounted in a test plane. We carefully calibrated th

meter and the altimeter, and we developed a couple of 

ments to measure angular acceleration. Obviously, we cou

test pilot to go up and "just keep her going, though, of 

might fall apart." So we planned to fly the test plane by rem

a novel thing itself in those days. There was no telemetry 

data back by microwave from an unmanned test plane; so w

a high-speed movie camera in the cockpit, then hoped to 

plane and the film after the flight to determine what was 

the experiment failed, at least we wouldn't have killed anyb

After twelve months of work, the instruments were f

and put aboard an F-6F at Cherry Point, North Carol

remote control, the aircraft staggered up to an altitude of 

and started its dive. All the electronics went immediately ha

only observation we got out of the whole effort was tha

plane hit the water, it was going very fast. 
locations, including Eglin Field in Florida. To get there, we took Lee

s 

45, a twin-engine Beechcraft. He used to let me fly the plane while he w

back and worked in the cabin. I did not have a pilot's license; neverthele

he taught me a bit of maneuvering so that I could go around clouds 

avoid passing through them without radar. Once he came out of the cab

and said, "Maybe you don't need to be quite so strenuous with the co

trols!" On another occasion, I was flying along when suddenly all of 

bells and whistles in the cockpit went off at once. Lee came tearing out 

the cabin and jumped into the pilot's seat. One fuel tank had run dry a

the engines had shut down. Fortunately he was able to transfer to a s

ond tank and restart the engines. 

When we arrived at our destination and the equipment was tried o

by test pilots, I often went along for the ride. Some pilots, just back fro

the Pacific, loved to fly at an altitude of about twenty-five feet. I watch

with alarm to see whether the tips of our propeller were going to hit 

ground, as we made our dives and passes, firing five-inch rockets. 

Lee Davis's career and mine ran roughly in parallel. Later, whe

was working on the Tracking Control Project, he was the chief of t

armament laboratory at Wright Field, where our work was put to t

test. Later still, he was the Air Force's number-one man at Ca

Canaveral when I was working in the space program at NASA. 

While working on these various wartime contracts, I was a

teaching in the Navy's V-7 program at MIT, the same program I h

wanted to enter. Officers-in-training were with us for three mont

hence their nickname "ninety-day wonders." The instrumentati

class, which I taught, was five days a week for six weeks. I taught tb
In late 1944 the Navy called Doc Draper with a so-ca

acquisition problem. Japanese kamikazes were making i

difficult for our Navy gunners by attacking with the Sun b

A gunner couldn't look up into the blinding Pacific sun an

his target" (see a kamikaze long enough to get it lined up 

sight). Radar operated out of the CIC (command-in-con

could pick up any incoming plane or missile, but how to tr

radar information to the gunner stationed at a gun mount 

flight deck? I went with Doc Draper down to Sperry Corp

Long Island and watched in awe as Doc stood before a 

and developed extemporaneously a system to solve the pro

It was my job to flesh out the design for this equipm

built, draw a wiring diagram, and be down at the Na

Bayonne, New Jersey, to go aboard the Bonhomme Richa

weeks, starting from scratch! Just getting to Bayonne, N

loaded with .equipment was hard enough in those day

wartime travel restrictions made it almost impossible to fly 

and taking the train involved connections, subways, taxis

ging the equipment all the time. I finally got myself a Hertz 

packed up, and set off. 

When I reached Bayonne, no one would let me in the N

first. I finally talked my way in and went aboard the 

explaining my mission, I was steered to the gunnery offic

finally got to see him, he said under no circumstances wa

going to touch anything on that ship! There were green 
upset. When tying into the ships radar, I opened up other junc

boxes and made my connections. I came back an hour later to f

that the technician from Western Electric, the company that 

installed the radar, had disconnected all my wires. 

About three days later in the Caribbean, Admiral Martel and so

other brass came out to see how the equipment operated. Everyb

seemed to be pretty pleased, and I was cleared to go ashore. The 

anchored off Norfolk, Virginia, and I clambered down a rope lad

on the side of the ship and into a small boat, clutching my oscil

copes and other test equipment. When I finally got to a phone to 

Doc Draper and tell him what had happened, his first words w

"Damn it, can you tell me where that Hertz car is? We're pay

through the nose and they want it back!" The car, of course, was 

parked at the Navy Yard in Bayonne, New Jersey, where I had boar

the Bonhomme Richard. 

I traveled back to MIT by way of the Bureau of Ordnance, whe

delivered a copy of my wiring diagram. On my return to Cambridge, 

said, "There's a destroyer about to set sail from the Charlestown N

Yard. They're having some trouble with the radar. Get over there 

help them out." So I worked on the equipment in Charlestown for a c

ple of days, then went back out to sea aboard the SS Purdy. After sev

very cold days, I was finally ashore and the Purdy was headed for 

PacifiC, where it shot down a good manykamikazes before being su
low the evasive action of the pursued plane? 

Every project at MIT had to be cleared through Nat Sa

tor of research. He, Doc, and I discussed it around the tab

Sage finally said, "Put it in a letter to me." That night I wrot

letter. The following day I showed it to Doc and took it 

That letter became the basis for the Air Force contract I he

next four years. It became known as the Tracking Contr

was the largest project I had headed to date. I had about 

forty full-time people working on it, as well as nearly one h

ter's and doctoral candidates assisting in the research. 

There were many parts to the problem. For one, we 

how quickly the plane reacted to movements of its stick. Fo

had to run the same kinds of tests on the servo-activator

formed electrical signals into movements of the elevator, 

ailerons. Then we did the same with radar, to see how 

equipment could follow a target. We built our own simulat

analog computer) and some of the flight hardware out of 

A number of disciplines were involved in creating and testin

Simultaneously with this project, I was starting a graduate 

the automatic control of aircraft. It was a lot of work and 

Eventually we had a complete system, which, when i

plane, could lock onto and follow an acquired target. Three 

dred people were invited to Wright Field for the first large-

stration. They were invited first into an amphitheater whe

with others who worked with me, explained the system. The

went outside and looked up as the target plane came overh
mugs and to have them inscribed for the key people who had work

with me on the project. 

Middleton 

Middleton in the 1940s was nearly open land located between Bost

and Andover. For the Seamans family, Middleton provided an opp

tunity for country living as we moved from Cambridge in 1948 an

three years later, to our permanent future home on the seacoast 

Beverly Farms. Kathy, Toby, and Joe were born during our days 

Cambridge; May and Dan arrived after we settled in Beverly Farm

In the spring of 1945, Gene was six months' pregnant and f

while carrying Kathy downstairs. Two days later she began to ha

contractions, and I rushed her to the hospital. The doctor assured 

she would be all right. "But she's going to lose the baby," he adde

On questioning he advised us there wasn't one chance in 10,000 t

baby could survive. About two o'clock in the morning on May 2

1945, a whole group of us were sitting in the waiting room at t

Phillips House at Massachusetts General Hospital. Dr. Titus trundl

in and said; "Mrs. Seamans is just fine." 

After a silence, Gene's mother asked, "And the baby?" 

"A very well-formed little boy," Dr. Titus answered. But Toby w

three months premature, almost insurmountable odds in those da

We had already tipped off our pediatrician, Dr. Joseph Garland, a

he had been boning up on what to do with extremely prematu

infants. Within a couple of hours, he was attending our son. To
a lot of it is physical-how strong his constitution is. But 

the strongest baby in the world, an upset stomach could tip 

because he has so little margin. Still, what really matters i

live." It was hard for me to believe that this tiny being in 

could have a will to live, but Dr. Garland evidently belie

now I do as well. Two months later Toby left the hospita

just over five pounds. At age three he was a healthy, cheer

he had no speech. We were told by a specialist that he'd n

deafer child and he would never talk. 

A long crusade followed with Gene in the lead. Thank

Patten and the Winthrop Foundation of the Massachuse

Ear Clinic, his speech is remarkably good. He has a bache

from Columbia and an MBA from Northeastern. 

Toby and Stella Mae Renchard were married on Decembe

before his graduation from Columbia. The small wedding wa

Chapel of Apostolic Delegation in Washington, D.C., with H

and immediate family in attendance. The Papal Nuncio offici

Afterwards at the home of the bride, we were welcomed 

dinner by her parents, George and Stella Renchard. With 

tinguished career in the State Department, Ambassador Re

known Gene's father early in the 1930s. He had just ended h

of duty as U.S. ambassador to Burundi. 

Toby's situation, as it developed through the late 1940s 

was extremely important to Gene and myself, and it influ

ous career decisions I was faced with along the way. Ther

I turned down (happily, in retrospect) because we didn't w
on an old stone well for water. Once, we had invited a number of o

friends out to the house after a Harvard-Princeton game. Two da

before the game the well had gone dry. The only way to get water w

to bring it back in buckets from a hydrant about a mile away. All du

ing the evening, men could be seen heading outside and behind the tre

We lived in the country at a perfect time, when our older childr

were young and could enjoy the fifty acres at our disposal. There w

a pond across the street where we enjoyed wonderful skating in t

wintertime. Our daughter Kathy, who was very independent, becam

an outdoor enthusiast and prolific reader. One day, in a fit of exasp

ation, she took off on her tricycle, unbeknownst to us, and head

down the country road. More than halfway to Middleton center, s

met a policeman who asked where she was going. "To town," s

responded. She was brought home crestfallen. Toby, still struggli

with speech, cheerfully enjoyed our livestock of chickens, duck

turkeys, and geese. He and his sister were delighted to discover that 

the soda fountain in Middleton, customers had stuck their chewi

gum under the counter. At ages three and five, respectively, they saw 

as a free source of candy! Meanwhile Joe, still a toddler, developed 

ability to keep up and fit in. 

Gene loved the country, while barely catching her breath the who

time. For more than five years, summers were spent at Avalon, t

Merrills' lovely place at Prides Crossing. All the grandchildren co

vened there to enjoy seaside activities, each other, and their grandp

ents, who did an amazing job of running a household of over twen

people and providing wonderful meals from the large vegetable gard
great role model for me. 

I told John what Hunsaker had said. His response w

got to go for it." 

"Why?" 

"You think you're always going to want to stay at 

were true, you wouldn't need it. You're already in the c

motion, and you'll work your way up, no doubt about it. 

you want to leave MIT some day?" 

Gene and I agreed that I shouldn't take off three years 

to concentrate on my studies, but that I should continue t

course on automatic control of aircraft for about forty g

dents) and managing the Tracking Control Project. On to

I was advisor on about two dozen master's theses during th

period. Furthermore, I was just starting to get involved in 

side work with the National Advisory Committee for 

(NACA). In short, I was quite busy. 

My field was instrumentation, a multidisciplinary stu

overseen by the heads of the departments of physics, mat

engineering, and aeronautics (of which Doc Draper w

become the head). I had to satisfy the requirements of e

ment. I also had to take a minor, for which I chose m

Finally, I had to study two foreign languages. I had the F

had to start from scratch with German. 

So there I was on a typical Saturday at our old 

wrestling with equations, when our three kids came rushi

me to go out and play. Although I wanted to play with th
my doctoral work. The head of the physics department was a meticul

professor named Sears, who expected precise answers. I had had 

acknowledged deficiency in physics when I first came to MIT to 

graduate work. The physics department had felt that the Harv

physics program wasn't up to snuff, and I had taken MIT's freshm

course. I was able to score 1 OOs in all the exams and successfully p

tioned the department not to have to take the sophomore course. 

Now here I was in the oral exam; Professor Sears was asking 

questions, and that sophomore course would have helped! One qu

tion I was completely unprepared for was: "Name five or six phys

constants and indicate how they can be measured." The only on

could think of was the gravitational constant, and nobody had e

told me how it's measured. I guessed and got it right. Sears said, "

you engineers come up with that one first, but now I would like 

have you name five more." I could not name one. I thought, "B

that's it! It's curtains for Seamans and his doctorate!" Fortunatel

did well enough on balance with the other faculty members pres

that I was allowed to pass. 

My thesis, which was then classified, was a further developmen

the work we had started with the Tracking Control Project. It co

pared several methods for an interceptor airplane to track a target

My Mentor 

Of all the people who have had an influence on the way I've thoug

apart from my family, Doc Draper is preeminent. From 1940 to 19
body else arrived for work. I don't know how he had the e

it. He worked Saturdays and Sundays throughout his who

He was extremely practical. His approach was always t

where the critical elements of a problem were and then to p

the laboratory's emphasis there. He deeply believed that 

practice must always be kept in balance. You can't proce

trial and error, nor can you get results by merely theorizing

stant back-and-forth between the two that solves problem

Doc had plenty of ingenuity. When he was working 

gunsight, the Mark 14, the Navy told Doc that he had to d

that it was producible. He tried to get various companies t

ture it but couldn't find anybody to take it on. Finally h

machine shop in Newton ow~ed by Fred MacLoed 

Sattlemeyer, and gave them the task of building fifty com

scopes. The machine shop didn't have a name, so Doc said, 

it Doelcam," which is almost MacLoed spelled backwards

John Sattlemeyer was a straight, thoughtful man and a 

machinist. Fred MacLoed was expansive and more the en

They made their fifty gyroscopes and got a big contract out of 

men eventually became multimillionaires. Sattlemeyer never 

straight and simple lifestyle. Fred MacLoed left a wife and se

children for other women and race cars. 

Doc Draper went through periods when he was very, ve

to work with-whenever he was working on a problem in 

his mind. At these times, he would become very impatie

day-to-day administration he had to oversee. Nat Sage 
executives from industry, and so on), he did so in simple terms, but 

always threw in at least one very complicated chart. This way, ev

though people understood most of what he was talking about, th

never knew everything. He wanted them to realize it wasn't easy! He 

this quite intentionally. Once when he was up in front of a gro

explaining a target-acquisition problem, he drew a very complica

diagram of lines and boxes representing servos and computer. Sudde

I wasn't sure that even he himself knew exactly how to build the syste

Doc and I once spent a month together at a naval anti-aircraft t

facility near Virginia Beach. We stayed at a place on the beach cal

the Gay Manor. We called it the Gay Manure, a better description 

the food, we thought. We slept in twin beds in the same room. 

night, Doc liked to read paperback science fiction. "One thing y

never want to do," he would say, looking over at me, "is bring alo

a very good book on a job like this, because you'll tend to read it a

stay awake too long, then be tired the next day. You need a bo

that's so bad you'll fall asleep on the third page." Sure enough, 

started reading, and before long he had conked out with the book 

his chest. The next morning we would be up at six o'clock, hav

quick breakfast, tear out to the firing range, work there all day, 

back in the evening, and have drinks and dinner with our associate

Sometimes when visitors came to the laboratory, Doc would s

"You know, we make it a rule here that we've got to keep things m

ing along until 5:30. No cocktails or anything until then." What 

visitors didn't realize was that Doc had underneath his desk a but

with which he could control the speed of the clock. So if they arriv
Project Meteor 

In 1950, I was approached by Doc about becoming system

on Project Meteor, an effort to assimilate Germany's exper

the V-2 rocket and build rockets of our own. It was know

out the world that the United States was ahead in many are

nology. But we were behind in missiles, compared to 

Germans had accomplished during World War II. Project M

been initiated at MIT by the Navy's Bureau of Ordnance rig

war. It had initially been viewed as an effort to look at the 

nologies in missilery, thus far unknown to the United State

Six or seven departments at MIT got involved, with each w

a particular set of technologies. The servo lab people designe

new hydraulic, high-performance actuators, and the propuls

looked into new kinds of rocket propellants. A wind tunne

requiring so much energy, it couldn't be turned on without 

electric company and asking when they would have enough po

it. To keep it cool, so much water had to be pumped in and ou

was reason to worry about erosion of the banks of the Charle

After three or four years, the Navy turned around and 

is great work you're doing, but where's the missile?" It was w

to pulling together all these strands of work that I was insta

tems engineer. Why me? In part, I think, because of what 

doing on the Tracking Control Project-another case of tryi

a total system out of disparate parts. Project Meteor was 
people ought to be more forthcoming. I had a meeting with the he

of all involved departments in president James Killian's office 

mentioned the name of someone I wanted transferred. Someone ask

"Well, supposing he doesn't want to come and work for you?" 

I said, "I think it's time we got a little discipline in this place." T

whole meeting exploded. Clearly, that had been the wrong answe

was violating the principle of academic freedom! I should have s

"Would you mind my exploring the possibility with him?" We fin

managed to extract some people from the various departments 

hired some others, putting together a nucleus of about seventy-

people, which I felt we needed to develop a missile. 

In time, the Eisenhower administration became concerned t

America was falling behind the Russians in missilery. K. T. Keller, w

had run Chrysler, was made "missile czar." He came up to MIT 

assess the status of the Meteor missile and was joined there by peo

from the Navy, as well as associated contractors like Bell Aircraft

then we had built some experimental dummies and had fired them, 

they weren't missiles. We didn't have a missile. The result of the m

ing was that the Navy decided Bell Aircraft would begin building 

air-to-air missile that didn't yet exist! 

The situation became complicated. Bell Aircraft was eage

mass-produce missiles. The Vitro Corporation was brought in to 

the missiles and other equipment and to train Navy personnel in t

use. Meanwhile, we were in the middle, a bunch of research labor

ries at MIT technically responsible for the outcome of the progr

The whole project grew to a tremendous size before we even k
the gyro package and work on that alone. 

The first test of our air-to-air missile took place on t

The plan was to fire the missile from beneath the wing o

Afterwards, I got a call from the man in charge of the 

gone," he said. 

"What do you mean, it's gone?" 

"The missile's gone." As the plane carrying the m

towards the shore, our engineer, who was sitting in the 

out and saw that the missile was gone. It had been rele

tently. The Navy sent groups of seamen walking ove

where the missile was thought to have come down. T

onto a huge hole in the ground. The area was classifi

heavy excavation equipment was brought out. Fifteen fee

was our Meteor missile-and not in very good shape. 

Subsequent tests were successful, but it was not long 

I got a call from Nat Sage, who said, "We've been torp

engine room. Project Meteor is canceled." The Bureau 

had given us three months to stop all work. The next d

went down to Washington to see what we could salvage. 

get was $50,000 that had already been budgeted for Me

to write a final report. 

On its face, Project Meteor was a failure. We did not p

sile for the Navy. We did launch the Meteor from beneat

an airplane a number of times, but by the time of cancell

sile still had not homed on a target. When we came to the 

of the project, still without success, I gave orders to the peo
of the system thinking we were working on at MIT in the early 1950

RCA 

At MIT, the groups that had been getting money from the Navy und

Project Meteor had to go their own ways, each figuring out whether 

was going to retrench or not. My systems-engineering group had com

together for the sole purpose of working on Meteor and had n

departmental affiliation. So I began looking to see what other kinds 

projects might be appropriate for this group. In pretty short order, w

picked up three new contracts. With these in hand, we called ou

selves the Flight Control Laboratory. 

We proceeded with our contracts for about eight months, or un

the summer of 1954. The administration of MIT withheld fu

approval for the Flight Control Laboratory on a permanent basis, an

when Gene and I left for a summer cruise off the coast of Maine

knew that Nat Sage and Doc Draper were talking with James 

Killian about the future of the Flight Control Lab. One night Donn

Bev, Gene, and I were anchored in Pulpit Harbor in pouring rain wh

somebody came alongside and said, "Is Seamans aboard?" It w

Dave Wheatland, a friend of my parents. He told me that Doc Drap

was trying to get me on the phone, then took me to his farmhouse 

North Haven, where I placed a fateful call. 

"We did the best we could," Doc told me, "but it's all over. You'

got to close down the Flight Control Laboratory." We were given un

the following June to wrap things up, so that we could complete t
from Philadelphia, which I knew as an attractive city

bridge and felt as though I were plunging back into t

Revolution. Camden had a lot of brick buildings, includin

owned by RCA. Campbell's Soup was located there as we

city seemed to smell of soup. 

I visited RCA's corporate headquarters. John Woodwar

me to Ted Smith, the executive vice president in charge of 

ucts. I was offered a salary ($15,000) that was more than I w

MIT ($10,000)-not a bad offer, but not overwhelming ei

look at the surroundings and couldn't see the Seamans famil

Nor could I see myself immersed in what was clearly a large 

and trying to mold something within that environment. Wh

sion like this came along, I never said yea or nay until I return

talked with Gene. This was not a difficult decision for the 

called Ted Smith a day or two later and said, "No, thank yo

About a week later a very excited John Woodward 

the phone and said, "We've been thinking this over. W

you've got people in your laboratory that you've been w

What would you think of starting an RCA laboratory i

area with some of these people?" That was a different pr

many, many ways. It satisfied several of my concerns, inc

to do with the people working with me, not to mention 

with myself! I couldn't see full-time teaching, in part beca

ued to believe that teaching, lab work, and thesis work w

same cloth and enhanced each other. The long and shor

took the job after negotiating a salary of $18,000. 
Airborne Systems Laboratory, while also phasing out the Flig

Control Laboratory and teaching a full load at MIT. First we had 

figure out where to locate the lab. It was decided to take over a big se

tion of the old Waltham Watch Company building, which was 

pretty rough shape when we took occupancy. The lavatories were th

crummiest I had ever seen, with signs on the doors reading: "Yo

Management Takes Pride in the Facilities It Provides Its Employees

In time, RCA did a nice job rehabilitating the building. 

Then we had to go out and recruit the people to fill the lab. RCA w

doubtful that we could fill all the slots. We needed to find thirty people 

month for three months to get started. I said I was sure we could do so. A

MIT, I had worked extensively with Joseph Aronson, who had been th

U.S. Air Force Air Materiel Command representative there and then h

been an assistant director in the Instrumentation Laboratory. He was on

of the first people I hired, and he oversaw much of the recruiting while 

was still completing my assignments at MIT. About half of the employe

of the Flight Control Laboratory ended up coming along with us. W

recruited locally for most of the rest. 

Once things were moving in the laboratory, the company threw anoth

big reception; We had an open house and a dinner, at which I was intr

duced. State government officials were present. Dick Preston was on han

as secretary of commerce and a representative of the governor. He h

great wit and made a hit when he spoke. After dinner, big color-TV se

were brought in, and we all watched a color broadcast of Peter Pan starri

Mary Martin. The RCA system for color TV had recently been accept

over that of CBS, and the company was actively promoting its system. 
more imaginative, a more advanced technology. That be

mary mission of our lab. Our contract number was 28007. 

our identity. Whenever someone at RCA asked what we w

answer was: "We're working on twenty-eight double-oh s

Eventually we got some other contracts, and we bega

the Waltham Watch building, which wasn't an ideal p

RCA agreed to put up a new building for us. I started 

people from headquarters about buying land. The compa

requirement that any land purchased have a railroad sidin

it. The property that looked most attractive-on th

Turnpike (Route 3A) off Route 128-had no railroad sp

got the company to agree that we didn't need one. RCA b

five acres in Burlington, Massachusetts, and I helped 

rezoned for industrial use. 

Then we had to design the building. I had definite 

kind of building I wanted-three or four stories tall and 

possible, so that people could get from one end to the ot

wanted everyone to have a window to look out, to take 

the country landscape we were investing in. So I recomm

story, H-shaped building. 

The first design that crossed my desk was for one sto

story?," I asked. 

"We're still not sure you're going to succeed, and if y

ceed we want to be able to convert the building to a wa

I continued to press for an H-shaped building and 

what seemed like a great design. To my horror, when I 
celed. We had reached the point where to continue with what we wer

doing would have involved a major increase in funding for RCA, an

the feeling at the Air Force was that we already had accomplished ou

mission, namely, to put pressure on Hughes. Now that the Air Forc

had Hughes where it wanted them, it was time for us to get off th

stage. It was not that we had failed the test. We had come up wit

designs that could have been used. 

We had other contracts by then, but the cancellation of 2800

meant we had to make a big reduction in staff. We were still in Waltham 

at the time and were roughly six months away from moving t

Burlington. I called a noontime meeting of the entire lab staff a

Nuttings on the Charles, a place just around the corner from th

Waltham Watch building, where I had gone in my college years to se

Benny Goodman and other big bands. I intended to announce that

because of the cancellation of 28007, we had to let a third of the peopl

go and that those who were being furloughed would receive their pin

slips that afternoon. Just as I was heading to the meeting, I got a cal

from somebody in Camden who worked for Johnny Woodward. H

said, "We think you ought to cut down by 50 percent, because even th

contracts that we have are beginning to look a little bit shaky." 

I said, "If you want to cut 50 percent, you come up here and do i

yourself, and I'll tender my resignation." Headquarters finally backe

off, and we let a third go. Still it was pretty traumatic. 

A week before our new building was set to open, Malcarney cam

up to look at it. I had complained about the raw cinderblock walls in 

the corridors. The place looked like a jail. I had been told that cin
and Fiedler conducted it. Governor Foster Furcolo gave a sp

the ribbon. He was given a high-tech device with which to 

bon electronically, only it didn't work. Finally a pair of 

commandeered so that Furcolo could perform his role. Af

put on a big show to demonstrate the kind of work we wer

Now that we had a new building, we had to get more 

did acquire new contracts and eventually built back up to 

size we had been at before the loss of 28007. Buildings we

accommodate manufacturing, and by the mid-1960s, the 

facility employed about 2,500 people. By then, though, I h

a much bigger, much more exciting mission. 

Wrapping Up 

My five years at RCA, from 1955 to 1960, were my only 

working full-time for industry. The big difference at RCA

with MIT, was that everybody in the laboratory knew he or 

job-to work for RCA-and that I was RCA's manager 

There was nobody coming around saying, "I'm sorry, I ca

today because I'm teaching a course, and tomorrow I'm 

meeting in Washington." Everybody was pulling in one dir

On the other hand, a corporation is a maze of people, 

I had to deal with many layers in order to get things done

dreds of people working for and with me. I report

Woodward in Camden, who was in charge of aircraft fire 

in turn worked for Ted Smith (replaced by Art Malcarn
$570 to $590." So I had to call someone higher up the chain of comma

and haggle with him. I generally won, but it was a neverending battle

I suspect that I was not as well suited to the corporate life as I w

to academic life (or later to government work). At RCA, I found it v

hard to focus primarily on the bottom line. Obviously, a company ca

be in the red year in and year out and stay alive, but at RCA so mu

seemed to hinge on dollars and cents month by month (and certai

quarter by quarter) that it seemed very difficult to get people to thi

long-term. If margins were pressured, for example, one of the fi

things that usually got cut was independent research and developme

I thought it ought to be just the reverse. When times get lean, a co

pany ought to spend money on what's going to help it four or five ye

down the road instead of trying simply to look good next quarter. T

securities analysts aren't going to like it, and the stock price is going 

go down, but in the long run it may be better for the company. 

In Art Malcarney, I found an exceptional role model for manag

ment within an organization as big and complex as RCA. Malcarn

provided my first experience of dealing with what I would call a har

boiled businessman. He had come up through manufacturing. He w

tough. The people who worked with him stood in awe of him. If 

said go, you went. 

One story epitomizes him. RCA had the job of designing a

building the ground electronics for the Atlas missile. One part of t

system was called APCHE (Atlas Programmed Checkout Equipmen

APCHE's purpose was to determine whether the Atlas missile w

ready to go or not, and manufacture of APCHE became our respon
vice president got the equipment but thought to himsel

couldn't mean that I personally am supposed to take it ou

arranged to have it flown directly to Los Angeles, picked 

driven sixty miles north to Malcarney at Vandenburg. 

came along, and the flight was diverted to Dallas, Texa

telephoned the vice president and fired him on the spot. T

it very clear throughout all of RCA what he had done. 

Tough stuff-but Malcarney saved the project. And 

out there in that trailer, he was not only running the Atl

project but also overseeing the totality of RCA's effort in 

ucts. That was quite an example for me. I don't thin

always has to go to that extreme to lead people effective

he has got to 'tell people what he wants them to do and b

react unequivocally if they don't do it. Otherwise, his l

rapidly erode. It was a lesson I have tried to apply every

O

Kennedy said, while flying over Cape Canaveral, 

most significant event that took place in the fifties was t

of Sputnik." He was referring, of course, to the Sovie

orbiting a small artificial satellite on October 4, 1957, 

November 3 by Sputnik II, a launch with a dog named L

I think Kennedy was right. In the 1940s, the big events 

War II and the atomic bomb. In the 1950s we had the Ko

Eisenhower taking over from Truman, but neither of the

the sudden, decisive impact of Sputnik. 

I first heard about Sputnik on my car radio while 

from RCA. I pulled the car into the garage with a sinkin

hard to describe the feeling I had on that day. I think it w

appointment that another nation had succeeded first. I h

a bit of thought to space and satellites for a number o

1948, I had served in a minor role with the NACA (Nati

Committee for Aeronautics), the forerunner to NASA. 

subcommittee on automatic stability and control, of w

member, openly questioned what the NACA was doin

America for possible activity in space. We had our wrist

were told that the NACA was for aeronautics, period. F

Space remained very much on my mind. In January 

talk on the subject, half in jest, to MIT alumni of southe

I discussed work that I had done with Doc Draper and t

doing on Project Meteor. To conclude, I threw in a few th

possibility of space travel, just to end on a provocativ

6r 
space forever! And the public was abuzz. People were suddenly specula

ing about Soviet satellites flying overhead. There was fear in som

quarters that satellites might be used as platforms for nuclea

bombardment, but the more likely threat was thought to be enem

reconnaissance. One Air Force hardliner, with whom I served on 

committee, had a drawing showing Russian satellites ringing the earth. H

asked at a conference how we felt about this "great web of satellites ove

our heads." This sort of hysteria was not uncommon, and it made me 

little uncomfortable. Nevertheless, I saw a growing concern with spac

and the Soviets' presence everywhere I looked. While I was still at RCA

we obtained the first contract let directly out of the secretary of defense

office, known as SD-1. Code-named SAINT (for satellite interceptor), it

stated purpose was to develop a satellite capable of intercepting, inspect

ing, and destroying another satellite. 

In October 1958, the NACA became NASA, the Nationa

Aeronautics and Space Administration. 1 I read in the papers abou

T. Keith Glennan's appointment as NASA's first administrator in 

October 1958. A Yale graduate, he had served on the Atomic Energy 

Commission. At the time of his appointment, he was president of Case 

Institute of Technology, which later became Case Western Reserve 

University. Within a week of his coming on board, Glennan 

announced plans to launch a capsule with one astronaut into orbit, a 

decision leading to Project Mercury, starring astronauts Alan Shepard

Note that whereas the acronym NASA is customarily prounounced as a word 

("Nassa"), NACA was always said as a string of initials ("the N.A.C.A."). 
offer as not challenging enough. 

On June 27, 1960, I was sitting in my RCA office in 

Massachusetts, when the phone rang. It was Keith Glenna

if I was planning to be in Washington in the next few d

really hadn't been planning to be down there at all, b

happy to make the trip if he wanted to chat with me. 

"Well," he asked, "could you have dinner with me to

Hotel Statler in Boston?" 

"Of course," I answered. 

At dinner, Keith told me how things were developin

Then he took a letter-size organization chart out of his po

thumb down on one of the highest boxes in the hierarchy

words that were a bit stronger than this, "I'd like· you 

being the associate administrator of NASA." 

Keith explained that in NASA's earliest days, he an

Hugh Dryden, had run the program. (Hugh was the hig

former director of the NACA.) Glennan and Dryden ha

ized, however, that they needed to have a full-time gene

"That's a term that generally is not used in the governm

"It seemed better to call this person the associate admin

fill this position, they had hired Richard G. Horner, th

former assistant secretary for research and developmen

himself available for one year only. 

"Dick's year is almost up," Keith said, "and we're 

somebody to come in and take over soon. We hope you'l

After he told me more about the job and its responsibilitie
ratory. At least, that's what Court told me in the aftermath. 

It was Court who had recommended me to Keith Glennan, w

then checked me out with Hugh Dryden. Gene could see right aw

that I wanted to take the job, and she assured me that the move wou

work out well for everyone in our family. Less than a week after m

first meeting with Keith, I accepted his offer. 

First Weeks at NASA 

Once you take on a fairly key government job, there's tremendo

pressure to start immediately. Because your name has been mentione

the organization expects you. I insisted that I could not begin wo

until the first of September. Keith agreed but said, "There's a three-da

industry meeting in Washington at midsummer, and it would be wo

derful to have you there. You'll learn a lot, and you can say a fe

words, so people get to know who you are." 

Gene suggested that she come with me and find a house while 

was at the c·onference. This worked out wonderfully. She went hous

hunting the first full day we were in Washington. That night she wa

down to three choices. We finally settled on a new townhouse at 150

Dumbarton Rock Court, just off P Street in Georgetown. I took 

look in the garage and found a brand-new Rolls-Royce inside. Th

man who lived across the street had two of them and needed th

garage space. Otherwise, it was a reasonably modest vertical hous

costing about $85,000. Gene's mother called it "the Rocket." We ha

a tiny backyard, which eventually became a garden. We found ou
were still in New England. Toby was at Lenox, while J

future had been uncertain until the very last minute. He 

St. Albans School in Washington, but his acceptance did

the day the movers were filling their van in Beverly Farm

n't been accepted, he would have lived with the Lor

Crossing and continued his studies at Shore Country D

and Daniel were scheduled to fly into Washington the d

arrival, accompanied by our long-time nurse, Hazel Wh

It was terribly hot, and the drive south was quite 

Gene and the girls, with the three of them crowded into 

of our little Fiat station wagon. In one of the more fa

family pronouncements, Kathy, who was at Dobbs and 

sophisticated, said to May, who was seven and chub

sweaty body away from me!" When they finally got t

they discovered that the movers had lost their way, an

furniture in the house on Dumbarton Rock Court. So 

girls spent the night at the Marriott. I arrived back fr

time to spend the night with them. The next morning 

them to the house and found nothing in it. Daniel a

from the airport with Miss Whitney. She was very co

dusty paper on the floor, two dirty spoons and a tumb

board, and dust everywhere. How could she feed Dani

months, his cereal? Fortunately, we had some friends 

NASA's offices moved about a year after my arrival to FOB 

Building No. 6) near Capitol Hill. 

2 
Tour of the NASA Centers 

NASA's centers were a mixed bag. Langley, the first stop on my 

September tour, was the first aeronautical research laboratory run by 

our federal government, established in 1917. It was NASA's "mother 

lode." Several other NASA centers grew out of Langley-among them 

the Lewis and Ames Research Centers and the Johnson Space Center 

(originally known as the Manned Spacecraft Center) in Houston. 

Langley had a number of wind tunnels, some of them large. One was 

big enough to contain a fighter plane. Some were vertical-wind tunnels, used to test helicopters. With such extensive facilities, Langley 

attracted exceptionally fine aerodynamicists. The caliber of the work 

there was always high. 

Floyd C. "Tommy" Thompson was the director of Langley. Meet 

him for five minutes and you would have said he was a waterman or 

a farmer. When you knew better, you realized he was remarkably 

effective. One of the top research people at Langley was Robert C. 

Gilruth, who headed up what was then known as the Space Task 

Group. This later split off from Langley, moved to Houston, and 

became the Johnson Space Center. Working for Bob Gilruth was a 

talented engineer named Max Paget. Together with their team of engineers, Bob and Max came up with the familiar gumdrop shape for the 

Mercury capsule-a foreshortened cone with a heat shield mounted 

on its rounded bottom. By the time of my first visit to Langley, the 

Mercury capsule had been fully designed, and I inspected a dummy 

version. John Glenn, one of the seven Mercury astronauts, took me in 
off. Earth-orbit rendezvous (EOR) was the most popular m

days of speculative thought. With EOR, a robot-guided r

be launched into orbit, to be followed later by the astronau

capsule. Once rendezvous had taken place in Earth orbit

would proceed as in direct ascent. 

In the LOR scenario the main capsule achieved lunar 

the lunar lander disengaged itself. It landed and then rejoi

capsule for a return to Earth. One of the critical concern

was docking. If docking in lunar orbit was not success

would the mission fail but crew members making the l

would be cut off from transportation back to earth. It was 

a similar problem in Earth orbit would be surmounted ea

capsule had the ability to reenter the atmosphere and to 

the LOR docking had a remarkable similarity to the ap

had been developing for satellite interception (the SAIN

But at the time of John Houbolt's informal briefing, few 

any real consideration. This mode question would be o

major decisions we made on the road to achieving the lu

Part of the Army's Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, A

transferred to NASA on July 1, 1960. This center was as 

any I visited that first month. (Within a month of my v

Dwight D. Eisenhower and Keith Glennan would travel 

and rededicate this part of the Army Ballistic Missile Agenc

C. Marshall Space Flight Center," after which it was k

NASA as "Marshall or MSFC.") The senior engineers at R

of them Germans, were working on NASA rocketry under 
and said, "You're the guys doing the work. Come on. You get in th

elevator first." And together we went up in the gantry. I had expecte

to see a completely autocratic system in the German mold at Redston

Though it was clear that Wernher thought of himself as the boss if n

the Pope, he listened to what his cardinals were saying. Then, and on

then, he would say, "Okay, this is what we're going to do," and the

did it. He was much more humane than I had imagined. 

At an October 1960 NASA management meeting in Williamsburg

Virginia, I got another insight into von Braun's team. I began a litt

talk by telling everyone that at RCA we had made almost a fetish o

calling each other by first names and nicknames. One of the senior vic

presidents of RCA was nicknamed Pinky. Though I had trouble cal

ing him that, I finally got used to it. Then I added that I was impressed

while touring NASA facilities, that things there were much more for

mal, with people addressing one another, especially superiors, a

Doctor This and Mister That. 

At the cocktail hour afterwards people made a point of calling m

Bob. Eberhard Rees, one of von Braun's cardinals, did so with hi

thick German accent. "Bob, you might be interested to know," h

said, "that just the other day, Wernher said for the first time that 

could call him Wernher." 

"Do you mean," I asked, "that you've been working together for

whatever it is, twenty years, and you've been calling him Dr. von 

Braun all this time?" 

"Oh, no!," Rees answered. "I always called him Herr Dokto

von Braun." 
payroll. This caused considerable difficulties for Abe Silv

tor of Space Flight Programs at our Washington office. 

JPL didn't like the firm hand of Abe Silverstein on the ba

but there was reason for Abe to keep his hand there. W

$100 million worth of effort being contracted out of JP

What's more, Caltech was bleeding off funds as "their f

the risk they were taking. When we tried to negotiate 

with Caltech's president, we were told, in effect, "If yo

lump it. If you want us to run the program, we're goin

way." At an impasse, we finally decided that not all lun

tary probe exploration would go to JPL, as previously 

gave the Lunar Orbiter program, which JPL was expecti

to Langley instead. This was a controversial move. Lan

run a big project before, and there was a real question 

we ought to take our research people and put them on o

it; Langley did a miraculous job; and we finally got JPL

My September tour of the centers set a good patter

at NASA. I tried to move outside the circle of ten or 

assembled around my office as often as possible. If an 

involving Goddard or one of the other centers, I wo

extent that time permitted, to get out to Beltsville or 

action was taking place. In this way I could understand 

ter while demonstrating that headquarters cared. 
shoulders. So it came as a great surprise to find that these bureaucrats 

were, in the main, able, dedicated people. And when it came time to visi

Capitol Hill and the White House, I was equally impressed with the level 

of competence of most everyone I met. 

Everything at NASA was much bigger than anything I had ever 

encountered before. In my fifteen years at MIT, the largest program I 

had been involved with had a total budget of about $20 million over 

eight years. RCA operated on a billion-dollar budget, but my program 

was a tiny piece of that, with an annual budget of no more than $15 

million. Now suddenly I was the de facto general manager of a billiondollar-a-year program, with resources dotted all over the country and 

countless contractor personnel intimately linked to every phase of it. 

In a way, though, it was only a matter of moving the decimal point 

over a couple of places. Or this was how it seemed to me. World War 

II had forced quite a few people in my generation to move into big jobs 

without much prior experience. In the armed services, twenty-fiveyear-olds had been promoted to full colonel in the field. If it hadn't 

been for the war, I wouldn't have been an instructor at MIT at the age 

of twenty-three, before getting my master's or doctor's degree. 

Ordinarily, you're not considered for a faculty appointment at MIT 

until you've got your doctor's degree. 

Still, at RCA I had never had my boss come into my office and say, 

"Come with me. We need to go over to the White House to talk with 

the President and his budget director about a couple of things." And 

there was no denying the excitement and electricity of working in 

what would become perhaps the glamor program in American gov­
program, and NASA was getting lacerated by the press. W

pretty hard-boiled inside of NASA. That's essentially 

brought in to do as general manager. 

When I discussed this with Keith, he said, "We want 

there and take charge!" He clenched his fist and mad

motion, and that was about it. I took this to mean that the

need to get on top of the management of the activities a

centers. But it wasn't yet clear how to do so. 

After about a month on the job, he asked me, "W

really going to get ahold of this organization?" 

I said, "I'm working on it, Keith." 

He said, "You'd better move." 

This is how NASA was organized when I arrived in 

Office of the Administrator, there were two people, K

deputy, Hugh Dryden, the only two presidential appointe

As associate administrator, directly in line beneath them, I 

highest-ranking nonpolitical appointee. Eventually, I ha

deputies-Tom Dixon, Earl Hilburn, and others. I was s

them at first. In response to Keith's promptings, I said, "

to think about a deputy until I know what my job is. Th

ure out who will be my deputy." It was only after I had 

ernment for some time that I realized that deputies w

common, they were in most cases an absolute necessity. 

and hauling required of each key individual is so great th

hard to get the job done without a team of two (someti

put their shoulders to the same wheel. 
but we continued to believe that it was important to the country th

research continue in aeronautics and long-term space technology. 

Beneath the program offices in the hierarchy were the centers, o

of which all contracting was done. In other words, the centers we

where the work was accomplished. In the organization chart, ea

center fell under the program office with which it was most close

associated. So Abe Silverstein had Goddard and JPL. Don Ostrande

principal operation was Marshall. Ira Abbott had the old NACA la

oratories at Langley, Ames, and Lewis, as well as Edwards Flight T

Center in the Mojave Desert. 

Having centers and program offices might seem a redundanc

Why not have the people in the field do the work and forget abo

headquarters staff? Because an agency has to plan for the future, a

it has to defend its programs before Congress, the media, and the pu

lic. If people kept coming in from the field to look after these thing

work would never get done. There was also a crying need for system

management, a responsibility of the program offices. We had to 

sure that the capsule (designed at Langley and in Houston) and t

rocket (designed at Marshall) fitted together! 

There was always a very delicate balance between the progra

office and center. After a couple of years I had serious complaints fro

Harry J. Goett at Goddard, who said, "If I'm running this laborator

I want to have the power to refuse having people from headquarte

come in if I don't want them on my territory. I'm going to be the o

to decide what goes on in my center." 

That may have sounded like common sense. Only there were fif
Despite its inherent logic, the NASA organizational 

fraught with contradictions. One example: Abe Silverstei

sible for Space Flight Programs, but the Space Task G

under Bob Gilruth at Langley to develop manned capsu

reported not to Abe, but to Ez Abbott, because Ez had th

centers under him. Another concern was George Low's 

organization chart. As program chief of Manned Space F

virtually the most important job in all of NASA, yet he w

els down on the chart. He didn't even report to Abe dire

I addressed some of these concerns at lunch one da

Glennan and Hugh Dryden. I suggested that we make 

director of Manned Space Flight, reporting directly to Ab

I also suggested that, in effect, we promote Bob Gilruth 

report to Abe rather than through Tommy Thompson an

These steps were taken immediately and addressed a fu

of mine, that manned flight be given top priority. I beli

future viability and funding of NASA would largely 

whether or not we were successful in putting an American 

bringing him back safely. 

Still, as for taking charge (in Keith Glennan's fist-pum

this large, unwieldy network of program offices and centers

time. The way the organization was set up, it was difficult f

cise my responsibility. There was no system of checks and ba

was no place for me to grab hold of the total NASA progra

until the following summer when, under a new administrat

cal control of the organization, that I was able effectively to "
utive officer, Brig. Gen. Andrew Goodpaster, Eisenhower speculate

about "what Joe Kennedy is going to try to get his son to do when h

becomes President." Eisenhower was unhappy at that prospect, but h

was also honorable about it. He said our responsibility was to leav

everything in the best posture possible, so that the next administratio

could take it over effectively. 

With this in mind, I requested that contractor studies on the feas

bility of human spaceflight, which I had asked for in September, b

intensified and extended to include a lunar landing. I also called for 

January 1961 meeting at which the Space Task Group under Bo

Gilruth and the Marshall Space Flight Center under Wernher vo

Braun would come in with detailed discussions of a lunar landing

what it would cost, when it might be accomplished, what launch veh

cles would be required, and so on. We knew that the new 

administration would have its own ideas about space. It was ou

responsibility to have substantive material ready for them, so that th

decisions could be made based on facts, not conjecture. 

Jerome C. Wiesner, Kennedy's science advisor, headed a transitio

committee charged with studying what the incoming administratio

should do about space and the so-called missile gap. I had known Jerry 

MIT, going back ten years or so, but surprisingly the NASA organizatio

had no contact with him or his committee during this transition period

When the committee report was issued, we thought it quite unfair to NAS

and quite personal with regard to certain key people at NASA, especial

Hugh Dryden. It asked for new, young, imaginative people to run NASA

the implication being that Hugh, in his sixties, was old and doddering. 
pared to leave if requested to do so or if I felt uncomforta

new administrator. I think anybody who has a reasonably 

tion in the government has to be willing to get out quickly i

not satisfied with the way things are going. Government wo

to a relay race. The best you can hope for is to move the b

the track, before passing the responsibility to someone else

Keith Glennan was a political appointee of the Eisenho

istration. As such, he expected to be replaced by th

Democratic administration. He hoped that Kennedy's staff 

a replacement before the inauguration to work with him o

transition. No appointment seemed to be forthcoming, ho

getting clearance from the Eisenhower administration, Kei

Vice President-elect, Lyndon B. Johnson, to see where thin

a new administrator. "Here we are," Keith told Johnson

largest federal agency from the standpoint of budget, an

waiting to have an administrator selected. I just want you t

I'm ready to do anything I can to help during this transitio

Johnson's reported response was: "That is very kind 

Glennan. If there's anything that you can do to help, we'll c

in touch with you." With that Johnson hung up. 

This was a very difficult period for Keith. At the Wrig

Dinner, which occurred in December, he was the princip

Keith tried to make what was probably his last major ta

one. The audience paid little attention, many of them talki

themselves. NASA was not riding high in the community in 

Shortly before the inauguration, Gene and I had a g
"Well, frankly," I said, "we haven't had any contact with t

administration, and I'm told that you might be able to shed a lit

light on what's going on." 

I met with Charlie and discussed my concerns. He said, "T

President is wondering what he might do about the space program. 

course, he's planning to turn it all over to Lyndon. But just last nig

when I was walking around Lafayette Square with the President, w

walked around your building, and the President noted it and said th

that's where the headquarters of NASA was located, and that the

had been considerable concern amongst his special task force abo

the competence of the people." 

This made me wonder, but at least it showed that the Preside

knew that NASA existed. I said, "Well, I'm sure the President has 

many things on his mind. Who am I to say what's most important, b

it would certainly be very helpful if in the near term we could ha

some conversation with the administration." 

"I'll remember that next time I see the President." When I got 

to go, he said, "Now, you realize that Lyndon Johnson is a very dif

cult person. He's a real problem for the President. If you have a

problem with him, you just let me know and I'll see what I can do 

straighten it out for you." I thought, "Seamans, you're getting yours

in a little bit deep on this one!" 

On the day before the inauguration, Keith Glennan approved a b

list of programs, including a 200,000-pound-thrust, hydrogen-oxyg

engine and the so-called F-1 kerosene-oxygen engine with 1,500,0

pounds of thrust, which was eventually used in the first stage of t
In time, I went on the vestry of the church around the corn

the hill behind us was Montrose Park, where our two yo

and Daniel, enjoyed playing with neighborhood children. 

Joe began two years at St. Albans, and May went into 

grade at Beauvoir. These schools, on the close of th

Cathedral, are part of a large Episcopal complex. T

topnotch schooling and sports, always against the backgr

gious faith. Joe learned the city with his new friends 

nearby. May created her own niche and eventually a

National Cathedral School for Girls, in Washington. 

Our youngest son, Daniel, took endless walks. He love

buses and trucks, and the sirens. He and his nurse would s

the houses of notables, especially at the time of the Kenned

and wave at the arrivals and departures. The day of the in

January 21, 1961, was an exciting one for all of us. Havin

in Washington, Gene knew the importance and fun of par

inaugural events; so we invited my parents to stay with u

parade, and soak up the charged and optimistic atmosp

Capital. The blizzard that had hit Washington the day bef

parents' plane from landing, so it turned back to New 

Luckily, their fellow passengers included Cardinal Cushing 

of nuns. The cardinal was to give the invocation at the 

swearing-in. Realizing the importance of His Eminence, 

bused passengers on the flight to Penn Station in New York 

they were put on a special car. There was much jollity en ro

our amazement, my parents arrived at 4:00 a.m. on inaugu
It turned out that the Kennedy administration had been having great d

ficulty finding somebody to take the job of NASA administrator. Th

went through quite a list of people. When it became known that peo

were turning down the top job at NASA, it was not good for agen

morale. Why would anybody not want to run NASA? It must mean th

the agency doesn't have a high priority in the administration's planni

Finally, a week after Kennedy took office, Hugh Dryden called 

into his office and said, "Well, I've met the new administrator; and 

may have a slight change of pace around here." By that point, I w

very anxious to meet the new man, whose name, James E. Webb, d

n't mean a thing to me. Appointed by Kennedy on January 30, a

confirmed by the Senate on February 9, Webb was an old Washing

hand. He had been director of the Bureau of the Budget and an un

secretary of state in the Truman administration. 

Our first meeting in his office was unusual. He asked me a lot 

questions but none about space. I have a habit of twiddling the coins in 

coat pocket. He noticed this and two or three times said, "Do you wan

cigarette? I have some over in my desk." "No," I said, "I don't smoke

We talked about different management philosophies and styles. 

asked if I knew how Sears Roebuck was organized. At Colum

University's advanced management program, which I had attend

while at RCA, I had read a case study of Sears Roebuck. The compa

had a highly decentralized organization with responsibility spread 

horizontally. Jim and I discussed this kind of management contro

opposed to a straight, hierarchical kind of organization like tha

Montgomery Ward. 
knew I was a Republican, and I figured we had to add

sooner or later. For quite a while after that, whenever h

me it was as "the Republican member of the NASA org

to show how bipartisan we were! 

At lunch, he started giving me some of his philosophy 

ernment works. He told me the story of somebody wh

hero to him. When asked at the time of his retirement 

been able to stay in government as long as he had, t

answered, "I know when to bend a little." But, Webb 

have to be thresholds. You have to begin by choosing the 

which you won't bend any more. 

Webb told me that he really hadn't wanted to retur

ment, but that he had been persuaded to do so by Senato

(the chairman of NASA's Senate authorization committee

Jim had worked), by the Vice President, and finally by t

He said he had made it absolutely clear from the begin

would accept only if Hugh Dryden stayed on as deputy. 

the luncheon, he let me know that he wanted me to 

Apparently, Hugh had urged him to keep me on. 

Reorganization 

There was no immediate change when Jim Webb to

seemed to follow an adaptive course, getting to know 

NASA and their capabilities, as well as the organization 

He often spoke admiringly of the Wright Brothers' su
hands of the general manager. He encouraged me to gather in the rein

more than I had with Keith. It seemed to me that to do so meant, firs

and foremost, to take charge of the funding-to approve on a project

by-project basis the funds that would be available to a given office

Under Keith Glennan, I had not had fiscal control. Funding was con

trolled at the program level, by Silverstein, Ostrander, et al. Silverstei

had a first-rate assistant reporting to him named DeMarquis ("D."

Wyatt, who kept track of funding for him. Abe must have realize

things were changing the day I said, "Henceforth D. Wyatt works fo

me." D. did so from that day until the day I left NASA in Januar

1968. Every dollar NASA spent for the next six years was itemized b

D. Wyatt on forms he submitted to me for approval. 

As general manager, I did not want random reporting-peopl

informing headquarters when and if they felt like it. A general man

ager can't sit all by himself and, by reading the reports comin

through, figure out what's going on and what needs fixing. A genera

manager needs to meet face-to-face with those reporting on a regula

(preferably monthly) basis. This was my point of view, and it was con

troversial. But I saw the need for it. 

Consequently, we began to hold management meetings for tw

days each month, during which the project people came in and talke

performance, funding, and schedules. D. Wyatt and his staff kept trac

of project difficulties and successes, the rapidity with which resource

were being used up, and the important schedules. They briefed m

before I met with a particular program office. Then, when the presen

tations had been made, if people hadn't brought up things tha
lifestyle was very much wrapped up in the Methodist Churc

was a deacon and preacher. He was not a gregarious pers

peramentally he and Jim weren't alike. They didn't socializ

one another. Yet, although Hugh was a very mild-manne

when he was upset, there wasn't any question about it. If 

NASA was going off on a tangent or getting too political-w

concern-he would go in and give Jim a piece of his mind. 

Jim sometimes had wild, mind-stretching thoughts. If 

sprung them on the organization or on people outside the o

without any kind of constraint, it might have been catastr

was useful for Jim to have Hugh present, as a though

respected senior person to confide in and to use as a soun

For example, when the decision was made to go to the 

Draper Lab got the contract for the navigation system. Soo

I got a letter from my old mentor, Doc Draper. He said 

always found it important for people who designed and 

equipment to have a chance to test it, and that he himself w

to go on the first lunar trip. Jim thought this was terrific. 

was concerned, he was going to go over and see the Presid

"There may be some scientists in the country that aren't f

gram, but here's one that's not only for it, he wants to go.

It would have been highly inappropriate for Doc Drap

the Moon. He was over sixty and couldn't possibly have 

physical or survived the training. It was much more import

to direct his laboratory and to build the Apollo guidance s

to go to the Moon. If Doc's offer (and NASA's willingness 
As the "general manager," I managed NASA's programs while Jim lin

up outside support and Hugh provided sound guidance on our goals

Moving Forward 

On March 22 at the White House, I met for the first time w

President Kennedy. NASA had previously received a request fr

Kennedy's director of the budget, David Bell, to recommend subst

tive changes in our budget. We had met with Dave and had discus

several major items, including what we perceived as the imperat

need of going ahead with the Saturn second stage, which had b

omitted from the Eisenhower budget. We had also discussed 

Apollo program (especially the desirability of going ahead with dev

opment studies for it) and the need for a government-finan

communications satellite program. Bell had not accepted any of th

proposals outright but instead had called for the March 22 meet

with the President at Jim Webb's request. 

Kennedy and I had been classmates at Harvard, and I had ha

speaking acquaintance with him as an undergraduate. He was v

cordial when he came into the Cabinet Room, but he did not appea

recall our association at Harvard, nor did I remind him of it. Presen

the meeting were Jim Webb, Hugh Dryden, Glenn Seaborg (head of 

Atomic Energy Commission), Vice President Johnson, national secu

advisor McGeorge Bundy, and presidential science advisor Je

Wiesner. The President asked many questions and listened carefully 

he tapped his front teeth with his pencil. He brought up the question 
President turned, looked at me, and said, "That was a go

I would like to have that in writing tomorrow morning

send a copy to the Vice President." 

Throughout the meeting, Kennedy appeared to be a m

erating discussion and listening carefully to differing vie

he did not tip his hand. When we left the meeting, we d

what his decision on NASA's budget would be. I went h

meeting and did my best to put in writing what I had sai

ing. The next morning, I took the letter around to Jim W

"Here's the memorandum requested by the Presiden

double take. Associate administrators didn't write l

President! I said, "I believe he specifically asked for it, b

hands. You decide whether to submit it to him." 

That afternoon, as I was headed north for some sk

family at Mt. Tremblant, I read his cover note: "The att

randum prepared by our Associate Administrator, D

responds to your request of yesterday .... " In the end, we g

in the NASA budget than we would have directly from D

Saturn S-2, for example, received the full increase of 

we had requested. 

Moving Faster 

On the day Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin orbited the Ea

1961, George Low and I happened to be testifying on Cap

was not my first appearance before a congressional com
senators with whom I dealt. In my opinion, they wouldn't have ha

their jobs if they hadn't had some capabilities. Not that these fellow

were paragons of virtue, but I believed it was wrong to sell them shor

Most of them worked hard at their jobs. Albert Thomas, for one, use

to spend a great deal of time going through budget submissions an

underlining them in red. When he came into the hearing room, he wa

ready, willing, and able to cross-examine a NASA witness, in a merc

less way if necessary. 

Congressional hearings took on a new tone after the Gagarin fligh

Suddenly, the Hill wanted to know why NASA wasn't doing more i

space. Jim and Hugh testified on April13 and were somewhat beaten ove

the head for not coming up with more imaginative programs. The nex

day George Low was on the hot seat, presenting the Apollo program, an

I was sitting beside him. The congressmen asked questions abou

specifics--capsules, life-support equipment, and so on. I drew some com

fort from the studies on piloted flight that I had requested in Septembe

and had accelerated in November. It was good to have some facts abou

the costs of an expanded spaceflight effort. At least when we mentione

numbers, we could be pretty confident we were in the ballpark. 

After a while the discussion broadened considerably. Congressma

David S. King from Utah quoted from the gospel according to Luk

chapter 14: 

Or what king, going out to wage war against another king, will 

not sit down first and consider whether he is able with ten thousand 

to oppose the one who comes against him with twenty thousand? 
pg gp

budget we were submitting would permit us to make a circum

in 1967 but that it was not paced for a lunar landing until19

Finally, Congressman King got around to asking wheth

get to the Moon by 1967. I said that obviously this was a q

couldn't be answered in a definitive way. When pressed, I 

"My estimate at this moment is that the goal may very we

able." Our preliminary studies told us that it could be do

we could do it for between $10 billion and $12 billion. L

realize that Apollo would ultimately cost closer to twice t

When our testimony was done, George and I stepped ou

ference room into something that was unique in my experien

ing light of television cameras. I was asked to repeat the stat

made in the hearing room. Asked whether I thought we co

Russians to the Moon, I answered, "This obviously depends 

the Russians get there as well as how fast we proceed, and 

that we can guarantee that with any amount of money that w

the Moon before they do. Obviously," I continued, "it's pos

ceed faster if we proceed on a crash program basis. This is 

great national urgency to make a decision as to whether this 

enough to proceed with the kind of funding that would be r

"Mr. Seamans," a reporter asked, "do you feel that w

our plans to get on the Moon on a crash basis?" 

"It is not for me to make a decision of that sort. This is a 

must be made by the Congress, by the President, and bas

people of the United States." 
one usually played by an associate administrator. 

In my defense, Jim Webb wrote a memorandum (from wh

the following is an excerpt) to the President's special assista

Kenneth O'Donnell: 

The members of the Committee, almost without exception were 

in a mood to try to find someone responsible for losing the race to 

the Russians and also to let it be known publicly that they were not 

responsible and that they were demanding urgent action so that we 

would not be behind.... In this atmosphere, we have had to go forward to try to present the material necessary to justify the authorizing legislation for our program as submitted by the President. 

This meant we had to go back day after day almost as if the hearings were a Congressional investigation of the program itself. We 

have presented the Program Directors but with Dr. Seamans ... 

introducing witnesses, and stepping into the breach when the going 

got rough. . . . In this position, from a reading of the testimony, I 

believe Seamans has done an exceptionally fine job. . . . The Chairman and the Democrats have given him little or no support .... 

Negotiating with DOD 

One week after Gagarin's flight, the world learned of the disastro

Bay of Pigs invasion, a failed incursion into Cuba that had been und

way for almost three days before it came to light. The Kennedy admi

istration, which had begun with such hope and promise, had been h
In other words, Kennedy wanted a goal that could m

of the Russians. Like the coach of a football team on a 

he needed a win. Jim Webb and Defense Secretary Rober

were ordered to come in with a joint recommendation 

President (who spearheaded administration space policy

On April 28, Johnson sent a memo to Kennedy: 

Largely due to their concerted efforts and their earlier 

upon the development of large rocket engines, the Soviets 

of the United States in world prestige attained through 

technological accomplishments in space. The U.S. h

resources than the USSR, etc. The country should be re

recognize that other nations, regardless of their appreciat

idealistic values, will tend to align themselves with a coun

they believe will be the world leader. The U.S. can if it w

its objectives and employ its resources have a reasonable 

attaining world leadership in space. If we don't make a st

now, the time will soon be reached when the margin of co

space and other men's minds through space accomplish

have swung so far on the Russian side that we will not 

catch up. 

Even in those areas in which the Soviets already have 

bility to be first and are likely to improve upon such cap

United States should make aggressive efforts, as the tec

gains as well as the international rewards are essential ste

ing leadership. Manned exploration of the moon, for exam
minute, suborbital mission scheduled for Friday morning, May 5

was critical. We didn't have very much in the way of monitorin

equipment in headquarters, but I had arranged to get some real-tim

information beamed in from Goddard while the flight was in progres

Edward C. Welsh, executive secretary of the National Aeronautics an

Space Council, and I sat in the Dolly Madison House with our finger

crossed until we heard that Alan Shepard had been recovered. 

In the midst of the extraordinary public jubilation that followe

Shepard's splashdown, the President could see two things. One, NASA 

could manage a program, mirabile dictu. Two, sending an America

into space had tremendous impact in the world arena. The followin

morning, Jim Webb, the Assistant Administrator for Planning Ab

Hyatt, and I went over to Defense Secretary Robert McNamara

office at the Pentagon. Time had run out on Webb and McNamara

The administration wanted their joint recommendation without delay

For starters, Jim and I indicated what NASA felt should be done

Our stated emphasis was on a lunar landing. There was quite a dis

cussion of this objective. Some wondered aloud whether this was to

short-range a goal. McNamara asked whether the Soviets could pro

ceed immediately to a lunar landing, leaving us announcing a program 

and them carrying it out within a year or two. 

Jim, Abe, and I explained that we didn't think the Soviets had a luna

capability. For one thing, they still had to build a booster, as did we. W

felt that we had a fifty-fifty chance of beating them if we targeted the luna

landing. McNamara asked whether we shouldn't embark on a huma

planetary exploration program. Call me conservative, but I didn't thin
would be the first piloted NASA vehicle partly powered by 

a variety of technical reasons, we wanted liquids, not so

Saturn. So we agreed that DOD ought to go ahead with s

With John Rubel, a deputy director of defense for r

engineering, I was given the responsibility of putting a repo

form for the Vice President. DOD had already written the 

version. When I went over it, I was appalled. The report 

to much that NASA, and more particularly Jim Webb, w

accomplish. It argued that there were too many compa

defense business. With competition among many firms, th

argued, there was a lot of wasted time and motion in the p

process. That was absolutely contrary to Jim Webb's 

world. He felt that competition was essential, as long as t

tion was fair. Jim was in the throes of planning for Ala

triumphal day in Washington on Monday, but I finally r

Sunday morning. I said, "Jim, we've got a terrible proble

report. I think it would be much better to start all over ag

"We cannot do that," he said. "I've agreed with McNa

use the report. It's up to you to work with Rubel to revise 

consider it satisfactory." 

Sunday afternoon, I was at the Pentagon negotiating w

with John Rubel. I still was not satisfied with the docu

called Jim Webb to tell him so. He said that as soon as he h

ner with the Shepards and had made sure that they we

taken care of, he would come over to the Pentagon. 

about 9:30 p.m. 
the job was done. Three secretaries had stayed with us to help with 

drafting, and as we got up to leave, Jim Webb said to Rubel, "How 

these girls going to get home?" Rubel shrugged, so Jim went out a

asked the women. One of the three didn't have a ride, so Jim sa

"We'll wait until you're finished here, then drive you." 

At about 2:30 in the morning of May 8, we were somewhere in 

outskirts of Washington. As we approached the woman's house, 

heavens opened. As she started to get out, Jim said, "Relax. No poin

your getting soaking wet. Let's just sit here until the rain lets up." Wit

a few minutes, the rain stopped, the woman got out, and we fina

drove ourselves home. It was a great display of southern gallantry. 

I was back at the Pentagon by about 7:30a.m. to take a look at 

the retyped pages, making sure the changes we had wanted had be

made. Before nine o'clock the document was ready for Webb's a

McNamara's signatures. It was submitted to the Vice President th

morning. At noontime, I was at a State Department luncheon hos

by the Vice President. When he got up from his chair to leave, I s

that he had our envelope in his hand. 

Within days, the White House announced that President Kenne

would address a joint session of Congress on May 25, in what w

widely billed as a second State of the Union address. At NASA we kn

that spaceflight was one likely topic of this address, but what would t

President say about it? His speechwriters, led by Ted Sorenson, w

hard at work, and as soon as they had a draft of the space part of 

message, it came over to NASA for our review. It called for a hum

lunar landing in 1967! The price tag was $20 billion, not our estim
job, I wondered. The more we got into planning for the M

it became something that I accepted emotionally. I beli

going to give it a good go, and I felt fortunate that I happen

at a time when the country was going to embark on a uni

ing, one that conformed with my own experience and ba

Organizing for a Trip to the Moon 

Once we knew what Kennedy was going to say, we didn

speech. We got going. The question of organization becam

again. What kind of an office would be set up to manage A

would it be located-in Washington or where the actio

would be the lines of authority? How were the centers to b

office and with headquarters? 

We brought in my old boss from RCA, Art Malcarn

Mettler from Ramo-Woolridge and one or two others w

tise in such organizational matters. We met in Jim Web

room, where Jim and I presented our thinking about th

then got their feedback as well as their thoughts on 

people we would need at the senior levels and where 

such people. Before gearing up for the Moon, we had 18,

people at NASA; now we were looking at six or seven 

personnel. Were we going to increase the government 

that amount, or were we going to limit the growth with

ment and go outside to the private sector for most of t

the end, our overall policy was not to increase NASA's si
on Apollo going around with Apollo emblazoned on their forehead

He believed the people in the program ought to think of themselves a

NASA people first and Apollo people second. Consequently, he did no

want the centers reporting to the Apollo director. Instead, they bega

reporting to the general manager, namely me. 

When syndicated columnist Bill Hines got wind of this, he wrot

an article calling me "Moon Czar." I was appalled when I saw i

Hines at least was logical. Seamans, he said, was the Moon Cza

because in NASA's new organization the only place key decision

could be made was in Seamans's office. Surely, then, Seamans was th

person responsible for taking us to the Moon. There have been few 

other times in my life when I have thought, "This is so far beyon

what I ever thought I'd be doing that it's frightening." 

At this time, we were looking for someone outside of NASA t

take charge of day-to-day management of the Apollo program. Whe

I came into NASA, all of the space projects had come under Ab

Silverstein. Abe certainly wanted to run Apollo, but the chemistr

would have been very difficult between him and von Braun i

Huntsville, given their very different personal and professional back

grounds. NACA people like Abe were skeptical of von Braun an

viewed him as a big spender and self-promoter. 

Jim Webb and I started out thinking that we would try to ge

Levering Smith, who was running the Polaris program. We heard h

was dissatisfied with having been a Navy captain for many years

When we floated that one at the Defense Department, he was made an 

admiral in about ten days! 
One summer night at a lawn party at Jim and Patsy W

I asked Jim and Hugh if either of them knew Brain

Neither did. I explained that Brainerd had responsib

biggest project that RCA ever ran, the ballistic missile e

system (BMEWS), with tremendous technical and logis

ties. They were intrigued, and the following day Jim 

Malcarney, Brainerd's boss. When Jim asked Art's perm

with Brainerd, Art reluctantly agreed. 

About three days later Brainerd Holmes met Jim a

Metropolitan Club for drinks and dinner. Jim was at his 

ing best, pointing out the importance of the Apollo pr

nation and the world, and explaining the role that Braine

in this grand production. Brainerd tried to argue how imp

at RCA. Halfway through the dinner Brainerd turned to 

"This boss of yours is really something, isn't he?" Brain

think about Jim's offer, and about three days later he acc

With Brainerd Holmes coming in, there was no pl

for Abe Silverstein. One day, he came into my office an

not going to run Apollo, what I would like to do is go 

as its director." 

I told him, "Abe, you've got a handshake on it. If th

comes out, I'll be delighted." That is the way it came out

a perfect director for Lewis. 

Brainerd (and others) believed that he had to acqu

competence. Addressing this need, Mervin Kelly, former 

Bell Laboratories and special consultant to Jim Webb, tol
office to which they reported and the systems integrators at Bellcomm

This didn't bother Jim Webb. While recognizing the need for a line orga

nization in order to get things done, he felt that there should be a multi

tude of paths through which information flowed to those in charge. 

The interesting thing about organizations is that unlike scientifi

experiments, you never can repeat them to see how they would hav

come out if you had set them up differently. There is no perfect way to 

run programs such as those undertaken at NASA. It's not just how you 

draw the organization diagram, it's the people involved that are 

important as well. Still, the issue of organization is fundamental to 

success on large-scale projects. 

Long Hours, Hard Work 

Of course, while we were gearing up for the Moon there were curren

programs that needed managing. In the summer of 1961, the Mercury 

program still hadn't achieved orbital flight, and we had to make sure 

that it moved along. At the same time, we recognized that very little 

could be gained from Mercury, other than the experience of putting an 

astronaut in orbit for a day or so. There was no room in the Mercury 

capsule for anything that would permit the capsule to maneuver in 

space or to perform other activities relevant to a Moon mission. 

Mercury proved to be difficult to turn off, however. The astronauts all 

wanted it extended because they could see that Gemini, the two-man 

orbiter, was at least a couple of years away. 

This question came up specifically when I went down to Florida to 
of Cornell University being the most outspoken, who said tha

of the Moon was covered with dust. He thought the astronau

step out onto the lunar surface-and sink from sight! Oth

Moon must be "just like Arizona." Who knew? 

Needless to say, there was a lot of work to do. In a nutsh

light hours at NASA were a series of letters, phone calls, and m

had "project status reviews" two days every month-plus 

with the people who were putting the agenda together and 

wards to review the decisions and implications of the meet

month, on Saturdays, we had all-clay "program reviews." In t

a year, we would attempt to cover every aspect of every 

programs in considerable depth, for the purpose of b

administrator and all of our key people up to date. Th

Monday, almost the same presentations would be given for th

key people from DOD, the White House, and Congress. 

Then there were formal meetings with Mr. Webb and 

when we were considering procurements. Any time NASA p

lions of dollars worth of rocketry, there had to be a detail

doing so. We had to figure out who the potential bidders m

which ones were competent. We had to provide a schedule 

information so that the bidders would know how to bid. 

development models were required? How were tests g

conducted before designing the real articles? Would the proc

cost-plus or fixed-price? Or would it be an incentive contrac

questions had to be answered in the procurement plan. 

Then a source-evaluation team had to be selected
used such meetings as a way of educating NASA, as well as a way of lo

ing for hidden agendas. If anybody was trying to steer the project tow

a particular contractor for whatever reason, we would try to smoke it o

Afterwards, the three of us would go into Webb's office with our ch

procurement person, Ernest W. Brackett, and with Wernher (or his co

terpart from the interested center). "Okay," we would say, "we've he

what the source-evaluation people came up with. Now we'd like to h

from you, Wernher. What wasn't considered? Is there anything that w

left out that you feel is important?" When he and Ernie Brackett had h

their say, they would leave, and the three of us were left with the decisi

As the junior person, I always went first-"Okay, Seamans, how 

you look at this?" We would discuss it back, forth, and sideways, as Hu

and Jim advanced their views, too. Finally Webb would say, "Ok

whom do you think we ought to pick, Bob?" I would tell him and w

Then Hugh would have his turn. The next morning Webb's exec wo

have prepared a one-page decision paper, which said the administrator 

NASA had selected, say, North American Aviation for negotiation for 

second stage of the Saturn and gave reasons for the selection. All three 

us would sign it. The press release would be based on this document, 

the document itself was kept on file at NASA in case there was ever a c

gressional investigation. 

We had to put budgets together, then meet with the Bureau of 

Budget (BOB)3 to get them approved. (Federal budgets occasionally w

balanced in those days!) The officials at BOB were always trying to ha

Now the Office of Management and Budget (OMB). 3 
would be present. There might be TV, if the subject was 

I would run through what was novel in the budget, a 

might take two hours. Then there were questions. 

I got a fair amount of scar tissue from my years in gov

a fair amount of that came from the media. The intense 

in the space program was a shock to me. I liked worki

members of the press. I understood that I could get gored, 

best to have a good relationship with them. Most of the

interesting people and fun to chat with, but I had to be v

Bill Hines, the syndicated columnist who had calle

Czar," was particularly brutal on NASA. He would sta

questions at us in a nasty, incisive way. Why were we 

Why weren't we moving faster? Why weren't we more 

When I came home Thursday nights, Gene would not l

syndicated articles until after dinner. Or she served me 

which helped some. 

I remember asking John Finney of the New York Tim

you do a positive, upbeat kind of story on NASA once in 

His answer was: "Okay, I write a good article and 

will be on page 33. If I write something controversial, I 

of getting it on page 1. It's as simple as that. I'm paid b

get my articles on." 

Just before I left NASA, we launched the first Sa

Cape. I went down for the launching. It was a big deal. 

had a thousand members of the press there, includin

journalists. We got some terrible questions, and afterw
the organization, all of whom had ideas about how I should respond

Then when my draft response had been written by me or by my assis

tant, there might be others I would want to review the response befor

it went out. So it might be recirculated with an endorsement attached

and each would initial his approval. 

Of course, I got some personal letters, which I was first to see, lik

those from John Houbolt. John was the engineer who had briefed m

and others on lunar-orbit rendezvous (LOR) during my first visit to 

Langley. In May 1961, he sent me what he called "a hurried non

edited and limited note to pass on a few remarks about rendezvou

and large launch vehicles." He said he was for much greater effort on 

rendezvous and found the launch vehicle situation "deplorable." 

answered him courteously. In November 1961, he sent me a second 

letter, nine pages long, in which he described himself as "a voice in the 

wilderness" on the LOR question. I found it disconcerting. He may 

have been right about the mode question, but you can be right and stil

be courteous. My first reaction was, I'm sick of getting mail from this 

guy! I thought of picking up the phone and calling Tommy Thompson

Houbolt's superior at Langley, and telling Tommy to turn him off

Then I thought, "But he may be right. We've got to be sure we are considering this alternative. The organization may not be very keen about 

it, but it makes a lot of sense to me." So instead of doing what my 

emotions told me to do, I had the common sense to take the letter to 

Brainerd Holmes. "I've got another one of these zingers from John 

Houbolt," I told Brainerd. "I'd like to have you read it while I'm here." 

He read it and grimaced. Then he said, "Well, we really are looking at 
back. On November 7, 1962, Webb announced NASA

LOR and of Grumman Engineering as contractor for the 

ule. As Charles Murray and Catherine Bly Cox put it i

book, Apollo: The Race to the Moon, "Eighteen mont

nation had decided to go to the Moon, NASA had decide

Bringing the Work Home 

One Christmas week during the NASA years, everybody i

was in Beverly Farms except for Joe and myself. The two 

planning to fly north together on December 23, but when 

soured we got tickets on a noon train out of Union Sta

Before leaving Washington I had to go into the office. Jo

me and sat in my outer office for a couple of hours. The

going on. The phone was ringing, and people were rushin

When we got in the car to be driven to Union Station, Joe 

believe it, Dad. Is this the way it is every day?" 

"Well, it's not quite this bad," I answered. "When p

I'm going to be away for a few days, the office is always 

as people try to tie up loose ends and settle matters th

attention." Still, we did have a great team of people worki

hard all the time. 

Like so many things for my generation, hard work an

it went back to World War II. One year during the war, 

said he thought it would be a good thing if we took Christ

ThP.re were times when I would go to work in the mo
To me, thats a terrible way to operate. 

I preferred being in the house with the family. I had to bring stu

home every weekend, but at least by being home I could have mea

with Gene and the children. "How about this afternoon?," Ge

would ask. "I've got an awful lot to do, but why don't we take a wa

from 3:00 to 3:30?" 

Now that they were growing up a lot, the children fortunately we

not especially conscious of these pressures. Kathy was graduating fro

Dobbs and finding her way to Stanford University. Toby was finishing u

at Lenox, while Joe was boarding at Phillips Academy in Andover, stud

ing hard, learning photography, and greatly enjoying crew. His team, 

which he became captain, eventually went to the Henley Regatta, whe

they were beaten by a canvas in the final race. May, meanwhile, w

swept up with school, friends, riding, and playing the cello. Daniel we

to a school, the National Child Research Center, that experimented wi

new methods of teaching and equipment. Summers were spent at S

Meadow, a blessing for us all, and I got away from Washington as muc

as possible to be with Gene and our children there. In the winters, we ha

many guests in Washington and plenty of visiting family. 

The Politics of NASA 

When I arrived at NASA, a Convair was used to fly people to mee

ings. On the plane there was a steward, who had liquor available fo

purchase. The first time Jim Webb took the plane, he was offered 

drink. Almost the minute he got back to headquarters, he called m
later I reported, "We got the service going by bootstr

from the Langley cafeteria. It is government-subsidized 

for their food when they go there." 

"Take the liquor off the plane." 

I said, "You're going to have a lot of unhappy peop

"They'll be even less happy if Congress climbs on us 

as silly as that." 

The next time I saw him I said, "I've got an idea, Jim

you think if you and I both put up a hundred bucks a

plane. Then we'll make sure we charge enough for liq

fund is perpetual." 

"Okay," he said, "I'll do it." 

Not too long after that, the Space Task Group wa

Langley to Houston. With all the travel back and 

Convair chugging along at about 200 miles per hour 

ideal. Here we were in the space age-preparing to s

to the Moon-and we were flying around in an old c

see that we needed a jet airplane. This was a new is

Jim Webb. 

"We're not getting any fancy jets in this organiza

"As soon as you do that every congressman who is i

program will want to borrow the jet. No jets!" 

So it was back to the drawing board. I finally came 

gestion that we get a Gulfstream I, a propeller plane w

It was slow enough compared to Air Force jets that no 

his right mind was going to ask for it when he had acce
Too intimate a relationship with the Congress can tie his hands. On 

the other hand, anything he does has to be authorized by the Congress. 

Through Jim I got to know Senator Robert Kerr, who had taken 

over the Senate authorization committee for space from Lyndon 

Johnson. When the decision was made that the Space Task Group be 

transferred to Houston, in Congressman Albert Thomas's backyard, 

Kerr had some memorable advice for Jim Webb. "Okay," I recall him 

saying, "you've made the decision. [Congressman] Albert [Thomas of 

Houston, Texas] is going to want to have everything he can possibly 

get. He's going to want to see that center grow and grow. But be sure 

you don't give it to him all at once. Make sure that every time you add 

something in Houston, you exact a price for what you need somewhere else, for example, JPL." (Thomas was dead set against muchneeded funding for the Jet Propulsion Laboratory.) This was a new 

experience for me, and I found it absolutely fascinating. 

In the summer of 1961, Kerr indicated to Jim that when the authorization bill came to a vote, he would appreciate it if I could be there with 

him on the floor of the Senate. Jim had made a point of calling NASA 

bipartisan and loved pointing out that I was Republican. In this case, it 

was thought that my presence on the floor would be more beneficial than 

having Jim there. Senator Kerr had picked the afternoon of baseball's AllStar Game for the vote, so there wouldn't be many people there to contest the bill. I sat at a desk beside him. (At one point, I lifted the cover of 

the desk and saw Harry Truman's name carved in it.) There were very 

few people on the floor when Senator Kerr proposed that the bill be 

passed. All of a sudden, Senator Proxmire came tearing in with a great 
Eventually, it was time for a vote on the amendment

rang and everybody came rushing in. A few of them w

Proxmire, but most of them came to Kerr. Some asked, "W

this amendment, aren't we, Bob?," and things like that. Ke

"Yes, absolutely." Some of them asked a few questions, 

twice Kerr said, "Bob Seamans can answer that for you

vote was taken, Proxmire had no more than a dozen supp

Brainerd Holmes Moves on 

By the summer of 1962, Jim and I knew we had a pr

Brainerd Holmes. No question, Brainerd was a very exc

for the media. He had a way of expressing himself that ma

was determined to move forward as fast and aggressively 

on the lunar flight, but he had difficulty visualizing th

NASA's program, one of Jim Webb's pet objectives. On 

occasion, Brainerd told me, "I don't understand what the 

ing about a lot of the time on these general things, and I c

less. That's not my job." 

Brainerd made his attitude pretty clear throughout th

expected full support for Apollo from everybody else, b

about to help on matters other than Apollo. His peopl

They thought, "It's wonderful to have a gung-ho leade

people began adopting his attitude. At an organizationa

Langley, some of Brainerd's people raised disturbing que

why we weren't giving Brainerd more authority. 
tal. He let it be known that either he or Jim would probably have to leav

the agency over this and that the one to leave would not necessarily 

Brainerd! When the President read of this in one of the big nation

weeklies, he immediately called a meeting with Jim and Brainerd. Th

meeting was held at the White House on November 21, 1962. 

Jim asked me to present his view (and mine) at the meeting. Th

President turned to Jim and asked how long the presentation wou

take. Jim answered, "Mr. President, Dr. Seamans will take abo

thirty minutes." 

"I have fifteen," the President retorted. Kennedy did not li

formal briefings! 

I started in, realizing I had to proceed a little faster than planned or el

leave something out. After a couple of minutes the phone rang and th

President said, "Excuse me a minute." He turned around in his chair an

spoke into the phone, "Yes, Mr. Speaker.... No, Mr. Speaker.... No, M

Speaker...." When the conversation was finished, Kennedy turned ba

to me and said, "Excuse me, go on." When I had completed my present

tion, the President said, "Now I understand that Mr. Holmes wants 

supplemental in order to speed up the program and perhaps go to t

Moon before 1967. Is that true?" 

I said, "Well, I think we might like to have additional funds, bu

would very much doubt that we can go to the Moon in 1966. As a ma

ter of fact, we would really need those dollars to hold the 1967 date

The President asked Jim why we couldn't reprogram funds fro

other projects, thereby providing the $400 million for Apollo. Wh

Jim demurred, the President said he was not certain that he and Ji
supplemental never came up again, leaving us to be

President recognized that there was more to our space 

landing an astronaut on the Moon. 

Things went grinding along with relationships g

Among other provocations, Brainerd took the NASA co

for handling funds and put it through a conversion mat

office, so it was difficult to track funds when they went 

centers and out to the contractors. He also called for th

Gilruth as director of the Manned Spacecraft Center

Hugh, and I vehemently opposed. 

Following the final Mercury flight in mid-May 19

luncheon in the big state dining room on the eighth 

Department of State building. Jim Webb wanted to use t

thank the many groups that had helped us with Mer

Force, the Navy, the weather forecasters, the contracto

This was the theme of the luncheon, and I thought Jim 

accolades most effectively. I went home that afternoon

call from Brainerd Holmes. He was very upset, to put it 

had received no recognition. 

On June 12, 1963, Brainerd resigned. The press mad

his departure. On July 13, the New York Times ran the he

Program in Crisis" over a story about Brainerd's resigna

ceived cooling of public interest in Apollo. I think the p

much of the whole thing. When I was in Italy a year 

asked me how the battle was going between Jim and Bra
Hold your breath! She would try anything. 

Kathy's high spirits were matched by high intelligence. In her senior 

class at the Masters School in Dobbs Ferry, New York, often called Dobbs

four girls applied to Stanford. Only Kathy got in. Now all of a sudden our 

high-spirited, very smart daughter was 3,000 miles away at Stanford. 

Great! Gene and I went out to visit in the spring of her freshman year. 

When we offered to take her out to dinner, she asked if we minded including Lou Padula. Lou had just received his master's degree and was teaching at San jose State. He also had charge of one of the fraternity houses at 

Stanford. I asked, "Didn't he used to work at RCA?" He did. Although 

we did not want to share our daughter with anyone, we agreed to take 

Lou along. He was clearly the man of the moment. 

The following January we got a call from Kathy on a Sunday 

night. She didn't call often, but we loved hearing from her when -she 

did. "Hey, guess what?," she said. 

"What?" 

"I'm engaged!" 

"Well, that's wonderful, Kath. Who is it?" It was Lou. 

The following Monday morning, I was scheduled to begin three 

days at Cal tech. I mentioned this to Kathy and said, "So Wednesday 

afternoon on the way home, why don't I swing around and have a chat 

with Lou?" There was silence at the other end. She finally agreed to 

the meeting. 

Tuesday, while at Caltech, I got a call from Gene. She was very 

upset. "I've just heard from Kathy," Gene said, "and she and Lou got 

married in Reno yesterday." 
our son-in-law. 

After two days together, the four of us left things in 

unsettled state. Gene and I came home to tell the rest o

about it. Two or three weeks later we got a call from Kat

she wanted to come home and visit with us. She felt they 

mistake, and they now wanted some kind of family serv

two families getting together. She wondered if there weren

of service that would bless the marriage. We said we didn

if so, it would be great by us. 

We went to Canon Martin of the Washington Cathedr

also Joe's headmaster at St. Albans. He told us we could 

service-one that was so close to a bona fide wedding s

witnesses might not even know the difference. He said he 

to perform it for us, but wouldn't do so until he had me

Lou. "If I don't think it's a good marriage, I won't do it," 

met with Kathy on a Saturday morning, and they spent 

hours together. People kept coming in to see Canon Mar

was meeting with Kathy, and he turned them away. He d

of time and thought to her situation. When they were finis

he would be happy to perform the service. 

It became a great family event. The Howard Johnson's 

the as-yet-unbuilt, soon-to-be-notorious Watergate compl

just been built. We took over the top two floors. A seven

our party set off a fire alarm. Fire engines came roaring. 

a time. We had a reception at our house on Dumbarton R

attended by Jim Webb and a few special friends. The whol
languages and encouraged her to develop her proven aptitude f

math. When she graduated in 1968, she was one of only twenty-thr

women in her class and one of a handful in sciences; and she had be

elected to Tau Beta Phi. Our first grandchild, then abo

eighteen months old, sat in my lap at her graduation and shoute

"There's mamma!," as she paraded past us in cap and gown. 

From what some considered a questionable beginning, Kathy an

Lou have made a great success of their life together-and have help

many students along the way. From 1978 to 1981, Lou and I we

deans of neighboring engineering schools-he at Boston Universi

and I at MIT. We attended a number of national deans' meetin

together with our wives. I came to admire his foresight and cour

geous style. While living in Brookline during this period, Kathy refi

ished her house in such a way that six international students cou

board with them. Each student was responsible for procuring a

preparing one dinner each week. The students ate the meal at t

kitchen table with Kathy, Lou, and their two sons, and many becam

lasting family friends. 

George Mueller Moves in 

By early July 1963, NASA still had not found a replacement f

Brainerd Holmes. I was looking forward to my vacation. Cal

Loring, our neighbor Sam Batchelder, and I had entered Serene, whi

we jointly owned, in the Halifax Race. After the race we planned 

sail back as far as the Maine coast. The week before I l
beach. About two minutes after we broke out of the fo

hailed from another boat, "Seamans! Are you aboard th

"Yes," I shouted back. 

"Mr. Webb wants to talk to you on the telephone!" 

We had a low-powered radiotelephone on Serene, bu

good-sized motorsailer in the harbor that had some dece

I rowed over there and placed a call to Jim. He said, "W

George Mueller in. Both Hugh and I are greatly impress

We feel sure he can do the job, but we want to check onc

you before going ahead." 

I knew George as an effective vice president at Thom

Woolridge (TRW), where he had a major role in their satell

developments. "You've got my proxy on that one," I sai

would be great if he could join us." On July 23 it was ann

Mueller would succeed Holmes, effective September 1. 

In the two years prior to George's appointment, NAS

highly decentralized, with all of the centers and prog

reporting to me as the associate administrator. Many con

this setup had. cropped up. Program people said that the

didn't really have control over their destinies, because 

directly control what went on in any center. They had 

with a center director to get things done, in competition 

program offices. For their part, the center directors wer

that they didn't have anybody in headquarters who was 

cerned about their centers as resources. 

It was quite true that my schedule didn't permit me 
pgppgg

Charles ("Chuck") Mathews to run Gemini, William Schneider 

wrap up the Mercury program, and Edward Z. ("EZ") Gray to ta

charge of advanced planning. The Apollo and Gemini programs h

their own program, systems, test, and quality-assurance groups. The

groups had counterparts in the three spaceflight centers. 

George Mueller was a determined organizer. He held freque

meetings, maybe monthly, with what he called his board of executiv

which included Wernher von Braun from Marshall, Bob Gilruth fro

Houston, and Kurt Debus from Cape Canaveral. Then a Sam Phill

or a Chuck Matthews would come in and present his progra

before this group. 

George was also the kind of person who worked seven days 

week and thought nothing of taking the red-eye overnight. So ma

charts were presented at his meetings-some showing dollars, so

showing schedules, some showing drawings of new designs-that 

meetings eventually were referred to as "pasteurized" (one chart af

another going past your eyes). He was tireless. There was no su

thing as Saturday or Sunday to him, and he had his people in all we

end long. There were complaints that George was pushing too har

There was another potential drawback to this new organizatio

setup: the center directors had a lower profile in this reorganizati

Because they no longer reported to me, they didn't have the same k

of access to the top of the organization as they had had. I think J

Hugh, and I were sensitive to this and tried to find proper avenues 

keeping in touch with them. 
standing, including Vice President Johnson. He sat dow

faced the cameras, and discussed the space program fo

minutes in a fluent, knowledgeable way, without refe

looked like prepared remarks rolled up in his hand. H

signing the bill. He had about three dozen pens there, and 

other he managed to use them all in signing, dating, an

his signature. He chuckled away as he did so. Then he s

a fistful of pens in his left hand and started handing t

came to me and said, "Here is one for you." 

I said, "Thank you very much, Mr. President. I will gi

Webb, who is down at the Cape today." 

He turned away and gave pens to others, including 

A minute or so later, he was leaving the room when he tu

(he was very lithe in the way he carried himself around 

approached me again, saying, "Well, here's one for you, 

In September 1962, President Kennedy toured NASA's 

For this trip, I flew in the President's plane with Secretar

Robert McNamara, press secretary Pierre Salinger, and oth

President took another plane, since the President and V

never fly together. Jim Webb and others flew with Johnson

We stopped first at Huntsville, then went down to the 

we flew across to Houston. Jim Webb had asked me;' since 

stop in New Orleans, to explain to the President what w

at the Michaud Assembly Facility in Louisiana, and I 

President to discuss this on the flight from the Cape to H

said we could talk as soon as we were airborne. 
rockets. ("Do they really need the Titan III?") At the end of th

discussion, he looked at me and said, "How long have you been wit

the government?" I told him. "What did you do before then?" I tol

him that too. Finally I couldn't resist saying that, as a matter of fact, 

was a member of his Harvard class. "Gee," he said, "I thought yo

looked familiar!" For the rest of the trip, whenever we happened to b

standing side by side, he would ask informally, "Let's see now, wha

house were you in?" and "Did you play JV football?" and "Did yo

know so and so?" He kept at this the whole trip. 

In Houston, the President visited the Manned Spacecraft Cente

then in temporary quarters, and made a major address at Rice Stadiu

on the hottest day I can remember. All except the President drove t

the stadium in air-conditioned vehicles. Kennedy insisted on sitting 

an open car as we drove past tall buildings close to the road. When w

arrived at the stadium, we found that the large crowd was in th

shade, but that the presidential party was to be seated out on the gri

iron on a temporary stand facing the sun. As I sat there and sweltere

I tried with my imagination to nudge the very few fleecy little clou

over the face of the sun for a moment's relief. Yet the President sto

up-completely composed, looking very trim, and not showing t

heat at all-and delivered a thirty-minute speech with great enthu

asm. Then he walked out of the stadium, got back into the open c

and drove back down the same street. It was a fantastic display. 

We flew back to Washington via St. Louis, where he stopped at t

McDonnell plant. At each of the centers, the President obviou

enjoyed the opportunity of shaking many more hands than the Sec
and several of us sketched a map on the blackboard indicatin

President might land, what he might see up close, and what 

over. We felt that he couldn't cover it all without the use of 

because a couple of bridges connecting the Cape with M

were not then in use. I called General Clifton back, and the

series of phone calls and discussions of other opportuni

President while at the Cape, among them a review of Polari

The next morning, November 16, 1963, the Presiden

Palm Beach to the Cape, where he was greeted by Maj

Leighton I. "Lee" Davis and Dr. Debus, the respective hea

tary and NASA operations at the Cape, as well as by Jim 

myself. He was accompanied by Senator George A. S

Florida, a good friend of his. The President said, with a sm

was very appreciative that we had all found the time to be t

he stepped into an open car with Jim and General Davis. T

by the various complexes rather slowly. We joined them 

blockhouse at Complex 37, from which the Saturn was 

launched. There was about a fifteen-minute briefing ther

kinds of models. The President seemed quite interested in w

Mueller had to say. When the briefing was over, he stood up 

over to the models. He expressed amazement at the fact tha

els were all to the same scale, because the Mercury launch v

completely dwarfed by the Saturn V. This may have been th

he fully realized the dimensions of future NASA projects. 

We then went out to the pad where the Saturn SA-5 

Saturn I) was sitting. We stood out in the open with Dr. v
was to sit with him as we flew over the new construction area 

Merritt Island and to point out the future location of such things as 

Vehicle Assembly Building and the launch pad (Complex 3

Afterwards we flew about fifty miles offshore to watch a live test o

Polaris missile. Admiral I. J. Gallatin, who was in charge of the Pola

program, described to the President what he was about to see, wh

led to a discussion of the whole concept of nuclear submarine

classified matter about which the President was clearly interested a

knowledgeable. We landed on the deck of a waiting ship. T

President hopped out vigorously. In honor of his visit, he was p

sented with a Navy jacket, which, as a naval hero of World War II

happily put on. He was obviously enjoying himself. 

Then, as planned, President Kennedy gave the order to f

There was a countdown...then a hold! I could feel the tension in 

Navy personnel there, and I also noticed a couple of Air Force 

Army men winking at each other. The President stood watching w

binoculars. Fortunately, another Polaris missile was on hand, and 

launch was shifted to the backup. When the missile breached 

water, we could see that it had "Beat Army!" painted on its side. 

got back in the helicopter, and the President wore his Navy jacke

the rest of the trip. 

On the way back, he brought up the matter of the Saturn S

"Now, I'm not sure I have the facts straight on this," he said. "W

you tell me about it again?" 

I explained (among other things) that the usable payload was 19

pounds, but that we actually would have 38,000 pounds in orbit. 
have down here and tell the reporters there about the pa

"Yes, sir," I answered. "I'll do that." 

Six days later, on Friday, November 22, I was holding 

my office, when I got a call from Nina Scrivener, Jim Web

She said, "Something dreadful has happened in Dallas. 

come on up to Jim's office." 

"You mean the President's been hurt?" 

She said, "It may be worse than that." 

I closed down the meeting very quickly, then called G

the news," I said. "I don't think we're going to be havin

gathering tonight." 

Jim Webb had three televisions in his office, so that h

all three networks going at once and flip on the sound 

wanted to hear. We sat there watching all three netw

Walter Cronkite came on and said the President had 

arrived at the office a little later, to distribute the food we 

to serve at dinner. 

The following day, we had scheduled our regular m

gram review. I argued strenuously that we ought to go ah

meeting, that President Kennedy had been very interest

programs, and that he would have wanted us to press 

result, we were probably the only federal government 

doing business that day. When the review was over, J

Hugh and said, "I'm going over to the White House. Do 

want to come along?" 

The three of us and our spouses stood in line in the 
outside Arlington National Cemetery. After the committal, fifty fighte

planes, representing the fifty states, flew over our heads in formation

They were followed by Air Force One, the President's own. The sam

plane that had flown President Kennedy to Cape Canaveral nine day

before dipped its wing as it flew over his final resting place. 

President Kennedy's assassination had a profound impact on th

peoples of the world, and particularly on those working closely wit

him in the government. Those responsible for launching the Satur

SA-5, which he had observed and commented on during his inspectio

in November, wanted some way to express their gratitude for his inte

est and their grief for his loss. Rumors were rampant that speci

markings would be placed on the Saturn, which led to the implemen

tation of special security provisions. In the aftermath of the launching

while still in the blockhouse, we all felt such an emotional upswellin

that there was a near-unanimous request for a call to Mrs. Kennedy. 

felt, perhaps wrongly, that such a call would be upsetting for her, an

I suggested instead that I carry this thought back to her. 

When I returned to Washington, I contacted Walter Schier, NASA

general counsel and a friend of the Kennedys. He didn't think Mr

Kennedy would be interested in a visit, so imagine his surprise when h

and I were invited for tea the following afternoon! Mrs. Kennedy wa

very gracious; sat patiently as I explained the circumstances of ou

being there; brought in her children (both recovering from chicke

pox); and sent us away exhilarated by our encounter. 

My letter to her of February 7, 1964, which follows below, is sel

explanatory, but her response of March 14 was unexpected an
Dear Mrs. Kennedy: 

Thank you for the pleasant visit you afforded us Mon

It meant a great deal to me to be able to tell you abo

Saturn launch from the John F. Kennedy Space Center. 

The accompanying detailed engineering model of the 

launched on January 29th is presented to you with appre

all of us. It was utilized by Dr. Wernher von Braun and th

George C. Marshall Space Flight Center which has resp

the Saturn development. 

Having seen young John's interest in space toys, and h

escaped from your home with the other model that I brou

sending some fairly sturdy launch vehicle models for his e

Sincerely, 

Robert C. Seamans, Jr. 


Assoc. Administrator 

Your thoughtfulness has touched me so much-that you would 

wish to come-and tell me about the Saturn booster-and think of 

calling me from the blockhouse when it was going off. All I care 

about is that people still remember what Jack did-and you were 

always thinking of him. 

Then when you came and saw John-it was so kind of you to 

see how a little boy who had grown up so close to a father who 

always had exciting new plane and rocket models in his office to 

show him-who took him on his most cherished plane and helicopter rides-would still care so much about all those things-and 

feel so cut off now that they are no longer a part of his life. 

Those "heavy duty" models that you sent him are his joytaken apart and put together constantly-! do thank you more 

than I can say, for your thoughtfulness to him and to meSincerely, 

Jacqueline Kennedy 

Family Times 

The great tragedy of Kennedy's assassination notwithstanding, 

Washington continued to be pretty exciting, not just for me but for our 

entire family. Just after the first successful Gemini flight in March 1965, 

I got a call from Jim Webb's exec saying that I, together with the two 

astronauts, Gus Grissom and John Young, was to receive the NASA 

Distinguished Service Medal at the White House. He wanted to know 

whom I wanted to invite for the ceremony. I said, "Well, obviously I'd 
pp

evening along with Joe and Toby, who returned with Bo

and smiling from Cape Canaveral. ... 

The next morning we all drove in our best to NASA 

ters. Joe wore Congressman Moorehead's shirt, To

Bobby's shoes and socks, and shaved with his G

Seamans' razor. He was a bit scruffy. From NASA head

went whizzing by motorcade behind a police escort thr

red lights to the front door of the White House. The ch

such an exciting ride. Arriving a little early at the White 

were told by an aide to make ourselves at home. This me

could wander at will through the dining room, the G

Blue Room, Red Room, and so on, all so beautifully ref

Mrs. Kennedy and filled with glorious bouquets of flow

The citation I received that day was a true Webbia

could really turn on the accolades in a most gracious wa

to me because I was the general manager of an org

involved "50,000 government workers and 400,000 con

ees," but it went on and on about me, the general man

grandiose way that only Mother and a few others would 

The President and Mrs. Johnson had pictures taken 

nauts. Out of the blue, Jim said very loudly, "Don't forget 

The President said, "Fine," and all of a sudden in 

people-and before national television cameras-my w

trooped up beside the President and First Lady, who im

us by their warmth. A few days later, my parents sent us 
nauts, Wagner invited Grissom, Young, and their spouses for a tickertape parade. Webb said, "Fine, we'll send them up, but Bob Seamans 

is going to come along, too." Jim Webb felt that the astronauts were 

getting too much credit for the space program. NASA wasn't just a lot 

of skilled hot rods up there in space, he said. It was also a huge number of technical, scientific people. He felt the country ought to be recognizing their contributions as much as it did the astronauts'. 

"That's fine," Wagner answered. "I'm glad to have Bob Seamans 

come along." 

But Webb went on. "He's not just coming along. He's going to get 

the same Medal of Freedom and the same key to the city that the 

astronauts do." 

Wagner balked at that. Since Charles Lindbergh had received it, 

the Medal of Freedom hadn't been given to anyone except Alan 

Shepard and John Glenn. Now it was being given to two Gemini 

astronauts-and Bob Seamans?! He finally relented, however. 

Vice President Humphrey was our escort, providing enthusiasm 

and wit, and Gene was able to accompany me. We found ourselves 

whisked everywhere by motorcycle escorts and the Secret Service. As 

we drove down FDR Drive, fireboats on the East River were arching 

huge streams of water while tooting their horns. Later, during the 

ticker-tape parade, looking up at the skyscrapers with showers of 

paper blowing down on us was a dizzying experience. Next, we stood 

in a receiving line at the Waldorf and shook hands with at least 2,000 

VIPs. In the course of the day, we met some very interesting people

including Mayor Wagner, U.N. Secretary General U Thant, U.S
said it was very important that I go with him because I 

with the facts in the case. 

I said, "I think I told you, Jim, that's the day w

for Europe." 

He didn't take that very well. "Well," he said, "your f

to Europe, and you can join them a couple of days later

won't be any big problem." 

That night I discussed it with Gene. "Something's 

said. "It's really important. A decision has to be made 

ranch, and Jim wants me involved." 

Gene said, "If you think I'm going to take Daniel, Ma

Kathy, and all their ski equipment alone into London fo

maybe we ought to just give up the trip." 

"Now, wait a minute," I said. "At worst, we can fl

Switzerland and give up London." Gene didn't like that a

put a tremendous amount of effort into finding accommo

activities in London. 

The next morning I went back to Jim and said, "I'

Gene, and here's the way it is. Either I go with her and t

we're giving up the trip entirely." 

"Okay," he relented, "I guess I can handle it alone." It 

to me, though, that he was very unhappy about having to 

Gene and I had planned to fly to Boston from Wash

Kathy, May, and Dan; meet Toby and Joe, who were goi

in the Boston area; and fly over on BOAC from Boston. 

to cross the Atlantic aboard a tanker and meet us in Eu
with their luggage, and they handed me five dollars, which I refuse

When we finally arrived in London, we discovered that London cab

have no luggage racks (for skis). We had to hire one cab just to car

our equipment, with the skis barely loaded inside on a diagona

Somehow Toby and I got in with them. The children were quite hy

terical until they realized that everyone in England drove on the left

In Rome, May had another adventure awaiting her. A year or tw

before, Jim Webb had received a call from Father Hesburgh, head 

Notre Dame University and a personal friend. Hesburgh had said Pop

Paul VI was very interested in the American space program and wou

appreciate receiving special articles and reports. Before leaving f

Europe, I got in touch with Father Hesburgh and explained that n

only would we be delighted to give him any material he wanted b

also at some suitable time, if His Holiness would like it, we would b

glad to brief him on what we were doing. 

Father Hesburgh thought that was a great idea. It turned out h

was going to be in Rome when we were. When we arrived in Rom

we had a message waiting from him. "No news yet," it read. "Haven

been able to arrange anything so far." The following morning w

talked on the phone. "You've got to realize," he explained, "that H

Holiness has a lot of constituents, and it's not easy to make arrang

ments. Things aren't always as organized over here as they are 

home, but I'm working on it." 

Saturday morning he said, "We have an appointment for fiv

o'clock." I asked whether I might bring along Gil Ousley, our NAS

representative in Europe. Father Hesburgh said that would be fine
finally arrived in a courtyard and took an elevato

Christopher Medal mounted on the wall up to the Pope'

where we were met by one of his assistants. Gene and Ma

to sit in the Pope's private chapel, where May was especi

by the reliquaries. Gil and I were taken to a small meeting 

Gil set up a projector. We had a filmstrip of photos 

Ranger as it approached the Moon. I had also brought 

album filled with lunar pictures-all carefully laid ou

mented-for the Pope to keep. 

At about two minutes before five, I was standing by the 

which the Pope was going to come. I asked Father Hesbur

when the Pope entered. He said, "First I'll kneel down and 

Then I'll stand up and introduce you. Just shake hands wi

"Okay. At the end, how will I know when to stop?" 

"You'll know." 

In came Pope Paul VI-a surprisingly little person, n

five feet, six inches tall. When he sat in his gilt throne, h

touch the floor. They rested on a footstool. I said what 

opportunity it was to have this chance to talk about the s

with him. I presented him the book, along with a letter fr

Johnson, then said I thought he might like to see a few pict

Ranger mission. I showed them and made a few more re

NASA. The whole meeting couldn't have taken more tha

utes. Then the Pope stood up, came towards me, shook m

thanked me (speaking all the time through an interpre

sented me with medallions for Jim Webb and myself. "
room from behind a tapestry, almost out of breath. She then compose

herself and did a very nice curtsey-taught to her, no doubt, by th

National Cathedral School for Girls. Gene followed and shook th

Pope's hand, and His Holiness presented rosaries to her and to May

Then Pope Paul very kindly said good-bye and left with Fathe

Hesburgh for another meeting, leaving Gil and the three Seamanses i

the hands of the priest with the big hat. 

In the down elevator, we were elated. It had been an amazing expe

rience. Riding with us in the elevator was a wealthy Italian couple

dressed to the nines and steaming mad. They started gesticulating an

almost yelling at our guide. He responded in a mild sort of way. W

didn't know exactly what was going on. Finally in the car Gil aske

him, "What was that all about?" 

All he would say is, "Some people think they know more than th

Pope." Apparently, the Italian couple had expected a private audienc

and didn't get it. By our demeanor, they could tell we had, and the

obviously didn't like being shoved aside by Americans who hadn

even dressed for the occasion! 

More Travel Overseas 

Two years later, Gene and I left the country with a complicated itine

ary. We first went to Paris so that I could meet with a NATO grou

known as AGARD (Advisory Group for Aerospace Research an

Development). Each country sent three national delegates, and I w

one of the three Americans. 
Mombasa is a fascinating seaport, and we had very ni

dations there in an ancient house-hotel overlooking the cit

11, we celebrated Gene's forty-fifth birthday with a j

hosted by the professor. The next day we took an ama

drive in an oversized jeep with a Turkish driver. We drove 

through places where the brush was strewn everywhere fr

having run amok. We finally reached the project base cam

called Campo Basa just north of a little town called Melin

had grass huts, and there were lots of cute monkeys swin

trees. We boarded rubber boats with outboard motors an

to the two platforms. To get us aboard, a crane was lowe

entire boat from the water. Here at the equator, seated b

vas canopy on a very warm day, we had one of the best 

we've ever had. A Kenyan steward provided the toast, w

Americans and thanking them for their contributions. H

man, who may have been primed with a bit of brandy. H

remarks and ended with a startling yell, brandishing a m

The next day it was back to Nairobi for a flight to 

There we were hosted by the Galen Stones, a couple fro

area whom we knew in Washington. He was the numbe

at the American embassy. In fact, he was the one Svetlana 

herself to when she had defected. So it was fun for Ge

hear firsthand how it had happened. We returned home 

where Prime Minister Holt and I dedicated an Apollo tra

at Honeysuckle Creek. 
of rank, beginning with the secretary of state. I was just ahead 

General William F. ("Bozo") McKee, head of the FAA. When I reache

the President, I said, "Of course, we'll do everything we can to mak

the reductions you've asked for, but I'm sure you wouldn't want t

jeopardize the lives of the astronauts in so doing." 

The President didn't like that at all. Bozo caught up to me aft

both of us had left the White House and said, "You ought to kno

that the President said to me, 'Will you take that young guy Seaman

out behind the barn and give him the facts of life?"' 

President Johnson usually knew what he wanted and made n

bones about asking for it. One Friday morning in August 1965, I wa

in the shower when Gene came running. "Bobby, come quick! Th

President's on the phone." 

"Good morning, Bob," Johnson said, just as sweet as could be. "I ju

wondered if you'd care to come over to see me on my birthday today." 

"Yes, sir. Happy birthday, sir." Jim Webb was out of town, and 

was clear to me that I was invited in his place, as representative of th

Office of the Administrator. 

When I arrived at the White House, I was told the President wa

busy; so I went back to my office and returned later. My second tim

at the White House, I waited and waited and finally got in to see him

He pretended not to notice me, then suddenly turned and said

"Seamans, there you are." His tone had clearly changed since th

morning phone call. "Sit down! Seamans, you guys over there a

NASA, you're pretty good with your science and you're pretty goo

up there on the Hill, but as far as I'm concerned, Seamans, you're 
this Sunday down at my ranch in time to go to church w

me." "Dean" was Dean Rusk, Johnson's secretary of sta

I said, "Mr. President, Jim Webb has been working ve

and has been very tired. He's hiking with his family in th

of North Carolina." 

The President retorted, "Jim Webb is the best godda

trator we have in this government. You call me in one hou

he's going to be there." 

I went speeding out of the White House, got to my of

tunately reached Jim in Asheville, North Carolina. 

Jim's response was: "You tell the President of course 

But Bob, since you obviously have the flavor of this thi

would be awfully nice if you could be there too. You ask 

if you can come." 

I called the White House and got through to Johnson 

"Mr. Webb would be very happy to be with you," I said. 

if I might come along, too." 

"Why, Bob, of course, come along! Bring your 

your family!" 

I said~ "That won't be necessary, sir. If you need to r

me, we will be at the Manned Spacecraft Center in Hous

"Oh, Bob, don't do that. You and Jim come spend th

me at the ranch." 

I said, "I'll check with Mr. Webb, and we'll advise yo

I called Jim Webb back to tell him the President did 

come and also wanted us to stay with him at his ranch
Johnson's public affairs officer. 

"Okay," the President said, "I've got the press release about th

astronauts' goodwill tour here, but I want to get your comments on i

Jim. We'll let Bill read it." 

Moyers started in, "After the most successful space flight of all time

and Jim cut right in. 

"It wasn't that successful, Mr. President," he said. "We had troub

with the fuel cell." 

"All right, Jim," Johnson said. "After the least successful space fligh

of all time-" While Jim bristled, the President gave me a big wink. 

When the release had been read, Jim put up an argument, though no

too strenuously. 

"Okay, Jim," the President said. "If you want to read it over careful

and comment, you can look over Bill's shoulder, and if he thinks it

appropriate he will make the change." Johnson wasn't about to let Ji

Webb hold onto the piece of paper! 

"No, sir," Jim said, "it's fine as written." 

The following morning, the astronauts landed at about nine o'clock

Johnson had a phone hookup to the ship that retrieved them and spoke wit

them, while the press gathered around him. He told them that they wer

going on a goodwill mission for the country. They, of course, said, "Yes, sir

We went back inside the house, where all the venetian blinds wer

closed so that the press couldn't snoop. Johnson was a very secretive pe

son, and he didn't want anyone to know that with him in the house, i

addition to Dean Rusk, were Larry O'Brien, the postmaster genera

designate, and Arthur Goldberg, the Supreme Court justice, who
where he wanted to show us the house where he and 

lived when they were first married. He stopped in front 

and flagged down the First Lady's car. 

"We're going to be late for church!," she protested. 

"Goddamn it, Bird, get out of the car and go through t

we all got out of our respective cars, tore through the hous

in the car again. When we reached the very simple chur

four or five Greyhound buses for the press outside with 

throbbing. I helped Mrs. Johnson out of the car, then st

the President approached. I naturally thought that he wou

his wife into the church. Instead, Johnson said to me, "

in." So I marched up the church steps with the First Lady

President and secretary of state. Lady Bird introduced me 

ter, who was waiting for us on the doorstep. Then we sta

main aisle of the church, which was packed except for the 

the right. I figured that if I followed her into the pew, I wo

between her and her husband, so I volunteered to go 

other side. The pew quickly became very crowded with 

the First Lady, both of their daughters, the secretary of sta

and so on. I whispered to Mrs. Johnson that I would slip 

the church. The President heard me. He turned to the peo

behind us and said in a very loud voice, "Will some of y

please move so Dr. Seamans can have a seat?" 

As we were driving back to the ranch, Mrs. Johnson 

going to be another press conference, isn't there, when w

the ranch?" Nobody answered. Everybody knew, but one 
Well, what time is it going to be?

 she asked. 

I knew what time it was scheduled for, and so did the others in th

car, but nobody said anything. Finally someone said, "We're not quit

sure, Mrs. Johnson. Things might have changed." 

Driving along the highway at about sixty-five miles per hour, Mrs

Johnson picked up the radiotelephone on her dashboard and said

"Can anybody tell me where the President is?" 

A voice: "Mrs. Johnson, he's two minutes and ten seconds ahea

of you on the highway." 

"Can you tell me what time the press conference is called for?" 

"Twelve-thirty." 

Then she said, "There's still birthday cake, is there not, from th

President's party yesterday? I want to have it out for the press on th

table under the oak tree. The pieces were too large yesterday, so hav

John at the ranch cut them all in two." 

"Yes, Mrs. Johnson." 

Sure enough, when we arrived, the press was there ahead of us an

so was the cake! We had a very nice lunch, after which Jim and 

departed. On the way back on the airplane I said to Jim, "I don't know 

Mrs. Johnson as well as you do, but I think she's something else." 

"If there's a saint on Earth," he said, "she's it." 

End of the Triad 

NASA sustained a terrible loss when Hugh Dryden died of cancer o

December 24, 1965. Hugh had played an extremely important role a

the agency. He would have been the first to say that he wasn't a
guidance. Together the three of us formed a triad. I used 

Hugh and/or Jim at least once a week with a list of up t

items that I felt we had to agree on. We normally clic

them, rapid-fire. That was the way we operated for five y

agreed on a few occasions, but on the big issues, we al

came to unanimous agreement before taking action. 

Hugh never let on that he was seriously bothered by h

condition. But by 1965 he was undergoing chemotherap

have been pretty difficult for any human being to take, e

wasn't reasonably active. He showed tremendous coura

was at the National Institutes of Health for treatments, 

Jo DiBella, would go in every day to give him papers to 

I would also go in and discuss issues with him. A few day

would come out of the hospital and often fly off to Ja

other distant place. 

Still, we were obviously approaching the time when w

to have to make some changes because we were not going 

thing like his full-time services. One night not long befor

Jim drove me home from a function in his trademark b

Cab. (Although he still used a driver who was separated f

seat by a window, Jim did not want to be accused of using 

"It's the little things that can get you into trouble in Was

noted.) When we arrived at Dumbarton Rock Court, he 

from getting out. He told me his plan was to submit my 

President as the next deputy administrator of NASA. I 

perhaps it would be better if he didn't. I felt it was highly 
sure I could be an effective deputy administrator. I wasn't a member 

the National Academy of Sciences and couldn't perform a lot of th

roles Hugh had taken on. So I pushed hard to stay where I was and t

bring in a new deputy for Jim. 

We finally came to the sad moment when Hugh wasn't with u

Jim told me that soon afterwards, when he was with Preside

Johnson, the President asked, "What are you going to do about you

vacancy? I suppose you're going to have Bob Seamans become th

deputy?" Jim acknowledged that he was, and that was that. I imm

diately was given an interim appointment because the Senate was ou

of session. At my Senate confirmation hearing some time later, Senat

Edward M. Kennedy said nice words about my service in his brother

administration, and Senator Leverett Saltonstall said I must be all rig

because my mother-in-law had been his wife's schoolmate. Followin

the hearing, I was formally confirmed by the Senate. 

"Now, this is going to be a lot harder job, you know, than bein

the associate administrator," Jim said to me. "You've got to think 

terms of the total responsibilities of the government. You can't ju

think in terms of projects. Other people have got to do that. You'v

got to work closely with me on the policy issues." 

I moved from the sixth floor in Federal Office Building No. 6 to th

seventh, where Jim's office was located. I initially had an office wher

Hugh's had been, in a corner opposite Jim's. I would have preferred t

keep this distance, but eventually Jim insisted that I move into an offic

practically adjoining his. Jim had had a very close relationship wit

Hugh. Now that I was his deputy, I imagine he expected to have a sim
with an organizational pattern that would not only spre

a more reasonable way but also permit us to do a bet

have better information available for everybody? Jim lik

of the secretariat, which he had worked with while und

state. The secretariat, as Jim conceived of it, would be a 

inghouse for communications within NASA. All wri

would go to the secretariat, which in turn would decide 

management should receive it. Things would be passed 

the chain in such a way that there would be less ne

one-on-one communication. I viewed this idea with som

Never in my technical experience had I seen informatio

transmitted through people who didn't know much abo

Given a free hand at reorganizing NASA, I would 

Hilburn, who had been one of my deputies, continue w

really tough technical and management issues. Willis 

joined us in September, three months before Hugh's d

worked with him as a chief of staff for external affair

would be best to have him continue this work, so that

and I would have available to us two senior people for h

nal and external affairs, respectively. 

Jim did not like this approach. "If you're not aro

me, "I want to have one person I can go to who know

on. I want a chief of staff across the board, and I want S

job. To give him something to button onto, I think he 

on the secretariat." 

I said, "Well, this is going to be quite a load for h
administration, the job of drawing up the entire organization in legalese

We had never done this under the old regime, so it involved a lot of new 

work. Jim wanted a clear-cut outline of what every person's job was and 

with whom that person dealt. My mind tends to work differently. I go

lost trying to decipher an encyclopedic listing of job descriptions and

from this, to decipher how all the pieces fit together. I liked to look at a 

line chart and see where the responsibilities were. This told me if some

thing had to go all the way through to the administrator for a final deci

sion or if it could be decided at another level. There are differen

categories of decisions, which such a chart makes clear. 

"Jim, you're absolutely right," I told him. "We can leave a better 

organization behind us when we exit NASA. But why at this critica

juncture in the Apollo program do you want to change it?" I ended 

believing that he wanted to leave his stamp on the organization and 

that this was his way of doing so. 

The Jack Young exercise did not go well. Jack ended up with 

stacks of paper, which I was asked to edit-a great big diversion at a 

time when we were coming down to the short strokes on going to the 

Moon. No job descriptions were approved, and there came a day 

when Jack elected to leave NASA. 

In November 1966, Willis Shapley and I were invited to Jim 

Webb's house to discuss possible organizational changes-though 

invited may be too mild a word. Shap and I presented our ideas to Jim

who obviously had a lot of things on his mind. He didn't seem to 

understand, much less accept, our views. The whole next week Jim 

was tied up giving a series of management lectures at Princeton. While 
our major responsibilities. 

In my paper, I recommended new roles for several in

the basis of my recommendations, we reassigned these an

we set up a task force to review what needed to be do

tionally. The task force did not come in with a plan duri

or January. On January 27 at 6:31 p.m., a catastrophe 

relegated our organizational discussions to second place

The Fire 

NASA had had other accidents in its short history. For 

had lost our top pilot, Joe Walker, at the Dryden Flight 

the California desert. He was flying his test plane wing-

a B-70 and was swept up underneath the bigger craft. W

two of our astronauts when they were coming in 

McDonnell's facility in St. Louis. They had come down 

overcast and were not lined up with the landing strip. In

back up and using normal procedures, they had stayed u

cast, circled around for a landing, and smashed into a b

We also had had close calls on a couple of missions. 

with Neil Armstrong and Dave Scott aboard, we tried to 

never done before-to rendezvous and dock with an 

that was already orbiting, then to have the docked vehi

some maneuvers. Everything went well. The docking w

over China, the two vehicles started to spin. 

That evening, March 16, 1966, I was at a large cere
Our hope was that he would be able to announce a happy resu

before the end of his speech. Humphrey could talk for a long period o

time, but even he was starting to run out of words when we finall

received encouraging news. He was able to say that, while recover

hadn't yet taken place, Armstrong and Scott appeared to be safe. 

Jim Webb was not very happy with my performance on this occasion

He felt that I had taken too big a gamble by publicly announcing infor

mation when I didn't have all the facts in hand. He was right, and it wa

obvious that we needed to do something a little different in the future, i

and when we did have a mishap. I went back and looked at the proce

dural document for accidents and brought it up to date. I also made u

my mind that if such a situation arose again, I was going to get to m

office or someplace where I had good communication immediately. I fel

that this would allow me to deal more effectively with situations that had 

serious implications and in which the media had intense interest. 

Still, neither I nor anyone else at NASA was prepared for the Apollo 

204 fire of January 27, 1967. The timing of the accident-in which 

astronauts Gus Grissom, Ed White, and Roger Chaffee suffocated to 

death from a fire that broke out in their capsule during a test on the 

pad-was incredible. It occurred the day President Johnson signed a 

space treaty with the Soviet Union at an elaborate White House affair

Jim Webb used the occasion to honor the contractors who had been 

working on Gemini and to make known to the contractors' senior peo

ple on the Apollo program the importance of what we were doing in the 

international arena. The ceremony was to be followed by a formal din

ner, to which the top executives of the space program were invited. 
some further particulars from George, then said to him, 

my office. I'll get back in touch with you from there to 

more about what's going on." 

I told Gene that we had had a serious accident. I said 

she ought to have our guests come to the house, have the 

and not tell them what was going on. I felt that if, as the

door, she announced what had happened, it wouldn't be m

ner party, and our guests wouldn't know whether to stay o

When I got to the office, I went about the business o

sure I knew the facts and making sure that everybody 

know about it did know. I started getting calls. One was 

Secretary Robert McNamara's office. He had heard som

the accident and wanted to know the particulars. While 

with him, an operator cut in, apologized, and said she 

gency message. The "emergency" turned out to be Pe

NBC News. He said, "This is a national emergency. Th

The country is almost in a panic, and you've got to g

reassure the public!" 

"That's ridiculous," I said. "How can I do that? I d

the facts. No, I'm not going to appear on TV." I probab

not said the same thing if we hadn't been through the cri

8, but that incident had taught me that in an emergency

mation had to be released in a considered, careful way. T

of such a magnitude that I knew only Jim Webb had th

release such information. 

Nothing could be done until we knew more about th
to have a lawyer on the board and chose George Malley, the chie

counsel at Langley. On down the list we went. But who should be th

chairman? Clearly he, like the others on the board, should not hav

had an active role in the running of the project. Yet we also wanted t

keep the review within NASA as much as possible. Floyd ("Tommy"

Thompson, who ran Langley, was a person who would have every

body's respect and confidence. We chose Tommy. 

I arranged to have one of the NASA planes pick me up i

Washington the following morning at 6:00 a.m., then fly on to Langle

Research Center for Tommy Thompson and George Malley befor

heading to Cape Canaveral. There I made sure everybody fully under

stood the ground rules-that the review board had complete author

ity over the investigation, that they were to select the consultants an

to determine who at NASA worked on the review, that they wer

responsible for all of the documentation, and so on. 

At the Cape, I met with Sam Phillips, Kurt Debus, Joe Shea, an

three or four others. They told me what they knew about the tragedy

We talked about the dead astronauts' families. It was decided that 

would be the one to take a look at the pictures of the capsule take

just after the door had been opened, since someone in authorit

needed to do so. When, on my next visit to the Cape, I met with th

medical examiner and reviewed the photographs, the experienc

wasn't pleasant, but it wasn't as gruesome as might be imagined either

Ash from the fire had settled over everything in the capsule, includin

the astronauts' bodies, and the three of them were roughly in the sam

positions they had assumed before the fire broke out. 
report before its final report. I was given the job of going 

every week and meeting with the board. They gave me the 

knew them at the time; then I reported in writing to Jim W

as I got back to Washington. He personally took my repor

President, and within a few hours it went up to the key 

the Hill. The document was then released publicly. Import

never signed by Tommy Thompson, so that his and the b

would not be tied when it came time to file their formal r

By the time I submitted my first report on the progress 

board, Jim's demeanor clearly was not the demeanor of th

I had been working with for the past six years. He was r

report had an emotional tinge to it, with some expression 

for the families. But the way he slashed those sections 

stunned. Even when I rewrote the report as a strict ch

events and presented it to him, he didn't say, "Nice job." H

I hadn't seen him that way since the last days of Brain

when Jim knew he had a difficult personnel problem on hi

Everyone at NASA was feeling the strain. The trou

that our people didn't care enough about the fire; they care

Key people.from Houston would fly up to Washington to 

literally sob all the way on the plane. I first realized the se

this problem when I was down at the Cape for the two-d

the preliminary findings and recommendations. Certain 

seemed in very great need of sleep. I didn't fully appreciat

of the problem until the next day when I was flyi

Washington in the company of Chuck Berry, NASA's ch
capsule and flew back to Houston, where he received the grim wor

I knew Joe well. We played a lot of tennis together. I could see th

he was extremely upset. Jim Webb went way out of his way to be he

ful to him. After leaving NASA, Joe went on to become vice preside

for engineering at Raytheon and served on several important comm

tees of the National Academies of Science and Engineering. In 199

he became an adjunct professor at MIT, where ultimately he and 

shared an office. 

Back to the Hill 

Needless to say, Congress wanted to be involved in investigating the ac

dent. We had several sessions on the Hill. For the first, an executive sessi

of the Senate, it was agreed that I would appear with George Muell

Chuck Berry, and others, and that right afterwards I would step outsi

with Senators Clinton Anderson (D-NM) and Margaret Chase Smith (

ME), the committee chairman and ranking minority member, to summ

rize for the waiting media what had taken place. I knew when I walk

into the hearing room that this press appearance would be lively becau

I had never before seen more coaxial cable strewn around a corridor. 

Just before the end of the session, Senator Anderson left the cha

ber. Of course, he was caught by the networks, but I didn't know wh

he had said. When we were through, I went to Senator Smith and ask

her if she wanted to join me in meeting the press. She was pleasant b

made it clear that she thought it really would not be appropriate for h

to do so. I walked out of the hearing room alone into blindingly brig
and possibly recommending that we change contractors. 

George Mueller said no, there had not been a re

George meant that there hadn't been a formal, bound rep

pected that Mondale may have had in his possession a v

results of an informal "tiger team study," led by General 

The tiger team had never issued a report, per se; however, 

prepared briefing charts in order to discuss perceived p

North American. So in order to leave a crack in the do

discussion (I was thinking of immediate discussion afte

with Mondale and the chairman of the committee), I inte

thoughts about the kind of review we normally carry out

I wasn't aware of any specific report, which I wasn't. As 

there had never been a recommendation to go to anoth

for the spacecraft. 

Jim Webb nabbed me outside the committee room a

to drive back with him and our general counsel, Paul Dem

we got into the backseat of his car, the first thing Jim did 

the window separating us from the driver. Then he lacera

don't volunteer information!," he said. "You can't loo

ordinary hearings, like any we've had in the past. You'v

at these as legal proceedings. Don't volunteer inform

you're sure. Don't volunteer information, period!" 

"Well," I said, "I just thought there might be some ki

"Don't speculate in front of Congress!" Before we 

headquarters, I was able to say that I was very concern

Phillips study, that I felt it was the kind of thing that cou
Jim was forced to acknowledge that, contrary to our testimony

there had been a report. The next Senate session fell on the same da

as our appropriations hearing in the House. Jim took the House ses

sion, and I took the Senate hearing, which again was open to th

media. Representing NASA were General Phillips, George Mueller

Chuck Berry, and myself. I had a good chance to bring up the Phillip

study and to have General Phillips discuss it in detail. He did an excel

lent job of presenting the material, cold turkey. 

Senator Mondale asked of the report, "Well, shouldn't all of thi

have been released?" 

I answered, "If every time we had an internal review, everythin

was released, good internal reviews would become unachievable. I

they are made with the idea that they will be discussed on national TV

they will never contain controversial information. I agree, however

that the results should be available, and we have discussed them her

in this hearing in a very open way." Indeed, we had. 

At this point there was a roll call, and the senators all left th

committee room to vote. As they came back in, Mondale walked 

right by me and said, "Well, I know some of your problems in th

spacecraft." He was obviously referring to the crowded room with 

cables all over the place. I was not exactly filled with mirth, but I did 

smile at his comment. The next day the Washington Star carried 

picture of Dr. Seamans testifying at the Senate hearing on the tragic 

Apollo fire-and smiling. 
was conducted by engine contractors and by the gover

Mississippi test facility. All manner of hardware and syste

run under a wide variety of conditions. But a boilerplate 

never used to investigate the incendiary nature of a pure

at sea-level pressure. If such a test had been conducted, 

certainty that the design would have been changed prior 

January 27, 1967. Neither I nor anyone else, to my 

suggested such a test. 

This oversight led to tragedy, but the fire could have 

much worse. We could have killed everybody on the pad o

capsule. On top of the capsule was the so-called escap

rockets in it, designed to take the astronauts away in t

something happened just before or after liftoff. If these 

been triggered (the fire did scorch the outside of the 

whole pad might have been destroyed. I'm not certain the 

gram could have recovered from such a disaster. I have 

that if we had not had the Apollo 204 fire when we did, w

have failed in our overall mission of going to the Moon 

the decade, because a similar catastrophe might have hi

when it would have been much more difficult to recover

In certain respects, the impact of the fire was similar 

assassination of President Kennedy. There was tremend

both cases. In both cases it was hard for people to accep

it had happened. In both cases there was strong public 

with the individuals. Of course, this was much greater i

President Kennedy, but Grissom was well known to the U
could explode at any moment. I'm not a psychiatrist, but I would sa

that the fire came as a tremendous psychological blow to him. Befo

the accident, he and his program were riding high. He was front an

center, getting acclaim from many, many quarters and deserving 

Given his age, sixty, Apollo would probably be the last major endeav

of his working life. It would be a fitting monument to his ability. 

Now his house of cards was down. How? Why? Who had mad

the mistake? Who had destroyed his dream? It was necessary, 

course, to carry out a complete and careful investigation, so that th

engineering failures that had led to the fire could be corrected. But Ji

was not interested in investigating the engineering. He wanted t

know what individuals had failed him. He felt personally betrayed. 

There was no question in his mind that North American, the con

tractor for the Apollo capsule, was one of the culprits. In particula

Jim felt that North American's project leader, Harrison ("Stormy

Storms, had failed him. When we selected North American, Dutc

Kindelberger, a hard-hitting, forceful manager, had been the chairma

By the time of the accident, Lee Atwood had succeeded him. We we

soon having meetings with Atwood. They were not pleasant meeting

Jim Webb made it clear that changes were going to have to be mad

to which Atwood responded, "Let's not panic! We've had acciden

before. We're not part of the government. We're a separate institutio

We have to manage things the way we believe is right." In effect, h

was saying, "You're not going to dictate terms to us." Partly at m

suggestion, we had conversations with other potential contractors, 

that North American would realize that although they had the con
many positive contributions. Pretty soon I started to h

was talking about my imperfections behind my back. A

on, I found that assignments were being given that I 

about. At a meeting on the Voyager project,4 which wa

formulated, a report was presented by Mac Adams, t

administrator for research and technology, about which 

told absolutely nothing. As general manager, I had been 

communication to the organization. Now he was bypass

"Jim," I said at the Voyager meeting, "if you don't m

ing so, I think we'd make a little more progress if you'd 

some of these studies." 

He froze, then turned on me and said, "No more of 

talk, Seamans!" 

Jim Webb's reasoning was a little like a geometric theo

a nontechnical person and believed that the technical staf

down. As de facto general manager, I was his bridge to 

people. Therefore, the bridge had failed and needed circu

In one notable instance I did fail badly: I had had disc

the press that I shouldn't have had. By this time I had 

experience dealing with the media. I knew the media we

but I also recognized that there were many good journ

The Voyager Mars mission then under discussion was canceled in the 

a result of congressional budget cuts. Several years later the project wa

Viking program and landed two spacecraft on Mars. The name 

reused for the missions to Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, beg

4 
that what Julian was suggesting could be quite positive. So we invite

the correspondents to a luncheon. If Webb had been in town, prob

bly we would not have done so. 

It was an informal lunch, and the reporters asked questions lik

"Why couldn't you get the astronauts out of there?" 

I explained that we had designed the door to open inwards 

avoid a mistake in space-an astronaut putting his elbow in the wron

place and suddenly losing all cabin oxygen. With the pressure that th

fire created within the capsule, it would have taken an 8,000-poun

pull to get the door open. The next day papers ran stories about th

astronauts struggling to get out, clawing at the door-all of it horrib

stuff greatly exaggerated. In fact, evidence showed that the astronau

had not burned to death, as most had originally assumed. They ha

suffocated and were unconscious no more than seventeen secon

after the first spark. 

When Jim Webb returned to the office, he was beside himse

Julian and I had let him down. He had had a handshake with th

President and the Congress that no information would come o

without their getting something in writing first. From this point 

view, I was clearly in the wrong. From then on my relationship wi

Jim Webb went almost straight downhill. It became obvious as t

summer of 1967 evolved that our lack of rapport was not a goo

thing for the organization. I had been considering the possibility 

leaving NASA prior to Hugh Dryden's death, because I had been the

already twice as long as I had planned initially. I had also been asked 

consider the presidency of a well-known university. I finally had decide
touch with a good friend of mine, Walter Sohier, who had 

counsel to NASA, and with my brother Peter, who 

Together the three of us figured out the best possible exit. 

warm autumn sun on the third-floor deck at Dumbarton 

and composed a letter of resignation. Gene typed it. T

October 2, 1967, I handed it to Jim Webb. 

Jim looked at the letter, then at me, and said, "What 

your peers are going to say about the job you've done o

here at NASA?" 

"I think they'll feel that I did a satisfactory job." 

He got up and left the room. He went immediately 

White House to see President Johnson, and within just a 

was announced that I was leaving NASA. 

Afterthoughts 

After the announcement of my resignation from NASA, J

to stay on for three months, full time, which was fairly un

time during this period did I take public issue with him

anything substantive to the press about my real reasons 

was invited over to the Washington Post to meet with the

tors, who asked, "There must be some reason why you're 

now. Why not stay until you get to the Moon?" 

I said, "Look, I've been down here seven years. I only 

stay two. It's been pretty hectic, but we've got everythin

in place. What's the point in sticking around for some 
away party for me and asked me whom I wanted to invite. The dat

of the dinner happened to fall immediately after the assassination o

the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Protests gave way to riots, an

Washington, D.C., became an armed camp. Since a dusk-to-dawn cu

few was in effect, we had the dinner at the Army-Navy Club and hel

it early enough so that we could all return home before the curfew. 

Dr. Thomas 0. Paine, a materials engineer from General Electri

replaced me as deputy administrator. With the presidential electio

coming up in the fall of 1968, Jim Webb, who was tired after seve

and a half years on the job, decided it would be a good time to retir

He thought that by resigning before the election, he would giv

President Johnson an opportunity to install Tom Paine as administrato

and that the new administration might keep Paine on. This, Jim 

thought, would help maintain some continuity in the NASA effort. O

September 16, 1968, Jim went in to see President Johnson and said h

had been thinking about resigning early. "I've been thinking along th

same lines, Jim," the President said. "Let's step outside and tell th

press that you're leaving, effective immediately." Suddenly, Jim wa

gone. Johnson was always direct and to the point! 

In March 1969, soon after I had become secretary of the Air Forc

I got a call from Defense Secretary Melvin Laird. "President Nixon," h

said, "wants to know my views on keeping Tom Paine at NASA, not 

acting administrator but as the administrator. What do you think?" 

I answered, "Well, I can give you a very straightforward, simp

answer, Mel. Ask the President if he wants to carry out the lunar lan

ing this year. If he does, make Tom Paine the administrator. But if h
did. Later, as secretary of the Air Force, I came to realize t

wasn't comparable to Jim's role at NASA, because I alwa

secretary of defense available when trouble developed. But 

involved with the Energy Research and Development Agen

in 1974, I saw that I had no place to turn but the Presi

United States or the Congress, and I got a much better und

then of the challenges Jim Webb had faced. 

Fortunately, I had a chance to express my views at a d

given by Dave and Pat Acheson. Dave was the son of Dea

Truman's secretary of state, for whom Jim had worked. 

were invited along with Dave's mother, Jim and Patsy Webb

eight others. It suddenly occurred to me sitting there at the 

might be appropriate to make a toast to Jim Webb and the 

done at NASA. I said quite sincerely that I had never truly 

all that Jim had done until I became administrator of ERD

About a year later, Gene and I went to see the Webbs. A

Gene told me that Patsy Webb had taken her aside and 

"You'll never know how much that meant to Jim, when Bo

he did about the role Jim had played at NASA. You may n

but Jim didn't always have an easy time with Mr. Acheson 

Department, so for Bob to have said what he said in the 

house was doubly gratifying." 

In the mid-1970s, Jim Webb was diagnosed with Park

ease, and I periodically went around to see him. We wo

chat, and pretty soon it was like the old days. Over time 

gressively worse. Sometimes he would be wheeled into th
himself that his whole body was almost writhing with the effort. As I 

up to leave, he said, "Bob, I'm not going to live much longer, but I'd 

to know what you hope to accomplish before you kick the bucket." 

I wasn't quite sure how to respond to that, except to say, "H

Jim, you may be around for a long time." 

But that wasn't in the cards. I saw him once more at his home. 

looked better than he had in the hospital, and he was still bubbl

with ideas. Not long after that he had a fatal heart attack. 

Mission Accomplished 

Gene, Joe, and I flew down to Cape Kennedy for the launch of Apollo 

on July 16, 1969. The night before the launch Gene and I were invited 

a small dinner hosted by the former President and Mrs. Johnson. I m

a few remarks about how much the program owed to Johnson's supp

After the launch, I went around to launch control to congratul

everyone for getting Armstrong and company off to a good star

found Vice President Spiro Agnew there, making a speech about 

future of NASA. Being far more political than technical, Agnew m

have seen that there was a lot of glory in space and figured he wan

to be a part of it. He told the crew on hand that this was just the st

Before we knew it, he said, America would be going to Mars. I w

very skeptical, to put it mildly. 

We flew back to Washington later that day; then about three d

later, we flew down to Mission Control in Houston for the Moon land

We sat in a glass-enclosed observation room behind the control conso

The landing was a close call. The computer was periodically overloa
p gy p

own accomplishments but of NASA itself and of the many 

who had made the Moon landing possible. People like th

People like Sam Phillips and George Mueller. People like R

who had run the massive construction projects at the Cap

pride in taking my son Joe and other guests around the Cape 

Control and explaining how the whole fantastic system wor

I can't help but look at the Moon today and think it's 

we were there more than twenty-five years ago. I believe w

there someday, but mounting that kind of an effort is no

that's going to happen, in my view, for a long time, becaus

enough reason for doing it. As for Spiro Agnew's pre

America would fly to Mars, I learned a long time ago th

something will never happen, you'll eventually be proven 

Later in my tenure as secretary of the Air Force, I was on hand to h

she retired from the service. Afterwards, Gene asked her if she had c

Powder Puff Derby, a cross-country race for women pilots. Jackie 

herself up with horror, sniffed, and said, "I only compete with men!

5 
Grandpa Bosson pointing out my first airplane, I922. 
Some thought we were too solemn during the ceremony, 

but not outside St. John's Parish, June r3, r942.
On November II, 1962, President Kennedy and Vice President Lyndon Johnson visited the Marshall Space Flight Center. Werner van Braun, the center director, points 

out a large model of the Apollo-Saturn V, with an H-1 engine in the foreground. From 

right to left: Kennedy, van Braun, Johnson, myself, and Paul Nitze, the assistant secretary of defense for international security affairs. The two men at the far left are 

unidentified. James Webb and Robert McNamara are obscured behind Kennedy and 

van Braun. Edward Welsh is wearing dark glasses, in the center background. 

I take a ride in the 

Gemini flight simulator with astronaut 

Neil A. Armstrong. 

In August 1963, I 

visited the Manned 

Spacecraft Center in 

Houston for a 

review of operations. 

NASA photo number 

S-64-31305
President Kennedy visited Cape Canaveral on November r6, r963. George Mueller 

briefed President Kennedy in the Complex 37 blockhouse. From left to right: 

George Low, Kurt Debus, myself, James Webb, Kennedy, Hugh Dryden, Wernher 

von Braun, Maj. Gen. Leighton Davis, and Senator George Smathers from Florida. 

Models of the Saturn V rocket on its crawler/transporter and of the Vehicle 

Assembly Building are on the table. Several periscopes hang from the ceiling. 

NASA photo number LOC 63P-136 

President Kennedy 

inspected the 

Complex 3 7 launch 

facilities with 

Wernher von Braun 

(center) and myself. 

Kennedy points at 

the live second stage 

of a Saturn I rocket. 

Von Braun used the 

model in the foreground to explain 

the powerful 

rocket's mission. Six 

days after this photograph was taken, 

President Kennedy 

was assassinated. 

NASA photo number 

LOC 63P-145 
The NASA management triad of Administrator James E. Webb (center), Deputy 

Administrator Dr. Hugh L. Dryden (left), and myself as Associate Administrator. 

This photo was taken in Webb's office. NASA photo number 66-H-93 
James E. Webb swears in 

NASA's new deputy administrator, February 4, z966. 

At left is Vice President 

Humphrey. 

The November 22, z966, postflight press conference on the Gemini 

XII mission. From left to right are myself, astronaut James E. Lovell, 

astronq_ut Edwin E. "Buzz" Aldrin, and Dr. Robert R. Gilruth, the 

director of the Manned Spacecraft Center. NASA photo number S-66-65190 
On October 24, r967, I had the privilege of presenting a NASA award to my early 

mentor, Dr. Charles Stark Draper. 

In the Oval Office, fall r969. From left to right: National Security Advisor Henry 

Kissinger, Secretary of the Army Stan Resor, Secretary of Defense Mel Laird, 

President Nixon, Secretary of the Navy john Chaffee, and myself 
Four F-I5 airplanes 

flying in formation. 

The A-IO aircraft in 

flight over a prairie. 

An F-I I I at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia. 
After an F-I II flight over the Nellis Test Range in Nevada. We flew at Mach 2 at 

high altitude, then used Automatic Terrain Clearance at subsonic speed to fly over 

hills at an altitude of only 3 oo feet. 

Showing President Ford the seal 

of the new Energy Research and 

Development Administration 

(ERDA). 
With Vice President Dan Quayle at the June I99I release of a study on NASA 

future missions by the Space Exploration Initiative team. I served as vice chairman 

of this study panel. 

gy () 

and the engineering school. The family continue

Washington, and I commuted to Cambridge to give sem

on. In May we bought a house in Cambridge, and in the 

came north to live in our house at Beverly Farms while th

was renovated. 

By fall I had a more formal appointment at MIT, a

Visiting Professor for the academic year 1968-1969. The 

ment of the Hunsaker professorship is that one deliver wh

as the Minta Martin lecture. The recipient is also invited t

on thesis committees, to give seminars, and so on, whic

enjoyed. We lived in the third-floor apartment of the hous

sive reconstruction went on in the basement and on the f

ond floors. As a result of all the old plaster in the air, a

condition that had bothered Gene in Washington inten

Christmas she had to be hospitalized for a short time

allowed to go back into the house until all the work was c

we moved temporarily into an apartment hotel. After t

renovations, our house was comfortable, sunny, and spac

being too big. Gene even had a little greenhouse. The hou

was very convenient, and it answered our needs perfectly

bit sad when we finally gave the key as a donation to MIT 

1992. The proceeds from the institute's sale of the hou

nearly 50 percent of the funds required to fund MIT's n

Apollo Chair in Astronautics. 

We found a buyer for our Washington house in Dec

153 

people. I figured he only wanted information, but by the time we got 

the raspberry sherbet, he shifted and said, "Dave Packard [co-found

of Hewlett-Packard] is going to come and join with me as my deputy

want to have three service secretaries with different backgrounds. I

hoping Stan Resor, secretary of the Army, will stay on from the Johns

administration. Goldwater thinks a lot of John Chafee from Rho

Island [who had recently lost his reelection bid for governor]. I want 

get him down here for secretary of the Navy." Then he said, "A

you're going to come down here as secretary of the Air Force." 

"You've got to be kidding! I just got out of the government a

moved back to New England. I've just begun a new job at MIT, and m

wife is sick." Laird absolutely would not take no for an answer. In fa

he upped his offer, saying that Dave Packard could not stay more th

two years and that after Dave left, he wanted me to step in as depu

because, like Dave, I had a technical background. 

"Why don't we get together again on Monday?," he said. 

I didn't have the courage to call Gene until I had reached the Ca

When I finally did call, her initial reaction was: "We can't do that!" 

"Don't worry," I assured her, "I'm not going to accept." 

I saw Laird again on Monday, and we had a further conversatio

but I still didn't agree to take the job. "Mel," I said, "if you don't min

I'd really like to take until the day after Christmas. I'll call you on 

twenty-sixth of December." 

I went to see MIT president Howard Johnson during Christm

week. "Well," he said, "when the President knocks on your door, 

pretty hard to turn him away." 
We passed papers on our Washington house on the v

We could have stopped the sale, paying some kind of p

then the thought of moving back into that house didn

appeal. It would have meant moving back all the furnitur

recently lugged north to Cambridge. Also, by th

Georgetown had changed, with mobs of people and 

Instead, Gene suggested renting a furnished house, whic

stayed in a rented house for two years. When it became 

we were going to stay in Washington longer, we bought 

and moved our furniture from Cambridge back down to 

On January 8, 1969, the three new service secret

Resor (Army), John Chafee (Navy), and Seamans (Air 

trotted out for public view. I wasn't sworn in until Febr

ing received an extension from Laird in order to fini

Martin lecture for MIT-though I did meet with H

outgoing secretary of the Air Force, several times 

The swearing-in occurred on a Saturday morning at the 

I never did become Laird's deputy. Mel named me for the post aft

year hitch, then nominated Curtis Tarr, head of the Selective S

move into my office at the Air Force. Word came back from the W

they didn't like this change. It was finally decided to make Ken Ru

dor to Germany, Mel's deputy, and I remained secretary of the Air 

1 
On one of my Washington visits in January, I met Glen P. Lipsom

who was a Republican congressman from California and a great frien

of Mel Laird. He had a long list of individuals who had been suggeste

for presidential consideration. The list had been screened by him an

the White House. I recognized some real dogs and wanted to be certai

I didn't have to take time to interview them. But one person on the li

was Grant Hansen. Grant had served as project director of the Centau

launch vehicle, the first hydrogen-fueled second stage, designed to mat

with the Atlas booster. When he took over, the project was in disarra

and NASA was about to cancel General Dynamics' contract. He save

the project, and the Centaur is still in use today. I found he was abou

to leave California to take an advanced management course a

Harvard. I convinced him to come to Washington instead. 

Harold Brown had a generalist named Tim Hoopes as his unde

secretary, which placed a heavy load on AI Flax, his research an

development (R&D) assistant secretary. AI was responsible for a

R&D, including the C-5 and the F-111 aircraft, and in addition wa

responsible for the highly classified National Reconnaissanc

Organization (NRO), which operated the nation's observation satel

lites jointly with the CIA. I elected to transfer the NRO to the unde

secretary and hence was looking for a second technically oriented indi

vidual. Harold Brown had given me a list of fifteen names he felt wer

qualified for the R&D function. One of them was Dr. John McLucas

president of MITRE, a nonprofit corporation located near Hanscom 

Air Force Base outside of Boston. 

Back in Massachusetts, I went to see James R. Killian, Jr., chairma
McLucas and I met. I made my proposition that he beco

secretary of the Air Force and head up the classified p

accepted almost on the spot but said he wanted to talk 

prior to making an absolute commitment. 

Grant Hansen and John McLucas provided grea

research and development. The secretariat also needed 

administration, finance, and personnel. Although Phil

and I had not overlapped at NASA, I knew he was hig

both there and at IBM where he had worked previously

he had been most helpful obtaining information for my M

lecture at MIT. So I cast my net and fortunately landed h

Spencer J. Schedler did have some political experienc

advance man, as it turns out, for Spiro Agnew. That's how t

to me, but it had nothing to do with why I picked him. 

because he liked the Air Force and was still flying in the 

Guard. Some people were amazed when I made clear that 

body who knows something about finances, how to ke

how to run audits." He was a graduate of the Harvard B

and came highly recommended. He was the youngest of th

Finally, there was Curtis W. Tarr who was the assista

the Air Force for Manpower and Reserve Affairs. Tarr h

ident of Lawrence University located in Appleton, Wisco

also worked as a junior member of the Hoover Commiss

organization of the Department of Defense. His doct

Stanford was written on the subject. I was really looking 

who had both organizational as well as a personnel back
suggested that he become our general counsel. He had probably serv

his usefulness as legislative liaison at the OSD level-that's a job th

no human being can possibly take on for many years because he

using up his chits, all the time. We had a good general counsel name

John M. Steadman, whom I liked and who was the only holdover th

we had incidentally. But Jack Stempler obviously had a backgroun

that would be extremely helpful because of his political savvy on th

Hill and, really more important, his understanding of the Departme

of Defense. He was the missing link, if you will, that I had been look

ing for in rounding out the secretariat. He was what Dr. Brown wou

have called the "generalist." I had learned from NASA that if you g

the right kind of a lawyer to work with you, not on legal matter

though obviously he has got to get involved in legal matters-but o

matters that are quasi-legal, judgmental matters that involve peop

and situations, that you're well off. So his transfer really rounded ou

the secretariat, and later I found his advice absolutely invaluable. 

We were forced to make one change in the secretariat prior to th

end of President Nixon's first term in office. General Hershey wa

about to retire as director of the Selective Service System, and th

White House had its eye on Curtis Tarr for his replacement. Curt

asked me how to decline. When a member of an administration, th

argument that the present job is more important won't fly, nor wi

personal preference. I suggested he explain his distaste for selective se

vice. Several days later he proceeded to the White House with grea

foreboding. After an interminable wait, the President burst out of th

Oval Office, grabbed Curtis's hand and amid the handshakin
(Pete) Crow was the comptroller for the Air Force who w

with Bob Moot, the Department of Defense comptroller. 

secretary for Financial Management oversaw managemen

had no direct control of the purse strings. On budget matt

was Spence Schedler's boss. General Ryan and I encour

parts to work closely together, and to resolve issues dire

possible, before they needed to come to our attention. 

When I became secretary, General J.P. McConnell's fou

chief of staff was about over. He accepted my appointme

However, he made it clear that he was the military boss. T

time when I wanted to become familiar with the general 

Air Force, particularly the three- and four-star generals, a

for a book with their biographies. Word came back: "I

wants to know about my senior officers, he can come an

Because of McConnell's impending retirement, one of th

that had to be made within a few months of my arrival was th

next chief of staff. Mr. Laird was putting the bite on me for th

he made it clear he wanted a younger person. An obvious 

George Brown, a great leader in World War II with 

B-17 sorties deep into Germany, McNamara's executive office

the Air Force commander in Southeast Asia. However, I f

young enough to take command of system acquisition when 

and then become Air Force chief, and even ultimately to serve 

the Joint Chiefs. Fortunately for the country, this is what hap

Harold Brown and J.P. McConnell advised me prio

15th that General John Ryan was their choice for the 
n't selected but wanted me to know that it meant a lot to him to rea

ize that he was considered. 

General Ryan was my final choice, and I've never worked with any

body I respected more. He was direct, open, and pragmatic. No matte

what the assignment, his reaction would be: "Let's not agonize, let's ge

on with it, let's do it." Today, looking back on my days in the Air Force

I'm proud of the team I helped put together, not only those I've discusse

but the many others that space does not permit mentioning. 

NASA and DOD 

There were major differences between NASA and DOD. Of cours

DOD was still government, and a lot of its business was conducted th

same way as NASA. But NASA is an independent agency and, hence

in an administrative role at NASA, I tended to work closely with man

departments, directly with the Bureau of the Budget and attende

meetings with the President a fair number of times. In the Departmen

of Defense, most of my activities were within the department itsel

working with the different offices of the secretary of defense and hor

izontally with the other services. At the Air Force, not much time wa

spent with departments and agencies outside DOD. 

NASA had a fairly substantial international program, so I ha

done some traveling. But in the Department of Defense, the dispositio

of our forces in this country and overseas and the relationships wit

many foreign countries on a large scale were extremely important. I

particular, Southeast Asia was front and center at that time. I enjoye
I would then receive a military briefing that was simi

received by the chief of staff one-half hour earlier. Map

would show USAF activity in Vietnam and along sup

Laos. It was common knowledge and accepted that we w

the supply lines used by the North Vietnamese in Laos, 

of Cambodia was verboten. Hence a secret procedure w

using the high-altitude B-52s flying toward Cambodia

were released using radio signals from the ground. Th

suspect but couldn't be certain whether the bombs lan

Vietnam or Cambodia. The charts used in my briefing 

the bombs landing in Cambodia. In my naivete, I didn

after I left the Pentagon the existence of this bombing.2 

On Mondays, the secretary of defense held a large 

conference room. Laird sat at one end of the confere

Packard at the other with the service secretaries and the 

between. The key staff and assistant secretary of defense 

meeting from chairs around the perimeter of the room. On 

I had an hour each week scheduled with Mel Laird. Dav

John McLucas would also attend. These meetings were m

much like the sessions I had at NASA with Hugh Dryden 

Senator Symington (D-MO) telephoned me several months after I 

to ask me if I would voluntarily testify on this subject. General R

the committee hearing that I had been excluded from information 

ing by higher authority. Senator Symington asked me if I found thi

him it made me "damn mad," especially since I'd signed a report 

ing that the bombing in Cambodia was limited and inadvertent. 

2 
versus $6 billion at NASA (about $85 billion vs. $20 billion in today'

dollars), or in personnel terms 1.3 million compared with 33,000. 

However, system acquisition had much in common. The variou

steps included project definition, procurement planning, contracto

(source) selection, contract administration, development, and opera

tions. Each step required leadership and, during the development and 

operation phases, a dedicated team headed by a strong project manager

Source Selection3 

The Air Force weapon systems source selection process changed during 

my tenure. I felt that the source selection authority should review and 

approve the source selection plan, and then should stay away until the 

source evaluation board had completed its work and presented its findings 

and recommendations. At that point, a crisp decision usually could and 

should be made. It may take several weeks for clarification or to obtain 

additional information, but the decision should be made quickly and documented properly. In every procurement where I was the selection authority, I signed a 20- to 30-page report on the specific process, the important 

issues, and the rationale for the decision. But I didn't tell anybody in the 

building what the decision was going to be until the last day when I filled 

in the name of the recipient, signed it, informed the executive branch, the 

Congress, the contractors, and issued a press release. Up until that time, 

For comparison with NASA's source selection, see the "Long Hours, Hard Work" 

section in Chapter 2. 

3 
know anything about tentative findings until the review w

there was no problem. I could only tell them about the 

process was under way, and the probable completion date. 

Many people outside the Pentagon believed that the wh

process was bunkum since no matter what the Air Force dete

would have to be a look by higher authority, and there mig

pressure for a reversal. That was never stated explicitly, an

make sure that it never happened. I felt the integrity of th

been jeopardized in the previous administration by the awa

to General Dynamics. There was no point in asking the ev

to do a careful job if the team members felt the decision wo

be based on politics. 

As soon as I had reviewed the findings of the source eva

but before I had made a final determination in my own mi

Laird and Packard alone to acquaint them with the impor

the decision. I could discuss with them the pros and cons 

contractors and the probable outcome. Neither Laird nor 

questioned the outcome from a political standpoint. As a 

they agreed to hold up the announcement of one award unt

tion so that it couldn't be construed as assistance to a Repu

rial candidate in whose state the award was going to be ma

Contracting 

The C-5 contract was conceived by the Air Force wi

intentions. The contract provided Lockheed with specifi
ppp

duction runs and the spare parts prior to the first development flights

McNamara and Assistant Secretary of the Air Force Robert H. Charle

introduced the concept of a total procurement package to increase con

tractor cost-effectiveness. Military contractors had often submitted inten

tionally low bids for a research and development contract, reasoning tha

they could recoup financial losses by padding the production contract

Under the total procurement package concept, the Air Force awarded 

contract for a complete weapon system, including research and develop

ment, test, and production of the system. The package included specifi

schedules, cost ceilings, and financial incentives. The C-5 program was th

first to use this complicated arrangement. The impact of these and othe

contractual arrangements is discussed in the subsequent section "Galaxy 

and the Company Books." 

Funds are authorized and appropriated for spending by the Congres

for specific purposes and given amounts. No form of contracting can 

abrogate this responsibility; it can only be assumed by the specified gov

ernment agency, in this case the Air Force. For this reason I believe in 

hands-on contract administration by a competent government team with 

appropriate oversight by the general management of the agency. The con

tract should state the objectives clearly and offer rewards for excellent performance and penalties when objectives are not achieved. The "carrot and 

stick" approach may be based simply on cost when the development is 

essentially complete, but when design uncertainties still exist, an award fee 

may be preferable. In this way, corporate managers will feel it in their selfinterest to assign top-quality personnel to the undertaking. 
the time spent by the project team before reassignment. 

this study, the Air Force made a conscious effort to keep 

on these projects long enough that they felt responsible. 

mistakes, an early transfer, and a clean record should not 

operandi. I don't really believe many officers had that 

However, large projects require a real commitment fro

leadership. A real commitment requires staying on the jo

so that the fruits of the effort become apparent. 

There had been sufficient difficulty with both the C-5 

aircraft that General Ryan and the Air Staff recognized th

to be made in the acquisition process. They fully supporte

experienced project managers on extended assignments. 

Project Reviews 

Prior to becoming secretary of the Air Force, I had bee

oughly exposed to the ballistic missile program since the

also served NASA as launch vehicles. I also had worke

Force on the development of the Manned Orbiting 

(MOL) since this project made use of the Gemini mann

sule. Since Mel Laird told me I was selected for the job 

About a month after my arrival, I started picking up rumors of th

asked Mel Laird for a day in court if such was under consideratio

on a Saturday afternoon when General Stewart and I met with La

President Nixon in the Oval Office. Kissinger called on Monda

made an excellent presentation, and on Tuesday MOL was cance

4 
One of the questions I remember asking that first day was: "To wha

extent has this material been reviewed prior to the time that it is being 

presented here?" The answer was nineteen times. Nineteen levels in the 

organization had taken a crack at it! You can imagine that there wasn't much left that was controversial. That was the last quarterly review 

and the last review that was massaged nineteen times during my watch

I believe a month is the right period of time to review important programs. That's what I knew worked in NASA. That's how financial 

books are kept and how corporate directors run their business. After the 

reordering of status reviews, the assistant secretaries and the deputy 

chiefs became the board of directors, with either the secretary, under secretary, chief, or vice chief presiding. The status of the twelve to fifteen 

most critical projects was presented monthly, and actions were taken on 

the spot as appropriate. If the decision impacted on a particular field 

commander, he would be given the opportunity to participate. The project manager couldn't be expected to be present monthly because of his 

busy schedule, but he was required to attend at least quarterly and more 

frequently during critical periods. His deputy or someone from the Air 

Staff would represent the project at interim meetings. 

The following eight projects were either so important to the future 

of the Air Force or so much in the public that they along with seven 

others were on the critical list for the secretary's monthly reviews. 

Another twenty-five or so were reviewed by Grant Hansen and his 

counterpart, Lt. Gen. Otto Glasser. Hundreds of others were delegated to elements of the Systems and Logistics Commands in different 

parts of the country. 
cations was one caused by structural fatigue, leading to a 

life expectancy. The plane could fly at the maximum g

specified and could take off from the prescribed runway

every heavy load lessened the aircraft's life expectancy. T

could only be carried when it was really important, as, for 

the 1973 airlift to Israel.-' In that mission the aircraft wer

ing a couple of tanks, each weighing over 100,000 pound

pretty close to design. Most of the time when the flying wa

crew proficiency and the like, the plane was not fully loa

expectancy loss was minimized. 

By keeping track of the load and the turbulence of th

flight as well as careful frequent inspection of the win

20,000 hours of flying rather than the 30,000 specifi

obtained. So the Air Force ended up nursing its 80 heav

planes along by tail number prior to eventually rede

rebuilding the wings. 

6 

It wasn't cheap, or easy, but the Air 

The Galaxy (C-5) contract not only had profit inc

variety of performance factors, but also had the productio

to cost. In the original plan, there were five aircraft for 

followed by fifty-seven in Run A and a comparable numb

In January 1969, during the remaining weeks of t

5 	 Golda Meir, the Israeli prime minister at the time, was at the airport 

Galaxy. When the plane's nose lifted and two tanks emerged, she 

deeply moved and bent over to kiss the ground. 

6 	 For both logistical and operational purposes, aircraft are identified 

normally painted on the tail. 
to take responsibility for the solvency of a contractor. This is what 

mean by looking at the corporate books: What degree of liquidit

does the contractor have? What degree of flexibility? Is the compan

having difficulty borrowing from the banks? These kinds of question

should not be the government's responsibility. 

The difficulty was that at Mr. Packard's level, the government wa

no longer looking just at Lockheed's work on the C-5, but also on th

Navy's Polaris missile, the National Reconnaissance Office's classifie

satellite projects, and an advanced helicopter for the Army. Packar

had to look at the totality of Lockheed's defense business. But the onl

other major business they had was the commercial L-1011 airplan

with its engines coming from the then-bankrupt Rolls Royce, and 

good production run of C-130 transports. So when Dave Packard m

with Dan Houghton, the CEO of Lockheed, I'm certain all the card

were on the table. From the Air Force's standpoint, Dave negotiated 

cost contract for the C-5 with a loss to Lockheed of $200 million. Th

Air Force was finally back in control of the Galaxy, and the resultin

fleet of aircraft has been invaluable. 

From TFX to a Successful F-I I I 

The experimental fighter designated the TFX (Tactical Fighte

Experimental) was in trouble almost before it started in the earl

1960s. Under the rubric of cost saving, McNamara decreed that th

Air Force and the Navy would develop a new fighter in concert. Th

Air Force, as the lead service, conducted a source selection clearl

favoring the Boeing Aircraft Company. Gene Zuckert, the Air Forc
Pentagon for the first time in eight years. He went on to 

was no longer an adversary of the TFX, now becoming t

nation's first variable wing aircraft. 

The F-111 had two serious technical problems, the 

structure supporting the wings and the advanced avionics f

In order to swing the wings aft as the speed increased, th

pivoted on a single box-like structure, made of high tens

was used to obtain strength and save weight to preserve 

for carrier landings that were never to take place. Unfo

eral aircraft were lost when this structure failed. The fa

mately traced to small fractures within the steel that gr

The science of fracture mechanics was in its infancy, as w

ogy for finding these hairline cracks. It was known that the 

failure was greatest at low temperature when the steel 

brittle. The Air Force was faced with grounding the fleet u

ground test could be found. The situation was worsened b

the Australians had bet their future defense on the F-11

had been sold at a bargain basement price. 

The airplane was designed for 7g pullup maneuvers 

down. A fixture was developed by General Dynamics to a

alent forces ort the wings, tail, and fuselage using hydrau

cold soaking the aircraft at -40 degrees Fahrenheit for 24 

craft in the inventory and all subsequent planes off the asse

through a strenuous regimen of simulated attack maneuve

only a handful of test failures and no subsequent accidents 

In order to provide all-weather capability, the F-111Ds 

with a television-like monitor, which blended radar signals 
leave the production line. The remainder is paid after the aircraft are suc

cessfully tested in flight. General Dynamics was receiving 90 percen

progress payments on a daily basis. I couldn't believe it. The improvemen

in their cash flow was enormous thanks to Air Force largesse. I called 

Dave Lewis, the CEO of General Dynamics, to advise him the Air Force 

was shifting to normal progress payments and why. Poor performance on 

the advanced avionics was one of the reasons I cited. His first response 

was unprintable, but henceforth General Dynamics knuckled down, and 

the F-111 became a wonderful addition to the Air Force stable of aircraft

The F-rs-Can the Air Force Do It Right? 

One of the keys to a successful F-15 aircraft project was the appointment of a truly competent manager and to agreement on his availability 

long enough for development and early production. Major Genera

Benjamin Bellis was the answer. He had successfully managed the government's side of the SR-71, the highly successful strategic reconnaissance aircraft that flew Mach 3 at 70,000 feet. Kelly Johnson of 

Lockheed was his industrial counterpart. 

The Air Force had need of a new air superiority fighter-a plane that 

could protect air space over a battle zone. At the start there were two principal issues: (1) the requirements and (2) the method of contracting. The 

USAF fought hard for a single purpose aircraft and for a contract with 

simple incentives. The people in Defense Research and Engineering did not 

agree. That office felt the F-15 should be capable of close support of 

troops and wanted a total package arrangement as used for the C-5. The 

military was fully behind a true superiority fighter. Ultimately, the only 
minum, thereby requiring titanium or equally expensive a

it was decided the F-15 would be designed to carry only 

(the pilot) in order to keep the weight down and improv

ability. This decision placed great emphasis on the electro

including the radar. Detection and tracking of targets had 

plished semi-automatically to avoid pilot overload. And th

to operate at long range and all altitudes, which req

doppler to avoid radar ground clutter, especially when fly

The final lineup of contractors included McDonnell 

the aircraft and its electronics, but with a "fly befor

between Hughes Aircraft and Westinghouse for the radar. 

(two per aircraft) were provided by Pratt & Whitney. 

After contractor selection, we instituted a "scrub dow

the cost of either development or unit production could 

The procurement officers were distressed, believing it unf

to contract for a design different from the original. G

reviewed the cost-saving changes at a meeting with Ge

General William Momyer (chief of the Tactical Air Com

myself. After we made a favorable determination on these 

briefed Mr. Packard and the staff of Defense Re

Engineering, who thought the outcome was great. We wer

rebuild confidence in the Air Force. 

General Bellis was responsible not only for the aircraf

Pratt & Whitney engine that was going to be used in both 

also in the Navy's F-14. This was a tough assignment. He ha

with somewhat different Navy regulations. Before going ah
commanders conference at the SAC base in Puerto Rico when I received 

phone message from John McLucas. He said Laird would ask us to reb

the F-15 contract unless we inserted a proper affirmative action clause 

the present contract by the end of the day. Somehow the lack of a prop

clause had been omitted and had become public knowledge, and Fath

Theodore Hesburgh, president of Notre Dame and a member of th

President's affirmative action committee, had castigated the Departme

of Defense for its oversight. I suggested John straighten it out. He sai

"Mel insists you go to St. Louis this afternoon." I went back to the con

ference and announced, "I must be in St. Louis in the shortest possib

time." I was soon taken by SAC police, sirens screaming, to the flight lin

where a tanker was off-loading fuel as we approached. The tanker was o

alert, prepared to take off with such a heavy load that it would crash if on

engine failed. My departure was not such an emergency. A ladd

descended from the nose, and a sergeant grabbed my bags from Gener

Holloway and up the ladder I went. 

By mid-afternoon we taxied onto the ramp at the McDonnell Dougla

plant. Awaiting us was a small coterie around Mr. McDoml.ell, CEO of th

company, and a TV newsman was standing nearby. After shaking hand

all around, I vented my pique about the lack of an affirmative action pla

in front of the TV, and we then headed for the negotiation table. The con

tract was appropriately amended in a few hours, Mel Laird was appease

and I returned to Puerto Rico. 

As of this writing over 1,200 F-15s have come off the McDonne

Douglas assembly line. The airplane has performed well, a testimonial t

General Bellis and his team. 
could reach most parts of our respective countries in less 

hour, why worry about lumbering bombers? 

It appeared to some in the Air Force that there was 

role for AWACS in the European theater. With the ability 

dreds of airplanes, couldn't AWACS be used for air battle 

enthusiasm for this idea was just sufficient within Defe

and Engineering to maintain prototype funding o

Westinghouse won the flyoff and Boeing was selected to 

carrier. The slowly turning 30-foot rotodome mounted a

lage gave a space-like appearance to the converted 707-ty

General David C. Jones was given the responsibility 

first airborne prototype to Europe for testing. He deter

was not only possible to keep track of large numbers of 

potential enemy aircraft, but transponders could be plac

ground units so that the position of friendly fighters cou

to the ground war. General Jones returned from Europe g

siastic, only to find many skeptics at home. Among th

remained was AWACS vulnerability. Could the AWACS r

while far from the battle area? 

While decisions on AWACS were still in question, I ha

demonstrate its capabilities to Ken Rush, the new deputy 

defense. We took off from Andrews Air Force Base outside o

and flew a racetrack course above the District of Columbia a

At this altitude, we were simultaneously tracking 450 comm

located all the way from New York to North Carolina. 

Twenty years later, AWACS was in the Air Force in
Force pilots flying high-speed aircraft were sometimes having difficult

locating much less hitting ground targets. The Air Force was thought to b

ineffective. The Army was finding helicopters invaluable for transporta

tion and rescue but had such limited firepower they couldn't destro

enemy outposts. The Army had a helicopter gunship under developmen

that promised true combat firepower. But what about helicopter vulnera

bility in a battle zone? The Air Force suspected the Army of underesti

mating helicopter attrition rates and thus wanted hard data. When th

Army response appeared favorable-that is, helicopters apparently coul

withstand battle damage-the Air Force claimed that the Army kept hel

copters in their operational inventory if they could retrieve any identifiabl

part of the aircraft. In the vernacular, they would "keep the tail number 

they could retrieve the wheels." In short, interservice rivalry was intense

Two service secretaries entered this arena where angels should fear t

tread. I met with my counterpart, Stan Resor, secretary of the Army. We agree

that a fixed-wing, dose-support aircraft, the AX, was probably needed, an

that the Air Force should be responsible for its development. A simple memo

randum of understanding to this effect was signed by both parties. 

The result was truly remarkable. General Ryan wanted me to rescin

the memo by claiming I didn't understand the import of my actions. Sta

Resorreceivedsimilarrecrimination from General William Westmoreland

the Army chief of staff, who claimed he was giving away the store. 

I later heard that Stan had said, "Bob and I must have done some

thing right. Both of our staffs told us that we had sold them down th

·river." Ryan was so upset, he sent the vice chief, General John Meyer

to see me as his emissary. He was afraid he would be too emotional 
Northrop built the A-9, and Fairchild handled the A-10. 

Carefully selected pilots were given the job of flying an

two airplanes. Fairchild not only won the flyoff, but their 

two outboard engines was given high marks for maintai

announcement of the winner drew criticism on many fr

Lowell Weicker from Connecticut, the home of Lycombin

manufacturer for the A-9 aircraft, was quick to point out 

come must have been influenced by Governor Nelson R

New York and Vice President Spiro Agnew since Fairchild 

on Long Island and outside Washington in Maryland. 

The plane was not sleek and beautiful-it earned 

Warthog for good reason. More than 700 aircraft we

some of which saw service in Operation Desert Storm. Qu

been raised about the A-10's vulnerability and effectiven

of the Air Force in close ground engagements is still an o

Interdiction- The Mice Win 

The Air Force had a variety of combat missions in So

General Abrams could designate an area each day for patt

using B-52s at high altitude. F-4s and F-105s were used f

sance, close support, strafing, and precision bombing of d

gets. The precision was much improved as the war prog

use of "smart" bombs. The most effective technique reli

designator that illuminated the target and a traditional 

laser homing device attached to its nose and movable fin
against the Laotian mountains is in some places only 30 miles wide an

is about 250 miles long. In order to effect a cease-fire in 1954, th

French agreed to a division between the North and the South along th

17th parallel. This boundary was later expanded to form a demilitarize

zone usually called the DMZ. Even after the cease-fire, the VietCong (VC

continued their insurrection in the South, and the North considered it i

their interest to aid and abet the VC with a wide variety of military supplie

The supplies were delivered to North Vietnam by rail from China an

into Haiphong Harbor by Soviet ships.7 The resourcefulness of th

Vietnamese moving supplies south cannot be overemphasized. When the

rail lines along the coast were temporarily destroyed, they would enter th

Laotian panhandle further north. Laos borders Thailand along th

Mekong River, and its panhandle is 7 5 to 125 miles wide. The region 

mountainous, with foliage and countless rivers and streams. The supplie

moved south on Soviet trucks, and when the roads were under repair, o

the back of animals and men. As the war in South Vietnam involved loc

harassment by the VC, not synchronized warfare, delivery wasn't usual

time critical. The major battle at Khe Sanh was an exception. 

Several technologies were used to stem the flow of supplies. The prev

ous administration made a heavy investment in the development and pla

ing of sensors along the myriad of trails. These took the form of probes th

could be air-dropped and would penetrate the earth just deep enough th

the antenna would remain above ground. The antennae were designed t

7 The North Vietnamese also. used Sihanoukville in Cambodia as a port of entry f

supplies distributed primarily in the Mekong Delta area south of Saigon. 
descent of a probe caught in a tree. The excitement of the 

rapidly increased, and then one of them could be heard clim

and reaching for the device. There was suddenly a loud noise 

timber and a shriek, but the final outcome will forever remain 

sensor went off the air. 

An adjunct to the Air Force and Navy fighter planes us

the flow of supplies was the gunship, which was introduced i

Asia by the previous administration in 1965. A large openin

the side of C-47s so that Gatling miniguns could be fired a

traffic as the C-4 7 circled overhead. By 1969 the Vietnam tra

mostly at night, and the gunships were becoming more sophis

both C-119 and C-130 aircraft.8 The development was strictl

roots level, with Major Ron Terry at Wright Field, Ohio, in 

was receiving little support from the Tactical Air Comma

meeting to discuss the lack of support with General M

General Ryan. Momyer argued the gunship would not b

Europe because of its vulnerability. So why spend resour

cial mission not often encountered? I argued for increased 

in an existing war, with the thought that Vietnam insur

not be unique in the future. 

Ron Terry received grudging assistance. Ultimately, 

105-mm cannons in C-130 aircraft. A wide variety of in

tors and displays were used for locating trucks and aim

• The Air Force names for the gunships were "Spooky," "Stinger," 

when using, respectively, the C-47, C-119, and C-130 aircraft. 
mAILAND 

.Takhll 

•Korat 

Map of Southeast Asia during the conflict. 

U.S. airbases are indicated in the smallest type. 
General McConnell was anxious to get the developme

bomber under way, so he made an appointment with Pack

the issue. I came to the meeting not too well-grounded in t

recognizing that the B-52s were twenty to twenty-five 

would need to be replaced in a decade or so. I also felt th

design studies such as those on AMSA (Advanced Man

Aircraft) were expensive and a slick way to avoid decision

ing, McConnell agreed to cancel further production of th

of 250 FB-111s. The bomber version of the F-111 had 

capacity and range and was not a true strategic bomber. It 

initiate plans for a new strategic bomber, the B-1. 

Missiles can be land based and delivered with grea

aboard submarines hidden under the sea and launched 

depending primarily on the submarine's navigational accur

missiles, unlike a bomber, cannot be recalled once launche

also lack the flexibility of carrying a wide variety of smal

heads. So bombers continue to be part of the U.S. invento

missiles, constituting the third leg of the so-called Triad 

legs are the land-based and submarine-based nuclear miss

Before a bomber reaches its target, it must penetra

land mass, which in the case of the Soviet Union was he

Simulated tests against our own defenses showed the 

high speed and low altitude, preferably under 200 fee

tions favored high subsonic speeds rather than superso

margin (Mach 0.95 compared with Mach 1.1). Anot

factor was the use of a swing wing. Although more com
accepted by the public and with performance suitable for the Strategi

Air Command, in the 1980s and beyond. 

Every new airplane is going to have equipment, such as avionic

added later. It's a mistake to add all conceivable equipment at the sta

and run up excessive costs due to development difficulties and ensuin

delays. So we tried to keep the avionics simple. We thought we ha

made good decisions on the avionics, and then we started to get dis

turbing signals. We were trying to keep the unit price down to $4 mil

lion. The avionics team came in and said, "We can't guarantee it, bu

we think we're up to at least $8 million." 

We just had to take a "meat axe" approach. One of the require

ments resulted from the need to fly long distances "on the deck" (a

low altitude) with sufficient precision that the radar could determin

position along a coastline. If the plane flew at an altitude of only 20

feet until near the coast and then climbed to 400 feet, it made 

tremendous difference in the navigation error that could be allowed 

and still distinguish landmarks along a coastline with reasonable prob

ability. By relaxing the requirement, we no longer needed new inertia

navigation systems; rather, we could use commercial equipment. Th

lessening of this requirement saved lots of dollars. 

Another cost-cutting example was the B-1 escape capsule. One o

the initial requirements was the ability to escape at very high speed 

and low altitude even from a tumbling aircraft. The escape capsule 

became much like a reentry vehicle but stabilized aerodynamically 

with spoilers, flaps, and brakes. General Ryan had to decide whethe

to continue with the capsule or change to a conventional bail-out pro
A highly classified visit to the Strategic Air Command 

Nebraska, could reveal the SlOP (Single Integrated Opera

This plan spelled out each target in the Soviet Union th

attacked in the event of a nuclear war. The plan designa

nage, the specific delivery missile or bomber, and the 

bombers would follow. Each missile wing, submarine, 

would be provided its specific assignments in the event 

attack. It is truly awesome to contemplate the damage 

have been inflicted on both countries following a nuclear 

I found there was a much less frightening tit for tat betw

Soviet air attaches. When the Bolshoi Ballet came to the Ken

the Soviet air attache in Washington sent me front row ticket

going to be traveling on that date, I asked to have the tick

with a note of explanation and thanks. Just prior to this, 

wife of one of our attaches in Moscow had apparently bee

Soviet reception. So my invitation was returned to the attac

fully insulting way. A junior officer slammed the tickets on 

said, "The secretary wouldn't consider accepting your invit

When I found out this had happened, I discussed the st

Jack Ryan, who agreed to help put a stop to the nonsens

the U.S. Air Force took the foreign air attaches to an active 

That year the attaches were going to SAC headquarters. Ja

I decided to include this particular Soviet attache, a fi

attaches weren't shown much more than would have be

Rotary Club, but the Soviet attache was ecstatic. He w

because none of his superiors had ever had such an oppor
included radars and communication stations located along north

Alaska, Canada, and Greenland and was called appropriately the DE

line for Distant Early Warning. This system could give adequate warn

against incoming bombers but had no capability to alert the U.S. of a b

listic missile attack. In the late 1950s, a large-scale effort was made 

install BMEWS (Ballistic Missile Early Warning System). Large track

radars were installed in Alaska, Greenland, and Scotland to detect So

ballistic missiles before they could reach the continental United Sta

This system led to one disquieting moment that served to place SAC 

alert. Fortunately, the USA wasn't under attack; rather, the Moon was 

ing above the horizon. As the Soviet buildup continued with further c

struction of missile silos and increasing numbers of submarines station

near our shores, deficiencies in BMEWS became obvious. The Defe

Support Satellite (DSS) was built to fill this gap in our strategic defen

DSS truly relied on advanced technology and for this reason ga

me the most concern of all weapons systems under developme

However, I needn't have worried. Aerojet General did an exceptiona

fine job with the sensors, although security was so tight there was 

tle public recognition. DSS was placed in a synchronous orbit in 

position from which it could observe all rocket launches as th

appeared above the Soviet atmosphere. By analysis of the gas-burni

plumes behind the rockets, DSS could discriminate between know

types of rockets. DSS also had the capability to count the number 

rockets and to determine the destination of their payloads minute 

minute. This knowledge would permit the President to be whisked 

helicopter from the White House to the Airborne Command Post 
aboard the Command Post, redundant channels are ava

dispatches. A nuclear war would be such a world disas

unthinkable. But only by such thinking could we conti

credible deterrent during the cold war. 

Campus Life 

With the Vietnam War on, it was a trying time to be se

Air Force. With American campuses in an uproar over t

probably even more difficult to be a student. 

Our son Joe was in the Harvard class of 1970. In h

there were antiwar riots in Harvard Square and in the Y

west visiting the Air Force Academy during one suc

When I called Gene, who was in our Brattle Street hous

she said, "We've got some pretty bad things going on h

to supper to tell me about it." 

"How does Joe feel about it?," I asked. 

She said, "He thinks it's all nonsense." 

"Well, I'm glad of that." 

The next morning at about 5:30, the phone rang in m

Air Force Academy. It was my brother Peter, who said, "

warn you as early as possible that when the police 

University Hall after midnight to break up the demon

was one of the students there." 

"Well, Peter, I talked to Gene last night, and Joe was 

ing the whole thing is nuts." 
ing at dawn. Joe said it was all sort of exciting until he saw real police

men coming up the stairs of University Hall-all of them appearing t

be about six feet, six inches and dressed in riot gear. He found a sim

ple solution: jump out the window. It was quite a drop, and he lande

pretty hard. He saw a girl who had already jumped who appeared t

have broken her ankle. He helped her, then tried to catch another gir

jumping. Down she came, her skirts up around her head, and flash

went the camera. The reporter came up and asked Joe's name. 

Joe said, "I don't want to get my father in any trouble." Of course

that did it. If he had said, "I'm Joe Smith," the paper never would hav

used the picture. 

Before I went to Cambridge on the weekend, I said to Gene, "

want to talk to Joe." When I arrived, I put on some old clothes an

bicycled all around Harvard Yard to see what was really going on

There were posters that looked as though they had been printed b

Russian revolutionaries in 1917. When I finally met up with Joe, h

said, "All of this is really confusing. It's so hard to figure out what

going on. I can't possibly study in my room at night. Somebody come

in asking me to sign a protocol, and I do so just to get them out of th

room." His roommate was a member of Students for a Democrati

Society (SDS). He said, "I go over to the Radcliffe library if I want t

get anything done." 

Then he went on to say, "I do wonder about the Cabots. Yo

know, they own a lot of the land around the Harvard Medical Schoo

and as a result they're making an awful lot of money supporting th

school's land-acquisition process." 
uated cum laude in English, he knew he wanted to go int

He had trouble getting a job. After about two mon

down to Washington with his friend Andy Schlesinger, son 

Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., to visit me. The two of them we

at the airport by my aide, Colonel Mike Cook, and a

office looking dreadful! They had long hair, of cours

clothes were a bit shabby. The military people who saw th

prised by the lack of a Seamans dress code! 

At Harvard Joe had met a young woman from Wel

Elizabeth ("Betsy") Nadas, who was a year ahead of h

Her father was the leading children's cardiologist in the c

had a job working with Mr. Rogers' Neighborhood, the 

sion program produced at WQED in Pittsburgh. She wro

the show and played the role of Mrs. McFeely, the po

Betsy wrote Joe and said, "Why don't you come out he

work for Mr. Rogers? You probably won't make much 

you'll have some fun." Joe worked for the program for 

without seeing a paycheck-pushing crates around and 

ever needed doing-then finally went on the payroll. A fe

his arrival in Pittsburgh, he and Betsy were married at t

Chapel in Harvard Yard. They now have two children. 

the show for a while, Betsy is back working part-ti

Rogers, helping with a great variety of programs. 

Joe's first big filmmaking opportunity came in 197

America's bicentennial, the National Geographical Socie

film about Hokule'a, a catamaran that sailed from Haw
Saturday and Sunday. Back at Dobbs, she didn't always hew perfect

to the line. In time, she fell in love with Gene Baldwin, who work

at the school. When we went to May's graduation in 1971, she to

us she planned to marry. Plans already had been made for May 

spend that summer in Mexico. We hoped that she would think ov

her decision, but it didn't work out that way. 

May and Gene were married on August 27, 1971, while visitin

the Baldwins. They had a daughter in 1978, but were divorced tw

years later. May came to Cambridge to live and married a very ta

ented dentist, Elliot Kronstein, on October 11, 1986. 

May has been trained as a hospice worker, and she helped set u

a hospice for people suffering from AIDS. It has provided a wonde

ful final refuge for hundreds of people. She is licensed as a nurse

assistant and a home health aide. She is a gifted healer. 

G lobetrotting 

When you're involved in the Air Force, flying is de rigueur. I did a l

of flying, visiting Air Force installations around the globe. The A

Force has many more bases than NASA had centers, so there was a lo

of ground to cover. I made it a point in my four-plus years as secretar

to visit nearly every major installation inside and outside the Unite

States, and Gene accompanied me on about one-third of the journey

In the continental United States, or in conus, as it is called, I fle

in a Jetstar, a high-performance airplane. It had four jet engines an
The military let me know that I ought to get to Sou

soon as I could. I took the first of many trips in May 196

cal trip, it was a seven- or eight-hour flight from Andrews A

to Anchorage, but flying across five time zones, we go

lunch. At that time there were a lot of small bases all ove

ticularly on the northern perimeter, as well as very large r

Fairbanks, all of which kept track of what the Soviets wer

different trips west, I stopped long enough in Alaska to 

them. From Alaska we flew across the Pacific to Tokyo, a

of the three major U.S. Air Force bases near that city-oft

dinner! From Washington to Alaska to Japan, the Sun ne

On my Asian trips, we proceeded to Saigon via v

Sometimes we stopped in Okinawa, sometimes in Taiw

we went through the Philippines. Quite a few times I w

Korea, where we had many bases. I was lectured by th

South Korea on the stupidity of the United States pro

against Soviet aggression. He argued that the U.S. and 

were putting up major resources, while the Japanese w

up a nickel for their own defense. Instead, they were us

to compete economically against us. I didn't have a very 

for him, except to say that the United States didn't partic

idea of having the Japanese rearm. 

"Then why did you let the Germans?," he asked. 

While in South Korea we, like many foreigners, were i

sing party. We went to a restaurant, where every guest had 

woman assigned to him. While we had drinks, our respect
housed the art treasures taken out of mainland China. I had heard tha

it housed so much, it could have had a different exhibit every day for 

year. It was past museum closing time, but Chiang said, "Don't worry

the museum will be open for you." I was given the grand tour. 

I don't know how many trips I took from Andrews Air Force Bas

to Tan Son Nhut Air Base, just north of Saigon. Once when Gen

came with me, we stayed in what was known as the Little Whit

House inside Saigon. During our two days together in Vietnam, sh

visited (always with a flak jacket in her car) an orphanage, a "typical

home of a civil employee, a Vietnamese army hospital, and a rura

school, where she was unexpectedly called on to make a speech. Th

street scenes were unforgettable to her, with their endless piles of trash 

and numerous little houses shingled with metal from beer cans. On 

that exhausting trip, we made fourteen stops in two weeks, going a

far as central Australia. When we got home, Gene had a severe sore 

throat and had lost her voice and tummy, though not her head! 

Other times I stayed at Tan Son Nhut, a huge base with more traf

fic flying in and out than is found at any major United States civilian air

port. Our military presence there was massive. After a briefing with the 

commander of U.S. forces in Southeast Asia, General Creighton 

Abrams, and a meeting with our ambassador, Ellsworth Bunker, I flew 

up-country, where the Air Force had another seven major bases. One 

base in Da Nang was used for training the South Vietnamese-what was 

known in those days as Vietnamization. Tens of thousands were taugh

English, then taught to be mechanics, pilots, and navigators. Goodness 

knows what has happened to them all; they were well trained. 
Washington in June 1968, before the deal fell through. I

I was sitting in his living room in Vientiane that I found 

problem had been. Our real estate agent had been unwill

agents their share of the commission. Once be

Washington, I had received a back-channel communique 

wife, who was Greek, was having a terrible time getting 

her pets. When I arrived at the front door of the 

Vientiane, my Air Force jeep was loaded with a 100-po

of kitty litter tied with a great big red bow. 

Godley took me on tours in his small twin-engine pl

flew into the very mountainous northern region of Laos. 

not that high-maybe 9,000 feet on average-but they 

and numerous, seemingly placed at random. The weathe

and I finally convinced Godley that, much as I wante

Tien, where the Hmong forces were centered, I could 

along without it! 

On my next trip to Laos, we did land at Lon Tien, a

we had stayed aloft on the previous visit. The runway s

toward a mountain, which precludes a go-round if the f

missed. When taking off, planes taxi to the high mount

runway and take off going downhill in the opposite dire

General Van Poa, head of the Hmong, met us in his j

to a receiving line of men and women dressed in ceremoni

are five subtribes of Hmong, and Van Poa had a wife from 

hurt feelings. I never found out whether they were in the 

Before lunch Ambassador Godley and I were gree
den party for the diplomatic corps. Ambassador Leonard Unge

asked if I would like to attend and if so to bring my white tie an

tails. The garden was in the middle of the palace grounds. Eac

diplomatic team was lined up by seniority, with no more than tw

guests standing behind each ambassador and his wife. As the kin

and queen proceeded along the line, each ambassador bowed and hi

wife attempted a low curtsey. 

Later the king and queen separated, and introductions took place. I sug

gested to Len Unger that we visit with the beautiful queen first. When intro

duced, I explained my connection with MIT and said how happy we wer

to have her daughter studying there. Her face darkened, as she told me tha

her daughter had forsaken her heritage and would never return to Thailand

Changing the subject, I discussed my trip to Laos and the strings still aroun

my wrist. The queen explained that when she returned from Laos the string

went as high as her elbow. I decided I was not prepared to deal with royalty

Of course, much of the Air Force's activities involved NATO, an

Gene and I made several trips to Europe, ranging from Norway t

Turkey, with many stops along our routes. An unusual trip taken with

out Gene started at our bomber base in Loring, Maine, on the Canadia

border. Morale was excellent there even though the greenhead flies too

visible chunks of skin from the unsuspecting. The next stop was Iceland

where we shared the Keflavfk Airport with commercial aviation. As w

were just below the Arctic Circle, the days were long, and service peo

ple were having great difficulty putting their children to bed. 

Our northern route then took us up the west coast of Greenland

stopping at Sandrestrom at the end of a long, scenic fiord. From ther
weather cleared later that evening and we went on a to

ous BMEWS facilities. A large 500-foot fixed antenna 

the promontory that faces north towards potential inco

Looking north the eye could see nothing but a sea of ic

From Thule, we flew directly to Fairbanks, Alaska

and-a-half hours. This part of the trip was of particular 

Mateson, a Washington friend originally from Minnesot

of many summers he had canoed the northernmost rive

sphere-from the Hudson Bay, west across Canada, o

and down the Yukon into Fairbanks. I wanted his views 

Force was handling environmental issues. As a conse

inspection with Bob, the Air Force removed and sold for 

million fuel drums that had accumulated at its bases in 

On this trip, we inspected BMEWS facilities near 

were similar to the ones at Thule. We then flew to a 

Galena on the banks of the Yukon. Bob Mateson was esp

to meet a particular Indian guide who was famous for hi

the region. During the two-hour period when Bob was 

river rose six to eight feet around the guide's house. Bo

not to canoe on the lower Yukon, as silt can fill clothin

person in minutes. However, he was undeterred and m

following summer. After touring Alaska, we flew ho

Minot Air Force Base in North Dakota, where there is 

(intercontinental ballistic missile) installation. 

Gene and I took another memorable trip, to South 

stop was Panama, where the South American command 
where a general strike was in progress. We could not get a car through 

to our embassy, so Ambassador John Lodge (brother of Henry Cabo

Lodge, Jr.) came over to our hotel to chat with us. The president of the 

country kindly loaned us his plane so that we could fly to Cordova

location of the training facility for Argentinean pilots. The next day 

the Lodges gave us a very elegant dinner party. Ambassador Lodge

who was so handsome he could have been a movie actor, had a beautiful voice and loved to sing at parties. After he sang for us, he unexpectedly called on Gene. She stood up in front of that group of 

seventy-five jeweled strangers, with her foot in a cast and the musicians poised. Then, God bless her, no words came out! (She later 

admitted to stage fright.) My military assistant, Colonel Cook, who 

also had a very nice voice, immediately jumped up and sang "Hello, 

Dolly!" with her, saving the day. From Buenos Aires we traveled to 

Lima, Peru, where the Peruvian government flew us to join a National 

Geographic trip to Cuzco and Machu Picchu. 

Another time we went together to Mexico City. Gene and I knew 

the ambassador, Bob McBride, a personal friend of the president of 

Mexico. The president finally said he would see me, but only as a 

friend of the ambassador, not in my capacity as the secretary of the Air 

Force. The McBrides took us over to call on him. As it was customary 

to exchange gifts on such occasions, Gene had brought along a hooked 

rug and a quilted pillow from a store in Georgetown, Massachusettscrafts she especially enjoyed giving on our various foreign trips. She 

had written a description and history of them and, before a given trip, 

had it translated into the languages of the countries we would be 
experiences, one I wouldn't have fully enjoyed if I had r

Elliot Richardson and I first discussed the matter. 

Our family took a ski vacation to Vail in 1970. Ther

us in the party, which meant there was always an od

when we paired up for the two-passenger chairlifts. On

the odd person, I paired up by accident with a hand

named Joan Pollard. She asked me what I did. I said 

Washington. 

"As what?" 

"Secretary." 

"Secretary of what?" 

"Of the Air Force." 

By the time we had reached the top, she had told me 

band, Ben, was an Air Force navigator, that he had bee

the North Vietnamese six years before, and that she w

Colorado POW-MIA (missing in action) families. Joan 

very interesting person, and getting to know a POW wi

tragedy even closer to home. We corresponded, and wh

Washington on POW-MIA business, I invited her to 

were telling the families everything we could, but it wa

and I hope for her, to have this personal contact. 

Finally the great day came-February 14, 1973-

Force was allowed to send C-141s into Hanoi to pic

oners of war. For each planeload there was a manife

relayed to me as soon as a plane left the ground in Ha

list after list without finding Ben's name. Then on 
but also his adjustment to freedom and his renewed family life. 

Leaving the Air Force 

By law, the secretaries of the Army, Navy, and Air Force are in charge 

of managing their departments-overseeing budgets, development and 

procurement of equipment, training of forces, and so on. They are not, 

however, in the chain of command on military operations, which 

passes from the President through the secretary of defense and the 

Joint Chiefs of Staff to the forces in the field. So while I shared in the 

responsibility, I was not directly involved in decisions on national policy or the conduct of the war. 

However, I could and did make my views known. In my second 

year in the Air Force, I was invited to the White House to discuss the 

Pentagon budget with the President, Henry Kissinger, Mel Laird, and 

the other service secretaries. Resor, Chafee, and I were given six minutes each to make presentations. The Air Force, being youngest of the 

armed services, always goes last; so I waited while Resor and Chafee 

talked. Their discussions concerned morale and a perceived need for 

some sort of White House ceremony to honor our military heroes. 

I felt that, with the country groaning out loud over Vietnam, we 

ought to be able to have a candid discussion about what was really 

going on. I said at the meeting that it ought to be recognized at the policy level that we were paying a heavy price for what was happening in 

Southeast Asia and that our national security was being jeopardized. 

The simple way of looking at it, I said, was that we were providing the 
I felt I could contribute. While skiing at Vail, I drafted a lette

to our assembled family. It wasn't a letter of resignation. I

that unless America made every effort to disengage itself fro

the earliest possible date, I would resign. I gave the letter to L

the fact that I was willing to take a stand and told me so. I

me that he was putting what weight he could behind the not

and speedy disengagement. 

In 1972, just before Nixon's reelection, Robert N. Gins

star general in charge of Air Force public affairs, felt that 

Jack Ryan (the chief of staff) and I should individually 

record" with key members of the media. We invited some 

bers of the press to a cocktail-dinner party at Ginsburg's ho

ner, we sat around in Bob's living room, and they fired que

At about eleven o'clock, someone said he had just one 

before leaving. What was the chance that, if we were to m

years later, the war would still be on? If I had had any sense

said, "You may be here, but I won't." Instead, I recapitulat

why I thought we would be pulling out soon-Vietnamizat

negotiations, and so on. Then I added, "If you ask me, 'Is 

sible chance we'll be there three years from now,' I'd hav

there is that possibility.' " 

On my way home in the car, the radio news anno

high-ranking civilian in the Air Force said there was a 

America would be in Southeast Asia another three year

stories embellished this one. By the time the next issue 

azine came out, it stated categorically that Robert C. 
me an appropriate letter." 

Laird himself resigned shortly afterward. I was en route to Southeas

Asia and Antarctica9 when I received a communique saying that Ellio

Richardson had just been appointed to replace Laird and that he wanted 

to speak with me. I called him and told him my itinerary for the next two 

weeks. I told him I would turn around and come back if he needed to 

speak with me immediately. 

He said, "No, that sounds like a great trip. By all means, go ahead 

with it. But," he added, "what's up between you and Haldemann?" 10 

"What do you mean?" 

"Well, I find that the White House, in effect, wants your head." 

"As a matter of fact," I told him, "I do want to get out of the Air Force." 

"Well," he said, "I've heard that you have an opportunity to head 

up the Sloan-Kettering Cancer Institute." 

I told him that it wasn't definite but that I had been talking with 

Lawrence Rockefeller about the possibility. 

When I returned from my trip, the Sloan-Kettering opportunity did 

not pan out. I told Elliot that I did not have an immediate need to resign. 

But early in 1973, I wrote him, saying that I wished to resign from the 

• Guy Stever and I met 	at the Air Force facility in Christ church, New Zealand. 

There we and our party were fitted out with the necessary boots, parkas, and other 

gear for the Antarctic. The flight to McMurdo Bay aboard a C-141 took four-anda-half hours. While there we visited a penguin rookery, the South Pole station, the 

Soviet base at Vostok, and the New Zealand station, while flying in a C-130 

equipped with skis. 

10 Nixon's chief of staff H.R. Haldeman. 
of our accomplishments and failures. 

The most perplexing was our role in Southeast Asia. 

was finished and that was a blessing, but what had 

plished? Could South Vietnam continue on its own with

tary involvement? Even so, was it worth the many 

Vietnamese lives? It was difficult even then to realize the 

the casualties sustained during eight years of fighting. F

period, more than 300 body bags were filled and re

United States every week. Of course the public was gre

I remembered the rioting in Chicago at the time of t

Convention in 1968, the shooting at Kent State Univer

ing of American flags, and the trashing of ROTC classr

there is general agreement now that our military i

Southeast Asia was a mistake. There has been a loss o

our leaders. The public is much more skeptical of go

prior to our involvement in Asia. How did this happen

Before addressing this question directly, it should be k

both the Johnson and Nixon administrations were faced 

serious cold war. They had to consider the possible impac

on responses by the Chinese and the Soviets in unison o

addition, President Nixon didn't want to upset his delicate 

ing relations with China. With that said, let me make 

observations with the benefit of twenty-twenty hindsight

The McNamara-Johnson idea was to keep raising the 

soned that at some point, the communists would break. 

the more the communists were pounded, the greater their 
conduct an operation similar to Desert Storm, the successful thwarting 

of Iraq's plans to take over Kuwait in 1992. We had to attack the 

North Vietnamese forces and their supporting infrastructure at home. 

We did take such action but much too late and only when the North 

Vietnamese reneged on the 1972 peace accords. Although highly controversial at home, the so-called Christmas bombing of selected targets 

around Hanoi and the mining of Haiphong Harbor immediately 

brought the North Vietnamese back to the negotiating table. Early in 

the war, shipments along the rail lines from China to Hanoi could have 

been the Air Force's number one assignment, and Haiphong Harbor 

could have been blockaded by the Navy. Intercepting supplies and 

weapons in transit through Laos was nearly impossible, however. 

Moreover, trying to do so placed no direct pressure on North Vietnam. 

Ifthe risks of more direct attack on North Vietnam were felt to be too 

great, the only other option was to negotiate a U.S. withdrawal. President 

Nixon felt that South Vietnam would fall if the United States withdrew 

and that the whole area would be subject to a communist takeover according to the domino theory. Furthermore, he felt that the United States would 

be judged an unreliable ally in the world arena. I can only comment that 

this perception of the Untied States would, even if it existed, be temporary, 

but our extended stay in Southeast Asia was a permanent loss at home. 

Today, the United States is the only superpower. We do have broad 

responsibilities in our own interests as well as in the interests of the world 

community. That said, it is my strong belief that we should never again 

risk the lives of thousands of our young men and women unless the future 

of our country is directly at stake. 
THE National Academy of Engineering (NAE) wa

1964 as a spinoff from the National Academy of Sc

There had been quite a bit of concern within the engine

nity that the NAS, founded by President Lincoln during 

did not adequately represent engineering on the Washing

a small group of engineers within the NAS got togethe

mended that a corresponding academy of engineering be 

NAS did not want the engineers approaching Congress fo

ter because the old one was very favorable and no one 

it reopened for revision. So the engineers said, "Okay, 

can select our own members and can participate in the m

the National Research Council [the "business end" 

responsible for carrying out governmental studies], that 

But it wasn't fine. The third president of the NA

Linder, and Philip Handler, president of the NAS, didn'

were absolutely at loggerheads. Linder felt that the engi

getting the time of day, and Handler got sick and tired of 

by the engineers. So the engineers came to the conclusion 

to separate from the scientists, lock, stock, and barrel. It 

scene that I came as fourth president of the academy in 

The morning before the formal annual meeting co

with the academy's council. It was agreed that the memb

be asked at the annual meeting to abrogate the agreement 

and go off on their own. Up to this point, I knew little 

between the two groups. I had been a member since 19

met with Clarence Linder a couple of times before becom

199 

commercial development and production. To split the two ends of th

continuum would be artificial and do a great disservice to the country

The Congress wouldn't always know on a given issue which academy to 

turn to. On top of which, our academy didn't have more than $50,000 

in the bank, whereas the NAS had an endowment of $50 million! 

During the summer I composed a two-page letter to Phil Handle

in which I not only said that I didn't think we ought to split but also 

gave a formula for working more closely together. I pulled the ol

bureaucratic trick that I had learned at NASA and the Air Force o

going in to see him with a draft letter and asking, "How would you 

like to receive this letter?" 

He read it and said, "But it's too late." 

I said, "Phil, if you believe it's the right thing to do and I believe it'

the right thing to do, then it's not too late." 

"Well, send me the letter." After he had received it, he invited m

to come to the summer meeting of the council of the NAS and explai

myself. Some members of the science academy were as negativ

toward the engineers as some of the engineers were toward them

Nevertheless, I told them that I thought it was a mistake to split

Furthermore, I said that the NAS, being the senior organization, ha

the final responsibility on all matters of policy dealing with the federa

government. Reaffirming that we engineers still wanted a say in th

National Research Council, I suggested that from thenceforth th

council have seven members from the NAS, four members from th

NAE, and two members from the Institute of Medicine. That way, 

there was a real rift, the scientists would always have a majority an
At the fall 1973 council meeting of the National 

Engineering, one of our members, W. Kenneth Davis 

said, "From where I sit, I think this country is facing a d

situation." In 1970, for the first time, the United States 

more oil than it had exported. Oil imports were growing 

year. I responded to Davis's concern by saying that the 

investigate. I invited him to chair a committee, and he ag

coincidence, the committee met for the first time in Octo

week after the Arab oil embargo had begun. Cars were st

lines for partial fill-ups. Suddenly energy was the hot to

mittee's report, published in the spring of the following 

of publicity. We had a press conference and testified bef

When Congress started looking at what we ought t

energy situation, they began talking about putting toge

like NASA. Much to my surprise, I was invited to the Ex

to discuss personnel for such an undertaking. After 

several supernumeraries, I was introduced to Frank Z

director of the Office of Management and Budget (OM

I was on the shortlist to be the administrator of a new 

"Frank," I said, "you've got to be kidding." The leg

proposed new agency hadn't been passed yet, and I d

would be. But I said I would be happy to discuss it wit

if and when it became a reality. 

In the summer of 1974, President Nixon resi

replaced by Gerald Ford. The enabling legislation 
I told President Ford that I had five concerns I wanted addressed 

before I accepted his nomination. Most importantly, I asked that I be 

given the opportunity to recommend the seven other presidentia

appointees who would be working with me. I also wanted to be sure 

that he would not insist on a particular appointee if I disapproved of 

the person. We shook hands on this and the other matters of concern 

to me, and in the following days I was appointed by the President. A 

month later I was confirmed by the Senate. 

Even before I was confirmed I was deluged with phone calls and 

letters from people who wanted jobs, who had programs to sell, or 

who wanted interviews for the media. Inside the government there 

were also many demands. The energy budget had to be presented to 

Congress in two months; the seven presidential appointees had to be 

selected; and, most important, arrangements had to be made for placing existing agencies under the ERDA umbrella. 

Dixie Lee Ray chaired the AEC, and she pressed hard for transfer of 

the AEC immediately. Several of the commissioners had already left, so 

it was next to impossible for her to make policy decisions. In addition, 

she said the uncertainties associated with the transfer were causing 

severe morale problems. Dixie was a colorful character. Unmarried, she 

lived in a trailer with her two dogs, who inhabited her office during 

working hours. The smaller dog enjoyed jumping into a visitor's lap, and 

the larger one would sniff from behind when least expected. 

Guy Stever, a friend and former associate at MIT, was director of the 

National Science Foundation (NSF) and President Ford's science advisor. 

While I was awaiting confirmation, he offered me an office where I could 
and occupied within six weeks. Admittedly on December 2

was sworn in, there was still an uninstalled toilet parked in m

awaiting a plumber. My office looked out on the railroad tra

east Washington, and every time a train went by, convers

stop and pictures on the wall would have to be realigned. 

Meanwhile, the selection of key individuals was the mo

suming and critical of the early problems I faced. The seven 

appointments included my deputy and heads of the six 

ERDA prescribed by Congress: Alternate Fuels, includin

fusion; Nuclear, including uranium enrichment; Fossil Fue

Security, including nuclear weapons; Environment; and C

Key staff functions also requiring careful screening were 

counsel, public affairs, congressional affairs, international af

istration, comptroller, operations manager for fifty field insta

the secretary of the general advisory committee. For some o

tions, the White House gave me lists of thirty to forty nam

which were unsuitable. 

I was, of course, desperate for a deputy who could he

responsibilities. Previous government experience, capability

ability were key ingredients for the job. I was fortunate to lo

Fri, who had been deputy to William D. Ruckelsh

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and was currently 

in the management consulting firm of McKinsey and Comp

Prior to Ray Walters, I was provided with an individual who tol

"wire" the agency by placing moles in each center of activity. He las

1 
Indiana. He was on a White House list and had the right profession

credentials. After making suitable reference checks, I was able to rea

Phil to discuss his appointment as assistant administrator for Fos

Fuels. He ultimately accepted and provided ERDA with valuab

industrial experience. I finished phoning on December 24, just in tim

to complete my Christmas shopping. 

The following May, Dan announced one morning, "I'm not goi

back to St. Albans next year. If I spend another year at St. Alba

we're going to hate each other for the rest of our lives." I was nev

certain why. We told him we wished he had mentioned this a bit e

lier, but we did look at other schools. We finally all agreed and se

Dan to the Putney School in Vermont. It was a great success. I thi

that's where Dan "found himself." He hiked for hours in the s

rounding woods and learned how to use tools and to take dents out 

cars (a useful skill for a teenage driver), as well as all the usual hi

school subjects. He also grew to be six feet, four inches. By his sen

year, he was attracted by the idea of taking time off before college, b

we encouraged him to continue his schooling without interruption, 

least until he had a year or two of college under his belt. He chose t

University of California at Santa Cruz, which is known for its stro

emphasis on undergraduate education and its beautiful setting. D

traveled to California alone, camped out on the campus, and got hi

self accepted for that fall. 

Santa Cruz also had a good music department. All during his ad

lescence, Dan had been almost obsessed with music. At o

Washington house on Idaho avenue, a great group of friends that D
period of a year or so, Linda and Dan saw more and m

other, and on October 30, 1988, my seventieth birthda

married. After several years in California, Dan and Lind

eastward to Manhattan, to Brooklyn, and finally to Ve

the parents of two children, they have since returned to C

ERDA provided many unique experiences, of whic

mention four: inspecting the nuclear navy with Adm

Rickover; an unexpected disembarkation from Viva at 

White House meeting the following morning; inspecting n

ities in the Soviet Union with my counterpart, Co

Petrosyant; and visiting briefly with the Shah of Iran. 

Admiral Rickover 

On paper, Hyman Rickover, the "father of America's nu

reported to the secretary of the Navy and the administrator o

Research and Development Agency. He was a dour, wiry ind

spoke his mind forcefully. When ERDA was formed, he 

active duty for fifty-six years. He retired seven years later, 

prided himself on his spartan lifestyle, and Congress loved 

with him to most of the installations over which he had juri

Most memorable was a twenty-hour period spent wi

ral aboard the attack submarine Cravallus. We met at 

Dynamics plant in Groton, Connecticut. We first entered 

where General Dynamics was designing a Trident subm

design teams were located in a wooden mockup of the v
tour ending in an aft cabin where warrant officers control the reacto

propulsion, and ship's electrical power. The skipper was ordered b

Rickover to proceed at flank speed. Suddenly, Rickover gave the com

mand for full reverse. The vessel shivered and shook and became har

to handle at near-zero speed. Finally the skipper blinked and sai

"Ahead quarter-speed." The Admiral said, "I didn't give that orde

Change the watch for a repeat." 

Later I was on the conning tower as we entered Long Island Sound 

high speed. It was late afternoon in February, and I was thoroughly enjo

ing the ride. I was reflecting on Rickover's tremendous success developin

the nuclear navy, but wondering whether he had to be such a martinet. H

had his own explanation: "Somebody has to be the bastard." 

An Unexpected Detour 

The enriching of uranium oxide is essential for the fueling of nucle

naval vessels and commercial reactors. Uranium oxide when min

contains 0.7 percent of the isotope U-235. Enrichment involves rai

ing the U-235 content to three or four percent. U.S. uranium pr

cessing was conducted in three large plants: Oak Ridge, Tennesse

Portsmouth, Ohio; and Paducah, Kentucky. All three plants us

gaseous-diffusion technology. Since World War II centrifuge techno

ogy requiring considerably less power had been developed an

refined. Commercial ventures using this technology were under acti

consideration by the Ford administration. I was enthusiastic abo

the technology itself but not about its commercial application. I f
for a meeting with the President. A car would be available 

the dock in Chesapeake City, which would take me to a 

for a flight to Washington. A thick fog had descended b

reached the airport, and the place was deserted. 

The driver was willing to drive all the way, but the tim

We traveled at high speed down the eastern shore, over the 

and into Washington, arriving at the White House with 

spare. As President Ford came into the Cabinet Room, he s

all around, commenting when he looked at me that perh

diverted me from sailing. President Ford decided to tu

enrichment of uranium oxide to the private sector, a dec

had to defend and that Congress ultimately rejected. 

A Soviet Tour 

Energy comes in many forms and is used in many ways, so 

prising that the United States has many foreign energy a

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), headq

Vienna, was an arm of the United Nations that sought to m

proliferation of fissionable material. Another organi

International Energy Agency (lEA), sought, by pooling the 

and resources of its member nations (oil consumers), to 

power of OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting C

control the price and volume of exported oil. 

There were agreements bilateral and multilateral. On

which ERDA inherited, was the U.S.-U.S.S.R. Commiss
also a research center with a small nuclear reactor. Yerevan happened 

be Petrosyant's home and the seat of the Armenian church. T

Christofolis, the head of the Armenian church, was, according 

Petrosyant, "a truly religious person." Our joint commission paid h

a visit, which required two sets of translators since the Christofo

spoke only Armenian. The American and Soviet delegations both to

the pledge that we were working together for the good of mankind. 

During our business meetings in Yerevan, Gene had an even grea

ecclesiastical experience. She was taken by the wife of the chief Sov

scientist for a day in the country. They had a driver and an interpre

and were accompanied by Petrosyant's daughter, who had be

instructed to "look after" Gene. The Russian women suggested going 

a fifteenth-century church, Gene being a "Christian person." So off th

drove, up into the foothills and along dusty roads. 

They finally came to a place with numerous streamers blowing 

the wind, placed there by thankful believers. In front of them, they s

the church, which was mostly carved out of the hillside. They went in

the vaulted cave. In the dim light the benches were lined up facing a ve

simple altar, where a bent, dusty priest was sweeping. It seemed appr

priate to Gene to say a prayer, so she knelt down for a few moments a

then approached the holy man. He had produced a few postcards a

seemed very pleased to sell them. 

As they entered the courtyard there was an excited crowd s

rounding a splendid ram. The animal was decked with ribbons, and 

horns were brightly painted. The ram was to be sacrificed by a grate

family who had recently been blessed with a son. The interpreter su
all night reading your magazine and eating the delicious 

one." He had never seen a foreign publication or tasted a 

The Shah of Iran 

Another interesting trip was to Iran, where I met with t

wanted nuclear power plants for his country and especiall

reprocessing plant. Our government, very concerned about 

ation of nuclear weapons, didn't want him reprocessing 

weapons use. I was asked by President Ford to meet with hi

matter. Dick Helms, former head of the Central Intelligence 

our ambassador to Iran at the time, and he was most troubl

proposed meeting. He thought I was going to cause an inter

dent by trying to tell the Shah what he could or couldn't do

The game plan was to try to get the Shah to take off hi

and don a regional hat and, specifically, to have him a

Iranian reprocessing done under the auspices of the I

Atomic Energy Agency. With Dick Helms I finally met t

gave him a letter signed signed by President Ford. He re

and said, "But of course this is what I want to do! Why w

to have nuclear weapons? We're just a little country her

going to fight the Soviet Union!" 

On the way back to our embassy following the meetin

"Well, at least he didn't throw you out of the office." 

The Shah continued to press for nuclear reprocessing plan
The regular chauffeurs, I suppose. 

"Well," I said, "I think I'll drive one of them." 

To get into the parade was a complicated matter. There were thr

big rallying points-the marchers in one area, the horse-drawn ve

cles in a second, and the floats in the third. Gene (who drove with m

and I were looked on as drivers of a float, so we went out in a ve

clear, cold dawn to the old naval station at Anacostia, where the flo

participants in the parade were mustered. There we spotted a numb

of celebrities, including Colonel Sanders (the Kentucky Fried Chick

man) wrapped in many blankets by his solicitous entourage a

Kenny Stabler (the Oakland Raiders' quarterback who had just w

the Super Bowl with his passing). We were bused from Anacostia to 

cross-street near the Capitol, where our ERDA cars were waiting 

us. The atmosphere was very festive. We were surrounded by t

teams for different floats, including some gymnasts who grew tired 

waiting and went through their whole routine right there on the stre

probably to keep warm and nimble. When the parade finally g

rolling, I drove the lead ERDA car, the turbocharged Chrysler, a po

erful machine that made me feel as though I were taxiing out in 

F-111. The pace of the parade was very slow, as it took President a

Mrs. Carter a long time to walk down Pennsylvania Avenue, b

finally we began moving into position. Some dogs were brought out 

sniff under our vehicles for explosives. Then we were under way, hea

ing down the avenue, our jet-age car directly behind a horse-dra

vehicle from the 1890s. 

As we passed the reviewing stands, Gene would lean out o
Schlesinger, retained me as a consultant. I was allowed to r

office, which I occupied for about three months, workin

ber of issues with my successor, Bob Fri. 

During this period I got a call from Jerry Wiesner [fo

advisor to President Kennedy], who had become presiden

said, "Alfred Keil is going to be stepping down as dean of th

school. We have to go through various formalities here and 

ing you the job, but is this the kind of thing that might inter

I said, "I doubt it, Jerry. I'm sure it involves a lot of 

tive work, and that's the last thing I want to be invol

while. I've had it." 

"Well, come on up and talk about it anyway." So 

Cambridge and talked with Jerry and the provost, Walter 

also talked with AI Keil and realized my fears were well fo

dean meant looking at a thousand nitty-gritty details

wanted at the time. When I made it clear to Jerry, Walter, 

Johnson (now MIT chairman) that I wouldn't accept the p

I was offered instead an institute chair, one that is not tied 

single department. There are eleven such chairs at MIT, 

chair is unique. Its full name is the Henry Luce C

Environment and Public Policy. Nobody had held it for 

The idea had appeal, but was I really an environmentalist? 

wrestle, particularly at ERDA, with a lot of environment

in the eyes of the environmental movement I certainly wo

been considered a key player. Nevertheless, after consultin

who was as ready as I was to leave Washington, I finally 
world energy issues. Carroll had been the first general manager of t

Atomic Energy Commission. I also got involved with his World Co

Study (WOCOL), a big project on world coal supplies and usage. 

I had also agreed to help Jerry Wiesner and Howard Johnson fi

a dean for the engineering school. Howard called me early in 1978 a

invited me over to the Tavern Club for lunch. We chatted about th

and that. "Well, now that you've got Washington well behind you," 

said, "how do you feel about administrative work? Do you miss som

of the things you were doing?" I had been feeling that I might be rea

to get into the nitty-gritty again, and I told him so. 

About three days later I got a call from him, asking me to com

over to his office to chat with Jerry Wiesner and himself. I suspect

that they wanted to ask me again to be dean of the engineering scho

our efforts to find someone having so far failed. There were eig

departments and four laboratories affiliated with the engineeri

school, making twelve heads reporting to the dean. These twelve we

all more or less of the same vintage. To pick any one of them to 

boss of the others would have been difficult. To bring somebody 

from the outside also would have been tough, since Jerry was going 

be stepping down within two years, and it would have been hard f

an outside person not to know to whom he or she would be reporti

in the near term. 

The long and short of it was that I agreed, but in my formal let

of acceptance I asked for the option of stepping out at the end of tw

years. When Paul Gray succeeded Jerry after two years, I told Pau

would stay on for another year. It was a wonderful opportunity for m
appointment had to be cleared first by the individual's 

then by the school. The engineering-school council is 

twelve department and laboratory heads and is chaired by 

One of the cases I was involved with was particularly i

case involving tenure for a woman in ocean engineering n

T. Kildow. Ocean engineering was once known as naval a

but was expanded to include platforms at sea, some coastlin

and other newer matters. Judy had been working in the poli

in engineering per se. Hers was thought to be a marginal c

came before the engineering council. It was finally supp

though most of us thought it would not pass the academic 

One strike against Judy was that she had changed jobs 

times. I looked into this and realized that she had done so 

follow her husband, whenever he had relocated. A second 

what seemed to be gaps in her employment record, times u

for. When I checked I found that the gaps coincided with t

her children. I came to believe that Judy deserved tenure 

not be disqualified because of family matters. Getting 

approved by the academic council was one of the reall

things that happened to me while I was dean of the enginee

Judy is still teaching ocean engineering there and doing a g

Being dean of the engineering school brought my whole 

focus. I realized that my expertise was not in any technica

design of aircraft control systems, for example-but rather i

technological organizations. Such management poses speci

of its own: for an inventor trying to bring new ideas to m
son dealing with entrepreneurial or policy-type issues, Judy Kild

being one of them. The question was, could we get them all interes

and participating in this new program? We finally pulled it togeth

and in my last year as dean, the first fifteen people came to MIT 

take the program. 

In the fall of 1992 I was sitting in my office when a student nam

Amanda Chou came in. She said she was interested in writing h

master's thesis on the possibility of commercializing space activi

Specifically, she was considering the development and production 

rockets by commercial entities and the selling of these rockets in 

competitive market. I asked her what program she was in. 

"The management of technology," she answered. 

"How's the program going? How many are in it this year?" 

"There are about fifty-five or sixty people taking it each y

now," she answered. It was gratifying for me to find that the progr

was still alive and prospering. 

I stayed on the MIT faculty as Henry Luce professor for anot

year after resigning as dean. I had never taken a sabbatical in my 

again, off-again MIT career, so I took one during the second half 

that year, 1984. I used the sabbatical to begin the process of exam

ing, filing, and in some cases dispersing the material and intellect

property I had accumulated over the years. 

Jack Kerrebrock, head of the "aero and astro" department, said 

me, "I don't like the idea of your leaving the institute entirely, B

You ought to have an office here, at least." He told me about the p

sibility of my being made a "senior lecturer," a position reserved fo
attended by large numbers of alumni. It includes the u

functions-outings to the Boston Pops, dinners, dances, a

unlike homecoming at other schools, Technology Day ha

specific agenda each year. 

I first got into it in 1989, when Paul Gray asked me if 

up the Technology Day effort on the twentieth annive

Apollo 11 moon landing. I recognized the large role MIT 

in the Apollo effort, and I thought it would be valuab

memorabilia and organize lectures examining this role. 

ought to invite as the keynote speaker an astronaut who 

from MIT, as more astronauts have been graduates of MIT 

other institution except the U.S. Naval Academy. We 

Captain Frederick Hauck, commander of the first space 

after the Challenger disaster. The program started with 

NASA documentary on the lunar landing. Then, follow

Hauck, faculty from several departments discussed the 

their research to space exploration and manned spaceflig

gram was a sellout. 

Venture Capital 

In my first year back at MIT (1977-78), Jerry Wiesner call

that Governor Michael Dukakis had started a commission 

state of Massachusetts couldn't be more supportive of new 

enterprises. Jerry said he had been on it, but that he was now 

MIT. Was I willing to take his place? When I looked into it, I 
one in fifty applications for the attention of the board. Several of us woul

then go and meet with the individuals involved to see what they wer

doing. Once we had agreed to put some funds into a start-up, the com

pany almost invariably got additional funding from other sources. We ha

a revolving fund of about three million federal dollars, which we could us

to make loans or equity investments. Ifthe investment worked out and w

made a profit, the proceeds went back into the revolving fund, as did an

interest on the loans. 

While I was there, we helped on the order of thirty-five companies g

started. If I'm not mistaken, thirty of them are still going. Some of them

like Interleaf, a software company, have done extremely well. The MTD

is still in business and doing an effective job. 

More recently, I've been on the advisory committee of a private ven

ture capital operation, Morgan Holland. My two brothers and I made 

modest investment in one of their funds. It had some similarity in my min

to the MTDC. I found that the entrepreneur with the hot idea had gre

difficulty staying with it once the company got to a certain level of activ

ity. There was almost always a traumatic period of transition when an ou

side manager had to be brought in to run the show and when the bigge

question was what to do with the original entrepreneur. 

My brother Peter was the lawyer in three classic cases involving Henr

Kloss, the brilliant inventor behind KLH, Advent, and Kloss Video. In a

three cases, Peter found, Henry was able to bring products along and se

them-up to the limit of about $10 million in annual sales. Beyond tha

he could not do it all himself; yet he would refuse to step back and l

somebody else take over some of his responsibilities. 
Bank, my mother's family ended with approximately a thir

the company. Uncle Campbell Bosson took over managemen

ily interest when Grandpa died. In time, my brother Peter too

him, and my brother Donny became president and general m

The company had not done a very good job of reinvest

its in new machinery and technology, and Peter and Don

tried to revitalize the company-against the wishes of th

families who had significant interests. In time, my brothe

to wrest control of the company from these families by 

their shares. My brothers were fortunate to have Frank B

very astute person, as an outside director. Frank pointed 

company had a large amount of cash sitting on the sidelin

gested that the company put it to work. Perhaps the natu

would have been to buy a cable or rope company to com

block operations, but Frank Browning steered the effort in 

different direction. 

He found that Sam Batchelder, our neighbor and my s

ner, might want to divest ownership of Johnny Applesef,d'

ing retailer, while retaining the management. This prove

case, and Peter and Donny bought the company at a most 

time. The block business became nearly moribund with th

the container ship, but Peter and Donny managed to sel

business to a Chicago firm before the bottom fell out. This 

additional funds to invest in Appleseed's. 

Sam Batchelder stayed on as president at Appleseed'

which he exercised his real expertise, buying. He had a t
ballgame, we would have to make another round of major investmen

We were all getting older-Peter, Donny, Frank Jr., and l-and did

feel up to the task of raising the necessary capital and pushing the op

ation to a higher level. We decided the company could be much bet

served by new ownership, and we let it be known in the business co

munity that this was our intention. We received inquiries but felt t

company was worth much more than we were being offered. 

One wonderful day my brother was in his office when he got a c

from a New York business broker who had been working with him 

the sale. "I've got someone from Switzerland in my office here in Ne

York who wants to come up and chat with you this week about t

possibility of buying Appleseed's." 

"I'm so busy," Peter said. "I don't think that would be possible

"I think it would be worth your while," the broker said. 

The man visited Peter the next day, and they spent a couple 

hours together. The man then asked to see the company, with the pr

viso that he speak with Peter again when he was through with his vi

While the man was off seeing the company, Peter did some back-

the-envelope calculations and decided that a high but fair price for t

company would be about twice what he had been offered previous

When the man from Switzerland returned, he came up with the sa

number! Within a couple of months, we had an offer in writing w

one condition attached. The deal was dependent on growth contin

ing at the same pace for another quarter. We watched the numb

(very closely!) for the next three months, and fortunately they lived 

to all expectations. The Swiss company bought us out. 
MIT and Raytheon, was its president, and the board was 

collection of people, including Dr. James H. ("Jimmy") 

Charles C. Lauritsen, and Frederick R. Kappel, the 

AT&T. I left the Aerospace board as soon as I joined th

then returned in 1977 upon leaving government servic

became chairman, retiring three years later. 

Other boards I've sat on include Pneumo Company, 

pneumatic actuators used in aircraft; the Lord Comp

Pennsylvania, which makes shock mounts; and A

Corporation, which sells liquid oxygen, liquid hydrogen 

Saturn rocket and the space shuttle), and other specialt

gases derived from air. Keith Glennan, also on the Air Pro

got me involved while I was at the National Academy of 

While at the Energy Research and Development Agenc

allowed outside interests, so I left Air Products, only to re

as I had left ERDA. Air Products came from a single fami

of Allentown, Pennsylvania. It was a very well-run sci

organization, a perfect example of how to keep growing 

out going heavily into debt. They reinvested a large p

profits in research and development (R&D) in an intell

that resulted in new and improved products. 

Eli Lilly and Company 

A much larger, better-known example of this phenomenon i

Company, a family-run business that, through R&D, becam
least one more, so the company picked as its second outside direct

Albert L. Williams, the chief operating officer of IBM. When George Bu

temporarily left the government during the Carter administration, h

became the third. 

When Bill Martin reached seventy, mandatory retirement age, 

replacement had to be found. Bill, who had known me through th

National Geographic Society, suggested me. Richard Wood, Lilly's chi

executive officer, gave me a call, saying he'd like to chat with me 

Washington. When we met, I said, "I don't know anything about pha

maceuticals. What can I do to help you?" 

He said that he felt my government experience and my expertise 

managing technical endeavors would be of benefit to the company. E

Lilly proved to be a great firm to work for. It was definitely an ingrow

company, but it had wonderful teamwork. Things went along swim

mingly until the early 1980s, when the company brought out a new pro

uct called Oraflex, an anti-arthritic drug. It was a nonsteroid that seem

to have remarkable characteristics. People who hadn't played golf f

years were taking it and suddenly shooting in the 90s! Oraflex was t

first drug Lilly had marketed directly to the public rather than throug

doctors. The company expected that it would be one of its biggest mo

eymakers ever. A big one to Lilly was a product that grossed over $10

million a year. Oraflex looked as though it might do two to three tim

that if properly marketed. The company hired a Madison Avenue agen

and placed ads in print and on television. 

The drug had been brought to market in Great Britain about a ye

before getting Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval in th
ber of the corporation deemed responsible for improprieties. 

were six outside directors, and I was made chairman. We got 

as our legal counsel and hired outside medical experts as w

assistant to Vance interviewed people in this country and in 

find out what really had happened. The company had know

that there was a lesser problem with the drug. Between 5 an

of all users became very sensitive to the Sun and experien

rash. The label had printed warnings to this effect. But the 

complications took the company completely by surprise. 

We found that all of the Scottish patients who had alleg

from taking Oraflex had been taking a number of other drug

so that it could not be proved that Oraflex had been the ag

Still, there was some question as to whether Lilly's director o

England had been forthcoming about his findings prior to FD

even though this was not a legal requirement. The result of 

tions was a report delivered by me (with Cy Vance at my sid

board in Indianapolis. When we had finished, Dick Woods 

the last time Lilly will market a drug publicly. We'll never do i

director of research in England was fired. Fortunately for the 

grand jury investigation was called off-in large part because 

was able to show that it had conducted an in-house investig

faith. The lawsuits were settled one by one. 
him. The uncle was reluctant to leave, but ultimately his nephew w

asked to assume the mantle. 

Arthur got in touch with me just after I had left ERDA and ask

if I would both go on the board and serve as a consultant. This wou

make me an in-house director. At the same time I was asked to go 

the board of General Electric. I clearly couldn't do both because of t

competition between the companies in the nuclear area. GE could

believe it when I turned them down in favor of Arthur's company

also had to quit the Air Products board when I joined Combusti

because Air Products had acquired a design and construction compa

in Philadelphia that serviced nuclear plants. 

At Combustion I felt I had a responsibility to do something oth

than go to board meetings. I started looking into the compan

research and development effort and was disappointed to find that 

was rather minimal-other than in the nuclear area, where there w

competence and an interesting research effort. Combustion spent le

than 1 percent of sales on R&D. Charlie Leaper, with a doctora

from MIT, emerged as the most respected technical leader 

Combustion and was made vice president for engineering. Char

coordinated the company's R&D effort and was given a small budg

to enhance research in the various divisions. A board committe

which I chaired, met with Charlie and the divisions on a rotating ba

to review research results. 

Arthur did a remarkably good job with the company. It grew wh

he was CEO, especially after he got the company into the oil and g

services business in time to catch the oil boom of the late 1970s. The
businesses in order to generate a new base of operation

saw my efforts to consolidate the company's research e

smoke when Charlie Leaper was terminated. Without w

also fired a number of key people on Arthur's staff, inclu

capable Jim Calvert. Then Hugel was asked to become 

RJR Nabisco at the time that company's financial shen

coming to a head. This limited the time he had 

Combustion Engineering. 

Combustion Engineering's profits became losses. Whe

Boverei (ABB), a Swiss-Swedish company, appeared ove

with a buyout offer, the directors listened carefully. In a 

months we sold out to them-a good move, to my mind. 

became vice chairman of the ABB board, but didn't stay t

in all, though, it was a sad ending for Combustion En

defense of Charlie Hugel, the business was rapidly chang

more global and competitive. Strong medicine was neede

Putnam Funds 

While I was dean of the engineering school at MIT, Bill 

me one day. I figured he wanted to talk about the manage

nology program we were collaborating on or about som

MIT. Instead, he began talking about the Putnam Funds

was a director and the chairman of the nominating comm

his committee hoped that I would be willing to go on the 

"I really don't know anything about the investm
Endless Frontier, that generated a tremendous amount of favorabl

publicity and led to the establishment of the National Scienc

Foundation. In the world of technology, he was top of the line. Georg

wanted me to replace him. 

"That," I told George, "is like saying you've had Ted Williams o

your team and you're going to replace him with the Red Sox batboy!

But I appreciated the compliment and did agree to serve with Putnam

It was 'a great education. I joined just when mutual funds were startin

to grow. When I arrived Putnam had fewer than ten funds with $5 bi

lion in assets. When I left it had seventy funds with $45 billion in assets

The board had about a dozen trustees who met once a month o

Thursdays at two o'clock. The meetings ran through dinner, the

resumed the following morning, running through lunch. One of the fu

board's many responsibilities was voting dividends for each of the funds

Between board meetings there were committee meetings. One committe

was responsible for negotiating annual management fee with Mars

McClennan, which marketed the Putnam Funds and managed its opera

tions. There was also a legal committee and a proxy committee, which 

chaired. It was our job to determine a rationale for voting the proxie

received each year by the Putnam Funds as shareholders in many thou

sands of companies. All in all, there was a tremendous amount of detaile

work involved in all this. I complained periodically that there had to b

a more efficient way to operate the board. Finally, I was made chairma

of a small governance committee. I found that very interesting, and ou

committee came in with a series of recommendations to make the boar

more efficient. In this way, l felt I left my small mark on Putnam. 
ally decline, and this would ultimately be reflected in th

Bearing all this in mind, were we going to support the 

of Gillette, one of the biggest companies in Boston? 

financiers in the Henry Kravis [a corporate takeover sp

began negotiating to take over the company. I felt that if th

Boston wasn't going to end up with anything more than a 

buildings with broken windows. The Putnam fund man

largest stake in Gillette was all for the takeover. As ch

proxy committee, I went against him (after consulting 

Putnam), and we decided to vote against the takeover. Th

holder vote was extremely close, so that the voting of our 

shares in support of management had an important beari

come. Soon afterwards, Gillette came out with the Sensor 

company's growth accelerated. 

Nonprofits 

During the last twenty-five years, especially since my re

have had an inside view of a number of nonprofit org

serving as a director. My first major experience with a n

with the National Geographic Society in Washington

1888 by Gardiner H. Hubbard, Alexander Graham B

law, the National Geographic had been passed on in t

family, descendants of Bell's daughter. At the time I beca

with it, the flagship magazine was being edited by Gil Gr

great-grandson. His father, Mel Grosvenor, a wonderful
its publications. It was producing television programs, organizing tours

distributing National Geographic merchandise, and so on. We recom

mended that instead of Mel Payne, an outsider (perhaps a sitting boar

member) be made chairman. We further felt that Gil Grosvenor, if pro

moted to president, ought not to continue as editor of the magazine

Finally, concluding that Mel Grosvenor's salary might appear unseemly

we recommended that it be phased out over a three-year period. 

The board meeting at which our recommendations were discussed 

was one of the most dramatic I've ever attended. Conrad Wirth, chair

man of the committee, wasn't there that day, so there was no singl

spokesman to explain the committee's decisions. We probably hadn

done enough to prepare everybody for our recommendations. Suddenl

we were the devils. Mel Payne said he would never again put togethe

a management committee, claiming that we were trying to sabotage th

Geographic-taking a great institution and throwing it to the winds. 

In the end, we won and we lost. Mel Grosvenor agreed to retire

and Gil agreed to take over the presidency without the editorship. Me

Payne, however, remained as chairman. Ultimately, Gil becam

chairman and president. He reviewed the society's strengths and weak

nesses, while taking action to strengthen the society and to select goal

appropriate to the twenty-first century. 

One of the perquisites offered by the National Geographic ha

been the chance to participate in trips to remote places, staged by th

research committee. The National Geographic Society gives grants to 

worthy projects around the world, and every three or four years mem

bers of the research committee visit some of these work sites. Gene and 
Museum of Science (trustee), the Woods Hole Oceanograph

(trustee), the New England Medical Center (board of govern

Trustees of Reservations (standing committee). I have thorou

my association with each, particularly knowing the participa

cially the movers and shakers. All of these organizations ha

agement challenges, and all have held major fund drives. 

Finally, let me mention the Sea Education Associ

which has classrooms and laboratories aboard tw

schooners. Jimmy Madden got me involved soon after I re

Washington in 1978. I was asked to serve first as a trustee 

chairman (1989-1993). SEA was originally run out of a 

ment in Woods Hole. In time, it acquired a ten-acre camp

some houses around a small central building-enough t

date fifty students at a time living about eight to a house. 

needed a proper teaching facility ashore so I went to Tom 

IBM, a great friend of Jimmy Madden, and asked if he wo

ested in supporting our effort to establish a marine cente

memory. He sent me one of the nicest letters I've ever rec

ing a substantial matching grant to get our fund-raising ef

He spoke at the dedication of the center in June 1993. 

Write a Book? 

Gene and I have been married over fifty years, and our 

numbers twenty-four, ages one to seventy-seven (myself). O

and grandchildren are scattered, but we all enjoy each othe
low-up to the Apollo program. As administrator of ERDA, I w

closely involved with NASA through ERDA's research work. I trie

very hard to get NASA involved in energy issues. My next involveme

with NASA came after the Challenger accident, when I chaired th

effort to set up a NASA Alumni League. 

More recently I was chairman of a special White Hou

Committee on the Space Station. I also served on a space station com

mittee chaired by MIT president Dr. Charles ("Chuck") Vest. Servin

with me on the latter was Dr. Edward B. Fort, chancellor of Nor

Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University in Greensbor

He and I were chatting one day, when he asked, "Did you really kno

any of the astronauts?" 

"Yeah," I said, "I knew quite a few of them." 

"Did you ever meet Wernher von Braun?" 

"Oh, sure, I knew Wernher." 

He asked me for supper that evening to inquire further into m

days at NASA. By the time supper was over, I had recounted several 

the stories in this book. Afterwards he said, "That was worth th

whole trip to Washington. Have you ever thought of writing a book

"I've given it a little thought," I said. 
May 8, 1961 

November 15 and 

December 6, 1961 

February 5, 1967 

October 5 and 12, 


1967 


August 4, 1969 

April1 and 5, 

1971 


April10 and 

May 15, 1973 

January 18, 1977 

Letter, with report attached, from Defense 

Secretary Robert McNamara and 


NASA Administrator James E. Webb 


to Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson 


Letter from NASA researcher 

John Houbolt to me and my response 


My initial report on the Apollo 204 fire t

NASA Administrator James E. Webb 


Letters from President Lyndon B. Johnson 

and Vice President Hubert H. Humphrey 

upon my resignation from NASA 


Letter from me as secretary of the Air 

Force to Vice President Spiro T. Agnew 


My mid-term letter to Secretary of Defens

Melvin Laird and his reponse 


My letter of resignation from the Air Forc

and President Richard M. Nixon's respon

My letter to James Schlesinger, assistant to 

the President-elect (for energy) 


229 


ment ofa large enterprise is an order ofmagnitude larger than that 

accepted wisdom. To obtain some degree ofconformity throughou

branch, the President has an Executive Office employing about 1,

Included within this inner circle is the Office ofManagement and B

The President has the authority to hire (with the consent oft

fire about 1,000 key members of the administration. Within NA

positions are filled by formal presidential appointment, those of t

tor and the deputy administrator. When I first joined NASA, I hel

position," serving at the pleasure of the administrator. Subseque

presidential appointments to three positions: NASA deputy admin

tary of the Air Force, and administrator of ERDA. The correspo

appendix relates to my appointments and my relationships with th

President, as well as a number of key reports on policy and projec

July 15 and 26, 1960: NASA Administrator T. Keith Glennan's l

and my response 

Following our dinner meeting on Monday, June 27, 1960, I 

week call from Keith in which he indicated that he needed an ear

was having final conversations with another candidate. After seve

ing discussions with Gene, I threw my hat in the ring by week'

planned a summer cruise aboard Serene. We sailed out ofManches

Bill and May English immediately after receiving the affirmat

referred to in Keith's letter but before any announcements had bee

time we reached the coast of Maine, the word had spread, an

acquaintances were offering congratulations. Upon my return, I r

ter with its somewhat ominous final paragraph. I sent him my acc

26, in which I mentioned a two-year stint for "family planning 

this and all subsequent jobs, I have offered my services for two ye

which much can be accomplished but with a foreseeable end. 

always a bit concerned about my loss offreedom. 
I was delighted to learn that you could spend some substantial 

portion of Wednesday, 27 July, in Washington with Dick Horner. As 

I told you, he will want to help you in connection with your office 

assistants to the greatest extent possible. It seemed best to set this 

kind of a meeting for some day other than those scheduled for the 

NASA-Industry Conference. In this connection, our Advisory 

Committee on Organization will be meeting on the 28th and 29th, 

and, as I told you, Dick Horner and I plan to take dinner with them 

on the evening of Thursday, 28 July. I would like very much to have 

you join us for that session which I think will be very interesting. It 

is my understanding that you can do this. 

I think I should confirm in writing my offer to you of the post of 

Associate Administrator of NASA, reporting to me, at the annual salary 

of $21,000. In this post you will have responsibility for operating management of the Agency in the same manner as has Mr. Horner. I am 

delighted that you will join us and I look forward with eager anticipation 

to your being on the job full time. In the interim, as circumstances may 

permit; we will look forward to having you with us from time to time. 

I am going to be away for ten days but Dr. Dryden will be here during my absence and can answer any questions which you might have. I 

hope that your holiday is giving you plenty of rest and building up a substantial store of energy-! can assure you you will need the latter. 

Kindest personal regards. 

Sincerely, 

T. Keith Glennan 


Administrator 

NASA, starting 1 September at an annual salary of 

Although I recognize that many factors may affect the d

the assignment, we are thinking in terms of a two-year 

family planning purposes. 

With best regards, 

Sincerely, 

Robert C. Seamans, Jr. 

May 8, 1961: Letter, with report attached, from Defense Secr

McNamara and NASA Administratorjames E. Webb to Vice 

Lyndon B. johnson 

During the last week in April and first week in May, the 

held a number ofmeetings relevant to his charge from Pres

Meeting with him was a disparate group, ranging from thos

NASA, such as Jim Webb and Hugh Dryden, to Wernher v

Force General Bernie Schiever, and others in and out of 

Finally, the Vice President called directly on McNamara and 

specific recommendations. The important sections of the re

what convoluted, document are included below. It should 

that the Department of Defense (DOD) already had pro

report containing many ideas and recommendations not g

joint decisions. These had to be removed by negotiations, an

DOD findings and recommendations had to be added. 
Our National Space Program: Changes, Policies, Goals," dated May 8, 

1961. This document represents our joint thinking. We recommend 

that, if you concur with its contents and recommendations, it be 

transmitted to the President for his information and as a basis for early 

adoption implementation of the revised and expanded objectives 

which it contains. 

Sincerely, 

Robert McNamara 


James E. Webb 


Introduction 

It is the purpose of this report (1) to describe changes to our 

national space efforts requiring additional appropriations for FY 

1962; (2) to outline the thinking of the Secretary of Defense and the 

Administrator of NASA concerning U.S. status, prospects, and policies for space; and (3) to depict the chief goals which in our opinion 

should become part of an Integrated National Space Plan .... 

I. Recommendations for FY 1962 Add-ons 

Our recommendations for additional FY 1962 NOA [New 

Obligation Authority] for our space efforts are listed below. They 

total $626 million, of which all but $77 million is for NASA .... 

II. National Space Policy 

Projects in space may be undertaken for any one of four principal reasons. They may be aimed at gaining scientific knowledge. 

Some, in the future, will be of commercial or chiefly civilian value. 
belief that manned exploration to the vicinity of and on the 

the Moon represents a major area in which international c

for achievement in space will be conducted. The orbitiing o

is not the same as the orbiting or landing of man. It is man, 

machines, in space that capture the imagination of the wor

The establishment of this major objective has many im

It will cost a great deal of money. It will require large efforts 

time. It requires parallel and supporting undertakings whi

costly and complex. Thus, for example, the RANGER 

VEYOR projects and the technology associated with the

undertaken and must succeed to provide the data, the techn

the experience without which manned lunar exploration 

undertaken. 

The Soviets have announced lunar landing as a majo

of their program. They may have begun to plan for suc

years ago. They may have undertaken important first step

have not begun. 

It may be argued, therefore, that we undertake such a

with several strikes against us. We cannot avoid announcin

our general goals but many of our specific plans, and ou

and our failures along the way. Our cards are and will be 

theirs are face down. 

Despite these considerations we recommend proceed

this objective. We are uncertain of Soviet intentions, plans

Their plans, whatever they may be, are not more certain 

than ours. Just as we accelerated our ICBM program we 

erated and are passing the Soviets in important areas in 

nology. If we set our sights on this difficult objective we m
switching into high gear. Many policy issues needed addressing. To what exten

should NASA hire additional personnel? Where would we find individuals capa

ble ofmanaging large programs and projects? Where should the management o

Apollo be located? Were new NASA centers required? To what extent coul

NASA enlist the support of the Army, Navy, and Air Force? Should the Apoll

Saturn be assembled outdoors, as was customary, or indoors? How was NASA 

going to be managed to control schedules and costs or to select contractors? 

None of the decisions were as intractable as the selection of the missio

"mode"-the strategy adopted for getting humans and equipment to the Moon

There were two strong camps--one in favor ofdirect ascent, the other for Earth

orbit rendezvous. However, there was also a "voice in the wilderness," that o

John Houbolt, who had a small team located at the Langley Research Center i

Langley, Virginia. He advanced the concepts oflunar-orbit rendezvous. 

Houbolt may not have felt confident that NASA was approaching the luna

landing "fairly and frankly," but my written response to him, given here, was 

lot more supportive than my first reaction, that he should cease and desis

Houbolt may have been a "crank," but I thought his views made sense, and I kep

checking to be certain Brainerd Holmes and his systems analyst Joe Shea gav

Houbolt's views careful consideration. 

Dear Dr. Seamans: 

... Since we have had only occasional and limited contact, and 

because you therefore probably do not know me well, it is conceivable that after reading this you may feel that you are dealing with a 

crank. Do not be afraid of this. The thoughts expressed here may not 

be stated in as diplomatic a fashion as they might be, or as I would 

normally try to do, but this is by choice and at the moment is not 
any, it was negative .... 

In a rehearsal of a talk on rendezvous for the rece

Conference, I gave a brief reference to the plan, indicating 

fit derivable therefrom, knowing full well that the review

mittee would ask me to withdraw any reference to thi

expected, this was the only item I was asked to delete. 

The plan has been presented to the Space Task Group 

several times, dating back to more than a year ago. Th

expressed has been completely negative .... 

Grandiose plans, one-sided objections, and bias-for s

plicable reason, everyone seems to want to avoid simple sch

majority always seems to be thinking in terms of grandiose 

ing all sorts of arguments for long-range plans, etc. Why i

more thinking in the direction of developing the simplest sc

sible? Figuratively, why not go buy a Chevrolet instead of a 

Surely a Chevrolet gets one from one place to another just 

a Cadillac, and in many respects with marked advantages. 

Concluding Remarks 


It is one thing to gripe, another to offer constructive 

Thus, in making a few final remarks I would like to offer 

would be a sound integrated overall program. I think we 

1. Get a manned rendezvous experiment going with th

Mercury.1 

2. Firm up the engine program suggested in this letter 

ment, converting the booster to these engines as soon 

NASA did so; the Mark II Mercury was renamed Gemini. 1 
' The development of NOVA was never initiated. 

empire to do it. 

In closing, Dr. Seamans, let me say that should you desire to discuss 

the points covered in this letter in more detail, I would welcome the 

opportunity to come up to Headquarters to discuss them with you. 

Dear Mr. Houbolt: 

Thank you for your letter of November 15. In reading through your 

arguments and supporting material for Lunar Rendezvous, I agree that 

you touched upon facets of the technical approach to Manned Lunar 

Landing which deserve serious consideration. 

I appreciate the vigorous pursuit of your ideas. It would be 

extremely harmful to our organization and to the country if our qualified staff were unduly limited by restrictive guidelines. In this case, however, I feel confident that we are approaching the question of Manned 

Lunar Landing fairly and frankly and that all views are being carefully 

weighed in our continuing studies. 

To insure that this is indeed the case, I have sent your letter and 

attached material to Brainerd Holmes for his evaluation and recommendations. He will contact you directly if he requires additional information related to your ideas and concepts. 

Thank you again for writing me on this matter. 

2 	The C refers to "configuration," and the 3 implies three F-1 rocket motors

Ultimately, we developed the C-5, called Saturn V. 
Review Board was not constrained. If their findings ultimately 

mine, the mistake would be my own. The following is the first 

weekly reports. 

The board is taking full advantage of the extensive ta

available as well as records made prior to the accident, th

condition of the spacecraft, and the reports of those involv

test. All the physical evidence and data concerned with the 

impounded immediately following the accident. This was 

that no pertinent information would be lost and that no 

would be taken except in the full context of all the data ava

As I have stated, the preliminary review of this inform

not provided any direct indication of the origin of the fire: 

liminary analyses point to the conclusion that a clear identif

the source of ignition or of its possible source will depe

detailed step-by-step examination of the entire spacecraf

related test support equipment. 

At present, the spacecraft is still mated to the unfueled lau

cle at the pad. However, it is being prepared for removal to our 

area where it will be disassembled and where experts in many 

and scientific areas can work with the physical evidence. Prior 

sembly of the damaged spacecraft, an undamaged and nearly 

(No. 014) spacecraft will be used to establish the condition

prior to the accident. The 014 spacecraft was flown from t

American [Aviation] plant in California to Cape Kennedy on F

The current plans are to go through a parallel, step-by-s

sembly process, first, working on the undamaged vehicle 

repeating as closely as possible the procedure on the damaged 
At 6:31.03, pilot Chaffee reported that a fire existed in the 

spacecraft.... 

At 6:31:12, or nine seconds after the first indication of fire, the 

cabin temperature started to increase rapidly, and pilot Chaffee 

reported that a bad fire existed in the cabin. Also at this time pilot 

Chaffee increased the illumination of the cabin lights and actuated 

the entry (internal) batteries .... 

At 6:31:17, or 14 seconds after the fire was first detected, the 

cabin pressure reached a level of approximately 29 p.s.i. (pounds per 

square inch) and the cabin ruptured .... 

The official death certificates for all three crew members list the 

cause of death as asphyxiation due to smoke inhalation due to the fire. 

During my meetings with the board a number of other items of 

information were discussed, but I believe that the data I have outlined include all events having a significant bearing on an understanding of the accident. 

October 5 and 12, 1967: Letters from President Lyndon B. johnson and 

Vice President Hubert H. Humphrey upon my resignation from NASA 

After I came to the conclusion that I should resign for both NASA

good and my own, the question was how to leave on a positive note-or 

Jim Webb's words when commenting on someone's departure from go

ernment amidst name-calling and rancor, how to leave without "dirtyi

one's nest." To arrive at the right answer, I contacted my brother Peter 

Boston and former NASA counsel Walter Sohier in New York. We met 
Dear Dr. Seamans: 

I regret your decision to leave Government service, and 

your resignation with a reluctance born of your own hard w

high achievement. 

The responsibility and vigor with which you have car

ward our nation's space program will remain an inspira

incentive to your colleagues and to those who will come a

Your loyalty and devotion to the public trust has earned 

respect and gratitude of all your fellow Americans. 

Please accept my appreciation for your selfless dedicatio

throughout these many years, and my very best wishes for y

tinued success. 

Sincerely, 

Lyndon B. Johnson 

THE VICE PRESIDENT 


WASHINGTON 


October 

Dear Bob: 

I was distressed to learn of your plans to leave the 

Aeronautics and Space Administration, which you have serve

It has often been said that no one is indispensable to his gov
pyyg

Sincerely, 

Hubert H. Humphrey 

August 4, 1969: Letter from me as secretary ofthe Air Force to Vice 

President Spiro T. Agnew 

In 1969 President Nixon formed a Space Task Group under the ch

manship of Vice President Spiro Agnew. The other members of the gro

were Thomas Paine, administrator of NASA; Lee DuBridge, the Preside

science advisor; and myself, recently appointed secretary ofthe Air Force. M

Laird, secretary ofdefense, deputized me to be the Defense Department,s r

resentative to the group. At the time of our first meeting, I had been aw

from NASA for little more than a year; yet I found my views quite at o

with those of my former associates. Following its Apollo triumphs, NA

was actively planning Mars expeditions. My year at MIT since leaving 

government had convinced me that there was little public support for such 

endeavor. The views expressed in my letter were not fully accepted. 

Dear Mr. Vice President: 

The Department of Defense has carried out a comprehensive 

study of the various opportunities for using space technology to 

enhance national security. Options for increased space activity have 

been carefully reviewed by the Services, the Joint Chiefs, and the 

offices of the Secretary of Defense, and are the basis for a report that 

is being transmitted to you by Secretary Laird. As a member of your 
Commerce needs assistance to understand and predict th

more accurately for longer periods of time. The Depa

Commerce, Interior, and Agriculture need support that c

plied by satellites if they are to carry out their responsibilit

fields as oceanography, hydrology, agriculture, eco

However, I am not only thinking of further satellite develo

also the use of NASA's capability wherever pertinent 

national problems. 

NASA should put increased emphasis in aeronautics. 

Department of Defense, have need for greater effort by NA

port us in the development of military aircraft. The Dep

Transportation needs major support if they are to implem

air traffic control system .... 

The applications of the NASA program are far rea

considerably more effort should be expended to make 

available for the benefit of mankind.... 

In a continuing manned lunar landing program it is im

proceed on a careful step-by-step basis reviewing scientifi

tion from one flight before going to the next and using 

spacecraft where appropriate .... 

The present Apollo Applications Program including 

few missions should be expanded to include longer durat

and a wider variety of orbits.... 

I recommend that we embark on a program to study by 

tal means including orbital tests the possibility of a Space Tran

System that would permit the cost per pound in orbit to be re

substantial factor (ten times or more) .... 

Even though the development of a large manned sp
rather let us also continue our exploration while validating its benefit to all mankind. 

April1 and 5, 1971: My mid-term letter to Secretary ofDefense Melvin 

Laird and his response 

While serving as secretary of the Air Force had its rewards, the sword 

Damocles known as Vietnam was always hanging overhead. I became aware 

it the first time I talked with Mel Laird, and it was in part the reason for my ind

vidual discussions with our four oldest children prior to my accepting the jo

After these discussions, I checked one final time with Gene, who was hospitalize

Then I called Mel to tell him of my acceptance. To the best of my knowledg

there was no exchange of letters; rather, there was planning for an announc

ment-on January 6, 1969-of my appointment along with those of Stanle

Resor, secretary ofthe Army, and John Chafee, secretary of the Navy. 

I agreed to serve in the Nixon administration for a minimum of two year

At the end ofthat period, Deputy Secretary of Defense Dave Packard was pla

ning to return to California, and Mel said he would recommend my nominatio

as Packard's replacement. As stated in Chapter 3, that didn't fly. Soon thereafte

our family headed for our annual outing at Vail, Colorado, and I vowed I wou

use the vacation to think and talk with family members about remaining in th

Air Force. I can remember reading to Gene, Kathy, and Lou a longhand draft 

a letter to Mel Laird regarding the continuation ofmy Air Force appointment, 

the four ofus drove to the airport in Denver. The contents were accepted not on

by the family but, as can be seen from the AprilS response, by Mel Laird himse
the goals that I can help accomplish. A Service Secretary is 

military chain of command and hence has little to say abo

and strategic operations. Rather a Service Secretary's job i

limited to acquiring men and material. 

Before leaving the Air Force I would like to place the 

tract with Lockheed on a sound basis, resolve the F-111 

technical difficulties, proceed with new programs such as 

B-1, AWACS, A-X, and F-5E to the point where we can 

ably confident in our policy of "fly before buy," and im

military and civilian manpower policies. I believe another y

be required to make further significant progress. 

In surveying the national mood, I am struck again an

the concern in this country over our activities in SEA 

Asia] and by the need for terminating our military involve

as soon as possible. I believe a rapid phaseout is essen

health and stability of this country. You have worked im

toward this objective with your concept of Vietnamization

the plans for step by step closing of Air Force bases in Sout

and Thailand are still undetermined. I believe such plans 

implementation are more crucial to the country than a

weapons acquisition or personnel projects. 

My willingness to stay in DoD hinges on this admin

determination to terminate our military activities in SEA

tinue as Secretary of the Air Force, I would want to have 

tunity to play a meaningful role in achieving this goal. 

I will be happy to discuss this matter with you further

Most sincerely, 

Robert C. Seamans, Jr. 
yg yg 

team through 1972. I recognize that you originally agreed to join the 

team for a two-year stint. I recognize, too, the personal and family 

sacrifices that are involved in such a demanding position as that of 

Secretary of the Air Force. It is nonetheless increasingly true that we 

need leaders of your rare capacity and demonstrated ability if we are 

to have any reasonable chance of attaining our major national goals 

in the Defense area. 

It is only fair, of course, that you would want assurances concerning your role as Service Secretary during the coming months. 

There is no doubt in my mind that your role has been a central and 

significant one during the past two years. I have no doubt it will continue to be. 

In a major sense, the Service Secretaries play the key role in 

determining and effecting our national security strategy. I have 

always felt that strategy was best defined as the aggregate of policies 

by which limited or finite resources were allocated to attain an established range of goals. The Service Secretaries can, and do, participate 

in a major way in determining those allocation policies-for all of 

the resources made available to Defense. The Service Secretaries can 

play an even larger role, even to the extent of helping determine the 

national goals and the aggregate resources to be made available to 

Defense. I welcome and solicit such a role by you, the Secretary of the 

Army, and the Secretary of the Navy. 

You are entitled to justifiable pride in the achievements of the Air 

Force under your stewardship for the past two years. You have made 

substantial progress, inter alia, in modernization of our forces, management of key weapons systems programs, personnel planning, and 
than in the past. 

There are many tasks confronting the Air Force, th

establishment, and the nation which can be fulfilled only 

type of leadership. I am not so naive as to think that we w

to discharge all those tasks in the next two years. To make 

substantive progress possible, however, I need you, the ad

tion needs you, and the country needs you. 

Sincerely, 

Mel Laird 

April10 and May 15, 1973: My letter ofresignation from the 

and President Richard M. Nixon's response 

My last six months in the Pentagon were pretty "squirr

tioned in Chapter 3, all presidential appointees were asked t

after Nixon's reelection. At a meeting ofthe appointees in the D

Defense, we all agreed to write one-sentence letters of resigna

secretary of defense would hold until we truly wanted to 

expected to resign earlier in the year, but when the opportun

president ofSloan-Kettering vanished, I decided to remain longe

out, I stayed until my appointment as president of the Nationa

Engineering. 

I confess that I found the President's response to my res

surprising. Nixon's chief of staff H.R. Haldemann had wanted 

wouldn't let me attend the special White House gala celebratin
It is with deep regret that I am submitting my resignation as 

Secretary of the Air Force to be effective in early May. As I have 

advised Secretary Richardson, the members of the National Academy 

of Engineering have asked me to be their next President. After careful 

consideration, I find the job is challenging and one that I must accept. 

Of course, I know that no assignment could be more rewarding 

than serving in your Administration the past four years. As a result of · 

your leadership, tremendous strides have been made lessening world 

tensions and creating improved understanding between nations. 

Although all issues have not been resolved in Southeast Asia, our ability to withdraw our military forces completely from South Vietnam, 

and the return of our POWs, is a tremendous accomplishment. 

The modernization of weapon systems is another area that is 

vital to national security. Here again progress has been made that I'm 

certain will continue. The application of advanced technology has led 

to significant improvement in the capability of our military services 

and those of our allies. 

Finally, let me say that it has been an honor to work with 

Secretary Laird, Secretary Richardson, and yourself on these matters 

that are so important to our country. 

Yours respectfully, 

Robert C. Seamans, Jr. 
and in your previous position with the National Aeron

Space Administration. We have been indeed fortunate to h

of your leadership and managerial ability directing the de

of sophisticated new aircraft and helping to improve our m

tems. In an era in which technological innovation ha

increasingly costly, it is to your lasting credit that the Air F

ernization programs you initiated have remained very clos

cost estimates. 

Perhaps more importantly, you have recognized the i

of the individual in the Air Force and have worked to crea

ronment in which each member of the Air Force team fe

realize his potential. In that effort, as well as in the other 

you have helped shape, you have laid the foundations for 

more effective Air Force for many years to come. 

As you return to private life, it is a pleasure to have t

tunity to express this Nation's gratitude for your disting

vice. My warmest best wishes go with Mrs. Seamans and y

challenging new undertaking. 

Sincerely, 

Richard M. Nixon 
f (p) 

On the night ofJanuary 17, 1977, while I was attending the first show

ing of my son Joe's National Geographic Society documentary about th

1Hokule'a, Schlesinger called. He said he had considered asking me to stay on

but had concluded that I didn't have enough political support. I tried to con

vey some of my thoughts "without prejudice" in the letter I wrote him th

next day. It was never answered. 

January 18, 1977 

Dr. James R. Schlesinger 

Assistant to The President-Elect 

School of Advanced International Studies 

Johns Hopkins University 

1740 Massachusetts Ave., N.W 

Washington, D.C. 20036 

Dear Jim: 

I have submitted my resignation to be effective January 20. 

Although I recognized that it was unlikely that I would be asked to 

remain permanently in the Carter Administration, I thought I might 

be of assistance for a limited period until my successor was selected. 

This possibility was one of the reasons that prompted me to call you 

last week. Incidentally, I know that a number of mutual friends have 

contacted you regarding my status. You should know that in no case 

did I ask them to be an intermediary. 

I also wanted an opportunity to chat with you about the nation's 

energy program. It is impossible to cover many points in a short letter; however, in certain circles I am categorized as a nuclear advocate 

against conservation. I wanted you to know first hand that I have 
gets for which we must take some measure of responsibility

enclosing a chart from this year's planning document that 

maximum estimated impact of energy technology in the 

and 2000. Clearly, conservation is essential-but so is the 

use of present fuels and by the year 2000 and beyond, w

increasingly on new fuels. The scale is quads per year whic

ily be converted to millions of barrels per day simply by div

Although I intend to clean up my affairs and remov

from the office during the next week, I will take no off

after January 20th. I am delighted that you are keepin

"without prejudice" and am certain that he will serve you 

line of succession goes from Bob Fri and me to the other P

Appointees by seniority. Hence, Jim Liverman will be 

Administrator from)anuary 20 until Bob Fri returns the 

I expect to be in Washington at least for the next few mo

care to discuss any energy issues, I will accommodate to you

Good luck and best wishes, 

Sincerely, 

Robert C. Seamans, Jr. 


Administrator 

Congress and wanted me to commit to be its administrator. I told him my com

mitment would have to await a conversation with the President. The Preside

turned out to be Ford, not Nixon. 

I received a call asking me to appear for President Ford's announcement o

my nomination on Halloween morning. When I explained that I had not y

met with the President, I had the meeting that afternoon, and the announce

ment was made the following day, November 1, 1974. There was no time fo

an exchange ofletters. My meeting with President Ford is described in Chapte

4. My departure from ERDA was equally abrupt, starting with my letter o

January 18, 1977, and President Ford's response the following day. 

I have also included a letter from Dick Roberts (dated the same day a

Ford's letter), whom I "shanghaied" from the National Bureau of Standard

and who directed the most controversial ERDA department (nuclear energy)

January 18, 1977 

The President 

The White House 

Dear Mr. President: 

It has been my privilege to serve in your Administration as the 

Administrator of the Energy Research and Development Administration. 

As you have often stated, the United States must conserve 

energy and develop alternate fuels in order to become less dependent 

on imported oil-an expensive and wasting resource. A major 

national effort is required that galvanizes government, industry, and 

the public into concerted, dedicated action. You have stressed the 

need to resolve the anticipated technical, social, economic, and 
THE WHITE HOUSE 


WASHINGTON 


Januar

Dear Bob: 

Thank you for your letter of January 18. I, of course, 

resignation as Administrator of the Energy Research and D

Administration, effective January 20, 1977, as you requeste

so, I would like to take this opportunity to commend you f

cation and commitment you have brought to our efforts to 

goal of energy independence. Tremendous challenges lie ahea

your help and that of others in my Administration I am con

we have laid a solid foundation for completing the eno

which confronts our Nation. 

I am indeed grateful for the contributions you have made 

professional manner in which you have carried out your ma

ied responsibilities. You will always be able to look back with 

on your Government service and on the fine record you have 

As you prepare to return to private life, you may be su

take with you my best wishes for every success and happin

future endeavors. 

Sincerely, 

Gerald R. Ford 
really can't be written about-it can only be observed and experienced. In a very short period you took a disparate collection of 

entrenched people and programs, acquired an unusually talented 

group of people from many sources, established the confidence of the 

Congress and business community, and in a quiet yet forceful way 

created ERDA. 

You once told me your major job was to knock down barriers so 

we could get the job done. This you have done well. 

I have learned a great deal from you, Bob, on how to accomplish 

things in this infinitely complex system, such as: 

- analyze, and really know where you want to go, 


- be flexible and resilient, 


- be cool and calm with Congress, 


-be prepared (super prepared!), 


-be humble, 

- be tenacious, 


-have a thick skin (very thick!), 


- smile-it helps, 


-etc.... 


Your influence on ERDA and the national energy program has 

been profound. You should be very proud of ERDA's accomplishments and the organization which will remain to carry out its work. 

Best wishes for success, good health and happiness! ERDA, the 

Country, and I, personally, will sincerely miss you. 

Sincerely, 

Richard W. Roberts 


Assistant Administrator for Nuclear Energy 

trustees were in place. I walked around with him, introducing 

to "Jerry Ford." Some complained I was too informal, but he 

On another occasion, we were having a retirement cerem

employee. Seeing a handsome, apparently new briefcase near 

presented it to the retiree. It wasn't until after the departure of

lowing the ceremony that Jerry indicated that he would lik

returned. This we did, buying a similar one for the retiree. 

GERALD R. FORD 

Decembe

Dear Bob: 

I am deeply grateful for the opportunity to have ser

Board of Trustees of Aerospace Corporation under your 

It was an interesting and most enjoyable experience. Tha

your many kindnesses. 

It is my hope that our paths will cross again soon. As 

I have the highest admiration for your dedicated public s

many years in positions of highest responsibility in our f

ernment. Most of all, I am indebted to you for your super

my White House Administration. 

On a personal basis, I deeply appreciate your friendsh

treasure. 

Warmest, best wishes for a wonderful Holiday Seas

and your family. 

Jerry Ford 

Harold Brown (1927-) was director of Defense Research and 

the Pentagon, 1961-1965, before becoming secretary of t

1965-1969. After spending eight years as the president of 

Institute of Technology, he returned to Washington to serve a

of defense in the Carter administration, 1977-1981. He curr

the Center for Strategic and International Studies in Washingt

John Chafee (1922-) was the secretary of the Navy, 1969-197

was elected to the U.S. Senate as a Democrat from Rhode 

served there since. 

Roger Chaffee (1935-1967) was a Navy lieutenant comman

naut who had never flown in space. Chaffee, along with his c

Grissom and Ed White, were killed when their Apollo 20

engulfed in flames on the launch pad at the Kennedy Space C

Leighton (Lee) Davis was an Air Force lieutenant general wh

National Range Division commander from 1960 to 1967. 

Distinguished Service Medal for his role as the Department o

ager for the Mercury and Gemini programs. 

Kurt Debus (1908-1983) was a German engineer who cam

States in 1945 with a group of engineers and scientists head

von Braun. After working at Fort Bliss, Texas, and the Reds

Huntsville, Alabama, Debus moved to Cape Canaveral, Flo

supervised the launching of the first ballistic missile fired fro

became director of the Launch Operations Center and then 

Space Center, as it was renamed in December 1963. He re

position in 1974. 

257 
(1916). Three years later (1919), he earned his Ph.D. in physics and mathematic

from the same institution, even though he had been employed full time by th

National Bureau of Standards since June 1918. His career at the Bureau o

Standards, which lasted until1947, included becoming its assistant director an

then associate director during his final two years there. Dryden served as directo

of the NACA, 194 7-1958, after which he became deputy administrator of NASA 

under T. Keith Gierman and James E. Webb. 

Maxime Faget (1921- ), an aeronautical engineer with a B.S. from Louisian

State University (1943), joined the staff at Langley Aeronautical Laboratory i

1946 and soon became head of the Performance Aerodynamics Branch of th

Pilotless Aircraft Research Division. In 1958 he joined the Space Task Group i

NASA, forerunner of the NASA Manned Spacecraft Center (later renamed th

Johnson Space Center), became its assistant director for engineering and deve

opment in 1962, and later its director. He contributed many of the original desig

concepts for Project Mercury's crewed spacecraft and played a major role i

designing virtually every U.S. crewed spacecraft since that time, including th

Space Shuttle. He retired from NASA in 1981 and became an executive for Eagl

Engineering, Inc. In 1982 he was one of the founders of Space Industries, Inc., an

became its president and chief executive officer. 

Robert Gilruth (1913- ) was a longtime NACA engineer who worked at th

Langley Aeronautical Laboratory, 1937-1946, then as chief of the Pilotles

Aircraft Research Division at Wallops Island, 1946-1952. He had been explorin

the possibility of human spaceflight before the creation of NASA. He served a

assistant director at Langley, 1952-1959, and as assistant director (crewed sate

lites) and head of Project Mercury, 1959-1961-technically assigned to th

Goddard Space Flight Center but physically located at Langley. In early 196

T. Keith Glennan established an independent Space Task Group (already th
Aeronautics and Space Administration from August 1958 to 

Glennan had worked in the sound motion picture industry in 

joined the Columbia University Division of War Research in 19

became president of the Case Institute of Technology. From O

November 1952, he served as a member of the Atomic Energy Com

leaving NASA in 1961, Glennan returned to Case, where he conti

president until1966. 

Harry Goett (1910-) was an aeronautical engineer who began 

Langley Aeronautical Laboratory in 1936 and then worke

Aeronautical Laboratory, 1948-1959. In 1959 he became director 

Space Flight Center, a post he held until July 1965, when he becam

tant to NASA Administrator James E. Webb. Later that year, he sh

private sector, working at Philco's Western Development L

California and then at Ford Aerospace and Communications. 

Virgil (Gus) Grissom (1927-1967) was chosen for the first group 

1959. He was the pilot for the 1961 Mercury-Redstone 4 (Liberty 

a suborbital flight; the command pilot for Gemini III; and the ba

pilot for Gemini VI. He had been selected as commander of the f

at the time of his death in the Apollo 204 fire in January 1967. 

Grant Hansen (1921-) was the assistant secretary of the Air Fo

and Development, 1969-1973. 

D. Brainerd Holmes ( 1921- ) was involved in the management of 

efforts in private industry and the federal government. He was on 

Telephone Laboratories, 1945-1953, and RCA, 1953-1961. H

deputy associate administrator for manned space flight at NA

Holmes left NASA to work for the Raytheon Corporation. 
presidential election to Nixon in 1968. 

John Johnson (1915-) served as general counsel of the Air Force, 1952-1958. H

accepted the same position at NASA in 1958. In 1963 he left NASA to join th

Communications Satellite Corporation. He retired in 1980. 

Lyndon Johnson (1908-1973) (D-TX) was a U.S. senator, 1949-1960, Vic

President of the United States, 1960-1963, and President, 1963-1969. Best know

for the social legislation he passed during his presidency and for his escalation o

the war in Vietnam, he was also highly instrumental in revising and passing the leg

islation that created NASA and in supporting the U.S. space program as chair o

the Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences and of the preparedness sub

committee of the Senate Armed Services Committee. He later chaired the Nationa

Aeronautics and Space Council (as Vice President under President Kennedy). 

David C. Jones (1921-) joined the Air Force during World War II and advance

through the ranks, becoming the deputy commander of operations in Vietnam, th

Air Force chief of staff, 1974--1978, and finally the chair of the Joint Chiefs o

Staff, 1978-1982. 

John Kennedy (1916-1963) was President of the United States, 1961-1963. In 

1960, as a senator from Massachusetts (1953-1960), he ran for President as th

Democratic candidate, with Lyndon Johnson as his running mate. On May 25

1961, President Kennedy announced to the nation the goal of sending an 

American to the Moon before the end of the decade. The human spacefligh

imperative was a direct outgrowth of it; Projects Mercury (at least in its latte

stages), Gemini, and Apollo were each designed to execute it. 

Robert Kerr (1896-1963) (D-OK) was governor of Oklahoma, 1943-1947, an

then was elected to the Senate the following year. From 1961 to 1963, he chaire

the Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences. 
George Low (1926-1984) was an Austrian aeronautical engineer 

NACA in 1949. He became chief of manned spaceflight at NASA 

in 1958. In 1960 he chaired a special committee that formulated th

for the Apollo lunar landings. In 1964 he became deputy director 

Spacecraft Center in Houston, the forerunner of the Johnson Sp

became deputy administrator of NASA in 1969 and served as act

tor, 1970-1971. He retired from NASA in 1976 to become p

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, a position he held until his death. 

renamed its quality and excellence award after him. 

John McLucas (1920-) was the under secretary of the Air Forc

and then secretary, 1973-1975. From 1975 to 1977, he served 

trator of the Federal Aviation Administration. 

Robert McNamara (1916-) was secretary of defense during th

Johnson administrations, 1961-1968. Thereafter, he served as p

World Bank, where he remained until retirement in 1981. A

defense in 1961, McNamara was intimately involved in the Ke

tration's process of approving Project Apollo. 

Walter Mondale (1928- ) was Vice President of the Unite

President Jimmy Carter (1977-1981). He ran for President him

lost to incumbent Ronald Reagan. Mondale served in the Senate 

from Minnesota, 1964-1977, and was considered a harsh criti

nology programs such as the Space Shuttle. He currently serves 

administration's ambassador to Japan. 

George Mueller (1918-) was associate administrator for manne

NASA Headquarters, 1963-1969, where he was responsible for 

completion of Project Apollo and beginning the development of th

He left NASA for private industry in 1969. 
century Americato lead the exploration and development of the space fron

tier, advancing science, technology, and enterprise, and building institutions an

systems that make accessible vast new resources and support human settlemen

beyond Earth orbit, from the highlands of the Moon to the plains of Mars." Th

report also contained a "Declaration for Space" that included a rationale fo

exploring and settling the solar system and outlined a long-range space program 

for the United States. 

Samuel Phillips (1921-1990) was an electrical engineer who had a distinguishe

military flying record during World War II. He became involved in the develop

ment of the successful B-52 bomber in the early 1950s and headed th

Minuteman intercontinental ballistic missile program in the latter part of th

decade. In 1964 Phillips, by this time an Air Force general, moved to NASA t

head the Apollo lunar landing program, which, of course, was unique in its tech

nological accomplishment. He returned to the Air Force in the 1970s and com

manded the Air Force Systems Command prior to his retirement in 1975. 

William Proxmire (1915- ) (D-WI) served as a U.S. senator from Wisconsin

1957-1989. He was well known for his congressional investigations of govern

ment waste and abuse of funding. 

Stanley Resor (1917- ) was the secretary of the Army during the Johnson an

Nixon administrations, 1965-1971. 

John (Jack) Ryan was an Air Force general who became the Air Force chie

of staff. 

Spencer Schedler was assistant secretary of the Air Force for financia

management. 

Julian Scheer (1926-) was a newspaper reporter who served as NASA's assistan

administrator for public affairs, 1962-1971. 
gy, ppg

the Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston. In 1967 he retu

Headquarters as deputy associate administrator for manned 

joined the Raytheon Company in 1968 and served on the N

Council for several years. Shea returned to NASA again as 

Station redesign efforts in the early 1990s, and he also serv

task force that reviewed plans for the first servicing mission 

Space Telescope. 

Alan Shepard (1923-) was the first U.S. astronaut in space. 

monaut Yuri Gagarin's first spaceflight in April 1961, She

short suborbital flight in May 1961. He also flew to the Moo

in 1971. He is currently the president of Seven Fourte

in Houston. 

Abe Silverstein (1908- ) worked as an engineer at the Langl

Laboratory, 1929-1943, and moved to the Lewis Laboratory 

Center) to a succession of management positions, the last 

director of the center. When T. Keith Glennan arrived and 

1958, Silverstein was director of the Office of Space Fligh

While at Headquarters, he helped create and direct the effor

spaceflights of Project Mercury and to establish the technic

Apollo program. As director of Lewis, he oversaw a major e

center and the development of the Centaur launch vehicle,_ 

NASA in 1970 to take a position with the Republic Steel Co

Jack Stempler (1920- ) was the assistant secretary of defens

affairs, 1965-1970 and 1977-1981. In between (1970-197

the general counsel for the Air Force. 
1943. In 1960 Thompson became director of Langley. He also served briefly 

as a special assistant to the NASA administrator in 1968 before retiring 

later that year. 

Wernher von Braun (1912-1977) was the leader of the "rocket team" that 

had developed the German V-2 ballistic missile in World War II. At the conclusion of the war, von Braun and some of his chief assistants came to Fort 

Bliss in El Paso, Texas, to work on rocket development and use the V-2 for 

high-altitude research. In 1950 von Braun's team moved to the Army's 

Redstone Arsenal near Huntsville, Alabama. From 1960 to 1970, he was the 

director of NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center, where he was instrumental 

in supervising the Saturn rocket program for the Apollo lunar missions. 

James Webb (1906-1992) was NASA administrator between 1961 and 1968. 

Previously, he had been an aide to a congressman and a business executive 

with the Sperry Corporation and the Kerr-McGee Oil Company. He also had 

been director of the Bureau of the Budget, 1946-1950, and undersecretary of 

state, (1950-1952). 

Edward Welsh (1909-) had a long career in various private and public enterprises. He served as legislative assistant to Senator Stuart Symington 

(D-MO), 1953-1961, and was the executive secretary of the National 

Aeronautics and Space Council through the 1960s. 

Edward White (1930-1967) was the first astronaut to "walk" in space, which 

he did in 1965 as part of the Gemini IV mission. A lieutenant colonel in the Air 

Force and son of an Air Force general, White joined NASA in 1962 as a member of its second class of astronauts. White was killed, along with crewmates 

Roger Chaffee and Gus Grissom, when their Apollo 204 capsule was engulfed 

in flames on the launch pad at the Kennedy Space Center. 
Source: Biographical reference files, NASA Headquarters Histo

Washington, D.C. 

1940 Received bachelor's degree from Harvard 

1941-1955 Held various teaching and research posit

Massachusetts Institute of Technology (M

1942 Received master's degree from MIT 

June 13, 1942 Married Eugenia (Gene) Merrill 

1951 Received doctor of science degree from M

1955 Started work at RCA as manager of its A

Systems Laboratory 

1958 Chief engineer at RCA's Missile Electron

Controls Division 

1960 Named NASA associate administrator 

1965 Named NASA deputy administrator 

1968 Returned to MIT as professor in aeronau

astronautics 

1969 Appointed secretary of the Air Force 

1973 Named president of the National Academ

Engineering 
1984-1996 

ppy 

Senior lecturer in aeronautics and astronautics at MIT 
Aerojet General Corporation, 182 


Aerospace Corporation, 219, 


230,255 


Agena rocket, 135 


Agnew, Spiro, 150-51, 157, 


175, 228-29, 242 


Agriculture, Department of, 243 


Airborne Command Post, 182-83 


Airborne Warning and Control 


System (AWACS), 173-74, 


245 


Air Force Academy, 183 


Air Force, United States, 4, 35, 


38, 41, 52, 54-55, 59, 62-64, 


92, 101-02, 14849, 151, 


153-198,200,219,229,231, 


236, 24249; and Scientific . 


Advisory Board, 167 


Airlift Command, 197 


Air National Guard, 157 


Air Products Corporation, 219, 


222 


Aldrin, Edwin E., Jr. (Buzz), 151 


American Telephone and 


Telegraph (AT&T) 


Corporation, 219, 223 


Ames Research Center, 66, 72,92 


Antarctica, 196 


Apollo program, 4, 

151,154,215,2

24243; and Ap

135-147, 2394

Applications Pr

Apollo: The Race 

99 


Applied Physics La

Johns Hopkins 

Argentina, 192 


Arkansas, 4 


Arlington Nationa

116, 139 


Armenia, 208 


Army Ballistic Mis

Army, United State

155,168,174-

244 


Army Signal Corp

Armstrong, Neil, 1

Aronson, Joseph, 

Asea Brown Bover

Atlas rocket, 58-5

Atomic Energy Co

(AEC), 62, 82

212 


Atwood, Lee, 144 
Ballistic missile early-warning system (BMEWS), 93, 183, 191 


Baltimore, 69 


Baltimore Sun, 161 


Bangkok, Thailand, 189 


Bartlett, Charlie, 7 6 


Batchelder, Sam, 108-09, 217-18 


Bay of Pigs, 86 


Bayonne, New Jersey, 39-40 


Bechtel Corporation, 201 


Bedford, Massachusetts, 4 


Bell Aircraft Company, 50-51 


Bell, Alexander Graham, 225 


Bellcomm, 94 


Bell, David, 82-83, 112 


Bell Laboratories, 93-94 


Bell, Larry, 51 


Bellis, Benjamin, 170-71 


Benson, Henry, 7-8 


Benson, Rebe, 8 


Berkeley, California, 228 


Berlin, 20 


Bermuda, 18 


Berry, Chuck, 139-40, 142 


Beverly Farms, Massachusetts, 


4,35,42,44,65,99, 106, 


153,204,228 


Billy Budd, 35 


Bosson, Campbell, 9, 14, 17, 


217 


Bosson, Dave, 13 


Bosson, Pauline; see Seamans, 


Polly 


Boston, 4, 7-8, 19, 21, 29, 36, 


42, 53-54, 63, 76, 121-22, 


125,156,222,225,240 


Boston Bruins, 3 


Boston Globe, 184 


Boston and Lockport Block 


Company, 6, 217-18 


Boston Museum of Science, 227 

Boston Red Sox, 224 


Boston University, 108 


Bowdoin College, 9-10 


Brackett, Ernest W., 96 


Braun, Wernher von, 68, 74, 92­

93, 96, 110, 113, 117-18, 


228,233 


Brazil, 192 


Bridgeton, Maine, 10 


Briggs, Bob, 52 


Broglio, Emilio, 125 


Brooks, Johnny, 35 


Brown, George, 159 


Brown, Harold, 112, 155-56, 


158-59 

Burnham, Bradford, 35 


Burrage, 106 


Burundi, 43 


Bush, George H. W., 220 


Bush, Vannevar, 224 


Byrd, Richard E., 3 


C-5 aircraft, 156, 163-65, 167­

68, 170-71, 245 


C-45 Beechcraft aircraft, 38 


C-4 7 aircraft, 177 


C-19 aircraft, 177 


C-130 aircraft, 168, 177, 196 


C-141 aircraft, 193, 196 


Cabot, Tom, 185 


California Institute of 


Technology (Caltech), 69, 


106-07, 156 


Calvert, James, 223 


Cambodia, 161, 178; also see 


Vietnam conflict 


Cambridge, Massachusetts, 40, 


42, 153, 155, 184, 186, 


211-12, 228 


Camden, New Jersey, 53, 56-59 


Camp David, Maryland, 183 


Canada, 173,182,190-91 


Cape Canaveral, 38, 61, 97, 


110-11, 113, 116, 138-39, 


(CIA), 156, 209 

Chafee, John, 154-5

Chaffee, Roger, 136

144,240 


Challenger space sh

ter, 215, 228 


Chamberlin, Claren

Chance-Vought Cor

24-25 


Charles, Robert H., 

Charles River, 49 


Checker cab, 131 


Chelsea, Massachus

Cherry Point, North 

37 


Chicago, 197, 217; 

Democratic Con

197 


China, 135, 178, 18

227; also see Vi

flict 


Chou, Amanda, 214 

Christensen, Stratto

Chrysler Corporatio

Civil War, 199 


Clark, "Snark," 15

Clifton, Chester V., 

Coast Guard, Unite

Cochran, Jackie, 15
42, 146, 158, 162-64, 172, 


199-203,205,207,234, 


236, 239, 252-54 


Connecticut, 13 


Conrad, Pete, 127 


Consolidated Engineering 


Company, 37 


Convair aircraft, 100-02 


Cook, Emmerson (Mike), 130, 


185, 192 


Cooper, Gordon, 95, 127 


Cornell, 95 


Cox, Catherine Bly, 99 


Coxe, Louis, 35 


Cravallus submarine, 205-06 


Crete, 227 


Cronkite, Walter, 115, 136 


Crow, Duward L. (Pete), 159 


Cuba, 86 


Damocles, sword of, 244 


Davis, Leighton (Lee), 38, 41, 


113 


Davis. W. Kenneth, 201 


Dayton, Ohio, 38 


Debus, Kurt, 98, 110, 113, 138 


Defense, Department of (DoD), 


5, 75,88-89,92,95,100, 


134, 154-55, 157-63, 166, 


line, 182 


Dixon, Tom, 71 


Dobbs Ferry, New York, 65, 78

100, 106, 186 


Doolittle, James H., 219 


Draper, Charles Stark (Doc), 5, 

26-28, 30-31, 39-41, 45-49

51-52, 61, 81-82, 99, 137, 

151; and the Charles Stark 

Draper Laboratory, 47, 81 


Dryden Flight Research 


Research Center, 135 


Dryden, Hugh, 63-64, 71, 73­

74, 78-82, 84, 93, 95-96, 


105, 115, 130-33, 146-47, 

161, 232-33 


DuBridge, Lee, 242 


Duell, Nan Bosson and Wally, 


36 


Dukakis, Michael, 215-16 


Eastern Yacht Club, 11 


Eastman Kodak Company, 81 


Edwards Flight Test Center, 72 

EG&G Corporation, 30 


Eglin Field, Florida, 38 


Eisenhower, Dwight D., 50, 61

67, 74-75, 82 


Eli Lilly and Company, 219-21 
Europe,6,33, 121,173,177, 


190 


F-1 engine, 7 6 


F-4 aircraft, 17 5 


F-5E aircraft, 245 


F-6F aircraft, 37 


F-14 aircraft, 171 


F-15 aircraft, 163, 170-72, 245 


F-105 aircraft, 175 


F-111 aircraft, 156, 165, 168­

70, 179-80, 245 


Faget, Max, 66 


Fairbanks, Alaska, 191 


Fairchild Hiller Company, 175 


FB-111 aircraft, 179 


Federal Aviation Administration 


(FAA), 126 


Federal Energy Administration 


(FEA), 252 


Federal Reserve Board, 220, 226 


Fiedler, Arthur; 57 


Finney, John, 97 


Fisk, Jim, 94 


Flax, AI, 156 


Fonck, Rene, 3 


Food and Drug Administration 


(FDA), 220-21 


Ford, Gerald, 201-02, 204, 206­

44,165,237 


General Dynamics 

156,163,169

General Electric C

148,222 


Geneva, Switzerla

Germany, 155, 15

Getting, Ivan, 219 

Gillette Corporati

Gilruth, Robert T

99, 105, 110 


Ginsburg, Robert 

Glasser, Otto, 166 

Glenn, John, 63, 

Glennan, T. Keith

71, 73,75-77

231-33, 250 


Goddard Space F

(GSFC), 69, 7

Godley, G. McMu

Goett, Harry J., 7

Gold, Tom, 95 


Goldberg, Arthur

Goldwater, Barry, 

Goodpaster, Andr

Gray, Edward Z., 

Gray, Paul, 212, 2

Great Britain, 220

Greece, 11 

Hackes, Peter, 13 7 


Haertline, Albert, 17-18, 23-24 


The Hague, 64 


Haiphong Harbor, 198 


Haldemann, H. R., 194, 196, 


247 


Hampton, Virginia, 65 


Handler, Philip, 199-201 


Hanoi, see Vietnam conflict 


Hanscom Air Force Base, 


156-57 


Hansen, Grant, 156-57, 166 


Hartog, Den, 18 


Harvard University, 4, 7-8, 17­

22, 25-26, 28, 30, 33-34, 


46,82, 112,157,183-86 


Hauck, Frederick, 215 


Hawaii, 185-86 


Hechler, Ken, 86 


Helms, Dick, 209 


Herculaneum, 22 7 


Hesburgh, Theodore, 122-23, 


172 


Hewlett-Packard Company, 154 


Hilburn, Earl, 71, 133-34 


Hill, Linda, 205 


Hines, Bill, 92, 97 


Hitler, Adolf, 33 


, , , , 

232-33 


Hornig, Don, 13 7 


Houbolt, John C., 67, 98, 229, 


236-38; and lunar-orbit 


rendezvous (LOR) scenario, 

67, 98-99, 229, 236-38 


Houghton, Dan, 168 


Houston, 66, 72, 84, 101-02, 


110-12,127,139, 150,238; 

also see Johnson Spacecraft 


Center and Manned 


Spacecraft Center 


Hubbard, Gardiner H., 225 


Hugel, Charlie, 223 


Hughes Aircraft Company, 55­

56, 170-71, 173 


Humphrey, Hubert, 120, 136, 


229,240-42 


Hunsaker, Jerome, 45 


Huntsville, Alabama, 67-68, 92, 

111; also see Marshall Space 

Flight Center 


Hyatt, Abe, 88 


Iceland, 190 


Innsbruck, Austria, 20 


Interior, Department of, 204, 


243 

Italy, 20, 105, 125 


Japan, 131, 187 


Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), 


63, 69, 72, 102-03 


Jetstar aircraft, 186-87 


Johnny Appleseed's Company, 


217-19 


Johns Hopkins University, 250; 


and the Applied Physics 


Laboratory, 52 


Johnson, Howard, 154-55, 211­

12 


Johnson,Johnn~ 75 


Johnson, Kelly, 170 


Johnson, Lady Bird, 129-30, 


139,150,227 


Johnson, Lyndon B., 75-76, 79, 


82-83,87,90,102,111, 


119, 121, 123, 126-30, 132, 


137, 146-48, 150, 167-68, 


197-98, 229, 233-34, 239­

41 


Johnson Space Center, 66; also 


see Manned Spacecraft 


Center and Houston 


Joint Chiefs of Staff, see 


Defense, Department of 


Kennedy, Jacquelin

Kennedy, John F., 6

82-83, 86-88, 

05,111-118,1

236,250 


Kennedy, John F., J

Kennedy, Joseph, 7

Kennedy Space Ce

98,117 


Kenya, 125 


Kerr, Robert, 79, 

Kent School, 13-1

Kent State Univers

Kerrebrock, Jack, 

Khe Sanh, 176 


Kildow, Judith, 21

Killian, James, 50

Kindelberger, Dut

King, David S., 84

King, Edward, 21

King, Martin Luth

Kingswood Camp

Kissinger, Henry, 

Kloss, Henry, 216 

Korean War, 61 


Kravis, Henry, 22

Kronstein, Elliot, 

Kuwait, 198 

Lauritsen, Charles C., 219 


Lawrence University, 157 


Leaper, Charlie, 222-23 


Lenox School, 9, 14-17, 65, 100 


Lewis, Dave, 170 


Lewis Research Center, 66, 72, 


92-93 


Lewis, Richard E. (Dick), 24-25 


Lilly, Eli, 220; also see Eli Lilly 


and Company 


Lincoln, Abraham, 199 


Lindbergh, Charles A., 3, 120 


Linder, Clarence, 199-200 


Lipsomb, Glen P., 156 


Liverman, Jim, 251 


Lockheed Corporation, 163, 


168,170,245 


Lockport Block Company, 217 


Lodge, Henry Cabot, 192 


Lodge, John, 192 


Logistics Command, 197 


London, 121-22 


Long Island, New York, 39, 


175,206 


Lord Company, 219 


Loring, Caleb, Jr., 31, 34-35, 


65, 108-09 


Los Angeles, 36, 218 


Malley, George, 138 


Manned Orbital Laboratory 


(MOL), 165 


Manned Spacecraft Center, 66, 


105, 112, 127; also see 


Johnson Space Center and 


Houston 


Marblehead High School, 10 


Marblehead, Massachusetts, 8, 


11, 13,20,23,31-32,35, 


44,222 


Mariner spacecraft, 69 


Marines, United States, 158 


Mark 14 project, 47 


Mars, 145, 150-51, 242, 244 


Marshall Space Flight Center 


(MSFC), 67-68, 72, 74, 96, 


110, 117 


Martin, Mary, 54 


Martin, William McChesney, 


220,226 


Massachusetts Eye and Ear 


Clinic, 4J; and the 


Winthrop Foundation, 43 


Massachusetts General 


Hospital, 42 


Massachusetts Institute of 


Technology (MIT), 3, 18, 

McClennan, Marsh, 224 


McConnell, J.P., 159, 169, 179 


McCormick, John, 234 


McDonnell Douglas 


Corporation, 112, 135, 171­

72 


McKay, Gordon, 217 


McKay, Walter, 37-38 


McKee, William F. (Bozo), 126 


McKinsey and Company, 203 


McLucas, John, 156-57, 161, 


172, 194 


McNamara, Robert, 87-90, 


100, 111, 137, 159, 164, 


169, 197-98, 229, 233-34 


Medal of Freedom, 120 


Mediterranean Sea, 20 


Meir, Golda, 167 


Mekong River, 176-77, 189 


Mercury program, 62, 66-67, 


74,83,88,94,95, 105, 


110-11,113,143,147,234, 


237 


Merrill, Eugenia (Gene); see 


Seamans, Eugenia (Gene) 


Merrill, Ezra 


Merrill, Keith and Katherine, 4­

5, 7, 23,28-29, 31-32,43-44 


Miller, George, 112 

Minot Air Force ba

Mississippi test fac

MITRE Corporati

Momyer, William, 

Mondale, Walter, 

Monks, George Ga

Montana, 21, 36 


Montgomery War

78 


Moot, Bob, 159 


Morgan Holland C

Morris, Frederick

Moscow, 181, 208 

Moyers, Bill, 128 

Mueller, George, 

138, 140-42, 

Murray, Charles, 

Nadas, Elizabeth 

Nairobi, Kenya, 1

Napoleon, see Bo

Napoleon 


National Academ

Engineering (

199-201, 203

247-48, 251 

National Aeronautics and Space 


Council, 88 


National Broadcasting 


Company (NBC) News, 137 


National Bureau of Standards, 


252,254 


National Cathedral, 227 


National Cathedral School for 


Girls, 77, 124 


National Child Research Center, 


100 


National Democratic Club, 79 


National Geographic magazine, 


209 


National Geographical Society, 


185-186,220,225-27,250 


National Institutes of Health, 131 


National Institute of Medicine, 


200 


National Oceanic and 


Atmospheric Administration 


(NOAA), 243 


National Reconnaissance Office 


(NRO), 156, 168 


National Research Council 


(NRC), 199-201 


National Science Foundation 


(NSF), 202, 204, 224 


New England Medical Center, 


227 


Newfoundland, 34 


New London, Connecticut, 19 


New Orleans, 111 


Newton, Massachusetts, 47 


New York City, 3, 120, 122, 


240 


New York Stock exchange, 220 

New York Times, 90, 97, 105, 


161 


New Zealand, 196, 227 


Nixon, Richard M., 4, 74, 148­

49, 158-59, 165, 194-98, 


201,229,242,247-49,252 

Norfolk, Virginia, 40 


North American Aviation 


Company, 18, 96, 141, 144­

45,170,239 


North Atlantic Treaty 


Organization (NATO), 64, 


124, 190 


North Carolina Agricultural and 

Technical State University, 


228 


Northeastern University, 43 


Northrop Corporation, 175 


Norway, 190 

Office of Scientific Research and 


Development, 224 


Okinawa, Japan, 187 


Oldfield, Homer (Barney), 30 


Omaha, Nebraska, 160, 181 


O'Neill, Thomas P. (Tip), 250 


Operation Desert Storm, 174­

75, 198 


Oraflex drug, 220-21 


Organization of Petroleum 


Exporting Countries 


(OPEC), 207 


Ostrander, Don, 72, 80 


Ousley, Gil, 122-23 


P-38 aircraft, 38 


Packard, David, 154, 161, 163, 


168,171,244 


Paducah, Kentucky, 206 


Padula, Lou, 106-08, 119, 121­

22, 24_4 


Paine, Thomas 0., 148-49, 242 


Panama, 191-92 


Paris, 3, 20, 124 


Park, Chung Hee, 161 


Parker, Eddie and Nat, 109 


Park Service, 226 


Pasadena, California, 31, 36-37, 


103 


, 

Peter Pan, 54 


Petrone, Rocco, 151 

Philadelphia, 34, 53

Philippines, 187 


Phillips Academy, 10

Phillips, Samuel L., 

141-42, 151; an

task force report

Phipps, Cadis, 20-21 

Pickering, John, 44 

Pickering, William H

Pittsburgh, 185, 228 

Plymouth, England, 

Pneuma Company, 

Poa, Van, 189 


Polaris missile, 113-

Pollard, Ben 193-94 

Pollard, Joan, 193-9

Pompano Beach, Flo

Pope Paul VI, 122-2

Popular Mechanics, 

Portsmouth, Ohio, 

Pound, Bill, 214, 22

Powder Puff Derby, 

Powers, Gary, 64 


Pratt & Whitney Co

President's Space Co

Preston, Dick, 54 

Radio Corporation of America 


(RCA), 52-59, 61-63, 68, 


70, 78,93,106,232 


Ramo-Woolridge Company, 91, 


219; also see TRW 


(Thomson-Ramo­


Woolridge), Inc. 


Ranger spacecraft, 69, 123, 235 


Rantoul, Ellie, 7 


Ray, Dixie Lee, 202 


Raytheon Corporation, 140,219 


Reagan, Ronald, 181 


Redstone Arsenal, 67 


Redstone rocket, 7 4 


Rees, Eberhard, 68 


Renchard, George and Stella, 43 


Renchard, Stella Mae, 43-44 


Reserve Officers' Training 


Corps (ROTC), 195, 197 


Resor, Stanley, 154-55, 174, 


194,244 


Rice University, 112 


Richardson, Elliot, 193, 196-97, 


248 


Rickover, Hyman, 205-06 


RJR Nabisco Company, 223 


Roberts, Richard W., 230, 252, 


254 


171, 174, 177, 180-81, 19

Sage, Nat, 41, 47, 51-52 


Saigon, 176, 187-88 


SAINT project, 62, 67 


Salem Evening News, 120 


Salem, Massachusetts, 7-12, 1

21,32,35 


Salinger, Pierre, 111 


Saltonstall, Leverett, 132 


San Jose State College, 106 


San Marcos project, 125 


Santorini island, 22 7 


Santry, Arthur, 222-23 


Sarnoff, David, 58 


Sattlemeyer, John, 4 7 


Saturn, 145 


Saturn rocket, 77, 82-83, 96-97, 

113-14, 116-18,219,236-3

Saturnia ship, 20 


Schedler, Spencer J., 157, 159 


Scheer, Julian, 113, 146 


Schlesinger, Andy, 185 


Schlesinger, Arthur M., Jr., 185 

Schlesinger, James, 211,229, 25

Schneider, William, 110 


Schriever, Bernard, 233 


Science: the Endless Frontier, 

224 

217-18 


Seamans, Eugenia (Gene), 4-5, 


9, 22-23, 28-37, 42-48, 52, 


57,64-66,75-77,97,100, 


106-09, 116-26, 137, 139, 


147, 150-51, 153, 155, 183, 


188-92, 208-12, 226-28, 


231,240,244,249 


Seamans, Francis Augustus, 8 


Seamans, James Otis (Jim), 13, 


17, 28, 34-35 


Seamans, Joe, 42, 44, 46, 65, 


77,99-100,107,119,121, 


150, 183-86, 250 


Seamans, Kathy, 42, 44, 46, 65, 


78, 100, 106-08, 119, 121, 


186,244 


Seamans,~a~42,65, 77,100, 


121-24, 186 


Seamans, Peter, 9-10, 20, 34-35, 


147,183-84,215-18,240 


Seamans, Pauline (Polly), 6-8, 14, 


20, 22-23, 33-34, 77-78, 119 


Seamans, Richard (Dick), 11, 17 


Seamans, Robert Channing, 7-8, 


77-78, 119 


Seamans, Robert Channing, Jr., 


-Air Force career: 148-49, 


151,153-198,200,219, 


of Secretary, 1

source selectio

Vietnam confl

183-90, 193-9

-boyhood, 10

-college years, 

-corporate bo

217-27 


-and Charles 

Draper, 26-28

-ERDA career

219,222,228

-family as chi

ences, 6-1 0; a

family life, 41

-and Eugenia 

~errill, early 

22-23, 28-29, 

-heroes, 3-4 


-~IT enginee

dean,211-15

-~IT gradua

26, 30-31 


-military-rela

42,49-52 


-NACA work
last days, 143-47; recruit­


ment by Keith Glennan, 62­

64, 231-33; incoming 


Kennedy Administration, 


74; experiences with 


President Kennedy, 111-18; 


first tour of field centers, 66­

69; management triad with 


James Webb and Hugh 


Dryden, 81-82, 105, 130­

35; politics, 100-03; reflec­


tions on, 147-151; James 


Webb's arrival, 78-79 


-RCA work, 52-59, 62-63, 


68, 70,78,232 


-venture capital work, 215­

16 


-World War II, 33-35, 37­

39 


Seamans, Stetson and Tuttle, 11 


Seamans, Toby, 42-44, 46, 65, 


100, 119, 121-22 


Sears Roebuck Company, 78 


Selective Service System, United 


States, 34, 155, 158 


Senate, United States, 78-79, 97, 


102-03, 109, 132, 140-42, 


202-03 


Shah of Iran, 205, 209 


Sloan-Kettering Cancer 


Institute, 196, 247 


Sluder, John and Betsy, 45 


Smathers, George A., 113 


Smith, Levering, 92 


Smith, Margaret Chase, 140 


Smith, R. H., 25-26 


Smith, Ted, 53, 55-57 


Smith, William Y., 4 


Smithsonian Institution, 3 


Sohier, Walter, 116, 118, 147, 


240 


Sorenson, Ted, 90-91 


Southeast Asia, see Vietnam 


conflict 


South Korea, 187 


Soviet Union, 61, 64, 71, 85, 


87-88, 115, 176, 179, 181­

83,187,197,204,207-09, 


235-36 


Space Station, 228, 243-44 


Space Task Group, 66, 73-74, 


101-02, 237, 242-43 


Space Transportation System, 243 

Sperry Corporation, 27, 30, 37, 

39 


Sputnik, 61-62, 70 


Squam Lake, New Hampshire, 17 

SR-71 aircraft, 170 

Steadman, John M., 158 


Stempler, Jack L., 158 


Stevenson, Adlai, 121 


Stever, Guy, 196, 202 


Stone, Galen, 125 


Storms, Harrison (Stormy), 


144-45 


Strategic Air Command (SAC), 


160, 172, 180-81, 197 


Strategic Integrated Operational 


Plan (SlOP), 181 


Students for a Democratic 


Society (SDS), 184 


Suez Canal, 125 


Surveyor program, 235 


Sweden, 223 


Switzerland, 20, 121, 218, 223 


Symington, Stuart, 161 


Systems Acquisition Command, 


197 


Tactical Air Command, 177, 


197 


Tahiti, 185-86 


Taiwan, 161, 187-88 


Tarr, Curtis, 155, 157-59 


Taylor Instruments Company, 


223 


Thresher, B. Alden, 

Thule Air Force Ba

Time magazine, 19

Titan rocket, 112 


Tokyo, 187 


Toward the Endless 

History ofthe C

Science and Tec

Tower School, 5, 1

Tracking Control P

41-42, 45-46, 4

Transportation, De

243 


Trident submarine, 

Trustees of Reserva

Truman, Harry S., 

TRW, Inc., 109, 21

Tufts, Otis, 11 


Turkey, 190 


U-2 aircraft, 64 


Unger, Leonard, 19

United Aircraft Co

United Geophysical 

United Nations (U

129 


University of Calif

Cruz, 204 

g, , 

Venezuela, 192 


Venus, 244 


Vest, Charles, 228 


Vienna, 207 


VietCong (VC), 176, 198 


Vietnam conflict, 155, 159-61, 


174-79, 183-90, 193-98, 


245,247 


Viking program, 145 


Virginia Beach, Virginia, 48 


Vitro Corporation, 50 


Viva yacht, 205-07 


Vostok spacecraft, 62 


Voyager program, 145 


Wagner, Robert, 120 


Walker, Joe, 135 


Walters, Ray, 203 


Waltham Watch Company, 54­

55 


Washington, D.C., 23, 28, 31­

34,51,63-65,69,77,79, 


90-91, 99-100, 106, 108, 


112, 114, 125, 135, 139, 


148, 150, 153-57, 173, 175, 


181, 186-87, 189, 191, 193, 


197,199,204,209,211-12, 


220, 225, 227-28, 230-255 


Cpy, 

0 

Westinghouse Corporation, 17

173,222 


Westmoreland, William, 17 4 


West Point, 139 


Wheatland, Dave, 52 


White, Ed, 136, 139-40, 144, 


240 


White House, 65, 70, 90, 95, 


104, 111, 113, 117-20, 126

27, 147-48, 156, 158, 182, 

194,196,203-04,207,211

234, 239, 241, 247-49, 


252-53, 255; and White 


House Committee on the 


Space Station, 228 


White, Minor, 185 


White, Paul Dudley, 21-22, 33­

34 


White, Phillip, 204 


Whitney, Hazel, 65 


Whittaker, Philip, 157 


Wiesner, Jerome C., 74, 81-82, 

87-88, 211-12, 215 


Williams, Albert L., 220 


Williams, Conger, 22 


Williams, Ted 


Williamsburg, Virginia, 68 


Wilson, Carroll, 212 

Wright, Orville and Wilbur, 3, 

79-80 

Wyatt, DeMarquis (D.), 80-81 

Yale University, 62 

Yeager, Chuck, 3-4 

Yerevan, Armenia, 208 

Young, Jack, 134 

Young,John, 118 

Zarb, Frank, 201-02, 252 

Zuckert, Gene, 168 

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Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1964: Chronology ofSci

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Brooks, Courtney G., and Ertel, Ivan D. The Apollo Spa

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Technology, and Policy (NASA SP-4020, 1979) 

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Technology, and Policy (NASA SP-4021, 1984) 

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Technology, and Policy (NASA SP-4022, 1986) 

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Technology, and Policy (NASA SP-4023, 1986) 

Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1979-1984: Chronology ofScience, 

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Bilstein, Roger E. Stages to Saturn: A Technological Hist

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Wallace, Lane E. Airborne Trailblazer: Two Decades with NASA 

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Hartman, Edwin, P. Adventures in Research: A History ofAmes 

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Muenger, Elizabeth A. Searching the Horizon: A History ofAmes 

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Hansen, James R. Engineer in Charge: A History of the Langley 

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