i

International Space Station 

Benefits for Humanity

2nd Edition

This book was developed collaboratively by the members of 

the International Space Station Program Science Forum, which 

includes the National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

(NASA), Canadian Space Agency (CSA), European Space Agency 

(ESA), Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), Russian 

Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos), and the Italian Space 

Agency (ASI).

NP-2015-01-001-JSC
ii

Acknowledgements 

A Product of the ISS Program Science Forum

National Aeronautics and Space Administration:

Julie Robinson, Pete Hasbrook, Amelia Rai, Tara Ruttley, 

Camille Alleyne, Cynthia Evans, William Stefanov, Michael Read, 

Kirt Costello, David Hornyak, Tracy Thumm, Susan Anderson, 

Joshua Byerly, Joshua Buck

Canadian Space Agency:

Nicole Buckley, Luchino Cohen, Ruth Ann Chicoine, 

Christine Giguère

European Space Agency:

Martin Zell, Eric Istasse, Jason Hatton, Jennifer Ngo-Anh, 

Nigel Savage, Jon Weems

Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency:

Shigeki Kamigaichi, Kazuyuki Tasaki, Sayaka Umemura, 

Koki Oikawa, Hideyuki Watanabe, Nobuyoshi Fujimoto, 

Masato Koyama, Yayoi Miyagawa, Tatsuya Aiba, 

Shiho Ogawa, Toshitami Ikeda

Russian Federal Space Agency:

Georgy Karabadzhak, Elena Lavrenko, Igor Sorokin, 

Natalya Zhukova, Nataliya Biryukova, Mark Belakovskiy, 

Anna Kussmaul

Italian Space Agency:

Salvatore Pignataro, Jean Sabbagh, Germana Galoforo

Executive Editor:

Julie Robinson, NASA 

Managing Editor:

Amelia Rai, NASA

Section Editors:

Camille Alleyne, Kirt Costello, David Hornyak, 

Michael Read, Tara Ruttley, William Stefanov; NASA

Technical Editor:

Neesha Hosein, DB Consulting Group, Inc.

Graphic Designer:

Cynthia Bush, DB Consulting Group, Inc.
iii

About the Cover Art

Several themes are integrated into the cover art for this 2nd International Space Station 

Benefits for Humanity. The most central theme is that of “bringing light to the darkness,” 

as indicated by the predominantly nighttime view of Earth, with both the station crew and 

the populace over which it soars on the verge of experiencing a new dawn. The Earth view 

chosen includes some of the most underdeveloped regions on the planet; home to people 

whose lives stand to gain the greatest enrichment from the groundbreaking research being 

conducted high overhead. 

The double-headed arrow, which can be interpreted to be a stylized representation of the 

space station’s orbital flight path, is also the visual centerpiece for two of the remaining 

themes. The double arrow points both behind the station—back toward Earth, and 

ahead of the station—forward past the Earth, to the moon, Mars, and to far more distant 

destinations. This highlights the dual charter of station research to improve life on Earth and 

to lay the technological groundwork for human expansion beyond low-Earth orbit. 

The arrow’s color shift from silver to gold represents the third theme: “Invest silver, get 

back gold.” This theme pays homage to the manifold benefits of knowledge realized 

through international investment in the space station. It also celebrates “gold” of another 

kind, the enrichment of life on Earth that is the subject of this volume. These benefits for 

humanity are represented by five gold medallions, each signifying a major area of emphasis: 

Human Health, Earth Observation and Disaster Response, Innovative Technology, Global 

Education, and Economic Development of Space.

The final theme is also the most subtle. Although this is a publication coordinated by 

NASA, the NASA logo is absent from the front cover, in deference to the fact that the 

benefits chronicled herein are a result, not of any single nation’s efforts, nor those of one 

nation above others, but of unprecedented international partnership and cooperation. 

This is a benefit for humanity in and of itself, one which promises incalculable rewards 

not only in such tangibles as heightened international commerce, but perhaps most 

importantly, in greater cross-cultural understanding and tolerance, the very foundation for 

humanity’s future. 

Michael C. Jansen

December 2014

Human 

Health

Earth 

Observation 

and Disaster 

Response

Economic 

Development 

of Space

Global 

Education

Innovative 

Technology
iv

Book Highlights

Robotic arms lend a healing touch

The world’s first robotic technology capable of performing surgery inside magnetic 

resonance machines makes difficult surgeries easier or impossible surgeries possible. 

Page 3

Bringing space station ultrasound to the ends of the Earth

Small ultrasound units, tele-medicine and remote guidance 

techniques make medical care more accessible in remote regions.

Page 8

Advanced ISS technology supports water purification efforts worldwide 

At-risk areas can gain access to advanced water filtration and purification systems affording 

them clean drinking water. 

Page 65

TomatosphereTM: Sowing the seeds of discovery through student science

This award-winning educational project with an estimated 3 million students participating is 

helping researchers answer questions about growing food in space while teaching students 

about science, agriculture and nutrition.

Page 94

Calling cosmonauts from home

Currently aboard the Russian segment of the station are four space 

investigations that have educational components to inspire future generations 

of scientists, technologists, engineers and mathematicians.

Page 104

Commercialization of low-Earth orbit (LEO)

Forward-thinking, agile companies like NanoRacks and UrtheCast believe routine utilization 

of the unique environment of outer space has come of age, and that at long last ISS is open 

for business.

Page 112

Space mice teach us about muscle and bone loss

Biotech and pharmaceutical companies like Amgen use spaceflight to study their 

drugs and do preclinical work important for FDA approval.

Page 129

Improved eye surgery with space hardware

An eye-tracking device allows the tracking of eye position without interfering 

with a surgeon’s work during corrective laser eye surgery.

Page 6 

Earth remote sensing from the space station

ISS contributes to humanity by collecting data on global climate, environmental 

change, and natural hazards using its unique complement of crew-operated 

and automated Earth observation payloads.

Page 51 

High-quality protein crystal growth experiment aboard Kibo

Protein crystal growth experiments contribute to the development of medical 

treatments. JAXA is making positive advancements in research on obstinate 

diseases through experiments in space.

Page 23 
v

Acknowledgments..........................................................................................................ii

About the Cover Art ...................................................................................................... iii

Book Highlights .............................................................................................................iv

Executive Summary.......................................................................................................ix

Introduction.................................................................................................................... x

Human Health 1

Health Technology..................................................................................................................................... 3

Robotic arms lend a healing touch ............................................................................................................ 3

Robots from space lead to one-stop breast cancer diagnosis treatment ................................................... 5

Improved eye surgery with space hardware............................................................................................... 6

Sensor technologies for high-pressure jobs and operations ...................................................................... 7

Bringing space station ultrasound to the ends of the Earth ....................................................................... 8

Are you asthmatic? Your new helper comes from space ......................................................................... 10

Cold plasmas assist in wound healing ..................................................................................................... 10

Preventing Bone Loss ............................................................................................................................. 13

Preventing bone loss in spaceflight with prophylactic use of bisphosphonate: 

Health promotion of the elderly by space medicine technologies ............................................................. 13

Improved scanning technologies and insights into osteoporosis .............................................................. 15

Good diet, proper exercise help protect astronauts’ bones ..................................................................... 15

Add salt? Astronauts’ bones say please don’t ......................................................................................... 17

Immune Defenses.................................................................................................................................... 19

Early detection of immune changes prevents painful shingles in astronauts and 

in Earth-bound patients ........................................................................................................................... 19

Station immunology insights for Earth and space ................................................................................... 20

Targeted treatments to improve immune response .................................................................................. 21

Developing New Therapies..................................................................................................................... 23

High-quality protein crystal growth experiment aboard Kibo .................................................................... 23

Cancer-targeted treatments from space station discoveries..................................................................... 25

Using weightlessness to treat multiple ailments ....................................................................................... 26

Food and the Environment ..................................................................................................................... 29

Microbiology applications from fungal research in space.......................................................................... 29

Plant growth on ISS has global impacts on Earth .................................................................................... 30

Experiments with higher plants on the Russian Segment of the International Space Station .................... 32

Table of Contents
vi

Heart Health and Biorhythms................................................................................................................. 35

Space cardiology for the benefit of health care ........................................................................................ 35

Biological rhythms in space and on Earth ................................................................................................ 36

Innovative space-based device promotes restful sleep on Earth .............................................................. 37

Improving Balance and Movement........................................................................................................ 39

New technology simulates microgravity and improves balance on Earth.................................................. 39

New ways to assess neurovestibular system health in space also benefits those on Earth ...................... 40

Space research leads to non-pharmacological treatment and prevention of vertigo, dizziness 

and equilibrium disturbances................................................................................................................... 42

Capturing the secrets of weightless movements for Earth applications .................................................... 44

Space technologies in the rehabilitation of movement disorders .............................................................. 45

Earth Observation and Disaster Response 49

Environmental Earth Observations........................................................................................................ 51

Earth remote sensing from the space station .......................................................................................... 51

Coastal ocean sensing extended mission ............................................................................................... 53

Visual and instrumental scientific observation of the ocean from space ................................................... 54 

Disaster Response .................................................................................................................................. 57

Space station camera captures Earthly disaster scenes ......................................................................... 57

Clear high-definition images aid disaster response ................................................................................. 59

Innovative Technology 63

Fluids and Clean Water........................................................................................................................... 65

Advanced ISS technology supports water purification efforts worldwide ................................................. 65

Exploring the wonders of fluid motion: 

Improving life on Earth through understanding the nature of Marangoni convection ................................ 66

Space station-inspired mWater app identifies healthy water sources ...................................................... 68

Space-tested fluid flow concept advances infectious disease diagnoses ................................................ 69

Materials................................................................................................................................................... 71

Improving semiconductors with nanofibers ............................................................................................. 71

InSPACE’s big news in the nano world ................................................................................................... 72

Satellites................................................................................................................................................... 75

Deploying small satellites from ISS .......................................................................................................... 75

Pinpointing time and location .................................................................................................................. 77

Space station technology demonstration could boost a new era of satellite-servicing ............................. 78

Transportation Technology..................................................................................................................... 81

Cool flame research aboard space station may lead to a cleaner environment on Earth .......................... 81

Robotics ................................................................................................................................................... 83

Robonaut’s potential shines in multiple space, medical and industrial applications .................................. 83
vii

Global Education 87

Inspiring the next generation of students with the International Space Station ........................................ 89

Inquiry-based Learning........................................................................................................................... 91

Student scientists receive unexpected results from research in space .................................................... 91

Europe’s alliance with space droids ........................................................................................................ 92

NASA has a HUNCH about student success in engineering .................................................................... 93

TomatosphereTM: Sowing the seeds of discovery through student science ............................................. 94

Students photograph Earth from space via Sally Ride EarthKAM program .............................................. 96

Try zero G 2: Igniting the passion of the next generation in Asia .............................................................. 97

Inspiration ................................................................................................................................................ 99

Asian students work with astronauts in space missions .......................................................................... 99

Educational benefits of the space experiment “Shadow-beacon” on ISS .............................................. 100

Students get fit the astronaut way ........................................................................................................ 102

Inspiring youth with a call to the International Space Station ................................................................. 103

Calling cosmonauts from home ............................................................................................................ 104

MAI-75 experiment, main results and prospects for development in education ..................................... 105

Economic Development of Space 109

Commercial Service Providers............................................................................................................. 111

Water production in space: Thirsting for a solution ................................................................................ 111

Commercialization of low-Earth orbit (LEO)............................................................................................ 112

Innovative public-private partnerships for ISS cargo services: Part 1 ..................................................... 113

Innovative public-private partnerships for ISS cargo services: Part 2 ..................................................... 115

Precision pointing platform for Earth observations from the ISS............................................................. 116

The Groundbreaker: Earth observation .................................................................................................. 118

A flock of CubeSats photographs our changing planet.......................................................................... 119 

Stretch your horizons, Stay CuriousTM .................................................................................................... 120

Mission critical: Flatworm experiment races the clock after splashdown ................................................ 122

Economic development of space in JAXA ............................................................................................. 123

Commercial Research........................................................................................................................... 127

Colloids in space: Where consumer products and science intersect ..................................................... 127

Space mice teach us about muscle and bone loss ............................................................................... 129

Protein crystals in microgravity ............................................................................................................. 130

Muscle atrophy: Mice on the ISS helping life on Earth ........................................................................... 131

Link to Archived Stories 

and Videos ................................................................................................. 134

Authors and Principal Investigators by Section ..................................................... 135
viii
ix

Executive Summary

The International Space Station (ISS) is a unique scientific platform that enables researchers from all over the 

world to put their talents to work on innovative experiments that could not be done anywhere else. Although each 

space station partner has distinct agency goals for station research, each partner shares a unified goal to extend 

the resulting knowledge for the betterment of humanity. We may not know yet what will be the most important 

discovery gained from the space station, but we already have some amazing breakthroughs.

In the areas of human health, innovative technology, education and observations of Earth from space, there are 

already demonstrated benefits to people back on Earth. Lives have been saved, station-generated images assist 

with disaster relief, new materials improve products, and education programs inspire future scientists, engineers 

and space explorers. Some benefits in this updated second edition have expanded in scope. In other cases, new 

benefits have developed. 

Since the publication of the first edition, a new constituency has developed, one that is using the ISS in a totally 

different fashion—to develop a commercial market in low-Earth orbit. From pharmaceutical companies conducting 

commercially-funded research on ISS, to private firms offering unique research capabilities and other services, to 

commercial cargo and crew, the ISS is proving itself to be just as adaptable to new business relationships as it has 

been for a broad diversity in research disciplines.

This book summarizes the scientific, technological and educational accomplishments of research on the space 

station that have had and will continue to have an impact to life on Earth. All serve as examples of the space 

station’s potential as a groundbreaking research facility. Through advancing the state of scientific knowledge of our 

planet, looking after our health, developing advanced technologies and providing a space platform that inspires 

and educates the science and technology leaders of tomorrow, these benefits will drive the legacy of the space 

station as its research strengthens economies and enhances the quality of life here on Earth for all people.
x

Introduction

Welcome as we share the successes of the International Space Station (ISS) in this second edition of the 

International Space Station Benefits for Humanity. The ISS is a unique scientific platform that has existed 

since 1998 and has enabled over 2,400 researchers in 83 countries and areas to conduct more than 1,700 

experiments in microgravity through just September 2014, and the research continues...

Since November 2, 2000, the ISS has maintained a continuous human presence in space. Even before it was 

habitable, the research began on the only orbiting laboratory of its kind. In 2011, when ISS assembly was 

complete, the focus shifted to fully utilizing the lab for continued scientific research, technology development, 

space exploration, commerce, and education. 

The tremendous value of the ISS began through the engineering achievement evolving over a decade. 

Components were built in various countries around the world—all without the benefit of prior ground testing—

allowing us to learn a vast amount about construction and about how humans and spacecraft systems function 

in orbit. This testament to the international achievement exemplifies cultural harmonization through cooperative 

teamwork leading to an international partnership that has continued to flourish and foster international 

cooperation. While each ISS partner has distinct agency goals for research conducted, a unified goal exists to 

extend the knowledge gleaned to benefit all humankind. 

In the first edition of the book released in 2012, the scientific, technological and educational accomplishments of 

ISS research that have an impact on life on Earth were summarized through a compilation of stories. The many 

benefits being realized were primarily in the areas of human health, Earth observations and disaster response, 

and global education. 

This second edition includes updated statistics on the impacts of those benefits as well as new benefits 

that have developed since the first publication. In addition, two new sections have been added to the book: 

Economic Development of Space and Innovative Technology.

Economic Development of Space highlights case studies from public-private partnerships that are leading to 

a new economy in low-Earth orbit (LEO). Businesses provide both transportation to the ISS as well as some 

research facilities and services. These relationships promote a paradigm shift of government-funded, contractorprovided goods and services to commercially-provided goods purchased by government agencies. Other 

examples include commercial firms spending their research and development dollars to conduct investigations 

Value of the Platform
xi

on ISS and commercial service providers selling services directly to ISS users. This section provides examples of 

the use of ISS as a testbed for new business relationships and illustrates successful partnerships. 

The second new section, Innovative Technology, merges technology demonstration and physical science 

findings that promise to return Earth benefits through continued research. Examples include robotic refueling 

concepts for life extensions of costly satellites in geo-synchronous orbit that have applications to the robotics 

industry on Earth, flame behavior experiments that reveal insight into how fuel burns in microgravity leading 

to the possibility of improving engine efficiency on Earth, and nanostructures and smart fluids examples of 

materials improvements that are being developed using data from ISS. 

This publication also expands the benefits of research results in human health, environmental change and 

disaster response and in education activities developed to capture student imaginations in support of Science, 

Technology, Engineering and Mathematics, or STEM, education, internationally. Applications to human health of 

the knowledge gained on ISS continue to grow and improve healthcare technologies and our understanding of 

human physiology. 

The ISS is a stepping stone for future space exploration, as the only orbiting multi-disciplinary laboratory of its 

kind returning research results that develop LEO and improve life on our planet. The goal of this publication is to 

serve as a source of pride to those who read it and learn of the unique shared laboratory orbiting our planet that 

provides ground for critical technologies and ways to keep humans healthy in space.

Benefits of

Research and

Technology

Benefits for Humanity Themes
xii

Medical team prepares for SYMBIS Surgical System use in the operating room. 

Image credit: University of Calgary
1

Human 

Health

The International Space Station is a unique laboratory for performing investigations that affect human 

health both in space and on Earth. During its time in orbit, the space station has enabled research that is 

providing a better understanding of many aspects of human health including aging, trauma, disease and 

environmental impacts. Driven by the need to support astronaut health, several biological and human 

physiological investigations have yielded important results that we on Earth can also benefit from. These 

results include new ways to mitigate bone loss, insights into bacterial behavior, and innovative woundhealing techniques. Advances in telemedicine, disease models, psychological stress response systems, 

nutrition and cell behavior are just a few more examples of the benefits that have been gained from 

applying studies in orbit to human health back on Earth.
2
3

Robotic arms lend a healing touch

The delicate touch that successfully removed an 

egg-shaped tumor from Paige Nickason’s brain got a 

helping hand from a world-renowned arm—a robotic 

arm, that is. The technology that went into developing 

neuroArm, the world’s first robot capable of performing 

surgery inside magnetic resonance machines, was 

born of the Canadarm (developed in collaboration with 

engineers a MacDonald, Dettwiler, and Associates, Ltd. 

[MDA] for the U.S. Space Shuttle Program) as well as 

Canadarm2 and Dextre, the Canadian Space Agency’s 

family of space robots performing the heavy lifting and 

maintenance aboard the International Space Station.

neuroArm began with the search for a solution to a 

surgical dilemma: how to make difficult surgeries easier 

or impossible surgeries possible. MDA worked with a 

team led by Dr. Garnette Sutherland at the University 

of Calgary to develop a highly precise robotic arm 

that works in conjunction with the advanced imaging 

capabilities of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) 

systems. Surgeons wanted to be able to perform 

surgeries while a patient was inside an MRI machine, 

which meant designing a robot that was as dexterous 

as the human hand but even more precise and tremorfree. Operating inside the MRI also meant it had to 

be made entirely from safe, MRI compatible materials 

(for instance, ceramic motors) so that it would not be 

affected by the MRI’s magnetic field or, conversely, 

disrupt the MRI’s images. The project team developed 

novel ways to control the robot’s movements and give 

the robot’s operator a sense of touch via an intuitive, 

haptic hand-controller located at a remote work 

station—essential so that the surgeon can precisely 

control the robot and can feel the tool-tissue interface 

during the surgery.

Health Technology

Research on ISS has allowed for innovations in surgical performance through the world’s first robotic 

technology capable of performing surgery inside MRI machines. This technology is making difficult 

brain tumor surgeries easier and impossible surgeries possible. Soon, medical technology stemming 

from space station robotics will enter clinical trials for use in the early diagnosis and treatment of breast 

cancer by providing increased access, precision and dexterity resulting in highly accurate and minimally 

invasive procedures. Development of an advanced technology solution for pediatric surgery is also in 

the design stages. In common laser surgeries to correct eyesight, a new technology developed on ISS 

is now used on Earth to track the patient’s eye and precisely direct a laser scalpel. Thermal regulation 

research on ISS has also led to the use of sensor technology for monitoring during surgery.

When medical facilities are not readily available such as in remote and underdeveloped regions of the 

world, ultrasound units are used in conjunction with protocols for performing complex procedures 

rapidly with remote expert guidance and training. These telemedicine and remote guidance techniques 

empower local healthcare providers, provide patients with access to more timely and diagnostic care, 

and the healthcare system is made more efficient.

A lightweight, easy-to-use device to measure nitric oxide in air exhaled by astronauts on ISS is used to 

study possible airway inflammation before health problems are encountered. This device is now used 

at some health centers to monitor levels of asthma control leading to more accurate medication dosing, 

reduced attacks, and improved quality of life.

The study of plasmas (charged gases that can permeate many materials and spread evenly and quickly) 

reveals that they support the disinfecting of chronic wounds, the neutralization of bacteria, the boosting 

of tumor inactivation, and even the jumpstarting plant growth.

Robotic specialists and 

surgeons sought to make 

difficult surgeries easier or 

impossible surgeries possible.
4

Since Paige Nickason’s surgery in 2008, neuroArm has 

been used in initial clinical experience with 35 patients 

who were otherwise inoperable. In 2010, the neuroArm 

technology was licensed to IMRIS Inc., a private, 

publicly traded medical device manufacturer based 

in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, for development of 

the next-generation platform and for wide distribution 

under the name “SYMBIS Surgical System.”

IMRIS is advancing the design to commercialize minimally invasive brain tumor resection procedures, which 

allow surgeons to see detailed, 3-D images of the brain 

as well as use surgical tools and hand controllers that 

allow the surgeon to feel tissue and apply pressure 

when he or she operates. SYMBIS has been undergoing calibration, testing and validation at Dr. Sutherland’s research facility since March 2015. SYMBIS 

is expected to be able to perform microsurgery and 

stereotactic biopsy within the bore of the magnet while 

real-time MR images are being acquired. The system 

is more compact, with improved haptics, safety no-go 

zones, motion scaling and tremor filters. SYMBIS 

is currently being reviewed by the FDA, and once 

approved, the system will be made available commercially for other centers worldwide to establish its clinical 

efficacy through clinical trials. 

MDA is also continuing to apply its space technologies 

and know-how to medical solutions for life on Earth. 

The company has partnered with the Hospital for Sick 

Children (SickKids) in Toronto, Ontario, to collaborate 

on the design and development of an advanced technology solution for pediatric surgery. Dubbed KidsArm, 

the sophisticated, teleoperated surgical system is 

being designed specifically to operate on small children 

and babies. KidsArm is intended for use by surgeons 

in conjunction with a high-precision, real-time imaging technology to reconnect delicate vessels such as 

veins, arteries or intestines.

In collaboration with the Centre for Surgical Invention 

and Innovation (CSII) in Hamilton, Ontario, MDA is 

also developing an advanced platform to provide 

a more accurate and less invasive identification 

and treatment of breast tumors in the MRI. The 

image-guided autonomous robot (IGAR) will provide 

increased access, precision and dexterity, resulting 

in more accurate and less invasive procedures. IGAR 

is currently in the second phase of clinical trials in 

Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, and Quebec City, Quebec, 

Canada.

Watch these videos to learn more:

neuroArm: http://tinyurl.com/neuroArm 

KidsArm: http://tinyurl.com/KidsArm 

IGAR: http://tinyurl.com/CSA-IGAR 

Medical team prepares for SYMBIS Surgical 

System use in the operating room. 

Image credit: University of Calgary

“Where the robot entered my head,” says 

21-year-old Paige Nickason, the first patient to 

have brain surgery performed by a robot, as 

she points to an area on her forehead. “Now 

that neuroArm has removed the tumor from my 

brain, it will go on to help many other people like 

me around the world.”

Image credit: University of Calgary
5

Robots from space lead to one-stop 

breast cancer diagnosis treatment 

Technology derived from the highly capable robots 

designed for the International Space Station may soon 

increase access to life-saving surgical techniques to 

fight breast cancer.

A team of collaborative researchers with the 

Centre for Surgical Invention and Innovation (CSII) 

in Canada is working to enhance the quality and 

access to healthcare through the development and 

commercialization of innovative medical robotic 

technologies. In particular, an advanced platform 

is about to enter clinical trials for use in the early 

diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer. 

The main player besides the medical staff is a robot. 

But not just any robot. This robot’s technology was 

designed for use aboard the International Space 

Station by MacDonald, Dettwiler and Associates Ltd. 

(MDA) for the Canadian Space Agency (CSA).

Researchers created the Image-Guided Autonomous 

Robot (IGAR) from a long line of Canadian heavy 

lifters and maintenance performers for the space 

shuttle and space station Canadarm, Canadarm2 

and Dextre. In dealing with breast cancer, IGAR is 

expected to provide increased access, precision and 

dexterity, resulting in highly accurate and minimally 

invasive procedures.

Dr. Mehran Anvari, chief executive officer and scientific 

director at CSII, said the IGAR platform moves 

the use of robotics in surgery to a new dimension, 

allowing the robot to act in an automated fashion after 

programming by a physician.

IGAR is designed to work in combination with an MRI 

scanner, which is highly sensitive to early detection of 

suspicious breast lesions before they possibly turn into 

a much larger problem. The radiologist uses specially 

designed software to tag the potential target and tell 

IGAR what path to take. The software then helps the 

radiologist to make sure he or she is accurately hitting 

the right area. IGAR has a special tool interface that 

can be used to define adaptors for any needle-based 

biopsy device or a wide range of instruments that 

remove tissue, known in the medical world as needlebased ablation devices.

Anvari explained that the automated robot is capable 

of placing the biopsy and ablation tools within 1 

mm of the lesion in question with a high degree of 

targeting accuracy, improving sampling, reducing 

the pain of the procedure, reducing time in the MRI 

suite and reducing cost as a consequence. He also 

said that using the robot will allow all radiologists to 

perform this procedure equally well, regardless of 

the number of cases per year and move the site of 

treatment from operation room to radiology suite for 

a significant number of patients. The radiologist can 

operate in the challenging magnetic environment of 

the MRI, providing access to leading tumor-targeting 

technology. The robot fits on the patient bed, so it can 

travel in and out of the MRI opening easily. This in turn 

simplifies the flow of patients in the department, which 

Dr. Mehran Anvari, chief executive officer and 

scientific director at the Centre for Surgical 

Invention and Innovation, with the Image-Guided 

Autonomous Robot (IGAR) manipulator. 

Image credit: The Hamilton Spectator

ISS technologies enable a 

robot to provide increased 

access, precision and dexterity, 

resulting in highly accurate 

and minimally invasive surgical 

procedures.
6

can be challenging to many radiologists, optimizing 

patient time to diagnose.

Dr. Nathalie Duchesne, co-investigator on the clinical 

study and breast radiologist at the Saint-Sacrament 

Hospital in Quebec City, Quebec, Canada, has been 

teaching MRI-guided breast biopsy for years and 

will be performing the first of three clinical trials. She 

said there are many steps in the procedure that are 

operator-dependent, and these steps may prevent 

good sampling of the lesions if not done properly. 

Duchesne believes IGAR will decrease the time of the 

exam, ensure good sampling and increase patient’s 

comfort during the exam. Duchesne and her team 

think that IGAR will improve sample collection because 

it will be less operator-dependent, and it will be 

constant from one doctor to another, from one patient 

to the other, and from one lesion to the other.

IGAR removes most of the “manual” aspects of the 

procedure and reduces user-dependence and the level 

of training required. This allows for a standard process 

regardless of experience. An expert will program 

remotely once the patient is in the MRI suite. A 

physician will then supervise to make sure the patient 

is comfortable and there are no complications.

Anvari said this technology lays the foundation for a 

family of telerobotic systems, and it has the potential 

to change the way people think about performing 

these interventions and ensures that specialized, 

highly-trained doctors are focusing on the activities to 

which their training is best suited. Anvari believes this 

technology will improve efficiency in the health care 

system by streamlining clinical workflow and allowing 

highly skilled radiologists to extend their care to a wider 

population through teleoperation.

This robotic technology is not limited only to biopsies. 

Duchesne explained that IGAR is paving the way 

for the minimally invasive excision and treatment of 

small tumors that are often found incidentally during 

pre-op MRI.

The trend toward breast preservation has brought on 

the importance of lumpectomies. For tumors that may 

require this procedure because they are invisible to 

ultrasound and X-ray mammography, researchers are 

currently developing the ability for IGAR to deploy a 

radioactive seed—smaller than a grain of rice—near 

the area of interest. During surgery, the seed can be 

located with a detector, allowing the doctor to identify 

the lesion and remove it with increased accuracy and 

patient comfort. It is expected that follow-up surgeries 

also will be greatly reduced.

Whether it be capturing a visiting spacecraft or helping 

save lives, Canadian-designed robots are lending a 

hand. Bringing beneficial technologies from the space 

station to the ground will hopefully one day allow us to 

make historic strides in cancer treatment.

Watch this video to learn more about IGAR: 

http://tinyurl.com/CSA-IGAR

Improved eye surgery with space 

hardware

Laser surgery to correct eyesight is common practice, 

and technology developed for use in space is now 

commonly used on Earth to track the patient’s eye and 

precisely direct the laser scalpel. 

When looking at a fixed point while tilting or shaking 

one’s head, a reflex allows the eyes to automatically 

IGAR manipulator and full breast intervention 

platform mounted on the patient support 

structure with a biopsy tool attached. 

Image credit: CSii and MDA

Artist rendering of IGAR performing a biopsy.

Image credit: CSii and MDA
7

hold steady and see clearly even while this movement 

is taking place. This involves the brain constantly 

interpreting information from the inner ear to maintain 

balance and stable vision. An essential feature of this 

sensory system is the use of gravity as a reference.

The Eye Tracking Device experiment researched 

mechanisms involved in this process and how humans’ 

frames of reference are altered in space. The experiment used a specially designed headset fitted with 

high-performance, image-processing chips able to 

track the eyes without interfering with an astronaut’s 

normal work. The results showed that our balance 

and the overall control of eye movements are indeed 

affected by weightlessness. These two systems work 

closely together under normal gravity conditions but 

become somewhat dissociated in weightlessness. 

After a flight, it takes several days to weeks for the 

astronauts to return to normal. The findings point to 

the entire sensory-motor complex and spatial perception relying on gravity as a reference for orientation. 

In parallel with its use on the space station, the engineers realized the device had potential for applications 

on Earth. Tracking the eye’s position without interfering 

with the surgeon’s work is essential in laser surgery. 

The space technology proved ideal, and the Eye Tracking Device equipment is now being used in a large 

proportion of corrective laser surgeries throughout 

the world. A commercially available version has been 

delivered to a large number of research laboratories in 

Europe and North America for ground-based studies.

Sensor technologies for high-pressure 

jobs and operations 

Novel sensor technologies used within the joint 

Thermolab experiment (2009-2012) of ESA/DLR have 

been used for improving our understanding of thermal 

regulation of astronauts in space. These sensor 

technologies also hold great potential and benefits for 

use within many different critical areas from fire-fighting 

to recognizing exhaustion or early overheating. In fact, 

the sensor is currently used in hospitals for monitoring 

during surgeries and on intensive care units.

Thermal regulation in the body is vital for our wellbeing. Our vital organs are kept at a constant 

temperature of 37° C (98.6 F) whether it is the middle 

of a freezing winter or on a hot sunny beach. Any 

disturbance to this stasis can cause symptoms such 

as physical and mental fatigue or, in the extreme, fatal 

effects on how the body functions under conditions 

such as heat stroke and hypothermia. 

In weightlessness, the adaptation of the cardiovascular 

system, the lack of convection in space and the 

shifting of fluids to the upper half of the body could 

have a negative influence on thermal regulation. 

Former ESA astronaut Thomas Reiter undertakes 

the Eye Tracking Device experiment on the ISS in 

2006. 

Image credit: ESA

The device developed for ISS 

allows the tracking of eye 

position without interfering 

with a surgeon’s work during 

corrective laser eye surgery.

Sensor technology developed 

on ISS is now used to monitor 

thermal regulation during 

surgeries and in intensive 

care units.
8

The Thermolab experiment has been looking at 

changes in thermal regulation and cardiovascular 

adaptations in weightlessness by investigating how 

the body heats up and cools down during exercise. 

The testing of this new type of sensor to record 

the core body temperature in orbit could have 

novel applications in space and on Earth. This new 

sensor was developed for DLR by Charité (Berlin) 

and Draegerwerk (Lübeck) since standard ground 

measurement in clinics and surgeries use an internal 

body probe for taking measurements, which is not 

practical in orbit. The sensors measure the skin 

temperature and the heat flow in the skin, which 

are used to calculate core body temperature using 

sophisticated algorithms.

Compared to on Earth, core body temperature rises 

faster during exercise on the International Space 

Station. This is likely caused by fluid shifts and 

modified heat flow away from the body. It is also 

noticeable that the body temperature takes longer to 

cool down to core temperature after exercise. The 

measurement of the core body temperature together 

with cardiovascular measurements taken during 

NASA’s VO2 Max protocol can be used to evaluate 

the subject’s state of fatigue, which is very important 

during a space mission for optimising mission success. 

This makes this non-invasive double sensor a very 

useful diagnostic tool for recognising early warning 

signs of fatigue during spacewalks in orbit. On Earth, 

firefighters, jet pilots, miners, steel workers, soldiers in 

combat, divers, mountaineers, polar explorers, marine 

fishermen, and all who work in extreme conditions 

could benefit from the new measurement technology. 

Bringing space station ultrasound to the 

ends of the Earth 

Fast, efficient and readily available medical attention 

is key to survival in a health emergency. When a 

person is stricken with injury or illness, getting a quick 

and accurate diagnosis through medical imaging 

technology can be crucial for ensuring proper 

treatment. For people who live in major cities and 

towns where fully equipped hospitals are only a quick 

ambulance ride away, that’s not usually a problem. But 

for those without medical facilities within easy reach, it 

can mean the difference between life and death.

For astronauts in orbit about 240 miles above Earth 

aboard the International Space Station, that problem 

was addressed through the Advanced Diagnostic 

Ultrasound in Microgravity (ADUM) investigation. Space 

station astronauts are trained to use a small ultrasound 

unit aboard the station to examine fellow crewmates. 

In the event of a health concern, astronauts could use 

this facility to diagnose many injuries and illnesses 

with the help of doctors on Earth. Launched in 2011, 

the ultrasound unit used for ADUM was replaced 

NASA astronaut Sunita Williams uses the Portable 

Pulmonary Function System whilst on the CEVIS 

cycle exercise device during a session of the joint 

Thermolab/EKE/VO2Max experiments in August 

2012. 

Image credit: NASA

Medical care becomes more 

accessible in remote regions 

by use of small ultrasound 

units and tele-medicine, and 

remote guidance techniques, 

just like those on ISS.
9

with a smaller and even more sophisticated scanner 

dubbed Ultrasound 2, currently in use aboard the 

orbiting laboratory.

Now those same techniques are being adapted and 

used for people living in remote, underdeveloped 

areas where CT scans, MRIs and even simple X-ray 

exams are impossible. In partnership with the World 

Interactive Network Focused on Critical Ultrasound 

(WINFOCUS), ADUM principal investigator Scott 

Dulchavsky, M.D., is taking techniques originally 

developed for space station astronauts and adapting 

them for use in Earth’s farthest corners by developing 

protocols for performing complex procedures rapidly 

with remote expert guidance and training. 

WINFOCUS is a global network organization whose 

main goal is to use ultrasound as an enabling pointof-care device in an effort to make medical care 

more accessible in remote regions. Using the ADUM 

methods, WINFOCUS has trained over 20,000 

physicians and physician extenders in 68 countries. 

This includes two important holistic healthcare 

projects: in remote areas of Nicaragua (from 2011) and 

in Brazil in a statewide healthcare project in partnership 

with the Secretary of Health of the State of Minas 

Gerais (since 2012).

WINFOCUS has also benefited from the tele-medicine 

and remote guidance techniques developed for 

use on the space station, and has adapted and 

further developed them in order to allow large-scale 

integration in healthcare systems on Earth through 

low-cost applications. Local healthcare providers are 

empowered, more patients can access quality and 

timely diagnostic care, and the healthcare system is 

made more accessible and efficient.

ADUM’s impact is also felt in modern emergency 

rooms, proving the effectiveness of ultrasound in 

diagnosing conditions previously considered beyond its 

technical capabilities, such as a collapsed lung, which 

has now become integrated as a standard of care in 

medical treatments. In addition, the ADUM protocols 

have proven so effective that they’re now part of the 

standard medical school curriculum. The American 

College of Surgeons, which requires ultrasound 

training for all surgical interns and residents, is using 

the ADUM program. 

The ADUM investigation and the WINFOCUS 

partnership have brought the promise of space station 

research back down to Earth in perhaps the most 

direct and immediate way possible—keeping people 

healthy and alive, even in remote regions where care 

was previously a limited option. 

World Interactive Network Focused on Critical 

Ultrasound (WINFOCUS) and Henry Ford 

Innovation Institute members, Dr. Luca Neri and 

Alberta Spreafico work with Kathleen Garcia from 

Wyle Engineering to help train Dr. Chamorro from 

the rural community of Las Salinas, Nicaragua, 

using the Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in 

Microgravity and tele-ultrasound applications.

Image credit: WINFOCUS/Missions of Grace

NASA astronaut Tom Marshburn assists Canadian 

Space Agency astronaut Chris Hadfield with an 

Ultrasound 2 scan in the Columbus Module of the 

International Space Station. 

Image credit: NASA
10

Are you asthmatic? Your new helper 

comes from space

Kalle, a 10-year-old boy, is already in favor of space 

technology. In the future, he could control his asthma 

with a small device also used by crew members 

aboard the International Space Station. Because of 

it, he knows almost everything about nitric oxide—an 

important gas we all breathe out.

Nitric oxide, or nitrogen monoxide, as it is properly 

called, is both a good and bad molecule, found almost 

everywhere as an air pollutant that is produced by 

vehicle exhaust and industrial processes burning fuel. 

Nitric oxide is a contributor to the damage of the ozone 

layer and easily converts into nitric acid—which may 

fall as acid rain. 

Intriguingly, tiny amounts of nitric oxide are released 

locally in inflamed tissue of humans and other 

mammals. Tracing it back to its source can reveal 

different diseases. 

In people with asthma, inflammation in the lung adds 

nitric oxide to exhaled air. Measuring the gas can help 

to diagnose the disease and may prevent attacks if the 

levels of nitric oxide indicate that medication should 

be adjusted.

Nitric oxide is also an interesting molecule on the 

space station. Dust and small particles floating around 

in weightlessness can be inhaled by the astronauts, 

possibly triggering inflammation of the airways. It also 

plays a role in decompression sickness that may arise 

from spacewalks.

The European Space Agency (ESA) uses a lightweight, 

easy-to-use, accurate device for measuring nitric oxide 

in exhaled air. The aim is to investigate possible airway 

inflammation in astronauts and act before it becomes a 

health problem. 

Following its development by the Swedish company 

Aerocrine AB and ESA, the device has been found 

beneficial in space exploration and everyday use 

on Earth.

NIOX MINO® is now used by patients like Kalle at 

health centers. They can monitor levels of asthma 

control and the efficiency of medication—leading to 

more accurate dosing, reduced attacks and improved 

quality of life.

Cold plasmas assist in wound healing

A unique form of matter could help disinfect wounds, 

neutralize bacteria, help people heal faster, and even 

fight cancer—and its potential for human health is now 

well understood, thanks to research on the International 

Space Station. The microgravity environment provides 

a powerful method for studying plasmas, one of the 

four states of matter along with liquid, solid and gas. 

The Plasma Kristall Experiment (PK-3 Plus) lab, a Russian-German collaboration, provided new insight into 

an unusual type of matter known as plasma crystals. 

A lightweight, easy-to-use 

device monitors levels of 

asthma control leading to 

more accurate medication 

dosing, reduced attacks, and 

improved quality of life.

Former European Space Agency (ESA) astronaut 

Thomas Reiter undertakes science activities for 

the Nitric Oxide Analyzer experiment in 2006. 

Image credit: ESA
11

Because it is a charged gas, plasma can permeate 

many materials, spreading evenly and quickly. It can 

disinfect surfaces, and has been proven to neutralize 

drug-resistant bacteria like methicillin-resistant 

Staphylococcus aureus within seconds. In more than 

3,500 examples in several clinical trials, physicians 

found plasmas can disinfect chronic wounds and help 

wounds heal faster. Other research has shown that 

along with chemotherapy, plasma treatment efficiently 

fights cancer; it can boost tumor inactivation by 500 

percent, compared with just chemotherapy. Plasmas 

can even jumpstart plant growth.

For the researchers involved in PK-3, the technical 

challenges of space-based research provided the 

knowledge base for the medical spin-offs, according 

to Professor Gregor E. Morfill, director at the Max 

Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics in Garching, 

Germany. Without space station research, some 

team members would never have been involved in 

plasma medicine.

The PK-3 lab was designed to study complex or 

“dusty” plasmas, which get their name from the presence of small, solid particles mixed into the plasma’s 

charged gases. These particles can dramatically 

change the behavior of a plasma, and sometimes the 

particles even form crystalline structures. Dusty plasmas are found near artificial satellites, occur in Earth’s 

upper atmosphere, and can be produced in lab settings. Physicists favor them because they are relatively 

easy to control and provide a unique view of physics 

at the single-particle level. But they can be difficult to 

study on Earth, because the planet’s gravity affects the 

way dust particles settle and how they crystallize. This 

isn’t the case on the space station, however. 

Investigations with PK-3 Plus created dusty plasmas 

containing argon or neon gas as well as micron-size 

particles. The gas molecules received an electric 

charge so they would ionize and form a plasma, and 

then particles were injected into it. A laser lit up the 

sample while a camera recorded the particles moving 

through the plasma and organizing themselves in 

Side view of a plasma crystal in the laboratory. 

Dust particles are suspended in an argon 

plasma above a high-frequency electrode 

(bottom). The horizontal field of view is 2 cm. 

Image credit: Max Planck Institute for 

Extraterrestrial Physics

Plasma studies reveal 

applications to disinfect 

chronic wounds, neutralize 

bacteria, boost tumor 

inactivation, and jumpstart 

plant growth.

Russian cosmonaut Oleg Kotov, Expedition 

30 flight engineer, inspects the Plasma Kristall 

Experiment laboratory, enclosed in black housing, 

in its new home in the Poisk Mini-Research 

Module 2 of the International Space Station. 

Image credit: RKK-Energia
12

crystal structures. Basic experiments tested a wide 

range of particle sizes and different gas types, and 

researchers found a plethora of interesting new 

phenomena. In one example, researchers used the 

PK-3 Plus high-resolution camera to examine the exact 

point at which matter changes its phase from liquid 

to solid. Other experiments tested how radio waves 

cause particles in a dusty plasma to move. 

Beyond basic science, dusty plasmas have several 

practical applications in space and on Earth. For 

instance, some computer chips are manufactured 

using a processing plasma, and removal of 

microscopic particles is crucial for preventing chip 

contamination. Understanding how gases and 

dusty plasmas interact is critical for improving this 

technology. A better grasp of this interaction could 

also help scientists create powders containing specific 

ingredients, for applications like agriculture, hygiene 

and medicine. And plasmas hold great promise for 

treating sick and injured people on Earth.

Astronauts and cosmonauts operated the PK-3 

Plus equipment during 20 separate missions across 

a six-year period, each lasting about five days. All 

told, collaborators on the PK-3 Plus investigation 

and its predecessor, PKE-Nefedov, have published 

more than 70 scientific papers and given at least 100 

presentations at scientific conferences.

The past PK investigations may be concluded in 

space, but plasma medicine research in particular 

continues to produce new applications—which 

will further increase with the PK-4 investigation for 

which new hardware was commissioned on ISS in 

November 2014.
13

Preventing bone loss in spaceflight with 

prophylactic use of bisphosphonate: 

Health promotion of the elderly by space 

medicine technologies

Bone loss and kidney stones are well-known as 

essential problems for astronauts to overcome during 

extended stays in space. Crew members engage in 

physical exercise for two-and-a-half hours a day, six 

times a week (15 hours a week) while in orbit to avoid 

these issues. Nevertheless, the risks of these problems 

occurring cannot be completely eliminated through 

physical exercise alone. 

Bone plays an important role as a structure that 

supports the body and stores calcium. It retains 

fracture resistance by remodeling through a balance 

of bone resorption and formation. In a microgravity 

environment, because of reduced loading stimuli, 

there is increased bone resorption and no change 

in or possibly decreased bone formation, leading to 

bone mass loss at a rate of about 10 times that of 

osteoporosis. The proximal femoral bone loses 1.0 

to 1.5 percent of its mass per month, or roughly 6 

to 10 percent over a six-month stay in space, with 

the recovery after returning to Earth taking at least 

three or four years. The calcium balance (the difference 

between intake and excretion), which is about zero on 

Earth, decreases to about -250 mg/day during flight, a 

value that increases the risk of kidney stones. 

Bisphosphonate is a therapeutic agent that has been 

used to treat osteoporosis patients for more than 

Preventing Bone Loss

The common problem of bone loss in the elderly is also observed in astronauts when they are in 

space. Ongoing studies on ISS indicate a reduction in bone loss and renal stone risk through use of 

a bisphosphonate and exercise to increase bone load and muscle training, and in a well-balanced, 

low-sodium diet. In promoting the health of the elderly at risk of osteoporosis, improved scanning 

technologies are under development to provide a reference technique to enable the early detection of 

osteoporosis and in the development of more effective countermeasures to its effects.

Ongoing studies indicate a 

reduction in bone loss and 

renal stone risk through 

use of a bisphosphonate 

and exercise.

JAXA astronaut Soichi Noguchi performs exercise 

aboard the International Space Station. 

Image credit: JAXA/NASA
14

a decade, with a proven efficacy to increase bone 

mass and decrease the occurrence of bone fracture. 

Through 90-day bed rest research on Earth, we 

confirmed that this agent has a preventive effect on 

the loss of bone mass. Based on these results as well 

as studies conducted by others, Japan Aerospace 

Exploration Agency (JAXA) and NASA decided to 

collaborate on a space biomedical experiment to 

prevent bone loss during spaceflight. Dr. Adrain 

Leblanc, United Space Research Association, and Dr. 

Toshio Matsumoto, Tokushima University, are the two 

principal investigators of this study. 

JAXA and NASA crew members are participating in 

this study by taking this agent once a week while in 

space. The study is still ongoing; however, early results 

suggest that astronauts can significantly reduce the 

risk of bone loss and renal stones with the combination 

of resistive exercise and an antiresorptive such as a 

bisphosphonate. 

Bone loss is also observed in bedridden older people. 

Elderly people lose 1 or 2 percent per year of their 

bone mass because of aging and a decline in the 

amount of female hormone. Osteoporosis is declared 

when a person has a bone mass 30 percent lower 

than the average for young adults, which is a condition 

affecting 13 million Japanese and one in two women 

aged 70 years and older. Every year, 160 thousand 

patients undergo operations for femoral neck fractures 

in Japan, followed by intense rehabilitation for three 

months. Such operations cost 1.5 million yen per 

person, and the total annual expense for medical 

treatments and care of these bone fractures amounts 

to 66.57 billion yen in total national cost. 

The three key elements for promoting the health 

of elderly people to prevent fractures are nutrition, 

exercise and medicine. Meals should be nutritionally 

balanced with calcium-rich foods (milk, small fish, 

etc.) and vitamin D (fish, mushrooms, etc.). Limited 

Astronauts enjoy meals aboard the International Space Station. 

Image credit: JAXA/NASA
15

sunbathing is also important for activation of vitamin 

D. Physical exercise to increase bone load and muscle 

training should also be integrated into each person’s 

daily life. Those at high risk for fractures should take 

effective medicines to reduce the risk of fractures.

Accordingly, the secrets of the promotion of 

astronauts’ health obtained from space medicine are 

expected to be utilized to promote the health of elderly 

people and the education of children.

Improved scanning technologies and 

insights into osteoporosis

ESA’s Early Detection of Osteoporosis in Space (EDOS) 

experiment has been testing skeletal adaptation to 

long-term space exposure by using 3-D peripheral 

quantitative computed tomography (3DpQCT) as a 

technique for detection of bone structure. It has been 

providing a detailed evaluation of the bone loss and 

of kinetics of recovery after flight. ESA supported 

the development of the enhanced 3-D scanner by 

the Institute for Biomedical Engineering in Zürich 

and Scanco Medical as part of ESA’s Microgravity 

Applications Programme (MAP). The scanner is 

providing high-quality, 3-D images of living bone 

structures as part of this ground experiment. This is 

backed up by analysis of bone biochemical markers 

in blood samples.

One important element that has derived from this 

research into bone loss in space is the successful 

commercialisation of the 3DpQCT scanner, of which 

ESA supported the development, for a non-invasive/in 

vivo technique for observation of bone structure. 

The EDOS project has been assessing the efficiency 

of such a technique and will contribute to the development of a reference technique to perform an early 

detection of osteoporosis on Earth in a unique way. 

These improved diagnostics in the early stages of such 

a medical condition may prove extremely important in 

development of more effective countermeasures to the 

effects of osteoporosis. In 2006, according to the International Osteoporosis Foundation, 8.9 million fractures 

were estimated worldwide. The project will continue 

within the EDOS-2 project, which will commence in 

collaboration with Russia in spring 2015 in conjunction 

with the first one-year mission. 

Good diet, proper exercise help protect 

astronauts’ bones

Eating right and exercising hard in space helps protect 

International Space Station astronauts’ bones, a 

finding that may help solve one of the key problems 

facing future explorers heading beyond low-Earth orbit. 

A study published in the September 2012 issue of 

the Journal of Bone and Mineral Research looked at 

the mineral density of specific bones as well as the 

entire skeleton of astronauts who used a new, stronger 

“weight lifting” machine. Of course, weights don’t really 

Early detection of osteoporosis, 

and the development of more 

effective treatments, link 

astronauts to patients on Earth.

After 51 years of human 

spaceflight, we have made 

significant progress in 

protecting bone health 

through diet and exercise. Xtreme CT distal radius. 

Image credit: SCANCO Medical
16

“weigh” anything on the space station, but resistance 

machines allow astronauts to get the same kind of 

workout. The new Advanced Resistive Exercise Device 

(ARED), installed in 2008, doubles the maximum 

simulated weight to as much as 600 pounds. 

Researchers compared measurements from 2006 

until 2008 when astronauts used a less capable 

workout machine. They found that astronauts using the 

advanced system came home with more lean muscle 

and less fat and kept more of their whole body and 

regional bone mineral density. Those same astronauts 

also consumed sufficient calories and vitamin D, among 

other nutrients. These factors are known to support 

bone health and likely played a contributing role. 

After 51 years of human spaceflight, these data mark 

the first significant progress in protecting bone through 

diet and exercise. Since the 1990s, resistance exercise 

has been thought to be a key method of protecting 

astronauts’ bones. Normal, healthy bone constantly 

breaks down and renews itself, a process called 

remodeling. As long as these processes are in balance, 

bone mass and density stay the same. Earlier studies of 

Russian Mir space station residents found an increased 

rate of breakdown but little change in the rate of 

regrowth, resulting in an overall loss in bone density. 

In the new study, astronauts who used the ARED 

device still had increased bone breakdown, but their 

bone renewal tended to increase, likely resulting in 

a better balance in whole bone-mineral density. 

Bone density loss in astronauts on long-duration 

missions has been a major medical concern. In the 

past, astronauts have lost an average of 1 to 2 percent 

per month. By comparison, an elderly person loses 

about 1 to 2 percent per year. 

This study shows that, through proper exercise and 

nutrition, crew members on long journeys in space can 

return to Earth with much less loss of bone mineral 

density. But a key question remains as to whether the 

bones are as strong as when the astronaut launched 

into space. For these and other reasons, additional 

studies to evaluate bone strength before and after flight 

are currently under way. 

Beyond bone strength, further study is needed to 

figure out the best possible combination of exercise 

and diet for long-duration crews. One experiment on 

the space station right now is looking at how different 

ratios of animal protein and potassium in the diet 

affect bone health. Another is looking at the benefits 

NASA Astronaut Dan Burbank, Expedition 30 

commander, exercises using the Advanced 

Resistive Exercise Device aboard the International 

Space Station. 

Image credit: JAXA/NASA

NASA astronaut Jeffrey Williams, Expedition 

22 commander, exercises using the Advanced 

Resistive Exercise Device in the Tranquility node of 

the International Space Station. 

Image credit: NASA
17

of lowering sodium intake. NASA food scientists have 

reformulated more than 80 space foods to reduce the 

sodium content. 

Information gained through space station studies like 

these will be critical in enabling humans to explore 

destinations beyond low-Earth orbit.

Add salt? Astronauts’ bones say 

please don’t

Osteoporosis is a harsh disease that reduces the 

quality of life for millions and costs Europe around 

€25 billion ($31 billion) each year. It typically affects 

the elderly, so the rise in life expectancy in developed 

countries means the problems inflicted by osteoporosis 

are increasing. 

Fortunately, research done in space may change the 

game. Astronauts on the International Space Station 

experience accelerated osteoporosis because of 

weightlessness, but it is carefully controlled, and they 

can regain their lost bone mass in time once they are 

back on Earth.

Studying what happens during long spaceflights offers 

a good insight into the process of osteoporosis—losing 

calcium and changing bone structure—and helps to 

develop methods to combat it.

It has been known since the 1990s that the human 

body holds on to sodium, without the corresponding 

water retention, during long stays in space. But the 

ISS research provides insight 

into the benefits of reduced 

sodium and increased 

bicarbonate consumption for 

those prone to osteoporosis.

European Space Agence (ESA) astronaut André Kuipers (left) and Russian cosmonaut Oleg Kononenko (right) with 

food items on the International Space Station in December 2011. In the SOdium LOad in microgravity experiment, 

astronaut subjects undergo two different diet regimes to determine the physiological effects of sodium on 

the body. 

Image credit: ESA
18

textbooks said this was not possible. “Sodium retention in space” became an important subject to study.

Salt intake was investigated in a series of studies, in 

ground-based simulations and in space, and it was 

found that not only is sodium retained (probably in the 

skin), but it also affects the acid balance of the body 

and bone metabolism. So, high salt intake increases 

acidity in the body, which can accelerate bone loss.

The European Space Agency’s (ESA’s) recent SOdium 

LOad in microgravity (SOLO) study zoomed in on this 

question. 

Nine crew members, including ESA’s Frank De Winne 

and Paolo Nespoli during their long-duration flights 

in 2010 and 2011, followed low- and high-salt diets. 

The expected results may show that additional 

negative effects can be avoided either by reducing 

sodium intake or by using a simple alkalizing agent like 

bicarbonate to counter the acid imbalance.

This space research directly benefits 

everybody on Earth who is prone to osteoporosis. 

3-D pQCT image of osteoporotic bone. 

Image credit: Scanco Medical AG

The SOdium LOad in microgravity experiment 

carries out research into salt retention and its 

effect on bone metabolism in astronauts, which 

can help provide insights into medical conditions 

on Earth, such as osteoporosis. 

Image credit: Istockphoto/S.Kaulitzki

European Space Agence (ESA) astronaut Frank 

De Winne undertakes a body mass measurement, 

an essential element of the SOdium LOad in 

microgravity experiment, on the space station. 

Image credit: ESA
19

Early detection of immune changes 

prevents painful shingles in astronauts 

and in Earth-bound patients1

The physiological, emotional and psychological stress 

associated with spaceflight can result in decreased 

immunity that reactivates the virus that causes 

shingles, a disease punctuated by painful skin lesions. 

NASA has developed a technology that can detect 

immune changes early enough to begin treatment 

before painful lesions appear in astronauts and people 

here on Earth. This early detection and treatment will 

reduce the duration of the disease and the incidence of 

long-term consequences.

Spaceflight alters some elements of the human 

immune system: innate immunity, an early line of 

defense against infectious agents, and specific components of cellular immunity are decreased in astronauts. 

Astronauts do not experience increased incidence or 

severity of infectious disease during short-duration 

spaceflight, but NASA scientists are concerned about 

Immune Defenses

Virtually the entire population is infected with one of eight herpes viruses, four of which reactivate and 

appear in body fluids in response to the stress of spaceflight. A patent-pending device designed for use in 

either a doctor’s office or on a spacecraft allow for the rapid detection of one of these viruses (VZV), which 

can lead to earlier treatment and prevent the onset of painful shingles. Microgravity studies on ISS help 

researchers pinpoint genetic triggers for immune responses in T-cells leading to future medical treatments 

on Earth for immunosuppression. Determining the changes that occur to the immune system in space is 

providing the means to develop targeted countermeasures to adverse effects in space, as well as providing additional information for targeted treatments on Earth for the development of pharmaceuticals that 

can suppress immune response to help manage autoimmune diseases or organ transplants.

Space research has led to the 

rapid detection of Varicella 

(chickenpox virus), which 

improves treatment of shingles.

 1Adapted from an original article that appeared in NASA Technology Innovation, Vol 15; 3, 2010; NP-2010-06-658-HQ.

Varicella zoster-infected MeWo cells showing 

typical herpes virus-induced, multinucleated giant 

cells. Cultures are stained with acrydine orange to 

identify RNA (red) in the cytoplasm. 

Image credit: NASA
20

how the immune system will function over the long 

stays in space that may be required for exploration 

missions.

To determine specific causes of decreased immunity in 

healthy individuals is difficult, but the herpes viruses 

have become valuable tools in early detection of 

changes in the immune system, based largely on the 

astronaut studies. Eight herpes viruses may reside in 

the human body, and virtually all of us are infected by 

one or more of these viruses. Herpes viruses cause 

diseases including common “fever blisters” (herpes 

simplex virus or HSV), infectious mononucleosis 

(Epstein-Barr virus or EBV), chickenpox and shingles 

(varicella zoster virus or VZV). In immune-suppressed 

individuals, herpes viruses may cause several types of 

cancer, such as carcinoma, lymphoproliferative disease 

and others.

According to the Centers for Disease Control and 

Prevention, one million cases of shingles occur yearly 

in the U.S., and 100,000 to 200,000 of these cases 

develop into a particularly painful and sometimes 

debilitating condition known as post-herpetic neuralgia, 

which can last for months or years. The other seven 

herpes viruses also exist in an inactive state in different 

body tissues much like VZV, and similarly they may 

also reactivate and cause disease during periods of 

decreased immunity.

The most common cause of decreasing immunity 

is age, but chronic stress also results in decreased 

immunity and increases risk of the secondary disease, 

such as VZV-driven shingles. Chemotherapy, organ 

transplants and infectious diseases, such as human 

immunodeficiency virus (HIV), also result in decreased 

immunity. Thus, viral reactivation has been identified 

as an important indicator of clinically relevant immune 

changes. Studies of immune-compromised individuals 

indicate that these patients shed EBV in saliva at rates 

90-fold higher than found in healthy individuals.

The herpes viruses are already present in astronauts, 

as they are in at least 95 percent of the general adult 

population worldwide. So measuring the appearance 

of herpes viruses in astronaut body fluids is critical. It is 

widely believed that various stressors associated with 

spaceflight are responsible for the observed decreased 

immunity. Researchers at NASA’s Johnson Space 

Center found that four human herpes viruses reactivate 

and appear in body fluids in response to spaceflight. 

Due to the reduced cellular immunity, the viruses can 

emerge from their latent state into active infectious 

agents. The multiplying viruses are released into saliva, 

urine or blood and can be detected and quantified 

by a method called polymerase chain reaction (PCR) 

for each specific virus. The finding of VZV in saliva of 

astronauts was the first report of VZV being reactivated 

and shed in asymptomatic individuals, therefore posing 

a risk of disease in uninfected individuals. However, the 

PCR assay requires large, complex equipment, which 

is not practical for spaceflight.

To overcome this obstacle, NASA developed a rapid 

method of detection of VZV in body fluids, and a 

patent application is currently pending for it. The new 

technology requires a small sample of saliva, which is 

mixed with specialized reagents that produce a red 

color only when VZV is present. This technology makes 

possible early detection, before the appearance of skin 

lesions. Early detection allows for early administration 

of antiviral therapy and thus limits nerve damage and 

prevents overt disease. The device is designed for use 

in doctors’ offices or spacecraft and can be modified 

easily for use with other viruses in saliva, urine, 

blood and spinal fluid. The sensitivity and specificity 

emanates from an antibody-antigen reaction.

In another collaborative study, NASA and University of 

Colorado Health Science Center (Denver) researchers 

developed a tool to assess stress hormones during 

space shuttle missions. Saliva samples are collected 

on individual filter paper strips and tested once 

back on Earth. The test measures cortisol and 

dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), two important stress 

and immune regulatory hormones. The filter paper 

also can be used for proteins and other molecules 

of interest in saliva. Booklets of these filter papers 

now are being used in university and government 

laboratories for remote saliva collection. These studies 

demonstrate the potential value of bringing to the 

general public a technology that could prevent a 

painful and debilitating condition in up to one million 

people each year in the U.S. alone.

Station immunology insights for Earth 

and space

When people get sick, their immune systems kick into 

gear to tell their bodies how to heal. T-cells—white 

blood cells that act like tiny generals—order an army 

of immune cells to organize and attack the enemy. 

Microgravity studies aboard the International Space 

Station are helping researchers pinpoint what drives 

these responses, leading to future medical treatments 

on Earth.

Scientists have known since the early days of human 

spaceflight that living in microgravity suppresses 

the immune system. During the Apollo Program, 

for instance, 15 of the 29 astronauts developed an 
21

infection either during or right after flight. Forty years 

later, Leukin results show that immunosuppression 

begins within the first 60 hours of flight.

Findings from this investigation, led by Millie HughesFulford, Ph.D., a former NASA astronaut and director 

of the Laboratory of Cell Growth at the University of 

California, San Francisco, enabled researchers to 

pinpoint some specific genetic triggers for the go/no 

go of the immune system responses in the T-cells. It 

was the first time scientists have been able to prove 

that gravity is making a difference in activation of the 

T-cell. A healthy body depends on these T-cells giving 

orders for the immune system to function properly 

as it marches into battle. There are factors that can 

hinder victory, however, such as signal interruption, 

delayed responses or even outright cell death. A 

suppressed immune system is like an army with an 

ineffective leader, significantly reducing the chances of 

a successful fight.

Results revealed that specific genes within T-cells 

showed down regulation—a decrease in cell 

response—when exposed to microgravity. This 

combined down regulation in the genetics of T-cells 

leads to a reduction in the body’s defense against 

infections during spaceflight in various ways. For 

instance, there is a reduced proinflammatory response, 

the cell’s protective reaction to initiate healing. Cells 

also produce fewer cytokines, the proteins responsible 

for signaling communications between cells. There is 

even a negative impact to a cell’s ability to multiply, 

known as mitogenesis, the chromosomal splitting in a 

cell nucleus necessary for cell reproduction.

Examples of immunosuppression on Earth include 

the AIDS-related HIV infection, rheumatoid arthritis 

and even age-related impacts to the immune system, 

which is why the elderly have a difficult time fighting off 

infections like pneumonia. Identifying how the immune 

system works at the cellular level provides a powerful 

tool to develop treatments at the root of the defense 

response. This is like a negotiation for peace talks 

before conflict breaks out, instead of trying to raise 

a white flag in the midst of an already raging battle. 

If doctors can isolate and control specific immune 

responses, they increase the chance for recovery. With 

the removal of gravity as its own variable, the data 

gathered from immune studies in space can be used 

to help understand some of the immune challenges 

seen in these populations on Earth.

Hughes-Fulford launched a follow-on immunology 

study aboard the space station, funded by a grant 

from the National Institutes of Health and sponsored by the Center for Advancement of Science in 

Space (http://www.iss-casis.org/). Launching on the 

SpaceX-3 commercial resupply mission, the investigation, called T-Cell Activation in Aging, investigates at 

another class of control points in T-cells that trigger 

immune response. Finding the genes that tell the cells 

to turn on and off is key to advancing medical options 

to improve immune system functions. Data analysis is 

underway, with the potential to pinpoint new candidate 

pharmaceutical targets to treat immunosuppression.

Targeted treatments to improve 

immune response

Cell biology experiments have been uncovering 

different aspects of altered immune system response 

in weightlessness. Determining the changes that 

occur to the immune system in space is providing 

the means to develop targeted countermeasures 

to adverse effects in space, as well as providing 

Microgravity studies on ISS 

help researchers pinpoint 

genetic triggers for immune 

responses in T-cells leading to 

future medical treatments.

Expedition 30 Flight Engineer Andre Kuipers, 

European Space Agency, works with the 

Kubik facility in the Columbus Module of the 

International Space Station. 

Image credit: NASA
22

additional information for targeted treatments on Earth. 

This could either be for the purpose of developing 

pharmaceuticals that can improve treatment 

and recovery from certain medical conditions or 

alternatively targeted treatments that can suppress 

immune response, for example to help deal with 

autoimmune diseases or organ transplants.

Research undertaken in the Kubik incubators has 

uncovered many altered mechanisms that occur 

in the immune system in space using biological 

samples processed at body temperature at 0 g and 

1 g (centrifuge) in orbit. This has included discovering 

reduced function in monocyte white blood cells 

that is due to a disrupted cytoskeleton. This is an 

apparent inhibition of the Protein Kinase C family 

of enzymes and a specific immune cell transmitter, 

called the Rel/NF-κB pathway, which stops working in 

weightlessness. All of these are important mechanisms 

in immune response. 

One of the most recent ESA experiments in this 

domain was the ROle of Apoptosis in Lymphocyte 

Depression (ROALD) experiment series, which was 

undertaken in 2008 with a follow-up experiment in 

2011. In the first part of the experiment, researchers 

discovered that a particular enzyme called 5-LOX, 

which in part regulates the life expectancy of human 

cells, became more active in weightlessness and 

could play a real role in causing weakened immune 

systems. The 5-LOX enzyme can be blocked with 

existing drugs, so using these findings to improve 

human health could be a close reality. Additional efforts 

to understand this treatment pathway, targeting patient 

treatment on Earth, is ongoing.

ESA astronaut Thomas Reiter undertakes in-orbit activities for one of ESA’s immunology experiments in 2006. 

Image credit: ESA

ISS research provides 

the means to develop 

pharmaceuticals and targeted 

treatments that can suppress 

immune response to help deal 

with autoimmune diseases or 

organ transplants.
23

Developing New Therapies

Studying the unique and complicated structures of proteins in the human body leads to the development 

of medical treatments. Microgravity allows unique conditions for growth of protein crystals where there 

is no gravity or convection to disrupt their growth. The protein expressed in certain muscle fibers of 

patients with Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy, which affects 1 in 3,500 boys, has been successfully 

crystallized in space revealing a new inhibitor several hundred times stronger than the prototype inhibitor.

Microencapsulation is the process by which tiny, liquid-filled, biodegradable micro-balloons are 

created containing specific combinations of concentrated anti-tumor drugs. The goal is to deliver this 

medication using specialized needles to specific treatment sites within a cancer patient. The microgravity 

environment, where density differences do not cause layering of the medication, has allowed for the 

development of devices on Earth to create these microcapsules and devices that will aid in the drug 

delivery using this technology. Progress continues towards clinical studies in cancer patients one day in 

the future. 

Ongoing research of gravitational unloading supported by dry immersion technology allows for a broad 

spectrum of possible clinical applications such as the early diagnosis of slow-developing neurological 

disorders, the combating of edema that responds poorly to medication, post-operative rehabilitation, 

sports medicine and rehabilitation for premature babies.

High-quality protein crystal growth 

experiment aboard Kibo

There are more than 100,000 proteins in the human 

body and as many as 10 billion in nature. Every 

structure is different, and each one of them holds 

important information related to our health and to the 

global environment. Each protein has a unique and 

complicated structure, which is closely related to its 

function. Therefore, revealing protein structure leads 

to an understanding of its function. However, it is 

difficult to analyze protein structures here on Earth, 

where gravity interferes with optimal growth. The 

perfect environment in which to study these structures 

is space; microgravity means there is no convection 

to disrupt the liquid solution, nor is there precipitation 

to cause heavier molecules to sink. Therefore, protein 

molecules form orderly, high-quality crystals that 

provide optimal structures for study. Many crystals 

of various proteins have been created in the unique 

environment of space.

The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) 

has conducted nine sessions of protein crystallization 

experiments since 2003 in the Zvezda service module 

and has developed techniques to produce high-quality 

protein crystals in space. Based on these techniques, 

JAXA executed six sessions of experiments for the 

first series for the High-quality Protein Crystal Growth 

experiment (JAXA PCG) in the Japanese Kibo module 

on the space station from July 2009 to May 2013. 

JAXA is conducting another six sessions in total as 

the second series by periodic flight opportunities of sixmonth intervals. The first session of the second-series 

experiments started in March 2014. 

Through collaboration with the Russian Federal Space 

Agency (Roscosmos), protein samples are launched 

to the space station aboard the Russian Progress or 

Soyuz spacecraft. Soon after the docking, the samples 

are brought into Kibo to be placed inside the Protein 

Crystallization Research Facility (PCRF) where they 

Microgravity allows for 

optimal growth of the unique 

and complicated crystal 

structures of proteins leading 

to the development of medical 

treatments.
24

are kept for a period of one-and-a-half to four months 

at a stable temperature, 68 degrees Fahrenheit (20 

degrees Celsius). A counter-diffusion method called 

“Gel-Tube method” is used for crystallization whereby 

polyethylene glycol or salt solution is diffused into the 

protein solution separated by a porous membrane 

inside a tube. In this method, concentration of 

polyethylene glycol in the protein solution gradually 

increases and finally satisfies the condition for protein 

crystallization.

One of the major purposes of the protein crystal 

growth experiments is the contribution to the 

development of medical treatments. The relationship 

between a certain protein that causes disease and 

its medicine that suppresses the disease can be 

compared to the relationship between a “keyhole” and 

its “key.” If the shape of the keyhole becomes apparent 

by examining the structure of the protein, treatmentoriented medicine with few side effects—the key to 

fit the keyhole—can be designed. JAXA is making 

positive advancements in research on obstinate 

diseases through experiments in space with the hope 

of supporting medical care more effectively. 

An example of a protein that was successfully 

crystallized in space is hematopoietic prostaglandin 

D synthase (H-PGDS). This protein may hold the key 

to treating disease. A research team at the Osaka 

Bioscience Institute (OBI) reported that H-PGDS is 

expressed in certain muscle fibers of patients with 

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). An inherited 

muscle disorder, DMD is the most common form of 

muscular dystrophy, affecting approximately 1 in 3,500 

boys. DMD causes muscular wasting and accelerates 

the progression of muscular deterioration. It is an 

obstinate disease for which a fundamental mode of 

treatment has not yet been found. Therefore, H-PGDSspecific inhibitors are considered to be useful drugs for 

muscular dystrophy.

High-quality crystals of H-PGDS-Inhibitor 

complexes.

The detailed structure of muscular dystrophy 

related-protein became clear through a space 

experiment. 

Image credit: Osaka Bioscience Institute/

Tsukuba University/Maruwa Foods and 

Biosciences, Inc./JAXA

Advantage of the Space Experiment. 

Because the structure of the disease-causing protein, or the keyhole, is vague when it is obtained on the ground, 

the shape of the key, or a medicine candidate compound for treatment cannot be determined. However, it is 

possible to find the structure of the disease-causing protein through the space experiments and medicine that fits 

the treatment (the key that fits the keyhole) can be developed. 

Image credit: JAXA
25

The OBI research team has successfully determined 

the 3-D structure of H-PGDS in a complex with 

a prototype H PGDS-specific inhibitor. H-PGDS 

has been crystallized several times in microgravity 

as part of JAXA’s space experiments. Using X-ray 

crystallographic analysis—using X-rays to determine 

the structure—researchers determined the structure 

of the high-quality crystals of H-PGDS-inhibitor 

complexes grown in space, and as a result, discovered 

a new inhibitor with several hundred times stronger 

activity than the prototype inhibitor. This particular 

experiment is an example of how understanding a 

protein’s structure can lead to better drug designs. 

Further research is ongoing.

Cancer-targeted treatments from space 

station discoveries

Invasive and systemic cancer treatment is a necessary 

evil for many people with the devastating diagnosis. 

These patients endure therapies with ravaging side 

effects, including nausea, immune suppression, hair 

loss and even organ failure, in hopes of eradicating 

cancerous tissues in the body. If treatments targeted a 

patient’s cancerous tissues, it could provide clinicians 

with an alternative to lessen the delivery of toxic levels 

of chemotherapy or radiation. Remarkably, research 

that began in space may soon result in such options 

here on Earth. 

Using the distinctive, microgravity environment 

aboard the International Space Station, a particular 

series of research investigations is making further 

advancements in cancer therapy. A process 

investigated aboard the space station known as 

microencapsulation is able to produce tiny, liquid-filled, 

biodegradable micro-balloons containing specific 

combinations of concentrated anti-tumor drugs. 

Using specialized needles, doctors could deliver these 

micro-balloons, or microcapsules, directly to specific 

treatment sites within a cancer patient, effectively 

revolutionizing cancer treatment. 

Dr. Dennis Morrison of NASA’s Johnson Space Center 

used the microgravity environment aboard the space 

station for microencapsulation experiments as a tool 

to develop the Earth-based technology, called the 

Microencapsulation Electrostatic Processing System-II 

(MEPS-II), to make the most effective microcapsules. 

The technique for making these microcapsules could 

not be done on Earth, because the different densities 

of the liquids would layer. But in space, microgravity 

brought together two liquids incapable of mixing 

on Earth (80 percent water and 20 percent oil) in 

such a way that spontaneously caused liquid-filled 

microcapsules to form as spherical, tiny, liquid-filled 

bubbles surrounded by a thin, semipermeable, outer 

membrane. 

In space, surface tension shapes liquids into spheres. 

Each molecule on a liquid’s surface is pulled with 

equal tension by its neighbors. The closely integrated 

molecules form into the smallest possible area, which 

is a sphere. In effect, the MEPS-II system allowed a 

combination of liquids in a bubble shape because 

surface tension forces took over and allowed the fluids 

to interface rather than sit atop one another. Studying 

the samples upon return to Earth allowed scientists to 

understand how to make a device that could create 

the same microcapsules on Earth. 

The microgravity environment 

has allowed for the development of devices on Earth to 

create microcapsules that 

could aid in drug delivery.

The oil contains a visualization marker that is 

traceable by ultrasound and CT scans to allow 

doctors to follow the microcapsules as they 

are site-specifically delivered to the tumor. The 

semipermeable outer skin releases the drug 

slowly, through its physical ability to be timed 

released. 

Image credit: NuVue Therapeutics, Inc.
26

The MEPS-II system is now being brought to commercial scale under U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Good Manufacturing Practice requirements, 

and commercialization of the MEPS technology and 

methods to develop new applications for these unique 

microcapsules has already begun. The space station 

research led to 13 licensed microcapsule-related patents and two that are pending. 

In laboratory testing, MEPS-II microcapsules containing 

anticancer drugs were injected directly into a human 

prostate and lung tumors in animal models. These 

models were then, in follow-on tests, also injected 

following the delivery of specific cryo-surgical effects, 

similar to a freeze and thaw effect on the tumorous 

tissues. Injecting the microcapsules directly into the 

tumor demonstrated improved site-specific therapeutic 

results and the inhibition of tumor growth. Following 

cryo-surgery, the microcapsules demonstrated 

improved destruction of the tumor better than freezing 

or local chemotherapy alone. 

Though Morrison’s previous laboratory studies of 

microcapsules were primarily focused on prostate and 

lung cancer, his studies now target breast cancer for 

the FDA approval process through development with 

NuVue Therapeutics, Inc. Though it will take a few 

years to get approval to use the microcapsules as a 

treatment option filled with anti-tumor drug therapies, 

several devices that will aid in drug delivery using this 

technology are planned for pre-clinical study as early 

as 2015. 

After achieving full FDA approval, planned clinical trials 

will involve injecting the microcapsules with the antitumor drugs directly into tumor sites in humans at both 

MD Anderson Cancer Center in Houston and the Mayo 

Cancer Center in Scottsdale, Ariz. Given the success 

in animal models in laboratory studies with human 

prostate and lung tumor treatment, Morrison has high 

hopes in the near future of being able to begin use of 

the microcapsule treatment in breast cancer. 

These kinds of technologies are enabled by the 

availability of the microgravity environment aboard 

the space station. Just as microgravity can aid in the 

discovery of new technologies for cancer treatment, 

these microcapsules may one day aid in the recovery 

of breast and other specific deep-tissue cancers. 

Using weightlessness to treat 

multiple ailments

The technology of dry immersion was developed as an 

Earth-based model to study the effect of microgravity factors on the human body. Using this model, the 

effectiveness of measures developed to prevent the 

negative impact of spaceflight factors on people has 

been and continues to be evaluated. The countermeasures currently used on the International Space Station 

were tested in experiments involving dry immersion. 

Experts at the Institute of Biomedical Problems (IBMP) 

developed the automated immersion system to create 

water hypodynamia (utility model patent #44505 

“Immersion bath” and invention patent #2441713 

“Polymer covering and device for dry immersion”). 

The concept of the technology involves submerging 

a person in an immersion bath filled with water. The 

immersion system is an ergonomically designed 

tub with a built-in elevation mechanism, filtration, 

and temperature control systems. The subject is 

kept separate from the water by a thin water-proof 

cloth with an area significantly exceeding the area of 

the water’s surface. In this way, conditions closely 

Dr. Dennis Morrison poses with the 

Microencapsulation Electrostatic Processing 

System flight hardware that was used on 

the International Space Station to produce 

microcapsules for cancer treatment delivery.

Image credit: NASA 

Ongoing research on dry 

immersion technology allows 

for a broad spectrum of 

possible clinical applications.
27

simulating the lack of gravity are recreated. As a 

result, changes typical of acute gravitational unloading 

are reproduced in the body. 

The potential use of the system for health purposes 

relates to the specific physiological changes in the 

body caused by gravitational unloading. In particular, 

acute disruptions occur in the mechanisms of 

sensory interaction. These disruptions counteract 

compensatory processes in the central nervous 

system resulting in discovery of latent neurological 

disruptions. Treatment with dry immersion is also 

accompanied by a number of physiological shifts such 

as the redistribution of fluids in the body, which have 

positive effects in certain cardiovascular conditions 

such as edema.

The drug-free method of dry immersion offers the 

user: relaxation of muscles; increase in immunity; 

elimination of edema; and, normalization of blood 

pressure, thus making it possible to use the immersion 

system for the early diagnosis of slow-developing 

neurological disorders and to combat massive 

edema that responds poorly to pharmacological 

remedies. Its use may also be an effective 

mechanism in rehabilitative treatment in areas such as 

psychoneurology, traumatology, orthopedics (postoperative rehabilitation), sports medicine, clinical 

neurophysiology, and applied psycho-physiology.

The use of the immersion system is also a particularly 

valuable rehabilitation measure for premature babies 

who are exposed to the effects of gravity following 

the intrauterine environment. Perinatal damage 

to the central nervous system (hyperexcitability; 

depressive, muscle hypertonia, and cephalohematoma 

syndromes) is an opportunity for the use of the dry 

immersion method. Additional uses for dry immersion 

include treatment of immune disorders, hormone 

imbalances, muscle disease, wound healing, and 

cardiovascular health.

The spectrum of possible applications of this system 

that simulates spaceflight conditions, such as those 

experienced by the International Space Station, is fairly 

broad and will expand with further study.

Dry Immersion Complex (prototype). 

Image credit: Institute of Biomedical Problems, 

Russia

New prototype of the automated immersion 

system used in clinics. 

Image credit: Aerospace Medical Center and 

Technology
28
29

Microbiology applications from fungal 

research in space

Microbiology is a vitally important area, not only within 

human spaceflight but also for humans on Earth. With 

this microscopic world encompassing microorganisms 

such as bacteria, archea, fungi and algae that can 

have both a detrimental or beneficial impact on our 

daily lives, this research has far-reaching effects 

feeding into many different areas of biotechnology. 

Microorganisms have both negative and beneficial 

effects, and different species of fungi are inherent in 

many of these processes. 

• They can spoil food but assist in waste and sewage 

treatment and processing as well as nutrient cycling 

and exchange.

• Assist in pollution control but also increase greenhouse gases.

Food and the Environment

Microbiology is a vitally important area, not only within human spaceflight but also for humans on Earth. 

Microorganisms such as bacteria, archea, fungi and algae have a detrimental or a beneficial impact on 

our daily lives. This research has far-reaching effects feeding into many different areas of biotechnology 

as microorganisms have a role in food spoilage, waste and sewage treatment and processing, nutrient 

cycling and exchange, pollution control, and in increased greenhouse gases. 

Studying the effects of gravity on plants led to the development of an ethylene scrubber. This technology 

is now used as an air purifier that destroys airborne bacteria, mold, fungi, viruses, and odors. The 

scrubber is used for food preservation in major supermarkets, high-end refrigerator technology, and 

in trucks that carry groceries to remote regions of countries such as India, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait 

to name a few. Even the health care industry benefits from the use of these units in clinics, operating 

rooms, neonatal wards and waiting rooms making these locations safer for their inhabitants. 

Plant research in a space greenhouse has allowed the study of root zone substrates in space allowing 

scientists to improve predictions of how artificial soils will behave when irrigated both in space and on 

Earth in experimental forests.

Microbiology research on 

ISS provides insight into how 

microorganisms can spoil 

food, assist in waste and 

sewage treatment, and in 

pollution control.

Flight day 5 sample from the Coloured Fungi in 

Space experiment. 

Image credit: CFS-A science team
30

• Cause disease but can be used in the manufacture 

of antibiotics, detergents and pesticides.

• Cause deterioration in manufactured materials and 

buildings but can also be used in the recover of 

metals in the mining sector as well as the production of biofuels and fertilizers. 

Insights into one species may provide insights into 

others and hence feed into different applications.

The Growth and Survival of Coloured Fungi in Space-A 

(CFS-A) experiment determined the changes that 

weightlessness and cosmic radiation have on the 

growth and survival of various coloured fungi species. 

Understanding any changes in the physiology and 

survivability of different microorganisms in space 

can help determine the effect that this may have on 

spacecraft, associated systems and supplies, as well 

as the astronauts inhabiting them. This could provide 

important insights for developing countermeasures 

to possibly deleterious microorganisms, help to draw 

conclusions on how the space environment may 

affect similar organisms, and could also feed into 

biotechnology applications in the future. 

The main fungal species studied in the CFS-A 

experiment was Ulocladium chartarum, which is well 

known to be involved in biodeterioration of organic and 

inorganic materials and suspected to be a possible 

contaminant in spacecraft. Other species studied 

were Aspergillus niger (which causes a disease 

called black mold on certain fruits and vegetables, 

and commercially accounts for 99 percent of global 

commercial citric acid production); Cladosporium 

herbarum (frequently the most prominent mold spore in 

air and found on dead herbaceous and woody plants, 

textiles, rubber, paper, and foodstuffs of all kinds); and 

Basipetospora halophile (which survives in high-saline 

environments). 

The CFS-A experiment clearly indicated that 

Ulocladium chartarum is able to grow under spaceflight 

conditions, elaborating a new strategy to survive for a 

short time by developing submerged mycelium and for 

a long time by developing sporulating microcolonies 

on the surface of the nutrient source on which it was 

cultured. In spacecraft, U. chartarum and other fungal 

species could find a favorable environment to grow 

invasively unnoticed in the depth of surfaces under the 

right conditions posing a risk factor for biodegradation 

of structural components, as well as a direct threat 

for crew health. This will be especially important for 

future long-duration missions outside of low-Earth orbit 

where astronauts will have to be more self-sufficient for 

maintaining spacecraft and systems, and some food 

supplies would need to be preserved for longer than 

potentially 18 months. However, on the same line, in 

the future this kind of research could potentially feed 

into strategies for waste recycling on spacecraft and 

the development of biological life support systems. As 

we gain knowledge of the life histories of key species 

of fungi in the space environment, that knowledge 

can be readily applied to better manage these species 

on Earth.

Plant growth on ISS has global impacts 

on Earth

Understanding the effects of gravity on plant life is 

essential in preparation for human exploration beyond 

low-Earth orbit. The ability to produce high-energy, 

low-mass food sources during spaceflight will enable 

the maintenance of crew health during long-duration 

Fungi on the ISS, grows on a panel of the Russian 

Zarya Module where exercise clothes were hung 

to dry. 

Image credit: NASA
31

missions while having a reduced impact on resources 

necessary for long-distance travel. 

The Advanced AstrocultureTM (ADVASC) investigation, 

led by Weijia Zhou, Ph.D., of the Wisconsin Center 

for Space Automation and Robotics, University 

of Wisconsin-Madison, explored the benefits of 

using microgravity to create custom crops that can 

withstand the inhospitable climates of space, resist 

pestilence, and need less volume to grow. ADVASC 

was performed over several International Space 

Station (ISS) expeditions, growing two generations 

of Arabidopsis thaliana (rapidly growing, flowering 

plant in the mustard family that has been grown on 

many space missions), and soybean plants, from 

seed to seed in space using the ADVASC payload, an 

autonomously operated plant growth unit. The ability 

to grow plants from seeds through several generations 

has proven to be challenging in space and is critical in 

developing hardware and operational concepts to take 

human explorers farther beyond low-Earth orbit.

While serving as a unique plant-growth chamber, the 

ADVASC hardware design has also contributed to 

national security, cancer-fighting pharmaceuticals and 

educational tools for students. ADVASC’s novel air 

scrubber was designed to remove ethylene from the 

chamber atmosphere, thus allowing longevity of the 

produce. Ethylene is a naturally occurring, odorless, 

colorless gas given off by plants that hastens the 

A new technology for an 

ethylene scrubber is used for 

food preservation in major 

supermarkets and in trucks 

that carry groceries to remote 

regions of the world.

Astronaut Peggy Whitson with the ADVASC soybean plant growth experiment during Expedition 5. 

Image credit: NASA
32

ripening of fruits and the aging of flowers, encouraging 

decay. Comprised of carbon and hydrogen in closed 

growing environments, like on a spacecraft or in a 

terrestrial greenhouse, ethylene builds up quickly and 

plants mature too fast. Removing ethylene, therefore, 

is important to preserving crops not just in space, 

but also on Earth, where grocers and florists have an 

interest in reducing the gas that ultimately shortens the 

shelf life of their products. 

The ethylene-reduction device, also called the ethylene 

“scrubber,” draws air through tubes coated in thin 

layers of titanium dioxide. The insides of the tubes are 

exposed to ultraviolet light, which creates a simple, 

chemical reaction, converting the ethylene into trace 

amounts of water and carbon dioxide, both of which 

are actually good for plants. 

KES Science & Technology Inc., a Kennesaw, Georgiabased company specializing in sustaining perishable 

foods, licensed the ethylene-scrubbing technology 

from the University of Wisconsin. KES partnered with 

Akida Holdings, of Jacksonville, Florida, which now 

markets the NASA-developed technology as AiroCide. 

According to the company, it is the only air purifier that 

completely destroys airborne bacteria, mold, fungi, 

mycotoxins, viruses, volatile organic compounds (like 

ethylene), and odors. What’s more, the device has no 

filters that need changing and produces no harmful 

byproducts, such as the ozone created by some 

filtration systems. 

Food preservation customers include supermarkets 

like Whole Foods; produce distribution facilities like 

those operated by Del Monte; food processing plants; 

wineries; distilleries; restaurants; and large floral shops. 

Reeves Floral, an AiroCide user, reported 92-percent 

reductions in airborne mold and a 58-percent drop 

in airborne bacteria levels in just the first 24 hours it 

had the units operating in its floral storage warehouse. 

The AiroCide units can be used in walk-in coolers to 

preserve freshness of produce during storage and 

transport, to increase safety in food preparation areas, 

to kill bacterial contaminants in flowers (botrytis), and 

to protect against spoilage and contaminants.

AiroCide technology is now incorporated into a line of 

refrigerators, high-end consumer models that preserve 

freshness and reduce food waste. The refrigerator 

recycles the air every 20 minutes, reducing odors, 

viruses, and bacteria, as well as eliminating the 

presence of veggie-wilting ethylene. 

AiroCide units have been deployed to India and 

the Gulf Cooperation Council, which includes the 

countries of Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, Oman, Saudi 

Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. In these areas, 

where refrigerated trucks carry groceries from rural 

farmland to towns miles away, the AiroCide unit 

preserves freshness and prevents food spoilage in 

harsh environments. 

In the health care arena, AiroCide units have been 

incorporated into doctors’ clinics, operating rooms, 

neonatal wards, and in waiting areas, an often overlooked location rife with germs and bacteria like respiratory influenza or mycobacterium tuberculosis and 

frequented by people with compromised immune systems. Operating rooms with AiroCide units mounted in 

the ceiling become safer for all inhabitants, as harmful bacteria like methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus 

aureus and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus, and 

the fungi Penicillium and Aspergillus are removed from 

the air. In addition to eliminating virtually all known 

airborne germs and diseases, the technology reduces 

the burden on high-efficiency particulate air filters and 

laminar flow environments. These same air-cleaning 

properties have also been applied to neonatal wards.

The AiroCide units have been adapted for use in 

everyday living environments. In hotels, for example, 

the units eliminate mold, mildew, germs and unwanted 

odors. These same features are also useful in offices, 

where illnesses caused by airborne organisms can 

lower productivity. In homes, the AiroCide units help 

eliminate the growth of mold and fungi as well as 

eliminate allergens like pet dander and dust mites.

Experiments with higher plants on the 

Russian Segment of the International 

Space Station

Some of the most important tasks in space biology 

include the creation of reliable and effectively 

functioning life support systems, and providing 

sustaining food sources for crew members. For longterm interplanetary spaceflights and planetary bases, 

the human life support system and food production 

Space station studies improved 

predictions of how artificial 

soils will behave when irrigated 

both in space and on Earth in 

experimental forests.
33

has to be based on regenerating the living environment 

from life support products through physical/chemical 

and biological processes. Greenhouses will most likely 

be designed for the cultivation of vegetables, primarily 

greens and herbs. However, in order to implement 

these plans, plants must grow, develop, and reproduce 

in spaceflight with cultivation productivity similar to 

Earth. To address this need, a series of 17 Rasteniya

experiments were conducted from 2002-2011 using 

the Lada greenhouse on the Russian segment of the 

International Space Station.

Multigenerational studies were carried out to culture 

genetically tagged dwarf pea plants in the Lada space 

greenhouse. For the first time in space research, four 

consecutive generations of genetically tagged pea line 

seeds were obtained in spaceflight. The growth and 

development characteristics of various lines of pea 

plants did not change in a significant way compared 

to ground control samples. Using molecular methods 

with random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) 

primers with 10 markers and analyzing chromosomal 

aberrations, it was demonstrated that plants having 

undergone four complete development cycles in 

spaceflight did not manifest genetic polymorphism. 

That makes it possible to assert that there is no impact 

of spaceflight factors on the genetic apparatus of 

plants in the first to the fourth “space” generations.

To prepare a chain of higher plants for future life 

support systems of space crews, experiments were 

carried out to cultivate the leafy vegetable plant mizuna

(Brassica rapa var. nipposinica). Results showed 

that the significant increase in the parameter of total 

contamination of International Space Station (ISS) air 

did not result in a decrease in productivity of the leafy 

vegetable plant; however, the plants responded with a 

change in gene expression.

A space experiment to grow super dwarf wheat 

during a complete vegetation cycle showed that the 

Cosmonaut Valery G. Korzun, Expedition Five mission commander, studies mizuna lettuce as part of the Rastenyia-2 

investigation.

Image credit: NASA
34

rate of plant development over 90 days did not differ 

from data from ground control experiments. When 

the space-produced seeds were planted on the 

ground, plants that grew were no different from the 

control sample.

The work done has great applied value because in 

the process of creating and operating the space 

greenhouse, cutting-edge equipment and software 

were developed, making it possible to grow plants 

automatically. This dual-purpose technology can 

also improve plant growth on Earth. The psychophysiological aspect of the interaction between 

humans and plants in a habitable pressurized volume 

was studied, and data were obtained on the safety 

of cultivating plant biomass on a space station for 

human consumption. These data are of great interest 

for design work to create productive greenhouses that 

are part of promising life support systems of any living 

complexes that are cut off from the Earth’s biosphere. 

Scientists have also studied the interaction of plants 

with the soil. The processes by which plant roots 

receive water, gases and nutrients are different in 

space than they are on Earth. On Earth, gravity and 

surface tension combine to move water through soil, 

allowing air to move through the pore spaces in the 

soil to the plant’s roots. In space, soil is replaced with 

an artificial growth medium, made up of small grains 

or other porous material. In microgravity, liquid moves 

through capillary action, where the liquid is attracted 

to the adjacent surface of a solid material. The surface 

tension of the liquid pulls additional liquid along as 

each new surface is wetted. If the plant is over-watered 

and all of the surface area and open spaces within the 

growth medium are filled with liquid, then gas (air) can’t 

move, and the plant’s roots are deprived of air and 

oxygen. When properly wetted, as water is used by 

the roots, surface tension pulls additional liquid along 

without filling the pore spaces, and therefore without 

preventing oxygen from diffusing through the open 

spaces to the roots. Studies in the Lada greenhouse 

have addressed the importance of root zone media 

in these extreme artificial conditions. Scientists have 

studied a variety of root zone substrates—growth 

media, material particle sizes, and packing structure—

and learned which combinations work best. 

Knowledge of root zone substrates in space has 

allowed scientists to improve their predictions of how 

artificial soils will behave when they’re irrigated—in 

space and on Earth—and to design specific plant 

growth media and artificial soils for greenhouses and 

other large scale plant production facilities on Earth. 

Models, describing the behavior of water and oxygen 

learned from these space experiments, have been 

published in scientific journals, allowing commercial 

users to access the information without divulging their 

propriety growth media mixtures. Sensor technology 

developed to monitor the Lada root zone is being 

applied to monitor soil properties in a state-of-the-art 

measurement facility at an experimental forest. 

Editor’s note: Colleagues from many Russian and 

non-Russian organizations participated in carrying 

out work according to the Rasteniya program in the 

Lada greenhouse on the ISS RS. The contributions 

of G. E. Bingham (Utah State University, Space 

Dynamics Laboratory, Logan, Utah, USA), S. 

A. Gostimsky (M. V. Lomonosov Moscow State 

University), and M. Sugimoto (Okayama University, 

Institute of Bioresources, Okayama, Japan) should be 

especially noted.

Cosmonaut Maxim Suraev, Expedition 22 Flight 

Engineer, holds Mizun lettuce plants from the BIO-5 

Rasteniya-2 (“Plants-2”) experiment in the Service 

Module during Expedition 20.

Image credit: NASA
35

Space cardiology for the benefit of 

health care

The cardiovascular system plays an exceptionally 

important role in cosmonauts’ physical adaptation to 

long-term weightlessness. Since 2002, the scientific 

experiment “Puls” and from 2007 through 2012, the 

experiment “Pneumocard” were performed regularly 

on the International Space Station to study spaceflight 

effects on the cardiovascular system. These studies 

have provided a tremendous amount of information about space cardiology that has resulted in new 

technologies successfully used to evaluate the body’s 

functional reserves, to determine the degree of stress 

on regulatory systems and to assess the risk of development of disease. These new technologies served as 

the basis both for further development of cardiological 

systems on the International Space Station and for 

the creation of unique sets of instruments that can 

be used in health care practice, including the Ecosan-2007 hardware-software complex.

Ecosan-2007 is a multi-purpose instrument for early 

detection of the earliest deviations in health status. It 

is based on the principle of prenosological diagnosis, 

which arose in space medicine, referring to the study 

of changes in the body that precede their development. This device is now used to examine drivers of 

motor vehicles, civil aviation pilots, and test subjects in 

experiments on Earth involving various stress factors.

A study that used the Ecosan-2007 to detect early 

health issues among 105 bus drivers showed 

that more than 30 percent of the drivers were in 

prenosological and premorbid states, which sharply 

increases the risk of motor vehicle accidents. 

Heart Health and Biorhythms

Studying spaceflight effects on the cardiovascular system has led to the creation of unique instruments 

that can be used on Earth for the detection of the earliest deviations in health status. These technologies are now used to examine motor vehicle drivers and civil aviation pilots to evaluate risks and 

prevent accidents. Twenty-four-hour ECGs of astronauts were also analyzed to understand the space 

environment’s effect on biological rhythm and cardiac autonomic nervous activity leading to recommendations for maintaining a well-balanced biological rhythm on Earth. One of these recommendations is maintenance of a regular sleep schedule. In studying the sleep patterns of cosmonauts using 

a miniature device that fits in their pocket, information is recorded and sent to Earth for analysis of 

sleep quality. An Earth model of this device is placed under the pillow or mattress to record movements 

related to heart and breathing. 

Instruments used on Earth 

for the early detection of 

deviations in health status 

are now used to examine 

motor vehicle drivers and civil 

aviation pilots.

Andre Borisenko performs the Pneumocard 

experiment aboard the International Space Station. 

Image credit: Roscosmos
36

During examinations of civil aviation pilots the use of 

Ecosan-2007 showed that long-term, work-related 

chronic stress increases the risk development of 

pathologies, which should be considered during the 

expert evaluation of fitness for flight, especially for 

people at the age more than 50.

The Ecosan-2007 complex was also used in a 520-

day experiment on Earth simulating a flight to Mars. 

During the experiment, monthly examinations of the 

“Martian” crew located in a pressurized mockup of 

an interplanetary spacecraft and at the same time of 

volunteer test subjects in control groups in 12 different 

regions of the world were performed. Long-term 

telemedicine of medical-environmental research using 

the Ecosan-2007 complex will be the prototype of a 

future system of individual prenosological monitoring, 

which will be based on space cardiology methods.

The results of the studies on Earth performed using t

he Ecosan-2007 complex served as a tool for Earthbased clinical use and as the basis for the further 

development of space cardiology technologies. Two 

new instruments have been developed for the space 

station and have both been in use since 2014. One of 

them, Cardiovektor, will be the advanced development 

of Pneumocard, which will make it possible to perform 

precise measurements of energy of heart muscle and 

to evaluate the activity of the right and left chambers 

of the heart. The second instrument, Cosmocard, 

will develop the methodology that was used in the 

Ecosan-2007 for electrocardiogram dispersion 

mapping. This will allow us to use the non-invasive 

study of the energy-metabolic characteristics of the 

cardiac muscle at various stages of spaceflight. In the 

future, these instruments may also be successfully 

used in health care practice.

Biological rhythms in space and on Earth

Humans wake up in the morning and fall asleep at 

night. The biological clock generates this regular, 

daily rhythm. Similar to the clock in the brain, there is 

a peripheral clock in every single cell in our bodies. 

The clock in the brain is called the “master clock,” 

and the clock in cells is referred to as the “peripheral 

clock.” The “master clock” and “peripheral clocks” 

communicate with one another through the autonomic, 

especially the sympathetic, nervous system to 

accurately regulate the biological rhythm. 

It is not uncommon to perform docking and 

destination landings in the late night or early morning 

for maximizing efficiency during rocket launching 

or returning to Earth. In such cases, the astronauts 

experience an effect much like traveling through time 

zones during international travel. Furthermore, we also 

have broad biological spectra (i.e., 90-min, 8-hour 

and 7-day, etc.) and have developed “chronomics” to 

analyze them. Chronomics is the term that defines a 

new scientific field such as genomics and proteomics 

and can reveal hidden signals in the original time 

ISS research has led to 

recommendations for 

maintaining a well-balanced, 

biological rhythm on Earth.

Research using the Ecosan-2007 complex.

Image credit: Institute of Biomedical Problems 

of the Russian Academy of Sciences

Space sleep – Crew members usually sleep in 

sleeping bags. 

Image credit: JAXA/NASA
37

series data, which are not decipherable without 

use of chronomics. Chronomes are time structures 

consisting of (1) multi-frequency rhythms, (2) elements 

of chaos, (3) trends in chaotic and rhythmic endpoints, 

and (4) noise (or as yet unresolved variables). 

Chronomics can solve the complexity of organism’s 

interactions with their environment, near and far. The 

International Space Station (ISS) circles around the 

Earth once every 90 minutes, and astronauts aboard 

see sunrise and sunset every 45 minutes. The effects 

of high-intensity light deficiency on human health in 

the unique environment created by microgravity and 

45-minute day and night cycles is not well understood. 

There may be an increased risk for biological rhythm 

deregulation and insomnia when living in a space 

environment with microgravity and is deficient in high 

intensity light. We analyzed 24-hour ECG recordings of 

long-term-spaceflight astronauts with the aim to clarify 

the space environment’s effect on biological rhythm 

and cardiac autonomic nervous activity. A small, lightweight Holter monitor was used to record 24-hour 

ECGs, preflight (once), inflight (three times), and 

postflight (once). The 24-hour ECG data recorded in 

orbit was downlinked from Kibo Japanese Experiment 

Module to Tsukuba Space Center for time domain 

and frequency domain analysis. As a result, we found 

that although biological rhythms of the astronauts 

were immediately disturbed after arrival on the ISS, 

they recovered in five months after the beginning of 

long-term stay, and their biological rhythms became 

well-regulated when compared to the preflight and 

postflight recordings. We speculated that although the 

astronauts experienced a time-difference effect during 

their long-term spaceflight after spacecraft docking, 

they were able to maintain a well-regulated biological 

rhythm because of their regular, daily schedule aboard 

the ISS. 

We are exposed to environments that easily disturb 

our biological rhythm. Progress in communications, 

i.e., internet and smartphones, and transportation, i.e., 

airplanes, have made borders of countries and time 

zones irrelevant. It has been reported that disturbance 

in biological rhythm may cause diseases such as high 

blood pressure, obesity, hypercholesterolemia, diabetes, osteoporosis, insomnia, depression, premature 

aging, cancer, etc. 

Three factors for maintaining a well-balanced biological 

rhythm are morning light, melatonin secreted at 

night, and a balanced diet (particularly breakfast). 

Most important is the exposure to bright light during 

daytime and complete darkness during sleep at night. 

The astronauts’ daily regimen in maintaining a wellbalanced biological rhythm during their long-term 

spaceflight serves as a guideline for us living on Earth. 

In particular, we recommend the following six activities 

for maintaining a well-balanced biological rhythm: 1) 

keep a regular daily schedule; 2) keep regular sleep 

and meal schedules; 3) drink coffee or green tea in the 

morning; 4) maintain appropriate temperatures during 

day and night; 5) engage in activities that support the 

peripheral clock such as exercise and getting dressed 

after waking; and 6) occasionally note the time.

Innovative space-based device promotes 

restful sleep on Earth

There has been a growing interest in the study of 

night-time sleep in weightlessness since the first steps 

of space exploration. Indeed, normal, good-quality 

sleep is the basis for maintaining the necessary, high 

psychological functioning and good physical condition 

of cosmonauts. However, the clinical method used to 

study sleep (polysomnography) requires the use of a 

large number of sensors, which disturbs normal sleep, 

requires time, and is too complex for spaceflight. 

A miniature device can be 

placed under a pillow or a 

mattress to record movements 

related to the heart and to 

breathing.

Sunrise from the International Space Station. 

Since the space station orbits the Earth once 

every 90 minutes, it sees a sunrise or a sunset 

every 45 minutes. 

Image credit: NASA
38

Thus, nowadays the data on the sleep quality of 

cosmonauts in long-term weightlessness have been 

extremely limited.

In 2007, a new device, Sonocard, arrived on the 

Russian segment of the International Space Station 

(ISS), making it possible to study sleep with a miniature 

device in the size of a deck of cards. The device is 

placed on the left in the top pocket of the cosmonaut’s 

T-shirt before sleep, and its sensor elicits microfluctuations of the chest wall that are related to heart 

function. Upon wake-up, the information recorded 

during the night is sent to Earth for analysis.

Sonocard provides a contactless recording of physiological signals, and its use does not require attaching 

electrodes or special sensors to the body. Instead, it 

acquires its data by recording all the vibrations that 

are elicited by the sensor/accelerometer. Pulse rate, 

breathing rate, movement activity, and heart rhythm 

variability are obtained. This method is successfully 

used in various fields of medicine and physiology to 

assess the state of the basic body functions. Space 

medicine was one of its first fields of application, and 

to date, a large amount of experience has been accumulated on its use to assess the functional condition 

of cosmonauts during spaceflight. When analyzing the 

data obtained during sleep, the changes in the activity 

of the sympathetic and parasympathetic regulation 

chains in first hours after falling asleep and last hours 

before waking up are determined. This makes it possible to assess to what extent the body was able to 

rest during sleep and how much it replenished the 

functional reserves that were spent the day before.

Scientific experiments using the Sonocard device 

are conducted on the space station on all Russian 

cosmonauts every two weeks. Over five years, a large 

amount of information on sleep in weightlessness 

has been gathered. For the first time, it is possible to 

discuss results that are not impacted by factors of 

workload and psycho-emotional stress that are always 

present during the day while carrying out science 

experiments under the normal flight program. A flight 

index sleep quality showed that the quality of sleep on 

average for the entire flight for all 22 participants in the 

experiment is 77.4 percent. 

The Sonocard contactless method of sleep study that 

was created for use on the space station has been 

successfully used on Earth. The Earth model used a 

sensor that was designed in the form of a plate to be 

placed under the pillow or mattress to record a person’s body movements related to heart and breathing 

rate. The signals recorded during the night are downloaded to a computer and analyzed according to the 

methods already proven in space research.

The new hardware/software system called Cardioson-3 

was tested in a series of experiments on Earth, 

including a long-term, 520-day experiment simulating 

a flight to Mars. Unique research experience of the 

cosmonauts’ functional state during sleep can have 

further development in two directions: creation of new, 

more effective systems of evaluating sleep in space for 

the simultaneous medical control of all crew members 

and development of similar devices for the control of 

the quality of sleep in the interests of public health 

care practice. 

Crew member sets up the Sonocard device 

before sleep in spaceflight.

Image credit: Roscosmos

Cardioson-3 system–Earth analog of the 

Sonocard space device. 

Image credit: Institute of Biomedical Problems of 

the Russian Academy of Sciences
39

Improving Balance and Movement

A new technology developed to correct motor disturbances in weightlessness has been used to treat 

patients with cerebral palsy, stroke, spinal cord injuries, balance problems and motor decline due to 

aging. Assessment of eye movement reactions of cosmonauts preflight and postflight has led to faster 

and less expensive diagnoses and treatment of patients suffering from vertigo, dizziness and equilibrium 

disturbances. A patented computerized, non-pharmacological method of preventing and correcting 

unfavorable perception and sensorimotor reactions is used to train patients and astronauts to acquire 

the ability to suppress vertigo, dizziness and equilibrium disturbances.

A system of hardware and software that collects information on body movements of astronauts on ISS 

has led to motor imagery protocols used in the research environment of a hospital in Rome in treatment 

of adult stroke patients and children with cerebral palsy. Other body movement research on ISS lead to 

the development of a suit for astronauts to compensate for the lack of daily loading from gravity. The 

clinical version of this suit is used for the comprehensive and drug-free treatment of cerebral palsy in 

children in Russia. Another clinical variation of this suit is used on patients who have suffered from stroke 

or brain trauma.

New technology simulates microgravity 

and improves balance on Earth

Spaceflight opportunities, such as that of the International Space Station (ISS), facilitated the development 

of Earth-based models of weightlessness and opened 

the door to studying the effects of the elimination of 

gravity. Over the 10 years since the ISS came into existence, a large amount of data, information and facts 

have been compiled by the Russian Institute of Biomedical Problems (IBMP) that have made it possible to 

switch from describing occurrences and phenomena 

to developing theories about the role and place of 

gravitational mechanisms in various bodily systems.

One example of an evolution in the development 

of new knowledge is the discovery of the leading 

triggering role in maintaining vertical posture, of 

A device to correct motor 

disturbances treats patients 

with cerebral palsy, stroke, 

spinal cord injuries, balance 

problems and motor decline 

due to aging. The support unloading compensator.

Image credit: Institute of Biomedical Problems 
40

sensory organs called Vater-Paccini corpuscles, 

located in the soles of the feet. These receptors 

were discovered back in the 19th century, but their 

role in gravireception was established very recently, 

thanks to ground-based simulation studies designed 

to keep cosmonauts’ balance healthy in longduration spaceflights. As a result of these studies, a 

unique piece of technology was developed to help 

to correct the motor disturbances in individuals with 

central nervous system dysfunction, injuries, balance 

problems, and motor decline due to aging.

Ground-based studies at IBMP identified a particular 

pattern of stabilization between body loading on the 

soles of the feet and subsequent motor stabilization processes associated with brain and spinal cord 

activities. The knowledge obtained revealed that the 

development of sensory-motor disturbances may 

be prevented by means of “artificial” support stimuli 

applied to the bottoms of the feet. The research results 

led to the development of new technology, the “support unloading compensator,” a device that stimulates 

the support zones of the foot in natural human gait.

The uniqueness of this device lies in its ability to 

simulate the physical parameters that the support 

receptor or the foot receives during walking: the 

magnitude of pressure, temporal characteristics - 

duration of impact, intervals between stimulation of 

the heel and metatarsal support zones, and intervals 

between stimulation of the right and left foot.

But the disturbances of muscle tone and coordination 

of movement are not inherent exclusively to weightlessness. Diseases of the central nervous system (CNS), 

brain injuries of various types, long-term motor unloading in aging, as well as some specific occupational 

conditions are also accompanied by the development 

of the aforementioned changes. Based on these data, 

IBMP scientists are working jointly with commercial 

companies to introduce motor disturbances corrective 

measures that were developed for weightlessness into 

the practice of treating and rehabilitating patients with 

profound motor lesions that are due to cerebral palsy, 

stroke, and brain and spinal cord injuries.

Between 2005 and 2011, the Center for Aerospace 

Medicine developed a clinical version of the support 

unloading compensator, the Korvit, and obtained all 

approval documents and licenses. 

Today this technology is being successfully used in 

the most acute phase of stroke and facilitates more 

significant regression of motor disturbances and earlier 

recovery of locomotion than traditional treatment 

methods. Of particular interest are the data on 

prevention of muscle spasticity development of limbs 

affected by paresis in cases when the Korvit device is 

used in the first hours after the onset of a stroke.

The use of the support stimulation method in children 

during the early recovery phase after surgical treatment 

for fractures of the calf bones has facilitated the 

reduction of edema by 17 to 20 percent, and an 

increase in the range of motion in the ankle joint by 

45 percent as early as the first 72 hours after surgery. 

Children who do not receive such treatment experience 

edema lasting six to eight days, which hinders motion 

in the injured limb and retards regenerative processes.

The use of the Korvit apparatus in the integrated rehabilitation of Cerebral Palsey patients has made it possible to maximize restoration of the balance of strength 

between extensor and flexor muscles, particularly in 

an upright position, and to normalize the functions 

of standing and walking, as well as the control of the 

coordination of various classes of movements.

New ways to assess neurovestibular 

system health in space also benefits 

those on Earth

Among the many problems that have confronted the 

medical sciences since humans first began exploring 

space, a main one is adaptation to the conditions of 

changed gravitational force. Upon arrival in weightlessness (first three to seven days) and upon the return to 

Earth (from landing to three to five days later), virtually 

all crew members experience a number of negative 

reactions and sensory disorders (orientational illusions, 

vertigo, dizziness, problems focusing on and tracking 

The support unloading compensator used on 

children.

Image credit: Aerospace Medical Center and 

Technology
41

visual objects), which are perceived as uncomfortable 

and can be accompanied by space motion sickness.

In weightlessness, information received from the 

vestibular apparatus within the inner ear does not align 

with information received from other sensory systems, 

so the typical sensory links are broken and the brain 

cannot correctly interpret the incoming signals at 

the beginning of flight, leading to the development 

of space motion sickness. As a result, this causes a 

decrease in the quality of crew member performance 

of work tasks, particularly those relating to visual 

tracking accuracy. It is very likely that the unsuccessful 

docking of spacecraft, errors in structural assembly, 

and other instances of errors in manual control 

that have occurred in orbit were often caused by 

disturbances in the function of tracking moving space 

objects because of changes in sensory functions.

Analysis of data accumulated in a series of scientific 

experiments before, during and after spaceflights on 

the stations Salyut-6, Salyut-7, and Mir has led the 

Institute of Biomedical Problems in Russia to develop 

a method that uses computerized systems named 

OculoStim-CM, Virtual and Sensomotor that can 

Assessment of eye movement 

reactions leads to faster and 

less expensive treatment of 

patients suffering from vertigo, 

dizziness and equilibrium 

disturbances.

Space experiment Virtual aboard the International Space Station (2013).

Image credit: Roscosmos 
42

accurately assess the state of vestibular function, 

intersensory interactions, spatial orientation, and visual 

tracking (Russian Federation patent #2307575 dated 

10/10/2007, Kornilova L. N. et al.).

At the basis of the method lies the assessment of eye 

movement reactions – visual tracking tests that are 

conducted both with visual targets (stimuli) on a clean 

(black) field on the screen and against a backdrop of 

additional visual interferences (diffuse spots/ellipses 

moving horizontally or vertically) to “irritate” the 

peripheral vision. During the testing under differing 

conditions, movements of the eyes (by electro- and 

video-oculography) and head (using angular rate 

sensors and accelerometers) are recorded.

The eye-movement system is controlled by a complex 

hierarchy of innervation mechanisms located at 

different levels of the nervous system. The use of 

a special test battery makes it possible to evaluate 

the disruptions occurring in various forms of eye 

movements and, given the known mechanisms of how 

these movements are performed, to find the causes of 

these disturbances. 

This method has been actively used during the preflight 

and postflight clinical/physiological examination of 

International Space Station (ISS) crew members in 

experiments called Virtual and Slezheniye (Pursuit) since 

2013 and 2015, respectively and after crew members 

return to Earth during experiments Sensory Adaptation 

and Gaze-Spin since 2001 and 2009, respectively.

The procedure and hardware/software systems 

developed for spaceflight has also demonstrated 

effectiveness of the computerized method and hardware/software systems for use in diagnosing conditions of the vestibular and its related sensory systems 

(primarily visual) and in assessing the stability of static 

and dynamic spatial orientation on Earth. The systems 

have particularly been useful in experiments simulating 

weightlessness (immersion and bed rest); in examining 

highly qualified athletes (high-performance sports – 

gymnastics, figure and speed skating, target shooting, 

etc.); in diagnosing and treating patients suffering from 

dizziness and equilibrium disturbances; and, in evaluating the effectiveness of medications (betahistine drugs 

Betaver and Betaserc). The OculoStim-CM system 

was successfully certified for use in clinical studies of 

200 patients with vertigo, dizziness and equilibrium 

disturbances, together with specialists from the nervous disease department of the I. M. Sechenov First 

Moscow State Medical University, the Academician 

Alexander Vein Clinic for the Treatment of Headaches 

and Vegetative Disorders, and the Federal Scientific 

Clinical Center of Otorhinolaryngology. Such application in clinical practice has made it possible to develop 

diagnostic criteria to determine the type of vestibular 

disturbance, while offering a rapid, less expensive initial 

differential diagnosis of dizziness and balance disturbances compared to traditional clinical testing.

Space research leads to nonpharmacological treatment and 

prevention of vertigo, dizziness and 

equilibrium disturbances

The history of spaceflight has shown that initial introduction to the weightlessness environment, such as 

that of the International Space Station, can lead to 

space motion sickness, making crew members feel 

dizzy and uncoordinated, and even impacting their 

ability to track objects with their eyes. The result can 

be a negative effect both on the health of crew members and the quality of their work performance in flight.

Space research has led to a 

patented method used to train 

patients to acquire the ability to 

suppress vertigo, dizziness and 

equilibrium disturbances.

Application of the Okulostim-KM hardware/

software system in clinical studies. 

Image credit: Institute of Biomedical Problems
43

At present, medications are typically used to eliminate 

the symptoms of space motion sickness, but they have 

a number of contraindications and side effects that can 

have a negative effect on various types of professional 

activity. Therefore, there has been an obvious need to 

develop non-pharmacological methods of preventing 

and treating space motion sickness.

It is well known that people in extreme professions, 

such as mountain climbers, athletes, acrobats, and 

ballet dancers develop the capability to suppress 

unfavorable vestibular reactions at the moment high 

accelerations act on them by developing a “fixation 

reflex.” However, attempts by many clinicians to 

treat patients with vestibular problems using the 

same methods have been unsuccessful because of 

the vestibular challenges unique to this population. 

Therefore, experts at the vestibular physiology 

laboratory at the Institute of Biomedical Problems 

developed and patented a “Computerized method of 

preventing and correcting unfavorable perception and 

sensorimotor reactions” (Russian Federation patent 

#2301622 dated 06/27/2007, Kornilova L. N. et al.). 

The innovation of this method is in creating a unique 

approach to the training of patients depending on their 

disease (type of vestibulopathy) and in selecting the 

most effective means of training (visual, vestibular, or 

combined) for them using biofeedback.

During patient training, depending on the nature of the 

vertigo, dizziness or equilibrium disorder and of his/

her disease (type of vestibulopathy), a series of training 

sessions is conducted to develop a unique fixation 

reflex using biofeedback, provided by the computer 

using this method to record eye and head movements.

Training is conducted until the negative reactions 

(vertigo, dizziness and equilibrium disturbances) the 

patient suffers from disappear or are significantly 

reduced. The therapeutic effect of the training is 

assessed through a follow-up clinical/neurological 

examination, including the use of the computerized 

method of comprehensively assessing the condition 

of vestibular function and visual tracking function 

(Russian Federation patent #2307575 dated 10/10/07, 

Kornilova L. N. et al.). The indicator of training success 

is the suppression of experimentally induced negative 

reactions (full or partial) during the action of visual 

and vestibular stimuli while fixing the gaze on an 

imagined target.

The non-pharmacological computerized method 

for treating and preventing vertigo, dizziness and 

equilibrium disturbances was tested in clinical conditions jointly with specialists from the nervous disease 

department of the I. M. Sechenov First Moscow State 

Medical University, the Academician Alexander Vein 

Clinic for the Treatment of Headaches and Vegetative 

Disorders, and the Federal Scientific Clinical Center of 

Otorhinolaryngology.

The results of the clinical work demonstrated that 

patients acquired the capacity to fixate on and hold 

the gaze on both real and imagined targets, thus 

suppressing (fully or partially) vertigo, dizziness, 

nystagmus, and equilibrium disturbances. It was 

shown that training effectiveness depended not only 

on the disorder (type of vestibulopathy), but also on the 

type of training selected. For patients with peripheral 

vestibulopathies, the most effective was visual training; 

for patients with central vestibulopathies, the vestibular 

method was best; and for patients with psychogenic 

vestibulopathies, the combined method was preferred.

Analysis of special questionnaires demonstrated that 

all patients with psychogenic, 91 percent of patients 

with peripheral, and 80 percent of patients with central 

vestibulopathies subjectively noted “good suppression 

of vertigo in everyday conditions” and “improvement in 

general adaptation to real life conditions.”

The effectiveness of the non-pharmacological 

computerized method has made it a good candidate 

for use both during the preflight training of ISS crew 

members, and during spaceflight, to suppress the 

symptoms of space motion sickness. The suppression 

of negative reactions during flight using the fixation 

reflex has been successfully applied by crew members 

aboard the ISS since 2013.

Visual method of training. (Laboratory of Vestibular 

Physiology, 2013) 

Image credit: Institute of Biomedical Problems
44

Capturing the secrets of weightless 

movements for Earth applications

Leaving Earth’s gravity initially impairs sensorimotor 

coordination in astronauts. Understanding how weightless astronauts learn to move and interact with objects 

will improve mission safety. There are also benefits to 

people on Earth because certain populations with brain 

injury or disease experience many of the same coordination challenges that astronauts experience. 

The ELaboratore Immagini TElevisive - Space 2 (ELITES2) developed by Kayser Italia for the Italian Space 

Agency (ASI), is a system of hardware and software 

that collects information on body movements of astronauts on the International Space Station (ISS) with great 

accuracy. Two studies have been carried out with ELITE 

S2, Movement in Orbital Vehicle Experiments (MOVE) 

and Imagery of object Motion Affected by Gravity In 

Null-gravity Experiments (IMAGINE). MOVE involves 

reaching and touching a stationary target placed 

beyond arm’s length while standing. This is a typical 

movement that on Earth would perturb balance unless 

it was compensated by adjusting the posture of trunk 

and leg muscles. While most healthy individuals on 

Earth can make sure movements, some patients, such 

as those with Parkinson’s Disease, cannot. Interestingly, 

early in flight, astronauts make postural adjustments 

that are unnecessary in space but are part of their 

typical movement patterns on Earth. As the flight progresses, they learn to reduce unnecessary muscle activation, although with significant inter-subject variability.

IMAGINE tested the ability to interact with a moving 

object. People have implicit knowledge of how the 

world works since infancy, which allows them to react 

appropriately to the environment. In particular, gravity 

effects on an object in motion are detected accurately 

so that we can catch a falling object instantly. However, 

patients with a brain lesion, such as that which is due 

to stroke, often lack this ability. A previous study using 

an antecedent of ELITE S2 demonstrated that over the 

course of a two-week flight of the space shuttle, the 

motor responses of the astronauts were still sharply 

tuned to gravitational acceleration (http://science1.

nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2002/18mar_

playingcatch/). In this study, astronauts asked to catch 

a ball that was projected “downward” from the ceiling 

contracted their limb muscles too early, anticipating 

non-existent gravity effects. Later, in the IMAGINE 

study, the astronauts were instead asked to throw an 

imaginary ball toward the ceiling and to catch it upon 

return in their hand. The motion of the ball was purely 

imaginary, but subjects performed an actual movement 

of their arm as realistic as possible to throw the ball. 

In different blocks of trials, they were asked to imagine either that the ball motion was affected by Earth’s 

gravity (1 g) or that it was unaffected by gravity (0 g). 

Moreover, they were asked to vary the momentum of 

the throw from trial to trial. Surprisingly, it has been 

found that astronauts (including new flyers) are able 

to implicitly reproduce the 0 g conditions already on 

ground, prior to their mission, although their performance improved over the course of their time in space. 

There is a striking dissociation, therefore, between the 

motor control system that drives automatic responses 

tuned to Earth’s gravity, where the anticipation of 

gravity persists even after two weeks in space, and 

Limb and body movements recorded by ELITE-S2 

during one experiment on the International Space 

Station.

Image credit: ASI

Motor imagery protocols used 

in the research environment of 

a hospital in Rome treat adult 

stroke patients and children 

with cerebral palsy.
45

the cognitive system that allows one to imagine 0-g 

movements even on the ground and that appears 

endowed with a more general implicit knowledge of 

Newton’s laws.

The results from this study will not only provide more 

information that can be used to keep astronauts 

healthy but could also lead to new rehabilitation 

strategies to help people with brain injuries. In fact, 

mental imagery represents a powerful tool to rehabilitate sensorimotor coordination in disabled patients. 

These motor imagery protocols are currently used in 

the research environment of the Neuromotor Rehabilitation Hospital of Santa Lucia Foundation in Rome. 

In particular, imagery training is used in adult stroke 

patients as well as in children with cerebral palsy. The 

training protocols involve the presentation of computer 

displays under supervision by medical or paramedical 

staff. Mental imagery is typically trained in combination with conventional physical therapy over a period 

of several weeks. Improved motor performance can 

be attributed to two main factors: 1) mental practice 

helps keep the motor programs active when little or no 

movements are possible, and 2) it allows an increase 

in the duration of the training session without adding to 

the physical demands of the task. There are still open 

issues in this ongoing research, such as establishing 

the best time window in the course of the disease at 

which mental practice could prove effective as well as 

determining the long-term effects of imagery training.

Space technologies in the rehabilitation 

of movement disorders

More than 50 years have passed since the first human 

spaceflight. As the duration of the flights has increased 

considerably, and amount of in-orbit activities has 

become greater, the need to maintain healthy bones 

and muscles in space has become more critical. 

Bones and muscles rely on performing daily activities 

in the presence of Earth’s gravity to stay healthy. In 

space, traditional Earth-based methods to maintain 

bones and muscles, such as physical exercise, are 

challenging due to constraints that include such 

factors as crew time and vehicle size. To meet these 

challenges, specialists from the Institute of Biomedical 

Problems in Russia and their commercial partner, 

Zvezda, developed the Penguin suit to provide loading 

along the length of the body (axial loading) in a way 

that compensates for the lack of daily loading that the 

body usually experiences under the Earth’s gravity. The 

first testing of the suit in space was performed in 1971 

aboard the Salyut-1 station. Now the Penguin suit is 

actively used on the International Space Station as a 

regular component of the Russian countermeasure 

system of health maintenance.

Treatment suits are used in 

Russia for the comprehensive 

and drug-free treatment of 

cerebral palsy in children and 

in patients with stroke and 

brain trauma.

The Adeli treatment suit in use for pediatric 

rehabilitation. 

Image credit: Aerospace Medical Center and 

Technology, Russia
46

Since the early 1990s, Professor Inessa Kozlovskaya 

and her team at the Institute of Biomedical Problems in 

Russia have implemented the use of this axial loading 

suit in clinical rehabilitation practice. The clinical 

version of the Penguin suit, the Adeli, was developed 

at the Institute of Pediatrics Russian Academy of 

Science under the leadership of Professor Ksenia 

Semyonova and is used for the comprehensive 

treatment of cerebral palsy in children. The treatment 

method is focused on restoring functional links of the 

body through a corrective flow of sensory information 

to the muscles, thereby improving the health of the 

tissues being loaded. This results in the correction 

of walking patterns and stabilization of balance in 

a relatively short period of time, including for those 

cerebral palsy children with deep motor disturbances. 

The Adeli suit was licensed in 1992 and has been 

continuously developed since. These methods have 

become one of the most popular and widely used in 

Russian medical clinics for rehabilitation of children 

with infantile cerebral paralysis. 

New methods were also developed for patients 

undergoing motor rehabilitation after stroke and brain 

trauma. Paralytic and paretic alterations of motor 

functions that are the most frequent after-effects of 

these diseases typically lead to significant limitations 

in motor and social activity of these patients, decrease 

their functional abilities and obstruct their rehabilitation. Given all of the complexities and importance of 

the rehabilitation of these patients, another clinical 

modification of the Penguin suit was developed called 

the “Regent suit.” The complex effect of the Regent 

suit on the body is based on an increase of the axial 

loading on skeletal structures and an increase in resistive loads on muscles during movement, which results 

in an increase of sensory information to the nervous 

system that is important for counteracting the development of pathological posture and for normalization of 

vertical stance and walking control. The Regent suit is 

effectively used at the early stage of rehabilitation for 

patients having movement disorders after cerebrovascular accident and cranium-brain traumas.

The clinical studies of the efficacy of the Regent suit 

in the rehabilitation of motor disorders in patients with 

limited lesions of the central nervous system were performed in acute and chronic studies with the participation of hundreds of stroke and brain trauma patients 

in the hospital No 83 Federal Medical-Biological 

Agency of Russia under leadership of professor Sergey 

Shvarkov, and in the Center of Speech Pathology and 

Neurorehabilitation under leadership of professor Vicktor Shklovsky. The efficacy of the suit in patients with 

post stroke hemiparesis was assessed at the Scientific 

Center of Neurology under leadership of professor 

Ludmila Chernikova. These studies have shown that 

use of the suit results in a significant decrease in paresis and spasticity in the lower leg muscle groups, as 

well as an improvement of sensitivity in distal parts of 

lower limbs, and an overall improvement of locomotor 

functions. The positive effect on high mental functions 

was noticed at the same time, namely, an improvement of speech characteristics, an increase of active 

vocabulary, and an improvement in the patient’s ability 

to recognize objects. 

The use of the Regent suit is a complex, drug-free 

approach to the treatment of motor disorders. The 

method is closely related to the natural function of 

walking, activates all of the muscles involved in posture 

and spatial orientation and is very safe. It allows for 

shorter treatment time, can be used both under 

The Regent treatment suit in use for patient 

rehabilitation. 

Image credit: Aerospace Medical Center and 

Technology, Russia
47

hospital and outpatient conditions and allows for a 

wide range of adjustments that allow individualized 

rehabilitation programs based on uniqueness of the 

neurological deficit and functional abilities of each 

patient. Today the Regent suit is applied in 43 medical 

institutions in Russia and abroad, and the results 

related to using both the Adeli and Regent suits are 

based on numerous observations and clinical studies.

Editor’s note: Small studies based in the U.S. and 

Israel were not able to distinguish improvements from 

Adeli suit therapy with traditional physical therapy. 

Therefore, this therapy has not yet been adopted in 

North America.
48

High oblique view of an eruption plume from Kliuchevskoi Volcano on the Kamchatka 

Peninsula, Russia. The International Space Station was located over a ground 

position more than 1,500 km to the southwest when the image was taken on 

November 16, 2013.

Image credit: NASA
49

Earth Observation and 

Disaster Response

The International Space Station is a “global observation and diagnosis station.” It promotes international 

Earth observations aimed at understanding and resolving the environmental issues of our home planet. 

A wide variety of Earth observation payloads can be attached to the exposed facilities on the station’s 

exterior as well as in the Window Observational Research Facility located within the Destiny module. 

The presence of a human crew also provides a unique capability for real-time observation of the 

Earth, and “on the fly” data collection using hand-held digital cameras, and the astronauts may also 

provide input to ground personnel programming the station’s automated Earth observation systems. 

Several instruments are currently collecting data from the International Space Station; in addition, 

some instruments have completed their data collection missions, with other remote sensing systems in 

development or proposed by researchers from the partner countries, NASA, academic institutions, and 

corporations. The existing international partnerships, fundamental to the International Space Station, 

facilitate data sharing that can benefit people around the world and promote international collaboration 

on other Earth observation activities. The station contributes to humanity by collecting data on the global 

climate, environmental change, and natural hazards using its unique complement of crew-operated and 

automated Earth observation payloads. 
50
51

Earth remote sensing from the 

space station

The installation of new facilities and sophisticated 

internal and external remote-sensing systems have 

transformed the International Space Station into a 

capable platform for Earth remote sensing. It also 

retains the unique distinction of being the only such 

platform with a human crew, which provides unique 

opportunities and advantages for remote sensing, 

particularly in the arena of data collection for disaster 

response efforts. So what can the station offer in terms 

of Earth remote sensing that free-flying, robotic satellite 

systems cannot? 

Images With a Variety of Lighting Conditions 

Unlike many of the traditional Earth observation 

platforms, the station orbits the Earth in an inclined 

equatorial orbit that is not sun-synchronous. This 

means that the station passes over locations on the 

Earth between 52 degrees north and 52 degrees south 

latitude at different times of day and under varying 

illumination conditions. Robotic, satellite-based, 

Earth-observing sensors are typically placed on polarorbiting, sun-synchronous platforms in orbits designed 

to pass over the same spot on the Earth’s surface at 

approximately the same time of day.

Responsive Data Collection 

Another advantage unique to the space station is 

the presence of crew that can react to unfolding 

events in real time, rather than needing a new data 

collection program uploaded from ground control. 

Crew Earth Observations of forest fires near 

Sydney, Australia, taken just after local sunset with 

a handheld camera on Oct. 23, 2013. Orange fires 

and grey smoke threaten nearby towns.

Image credit: NASA

Environmental Earth Observations

The space station offers a unique vantage for observing the Earth’s ecosystems and atmosphere 

with hands-on and automated equipment. The size, power, and data transfer capabilities of the 

station enable a wide range of sophisticated sensor systems including optical multispectral and 

hyperspectral imaging systems for examining the Earth’s land surface and coastal oceans, as well 

as active radar and Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) systems useful for investigating sea surface 

winds and atmospheric aerosol transportation patterns. Astronauts using hand-held digital cameras 

provide an additional imaging capability for obtaining both detailed images of the Earth surface as 

well as sweeping panoramic views of its atmosphere. This flexibility is an advantage over sensors on 

unmanned spacecraft, especially when unexpected natural events such as volcanic eruptions and 

earthquakes occur. 

The space station significantly 

improves our ability to monitor 

the Earth and respond 

to natural hazards and 

catastrophes.
52

This is particularly important for collecting imagery of 

unexpected natural hazard events such as volcanic 

eruptions, earthquakes and tsunamis. The crew can 

also determine whether viewing conditions—like cloud 

cover or illumination—will allow useful data to be 

collected, as opposed to a robotic sensor that collects 

data automatically without regard to quality. 

This is well demonstrated by the International Space 

Station (ISS) response to disaster events, in support of 

the International Charter, Space and Major Disasters 

(http://www.disasterscharter.org/home), also known 

as the International Disaster Charter (IDC). The ISS 

became a participating platform—in other words, a 

potential source of remotely sensed data—in April 

2012, joining many other NASA satellite assets. As of 

May 2015, the NASA-managed sensor systems on 

ISS have responded to 130 IDC activations, with data 

collected for 34 of those events by either astronauts or 

ground-commanded sensors (or both). 

The following NASA Earth observation instruments 

and facilities are now aboard and operational on the 

space station. International Partner sensor systems 

and programs are described in other articles included 

in this volume.

• Window Observational Research Facility (WORF; 

http://worf.msfc.nasa.gov/) provides a highly 

stable, internal mounting platform to hold cameras 

and sensors steady while offering power, command, data and cooling connections. 

• ISS-RapidSCAT (http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/

iss-rapidscat/) monitors ocean surface wind speed 

and direction to provide essential measurements 

used in weather predictions, including hurricane 

monitoring. The sensor is mounted on the Columbus Module External Payload Facility and measures 

the echo strength of microwaves reflected off of 

the ocean surface. Several views of the same sea 

surface area provides radar return signals that can 

be used to estimate wind speed and direction.

• The Cloud Aerosol Transport System (CATS; http://

cats.gsfc.nasa.gov/) is a LiDAR sensor that obtains 

measurements of atmospheric aerosols and clouds. 

Clouds and aerosols reflect a significant proportion 

of the sun’s energy back to space, but their complex interaction in Earth’s atmosphere is not yet fully 

understood. Data from CATS will allow scientists 

to better assess the role and impact of clouds and 

aerosols on Earth’s global energy budget and climate. 

• The High-Definition Earth Viewing (HDEV) camera 

(http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/HDEV) includes four different commercial, high-definition cameras on the 

Columbus External Facility. The investigation is assessing camera quality while taking Earth imagery 

and the hardware’s ability to survive and function in 

the extreme thermal and radioactive environment of 

low-Earth orbit.

• International Space Station SERVIR Environmental 

Research and Visualization System Pathfinder (ISERV; http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/

research/experiments/867.html) is a sensor system 

collecting visible-wavelength imagery at ground 

resolutions of approximately 3 meters per pixel, 

which completed its mission in early 2015.

• Crew Earth Observations (CEO; http://eol.jsc.nasa.

gov) includes Earth imagery taken by crew members using handheld cameras. 

International Space Station SERVIR Environmental 

Research and Visualization System Pathfinder 

(ISERV) image of flooding in Cambodia, taken Nov. 

1, 2013. 

Image credit: NASA
53

The combined capabilities of both human-operated 

and autonomous sensor systems aboard the space 

station are helping to significantly improve our ability 

to monitor the Earth and respond to natural hazards 

and catastrophes. Integration of the space station 

Earth observation systems represents a significant 

and complementary addition to the international, 

satellite-based, Earth-observing “system of systems,” 

providing knowledge and insight into our shared 

global environment.

Coastal ocean sensing extended mission

Scanning the globe from the vantage point of the 

International Space Station (ISS) is about more than 

the fantastic view. While cruising in low-Earth orbit 

on the ISS, the Hyperspectral Imager for the Coastal 

Ocean (HICO) gave researchers a valuable new way to 

view the coastal zone. 

HICO, originally a one-year demonstration program 

supported by the Office of Naval Research (ONR) 

was installed on the ISS on Sept. 23, 2009, and 

collected data until Sept. 14, 2014. HICO far exceeded 

its planned mission and provided new insights into 

coastal environments around the world. 

Using the HICO imaging spectrometer mounted 

outside the station on the Japanese Experiment 

Module - Exposed Facility of the Kibo Laboratory, 

researchers collected data about the Earth that will 

help them to better understand coastal environments 

and other regions around the world. 

HICO was the first spaceborne, hyperspectral imager 

optimized for environmental characterization of the 

coastal ocean and large lakes. Archived HICO image 

data is being exploited to produce maps of coastal 

ocean properties, and provides a new science dataset 

for coastal regions worldwide. The HICO experimental 

sensor offered 10 times the spectral and spatial 

resolution of other ocean color sensors. 

Why is this important? Coastal waters are an important 

link between local and global economic development 

and environmental sustainability. Coastal zones 

support many of the world’s major cities (and their 

industrial zones, ports, and recreational facilities); they 

also include critical ecosystems that support fisheries 

and protect shorelines. Similarly, large lakes and 

reservoirs provide many of the same benefits and are 

the water supply for millions of people. 

The ONR sponsored the development and first three 

years of the operation of HICO as an Innovative Naval 

Prototype. The HICO prototype had two goals. The 

first was to demonstrate ways to drastically reduce 

the cost and schedule of building a space payload. 

By innovative design and using commercial-offthe-shelf components where possible, the Naval 

Research Laboratory (NRL) engineers effectively built 

HICO in 18 months at a small fraction of the cost of 

traditional space instruments. The second goal was to 

demonstrate the ability to produce valuable images of 

coastal environmental properties using hyperspectral 

imagery from space. 

Coastal waters are an 

important link between 

local and global economic 

development and 

environmental sustainability, 

and HICO on the space station 

was the first space instrument 

designed to observe them.

Hyperspectral Imager for Coastal Ocean being 

installed on the Japanese Experiment Module 

- Exposed Facility of the Kibo Laboratory, 

Sept. 23, 2009. 

Image credit: NASA 
54

These goals were met and the mission extended by 

NASA continuing to fund operation of the sensor. 

HICO data was used by scientists at NRL, Oregon 

State University and over 50 other institutions 

worldwide to study coastal environments. Access to 

the instrument by researchers in U.S. government 

agencies, commercial entities and other non-academic 

institutions was also available through proposals to 

the Center for the Advancement of Science in Space 

(http://www.iss-casis.org). Studies ranged from 

characterizing coral reefs of Australia, New Caledonia, 

and Palau to assessing water quality in lakes and 

reservoirs in North America and Europe to developing 

algorithms for NASA and European-proposed, 

hyperspectral instruments. 

The results from HICO investigations provide benefits 

to agencies with marine responsibilities, such as the 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA) via information on bathymetry, bottom type, 

water clarity, and other water optical properties. 

Scientists at the Environmental Protection Agency 

used HICO data (http://www.nasa.gov/mission_

pages/station/research/news/epa_coastal.html) to 

develop water quality monitoring tools that will allow 

the public to check water conditions from their mobile 

devices. The rich hyperspectral information available 

from HICO enabled the use of spectral techniques 

to specifically identify features such as the massive 

Microcystis bloom in Western Lake Erie (shown 

above), which threatened the water supply for millions 

of people in September 2011. 

HICO was operated under ONR sponsorship for over 

three years and in 2013, NASA assumed sponsorship of operations in order to leverage HICO’s ability to 

address their Earth-monitoring mission. This opened 

up access of HICO data to the broad research community. All the HICO data is now available on NASA’s 

Ocean Color website (http://oceancolor.gsfc.nasa.gov/).

Visual and instrumental scientific 

observation of the ocean from space

One feature of oceanographic research conducted 

with the participation of cosmonauts on orbital 

stations, including the historical Salyut, Mir, and the 

current International Space Station (ISS), is the broad 

application of the method of scientific visual and 

instrumental observation of the world’s oceans from 

space. The basis of the method is the visual search, 

detection and identification of phenomena under 

examination in the near-surface layer of the ocean 

and the atmosphere above it. This is the simplest, yet 

one of the most informative, ways to obtain data in 

the visible spectrum on the condition of the ocean’s 

natural environment. The reliability and scientific value 

of information on the ocean obtained in this way 

significantly increases because of the targeted use of 

special recording equipment (such as digital photo and 

digital video cameras) and of on-board instruments 

that expand the capabilities of the crew member’s 

visual analysis capabilities during observations. Such 

combined observations are referred to as visual and 

instrumental. The methods of visual and instrumental 

Hyperspectral Imager for Coastal Ocean image of a massive Microcystis bloom in western Lake Erie, Sept. 3, 

2011, as confirmed by spectral analysis.

Image credit: NASA NRL OSU
55

observation (VIO methods) are used to establish 

informational databases in the visible electromagnetic 

wave spectrum not only in the field of remote sensing 

of the oceans but also in other areas of knowledge and 

practical activity. 

The many years of Russian experience conducting 

oceanographic experiments by crews on the longterm, orbital stations, Salyut, Mir, and ISS, have made 

it possible to evaluate the actual informational potential 

of VIO of the world’s oceans from space. Also, this has 

allowed for the development of a flight-tested method 

of solving specific issues of oceanography and of 

developing equipment and procedures for the remote 

sensing of the ocean. These procedures and methods 

are frequently reviewed while conducting oceanographic experiments with cosmonauts’ participation, 

as is currently done on the ISS as part of some space 

experiments (e.g. “Diatomea,” “Seiner,” etc.).

The main object of search and observation for a cosmonaut researcher while working on this category of 

task using VIO is large-scale, color-contrast formations 

(CCF) on ocean surfaces related to the mass growth of 

phytoplankton (Fig. 1). In the field of view of space station crews observing the ocean surface along the flight 

path, a wide variety of cloud formations are constantly 

present. In addition, the following are observed among 

cloud fields above the ocean: cloud indicators of tropical cyclones in varying stages of development (Fig. 

2), lineaments (Fig. 3) identifying jet streams, cumulus 

clouds with powerful vertical development above the 

ocean surface under intensive atmospheric convection 

(Fig. 4), and other phenomena of interest for maritime 

meteorology serving the shipping industry, aviation, 

and seafood industry. 

Of particular importance among hydro-meteorological 

phenomena observable by the VIO method are 

tropospheric cloud formations characteristic for 

the movement of air masses past obstacles in the 

atmosphere of island regions (Karman vortex streets, 

Helmholtz gravitational shear waves, etc.). Experiments 

have also proven the capability to identify and record, 

through imagery from space, optically active events 

in the atmosphere, such as terrigenous dust and 

sand flows (Fig. 13), fog, volcanic ash clouds over 

the ocean, etc., and regions with signs of intensive 

thunderstorm activity. Applicable to the hydro-physical 

area of oceanic research, the VIO method ensures 

obtaining documented data on the nature of local 

water circulation (Fig. 1), icebergs (Fig. 6), the structure 

of surface agitation fields (Figs. 7 and 8), broken ice 

(Fig. 5), and the color and transparency of water (Figs. 

1, 9 and 10). The results of such data interpretation 

are used to describe the most significant elements 

of general ocean water circulation and to deal with 

hydro-optic tasks.

To date, a significant amount of information obtained 

from the visual and instrumental observations of 

the oceans from space, has been collected and 

grouped according to various objects of environmental 

monitoring. As applicable to open ocean ecosystems, 

the most broadly represented are the results of 

observations and color photographs of the ocean 

characterizing the diversity of forms and condition 

of coral reefs (Figs. 11 and 12), the morphology of 

different sizes of phytoplankton fields and the hydrodynamic specifics of the environments in which they 

live (Fig. 1).

The most important aspect of the VIO method is the 

capability to evaluate the environmental condition of 

the ocean-atmosphere system in real time, to identify 

anomalous processes and phenomena in the ocean 

environment, such as surfactant films (Fig. 14), oil and 

petroleum products spills (Fig. 16), contamination of 

clean ocean waters with surface runoff (Fig. 15), and 

rinsing agents of ferromanganese nodules mined from 

the sea floor in mining areas of the oceans.

Currently, visual and instrumental observations of the 

ocean from space have broad practical applications 

for resolving the issues pertaining to the research 

of biological resources of the world’s oceans. The 

increased attention to this area of research is explained 

by the relevance of the problem, by the capability 

to conduct research using relatively inexpensive 

commercial photography equipment, and by the 

existence of an algorithm of searching and identifying 

from space, highly productive waters of the world’s 

oceans that have been tested by crews on Russian 

space stations and patented.

Visual and instrumental 

observations of the ocean 

from space have broad 

practical applications 

for resolving the issues 

pertaining to the research of 

biological resources of the 

world’s oceans.
56

1. Phytoplankton field 3. Cloudless 

lineaments

2. Cloud canopy of a 

typhoon

4. Clouds of intensive 

vertical development

9. Sea floor relief 11. Sea floor of an 

atoll

10. Sea floor of 

Bermuda

12. Above-water part 

of an atoll

5. Condition of ice 

cover

7. Development of 

internal waves

6. Antarctic iceberg 8. Area of calm in the 

shadow of an island

13. Dust/sand streams 15. River runoff 

contamination

14. Surfactant film 

contamination

16. Oil spill

Image credit: Roscosmos/Energia/FGUP TsNIIMash
57

Space station camera captures Earthly 

disaster scenes

Of all the hundreds of spacecraft and satellites in lowEarth orbit, few can match the International Space 

Station (ISS) for its view of the big, blue marble below 

it. The ISS, circling the Earth once every 90 minutes, 

offers a unique observing platform with over 90 

percent of the Earth’s populated area visible from its 

orbit. Scientists put that spectacular view to good use 

by using a camera on the ISS to demonstrate disaster 

observation and responses to humanitarian requests.

The system is a prototype called the ISS SERVIR Environmental Research and Visualization System (ISERV) 

Pathfinder. ISERV was developed by NASA to support 

a joint NASA/US Agency for International Development 

(USAID) project known as SERVIR (http://www.nasa.

gov/mission_pages/servir/index.html) and potentially 

Disaster Response

Remotely sensed data acquired by orbital sensor systems has emerged as a vital tool to identify 

the extent of damage resulting from a natural disaster, as well as providing near-real time mapping 

support to response efforts on the ground and humanitarian aid efforts. The International Space 

Station (ISS) is a unique terrestrial remote-sensing platform for acquiring disaster-response imagery. 

Unlike automated remote-sensing platforms it has a human crew; is equipped with both internal 

and externally mounted still and video imaging systems; and has an inclined, low-Earth orbit that 

provides variable views and lighting (day and night) over 95 percent of the inhabited surface of the 

Earth. As such, it provides a useful complement to autonomous sensor systems in higher-altitude 

polar orbits for collecting imagery in support of disaster response.

The ISERV camera helped 

the space station support 

countries around the world, 

making the ISS even more 

of an international asset by 

capitalizing on the unique 

view of Earth it provides. The Royal Gorge wildfire ignited on June 11, 2013, 

northwest of Cañon City and along the Arkansas 

River in central Colorado. The fire raged over 

the sagebrush and pine-covered topography, 

charring 3,218 acres in five days until firefighters 

finally corralled it. This ISS SERVIR Environmental 

Research and Visualization System (ISERV) image 

shows the Arkansas River passing through the 

burn scar. 

Image credit: NASA
58

the broader NASA Applied Sciences community. The 

word “servir” is Spanish for “to serve.” The SERVIR 

project provides satellite data and tools to environmental decision makers in developing countries and operates via regional “hubs” in Nairobi, Kenya; Kathmandu, 

Nepal; and Panama City, Panama. These SERVIR hubs 

can task the ISERV system to image scenes of Earth’s 

surface in their countries to address environmental 

issues and disasters. SERVIR’s coordination office 

at NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, 

Alabama, controls ISERV operations. 

Installed in January 2013 for a two-year mission, the 

camera observes our planet’s surface through the 

Destiny module’s Earth-facing window, acting on 

commands to photograph specific areas during the 

space station’s next pass over them. ISERV’s targets 

were threatened by or already experiencing floods, 

landslides, forest fires, or other disasters. The images 

were used to monitor the situation, evaluate damage 

extent and direct evacuation and disaster relief efforts. 

ISERV was well adapted to higher-resolution “survey” 

applications like disaster monitoring and assessment. 

ISERV captured first light on Feb. 16, 2013, and the 

myriad images it has captured since then of locales 

around the world include critical disaster photos. As 

two examples, ISERV images revealed the burn scar 

left by the June 11-16, 2013, Royal Gorge wildfire in 

June floods devastated much of southern Alberta, Canada, and forced the evacuation of over 100,000 citizens in 

Calgary and nearby towns. Three people died in the swirling, murky waters, which also caused millions of dollars’ 

worth of damage on June 22 and the days following. Before and after images of flooding in downtown Calgary 

are shown here. The GeoEye/IKONOS (a commercial satellite sensor) image on the left, taken on Sept. 13, 2008, 

shows normal flow of the Bow and Elbow Rivers. The ISERV image, captured June 22, 2013, is on the right and 

shows floodwaters from the two rivers inundating downtown Calgary. Canadian officials used the images to help in 

their disaster assessments and to improve their flood-mapping algorithms.

Image credits: left, Digital Globe; right, NASA
59

Colorado, and the devastation caused by floodwaters 

in Calgary on June 22-24, 2013.

While the ISERV camera completed its primary 

mission goals in December 2014, the system remains 

aboard the International Space Station and could be 

re-deployed if needed to capture imagery of natural 

disasters. The ISERV camera can help the space 

station lend support to countries around the world, 

making the ISS even more of an international asset by 

capitalizing on the unique view of Earth it provides.

Editor’s note: 

Georeferenced images are available for public use at: 

ftp://ghrc.nsstc.nasa.gov/pub/iserv/data/L0/.

The SERVIR team provides an online map/tool (http://

www.servirglobal.net/mapresources/iserv/) that allows 

users to locate and download ISERV images. 

Clear high-definition images aid disaster 

response

Data collected from various International Space 

Station (ISS) sensor systems have contributed to 

Earth observation and disaster response through 

international collaboration frameworks, such as the 

International Charter, Space and Major Disasters 

(http://www.disasterscharter.org/home) and Sentinel 

Asia (http://www.jaxa.jp/article/special/sentinel_asia/

index_e.html). The Japanese Experiment Module 

(JEM), or Kibo, provides opportunities to obtain very 

clear high-definition (HD) images both from internal 

handheld and externally mounted cameras. These 

clear images are beneficial for disaster support. 

The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) 

offers data taken with two camera systems, the Super 

Sensitive HDTV Camera System (SS-HDTV) and the 

Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS) High-Definition 

Television Camera System on JEM External Facility 

(HDTV-EF). JEM-EF is an unpressurized, multipurpose 

pallet structure attached to the JEM. This external 

platform is used for research in diverse areas such 

as communications, space science, engineering, 

technology demonstration, materials processing, and 

Earth observation.

SS-HDTV was developed to take night images of the 

Earth, including such phenomena as aurora, airglow 

and meteor showers. It is operated in the ISS pressurized module cabin including the JEM and the Cupola 

Observational Module. The beautiful night images are 

utilized for the check of the electric power restoration 

and the revival of cities after a natural disaster and the 

return of normal life to those people affected.

Images of the Earth surface, the ocean, clouds, etc., 

are taken from ISS for disaster response, education 

and publicity purposes.

Data collected from various 

ISS sensor systems have 

contributed to Earth 

observation and disaster 

response through international 

collaboration frameworks.

Night view of Italy. 

Image credit: JAXA/NASA 

Night view, aurora and airglow.

Image credit: JAXA/NASA 
60

Sentinel Asia aims to promote international cooperation 

to monitor natural disasters in the Asia-Pacific region. 

According to statistics by the Asian Disaster Reduction 

Center’s Natural Disasters Data Book 2013, Asia 

accounts for 44.6 percent of occurrences; 84.6 

percent of people killed; 87.1 percent of affected 

people; and 49.0 percent of economic damage. Under 

these circumstances, the Asia-Pacific Regional Space 

Agency Forum (APRSAF) proposed Sentinel Asia 

in 2005 to showcase the value and impact of Earth 

observation technologies.

Sentinel Asia uses Earth observation satellites and 

other space technologies to collect disaster-related 

information and shares it over the internet. The aim 

is to mitigate and prevent damage caused by natural 

disasters such as typhoons, floods, earthquakes, 

tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, and wildfires. Sentinel 

Asia now counts 15 international organizations and 

83 participating organizations from 25 countries as 

members, and utilization of its systems is steadily 

expanding. JAXA, as the only Asian partner of the ISS, 

will continue to support disaster response and hopes 

to contribute to Asia and the whole world with Kibo 

and its high-definition cameras.

Wildfire, Queensland, Australia.

Image credit: JAXA/NASA 

Hurricane Sandy.

Image credit: JAXA/NASA 
61
62

Water filtration plant set up in Balakot, Pakistan, following the earthquake disaster 

in 2005. The unit is based on space station technology and processes water 

using gravity fed from a mountain stream. 

Image credit: Water SecurityTM Corporation
63

Innovative 

Technology

In space, physical processes can be better understood with the control of external influences such as 

gravity. Technical innovations designed for space systems are tested on the International Space Station 

(ISS) before use in other spacecraft systems. While investigating how new technologies operate in space, 

unexpected discoveries are possible. Simplified physical systems can also be directly used to improve 

models of physical processes leading to new industrial techniques and materials.

The ISS provides the unique capability to perform long-duration experiments in the absence of gravity 

and in interaction with other spacecraft systems not available in any other laboratory. Additional insight 

comes from the presence of the ISS crew observing and interacting with these experiments and 

participating in the discovery process.

The ISS research portfolio includes many engineering and technology investigations designed to take 

advantage of these opportunities. Experiments investigating thermal processes, nanostructures, fluids 

and other physical characteristics are taking place to develop these technologies and provide new 

innovations in those fields. Additionally, advanced engineering activities operating in the space station 

infrastructure are proving next-generation space systems to increase capabilities and decrease risks 

to future missions. Emerging materials, technology and engineering research activities on the ISS are 

developing into benefits for economic development and quality of life.
64
65

Advanced ISS technology supports water 

purification efforts worldwide

Whether in the confines of the International 

Space Station or a tiny hut village in sub-Saharan 

Africa, drinkable water is vital for human survival. 

Unfortunately, many people around the world lack 

access to clean water. Using technology developed 

for the space station, at-risk areas can gain access 

to advanced water filtration and purification systems, 

making a life-saving difference in these communities. 

In 2006, the first of many ground-based water filtration 

systems using NASA technology was installed in 

northern Iraq. The system was developed by Water 

Security Corporation in Reno, Nevada, and installed 

by the nonprofit organization Concern for Kids (CFK). 

CFK representatives learned about a deep-water well 

failure in the tiny Kurdish village of Kendala, Iraq, which 

left its residents without access to drinkable water. 

The population quickly dwindled from 1,000 residents 

to a mere 150. Those remaining were forced to use a 

nearby creek that contained water contaminated by 

livestock, which they sifted through fabric to remove 

dirt and debris.

Todd Harrison was president of CFK’s board of 

directors at the time and strongly empathized with the 

people of Kendala. He set out on a mission to revive 

the ailing community by improving the deplorable 

conditions. The solution came in the form of a familial 

connection that put Harrison in touch with NASA 

engineers who developed technology to provide clean 

water aboard the space station.

Harrison’s sister, Robyn Gatens, was the engineering 

manager for the Environmental Control and Life 

Support System (ECLSS) project at NASA’s Marshall 

Fluids and Clean Water

Whether in the vacuum of space or the relative comfort of the Earth’s surface, access to clean water 

is essential for living organisms. The challenges of moving and processing fluids such as water using 

compact, reliable systems in the microgravity environment of space have led to advances in the 

way we purify water sources on the ground. Testing methods developed to ensure water quality on 

the International Space Station (ISS) have led to advancements in water monitoring here on Earth. 

Investigations into the basic dynamics of how fluids move in space have also led to advances in medical 

diagnostic devices.

Girl at hydration station.

Image credit: Sinergia Systemas

Using technology developed 

for the space station, at-risk 

areas can gain access to 

advanced water filtration and 

purification systems, making a 

life-saving difference in these 

communities.
66

Space Flight Center. She and her team of engineers 

were responsible for developing the cutting-edge water 

purification system that recycles air and water aboard 

the station.

By efficiently recycling wastewater aboard the space 

station, there is a reduced need to provide the 

resource via resupply—which would not be an option 

for long-duration space travel. Without this capability, 

the station’s current logistics resupply capacity would 

not be able to support the standard population of six 

crew members.

Two principal components make up the International 

Space Station Regenerative ECLSS: The Water Recovery System (WRS) and the Oxygen Generation System 

(OGS). The WRS conducts the water purification and 

filtration process in the ECLSS. Water Security Corporation (WSC) took an interest in this part of the ECLSS 

project, and licensed the technology in order to adapt 

it to an Earth-based water treatment system.

Harrison discovered an interesting relationship between 

WSC’s water filtration system and NASA because of 

his familiarity with his sister’s work. NASA’s previous 

research and application provided the Microbial Check 

Valve (MCV), an integral component of the purification 

and filtration process.

The MCV is an iodinated-resin that provides a simple 

way to control microbial growth in water without the 

use of power. By dispensing iodine into the water, it 

performs an important secondary nutritional function 

for the populace. When added to the diet, it promotes 

proper brain function and maintains bodily hormone 

levels, which regulate cell development and growth. 

Children born in iodine-deficient areas are at risk of 

neurological disorders and mental retardation.

With the help of U.S. Army Civil Affairs and Psychological Operations Command (Airborne) personnel, a 

2,000-liter water tank and fresh water were delivered 

to the Kurdish village in Iraq. Workers ensured that the 

water was clean and iodinated to prevent bacteria and 

virus contamination. When CFK encountered technical issues, Gatens and her team were able to help by 

phone to implement a workaround that enabled the 

successful processing of Kendala’s water supply.

Joint collaborations between aid organizations and 

NASA technology show just how effectively space 

research can adapt to contribute answers to global 

problems. Since this initial effort, the commercialization 

of this station-related technology has provided aid and 

disaster relief for communities worldwide. WSC, in 

collaboration with other organizations, has deployed 

systems using NASA water-processing technology 

around the world. Applications have included home 

water purifiers in India, village processing systems in 

remote areas of Mexico, Central and South America, 

water bottle filling stations in Pakistan, and even a 

survival bag designed as a first response device for 

natural disasters, refugee camps, civil emergencies 

and remote locations.

Exploring the wonders of fluid motion: 

Improving life on Earth through 

understanding the nature of Marangoni 

convection 

Fluid is everywhere in our lives. The Earth, known 

as “the water planet,” is able to support life in part 

because of the presence of water. From the lava that 

Chiapas installed system at school.

Image credit: Sinergia Systemas
67

cools to form islands, the blood that flows in our veins, 

and the molten metals that we turn into structures 

and vehicles, human beings have been using fluids 

throughout history. Understanding the fundamental 

principles of fluid motion is important for all walks of 

life, from the microfluidic systems that deliver drugs to 

keep us healthy to the rocket fuel tanks that propel us 

into the vastness of space. One of these fundamental 

principles of motion, Marangoni convection, is revealed 

in microgravity but masked by the stronger force 

of gravity on Earth. The International Space Station 

gives us the unique opportunity to study this principle 

in detail.

Marangoni convection is the flow driven by the 

presence of a surface tension gradient that can be 

produced by a temperature difference at a liquid/

gas interface. It can best be studied in a liquid bridge 

formed under microgravity conditions. To learn 

thermal-fluid dynamics in microgravity, the convection 

in a liquid bridge of silicone oil is generated by heating 

one disc higher than the other, allowing scientists to 

observe flow patterns that can tell them about how 

heat is transferred in microgravity.

Surface tension is the characteristic of a liquid in which 

it forms a layer at its surface so that this surface covers 

as small an area as possible. For example, in the image 

below, one can see the coin floating on the surface of 

the water. Surface tension is the force that keeps the 

heavier coin from sinking. In general, surface tension 

becomes stronger with decreasing temperature. A 

ISS gives us the unique 

opportunity to study a 

fundamental principle 

of motion, Marangoni 

convection, which is revealed 

in microgravity but masked 

by gravity on Earth. 

A liquid bridge forms in the International Space 

Station Kibo Module. (Diameter: 30 mm, Length: 

62.5 mm)

Image credit: JAXA/Yokohama National 

University/Tokyo University of Science

A coin floats on the surface of the water because of 

surface tension.

Image credit: JAXA

The Earth, known as “the water planet.” 

Image credit: JAXA/Japan Broadcasting 

Corporation
68

trait of Marangoni convection is a surface tensiondriven fluid flow in which the driving force is localized 

only at the surface. When a temperature difference 

exists along a surface, the surface is pulled toward 

a low-temperature region. The surface tension 

difference is also produced under fluid concentration 

differences at the meniscus (the fluid’s surface), such 

as what you may see in a wine glass as tears or legs 

of wine. 

Such a phenomenon is often observed in everyday life. 

For example, oil in a pan heated from the center moves 

to the side. Oil floating on water immediately moves 

when a surfactant (e.g., detergent) drops onto a part of 

the oil because of the imbalance in the surface tension. 

The detergent causes the center to have a lower 

surface tension while the outside has a higher surface 

tension; therefore, the center and the oil were pulled 

out in all directions to equalize the surface tension. 

These phenomena result from the Marangoni effect.

The Marangoni experiment has obtained the flow 

transition process from laminar to turbulent (chaotic) 

flows. The onset conditions of oscillatory flow were 

clarified by studying long liquid bridges, which are 

only available under the microgravity environment 

present on the space station. This helps to make 

more accurate predictions of instability onsets that 

can give rise to different pattern-forming instabilities. 

In a higher temperature difference regime, transitions 

to the chaotic and turbulent flows are detected and 

characterized. This knowledge of the floating zone 

(liquid bridge), may help in refining a technique that 

is used to produce extremely high purity crystals by 

the semiconductor and rare metals industries. Flow 

disturbance is a major cause for the deterioration of 

the quality of the crystal grown by this method. 

Understanding the rheological (deformation and flow 

of matter) dynamics in liquid bridges is of fundamental 

interest for many industrial and biological processes, 

as well as medical diagnostic devices. For instance, 

micro-Total Analysis Systems (μ-TAS) are expected 

to enable on-site medical diagnosis techniques by 

sampling minute amounts of blood and DNA. In this 

technique, fluid manipulation is dominated by the 

interface capillarity. With a stronger understanding of 

the fundamentals of Marangoni phenomena, practical 

use of thermocapillarity in microfluidics such as the 

μ-TAS can be achieved.

Space station-inspired mWater app 

identifies healthy water sources

What if that clear, sparkling stream coming from the 

ground or a faucet were teeming with contaminants? 

How would you know? Whether you live in some 

remote region of Africa, a high rise in New York City 

or aboard an orbiting laboratory in space, you need 

reliable drinking water to survive. You now can check 

the cleanliness of your water using the mWater app on 

your mobile phone.

This handy tool, based in part on International Space 

Station technology, provides a global resource 

available for free download as an app or usable 

via the Web browser version of the app on most 

smartphones. Governments, health workers and the 

public all can make use of mWater to record and share 

water test results. During the first year of the beta 

release of mWater, more than 1,000 users downloaded 

it and mapped several thousand water sources.

John Feighery, mWater co-founder and former lead 

engineer for air and water monitoring with NASA, was 

Pictured are the tears or legs of wine. Droplets 

form the vicinity of the fluid’s surface and drip 

into the wine continuously.

Image credit: Professor Hiroshi Kawamura, 

Tokyo University of Science

Check the cleanliness of your 

local water bodies using the 

mWater app first developed 

from technology proven on the 

space station.
69

inspired by his work for the space station. There, he 

and his team created efficient, mobile and ambient 

testing techniques to test for contamination in 

drinking water sources without the need for costly lab 

equipment such as incubators. The resulting Microbial 

Water Analysis Kit (MWAK)—part of the environmental 

monitoring Crew Health Care System Environmental 

Health System (CHeCS EHS) suite aboard station—

sparked Feighery’s imagination, providing the basis 

for the mWater testing of E. coli in 100-milliliter (3.38-

ounce) water samples.

One key innovation that came from NASA was 

proving that these types of tests will work at near 

ambient temperatures. Various studies have shown 

that any temperature about 25 degrees Celsius (77 

degrees Fahrenheit) will produce a result, whereas 

traditional laboratory procedures call for incubation 

at 37 degrees Celsius (98.6 degrees Fahrenheit). 

This is very important for developing countries 

because incubators are expensive and require reliable 

electricity and can also easily break down. Since 

many of the countries that suffer from poor access to 

safe water are tropical, the tests can easily be done 

by anyone at room temperature most any time of 

the year. 

Hefting testing materials or expensive equipment to 

test water sources is unrealistic, Feighery discovered 

while volunteering with Engineers Without Borders in El 

Salvador. Portable, inexpensive and effective, that’s the 

goal for technologies bound for the defined real estate 

of the space station, but also for those needed in 

remote or low-resource regions of the world. Low-cost 

mWater test supplies cost users $5 per kit.

Combining his aerospace experience and philanthropic 

passions, Feighery went to work with co-founders 

Annie Feighery and Clayton Grassick on what 

would become mWater. Following the 2011 Water 

Hackthons, the mWater app was developed and later 

improved upon through field testing sponsored by U.N. 

Habitat. The app helps to simplify recording of water 

quality results, mapping water sources and finding safe 

water nearby. 

The tests and app are both designed with ease of use 

in mind. The user tests the water, allows the test to 

incubate at ambient temperatures, photographs the 

results to count the bacteria and finally uploads the 

findings to the global water database. Ease of use was 

key to Feighery’s design goals.

Feighery’s experience with writing crew procedures 

at NASA influenced the design of the app. The app 

is task-oriented and designed to require very little 

training beyond following the procedure. In the future, 

Feighery and his mWater team plan to introduce 

checklists for each type of water test to further 

improve ease of use and reduce the training needed 

to perform field testing. 

Test results upload to the cloud-based global water 

database, using the phone’s Global Positioning System 

to identify the exact location of the water source. 

Each location gets a unique and permanent numeric 

identifier for reference by those who visit the global 

water source map for updates. Users can add new 

water location points and input or update test results, 

working within the open source sharing approach for 

the health of the community. 

Space-tested fluid flow concept 

advances infectious disease diagnoses

A low-energy medical device that can diagnose 

infectious diseases on-site may soon be operating 

in remote areas of the world that have limited 

access to power sources. With a reduced need for 

energy and on-site diagnosis, less time would be 

needed between identifying a disease and beginning 

treatment for it. 

The device that could quickly identify diseases like HIV/

AIDS or tuberculosis relies on a deeper understanding 

of capillary flow. That deeper understanding is the 

result of research conducted on the International 

Space Station. 

The Capillary Flow Experiment (CFE) was a suite of 

fluid physics experiments conducted on the space 

station by Dr. Mark Weislogel of Portland State 

Screenshot of the global water source map people 

can visit to find data uploaded by mWater users 

across the globe. 

Image credit: mWater
70

University in Oregon and assisted by researchers at 

NASA’s Glenn Research Center in Cleveland, Ohio. 

Capillary flow, also known as wicking, is the ability of 

a liquid to flow without the assistance of gravity and 

other external forces. It even works in opposition to 

those forces. Stick a straw into a glass of water; the 

water will rise maybe a few millimeters in the straw 

before you begin to drink through it. Or consider how 

a paper towel will draw, or wick, liquid into it. In the 

absence of gravity, the effect of capillary forces is 

more dramatic. For example, the water would rise 

and completely fill a straw before you begin to drink 

through it.

CFE was a basic physics investigation that refined 

our understanding of how capillary action helps fluids 

flow. The principle has application in many fluidhandling systems from fuel tanks to cooling systems to 

medical devices. 

Cell samples in the form of bodily fluids or blood are 

placed in the CFE-studied medical device. Enzymes 

burst the samples leaving behind DNA or RNA, which 

is then captured on a bead that is processed by the 

device to identify the infectious virus. Capillary flow is 

used to manage and direct the flow of the cell samples 

inside the device.

David Kelso, Ph.D., of Northwestern University in 

Evanston, Illinois, developed the simple, inexpensive 

device. Kelso and his team were using energyconsuming items like batteries and motors to operate 

the device, but when his designs did not work as 

expected in the lab, Kelso turned to Weislogel. Kelso 

explained that he and his team thought that gravity 

would pull fluids through the device, but Weislogel had 

the understanding that capillary action would do this 

based on his previous work in microgravity.

By relying on the principles of capillary flow, the device 

uses much less energy and can provide medical 

professionals with a valuable tool in areas with limited 

resources. The device is scheduled for field testing in 

late 2014.

While a primary focus of the CFE research was fluid 

management in space where gravity is nearly absent, 

the basic principles of capillary flow can be used on 

Earth as well. The most direct applications for CFE 

research are immediate design improvements for most 

life support equipment aboard spacecraft. In addition, 

Weislogel believes that terrestrial applications will be 

commercially viable, applying the unique results of 

space station research. 

Research in the microgravity environment of space is 

once again contributing to work that impacts our lives 

here on Earth. Much like it is with the medical device, 

this deeper understanding of capillary flow could 

change how fluid-handling systems are designed and 

operated in any number of applications. 

Understanding capillary flow 

could change how fluidhandling systems are designed 

and operated in any number 

of applications.

A view of Capillary Flow Experiment - 2 Interior 

Corner Flow 3 vessels set up during an experiment 

aboard the International Space Station. This study 

looks at capillary flow in interior corners. 

Image credit: NASA
71

Improving semiconductors with 

nanofibers

Nanotechnology involves materials at the atomic 

and molecular level and holds great promise for a 

wide range of applications, from telecommunications 

and computing to health and medicine. But nanostructured materials, especially those that can 

self-assemble into organized patterns, have proven 

difficult to control. Experiments on the International 

Space Station (ISS) demonstrated a new process for 

constructing materials that can arrange themselves 

into structures just one atom thick (the nano scale). 

The research paves the way for development of 

fast, high-capacity computers and information 

storage systems.

The 2-D Nano Template experiments were designed to 

build a fine layer of material that can assemble by itself 

into a very tight, repeating pattern. This pattern can be 

used as a template for a focused beam of electrons. 

The electron beam traces the template, carving out the 

same pattern onto another surface.

The investigation used peptides, which are small 

biological molecules made from amino acids, and 

polymers, which are larger molecules made from 

many smaller parts that repeat. Proteins are made 

up of peptides, and DNA is an example of a polymer. 

Binding together with water, the molecules would 

form nanofibers, which would combine to create a 

single array just one molecule thick. This ultra-thin 

surface would be used as a masking layer for a tiny 

semiconductor—the basis of a computer chip.

Investigators developed a simple way to induce 

the peptides to bond, starting the process of selfassembly. Microgravity provided a unique environment 

for this process, because it was not interrupted by the 

force of Earth’s gravity causing some of the molecules 

to settle or clump together incorrectly. 

After the samples were returned to Earth, researchers 

studied them using a special microscope called an 

Atomic Force Microscope (AFM), which enables 

a view of the atomic scale. The images showed 

that fibers built on the ISS were greatly improved 

compared to a sample grown on Earth. The spacebased sample also had a much more uniform pattern 

because there were no excess molecules or particles 

settling together.

The new, error-free, two-dimensional nanofiber layer 

was then used as a template, which can be traced 

like a blueprint to mark the processing surface of a 

semiconductor. Investigators tested this in space 

with a silicon carbide substrate. When they coated it 

with the two-dimensional nano-patterned template, a 

focused ion-beam followed the pattern and marked 

it onto the silicon carbide material. This is a novel 

process for creating a very specific, incredibly tight 

pattern with less than 10 nanometers of spacing. 

Materials

The ISS provides a unique laboratory environment for the testing of new materials. In microgravity, 

sedimentation and buoyancy-driven convection do not take place allowing us to witness how materials 

change and develop over longer periods. This allows researchers to manipulate their materials in unique 

ways. These opportunities are leading to a better understanding of how material processes work on 

Earth thereby enabling the manufacturing of new materials with well-defined structures, improved 

strength, and better function.

Data from ISS for nanoscale material assembly 

will be applied in several 

fields, including computers 

and chemical catalysts for 

industrial processes.
72

Materials that can follow such a small-scale pattern 

will be useful in several fields, including computers, 

chemical catalysts for industrial processes, and even 

super-water repellent substances. Thanks to space 

station research, the cutting edge of nanotechnology is 

sharper than ever. 

InSPACE’s big news in the nano world

A technology of tiny elements studied on the 

International Space Station could have a big impact 

on everything from braking systems and robotics to 

earthquake-resistant bridges and buildings. 

Investigating the Structure of Paramagnetic 

Aggregates from Colloidal Emulsions (InSPACE) is a 

set of experiments that gathered fundamental data 

about Magnetorheological (MR) fluids. They are a type 

of smart fluid that tends to self-assemble into shapes 

when exposed to magnetic fields. 

MR fluids change viscosity in a magnetic field and can 

even be made to change their arrangement at the 

nanoscale level, or one billionth of a meter. Such tiny 

distances are typical for molecules and atoms. 

When exposed to magnetic fields, MR fluids can 

quickly transition into a nearly solid state. When the 

magnetic field is removed, the MR fluids return to a 

liquid state. This process produces useful viscoelastic 

properties that can be harnessed for a variety of 

mechanical devices, from robotic motions to strong 

braking and clutch mechanisms. The process of 

self-organization exhibited by MR fluids also could 

have long-ranging consequences for the design and 

manufacturing of a whole host of new nanomaterials 

and nanotechnologies.

The Colloid Self Assembly set of experiments 

conducted during InSPACE-3 looked at colloid 

arrangement at a nanoscale using magnetic and 

electric fields for development of nanomaterials. The 

principal investigator for the study was Eric M. Furst, 

AFM images of (left) long-range fiber obtained in the space experiment and (right) original fiber array obtained 

in the ground experiment.

Image credit: JAXA/Nagoya Institute of Technology

Magnetorheological fluid 

research in space could have 

long-ranging consequences 

for the design and 

manufacturing of a whole host 

of new nanomaterials and 

nanotechnologies.
73

Ph.D., University of Delaware. His study goal was to 

understand the fundamental science around directed 

self-assembly to better define new methods of 

manufacturing materials composed of small colloidal or 

nanoparticle building blocks. 

Colloids are tiny particles suspended in a solution. 

They are critical to industrial processes as well as 

household products such as lotions, medications 

and detergents. 

InSPACE-3 is focused on oval- or ellipsoid-shaped 

particles, as opposed to earlier InSPACE investigations 

with MR fluids composed of round particles. These 

oval- and ellipsoid-shaped particles were expected to 

pack differently and form column-like structures in a 

unique way, different from previous experiments. Particles of InSPACE-3 are made of a polystyrene material 

embedded with tiny, nano-sized iron oxide particles.

When the fluid containing iron oxide is mixed, it has a 

brownish, rusty hue. Astronauts, under the direction of 

the project team, ran a series of experiments on this 

rust-colored mixture.

Astronauts applied a magnetic field, which was pulsed 

from a low frequency of around 0.66 hertz up to 20 

hertz, or switched on and off, roughly one time per 

second up to 20 times per second. Scientists were 

looking for formation of structures that are at a lowerenergy state. Typically in an MR fluid application, a 

constant field is applied, and the particles form a 

gel-like structure. They don’t pack very well, so the 

particles have no definite form. They are like a cloud or 

hot glass that can form into almost any shape.

In a pulsed field, the on-off magnetic field forces 

the particles to assemble, disassemble, assemble, 

disassemble and so on. In this pulsed field, the 

particles organized into a more tightly packed, ordered 

structure. Scientists could then measure and plot the 

column growth over time.

The space station’s microgravity environment was 

critical to understanding the behavior of self-assembly 

in toggled fields. Microgravity slows down the 

movement of colloidal mixtures, allowing researchers 

to understand how they interact and how to control 

the tiny particles on the ground. You cannot do these 

experiments on Earth because the nanoparticles would 

settle out too quickly because of gravity.

At first, the particles in the fluid form long, thin chains. 

As the magnetic field is applied, the magnetic dipoles 

in the particles cause these singular chains to grow 

parallel to the applied field. The chains parallel to each 

other interact and bond together over time. These 

“bundles” of chains become more like columns when 

the magnetic field is toggled on and off. The columns 

grow in diameter with time as they are exposed to a 

pulsed, magnetic field. This self-directed “bundling” 

was not observed until the InSPACE-2 investigation, 

which ended in 2009.

When the InSPACE study began, it identified a pulsing 

phenomenon that had never been seen before. Work 

continued with InSPACE-2 and -3 investigations 

to further observe how magnetic fields impact 

colloidal, self-assembly phase transitions. By better 

understanding how these fluids “bundle” themselves 

into solid-like states in response to magnetic pulses, 

researchers have insight into phase separation. This 

may lead them to new nanomaterials from these tiny 

building blocks for use on Earth.

With new manufacturing models resulting from 

InSPACE -2 and -3 studies, these models could be 

used to improve or develop active mechanical systems 

such as new brake systems, seat suspensions, stress 

transducers, robotics, rovers, airplane landing gears 

and vibration damping systems. It also has promise 

to engineer new nanomaterials for thermal barriers, 

energy harvesting and color displays.

Thanks to the InSPACE series of investigations into 

tiny things, fundamental science could advance these 

systems and improve how we ride, drive, fly and live—

in a big way. 

Investigating the Structure of Paramagnetic 

Aggregates from Colloidal Emulsions science 

video image of aggregates (columns forming). 

The black lines are the formed columns. The 

green background is from a green LED lamp 

used to provide lighting for the video camera. 

Image credit: NASA
74
75

Deploying small satellites from ISS

Traditional satellites require complex systems and 

often, the resources of a dedicated launch vehicle 

to find their way into orbit. However, with some help 

from the International Space Station, a new class 

of small satellites is changing the model for how we 

launch new technologies into space. CubeSats, small, 

less than 50 centimeter and mostly 10 centimeter 

(4 inch) cubic satellites, have an alternative way of 

being deployed. Some are deployed into orbit from 

the space station using a robotic arm. The satellites 

are transported to station in soft-sided bags by cargo 

ships such as Japan’s H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV). And 

at an appropriate time later, the satellites are taken out 

from the station’s cabin, and the Japanese Experiment 

Module (JEM) Robotic Manipulator System (JEMRMS) 

aims the satellites at their planned orbits and releases 

them. The JEM Small Satellite Orbital Deployer, an 

ejecting system for small satellites, was developed 

by JAXA.

In the past, small satellites of a certain class have been 

launched by rockets as piggyback satellites. When 

a rocket can launch extra weight other than its main 

satellite, piggyback satellites are given their seats in 

the rocket and are thrown into the orbit after the main 

satellite is successfully deployed. The advantages of 

launching satellites from the space station by robotic 

arm compared to piggyback on a rocket include the 

option to choose the best timing of the small satellite’s 

ejection without affecting the main satellite’s timing. 

With limited space for small satellites to piggyback on 

rockets, the space station provides the additional benefit of having regularly scheduled cargo resupply flights 

on which the small satellites can more readily travel. 

Any satellite must pass space environment tests 

to confirm that the satellite will survive the harsh 

environment during launch and its operational period in 

space. Among these, the vibration test that simulates 

Japanese Experiment Module Robotic Manipulator 

System satellites are deployed into orbit.

Image credit: JAXA

Japanese Experiment Module (JEM)

Ejected Satellites

JEMRMS

Satellites 

The International Space Station (ISS) offers a unique platform for access to low-Earth orbit (LEO) through 

its Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) airlock working in coordination with the JEM robotic arm. This 

small airlock allows small devices such as CubeSats to be deployed into LEO while making the trip 

up to space in the relative comfort of a pressurized cargo container. This can have many benefits in 

reducing the cost to small satellite operators specifically in the number of launch testing and redundancy 

requirements for the developer. Lower cost leads to more financial incentive to enable small operators to 

design and prove out their technology in space.

Developers of small satellites 

have increased their use 

of space station deployers 

affording non-traditional 

users access to space.
76

vibrations experienced during launch, subjects the 

satellite to a rigorous level of agitation. Piggyback 

satellites are required to pass this test because they 

are installed in the same area as the main satellite. By 

contrast, satellites deployed from the space station 

are delivered by cargo spacecraft, where they are kept 

in a soft bag and buffered with packing material. The 

vibration level they experience during launch to the 

space station is less than that of piggyback satellites. 

The relaxation of the vibration condition can be gamechanging for small satellite developers because some 

developers, such as college students, cannot afford to 

use expensive aerospace-rated electric parts to pass 

the vibration test. 

An additional benefit to space station deployment of 

CubeSats is that after the CubeSats launch to space, 

astronauts aboard the orbiting outpost can perform 

quality checks on the hardware to ensure the small 

satellites are not damaged before deploying into 

space. One of the difficulties of developing free-flying 

satellites is that once they are launched, it is uncertain 

whether the satellite is still in good working order after 

enduring the launch vibration. With space station 

deployment, there is still opportunity to check out 

satellite systems and intervene before it deploys. This 

can allow designers to choose electric parts without 

the traditional space ratings, which can lower the 

total cost of development and expedite new spacequalified technology. 

In order to launch a small satellite into orbit using 

the JEMRMS, first the space station cargo supply 

spacecraft, such as the HTV, delivers the satellite in a 

Cargo Transfer Bag. The satellites are stored in Cargo 

Transfer Bags in the space station cabin until time 

Satellite packed in a soft-sided bag.

Image credit: JAXA

Crew in the International Space Station install a 

satellite onto the Japanese Experiment Module 

airlock table.

Image credit: JAXA

FITSAT, one of the small satellites thrown into 

orbit by Japanese Experiment Module Robotic 

Manipulator System.

Image credit: Fukuoka Institute of Technology
77

for deployment. Following the final satellite checkout, 

the crew installs the small satellite into the JEM Small 

Satellite Orbital Deployer and places it on the JEM 

airlock table. Then, after the airlock is sealed, it opens 

to allow the airlock table to slide out of the cabin of the 

space station. The JEMRMS approaches the airlock 

table and grapples the satellite ejector. Next, the 

JEMRMS moves the satellite in the ejector into position 

for deployment into orbit. JEMRMS holds the specified 

attitude aiming at the satellite’s orbit. Finally, ground 

operators send the command to the ejector to release 

the satellite.

In summary, introduction of this new method of satellite 

ejection using the JEM facility achieves the advantages 

of providing more frequent opportunities for small 

satellite deployment in low-Earth orbit, lowering the 

vibration test hurdles and providing the opportunity for 

a final checkout of the satellite before use. 

As a result of the use of the space station, potential 

developers of small satellites have increased their 

use of the space station deployers, and universities, 

companies and other non-traditional space users are 

finding affordable access to space. 

Pinpointing time and location

Lost phones and running late for appointments 

could become a thing of the past thanks to benefits 

originating from technology tested aboard the 

International Space Station. The Global Transmission 

Services 2 (GTS-2) experiment demonstrated that 

radio transmissions could be used to synchronize 

Earth-based clocks and watches and, eventually, to 

locate stolen cars and deactivate lost credit cards 

directly from space.

An antenna on the station currently transmits 

Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), also known as 

Greenwich Mean Time. These transmissions cover 

almost the entire Earth and can be received at a 

particular location several times daily. The signal is 

strong enough to be received even by small wrist 

watches, and transmits accurate local time for 

different time zones, even taking into account daylight 

saving time. A unique code for each ground receiver 

verifies the authenticity of data and guarantees 

its secure transmission. Watches and clocks can 

automatically synchronize with these signals through 

receivers typically activated once per day or when the 

devices are turned on.

The GTS can function as theft protection by sending 

a message to a receiver chip in an electronic device 

such as a phone, car, or car key that shuts down the 

device. Even someone with an authentic key would not 

be able to steal the car to which it goes, because the 

signal makes the key unusable. That could reduce theft 

of car keys directly from drivers, which can sometimes 

turn violent.

The system also may be able to help deter theft of 

larger mobile items, such as shipping containers and 

truck trailers, by pinpointing their exact locations.

In addition to accurate setting of clocks and theft 

protection, other possible applications of the system 

include paging services, targeted broadcast of 

messages such as automobile recalls, remote control 

of various devices, container tracking and fleetmanagement services. 

The system’s ground receivers are capable of 

accurately determining the position of the space 

station based on its transmission of signals. This ability 

Graphic of potential receivers for GTS signals from 

the International Space Station. 

Image credit: Steinbeis-Transferzentrum Raumfahrt

Global Transmission Services 

technologies can function as 

theft protection by shutting 

down stolen vehicles, making 

them unusable.
78

could be used in reverse to determine the location 

of a receiver from the station, a capability that one 

day might enable an orbiting spacecraft to navigate a 

ground vehicle on a planet below.

Using the space station for these global transmission 

applications offers several advantages over the 

use of other satellites. Because of the station’s low 

orbit, every point between 70 degrees north and 70 

degrees south latitude—most of the populated areas 

on Earth—can receive signals five to seven times a 

day. The transmissions also can be sent using very 

little power. Finally, because the station is manned, 

astronauts can exchange and maintain the device 

as needed.

The GTS experiment is supported by the company 

Fortis Swiss Watches, the German Aerospace Center 

(DLR), and the European Space Agency (ESA). 

Steinbeis Transfer-zentrum Raumfahrt provided 

experiment management, development and operation. 

The antenna unit was mounted on the Russian Service 

Module in December 1998, carried into space summer 

of 2000, and began operations in 2002, making this 

experiment one of the oldest aboard the station. 

Integration, launch and operation of GTS are now a 

cooperative undertaking with the Russian Institute of 

Applied Mathematics through the Russian Federal 

Space Agency (Roscosmos) and ESA’s program of 

joint scientific investigations and experiments aboard 

the space station until 2020. 

Space station technology demonstration 

could boost a new era of satelliteservicing

It may be called the Robotic Refueling Mission (RRM), 

but NASA’s RRM was built to demonstrate much more 

than the clever ways space robots can refuel satellites. 

Following the success of this namesake task, RRM will 

demonstrate how space robots can replenish cryogen 

(a type of refrigerant) in the instruments of legacy 

satellites—existing, orbiting spacecraft not originally 

designed to be serviced. 

Delivery to Space Station and Installation 

New hardware deliveries to the space station help to 

outfit the RRM module for the new set of operations. 

A new task board and the RRM On-Orbit Transfer 

Cage (ROTC), an original device designed to transfer 

hardware outside the space station, are added to the 

RRM module to produce the increased capabilities.

Astronauts mount the ROTC on the sliding table within 

the Japanese airlock and then install the task board 

onto the ROTC, giving the Canadian Dextre robot an 

easy platform from which to retrieve and subsequently 

install new hardware.

A second task board and a new device called the 

Visual Inspection Poseable Invertebrate Robot (VIPIR) 

are also added to the RRM module. This borescope 

inspection tool, built at the Satellite Servicing 

Capabilities Office (SSCO) at NASA’s Goddard Space 

Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, provides a set 

of eyes for internal satellite repair jobs. Both items are 

transferred and installed on RRM via the Japanese 

airlock, ROTC and Dextre.

Orbit altitude and inclination of mobile radio 

satellite constellations and their relative signal 

strengths compared to that of the International 

Space Station. 

Image credit: ESA

Remote refueling and robotics 

technology uses the space 

station as a test bed for 

technology research and 

development.
79

With the help of the twin-armed Dextre robot, the 

additional RRM task boards and the RRM tools, the 

RRM team works its way through intermediate steps 

leading up to cryogen replenishment. After retrofitting 

valves with new hardware, peering into dark places 

with the aid of VIPIR and creating a pressure-tight 

seal, the RRM and Dextre duo will stop short of actual 

cryogen transfer for this round of tasks. 

RRM Phase 2 operations are scheduled to begin 

in 2014. Initial activities to demonstrate this in-orbit 

capability—cutting wires and removing caps—were 

completed in 2012 with the aid of the original RRM 

tools and activity boards.

Expanding Capabilities and Fleet Flexibility 

in Space

Cryogenic fluids are used on the ground and in space 

to make very sensitive cameras work better. However, 

in time, this extremely cold substance leaks out, and 

the camera no longer performs well. According to 

Benjamin Reed, deputy project manager of the SSCO, 

robotically replenishing these reserves would allow 

spacecraft instruments to last beyond their expiration 

date and ultimately permit satellites to perform longer.

Reed explains that both the government and 

commercial sectors are focused on expanding options 

for fleet operators. Operators can choose to extend 

the life of an aging observatory or spacecraft by use 

of a future cryogen-toting space tanker, instead of 

retiring or launching a new, costly one. The RRM 

demonstrations are an important step to eventually 

enabling that capability. 

Preparing for a Servicing-Enabled Future

With the 2011 launch to the space station on the 

last space shuttle mission, RRM has been steadily 

practicing robotic satellite-servicing activities in 

orbit. RRM uses the space station as a test bed for 

technology research and development in a joint effort 

with the Canadian Space Agency. 

NASA developed RRM to demonstrate how remotely 

operated robot mechanics could extend the lives of 

the hundreds of satellites residing in geosynchronousEarth orbit (GEO). Costly assets traveling about 

22,000 miles above Earth, GEO spacecraft deliver 

such essential services as weather reports, cell phone 

communications, television broadcasts, government 

communications and air traffic management. Servicing 

capabilities could greatly expand the options for 

government and commercial fleet operators in the 

future. They could potentially deliver satellite owners 

significant savings in spacecraft replacement and 

launch costs.

NASA continues to test capabilities for a new 

robotic servicing frontier. In conjunction with RRM, 

the SSCO team has been studying a conceptual 

servicing mission while building the necessary 

technologies, including an autonomous rendezvous 

and capture system, a propellant transfer system and 

specialized algorithms to orchestrate and synchronize 

satellite-servicing operations.

The Robotic Refueling Mission investigation 

(center, on platform) uses Canadarm2, the 

International Space Station’s robot arm, and the 

Canadian Dextre robot (right) to demonstrate 

satellite-servicing tasks.

 Image credit: NASA
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81

Cool flame research aboard space 

station may lead to a cleaner 

environment on Earth

The anxious moments of trying to make the next 

service station, one eye on the fuel gauge, the low-fuel 

light staring at you, may become less frequent in the 

future. Even the choice of which fuel is better for the 

environment may be easier, thanks to droplet combustion research on the International Space Station; better 

mileage and a very real possibility of reduced pollution 

on Earth may be possible in the future.

Researchers from academia working with NASA’s 

Glenn Research Center in Cleveland, Ohio, conducted 

the Flame Extinguishing Experiments (FLEX and 

FLEX 2), which revealed some new insights into how 

fuel burns. 

Led by principal investigator (PI) Forman Williams 

of the University of California, San Diego, who has 

studied combustion for more than 50 years, and co-PI 

Vedha Nayagam of Case Western Reserve University, 

Cleveland, Ohio, the results of the FLEX investigations 

revealed a never-before-seen, two-stage burning 

event. While a heptane droplet of fuel appeared to 

extinguish, it actually continued to burn without a 

visible flame. This knowledge could contribute to 

reduced pollution and better mileage in engine design 

because of improved prediction of flame behavior 

during combustion.

After decades of flame studies that have produced 

well-understood, theoretical models and numerical 

simulations, the FLEX flame investigations in 

microgravity produced this unexpected result. This is 

the first time scientists have observed large droplets 

(about three millimeters) of heptane fuel that had dual 

modes of combustion and extinction. The fire went 

out twice, once with and once without a visible flame. 

While the initial burn had a traditional hot flame, the 

second-stage vaporization was sustained by what is 

known as cool-flame, chemical heat release.

A cool flame is one that burns at about 600 degrees 

Celsius. To understand how cool this is, consider that 

a typical candle is about two-and-a-half times hotter, 

burning at around 1,400 degrees Celsius.

The phenomenon of the continued burning of heptane 

droplets after flame extinction in certain conditions 

was not anticipated when the study was designed. 

This result came during the FLEX investigation on the 

space station using the Multi-User Droplet Combustion 

Apparatus in the Combustion Integrated Rack (CIR). 

More recent FLEX experiments reveal similar two-stage 

burning phenomena with n-octane and decane fuels.

While burning the heptane droplets in the CIR, the 

first stage had a visible flame that eventually went 

Transportation Technology

Combustion science is one of the longest running fields of research on the International Space Station 

(ISS). There is a long running campaign to understand just how both simple and more complex fuels 

burn in space. Understanding this process in microgravity helps us refine combustion models on Earth 

where gravity and turbulent buoyancy-driven convection flows make this process too difficult to model. 

Recent observations on ISS have shown that a phenomenon known as “cool flames” can be witnessed 

in the combustion chambers in orbit to understand how lower temperature burning could have 

significant applications towards more efficient fuel use and new combustion engine designs in the future.

Thanks to the FLEX 

investigation in the reduced 

gravity environment of the 

space station, we have new 

insight into the mysteries of 

flames and fuel.
82

out. Once the visible flame disappeared, the heptane 

droplet continued rapid quasi-steady vaporization 

without any visible flame. This ended abruptly at a 

point called second-stage extinction. At this point, a 

smaller droplet was left behind that either experienced 

normal, time-dependent evaporation or sometimes 

grew slightly through condensation of vapor in the 

cloud that formed upon extinction.

The new findings have been published and are 

available online in Combustion and Flame, the journal 

of the Combustion Institute. This new discovery 

will help scientists and engineers modify numerical 

models and better predict the behavior of flames, 

fuel and combustion. It also has many long-term 

implications both in space and on Earth. These 

findings can help with development of new technology 

to reduce pollution and increase gas mileage in internal 

combustion engines. Cool flame burning could also be 

used to partially oxidize the fuel for use in burners with 

reduced emissions and better control. 

The Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition 

(HCCI) engine combines diesel ignition with sparkignition and can be used in any diesel engine, either 

stationary or for transportation. By merging these two 

technologies, engines could have the efficiency of 

burning diesel, while also providing reduced particulate 

and nitrogen oxide emissions. This could eliminate the 

need to burn diesel-fuel sprays, which are notorious for 

pollutant production, according to the researchers.

Thanks to the FLEX investigation in the reduced 

gravity environment of the space station, we have new 

insight into the mysteries of flames and fuel. Whether 

it’s a candle, a campfire, or some other fuel source, 

the combustion process may be waiting for the right 

investigation to pry loose more secrets. Microgravity 

research may prove to be the tool that helps force 

those secrets free.

A burning heptane droplet during the Flame 

Extinguishing Experiments investigation on the 

International Space Station.

Image credit: NASA
83

Robonaut’s potential shines in 

multiple space, medical and 

industrial applications 

When scientists and engineers began developing 

Robonaut, a first humanoid robot for space 

exploration, they set out to create robotic capabilities 

for space exploration, but did not limit their design just 

for use in microgravity. Instead, they decided to lend a 

robotic hand, along with many other appendages and 

abilities, to those in need on Earth. 

The first Robonaut was a collaborative effort between 

NASA and the Defense Advanced Research Projects 

Agency. Though it was built for space exploration 

missions like performing skilled hand movements 

during Extravehicular Activity (EVA), or spacewalks, 

NASA has since gained significant expertise in 

expanding robotic technologies for space and 

Earth applications through successful creation of 

partnerships with outside organizations.

The latest iteration of Robonaut, Robonaut 2 (R2), was 

co-developed with General Motors (GM) through a 

Space Act Agreement. R2 is a faster, more dexterous 

robot, built for the microgravity environment to utilize 

human rated tools, assist with International Space 

Station activities and safely work side by side with 

astronauts. While R2 resides aboard the space station, 

many of the technologies developed for Robonaut and 

R2 are being adapted for use on Earth. Here are three 

examples:

Robo-Glove Technology

One of these, a robotic glove, or the RoboGlove, 

was developed as a grasp assist device after NASA 

and GM realized there was overlap between what 

astronauts needed in space and what factory workers 

could use on the ground. The RoboGlove can augment 

human tendons to help both astronauts and factory 

workers with grasping tasks and potentially minimize 

the risk of repetitive stress injuries. 

Since astronauts wear pressurized spacesuit gloves 

during a spacewalk, they are exerting more force to 

hold a tool or tighten a screw, causing fatigue. The 

RoboGlove could help astronauts close their gloves 

and reduce the amount of effort they apply while 

conducting EVA tasks, much like the way power 

steering helps to steer a car.

At GM, factory workers on assembly lines are 

performing tasks like gripping tools repeatedly 

throughout their work day. These individuals are tiring 

more quickly during the day by either exerting a high 

amount of force at multiple intervals or exerting force 

for long periods of time. The RoboGlove may help 

the factory workers to grip a tool longer with less 

discomfort by reducing the amount of force that they 

need to exert. This could result in less fatigue and 

fewer stress injuries. 

Robotics

Key to enhancing human spaceflight missions is the ability of robots to work alongside the human crew 

to perform necessary tasks more efficiently. These tasks include those that are monotonous or risky 

and impose on the available time astronauts have to focus on science experiments. The International 

Space Station provides an excellent platform where these operational concepts and procedures can 

be developed, tested and evolved in an actual space environment while demonstrating robotic systems 

performance and reliability over the long duration. The precision and reliability requirements for space 

robotics led to dual-purpose technologies and advanced robotic capabilities for use on Earth.

Technologies developed for 

gloves, walking and telemedicine for Robonaut are being 

adapted for use on Earth.
84

NASA and GM are working to find a supplier to 

make the patented RoboGlove. GM plans to use the 

glove technology in future advanced vehicle safety 

systems and manufacturing plant applications. NASA 

is experimenting with the technology in their Earth 

laboratory and integrating it into a working spacesuit 

glove for possible future use by crew members. 

The RoboGlove also generates interest from the 

medical community. For instance, patients in 

rehabilitation may benefit from a device that helps them 

to recover their skills for grasping objects. Another 

potential application involves an adapted glove that 

could both open and close to help patients recovering 

from brain injury. NASA engineers have explored 

ways to adapt the glove for people with partial hand 

amputations, as well. A future partnership with a 

medical center or research institution could expand 

the technology of RoboGlove to medical settings, in 

addition to its use for space exploration and factory 

work at GM.

Robotic Exoskeleton

NASA and The Florida Institute for Human and 

Machine Cognition (IHMC), with the help of engineers 

from Oceaneering Space Systems of Houston, have 

jointly developed a robotic exoskeleton called X1. The 

X1 technology, derived from R2, may someday help 

astronauts stay healthier in space with the added 

benefit of assisting people with physical disabilities 

on Earth. 

Currently in the research and development phase, 

X1 is a 57-pound robotic device that a human could 

wear over his or her body either to assist or inhibit 

movement in leg joints. Worn over the legs with a 

harness that extends up the back and around the 

shoulders, X1 has 10 degrees of freedom, or joints – 

four motorized joints at the hips and knees, and six 

passive joints that allow for sidestepping, turning and 

pointing, and flexing a foot. 

Employing IHMC’s experience in exoskeleton 

development for paraplegics, NASA and IHMC 

streamlined R2 arm technology. They made it slim 

enough to allow a person in a wheelchair to get out 

using the exoskeleton. The X1 device has the potential 

to produce enough force to allow for assisted walking 

over varied terrain to paraplegics or other patients in 

rehabilitation settings. 

In addition to the IHMC and NASA applications of 

the X1 technology, researchers at the University of 

Houston (UH) are working to adapt an exoskeleton 

so it is controlled by brain signals. This type of 

exoskeleton would attach a device to a person’s head 

and try to read signals that the brain sends to the legs 

to get them to move. 

Telemedicine Applications

The Houston Methodist Research Institute (HMRI) 

and NASA worked together to adapt some of the 

technology used by R2 in space and on the ground. 

The research team tested R2 for use in telemedicine, 

conducting medical procedures through electronic 

communication by tasking R2 to perform an ultrasound 

scan of a medical mannequin and to use a syringe as 

part of a procedure.

The Robo-Glove was built through the continuing 

partnership between NASA and General Motors. 

It uses R2 technology to decrease fatigue and 

stress when a human grasps an object. 

Image credit: NASA
85

With human control of the teleoperated R2, tasks were 

performed with accuracy and efficiency using R2’s 

dexterity to apply the appropriate level of force and 

monitoring progress through R2’s vision system. This 

demonstration of R2’s capabilities could potentially 

allow physicians to conduct complex medical 

procedures on humans in remote locations on Earth or 

in space.

NASA’s Space Technology Program is developing, 

testing and applying robotic technologies through 

innovative partnerships. They continue to look for new 

collaborative opportunities to leverage resources that 

will help all partners to increase their chances of making better products, as demonstrated by the numerous 

current applications of the R2 technology. Furthermore, 

using the International Space Station as a test bed for 

these robotic and future technologies will be vital to 

human exploration and beneficial to human health.

Watch these videos to learn more: 

Robo-Glove Technology: 

http://tinyurl.com/nasa-robo-glove 

Exoskeleton Technology Applications: 

http://tinyurl.com/nasa-exoskeleton-tech

Robonaut’s Telemedicine Initiatives: 

http://tinyurl.com/robonaut-telemedicine 

NASA Project Engineer Shelley Rea demonstrates 

the X1 Robotic Exoskeleton, which could improve 

the mobility and strength of astronauts and 

paraplegics. 

Image credit: NASA
86

Student inspired by the ISS and the future of space exploration. 

Image credit: NASA
87

Global

Education

The International Space Station has a unique ability to capture the imaginations of both students and 

teachers worldwide. The presence of humans aboard the station provides a foundation for numerous 

educational activities aimed at capturing interest and motivating children towards the study of science, 

technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM). Projects such as the Amateur Radio on International 

Space Station (ARISS); Earth Knowledge Acquired by Middle School Students (EarthKAM); and 

Synchronized Position Hold, Engage, Reorient Experimental Satellites (SPHERES) Zero Robotics 

competition, among others, have allowed for global student, teacher and public access to space 

through student image acquisition and radio contacts with crew members. Projects like these and their 

accompanying educational materials are distributed to students around the world. Through the continued 

use of the station, we will challenge and inspire the next generation of scientists, engineers, writers, 

artists, politicians and explorers.
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89

Inspiring the next generation of students 

with the International Space Station

In the 1960s, the innovators responsible for missions 

to the moon inspired homemade space helmets 

and backyard bottle rockets that sent toy soldiers 

a bit shy of low-Earth orbit. The innovations of the 

International Space Station (ISS), however, provide 

a more direct approach to opportunities for the next 

generation as they watch, learn and even participate in 

today’s missions. 

For more than a decade, the space station has 

provided hands-on educational opportunities that 

encourage students to go beyond passive learning, 

engaging them as interactive participants. In 2012, 

NASA published Inspiring the Next Generation: 

International Space Station Education Opportunities 

and Accomplishments, 2000-2012, which compiles 

these events to share with the public. 

From 2000 through 2012, there have been more than 

42 million students, 2.8 million teachers and 25,000 

schools from 44 countries involved in education 

activities aboard the space station. 

The publication was an international effort that 

details opportunities available today for students 

and summarizes those already completed. The 

comprehensive account includes education projects 

led by all the space station partners: NASA, the 

Canadian Space Agency, the European Space Agency, 

Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency and the Russian 

Federal Space Agency. 

ISS provides hands-on 

educational opportunities that 

encourage students to go 

beyond passive learning.

ISS Chief Scientist Julie Robinson engages students in International Space Station education activities.

Image credit: Sally Ride EarthKAM
90

Competitive student opportunities leverage real 

research to explain the depths of the scientific 

process; for instance, the Synchronized Position Hold, 

Engage, Reorient Experimental Satellites (SPHERES) 

ZeroRobotics challenge focuses on software 

programming skill development to guide robots 

through a virtual obstacle course aboard the space 

station. There are also contests that allow students 

to have their experiments performed in orbit, such 

as those proposed for Try ZeroG and the YouTube 

SpaceLab competitions, which were implemented on 

the space station in 2012. An inquiry-based approach 

to learning engages students and their communities, 

enabling them to contribute to the growing knowledge 

gained from research done aboard station. 

These types of activities involve an investigative 

approach to learning and allows students to 

understand the true nature of science; gain in-depth 

knowledge of scientific concepts, laws, and theories; 

and develop interests, attitudes and “habits of mind” 

related to science and mathematics. 

Other opportunities for station interaction include 

question-and-answer sessions via the Amateur Radio 

on the International Space Station (ARISS), which lets 

students contact astronauts on the station via ham 

radio. In-flight education downlink sessions through the 

NASA Education Office also enable student-crew communications, using live video feeds so communities 

can see the astronauts while speaking with them. 

There are growing commercial opportunities, such 

as the Student Spaceflight Experiment Program 

in coordination with NanoRacks. This program 

provides opportunities for elementary and middle 

school students to propose and launch their own 

investigations to the space station. 

The education publication is available in both hardcopy 

and through download via the International Space 

Station Research and Technology website at http://

www.nasa.gov/iss-science. 

Students from Charminade College Preparatory, 

West Hills, California, run preliminary variations of 

their experiment in the lab. 

Image credit: Student Spaceflight Experiment 

Program
91

Student scientists receive unexpected 

results from research in space

YouTube is a great place to find bloopers, snuggly 

kitten or music videos. Now, it’s also a place to post 

grand ideas for microgravity research studies. Two 

of those ideas actually got to fly on the International 

Space Station. The YouTube Space Lab competition 

provided such an opportunity, and three students 

saw their research performed aboard the orbiting 

laboratory.

For then-high school students Dorothy Chen and 

Sara Ma of Troy, Michigan, and Amr Mohamed of 

Alexandria, Egypt, the sky no longer is the limit for 

their research questions. Chen, Ma and Mohamed 

completed research investigations as winners of the 

YouTube Space Lab global contest. The competition 

invited 14- to 18-year-old students to submit two-minute videos via YouTube to propose physics or biology 

investigations for astronauts to perform aboard the 

space station. Their research was chosen out of more 

than 2,000 entries received from around the world.

The two winning studies looked at the anti-fungal 

properties of the bacteria Bacillus subtilis (B. subtilis) 

in microgravity, and the predatory behavior of Salticus 

scenicus and Phiddipus johnsoni, also known as 

a zebra jumping spider and a red-backed jumping 

spider, respectively. The results they received from their 

research informed them that microgravity can be a wily 

participant in a research study held in space aboard an 

orbiting laboratory.

Chen and Ma hypothesized that B. subtilis, a naturally 

occurring bacteria commonly used as an anti-fungal 

agent for agricultural crops, would have increased 

anti-fungal properties when grown in microgravity 

compared to the same bacteria produced on Earth. 

Inquiry-based Learning

From the launch of the first modules of ISS into orbit, students have been provided with a unique 

opportunity to get involved and participate in science and engineering projects. Many of these 

projects support inquiry-based learning—an approach to science education that allows students to 

ask questions, develop hypothesis-derived experiments, obtain supporting evidence, analyze data, 

and identify solutions or explanations. This approach to learning is well-published as one of the most 

effective ways to engage students to pursue careers in scientific and technology fields. 

The YouTube Space Lab 

competition motivated 

thousands and selected three 

14- to 15-year-old students to 

fly their microgravity research 

ideas on ISS.

Dorothy Chen, YouTube Space Lab winner, 

presents findings from her study on the antifungal properties of the bacteria Bacillus subtilis

in space at the 2013 International Space Station 

Research and Development Conference.

Image credit: Center for the Advancement of 

Science in Space
92

Their testing also added phosphates and nitrates to 

the B. subtilis nutrient source to see if the additives 

affected growth and anti-fungal strength. The phosphates and nitrates acted as nutrients to potentially 

boost growth of the bacteria. The outcome of their 

investigation aboard the space station showed that 

the least amount of growth in the bacteria occurred 

in microgravity as compared to bacteria produced on 

Earth. They found that microgravity had no effect on 

the degree to which phosphates and nitrates affect 

B. subtilis growth.

Mohamed, now a college student in California, was 

excited about seeing his zebra jumping spider research 

in action while talking with Astronaut Sunita Williams 

in orbit. 

Europe’s alliance with space droids

Between video games and sci-fi movies, a group 

of young students find time for a robotic squadron 

of miniature satellites that come to life aboard the 

International Space Station, obeying their commands.

The European Space Agency (ESA) is participating 

in the NASA, Defense Advanced Research Projects 

Agency (DARPA), and Massachusetts Institute of 

Technology (MIT) Zero Robotics competition (http://

www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/

experiments/690.html). The competition is a chance 

for high school students to program droids for action 

on the space station. Synchronized Position Hold, 

Engage, Reorient Experimental Satellites (SPHEREs) 

are volleyball-sized satellites with their own power, 

propulsion, computers and navigation.

The challenge to remotely control them began in the 

United States, where an adventurous professor from 

MIT found inspiration in the Star Wars saga to create 

these intriguing robots. The mini-spacecraft have been 

used inside the station since 2006 to test autonomous 

rendezvous and docking maneuvers.

Now formation flying in zero gravity is a programming 

issue for European students, also. A number of 

schools from ESA member states create rival programs 

that control three SPHERES in real-time on the space 

station. A local SPHERES expert, familiar with the 

coding requirements for the droids, is assigned to 

each European school. Sponsored by ESA, several 

university staff members are being trained at MIT.

The competition is not only about feeding the satellites 

sets of commands; the local experts help students 

build critical engineering skills, such as problem 

solving, design thought process, operations training, 

and teamwork. Their results could lead to important 

The three Synchronized Position Hold, Engage, 

Reorient Experimental Satellites (SPHEREs) on the 

space station are considered facilities. Two are 

used for Zero Robotics.

Image credit: NASA

High school students compete 

to program ISS droids and 

build critical engineering skills.

Students participate in Synchronized Position Hold, 

Engage, Reorient Experimental Satellites (SPHERES) 

Zero Robotics. 

Image credit: ESA
93

advances for satellite servicing and vehicle assembly 

in orbit.

Teams in the U.S. and in Europe test their algorithms 

under realistic microgravity conditions by competing 

in elimination rounds against each other with finals on 

both sides of the Atlantic.

The winners’ software is uploaded and run in the three 

weightless SPHERES by astronauts on the station. 

The exciting final is streamed live at ESA’s technology 

center in the Netherlands, European Space Research 

and Technology Center (ESTEC), and MIT.

Europe’s alliance with the space droids is stronger 

than ever. The competition has given hundreds of 

high school students from across Europe and the 

United States the opportunity to operate droids in 

space by coding software. The success of the first 

rounds consolidates the station as a common scientific 

platform for students. They are embarking on a robotic 

future, and may the force be with them!

NASA has a HUNCH about student 

success in engineering

Several young science, technology, engineering and 

mathematics professionals entering the workforce right 

now are likely to have been motivated to enter those 

fields by the High school students United with NASA 

to Create Hardware (HUNCH) Program. HUNCH is a 

nationwide instructional partnership between NASA, 

Students build cost-effective 

hardware and soft goods for 

use on the ISS, launching 

careers and saving money for 

spaceflight programs.

European Space Agency astronaut Paolo Nespoli observes a can crusher, built by students in the High school 

students United with NASA to Create Hardware Program, during Expedition 26 aboard the International 

Space Station. 

Image credit: NASA
94

high school and intermediate/middle school students 

to build cost-effective hardware and soft goods both 

for use on the International Space Station and for 

training of NASA astronauts and flight controllers.

With more than 11 years in existence, the popularity 

of HUNCH has grown to include 1,750 students in 77 

schools across 24 different states. Trainees receive 

a hands-on opportunity that helps them strengthen 

their skills in science, technology, engineering and 

mathematics (STEM). 

Students that participate in HUNCH learn to use and 

apply 3-D software, drafting, prototyping, welding, 

basic architecture, critical-thinking and problem-solving 

skills. NASA provides materials, equipment, mentoring 

and inspection oversight during the fabrication of these 

items. While students are building items for NASA, they 

are also building their self-confidence and interest as 

researchers. 

To date, HUNCH participants have produced singlestowage lockers, cargo transfer bags, educational 

videos and experiments proposed to fly on the space 

station. Some standout projects include the design 

and fabrication of a disposable, collapsible glove 

box; an organizer for crew quarters on the space 

station; and a European Physiology Modules Rack 

trainer, which provides facilities for human physiology 

research. Since the beginning of HUNCH in 2003, 

hundreds of items for NASA have been produced.

In a culmination of skills learned as part of the HUNCH 

program, two students from Cypress Woods High 

School in Texas, Robert Lipham and Alie Derkowski, 

were selected to attend the Technology Student 

Association (TSA) National Competition in Orlando, 

Fla., to present the skills they acquired while building 

Microgravity Science Glove Box (MSG) trainers 

for NASA. HUNCH paired with the Center for the 

Advancement of Science in Space (CASIS) to provide 

funding for the students to showcase their engineering 

education endeavors. 

Design updates made by the Lipham and Derkowski 

saved NASA money by streamlining the MSG trainers, 

which are mockups of space hardware for crew mission preparation. When the idea to create these items 

came to HUNCH, the cost estimate was $1 million for 

four MSG high-fidelity trainers. HUNCH provided NASA 

five MSG trainers for less than $250,000.

Every year, recognition ceremonies are held for all students and teachers that participate in the HUNCH program. The number of participants continues to grow 

annually, as well as the quality, quantity, and diversity 

of the products that students fabricate. While the 

recognition ceremonies recognize student work, they 

also acknowledge the educational benefits of NASA 

teaming up with students. This is often measured by 

the changes in the students’ attitudes toward their own 

self-assurance and desire to enter STEM careers.

HUNCH is an innovative solution for inspiring the next 

generation of researchers and space explorers while 

providing money-savings and resource efficiencies 

for NASA. Schools can get involved through online 

application on the HUNCH website at http://www.

nasahunch.com/.

TomatosphereTM: Sowing the seeds of 

discovery through student science

Home base on the moon. Boot prints on Mars. Visits 

to asteroids. With the world’s space-faring nations 

looking beyond the International Space Station (ISS) 

to envision human missions to increasingly distant 

destinations, scientists have already begun to tackle 

the many challenges of sending humans farther and 

farther from our home planet. Missions to the ISS have 

made substantial contributions to our knowledge of 

how the human body adapts to microgravity for three, 

six or even 12 months, but taking steps further out into 

the solar system will require much longer expeditions. 

A human mission to Mars, for instance, will likely mean 

a six-month journey each way, coupled with a stay of 

about 18 months on the surface of the planet! 

Students from Cypress Ranch High School, 

Cypress, Texas, present mockup hardware to 

staff at NASA’s Johnson Space Center built for 

NASA training programs as part of the High 

school students United with NASA to Create 

Hardware Program. 

Image credit: NASA
95

Future crews on long-duration missions will need to be 

self-sufficient to stay safe and healthy. Since carrying 

two to three years’ worth of food would be expensive 

and impractical, astronauts will have to grow their own 

food en route to their destination. Space farming may 

sound futuristic, but in the closed environment of a 

spacecraft, plants could make a huge contribution to 

life-support systems. Not only do plants provide food, 

water and oxygen, they also recycle carbon dioxide 

and waste. But how do you grow plants effectively 

in the radiation-filled environment of space? Which 

plants are best suited for space missions? What 

type of seeds would be able to withstand the journey 

and still germinate? What if we could recruit the next 

generation of astronauts, scientists and engineers to 

help solve the problem? 

Since 2001, the award-winning TomatosphereTM 

educational project has done just that. An estimated 3 

million students in Canada and the United States have 

helped researchers gather data to address these questions, while learning about science, space exploration, 

agriculture and nutrition. TomatosphereTM provides 

students with two sets of tomato seeds: one set that 

has been exposed to space or space-simulated environments as well as a control group for comparison. 

Without knowing which set is which, students grow 

the seedlings in their classrooms, measuring a variety 

of information about the tomato plants, the germination rates, growth patterns and vigor of the seeds. This 

methodology, known as a “blind study,” allows the 

mystery of the project to be real science for the students. Each class submits their results to the project’s 

website to be shared with scientists studying horticulture and environmental biology. 

Grade 3 students measure their tomato plants as 

part of the TomatosphereTM experiment. 

Image credit: TomatosphereTM

Chris Hadfield, Canadian astronaut and former 

commander of the International Space Station, 

poses with 600,000 tomato seeds for the 

TomatosphereTM project, which returned to 

Earth with Hadfield in May 2013 after orbiting 

Earth for nine months aboard the station. The 

seeds will be grown by 16,000 classrooms 

in Canada and the U.S., a record number of 

participants for the project. 

Image credit: CSA, NASA

The award-winning 

TomatosphereTM educational 

project has helped students 

learn about science, space 

exploration, agriculture and 

nutrition.
96

The project’s baseline experiment investigates the 

germination rate of the seeds; however, supporting 

materials have been developed to allow educators 

from grades 3 to 10 to build on student understanding 

of a variety of topics, from the science of plants to the 

science of nutrition to the science of ecosystems.

TomatosphereTM’s hands-on approach to learning 

gives students a taste for science and space research. 

In addition to being rewarded with their very own 

“space tomatoes” to bring home, the students 

participating in TomatosphereTM today know that they 

have each made a personal contribution to assisting 

space exploration in the future. And perhaps one day, 

an astronaut biting into a fresh, juicy tomato on the 

surface of the Red Planet will thank them. 

TomatosphereTM is sponsored by the Heinz Canada, 

HeinzSeed, Stokes Seeds, the University of Guelph, 

Let’s Talk Science, First the Seed Foundation and the 

Canadian Space Agency (CSA).

Students photograph Earth from space 

via Sally Ride EarthKAM program

Sally Ride EarthKAM (Earth Knowledge Acquired 

by Middle School Students) is a NASA educational 

outreach program enabling students, teachers 

and the public to become researchers, focused on 

learning about Earth from the unique perspective of 

space. During the Sally Ride EarthKAM missions, 

middle school students around the world request 

images of specific locations on Earth. The entire 

collection of Sally Ride EarthKAM images is available 

in a searchable image archive. This image collection 

and accompanying learning guides and activities 

are extraordinary resources to engage students in 

Earth and space science, geography, social studies, 

mathematics, communications, and art. Four missions 

are offered per year. 

Sally Ride EarthKAM uses a Nikon D2Xs digital camera 

mounted in the Window Observational Research 

Facility (WORF), which uses the science window 

located in the U.S. Destiny Laboratory. This window’s 

high-quality optics capabilities allow the camera to 

take high-resolution photographs of the Earth using 

commands sent from the students via the online 

program. Students and educators then use the photos 

as supplements to standard course materials, offering 

them an opportunity to participate in space missions 

and various investigative projects. Creators of Sally 

Ride EarthKAM hope that combining the excitement 

of this space station experience with middle-school 

education will inspire a new set of explorers, scientists 

and engineers. 

Students use Sally Ride EarthKAM to learn about 

spacecraft orbits and Earth photography through the 

active use of Web-based tools and resources. With 

the help of their teachers, they identify a target location 

and then must track the orbit of the station, reference 

maps and atlases, and check the weather prior to 

making their image request. These requests funnel to 

another set of students, this time at the University of 

California at San Diego. These college students run the 

Sally Ride EarthKAM Mission Operations Center for the 

project. Here they compile the requests into a camera 

control file and, with the help of NASA’s Johnson 

Space Center, uplink the requests to a computer 

aboard the space station. 

Requests ultimately transmit to the digital camera, 

which then takes the desired images and transfers 

them back to the station computer for downlink to 

Sally Ride EarthKAM computers on the ground. This 

entire relay process is usually complete within a few 

Middle school students 

track the orbit of the station, 

reference maps and atlases, 

and check the weather before 

making an imagery request.

The above photo of The Bahamas is one of the 

pictures taken during the 2013 spring mission. 

Image credit: Sally Ride EarthKAM
97

hours and the photos are available online for both the 

participating schools and for the public to enjoy.

Sally Ride EarthKAM was initiated in 1995 and originally called KidSat. The KidSat camera flew on three 

space shuttle flights (STS 76, 81 and 86) to test its feasibility and was later moved to the International Space 

Station (ISS) and renamed ISS EarthKAM. In 2013, the 

program was renamed once more; this time to Sally 

Ride EarthKAM to honor the late Dr. Sally K. Ride, 

America’s first woman in space and the program’s 

creator. Dr. Ride passed away July 23, 2012.

Since its first space station expedition in March 2001 

to the present, Sally Ride EarthKAM has touched the 

lives of nearly 300,000 student participants and an 

unknown number of online followers. The program 

also has a strong international presence with users 

from 74 countries to date. Interested viewers of Sally 

Ride EarthKAM images and educators interested in 

participating have the opportunity to register online at 

https://earthkam.ucsd.edu/. 

Try zero G 2: Igniting the passion of the 

next generation in Asia

Twelve-year-old Lily Thornton sat with her mother in an 

Australian airport getting ready to leave her homeland 

for the first time while waiting to board a plane to 

Japan. Such a young girl could be quite nervous about 

going to a completely different environment or the 

ensuing language barrier that she would face once 

she disembarked the plane, but Lily had on her mind 

something that most 12-year-old girls rarely have to 

think about. Lily was going to see her microgravity 

experiment conducted on the International Space 

Station (ISS) through a program called Try Zero Gravity 

(Try Zero G).

Try Zero G is a program aimed at children and 

educators to learn about ISS and its educational 

experiments. In 2009, Japan Aerospace Exploration 

Agency (JAXA) started a domestic, micro-gravity 

program, Try Zero G, using the Japanese Experiment 

Module, Kibo. It is a brand new, innovative, educational 

program that gives the public the opportunity to 

participate in ISS experiments in Japan. This program 

has successfully stimulated public interest. A total of 

1,597 ideas were submitted with the hope of being 

implemented in 2009. Among those, 16 were selected, 

and the domestic Try Zero G idea was conducted by a 

Japanese astronaut and continued thereafter.

With the belief that educational activities conducted 

on ISS are a benefit for humanity, JAXA opened up 

Students from countries 

across Asia compete to see 

their microgravity experiments 

conducted on ISS.

Two students from Good Shepherd School in 

Alberta, Canada, participate in Sally Ride EarthKAM. 

Image credit: NASA

Lily Thornton, age 12, of Australia at Tsukuba 

Space Center, Japan Aeropsace Exploration 

Agency (JAXA).

Image credit: JAXA
98

the Try Zero G program to Asian nations, implemented 

from 2011 under the framework of the Asia-Pacific 

Regional Space Agency Forum (APRSAF). The first 

Try Zero G for Asian nations was announced in 

APRSAF-17 in 2010 and 10 ideas from three countries 

were submitted. Five ideas were conducted by JAXA’s 

astronaut Satoshi Furukawa and implemented on Sept. 

22, 2011. The second Try Zero G was announced in 

APRSAF-18 in Singapore right after the first Try Zero G 

was conducted. The number of applications increased, 

and JAXA received 127 applications from four 

countries. Eight ideas were implemented by JAXA’s 

astronaut Akihiko Hoshide on Nov. 15, 2012. Every Try 

Zero G, JAXA welcomes those whose ideas have been 

selected to observe their experiments at the JAXA 

facility in Tsukuba Space Center, Japan.

Lily’s idea, “Weight Station,” observes the behavior 

of a spring balance under microgravity. Having her 

idea selected for the ISS experiment became big 

news in Lily’s small town and in her school in Victoria, 

Australia. Once she heard of the opportunity to watch 

the downlink in JAXA’s facility, she wished to see her 

experiment performed with her own eyes. Her school 

and the whole town held fundraisers for her to earn 

her travel expense to go to Japan to watch her dream 

come true.

On Nov. 27, 2012, Lily and her mother, Elise Thornton, 

were able to travel to Japan to visit JAXA’s Tsukuba 

Space Center. Together they toured the space center 

and watched the downlinked video of Lily’s experiment 

conducted by astronaut Akihiko Hoshide. During 

the tour, they had the opportunity to talk to the flight 

director of the mission control room in Tsukuba Space 

Center. The flight director talked about ISS and of 

microgravity conditions. Lily and her mother listened 

in rapt attention and had a chance to ask questions 

further expanding their knowledge of ISS and 

microgravity conditions. Lily found the tour enjoyable 

and interesting. Elise said that Lily dreams of one day 

becoming a space robotics engineer. We hope Lily 

stays true to her dreams and realizes her efforts!
99

Asian students work with astronauts in 

space missions

Methawi Chomthong of Mahidol Wittayanusorn School 

in Thailand plants chili seeds to observe how they 

grow while Leonita Swandjaja of Bandung Institute 

of Technology in Indonesia distributes tomato seeds 

to primary school pupils. These are seeds that have 

traveled in space and many students and pupils in the 

Asia-Pacific region have enthusiastically planted and 

nurtured these “space seeds.” The Space Seeds for 

Asian Future (SSAF) (http://iss.jaxa.jp/en/kuoa/ssaf/) is 

a joint program run by space agencies and institutions 

for science education in the region.

SSAF does more than simply sending seeds into 

space and bringing them back to Earth. It requires 

collaboration between astronauts and students on 

the ground. In September 2013, astronaut Dr. Karen 

Nyberg pulled out a box from a stowage rack in the 

Japanese Experiment Module, Kibo, of the International Space Station. The box contained seedlings of 

Azuki, small red beans, that grew seven days after 

being watered and kept under dark conditions. In 

parallel on the ground, students prepared their own 

plant boxes and started cultivating their own seeds. 

They observed the growth of their plants to see if there 

was any difference between the ground and space 

seedlings. Karen showed the seedlings in the box on 

a video camera. She then pulled out some seedlings 

and examined how strong their stems were. The video 

image of the operation was downlinked to the Tsukuba 

Space Center, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, 

Japan. The ground staff observed the space seedlings 

as conveniently as if they were side by side with her. 

These downlinked video images were distributed to 

the organizations participating in the SSAF2013 program, and a timeline was set for showing the video to 

students, making them feel like they were working with 

an astronaut.

Inspiration

Conducting education activities is not the reason the space station was built, but the presence of 

astronauts aboard the ISS serves as an inspiration to students and their teachers worldwide. Having the 

opportunity to connect with crew members real-time, either through “live” downlinks or simply speaking 

via a ham radio, ignites the imagination of students about space exploration and its application to the 

fields of science, technology and engineering. 

Through collaboration with 

astronauts, students compare 

how seedlings in space look 

different from those they grew 

on the ground.

Students from Osaka City University, Osaka, 

Japan, monitor the SSAF2013 experiment at 

Tsukuba Space Center as members of the ground 

crew, who have played an important role in 

developing the experiment protocol and preparing 

the plant materials. 

Image credit: JAXA
100

In Malaysia, the National Space Agency (ANGKASA)

held a competition to help students develop their 

skills in science research with SSAF2013. A total 

of 79 teams, each consisting of five members from 

25 primary schools and 54 secondary schools, 

participated in the competition. In other countries, 

including Australia, Indonesia, Japan, New Zealand, 

Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam, various age groups 

of students and pupils learned the scientific method 

through this experience. These young people play an 

important role, not only in space technology, but also 

in other fields of science and technology for the future 

development of those areas.

The results showed that the seedlings in space looked 

quite different from those on the ground. Students 

understood the wonderful capability of such tiny seeds 

by witnessing that they were able to adjust to various 

gravitational conditions. Although stricter control 

of experimental conditions is required for the more 

involved science, the observations in SSAF2013 still 

offer many hints to scientists who are developing their 

new research projects. 

Educational benefits of the space 

experiment ‘Shadow-beacon’ on ISS

The use of spaceflight for stimulation of public 

interest to advance science and education is a 

common practice among the global space agencies. 

Particularly at the Russian Segment of the International 

space station (ISS RS) the space experiment Shadowbeacon (SE) has been performing in series since 2011 

for the scientific and educational purposes.

As an on-board radio beacon transmits VHF sounding 

signals of a 145-megahertz range, ground participants 

can register moments of signal appearance, follow the 

signal until it vanishes using the time marks, and send 

this information, along with data on its geographical 

position, to the Information Storing Center on Earth. 

Every operating sequence would take up to 20 

minutes, while ISS is passing over the given continental 

measuring field.

Malaysian students 

set their experiment. 

Image credit: MARA 

Junior Science College, 

Royal Malaysian Police, Kulim, Malaysia

ISS provides opportunities 

to stimulate student interest 

and participation in science, 

technology, engineering, and 

math (STEM).

A typical result of construction of International 

Space Station experimental footprint contour 

on the Earth surface in the azimuthal projection. 

European measuring field, 27.11.11. Current 

moment 05.02.23 UTC. Position of undersatellite 

point: Ukraine, latitude 50.45, longitude 26.54.

Image credit: FGUP TsNIIMash
101

The data provides instant mutual position of the ISS, 

and each receiver allows definition of experimental 

borders of the station’s footprint, i.e., “illuminated” spot 

on the Earth’s surface. With many ground receivers, 

Shadow-beacon simulates a “multibeam” method of 

radio sounding of undersatellite space. Its basic properties are evaluated by comparing obtained experimental and calculated contours of the ISS footprint. 

Shadow-beacon is a developing methodology for 

the future experiment “Shadow,” which will use radio 

waves scattering in an artificial plasma.

Possible application of this radio-sounding method 

is observation of interference in radio communication 

caused by plasma plumes of perspective electric 

thrusters, which are planned to be used for Martian 

expeditions. Exclusive simplicity of the radio sounding 

method allows the opportunity to carry out Shadowbeacon by non-professional operators (radio amateurs) 

and includes participation by educational programs. 

Therefore, the goals and objectives of the SE are both 

scientific and educational in nature.

Observations gained in Shadow-beacon sessions using 

the in-orbit “Sputnik” hardware between 2011-2013 

involved around 70 ground operators in the testing 

and development of special software for construction 

of experimental ISS footprint contours on the Earth’s 

surface. In a November 2011 series of Shadow-beacon 

sessions, laboratory curriculum for students was tested 

and students demonstrated the Shadow-beacon 

procedure as an extracurricular activity.

For more information about the formulation and 

conditions of the experiment, the sessions schedule, 

registration instructions, information on the progress 

of its implementation, or for training materials, visit 

the website at http://knts.tsniimash.ru/shadow/en/

Default.aspx.

To date, the Shadow-beacon website has received 

over 160 applications for participation from private and 

club amateur radio stations. This includes educational 

institutions interested in using Shadow-beacon 

procedures in the learning process. In order to improve 

the methodology for educational purposes and to 

strengthen its social significance, the developers 

hold classes in which students are directly involved in 

the process of data registration and analysis, and in 

preparation and sending resulting reports to amateur 

radio operators. These operators are registered 

participants of the experiment who will be invited to 

help the neighboring schools conduct space lessons.

Expanding the ISS educational laboratory to orbital 

heights through use of programs like Shadow-beacon 

provides opportunities to stimulate student interest and 

participation in the educational process.

Students from Moscow’s Center of Social Aid 

to family and Children “Pechatniki” take part 

in registration of sounding signals from orbit 

by field station ra3awc in the November 2011 

series of Shadow-beacon (SE). 

Image credit: FGUP TsNIIMash

Onboard Amateur radio equipment “Sputnik.”

Image credit: FGUP TsNIIMash
102

Students get fit the astronaut way

When you think of NASA, you likely picture either 

the space shuttle or the International Space Station. 

Perhaps you have images of planets and galaxies 

flashing before your mind’s eye. NASA’s Mission X: 

Train Like an Astronaut (TLA), however, focuses a 

little closer to home. Working with the schools in 

local neighborhoods and around the world, Mission X 

applies the same skills used to train astronauts, as well 

as the excitement of space exploration, to motivate 

over 15,000 students in 140 cities around the globe to 

live a healthier lifestyle.

Led by NASA’s Human Research Program, the TLA 

project includes physical education activities and 

educational modules on an interactive website (www.

trainlikeanastronaut.org). The activities and modules 

are available in 15 different languages for participants 

in 22 countries including, the United States, Austria, 

Belgium, Colombia, the Czech Republic, Denmark, 

France, Germany, Indonesia, Ireland, Italy, Japan, 

Kazakhstan, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, 

Puerto Rico, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, 

and the United Kingdom. This growing list of 

countries brings the TLA program closer to its goal 

of making kinesiology and nutrition fun for children by 

encouraging them to train like astronauts!

Chuck Lloyd, the NASA program manager responsible 

for the project, commented on how the space program 

excites students, prompting their active participation. 

Mission X is all about inspiring and educating our youth 

about living a healthy lifestyle with a focus on improving 

their overall daily physical activity with the Mission X 

physical activities. 

Students ranging from 8 to 12 years old learn about 

the science behind their activities, including the 

importance of hydration, bone health and balanced 

nutrition. The activities have also been adapted for 

individuals with unique needs. Known as “fit explorers,” 

the participants stay motivated with fun ways to gauge 

their success. For instance, they can see what other 

schools are doing on the Train Like An Astronaut blog. 

Fit explorers log their accumulated activity points over 

the course of the program to help an online cartoon 

astronaut, known as Astro Charlie, walk to the moon. 

Astro Charlie has made it to the moon every year—a 

distance of 238,857 miles (384,403 km) or 478 million 

steps—and he’s still going! 

Fit explorers learn that astronauts train before, during 

and after missions to maintain top physical health via 

good nutrition, rest and physical activity to function 

Participants at The Resource Center (TRC) in 

Jamestown, New York, celebrate their kick-off of 

Mission X 2013. 

Image credit: TRC

Students ages 8 through 12 

learn about the importance 

of hydration, bone health, 

balanced nutrition, and fitness. 

Third- and fourth-grade students in Japan 

participate in the “Jump for the Moon” activity. 

Image credit: JAXA
103

in the demanding environment of microgravity. Lloyd 

makes the connection of such health-centric mindsets 

for everyone, even those not planning to launch into 

space. Program success is met when our youth makes 

smart choices by balancing the amount of work, play 

and sleep they get to maintain peak performance. 

Education is critical to our youth and to our 

communities to ensure we have tomorrow’s workforce 

and technical leadership poised to address the rigors 

of our societies.

Mission X was piloted in 2011. The challenge takes 

place from January to March when the participants 

from around the world complete the activities and team 

up to help Astro Charlie arrive at the moon. Each year 

Mission X continues to grow in the number of participating children and adults, countries and languages. 

During the 2014 Challenge, participants were able 

to follow NASA astronaut, Mike Hopkins, who 

encouraged Fit Explorers to join him in a lifelong 

journey to improve health and fitness. In preparation for 

his mission to the ISS, a series of videos and products 

were produced to showcase his astronaut training. 

While on the station, he connected with participants 

to share his experiences in space. After his return to 

Earth, you can also learn what it took for him to return 

his strength and fitness to pre-mission levels. We 

encourage you to follow the TLA Facebook and Twitter 

pages at http://www.facebook.com/trainastronaut 

and https://twitter.com/trainastronaut.

Inspiring youth with a call to the 

International Space Station

Ever since the Amateur Radio on the International 

Space Station (ARISS) hardware was first launched 

aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis on STS-106 and 

transferred to the space station for use by its first crew, 

it has been used regularly to perform contacts with 

education organizations. The overall goal of ARISS 

contacts is to get students interested in science, 

technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) by 

allowing them to talk directly with the crews living and 

working aboard the station.

The ARISS conversations usually last for about 10 

minutes. During that time, crew aboard the station 

answer students’ questions as an audience of students 

and community members look on.

An ARISS contact takes place as a part of a 

comprehensive suite of education activities. In 

preparation for these exchanges, students learn about 

the space station and the research conducted aboard 

the space station. In addition to learning about life in 

space, the students learn about radio waves and how 

amateur radio works. The ARISS program is all about 

inspiring and encouraging by reaching the community 

and providing a chance for schools to interact with 

local technical experts. It also brings the space 

program to their front door.

In order for ARISS to work, the station must pass over 

the Earth-bound communicators during amateur radio 

transmissions to relay signals between the station’s 

ham radio and ground receivers. Other factors, 

including weather, crew availability, and the schedules 

of vehicles visiting the space station, drive the timing 

of the scheduled transmissions. During this pass, an 

average of 18 questions can be answered, depending 

Astronaut Sunita L. Williams, flight engineer for 

Expeditions 14 and 15, talks with students at the 

International School of Brussels in Belgium during 

an Amateur Radio on the International Space 

Station session in the Zvezda Service Module.

Image credit: NASA

Students get interested 

in science, technology, 

engineering and mathematics 

by talking directly with crews 

living and working on the 

space station.
104

on the complexity of the query. To date, the space 

station has held more than 800 ARISS sessions with 

students in over 40 countries around the world.

The downlink audio from ARISS contacts can be heard 

by anyone in range with basic receiving equipment, 

transmissions broadcast on 145.800 megahertz. Interested parties can also catch a broadcast via EchoLink 

and the Internet Radio Linking Project (IRLP) amateur 

radio networks or on the Internet, when available.

For students who have never thought about space 

exploration, being involved in an amateur radio event 

such as this can be an eye-opener and pave the way 

for them to dare to dream and for those dreams to 

come true.

U.S. educators interested in participating in an ARISS 

communication can contact NASA’s Teaching From 

Space Office for a proposal packet. International 

schools should submit applications via the ARISS 

website for consideration. Submissions are due in July 

and January of each year.

Calling cosmonauts from home

Educating future generations of scientists, 

technologists, engineers and mathematicians is a 

global effort—one that includes the contributions of 

the Russian Federal Space Agency, or Roscosmos. 

One of the main objectives of activities aboard the 

International Space Station is the implementation of 

education and outreach projects that contribute to 

attracting young people to studying science. These 

projects also help create modern, high-technology 

equipment and increase society’s support of space 

programs in general and in the space station program, 

particularly. Currently aboard the Russian segment 

of the station are four space investigations that have 

educational components: Coulomb Crystal, Shadowbeacon, MAI-75 and Great Start. These experiments 

continue to demonstrate great benefits in capturing the 

imagination of students across Russia.

Coulomb Crystal is an investigation aimed at studying 

the dynamics of solid, dispersed environments in an 

inhomogeneous, magnetic field in microgravity. Pilot 

studies aboard the station explore the structural properties of Coulomb clusters—liquid crystal phase transitions, wave processes and the physical and mechanical characteristics of its heating mechanism, to just 

name a few. Students at all levels, including secondary 

school and college, have had the opportunity to prepare and conduct the experiment on the ground. 

Shadow-beacon is a VHF radio beacon that allows 

amateur radio enthusiasts to communicate with crew 

members aboard the station. The presence of this 

equipment on the Russian segment of the station 

serves as a learning tool for students in the area of 

space communications. Students learn about the 

conditions of the admission-transfer of the radio 

beacon using the world amateur radio network. They 

also study the characteristics and spatial distribution 

of the intensity of the radio broadcast and rebroadcast 

from the onboard transceiver.

A student talks to a crew member aboard the 

International Space Station during an Amateur 

Radio on the International Space Station 

(ARISS) contact. 

Image credit: ARISS

Future generations of 

scientists, technologists, 

engineers and mathematicians 

get their start through global 

communication.
105

Along the lines of Shadow-beacon, MAI-75 is also 

part of the suite of communication equipment 

housed aboard the Russian segment of the station. 

This investigation allows for a system of quick video 

downlinks from space in near-real-time. This network 

distribution affords students and amateur radio 

operators from all over Russia the opportunity to learn 

first-hand from space explorers what it is like to live 

and work in space. The use of Earth images from 

space are also an effective source of inspiration and 

motivation for students.

Great Start is an investigation aimed at popularizing 

the achievements of cosmonautics in Russia and in 

the world. Developed with the preparation of a special 

questionnaire, this experiment allows the general public 

an opportunity to express its opinion regarding the first 

human flight in space, a great event in human history. 

The public also gets acquainted with the results of scientific investigations conducted aboard the space station. Great Start promotes and enhances international 

cooperation on the space station for further integration 

of Russia into the world of cultural, educational and 

scientific relations. As a result, there will be scientific 

and educational workshops held to popularize the 

achievements of Russian human spaceflight with 

the involvement of the general population, including 

students and specialists in various areas of possible 

utilization of the results of space missions.

There are several more experiments planned within 

the framework of the educational program: ecologyeducation, which includes student experiments that 

demonstrate the conduct of airborne, microscopic 

particle suspensions in microgravity; chemistry-education, which includes student experiments that capture 

microgravity structural elements in the specified form 

on the basis of polymer composite materials and diffusion; and diffusion, which is an educational demonstration of the process of diffusion in liquid environments 

in weightlessness. These educational projects involve 

hundreds, if not thousands, of students from all regions 

of Russia. Like all of our space station global, regional 

and national education programs, these experiments 

serve to inspire and motivate students to pursue 

careers in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM). 

MAI-75 experiment, main results and 

prospects for development in education

The MAI-75 experiment develops and validates the 

concepts for designing and operating an innovative 

telecommunication satellite system at the Moscow 

Aviation Institute (MAI) to support video information 

broadcasting from space in real-time to a wide 

range of users within Russia’s academic mobile 

communications and internet user communities

The MAI-75 space experiment (“Spacecraft and 

Modern Personal Communication Technologies”) has 

been carried out on the International Space Station 

Russian Segment (ISS RS) since 2005.

Image taken by the reception and processing 

center MAI. 

Image credit: Roscosmos

Diagram of the experiment Shadow-beacon. 

Image credit: Roscosmos
106

The MAI-75 experiment is carried out using a notebook 

computer on the ISS RS, which stores and prepares 

the photos and videos that are then transmitted to 

Earth using the ham radio communication system, the 

primary component of which is the onboard Kenwood 

TM D700 transceiver of the “Sputnik” ham radio 

system within the 144-146/430-440 MHz bands. 

The experiment used a communication channel 

operated on the ham radio frequencies, allowing 

to significantly expand the number of experiment 

participants both in Russia and globally. The 

experiment results can be obtained at a work station. 

All that is needed is transceiver equipment that 

operates on VHF ham radio frequencies. 

During the experiment, a total of 120 communication 

sessions were carried out between the ISS RS and the 

MAI Data Reception and Processing Center, each with 

a duration of 9-15 minutes, and over 240 video images 

were received ranging in size from 14 to 94 KB.

After pre-processing, the images obtained are posted 

on a special website where they can be viewed, 

reviewed and processed by both educational program 

participants and common users. Besides the MAI Data 

Reception and Processing Center, the following were 

involved in the imagery reception process: Reception 

centers at higher education institutions in Moscow (M. 

V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, N. E. Bauman 

Moscow State Technology University); Krasnoyarsk 

(Siberian State Aerospace University); and Kursk (Kursk 

State Technology University); Reception centers at the 

Aerospace Technology Research Laboratory (Kaluga) of 

the Russian Defense Sports-Technology Organization; 

Gagarin Research and Test Cosmonaut Training Center 

(Star City); and S.P. Korolev RSC Energia (Korolev); 

Ham radio reception stations in Russia, Western 

Europe, Central America, and South-East Asia. 

Students were able to 

immerse themselves in reallife science and engineering 

applications while learning 

management and leadership 

skills.

Russian Cosmonaut M. V. Tiurin during a 

communication session with the Moscow Aviation 

Institute. 

Image credit: Moscow Aviation Institute (National 

Research University)

Samples of images taken from the ISS RS by amateur radio communication channel during the sessions of 

SE “MAI-75.” 

Image credit: Moscow Aviation Institute (National Research University)
107

Some of the video images received are posted on the 

following site: http://www.issfanclub.com/image/tid/54.

During ground-based preparations for MAI-75 

experiment sessions, the MAI teachers and students in 

conjunction with experts from RSC Energia and FGUP 

TsNIIMash led the development and testing of in-orbit 

procedures and cosmonaut training; development of 

software and hardware packages for use on Earth at 

global test sites and in space; and the development 

and verification of procedures and tests between the 

ground-based remote user terminals. 

As a result of the first phase of the MAI-75 experiment, 

students were able to immerse themselves in real-life 

science and engineering applications, while learning 

management and leadership skills unique to the space 

station vehicle. 

Space experiments such as these enable the secondary and higher-education systems to enhance the 

effectiveness of teaching natural sciences and to promote the interest of the public in the space programs 

implementation. The capabilities of modern information and communication technologies, particularly the 

Internet, and of the mobile (cellular) communications 

operators enable education program participants to 

work directly with the general-purpose video equipment deployed on the ISS. Using a Web interface and 

a special site, the program participants are able to 

control a digital camera installed on the ISS RS, based 

on both the Web-posted camera operation schedules 

and the ISS sub-satellite point movement data.

Centers of data reception from the International 

Space Station Russian Segment during MAI-75 

experiment sessions. 

Image credit: Moscow Aviation Institute (National 

Research University)
108

International Space Station:

Fostering commerce in space.
109

Economic Development 

of Space

While the International Space Station (ISS) has proven its value as a platform for a broad waterfront of 

research disciplines as well as technology development, it also provides an ideal opportunity to test 

new business relationships. This allows an opportunity to shift from a paradigm of government-funded, 

contractor-provided goods and services to a commercially provided, government-as-a-customer 

approach. 

This interest in promoting a more commercially oriented market in low-Earth orbit (LEO) is driven by 

several goals. First, it can stimulate entirely new markets not achievable in the past. Second, it creates 

new stakeholders in spaceflight and represents great economic opportunity. Third, it ensures strong 

industrial capability not only for future spaceflight but also for the many related industries. Finally, and 

perhaps most importantly, it allows cross-pollination of ideas, processes, and best practices, as a 

foundation for economic development. 

From commercial firms spending some of their research and development funds to conduct research on 

the space station, to commercial service providers selling unique services to users of the orbiting lab, 

the beginnings of a new economy in LEO are starting to emerge.
110
111

Water production in space: 

Thirsting for a solution

Developing and maintaining water production on the 

International Space Station is vital for keeping the crew 

alive as well as supporting hygiene and equipment 

functions, yet it presents a bit of a challenge. 

Historically, about half of station’s requirements were 

met by recycling used water and the rest by deliveries 

from visiting cargo vehicles. That is not ideal, and 

there’s an even greater reason for rethinking a selfgenerating water solution.

For many years, the station’s life support machinery 

has kept the crew alive by recycling oxygen from 

water using electrolysis. The hydrogen this produced 

was considered waste gas and vented overboard. 

So, too, was carbon dioxide—generated by crew 

metabolism—vented overboard. NASA knew it 

forfeited two important consumables but did not have 

the money to put a more effective system into the 

baseline for the station. NASA considered a process, 

originally developed by Nobel Prize-winning French 

chemist Paul Sabatier in the early 1900s, using a 

nickel catalyst to interact with hydrogen and carbon 

dioxide at elevated temperatures and pressures to 

produce water and methane. The Sabatier process is 

a well-established water production technology used 

for many years for advanced military and commercial 

applications, but the space-based application for the 

station is unique because of the commercial structure 

of its implementation.

NASA determined an enhanced Sabatier system could 

reduce water resupply requirements by thousands of 

Commercial Service Providers

Evolution of the space station as a laboratory in the vanguard of research in microgravity relies on a 

new and growing number of commercial service providers. Rather than follow the traditional model 

of government-funded, contractor-provided hardware or capability, a number of firms are entering a 

new phase of development of LEO—establishing a market. In this model, commercial firms develop 

capabilities that are then offered to government users and also marketed widely to potential new users 

of the ISS as a research platform. The space station gains important new (or updated) capability, while 

the service provider gains a new market in which to offer its services. 

Not only was the Sabatier 

hardware developed and 

funded by a non-governmental 

entity, it is operated on a 

purely commercial basis, 

with NASA buying the water 

generated for use on the 

space station.

NASA astronaut Douglas H. Wheelock, Expedition 

25 commander, is photographed with the Sabatier 

Assembly - Just prior to installation into Oxygen 

Generator System rack. 

Image credit: NASA
112

pounds of water per year and close the loop in the 

oxygen and water regeneration cycle. This represented 

significant and immediate cost savings in the operation 

of the space station, and provided a way to produce 

water rather than transport it all from Earth, increasing 

the goal of self-sufficiency and broadening the 

path for extended human survival in low-Earth orbit 

and beyond. 

In April 2008, NASA contracted with Hamilton 

Sundstrand Space, Land & Sea, to provide waterproduction services aboard the space station that 

would connect to the existing life-support system. 

While the company for some time has provided a 

number of systems for ISS, including spacesuits and 

those that control electrical power, this agreement 

expanded its existing work to develop the Sabatier 

processor. The result was that a 550-pound stainless 

steel cube the size of a small refrigerator arrived via 

Space Shuttle Discovery on April 7, 2010, and was 

operational by October of that year. 

The system includes half a dozen major components 

that ingest, pressurize, condense and transform gases 

to produce water and methane gas. Besides this 

production, it is designed for containment of the very 

reactive hydrogen and carbon dioxide gases. Water 

is processed through the Water Recovery System. 

The methane is vented into space, and the water is 

fed into the station’s water system where it undergoes 

treatment before it is used for drinking, personal 

hygiene and scientific experiments. 

The implementation of Sabatier on ISS is as much 

about the technological value as about a partnering 

breakthrough; not only was the Sabatier hardware 

developed and funded by a non-governmental entity, 

it is operated on a purely commercial basis, with 

NASA buying the water generated for use on the 

space station. The collaboration between NASA and 

UTC Aerospace Systems has made a significant 

contribution to the space station’s supply chain. 

Instead of traditional cost-plus contracting roles, the 

idea was to develop a piece of spaceflight hardware 

with minimal NASA oversight. 

A new business model was in the making. The 

partners agreed that UTC would fund the development 

and operation of the Sabatier system, while NASA 

would launch it on an assembly mission and 

provide it rack space on the station. Importantly, the 

agreement removed more than 70 percent of NASA’s 

standard requirements. Verification of the remaining 

requirements was left as flexible as possible, and 

specific verification criteria were defined only where 

absolutely required. 

If the system did not work, NASA would owe nothing 

to UTC; while the system is operational (which it 

has been for several years now), NASA pays for the 

amount of water produced. While NASA provided 

some milestone payments during the development 

timeframe, these were subject to a 100-percent 

refund if the hardware did not work upon in-orbit 

activation. This met NASA’s need to keep UTC 

motivated and met UTC’s need for cash flow during 

the development phase.

ISS is a test bed for exploration, but this illustrates 

that it can also be a test bed for procurement options. 

Commercial providers believed that they could deliver 

a Sabatier system cheaply if the government would 

just allow them to do so. This experience is serving as 

a pathfinder for other innovative hardware development 

on ISS.

Commercialization of low-Earth orbit 

(LEO)

For too long, in order to utilize the International Space 

Station and its LEO environment, one had to be 

an expert, and that presented a significant barrier. 

Fortunately, an exciting new commercial pathway is 

revolutionizing and opening access to space—making 

space just like any other place to do business.

In 2009, NanoRacks started under a very unique 

Space Act Agreement that enables access to the 

ISS manifest and in-orbit resources. NanoRacks has 

self-funded specific research hardware for the station. 

Utilizing the ultimate “Plug and Play” approach, small 

payloads in the CubeLab/CubeSat form factor are 

plugged into platforms or racks, providing interface 

with space station power and data capabilities. (A 

CubeSat is a miniaturized satellite that usually has a 

volume of exactly one liter, or a 10-cm/4-inch cube, 

and has a mass of no more than 1.33 kilograms/2.9 

pounds; the CubeLab is a comparable, compact 

research environment for inside ISS.) 

An exciting new commercial 

pathway is revolutionizing and 

opening access to space, 

making space just like any 

other place to do business.
113

In return, the business model enables NanoRacks to 

market to other organizations as long as it executes 

the mission of the U.S. National Lab to provide 

research access to paying customers as commercial 

users of ISS. This is extraordinary because, for the first 

time, the market is expressing what can and should 

be done on the station without direct funding by the 

government. Over the past three years of operation, 

NanoRacks has sent more than 200 payloads to 

station, literally launching a new space market.

Another slice of the new market for NanoRacks is the 

deployment of small satellites from the station, and no 

one anticipated its immediate success. NanoRacks 

saw the opportunity to use the Japanese Experiment 

Module (JEM) airlock and posed the question to NASA: 

“If we develop our own more-efficient, less-expensive 

satellite deployer, can we use it?” The question 

was not about seeking funding, but permission, to 

develop and serve a market. NanoRacks identified 

potential customers on the U.S. west coast working 

on miniaturization and electronics that wanted to 

make small satellites but had no way to launch other 

than through cost-prohibitive Russian or U.S. assets. 

Subsequently, these companies, as well as labs and 

organizations throughout the U.S. government, have 

been very responsive to the NanoRacks CubeSat 

Deployer (NRCSD). Initially planning to deploy only 

occasionally, the company now has a queue of 

customers ready to be deployed from the station. 

NanoRacks has applied the power of standardization, 

the efficiencies of commercialization, and the advances 

in component miniaturization to in-orbit operations. By 

focusing on customer satisfaction, they have made it 

possible for non-experts to use the space environment 

for experiments.

Private sector participation provides a new model for 

moving forward in partnership with the government. 

Through that model, the private sector develops the 

market, secures the funding, and builds the hardware 

while the U.S. taxpayer provides the infrastructure 

and the foundation of the U.S. National Lab in space. 

The benefits include transparency of costs, low-cost 

execution, access to space (either for microgravity 

or the vantage point in low-Earth orbit), speed to 

market (months as opposed to years), international 

collaboration and new-idea generation, and broad 

accessibility over five years.

Innovative public-private partnerships 

for ISS cargo services: Part 1

In January 2006, NASA announced the Commercial 

Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) program would 

be designated to coordinate the delivery of crew and 

cargo to the International Space Station by private 

companies. The intent was to spur innovation by the 

commercial sector to design, build, launch, and fly ISSdestined cargo demonstration flights by September 

2013. The companies initially selected for the COTS 

program were Space Exploration Technologies 

(SpaceX) and Rocketplane Kistler. However, the 

companies and spacecraft ultimately completing the 

Planet Labs’ Dove satellites being deployed from 

the NanoRacks CubeSat Deployer, Feb. 14, 

2014. 

Image credit: NASA

NanoRacks Exposed Platform, scheduled for 

delivery to the ISS in October 2015 on HTV-5. 

Image credit: NanoRacks
114

program demonstration requirements were the SpaceX 

Dragon and Orbital Sciences Corporation’s Cygnus 

vehicles. COTS did not involve binding contracts 

but did require the successful completion of predetermined development and financing milestones 

through the use of Space Act Agreements. A separate 

program called the Commercial Resupply Services 

(CRS) was initiated approximately two years after 

the COTS program began. While the first program 

developed the transportation vehicles, the second 

is designed to provide actual cargo and payload 

deliveries to the station and either cargo return 

or cargo removal and disposal from the station. 

The COTS program involved funded Space Act 

Agreements, with NASA providing milestone-based 

payments. CRS is a fixed-price services contract, 

which requires the two suppliers to assume liability for 

failure to perform their cargo deliveries.

A look inside the decision by NASA to open its doors 

to private industry is compelling. 

Station resupply and disposal was the first capability 

area—requiring precision orbit insertion, rendezvous, 

and docking with another spacecraft—with commercial 

crew transportation to follow. 

Today, with space station cargo resupply efforts 

underway, it is clear the unprecedented efficiency of 

the COTS investment resulted in two new automated 

cargo spacecraft. It has been heralded as one of 

the most extraordinary examples of public/private 

partnership, and a leap of faith for NASA.

SpaceX’s achievements include the first privately 

funded, liquid-fueled rocket (Falcon 1) to reach orbit 

on Sept. 28, 2008; the first privately funded launch, 

orbit and recovery of a spacecraft, Dragon, on Dec. 

9, 2010; and the first private spacecraft (Dragon) to 

launch to the station, on May 25, 2012. As of February 

2015, SpaceX has flown six cargo missions to the ISS.

Founder Elon Musk focused the vision early, utilizing a 

vertical integration business model—an arrangement 

in which the supply chain of a company is owned by 

that company. In order to control quality and costs, 

SpaceX designs, tests and fabricates the majority of its components in-house, including the rocket 

engines used on the Falcon launch vehicles and the 

Dragon spacecraft. This type of production is unusual 

in the aerospace industry but has allowed SpaceX to 

significantly reduce conventional rocket development 

and flight integration time. In addition to the capability 

of delivering pressurized cargo, the Dragon vehicle also 

has a “trunk” allowing the transport of unpressurized 

payloads intended for the exterior locations on the 

station (and for disposing of them once their operational life or research mission is complete). Perhaps 

most importantly, it can return cargo and experiment 

samples to Earth in the pressurized volume. This 

The Commercial Orbital 

Transportation Services 

(COTS) program has been 

heralded as one of the most 

extraordinary examples of 

public/private partnership, and 

a leap of faith for NASA.

SpaceX’s Falcon 9 lifts off with its Dragon resupply 

vehicle aboard, headed for the ISS.

Image credit: NASA
115

return of recoverable capability had been all but lost to 

NASA since the retirement of the shuttle; the only other 

means of returning very small amounts of pressurized 

cargo has been with the crews as they return to Earth 

via Russian Soyuz vehicles.

During a keynote speech in 2013 at the International 

Symposium for Personal and Commercial Spaceflight 

(ISPCS) Conference, SpaceX Chief Operating Officer 

Gwynne Shotwell described the notable change in 

public perception about space. She said the surge in 

commercial opportunities through partnerships with 

NASA and the rebirth of entrepreneurial organizations 

has spurred renewed awareness and excitement, 

including a growth in technical and engineering jobs. 

Innovative public-private partnerships 

for ISS cargo services: Part 2 

An important part of the COTS story is that a humaninhabited space station presents a useable, continuous 

market for commercial ventures. Initially, there was 

a crucial need for cargo delivery to the station. The 

COTS and CRS programs enabled a new mindset 

about resupply missions, with cost and assumption 

of risk no longer weighted on the government and 

the opportunity for private contractors to propose 

innovative solutions. The new resupply services 

contracts represent a major change in the way NASA 

procures space transportation services.

Orbital Sciences Corporation (Orbital) has been 

involved in the commercial use of space for 33 years. 

Orbital sells satellites commercially to operators around 

the world. That business model evolved to incorporate 

rocket development and integration at the launch site. 

Having been a partner with NASA for many years on 

multiple projects, the COTS and CRS projects allowed 

Orbital to be actively involved in the ISS program, 

NASA’s premier human spaceflight endeavor, leveraging its spacecraft and rocket experience to date. Additionally, it inspired Orbital to invest in more research 

and development to support the new endeavor.

The new resupply services 

contracts represent a 

major change in the way 

NASA procures space 

transportation services.

SpaceX’s Dragon capsule as it approaches the 

ISS, Oct. 25, 2014. 

Image credit: NASA

Orbital’s Antares rocket with the Cygnus cargo 

vehicle aboard, launches to the International 

Space Station.

Image credit: NASA
116

As one might imagine, the level of financial risk for 

a commercial company in the rocket and satellite 

business is greater than other means of transportation. 

There is always potential for failure. A case in point is 

the total loss of the Orbital 3 flight immediately after 

liftoff in October 2014. The loss of the cargo destined 

for the station required all parties to work together 

to re-plan and recover from the unfortunate event. 

Publicly traded Orbital had built cost control into the 

structure of the company. The books are open for the 

Security Exchange Commission and stockholders 

to see, so there has to be transparency in company 

finances. Insurance companies are incorporated into 

the mix to help manage risk. Another challenge is that 

customer requirements tend to change and there is 

a desire to be flexible, but changes cost money. Past 

systems such as the space shuttle used cost-plus 

contracting. If NASA sought to change a requirement, 

the contractor complied and issued an additional 

bill. Under the fixed-price contracting of today, the 

change request is reviewed by all parties for potential 

scope increase and evaluated for the additional cost. 

Alternative in-scope versus out-of-scope ideas, called 

“what if” scenarios, can be brainstormed without 

incurring a lot of cost because of the collaborative 

nature of all involved. Competition also makes the 

parties more cognizant of the costs. 

Commercialization of various aspects of NASA’s 

mission is having a very positive ripple effect. New 

companies participating in human spaceflight and 

developing unique partnerships has given regional 

economies a boost. Multiple international suppliers 

have close ties to their respective space agencies, 

which enables more collaboration and continuity. And 

large and small U.S. aerospace companies now have 

the ability to contribute and join these ventures.

With SpaceX and Orbital leading the way in carrying 

out the resupply service at a lower cost to the 

taxpayer, NASA can give its attention to other space 

station and exploration objectives. 

Precision pointing platform for Earth 

observations from the ISS

In May 2014, the German Aerospace Center 

(Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt; DLR) 

and the U.S. corporation Teledyne Brown Engineering, 

Inc. (TBE) announced an agreement to install and 

operate the imaging spectrometer DLR Earth 

Sensing Imaging Spectrometer (DESIS) aboard the 

International Space Station. As one of four DLR-built 

camera systems for remote sensing, it will be fitted 

to the Multi-User System for Earth Sensing (MUSES) 

precision-pointing platform TBE is developing for the 

station. DESIS will be able to detect changes in the 

land surface, oceans and atmosphere—contributing to 

a better understanding in fields as diverse as ecology, 

agriculture, and urban land use. The project is intended 

to open up new possibilities in Earth observation and is 

one of the first to be developed for ISS in cooperation 

with a commercial enterprise. This follows by just two 

years TBE’s award of a Cooperative Agreement by 

NASA to foster the commercial utilization of the space 

station by developing MUSES, which in turn launched 

the company’s new commercial space-based digital 

imaging business.

MUSES is a platform designed to host Earth-looking 

instruments, such as high-resolution digital cameras 

and multi- or hyperspectral instruments, and provide 

precision pointing, inertia-stabilization, and other 

accommodations. 

The new platform is about a meter square, with gyros, 

star trackers (small aperture, space-qualified optical 

We must establish enough 

momentum to sustain 

commercial enterprise in lowEarth orbit when the current 

station is no longer available.

Orbital’s Cygnus vehicle about to be berthed to 

the International Space Station, July 16, 2014. 

Image credit: NASA
117

products that ensure a spacecraft’s accurate attitude 

in space), and step motors (used for robotics and 

handy devices for repeatable positioning) designed 

to keep that platform fixed in inertial space, so as 

to negate the wobbles and vibrations of the station, 

which is critical for image quality. MUSES can host up 

to four instruments simultaneously to look down at the 

Earth. The model for commercialization of the station 

is evolving such that the company contributed its own 

resources while NASA shared in the development 

costs as well as providing the launch and in-orbit 

infrastructure. TBE has secured a National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) commercial 

imaging/remote-sensing license so that it can operate 

instruments on MUSES and then sell the data 

commercially. The company likens the station to a 

piece of real estate several hundred miles up in the 

air that is being developed over time for scientific, 

economic, educational, commercial, and quality of life 

purposes.

The first instrument placed aboard will be the 

DLR’s DESIS hyperspectral instrument, which has 

the capacity to distinguish slight variations in the 

reflectance of sunlight from the Earth surface (in the 

visible through near-infrared spectrum) when pointed 

over a geographic area. An image spectrometer is able 

to distinguish very subtle changes in the reflectance 

spectrum for distinguishing plant species or whether 

the forest is undergoing some sort of stress due to 

drought or pests. Fine variations in surface reflectance 

can give immense amounts of information just not 

possible with picture, such as you would take with an 

off-the-shelf digital camera.

Remote sensing of the Earth has come a long way, 

driven by concerns about agriculture, oil or gas 

resources, biodiversity, mineralogy, change detection 

and monitoring of world heritage sites, coastal zones, 

water ecosystems, and transportation. The DLR/

TBE commercial enterprise introduces a very specific 

measurement tool that will improve with application, for 

many markets that already exist. It is as much about 

the uses of the data as the data itself. For example, 

if a farmer wants to know when, where and how to 

water his corn, he doesn’t really need to know all the 

technology behind a spectral library. 

TBE was motivated to think more commercially about 

how it does business. TBE responded to a broad 

agency announcement (BAA) with an idea for putting 

a platform on the station and starting a commercial 

business leveraging its existing infrastructure. NASA 

and TBE recognized that the quickest way to extract 

value from the ISS would be to bring down data. 

TBE knows it is at one end of the pipeline—its users 

will benefit from the use of the data—and by providing 

data that is otherwise not available for application in 

industries such as fisheries and agriculture, TBE will 

be testing a commercial model for other instruments in 

the future.

Visioning beyond the space station will be critical for 

NASA and companies like TBE. To sustain what is now 

a nascent commercial marketplace in low-Earth orbit, 

participants must understand, accept, and plan for 

the day when the station will no longer be there. We 

The MUSES facility on the ISS will provide a stateof-the-art pointing platform for Earth observations. 

Image credit: TBE

The MUSES platform undergoes final testing at 

the TBE labs, Huntsville, Ala. 

Image credit: TBE
118

must not only leverage and develop the commercial 

market utilizing current assets but smoothly portage 

that whole commercial economy from the current 

station to whatever other infrastructures we can 

foresee, will build, or have available in LEO or beyond. 

In other words, we must establish enough momentum 

to move the commercial enterprise beyond when the 

current station is no longer an asset at our disposal. 

Though this might seem difficult, it actually energizes 

the foundations on which our country was established: 

the challenge to persist, to contribute, to open new 

possibilities, and to make this world a better place. 

The Groundbreaker: Earth observation 

In 2014, NanoRacks signed an agreement with a 

publicly traded Canadian company called UrtheCast to 

place Earth Observation (EO) sensors on the American 

side of the space station, having already placed two 

instruments on the Russian side. UrtheCast’s entire 

business model is tied now to the ISS. What’s more, 

through this partnership, UrtheCast is making one 

of the single largest private investments to date in 

utilization of the station.

The genesis of a new company began four years ago 

when MacDonald, Dettwiler and Associates (MDA), 

Canada’s largest aerospace company, explored 

options for placing Earth observing sensors on the 

Russian segment. Ultimately, MDA determined the 

project was not compatible with its corporate mission, 

so did not pursue it further. However, a couple of 

executives took the opportunity to spin the company 

out and pursue the prospect directly, calling the new 

firm UrtheCast. They developed an experiment to build 

and operate two cameras on the ISS and market the 

imagery worldwide. 

Both cameras launched in November 2013 and 

were installed in January 2014 via two spacewalks 

by Russian cosmonauts. With two sensors in place, 

UrtheCast went on to raise $68 million privately and 

ultimately executed an Initial Public Offering (IPO) on 

the Toronto Stock Exchange. 

About the same time the two cameras were installed, 

UrtheCast started actively seeking a U.S. partner, 

ultimately partnering with NanoRacks, seeking its 

access to station. It was a natural fit, which resulted 

in a June 2014 announcement that a suite of nextgeneration sensors would be developed and ready to 

launch in late 2016 or early 2017.

The UrtheCast/NanoRacks partnership plans to put 

its own small module, called Lightweight UrtheCast 

NanoRacks Alcove (LUNA), on the U.S. side of station. 

The proposed project would contain three elements: 

1. A very high-resolution, dual-mode and multispectral camera, capable of switching between 

still images and high-resolution video. Developers 

hope that after processing, the sensor can achieve 

resolution as low as 40 centimeters, which would 

make it one of the highest-resolution, Earth 

observation instruments in orbit. 

2. A Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) sensor, which 

will send an energy pulse down to Earth, providing 

the ability to see at night and through clouds. The 

data set is not intuitive to look at and very difficult 

to handle, but fusing the data sets ultimately 

creates a cloudless image. 

3. The two sensors will be paired with a dedicated 

X-band downlink and distributed through Internet 

Cloud technology, enabling a capability akin to 

Google Earth and Netflix.

UrtheCast is a company 

whose entire business 

model is tied to the ISS and 

is making a large private 

investment to use the station.

Urthecast camera being installed on the Russian 

Segment of the International Space Station.

Image credit: Roscosmos
119

The station is a very capable imaging platform. It is 

in low-Earth orbit, which means very high-resolution 

instruments can provide great images, its orbit covers 

approximately 95 percent of the Earth’s inhabited 

areas, and it has the ability to revisit locations regularly.

The partnership between UrtheCast, NanoRacks, 

and NASA allows instruments to be put in orbit at a 

lower cost by benefitting from existing infrastructure 

and investment. These companies believe that 

dreams for space exploration will remain politically and 

economically difficult to achieve unless an energized 

customer base emerges. They believe that data from 

state-of-the-art EO sensors on the station offer an 

obvious solution to help stimulate that demand.

A flock of CubeSats photographs our 

changing planet

Around 10:50 a.m. on July 23, 2014, the California 

Highway Patrol received a report of a fast-growing 

wildfire in Riverside County, west of Palm Springs. The 

blaze spread quickly, forcing some residents to evacuate. Within 15 minutes, a toaster-sized satellite called 

a Dove captured an image depicting the fire’s size, the 

path it burned through, the wind’s direction, and the 

fire’s exact location. The fire was fully contained within 

a day. The satellite took the picture without anyone 

requesting it, simply performing its normal task of 

photographing a 10-kilometer by 15-kilometer strip of 

Earth (about 6 miles by 9 miles) every second, a job 

enabled by the International Space Station.

Larger government and commercial satellites provide 

nations and corporations with detailed images of the 

planet, some of which people can browse to look 

for their own neighborhoods. These satellites are 

expensive and limited in number, though, and either 

have low spatial resolution or take images according 

to customer requests, focusing only on certain areas. 

Crucially, these satellites might not take repeat images 

of the same region for several months. This makes it 

difficult to study rapid changes, such as international 

conflicts, environmental degradation or fast-growing 

forest fires. 

A small-satellite startup called Planet Labs is using the 

space station as a launch pad for a fleet of miniature 

Captured by UrtheCast’s Theia camera on July 3, 2014, this image spans across Rome, Italy, and its surroundings.

Image credit: UrtheCast

Planet Labs aims to make 

Dove images searchable and 

easily available for everyone 

from governments studying 

changing shorelines to 

firefighters battling a forest fire.
120

orbital cameras. These “flocks” of 11-pound (5 kg) 

CubeSats, or Doves, take continuous photos of the 

entire Earth and transmit them to ground stations every 

90 minutes. They provide an unprecedented view of 

Earth, from growth in cities to summer wildfires like the 

one in California. 

Different types of CubeSats frequently launch from the 

space station and provide a novel way to image Earth, 

log ship traffic, and send messages, among many 

other tasks. An entire flock allows Planet Labs 8 to 

collect planet-wide data, which would be impossible 

with a larger single satellite. The company started in 

Silicon Valley in 2009 with a goal of capturing a daily 

global mosaic of Earth. This requires a large fleet of 

CubeSats, and the station is the key to getting them 

into space. 

From its perch 230 miles (370 km) above Earth, each 

Dove captures images once per second and each 

has a resolution of 10 to 16 feet (three to five meters). 

That means each pixel in the camera’s viewing area 

corresponds to a 3-meter-wide object. That resolution 

is enough to distinguish individual trees in a rainforest 

but not enough to identify a person walking on the 

street. Planet Labs has launched 71 Doves since 

January 2014 using CubeSat deployers developed by 

NanoRacks, LLC. In part because the CubeSats are 

so small and relatively inexpensive, they have a lifespan 

of only a few months of operations, but their orbital 

altitudes are low enough that they eventually fall back 

to Earth and, by design, burn up in the atmosphere. 

Doves are continually replaced by newer models, 

which Planet Labs is constantly testing and updating 

from its San Francisco headquarters. To date, Planet 

Labs has built more than 100 Doves. The company 

is funded through private venture capital and private 

investors. 

Eventually, Planet Labs aims to make Dove images 

searchable and easily available for anyone who wants 

to look at them—from spectators eager to see their 

houses, to governments studying changing shorelines 

and firefighters battling a blaze in a small slice of forest.

Stretch your horizons, Stay CuriousTM 

Kentucky Science and Technology Corporation 

(KSTC), and two subsidiaries, Kentucky Space (a 

nonprofit company) and Space Tango, Inc. (a for-profit 

enterprise) are building a reputation for designing and 

executing diverse initiatives in science, technology, 

entrepreneurship and disruptive innovation. The focus 

is on small, high-value satellites and applications, 

and novel space platforms and experiments for the 

space station. 

Kentucky Space began as a vehicle for involving 

university students in space projects. It is an ambitious 

consortium of universities and public and private organizations aimed at designing and leading innovative 

space missions within realistic budgets and objectives. 

The programs cover a spectrum of flight opportunities 

including near-space balloons; sub-orbital, orbital and 

Two Planet Labs “Dove” CubeSats immediately 

after being deployed from the ISS.

Image credit: NASA

Irrigated fields in Pinal County, Arizona, as viewed 

by a Dove CubeSat.

Image credit: Planet Labs
121

ISS missions; as well as partnerships with organizations and space agencies worldwide. Twyman Clements was a student at Kentucky Space only a few 

years ago; now he is the young CEO of Space Tango. 

Based in Lexington, Space Tango seeks to utilize 

space to discover, design and commercialize solutions 

for applications on Earth. This is accomplished through 

platforms—hardware and software offerings to those in 

the research communities looking to utilize the unique 

environment of microgravity. Focused primarily on the 

entrepreneurial space marketplace, Space Tango’s 

capabilities and experience involve CubeSat class and 

other micro-satellites and subsystems, satellite ground 

operations, space platform design and testing, and 

development of novel technology and experiments 

for the station. The company is committed to a highly 

collaborative business strategy and works closely 

with a number of other companies, universities and 

organizations.

A general research platform/multi-lab facility, called 

TangoLab by Clements, will be installed in 2015 on 

the ISS. It will host a variety of payloads relevant to the 

medical field, the material sciences, and environmental 

sensing. Researchers will interact with their experiments in the unique space environment right from a 

computer, with data transmitted over the internet. 

The CubeLab arose from a need for repeatable/affordable research on the station. The uniquely designed 

research module was developed by Kentucky Space, 

based on the proven CubeSat form-factor. Providing 

a standardized platform and open architecture for the 

experimental modules shortens the development cycle 

and lowers costs for research and development. The 

goal is to lead to quicker time to market for new drug 

products, treatments or procedures. 

The TangoLab research platform is a work of elegant 

art. It was not simple to develop, requiring the 

collaborative experience and creativity of everyone 

involved, with the aid of 3-D printing. The premise, 

though, is simple: use of standardized hardware 

dramatically lowers the cost of space station utilization.

In May 2011, Kentucky Space launched an exciting 

new initiative: the study and exploration of medical 

solutions in the microgravity environment of space. 

The Exomedicine Institute, an interdisciplinary team of 

top scientists, engineers and entrepreneurs, has been 

assembled to forge ahead into this new and potentially 

promising field of research. 

All organisms on Earth, during evolution over billions 

of years, have adapted their form and function to 

the force of Earth’s gravity. These characteristics 

are encoded in their genes: up-down asymmetry, 

structural strength, size of force-producing elements 

and sensory systems. 

Since gravity influences all biological systems at a 

molecular level, what happens to biological systems 

when the influence of gravity is modified or removed? 

We can’t remove gravity on Earth, but conducting 

biomedical research in space makes certain Earthbound limitations disappear.

Without gravity, cells, molecules, protein crystals, and 

microbes behave in very different ways. Microgravity 

thus presents opportunities to explore new and 

potentially game-changing discoveries in areas such 

as human tissue regeneration, drug development, 

treatments for diseases such as cancer and other lifethreatening and chronic conditions, as well as energy 

and novel materials.

The work of Kentucky Space, Space Tango, and 

the Exomedicine Institute reflect an interdisciplinary 

approach to research and development (R&D), as 

well as the rise of a “newspace” era with a multitude 

Space has always been at 

the forefront of innovation and 

really pushes any company to 

challenge the status quo.

Flatworms being prepared for loading into the 

Biological Research In Canisters hardware. 

Image credit: Space Tango
122

of players. Lowering barriers enables people to do 

research in, and manufacture for, LEO. Based on a fullservice philosophy, these three companies recognize 

that the average person knows little about handling a 

launch with NASA, so the companies offer engineering 

and technical expertise to assist with experiment 

design, payload design and integration, facilities, and 

a full suite of test equipment and capabilities for a 

successful launch. 

Going into space forces people to think outside 

the box; space has always been at the forefront of 

innovation and really pushes any company to challenge 

the status quo.

In 2000, Kimel created another entity as well: 

IdeaFestival, an international event centered on 

innovation, discovery and creative thinking across 

different disciplines. IdeaFestival is an annual four-day 

gathering of an eclectic network of global thinkers 

and one-of-a-kind innovators bound together by 

an intense curiosity about what is impacting and 

shaping the future. Those who attend leave the 

event with interesting new ideas, a better sense of 

connectedness, an expanded network of relationships 

and lasting inspiration to help create change in the 

world.

These types of opportunities help inform others of new 

ideas, fueling the pipeline of newspace activity with 

a vision to increase private sector entrepreneurship 

through student pioneers.

As the IdeaFestival mantra goes: Stretch Your 

Horizons, Stay Curious—for a new idea can be 

generated when you least expect it.

Mission critical: Flatworm experiment 

races the clock after splashdown 

Everyone is familiar with the blastoff countdown 

associated with a rocket headed to space, but what 

about the countdown that takes place once a capsule 

returns to Earth?

The highly sensitive biomedical experiments that 

travel aboard the International Space Station have 

the potential to impact lives. Success of these 

experiments often depends on a swift shipment 

from the splashdown site to the lab, where scientists 

can analyze crucial data. The moments between 

splashdown and analysis are critical. 

This was the case when a capsule from the station 

carrying 48 planarian flatworms (known for their ability 

to regenerate their own body parts) splashed down in 

the Pacific Ocean off the coast of California in 2014.

The flatworms had been delivered to the space 

station one month earlier as part of a collaboration 

between independent, nonprofit space contractor 

Kentucky Space and its for-profit arm Space Tango, 

the Center for the Advancement of Science in Space 

(CASIS), NASA and the Tufts Center for Regenerative 

and Development Biology. The experiment could 

lead to powerful benefits for humanity, including 

further understanding of the regenerative powers 

of the flatworms that could someday impact global 

healthcare, including treatments for cancers, treatment 

of spinal cord injuries, and the ability to correct 

developmental problems in embryos. 

Two factors were critical to the success of the 

research: time and temperature. The flatworms needed 

to be transported quickly from Long Beach, California, 

to Tufts University in Boston for analysis, and the 

shipment needed to maintain a temperature of 12 

Flatworm specimens are prepared prior to their 

launch to the ISS. 

Image credit: Space Tango

Innovative logistics by FedEx 

enabled the possibility to 

connect the space station and 

a strong terrestrial team to 

advance research.
123

degrees Celsius throughout its journey. Mishandling of 

either environmental factor could kill the flatworms and 

cause the experiment to fail.

FedEx was up for the challenge. Space Tango, on Kentucky Space’s behalf, worked with the FedEx Space 

Desk team, logistical experts for the space industry and 

the power behind FedEx® Space Solutions, to design 

the optimum journey for the flatworm experiment.

When the capsule hit the water, the countdown began. 

The vessel was rapidly retrieved and the flatworm 

shipment quickly sent on its way to Boston via FedEx 

Express, inside a custom-designed, temperature-controlled package. The shipment was monitored throughout its journey by SenseAware, powered by FedEx, 

which allowed stakeholders at Kentucky Space, Space 

Tango and Tufts University to not only track its location, 

but also remain certain that the temperature inside the 

package did not waver from 12 degrees Celsius.

The shipment arrived safely and on time in Boston, 

giving Tufts’ scientists near-immediate access to the 

flatworms. Mission: Accomplished.

Research continues on the effects of a microgravity 

environment on the regenerative ability of flatworms. 

Innovative logistics by FedEx enabled the possibility 

to connect the space station and a strong terrestrial 

team—all of which played a key role in advancing the 

research in this important field.

Economic development of space in JAXA

Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) has 

been striving for economic development of space in 

the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM, or “Kibo,” 

which means “hope” in Japanese) and H-II Transfer 

Vehicle (HTV, or “Kounotori,” which means “white 

stork” in Japanese). Economic development of 

space includes advancing technology of Japanese 

companies, expanding spin-offs and opening the door 

to commercial sectors in Kibo utilization. 

Navigation and Communication Services for the 

International Space Station

Throughout the history of the ISS program, many 

Japanese industries have been challenging traditional 

approaches to human spaceflight and acquiring 

advanced human space technologies. 

Some Japanese firms, with acquired globally 

competitive technologies and know-how, have 

delivered human space technology systems to the 

worldwide commercial market. 

An example is the Proximity Link system applied 

for commercial spacecraft. Mitsubishi Electric 

(MELCO) designed and produced the Proximity Link 

System (PLS), which communicates with Proximity 

Communication System (PROX) installed in the 

Kibo module, providing navigational information 

and communication links to space vehicles to safely 

approach and depart from the station. MELCO 

originally designed and produced this PROX/PLS to 

enable HTV, or Kountori, to rendezvous and berth with 

the station. This brand new technology has since been 

applied to Orbital’s Cygnus spacecraft to enable its 

safe arrival at the station. 

This FedEx environmentally controlled shipping 

container, with SenseAware environmental 

monitoring, transported the Space Tango 

flatworms experiment to the lab after returning to 

Earth from the ISS.

Image credit: FedEx

There are many undiscovered 

possibilities for increasing 

space station utilization. JAXA 

already has discovered and 

successfully accomplished 

a number of commercial 

projects aboard Kibo.
124

Commercial Utilization Initiatives

JAXA has endeavored to utilize the Kibo module 

commercially for research by following three core 

initiatives based on our human space technologies 

and experiences of its utilization: promoting use of the 

station to new potential commercial markets, creating 

new opportunities for commercial customers to use 

the station, and enhancing the capabilities of Kibo.

Promotion to Potential Commercial markets

JAXA searched promising research areas with ground 

applications and recognized the potential benefit for 

drug design using protein crystal growth experiments, 

Earth observation and generation of new materials.

For Earth observation, the Japan Space Forum delivers 

the high-quality movies of the Earth via internet with its 

Kibo Hi-Vision EarthView Educational Program service.

The possibility of generating new materials in space 

has attracted commercial companies. One example 

is the colloidal crystals as novel optical materials. 

Large, high-quality colloidal crystals made in space are 

expected to have applications for photonic materials. 

This experiment was executed as a collaborative work 

between Hamamatsu Photonics K.K., Fuji Chemical 

Co., Ltd. and universities.

The Production of High Performance Nanomaterials 

in Microgravity (Nanoskeleton) investigation aimed 

to clarify the effect of gravity on oil flotation, 

sedimentation, and convection on crystals generated 

in microgravity. Nanoskeleton data will be added into a 

computational chemistry simulation for Nanoskeleton 

synthesis, and the simulation will be used for the 

prediction of the proper parameters for synthesis on 

the ground. Shiseido Co., Ltd. and universities took 

part in this project.

Strategic promotion by JAXA has increased the number of commercial customers, including non-traditional 

users. One example is drug companies benefitting 

from the protein crystal growth experiments in Kibo. 

Another example is space experimentation on the 

effects of probiotics on immune function, a collaborative work between a beverage company, Yakult Honsha Co., Ltd. and JAXA. Astronauts may be at physical 

risk because a long stay in space is known to alter 

human immune function. A probiotic, Lactobacillus 

casei strain Shirota, has been demonstrated to offer 

health benefits by improving intestinal microbiota and 

maintaining immune function on the ground. An investigation in Kibo examined the health benefits of probiotics consumption on human immune systems aboard 

the space station. It may lead to the development of 

functional space food and techniques for long-term 

Lactobacillus preservation on Earth.

New Opportunities for Commercial Customers

In 2013, JAXA started a new commercial utilization 

scheme, based on knowledge from previous activity, 

Protein crystal growth for drug development.

Image credit: JAXA

In space On ground

Lactobacillus casei strain Shirota.

Image credit: Yakult Honsha Co., Ltd.
125

to provide more user-friendly utilization services 

and a system to facilitate entry and shorten the 

time required for implementation of space activities. 

JAXA’s efforts to encourage new entries from nontraditional users into the space field continue.

One of the major services already available to 

commercial users is the JEM Small Satellite Orbital 

Deployer (J-SSOD), which deploys small satellites 

for Earth observation, remote sensing and capability building. J-SSOD is an excellent example of 

producing new business using an existing facility, 

combining the JEM, airlock and robotic arm. This 

conceptual breakthrough has spread. In fact, once 

the deployment of small satellites using the airlock 

had proven to be a valuable capability, a US company—with NASA as a customer—developed their 

own deployer to take advantage of this opportunity.

A Brazilian microsatellite, AESP-14, was successfully 

deployed in February 2015 from Kibo at Tsukuba 

Space Center. AESP-14 was developed by 

Technological Institute of Aeronautics (ITA) with 

support of Brazilian Space Agency (AEB) and 

Brazilian National Institute for Space Research (INPE), 

with Japan Manned Space Systems Corporation 

(JAMSS) ensuring deployment from Kibo. This was the 

first opportunity for commercial utilization of J-SSOD.

Various new space experiment technologies are being 

developed such as crystallization technique that 

acquires large single crystals for neutron diffraction 

and widening temperature range to meet commercial 

users’ demands. Protein crystal growth project has 

attracted research-and-development oriented drug 

companies through targeted direct promotion. Interprotein Corporation, Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd. 

and ARKRAY, Inc. participated in JAXA’s protein crystal 

growth experiments. Interprotein set out to achieve 

high-quality, co-crystal structure of proteins and lowmolecular compounds for effective design of drugs. 

Chugai aimed at precise 3-D structures of proteins 

by the high-quality crystals grown in microgravity, to 

help understand the structure/function relationship of 

drug candidates and create revolutionary new drugs. 

ARKRAY and Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology took part in JAXA’s experiment to analyze the 

protein structure that is indispensable for the development of biosensing technology and aim at its application for an innovative biosensing system that will be 

helpful for the treatment and diagnosis of diabetes.

Enhancing the Capabilities of Kibo

JAXA continues upgrades of existing Kibo facilities 

as well as new facility installations, including the 

Rodent facility (Mouse Habitat Unit) for rodent 

research, fluorescence microscope and Electrostatic 

Levitation Furnace (ELF) for new material generation 

research and high-temperature thermal property 

data acquisition. 

The space station also serves as a test bed for future 

exploration, satellite technology validation and transfer vehicle technology development. JAXA provides 

Electrostatic Levitation Furnace (ELF) for new 

material generation and high-temperature thermal 

property data acquisition.

Image credit: JAXA

Experiment Handrail Attachment Mechanism 

(ExHAM) attached to the JEM Exposed Facility.

Image credit: JAXA
126

simple external experiment opportunities for technical 

demonstrations. For example, the Exposed Experiment 

Handrail Attachment Mechanism (ExHAM) enables 

exposure of materials to the space environment outside the station, and cosmic dust extraction. Junkosha 

Inc. will utilize ExHAM facility to expose the PEEK 

electric wire material, which has high-temperature and 

high-radiation resistance, to the space environment. 

Acquired data will be evaluated for the company’s wire 

commercialization in space craft use.

There are likely many undiscovered possibilities for 

increasing space station utilization. JAXA already has 

discovered and successfully accomplished a number 

of commercial projects aboard Kibo and will keep 

finding innovative ways to facilitate its commercial 

utilization. This will benefit all humanity as well as 

provide benefits to Japan.
127

Colloids in space: Where consumer products and science intersect

The Proctor & Gamble story represents two types of 

people: the consumer and the materials scientist.

As a rule, consumers want to use products that 

enhance their lives. Those products must fulfill the 

promises they promote, whether to have a long shelf 

life, be easy to use, or perform as advertised. In the 

case of products such as shampoos or liquid soaps, 

the purchaser does not want to see obvious physical 

separation of the material within the bottle (a sediment 

or settling), which could indicate something amiss. 

Materials or physical scientists, for their part, want to 

produce products or discover formulas that hold new 

promise and function. They want to know how certain 

active ingredients or stabilizers behave when added to 

product formulas. They constantly hunt for the optimal 

mix that will increase product shelf life or performance. 

Sometimes it takes working under very special 

circumstances, which is why materials scientists 

at Procter & Gamble Co. (P&G) decided to take 

their research to a higher level—aboard the orbiting 

laboratory of the International Space Station. Working 

with NASA, P&G has funded an investigation of how 

gas and liquid phases separate and come together in 

microgravity in the study of colloids.

On Earth, gravity complicates this research by causing 

heavy components to sink and lighter ones to float. 

This movement occurs very quickly, making it difficult 

to understand what is happening and why. Space, 

however, negates these gravitational forces, revealing 

the natural movement of the colloids. The in-orbit 

samples’ aging process works more slowly and evenly, 

making it easier to study. 

A series of colloid investigations aboard the space 

station were conducted from October 2013 to March 

2014 using a science platform known as the Advanced 

Colloids Experiment (ACE), it is a collaboration 

between P&G and Case Western Reserve University.

Though the investigation is designed to help 

researchers understand how to optimize stabilizers 

for extending product shelf life, the results also 

are intended to cut development, production and 

transportation costs. Better stabilizers result in better 

quality, reduced costs and greener, more concentrated 

products that use less plastic packaging, resist 

collapse, and remain consistent throughout their life. In 

such an improved process, the first ounce coming out 

of the bottle will be the same as the last. 

Driving P&G’s interest in research on the station is the 

fact that about two thirds of its biggest brands are softmatter systems—things like fabric softener, deodorant 

and detergent—that could benefit from this study. 

Armed with a better understanding of the nature of the 

Commercial Research

The unique environment of microgravity provides opportunities for many types of commercially-viable 

research. Using model organisms (such as rodents or flatworms) to help understand terrestrial concerns 

such as bone loss or muscle wasting, performing materials research on colloids to develop products 

that are more uniform and have a longer shelf life, growing larger protein crystals on the space station to 

help develop monoclonal antibodies, and using the station as a launchpad for a flock of Earth-observing 

satellites, are just a few examples of the diverse research interests of the corporate world and how they 

intersect with the International Space Station. These summaries of commercial research activities in 

progress show the impact and interest in using the space station for research and development.

Using microgravity to study 

the exceptionally small 

particles that make up liquid 

products may ultimately lead 

to improving health, beauty 

and household care products 

that we use every day. 
128

fluids separation, researchers can work on creating 

better stabilizers and product formulations. 

ACE-M-1 studied behavior of microscopic particles 

in liquids, gels and creams. ACE-M-2 is currently 

operating on the space station and continues work 

in phase separation and how to influence phase 

separation. The investigation examines the behavior 

of model colloid-rich liquids and model colloid-poor 

gases near the critical point, or the point at which no 

distinct boundary exists between the two phases. 

ACE-M-2 records micro-scale events on short time 

scales, while previous experiments observed large 

scale behavior over many weeks. Liquids and gases 

of the same material usually have different densities 

and so would behave differently under the influence 

of gravity, making the microgravity environment of the 

International Space Station ideal for these experiments.

The ACE-M-3 experiment involves the design and 

assembly of complex three-dimensional structures 

from small particles suspended within a fluid medium. 

These so-called self-assembled colloidal structures 

are vital to the design of advanced optical materials. 

Researching them in the microgravity environment will 

provide insight into the relation between particle shape, 

crystal symmetry and structure: a fundamental issue in 

condensed-matter science.

One reason P&G is involved in this research is its 

interest in understanding phase separation kinetics 

of colloids, masked by gravity on Earth. The small 

blobs that form and grow in microgravity, instead of 

Similar to what is under investigation in the Advanced Colloids Experiment, the above microscopic view of product 

sample gel in microgravity is dominated with fragile strands composed of many particles in a cross-section. The 

Model of gel structure above reveals characteristics hidden by gravity. 

Image credit: NASA

European Space Agency astronaut Paolo 

Nespoli operates the Light Microscopy Module 

microscope aboard the International Space 

Station on a previous mission. 

Image credit: NASA
129

the simple top and bottom phase seen on Earth, allow 

recording of the kinetics of this process. The scientific 

insights that result from having this data available 

can lead to more efficient and improved product 

formulations that are less expensive to produce and/or 

provide longer shelf life. For a product such as Downy, 

with sales of about $4 billion a year, even a small one 

percent savings in production costs or a slightly longer 

shelf life provides a significant return on the investment. 

P&G will spend $10 million this year on research to 

address product shelf life problems. 

The results of this work can impact far more than 

fabric softener.

The potential for the ACE research application in 

other areas is something that continues to grow. For 

instance, advanced colloidal formulas also could 

conceivably lead to improvements in items such as 

liquid pharmaceuticals, which can be ineffective or 

even dangerous if not properly mixed when consumed. 

With better formulations, consumers could look 

forward to the certainty of a perfect product every time. 

Gaining a better understanding of the physical 

processes of particles obtained through ACE samples, 

for example, may greatly impact the quality, production 

and longevity of commercial products. Using 

microgravity to study the exceptionally small particles, 

known as colloids, which make up these types of liquid 

products, researchers can gain more insight into their 

characteristics. This may ultimately aid research efforts 

in improving products people use every day.

Space mice teach us about muscle and 

bone loss 

Bone breakage, buildup and eventual loss have a 

significant impact on our bodies. Bone loss occurs 

at an accelerated rate in space because of the lack 

of normal weight-bearing activities in the microgravity 

environment. Using nutrition and specific exercises, 

the crew aboard the International Space Station can 

partially mitigate these concerns. This accelerated 

aspect of bone loss in spaceflight provides an 

opportunity for researchers to identify the mechanisms 

that control bones at a cellular level. While most people 

will never experience life in space, the benefits of 

studying bone and muscle loss aboard the station has 

the potential to touch lives here on the ground. 

Bone loss from osteoporosis is a major concern for the 

elderly. However, inactivity from injury, illness, or malnutrition from anorexia or dietary challenges can lead 

to bone breakdown in otherwise healthy people. For 

some time, researchers have tried to understand this 

phenomenon and have looked at rodents flown aboard 

Now that the station is 

complete, rodent research 

can continue for longer test 

runs than shuttle missions 

permitted, thereby increasing 

data collection and the 

potential for discovery.

A view inside of the NASA Rodent Research facility, 

self-contained habitat that provides its occupants 

living space, food, water, ventilation, and lighting. 

Cabin air is exchanged with the facility, creating 

a slight negative pressure inside the cage to pull 

animal waste into a collection filter.

Image credit: NASA
130

space shuttle missions to the space station in a series 

of experiments using the Commercial Biomedical Testing Module (CBTM).

The CBTM studies came about as a result of two 

former Bioserve graduate students going to work 

for Amgen, a California-based biopharmaceutical 

company. The students interested Amgen in 

testing in microgravity three drugs that were under 

development—two targeting bone loss and one 

targeting muscle atrophy. Not only did Amgen provide 

substantial funding for the three investigations, the 

company also contributed significant in-kind resources. 

Bone remodeling—the natural breakdown and rebuilding of bone—occurs in a balanced fashion in healthy 

bone so that the rate of rebuilding, known as formation, equals the rate of breakdown and absorption, 

known as resorption. This cycle of breakdown and 

buildup helps us to maintain skeletal strength and 

repair injuries such as fractures, so we can continue to 

enjoy normal mobility. When this natural process is out 

of balance, bones and health may suffer.

The first investigation launched in 2001 and looked at 

using Osteoprotegrin (OPG), while in 2011 researchers 

flew a sclerostin antibody treatment. OPG and the 

sclerostin antibody are used as drugs to mitigate bone 

loss and are based on naturally occurring molecules 

in the body. The 2007 flight studied myostatin, a 

preclinical therapy for treating muscle loss. All three 

therapeutics, which were in preclinical development 

with Amgen during the time of their flights, had positive 

impacts on maintaining bone strength.

Moving therapies from the lab to the medicine cabinet 

takes time, as did the progression of these studies, 

which spanned a decade in orbit as the space station 

was under construction. This duration enabled 

advances in the ways researchers conducted their 

microgravity investigations, including enhancements to 

the available tools for analysis.

Now that the station is complete, this research can 

continue for longer test runs than shuttle missions 

permitted, thereby increasing data collection and the 

potential for discovery.

Protein crystals in microgravity

Pharmaceutical companies have developed myriad 

ways to fight ailments from arthritis to cancer, but 

the body’s immune systems inspired the newest 

weapons in their arsenal. A new generation of drugs 

targets specific attackers, sparking immune cells into 

action. These drugs, called monoclonal antibodies 

(MABs), are engineered proteins that bind themselves 

to substances that cause disease. Monoclonal 

antibodies can be created for almost any target inside 

a cell or on its surface, allowing greater specificity and 

fewer side effects than conventional therapies. They 

include top-selling drugs used to treat several types of 

inflammation and cancer.

To be effective, though, MABs have to be dispensed 

in large quantities, which can make them difficult to 

administer to patients. Rather than simply swallowing 

a pill, people receiving MAB therapy must receive 

injections or intravenous infusions. Now research 

on the International Space Station is changing that. 

By taking MABs into space and crystallizing them in 

microgravity, Merck Research Laboratories is working 

toward high-concentration, high-quality mixtures that 

can be given to patients more efficiently.

Space is an excellent environment to study complex, 

three-dimensional proteins, because gravity and 

convective forces do not get in the way of crystal 

formation, which allows creation of larger and more 

perfect crystals. With large crystals, scientists on the 

The main goal is the development of new, biologically 

based drugs, providing even 

tougher weapons for physicians fighting human diseases.

The difference between protein crystals grown on 

the ground (top) versus in microgravity (bottom).

Image credit: Merck
131

ground can use X-ray crystallography to determine 

how the protein is organized. Determining protein 

structures helps researchers design new drugs.

The first experiment on the space station yielded 

crystals larger than those that could be grown on 

the ground, which was promising. Merck continued 

space-based protein crystallization experiments on 10 

separate shuttle flights. 

Based on these previous findings, Paul Reichert, 

chemistry research fellow at Merck, expects to grow 

uniform suspensions of 5-micron crystals without 

impurities that can develop on Earth. He also plans 

to study how temperature gradients can affect the 

beginning of crystal formation, or nucleation. Reichert 

flew two different MAB experiments on the SpaceX-3 

cargo flight in April 2014 and is planning additional 

experiments to launch on the SpaceX-6 flight, planned 

for April 2015.

These high concentrations of protein crystals could 

improve the way patients receive MABs to treat a wide 

range of diseases. Because MABs have to be delivered in large amounts, they are usually administered 

intravenously in a hospital, where a patient would have 

to wait for several hours to receive the full dose. Highly 

concentrated suspensions of crystallized proteins, produced in microgravity, could instead be given in a simple shot in a doctor’s office. The fluid would look similar 

to milk, Reichert said, opaque with high concentrations 

of crystallized MABs making it appear white. 

Highly-concentrated MAB mixtures also would be 

more efficient to ship and store. Currently, different 

components of MAB treatments are manufactured at 

different sites and then shipped overseas or to different 

places in the United States to be formulated into drugs 

given to patients.

Reichert hopes the work will attract other scientists 

who want to conduct advanced research in space. But 

the main goal is the development of new, biologically 

based drugs, providing even tougher weapons for 

physicians fighting human diseases.

Muscle atrophy: Mice on the ISS helping 

life on Earth

Muscles atrophy, or waste away, when they are not 

used. In microgravity, muscles atrophy even in those 

who exercise regularly. Without normal gravity to work 

against, in fact, some muscles begin to atrophy within 

days after an astronaut reaches orbit. Some people still 

on Earth experience muscle loss because of diseases 

or injuries that can make it harder to move, although 

atrophy happens more gradually here. Ultimately, 

atrophy affects everyone, as all humans lose muscle as 

they get older. 

Scientists still are not sure what happens to trigger 

muscle loss. Atrophy comes from many pathways 

in the body, from different cell signaling processes 

to removal of proteins and loss of amino acids. If 

scientists can understand how these pathways 

regulate muscle mass, they might be able to develop 

new treatments for diseases. First, though, they need a 

better picture of atrophy itself, and the study of rodents 

is helping. By observing changes to the genetic 

activity of mice, scientists at the Novartis Institutes for 

BioMedical Research (NIBR) hope to learn more about 

microgravity’s effects on muscle mass. 

The Novartis team got involved at the invitation of 

the Center for the Advancement of Science in Space 

(CASIS), which manages the National Laboratory. 

Samuel Cadena and his colleagues at Novartis have 

The overall goal is to use ISS 

to learn more about muscle 

wasting so scientists and 

drug companies can help 

patients who are at risk. 

NASA’s rodent habitat module seen with both 

access doors open.

Image credit: NASA
132

been studying atrophy for several years, and consider 

using the space station to further their work a unique 

opportunity.

Cadena and his research partners are studying mice 

genetically engineered to resist muscle loss. Called 

knockout mice, these animals lack specific genes that 

would enable them to make a protein called Muscle 

Ring Finger-1, or MuRF-1, which hastens muscle loss 

by labeling certain proteins for degradation. Expression 

of this protein increases in several muscle atrophy 

situations, including spaceflight.

One group of 10 MuRF-1 knockout mice flew to 

the space station on SpaceX-4, arriving on Sept. 

23, 2014. A second set stayed at NASA’s Kennedy 

Space Center. Each group was accompanied by an 

experimental control group of 10 mice whose genes 

were not changed. The animals stayed in space for 

three weeks then were euthanized and sent back to 

Earth for study. Researchers are still analyzing early 

data, but expect that the knockout mice experienced 

less atrophy than the control mice, helping to validate 

the MuRF-1 model.

The overall goal is to learn more about muscle wasting 

so scientists and drug companies can help patients 

who are at risk. The partnerships that enable research 

aboard the orbiting laboratory continue to push the 

envelope of science in space, seeking answers to 

propel exploration and benefit people on Earth.
133
134

Link to Archived Stories 

and Videos 

http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/benefits/index.html
135

Authors and Principal Investigators 

by Section

Principal Investigator (PI) listed for stories focused on a specific space station investigation.

Human Health

Robotic arms lend a healing touch

Author: CSA 

PI: Dr. Garnette Sutherland, University of Calgary

Robots from space lead to one-stop breast cancer 

diagnosis treatment

Author: Jessica Eagan, NASA

PI: Dr. Mehran Anvari, Scientific Director & CEO, Centre 

for Surgical Invention & Innovation (CSii), Hamilton, 

Canada.

Improved eye surgery with space hardware

Author: ESA 

PI: A. Clarke, Charité Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, 

Germany

Sensor technologies for high-pressure jobs 

and operations

Author: ESA 

PI: Hans-Christian Gunga, Charité Universitätsmedizin, 

Berlin, Germany

Bringing space station ultrasound to the ends of 

the Earth

Author: Mark Wolverton, NASA 

PI: Scott Dulchavsky, M.D., Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, 

Michigan

Are you asthmatic? Your new helper comes 

from space

Author: ESA 

PI: Lars Karlsson and Lars Gustafsson, Karolinska 

Institutet, Dept of Physiology and Pharmacology, 

Stockholm, Sweden

Cold plasmas assist in wound healing

Author: NASA 

PI: Dr. Hubertus M. Thomas, Deutsches Zentrum für 

Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V. (DLR), Germany; 

Prof. V.E. Fortov, Institute for High Energy Densities 

(IHED, RAS), Russia

Preventing bone loss in spaceflight with 

prophylactic use of bisphosphonate: Health 

promotion of the elderly by space medicine 

technologies

Author: Hiroshi Ohshima, JAXA

PI: Adrian Leblanc, United Space Research Association, 

and Toshio Matsumoto, Tokushima University 

Improved scanning technologies and insights 

into osteoporosis

Author: ESA

PI: Christian Alexandre, M.D., University of St. Etienne, 

France

Good diet, proper exercise help protect astronauts’ 

bones

Author: Bill Jeffs, NASA

PI: Scott Smith and Jean Sibonga, NASA

Add salt? Astronauts’ bones say please don’t

Author: ESA

PI: Petra Frings-Meuthen, German Aerospace 

Center (DLR)

Early detection of immune changes prevents painful 

shingles in astronauts and in Earth-bound patients

Authors: Satish K. Mehta, Duane L. Pierson, and C. 

Mark Ott, NASA 

PI: Satish K. Mehta, Duane L. Pierson, and C. Mark Ott, 

NASA

Station immunology insights for Earth and space

Author: Jessica Nimon, NASA 

PI: Millie Hughes-Fulford, Director of the Laboratory of 

Cell Growth at the University of California, San Francisco

Targeted treatments to improve immune response

Author: ESA 

PI: M. Maccarrone, N. Battista, University of Teramo, 

Teramo, Italy

High-quality protein crystal growth experiment 

aboard Kibo

Authors: Mitsugu Yamada and Kazunori Ohta, JAXA 

PI: Over 80 Principal investigators conducted JAXA 

protein crystal growth experiments on the ISS.

Cancer-targeted treatments from space station 

discoveries

Author: Laura Niles, NASA 

PI: Dennis Morrison, NASA’s Johnson Space Center 

and NuVue Therapeutics, Inc.

Using weightlessness to treat multiple ailments

Authors: I. B. Kozlovskaya and Ye. S. Tomilovskaya, 

Institute of Biomedical Problems of the Russian 

Academy of Sciences (IBMP RAS), Moscow, Russia 

PI: Ye. S. Tomilovskaya 
136

Microbiology applications from fungal research 

in space

Author: ESA 

PI: D. Hasegan, G. Mogildea, Romanian Institutes of 

Space Science and Biology, Bucharest, Romania; 

E. Chatzitheodoridis, National Technical University 

of Athens, Greece

Plant growth on ISS has global impacts on Earth

Author: Tara Ruttley, NASA 

PI: Weijia Zhou, Ph.D., of the Wisconsin Center 

for Space Automation and Robotics, University of 

Wisconsin-Madison

Experiments with higher plants on the Russian 

Segment of the International Space Station

Authors: V. N. Sychev, M. A. Levinskikh, I. G. Podolsky, 

Institute of Biomedical Problems of the Russian 

Academy of Sciences (IBMP RAS), Moscow, Russia; 

G. E. Bingham (Utah State University, Space Dynamics 

Laboratory, Logan, Utah, USA) 

PI: V. N. Sychev, M. A. Levinskikh, I. G. Podolsky, G. E. 

Bingham 

Colleagues from many Russian and non-Russian 

organizations participated in carrying out work 

according to the Rasteniya program in the Lada 

greenhouse on the ISS RS. The contributions of S. A. 

Gostimsky (M. V. Lomonosov Moscow State University), 

and M. Sugimoto (Okayama University, Institute of 

Bioresources, Okayama, Japan) should be especially 

noted. 

Space cardiology for the benefit of health care 

Authors: R. M. Baevsky, Ye.Yu. Bersenev, I.I. Funtova, 

Institute of Biomedical Problems of the Russian 

Academy of Sciences (IBMP RAS), Moscow, Russia 

PI: R. M. Baevsky, Ye.Yu. Bersenev, I.I. Funtova 

Biological rhythms in space and on Earth

Authors: NaomuneYamamoto, JAXA and Kuniaki 

Otsuka, Tokyo Women’s Medical University 

PI: Chiaki Mukai, JAXA

Innovative space-based device promotes restful 

sleep on Earth

Authors: R. M. Baevsky, Ye. S. Luchitskaya, I. I. 

Funtova, Institute of Biomedical Problems of the 

Russian Academy of Sciences (IBMP RAS), Moscow, 

Russia 

PI: R. M. Baevsky, Ye. S. Luchitskaya, I. I. Funtova 

New technology simulates microgravity and 

improves balance on Earth

Authors: I.B. Kozlovskaya, I.V. Sayenko, Institute of 

Biomedical Problems of the Russian Academy of 

Sciences (IBMP RAS), Moscow, Russia 

PI: I.B. Kozlovskaya 

New ways to assess neurovestibular system health 

in space also benefits those on Earth 

Authors: L. N. Kornilova, I. A. Naumov, G. A. 

Ekimovskiy, Yu. I. Smirnov, Institute of Biomedical 

Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IBMP 

RAS), Moscow, Russia 

PI: L. N. Kornilova, I. A. Naumov, Yu. I. Smirnov 

Space research leads to non-pharmacological 

treatment and prevention of vertigo, dizziness and 

equilibrium disturbances 

Authors: L. N. Kornilova, I. A. Naumov, G. A. 

Ekimovskiy, Institute of Biomedical Problems of the 

Russian Academy of Sciences (IBMP RAS), Moscow, 

Russia 

PI: L. N. Kornilova, I. A. Naumov, G. A. Ekimovskiy 

Capturing the secrets of weightless movements for 

Earth applications

Authors: Salvatore Pignataro, Gabriele Mascetti, 

Italian Space Agency

PI: Francesco Lacquaniti, Center of Space Biomedicine, 

University of Rome Tor Vergata; 

Giancarlo Ferrigno, Department of Electronics, 

Information and Bioengineering

Space technologies in the rehabilitation of 

movement disorders 

Authors: I.V. Sayenko, I.B. Kozlovskaya, Institute 

of Biomedical Problems of the Russian Academy 

of Sciences (IBMP RAS), Moscow, Russia 

PI: I.V. Sayenko 

Earth Observation and Disaster Response

Earth remote sensing from the space station

Author: ISS Program Earth Observations Working Group 

Coastal ocean sensing extended mission

Author: Curtiss Davis, College of Earth, Ocean, and 

Atmospheric Sciences, Oregon State University 

PI: Mary E. Kappus, US Naval Research Laboratory; 

Michael R. Corson, US Naval Research Laboratory 

Visual and instrumental scientific observation of the 

ocean from space 

Authors: A. N. Yevguschenko, State Organization 

“Gagarin Research&Test Cosmonaut Training 

Center”; B. V. Konovalov, P. P. Shirshov Institute of 

Oceanography of the Russian Academy of Sciences 

Space station camera captures Earthly disaster 

scenes

Authors: Dauna Coulter and Jaganathan Ranganathan, 

SERVIR Team, NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center 

PI: Burgess Howell, NASA

Clear high-definition images aid disaster response

Authors: Hideaki Shinohara and Sayaka Umemura, JAXA 

PI: Chikara Harada, JAXA
137

Innovative Technology

Advanced ISS technology supports water 

purification efforts worldwide

Author: Arun Joshi, NASA 

PI: Donald L. Carter, Robyn Gatens

Exploring the wonders of fluid motion: Improving 

life on Earth through understanding the nature of 

Marangoni convection

Author: Satoshi Matsumoto, JAXA 

PI: Hiroshi Kawamura, Tokyo University of Science, 

Koichi Nishino, Yokohama National University, Shinichi 

Yoda, JAXA, Yasuhiro Kamotani, Case Western Reserve 

University, Satoshi Matsumoto, JAXA

Space station-inspired mWater app identifies 

healthy water sources

Author: Jessica Nimon, NASA 

PI: John and Annie Feighery, mWater

Space-tested fluid flow concept advances 

infectious disease diagnoses

Author: Mike Giannone, NASA Glenn Research Center 

PI: Mark Weislogel, NASA 

Improving semiconductors with nanofibers

Author: Masato Katsuta, JAXA 

PI: Takatoshi Kinoshita, Graduate School of Engineering, 

Nagoya Institute of Technology

InSPACE’s big news in the nano world

Author: Mike Giannone, NASA 

PI: Eric M. Furst, University of Delaware

Deploying small satellites from ISS

Author: Hitoshi Morimoto, JAXA 

PI: Yusuke Matsumura, JAXA 

Pinpointing time and location

Author: ESA 

PI: Felix Huber, Steinbeis Transferzentrum Raumfahrt, 

Gaufelden - Stuttgart, Germany 

Space station technology demonstration could 

boost a new era of satellite-servicing

Author: Adreinne Alessandro, NASA 

PI: Frank J. Cepollina, Benjami B. Reed

Cool flame research aboard space station may lead 

to a cleaner environment on Earth

Author: Mike Giannone, NASA 

PI: Folman Williams, Daniel L. Dietrich

Robonaut’s potential shines in multiple space, 

medical and industrial applications

Author: Laura Niles 

PI: Myron A. Diftler

Global Education

Inspiring the next generation of students with the 

International Space Station

Author: Jessica Nimon, NASA 

PI: NASA, CSA, ESA, JAXA, Roscosmos

Student scientists receive unexpected results from 

research in space

Author: Jessica Nimon, NASA 

PI: Zahaan Bharmal

Europe’s alliance with space droids

Author: ESA 

PI: ESA

NASA has HUNCH about student success in 

engineering

Author: Laura Niles 

TomatosphereTM: Sowing the seeds of discovery 

through student science

Author: CSA 

PI: Michael Dixon, University of Guelph 

Students photograph Earth from space via Sally 

Ride EarthKAM program

Author: Arun Joshi, NASA 

PI: Sally Ride, Karen Flammer

Try zero G2: Igniting the passion of the next 

generation in Asia

Author: Yayoi Miyagawa, JAXA 

PI: JAXA 

Asian students work with astronauts in space 

missions

Author: Muneo Takaoki, JAXA 

PI: Kibo-ABC (Asian Beneficial Collaboration through 

Kibo Utilization) Initiative

Educational benefits of the space experiment 

“Shadow-beacon” on ISS 

Author: V.A. Strashinskiy, Central Research Institute for 

Machine Building (FGUP TsNIIMash) 

PI: V.A. Strashinskiy, (FGUP TsNIIMash) 

Students get fit the astronaut way

Author: Jessica Nimon, NASA 

PI: Charles Lloyd, NASA

Inspiring youth with a call to the International Space 

Station

Authors: Jessica Nimon and Camille Alleyne, NASA 

PI: Frank Bauer

Calling cosmonauts from home 

Author: S.V.Avdeev, FGUP TsNIIMash 

PI: Space experiment “Coulomb Crystal” – V.Ye.Fortov, 

Joint Institute for High Temperatures of the Russian 
138

Academy of Sciences

Space experiment “Shadow-Beacon” – O.M.Alifanov, 

Moscow Aviation Institute (National Research 

University); V.A.Strashinskiy, FGUP TsNIIMash

Space experiment “MAI-75” - O.M.Alifanov, 

V.K.Odelevskiy; Moscow Aviation Institute (National 

Research University)

Space experiment “Great Start” – M.Yu.Belyaev, OAO 

“Rocket and Space Corporation “Energia” after S.P. 

Korolev” 

MAI-75 experiment, main results and prospects for 

development in education 

Authors: O. M. Alifanov, S. O. Firsyuk, V. K. Odelevsky 

(Moscow Aviation Institute (National Research 

University)); N. S. Biryukova (Central Research 

Institute for Machine Building (FGUP TsNIIMash)); S. 

N. Samburov, A. I. Spirin (OAO Rocket and Space 

Corporation Energia after S.P. Korolev (RSC-Energia))

PI: O. M. Alifanov, V. K. Odelevsky, Moscow Aviation 

Institute (National Research University) 

Economic Development of Space

Water production in space: Thirsting for a solution 

Authors: Kathy Watkins-Richardson, Melissa Gaskill

Company name: UTC Aerospace Systems

Commercialization of low-Earth Orbit (LEO)

Authors: Kathy Watkins-Richardson, Melissa Gaskill

Company name: NanoRacks, LLC

Innovative public-private partnerships for ISS cargo 

services: Part 1 

Authors: Kathy Watkins-Richardson, Melissa Gaskill

Company name: SpaceX

Innovative public-private partnerships for ISS cargo 

services: Part 2 

Authors: Kathy Watkins-Richardson, Melissa Gaskill

Company name: Orbital Sciences Corporation

Precision pointing platform for Earth observations 

from the ISS

Authors: Kathy Watkins-Richardson, Melissa Gaskill

Company name: Teledyne Brown Engineering, Inc.

The Groundbreaker: Earth observation 

Authors: Kathy Watkins-Richardson, Melissa Gaskill

Company name: UrtheCast

A flock of CubeSats photographs our changing 

planet 

Authors: Rebecca Boyle and Melissa Gaskill

Company name: Planet Labs 

Stretch your horizons, Stay CuriousTM 

Authors: Kathy Watkins-Richardson, Melissa Gaskill

Company name: Kentucky Space/Space Tango, Inc.

Mission critical: Flatworm experiment races the 

clock after splashdown 

Author: Craig Simon, President and CEO

Company name: FedEx SupplyChain

Economic development of space in JAXA

Authors: Sayaka Umemura and Kazuyuki Tasaki, JAXA

Company and organization names: Mitsubishi Electric 

(MELCO)/Orbital Sciences Corporation, Japan Space 

Forum, Hamamatsu Photonics K.K., Fuji Chemical 

Co., Ltd., Shiseido Co., Ltd., Yakult Honsha Co., Ltd., 

Japan Manned Space Systems Corporation (JAMSS)/

Technological Institute of Aeronautics (ITA)/Brazilian 

Space Agency (AEB)/Brazilian National Institute for 

Space Research (INPE), Interprotein Corporation, 

Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., ARKRAY, and 

Junkosha Inc.

Colloids in space: Where consumer products and 

science intersect

Authors: Kathy Watkins-Richardson, Melissa Gaskill

PI: David A. Weitz, Harvard University; Matthew Lynch, 

Proctor and Gamble

Space mice teach us about muscle and bone loss

Authors: Rebecca Boyle, Kathy Watkins-Richardson 

and Melissa Gaskill

PI: H. Q. Han, Amgen Research

Protein crystals in microgravity

Authors: Rebecca Boyle and Melissa Gaskill

PI: Paul Reichert, Merck Research Laboratories

Muscle atrophy: Mice on the ISS helping life on 

Earth

Authors: Rebecca Boyle, Kathy Watkins-Richardson 

and Melissa Gaskill

PI: Samuel Cadena, Novartis Institutes for Biomedical 

Research

140