Beyond Earth

A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

Asif A. Siddiqi

Beyond Earth

A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

by

Asif A. Siddiqi

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

Office of Communications

NASA History Division

Washington, DC 20546

NASA SP-2018-4041
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Siddiqi, Asif A., 1966– author. | United States. NASA History Division, issuing body. | United States. 

NASA History Program Office, publisher.

Title: Beyond Earth : a chronicle of deep space exploration, 1958–2016 / by Asif A. Siddiqi.

Other titles: Deep space chronicle

Description: Second edition. | Washington, DC : National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Office of 

Communications, NASA History Division, [2018] | Series: NASA SP ; 2018-4041 | Series: The NASA history 

series | Includes bibliographical references and index. 

Identifiers: LCCN 2017058675 (print) | LCCN 2017059404 (ebook) | ISBN 9781626830424 | ISBN 9781626830431 |

ISBN 9781626830431?q(paperback)

Subjects: LCSH: Space flight—History. | Planets—Exploration—History.

Classification: LCC TL790 (ebook) | LCC TL790 .S53 2018 (print) | DDC 629.43/509—dc23 | SUDOC NAS 

1.21:2018-4041

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017058675

Original Cover Artwork provided by Ariel Waldman

The artwork titled Spaceprob.es is a companion piece to the Web site that catalogs the active human-made machines 

that freckle our solar system. Each space probe’s silhouette has been paired with its distance from Earth via the Deep 

Space Network or its last known coordinates.

This publication is available as a free download at http://www.nasa.gov/ebooks.

9 781626 830431

90000

ISBN 978-1-62683-043-1
iii

For 

my beloved 

father

Dr. Hafiz G. A. Siddiqi

Whose achievements I can only hope to emulate

v

Contents

Preface xi

Introduction xiii

A Note About Terminology xv

Acknowledgments xvii

Firsts in the History of 

Deep Space Exploration 1

1958 5

1 [Pioneer 0] 5

2 [Luna, Ye-1 no. 1] 5

3 Able 2 [Pioneer] 6

4 [Luna, Ye-1 no. 2] 7

5 Pioneer II 7

6 [Luna, Ye-1 no. 3] 8

7 Pioneer III 8

1959 11

8 Soviet Space Rocket [Luna 1] 11

9 Pioneer IV 11

10 [Luna, Ye-1A no. 5] 12

11 Second Soviet Space Rocket [Luna 2] 12

12 Automatic Interplanetary Station [Luna 3] 13

13 Able IVB [Pioneer] 16

1960 17

14 Pioneer V 17

15 [Luna, Ye-3 no. 1] 17

16 [Luna, Ye no. 2] 18

17 Able VA [Pioneer] 18

18 [Mars, 1M no. 1] 18

19 [Mars, 1M no. 2] 19

20 Able VB [Pioneer] 20

1961 21

21 Heavy Satellite [Venera] 21

22 Automatic Interplanetary Station [Venera 1] 21

23 Ranger I 22

24 Ranger II 23

1962 25

25 Ranger III 25

26 Ranger IV 25

27 Mariner I 26

28 [Venera, 2MV-1 no. 3] 26

29 Mariner II 27

30 [Venera, 2MV-1 no. 4] 29

31 [Venera, 2MV-2 no. 1] 29

32 Ranger V 30

33 [Mars, 2MV-4 no. 3] 30

34 Mars 1 31

35 [Mars, 2MV-3 no. 1] 32

1963 33

36 [Luna, Ye-6 no. 2] 33

37 [Luna, Ye-6 no. 3] 33

38 Luna 4 34

39 Kosmos 21 [Zond] 34
vi BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

1964 37

40 Ranger VI 37

41 [Zond, 3MV-1A no. 4A] 37

42 [Luna, Ye-6 no. 6] 38

43 Kosmos 27 [Venera] 38

44 Zond 1 [Venera] 39

45 [Luna, Ye-6 no. 5] 39

46 Ranger VII 40

47 Mariner III 41

48 Mariner IV 41

49 Zond 2 43

1965 45

50 Ranger VIII 45

51 [Atlas Centaur 5] 45

52 Kosmos 60 [Luna] 46

53 Ranger IX 46

54 [Luna, Ye-6 no. 8] 47

55 Luna 5 47

56 Luna 6 48

57 Zond 3 48

58 Surveyor Model 1 49

59 Luna 7 49

60 Venera 2 50

61 Venera 3 51

62 Kosmos 96 [Venera] 51

63 Luna 8 52

64 Pioneer VI 53

1966 55

65 Luna 9 55

66 Kosmos 111 [Luna] 56

67 Luna 10 57

68 Surveyor Model 2 58

69 Surveyor I 58

70 Explorer XXXIII 59

71 Lunar Orbiter I 59

72 Pioneer VII 60

73 Luna 11 61

74 Surveyor II 61

75 Luna 12 62

76 Lunar Orbiter II 62

77 Luna 13 64

1967 65

78 Lunar Orbiter III 65

79 Surveyor III 66

80 Lunar Orbiter IV 67

81 Kosmos 159 [Luna] 67

82 Venera 4 68

83 Mariner V 70

84 Kosmos 167 [Venera] 70

85 Surveyor IV 71

86 Explorer XXXV / Anchored International 

Monitoring Platform 6 71

87 Lunar Orbiter V 72

88 Surveyor V 72

89 [Zond, 7K-L1 no. 4L] 73

90 Surveyor VI 74

91 [Zond, 7K-L1 no. 5L] 74

92 Pioneer VIII 75

1968 77

93 Surveyor VII 77

94 [Luna, Ye-6LS no. 112] 78

95 Zond 4 78

96 Luna 14 79

97 [Zond, 7K-L1 no. 7L] 79

98 Zond 5 79

99 Pioneer IX 80

100 Zond 6 81
Conte

1969 83

101 Venera 5 83

102 Venera 6 84

103 [Zond, 7K-L1 no. 13L] 84

104 [Luna, Ye-8 no. 201] 85

105 [N1 launch test, 7K-L1S no. 2] 85

106 Mariner VI 86

107 [Mars, M-69 no. 521] 87

108 Mariner VII 87

109 [Mars, M-69 no. 522] 88

110 [Luna, Ye-8-5 no. 402] 89

111 [N1 test flight, 7K-L1S] 89

112 Luna 15 90

113 Zond 7 91

114 Pioneer 91

115 Kosmos 300 [Luna] 92

116 Kosmos 305 [Luna] 92

1970 93

117 [Luna, Ye-8-5 no. 405] 93

118 Venera 7 93

119 Kosmos 359 [Venera] 94

120 Luna 16 94

121 Zond 8 96

122 Luna 17 and Lunokhod 1 97

1971 99

123 Mariner 8 99

124 Kosmos 419 [Mars] 99

125 Mars 2 100

126 Mars 3 101

127 Mariner 9 103

128 Apollo 15 Particle and Fields Subsatellite 104

129 Luna 18 104

130 Luna 19 105

1972 107

131 Luna 20 107

132 Pioneer 10 108

133 Venera 8 110

134 Kosmos 482 [Venera] 111

135 Apollo 16 Particles and Fields Subsatellite 111

136 [N1 launch test, 7K-LOK no. 6A] 112

1973 113

137 Luna 21 and Lunokhod 2 113

138 Pioneer 11 114

139 Explorer 49 116

140 Mars 4 117

141 Mars 5 118

142 Mars 6 119

143 Mars 7 120

144 Mariner 10 121

1974 123

145 Luna 22 123

146 Luna 23 123

147 Helios 1 124

1975 127

148 Venera 9 127

149 Venera 10 128

150 Viking 1 129

151 Viking 2 132

152 [Luna] 134

1976 135

153 Helios 2 135

154 Luna 24 136

1977 137

155 Voyager 2 137

156 Voyager 1 142
viii BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

1978 147

157 Pioneer Venus 1 147

158 Pioneer Venus 2 148

159 ISEE-3 149

160 Venera 11 150

161 Venera 12 152

1981 155

162 Venera 13 155

163 Venera 14 156

1983 159

164 Venera 15 159

165 Venera 16 160

1984 161

166 Vega 1 161

167 Vega 2 162

1985 165

168 Sakigake 165

169 Giotto 165

170 Suisei 166

1988 169

171 Fobos 1 169

172 Fobos 2 170

1989 173

173 Magellan 173

174 Galileo 175

1990 179

175 Hiten and Hagoromo 179

176 Ulysses 180

1992 183

177 Geotail 183

178 Mars Observer 184

1994 185

179 Clementine 185

180 Wind 186

1995 189

181 SOHO 189

1996 191

182 NEAR Shoemaker 191

183 Mars Global Surveyor 192

184 Mars 8 / Mars 96 193

185 Mars Pathfinder 195

1997 197

186 ACE 197

187 Cassini-Huygens 197

188 Asiasat 3 / HGS 1 203

1998 205

189 Lunar Prospector 205

190 Nozomi 205

191 Deep Space 1 207

192 Mars Climate Orbiter 208

1999 209

193 Mars Polar Lander and Deep Space 2 209

194 Stardust 210

2001 213

195 2001 Mars Odyssey 213

196 Microwave Anisotropy Probe (MAP) 214

197 Genesis 215

2002 217

198 CONTOUR 217
Cont

2003 219

199 Hayabusa 219

200 Mars Express and Beagle 2 220

201 Spirit 222

202 Opportunity 225

203 SIRTF / Spitzer Space Telescope 227

204 SMART-1 229

2004 231

205 Rosetta and Philae 231

206 MESSENGER 233

2005 237

207 Deep Impact 237

208 Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter 238

209 Venus Express 241

2006 243

210 New Horizons 243

211 STEREO A and STEREO B 246

2007 249

212 Artemis P1 and Artemis P2 249

213 Phoenix 250

214 Kaguya 252

215 Dawn 253

216 Chang’e 1 256

2008 259

217 Chandrayaan-1 and MIP 259

2009 261

218 Kepler 261

219 Herschel 262

220 Planck 264

221 Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) 265

222 Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing 

Satellite (LCROSS) 267

2010 269

223 Venus Climate Orbiter (VCO) / Akatsuki 269

224 Shin’en 271

225 IKAROS 271

226 Chang’e 2 272

2011 275

227 Juno 275

228 Ebb and Flow 277

229 Fobos-Grunt 278

230 Yinghuo-1 280

231 Curiosity 280

2013 287

232 LADEE 287

233 Mangalyaan / Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) 288

234 MAVEN 289

235 Chang’e 3 and Yutu 291

236 Gaia 294

2014 297

237 Chang’e 5-T1 297

238 Hayabusa 2 298

239 PROCYON 299

240 Shin’en 2 300

241 DESPATCH / ArtSat-2 301

2015 303

242 DSCOVR 303

243 LISA Pathfinder 304
x BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

2016 307

244 ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter / Schiaparelli 

EDM Lander 307

245 OSIRIS-REx 308

Tables 311

1. Master Table of All Launch Attempts for 

Deep Space, Lunar, and Planetary Probes 

1958–2016 313

2. Programs 326

3. Total Lunar Spacecraft Attempts by Nation/

Agency 1958–2016 341

4. Total Mars Spacecraft Attempts by Nation/

Agency 1958–2016 342

5. Total Venus Spacecraft Attempts by Nation/

Agency 1958–2016 343

Abbreviations 345

Bibliography of Secondary Sources 347

About the Author 351

The NASA History Series 353

Index 363
xi

Preface

J

anuary 31, 1958 marked a significant beginning 

for space exploration. More than the historic 

and successful launch of Explorer 1, the first U.S. 

satellite, it was the beginning of an unprecedented 

era of exploration and understanding of our own 

planet and the distant worlds beyond. The more 

we uncover about the mysteries and beauty of 

space, the more we are inspired to go farther. Yet, 

with all we have learned, we still cannot even imagine what future generations will find.

Spacecraft from NASA and others have shown 

us the intricacies within clouds and terrain of distant planets that were only a dot in an astronomer’s 

telescope a few decades ago. We have seen the 

birth of stars, black holes, and found exoplanets 

orbiting stars in systems remarkably similar to ours. 

Future missions will take us forward in history, as 

we seek to uncover the very origins of our universe.

We may not know precisely what—or who—we 

will find out there, but we can be sure that space 

exploration will continue to surprise and inspire us, 

as it did for those who came before and those who 

will follow. Along the way there will be missteps, 

some more devastating than others. That is the 

price of doing what’s never been done before—a 

price that sometimes is tragically paid at the highest cost by the courageous. But like those early 

days of the space program, we are as motivated 

to succeed by the missions that do not make it as 

those that do. And we learn from them, coming 

back stronger and smarter.

In this book, the history of NASA’s six decades 

of exploration beyond Earth and its Moon to other 

planets and their moons is laid out. The story follows spacecraft to the Sun, comets, minor and 

dwarf planets and, ultimately, beyond our solar 

system. As we marvel at the ingenuity of the early 

pioneers of the Space Age, we realize how much 

they achieved with what, comparatively, was so 

little. Computers were human, and when the 

machines did take over calculations, they also took 

up entire rooms with processing capability less 

than smartphones in your pockets today.

Yet some of NASA’s greatest achievements 

took place during this period: Mariner IV, which 

took the first pictures of the surface of Mars 

in 1965; the global view of Mars from Mariner 

9 in 1971; and the Viking landers of the 1970s, 

which executed the first planetary soft-landings of 

American spacecraft. The crowning achievements 

of America’s mid-century robotic space exploration 

were the Pioneer and Voyager missions which were 

sent to the far boundaries of our solar system using 

early 1970s technology. As this is being written, 

Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 continue to send us data 

from beyond the outer planets from the boundary 

region of the Sun’s sphere of influence, the heliosphere. But space does not belong to the United 

States alone. We have evolved from the earliest 

days of the Space Race, when being “first” brought 

serious geopolitical consequences, to our current 

era of international partnerships that have taken us 

farther together than we could have gone alone.

In the modern era of exploration, which itself 

will look outdated in a generation, we have discovered the extraordinary rings and moons of Saturn 

with NASA’s Cassini spacecraft and the Huygens 

lander built by the European Space Agency. We 

marvel at images of the swirling storms on Jupiter 

sent back to Earth by our Juno mission. And we 

constantly find new science from the Curiosity 

rover that’s been trekking across the surface of 

Mars for more than five years.

Our robotic emissaries have made tremendous 

journeys over the past six decades. They carry the 

vision and inspiration of humankind beyond our 
xii BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

physical ability to make the trip—yet. This book 

celebrates the extraordinary men and women who 

have looked up and wondered what’s out there and 

then found the answer. In only 60 years, our technology has evolved from a simple, modified Geiger 

counter launched into Earth orbit to sublime technologies sending full-color, high-resolution images 

and data from the edge of the universe. The next 

60 should be exponentially rewarding.

– Dr. Thomas H. Zurbuchen

NASA Associate Administrator 

at Science Mission Directorate
xiii

Introduction

Humans abandoned their nomadic habits and 

moved into settlements about 40 to 50 thousand years ago. We have been using tools even 

longer. But our ability to send one of our tools 

into the heavens is of much more recent origin, 

spanning only the past 60 years. Yet, in that time, 

we have created new tools—we call them robotic 

spacecraft—and sent them into the cosmos, far 

beyond Earth. Of course, many never got very far. 

That’s the cost of hubris and ambition. But most 

did. And many never came back to Earth and never 

will. In that sense, we as a species have already 

left a mark on the heavens; these small objects 

that dot the cosmos are a permanent legacy of our 

species, existing for millions of years, even if we 

as a planet were to disappear. This book that you 

hold in your hands (or are reading in digital form) 

is a chronicle of all these tools, both failed and 

successful, that humans have flung into the heavens beyond Earth.

The text in front of you is a completely updated 

and revised version of a monograph published in 

2002 by the NASA History Office under the original title Deep Space Chronicle: A Chronology of 

Deep Space and Planetary Probes, 1958–2000. This 

new edition not only adds all events in robotic deep 

space exploration after 2000 and up to the end of 

2016, but it also completely corrects and updates 

all accounts of missions from prior years. The information in the monograph is current as of mid-2017 

when I completed writing.

What Does This Publication Include?

This monograph contains brief descriptions of all 

robotic deep space missions attempted by humans 

since the opening of the space age in 1957. The 

missions are listed chronologically in order of their 

launch dates (i.e., not their target body encounters). 

Different people have different criteria for which 

kind of spacecraft to include in a list of “deep space 

probes.” In the list that follows, I have included all 

spacecraft that satisfied the following guidelines:

1. Any probe that was launched to an “encounter” 

with a “target.”

a. An “encounter” includes the following events:

i. flybys

ii. orbiting

iii. atmospheric entry and impacts

iv. soft-landing

b. “Targets” include the following:

i. the planets of the Solar System (Mercury, 

Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, 

and Neptune)

ii. the Earth’s Moon

iii. minor planets or asteroids

iv. natural satellites of the planets and 

asteroids

v. comets

vi. dwarf planets (such as Pluto)

2. Any probe that was deliberately sent into heliocentric (solar) orbit.

3. Any probe that was sent into a halo (Lissajous) 

orbit around any of the libration points involving Earth, the Moon, and the Sun.

4. Any probe that was launched as part of a science, 

lunar, or planetary program to at least lunar distance in order to simulate a deep space trajectory (such as, for example, Geotail, Zond 4, and 

a few early Surveyor Model mockups).

I have included probes whether they succeeded in 

their objectives or not. Thus, some probes never 

got a few meters beyond the launch pad while 

others are heading into the outer reaches of the 

solar system.
xiv BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

It should be noted that the criteria for inclusion in this volume does not always coincide with 

NASA’s own programmatic distinctions about what 

constitutes a planetary science mission. For example, this volume includes missions such as Wind, 

ACE, MAP, and SIRTF, none of which was funded 

through NASA’s solar system exploration line. 

The criteria for inclusion here is simply whether 

the mission was intended to operate beyond Earth 

orbit and satisfied the above four requirements, 

regardless of who funded it or what kind of science 

it generated.

Where Is the Information From?

For statistical data on U.S. probes (such as launch 

vehicle numbers, launch times, list of instruments, 

etc.), I have used original NASA sources such as 

Public Affairs releases, press kits, postflight mission reports, and official histories. These records 

are deposited in the NASA Historical Reference 

Collection at NASA Headquarters in Washington, 

DC, or are available online at various NASA or 

government databases. For missions after approximately 2000, there is a proliferation of official 

mission websites, hosted by the organization 

sponsoring the missions, including, for example, 

the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), the Applied 

Physics Laboratory (APL), and the S. A. Lavochkin 

Scientific-Production Association (or NPO imeni 

Lavochkina). I have used these as primary sources 

of information. For some of the initial Earth orbital 

parameters of many deep space probes, a very useful 

source has been the online newsletter “Jonathan’s 

Space Report” prepared by Jonathan McDowell.

For Soviet/Russian sources, I have used only 

Russian-language sources, such as the journal 

Kosmicheskaya issledovaniya (Space Research), 

official organizational histories, reliable memoirs, 

or the semi-official journal Novosti kosmonavtiki

(News of Cosmonautics).

In the bibliography at the end of the monograph, I list a few published secondary sources 

that have been useful in verifying or framing data. 

Every attempt has been made to present accurate 

information, but with a project of this size and 

scope, there will naturally be errors.

I have avoided as much as possible using unofficial amateur Web sites (such as Wikipedia) or 

secondary history books, such as Andrew Wilson’s 

otherwise quite wonderful Solar System Log. These 

sources are good for a quick overview but they often 

reproduce errors (especially in timings, details, and 

distances) that have now been repeatedly and erroneously propagated in the Internet era. The one 

exception is Don Mitchell’s excellent website on 

Soviet lunar and planetary exploration, found at 

http://mentallandscape.com/V_Venus.htm. I highly 

recommend it.

What Kind of Information Have I 

Included?

In terms of the mission descriptions, I have kept the 

focus on dynamic mission events (course corrections, orbital insertion, reentry, landing, equipment 

deployment, etc.) rather than mission planning or 

scientific results, although in many cases I have 

included brief summaries of both. But I do not 

make any claim to comprehensiveness in terms 

of the scientific outcomes of the missions. This 

monograph is more about what happened rather 

than what was discovered. In the interest of space, 

the mission descriptions have been kept relatively 

short, filled with detail, and to the point.

Conflicting Information

There are many, many areas where different sources 

have supplied different information, especially for 

some early Soviet probes launched between 1960 

and 1965. The precise instrument complement of 

these probes (1M, 1V, 2MV, and 3MV series) is not 

known very well because in many cases, scientific 

instruments that were meant for the spacecraft 

were removed before launch. I have listed all the 

originally slated instruments meant for those vehicles even if they were later removed before launch. 

Undoubtedly, there are mistakes and inconsistencies in the lists presented here but I have made 

every effort to be as accurate as possible.
xv

A Note About Terminology

Mission Designations

I have made every attempt to use the names of 

spacecraft and missions that were contemporaneous to the time of the mission and assigned by the 

agency or organization implementing the missions.

In the 1960s, NASA routinely used Roman 

numerals for missions (Mariner IV, Mariner V, etc.) 

in their official documentation, but these were discontinued in the 1970s. Readers will note that I 

have used this convention for all missions until and 

including 1970 but after that switched to Latin 

numbers (Mariner 9, Mariner 10, etc.). This division is somewhat arbitrary but was necessary not to 

confuse readers.

The practice of giving spacecraft “official” 

names is complicated by the fact that beginning 

with the launch of Sputnik in 1957 and until the 

late 1980s, the Soviet Union never announced or 

acknowledged a mission if it failed to reach Earth 

orbit. In addition, for those lunar and planetary 

probes that did reach Earth orbit but failed to leave 

it, the Soviets adopted two strategies:

• between 1960 and 1963, the Soviets simply 

never admitted their existence and made no 

announcement; and

• beginning November 1963, the Soviet media 

began to give these stranded-in-Earth-orbit 

spacecraft “Kosmos” numbers. So, the deep 

space vehicle launched on 11 November 1963 

that reached Earth orbit but failed to leave for 

deep space was simply given the “next” Kosmos 

number, in this case “21.” By giving it such a 

nondescript name (“Kosmos 21”), Soviet officials sought to draw attention away from such 

failures. This practice was followed well into 

the late 1980s.

For both of these three types of missions, I have 

used the following convention:

[Program, Spacecraft design designation, serial 

number]

OR

Kosmos number [Program]

I do not use terms such as “Marsnik 1” or “Mars 

1960A” (listed in the National Space Science 

Data Center, for example, to denote the spacecraft 

launched on 10 October 1960). Since the Soviets 

never used such names, it would be entirely inaccurate to ascribe such designations. Such fictitious 

names (such as “Sputnik 27”) unfortunately proliferate online but are Western inventions.

Launch Sites

For Soviet and Russian launch sites, the following 

conventions apply:

“Site A / B” implies that the probe was launched 

from Site A, Launch Unit B

Mission Goals

There are good reasons not to use terms such as 

“flyby” or “flight” since spacecraft do not fly. As 

one of the reviewers for this manuscript pointed 

out, these terms are remnants of the era of aeronautics. As such, more appropriate terms would 

be “swingby” (instead of “flyby”) and “mission” 

(instead of “flight”). However, because terms 

such as “flyby” and “flight” are still widely used by 

many space agencies globally, this manuscript has 

retained their use, despite their imprecise nature.

xvii

Acknowledgments

I wish to thank all at the NASA History Division 

who were patient with me throughout this process, particularly Chief Historian Bill Barry and 

Steve Garber. A special note of gratitude to Roger 

Launius who conceived the original project in 1999.

For help with the manuscript itself, I need 

to acknowledge the comments and criticisms of 

Jason Callahan, Dwayne Day, Chris Gamble, Marc 

Rayman, and Randii Wessen. Their comments were 

immensely helpful to this project and made this a 

much better manuscript than I alone could have 

made it. I would also like to thank Don Mitchell, 

Sven Grahn, and Timothy Varfolomeyev for sharing images from their collection. Also, a note of 

gratitude to Jonathan McDowell for sharing his 

insights. Despite the help of all these individuals, 

any mistakes are, however, mine.

A very special note of thanks to Ariel Waldman 

for kindly providing the source image for the cover 

of this publication.

Thanks also go to the Communications 

Support Service Center (CSSC) team of talented 

professionals who brought this project from manuscript to finished publication. J. Andrew Cooke 

carefully copyedited the detailed text, Michele 

Ostovar did an expert job laying out the design 

and creating the e-book version, Kristin Harley 

performed the exacting job of creating the index, 

and printing specialist Tun Hla oversaw the production of the traditional hard copies. Supervisor 

Maxine Aldred helped by overseeing all of this 

CSSC production work.

1

Firsts 

in the History of Deep Space Exploration

Absolute Firsts

First attempt to launch a probe into deep space:

USA / Able 1 [Pioneer 0] / 17 August 1958

First probe to reach escape velocity: 

USSR / Soviet Space Rocket [Luna 1] / 

2 January 1959

First spacecraft to impact on another celestial body:

USSR / Second Soviet Space Rocket

[Luna 2] / 14 September 1959 (Moon)

First successful planetary mission:

USA / Mariner II / 14 December 1962 (Venus)

First spacecraft to impact another planet:

USSR / Venera 3 / 1 March 1966 (Venus)

First spacecraft to make a survivable landing on a 

celestial body:

USSR / Luna 9 / 3 February 1966 (Moon)

First spacecraft to orbit a celestial body other than 

Earth or the Sun:

USSR / Luna 10 / 2 April 1966 (Moon)

First successful planetary atmospheric entry probe:

USSR / Venera 4 / 18 October 1967 (Venus)

First liftoff from another celestial body:

USA / Surveyor VI / 17 November 1967 (Moon)

First transmission from the surface of another planet:

USSR / Venera 7 / 15 December 1970 (Venus)

First robotic spacecraft to recover and return samples 

from another celestial body:

USSR / Luna 16 / 12–21 September 1970 (Moon)

First wheeled vehicle on another celestial body:

USSR / Lunokhod 1 / 17 November 1970 (Moon)

First spacecraft to fly through the asteroid belts:

USA / Pioneer 10 / out in February 1973

First spacecraft to use gravity assist to change its 

interplanetary trajectory:

USA / Mariner 10 / 5 February 1974 (at Venus)

First spacecraft to fly past multiple planets:

USA / Mariner 10 / 5 February 1974 (Venus) 

and 29 March 1974 (Mercury)

First spacecraft to transmit photos from the surface of 

another planet:

USSR / Venera 10 / 22 October 1975 (Venus)
2 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

First spacecraft to orbit a libration point:

USA / ISEE-3 / 20 November 1978 (Sun-Earth L1)

First spacecraft to fly past a comet:

USA / ISEE-3 / 11 September 1985 (Comet 

Giacobini-Zinner)

First spacecraft to use Earth for a gravity assist:

ESA / Giotto / 2 July 1990

First spacecraft to use aerobraking to reduce velocity:

Japan / Hiten / 19 March 1991

First spacecraft to fly past an asteroid:

USA / Galileo / 26 October 1991 (951 Gaspra)

First wheeled vehicle on a planet:

USA / Sojourner / 5 July 1997 (Mars)

First spacecraft to use ion propulsion as primary 

propulsion in deep space:

USA / Deep Space 1 / 24 November 1998

First spacecraft to orbit an asteroid:

USA / NEAR Shoemaker / 14 February 2000 

(433 Eros)

First spacecraft to land on an asteroid:

USA / NEAR Shoemaker / 12 February 2001 

(433 Eros)

First spacecraft to return extraterrestrial material 

from beyond lunar orbit:

USA / Genesis / Returned 8 September 2004

First spacecraft to use a solar sail as primary propulsion in deep space:

Japan / IKAROS / 9 July 2010

First spacecraft to orbit a body in the main 

asteroid belt:

USA / Dawn / 16 July 2011 (4 Vesta)

First spacecraft to orbit a dwarf planet:

USA / Dawn / 7 March 2015 (1 Ceres)

The Moon

First lunar probe attempt:

USA / Able 1 [Pioneer 0] / 17 August 1958

First spacecraft to impact the Moon:

USSR / Second Soviet Space Rocket 

[Luna 2] / 14 September 1959

First spacecraft to fly by the Moon:

USSR / Automatic Interplanetary Station 

[Luna 3] / 6 October 1959

First to photograph farside of the Moon:

USSR / Automatic Interplanetary Station 

[Luna 3] / 6 October 1959

First survivable landing on the Moon:

USSR / Luna 9 / 3 February 1966

First soft-landing on the Moon:

USA / Surveyor I / 2 June 1966

First spacecraft to orbit the Moon:

USSR / Luna 10 / 2 April 1966

First liftoff from the Moon:

USA / Surveyor VI / 17 November 1967

First successful circumlunar mission:

USSR / Zond 6 / 14–21 September 1968

First robotic return of soil sample from the Moon:

USSR / Luna 16 / 12–21 September 1970

First wheeled vehicle on Moon:

USSR / Lunokhod 1 / 17 November 1970

The Sun

First probe into heliocentric orbit:

USSR / Soviet Space Rocket / 2 January 1959

First spacecraft to view the poles of the Sun:

ESA / Ulysses / September 2000 to January 2001
Fir

Mercury

First spacecraft to fly by Mercury:

USA / Mariner 10 / 29 March 1974

First spacecraft to orbit Mercury:

USA / MESSENGER / 18 March 2011

Venus

First attempt to send a spacecraft to Venus:

USSR / Heavy Satellite / 4 February 1961

First spacecraft to successfully fly past Venus:

USA / Mariner II / 14 December 1962

First spacecraft to impact Venus:

USSR / Venera 3 / 1 March 1966

First successful atmospheric entry into Venus:

USSR / Venera 4 / 18 October 1967

First soft-landing and return of surface data 

from Venus:

USSR / Venera 7 / 15 December 1970

First surface photos of Venus:

USSR / Venera 10 / 22 October 1975

First spacecraft to orbit Venus:

USSR / Venera 10 / 22 October 1975

First spacecraft to image the entire surface of Venus:

USA / Magellan / 1990–1994

Mars

First Mars probe attempt:

USSR / [Mars, 1M no. 1] / 10 October 1960

First successful mission to Mars:

USA / Mariner IV / Launched 15 July 1965

First spacecraft to orbit Mars:

USA / Mariner 9 / 14 November 1971

First spacecraft to impact Mars:

USSR / Mars 2 / 27 November 1971

First successful soft-landing on the Martian surface:

USA / Viking 1 / 20 July 1976

First wheeled vehicle on Mars:

USA / Sojourner / 5 July 1997

Jupiter

First spacecraft to fly by Jupiter:

USA / Pioneer 10 / 4 December 1973

First atmospheric entry into Jupiter:

USA / Galileo Probe / 7 December 1995

First spacecraft to orbit Jupiter:

USA / Galileo Orbiter / 8 December 1995

First spacecraft to carry out detailed investigations of 

Jupiter’s interior:

USA / Juno / 2016–present

Saturn

First spacecraft to fly by Saturn:

USA / Pioneer 11 / 1 September 1979

First spacecraft to orbit Saturn:

USA / Cassini / 1 July 2004

First spacecraft to soft-land on Titan:

ESA / Huygens / 14 January 2005

Uranus

First spacecraft to fly by Uranus:

USA / Voyager 2 / 24 January 1986

Neptune

First spacecraft to fly by Neptune:

USA / Voyager 2 / 25 August 1989
4 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

Pluto

First spacecraft to fly by Pluto:

USA / New Horizons / 14 July 2015

Comets

First spacecraft to fly past a comet:

USA / ISEE-3 / 11 September 1985 (Comet 21P/

Giacobini-Zinner)

First spacecraft to enter the coma of a comet:

USA / Deep Space 1 / 22 September 2001 

(Comet 19P/Borrelly)

First spacecraft to impact a comet:

USA / Deep Impact / 4 July 2005 (Comet 9P/

Tempel)

First spacecraft to return material from a comet:

USA / Stardust / Returned 15 January 2006 

(Comet 81P/Wild)

First spacecraft to orbit a cometary nucleus:

ESA / Rosetta / 10 September 2014 (Comet 67P/

Churyumov-Gerasimenko)

First spacecraft to land on a comet:

ESA / Philae / 12 November 2014 (Comet 67P/

Cburyumov-Gerasimenko)

Dwarf Planets

First spacecraft to orbit a dwarf planet:

USA / Dawn / March 7, 2015 (1 Ceres)

Asteroids

First spacecraft to fly past an asteroid:

USA / Galileo / 26 October 1991 (951 Gaspra)

First spacecraft to orbit an asteroid:

USA / NEAR Shoemaker / 14 February 2000 

(433 Eros)

First spacecraft to land on an asteroid:

USA / NEAR Shoemaker / 13 February 2001 

(433 Eros)

First spacecraft to return material from an asteroid:

Japan / Hayabusa / 13 June 2010 (25143 Hideo 

Itokawa)

First spacecraft to orbit an asteroid in the main asteroid belt:

USA / Dawn / 16 July 2011 (4 Vesta)

Lagrange Points

First spacecraft to orbit a libration point (L1 [Sun–Earth]):

USA / ISEE-3 / 20 November 1978

First spacecraft to orbit libration point L2 (Sun–Earth):

USA / WMAP / 1 October 2001

First spacecraft to orbit libration point L2 (Earth–Moon):

USA / ARTEMIS P1 / 25 August 2010

First spacecraft to orbit libration point L1 (Earth–Moon):

USA / ARTEMIS P2 / 22 October 2010
5

1958

1

[Pioneer 0]

Nation: USA (1)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: Able 1

Spacecraft Mass: 38.5 kg

Mission Design and Management: ARPA / AFBMD

Launch Vehicle: Thor Able 1 (Thor no. 127)

Launch Date and Time: 17 August 1958 / 12:18 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral / Launch Complex 17A

Scientific Instruments:

1. magnetometer

2. micrometeoroid detector

3. 2 temperature sensors

4. TV camera

Results: On 27 March 1958, the U.S. Department of 

Defense announced the launch of four to five lunar 

probes later in the year, all under the supervision of 

the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) as 

part of scientific investigations during the International Geophysical Year. Of these, one or two (later 

confirmed as two) would be carried out by the Army’s 

Ballistic Missile Agency and the other three by the 

Air Force’s Ballistic Missile Division. This launch 

was the first of three Air Force attempts, and the first 

attempted deep space launch by any country. The 

Able 1 spacecraft, a squat conical fiberglass structure built by Space Technology Laboratories (STL), 

carried a crude infrared TV scanner. The simple 

thermal radiation device carried a small parabolic 

mirror for focusing reflected light from the lunar 

surface onto a cell that would transmit voltage proportional to the light it received. Engineers painted 

a pattern of dark and light stripes on the spacecraft’s 

outer surface to regulate internal temperature. 

The spacecraft was also disinfected with ultraviolet light prior to launch. The launch vehicle was a 

three-stage variant of the Thor intermediate range 

ballistic missile (IRBM) with elements appropriated from the Vanguard rocket used on its second 

and third stages. The entire project involved 3,000 

people from 52 scientific and industrial firms, all 

but 6 of which were located in southern California. 

According to the ideal mission profile, Able 1 was 

designed to reach the Moon’s vicinity 2.6 days after 

launch following which the TX-8-6 solid propellant 

motor would fire to insert the payload into orbit 

around the Moon. Orbital altitude would have been 

29,000 kilometers with an optimal lifetime of about 

two weeks. The actual mission, however, lasted only 

73.6 seconds, the Thor first stage having exploded 

at an altitude of 15.2 kilometers altitude. Telemetry 

was received from the payload for at least 123 seconds after the explosion, probably until impact in 

the Atlantic. Investigators concluded that the accident had been caused by a turbopump gearbox failure. The mission was not named at the time but has 

been retroactively known as “Pioneer 0.”

2

[Luna, Ye-1 no. 1]

Nation: USSR (1)

Objective(s): lunar impact

Spacecraft: Ye-1 (no. 1)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 360 kg (including the power 

sources installed on the upper stage)

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: 8K72 (no. B1-3)

Launch Date and Time: 23 September 1958 / 07:03:23 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5
6 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

Scientific Instruments:

Ye-1:

1. flux-gate magnetometer

2. sodium-iodide scintillation counter

3. 2 gas discharge Geiger counters

4. 2 micrometeorite counters

5. Cherenkov detector

6. 4 ion traps

Blok Ye (upper stage):

1. sodium vapor experiment

2. scintillation counter

Results: The Soviet government approved a modest 

plan for initial exploration of the Moon in March 

1958. Engineers conceived of four initial probes, 

the Ye-1 (for lunar impact), Ye-2 (to photograph 

the farside of the Moon), Ye-3 (to photograph the 

farside of the Moon with advanced imaging equipment), and Ye-4 (lunar impact with a nuclear explosion). The Ye-1 was a simple probe, a pressurized 

spherical object made from aluminum-magnesium alloy slightly bigger than the first Sputnik. 

The goals were to detect the magnetic field of the 

Moon, study the intensity and variation of cosmic 

rays, record photons in cosmic rays, detect lunar 

radiation, study the distribution of heavy nucleii in 

primary cosmic radiation, study the gas component 

of interplanetary matter, study corpuscular solar 

radiation, and record the incidence of meteoric 

particles. The Blok Ye upper stage (with the 8D714 

engine) carried additional instrumentation, including radio transmitters and one kilogram of sodium 

to create an artificial comet on the outbound trajectory that could be photographed from Earth. 

During the first Ye-1 launch, at T+87 seconds, the 

launch vehicle’s strapon boosters began to develop 

longitudinal resonant vibrations. The rocket eventually disintegrated at T+93 seconds, destroying its 

payload. The problem was traced to violent pressure oscillations in the combustion chamber of one 

of the strapon booster engines. This generated a 

resonant frequency vibration throughout the frame 

causing it to shake violently. A fix was proposed 

by reducing the thrust at T+85 seconds when the 

rocket reached maximum dynamic pressure.

3

Able 2 [Pioneer]

Nation: USA (2)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: Able 2

Spacecraft Mass: 38.3 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / AFBMD

Launch Vehicle: Thor Able I (Thor Able I no. 1 / 

Thor no. 130/DM-1812-6)

Launch Date and Time: 11 October 1958 / 08:42:13 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral / Launch Complex 17A

Scientific Instruments:

1. ion chamber

2. magnetometer

3. micrometeoroid detector

4. TV camera

5. 2 temperature sensors

Results: Although the USAF actually conducted 

the mission, this was the first U.S. space mission 

technically under the aegis of the recently formed 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

(NASA). The spacecraft was very similar in design 

to the Able 1 probe and like its predecessor, built by 

Space Technology Laboratories (STL). The probe 

was designed to record micrometeoroid impacts, 

take magnetic field and radiation measurements, 

and obtain a “facsimile image of the surface of the 

moon.” During the launch, the Thor second stage 

shut down 10 seconds early due to incorrect information from an accelerometer measuring incremental velocity. The launch vehicle thus imparted 

insufficient velocity for the probe to escape Earth’s 

gravity. An attempt to insert the spacecraft into 

high Earth orbit at 128,700 × 32,200 kilometers 

by using its Thiokol-built retromotor failed because 

internal temperatures had fallen too low for the 

batteries to provide adequate power. The probe 

did, however, reach an altitude of 114,750 kilometers (according to NASA information from February 1959) by 11:42 UT on launch day, verifying 

the existence of the Van Allen belts and returning 
1958 7

other useful data on the boundary of the geomagnetic cavity. It reentered 43 hours 17 minutes after 

launch. Investigators later concluded that an accelerometer had mistakenly cut off the Able stage 

because of an incorrect setting of a valve. In a press 

release on October 11 soon after the launch, the 

U.S. Department of Defense officially bestowed 

the name “Pioneer” to the probe, although it has 

often been retroactively known as “Pioneer 1.” The 

name was apparently suggested not by any NASA 

official but by one Stephen A. Saliga, an official in 

charge of Air Force exhibits at Wright-Patterson Air 

Force Base in Dayton, Ohio, who designed a display to coincide with the launch.

Thor-Able I with the Pioneer I spacecraft atop, prior to 

launch at Eastern Test Range at what is now Kennedy 

Space Center. Pioneer I, launched on 11 October 1958, 

was the first spacecraft launched by the 11-day-old 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). 

Although the spacecraft failed to reach the Moon, it did 

transmit 43 hours of data. Credit: NASA

4

[Luna, Ye-1 no. 2]

Nation: USSR (2)

Objective(s): lunar impact

Spacecraft: Ye-1 (no. 2)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 360 kg (including power sources 

installed on the upper stage)

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: 8K72 (no. B1-4)

Launch Date and Time: 11 October 1958 / 21:41:58 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

Ye-1:

1. flux-gate magnetometer

2. sodium-iodide scintillation counter

3. 2 gas discharge Geiger counters

4. 2 micrometeorite counters

5. Cherenkov detector

6. 4 ion traps

Blok Ye (upper stage):

1. sodium vapor experiment

2. scintillation counter

Results: The second attempt to send a Ye-1 probe 

to impact on the Moon also never left Earth’s 

atmosphere. The 8K72 launch vehicle exploded 

at T+104 seconds, once again, due to longitudinal 

resonant vibrations in the strapon boosters.

5

Pioneer II

Nation: USA (3)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: Able 3

Spacecraft Mass: 39.6 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / AFBMD

Launch Vehicle: Thor Able I (Thor Able I no. 2 / 

Thor no. 129/DM-1812-6)

Launch Date and Time: 8 November 1958 / 07:30:20 UT
8 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral / Launch Complex 17A

Scientific Instruments:

1. ionization chamber

2. magnetometer

3. temperature sensors

4. micrometeoroid sensor

5. proportional counter telescope

6. TV system

Results: This was the second official NASA deep 

space launch although operations on the ground 

were handled by the Air Force. For this third launch 

of an STL-built lunar orbiter, engineers introduced 

a number of changes to the Thor Able launcher. 

The probe also now included a new TV scanner and 

a new type of battery, as well as a new cosmic ray 

telescope to study the Cherenkov Effect. Pioneer 

II, like its predecessors, never reached its target. A 

signal from the ground shut down the Thor launch 

vehicle’s second stage earlier than planned. Additionally, when the X-248 third stage engine separated, it failed to fire. As a result, the probe burned 

up in Earth’s atmosphere only 42 minutes 10 seconds after launch at 28.6° E longitude. During its 

brief mission, it reached an altitude of 1,530 kilometers (as announced in December 1959) and sent 

back data that suggested that Earth’s equatorial 

region had higher flux and energy levels than previously thought. The information also indicated that 

micrometeoroid density was higher near Earth than 

in space. Investigators concluded that the third 

stage engine had failed to fire because of a broken 

wire. A NASA press release from Administrator T. 

Keith Glennan (1905–1995) soon after the launch 

officially named the probe “Pioneer II.”

6

[Luna, Ye-1 no. 3]

Nation: USSR (3)

Objective(s): lunar impact

Spacecraft: Ye-1 (no. 3)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 360 kg (including power sources 

installed on the upper stage)

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: 8K72 (no. B1-5)

Launch Date and Time: 4 December 1958 / 18:18:44 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

Ye-1:

1. flux-gate magnetometer

2. sodium-iodide scintillation counter

3. 2 gas discharge Geiger counters

4. 2 micrometeorite counters

5. Cherenkov detector

6. 4 ion traps

Blok Ye (upper stage):

1. sodium vapor experiment

2. scintillation counter

Results: This was the third failure in a row in Soviet 

attempts to send a Ye-1 lunar impact probe to 

the Moon. The thrust level of the core engine 

(8D75) of the R-7 booster dropped abruptly at 

T+245.4 seconds to about 70% of optimal levels, 

leading to premature engine cutoff. The payload 

never reached escape velocity. Later investigation showed that a pressurized seal in the hydrogen peroxide pump of the main engine had lost 

integrity in vacuum conditions. The malfunction 

caused the main turbine to cease working and thus 

led to engine failure.

7

Pioneer III

Nation: USA (4)

Objective(s): lunar flyby

Spacecraft: Pioneer III

Spacecraft Mass: 5.87 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / ABMA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Juno II (no. AM-11)

Launch Date and Time: 6 December 1958 / 05:44:52 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral / Launch Complex 5

Scientific Instruments:

1. photoelectric sensor trigger

2. two Geiger-Mueller counters
1958 9

Results: This was the first of two U.S. Army launches 

to the Moon, subsequent to three attempts by the 

Air Force. Pioneer III was a spin-stabilized probe 

(up to 400 rpm) whose primary goal was to fly by 

the Moon. Two special 6-gram weights were to be 

spun out on 1.5-meter wires to reduce spin to 6 

rpm once the mission was under way. The spacecraft carried an optical sensor to test a future imaging system. If the sensor received a collimated 

beam of light from a source (such as the Moon) 

that was wide enough to pass through the lens 

and fall simultaneously on two photocells, then 

the sensor would send a signal to switch on the 

imaging system (which was actually not carried on 

this spacecraft). Unfortunately, the main booster 

engine shut down 4 seconds earlier than planned 

due to premature propellant depletion. Once put 

on its trajectory, it was determined that Pioneer III 

was about 1,030 km/hour short of escape velocity. It eventually reached a maximum altitude of 

102,322 kilometers and subsequently plummeted 

and burned up over Africa 38 hours 6 minutes 

after launch. In addition, the de-spin mechanism 

failed to operate, preventing the test of the optical 

system. The radiation counters, however, returned 

important data. Dr. William H. Pickering (1910–

2004), in a paper presented to an IGY Symposium 

on 29 December 1958, noted that “[w]hile the 

results of the launch were disappointing...the dividend of radiation measurements of the Van Allen 

belt gained as the payload returned to earth were 

of great value in defining this energy field.” This 

data contributed to the major scientific discovery 

of dual bands of radiation around Earth.

Pioneer III being assembled by technicians. Credit: NASA
10 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

During the Pioneer IV mission, NASA tested a new space communications system. One component of the system was 

this 26-meter diameter antenna at Goldstone, California, the first of several antennas that would later constitute nodes in 

NASA’s Deep Space Network. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech
11

1959

8

Soviet Space Rocket [Luna 1]

Nation: USSR (4)

Objective(s): lunar impact

Spacecraft: Ye-1 (no. 4)

Spacecraft Mass: 361.3 kg (including power sources 

installed on the upper stage)

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: 8K72 (no. B1-6)

Launch Date and Time: 2 January 1959 / 16:41:21 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

Ye-1:

1. flux-gate magnetometer

2. sodium-iodide scintillation counter

3. 2 gas discharge Geiger counters

4. 2 micrometeorite counters

5. Cherenkov detector

6. 4 ion traps

Blok Ye (upper stage):

1. sodium vapor experiment

2. scintillation counter

Results: Due to a ground error in an antenna that 

transmitted guidance information to the launch 

vehicle, the Blok Ye upper stage of the launch 

vehicle fired longer than intended—731.2 seconds—and thus, imparted 175 meters/second 

extra velocity to its payload. Because of this error, 

the Ye-1 probe missed the Moon. Nevertheless, 

the probe became the first human-made object 

to attain Earth escape velocity. The spacecraft 

(which with its entire launch vehicle was referred 

as “Soviet Space Rocket” in the Soviet press) eventually passed by the Moon at a distance of 6,400 

kilometers about 34 hours following launch at 

02:59 UT on January 4. (Some sources say the 

range was as high as 7,500 kilometers). Before the 

lunar encounter, at 00:57 UT on 3 January 1959 

the attached upper stage released one kilogram of 

sodium at a distance of 113,000 kilometers from 

Earth which was photographed by Soviet groundbased astronomers although the quality of the 

images was poor, partly due to poor weather conditions. Ground controllers lost contact with the 

Soviet Space Rocket (retroactively named “Luna 1” 

in 1963) approximately 62 hours after launch due 

to loss of battery power when the payload was 

597,000 kilometers from Earth, after which the 

probe became the first spacecraft to enter orbit 

around the Sun.

9

Pioneer IV

Nation: USA (5)

Objective(s): lunar flyby

Spacecraft: Pioneer IV

Spacecraft Mass: 6.08 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / ABMA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Juno II (no. AM-14)

Launch Date and Time: 3 March 1959 / 05:10:56 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral / Launch Complex 5

Scientific Instruments:

1. photoelectric sensor trigger

2. two Geiger-Mueller counters

Results: This was the last of 5 American lunar 

probes launched as part of a series during the 

International Geophysical Year (although the year 

officially ended a few months prior). Its design was 

very similar to Pioneer III; a key difference was 

the addition of a “monitor” to measure the voltage 
12 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

of the main radio transmitter, which had failed for 

unknown reasons on Pioneer III. A de-spin mechanism was on board to slow the spin-stabilized vehicle from its initial spin of 480 rpm down to about 

11 rpm about 11 hours after launch. Although it 

did not achieve its primary objective to photograph the Moon during a flyby, Pioneer IV became 

the first U.S. spacecraft to reach Earth escape 

velocity. During the launch, the Sergeants on the 

second stage did not cut off on time, causing the 

azimuths and elevation angles of the trajectory to 

change. The spacecraft thus passed by the Moon 

at a range of about 60,000 kilometers (instead of 

the planned 32,000 kilometers), i.e., not close 

enough for the imaging scanner to function. 

Closest approach was at 10:24 UT on 4  March 

1959, about 41 hours after launch. Its tiny radio 

transmitted information for 82 hours before contact was lost at a distance of 655,000 kilometers 

from Earth—the greatest tracking distance for a 

human-made object to date. The probe eventually entered heliocentric orbit becoming the first 

American spacecraft to do so. Scientists received 

excellent data that suggested that the intensity of 

the upper belt of the Van Allen belts had changed 

since Pioneer III (probably attributable to a recent 

solar flare) and that there might be a third belt at a 

higher altitude to the others.

10

[Luna, Ye-1A no. 5]

Nation: USSR (5)

Objective(s): lunar impact

Spacecraft: Ye-1A (no. 5)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 390 kg (including power sources 

installed on the upper stage)

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: 8K72 (no. I1-7)

Launch Date and Time: 18 June 1959 / 08:08 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

Ye-1:

1. flux-gate magnetometer

2. sodium-iodide scintillation counter

3. 2 micrometeorite counters

4. Cherenkov detector

5. 4 ion traps

6. 6 Geiger counters

Blok Ye (upper stage):

1. sodium vapor experiment

2. Cherenkov detector

3. 2 scintillation counters

Results: The Soviet Ye-1A probe, like the Ye-1, was 

designed for lunar impact. Engineers had incorporated some minor modifications to the scientific 

instruments (a modified antenna housing for the 

magnetometer, six instead of four gas discharge 

counters, and an improved piezoelectric detector) 

as a result of information received from the first 

Soviet Space Rocket (retroactively known as “Luna 

1”) and the American Pioneer IV. The launch was 

originally scheduled for 16 June but had to be 

postponed for two days due to the negligence of a 

young lieutenant who inadvertently permitted fueling of the upper stage with the wrong propellant. 

During the actual launch, one of the gyroscopes of 

the inertial guidance system failed at T+153 seconds, and the wayward booster was subsequently 

destroyed by command from the ground.

11

Second Soviet Space Rocket [Luna 2]

Nation: USSR (6)

Objective(s): lunar impact

Spacecraft: Ye-1A (no. 7)

Spacecraft Mass: 390.2 kg (including power sources 

installed on the upper stage)

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: 8K72 (no. I1-7b)

Launch Date and Time: 12 September 1959 / 06:39:42 

UT
1959 13

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

Ye-1:

1. flux-gate magnetometer

2. sodium-iodide scintillation counter

3. 2 micrometeorite counters

4. Cherenkov detector

5. 4 ion traps

6. 6 Geiger counters

Blok Ye (upper stage):

1. sodium vapor experiment

2. Cherenkov detector

3. scintillation counter

Results: After an aborted launch on 9 September, 

the Ye-1A probe successfully lifted off and reached 

Earth escape velocity. Officially named the “Second 

Soviet Space Rocket” by Pravda the day after 

launch, the spacecraft released its one kilogram of 

sodium at 18:42:42 UT on 12 September at a distance of 156,000 kilometers from Earth in a cloud 

that expanded out to 650 kilometers in diameter, 

clearly visible from the ground. This sixth attempt 

at lunar impact was much more accurate than its 

predecessors; the spacecraft successfully impacted 

the surface of the Moon at 21:02:23 UT on 

14 September 1959, thus becoming the first object 

of human origin to make contact with another 

celestial body. The Blok Ye upper stage impacted 

about 30 minutes later, also at a velocity of just over 

3 kilometers/second. The probe’s impact point was 

approximately at 30° N / 0° longitude on the slope 

of the Autolycus crater, east of Mare Serenitatis. 

Luna 2 (as it was called after 1963) deposited 

Soviet emblems on the lunar surface carried in 

9 × 15-centimeter sized metallic spheres. The 

spacecraft’s magnetometer measured no significant lunar magnetic field as close as 55 kilometers 

to the lunar surface. The radiation detectors also 

found no hint of a radiation belt. These were the 

first measurements of physical fields for celestial 

bodies other than Earth. The ion traps on board 

Luna 2 made the first in situ measurements of the 

extended plasma envelope of Earth, suggesting the 

existence of what was later called the plasmapause.

12 

Automatic Interplanetary Station 

[Luna 3]

Nation: USSR (7)

Objective(s): lunar flyby

Spacecraft: Ye-2A (no. 1)

Spacecraft Mass: 278.5 kg

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: 8K72 (no. I1-8)

Launch Date and Time: 4 October 1959 / 00:43:40 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

1. photographic-TV imaging system

2. 4 micrometeoroid counters

3. 4 ion traps

4. Cherenkov radiation detector

5. sodium iodide scintillation counter

6. 3 gas discharge counters

This is a processed version of one of the exposures from 

the Luna 3 mission. Credit: Don Mitchell
14 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

A model of the Ye-2A class spacecraft, later known as Luna-3, on display at the Memorial Museum of Cosmonautics in 

Moscow. Credit: https://bit.ly/2wPp8AI

Results: This spacecraft, of the Ye-2A class, was the 

first Soviet probe designed to take pictures of the 

farside of the Moon using the Yenisey unit (using 

the AFA-Ye1 camera), which consisted of two 

lenses of 200 mm (wide angle) and 500 mm (high 

resolution) focal lengths, and a capacity to read up 

to 40 images on a 35 mm film roll. The dual lenses 

exposed adjacent frames simultaneously. It was 

also the first spacecraft to be fully powered by solar 

panels. Strictly speaking, the probe was not meant 

to reach Earth escape velocity; instead, the launch 

vehicle inserted the spacecraft, called the Automatic Interplanetary Station (Avtomaticheskaya 

mezhplanetnaya stantsiya, AMS) in the Soviet press, 

into a highly-elliptical orbit around Earth at 48,280 

× 468,300 kilometers, sufficient to reach lunar 

distance. During the coast to the Moon, the AMS 

suffered overheating problems and poor communications, but the vehicle eventually passed over 

the Moon’s southern polar cap at a range of 7,900 

kilometers at 14:16 UT on 6 October before climbing up (northward) over the Earth-Moon plane. At 

a distance of 65,200 kilometers from the Moon at 

03:30 UT on 7 October, having been properly oriented by its Chayka attitude control system (the 

first successful 3-axis stabilization used on a spacecraft), the twin-lens 35 mm camera began taking 

the first of 29 pictures of the farside of the Moon. 

This session lasted a total of about 40 minutes, by 

the end of which the spacecraft was 68,400 kilometers from the lunar surface. The exposed film 

was then developed, fixed, and dried automatically, following which a special light-beam of up to 

1,000 lines per image scanned the film for transmission to Earth. Images were received the next 

day (after a few aborted attempts) at two locations, 

a primary at Simeiz in Crimea known as IP-41Ye 

and a backup in the Soviet far east, at Yelizovo in 

Kamchatka, known as NIP-6. On the ground, there 

were two systems for recording the images from 
1959 15

Diagram showing Luna 3’s trajectory out to lunar distance. Credit: https://bit.ly/2NkheZx

The Yenisey “photo-television unit” on board Luna 3 was 

developed by the Leningrad-based VNII-380 institute. It 

included a dual-objective camera (AFA-Ye1) developed 

by the Krasnogorsk Mechanical Plant. The camera took 

two pictures simultaneously using a 200 mm lens and a 

500 mm lens. Credit: T. Varfolomeyev

AMS, Yenisey I (fast mode, at 50 lines/second) and 

Yenisey II (at slow mode at 0.8 lines/second). Seventeen of the images were of usable quality, and for 

the first time, they showed parts of the Moon never 

before seen by human eyes. The trajectory of AMS 

was specifically designed so that images would 

show at least half of the Moon, one-third of which 

was on the near side, so as to provide a point of 

reference for evaluating formations on the farside. 

Controllers were unable to regain contact with the 

spacecraft after the spacecraft entered and then 

exited Earth’s shadow. Luna 3 circled Earth at least 

11 times and probably reentered sometime in early 

1960. Post-Cold War revelations confirmed that 

the film type used on AMS, known as “ASh” by 

the Soviets, was actually unexposed film that was 

repurposed from a CIA reconnaissance balloon 

(from Project Genetrix) that had drifted into Soviet 

territory in the late 1950s. This film had been 

stored at the A. F. Mozhayskiy Military Academy 

in Leningrad when the space camera manufacturers at the VNII-380 institute had stumbled upon 
16 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

it. Further investigation showed that the temperature-resistant and radiation-hardened film would 

be perfect for the AFA-Ye1 camera, and the rest 

was history. The spacecraft, named Luna 3 after 

1963, photographed about 70% of the farside and 

found fewer mare areas on the farside, prompting 

scientists to revise their theories of lunar evolution.

13

Able IVB [Pioneer]

Nation: USA (6)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: P-3 / Able IVB

Spacecraft Mass: 168.7 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / AFBMD

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Able (Atlas Able no. 1 / Atlas 

D no. 20)

Launch Date and Time: 26 November 1959 / 07:26 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral / Launch Complex 14

Scientific Instruments:

1. high-energy radiation counter

2. ionization chamber

3. Geiger-Mueller tube

4. low-energy radiation counter

5. a flux-gate magnetometer and a search-coil 

magnetometer

6. photo scanning device

7. micrometeoroid detector

8. aspect indicator (a photoelectric cell)

9. radio receiver to detect natural radio waves

10. transponder to measure electron densities

Results: This was the first of three spacecraft 

designed by Space Technology Laboratories for a 

lunar assault in 1959–1960; two of them had originally been slated for Venus orbit (in June 1959) but 

mission planners had redirected their missions after 

the success of the Soviet Automatic Interplanetary 

Station (“Luna 3”) mission. All the scientific experiments and internal instrumentation were powered 

by Nickel-Cadmium batteries charged from 1,100 

solar cells on four paddles which made the vehicle 

resemble the recently-launched Explorer VI. The 

imaging system, the same one used on Explorer VI, 

comprised a tiny 1.13-kilogram scanning device 

developed by STL that was “to be used in [an] 

attempt to get a crude outline of the moon’s surface 

if the probe achieve[d] lunar orbit.” Each probe 

also carried a hydrazine monopropellant tank with 

two thrust chambers (each 9 kgf), one of which was 

for lunar orbit insertion at a range of 8,000 kilometers from the Moon. Ideal lunar orbital parameters were planned as 6,400 × 4,800 kilometers. 

The mission also inaugurated the first use of the 

Atlas-with-an-upper-stage combination, affording 

increased payload weight. During this first launch, 

which took place on Thanksgiving Day 1959, the 

nose fairing began to break away just 45 seconds 

after liftoff, still during first stage operation. Aerodynamic forces then caused the third stage and 

payload to break away and explode. The ground 

lost contact with the tumbling booster at T+104 

seconds. Investigation showed that the 3-meter 

fiberglass shroud failed because there had been no 

measures to account for pressure differentials as 

the rocket rapidly gained altitude after liftoff.
17

1960

14

Pioneer V

Nation: USA (7)

Objective(s): heliocentric orbit

Spacecraft: P-2 / Able 6

Spacecraft Mass: 43.2 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / AFBMD

Launch Vehicle: Thor Able IV (Thor Able IV no. 4 / 

Thor no. 219/DM-1812-6A)

Launch Date and Time: 11 March 1960 / 13:00:07 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral / Launch Complex 17A

Scientific Instruments:

1. magnetometer

2. ionization chamber

3. Geiger-Mueller tube

4. micrometeoroid momentum spectrometer

5. omnidirectional proportional counter 

telescope

Results: Launched on a direct solar orbit trajectory, 

Pioneer V successfully reached heliocentric orbit 

between Earth and Venus to demonstrate deep 

space technologies and to provide the first map of 

the interplanetary magnetic field. The spacecraft 

had originally been intended for a Venus encounter 

but the mission was switched to a direct entry into 

solar orbit. Pioneer V carried Telebit, the first digital telemetry system operationally used on a U.S. 

spacecraft—it was first tested on Explorer VI. The 

system used a 5-watt or a 150-watt transmitter, with 

a 5-watt transmitter acting as driver. Information 

rates varied from 1 to 64 bits/second. Controllers 

maintained contact with Pioneer V until 11:31 UT 

on 26 June 1960 to a record distance of 36.4 million kilometers from Earth (later beaten by Mariner 

II). The probe, using its 18.1-kilogram suite of 

scientific instruments, confirmed the existence of 

a previously conjectured weak interplanetary magnetic field. Information from the magnetometer 

was unfortunately unusable due to the instrument’s 

position within the spacecraft. Pioneer V remains a 

derelict spacecraft circling the Sun.

15

[Luna, Ye-3 no. 1]

Nation: USSR (8)

Objective(s): lunar farside photography

Spacecraft: Ye-3 (no. 1)

Spacecraft Mass: [unknown]

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: 8K72 (no. 1l-9)

Launch Date and Time: 15 April 1960 / 15:06:44 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

1. photographic-TV imaging system

2. micrometeoroid detector

3. cosmic ray detector

Results: This spacecraft was launched to return more 

detailed photos of the lunar farside, after the spectacular success of Luna 3. The Ye-3 class vehicle was 

essentially a Ye-2A probe with a modified radio-telemetry system, but with the original imaging system. (A 

more advanced Ye-3 type with a new imaging system 

had been abandoned earlier). During the launch, the 

probe received insufficient velocity (too low by 110 

meters/second) after premature third stage engine 

cutoff (3 seconds short). The spacecraft reached an 

altitude of 200,000 kilometers and then fell back to 

Earth and burned up in Earth’s atmosphere, much 

like some of the early American Pioneer probes. The 

most likely reentry point was over central Africa.
18 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

16

[Luna, Ye no. 2]

Nation: USSR (9)

Objective(s): farside lunar photography

Spacecraft: Ye-3 (no. 2)

Spacecraft Mass: [unknown]

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: 8K72 (no. Ll-9a)

Launch Date and Time: 19 April 1960 / 16:07:43 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

1. photographic-TV imaging system

2. micrometeoroid detector

3. cosmic ray detector

Results: This was the last of the “first generation” 

Soviet probes to the Moon. Like its immediate predecessor, it was designed to photograph the farside 

of the Moon. Unfortunately, the probe never left 

Earth’s atmosphere. Instead, immediately after 

launch, at T+10 seconds, the launch vehicle began 

to fall apart (its Blok D strapon actually began separating 0.02 seconds after launch). As each strapon 

fell away, parts of the booster landed separately 

over a large area near the launch site, breaking 

up between 21.15 and 40.3 seconds of launch. 

Thundering explosions broke windows in many 

nearby buildings.

17

Able VA [Pioneer]

Nation: USA (8)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: P-30 / Able VA

Spacecraft Mass: 175.5 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / AFBMD

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Able (Atlas Able no. 2 / Atlas 

D no. 80)

Launch Date and Time: 25 September 1960 / 15:13 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral / Launch Complex 12

Scientific Instruments:

1. high-energy radiation counter

2. ionization chamber

3. Geiger-Mueller tube

4. low-energy radiation counter

5. two magnetometers

6. scintillation spectrometer

7. micrometeoroid detector

8. plasma probe

9. Sun scanner

Results: This probe, Able VA, had a slightly different instrument complement compared to its 

predecessor Able IVB (launched in November 

1959), but had similar mission goals. Able VA was 

to enter lunar orbit about 62.5 hours after launch 

with parameters of 4,000 × 2,250 kilometers and 

a period of 10 hours. After launch, while the first 

stage performed without problems, the Able second 

stage ignited abnormally and shut down early 

because of an oxidizer system failure. Ground controllers were still able to fire the third stage engine, 

making this small STL-built engine the first rocket 

engine to successfully ignite and operate in space. 

Because of the second stage failure, the spacecraft 

failed to reach sufficient velocity and burned up in 

Earth’s atmosphere 17 minutes after launch. Later, 

on 15 November 1960, NASA announced that two 

objects from the Able VA payload had been found 

in Transvaal, South Africa.

18

[Mars, 1M no. 1]

Nation: USSR (10)

Objective(s): Mars flyby

Spacecraft: 1M (no. 1)

Spacecraft Mass: 480 kg

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: Molniya + Blok L (8K78 no. L1-4M)

Launch Date and Time: 10 October 1960 / 14:27:49 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5
1960 19

The 4-stage 8K78 launch vehicle (and its various modifications) launched most Soviet lunar and planetary probes 

in the 1960s until the advent of the Proton booster in the 

late 1960s. Credit: T. Varfolomeyev

Scientific Instruments:

1. infrared spectrometer [removed before 

launch]

2. ultraviolet spectrometer [removed before 

launch]

3. micrometeorite detectors

4. ion traps

5. magnetometer

6. cosmic ray detectors

7. Yenisey imaging system [removed before 

launch]

Results: This was the first of two Soviet Mars spacecraft intended to fly past Mars. They were also 

the first attempt by humans to send spacecraft to 

the vicinity of Mars. Although the spacecraft initially included a TV imaging system (similar to the 

one carried on Luna 3), a UV spectrometer, and 

a spectroreflectometer (to detect organic life on 

Mars), mass constraints forced engineers to delete 

these instruments a week before launch. A possibly apocryphal story has it that once removed from 

the spacecraft, the spectroreflectometer was tested 

not far from the Tyuratam launch site but failed 

to detect any life. The spacecraft itself was a cylinder, about a meter in diameter with all the basic 

systems required of interplanetary travel—a means 

to regulate temperatures, batteries charged by solar 

panels, a long-distance communication system, 

three-axis stabilization, and a mid-course correction engine (the S5.9). The mission profile called 

for the probe to first enter Earth orbit and then 

use a new fourth stage (called “Blok L”) capable of 

firing in vacuum, to gain enough additional velocity 

for a Mars encounter. During the launch, violent 

vibrations caused a gyroscope to malfunction. As a 

result, the booster began to veer from its planned 

attitude. The guidance system failed at T+309.9 

seconds and the third stage (Blok I) engine was 

shut down at T+324.2 seconds, after the trajectory 

deviated to greater than 7° (pitch). The payload 

eventually burned up in Earth’s atmosphere over 

eastern Siberia without reaching Earth orbit. The 

Mars flyby had been planned for 13 May 1961.

19

[Mars, 1M no. 2]

Nation: USSR (11)

Objective(s): Mars flyby

Spacecraft: 1M (no. 2)

Spacecraft Mass: 480 kg

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: Molniya + Blok L (8K78 no. L1-5M)

Launch Date and Time: 14 October 1960 / 13:51:03 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5
20 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

Scientific Instruments:

1. infrared spectrometer [removed before 

launch]

2. ultraviolet spectrometer [removed before 

launch]

3. micrometeorite detectors

4. ion traps

5. magnetometer

6. cosmic ray detectors

7. imaging system [removed before launch]

Results: Besides a slightly uprated S5.9A main 

engine, this vehicle was identical to its predecessor, 

launched four days before. And like its predecessor, 

it never reached Earth orbit. During the launch trajectory, there was a failure in the third stage (Blok I) 

engine at T+290 seconds due to frozen kerosene 

in the pipeline feeding its turbopump (which prevented a valve from opening). The third and fourth 

stages, along with the payload, burned up in Earth’s 

upper atmosphere over eastern Siberia. The Mars 

flyby had been planned for 15 May 1961.

20

Able VB [Pioneer]

Nation: USA (9)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: P-31 / Able VB

Spacecraft Mass: 176 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / AFBMD 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Able (Atlas Able no. 3 / Atlas 

D no. 91)

Launch Date and Time: 15 December 1960 / 09:11 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral / Launch Complex 12

Scientific Instruments:

1. micrometeoroid detector

2. high-energy radiation counter

3. ionization chamber

4. Geiger-Mueller tube

5. low-energy radiation counter

6. a flux-gate magnetometer and a spinsearch coil magnetometer

7. Sun scanner (or photoelectric cell)

8. plasma probe

9. scintillation spectrometer

10. solid state detector

Results: The mission of Able VB, like its two unsuccessful predecessors, was to enter lunar orbit. 

Scientific objectives included studying radiation 

near the Moon, recording the incidence of micrometeoroids, and detecting a lunar magnetic field. 

Planned lunar orbital parameters, to be achieved 

about 60 hours after launch, were 4,300 × 2,400 

kilometers with a period of 9–10 hours. The spacecraft had a slightly different scientific instrument 

complement than its predecessors, including a 

plasma probe experiment designed by NASA’s 

Ames Research Center that was to provide data on 

the energy and momentum distribution of streams 

of protons with energies above a few kilovolts per 

particle in the vicinity of the Moon. Unfortunately, 

the Atlas Able booster suffered a malfunction 66.68 

seconds after launch and then exploded at T+74 

seconds at an altitude of about 12.2 kilometers. 

Later investigation indicated that the Able upper 

stage prematurely ignited while the first stage was 

still firing. This was the third and last attempt by 

NASA to launch a probe to orbit the Moon in the 

1959–1960 period.
21

1961

21

Heavy Satellite [Venera]

Nation: USSR (12)

Objective(s): Venus impact

Spacecraft: 1VA (no. 1)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 645 kg

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: Molniya + Blok L (8K78 no. L1-7V)

Launch Date and Time: 4 February 1961 / 01:18:04 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

1. infrared spectrometer

2. ultraviolet spectrometer

3. micrometeorite detectors

4. 2 ion traps

5. magnetometer

6. cosmic ray detectors

Results: This was the first attempt to send a spacecraft to Venus. Original intentions had been to 

send the 1V spacecraft to descend and take pictures of the Venusian surface, but this proved to be 

far too ambitious a goal. Engineers instead downgraded the mission and used the 1VA spacecraft for 

a simple Venus atmospheric entry and impact. The 

1VA was essentially a modified 1M spacecraft used 

for Martian exploration (albeit with a different 

main engine, the S5.14 with a thrust of 200 kgf). 

The spacecraft contained a small globe containing 

various souvenirs and medals commemorating the 

mission. It was also the first Soviet mission to use 

an intermediate Earth orbit to launch a spacecraft 

into interplanetary space. Although the booster 

successfully placed the probe into Earth orbit, the 

fourth stage (the Blok L) never fired to send the 

spacecraft to Venus. A subsequent investigation 

showed that there had been a failure in the PT-200 

DC transformer that ensured power supply to the 

Blok L guidance system. The part had evidently 

not been designed for work in vacuum. The spacecraft+upper stage stack reentered on 26 February 

1961. The Soviets announced the total weight of 

the combination as 6,483 kilograms without specifying any difference between the payload and 

the upper stage. In the Soviet press, the satellite 

was usually referred to as Tyazhelyy sputnik or 

“Heavy Satellite.”

22

Automatic Interplanetary Station 

[Venera 1]

Nation: USSR (13)

Objective(s): Venus impact

Spacecraft: 1VA (no. 2)

Spacecraft Mass: 643.5 kg

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: Molniya + Blok L (8K78 no. L1-6V)

Launch Date and Time: 12 February 1961 / 00:34:38 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

1. infrared spectrometer

2. ultraviolet spectrometer

3. micrometeorite detectors

4. ion traps

5. magnetometer

6. cosmic ray detectors

Results: This was the second of two Venus impact 

probes that the Soviets launched in 1961. This 

time, the probe—which many years later was retroactively named “Venera 1”—successfully exited 

Earth orbit and headed towards Venus. On the 
22 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

way to Venus, on 12 February, data indicated 

unstable operation of the system designed to keep 

the spacecraft permanently oriented to the Sun, 

needed to generate energy from its solar panels. 

The spacecraft was programmed so that if such a 

problem occurred, it would automatically orient 

itself toward the Sun using gyroscopes, and then 

shut down non-essential systems. Unfortunately, 

it automatically shut down its communications 

system for five days until the next planned communications system, because it detected higher 

than usual temperatures in the spacecraft. The 

extra heat was due to the failure of mechanical 

thermal shutters designed to regulate heat in the 

vehicle. Despite these problems, the spacecraft 

responded properly during a communications 

session on 17 February 1961 at a distance of 1.9 

million kilometers when scientific data on interplanetary magnetic fields, cosmic rays, and solar 

plasma was returned. Unfortunately, controllers 

were unable to regain contact during a subsequent 

communications attempt on 22 February. A later 

investigation indicated that the spacecraft had lost 

its “permanent” solar orientation due to an optical 

sensor (that was not pressurized) that malfunctioned because of excess heat after the spacecraft’s 

thermal control system failed. The inert spacecraft 

eventually passed by Venus on 19–20 May 1961 

at a distance of about 100,000 kilometers and 

entered heliocentric orbit. Data from Venera 1 

helped detect plasma flow in deep space.

23

Ranger I

Nation: USA (10)

Objective(s): highly elliptical Earth orbit

Spacecraft: P-32

Spacecraft Mass: 306.18 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Agena B (Atlas Agena B 

no. 1 / Atlas D no. 111 / Agena B no. 6001)

Ranger I and II design. Credit: NASA

Launch Date and Time: 23 August 1961 / 10:04 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral / Launch Complex 12

Scientific Instruments:

1. electrostatic analyzer

2. photoconductive particle detectors

3. Rubidium vapor magnetometer

4. triple coincidence cosmic ray telescope

5. cosmic ray integrating ionization chamber

6. x-ray scintillation detectors

7. micrometeoroid dust particle detectors

8. Lyman alpha scanning telescope

Results: Ranger I was the first in a series of standardized spacecraft designed to take photos of 

the lunar surface during its descent to the Moon 

and rough-land simple instrumented capsules on 

the surface. The spacecraft consisted of a tubular 

central body connected to a hexagonal base containing basic equipment required for control and 

communications. Power was provided by solar 

cells and a silver-zinc battery. Ranger I’s specific 

mission was to test performance of the new technologies intended for operational Ranger missions 

and also to study the nature of particles and fields 

in interplanetary space. Its intended orbit was 
1961 23

60,000 × 1.1. million kilometers. Ranger I was the 

first American spacecraft to use a parking orbit 

around Earth prior to its deep space mission. In 

this case, the Agena B upper stage cut off almost 

immediately after its ignition for trans-lunar injection (instead of firing for 90 seconds). The probe 

remained stranded in low Earth orbit (501 × 168 

kilometers) and telemetry ceased by 27 August 

when the main battery went dead. The spacecraft 

reentered Earth’s atmosphere three days later. 

The cause of the Agena failure was traced to a 

malfunctioning switch which had prematurely 

choked the flow of red fuming nitric acid to the 

rocket engine.

24

Ranger II

Nation: USA (11)

Objective(s): highly elliptical Earth orbit

Spacecraft: P-33

Spacecraft Mass: 306.18 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Agena B (Atlas Agena B 

no. 2 / Atlas D no. 117 / Agena B no. 6002)

Launch Date and Time: 18 November 1961 / 08:12 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral / Launch Complex 12

Scientific Instruments:

1. electrostatic analyzer for solar plasma

2. photoconductive particle detectors

3. Rubidium vapor magnetometer

4. triple coincidence cosmic ray telescope

5. cosmic ray integrating ionization chamber

6. x-ray scintillation detectors

7. micrometeoroid dust particle detectors

8. Lyman alpha scanning telescope

Results: Like its predecessor, Ranger II was designed 

to operate in a highly elliptical Earth orbit that would 

take it into deep space beyond the Moon. Mission 

planners expected that during five months of operation, they could verify both the technical design of 

the vehicle and conduct key scientific experiments 

to study the space environment over a prolonged 

period. Since the Block I Rangers (Ranger I and II) 

carried no rocket engine, they could not alter their 

trajectories. On this attempt, Ranger II, like its predecessor, failed to leave low Earth orbit, the Agena 

B stage having failed to fire. In its low orbit, Ranger 

II lost its solar orientation and then eventually lost 

power, and reentered on 19 November 1961. The 

most probable cause of the failure was inoperation of the roll control gyroscope on the Agena B 

guidance system. As a result, the stage used up all 

attitude control propellant for its first orbit insertion burn. At the time of the second burn, without 

proper attitude, the engine failed to fire.

25

1962

25

Ranger III

Nation: USA (12)

Objective(s): lunar impact

Spacecraft: P-34

Spacecraft Mass: 330 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Agena B (Atlas Agena B no. 3 / 

Atlas D no. 121 / Agena B no. 6003)

Launch Date and Time: 26 January 1962 / 20:30 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral / Launch Complex 12

Scientific Instruments:

1. vidicon TV camera

2. gamma-ray spectrometer

3. radar altimeter

4. single-axis seismometer

Results: This was the first U.S. attempt to impact 

a probe on the lunar surface. The Block II Ranger 

spacecraft carried a TV camera that used an optical 

telescope that would allow imaging during descent 

down to about 24 kilometers above the lunar surface. The main bus also carried a 42.6-kilogram 

instrument capsule that would separate at 21.4 

kilometers altitude and then independently impact 

on the Moon. Protected by a balsa-wood outer 

casing, the capsule was designed to bounce several 

times on the lunar surface before coming to rest. 

The primary onboard instrument was a seismometer. Because of a malfunction in the Atlas guidance system (due to faulty transistors), the probe 

was inserted into a lunar transfer trajectory with an 

excessive velocity. A subsequent incorrect course 

change ensured that the spacecraft reached the 

Moon 14 hours early and missed it by 36,793 kilometers on January 28. The central computer and 

sequencer failed and the spacecraft returned no 

TV images. The probe did, however, provide scientists with the first measurements of interplanetary gamma ray flux. Ranger III eventually entered 

heliocentric orbit.

26

Ranger IV

Nation: USA (13)

Objective(s): lunar impact

Spacecraft: P-35

Spacecraft Mass: 331.12 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Agena B (Atlas Agena B no. 4 / 

Atlas D no. 133 / Agena B no. 6004)

Launch Date and Time: 23 April 1962 / 20:50 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral / Launch Complex 12

Scientific Instruments:

1. vidicon TV camera

2. gamma-ray spectrometer

3. radar altimeter

4. single-axis seismometer

Results: Ranger IV was the first American spacecraft to reach another celestial body, in this case, 

the Moon. Like its predecessor, also a Block II 

spacecraft, it was designed to transmit pictures in 

the final 10 minutes of its descent to the Moon 

and rough-land on the lunar surface a balsawood 

capsule (about 65 centimeters in diameter) that, 

among other instruments, carried a seismometer. A power failure in the central computer and 

sequencer stopped the spacecraft’s master clock, 

preventing the vehicle from performing any of 

its pre-planned operations, such as opening its 

solar panels. Drifting aimlessly and without any 
26 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

mid-course corrections, Ranger IV impacted the 

Moon on its far side at a velocity of about 9,600 

kilometers/hour at 12:49:53 UT on 26 April 1962. 

Impact coordinates were 15.5° S / 229.3° E. 

Although the spacecraft did not achieve its primary 

objective, the Atlas Agena-Ranger combination 

performed without fault for the first time.

27

Mariner I

Nation: USA (14)

Objective(s): Venus flyby

Spacecraft: P-37 / Mariner R-1

Spacecraft Mass: 202.8 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Agena B (Atlas Agena B no. 5 / 

Atlas D no. 145 / Agena B no. 6901)

Launch Date and Time: 22 July 1962 / 09:21:23 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral / Launch Complex 12

Scientific Instruments:

1. microwave radiometer

2. infrared radiometer

3. fluxgate magnetometer

4. cosmic dust detector

5. solar plasma spectrometer

6. energetic particle detectors

7. ionization chamber

Results: In formulating a series of early scientific 

missions to Venus, in early 1961, NASA originally planned two missions, P-37 and P-38, to be 

launched on Atlas Centaur rockets, each spacecraft weighing about 565 kilograms. By the time 

NASA Headquarters formally approved the plan in 

September 1961, problems with the Atlas Centaur 

necessitated a switch to the Atlas Agena B with a 

reduced payload. By that time, JPL prepared three 

spacecraft based on the design of the Ranger Block 

I series (therefore named Mariner R) to fly by Venus 

in late 1962. Each spacecraft carried a modest 

suite (9 kilograms) of scientific instrumentation, 

but had no imaging capability. The spacecraft 

included 54,000 components and was designed to 

maintain contact with Earth for 2,500 hours—an 

ambitious goal given that the (still unsuccessful) 

Ranger was designed for only 65 hours contact. 

Mariner I would have flown by Venus at range of 

29,000 kilometers on 8 December 1962 but due to 

an incorrect trajectory during launch, at T+294.5 

seconds, range safety sent a signal to destroy the 

Atlas Centaur booster and its payload. The failure was traced to a guidance antenna on the Atlas 

as well as faulty software in its onboard guidance 

program, which was missing a single superscript 

bar. The press described it as “the most expensive 

hyphen in history.”

28

[Venera, 2MV-1 no. 3]

Nation: USSR (14)

Objective(s): Venus impact

Spacecraft: 2MV-1 (no. 3)

Spacecraft Mass: 1,097 kg (350 kg impact capsule)

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: Molniya + Blok L (8K78 no. T103-12)

Launch Date and Time: 25 August 1962 / 02:56:06 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

Spacecraft Bus:

1. magnetometer

2. scintillation counter

3. gas discharge Geiger counters

4. Cherenkov detector

5. ion traps

6. cosmic wave detector

7. micrometeoroid detector

Impact Probe:

1. temperature, pressure, and density sensors

2. chemical gas analyzer

3. gamma-ray detector

4. Mercury level wave motion detector
1962 27

Results: This was the first of a second generation 

of Soviet deep space probes based on a unified 

platform called 2MV (“2” for the second generation, “MV” for Mars and Venera) designed to study 

Mars and Venus. The series included four variants with the same bus but with different payload 

complements: 2MV-1 (for Venus impact), 2MV-2 

(for Venus flyby), 2MV-3 (for Mars impact), and 

2MV-4 (for Mars flyby). The buses were basically 

similar in design carrying all the essential systems 

to support the mission as well as a main engine, 

the S5.17 on the two Venus probes, and the S5.19 

on the Mars probes. Both had a thrust of 200 kgf 

but the former was capable of one firing while the 

latter was designed for two. The payloads were 

designed in two variants depending on whether the 

mission was a flyby mission or an impact mission. 

In the former, there was an instrument module, 

and in the latter, it carried a 90-centimeter diameter spherical pressurized lander covered by thermal coating; the Venus landers were cooled with 

an ammonia-based system, while the Mars landers used a system of air conditioners. Both landers 

were sterilized with a special substance on recommendation from the Academy of Sciences’ Institute of Microbiology. The buses were powered by 

solar panels with an area of 2.5 m2 capable of providing 2.6 A. The Venus impact probes were to use 

a three-stage parachute system to descend through 

the atmosphere. For Venus, the Soviets prepared 

three spacecraft for the August–September 1962 

launch period, one flyby spacecraft and two landers. This first spacecraft—a flyby plus lander 

combination—was successfully launched into 

Earth orbit, but the Blok L upper stage cut off its 

interplanetary burn after only 45 seconds (instead 

of the planned 240 seconds). Later investigation 

showed that the stage had been set on a tumbling 

motion prior to main engine ignition due to asymmetrical firing of the solid propellant stabilizing 

motors. The spacecraft remained in Earth orbit for 

three days before reentering Earth’s atmosphere.

29 

Mariner II

Nation: USA (15)

Objective(s): Venus flyby

Spacecraft: P-38 / Mariner R-2

Spacecraft Mass: 203.6 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Agena B (Atlas Agena B no. 6 / 

Atlas D no. 179 / Agena B no. 6902)

Launch Date and Time: 27 August 1962 / 06:53:14 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral / Launch Complex 12

Scientific Instruments:

1. microwave radiometer

2. infrared radiometer

3. fluxgate magnetometer

4. cosmic dust detector

NASA image showing mission planners receiving data 

from Mariner II in January 1963, about five months after 

its launch. Note the reference to current tracking by the 

NASA station in South Africa. Credit: NASA
28 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

5. solar plasma spectrometer

6. energetic particle detectors

7. ionization chamber

Results: NASA brought the Mariner R-2 spacecraft 

out of storage and launched it just 36 days after the 

failure of Mariner I. Mariner II was equipped with 

an identical complement of instrumentation as its 

predecessor (see Mariner I). The mission proved to 

be the first fully successful interplanetary mission 

performed by any nation. After a mid-course correction on 4 September, the spacecraft flew by Venus 

at a range of 34,854 kilometers at 19:59:28 UT on 

14 December 1962. During a 42-minute scan of 

the planet, Mariner II gathered significant data on 

the Venusian atmosphere and surface before continuing on to heliocentric orbit. The radiometers, 

in particular, were able to conduct five scans of the 

nightside of the planet, eight across the terminator, 

and five on the daylight side. NASA maintained 

contact until 07:00 UT on 3 January 1963 when 

the spacecraft was 86.68 million kilometers from 

Earth, a new distance record for a deep space 

probe. The data returned implied that there was no 

significant difference in temperature across Venus: 

readings from Mariner II’s microwave radiometer 

indicated temperatures of 216°C (on the dark side) 

to 237°C (on the day side). Mariner II also found 

that there was a dense cloud layer that extended 

from 56 to 80 kilometers above the surface. The 

spacecraft detected no discernable planetary magnetic field, partly explained by the great distance 

between the spacecraft and the planet. If in terms 

of scientific results, Mariner II was only a modest 

success, it still retains the honor of being the very 

first successful planetary science mission in history. NASA elected to stand down the third spacecraft in the series (Mariner R-3) scheduled for the 

1964 launch period.

This 1961 photo shows Dr. William H. Pickering, (center) JPL Director, presenting a Mariner spacecraft model to President 

John F. Kennedy, (right). NASA Administrator James Webb is standing directly behind the Mariner model. Credit: NASA
1962 29

30

[Venera, 2MV-1 no. 4]

Nation: USSR (15)

Objective(s): Venus impact

Spacecraft: 2MV-1 (no. 4)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 1,100 kg (370 kg impact capsule)

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: Molniya + Blok L (8K78 no. 

T103-13)

Launch Date and Time: 1 September 1962 / 02:12:33 

UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

Spacecraft Bus:

1. magnetometer

2. scintillation counter

3. gas discharge Geiger counters

4. Cherenkov detector

5. ion traps

6. cosmic wave detector

7. micrometeoroid detector

Impact Probe:

1. temperature, pressure, and density sensors

2. chemical gas analyzer

3. gamma-ray detector

4. Mercury level wave motion detector

Results: This was the second of three Venus spacecraft launched by the Soviets in 1962. Like its predecessor launched in August 1962 (also a Venus 

impact probe), the spacecraft never left parking 

orbit around Earth due to a malfunction in the 

Blok L upper stage designed to send the probe 

out of Earth orbit towards Venus. The valve that 

controlled the delivery of fuel into the combustion 

chamber of the Blok L engine (the S1.5400) never 

opened. As a result, the engine did not fire. The 

payload decayed within five days of launch.

31

[Venera, 2MV-2 no. 1]

Nation: USSR (16)

Objective(s): Venus flyby

Spacecraft: 2MV-2 (no. 1)

Spacecraft Mass: [unknown]

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: Molniya + Blok L (8K78 no. 

T103-14)

Launch Date and Time: 12 September 1962 / 00:59:13 

UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

Spacecraft Bus:

1. magnetometer

2. scintillation counter

3. gas discharge Geiger counters

4. Cherenkov detector

5. ion traps

6. cosmic wave detector

7. micrometeoroid detector

Instrument Module:

1. imaging system

2. ultraviolet spectrometer

3. infrared spectrometer

Results: Like its two predecessors (launched on 

25  August and 1 September 1962), this Soviet 

Venus probe never left parking orbit around Earth. 

The Blok L upper stage designed to send the 

spacecraft towards Venus fired for only 0.8 seconds before shutting down due to unstable attitude. Later investigation indicated that the upper 

stage had been put into a tumble due to the violent shutdown (and destruction) of the third stage 

(Blok I) between T+530.95 and T+531.03 seconds. The tumble mixed air bubbles within the 

propellant tanks preventing a clean firing of the 

engine. Unlike its predecessors, this probe was 

designed for a Venus flyby rather than atmospheric 

entry and impact. The payload reentered two days 

after launch.
30 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

32

Ranger V

Nation: USA (16)

Objective(s): lunar impact

Spacecraft: P-36

Spacecraft Mass: 342.46 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Agena B (Atlas Agena B no. 7 

/ Atlas D no. 215 / Agena no. 6005)

Launch Date and Time: 18 October 1962 / 16:59:00 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral / Launch Complex 12

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging system

2. gamma-ray spectrometer

3. single-axis seismometer

4. surface-scanning pulse radio experiment

Results: This was the third attempt to impact the 

lunar surface with a Block II Ranger spacecraft. On 

this mission, just 15 minutes after normal operation, a malfunction led to the transfer of power 

from solar to battery power. Normal operation never 

resumed, and battery power was depleted after 

8 hours, following which all spacecraft systems 

died. The first mid-course correction was never 

implemented, and Ranger V passed the Moon at a 

range of 724 kilometers on October 21 and entered 

heliocentric orbit. It was tracked to a distance of 

1,271,381 kilometers. Before loss of signal, the 

spacecraft sent back about 4 hours of data from 

the gamma-ray experiment.

Scientific experiments on the Ranger Block II spacecraft. Credit: NASA

33

[Mars, 2MV-4 no. 3]

Nation: USSR (17)

Objective(s): Mars flyby

Spacecraft: 2MV-4 (no. 3 or no. 1)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 900 kg

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: Molniya + Blok L (8K78 no. T103-15)

Launch Date and Time: 24 October 1962 / 17:55:04 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

1. magnetometer

2. 2 scintillation counters

3. 2 gas discharge Geiger counters

4. Cherenkov counter

5. 2 ion traps

6. infrared spectrometer

7. micrometeoroid sensor

8. imaging system

9. ultraviolet spectrograph

Results: This was the first of three “second 

generation” interplanetary probes (two flyby 

probes and one impact probe) designed 

to reach Mars prepared by the Soviets for 

the late 1962 launch period. Because of 

the repeated failures of the Blok L upper 

stage during deep space missions, engineers 

elected to outfit the stage for the Mars 

missions with supplementary control and 

measurement equipment. As a result, most 

of the scientific instruments were deleted 

from the Mars spacecraft. The three missions were primarily technological test 
1962 31

flights rather than scientific missions. In this case, 

the Blok L interplanetary stage failed again. Just 

17 seconds after trans-Mars injection ignition, the 

turbopump of the main engine (the S1.5400A1) 

exploded, destroying the payload. The problem was 

traced to leaking lubricant. As many as 24 fragments were later tracked in 1,485 × 180-kilometer orbit at 64.8° inclination, the largest of which 

reentered on 29 October. The original probe was 

designed to fly by Mars on 17 June 1963.

A mostly accurate model of the Mars 1 spacecraft (of the 2MV-4 type) shown here at the Memorial Museum of 

Cosmonautics in Moscow. The main course correction engine, known as S5.19, can be seen on left. Credit: Asif Siddiqi

34

Mars 1

Nation: USSR (18)

Objective(s): Mars flyby

Spacecraft: 2MV-4 (no. 4 or no. 1)

Spacecraft Mass: 893.5 kilograms

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: Molniya + Blok L (8K78 no. T103-16)

Launch Date and Time: 1 November 1962 / 16:14:06 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

1. magnetometer

2. 2 scintillation counters

3. 2 gas discharge Geiger counters

4. Cherenkov counter

5. 2 ion traps

6. infrared spectrometer

7. micrometeoroid sensor

8. imaging system

9. ultraviolet spectrograph
32 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

Results: The second of three Soviet spacecraft 

intended for the 1962 Mars launch period, Mars 

1 was the first spacecraft sent by any nation to fly 

past Mars. Its primary mission was to photograph 

the surface during a flyby from a range of between 

1,000 to 11,000 kilometers. In comparison to its 

predecessor, the probe had a slightly different main 

engine (the S5.19) than the Venus probes, with a 

reduced propellant tank mass. The camera system, 

weighing 32 kilograms, included both 35 and 750 

mm lenses and used 70 mm film. It could take up to 

112 frames, stored on film and then to be scanned 

for playback to Earth. After successful insertion 

into Earth orbit, the Blok L upper stage successfully fired the probe towards Mars, but immediately after engine cutoff, controllers discovered that 

pressure in one of the nitrogen gas bottles for the 

spacecraft’s attitude control system dropped to zero 

(due to incomplete closure of a valve). Before all the 

compressed nitrogen was lost, on 6–7 November, 

controllers were able to spin the vehicle around the 

axis perpendicular to the plane of the solar panels 

to enable a backup gyroscope system to keep the 

solar panels constantly exposed to the Sun during 

the coast phase. Further mid-course corrections, 

however, proved impossible. Controllers maintained contact with the vehicle until 21 March 

1963 when the probe was 106 million kilometers from Earth. According to TASS (on 16 May), 

because of the failure of orientation, “the direction 

of the station’s antennas toward Earth was upset.” 

This anomaly prevented further radio contact after 

21 March. Mars 1 silently flew by Mars at a distance of 197,000 kilometers on 19 June 1963. Prior 

to loss of contact, scientists were able to collect 

data on interplanetary space (on cosmic ray intensity, Earth’s magnetic fields, ionized gases from the 

Sun, and meteoroid impact densities) up to a distance of 1.24 AUs. The data from Mars 1 (from 20 

November 1962 to 25 January 1963) showed that 

once past 0.24 AUs, i.e., Earth’s radiation belts, the 

intensity of cosmic radiation was virtually constant.

35

[Mars, 2MV-3 no. 1]

Nation: USSR (19)

Objective(s): Mars impact

Spacecraft: 2MV-3 (no. 1)

Spacecraft Mass: [unknown]

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: Molniya + Blok L (8K78 no. T103-17)

Launch Date and Time: 4 November 1962 / 15:35:14 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

Spacecraft Bus:

1. magnetometer

2. scintillation counter

3. gas discharge Geiger counters

4. Cherenkov detector

5. ion traps

6. cosmic wave detector

7. micrometeoroid detector

Impact Probe:

1. temperature, pressure, and density sensors

2. chemical gas analyzer

3. gamma-ray detector

4. Mercury level movement detector

Results: This was the third and last of the Soviet 

“second generation” Mars attempts in 1962 and 

also the only impact lander in the series. During 

the trans-Mars injection firing of the Blok L upper 

stage, the main engine (the S1.5400A1) prematurely shut down after 33 seconds due to a malfunction in the programmed timer for the stage. 

The problem was later traced to excessive vibrations of the second stage during liftoff. These 

vibrations also jarred loose a pyrotechnic igniter 

from its support, preventing the Blok L from firing. 

The spacecraft remained stranded in Earth orbit 

and reentered the atmosphere on 5 November. 

The probe had been intended to fly by Mars on 

21 June 1963.
33

1963

36

[Luna, Ye-6 no. 2]

Nation: USSR (20)

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing

Spacecraft: Ye-6 (no. 2)

Spacecraft Mass: 1,420 kg

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: Molniya + Blok L (8K78 no. 

T103-09)

Launch Date and Time: 4 January 1963 / 08:48:58 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging system

2. gas-discharge counter

Results: This spacecraft was the first “second generation” Soviet lunar probe (known as Ye-6), designed 

to accomplish a survivable landing on the surface 

of the Moon. The Ye-6 probes were equipped with 

simple 100-kilogram lander capsules (called the 

Automatic Lunar Station or Avtomaticheskaya lunnaya stantsiya, ALS) whose primary objective was 

to send back photographs from the lunar surface. 

Each egg-shaped ALS was installed on a roughly 

cylindrical-shaped main bus. Like the Mars and 

Venera deep space probes, the Ye-6 Luna spacecraft were also launched by the four-stage 8K78 

(Molniya) booster but modified for lunar missions. 

This first Ye-6 probe was designed to cruise for 

about three days before landing on the Moon on 

7 January at 19:55:10 UT. Like many of its deep 

space predecessors, the probe failed to escape Earth 

orbit because of a failure in the Blok L trans-lunar 

injection stage. There was apparently a failure in a 

current converter in the power system of the I-100 

instrument container (which controlled both the 

Blok L and the spacecraft), which as a result, failed 

to issue a command to fire the Blok L engine. The 

spacecraft remained in Earth orbit, unacknowledged by the Soviets until 11 January 1963.

37

[Luna, Ye-6 no. 3]

Nation: USSR (21)

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing

Spacecraft: Ye-6 (no. 3)

Spacecraft Mass: 1,420 kg

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: Molniya + Blok L (8K78 no. T103-10)

Launch Date and Time: 3 February 1963 / 09:29:14 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging system

2. gas-discharge counter

Results: This was the second Soviet attempt to 

accomplish a soft-landing on the Moon (planned 

for 20:34:04 UT on 6 February). This time, the 

spacecraft failed to reach Earth orbit. After launch, 

at around T+105.5 seconds, the rocket began to 

lose attitude control along the pitch axis, which 

spread to the yaw axis after separation from the 

core booster. The third and fourth stages (along 

with payload) traced an arc and reentered over the 

Pacific Ocean near Midway Island. Later investigation indicated that the I-100 control system 

provided incorrect information to the booster’s trajectory control system.
34 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

38

Luna 4

Nation: USSR (22)

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing

Spacecraft: Ye-6 (no. 4)

Spacecraft Mass: 1,422 kilograms

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: Molniya + Blok L (8K78 no. T103-11)

Launch Date and Time: 2 April 1963 / 08:16:38 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging system

2. gas-discharge counter

Results: The third Soviet attempt to perform a lunar 

soft-landing (planned for 19:42:37 UT on 5 April) 

was the first in which the spacecraft actually left 

Earth orbit. During the coast to the Moon, the 

spacecraft’s Yupiter-M astronavigation system suffered a major failure (probably related to its thermal 

control system) and left the probe in an incorrect 

attitude. As a result, Luna 4 was unable to perform 

its planned mid-course correction. Although communications were maintained with the spacecraft, 

it passed by the Moon at a range of 8,500 kilometers at 01:24 UT on 6 April and eventually entered 

heliocentric orbit from its intermediate barycentric 

orbit. Data from the gas-discharge counter was 

compared with data from Mars 1 to provide further clarification to a radiation map of Earth up to 

lunar distance. The data showed that the intensity 

of cosmic radiation remained “virtually constant” 

up to 0.24 AU from the Earth.

39

Kosmos 21 [Zond]

Nation: USSR (23)

Objective(s): deep space and return to Earth

Spacecraft: 3MV-1A (no. 2, also no. 1)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 800 kg

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: Molniya + Blok L (8K78 no. G103-18, 

also G15000-17)

Launch Date and Time: 11 November 1963 / 06:23:34 

UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

Spacecraft Bus:

1. radiation detector

2. charged particle detector

3. magnetometer

4. piezoelectric detector

5. LA-2 atomic hydrogen detector

6. Kassiopeya radio telescope

7. RSK-2M ultraviolet and Roentgen solar 

radiation experiment

8. VIKT-2 vapor friction technology 

experiment

9. plasma engines

Results: This was the first of the Soviet Union’s 

“third generation” deep space planetary probes 

of the 3MV series. Like the second generation, 

Soviet engineers planned four types of the 3MV, 

the 3MV-1 (for Venus impact), 3MV-2 (for Venus 

flyby), 3MV-3 (for Mars impact), and 3MV-4 

(for Mars flyby). The primary difference over the 

second generation was vastly improved (and in 

many cases doubled) orientation system elements 

as well as improved on board propulsion systems. 

While these four versions were meant to study 

Mars and Venus, the Soviets conceived of two 

additional variants of the series, similar but not 

identical to the 3MV-1 and 3MV-4 versions, with 

the designations 3MV-1A and 3MV-4A. These 
1963 35

“Object-Probes” (ob’yekt-zond) were designed to 

verify key technological systems during simpler 

missions into deep space and back to Earth. A government decree on March 21, 1963 had approved 

two to three such “object-probe” missions, one of 

which (a 3MV-1A) was designed to depart from 

Earth’s ecliptic (the orbital plane of Earth around 

the Sun) out to 12–16 million kilometers from 

Earth and then return back to Earth after about 

six months when its orbit intersected with that of 

Earth again, aided by two mid-course corrections 

using its S5.45 main engine. The latter, capable of 

two firings, was a lighter version of that used on 

the 2MV model with higher specific impulse and 

a longer burn time. During this mission, the third 

and fourth stages separated abnormally, and after 

reaching Earth orbit, ground control lost telemetry (at about 06:45:44 UT) from the Blok L upper 

stage designed to send the vehicle past the Moon. 

As a result, the spacecraft remained stranded in 

Earth orbit. The stage’s main engine turbopump 

probably exploded upon ignition destroying the 

spacecraft. With this mission, the Soviets began 

the practice of giving “Kosmos” designations to 

obscure the failure of lunar and planetary probes 

that remained stranded in Earth orbit. If the spacecraft had successfully departed from Earth orbit, it 

would probably have been called “Zond 1.”

37

1964

40

Ranger VI

Nation: USA (17)

Objective(s): lunar impact

Spacecraft: P-53 / Ranger-A

Spacecraft Mass: 364.69 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Agena B (Atlas Agena B no. 8 / 

Atlas D no. 199 / Agena B no. 6008)

Launch Date and Time: 30 January 1964 / 15:49:09 UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 12

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging system (six TV cameras)

Results: This fourth American attempt to lunar 

impact was the closest success so far. The spacecraft, the first Block III type vehicle with a suite of 

six TV cameras, was sterilized to avoid contaminating the lunar surface. The series would also serve 

as a testbed for future interplanetary spacecraft by 

deploying systems (such as solar panels) that could 

be used for more ambitious missions. The Block III 

spacecraft carried a 173-kilogram TV unit (replacing 

the impact capsule carried on the Block II Ranger 

spacecraft). The six cameras included two full-scan 

and four partial-scan cameras, capable of shooting 

300 pictures a minute. Ranger VI flew to the Moon 

successfully and impacted precisely on schedule at 09:24:32 UT on 2 February. Unfortunately, 

the power supply for the TV camera package had 

short-circuited during Atlas booster separation three 

days previously and left the system inoperable. The 

cameras were to have transmitted high-resolution 

photos of the lunar approach from 1,448 kilometers 

to 6.4 kilometers range in support of Project Apollo. 

Impact coordinates were 9° 24′ N / 21° 30′ E.

41

[Zond, 3MV-1A no. 4A]

Nation: USSR (24)

Objective(s): Venus flyby

Spacecraft: 3MV-1A (no. 4A, also no. 2)

Spacecraft Mass: 800 kg

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: Molniya + Blok L (8K78 no. 

G15000-26)

Launch Date and Time: 19 February 1964 / 05:47:40 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

1. radiation detector

2. charged particle detector

3. magnetometer

4. piezoelectric detector

5. LA-2 atomic hydrogen detector

6. Kassiopeya radio telescope

7. RSK-2M ultraviolet and Roentgen solar 

radiation experiment

8. VIKT-2 technology experiment

9. plasma engines

Results: This was the second Soviet “Object-Probe” 

whose goal was to test systems in interplanetary space in preparation for actual landings and 

flybys of Venus and Mars. Unlike its predecessor 

(see Kosmos 21), it appears not to have carried a 

lander. Its mission was to test its propulsion, thermal, and communications systems during a fourmonth flight in the direction of Venus to a distance 

of about 40 million kilometers. In the event, the 

spacecraft failed to reach Earth orbit due to a malfunction in the launch vehicle’s third stage. Later 

investigation indicated that a liquid oxygen leak 

through an unpressurized valve (the B4311-O) 
38 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

seal froze propellant in the main pipeline while 

the rocket was still on the launch pad. As a result, 

the pipeline cracked, leading to an explosion in the 

third stage.

42

[Luna, Ye-6 no. 6]

Nation: USSR (25)

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing

Spacecraft: Ye-6 (no. 6)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 1,420 kg

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: Molniya-M (8K78M no. T15000-20)

Launch Date and Time: 21 March 1964 / 08:14:33 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging system

2. gas-discharge counter

Results: This fourth Soviet attempt to achieve a 

soft-landing on the Moon ended in failure when 

the spacecraft failed to reach an intermediate orbit 

around Earth. During the boost phase, the launcher’s third stage engine’s (8D715) main liquid oxygen 

valve failed to open when the valve rod broke. As 

a result, the engine never achieved full thrust and 

eventually cut off prematurely at T+487 seconds. 

The spacecraft never reached Earth orbit.

43

Kosmos 27 [Venera]

Nation: USSR (26)

Objective(s): Venus impact

Spacecraft: 3MV-1 (no. 5)

Spacecraft Mass: 948 kg (lander: 285 kg)

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: Molniya + Blok L (8K78 no. 

T15000-27)

Launch Date and Time: 27 March 1964 / 03:24:43 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

Spacecraft Bus:

1. STS-5 gas-discharge counter

2. scintillation counter

3. micrometeoroid detector

4. magnetometer

5. ion traps

6. LA-2 atomic hydrogen spectrometer

Impact Probe:

1. RMV barometer

2. TIPG thermometer

3. L-1A radiation detector

4. microorganism detection experiment

5. atmospheric composition experiment

6. R-3 acidity measurement experiment

7. K-2 electro-conductivity experiment

8. DAS-2 luminosity experiment

Results: The probe was the first dedicated 3MV 

spacecraft that the Soviets launched (earlier missions had been of the test “Object-Probe” versions). It was designed to accomplish atmospheric 

entry into Venus followed by descent and impact. 

The spacecraft successfully reached Earth orbit 

but failed to leave for Venus when the Blok L 

upper stage malfunctioned. The upper stage lost 

stable attitude due to a failure in the circuit of 

the power supply circuit that powered the valves 

for the attitude control system; hence, the stage 

remained uncontrollable and not ready to initiate a burn to leave Earth orbit. The problem was 

traced to a design error rather than one related 

to quality control. The spacecraft burned up in 

Earth’s atmosphere the following day. If successful, this mission would probably have been given a 

“Venera” designation.
1964 39

44

Zond 1 [Venera]

Nation: USSR (27)

Objective(s): Venus impact

Spacecraft: 3MV-1 (no. 4)

Spacecraft Mass: 948 kg

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: Molniya + Blok L (8K78 no. 

T15000-28)

Launch Date and Time: 2 April 1964 / 02:42:40 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

Spacecraft Bus:

1. STS-5 gas-discharge counter

2. scintillation counter

3. micrometeoroid detector

4. magnetometer

5. ion traps

6. LA-2 atomic hydrogen spectrometer

Impact Probe:

1. RMV barometer

2. TIPG thermometer

3. L-1A radiation detector

4. microorganism detection experiment

5. atmospheric composition experiment

6. R-3 acidity measurement experiment

7. K-2 electro-conductivity experiment

8. DAS-2 luminosity experiment

Results: This was the second dedicated launch 

of the 3MV series (not including two “ObjectProbes”). Like its predecessor (see Kosmos 27), it 

was also designed for atmospheric entry and then 

impact on Venus. Although the probe was successfully sent towards Venus, ground controllers faced 

a series of major malfunctions in the spacecraft 

during its coast to the planet. These malfunctions 

included depressurization of the main spacecraft 

bus when the glass cover of a Sun-star attitude 

control sensor cracked. Additionally, the internal 

radio transmitters of the spacecraft were automatically switched on at precisely the wrong time, i.e., 

during depressurization, when the gas discharge 

created high-voltage currents that shorted out the 

communications system. As a result, communications had to be conducted through transmitters 

on the 290-kilogram pressurized descent module. 

Last contact was on 25 May 1964, by which 

time, controllers managed to conduct two major 

course corrections (at 560,000 and 13–14 million kilometers from Earth respectively), the first 

time such actions had been performed on a Soviet 

interplanetary spacecraft. The second correction, 

however, imparted 20 meters/second less velocity 

than required, ensuring that the vehicle would not 

intersect with Venus. The inert spacecraft eventually flew by Venus on 19 July 1964 at a range of 

110,000 kilometers. The Soviets named the vehicle 

“Zond” (the Russian word for “probe”) even though 

it was not one of the Object-Probe testbed spacecraft; this was done to disguise the fact that it was 

a failed Venus mission. If it had actually succeeded 

in its Venus mission, it probably would have been 

named “Venera 2.” (Undoubtedly this has confused 

historians since this was not an Object-Probe mission). The Soviets later published some data on 

cosmic ray flux measured by Zond 1.

45

[Luna, Ye-6 no. 5]

Nation: USSR (28)

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing

Spacecraft: Ye-6 (no. 5)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 1,420 kg

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: Molniya-M + Blok L (8K78M no. 

T15000-21)

Launch Date and Time: 20 April 1964 / 08:08:28 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging system

2. gas-discharge counter
40 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

Results: This was the fifth Soviet attempt at a lunar 

soft-landing. The mission was aborted early, during 

the ascent to Earth orbit, when the launch vehicle’s 

third stage engine (Blok I) prematurely shut down 

after 50 seconds of firing (at T+340 seconds). U.S. 

Air Force radars in Turkey apparently monitored 

the failed launch. A subsequent investigation indicated that the engine cut off due to loss of power 

when a circuit between a battery in the fourth stage 

(which powered the third stage engine) and the 

I-100 guidance unit was broken.

First image of the Moon returned by a Ranger mission (Ranger VII in 1964). Credit: NASA

46

Ranger VII

Nation: USA (18)

Objective(s): lunar impact

Spacecraft: P-54 / Ranger-B

Spacecraft Mass: 365.6 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL
1964 41

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Agena B (Atlas Agena no. 9 / 

Atlas D no. 250 / Agena B no. 6009)

Launch Date and Time: 28 July 1964 / 16:50:07 UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 12

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging system (six TV cameras)

Results: Ranger VII, the second of the Block III 

Ranger series, was, after 13 consecutive failures, 

the first unequivocal success in U.S. efforts to 

explore the Moon. In some ways, it marked a major 

milestone in American deep space exploration as 

the ratio in favor of successes increased dramatically after this point. After a nominal mid-course 

correction on 29 July, Ranger VII approached the 

Moon precisely on target two days later. Just fifteen minutes prior to impact, the suite of TV cameras began sending back spectacular photos of the 

approaching surface to JPL’s Goldstone antenna in 

California. The last of 4,316 images was transmitted only 2.3 seconds prior to impact at 13:25:49 

UT on 31 July 1964. The impact point was at 10° 

38′ S / 20° 36′ W on the northern rim of the Sea 

of Clouds. Scientists on the ground were more 

than satisfied with results; image resolution was, 

in many cases, one thousand times better than 

photos taken from Earth. Scientists concluded that 

an Apollo crewed landing would be possible in the 

mare regions of the lunar surface, given their relative smoothness.

47

Mariner III

Nation: USA (19)

Objective(s): Mars flyby

Spacecraft: Mariner-64C / Mariner-C

Spacecraft Mass: 260.8 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Agena D (Atlas Agena D no. 11 / 

Atlas D no. 289 / Agena D no. AD68/6931)

Launch Date and Time: 5 November 1964 / 19:22:05 UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 13

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging system

2. cosmic dust detector

3. cosmic ray telescope

4. ionization chamber

5. helium magnetometer

6. trapped radiation detector

7. solar plasma probe

Results: NASA approved two probes for the MarinerMars 1964 project in November 1962. The primary 

goal of the two spacecraft, code-named Mariner 

C, was to photograph the Martian surface using 

a single TV camera fixed on a scan platform that 

could return up to 22 frames after an eight-month 

journey. During the launch of Mariner III, the 

first of the two probes, the booster payload shroud 

failed to separate from the payload. Additionally, 

battery power spuriously dropped to zero (at T+8 

hours 43 minutes) and the spacecraft’s solar panels 

apparently never unfurled to replenish the power 

supply. Due to the incorrect mass of the spacecraft 

(since the payload shroud was still attached), it 

never entered a proper trans-Mars trajectory. The 

probe ended up in an unanticipated heliocentric 

orbit of 0.983 × 1.311 AU. A later investigation 

indicated that the shroud’s inner fiberglass layer 

had separated from the shroud’s outer skin, thus 

preventing jettisoning.

48

Mariner IV

Nation: USA (20)

Objective(s): Mars flyby

Spacecraft: Mariner-64D / Mariner-D

Spacecraft Mass: 260.8 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Agena D (Atlas Agena D no. 12 

/ Atlas D no. 288 / Agena D no. AD69/6932)

Launch Date and Time: 28 November 1964 / 14:22:01 

UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 12
42 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging system

2. cosmic dust detector

3. cosmic ray telescope

4. ionization chamber

5. helium magnetometer

6. trapped radiation detector

7. solar plasma probe

Results: The Mariner IV mission, the second of two 

Mars flyby attempts in 1964 by NASA, was one of 

the great early successes of the Agency, and indeed 

the Space Age, returning the very first photos of 

another planet from deep space. Using a new allmetal shroud, the spacecraft lifted off without any 

problems and was successfully boosted towards 

Mars by the Agena D upper stage. A single midcourse correction on December 5 ensured that 

the spacecraft would fly between 8,000 and 9,660 

The Mariner IV spacecraft was assembled by engineers and technicians at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in 

Pasadena, California. It is seen here being prepared for a weight test on 1 November 1963. Credit: NASA/JPL

On 15 July 1965, Mariner IV transmitted this image of the 

Martian surface from 12,600 kilometers away. The photograph shows a 150-kilometer diameter crater. Credit: 

NASA/JPL
1964 43

kilometers from the Martian surface. On one of the 

scientific instruments, the plasma probe, there was 

a component failure making its readings unintelligible although due to a better telemetry rate, some 

data was received between January and May 1965. 

Additionally, a Geiger tube, one of the two sensors 

in the ionization chamber experiment, failed and 

stopped returning data in March 1965. Approximately 40 minutes prior to closest approach (which 

was at 01:00:57 UT on 15 July 1965 at a range of 

9,846 kilometers), the TV camera began taking the 

first of 21 images (plus 22 lines of a 22nd) through 

red and green filters. About 1.25 hours after the 

encounter, Mariner IV dipped behind the righthand side of Mars (as viewed from Earth) in an 

occultation experiment in order to refract its radio 

signals through the Martian atmosphere. Data 

indicated that surface pressure was quite low, i.e., 

future Mars landers would have to be equipped 

with retro-rocket engines in addition to parachutes. 

The images as well as the occultation experiment 

fundamentally transformed the scientific view of 

the Red Planet, providing hard data where speculation had previously dominated. The probe detected 

daytime surface temperatures at about –100°C. 

A very weak radiation belt, about 0.1% of that of 

Earth’s, was also detected. The day after the closest encounter, Mariner IV began transmitting its 

photos back to Earth. The images clearly showed 

Mars to be an ancient Moon-like body with widespread cratering, thus incontrovertibly quashing 

any expectations of lost civilizations on the planet. 

Given the thin atmosphere, scientists believed that 

it was unlikely that Mars harbored any life. NASA 

maintained contact with the spacecraft until 1 

October 1965 when the probe was 309 million 

kilometers from Earth. Two years later, in October 

1967, the spacecraft was reactivated for attitude 

control tests in support of the Mariner V mission 

to Venus that used a similar spacecraft bus. Contact was maintained until 31 December 1967, over 

three years after launch.

49

Zond 2

Nation: USSR (29)

Objective(s): Mars flyby

Spacecraft: 3MV-4A (no. 2)

Spacecraft Mass: 996 kg

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: Molniya + Blok L (8K78 no. 

G15000-29)

Launch Date and Time: 30 November 1964 / 13:25 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

1. radiation detector (STS-5 scintillation and 

gas-discharge counters)

2. charged particle detector

3. magnetometer

4. piezoelectric detector?

5. Kassiopeya radio telescope

6. TyaMV nuclear component of cosmic rays 

experiment

7. RSK-2M ultraviolet and Roentgen solar 

radiation experiment

8. imaging system

Results: This was the last of three “Object-Probe” 

test vehicles launched as part of the third generation (“3MV”) Soviet interplanetary probes, 

and the first intended towards Mars. These were 

designed to test out key technologies during deep 

space missions. Originally intended to fly in the 

April-May 1964 time period, this launch was constantly delayed and then ultimately timed for the 

late 1964 Mars opportunity. Besides carrying out 

long-distance communications tests and imaging 

Earth on the way out into deep space, this vehicle’s trajectory was designed to allow it to intercept Mars (on approximately 6 August 1965) and 

become the first probe to enter its atmosphere and 

impact on its surface. After successfully entering a trans-Mars trajectory, ground controllers 
44 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

discovered that the probe’s solar panels had not 

completely unfurled, depriving the vehicle of full 

power. Later investigation indicated that a tug cord 

designed to pull the panels free at the moment 

of separation from the Block L upper stage had 

broken off. Controllers were able to fully open the 

panel only on 15 December 1964, after “carrying 

out a number of dynamic operations on the station” according to the official institutional history, 

but by then the time for the first mid-course correction to fly by Mars had already passed. (Other 

reports suggest that even after the panels opened, 

they were partially obscured by radiators installed 

at the end of the solar panels which had not properly deployed). Additionally, there had been a failure in the onboard programmed timer immediately 

after trans-interplanetary injection that led to inappropriate thermal conditions for the spacecraft 

between communications sessions. Before loss 

of contact, on 14 December, Zond 2 successfully 

fired six plasma electric rocket engines (twice) at 

a distance of 5.37 million kilometers from Earth. 

They were left “on” for 70 minutes and successfully 

maintained orientation of the spacecraft. These 

were technology demonstrators for future deep 

space missions. (These were actually carried on an 

earlier 3MV-1A model, launched on 11 November 

1963, but that spacecraft failed to leave Earth orbit 

and was named Kosmos 21.) While some Western 

sources suggest that contact was maintained with 

Zond 2 until 4–5 May 1965, this is highly unlikely. 

The silent probe passed by Mars at a range of 

650,000 kilometers on 6 August 1965 and entered 

heliocentric orbit. The spacecraft returned usable 

data on cosmic radio emissions at 210 and 2200 

kc/second, up to 8 Earth radii distance from Earth.
45

1965

50

Ranger VIII

Nation: USA (21)

Objective(s): lunar impact

Spacecraft: Ranger-C

Spacecraft Mass: 366.87 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Agena B (Atlas Agena B 

no. 13 / Atlas D no. 196 / Agena B no. 6006)

Launch Date and Time: 17 February 1965 / 17:05:00 UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 12

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging system (six TV cameras)

Results: As successful as its predecessor, Ranger 

VIII returned 7,137 high resolution photographs of 

the lunar surface prior to lunar impact at 09:57:37 

UT on 20 February. Unlike Ranger VII, however, 

Ranger VIII turned on its cameras about eight minutes earlier to return pictures with resolution comparable to Earth-based telescopes (for calibration 

and comparison purposes). Controllers attempted 

to align the cameras along the main velocity vector 

(to reduce imagine smear) but abandoned this 

maneuver to allow greater area coverage. There had 

also been a spurious loss of telemetry during a midcourse correction on 18 February that gave rise 

for concern, although the mission was completed 

successfully. Ranger VIII impacted at 2° 43′ N / 

24° 38′ E, just 24 kilometers from its intended 

target point in the equatorial region of the Sea of 

Tranquility, an area that Apollo mission planners 

were particularly interested in studying as a possible landing site for future crewed missions.

51

[Atlas Centaur 5]

Nation: USA (22)

Objective(s): highly elliptical orbit

Spacecraft: SD-1

Spacecraft Mass: 951 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Centaur (AC-5 / Atlas C no. 

156D / Centaur C)

Launch Date and Time: 2 March 1965 / 13:25 UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 36A

Scientific Instruments: [none]

The unsuccessful Atlas Centaur 5 just after launch on 

2 March 1965. The rocket carried a Surveyor dynamic test 

model known as SD-1. Credit: NASA
46 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

Results: This mission was designed to rehearse a 

complete Centaur upper stage burn in support of 

the Surveyor lunar lander program. On a nominal 

mission, the Centaur would boost its payload on 

a direct ascent trajectory to the Moon. On this 

test flight, NASA planned to deliver the payload, 

a non-functional dynamic model known as SD-1, 

into an orbit of 167 × 926,625 kilometers that simulated a lunar transfer trajectory. During the actual 

launch, less than 2 seconds after liftoff, a faulty 

valve that incorrectly closed caused both Atlas 

main engines to shut down. As a result, the booster 

fell back onto the pad and exploded.

52

Kosmos 60 [Luna]

Nation: USSR (30)

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing

Spacecraft: Ye-6 (no. 9)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 1,470 kg

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: Molniya + Blok L (8K78 no. 

G15000-24)

Launch Date and Time: 12 March 1965 / 09:25 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging system

2. SBM-10 radiation detector

Results: Yet another Soviet attempt to soft-land a 

Ye-6 probe on the lunar surface ended in failure 

when the Blok L upper stage failed to fire for the 

trans-lunar injection burn. Instead, the spacecraft 

remained stranded in Earth orbit. A later investigation indicated that there might have been a short 

circuit in the electric converter within the I-100 

control system of the spacecraft (which also controlled the Blok L stage) preventing engine ignition. The spacecraft decayed five days later.

The S1.5400 engine powered the 4th stage known as 

the Blok L on Soviet lunar and planetary missions in the 

1960s. This engine, capable of firing in vacuum, was the 

cause of numerous failures that left Soviet probes stranded in Earth orbit. Credit: T. Varfolomeyev

53

Ranger IX

Nation: USA (23)

Objective(s): lunar impact

Spacecraft: Ranger-D

Spacecraft Mass: 366.87 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Agena B (Atlas Agena B no. 

14 / Atlas D no. 204 / Agena B no. 6007)

Launch Date and Time: 21 March 1965 / 21:37:02 UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 12
1965 47

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging system (six TV cameras)

Results: Ranger IX was the final Ranger mission of 

the Block III series and closed out the program as 

a whole. Since both Ranger VII and Ranger VIII 

had provided sufficient photographs of the mare 

regions (potential landing sites for the early Apollo 

missions), Ranger IX was targeted to the more geologically interesting Alphonsus crater in the lunar 

highlands, a possible site for recent volcanic activity. Following a mid-course correction on 23 March, 

the spacecraft headed directly to its impact point. 

Only 20 minutes prior to impact, Ranger IX began 

taking the first of 5,814 pictures from an altitude of 

2,100 kilometers. Unlike its predecessors, the cameras this time were aimed directly in the direction 

of travel and provided some spectacular shots as 

the spacecraft approached the lunar surface. These 

pictures were converted for live viewing on commercial TV. Best resolution was up 25–30 centimeters just prior to impact. The spacecraft crashed 

onto the Moon at 14:08:20 UT on 24 March at 

12.83° S / 357.63° E, about six-and-a-half kilometers from its scheduled target at a velocity of 2.67 

kilometers/second.

54

[Luna, Ye-6 no. 8]

Nation: USSR (31)

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing

Spacecraft: Ye-6 (no. 8)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 1,470 kg

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: Molniya-M + Blok L (8K78M no. 

R103-26, also U15000-22)

Launch Date and Time: 10 April 1965 / 08:39 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging system

2. SBM-10 radiation detector

Results: This was the seventh consecutive failure 

to accomplish a lunar soft-landing by the Soviets. 

On this mission, engineers redesigned the problematic I-100 control system that had caused most 

of the previous failures. Previously the I-100 unit 

had controlled both the Blok L upper stage and the 

spacecraft itself. On this mission (and subsequent 

Lunas), the fourth stage and the Ye-6 spacecraft had 

separate systems. Unfortunately, this probe never 

reached Earth orbit. During the launch, depressurization of a nitrogen pipe for the liquid oxygen tank 

on the third stage (Blok I) prevented third stage 

engine ignition. The spacecraft thus broke up over 

the Pacific without reaching Earth orbit.

55

Luna 5

Nation: USSR (32)

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing

Spacecraft: Ye-6 (no. 10)

Spacecraft Mass: 1,476 kg

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: Molniya-M + Blok L (8K78M no. 

U103-30, also U15000-24)

Launch Date and Time: 9 May 1965 / 07:49:37 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging system

2. SBM-10 radiation detector

Results: Luna 5 became the first Soviet probe to 

head for the Moon in two years. Following a midcourse correction on 10 May, the spacecraft began 

spinning around its main axis due to a problem in 

a floatation gyroscope in the I-100 control system 

unit—the gyroscopes apparently had had too little 

time to warm up before being used for attitude control. A subsequent attempt to fire the main engine 

failed due to ground control error. A third attempt 

also failed, and having lost control of the spacecraft 

due to the gyroscope problem, controllers stood 
48 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

by helplessly as Luna 5 crashed on to the surface 

of the Moon at 19:10 UT on 12 May in the Sea 

of Clouds, about 700 kilometers from its planned 

landing point. Landing coordinates were 31° S / 

8° W. It was the second Soviet spacecraft to impact 

on the Moon (following Luna 2 in 1959).

56

Luna 6

Nation: USSR (33)

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing

Spacecraft: Ye-6 (no. 7)

Spacecraft Mass: 1,442 kg

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: Molniya-M + Blok L (8K78M no. 

U103-31, also U15000-33)

Launch Date and Time: 8 June 1965 / 07:40 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging system

2. SBM-10 radiation detector

Results: On this ninth Soviet attempt at a lunar 

soft-landing, the mission proceeded as planned 

until a major mid-course correction late on 9 June. 

Although the main retro-rocket engine (the S5.5A) 

ignited on time, it failed to cut off and continued 

to fire until propellant supply was exhausted. An 

investigation later indicated that the problem had 

been due to human error; a command had been 

mistakenly sent to the timer that ordered the main 

engine to shut down. Although the spacecraft was 

sent on a completely off-nominal trajectory, ground 

controllers put the spacecraft through a series of 

steps to practice an actual landing (such as inflating the airbags, separating the lander, etc.), all of 

which were satisfactorily accomplished. Luna 6 

passed by the Moon late on 11 June at a range of 

161,000 kilometers and eventually entered heliocentric orbit. Contact was maintained to a distance 

of 600,000 kilometers from Earth.

The Zond 3 spacecraft (of the 3MV-4 type) returned higher 

resolution pictures, as compared to Luna 3, of the farside 

of the Moon in 1965 during a flyby. Credit: Don Mitchell

57

Zond 3

Nation: USSR (34)

Objective(s): lunar flyby

Spacecraft: 3MV-4 (no. 3)

Spacecraft Mass: 950 kg

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: Molniya + Blok L (8K78 no. U103-32, 

also U15000-32)

Launch Date and Time: 18 July 1965 / 14:32 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging system

2. ultraviolet spectrograph

3. ultraviolet and infrared spectrophotometer

4. meteoroid detectors

5. STS-5 scintillation and gas-discharge 

counters)
1965 49

6. magnetometer

7. ion thrusters

8. radio telescope

Results: This “third generation” deep space probe 

had originally been slated for a Mars flyby in late 

1964 but could not be prepared on time. Instead, 

Soviet designers diverted the mission for a simple 

lunar flyby in 1965 to test its basic systems and photograph the farside of the Moon. After a successful 

trans-lunar injection burn, Zond 3 approached the 

Moon after only a 33-hour flight. Its imaging mission began at 01:24 hours on 20 July at a range of 

11,600 kilometers from the near side of the Moon 

and completed 68 minutes later. Zond 3 carried an 

imaging system somewhat similar to the one carried on Automatic Interplanetary Station (“Luna 

3”), with onboard exposure, development, fixing, 

and drying prior to scanning for transmission to 

Earth. The new system, known as 15P52, weighed 

6.5 kilograms, was developed by the Moscow-based 

NII-885 (as opposed to VNII-380, which developed the Luna-3 system). In total, the spacecraft 

took 25 visual and three ultraviolet images during 

its flyby. Closest approach was to 9,220 kilometers. These pictures were successfully transmitted 

back to Earth on July 29, nine days after its lunar 

encounter when it was 2.2 million kilometers from 

Earth. Further communications sessions occurred 

on 23 October (involving photo transmissions) 

when Zond 3 was 31.5 million kilometers from 

Earth. Last contact was sometime in early March 

1966 when the spacecraft was 153.5 million kilometers away. During the mission, it photographed 

the unseen 30% of the farside of the Moon. Zond 3 

also demonstrated successful course corrections 

using both solar and stellar orientation, a first for a 

Soviet spacecraft.

58

Surveyor Model 1

Nation: USA (24)

Objective(s): highly elliptical orbit

Spacecraft: SD-2

Spacecraft Mass: 950 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Centaur (AC-6 / Atlas D no. 

151D / Centaur D)

Launch Date and Time: 11 August 1965 / 14:31:04 UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 36B

Scientific Instruments: [none]

Results: This was the second attempt to launch a 

dummy Surveyor lunar lander spacecraft into a 

barycentric orbit towards a simulated Moon. Unlike 

the previous attempt (in March 1965), this time all 

systems worked without fault; the Centaur fired 

flawlessly and put the Surveyor dynamic model on 

a simulated lunar trajectory so precise that it would 

have impacted on the Moon without a trajectory 

correction. Orbital parameters were 164 × 822,135 

kilometers at 28.6° inclination. The payload reentered after 31 days.

59

Luna 7

Nation: USSR (35)

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing

Spacecraft: Ye-6 (no. 11)

Spacecraft Mass: 1,506 kg

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: Molniya-M + Blok L (8K78M no. 

U103-27, also U15000-54)

Launch Date and Time: 4 October 1965 / 07:56:40 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5
50 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging system

2. SBM-10 radiation detector

Results: The first attempt to launch this vehicle 

took place at 07:05:36 UT on 4 September 1965 

but the launch was aborted due to a problem in 

a sensor that measured relative velocity on the 

rocket. The subsequent launch a month later 

went off successfully and the Blok L upper stage 

successfully sent Luna 7 on its way to the Moon. 

Unlike its predecessors, Luna 7 successfully carried out its mid-course correction on October 5 on 

the way to the Moon, in anticipation of a soft-landing two days later (at the time planned for 2208 

UT on 7 October). Unfortunately, immediately 

prior to planned retro-fire during the approach 

to the lunar surface, the spacecraft suddenly lost 

attitude control and failed to regain it. One of its 

attitude control sensors—the one designed to lock 

on to Earth—stopped functioning, preventing it 

from reaching the desired orientation for firing 

its retro-engine. Automatic programmed systems 

then prevented the main engine from firing. As 

controllers observed helplessly, Luna 7 plummeted 

to the lunar surface at a very high speed, crashing 

at 22:08:24 UT on 7 October west of the Kepler 

crater, relatively near to the actual intended target. 

Impact coordinates were 9° N / 49° W. Later investigation indicated that the optical sensor of the 

Yupiter-M astronavigation system had been set at 

the wrong angle and had lost sight of Earth during 

the critical attitude control maneuver. It was the 

tenth consecutive failure in the Ye-6 program.

60

Venera 2

Nation: USSR (36)

Objective(s): Venus flyby

Spacecraft: 3MV-4 (no. 4)

Spacecraft Mass: 963 kg

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: Molniya-M + Blok L (8K78M no. 

U103-42, also U15000-42)

Launch Date and Time: 12 November 1965 / 04:46 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 31/6

Scientific Instruments:

1. triaxial fluxgate magnetometer

2. spectrometers

3. micrometeoroid detectors

4. ion traps

5. cosmic radio emission receiver

6. radio detector

7. STS-5 gas-discharge and solid-state detectors

8. imaging system

9. infrared spectrometer

10. 2 other spectrometers

Results: Although the 3MV-3 and 3MV-4 type spacecraft were originally intended for Mars exploration, 

the Soviets re-equipped three of the series, left over 

from the 1964 Mars launch periods, for Venus exploration in 1965. This particular vehicle was scheduled to fly past the sunlit side of Venus at no more 

than 40,000 kilometers range and take photographs. 

About 3 hours after injection into heliocentric orbit, 

contact was temporarily lost with the spacecraft, and 

although it was regained soon after, the event was 

symptomatic of the mission in general during which 

communications were generally poor. Before closest approach in late February 1966, ground control 

switched on all the onboard scientific instrumentation. Closest approach to the planet was at 02:52 UT 

on 27 February 1966 at about 24,000 kilometers 

range. After its flyby, when the spacecraft was supposed to relay back the collected information, ground 

control was unable to regain contact. Controllers 

finally gave up all attempts at communication on 

4 March. Venera 2 eventually entered heliocentric 

orbit. Later investigation indicated that improper 

functioning of 40 thermal radiator elements caused a 

sharp increase in gas temperatures in the spacecraft. 

As a result, elements of the receiving and decoding 

units failed (and the solar panels overheated), and 

contact was lost. Ironically, the scientific instruments 

may have collected valuable data, but none of it was 

ever transmitted back to Earth.
1965 51

61

Venera 3

Nation: USSR (37)

Objective(s): Venus impact

Spacecraft: 3MV-3 (no. 1)

Spacecraft Mass: 969 kg

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: Molniya + Blok L (8K78 no. U103-31, 

also U15000-31)

Launch Date and Time: 16 November 1965 / 04:13 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 31/6

Scientific Instruments:

Spacecraft Bus:

1. triaxial fluxgate magnetometer

2. spectrometers

3. SBT-9 cosmic ray sensor

4. ion traps

5. STS-5 gas-discharge and solid-state 

detectors

Impact Probe:

1. temperature, pressure, and density sensors

2. chemical gas analysis

3. photometer

4. gamma-ray counter

Results: This was the second of three 3MV spacecraft the Soviets attempted to launch towards Venus 

in late 1965. Venera 3 successfully left Earth orbit 

carrying a small 0.9-meter diameter 310-kilogram 

landing capsule to explore the Venusian atmosphere and transmit data on pressure, temperature, 

and composition of the Venusian atmosphere back 

to Earth during the descent by parachute. During 

the outbound trajectory, ground controllers successfully performed a mid-course correction on 

26 December 1965 and completed 63 communications sessions during which scientists on the 

ground recorded valuable information. For example, 

between 16 November 1965 and 7 January 1966, a 

modulation charged particle trap (of the same type 

carried on Zond 2), provided valuable data on the 

energy spectra of solar wind ion streams beyond the 

Earth’s magnetosphere. Contact was, however, lost 

on 16 February 1966, shortly before the Venusian 

encounter. The spacecraft subsequently automatically released its lander probe which impacted 

inertly onto the Venusian surface at 06:56:26 UT 

on 1 March 1966, only 4 minutes earlier than 

planned. It was the first time a human-made object 

made physical contact with another planetary body 

other than the Moon. The impact location was on 

the night side of Venus, near the terminator, in the 

range of –20° to 20° N / 60° to 80° E. In response to 

concern from some American and British scientists, 

the Soviet press emphasized that “prior to liftoff, 

the descent module was subject to careful sterilization, required to dispose of all microorganisms 

of terrestrial origin and thus prevent the possibility 

of contamination.” Later investigation confirmed 

that Venera 3 suffered many of the same failures as 

Venera 2, i.e., overheating of internal components 

and the solar panels.

62

Kosmos 96 [Venera]

Nation: USSR (38)

Objective(s): Venus flyby

Spacecraft: 3MV-4 (no. 6)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 950 kg

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: Molniya + Blok L (8K78 no. U103-

30, also U15000-30)

Launch Date and Time: 23 November 1965 / 03:14 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 31/6

Scientific Instruments:

1. three-component magnetometer

2. imaging system

3. solar x-radiation detector

4. cosmic ray gas-discharge counters

5. piezoelectric detectors

6. ion traps

7. photon Geiger counter

8. cosmic radio emission receivers
52 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

A model of the Ye-6-type lunar probe on display at the Memorial Museum of Cosmonauts in Moscow. The package on 

‘right’ is the lunar lander (the ALS). The three silver balls visible in the foreground are three of the four gas storage bottles 

for the attitude control system. The two (of four total) black-and-white nozzles facing left are verniers. The main S5.5A 

engine is at the left or aft end of the entire spacecraft. Credit: Asif Siddiqi

Results: This was the third and last spacecraft prepared for a Venus encounter by the Soviets in 1965. 

All three spacecraft had originally been intended 

for Mars exploration in 1964–1965. In this case, 

during coast to Earth orbit, a combustion chamber 

in the booster’s third stage engine exploded due to 

a crack in the fuel pipeline. Although the payload 

reached Earth orbit, the Blok L upper stage was 

tumbling and was unable to fire for trans-Venus 

trajectory injection. The probe remained stranded 

in Earth orbit and the Soviets named it Kosmos 96 

to disguise its true mission. The probe decayed on 

9 December 1965.

63

Luna 8

Nation: USSR (39)

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing

Spacecraft: Ye-6 (no. 12)

Spacecraft Mass: 1,552 kg

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1

Launch Vehicle: Molniya-M + Blok L (8K78M no. 

U103-28, also U15000-48)

Launch Date and Time: 3 December 1965 / 10:46:14 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 31/6

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging system

2. SBM-10 radiation detector
1965 53

Results: This, the tenth Soviet attempt to achieve a 

lunar soft-landing, nearly succeeded. The Blok L 

upper stage successfully dispatched the probe 

towards the Moon. After a successful mid-course 

correction at 19:00 UT on 4 December, the spacecraft headed towards its targeted landing site on the 

Moon without any apparent problems. Just prior to 

the planned retro-fire burn, a command was sent to 

inflate cushioning airbags around the ALS lander 

probe. Unfortunately, a plastic mounting bracket 

appears to have pierced one of the two bags. The 

resulting expulsion of air put the spacecraft into 

a spin (of 12°/second). The vehicle momentarily regained attitude, long enough for a 9-second 

retro-engine firing, but then lost it again. Without 

a full retro-burn to reduce approach velocity sufficient for a survivable landing, Luna 8 plummeted 

to the lunar surface and crashed at 21:51:30 UT on 

6 December just west of the Kepler crater. Impact 

coordinates were 9° 8′ N / 63° 18′ W. The Soviet 

news agency TASS merely reported that “the station’s systems functioned normally at all stages of 

the landing except the final one.”

64

Pioneer VI

Nation: USA (25)

Objective(s): heliocentric orbit

Spacecraft: Pioneer A

Spacecraft Mass: 62.14 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / ARC

Launch Vehicle: Thrust Augmented Delta (Thor 

Delta E no. 35 / Thor no. 460/DSV-3E)

Launch Date and Time: 16 December 1965 / 07:31:21 

UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 17A

Scientific Instruments:

1. single-axis fluxgate magnetometer

2. plasma Faraday cup

3. electrostatic analyzer

4. cosmic ray telescope

5. cosmic ray anisotropy detector

6. two-frequency beacon receiver

Pioneer VI was the first in a series of solar-orbiting spacecraft designed to obtain measurements on a continuing 

basis of interplanetary phenomena from widely separated 

points in space. Credit: NASA

Results: Pioneer VI was the first of several NASA 

spacecraft designed for launch at six-month intervals to study interplanetary phenomena in space in 

heliocentric orbits similar to that of Earth. These 

spacecraft successfully provided simultaneous 

scientific measurements at widely dispersed locations in heliocentric orbit. The so-called Improved 

Thrust Augmented Delta launch vehicle’s third 

stage burned for 23 seconds to boost Pioneer VI 

into heliocentric orbit. Initial solar orbit for the 

spacecraft ranged from 0.814 AU (perihelion) to 

0.985 AU (aphelion) with a period of 311.3 days. 

By 2 March 1966, Pioneer VI had transmitted 

about 250 million readings from its six scientific 

instruments. In the fall of 1969, JPL and UCLA 

scientists reported the results of a solar occultation 

performed from 21–24 November 1968. This was 

the first time that a spacecraft had been tracked 

while passing behind the Sun, allowing scientists, despite an unfavorable signal-to-noise ratio 

of data transmission, to examine the solar corona 

during this passage. Scientists used instruments 
54 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

on Pioneer  VI in coordination with those on 

Pioneer  VII, in November and December 1969, 

to measure solar wind particles and carry out 

long-distance communications experiments. Five 

years after launch, at the end of 1970, Pioneer VI 

had orbited the Sun six times, and had passed by 

the Sun’s far side (relative to Earth), sending back 

new information on the solar atmosphere and regular solar weather reports. One of the two radio 

receivers was still operational, and although some 

of the solar cells had been damaged by solar flares, 

the spacecraft was still getting sufficient power to 

operate satisfactorily. Pioneer VI returned the first 

data on the tenuous solar atmosphere and later 

recorded the passage of Comet Kohoutek’s tail 

in 1974 (in conjunction with Pioneer VIII) from 

a range of about 100 million kilometers from the 

comet’s nucleus. Along with Pioneers VII, VIII, and 

IX, the spacecraft formed a ring of solar weather 

stations spaced along Earth’s orbit. Measurements 

by the four Pioneers were used to predict solar 

storms for approximately 1,000 primary users 

including the Federal Aviation Agency, commercial 

airlines, power companies, communication companies, military organizations, and entities involved 

in surveying, navigation, and electronic prospecting. By December 1990, Pioneer VI had circled 

the Sun 29 times (travelling 24.8 billion kilometers) and had been operational for twenty straight 

years—a record for a deep space probe. Its original 

slated lifetime had been only six months, achieved 

on 16 June 1966. Of the spacecraft’s six scientific 

instruments, two (the plasma Faraday cup and 

the cosmic ray detector) functioned well into the 

1990s. NASA maintained contact with the spacecraft once or twice each year during the 1990s. 

For example, one hour’s worth of scientific data 

was collected on 29 July and 15 December 1995, 

although the primary transmitter failed the following year. Soon after, on 31 March 1997, NASA 

officially declared the mission complete largely 

due to the costs associated with continuing communications sessions. Despite the decision, contact was established with the backup transmitter 

on 6 October 1997 as part of a training exercise for 

the Lunar Prospector spacecraft. By this point, the 

probe’s solar arrays had deteriorated although the 

transmitter could still be turned on at perihelion 

when the solar flux was strong enough to provide 

sufficient power. On 8 December 2000, ground 

controllers established successful contact for 2 

hours to commemorate the 35th year of operation. 

This, however, proved to be the very last contact 

made with the probe.
55

1966

65

Luna 9

Nation: USSR (40)

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing

Spacecraft: Ye-6M (no. 202)

Spacecraft Mass: 1,583.7 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Molniya-M + Blok L (8K78M no. 

U103-32, also U15000-49)

Launch Date and Time: 31 January 1966 / 11:41:37 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 31/6

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging system

2. gamma-ray spectrometer

3. KS-17M radiation detector

A model of the Ye-6-type lunar lander (the ALS) shows its ingenuous “petal” design. In scene I, we see the Luna spacecraft with (1) Automatic Lunar Station (ALS) which is covered by (3) a thermal covering. Ideally, at an altitude of 75 kilometers, the padding (2) around the ALS would be pressurized as we see in scene II. At a command from the radio-altimeter 

located at (4), two side packages (5) from the main bus are jettisoned and the main S5.5A retro engine is turned on. At 

a given altitude from the lunar surface, the pressurized ball (7) would be separated from the main bus and would impact 

on the surface as shown in scene III. The pressurized covering surrounding the ALS would then separate into two parts 

(8 and 9) revealing the inner ALS. As shown in scene V, the petals of the lander would then unfurl, stabilizing the main 

body of the ALS (14), allowing a small suite of scientific instruments to operate. These included antennae (12 and 15) and 

a camera (10). Credit: Nauka i zhizn

Results: With this mission, the Soviets accomplished 

another spectacular first in the space race, the first 

survivable landing of a human-made object on 

another celestial body and the transmission of photographs from its surface. Luna 9 was the twelfth 

attempt at a soft-landing by the Soviets; it was also 

the first deep space probe built by the Lavochkin 

design bureau that would design and build all 

future Soviet (and Russian) lunar and interplanetary 
56 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

spacecraft. All operations prior to landing occurred 

without fault. A 48-second mid-course correction 

at 19:29 UT on 1 February some 233,000 kilometers from the Moon directed the probe directly to its 

target in the Ocean of Storms. About one hour before 

touchdown at a distance of 8,300 kilometers, Luna 9 

was put in proper attitude for retro-fire. Just prior to 

engine ignition, two side compartments were jettisoned, followed by inflation of two shock-absorbing 

airbags covering the lander to a pressure of 1 atmosphere. Its main S5.5A engine ignited at an altitude 

of 74.885 kilometers above the surface and fired for 

48 seconds until the probe was just 260–265 meters 

above ground, thus decelerating Luna 9 from 2,600 

meters/second to a few meters/second. Just above 

the surface, a long boom sensor made contact with 

the lunar surface, thus issuing a command to eject 

the 58-centimeter spheroid ALS capsule weighing 

99.8 kilograms from the main bus. The ALS (still 

enclosed in surrounded airbags) landed a few meters 

away. The impact time was recorded as 18:45:30 UT 

on 3 February 1966 west of the Reiner and Marius 

craters in the Ocean of Storms (reported as 7° 8′ N / 

64° 32′ W but closer to 8° N / 64° W). About four 

minutes after landing, the airbags split open, and the 

petals covering the top of the ALS were deployed. 

Precisely four minutes and 10 seconds after touchdown, Luna 9 began transmitting initial telemetry 

data back to Earth, although it would be another 

7 hours (at 01:50 UT on 4 February, after the Sun 

climbed from 3° to 7° elevation) before the probe 

began sending back the first of nine images (including 

five panoramas) of the surface of the Moon. The first 

panoramic images arrived very early in the morning 

in Moscow, and because officials were afraid to wake 

up Soviet space program curator Dmitriy Ustinov 

(1908–1984) (whose permission was required for 

publication in the Soviet media), the first panoramic 

images were actually published in the British media 

courtesy of Sir Bernard Lovell (1913–2012) at the 

Jodrell Bank Observatory who had intercepted and 

analyzed the same data. The later images had the 

Sun much high up, up to 41°, thus causing the 

shadow relief of the images to change. These were 

the first images sent back from the surface of another 

planetary body. Controllers noticed at one point that 

Luna 9’s vantage point had slightly shifted over the 

sequence of images, possibly caused by the diminishing water supply of its thermal control system 

which changed its weight distribution. This change 

in perspective (of about 100 mm) opened up the 

possibility of stereo photography of the surface. The 

KS-17M radiation detector measured a dosage of 30 

millirads per day. Perhaps the most important discovery from the mission was determining that a foreign 

object would not simply sink into the lunar dust, i.e., 

that the ground could support a heavy lander. Mission controllers expected that the last communications session would be on 5 February (from 16:00 

to 17:41 UT) but were pleased to have an additional 

one, on 6 February (from 20:37 to 22:55 UT). By the 

time contact was lost, controllers had communicated 

with Luna 9 over seven communications sessions 

lasting 8 hours and 5 minutes.

66

Kosmos 111 [Luna]

Nation: USSR (41)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: Ye-6S (no. 204)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 1,580 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Molniya-M + Blok L (8K78M (no. 

N103-41, also U15000-50)

Launch Date and Time: 1 March 1966 / 11:03:49 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 31/6

Scientific Instruments:

1. magnetometer

2. gamma-ray spectrometer

3. five gas-discharge counters

4. two ion traps and a charged particle trap

5. piezoelectric micrometer detector

6. infrared detector

7. low-energy x-ray photon counters
1966 57

Results: In early 1966, the Soviets hastily put together 

an interim lunar orbiter program, the Ye-6S, partly 

to upstage the American Lunar Orbiter project, and 

partly to commemorate the 23rd Congress of the 

Communist Party held in March 1966. Engineers 

quickly designed a set of two rudimentary probes 

using the old Ye-6 (lander) buses for these missions. The first of these was prepared in less than a 

month but failed to leave Earth orbit. During Earth 

orbit operations, the Blok L upper stage lost roll 

control and failed to fire to send the probe towards 

the Moon. The official Soviet media named the 

stranded satellite Kosmos 111 which reentered two 

days after launch.

67

Luna 10

Nation: USSR (42)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: Ye-6S (no. 206)

Spacecraft Mass: 1,583.7 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Molniya-M + Blok L (8K78M no. 

N103-42, also U15000-51)

Launch Date and Time: 31 March 1966 / 10:46:59 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 31/6

Scientific Instruments:

1. SG-59M 3-component magnetometer

2. gamma-ray spectrometer

3. SL-1 radiometer for detecting radiation 

near the Moon

4. D-153 solar plasma detector

5. RMCh-1 meteorite detector

6. ID-1 infrared radiation detector

7. RFL-1 x-ray fluorescence detector

Results: After a mid-course correction on 1 April, 

Luna 10, the second and backup model of two 

hastily prepared Soviet Ye-6S probes, successfully entered lunar orbit two days later at 18:44 

UT, thus becoming the first human-made object 

to go into orbit around another planetary body. A 

248.5-kilogram instrument compartment separated from the main bus at 18:45:39 UT which was 

in a 350 × 1,016-kilometer orbit inclined at 71.9° 

to the lunar equator. The spacecraft carried a set of 

solid-state oscillators which had been programmed 

to reproduce the notes of the Internationale so that 

it could be broadcast live to the 23rd Communist 

Party Congress. During a rehearsal on the night of 

3 April, the playback went well, but the following 

morning, controllers discovered a missing note and 

so played the previous night’s tape to the assembled gathering at the Congress, claiming it was a 

live broadcast from the Moon. Luna 10 conducted 

extensive research in lunar orbit, gathering important data on the weakness of the Moon’s magnetic 

field, radiation belts, and micrometeoroid density. 

In 2012, a Soviet scientist made the claim that Luna 

10’s achievements included “the first gamma-ray 

spectrometer used in the history of space research 

to first define the contents of natural radio nuclides 

in the lunar soil.” Data from Luna  10 suggested 

that Moon rocks were comparable to terrestrial 

basalt rocks. Based on data collected by the probe, 

Efraim Akim (1929–2010) at the USSR Academy 

of Sciences identified the “noncentrality of the 

gravitational field of the Moon” which he argued 

was “the essential fact determining the evolution of 

the orbit of Luna 10,” as reported in an Academy 

journal in 1966. Based on Akim’s claim, some 

sources incorrectly credit Luna 10 with discovery 

of mass concentrations (called “mascons”)—areas 

of high density below the mare basins that distort 

lunar orbital trajectories. Their discovery, however, 

came much later, after the creation of a gravimetric 

map of the Moon (albeit at the time, only of the 

near side of the Moon). Paul Muller and William 

Sjogren published their conclusions in 1968 based 

on data from the Lunar Orbiters showing that very 

large positive gravity anomalies exist in all of the 

circular ringed sea basins on the Moon. The discovery of mascons thus should be credited to them. 

Controllers made last contact with Luna  10 on 

30 May 1966.
58 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

68

Surveyor Model 2

Nation: USA (26)

Objective(s): highly elliptical orbit

Spacecraft: SD-3

Spacecraft Mass: 784 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Centaur (AC-8 / Atlas no. 

184D / Centaur D)

Launch Date and Time: 8 April 1966 / 01:00:02 UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 36B

Scientific Instruments: [none]

Results: This was a test to launch a dummy Surveyor 

lunar lander spacecraft into a barycentric orbit 

towards a simulated Moon. Unlike the two previous Surveyor mass model tests, this flight was 

supposed to demonstrate a restart capability for 

the Centaur upper stage. The Centaur-Surveyor 

combination successfully achieved parking orbit 

around Earth (with a first firing), but at the desired 

time, when it came time for the second firing, the 

Centaur RL-10 engines fired for only a few seconds (instead of 107 seconds). A thrust imbalance 

left the payload tumbling and in an incorrect orbit 

of 182 × 335 kilometers at 30.7° inclination. The 

problem was later traced to a hydrogen peroxide 

leak in the ullage motors of the Centaur stage. With 

no hope of reaching its ultimate orbit (planned 

for 167 × 380,000 km), the payload reentered on 

5 May 1966.

69

Surveyor I

Nation: USA (27)

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing

Spacecraft: Surveyor-A

Spacecraft Mass: 995.2 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Centaur (AC-10 / Atlas D no. 

290 / Centaur D)

Launch Date and Time: 30 May 1966 / 14:41:01 UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 36A

Scientific Instruments:

1. TV camera

Results: In January 1961, NASA selected Hughes 

Aircraft Company to build a series of seven 

soft-landing vehicles, each weighing about 340 

kilograms, to “land gently on the moon, perform 

chemical analyses of the lunar surface and subsurface and relay back to Earth television pictures of 

lunar features.” These vehicles were to be designed 

and built under the technical direction of JPL and 

launched in the period of 1963–1966. Unlike the 

Soviet Luna landers, Surveyor was a true softlander, comprising a three-meter tall vehicle based 

on a 27-kilogram thin-walled aluminum triangular 

structure with one of three legs at each corner and 

a large solid-propellant retro-rocket engine (that 

comprised over 60% of the spacecraft’s overall 

mass) in the center. The spacecraft was equipped 

with a Doppler velocity-sensing system that fed 

information into the spacecraft computer to implement a controllable descent to the surface. Each 

of the three landing pads also carried aircraft-type 

shock absorbers and strain gauges to provide data 

on landing characteristics, important for future 

Apollo missions. Surveyor I, the first in the series, 

was an unprecedented success. NASA accomplished the first true soft-landing on the Moon 

on its very first try when the probe landed in the 

southwestern region of the Ocean of Storms at 

06:17:36 UT on 2 June 1966, just 63.6 hours after 

launch from Cape Canaveral. Touchdown coordinates were announced as 2.46° S / 43.32° W, just 

14 kilometers from the planned target. At landing, 

the spacecraft weighed 294.3 kilograms. The initial 

panoramic views from the lunar surface indicated 

that Surveyor I was resting in a 100-kilometer 

diameter crater that contained boulders more than 

one meter scattered all around. The photos showed 

crestlines of low mountains in the distant horizon. 

The lander transmitted 11,240 high-resolution 
1966 59

images over two separate communications sessions 

by 6 July. Although the primary mission was completed by 14 July, NASA maintained contact until 

7 January 1967. Without doubt, Surveyor I was one 

of the great successes of NASA’s early lunar and 

interplanetary program.

70

Explorer XXXIII

Nation: USA (28)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: AIMP-D

Spacecraft Mass: 93.4 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / GSFC

Launch Vehicle: Thor Delta E-1 (Thor Delta E-1 no. 

39 / Thor no. 467/DSV-3E)

Launch Date and Time: 1 July 1966 / 16:02:25 UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 17A

Scientific Instruments:

1. ionizing radiation experiment

2. 3-grid Faraday cup / thermal ion experiment

3. 3 GM tubes and a PN junction semiconductor / energetic particle experiment

4. plasma probe experiment

5. magnetometer (from Ames)

6. magnetometer (from GSFC)

7. solar cell damage experiment

Results: It was hoped that Explorer XXXIII (33), also 

known as the Anchored Interplanetary Monitoring 

Platform (AIMP), would become the first U.S. 

spacecraft to enter lunar orbit (planned parameters 

were 1,300 × 6,440 kilometers at 175° inclination), but the Thor Delta E-1 second stage accelerated too rapidly, ensuring that lunar orbit would 

not be possible. Instead mission planners adopted 

an alternate mission which required the probe’s 

(Thiokol TE-M-458) 35.8 kgf thrust retro-rocket to 

fire about 6.5 hours after launch. Under the new 

plan, the spacecraft was put into a highly elliptical 

Earth orbit of 449,174 × 30,550 kilometers at 28.9° 

inclination. In this orbit, Explorer XXXIII was high 

enough to be perturbed by the Moon’s gravitation. 

In its new orbit, Explorer XXXIII approached the 

Moon (on its very first orbit) to a distance of 35,000 

kilometers with subsequent close approaches in 

September, November, and December 1966 varying from 40,000 to 60,000 kilometers. During this 

time, the probe returned key data on Earth’s magnetic tail, the interplanetary magnetic field, and 

radiation. In January 1967, Goddard Space Flight 

Center engineers used an electric “screwdriver” 

to restore power to the spacecraft after a temporary blackout. The emergency repair was the most 

remote repair carried out on a spacecraft to date. 

The mission was declared a success by 1 January 

1967, although the spacecraft continued to return 

useful data until 15 September 1971.

71

Lunar Orbiter I

Nation: USA (29)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: LO-A

Spacecraft Mass: 386.9 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / LaRC

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Agena D (Atlas Agena D 

no. 17 / Atlas D no. 5801 / Agena D no. 

AD121/6630)

Launch Date and Time: 10 August 1966 / 19:26:00 UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 13

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging system

2. micrometeoroid detectors

3. radiation dosimeters

Results: The Lunar Orbiter program originated as a 

response to the need to obtain one-meter resolution photographs of potential Apollo landing sites. 

NASA planned launches of a series of three-axis 

stabilized spacecraft with four solar panels and 

a main engine (derived from an Apollo attitude 

control thruster) for lunar orbit insertion. The 

primary instrument on board was a 68-kilogram 
60 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

Eastman Kodak imaging system (using wide and 

narrow-angle lenses) that could develop exposed 

film, scan them, and send them back to Earth. In 

a twist that was not known until after the end of 

the Cold War, the Eastman Kodak camera flown on 

the Lunar Orbiters was originally developed by the 

National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) and flown 

on the Samos E-1 spy satellite. The narrow-angle 

pictures taken by this system provided resolution 

up to 60 to 80 meters, while the wide-angle photos 

showed resolutions up to 0.5 kilometers. Lunar 

Orbiter I was launched into a parking orbit around 

Earth before its Agena upper stage fired at 20:04 

UT to insert it on a translunar trajectory. On the 

way to the Moon, the spacecraft’s Canopus star 

tracker failed to acquire its target, probably because 

the spacecraft’s structure was reflecting too much 

light. Flight controllers used a backup method by 

using the same sensor, but with the Moon to orient 

the vehicle. The vehicle also displayed higher than 

expected temperatures but successfully entered a 

1,866.8 × 189.1-kilometer orbit around the Moon 

on 24 August, thus becoming the first U.S. spacecraft to do so. The spacecraft’s primary mission 

was to photograph nine potential Apollo landing 

sites, seven secondary areas, and the Surveyor I 

landing site. By 28 August, Lunar Orbiter I had 

completed its main photography mission, having 

exposed a total of 205 frames, of which 38 were 

taken in the initial orbit and 167 in lower orbits, 

covering an area of 5.18 million km2. As planned, it 

photographed all 9 potential Apollo landing sites as 

well as 11 sites on the far side of the Moon. Some 

of the high-resolution photos were blurred due to 

smearing (stemming from problems in the imaging 

system), but the medium resolution images were 

the best lunar surface images returned to date. 

One of the images returned, unplanned but taken 

on 23 August, was the first picture of Earth taken 

from the vicinity of the Moon. Lunar Orbiter I 

began an extended non-photography phase of its 

mission on 16 September that was focused on engineering goals, but by 28 October, the spacecraft’s 

condition had deteriorated. As such, the day after, 

on its 577th orbit, ground controllers commanded 

the orbiter to crash onto the lunar surface (at 13:30 

UT) to prevent its transmissions from interfering 

with future Lunar Orbiters. Impact coordinates 

were 6° 42′ N / 162° E.

72

Pioneer VII

Nation: USA (30)

Objective(s): heliocentric orbit

Spacecraft: Pioneer-B

Spacecraft Mass: 62.75 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / ARC

Launch Vehicle: Thrust Augmented Improved Delta 

(Thor Delta E-1 no. 40 / Thor no. 462/DSV-3E)

Launch Date and Time: 17 August 1966 / 15:20:17 UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 17A

Scientific Instruments:

1. single-axis fluxgate magnetometer

2. plasma Faraday cup

3. electrostatic analyzer

4. cosmic ray telescope

5. cosmic ray anisotropy detector

6. two-frequency beacon receiver

Results: Identical to Pioneer VI, Pioneer VII was 

put into heliocentric orbit at 1.01 × 1.125 AU with 

a period of 402.95 days to study magnetic fields 

of solar origin, measure various characteristics of 

the solar wind, and distinguish between solar and 

galactic cosmic rays. On 17 August 1966, Pioneer 

VII flew through Earth’s magnetic tail region at 5.6 

million kilometer range from Earth, and discovered 

long periods when the solar wind was completely 

or partially blocked out, suggesting that its instruments were monitoring the end of an organized tail 

region. On 7 September 1968, the spacecraft was 

correctly aligned with the Sun and Earth to begin 

studying Earth’s magnetic tail. In 1977, 11 years 

after its launch, Pioneer VII registered the magnetic tail 19.3 million kilometers out, three times 

further into space than recorded prior. At 23:36 UT, 
1966 61

on 20 March 1986, the spacecraft flew within 12.1 

million kilometers of Halley’s Comet—the closest a U.S. spacecraft approached the comet—and 

monitored the interaction between the cometary 

hydrogen tail and the solar wind. Like Pioneer VI 

and Pioneer VIII, NASA maintained intermittent 

contact with Pioneer VII in the 1990s, more than 

30 years after its mission began (with data returned 

from its cosmic ray detector and plasma analyzer in 

February 1991, for example). On 31 March 1995, 

the plasma analyzer was turned on during 2 hours 

of contact with the ground, this being the final contact made with the spacecraft.

73

Luna 11

Nation: USSR (43)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: Ye-6LF (no. 101)

Spacecraft Mass: 1,640 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Molniya-M + Blok L (8K78M no. 

N103-43, also N15000-52)

Launch Date and Time: 24 August 1966 / 08:03:21 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 31/6

Scientific Instruments:

1. gamma-ray spectrometer

2. RMCh-1 meteorite detector

3. SL-1 radiometer for measuring radiation 

near the Moon

4. RFL-F instrument for detecting x-ray 

fluorescence

5. Kassiopeya KYa-4 instrument for measuring 

intensity of longwave radio-radiation

6. US-3 spectro-photometer

7. 2 cameras (high and low-resolution)

8. R-1 gear transmission experiment

Results: This subset of the “second generation” Luna 

spacecraft, the Ye-6LF, was designed to take the first 

photographs of the surface of the Moon from lunar 

orbit. A secondary objective was to obtain data on 

gravitational anomalies on the Moon (later identified by U.S. researchers as “mascons”) also detected 

by Luna 10. Using the basic Ye-6 bus, a suite of 

scientific instruments included an imaging system 

similar to the one used on Zond 3, which was capable of high- and low-resolution imaging and whose 

lenses faced the direction of the S5.5 main engine. 

This package replaced the small lander capsule 

used on the soft-landing flights. The resolution of 

the photos was reportedly 15 to 20 meters. A technological experiment included testing the efficiency 

of gear transmission in vacuum for the future Ye-8 

lunar rover (which worked successfully for 5 hours 

in vacuum). Luna 11, launched only two weeks 

after the U.S. Lunar Orbiter, successfully entered 

lunar orbit at 21:49 UT on 27 August about 5 minutes earlier than planned. Parameters were 163.5 

× 1,193.6 kilometers. Within 3 hours of lunar orbit 

insertion, the spacecraft was to be stabilized for its 

imaging mission which would include taking 42 

frames taken over a 64-minute session. Due to an 

off-nominal position of the vehicle, the camera only 

took images (64 of them) of blank space. Investigators determined that a foreign object had probably 

been dislodged in the nozzle of one of the attitude 

control thrusters. The other instruments functioned 

without fault (although no data was returned by the 

spectrophotometer) before the mission formally 

ended on 1 October 1966 after power supply had 

been depleted.

74

Surveyor II

Nation: USA (31)

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing

Spacecraft: Surveyor-B

Spacecraft Mass: 995.2 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Centaur (AC-7 / Atlas D no. 

194 / Centaur D)
62 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

Launch Date and Time: 20 September 1966 / 12:32:00 

UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 36A

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging system

Results: Surveyor II, similar in design to its predecessor, was aimed for a lunar soft-landing in Sinus 

Medii. During the coast to the Moon, at 05:00 UT 

on 21 September, one of three thrusters failed to 

ignite for a 9.8-second mid-course correction, and 

as a result, put the spacecraft into an unwanted 

spin. Despite as many as 39 repeated attempts to 

fire the recalcitrant thruster, the engine failed to 

ignite, and Surveyor II headed to the Moon without proper control. Just 30 seconds after retro-fire 

ignition at 09:34 UT on 22 September, communications ceased, and the lander crashed on to 

the surface of the Moon at 5° 30′ N / 12° W, just 

southeast of Copernicus crater.

75

Luna 12

Nation: USSR (44)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: Ye-6LF (no. 102)

Spacecraft Mass: 1,640 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Molniya-M + Blok L (8K78M no. 

N103-44, also N15000-53)

Launch Date and Time: 22 October 1966 / 08:42:26 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 31/6

Scientific Instruments:

1. gamma-ray spectrometer

2. RMCh-1 meteorite detector

3. SL-1 radiometer for measuring radiation 

near the Moon

4. RFL-F instrument for detecting x-ray 

fluorescence

5. Kassiopeya KYa-4 instrument for measuring 

intensity of longwave radio-radiation

6. US-3 spectro-photometer

7. 2 cameras (high- and low-resolution)

8. R-1 gear transmission experiment

Results: Luna 12 was launched to complete the 

mission that Luna 11 had failed to accomplish, 

i.e., take high resolution photos of the Moon’s 

surface from lunar orbit. The propulsion system, 

now called S5.5A, was redesigned to account for 

the failure of Luna 11 but otherwise was almost 

identical. Luna  12 successfully reached the 

Moon on 25 October 1966 and entered a 103 × 

1,742-kilometer orbit. About 2 hours later, the 

imaging system was turned on and worked for 

64 minutes, returning 28 high resolution and 14 

panoramic images. Film was developed, fixed, and 

dried automatically and scanned for transmission 

to Earth. The Soviet press released the first photos 

taken of the surface on 29 October, pictures that 

showed the Sea of Rains and the Aristarchus crater. 

Resolution was as high as 15–20 meters. No further photos were released at the time, although 

apparently 42 total images were obtained. After 

completing its main imaging mission, Luna 12 

was put into a spin-stabilized roll to carry out its 

scientific mission which was fulfilled quite successfully—the only major failure was of the US-3 

spectro-photometer. Contact was finally lost on 19 

January 1967 after 302 communications sessions.

76

Lunar Orbiter II

Nation: USA (32)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: LO-B (Spacecraft 5)

Spacecraft Mass: 385.6 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / LaRC

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Agena D (Atlas Agena D no. 18 / 

Atlas D no. 5802 / Agena D no. AD122/6631)

Launch Date and Time: 6 November 1966 / 23:21:00 UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 13
1966 63

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging system

2. micrometeoroid detectors

3. radiation dosimeters

This image was taken on 24 November 1966 by Lunar Orbiter II from an altitude of 45.7 kilometers from the lunar surface. 

It shows very vividly the striking topography within the crater Copernicus. Credit: NASA / LOIRP

Results: Lunar Orbiter II’s mission was to photograph 13 primary and 17 secondary landings sites 

for the Apollo program in the northern region of 

the Moon’s near side equatorial area. After a single 

mid-course correction on the way to the Moon, 

on 10 November 1966, the spacecraft entered 

a 196 × 1,850 kilometer orbit around the Moon. 

After 33 orbits, Lunar Orbiter II was moved to its 

photographic orbit with a perilune of 49.7 kilometers; on 18 November, it began its photography 

mission, returning excellent quality medium and 

high-resolution photographs, including the impact 

point of Ranger VIII. The spacecraft ended its photography mission on 26 November and transmission 

of the images was concluded by 7 December, by 

which time the probe had transmitted back 211 pictures of both the near side and large areas of the farside. These photos covered nearly four million km2

of the lunar surface. The high-gain transmitter failed 

during this time, but did not significantly affect the 

coverage afforded by the photos. On 23 November, 

Lunar Orbiter II took perhaps the most memorable 

photo of any in the series, a spectacular shot looking across the Copernicus crater from an altitude 

of only 45 kilometers that vividly emphasized the 

three-dimensional nature of the lunar surface. On 

8 December, after the main photographic mission 

was over, Lunar Orbiter II fired its main engine to 
64 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

change its orbital plane in order to provide tracking 

data of the Moon’s gravitational field over a wider 

swath. Finally, on 11 October 1967, when attitude control gas was almost depleted, a retro-burn 

deliberately crashed the spacecraft onto the lunar 

surface at 4° S / 98° E on the farside to prevent 

communications interference on future missions.

77

Luna 13

Nation: USSR (45)

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing

Spacecraft: Ye-6M (no. 205)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 1,620 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Molniya-M + Blok L (8K78M no. 

N103-45, also N15000-55)

Launch Date and Time: 21 December 1966 / 10:17:08 

UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

1. Two TV cameras

2. ID-3 instrument to measure heat stream 

from surface

3. GR-1 penetrometer

4. RP radiation densitometer

5. KS-17MA instrument for corpuscular 

radiation

6. DS-1 Yastreb instrument to register loads 

on landing

Results: Luna 13 became the second Soviet spacecraft to successfully soft-land on the surface of 

the Moon. It began its mission by entering an initial Earth orbit of 223 × 171 kilometers at 51.8° 

inclination. The Blok L upper stage soon fired to 

send the spacecraft on a trajectory to the Moon. 

After a routine course correction on 22 December, 

Luna 13 began its approach to our only natural satellite. The retro-rocket engine fired at 17:59 UT 

on 24  December about 70 kilometers above the 

surface. Within two minutes, by 18:01 UT, Luna 

13 was safely on the lunar surface, having landed 

in the Ocean of Storms between the Krafft and 

Seleucus craters at 18° 52′ N / 62° 04′ W, some 

440 kilometers from Luna 9. The first signal from 

the probe was received at 18:05:30 UT. Unlike its 

predecessor, the heavier Luna 13 lander (113 kilograms) carried a suite of scientific instruments in 

addition to the usual imaging system. A three-axis 

accelerometer within the pressurized frame of the 

lander recorded the landing forces during impact to 

determine the regolith structure down to a depth of 

20–30 centimeters. A pair of spring-loaded booms 

(not carried on Luna 9) capable of extending 1.5 

meters beyond the lander, was also deployed. One 

of these was equipped with the RP radiation densitometer for determining the composition of the 

lunar surface, and the other with the GR-1 penetrometer to investigate the mechanical strength 

of the soil. At 18:06 UT, a small solid-propellant 

motor fired and forced the GR-1 instrument, a 

3.5-centimeter diameter titanium-tipped rod, into 

the lunar surface. The instrument recorded how 

fast and how far into the soil (4.5 centimeters) the 

probe penetrated, thus helping scientists gain valuable information for future landers. At the same 

time, the RP densitometer emitted gamma quanta 

from a cesium-137 sample into the soil. The resulting scattering was then recorded by three independent pickups to provide an estimate of the density 

of the soil, found to be about 0.8 g/cm3. In addition, four radiometers recorded infrared radiation 

from the surface indicating a noon temperature of 

117±3°C while a radiation detector indicated that 

radiation levels would be less than hazardous for 

humans. The lander returned a total of five panoramas of the lunar surface, showing a terrain 

smoother than that seen by Luna 9. One of the two 

cameras (intended to help return stereo images) 

failed but this did not diminish the quality of the 

photographs. A fully successful mission concluded 

with a last communications session between 04:05 

UT and 06:13  UT on 28 December when the 

onboard batteries were exhausted.
65

1967

78

Lunar Orbiter III

Nation: USA (33)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: LO-C (Spacecraft 6)

Spacecraft Mass: 385.6 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / LaRC

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Agena D (Atlas Agena D 

no. 20 / Atlas D no. 5803 / Agena D no. 

AD128/6632)

Launch Date and Time: 5 February 1967 / 01:17:01 UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 13

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging system

2. micrometeoroid detectors

3. radiation dosimeters

Results: Lunar Orbiter III was the final Lunar 

Orbiter mission to study potential Apollo landing 

sites although its mission was focused on “site confirmation” rather than “site search.” For the mission, 

the spacecraft’s orbital inclination was increased to 

21° to ensure photography both north and south 

of the lunar equator. Building on the stereo photography taken by Lunar Orbiter II, the third mission was focused on making two “footprints” of the 

same area on two successive orbits. Lunar Orbiter 

III was also designed to obtain precision trajectory 

information for defining the lunar gravitational 

field, measure micrometeoroid flux, and measure 

radiation dosage levels around the Moon. The 

spacecraft arrived in lunar orbit after a 9 minute 

2.5 second engine burn on 8 February 1967 after a 

single mid-course correction. Initial orbital parameters were 210.2 × 1,801.9 kilometers at 20.93° 

inclination. About four days later, the spacecraft 

entered its operational 55 × 1,847-kilometer orbit 

at 20.9° inclination. At the time, Lunar Orbiter II 

was still in operation around the Moon, thus providing key experience for NASA’s ability to track 

and communicate with two simultaneous spacecraft around the Moon. Lunar Orbiter III began its 

photographic mission on 15 February. The spacecraft exposed 211 (out of a possible 212) frames 

of pictures by the time that imaging concluded on 

23 February. Soon, the spacecraft began to “read 

out” the images to the ground but this activity 

suddenly stopped on 4 March due to a problem 

with the film advance mechanism in the readout section of the imaging system. As such, only 

182 images were returned—72 others were never 

read out to the ground. Despite the glitch, Lunar 

Orbiter wholly fulfilled its original mission objectives, returning images of 15.5 million km2

 of the 

near side and 650,000 km2 of the farside. One of 

its images showed the Surveyor II lander on the 

lunar surface. On 30 August 1967, ground controllers commanded the vehicle to circularize its orbit 

to 160 kilometers in order to simulate an Apollo 

trajectory. Later, on 9 October 1967, the probe was 

intentionally crashed onto the lunar surface at 14° 

36′ N / 91° 42′ W. The photographs from the first 

three Lunar Orbiters allowed NASA scientists to 

pick eight preliminary landing sites for Apollo by 

early April 1967, including site 2 in the Sea of 

Tranquility where Apollo 11 would land and site 5 

in the Ocean of Storms where Apollo 12 (and also 

Surveyor III) would disembark.
66 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

Astronaut Alan L. Bean of Apollo 12 inspecting the remains 

of the Surveyor III craft in November 1969. Surveyor landed on the Moon on 20 April 1967. In the background, the 

Apollo 12 Lunar Module Intrepid is visible. Credit: NASA

79 

Surveyor III

Nation: USA (34)

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing

Spacecraft: Surveyor-C

Spacecraft Mass: 997.9 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Centaur (AC-12 / Atlas D no. 

292 / Centaur D)

Launch Date and Time: 17 April 1967 / 07:05:01 UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 36B

Scientific Instruments:

1. TV camera

2. surface sampler

Results: Surveyor III was the third engineering flight 

of the series, but for the first time carried a surface-sampling instrument that could reach up to 1.5 

meters from the lander and dig up to 18 centimeters 

deep. Unlike the previous Surveyors, Surveyor III 

began its mission from parking orbit around Earth 

with a burn from the Centaur upper stage, now 

capable of multiple firings. During the descent to the 

lunar surface, highly reflective rocks confused the 

lander’s descent radar, and the main engine failed to 

cut off at the correct moment at about 4.3-meters 

altitude. As a result, Surveyor III bounced off the 

lunar surface twice, the first time to a height of 10 

meters and the second time, to 3 meters. The third 

time, the lander settled down to a soft-landing at 

00:04:17 UT on 20 April 1967 in the south-eastern 

region of Oceanus Procellarum at 3.0° S / 23.41° W. 

Less than an hour after landing, the spacecraft began 

transmitting the first of 6,326 TV pictures of the 

surrounding areas. The most exciting experiments 

of the mission included deployment of the surface 

sampler for digging trenches, making bearing tests, 

and manipulating lunar material in the view of the 

TV system. Via commands from Earth, it dug four 

trenches, and performed four bearing tests and thirteen impact tests. Based on these experiments, scientists concluded that lunar soil had a consistency 

similar to wet sand, with a bearing strength of 0.7 

kilograms/cm2

, i.e., solid enough for an Apollo Lunar 

Module. The lander’s TV camera consisted of two 25 

and 100 mm focal length lenses and was mounted 

under a mirror that could be moved horizontally and 

vertically. It took about 20 seconds to transmit a 

single 200-line picture of the surface. The camera 

was also capable of 600-line images which used digital picture transmission. Last contact was made on 

4 May 1967, two days after the lunar night began. 

More than three years later, on 18 November 1969, 

Apollo 12 astronauts Charles Conrad, Jr. and Alan 

L. Bean landed the Intrepid Lunar Module approximately 180 meters from the inactive Surveyor III 

lander. During their second extra-vehicular activity 

(EVA) on 19 November, the astronauts walked over 

to Surveyor III and recovered parts, including the 

soil scoop and camera system, to allow scientists to 

evaluate the effects of nearly two-and-a-half years of 

exposure on the Moon’s surface.
1967 67

80

Lunar Orbiter IV

Nation: USA (35)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: LO-D (Spacecraft 7)

Spacecraft Mass: 385.6 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / LaRC

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Agena D (Atlas Agena D 

no. 22 / Atlas D no. 5804 / Agena D no. 

AD131/6633)

Launch Date and Time: 4 May 1967 / 22:25:00 UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 13

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging system

2. micrometeoroid detectors

3. radiation dosimeters

Results: Lunar Orbiter IV was the first in the series 

dedicated to scientific surveys of the Moon. Its 

goal was to acquire contiguous photographic coverage of the lunar surface of at least 80% of the 

near side at 50–100-meter resolution. After a midcourse correction on 5 May 1967, Lunar Orbiter 

IV fired its engine at 15:08 UT on 8 May to insert 

the spacecraft into an initial lunar polar orbit of 

6,111 × 2,706 kilometers at 85.5° inclination, thus 

becoming the first spacecraft to go into polar orbit 

around the Moon. Orbital period was about 12 

hours. The spacecraft began its photographic mission at 15:46 UT on 11 May. A potentially serious 

problem threatened the mission when on 13 May, 

controllers found a problem with a camera thermal 

door that failed to close, leaking light onto exposed 

images. They were able to devise a fix that worked 

and the spacecraft continued its imaging mission. 

During its two-month mission, Lunar Orbiter IV 

took pictures of 99% of the near side and 75% of 

the farside of the Moon in a total of 163 frames. 

The imaging mission ended on the orbiter’s 34th 

orbit due to worsening readout difficulties. Fortunately, all but 30 of the 163 images collected, 

many with a resolution down to 60 meters, were 

successfully transmitted to Earth by 1 June. In 

early June, controllers lowered the spacecraft’s 

orbit to match that of Lunar Orbiter V so that scientists could collect gravitational data in support of 

the latter mission. Before losing contact on 17 July, 

Lunar Orbiter IV took the first photos of the lunar 

south pole and discovered a 240-kilometer long 

crustal fault on the farside. Since contact was lost 

before controlled impact, the spacecraft naturally 

crashed onto the Moon on 6 October 1967 due to 

gravitational anomalies.

81

Kosmos 159 [Luna]

Nation: USSR (46)

Objective(s): highly-elliptical orbit around Earth

Spacecraft: Ye-6LS (no. 111)

Spacecraft Mass: 1,640 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Molniya-M + Blok L (8K78M no. 

Ya716-56, also N15000-56)

Launch Date and Time: 16 May 1967 / 21:43:57 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments: [none]

Results: This spacecraft was a one-off high apogee 

Earth satellite developed to acquire data on new 

telecommunications systems for upcoming crewed 

missions to the Moon. Besides a usual complement 

of telemetry and communications equipment, the 

vehicle also carried a transceiver as part of the 

long-range communications system (Dal’nyy radiokompleks, DRK) and the BR-9-7 telemetry system, 

equipment designed to work with the new SaturnMS-DRK ground station located near the village 

of Saburovo, about 10 kilometers from NIP-14, a 

station, close to Moscow, belonging to the Soviet 

ground-based tracking network. The spacecraft 

was similar to Luna 11 but had a slightly lengthened (by 15 cm) instrument container so as to 

accommodate the modified DRK and new BR-9-7 
68 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

telemetry systems. Mission designers had planned 

to send the probe into a highly elliptical orbit with 

an apogee of 250,000 kilometers, but the Blok L 

upper stage cut off too early. Instead, the spacecraft, named Kosmos 159, entered a lower orbit 

of 380 × 60,600 kilometers at 51.5° inclination. 

Despite the incorrect orbit, controllers were able 

to accomplish the original mission, carried out 

over a period of nine days during which it was 

discovered that the energy potential of the UHF 

downlink from the spacecraft to the ground was 

1–2 orders magnitude below the calculated value. 

Kosmos 159 reentered Earth’s atmosphere on 

11 November 1967.

82

Venera 4

Nation: USSR (47)

Objective(s): Venus impact

Spacecraft: V-67 (1V no. 310)

Spacecraft Mass: 1,106 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Molniya-M + Blok VL (8K78M no. 

Ya716-70, also Ya15000-70)

Launch Date and Time: 12 June 1967 / 02:39:45 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

A model of the 1-meter diameter landing capsule of Venera 4 on display at the Memorial Museum of Cosmonautics in 

Moscow. Credit: Asif Siddiqi
1967 69

Scientific Instruments:

Lander:

1. MDDA altimeter

2. G-8 and G-10 gas analyzers

3. TPV densitometer and thermometer

4. barometer

Bus:

1. SG-59M triaxial magnetometer

2. 4 ion traps

3. STS-5 gas discharge counter

4. radiation detectors

5. SBT-9 gas discharge counter

6. KS-18-2M cosmic ray particle counters

7. LA-2 spectrometer

Results: Venera 4 was the first spacecraft to transmit 

data from a planet’s atmosphere. It was also the first 

Venus probe built by the Lavochkin design bureau, 

although Lavochkin engineers retained the basic 

design layout of the earlier 3MV probes built under 

Chief Designer Sergey Korolev (1907–1966). The 

spacecraft consisted of a main bus about 3.5 meters 

high and a 383-kilogram lander probe designed to 

transmit data as it descended through the Venusian 

atmosphere. This capsule could endure loads as 

high as 300 g’s and land on both land and liquid. 

For atmospheric entry it was equipped with a thick 

ablative heatshield. Launch, for the first time, used 

an upgraded Blok L (4th stage), the Blok VL. After 

a mid-course correction on 29 July 1967, Venera 4 

approached Venus on 18 October. About 2 hours 

before arrival at Venus, at a distance of 45,000 kilometers, on command from Earth, the spacecraft 

was properly oriented for entry. The bus released 

the lander at 04:34 UT, and the latter entered the 

Venusian atmosphere at a velocity of 11 kilometers/

second. The bus returned data for some time before 

being destroyed in the atmosphere. The lander, 

meanwhile experienced as much as 300 g’s and 

reduced its speed to 210 meters/second at which 

point the parachute system was deployed. Simultaneously, the lander began to transmit information 

back to Earth. Because the altimeter was designed 

to record pressures only up to 7.3 atmospheres, it 

went off-scale rather quickly. Temperature measurements (from 33°C to 262°C) continued to 

come back for 93 minutes as the probe slowly 

descended through the atmosphere. Initially, Soviet 

scientists believed that the probe transmitted until 

contact with the surface, announcing that “a calculation of the rate of descent of the station until 

termination of transmission of data indicates that 

it continued transmitting until it actually touched 

the surface of the planet.” Later analysis of data 

showed that transmissions ceased at an altitude of 

28 kilometers when the high atmospheric pressure 

and temperatures damaged the probe. The inert 

probe impacted the surface near 19° N / 36° E. The 

data implied that surface temperatures and pressure were 500°C and 75 atmospheres respectively. 

Venera 4’s gas analyzers also found that the planet’s atmosphere was composed of 90–95% carbon 

dioxide (with a sensitivity of ±7%) with no nitrogen, which had previously been assumed would 

constitute most of the atmosphere. Data from the 

ionizing densitometer showed that cloud cover in 

the Venusian atmosphere exists at altitudes below 

52 kilometers with the lower boundary at roughly 

35 kilometers. The spacecraft bus measured the 

planet’s weak magnetic field and found no ring of 

radiation belts. It detected a very weak atmosphere 

of atomic hydrogen about 9,900 kilometers above 

the planet. Noteworthy was Venera 4’s detection 

of the planet’s bow shock, identified a day before 

by Mariner V (and later confirmed by Venera 5). 

The mission’s importance was underscored when 

NASA Administrator James E. Webb (1906–1992) 

issued a statement on 18 October 1967, noting 

that the landing “represents an accomplishment 

any nation can be proud of.” Researchers at NASA 

Ames Research Center were particularly interested 

in data from Venera 4, especially the effect of planetary atmosphere on the propagation of radio signals 

from the spacecraft, in anticipation of future NASA 

missions to Venus.
70 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

83

Mariner V

Nation: USA (36)

Objective(s): Venus flyby

Spacecraft: Mariner-67E / Mariner-E

Spacecraft Mass: 244.9 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Agena D (Atlas Agena D 

no. 23 / Atlas D no. 5401 / Agena D no. 

AD157/6933)

Launch Date and Time: 14 June 1967 / 06:01:00 UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 12

Scientific Instruments:

1. ultraviolet photometer

2. S-band occultation experiment

3. dual frequency occultation experiment

4. solar plasma probe

5. magnetometer

6. trapped radiation detector

7. celestial mechanics experiment

Results: In December 1965, NASA approved a project to modify the Mariner IV backup spacecraft 

to conduct a closer flyby of Venus than the only 

other NASA probe to fly past Venus, Mariner II. 

The primary goal of the mission was to conduct a 

radio-occultation experiment (much like Mariner 

IV at Mars) to determine atmospheric properties 

of Venus. Unlike Mariner IV, however, Mariner 

V did not carry an imaging instrument. Initially, 

NASA had planned to send Mariner V on a flyby at 

a miss distance of 8,165 kilometers to the surface, 

but the Agency altered its plan in favor of a more 

modest 75,000-kilometer flyby in order to preclude 

the non-sterilized vehicle from crashing into the 

planet. After a mid-course correction on 19 June, 

Mariner V began transmitting data on Venus on 

19 October during its encounter. Closest approach 

was at 17:34:56 UT at a range of 4,094 kilometers, much closer than expected due to the course 

correction. Mariner V found that although Venus 

does not have a magnetic field, the dense daylight 

ionosphere produces a bow shock that deflects 

the solar wind around the planet. The ultraviolet 

photometer detected a hydrogen corona (as found 

by the Soviet Venera 4) but no oxygen emission. 

Mariner V’s instruments indicated that the planet’s 

surface temperature and pressure were 527°C and 

75 to 100 atmospheres, respectively—which countered the Soviet claim that its Venera 4 spacecraft 

had managed to transmit from the planet’s surface. 

The encounter with Venus deflected the spacecraft 

towards the Sun, and Mariner V entered solar orbit 

with parameters ranging from 0.579 AU and 0.735 

AU. On 4 December 1967, NASA lost contact with 

the spacecraft although controllers briefly regained 

contact on 14 October 1968. The spacecraft did 

not transmit any further telemetry and NASA eventually stopped attempts (on 5 November 1968) to 

communicate with the vehicle, now in heliocentric 

orbit. Planetary scientists reviewed data from both 

Mariner V and the Soviet Venera 4 at a conference 

at Kitt Peak National Observatory in March 1968, 

one of the first major international meetings to discuss the results of planetary exploration. Scientists 

concluded that neither Mariner V or Venera 4 had 

been entirely successful in communicating data 

about conditions at the planet’s surface.

84

Kosmos 167 [Venera]

Nation: USSR (48)

Objective(s): Venus impact

Spacecraft: V-67 (1V no. 311)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 1,100 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Molniya-M + Blok VL (8K78M no. 

Ya716-71, also Ya15000-71)

Launch Date and Time: 17 June 1967 / 02:36:38 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5
1967 71

Scientific Instruments:

Lander:

1. MDDA altimeter

2. G-8 and G-10 gas analyzers

3. TPV densitometer and thermometer

4. barometer

Bus:

1. SG-59M triaxial magnetometer

2. 4 ion traps

3. STS-5 gas discharge counter

4. radiation detectors

5. SBT-9 gas discharge counter

6. KS-18-2M cosmic ray particle counters

7. LA-2 spectrometer

Results: This identical twin craft to Venera 4 

failed to leave Earth orbit when its Blok VL 

trans-interplanetary stage failed to fire, because 

the engine’s turbopump had not been cooled prior 

to ignition. The spacecraft remained stranded in 

Earth orbit and reentered on 25 June 1967.

85

Surveyor IV

Nation: USA (37)

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing

Spacecraft: Surveyor-D

Spacecraft Mass: 1,037.4 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Centaur (AC-11 / Atlas D no. 

291 / Centaur D)

Launch Date and Time: 14 July 1967 / 11:53:29 UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 36A

Scientific Instruments:

1. TV camera

2. surface sampler

Results: Like Surveyor III, Surveyor IV was equipped 

with a surface claw (with a magnet in the claw) to 

detect and measure ferrous elements in the lunar 

surface. The mission appeared successful until 

all communications were abruptly lost 2 seconds 

prior to retro-rocket cutoff at 02:03 UT on 17 July 

1967 just two-and-a-half minutes before landing 

on the Moon. The landing target was Sinus Medii 

(Central Bay) at 0.4° N / 1.33° W. NASA believed 

that the solid propellant retro-rocket might have 

exploded, destroying the vehicle.

86

Explorer XXXV / Anchored 

International Monitoring Platform 6

Nation: USA (38)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: AIMP-E

Spacecraft Mass: 104.3 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / GSFC

Launch Vehicle: Thor Delta E-1 (Thor Delta E-1 no. 

50 / Thor no. 488/DSV-3E)

Launch Date and Time: 19 July 1967 / 14:19:02 UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 17B

Scientific Instruments:

1. magnetometers

2. thermal ion detector

3. ion chambers and Geiger tubes

4. Geiger tubes and p-on-n junction

5. micrometeoroid detector

6. Faraday cup

Results: Explorer XXXV (35) also known as the 

Anchored Interplanetary Monitoring Platform 

(AIMP-E or AIMP-6) was designed to study interplanetary space phenomena, particularly the solar 

wind, the interplanetary magnetic field, dust distribution near the Moon, the lunar gravitational 

field, the weak lunar ionosphere, and the radiation 

environment. The spacecraft left Earth on a direct 

ascent trajectory and entered lunar orbit on 21 July 

1967 after a 23-second burn. The main engine separated 2 hours later, the spacecraft having entered 

an initial elliptical orbit of 800 × 7,692 kilometers at 147° inclination. The spacecraft, similar to 

Explorer XXXIII, which had failed to achieve lunar 

orbit, found that the Moon has no magnetosphere, 

that solar wind particles impact directly onto the 
72 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

surface, and that the Moon creates a “cavity” in 

the solar wind stream. After six years of successful 

operation, the satellite was turned off on 24 June 

1973. The lunar satellite later impacted on the 

surface, although the precise location remains 

unknown. Explorer XXXV was launched by the fiftieth Thor Delta booster, of which only three had 

failed to date, giving it a success rating of 94%.

87

Lunar Orbiter V

Nation: USA (39)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: LO-E (Spacecraft 3)

Spacecraft Mass: 385.6 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / LaRC

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Agena D (Atlas Agena D 

no. 24 / Atlas D no. 5805 / Agena D no. 

AD159/6634)

Launch Date and Time: 1 August 1967 / 22:33:00 UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 13

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging system

2. micrometeoroid detectors

3. radiation dosimeters

Results: Lunar Orbiter V was the last in a series 

of highly successful missions to map the Moon 

for potential landing sites and conduct general 

observational surveys. This last mission’s objectives were both photographic (the primary mission) and non-photographic (the secondary). The 

former involved taking additional pictures of Apollo 

sites, broad surveys of unphotographed areas of the 

farside, imaging the Surveyor landing sites, and 

photographic areas of scientific value. The secondary goals included acquisition of precise trajectory information for improving the definition of 

the lunar gravitational field, measurement of the 

micrometeoroid flux and radiation dose in the lunar 

environment, and helping to prepare the Manned 

Space Flight Network for the Apollo missions. 

After a single mid-course correction on 3 August, 

Lunar Orbiter V entered lunar polar orbit two days 

later after an engine firing at 16:48 UT that lasted 8 

minutes, 28 seconds. Initial orbital parameters were 

194.5 × 6,023 kilometers at 85.01° inclination. 

The orbital period was 8.5 hours. Lunar Orbiter 

V began its photography mission at 01:22 UT on 

7 August before executing a maneuver to bring it to 

its operational orbit at 100 × 6,023 kilometers. The 

spacecraft photographed 36 different areas on the 

near side and mapped most of the farside via a set 

of 212 frames until the photography mission ended 

on 18 August. These included five potential Apollo 

landing sites, 36 science sites, and 23 previously 

unphotographed areas of the farside, as well possible targets for future Surveyor missions. Controllers also extensively used the spacecraft to map the 

Moon’s gravitational field in order to predict orbital 

perturbations on future lunar orbital missions. 

The probe also obtained a spectacular high-quality 

photo of Earth showing Africa, the Middle East, 

and parts of Africa at 09:05 UT on 8 August 1967. 

A further orbital change on 9 August brought the 

orbit down to 1,499.37 × 98.93 kilometers at 84.76° 

inclination. Lunar Orbiter V was commanded to 

impact on the lunar surface on 31 January 1968, 

which it did at 0° N / 70° W. In total, the five Lunar 

Orbiters photographed 99% of the lunar surface. 

Perhaps the most important finding credited to 

data from the Lunar Orbiters (and Lunar Orbiter V, 

in particular) is the discovery of “mascons” or lunar 

mass concentrations under the lunar ringed maria, 

first published by JPL researchers P.  M. Muller 

and W. L. Sjogren in mid-1968.

88

Surveyor V

Nation: USA (40)

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing

Spacecraft: Surveyor-E

Spacecraft Mass: 1,006 kg
1967 73

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Centaur (AC-13 / Atlas 3C no. 

5901C / Centaur D-1A)

Launch Date and Time: 8 September 1967 / 07:57:01 UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 36B

Scientific Instruments:

1. TV camera

2. alpha-scattering instrument

3. footpad magnet

Results: Surveyor V was similar to its predecessor 

but the surface sampler from the earlier vehicle 

was replaced by an alpha-backscatter instrument 

to determine the relative abundance of the chemical elements in lunar material. In addition, a small 

bar magnet was installed on one of the lander’s 

footpads to indicate whether the lunar soil had 

magnetic properties. Overcoming a near-fatal 

helium leak in a pressure regulator, engineers 

from JPL and Hughes Aircraft Company (the 

prime contractor for the spacecraft) expertly managed to safely land Surveyor V on the surface of 

the Moon in the south-eastern region of Mare 

Tranquilitatis at 1.42° N / 23.20° E at 00:46:42 

UT on 11 September 1967. The malfunction put 

the lander about 29 kilometers away from its target 

in an angular incline within the slope of rimless 

crater. Surveyor V was, however, the most successful of the series so far. The lander returned 

18,006 photos before lunar night descended on 

24  September. Controllers successfully commanded the vehicle to take a further 1,000 photographs during the second lunar day between 15 

and 24 October 1967 and the fourth lunar day in 

December. In total, 20,018 pictures were transmitted. In a new experiment, on 13 September 

controllers fired the main engine for 0.55 seconds 

to examine the effects of disturbing the lunar surface. NASA announced that no new craters were 

created, nor was there any significant dust cloud 

due to the firing. The alpha-scattering instrument 

had earlier been activated and found the soil to be 

composed of more than half oxygen with various 

amounts of silicon and aluminum. Contact was 

lost with the lander on 16 December 1967.

89

[Zond, 7K-L1 no. 4L]

Nation: USSR (49)

Objective(s): circumlunar flight

Spacecraft: 7K-L1 (no. 4L)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,375 kg

Mission Design and Management: TsKBEM

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D (8K82K no. 

229-01 / 11S824 no. 12L)

Launch Date and Time: 27 September 1967 / 22:11:54 

UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/23

Scientific Instruments: [unknown]

Results: This spacecraft, a 7K-L1 type, was the first 

of a series of spacecraft that the Soviets tried to 

send on circumlunar missions as part of a larger 

project to send two cosmonauts around the Moon. 

The program, which was officially approved in 

October 1965, involved combining forces between 

two of the leading space organizations in the Soviet 

Union, those headed by Vasiliy Mishin (1917–

2001) (who provided the 7K-L1 spaceship and the 

Blok D translunar injection stage) and Vladimir 

Chelomey (1914–1984) (who provided the 3-stage 

Proton-K launch vehicle). The 7K-L1 spacecraft 

was a stripped-down version of the larger 7K-OK 

Soyuz spacecraft intended for Earth-orbital operations. The proximate goal was to send two cosmonauts around the Moon by the fiftieth anniversary 

of the Bolshevik Revolution, in November 1967. 

The project moved into a new stage with two technological flights in Earth orbit in March and April 

1967, which involved high-speed reentries. During 

this particular launch, the ascent was steady for 

61 seconds before diverting from a nominal path, 

which activated the emergency rescue system into 

action. The 7K-LI descent module immediately 

separated from the wandering launch vehicle, 

and although the capsule was destabilized at the 

moment of separation because of an unexpected 

pressure shock, it landed safely in one piece not far 
74 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

from wreckage of the booster which was destroyed 

at T+97.4 seconds.

90

Surveyor VI

Nation: USA (41)

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing

Spacecraft: Surveyor-F

Spacecraft Mass: 1,008.3 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Centaur (AC-14 / Atlas 3C no. 

5902C / Centaur D-1A)

Launch Date and Time: 7 November 1967 / 07:39:01 

UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 36B

Scientific Instruments:

1. TV camera

2. alpha-scattering instrument

3. footpad magnets

Results: Surveyor VI landed safely on the Moon at 

01:01:04 UT on 10 November 1967 in the Sinus 

Medii (Central Bay) at coordinates announced as 

0.46° N / 1.37° W (but probably closer to 0.473° N / 

1.427° W). The spacecraft returned 29,952 images 

of the lunar surface during less than two weeks 

of operation before the onset of lunar night on 

24 November, because of which the spacecraft 

was placed in hibernation mode on 26 November. 

During its initial operations, the alpha-scattering 

instrument acquired about 30 hours of data on 

the chemical composition of the lunar surface. 

Although controllers regained contact briefly on 

14  December 1967, primary landing operations 

had ceased by this time. Before termination of 

operations, on 17 November 1967, Surveyor VI 

was commanded to fire its three main liquid propellant thrusters for 2.5 seconds. As a result, the 

lander became the first spacecraft to be launched 

from the lunar surface. Surveyor VI lifted up to 

about three meters before landing two-and-a-half 

meters west of its original landing point. Cameras 

then studied the original landing footprints in order 

to determine the soil’s mechanical properties and 

also accomplish some stereo imaging, now that the 

source point had been displaced. Surveyor VI also 

sent back pictures of the bar magnet at the footpad 

allowing investigators to determine the concentration of magnetic material in the lunar surface.

91

[Zond, 7K-L1 no. 5L]

Nation: USSR (50)

Objective(s): circumlunar flight

Spacecraft: 7K-L1 (no. 5L)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,375 kg

Mission Design and Management: TsKBEM

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D (8K82K no. 

230-01 / 11S824 no. 13L)

Launch Date and Time: 22 November 1967 / 19:07:59 

UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/24

Scientific Instruments: [unknown]

Results: This was the second Soviet attempt at a 

robotic circumlunar mission as part of a larger project to send cosmonauts around the Moon. On this 

launch, one of the four second stage engines of the 

Proton-K rocket failed to ignite at T+125.5 seconds 

due to a break in the engine nozzle. The wayward 

booster was then destroyed on command from the 

ground at T+129.9 seconds. Once again, the emergency rescue system was activated, shooting the 

7K-L1 descent module away from the rocket. The 

capsule landed by parachute about 80 kilometers 

southwest of the town of Dzhezkazgan. The actual 

impact was a hard one because of a spurious command from the altimeter which fired the capsule’s 

soft-landing engines at an altitude of 4.5 kilometers 

instead of a few meters above the ground.
1967 75

92

Pioneer VIII

Nation: USA (42)

Objective(s): heliocentric orbit

Spacecraft: Pioneer-C

Spacecraft Mass: 65.36 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA ARC

Launch Vehicle: Thrust-Augmented Thor-Delta 

(Thor Delta E-1 no. 55 / Thor no. 489 / 

DSV-3E)

Launch Date and Time: 13 December 1967 / 14:08 UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 17B

Scientific Instruments:

1. single-axis fluxgate magnetometer

2. plasma analyzer

3. cosmic ray telescope

4. radio-wave propagation experiment

5. cosmic ray gradient detector

6. electric field detector

7. cosmic dust detector

8. celestial mechanics experiment

Results: Pioneer VIII, like its two predecessors, was 

sent into heliocentric orbit to study interplanetary 

space, particularly to carry collect information on 

magnetic fields, plasma, and cosmic rays for two 

or more passages of solar activity. Although the 

spacecraft carried a different complement of scientific instruments than Pioneers VI and VII, its 

findings were correlated with the other two probes. 

The spacecraft was launched into a path ahead 

of Earth to provide the vehicle with added velocity in solar orbit to move out beyond Earth’s orbit 

at 1.0080 × 0.9892. AU. Pioneer VIII arrived at 

Earth’s magnetospheric bounds at 19:00 UT on 

15 December 1967. Later, on 18 January 1968, the 

probe, the Sun, and Earth were perfectly aligned 

to allow investigation of Earth’s magnetic tail in 

detail, first performed by Pioneer VII in 1968. 

Already by June 1968, data from the probe led 

scientists to speculate that Earth’s magnetic tail 

might be shorter than the 320 million kilometers 

suggested by theoretical calculations. In August of 

the same year, NASA scientists at the Deep Space 

Network (DSN) announced that they had managed to quadruple the distance over which signals 

from the three solar Pioneers so far launched could 

be heard. These improvements were enabled by 

changes in the DSN receivers. In October 1982, 

Pioneers VIII and IX came within 2.4 million kilometers of each other, an “encounter” used to recalibrate Pioneer VIII’s damaged plasma instrument. 

Controllers intermittently maintained contact 

with the spacecraft for nearly 30 years although 

only one instrument, the electric field detector, 

remained operational past 1982. During tracking 

on 23 July 1995, NASA was unable to switch on 

Pioneer VIII’s transmitter, probably because the 

spacecraft was too far away from the Sun to charge 

the solar panels. On 22 August 1996, contact was 

reacquired via a backup transmitter. Although 

there were no further plans to contact the spacecraft, the on-board electric field detector remained 

at least hypothetically functional in 2015, nearly 

48 years after launch. The original launch vehicle 

also carried a second payload, the Tts I (Test and 

Training Satellite I, later renamed Tetr I), fixed to 

the second stage, which was successfully ejected 

after the third stage finished firing, and entered an 

Earth orbit of 488 × 301 kilometers at 33° inclination. It reentered on 14 May 1968.

77

1968

93

Surveyor VII

Nation: USA (43)

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing

Spacecraft: Surveyor-G

Spacecraft Mass: 1,040.1 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Centaur (AC-15 / Atlas 3C no. 

5903C / Centaur D-1A)

Launch Date and Time: 7 January 1968 / 06:30:00 UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 36A

Scientific Instruments:

1. TV camera

2. alpha-scattering instrument

3. surface sampler

4. footpad magnets

5. stereoscopic and dust detection mirrors

Results: Since Surveyors I, III, V, and VI successfully 

fulfilled requirements in support of Apollo, NASA 

opted to use the last remaining Surveyor for a purely 

scientific mission outside of a potential landing 

site for the early Apollo flights. After an uneventful 

coast to the Moon (including one of two planned 

mid-course corrections), Surveyor VII successfully 

set down at 01:05:36.3 UT on 10 January 1968 on 

the ejecta blanket emanating from the bright Tycho 

crater in the south of the nearside. Landing coordinates were 40.97° S / 11.44° W, about 29 kilometers north of Tycho’s rim, and 2.4 kilometers from 

its target. Initial photos from the surface showed 

surprisingly few craters, much like the mare sites, 

although the general area was rougher. About 21 

hours after landing, ground controllers fired pyrotechnic charges to drop the alpha-scattering instrument on the lunar surface. When the instrument 

failed to move beyond an intermediate position, 

controllers used the surface sampler (robot arm) to 

force it down. The sampler was then used to pick 

up the alpha-scattering instrument after its first 

chemical analysis and move it to two additional 

locations. About 66 hours of alpha-scattering data 

were obtained during the first lunar day on three 

samples: the undisturbed lunar surface, a Moon 

rock, and an area dug up by the surface sampler. 

The alpha-scattering instrument collected 34 more 

hours of data during the second lunar day. The 

scoop on the sampler’s arm was used numerous 

times for picking up soil and digging trenches, and 

for conducting at least 16 surface-bearing tests. 

Apart from taking 21,274 photographs (20,993 

on the first lunar day and 45 during the second), 

Surveyor VII also served as a target for Earthbased lasers (of 1 watt power) to accurately measure the distance between Earth and the Moon. 

Communications were paused with Surveyor VII 

at 14:12 UT on 26 January 1968, about 80 hours 

after sunset. Second lunar day operations began at 

19:01 UT on 12 February 1968, and extended to 

00:24 UT on 21 February effectively ending the 

mission. In total, the five successful Surveyors 

returned more than 87,000 photos of the lunar surface and operated for about 17 months total on the 

lunar surface, and most important, demonstrated 

the feasibility of soft-landing a spacecraft on the 

lunar surface. Originally planned as a 7-spacecraft 

series, in 1963, NASA added 3 more missions 

(Surveyors H, I, and J) for a total of 10 missions. 

These later Surveyors, each weighing 1,134 kilograms (as opposed to the 998-kilogram model), 

were, however, canceled in December 1966 based 

on the successful results of the Ranger missions, 

Lunar Orbiters, and Surveyors already launched 

by then.
78 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

94

[Luna, Ye-6LS no. 112]

Nation: USSR (51)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: Ye-6LS (no. 112)

Spacecraft Mass: 1,640 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Molniya-M + Blok L (8K78M no. 

Ya716-57, also Ya15000-57)

Launch Date and Time: 7 February 1968 / 10:43:54 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

1. SL-2 radiometer

2. IK-2 dosimeter

Results: During launch to Earth orbit, the third stage 

(Blok I) engine cut off prematurely at T+524.6 seconds because of an excessive propellant consumption rate via the gas generator. The spacecraft never 

reached Earth orbit. The goal of the mission was 

to test communications systems in support of the 

N1-L3 human lunar landing program. (For more 

details, see Kosmos 159 on p. 67).

95

Zond 4

Nation: USSR (52)

Objective(s): deep space mission

Spacecraft: 7K-L1 (no. 6L)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,375 kg

Mission Design and Management: TsKBEM

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D (8K82K no. 

231-01 + 11S824 no. 14L)

Launch Date and Time: 2 March 1968 / 18:29:23 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/23

Scientific Instruments: [unknown]

Results: The Soviets decided to send this next 

7K-L1 spacecraft not on a circumlunar flight, but 

to about 330,000 kilometers into deep space in 

the opposite direction of the Moon in order to test 

the main spacecraft systems without the perturbing effects of the Moon, much like the Surveyor 

model test flights in 1965–1966. After returning 

from its high apogee, the spacecraft would carry 

out a high-speed reentry into Earth’s atmosphere 

and be recovered and investigated for the effects of 

reentry. After launch into Earth orbit, at T+71 minutes and 56 seconds, the Blok D upper stage fired 

a second time (for 459 seconds) to send the 7K-L1 

on a highly elliptical Earth orbit with an apogee of 

354,000 kilometers. The Soviet news agency TASS 

publicly named the spacecraft “Zond 4,” thus connecting the mission with a series of completely 

unrelated deep space probes—a typically obfuscating maneuver from the Soviet media. Controllers 

were unable to carry out a mid-course correction at 

04:53 UT on 4 March when a star sensor (the 100K) 

of the attitude control system failed. A second 

attempt also failed the following day and the main 

omni-directional antenna also did not deploy fully, 

compromising communications. A third attempt at 

a correction proved successful, by using a special 

filter on the sensor to read signals accurately. After 

the spacecraft separated into its two constituent 

parts, however, the descent module was unable to 

maintain a stable and proper attitude for a guided 

reentry, instead moving into a ballistic reentry trajectory, entering the atmosphere at 18:18:58 UT on 

9 March. A crew on board would have experienced 

about 20 g’s but probably would have survived. 

However, because the descent module was falling 

into an unanticipated area, to prevent “foreign” 

observers from recovering the wayward spacecraft, 

an automatic emergency destruct system destroyed 

the returning capsule at an altitude of 10–15 kilometers over the Gulf of Guinea. For some years, 

the official Soviet press claimed that Zond 4 had 

entered heliocentric orbit.
1968 79

96

Luna 14

Nation: USSR (53)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: Ye-6LS (no. 113)

Spacecraft Mass: 1,640 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Molniya-M + Blok L (8K78M no. 

Ya716-58, also Ya15000-58)

Launch Date and Time: 7 April 1968 / 10:09:32 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

1. SL-2 radiometer

2. IK-2 dosimeter

Results: Luna 14 successfully entered lunar orbit at 

1925 UT on 10 April 1968. Initial orbital parameters were 160 × 270 kilometers at 42° inclination. 

The primary goal of the flight, like its predecessors 

(Kosmos 159 and the launch failure in February 

1968), was to test communications systems in support of the N1-L3 piloted lunar landing project. In 

addition, ground tracking of the spacecraft’s orbit 

allowed controllers to accurately map lunar gravitational anomalies to predict future trajectories of 

future lunar missions such as those of the LOK and 

LK lunar landing vehicles. Luna 14 also carried scientific instruments to measure radiation near the 

Moon, a “tissue dosimeter for studying doses of 

ionizing radiation,” as well as technical elements 

of the future Ye-8 lunar rover, in particular, the 

R-1-I, R-1-II, and R-1-III gear pairs (both steel and 

ceramic), various types of ball bearings with lubrication to test drives, and the M-1 drive shaft. The 

mission was slated to last 30 days but spanned 75 

days; the entire program was fulfilled as planned, 

and allowed designers to make the final selection 

for elements of the Ye-8 lunar rover chassis.

97

[Zond, 7K-L1 no. 7L]

Nation: USSR (54)

Objective(s): circumlunar flight

Spacecraft: 7K-L1 (no. 7L)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,375 kg

Mission Design and Management: TsKBEM

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D (8K82K no. 

232-01 + 11S824 no. 15L)

Launch Date and Time: 22 April 1968 / 23:01:27 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/24

Scientific Instruments: [unknown]

Results: During this third attempt at a circumlunar 

mission, the Proton rocket’s second stage engine 

spuriously shut down at T+194.64 seconds due 

to a false signal from the payload which had erroneously detected a problem in the launch vehicle. 

The emergency rescue system was activated and 

the 7K-L1 capsule was later successfully recovered about 520 kilometers from the launch pad, 

approximately 110 kilometers east of the town of 

Dzhezkazgan in Kazakhstan.

98

Zond 5

Nation: USSR (55)

Objective(s): circumlunar flight

Spacecraft: 7K-L1 (no. 9L)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,375 kg

Mission Design and Management: TsKBEM

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D (8K82K no. 

234-01 + 11S824 no. 17L)

Launch Date and Time: 14 September 1968 / 21:42:11 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/23

Scientific Instruments:

1. biological payload

2. radiation detectors

3. imaging system
80 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

Results: After three failures, the Soviets tried again 

to accomplish a robotic circumlunar mission. 

Besides a complement of sensors to monitor its 

basic systems and cameras, the spacecraft also carried a large biological payload: two Steppe tortoises 

(Testudo horsfieldi or the Horsfield’s tortoise), each 

with a mass of 0.34 to 0.40 kilograms, hundreds 

of Drosophila eggs of the Domodedovo-32 line; airdried cells of wheat, barley, peas, carrots, and tomatoes; a flowering plant of Tradescantia paludosa, 

three different strains of chlorella, and a culture 

of lysogenic bacteria. The tortoises, each 6–7 years 

old and weighing 340–400 grams, were part of a 

group of eight, with the other six serving as controls 

on the ground. The two flight tortoises were placed 

in the Zond 6 spacecraft on September 2, 12 days 

before launch. From that moment on, they (and 

two of the control group) were deprived of food to 

ensure that the only effect on them was due to the 

space mission. The ascent to orbit was perfect: the 

7K-L1 spacecraft + Blok D combination successfully entered a 191 × 219-kilometer Earth orbit. 

About 67 minutes after launch, the Blok D fired 

again for lunar injection, after which the Soviet 

press announced the mission as “Zond 5.” Once 

again, the 100K star sensor of the spacecraft’s attitude control system failed (due to contamination 

of its exposed surface). Controllers, however, managed to carry out a mid-course correction at 03:11 

UT on 17 September using the less accurate solar 

and Earth-directed sensors. At the time, Zond 5 was 

325,000 kilometers from Earth. The spacecraft successfully circled around the farside of the Moon at a 

range of 1,950 kilometers on 18 September, taking 

spectacular high-resolution photos of the Moon 

and Earth. On the return leg of the flight, a second 

attitude control sensor (the 101K that used Earth 

for attitude control reference) failed and the spacecraft’s three-axis stabilization platform switched off 

the guided reentry system. As a result, controllers 

were forced to maintain reentry attitude using the 

one remaining sensor (the 99K that used the Sun); 

they alternately fired two attitude control jets on 

each side of the vehicle to swing the spacecraft 

into the proper reentry corridor for a direct ballistic 

reentry into the backup target area in the Indian 

Ocean. Zond 5’s descent module successfully 

splashed down in the Indian Ocean at 32° 38′ S / 

65° 33′ E, about 105 kilometers from the nearest Soviet tracking ship. Landing time was 16:08 

UT on 21 September, making it a mission lasting 

6 days, 18 hours, and 24 minutes. It was the first 

successful circumlunar mission carried out by any 

nation. The tortoises survived the trip and arrived 

back in Moscow on 7 October. The results of dissection, performed on 11 October after “a 39-day 

fast,” showed that “the main structural changes in 

the tortoises were caused by starvation” rather than 

flight to lunar distance or the subsequent travel 

back from the Indian Ocean to Moscow.

99

Pioneer IX

Nation: USA (44)

Objective(s): solar orbit

Spacecraft: Pioneer-D

Spacecraft Mass: 65.36 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / ARC

Launch Vehicle: Thrust-Augmented Improved ThorDelta (Thor Delta E-1 no. 60 / Thor no. 479 / 

DSV-3E)

Launch Date and Time: 8 November 1968 / 09:46:29 

UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 17B

Scientific Instruments:

1. triaxial fluxgate magnetometer

2. plasma analyzer

3. cosmic ray-anesotropy detector

4. cosmic ray gradient detector

5. radio wave propagation experiment

6. electric field detector

7. cosmic dust detector

8. celestial mechanics experiment
1968 81

Results: Pioneer IX was the fourth in a series of five 

probes designed to collect data on electromagnetic 

and plasma properties of interplanetary space from 

widely separated points in heliocentric orbit over 

at least six passages of solar activity centers. In its 

297.55-day orbit at 0.75 × 0.99 AU, the cylindrical, spin-stabilized spacecraft obtained valuable 

data on the properties of the solar wind, cosmic 

rays, and interplanetary magnetic fields. The Delta 

launch vehicle also carried the Test and Training 

Satellite known as Tetr II (TETR-B) which was 

put into Earth orbit to test ground-based communications systems in support of the Apollo program. By May 1969, NASA announced that the 

mission had already achieved all its objectives, 

having transmitted more than 6 billion bits of data. 

NASA maintained contact with Pioneer IX until 

19 May 1983. Subsequent attempts to use Search 

for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) equipment 

to establish contact with the probe on 3 March 

1987 failed, and the Agency officially declared the 

spacecraft inactive.

100

Zond 6

Nation: USSR (56)

Objective(s): circumlunar flight

Spacecraft: 7K-L1 (no. 12L)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,375 kg

Mission Design and Management: TsKBEM

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D (8K82K no. 

235-01 / 11S824 no. 19L)

Launch Date and Time: 10 November 1968 / 19:11:31 

UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/23

Scientific Instruments:

1. biological payload

2. radiation detectors

3. imaging system

4. photo-emulsion camera

5. micrometeoroid detector

Results: Zond 6 was the second spacecraft that the 

Soviets sent around the Moon as part of the human 

circumlunar program. Soon after trans-lunar injection, which happened at 20:18:30 UT on launch 

day, ground controllers discovered that the vehicle’s high-gain antenna had failed to deploy. Given 

that the main attitude control sensor was installed 

on the antenna boom, controllers had to make 

plans to use a backup sensor for further attitude 

control. After a mid-course correction at 05:41 UT 

on 12  November (at a distance of 246,000 kilometers), the spacecraft circled the farside of the 

Moon at a closest range of 2,420 kilometers, taking 

high resolution black-and-white photographs of the 

Moon at a range of 11,000 and 3,300 kilometers. 

During the return flight, temperatures in a hydrogen peroxide tank for the attitude control thrusters dropped far below acceptable levels. Engineers 

attempted to heat the tank by direct sunlight, but 

as they later discovered, such a procedure affected 

the weak pressurization seal of the main hatch and 

led to slow decompression of the main capsule, 

which would have undoubtedly killed a crew on 

board. Despite the failures, Zond 6 conducted two 

mid-course corrections (on 16 November at 06:40 

UT and 17 November at 05:36 UT), and then 

successfully carried out a fully automated guided 

reentry, requiring two successive “dips” into the 

atmosphere, each reducing velocity significantly 

(the first from 11.2 kilometers/second to 7.6 kilometers/second, and the second down to just 200 

meters/second) and headed for the primary landing zone in Kazakhstan. Each of the “dips” was 

automatically and expertly controlled by attitude 

control jets to vary roll control so as to provide lift 

and reduce g-loads. The Zond 6 descent module 

experienced a maximum of only 4 to 7 g’s. After the 

successful reentry, a gamma-ray altimeter, detecting the now practically depressurized spacecraft 

(with pressure down to only 25 millibars), issued 

a command to jettison the main parachute at an 

altitude of about 5.3 kilometers instead of much 

lower. As a result, the spacecraft plummeted down 

to the ground and was destroyed, with impact 
82 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

at 14:10  UT, just 16 kilometers from where the 

spacecraft had been launched 6 days and 19 

hours previously. Although the main biological 

payload—unspecified by the Soviets—was killed, 

rescuers salvaged film from the cameras and even 

managed to scavenge seedlings carried on board.
83

1969

101

Venera 5

Nation: USSR (57)

Objective(s): Venus landing

Spacecraft: V-69 (2V no. 330)

Spacecraft Mass: 1,130 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Molniya-M + Blok VL (8K78M no. 

V716-72, also V15000-72)

Launch Date and Time: 5 January 1969 / 06:28:08 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

Lander:

1. radio altimeter

2. MDDA-A aneroid barometers

3. 11 G-8 and G-10 gas analyzer cartridges

4. FO-69 to measure luminosity

5. VIP to measure atmospheric density

6. IS-164D thermometers

Bus:

1. KS-18-3M cosmic ray particle counters

2. LA-2U spectrometer

Results: Venera 5 and 6 were two identical spacecraft designed to penetrate Venus’ atmosphere and 

transmit a variety of scientific data back to Earth 

during descent. Both spacecraft were targeted 

to reach Venus only a day apart, thus allowing 

some cross-calibration of data. The bus was basically similar in design to the Venera 4 bus but the 

410-kilogram lander had some significant alterations. Because of data from Venera 4, the new 

lander was designed to survive pressures as high 

as 25 atmospheres and temperatures as high as 

320°C. These changes forced a fairly significant 

increase in the structural strength of the lander, 

increasing its mass by 27 kilograms. This is why the 

mass of the spacecraft bus was reduced by 14 kilograms by removing the SG 59 magnetometer). The 

main and drogue parachutes were also reduced in 

size, thus reducing the time to descend to the surface. The new lander weighted 410 kilograms and 

was designed to endure g-loads as high as 450 (as 

compared to 300 for their predecessors). After performing 73 communications sessions with ground 

control and completing one mid-course correction 

on 14 March 1966, Venera 5 approached the dark 

side of Venus on 16 May 1969 and detached its 

lander whose speed reduced from 11.17 kilometers/second to 210 meters/second after it hit the 

Venusian atmosphere at 06:02 UT. One minute 

later, controllers reestablished contact with the 

lander and began receiving data on pressure, temperature, and composition (sampled at least twice 

during descent) of the Venusian atmosphere for 

52.5 minutes. Contact was lost at an altitude of 

about 18 kilometers when the pressure exceeded 

27 atmospheres; in other words, the probe probably cracked and became inert. Impact coordinates 

were 3° S / 18° E. Information extrapolated from 

Venera 5’s data suggested that ground temperature and pressure at the Venusian surface was 140 

atmospheres and 530°C, respectively.
84 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

102

Venera 6

Nation: USSR (58)

Objective(s): Venus landing

Spacecraft: V-69 (2V no. 331)

Spacecraft Mass: 1,130 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Molniya-M + Blok VL (8K78M no. 

V716-73, also V15000-73)

Launch Date and Time: 10 January 1969 / 05:51:52 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 1/5

Scientific Instruments:

Lander:

1. radio altimeter

2. MDDA-A aneroid barometers

3. 11 G-8 and G-10 gas analyzer cartridges

4. FO-69 to measure luminosity

5. VIP to measure atmospheric density

6. IS-164D thermometers

Bus:

1. KS-18-3M cosmic ray particle counters

2. LA-2U spectrometer

Results: Identical to Venera 5, Venera 6 reached 

Venus after performing 63 communications sessions with Earth and one mid-course correction 

at a range of 15.7 million kilometers from Earth 

on 16 March 1969. Its 405-kilogram lander separated from the main bus 25,000 kilometers from 

the planet and entered the Venusian atmosphere at 

a velocity of 11.17 kilometers/second at 06:05 UT 

on 17 May 1969. The Venera 6 capsule transmitted 

data for 51 minutes before contact was lost, probably at an altitude of about 18 kilometers. Pressure 

was 27 atmospheres at loss of contact, similar to 

that measured by Venera 5 at a much higher altitude indicating that Venera 6 may have come down 

over a mountain or high plateau. Landing coordinates were 5° S / 23° E. Results from the Venera 5 

and 6 missions, published by the Soviets in March 

1970, seemed to confirm and sharpen earlier findings from Venera 4, suggesting that the planetary 

atmosphere consisted of 97% carbon dioxide, <2% 

nitrogen, and <0.1% oxygen. Data from Venera 6 

suggested the ground pressure was about 60 atmospheres and ground temperature was about 400°C. 

This data compared with Venera 4’s readings which 

indicated pressure at 75 atmospheres and temperature at 500°C.

103

[Zond, 7K-L1 no. 13L]

Nation: USSR (59)

Objective(s): circumlunar flight

Spacecraft: 7K-L1 (no. 13L)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,375 kg

Mission Design and Management: TsKBEM

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D (8K82K no. 

237-01 + 11S824 no. 20L)

Launch Date and Time: 20 January 1969 / 04:14:36 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/23

Scientific Instruments: [unknown]

Results: This was the sixth attempt at a robotic circumlunar flight in support of the L1 piloted lunar 

program and the first after the resounding success 

of the American Apollo 7 in December 1968. The 

Proton launch vehicle lifted off on time and first 

stage operation was nominal. However, during 

second stage firing, one of the four engines of the 

stage spuriously switched off at T+313.66 seconds, 

about 25 seconds early. The other engines continued firing (and could have actually compensated 

for the loss of thrust), but subsequently, the primary third stage engine also switched off early 

during its firing sequence, at T+500.03 seconds, 

due to a breakdown in the main pipeline feeding 

fuel to the fuel gas generator. After a near-ballistic 

flight, the L1 payload landed (and was recovered) 

southeast of Irkutsk near the border between the 

USSR and Mongolia.
1969 85

104

[Luna, Ye-8 no. 201]

Nation: USSR (60)

Objective(s): lunar roving operations

Spacecraft: Ye-8 (no. 201)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,700 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D (8K82K no. 

239-01 + 11S824 no. 201L)

Launch Date and Time: 19 February 1969 / 06:48:48 

UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/24

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging system (two low-resolution TV + 

four high-resolution photometers)

2. x-ray spectrometer

3. penetrometer

4. laser reflector

5. radiation detectors

6. x-ray telescope

7. odometer/speedometer

Results: The Ye-8 represented the “third generation” 

of Soviet robotic lunar probes. The basic Ye-8 comprised a lander stage (the “KT”) topped off by an 

eight-wheeled remote-controlled lunar rover (the 

“8YeL”) for exploring the Moon’s surface. Essentially a pressurized magnesium alloy container on 

wheels, the 8YeL was designed to operate over a 

period of three lunar days (i.e., roughly three Earth 

months) and collect scientific data from various 

points on the lunar surface. This first attempt to 

put the rover on the Moon was a complete failure. 

At T+51.42 seconds, the payload stack disintegrated and the booster exploded at T+54 seconds. 

Debris landed about 15 kilometers from the launch 

site. Later investigation indicated that maximum 

dynamic pressure during the ascent trajectory tore 

the new and untested payload shroud off at its 

weakest tension points. Despite an intensive effort, 

searchers were unable to find the polonium-210 

radioactive isotope heat source in the rover. 

Unconfirmed rumors still abound that soldiers at 

the launch site used the isotope to heat their barracks during the bitter winter of 1968–1969.

105

[N1 launch test, 7K-L1S no. 2]

Nation: USSR (61)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: 7K-L1S (no. 2)

Spacecraft Mass: 6,900 kg

Mission Design and Management: TsKBEM

Launch Vehicle: N1 (no. 15003)

Launch Date and Time: 21 February 1969 / 09:18:07 

UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 110/38

Scientific Instruments: [unknown]

Results: This was the first attempted launch of the 

giant N1 booster as part of early test operations 

in the Soviet piloted lunar landing program. N1 

development began in 1962 after two years of initial R&D on heavy booster designs. Although the 

first launch had been originally planned for 1965, a 

major redesign of the booster in 1964 and financial 

and organizational difficulties delayed the launch 

by four years. The Soviet Communist Party and 

government officially sanctioned the human lunar 

landing program in August 1964, more than three 

years after President John F. Kennedy’s famous 

speech calling on the United States to land an 

American on the Moon before the end of the 

1960s. Development of both the N1 rocket and the 

L3 payload was plagued by many delays. On this 

first launch, the N1 carried a basic 7K-L1 spacecraft modified for operations in lunar orbit (rather 

than for circumlunar flight). Known as the 7K-L1S, 

the spacecraft was equipped with an Engine Orientation Complex (DOK) for attitude control in lunar 

orbit. The plan was for the spacecraft to carry out 

a short mission in lunar orbit (during which time it 

would have tried to photograph the Ye-8 rover on 
86 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

the surface, the one that had failed to reach orbit 

just two days earlier). During the launch of the 

N1, two first stage engines (of a total of 30 NK-15 

engines) shut down, but the remaining 28 engines 

operated for over a minute despite a growing fire at 

the base of the rocket. The rocket’s KORD control 

system effectively shut down all first state engines 

at T+70 seconds. The booster crashed about 50 

kilometers from the launch site and the payload 

successfully used its launch escape system to 

descend without problem 32–35 kilometers from 

the pad. Investigators believed that booster failed 

due when a pipe for measuring fuel pressure broke 

at T+ 23.3 seconds that set in motion a sequence 

of events that led to a huge fire at T+54.5 seconds 

in the tail of the first stage. The fire short-circuited 

the control system and shut down all the engines 

at T+70 seconds.

106

Mariner VI

Nation: USA (45)

Objective(s): Mars flyby

Spacecraft: Mariner-69F / Mariner-F

Spacecraft Mass: 381 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Centaur (AC-20 / Atlas 3C 

no. 5403C / Centaur D-1A)

Launch Date and Time: 25 February 1969 / 01:29:02 

UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 36B

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging system (two TV cameras)

2. infrared spectrometer

3. ultraviolet spectrometer

4. infrared radiometer

5. celestial mechanics experiment

6. S-band occultation experiment

7. conical radiometer

The trajectory design model shown above allowed 

Mariner mission planners in 1967 to illustrate the 

orientation of the planet and calculate the expected path of the Mariner VI and VII spacecraft, as well 

as the window of opportunity for the instruments 

and television cameras to operate during the flyby. 

Credit: NASA

Results: Mariner VI and VII, identical spacecraft 

intended to fly by Mars, were the first Mariner 

spacecraft launched by the Atlas Centaur, permitting a heavier instrument suite. Both spacecraft 

were intended to study the surface and atmosphere 

of Mars during close flybys (approximately 3,200 

kilometers) that would include a radio-occultation 

experiment. All onboard instrumentation was 

designed to collect data on Mars; there were no 

experiments for study of interplanetary space. The 

3.35-meter tall spacecraft was built around an 

eight-sided magnesium framework with four rectangular solar panels for 449 W power. The heart 

of the spacecraft was the 11.8-kilogram Control 

Computer and Sequencer (CC&S) computer 

which was designed to independently operate 

Mariner without intervention from ground control. 

After a mid-course correction on 28 February 1969 

and preliminary imaging sessions (50 photos) on 

28 July Mariner VI flew by Mars at 05:19:07 UT 

on 31 July at a distance of 3,429 kilometers. Just 

15 minutes prior to closest approach (south of the 

Martian equator), the two TV cameras on a scan 
1969 87

platform began taking photos of the planet automatically every 42 seconds. Mariner VI took 24 

near-encounter photos during a period of 17 minutes which were stored on a tape recorder and later 

transmitted back to Earth some 20 hours after the 

flyby at a rate of one frame every 5 minutes. The 

photos showed heavily cratered and chaotic areas 

not unlike parts of the Moon. Images of the south 

polar region showed intriguing detail of an irregular 

border. The scientific instruments indicated that 

the polar cap gave off infrared radiation consistent 

with solid carbon dioxide. Mariner VI found surface pressure to be equal to about 30.5 kilometers 

above Earth’s surface. Atmospheric composition 

was about 98% carbon dioxide. Surface temperatures ranged from –73°C at night to –125°C at 

the south polar cap. Mariner VI eventually entered 

heliocentric orbit (1.14 × 1.75 AU) and NASA 

continued to receive data from the vehicle until 

mid-1971.

107

[Mars, M-69 no. 521]

Nation: USSR (62)

Objective(s): Mars orbit

Spacecraft: M-69 (no. 521)

Spacecraft Mass: 4,850 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D (8K82K no. 

240-01 + 11S824 no. 521L)

Launch Date and Time: 27 March 1969 / 10:40:45 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/23

Scientific Instruments:

1. RA69 radiometer

2. IV1 instrument to measure water vapor 

levels

3. USZ ultraviolet spectrometer

4. UTV1 infrared Fourier spectrometer

5. KM69 cosmic ray detector

6. PL18M solar plasma spectrometer

7. RIP-803 low-energy spectrometer

8. GSZ gamma-ray spectrometer

9. UMR2M hydrogen/helium mass 

spectrometer

10. imaging system (3 cameras)

11. D-127 charged particle traps

Results: The M-69 series of Mars spacecraft was the 

first of a new generation of Mars probes designed 

by the Lavochkin design bureau for launch on the 

heavy Proton booster. Although the 1969 missions 

were originally meant for both Mars orbit and landing, weight constraints late in mission planning 

forced engineers to delete the lander and retain 

only the orbiter. These new probes were designed 

around a single large spherical tank to which three 

pressurized compartments were attached. After two 

en route mid-course corrections during a six-month 

flight to Mars, the spacecraft were intended to 

enter orbit around Mars at roughly 1,700 × 34,000 

kilometers at 40° inclination. After an initial photography mission, the probes would lower their pericenter to about 500–700 kilometers for a second 

imaging mission. Total mission lifetime would be 

about three months. During the launch of the first 

M-69, the Proton’s third stage stopped firing at 

T+438.46 seconds after its turbopump had caught 

on fire because of a faulty rotor bearing. The probe, 

scheduled to reach Mars orbit on 11  September 

1969, never even reached Earth orbit.

108

Mariner VII

Nation: USA (46)

Objective(s): Mars flyby

Spacecraft: Mariner-69G

Spacecraft Mass: 381 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Centaur (AC-19 / Atlas 3C no. 

5105C / Centaur D-1A)
88 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

Launch Date and Time: 27 March 1969 / 22:22:01 UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 36A

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging system (two TV cameras)

2. infrared spectrometer

3. ultraviolet spectrometer

4. infrared radiometer

5. celestial mechanics experiment

6. S-band occultation experiment

7. conical radiometer

Results: Identical to Mariner VI, Mariner VII had a 

similar mission of flying by Mars. After Mariner VI 

had returned intriguing photos of Mars’ south polar 

cap, controllers reprogrammed Mariner VII’s control system to increase the number of scans of the 

south pole for the second spacecraft from 25 to 33. 

After a perfect mid-course correction on the way 

to Mars on 8 April 1969, on 30 July, just 7 hours 

before its twin was scheduled to fly by Mars, the 

deep space tracking station at Johannesburg, South 

Africa, lost contact with the spacecraft’s high-gain 

antenna. One of two stations in Madrid, Spain was 

diverted from their original missions of tracking 

Pioneer VIII and joined the search for Mariner 

VII. Fortunately, the Pioneer station at Goldstone 

picked up faint signals from the spacecraft. Controllers sent commands to Mariner VII to switch 

to the low-gain antenna that worked well afterwards. Mission controllers later speculated that 

the spacecraft had been thrown out of alignment 

when struck by a micrometeoroid (although later 

speculations centered on the silver-zinc battery 

on board which might have exploded, with venting electrolytes acting like a thruster). As a result, 

15 telemetry channels were lost. Despite problems 

with positional calibration, Mariner VII recorded 

93 far-encounter and 33 near-encounter images of 

the planet, showing heavily cratered terrain very 

similar to Mariner VI. Closest approach to Mars 

was at 05:00:49 UT on 5 August 1969 at a distance 

of 3,430 kilometers. Oddly, despite the high resolution of 300 meters, Mariner VII found the center 

of Hellas to be devoid of craters. The spacecraft 

found a pressure of 3.5 millibars and a temperature 

of –90°F at 59° S / 28° E in the Hellespontus 

region, suggesting that this area was elevated about 

6 kilometers above the average terrain. Post fight 

analysis showed that at least three photos from 

Mariner VII included the moon Phobos. Although 

surface features were not visible, the pictures 

clearly showed the moon to be irregularly shaped. 

Mariner VII entered heliocentric orbit (1.11 × 1.70 

AU) and NASA maintained continued to receive 

data from the vehicle until mid-1971.

109

[Mars, M-69 no. 522]

Nation: USSR (63)

Objective(s): Mars orbit

Spacecraft: M-69 (no. 522)

Spacecraft Mass: 4,850 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D (8K82K no. 

233-01 + 11S824 no. 522L)

Launch Date and Time: 2 April 1969 / 10:33:00 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/24

Scientific Instruments:

1. RA69 radiometer

2. IV1 instrument to measure water vapor 

levels

3. USZ ultraviolet spectrometer

4. UTV1 infrared Fourier spectrometer

5. KM69 cosmic ray detector

6. PL18M solar plasma spectrometer

7. RIP-803 low-energy spectrometer

8. GSZ gamma-ray spectrometer

9. UMR2M hydrogen/helium mass 

spectrometer

10. imaging system (3 cameras)

11. D-127 charged particle traps

Results: The second M-69 spacecraft was identical to its predecessor (launched six days before) 

and was intended to enter orbit around Mars on 

15 September 1969. Like its twin, it also never 
1969 89

reached intermediate Earth orbit. At launch, at 

T+0.02 seconds, one of the six first-stage engines 

of the Proton malfunctioned. Although the booster 

lifted off using the remaining five engines, it began 

veering off course and eventually turned with its 

nose toward the ground (at about 30° to the horizontal). At T+41 seconds, the booster impacted 

three kilometers from the launch site and exploded 

into a massive fireball. The launch complex was not 

affected although windows shattered in the Proton 

assembly building. Engineers believed that even if 

either or both of these M-69 Mars spacecraft had 

gotten off the ground, they probably had very little 

chance of success in their primary missions. Both 

the M-69 spacecraft were brought to launch in a 

period of immense stress and hurry for engineers 

at Lavochkin. In remembering the M-69 series, 

one leading designer, Vladimir Dolgopolov, later 

remembered that, “these were examples of how not 

to make a spacecraft.”

110

[Luna, Ye-8-5 no. 402]

Nation: USSR (64)

Objective(s): lunar sample return

Spacecraft: Ye-8-5 (no. 402)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,700 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D (8K82K no. 

238-01 + 11S824 no. 401L)

Launch Date and Time: 14 June 1969 / 04:00:48 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/24

Scientific Instruments:

1. stereo imaging system

2. remote arm for sample collection

3. radiation detector

Results: The Ye-8-5 was a variant of the basic Ye-8 

lunar rover spacecraft developed by the Lavochkin 

design bureau. This particular version, whose development began in 1968, was designed to recover a 

small portion of soil from the lunar surface and 

return it to Earth. It shared the basic lander stage 

(“KT”) as the rover variant (built around a structure 

comprising four spherical propellant tanks linked 

together in a square), which was now installed with 

a robot arm to scoop up lunar soil. The rover was 

replaced by a new “ascent stage” that was built 

around three spherical propellant tanks that consisted of a main rocket engine (the S5.61) to lift 

off from the Moon, a pressurized compartment for 

electronics, and a small 39-kilogram spherical capsule which would detach from the stage and reenter Earth’s atmosphere with its valuable payload 

of lunar dust. On the first launch attempt of the 

Ye-8-5 robot scooper, the first three stages of the 

Proton worked without fault, but the Blok D fourth 

stage, which was to fire to attain orbital velocity, 

failed to ignite due to a disruption in the circuit 

of its guidance system. The payload reentered over 

the Pacific Ocean without reaching Earth orbit.

111

[N1 test flight, 7K-L1S]

Nation: USSR (65)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: 7K-L1S (no. 5)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 6,900 kg

Mission Design and Management: TsKBEM

Launch Vehicle: N1 (no. 15005)

Launch Date and Time: 3 July 1969 / 20:18:32 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 110/38

Scientific Instruments: [unknown]

Results: This was the second attempt to launch the 

giant N1 rocket. Like its predecessor, its payload 

consisted of a basic 7K-L1 spacecraft equipped 

with additional instrumentation and an attitude 

control block to enable operations in lunar orbit. 

Moments after launch, the first stage of the booster 

exploded in a massive inferno that engulfed the 

entire launch pad and damaged nearby buildings 

and structures for several kilometers around the 
90 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

area. Amazingly, the payload’s launch escape system 

fired successfully at T+14.5 seconds and the 

7K-L1 descent module was recovered safely two 

kilometers from the pad. An investigation commission traced the cause of the failure to the entry of a 

foreign object into the oxidizer pump of one of the 

first stage engines at T-0.25 seconds. The ensuing 

explosion started a fire that began to engulf the first 

stage. The control system shut down all engines 

except one by T+10.15 seconds. The booster lifted 

about 200 meters off the pad and then came crashing down in a massive explosion. Some estimates 

suggest that the resulting explosion had a power of 

about 25 tons of TNT.

112

Luna 15

Nation: USSR (66)

Objective(s): lunar sample return

Spacecraft: Ye-8-5 (no. 401)

Spacecraft Mass: 5,667 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D (8K82K no. 

242-01 + 11S824 no. 402L)

Launch Date and Time: 13 July 1969 / 02:54:42 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/24

Scientific Instruments:

1. stereo imaging system

2. remote arm for sample collection

3. radiation detector

Results: Luna 15, launched only three days before 

the historic Apollo 11 mission to the Moon, was 

the second Soviet attempt to recover and bring 

lunar soil back to Earth. In a race to reach the 

Moon and return to Earth, the parallel missions of 

Luna 15 and Apollo 11 were, in some ways, the 

culmination of the Moon race that defined the 

space programs of both the United States and the 

Soviet Union in the 1960s. Prior to launch, due 

to mass constraints, designers removed one of two 

1.28-kilogram radio transmitters from the Rye-85 

ascent stage, leaving only one for the entire return 

part of the mission. On the way to the Moon, controllers detected abnormally high temperatures in 

the propellant tanks feeding the S5.61 engine (to 

be used for takeoff from the Moon and return to 

Earth). By carefully keeping the tank in the Sun’s 

shadow, controllers were able to reduce the temperature and the avoid the risk of an explosion en 

route. After a mid-course correction the day after 

launch, Luna 15 entered lunar orbit at 10:00 UT 

on 17 July 1969. Originally, plans were to carry out 

two orbital corrections, on 18 and 19 July, respectively, to put the vehicle on its landing track, but the 

ruggedness of the lunar terrain prompted a delay. 

Instead, controllers spent nearly four days studying 

data (over 20 communication sessions) to map out 

a plan of action to account for the rough geography. The two delayed corrections were eventually 

carried out on 19 July (at 13:08 UT) and 20 July 

(at 14:16 UT), putting Luna 15 into its planned 

110 × 16-kilometer orbit at a retrograde inclination 

of 127°. Less than 6 hours after the second correction, Apollo 11 began its descent to the Moon, 

landing at 20:17 UT on 20 July. The original plan 

was for Luna 15 to embark on the Moon, less than 

2 hours after Apollo 11 but it was not to be. Unsure 

of the terrain below, controllers delayed the landing by another 18 hours. During this critical period, 

Apollo 11 astronauts Neil A. Armstrong and Edwin 

E. “Buzz” Aldrin walked on the Moon. Finally, at 

15:46:43 UT on 21 July, a little more than 2 hours 

prior to the Apollo 11 liftoff from the Moon, Luna 

15, now on its 52nd orbit around the Moon, began 

its descent to the surface. Transmissions, however, 

abruptly ceased after four minutes instead of nearly 

five. According to the original plan, the main engine 

was to fire for 267.3 seconds and bring the vehicle 

down to about 2.5 kilometers altitude. During the 

descent, transmissions from the vehicle abruptly 

and suddenly ended 237 seconds into the engine 

firing at 15:50:40 UT. The data seemed to show 

that the spacecraft was 3 kilometers above the 

lunar surface. Later analysis indicated that Luna 15 
1969 91

had probably crashed onto the side of a mountain 

(at something like 480 kilometers/hour) as a result 

of incorrect attitude of the vehicle at the time of 

ignition of the descent engine—in other words, the 

spacecraft was probably descending not directly 

towards the surface but at a slight angle. Luna 15 

crashed about 15 kilometers laterally away and 45 

kilometers ahead of its assumed location. Impact 

was roughly at 17° N / 60° E in Mare Crisium.

113

Zond 7

Nation: USSR (67)

Objective(s): circumlunar flight

Spacecraft: 7K-L1 (no. 11)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,375 kg

Mission Design and Management: TsKBEM

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D (8K82K no. 

243-01 + 11S824 no. 18L)

Launch Date and Time: 7 August 1969 / 23:48:06 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/23

Scientific Instruments:

1. biological payload

2. radiation detectors

3. imaging system

Results: After a spate of partial successes and catastrophic failures, Zond 7 was the first fully successful Soviet circumlunar mission. The spacecraft 

was the last 7K-L1 vehicle manufactured explicitly for robotic flight—later models were equipped 

for crews. Like its predecessors, Zond 7 carried a 

set of biological specimens, including four male 

steppe tortoises that were part of a group of thirty 

selected for the experiment. After a mid-course 

correction on 8 August at a distance of 250,000 

kilometers from Earth, the spacecraft successfully 

circled the farside of the Moon two days later at 

a range of 1,200 kilometers. Zond 7 performed 

color imaging sessions on 8 August (of Earth) and 

11 August (two sessions of both Earth and the 

Moon). The only major malfunction during the 

mission was the non-deployment of the main parabolic antenna (due to a problem in the securing 

cables), but this did not prevent a fulfillment of 

all the primary goals of the mission. Zond 7 successfully carried out a guided reentry into Earth’s 

atmosphere and landed without problem south of 

Kustanay in Kazakhstan about 50 kilometers from 

the intended landing point after a 6-day, 18-hour, 

25-minute flight. Zond 7 (and Zond 8) carried 

on board a full-size human mannequin known as 

FM-2 to help study the effects of radiation and 

gravitational loads on various parts of the body 

during lunar-distance flights.

114

Pioneer

Nation: USA (47)

Objective(s): solar orbit

Spacecraft: Pioneer-E

Spacecraft Mass: 65.4 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / ARC

Launch Vehicle: Thrust-Augmented Improved ThorDelta (Thor Delta L no. D73 / Thor no. 540)

Launch Date and Time: 27 August 1969 / 21:59:00 UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 17A

Scientific Instruments:

1. three-axis magnetometer

2. cosmic ray telescope

3. radio propagation detector

4. electric field detector

5. quadrispherical plasma analyzer

6. cosmic ray anesotropy detector

7. cosmic dust detector

8. celestial mechanics experiment

Results: During launch of this Pioneer probe, at 

T+31 seconds, the hydraulics system of the first 

stage of the booster malfunctioned, eventually 

causing complete loss of pressure at T+213 seconds, only 4 seconds prior to main engine cutoff of 

the first stage. Although second stage performance 

was nominal, there was no way to compensate for 
92 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

the large pointing error introduced by the malfunctions in the first stage. With the booster veering off 

course, ground control sent a command to destroy 

the vehicle at T+484 seconds. Pioneer-E was the 

last in a series of probes intended for studying 

interplanetary space from heliocentric orbit. An 

additional payload on the Thor Delta L was a Test 

and Training Satellite (TETR C) to test the Apollo 

ground tracking network.

115

Kosmos 300 [Luna]

Nation: USSR (68)

Objective(s): lunar sample return

Spacecraft: Ye-8-5 (no. 403)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,700 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D (8K82K no. 

244-01 + 11S824 no. 403L)

Launch Date and Time: 23 September 1969 / 14:07:37 

UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/24

Scientific Instruments:

1. stereo imaging system

2. remote arm for sample collection

3. radiation detector

Results: This was the third attempt to send a sample 

return spacecraft to the Moon (after failures in 

June and July 1969). On this attempt, the spacecraft successfully reached Earth orbit, but failed to 

inject itself on a trans-lunar trajectory. Later investigation indicated that the Blok D upper stage had 

failed to fire a second time for trans-lunar injection due to a problem with a fuel injection valve 

that had become stuck during the first firing of the 

Blok D (for Earth orbital insertion). As a result, all 

the liquid oxygen in the Blok D had been depleted. 

The Soviet press named the vehicle Kosmos 300 

without alluding to its lunar goal. The payload 

decayed from orbit about four days after launch.

116

Kosmos 305 [Luna]

Nation: USSR (69)

Objective(s): lunar sample return

Spacecraft: Ye-8-5 (no. 404)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,700 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D (8K82K no. 

241-01 + 11S824 no. 404L)

Launch Date and Time: 22 October 1969 / 14:09:59 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/24

Scientific Instruments:

1. stereo imaging system

2. remote arm for sample collection

3. radiation detector

Results: Exactly one lunar month after the failure of 

Kosmos 300, the Soviets launched another Ye-8-5 

lunar sample return spacecraft. Once again, the 

spacecraft failed to leave Earth orbit. When the 

Blok D upper stage was meant to fire for trans-lunar 

injection, telemetry readings went off scale and 

communications were lost. There was apparently a 

programming failure in one of the radio-command 

blocks designed to command the Blok D to fire. 

The Soviet press merely referred to the probe as 

Kosmos 305. The spacecraft decayed over Australia 

before completing a single orbit of Earth.
93

1970

117

[Luna, Ye-8-5 no. 405]

Nation: USSR (70)

Objective(s): lunar sample return

Spacecraft: Ye-8-5 (no. 405)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,700 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D (8K82K no. 

247-01 + 11S824 no. 405L)

Launch Date and Time: 6 February 1970 / 04:16:05 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81

Scientific Instruments:

1. stereo imaging system

2. remote arm for sample collection

3. radiation detector

Results: This launch continued the spate of failures 

in the robotic lunar sample return program. On 

this fifth attempt to recover soil from the Moon, 

the Proton booster failed to deposit its payload in 

Earth orbit. An erroneous command shut down the 

second stage at T+127 seconds and the booster 

was destroyed. Subsequently, the design organization responsible for the Proton, the Central Design 

Bureau of Machine Building (TsKBM) headed 

by General Designer Vladimir Chelomey, implemented a thorough review of the Proton’s performance with a simple (and successful) suborbital 

diagnostic flight on 18 August 1970 to verify corrective measures.

118

Venera 7

Nation: USSR (71)

Objective(s): Venus landing

Spacecraft: V-70 (3V no. 630)

Spacecraft Mass: 1,180 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Molniya-M + Blok NVL (8K78M 

no. Kh15000-62)

Launch Date and Time: 17 August 1970 / 05:38:22 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 31/6

Scientific Instruments:

Bus:

1. KS-18-4M cosmic ray detector

Lander:

1. GS-4 gamma-ray spectrometer

2. instrument for determining pressure and 

temperature (ITD)

3. DOU-1M instrument for measuring maximal acceleration during braking

Results: Venera 7 was one of a pair of spacecraft prepared by the Soviets in 1970 to make a survivable 

landing on the surface of Venus. The spacecraft 

were quite similar in design to Venera 4, 5, and 6 

with a main bus and a spherical lander (now with 

a mass of 490 kilograms). Since the last mission, 

engineers had redesigned the landing capsule to 

withstand pressures up to 150–180 atmospheres 

and temperatures up to 540°C. Venera 7 successfully left Earth orbit using a slightly modified 

fourth stage (now called Blok NVL) and implemented two mid-course corrections on 2 October 

and 17 November. It began its Venus encounter 
94 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

operations on 12 December 1970 when the lander 

probe’s batteries were charged up (using solar 

panels on the bus) and internal temperature lowered. At 04:58:38 UT on 15 December, the lander 

separated from the bus and entered the Venusian 

atmosphere at an altitude of 135 kilometers and 

a velocity of 11.5 kilometers/second. When aerodynamic drag had reduced velocity down to 200 

meters/second at an altitude of 60 kilometers, 

the parachute system deployed (at 04:59:10 UT). 

The ride down was a bumpy one and it’s possible 

that the parachute tore and ultimately collapsed 

before impact, which was at a velocity of 17 

meters/second at 05:34:10 UT on the nightside of 

the Venusian landscape, about 2,000 kilometers 

from the morning terminator. Although transmissions appeared to have ended at the moment of 

landing, Soviet ground tracking stations recorded 

what at first proved to be unintelligible noise. After 

computer processing of the data, Soviet scientists 

discovered a valuable 22 minutes 58 seconds of 

information from the capsule—the first transmissions from the surface of another planet. Quite 

likely, the initial loss-of-signal occurred when the 

capsule tipped over on its side. Venera 7’s data 

indicated a surface temperature of 475±20°C and 

a pressure of 90±15 atmospheres. The information 

was a good fit with previous Soviet and American 

estimates. Impact point was 5° S / 351° longitude 

at Tinatin Planitia.

119

Kosmos 359 [Venera]

Nation: USSR (72)

Objective(s): Venus landing

Spacecraft: V-70 (3V no. 631)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 1,200 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Molniya-M + Blok NVL (8K78M 

no. Kh15000-61)

Launch Date and Time: 22 August 1970 / 05:06:08 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 31/6

Scientific Instruments:

Bus:

1. KS-18-4M cosmic ray detector

Lander:

1. GS-4 gamma-ray spectrometer

2. instrument for determining pressure and 

temperature (ITD)

3. DOU-1M instrument for measuring maximal acceleration during braking

Results: This was the second of a pair of probes 

designed to land on Venus and transmit information back to Earth. In this case, after the spacecraft 

had reached Earth orbit, the main engine of the 

Blok NVL upper stage was late in igniting and then 

cut off early (after only 25 seconds) due to incorrect operation of a sequencer and a failure in the 

DC transformer in the power supply system. The 

payload remained stranded in Earth orbit, eventually reentering on 6 November 1970. The spacecraft was named Kosmos 359 by the Soviet press to 

disguise the failure.

120

Luna 16

Nation: USSR (73)

Objective(s): lunar sample return

Spacecraft: Ye-8-5 (no. 406)

Spacecraft Mass: 5,725 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D (8K82K no. 

248-01 + 11S824 no. 203L)

Launch Date and Time: 12 September 1970 / 13:25:52 

UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/23

Scientific Instruments:

1. stereo imaging system

2. remote arm for sample collection

3. radiation detector
1970 95

A lifesize model of the Luna 16 lander at the Memorial Museum of Cosmonautics in Moscow. Credit: Asif Siddiqi

Results: Luna 16 was a landmark success for the 

Soviets in their deep space exploration program, 

being the first fully automatic recovery of lunar 

samples from the surface of the Moon. The success came after five consecutive failures. After an 

uneventful coast to the Moon (which included one 

mid-course correction), Luna 16 entered a roughly 

circular lunar orbit at 118.6 × 102.6 kilometers 

with a 70° inclination on 17 September, using its 

11D417 propulsion unit (which consisted of a primary engine capable of 11 firings and a set of lowthrust engines). Two further orbital adjustments 

on 18 and 19 September altered both altitude and 

inclination in preparation for its descent to the 

Moon. The following day, when Luna 16 reached 

13.28 kilometers altitude, close to perilune, it fired 

its main engine to begin its descent to the surface, 

using the DA-018 Planeta Doppler landing radar 

in conjunction with the Vega altimeter. After firing 

for about 270 seconds and descending down to 

2.45 kilometers, Luna 16 went into freefall until 

the probe was at a height of 600 meters (falling 

at 700 meters/second) when the main engine fired 

again briefly, cutting off at 20 meters altitude. Two 
96 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

smaller engines then fired to reduce the landing 

velocity to a gentle 9 kilometers/hour. It had taken 

roughly 6 minutes from beginning of deorbit to landing, which occurred at 05:18 UT on 20 September, 

about 280 hours after launch. Coordinates were 

announced as 0°41′ S / 56°18′ E, in the northeast 

area of the Sea of Fertility approximately 100 kilometers west of Webb crater. Mass of the spacecraft 

at landing was 1,880 kilograms. Attempts to photograph possible sampling sites proved to be less 

than successful due to poor lighting, but less than 

an hour after landing, at 06:03 UT, an automatic 

drill penetrated into the lunar surface to collect a 

soil sample. After drilling for 7 minutes, the drill 

reached a stop at 35 centimeters depth and then 

withdrew its sample (largely dark grey loose rock 

or regolith) and lifted it in an arc to the top of the 

spacecraft, depositing the precious cargo in a small 

spherical capsule mounted on the main spacecraft bus. (Some of the soil apparently fell out 

during this procedure). Finally, at 07:43:21 UT on 

21 September, the spacecraft’s 512 kilogram upper 

stage lifted off from the Moon using the S5.61 

engine developed by the Isayev design bureau. This 

ingeniously designed single-firing engine weighed 

42 kilograms and generated 1,917 kgf thrust for 

a guaranteed 60 seconds. Three days later, after 

a direct ascent traverse with no mid-course corrections, the capsule with its 101 grams of lunar 

soil reentered Earth’s atmosphere at a velocity of 

10.95 kilometers/second, experiencing up to 350 

g’s deceleration. The capsule, weighing 34 kilograms, parachuted down 80 kilometers southeast of the town of Dzhezkazgan in Kazakhstan 

at 05:26  UT on 24 September 1970. Analysis of 

the dark basalt material indicated a close resemblance to soil recovered by the American Apollo 

12 mission. The sample was found to be a mature 

mare regolith, with an abundance of fused soil and 

glass fragments, between 4.25 and 4.85 billion 

years old. The Soviets shared samples with representatives from France, the German Democratic 

Republic, and Iraq, among a number of nations. 

Based on images taken in 2009 and 2010, NASA’s 

Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) was able to 

more precisely identify the landing coordinates of 

Luna 16 as 0.5134° S / 56.3638° E.

121

Zond 8

Nation: USSR (74)

Objective(s): circumlunar flight

Spacecraft: 7K-L1 (no. 14)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,375 kg

Mission Design and Management: TsKBEM

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D (8K82K no. 

250-01 + 11S824 no. 21L)

Launch Date and Time: 20 October 1970 / 19:55:39 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/23

Scientific Instruments:

1. solar wind collector packages

2. imaging system

Results: Zond 8 was the last in the series of circumlunar spacecraft designed to rehearse a piloted circumlunar flight. The project was initiated in 1965 

to compete with the Americans in the race to the 

Moon, but lost its importance once three astronauts circled the Moon on the Apollo 8 mission 

in December 1968. After a mid-course correction 

on 22 October at distance of 250,000 kilometers 

from Earth, Zond 8 reached the Moon without any 

apparent problems, circling its target on 24 October 

at a range of 1,110 kilometers. The spacecraft took 

black-and-white photographs of the lunar surface 

during two separate sessions. (Earlier, it took pictures of Earth during the outbound flight at a distance of 65,000 kilometers). After two mid-course 

corrections on the return leg, Zond 8 achieved a 

return trajectory over Earth’s northern hemisphere 

instead of the standard southern approach profile, 

allowing Soviet ground control stations to maintain near-continuous contact with the craft. The 

guidance system, however, malfunctioned on the 

return leg, and the spacecraft performed a simple 

ballistic (instead of a guided) reentry into Earth’s 
1970 97

atmosphere. The vehicle’s descent module splashed 

down safely in the Indian Ocean at 13:55 UT on 

27 October about 730 kilometers southeast of the 

Chagos Islands, 24 kilometers from its original 

target point. Soviet recovery ships were on hand to 

collect it and bring it back to Moscow.

122

Luna 17 and Lunokhod 1

Nation: USSR (75)

Objective(s): lunar roving operations

Spacecraft: Ye-8 (no. 203)

Spacecraft Mass: 5,700 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D (8K82K no. 

251-01 + 11S824 no. 406L)

Launch Date and Time: 10 November 1970 / 14:44:01 

UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/23

Scientific Instruments (on Lunokhod 1):

1. imaging system (two low resolution TV + 

four high resolution photometers)

2. RIF-MA x-ray spectrometer

3. PrOP penetrometer

4. TL-1 laser reflector

5. RV-2N radiation detector

6. RT-1 x-ray telescope

7. odometer/speedometer

Results: Luna 17 continued the spate of successes 

in Soviet lunar exploration begun by Luna 16 and 

Zond 8. Luna 17 carried Lunokhod 1, the first in a 

series of robot lunar roving vehicles, whose conception had begun in the early 1960s, originally as part 

of the piloted lunar landing operations. The undercarriage was designed and built by VNII Transmash although Lavochkin retained overall design 

conception of the vehicle. This was the second 

attempt to land such a vehicle on the Moon after 

a failure in February 1969. The descent stage was 

equipped with two landing ramps for the “ascent 

stage,” i.e., the rover, to disembark on to the Moon’s 

surface. The 756-kilogram rover stood about 1.35 

meters high and was 2.15 meters across. Each of 

its eight wheels could be controlled independently 

for two forward and two reverse speeds. Top speed 

was about 100 meters/hour, with commands issued 

by a five-man team of “drivers” on Earth who had 

to deal with a minimum 4.1 second delay (which 

included the 2.6 second roundtrip of the signal 

plus time to exert pressure on levers on the control panel). These men were carefully selected 

from a pool of hundreds in a process that began as 

early as May 1968. Two crews, for two shifts, were 

selected, each comprising five men (commander, 

driver, flight-engineer, navigator, and narrow-beam 

antenna guidance operator). The commanders of 

these “sedentary cosmonauts,” as they were called, 

were Yu. F. Vasil’yev and I. L. Fedorov, while the 

drivers were N. M. Yeremenko and V. G. Dovgan’, 

respectively. The set of scientific instruments was 

powered by solar cells (installed on the inside of 

the hinged top lid of the rover) and chemical batteries. After two mid-course corrections en route to 

the Moon, Luna 17 entered an 85 × 141- kilometer 

lunar orbit inclined at 141°. Repeating the same 

dynamic descent activities as its predecessor, Luna 

17 landed on the lunar surface at 03:46:50 UT on 

17 November 1970 at 38° 24′ N / 34° 47′ W (as 

known at the time), about 2,500 kilometers from 

the Luna 16 site in the Sea of Rains. The lander 

settled in a crater-like depression 150–200 meters 

in diameter and 7 meters deep. As a result of Yeremenko’s command, driver G. G. Latypov pushed a 

lever and then pressed a button to move the vehicle off its platform with a “First—Forward!” exclamation. It was 06:27:07 UT on 17 November. It 

took 20 seconds to roll down to the surface. During 

its 322 Earth days of operation, the rover traveled 

10.47 kilometers (later, in 2013, revised down to 

9.93 kilometers) and returned more than 20,000 

TV images and 206 high resolution panoramas. In 

addition, Lunokhod 1 performed 25 soil analyses 

with its RIF-MA x-ray fluorescence spectrometer and used its penetrometer at 537 different 
98 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

locations over a 10.5-kilometer route (averaging 

one use every c. 20 meters). Lunokhod 1 also carried a 3.7-kilogram French-supplied instrument 

above the forward cameras, the TL-1, consisting 

of 14 10-centimeter silica glass prisms to bounce 

back pulses of ruby laser light fired from observatories in Crimea and France. Scientists first used 

this reflector on 5 and 6 December, allowing the 

Earth–Moon distance to be measured down to an 

accuracy of 30 centimeters. However, dust apparently covered the reflector and few further echoes 

were obtained. Controllers finished the last communications session with Lunokhod 1 at 13:05 UT 

on 14  September 1971. Attempts to reestablish 

contact were discontinued on 4 October, thus 

culminating one of the most successful robotic 

missions of the early space age. Lunokhod 1 

clearly outperformed its expectations—its planned 

design life was only 3 lunar days (about 21 Earth 

days) but it operated for 11. Many years later, in 

March 2010, a team of scientists based at several 

U.S. academic institutions resumed laser ranging 

with the laser reflector on Lunokhod 1, based on 

data from NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter 

(LRO) which allowed a precise determination (to 

5 meters accuracy) of the location of the (former) 

Soviet rover. The new data provided a more precise 

location for Lunokhod 1 as 38.333° N / 35.037° W. 

The landing site of Luna 17 was also refined to 

38.238° N / 34.997° W.
99

1971

123

Mariner 8

Nation: USA (48)

Objective(s): Mars orbit

Spacecraft: Mariner-71H / Mariner-H

Spacecraft Mass: 997.9 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Centaur (AC-24 / Atlas 3C 

no. 5405C / Centaur D-1A)

Launch Date and Time: 9 May 1971 / 01:11:01 UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 36A

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging system

2. ultraviolet spectrometer

3. infrared spectrometer

4. infrared radiometer

Results: Mariner-71H (also called Mariner-H) was 

the first of a pair of American spacecraft intended 

to explore the physical and dynamic characteristics 

of Mars from Martian orbit. The overall goals of 

the series were: to search for an environment that 

could support life; to collect data on the origins 

and evolution of the planet; to gather information 

on planetary physics, geology, planetology, and cosmology; and to provide data that could aid future 

spacecraft such as the Viking landers. Launch of 

Mariner-71H was nominal until just after separation of the Centaur upper stage when a malfunction 

occurred in the stage’s flight control system leading 

to loss of pitch control at an altitude of 148 kilometers at T+4.7 minutes. As a result, the stack began 

to tumble and the Centaur engines shut down. 

The stage and its payload reentered Earth’s atmosphere approximately 1,500 kilometers downrange 

from the launch site, about 400 kilometers north 

of Puerto Rico. The problem was traced to a failed 

integrated circuit in the pitch guidance module.

124

Kosmos 419 [Mars]

Nation: USSR (76)

Objective(s): Mars orbit

Spacecraft: M-71S (3MS no. 170)

Spacecraft Mass: 4,549 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D (8K82K no. 

253-01 + 11S824 no. 1101L)

Launch Date and Time: 10 May 1971 / 16:58:42 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/23

Scientific Instruments:

1. fluxgate magnetometer

2. infrared radiometer

3. infrared photometer

4. RIEP-2801 multi-channel plasma 

spectrometer

5. visible photometer

6. radiometer

7. ultraviolet photometer

8. cosmic ray detector

9. D-127 charged particle traps

10. imaging system (with Vega and Zufar 

cameras)

11. Stéréo-1 radio-astronomy experiment

Results: Kosmos 419 was the first “fifth generation” 

Soviet Mars probe (after those launched in 1960, 

1962, 1963-64, and 1969). The original plan was 

to launch two orbiter-lander combinations known 

as M-71 during the 1971 Mars launch period, but 

in order to preempt the American Mariner H/I 
100 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

vehicles, Soviet planners added a third mission, 

the M-71S, a simple orbiter that could become 

the first spacecraft to go into orbit around Mars. 

The orbiter could also collect data important for 

aiming the two landers at precise locations on the 

Martian surface. These new vehicles were the first 

Soviet robotic spacecraft to have digital computers 

(the S-530), which was a simplified version of the 

Argon-11 carried on the 7K-L1 (“Zond”) circumlunar spacecraft. The first of these Mars spacecraft entered Earth orbit successfully (145 × 159 

kilometers at 51.5° inclination), but the Blok D 

upper stage failed to fire the second time to send 

the spacecraft to Mars. Later investigation showed 

that there had been human error in programming 

the firing time for the Blok. Apparently, the timer 

that would ignite the Blok D was incorrectly programmed to fire after 150 hours instead of 1.5 

hours. (One report claimed that a programmer 

incorrectly programmed the time in years instead 

of hours). The stranded spacecraft, which was 

named Kosmos 419 by the Soviet press, reentered 

Earth’s atmosphere within two days of launch. 

The Soviets had promised the French that two of 

their Stéréo-1 instruments would be sent to Mars 

during the 1971 window, but since one was lost on 

Kosmos 419 which had officially nothing to do with 

a Mars mission, Soviet officials were forced to keep 

silent about its fate. 

125

Mars 2

Nation: USSR (77)

Objective(s): Mars orbit and landing

Spacecraft: M-71 (4M no. 171)

Spacecraft Mass: 4,650 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D (8K82K no. 

255-01 + 11S824 no. 1201L)

Launch Date and Time: 19 May 1971 / 16:22:49 UT

A ground model of the PrOP-M mobile device that was installed on the Soviet Mars landers for the 1971 missions. 

These were capable of moving 15 meters away from the 

lander while hooked to a tether. Credit: T. Varfolomeyev

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/24

Scientific Instruments:

Orbiter:

1. infrared bolometer (radiometer)

2. microwave radiometer (radiotelescope)

3. infrared photometer (CO2 gas absorption 

strips)

4. IV-2 interference-polarized photometer

5. photometer to measure brightness 

distribution

6. 4-channel UV photometer

7. imaging system (two cameras, each capable of 480 images)

8. ferrozoid tricomponent magnetometer

9. ion trap

10. RIEP-2801 spectrometer for charged 

particles

11. cosmic ray detector

12. radiotransmitter (for determination of structure of atmosphere through refraction)

13. D-127 charged particle traps 

[unconfirmed]

Lander:

1. gamma-ray spectrometer

2. x-ray spectrometer

3. thermometer

4. anemometer
1971 101

5. barometer

6. imaging system (2 cameras)

7. mass spectrometer

8. penetrometer (on PrOP-M)

9. gamma-ray densitometer (on PrOP-M)

Results: Mars 2 was the first of two orbiter-lander 

combination spacecraft sent to Mars by the Soviet 

Union during the 1971 launch period. The orbiters were roughly cylindrical structures fixed to a 

large propellant tank base. The landers were eggshaped modules with petals that would open up on 

the Martian surface. The 1,000 kilogram landers 

(of which 355 kilograms was the actual capsule on 

the surface) were fastened to the top of the bus 

and protected by a braking shell for entry into the 

Martian atmosphere. After jettisoning the shell, 

the landers would deploy parachutes to descend 

to the Martian surface. Each lander also carried 

4-kilogram mini-rovers called PrOP-M (for Pribor 

otsenki prokhodimosti-Mars, or Device to Evaluate 

Mobility—Mars), a box-shaped robot that was 

equipped with skids; the device would move by 

moving the body forward (at a speed of 1 meter/

minute) with the ski resting on the soil. The range 

of the device, connected by an umbilical cord to 

supply power and transmit data, was 15 meters. 

PrOP-M carried a penetrometer and a radiation 

densimeter. If the device ran into an obstacle, sensors at the front would send a signal to an automated control system on the lander, which would 

then send a command to back up PrOP-M, turn 

it “right” (if the obstacle was towards the left) or 

“left” (if the obstacle was towards the right), and 

then take one step forward again. As Mars 2 made 

its way to the Red Planet, controllers performed 

two successful mid-course corrections, on 17 June 

and 20 November 1971. On 27 November 1971, 

Mars  2 implemented its final mid-course correction after which the lander probe separated to initiate atmospheric entry. At this point, the onboard 

computer was designed to implement final corrections to the trajectory and spin up the lander around 

its longitudinal axis and then fire a solid propellant 

engine to initiate reentry in a specific direction. As 

it happened, after the final course correction, the 

trajectory of the spacecraft had been so accurate 

that there was no need for further corrective measures. Because of pre-programmed algorithms that 

simply assumed a deviated trajectory, the lander 

was put into an incorrect attitude after separation 

to compensate for the “error.” When the reentry 

engine fired, the angle of entry proved to be far too 

steep. The parachute system never deployed and 

the lander eventually crashed onto the Martian 

surface at 4° N / 47° W. It was the first humanmade object to make contact with Mars. The Mars 

2 orbiter meanwhile successfully entered orbit 

around Mars at 20:19 UT on 27 November 1971. 

Parameters were 1,380 × 25,000 kilometers at 

48.9° inclination, with an orbital period of 1,080 

minutes, slightly less than the expected 1,440 minutes. In a clear obfuscation of the truth, the Soviets 

claimed that one of the two French Stéréo-1 instruments was lost with the other instruments on Mars 

2, when in fact, Stéréo-1 was not carried on Mars 2 

but the earlier failed Kosmos 419. [See Mars 3 for 

Mars 2 orbiter program.]

126

Mars 3

Nation: USSR (78)

Objective(s): Mars orbit and landing

Spacecraft: M-71 (4M no. 172)

Spacecraft Mass: 4,650 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D (8K82K no. 

249-01 + 11S824 no. 1301L)

Launch Date and Time: 28 May 1971 / 15:26:30 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/23

Scientific Instruments:

Orbiter:

1. infrared bolometer (radiometer)

2. microwave radiometer (radiotelescope)
102 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

3. infrared photometer (CO2 gas absorption 

strips)

4. IV-2 interference-polarized photometer

5. photometer to measure brightness 

distribution

6. 4-channel UV photometer

7. imaging system (two cameras, each capable of 480 images)

8. ferrozoid tricomponent magnetometer

9. ion trap

10. RIEP-2801 spectrometer for charged 

particles

11. cosmic ray detector

12. radiotransmitter (for determination 

of structure of atmosphere through 

refraction)

13. D-127 charged particle traps [unconfirmed]

14. Stéréo-1 radio-astronomy experiment

15. modulation-type ion trap

Lander:

1. gamma-ray spectrometer

2. x-ray spectrometer

3. thermometer

4. anemometer

5. barometer

6. imaging system (two cameras)

7. mass spectrometer

8. penetrometer (on PrOP-M)

9. gamma-ray densitometer (on PrOP-M)

Results: Like its predecessor, Mars 3 was successfully sent on a trajectory to the Red Planet. The 

spacecraft completed three mid-course corrections 

on 8 June, 14 November, and 2 December 1971. 

At 09:14 UT on 2 December 1971, the lander separated from the orbiter and 4.5 hours later began 

entry into the Martian atmosphere. Finally, at 

13:47 UT, the probe successfully set down intact 

on the Martian surface becoming the first humanmade object to perform a survivable landing on 

the planet. Landing coordinates were 44.90° S  / 

160.08° W. The bus meanwhile entered orbit 

around Mars with parameters of 1,530 × 214,500 

kilometers at 60.0° inclination, significantly more 

eccentric than originally planned—at least 11 times 

higher than nominal. Immediately after landing, at 

13:50:35 UT, the lander probe began transmitting 

a TV image of the Martian surface although transmissions abruptly ceased after 14.5 seconds (or 20 

seconds according to some sources). Because of 

a violent dust storm that raged across the planet, 

controllers surmised that coronal discharge may 

have shorted all electric instrumentation on the 

lander. The received image showed only a gray 

background with no detail, probably because the 

two imaging “heads” had still not deployed in 20 

seconds to their full height to see the surface. After 

the initial contact, the ground lost all contact with 

the lander probe. The Mars 3 orbiter, like the Mars 

2 orbiter, had problems with its imaging mission. 

Because the orbiters had to perform their imaging 

mission soon after entering orbit—mainly because 

the chemicals on board for developing film had a 

finite lifetime—they could not wait until the dust 

storms subsided on the surface. As a result, the 

photographs from both orbiters showed few details 

of the surface. On 23 January 1972, Pravda noted 

that “the dust storm is still making photography 

and scientific measurement of the planet difficult” but added on 19 February that “information 

obtained [more recently] shows that the dust storm 

has ended.” Later analysis showed that the dust 

storm began during the first 10 days of October 

and lasted three months although the atmosphere 

contained residual dust until late January. Additionally, controllers had set the cameras at the wrong 

exposure setting, making the photos far too light to 

show much detail. Despite the failure of the imaging mission, both orbiters carried out a full cycle 

of scientific experiments returning data on properties of the surface and atmosphere—including 

on the nature and dynamics of the dust storm and 

water content in the Martian atmosphere—until 

contact was lost almost simultaneously, according to Lavochkin, in July 1972. TASS announced 

completion of both orbital missions on 23 August 

1972. The French Stéréo-1 instrument on Mars 

3 operated successfully for 185 hours over nearly 

seven months returning a megabyte of data on solar 
1971 103

radiation. In April 2013, NASA announced that its 

Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) may have 

imaged hardware from Mars 3, including its parachute, heat shield, braking engine, and the lander 

itself. These were found in 2008 by a community 

of Russian space enthusiasts who were following 

the mission of Curiosity.

127

Mariner 9

Nation: USA (49)

Objective(s): Mars orbit

Spacecraft: Mariner-71I / Mariner-I

Spacecraft Mass: 997.9 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Centaur (AC-23 / Atlas 3C 

no. 5404C / Centaur D-1A)

Launch Date and Time: 30 May 1971 / 22:23:04 UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 36B

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging system

2. ultraviolet spectrometer

3. infrared spectrometer

4. infrared radiometer

Results: Mariner 9 was the second in the pair of identical spacecraft launched in 1971 to orbit Mars. The 

first spacecraft, Mariner 8, failed to reach Earth 

orbit. Based on a wide octagonal structure, these 

vehicles used a bi-propellant propulsion system 

with a fixed thrust of 136 kgf for orbital insertion 

around Mars. All scientific instrumentation on the 

spacecraft were mounted on a movable scan platform “underneath” the main bodies. The span of 

the spacecraft over its extended solar panels was 

6.9 meters. After an en route mid-course correction on 5 June 1971, at 00:18 UT on 14 November 

1971, Mariner 9 ignited its main engine for 915.6 

seconds to become the first human-made object to 

enter orbit around a planet. Initial orbital parameters were 1,398 × 17,916 kilometers at 64.3° inclination. (Another firing on the fourth revolution 

around Mars refined the orbit to 1,394 × 17,144 

kilometers at 64.34° inclination). The primary goal 

of the mission was to map about 70% of the surface 

during the first three months of operation. The dedicated imaging mission began in late November, but 

because of the major dust storm at the planet during 

this time, photos of the planet taken prior to about 

mid-January 1972 did not show great detail. Once 

the dust storm had subsided, from 2 January 1972 

on, Mariner 9 began to return spectacular photos 

of the deeply pitted Martian landscape, for the first 

time showing such features as the great system of 

parallel rilles stretching more than 1,700 kilometers 

across Mare Sirenum. The vast amount of incoming 

data countered the notion that Mars was geologically inert. There was some speculation on the possibility of water having existed on the surface during 

an earlier period, but the spacecraft data could not 

provide any conclusive proof. By February 1972, the 

spacecraft had identified about 20 volcanoes, one 

of which, later named Olympus Mons, dwarfed 

any similar feature on Earth. Based on data from 

Mariner 9’s spectrometers, it was determined that 

Olympus Mons, part of Nix Olympica—a “great volcanic pile” possibly formed by the eruption of hot 

magma from the planet’s interior—is about 15–30 

kilometers tall and has a base with a diameter of 600 

kilometers. Another major surface feature identified 

was Valles Marineris, a system of canyons east of the 

Tharsis region that is more than 4,000 kilometers 

long, 200 kilometers wide, and in some areas, up 

to 7 kilometers deep. On 11 February 1972, NASA 

announced that Mariner 9 had achieved all its goals 

although the spacecraft continued sending back 

useful data well into the summer. By the time of 

last contact at 22:32 UT on 27 October 1972 when 

it exhausted gaseous nitrogen for attitude control, 

the spacecraft had mapped 85% of the planet at a 

resolution of 1–2 kilometers, returning 7,329 photos 

(including at least 80 of Phobos and Deimos). Thus 

ended one of the great early robotic missions of the 

space age and undoubtedly one of the most influential. The spacecraft is expected to crash onto the 

Martian surface sometime around 2020.
104 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

128

Apollo 15 Particle and Fields 

Subsatellite

Nation: USA (50)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: Apollo 15 P&FS

Spacecraft Mass: 35.6 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / MSC

Launch Vehicle: Apollo 15 CSM-112 (itself launched 

by Saturn V SA-510)

Launch Date and Time: 26 July 1971 / 13:34:00 UT 

(subsatellite ejection on 4 August 1971 / 

20:13:19 UT)

Launch Site: Kennedy Space Center / Launch 

Complex 39A

Scientific Instruments:

1. magnetometer

2. S-band transponder

3. charged particle detectors

Results: This small satellite was deployed by the 

Apollo 15 crew—David R. Scott, Alfred M. Worden, 

and James B. Irwin—shortly before leaving lunar 

orbit. The probe was designed around a hexagonal 

structure with a diameter of 35.6 centimeters that 

was equipped with three instrument booms. Power 

supply came from solar panels and chemical batteries. The instruments measured the strength and 

direction of interplanetary and terrestrial magnetic 

fields, detected variations in the lunar gravity field, 

and measured proton and electron flux. The satellite confirmed Explorer XXXV’s finding that while 

Earth’s magnetic field deflects the incoming solar 

wind into a tail, the Moon acts as a physical barrier 

due to its weak field and creates a “hole” in the wind. 

An electronic failure on 3 February 1972 formally 

ended the mission. Although it originally had a oneyear design life, all mission objectives were fulfilled.

129

Luna 18

Nation: USSR (79)

Objective(s): lunar sample return

Spacecraft: Ye-8-5 (no. 407)

Spacecraft Mass: 5,725 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D (8K82K no. 

256-01 + 11S824 no. 0601L)

A ground model of the Apollo 15 Particles and Fields Satellite. Credit: NASA
1971 105

Launch Date and Time: 2 September 1971 / 13:40:40 

UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/24

Scientific Instruments:

1. stereo imaging system

2. remote arm for sample collection

3. radiation detector

4. radio altimeter

Results: This was the seventh Soviet attempt to 

recover soil samples from the surface of the Moon 

and the first after the success of Luna 16. After two 

mid-course corrections on 4 and 6 September 1971, 

Luna 18 entered a circular orbit around the Moon 

on 7 September at 100 kilometers altitude with an 

inclination of 35°, an orbit that was off-nominal 

since the orbit insertion engine cut off 15 seconds 

earlier than planned. To save propellant, mission 

planners decided to conduct one (instead of two) 

orbital corrections to bring the spacecraft into the 

proper orbit for descent. This firing, held outside 

direct radio contact, was also not nominal, leaving the vehicle in a 93.4 × 180.3-kilometer orbit 

(instead of 16.9 × 123.9 kilometers). Telemetry 

data showed that the pitch program was two orders 

less than expected due to the low effectiveness of 

one of the orientation engines, which was working 

only on fuel and not oxidizer. After a subsequent 

orbital correction, on 11 September, the vehicle 

began its descent to the lunar surface. However, 

due to its off-nominal orbit, the same orientation 

engine completely failed on all three axes (pitch, 

yaw, roll). As a result, the roll angle was 10° less 

than the computed value (since the other orientation engines were not able to fully compensate). 

Contact with the spacecraft was abruptly lost 

at 07:47:16.5 UT at the previously determined 

point of lunar landing. Impact coordinates were 

3° 34′ N / 56° 30′ E near the edge of the Sea of 

Fertility. Officially, the Soviets announced that “the 

lunar landing in the complex mountainous conditions proved to be unfavorable.” Later, in 1975, 

the Soviets published data from Luna 18’s continuous-wave radio altimeter which determined the 

mean density of the lunar topsoil.

130

Luna 19

Nation: USSR (80)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: Ye-8LS (no. 202)

Spacecraft Mass: 5,330 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D (8K82K no. 

257-01 + 11S824 no. 4001L)

Launch Date and Time: 28 September 1971 / 10:00:22 

UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/24

Scientific Instruments:

1. 2 TV cameras

2. gamma-ray spectrometer (ARL)

3. RV-2NLS radiation detector

4. SIM-RMCh meteoroid detector

5. SG-59M magnetometer

6. radio altimeter

Results: Luna 19 was the first “advanced” lunar 

orbiter whose design was based upon the same Ye-8-

class bus used for the lunar rovers and the sample 

collectors. For these orbiters, designated Ye-8LS, 

the basic “lander stage” was topped off by a wheelless Lunokhod-like frame that housed all scientific 

instrumentation in a pressurized container. Luna 

19 entered orbit around the Moon on 2 October 

1972 with parameters of 141.2 × 133.9 kilometers 

at 40.5° inclination. After two mid-course corrections on 29 September and 1 October, a final correction on 6 October was to put the spacecraft into 

proper altitude to begin its imaging mission. However, a failure in a gyro-platform in the orientation 

system pointed the vehicle incorrectly and Luna 19 

ended up in a much higher orbit than planned. As a 

result, the original high-resolution imaging mission 

as well as use of the radio altimeter was canceled. 

Instead, the mission was reoriented to provide 

panoramic images of the mountainous areas of the 

Moon between 30° and 60° S latitude and between 
106 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

20° and 80° E longitude. Because the vehicle was 

in a contingency spin-stabilized mode, the images 

unfortunately came out blurred (41 pictures were 

returned). In an article in Pravda on 17 February 

1973, Lavochkin Chief Designer Sergey Kryukov 

(1918–2005) noted that “prominence in the scientific mission of the Luna 19 station was given to 

the study of the gravitational field of the Moon” 

and the location of mascons. Occultation experiments in May and June 1972 allowed scientists to 

determine the concentration of charged particles 

at an altitude of 10 kilometers. Additional studies 

of the solar wind were coordinated with those performed by the Mars 2 and 3 orbiters and Veneras 

7 and 8. The gamma-ray spectrometer apparently 

failed to provide any data. Communications with 

Luna 19 was lost on 1 November 1972 after 13 

months of continuous operation (over 4,000 orbits 

of the Moon), far exceeding the planned lifetime of 

three months.
107

1972

131

Luna 20

Nation: USSR (81)

Objective(s): lunar sample return

Spacecraft: Ye-8-5 (no. 408)

Spacecraft Mass: 5,725 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D (8K82K no. 

258-01 + 11S824 no. 0801L)

Launch Date and Time: 14 February 1972 / 03:27:58 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/24

Scientific Instruments:

1. stereo imaging system

2. remote arm for sample collection

3. radiation detector

4. radio altimeter

Results: This, the eighth Soviet spacecraft launched 

to return lunar soil to Earth, was sent to complete 

the mission that Luna 18 had failed to accomplish. 

After a four-and-a-half day flight to the Moon 

that included a single mid-course correction on 

15  February, Luna 20 entered orbit around the 

Moon on February 18. Initial orbital parameters 

were 100 × 100 kilometers at 65° inclination. 

Three days later at 19:13 UT, the spacecraft fired 

its main engine for 267 seconds to begin descent 

to the lunar surface. A second firing at an altitude 

of 760 meters further reduced velocity before Luna 

20 set down safely on the Moon at 19:19:09 UT 

on 21 February 1972 at coordinates 3° 32′ N / 56° 

33′ E (as announced at the time), only 1.8 kilometers from the crash site of Luna 18, in a highland region between Mare Fecunditatis and Mare 

Crisium. The spacecraft settled on a slope of about 

8° to 10°. After landing, the imaging system was 

used to locate a scientifically promising location to 

collect a sample, which was done on 23 February, 

but in stages due to increased soil resistance. After 

the sample was safely collected, the spacecraft’s 

ascent stage lifted off at 22:58 UT on 22 February 

and quickly accelerated to 2.7 kilometers/second 

velocity, sufficient to return to Earth. The small 

spherical capsule parachuted down safely on an 

island in the Karkingir river, 40 kilometers northwest of the town of Dzhezkazgan in Kazakhstan at 

19:12 UT on 25 February 1972. The 55-gram soil 

sample differed from that collected by Luna 16 in 

that the majority (50–60%) of the rock particles in 

the newer sample were ancient anorthosite (which 

consist largely of feldspar) rather than the basalt 

of the earlier one (which contained about 1–2% 

of anorthosite). They were, in fact, quite similar 

to samples collected by the Apollo 16 astronauts 

in April 1972. Like the Luna 16 soil, samples of 

the Luna 20 collection were exchanged with 

NASA officials who delivered a sample from the 

Apollo 15 mission, the exchange taking place on 

13 April 1972. Samples were also shared with scientists from France, Czechoslovakia, Great Britain 

(both Luna 16 and 20), and India. Also, as with 

Luna 16, in 2009 and 2010, images from NASA’s 

Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) were used 

to more precisely identify Luna 20’s landing site as 

3.7866° N / 56.6242° E.
108 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

The plaque carried on Pioneers 10 and 11 showed a human male and female standing next to a Pioneer spacecraft. At 

the top left are two hydrogen atoms, each in a different energy state. Note the planets of the solar system at the bottom, 

with a line tracing Pioneer to the third planet from the Sun. Credit: NASA

132

Pioneer 10

Nation: USA (51)

Objective(s): Jupiter flyby

Spacecraft: Pioneer-F

Spacecraft Mass: 258 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / ARC

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Centaur (AC-27 / Atlas 3C 

no. 5007C / Centaur D-1A)

Launch Date and Time: 2 March 1972 / 01:49:04 UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 36A

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging photopolarimeter

2. helium vector magnetometer (HVM)

3. infrared adiometer

4. quadrispherical plasma analyzer

5. ultraviolet photometer

6. charged particle instrument (CPI)

7. cosmic ray telescope (CRT)

8. Geiger tube telescope (GTT)

9. Sisyphus asteroid/meteoroid detector (AMD)

10. meteoroid detectors

11. trapped radiation detector (TRD)

Results: Pioneer 10, the first NASA mission to the 

outer planets, garnered a series of firsts perhaps 
1972 109

unmatched by any other robotic spacecraft in the 

space era: the first vehicle placed on a trajectory 

to escape the solar system into interstellar space; 

the first spacecraft to fly beyond Mars; the first to 

fly through the asteroid belt; the first to fly past 

Jupiter; and the first to use all-nuclear electrical 

power (two SNAP-19 radioisotope thermal generators [RTGs] capable of delivering about 140 W 

during the Jupiter encounter). After launch by a 

three-stage version of the Atlas Centaur (with a 

TE-M-364-4 solid propellant engine modified from 

the Surveyor lander), Pioneer 10 reached a maximum escape velocity of 51,682 kilometers/hour, 

faster than any previous human-made object at that 

point in time. Controllers carried out two course 

corrections, on 7 March and 26 March, the latter 

to ensure an occultation experiment with Jupiter’s 

moon Io. There were some initial problems during 

the outbound voyage when direct sunlight caused 

heating problems, but nothing to endanger the 

mission. On 15 July 1972, the spacecraft entered 

the asteroid belt, emerging in February 1973 

after a 435 million-kilometer voyage. During this 

period, the spacecraft encountered some asteroid 

hits (although much less than expected) and also 

measured the intensity of Zodiacal light in interplanetary space. In conjunction with Pioneer IX 

(in solar orbit), on 7 August, Pioneer 10 recorded 

details of one of the most violent solar storms in 

recent record. At 20:30 UT on 26 November, the 

spacecraft reported a decrease in the solar wind 

from 420 to 250 kilometers/second and a 100-fold 

increase in temperature, indicating that it was passing through the front of Jupiter’s bow shock where 

the solar wind clashed with the planet’s magnetosphere. In other words, it had entered Jupiter’s 

magnetosphere. By 1 December, Pioneer 10 was 

returning better images of the planet than possible from Earth. (It had already begun imaging as 

early as 6 November 1973). Command-and-return 

time was up to 92 minutes by this time. Pioneer 

10’s closest approach to Jupiter was at 02:26 UT on 

4 December 1973 when the spacecraft raced by the 

planet at a range of 130,354 kilometers at a velocity 

of approximately 126,000 kilometers/hour. Of the 

spacecraft’s 11 scientific instruments, 6 operated 

continuously through the encounter. The spacecraft passed by a series of Jovian moons, obtaining 

photos of Callisto, Ganymede, and Europa (but not 

of Io, as the photopolarimeter succumbed to radiation by that time). Approximately 78 minutes after 

the closest approach, Pioneer 10 passed behind 

Jupiter’s limb for a radio occultation experiment. In 

addition, the infrared radiometer provided further 

information on the planet’s atmosphere. Between 

6 November and 31 December, the vehicle took 

about 500 pictures of Jupiter’s atmosphere with a 

highest resolution of 320 kilometers, clearly showing such landmarks as the Great Red Spot. The 

encounter itself was declared over on 2 January 

1974. Pioneer 10 fulfilled all objectives except 

one due to false commands triggered by Jupiter’s 

intense radiation. Based on incoming data, scientists identified plasma in Jupiter’s magnetic field. 

The spacecraft crossed Saturn’s orbit in February 

1976, recording data that indicated that Jupiter’s 

enormous magnetic tail, almost 800 million kilometers long, covered the whole distance between 

the two planets. Still operating nominally, Pioneer 

10 crossed the orbit of Neptune (then the outermost planet) on 13 June 1983, thus becoming the 

first human-made object to go beyond the furthest 

planet. NASA maintained routine contact with 

Pioneer 10 for over two decades until 19:35 UT on 

31 March 1997 (when the spacecraft was 67 AU 

from Earth) when routine contact was terminated 

due to budgetary reasons. Intermittent contact, 

however, continued, but only as permitted by the 

onboard power source, with data collections from 

the Geiger tube telescope and the charged particle instrument. Until 17 February 1998, Pioneer 

10 was the farthest human-made object in existence (69.4 AU) when it was passed by Voyager 1. 

A NASA ground team received a signal on the state 

of spacecraft systems (still nominal) on 5 August 

2000. The spacecraft returned its last telemetry 

data on 27 April 2002 and less than a year later, on 

23 January 2003, it sent its last signal back to Earth 
110 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

when it was 12.23 billion kilometers from Earth. 

That signal took 11 hours and 20 minutes to reach 

Earth. By that time, it was clear that the spacecraft’s RTG power source had decayed, thus delivering insufficient power to the radio transmitter. 

A final attempt to contact Pioneer 10 on 4 March 

2006 failed. Originally designed for a 21-month 

mission, the mission’s lifetime far exceeded expectations. By 5 November 2017, the inert Pioneer 10 

spacecraft was roughly 118.824 AUs (or 17.776 

billion kilometers) from Earth, a range second only 

to Voyager 1. The spacecraft is generally heading in 

the direction of the red star Aldebaran which forms 

the eye of the Taurus constellation. It is expected 

to pass by Aldebaran in about two million years. 

Pioneer 10 is heading out of the solar system in 

a direction very different from the two Voyager 

probes and Pioneer 11, i.e., towards the nose of the 

heliosphere in an upstream direction relative to the 

inflowing interstellar gas. In case of an intercept 

by intelligent life, Pioneer 10 carries an aluminum 

plaque with diagrams of a man and a woman, the 

solar system, and its location relative to 14 pulsars. 

The expectation is that such intelligent life would 

be able to interpret the diagram to determine the 

position of the Sun (and thus, Earth) at the time of 

launch relative to the Pulsars.

133

Venera 8

Nation: USSR (82)

Objective(s): Venus landing

Spacecraft: V-72 (3V no. 670)

Spacecraft Mass: 1,184 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Molniya-M + Blok NVL (8K78M 

no. S1500-63)

Launch Date and Time: 27 March 1972 / 04:15:06 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 31/6

Scientific Instruments:

Spacecraft Bus:

1. KS-18-4M cosmic ray detector

Lander:

1. thermometers and barometers (ITD)

2. IOV-72 photometers

3. GS-4 gamma-ray spectrometer

4. IAV-72 gas (ammonia) analyzer

5. DOU-1M accelerometer

6. radar altimeter

Results: Venera 8 was the first in new pair of 

Soviet spacecraft designed to explore Venus. 

Although similar in design to its predecessors, the 

495-kilogram lander was substantially modified, 

based on the results from Venera 7. Lavochkin 

Chief Designer Sergey Kryukov noted in an interview in Pravda on 5 August 1972 that “Venera 8 

was a logical continuation of the previous Venera7” but “the construction of the descent vehicle 

was almost completely new.” The new capsule 

was designed to withstand pressures of “only” 105 

atmospheres (versus 150 atmospheres on Venera 

7) and 493°C (instead of 540°C), had an upgraded 

parachute system, and carried extra scientific 

instrumentation. After one mid-course correction 

on 6 April 1972, Venera 8’s lander separated from 

the flyby bus at 07:40 UT on 22 July 1972 and 

entered the Venusian atmosphere 57 minutes later 

at a velocity of 11.6 kilometers/second. During 

the aerodynamic breaking segment, the descent 

module reduced its velocity from 11.6 kilometers/

second to 250 meters/second, thus surviving a maximum g-force of 335; the gas temperature in the 

shock wave at the “front” of the vehicle was more 

than 12,000°C. Successful landing took place at 

09:29  UT about 500 kilometers from the morning terminator on the sunlit side of Venus, the first 

such landing. Landing coordinates were a 10-mile 

radius of 10.7° S / 335.25° E. The probe transmitted data for another 50 minutes, 11 seconds from 

the hostile surface before succumbing to ground 

conditions. The transmitted information indicated that temperature and pressure at the landing site were 470±8°C and 90±1.5 atmospheres 
1972 111

respectively, very close to values obtained on the 

planet’s night side by Venera 7. Wind velocity was 

less than 1 kilometer/second below 10 kilometers 

altitude. Data from the gamma-ray spectrometer 

made it possible to make some determination of 

naturally occurring radioactive elements in the 

soil. Preliminary data suggested that the surface material contained 4% potassium, 0.002% 

uranium, and 0.00065% thorium. The lander 

answered one of the key questions about the surface of Venus, namely the degree of illumination 

on the ground. Based on data from the photometer, scientists concluded that “a certain portion 

of solar rays in the visible region of the spectrum 

penetrates to the surface of the planet and that 

there are significant differences in illumination 

between day and night.” The data indicated that 

visibility on the ground was about one kilometer 

at the time Venera 8 landed. The spacecraft also 

recorded a sharp change in illumination between 

30 and 35 kilometers altitude. 

134

Kosmos 482 [Venera]

Nation: USSR (83)

Objective(s): Venus landing

Spacecraft: V-72 (3V no. 671)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 1,180 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Molniya-M + Blok NVL (8K78M 

no. S1500-64)

Launch Date and Time: 31 March 1972 / 04:02:33 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 31/6

Scientific Instruments:

Spacecraft Bus:

1. KS-18-4M cosmic ray detector

Lander:

1. thermometers and barometers (ITD)

2. IOV-72 photometers

3. GS-4 gamma-ray spectrometer

4. IAV-72 gas (ammonia) analyzer

5. DOU-1M accelerometer

6. radar altimeter

Results: This was the sister craft to Venera 8, which 

was launched four days prior. Unfortunately, the 

spacecraft never left Earth orbit. The Blok NVL 

escape stage’s main engine prematurely cut off 

after only 125 seconds of firing due to a failure 

in the onboard timer. As a result, the spacecraft 

entered an elliptical orbit around Earth. Officially, 

the Soviets named the probe Kosmos 482 to disguise its true mission. The main spacecraft reentered on 5 May 1981.

135

Apollo 16 Particles and Fields 

Subsatellite

Nation: USA (52)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: Apollo 16 P&FS

Spacecraft Mass: 42 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / MSC

Launch Vehicle: Apollo 16 CSM-113 (itself launched 

by Saturn V SA-511)

Launch Date and Time: 16 April 1972 / 17:54:00 

UT (subsatellite ejection on 24 April 1972 / 

09:56:09 UT)

Launch Site: Kennedy Space Center / Launch 

Complex 39A

Scientific Instruments:

1. magnetometer

2. S-band transponder

3. charged particle detectors

Results: Nearly identical to its predecessor, the 

Apollo 16 Particles and Fields Subsatellite was 

ejected from the Apollo 16 Command and Service 

Module about 4 hours prior to the crew’s transEarth injection burn which sent them home from 

the Moon. Because of problems with the Apollo 

CSM main engine, the crew were forced to release 

the subsatellite in a low lunar orbit of 100 × 100 
112 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

kilometers at 10° inclination. Thus, the probe 

eventually crashed onto the lunar surface after 

34 days in orbit rather than the planned one year. 

Impact point was at 10.2° N / 112° E at 21:00 

UT on 29 May 1972. Because of its low orbit, 

the spacecraft did, however, return some valuable 

low-altitude data.

136

[N1 launch test, 7K-LOK no. 6A]

Nation: USSR (84)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: 7K-LOK (no. 6A)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 9,500 kg

Mission Design and Management: TsKBEM

Launch Vehicle: N1 (no. 15007)

Launch Date and Time: 23 November 1972 / 06:11:55 

UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 110/37

Scientific Instruments: [unknown]

Results: This was fourth test launch of the giant 

Soviet N1 booster. The first two, launched in 1969, 

had attempted to send rigged up 7K-L1 spacecraft 

to lunar orbit. The third booster, launched in June 

1971, had carried a payload mockup for tests in 

Earth orbit. All three had failed. This fourth launch 

was intended to send a fully equipped 7K-LOK 

spacecraft (similar to a beefed-up Soyuz) on a 

robotic lunar orbiting mission during which the 

spacecraft would spend 3.7 days circling the Moon 

(over 42 orbits) taking photographs of future landing sites for piloted missions. The booster lifted 

off without problems, but a few seconds prior to 

first stage cutoff, at T+107 seconds, a powerful 

explosion ripped apart the bottom of the first stage, 

destroying unequivocally Soviet hopes of sending 

cosmonauts to the Moon. There was never a conclusive reason for the failure, with some suggesting 

that there had been an engine failure and others 

convinced that the scheduled shutdown of six central engines just prior to the explosion had caused 

a structural shockwave that eventually caused 

the explosion.
113

1973

137

Luna 21 and Lunokhod 2

Nation: USSR (85)

Objective(s): lunar roving operations

Spacecraft: Ye-8 (no. 204)

Spacecraft Mass: 5,700 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D (8K82K no. 

259-01 + 11S824 no. 205L)

Launch Date and Time: 8 January 1973 / 06:55:38 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/23

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging system (three low resolution TV + 

four high resolution photometers)

2. RIFMA-M x-ray fluorescence spectrometer

3. PROP penetrometer

4. TL-2 laser reflector (with Rubin-1 photo 

receiver)

5. RV-2N radiation detector

6. x-ray telescope

7. odometer/speedometer

8. AF-3L visible/ultraviolet photometer

9. SG-70A tricomponent magnetometer

10. photodetector

Results: Luna 21 carried the second successful 

Soviet “8YeL” lunar rover, Lunokhod 2. Launched 

less than a month after the last Apollo lunar landing, Luna 21 entered orbit around the Moon on 

12 January 1973 (after a single mid-course correction en route). Parameters were 110 × 90 kilometers 

at 60° inclination. On 15 January, the spacecraft 

deorbited, and after multiple engine firings, landed 

on the Moon at 22:35 UT the same day inside the 

55-kilometer wide LeMonnier crater at 25° 51′ N / 

30° 27′ E (as announced at the time) between 

Mare Serenitatis and the Taurus Mountains, about 

180 kilometers north of the Apollo 17 landing site. 

Less than 3 hours later, at 01:14 UT on 16 January, 

the rover disembarked onto the lunar surface. The 

840 kilogram Lunokhod 2 was an improved version of its predecessor, and was equipped with two 

types of television cameras. The first consisted 

of two vidicon cameras (“small frame television” 

cameras according to the Soviet media) for transmitting information to help basic navigation control. A second set consisted of four pair-mounted, 

side-carried panoramic opto-mechanical cycloramic cameras. The rover also included an improved 

8-wheel traction system and additional scientific 

instrumentation, including significantly, a magnetometer. By the end of its first lunar day, 23 January 

1973, Lunokhod 2 had already traveled further 

than Lunokhod 1 in its entire operational life. The 

main focus of investigations during the second 

lunar day, which ended on 22 February, was a study 

of the transitional mare highlands in the southern 

part of the LeMonnier Crater, including stereoscopic panoramic television imagery of the surface, 

measurement of the lunar soil’s chemical properties, and taking magnetic readings. By this time, 

the rover had travelled a total of 11.067 kilometers. 

For the ground “crew” navigating Lunokhod, there 

were times of high stress, compounded by the time 

lag between Earth and Moon. Izvestiya reported 

on 13 March 1973 that at times “crew” members 

pulses reached 130–135 beats per minute with 

one individual holding their breath in nervousness 

for 15–20 seconds. During the fourth lunar day, 

which began on 9 April, Lunokhod 2 traveled right 

to the edge of a large tectonic fault in the eastern 

area of the littoral zone of the LeMonnier Crater, 

an area that was very difficult to traverse given 
114 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

the proliferation of rocks up to 2–3 meters in size. 

By the end of the fourth lunar day on 23 April it 

had travelled 36.2 kilometers. On 9 May the rover 

was commanded to leave the area of the fault but 

inadvertently rolled into a crater, with dust covering its solar panels, disrupting temperatures in the 

vehicle. Attempts to save the rover failed, and on 

3 June the Soviet news agency announced that its 

mission was over. An official internal Soviet report 

on Lunokhod 2 noted that the rover had “ended its 

operations” earlier, at 12:25 UT on 10 May 1973, 

after temperatures had reached up to 43–47°C and 

on board systems had shut down. All subsequent 

attempts at contact apparently failed. Before last 

contact, the rover took 80,000 TV pictures and 86 

panoramic photos and had performed hundreds of 

mechanical and chemical surveys of the soil, including 25 soil analyses with the RIF-MA (Rentgenskiy 

izotopnyy fluorestsentnyy metod analyiza or x-ray 

Isotopic Fluorescence Analysis Method) instrument. Despite the formal end of the mission, 

experiments with the French TL-2 laser reflector 

continued for decades, and were much more successful than the rangings carried out with the similar instrument on Lunokhod 1. At the time of the 

Lunokhod 2 mission, scientists calculated a total 

travel distance of 37.5 kilometers, about three-anda-half times more than its predecessor. An extended 

summary of the scientific results from the mission 

was published in Pravda on 20 November 1973. 

The Soviets later revealed that during a conference 

on planetary exploration in Moscow held from 29 

January to 2 February 1973 (i.e., after the landing of Luna 21), an American scientist had given 

photos of the lunar surface around the Luna 21 

landing site to a Soviet engineer in charge of the 

Lunokhod 2 mission. These photos, taken prior 

to the Apollo 17 landing, were later used by the 

“driver team” to navigate the new rover on its mission on the Moon. Later, in 2013, based on imagery 

from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO), 

Russian researchers led by Irina Karachevtseva at 

the Moscow State University’s Institute of Geodesy 

and Cartography (MIIGAiK), recalculated the 

total distance travelled and came to a more precise 

number of between 42.1 and 42.2 kilometers. The 

original landing site location was also sharpened to 

25.99° N / 30.41° E.

138

Pioneer 11

Nation: USA (53)

Objective(s): Jupiter flyby, Saturn flyby

Spacecraft: Pioneer-G

Spacecraft Mass: 258.5 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / ARC

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Centaur (AC-30 / Atlas 3D 

no. 5011D / Centaur D-1A)

Launch Date and Time: 6 April 1973 / 02:11 UT

Launch Site: Cape Kennedy / Launch Complex 36B

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging photopolarimeter

2. helium vector magnetometer (HVM)

3. infrared radiometer

4. quadrispherical plasma analyzer

5. ultraviolet photometer

6. charged particle instrument (CPI)

7. cosmic ray telescope (CRT)

8. Geiger tube telescope (GTT)

9. Sisyphus asteroid/meteoroid detector (AMD)

10. meteoroid detectors

11. trapped radiation detector (TRD)

12. triaxial fluxgate magnetometer

Results: Pioneer 11, the sister spacecraft to Pioneer 

10, was the first human-made object to fly past 

Saturn and also returned the first pictures of the 

polar regions of Jupiter. After boost by the TE-M364-4 engine, the spacecraft sped away from Earth 

at a velocity of 51,800 kilometers/hour, thus equaling the speed of its predecessor, Pioneer 10. During 

the outbound journey, there were a number of malfunctions on the spacecraft—including the momentary failure of one of the RTG booms to deploy, a 

problem with an attitude control thruster, and the 

partial failure of the asteroidal dust detector—but 
1973 115

Completed in 1973, Deep Space Station 63 (DSS-63) was the third 64-meter antenna of NASA’s 

Deep Space Network. Located in Robledo de Chevala near Madrid, DSS-63 received its first 

signals from Pioneer 10 and Mariner 10. Credit: NASA

none of these jeopardized the mission. Pioneer 11 

passed through the asteroid belt without damage 

by mid-March 1974. Soon, on 26  April 1974, it 

performed a mid-course correction (after an earlier 

one on 11 April 1973) to guide it much closer to 

Jupiter than Pioneer 10 and ensure a polar flyby. 

Pioneer 11 penetrated the Jovian bow shock on 

25 November 1974 at 03:39 UT. The spacecraft’s 

closest approach to Jupiter occurred at 05:22 UT 

on 3 December 1974 at a range of 42,500 kilometers from the planet’s cloud tops, three times 

closer than Pioneer 10. By this time, it was travelling faster than any human-made object at the 

time, 171,000 kilometers/hour. Because of its high 

speed during the encounter, the spacecraft’s exposure to Jupiter’s radiation belts spanned a shorter 

time than its predecessor although it was actually 

closer to the planet. Pioneer 11 repeatedly crossed 

Jupiter’s bow shock, indicating that the Jovian magnetosphere changes its boundaries as it is buffeted 

by the solar wind. Besides the many images of 

the planet (and better pictures of the Great Red 

Spot), Pioneer 11 took about 200 images of the 

moons of Jupiter. The vehicle then used Jupiter’s 

massive gravitational field to swing back across 

the solar system to set it on a course to Saturn. 

After its Jupiter encounter, on 16 April 1975, the 

micrometeoroid detector was turned off since it 

was issuing spurious commands which were interfering with other instruments. Mid-course corrections on 26 May 1976 and 13 July 1978 sharpened 

its trajectory towards Saturn. Pioneer 11 detected 

Saturn’s bow shock on 31 August 1979, about a 

million-and-a-half kilometers out from the planet, 

thus providing the first conclusive evidence of the 

existence of Saturn’s magnetic field. The spacecraft crossed the planet’s ring plane beyond the 

outer ring at 14:36 UT on 1 September 1979 

and then passed by the planet at 16:31 UT for a 

close encounter at 20,900-kilometer range. It was 
116 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

moving at a relative velocity of 114,100 kilometers/

hour at the point of closest approach. During the 

encounter, the spacecraft took 440 images of the 

planetary system, with about 20 at a resolution of 

90 kilometers. Those of Saturn’s moon Titan (at 

a resolution of 180 kilometers) showed a featureless orange fuzzy satellite. A brief burst of data on 

Titan indicated that the average global temperature 

of Titan was –193°C. Among Pioneer 11’s many 

discoveries were a narrow ring outside the A ring 

named the “F” ring and a new satellite 200 kilometers in diameter. The spacecraft recorded the 

planet’s overall temperature at –180°C and photographs indicated a more featureless atmosphere 

than that of Jupiter. Analysis of data suggested that 

the planet was primarily made of liquid hydrogen. 

After leaving Saturn, Pioneer 11 headed out of 

the solar system in a direction opposite to that of 

Pioneer 10, i.e., to the center of galaxy in the general direction of Sagittarius. Pioneer 11 crossed the 

orbit of Neptune on 23 February 1990 becoming 

the fourth spacecraft (after Pioneer 10, Voyager 

1 and 2) to do so. Scientists expected that during 

their outbound journeys, both Pioneer 10 and 11 

would find the boundary of the heliosphere where 

the solar wind slows down and forms a “termination shock,” beyond which there would be the 

heliopause and finally the bow shock of the interstellar medium, i.e., space beyond the solar system. 

By 1995, 22 years after launch, two instruments 

were still operational on the vehicle. NASA Ames 

Research Center made last contact with the spacecraft on 30 September 1995 when Pioneer 11 was 

44.1 AU from Earth. Scientists later received a few 

minutes of good engineering data on 24 November 

1995 but lost contact again once Earth moved out 

of view of the spacecraft’s antenna. Like Pioneer 

10, Pioneer 11 also carries a plaque with a message 

for any intelligent beings. By 5 November 2017, it 

was estimated to be about 97.590 AU (or 14.599 

billion kilometers) from Earth.

139

Explorer 49

Nation: USA (54)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: RAE-B

Spacecraft Mass: 330.2 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / GSFC

Launch Vehicle: Delta 1913 (DSV-3P-11 no. 95 or 

“Delta-95” / Thor no. 581)

Launch Date and Time: 10 June 1973 / 14:13:00 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral / Launch Complex 17B

Scientific Instruments:

1. galactic studies experiment

2. sporadic low-frequency solar radio bursts 

experiment

3. sporadic Jovian bursts experiment

4. radio emission from terrestrial magnetosphere experiment

5. cosmic source observation experiment

Results: Explorer 49 was the final U.S. lunar mission 

for 21 years (until Clementine in 1994). The spacecraft, part of a duo of Radio Astronomy Explorer 

(RAE) missions (other being Explorer 48), was 

designed to conduct comprehensive studies of low 

frequency radio emissions from the Sun, Moon, 

Artist’s impression of fully deployed Explorer 49 in orbit 

around the Moon. Credit: NASA
1973 117

the planets, and other galactic and extra-galactic 

sources, while in a circular orbit around the Moon. 

Its location was driven by the need to avoid terrestrial radio interference. After launch on a direct 

ascent trajectory to the Moon and one mid-course 

correction on 11 June, Explorer 49 fired its insertion motor on 07:21 UT on 15 June to enter orbit 

around the Moon. Initial orbital parameters were 

1,334 × 1,123 kilometers at 61.3° inclination. On 

18 June the spacecraft jettisoned its main engine 

and, using its Velocity Control Propulsion System, 

circularized its orbit to 1,063 × 1,052 kilometers 

at 38.7° inclination. The spacecraft was the largest human-made object to orbit the Moon with its 

deployed antennas measuring 457.2 meters (nearly 

half a kilometer!) tip-to-tip. These antennas, 

as well as a 192-meter long damper boom and a 

36.6-meter dipole antenna were all stored away on 

motor-driven reels which allowed them to unfurl 

in lunar orbit. Once in lunar orbit, the spacecraft 

deployed its various antennae in stages, assuming 

its full form by November 1974. During its mission, Explorer 49 studied low-frequency radio 

emissions from the solar system (including the Sun 

and Jupiter) and other galactic and extra-galactic 

sources. NASA announced completion of the mission in June 1975 although contact was maintained 

until August 1977.

140

Mars 4

Nation: USSR (86)

Objective(s): Mars orbit

Spacecraft: M-73S (3MS no. 52S)

Spacecraft Mass: 4,000 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D (8K82K no. 

261-01 + 11S824 1701L)

One of 12 images taken by the Vega imaging system on 

board the Soviet Mars 4 spacecraft. The vehicle failed to 

enter orbit around Mars but took these photos during its 

flyby on 10 February 1974. Credit: Don Mitchell

Launch Date and Time: 21 July 1973 / 19:30:59 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/23

Scientific Instruments:

1. atmospheric radio-probing instrument

2. radiotelescope

3. infrared radiometer

4. spectrophotometer

5. narrow-band photometer

6. narrow-band interference-polarization 

photometer

7. imaging system (OMS scanner + 2 TV 

cameras)

8. photometers

9. two polarimeters

10. ultraviolet photometer

11. scattered solar radiation photometer

12. gamma spectrometer

13. magnetometer

14. plasma traps

15. multi-channel electrostatic analyzer
118 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

Results: Mars 4 was one of four Soviet spacecraft of 

the 3MS (or M-73) series launched in 1973. Soviet 

planners were eager to preempt the American 

Viking missions planned for 1976 but were limited 

by the less advantageous positions of the planets 

which allowed the Proton-K/Blok D boosters to 

launch only limited payloads towards Mars. The 

Soviets thus separated the standard pair of orbiter-lander payload combinations into two orbiters 

and two landers. Less than four months prior to 

launch, ground testing detected a major problem with the 2T312 transistors (developed by the 

Pulsar Scientific-Research Institute) used on all 

four vehicles, apparently because the factory that 

manufactured it used aluminum contacts instead 

of gold-plated contacts. An analysis showed that 

the transistors’ failure rate began to increase after 

1.5 to 2 years operation, i.e., just about when the 

spacecraft would reach Mars. Despite the roughly 

50% odds of success, the government decided to 

proceed with the missions. The first spacecraft, 

Mars 4, successfully left Earth orbit and headed 

towards Mars and accomplished a single midcourse correction on 30 July 1973, but soon two 

of three channels of the onboard computer failed 

due to the faulty transistors. As a result, the second 

mid-course correction by its main 11D425A 

engine could not be implemented. With no possibility for Mars orbit insertion, Mars 4 flew by the 

Red Planet at 15:34 UT on 10 February 1974 at a 

range of 1,844 kilometers. Ground control was able 

to command the vehicle to turn on its TV imaging 

system (Vega-3MSA) 2 minutes prior to this point 

(at 15:32:41) to begin a short photography session 

of the Martian surface during the flyby. (The other 

TV camera system known as Zufar-2SA was never 

turned on due to a failure). The TV camera took 

12 standard images from ranges of 1,900 to 2,100 

kilometers distance over a period of 6 minutes. The 

other OMS scanner also provided two panoramas 

of the surface. The spacecraft eventually entered 

heliocentric orbit.

141

Mars 5

Nation: USSR (87)

Objective(s): Mars orbit

Spacecraft: M-73S (3MS no. 53S)

Spacecraft Mass: 4,000 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D (Proton-K no. 

262-01 + 11S824 no. 1801L)

Launch Date and Time: 25 July 1973 / 18:55:48 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/24

Scientific Instruments:

1. atmospheric radio-probing instrument

2. radiotelescope

3. infrared radiometer

4. spectrophotometer

5. narrow-band photometer

6. narrow-band interference-polarization 

photometer

7. imaging system (OMS scanner + 2 TV 

cameras)

8. photometers

9. VPM-73 polarimeter unit

10. ultraviolet photometer

11. scattered solar radiation photometer

12. gamma spectrometer

13. magnetometer

14. plasma traps

15. multi-channel electrostatic analyzer

Results: Mars 5 was the sister Mars orbiter to Mars 4. 

After two mid-course corrections on 3 August 1973 

and 2 February 1974, Mars 5 successfully fired its 

main engine at 15:44:25 UT to enter orbit around 

the planet. Initial orbital parameters were 1,760 × 

32,586 kilometers at 35° 19′ 17′′ inclination. Soon 

after orbital insertion, ground controllers detected 

the slow depressurization of the main instrument 

compartment on the orbiter, probably as a result of 

an impact with a particle during or after orbital insertion. Calculations showed that at the current rate 
1973 119

of air loss, the spacecraft would be operational for 

approximately three more weeks. Scientists drew up 

a special accelerated science program that included 

imaging of the surface at 100-meter resolution. Five 

imaging sessions on 17, 21, 23, 25 and 26 February 

1974 produced a total of 108 frames of comprising 

only 43 usable photographs. Both the high-resolution 

Vega-3MSA and the survey Zufar-2SA TV cameras 

were used. Additionally, Mars 5 used the OMS scanner to take five panoramas of the surface. The last 

communication with Mars 5, when the final panorama was transmitted back to Earth, took place on 

28 February 1974, after which pressure in the spacecraft reduced below working levels. Mars 5’s photos, 

some of which were of comparable quality to those 

of Mariner 9, clearly showed surface features which 

indicated erosion caused by free-flowing water. The 

first of these images taken by both the television 

cameras were published in the Academy of Sciences’ 

journal in the fall of 1974. Among significant achievements claimed for Mars 5 was “receipt of mean data 

on the chemical composition of rocks on Mars for the 

first time.” The vehicle was supposed to act as a data 

relay for the Mars 6 and Mars 7 landers which arrived 

in March 1974 but was obviously unable to do so.

Composite of images taken by the 

Soviet Mars 5 spacecraft from Martian orbit on 23 February 1974. Credit: 

Don Mitchell

142

Mars 6

Nation: USSR (88)

Objective(s): Mars flyby and Mars landing

Spacecraft: M-73P (3MP no. 50P)

Spacecraft Mass: 3,880 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D (8K82K no. 

281-01 + 11S824 no. 1901L)

Launch Date and Time: 5 August 1973 / 17:45:48 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/23

Scientific Instruments:

Spacecraft Bus:

1. magnetometer

2. plasma traps

3. cosmic ray sensors

4. micrometeoroid detectors

5. Gémeaux-S1 and Gémeaux-T instruments 

for study of solar proton and electron fluxes

6. Stereo-5 antenna

Lander:

1. thermometer

2. barometer

3. accelerometer

4. radio-altimeter

5. mass spectrometer

6. soil analyzer

The Soviet Mars 6 spacecraft. The lander aeroshell is visible on top. Credit: Don Mitchell
120 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

Results: Mars 6 was one of two combination flyby-lander launched by the Soviet Union during the 

1973 launch period. The landers were very similar 

in design to the Mars 2 and Mars 3 landers dispatched by the Soviets in 1971, except the spacecraft was now comprised of a flyby vehicle (instead 

of an orbiter) and a 1,000-kilogram lander. Mars 6 

completed its first mid-course correction en route 

to Mars at 23:45 UT on 12 August 1973, but immediately a tape recorder on board failed, forcing controllers to use a backup. Then on 3  September, 

there was a major failure in the telemetry system 

that transmitted scientific and operations data 

from the spacecraft. Only two channels remained 

operational, neither of which provided the ground 

with any direct data on the status of the flyby 

vehicle’s systems. Controllers could only use a 

time-consuming “playback” mode for the reception 

of data. Ultimately, the flyby spacecraft automatically performed all its functions and at 05:01:56 

UT (signal reception time) on 12 March 1974, 

the lander successfully separated from its mother 

ship at a distance of 46,000 kilometers from Mars. 

About 4 hours later, at 09:05:53 UT, it entered the 

Martian atmosphere at a velocity of 5,600 meters/

second. The parachute system deployed correctly 

at an altitude of 20 kilometers (at 09:08:32) when 

speed had been reduced to about 600 meters/

second, and scientific instruments began to collect 

and transmit data (to the flyby vehicle) as the probe 

descended. The only useful data was, however, 

directly from the lander to Earth, and its information was rather “weak” and difficult to decode. 

It appeared that the lander was rocking back and 

forth under its parachute far more vigorously than 

expected. Nevertheless, Mars 6 returned the first 

direct measurements of the temperature and 

pressure of the Martian atmosphere as well as its 

chemical composition (using the radio-frequency 

mass spectrometer) to Earth. The data indicated 

that argon made up about one-third of the Martian 

atmosphere. Moments before the expected landing, the ground lost contact with the probe. The 

last confirmed data was information on ignition of 

the soft-landing engines received about 2 seconds 

before impact, the probe landing at 09:11:05 UT at 

23.9° S / 19.5° W. Later investigation never conclusively identified a single cause of loss of contact. Probable reasons included failure of the radio 

system or landing in a geographically rough area. 

The Mars 6 flyby bus, meanwhile, collected some 

scientific information during its short flyby (at a 

minimum range of 1,600 kilometers to the surface) 

before heading into heliocentric orbit.

143

Mars 7

Nation: USSR (89)

Objective(s): Mars flyby and Mars landing

Spacecraft: M-73P (3MP no. 51P)

Spacecraft Mass: 3,880 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D (8K82K no. 

281-02 + 11S824 no. 2001L)

Launch Date and Time: 9 August 1973 / 17:00:17 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/24

Scientific Instruments:

Spacecraft Bus:

1. magnetometer

2. plasma traps

3. KM-73 cosmic ray detector

4. micrometeoroid detectors

5. Gémeaux-S1 and Gémeaux-T instruments 

for study of solar proton and electron fluxes

6. Stereo-5 antenna

Lander:

1. thermometer

2. barometer

3. accelerometer

4. radio-altimeter

5. mass spectrometer

6. soil analyzer
1973 121

Results: Mars 7 was the last of the four Soviet 

spacecraft sent to Mars in the 1973 launch period 

(although it arrived at Mars prior to Mars 6). On 

its way to Mars, the spacecraft performed a single 

mid-course correction at 20:00 UT on 16 August 

1973. En route to Mars, there were failures in the 

communications systems, and controllers were 

forced to maintain contact via the only remaining 

radio-communications complex. On 9 March 1974, 

the flyby spacecraft ordered the lander capsule to 

separate for its entry into the Martian atmosphere. 

Although the lander initially refused to “accept” 

the command to separate, it eventually did. Ultimately, the lander’s main retro-rocket engine failed 

to fire to initiate entry into the Martian atmosphere. As a result, the lander flew by the planet at 

a range of 1,300 kilometers and eventually entered 

heliocentric orbit. The flyby probe did, however, 

manage to collect data during its encounter with 

the Red Planet while contact was maintained until 

25 March 1974. Both the failures on Mars 4 (computer failure) and 7 (retro-rocket ignition failure) 

were probably due to the faulty transistors installed 

in the circuits of the onboard computer which were 

detected prior to launch. Data from Mars 7 was 

being analyzed as late as 2003 when researchers 

published results based on data collected by the 

KM-73 cosmic ray detector in September 1973 en 

route to Mars.

144

Mariner 10

Nation: USA (55)

Objective(s): Mercury flyby, Venus flyby

Spacecraft: Mariner-73J / Mariner-J

Spacecraft Mass: 502.9 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Centaur (AC-34 / Atlas 3D 

no. 5014D / Centaur D-1A)

Launch Date and Time: 3 November 1973 / 05:45:00 

UT

Mariner 10 took this image of Venus on 5 February 1974. 

The original photo was color-enhanced to provide more 

contrast in Venus’s cloudy atmosphere. Credit: NASA

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral / Launch Complex 36B

Scientific Instruments:

1. 2 telescopes/cameras

2. infrared radiometer

3. ultraviolet airglow spectrometer

4. ultraviolet occultation spectrometer

5. magnetometer

6. charged particle telescope

7. plasma analyzer

Results: Mariner 10 was the first spacecraft sent to 

the planet Mercury; the first mission to explore 

two planets (Mercury and Venus) during a single 

mission; the first to use gravity-assist to change 

its flight-path; the first to return to its target after 

an initial encounter; and the first to use the solar 

wind as a major means of spacecraft orientation 

during flight. The primary goal of the Mariner 10 

was to study the atmosphere (if any), surface, and 

physical characteristics of Mercury. Soon after 

leaving Earth orbit, the spacecraft returned striking photos of both Earth and the Moon as it sped 

to its first destination, Venus. During the coast, 

there were numerous technical problems, including malfunctions in the high-gain antenna and the 

attitude control system. In January 1974, Mariner 

10 successfully returned data (sans photographs) 
122 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

on Comet C/1973 E1 Kohoutek, the first time a 

spacecraft returned data on a long-period comet. 

After mid-course corrections on 13  November 

1973 and 21 January 1974, Mariner 10 approached 

Venus for a gravity-assist maneuver to send it 

towards Mercury. On 5 February 1974, the spacecraft began returning images of Venus, the first 

picture showing the day-night terminator of the 

planet as a thin bright line. Overall, Mariner 10 

returned a total of 4,165 photos of the Venus 

and collected important scientific data during its 

encounter. Closest flyby range was 5,768 kilometers at 17:01 UT on 5 February. Assisted by 

Venusian gravity, the spacecraft now headed to the 

innermost planet, which it reached after another 

mid-course correction on 16 March 1974. As 

Mariner 10 approached Mercury, photos began to 

show a very Moon-like surface with craters, ridges, 

and chaotic terrain. The spacecraft’s magnetometers revealed a weak magnetic field. Radiometer 

readings suggested nighttime temperatures of 

–183°C and maximum daytime temperatures 

of 187°C. Closest encounter came at 20:47 UT 

on 29 March 1974 at a range of 703 kilometers. 

An occultation experiment as the vehicle crossed 

behind the nightside of the planet indicated a lack 

of an atmosphere or ionosphere. Leaving Mercury 

behind, the spacecraft looped around the Sun 

and headed back to its target, helped along by 

subsequent course corrections on 9 May, 10 May, 

and 2 July 1974. Mariner 10 flew by Mercury once 

more on at 20:59 UT on 21 September 1974 at 

a more distant 48,069 kilometers range, adding 

imagery of the southern polar region. The spacecraft used solar pressure on its solar panels and 

high-gain antenna for attitude control. Mariner 10 

once again sped away from Mercury before a final 

and third encounter with Mercury, enabled by 

three maneuvers (on 30 October 1974, 13 February 

1975, and 7 March 1975), the last one actually to 

avoid impact with the planet. The third flyby, at 

22:39 UT on 16 March 1975, was the closest to 

Mercury, at a range of 327 kilometers. Because of 

the failure of a tape recorder and restrictions in the 

rate of data reception, only the central quarter of 

each of 300 high resolution images was received 

during this encounter. Last contact with the spacecraft was at 12:21 UT on 24 March 1975 after the 

spacecraft exhausted its supply of gas for attitude 

control. Overall, Mariner 10 returned over 2,700 

pictures during its three Mercury flybys that covered nearly half of the planet’s surface. Some of the 

images showed detail as small as 100 meters wide. 

Perhaps the most impressive surface feature was 

the Caloris basin, characterized by a set of concentric rings and ridges and about 2,500 kilometers in 

diameter. The mission was the last visit to Mercury 

by a robotic probe for more than 30 years.
123

1974

145

Luna 22

Nation: USSR (90)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: Ye-8LS (no. 206)

Spacecraft Mass: 5,700 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D (8K82K no. 

282-02 + 11S824 no. 0701L)

Launch Date and Time: 29 May 1974 / 08:56:51 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/24

Scientific Instruments:

1. 2 TV cameras

2. ARL-M gamma-ray spectrometer

3. RV-2N-1 radiation detector

4. SIM-RMCh meteoroid detector

5. SG-70 magnetometer

6. AKR-1 low-frequency space radio wave 

detector

7. 8 pairs of friction materials with different 

lubricants

8. 12 kinds of coatings with different reflective properties

9. Vega radio-altimeter

Results: Luna 22 was the second of two “advanced” 

lunar orbiters (the first being Luna 19) designed 

to conduct extensive scientific surveys from 

orbit. Launched about a year after termination of 

Lunokhod 2 operations on the lunar surface, Luna 

22 performed a single mid-course correction en 

route the Moon on 30 May before entering lunar 

orbit on 2 June 1974. Initial orbital parameters 

were 219 × 222 kilometers at 19° 35′ inclination. 

An orbital correction on 9 June put the spacecraft 

in its nominal orbit of 244 × 25 kilometers for its 

primary imaging mission. The spacecraft carried 

out four mapping sessions; a fifth one was canceled 

due to a significant decrease in the perilune from 

24.5 kilometers (on 9 June) to 15.4 kilometers (on 

12 June). Nevertheless, Luna 22 provided the best 

Soviet imagery of the Moon. In addition to its primary mission of surface photography, Luna 22 also 

performed investigations to determine the chemical composition of the lunar surface, recorded 

meteoroid activity, searched for a lunar magnetic 

field, measured solar and cosmic radiation flux, 

and continued studies of the irregular magnetic 

field. Through various orbital changes—including 

a burn on 11 November 1974 to put the vehicle 

into a high 1,437 × 171-kilometer orbit to conduct 

gravitational experiments—Luna 22 performed 

without any problems, continuing to return photos 

15 months into the mission, although its primary 

mission ended by 2 April 1975. The spacecraft’s 

maneuvering propellant was finally depleted on 

2 September and the highly successful mission was 

formally terminated in early November 1975. Luna 

22 remains the final Soviet or Russian dedicated 

lunar orbiter.

146

Luna 23

Nation: USSR (91)

Objective(s): lunar sample return

Spacecraft: Ye-8-5M (no. 410)

Spacecraft Mass: 5,795 kg

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ imeni 

Lavochkina
124 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D (8K82K no. 

285-01 + 11S824 no. 0901L)

Launch Date and Time: 28 October 1974 / 14:30:32 

UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/24

Scientific Instruments:

1. stereo imaging system

2. LB09 drill for sample collection

3. radiation detector

4. radio altimeter

Results: Luna 23 was the first modified lunar sample 

return spacecraft, designed to return a deep core 

sample of the Moon’s surface (hence the change 

in index from Ye-8-5 to Ye-8-5M). The main differences were the use of a new drilling and sampling instrument, the LB09, the removal of the 

low-altitude Kvant altimeter, and lightening of the 

torroidal instrument compartment. The diameter of 

the container containing soil in the return capsule 

had also been increased from 68 to 100 mm. While 

Luna 16 and 20 had returned samples from a depth 

of 0.3 meters, the new spacecraft was designed to 

dig to 2.3 meters. After a mid-course correction 

on 31 October, Luna 23 entered orbit around the 

moon on 2 November 1974. Parameters were 104 

× 94 kilometers at 138° inclination. Following 

several more changes to the orbit, the spacecraft 

descended to the lunar surface on November  6. 

The first part of the descent occurred without 

anomalies until the vehicle was at 2.28-kilometer 

altitude. At that point, the DA-018 Doppler radar 

was switched on to provide data on the final stage 

of descent. At a height of 130 meters, however, 

all altitude measurements stopped. Nevertheless, 

the vehicle managed to land in one piece despite a 

landing velocity of 11 meters/second (instead of 5 

meters/second). Landing was in the southernmost 

portion of Mare Crisium at 12° 41′ N / 62° 17′ E. 

As a result of the hard landing, equipment on the 

lander was damaged—there was a depressurization of the instrument compartment and failure 

of a transmitter. Subsequent attempts to activate 

the drill all failed, preventing fulfillment of the 

primary mission, the return of lunar soil to Earth. 

Controllers devised a makeshift plan to conduct a 

limited science exploration program with the stationary lander and maintained contact with the 

spacecraft until 9 November 1974. Images from 

NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) in 

2012 showed that Luna 23 was actually laying on 

its side on the lunar surface.

147

Helios 1

Nation: Federal Republic of Germany (1)

Objective(s): heliocentric orbit

Spacecraft: Helios-A

Spacecraft Mass: 370 kg

Mission Design and Management: DFVLR / NASA / 

GSFC

Launch Vehicle: Titan IIIE-Centaur (TC-2 / Titan 

no. 23E-2 / Centaur D-1T)

Launch Date and Time: 10 November 1974 / 07:11:02 

UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral / Launch Complex 41

Scientific Instruments:

1. plasma detector

2. flux gate magnetometer

3. 2nd flux gate magnetometer

4. plasma and radio wave experiment

5. cosmic ray detector

6. low energy electron and ion spectrometer

7. zodiacal light photometer

8. micrometeoroid analyzer

9. search coil magnetometer

10. Faraday effect experiment

Results: Helios 1 was a joint German-U.S. deep 

space mission to study the main solar processes 

and solar-terrestrial relationships. Specifically, 

the spacecraft’s instruments were designed to 

investigate phenomena such as solar wind, magnetic and electric fields, cosmic rays, and cosmic 

dust in regions between Earth’s orbit and approximately 0.3 AU from the Sun. It was the largest 

bilateral project to date for NASA with Germany 
1974 125

paying about $180 million of the total $260 million cost. The Federal Republic of Germany (West 

Germany) provided the spacecraft, named after the 

Greek god of the Sun, and NASA the launch vehicles. After launch, Helios 1 entered into a parking 

orbit around Earth and then sent into an elliptical orbit around the Sun at 0.985 × 0.3095 AU at 

0.02° inclination to the ecliptic. The Centaur boost 

stage on this mission, after separation from the first 

stage, conducted a set of maneuvers to provide 

data for the (then-called) Mariner Jupiter-Saturn 

missions planned for launches in 1977. By January 

1975, control of the mission had been transferred 

from the U.S. to West Germany, which faced a 

few minor communications problems, especially 

with antennas for both the American and German 

plasma wave experiments. On 15 March 1975, 

Helios 1 passed within 46 million kilometers of 

the Sun (at perihelion) at a speed of 238,000 kilometers/hour, a distance that was the closest any 

human-made object had been to our nearest star. 

The spacecraft achieved a second close flyby of the 

Sun on 21 September 1975 when temperatures on 

its solar cells reached 132°C. During its mission, 

the spacecraft spun once every second to evenly 

distribute the heat coming from the Sun, 90% of 

which was reflected by optical surface mirrors. 

Its data indicated the presence of 15 times more 

micrometeoroids close to the Sun than there are 

near Earth. Helios 1’s data was correlated with 

the Interplanetary Monitoring Platform (IMP) 

Explorers 47 and 50 in Earth orbit, the Pioneer 

solar orbiters, and Pioneer 10 and 11 leaving the 

solar system. Data was received through the late 

1970s and early 1980s but after 1984, both primary and backup receivers failed and the high-gain 

antenna lost tracking of Earth. Last telemetry from 

the spacecraft was received on 10 February 1986 

after which the spacecraft automatically shut down 

its transmitter due to lack of power.

127

1975

148

Venera 9

Nation: USSR (92)

Objective(s): Venus orbit and landing

Spacecraft: 4V-1 (no. 660)

Spacecraft Mass: 4,936 kg (in Earth orbit)

Mission Design and Management: NPO imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D-1 (8K82K no. 

286-01 + 11S824M no. 1L)

Launch Date and Time:8 June 1975 / 02:38:00 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/24

Scientific Instruments:

Orbiter:

1. imaging system

2. infrared radiometer

3. infrared radiometer

4. photometer

5. photopolarimeter

6. ultraviolet imaging spectrometer

7. radiophysics experiment

8. magnetometer

9. plasma electrostatic spectrometer

10. charged particle traps

Lander:

1. panoramic imaging system

2. 5 thermometers

3. 6 barometers

4. mass spectrometer

5. anemometer (ISV)

6. IOV-75 photometers

7. MNV-75 nephelometers

8. gamma-ray spectrometer

9. radiation densitometer

10. accelerometers

Three versions of the first surface panoramic image taken by Venera 

9 on Venus. In the upper image, made up of the raw 6-bit data, the 

vertical lines represent telemetry bursts that interrupted the image 

data. The second and third images have been processed by American 

researcher Don Mitchell. These were the first clear images taken on 

the surface of a planet. Credit: Don Mitchell

Results: Venera 9 was the first of a new generation 

of Soviet space probes (“4V”) designed to explore 

Venus, and designed on the basis of the M-71 and 

M-73 Mars platforms. Launched by the more powerful Proton-K launch booster, the new spacecraft 

were nearly five times heavier than their predecessors. Each spacecraft comprised of both a bus 

and a lander, the former equipped with a powerful 11D425A engine capable of 1,928 kgf thrust 

(throttleable down to 1,005 kgf). For this series 

of missions, the 2,300-kilogram (mass at Venus 

orbit insertion) buses would serve as orbiters photographing the planet in ultraviolet light and conducting other scientific investigations. The 660 

kilogram landers, of a completely new design, 

employed aerodynamic braking during Venusian 

atmospheric entry and contained a panoramic 

photometer to take images of the surface. During 
128 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

the coast to Venus, they would be packed inside a 

1,560-kilogram spherical reentry pod with a diameter of 2.4 meters. Without any apparent problems 

and two trajectory corrections (on 16 June and 

15 October), Venera 9’s lander separated from its 

parent on 20 October 1975 and two days later hit 

Venus’ turbulent atmosphere at a velocity of 10.7 

kilometers/hour. After aerodynamic deceleration, 

the cover of the parachute compartments was jettisoned at about 65 kilometers altitude, with two 

parachutes (one a drogue and the second to remove 

the upper portions of the heat shield casing) successively deployed. Descent velocity reduced, as 

a result, from 250 meters/second to 150 meters/

second. At that point, a long drag parachute 

deployed and data transmission began. The drag 

parachute decreased descent velocity down to 50 

meters/second before, finally, at 62 kilometers attitude, three large canopy parachutes deployed (with 

a total area of 180 m2). Four seconds after deployment, the lower hemisphere of the heat-shield 

casing was discarded. The now fully deployed 

descent vehicle descended for approximately 20 

minutes before the main parachutes were jettisoned. The rest of the descent was slowed only 

by the capsule’s own disc-shaped aerobrakes. The 

lander impacted on the surface at a velocity of 

approximately 7 meters/second. Pravda noted on 

21 February 1976 that “the landing units, which 

are thin-walled torroidal shells, were deformed [as 

planned] during landing, thereby absorbing the 

energy of the impact and assured an oriented position of the descent vehicle on the planet.” Landing occurred on the planet’s dayside at 05:13:07 

UT on 22 October. (Times were only announced 

for reception of landing signal on Earth). Landing 

coordinates were within a 150-kilometer radius of 

31.01° N / 290.64° E at the base of a hill near Beta 

Regio. During its 53 minutes of transmissions from 

the surface, Venera 9 took and transmitted the very 

first picture of the Venusian surface, taken from a 

height of 90 centimeters. These were, in fact, the 

very first photos received of the surface of another 

planet. The lander was supposed to transmit a 

full 360° panorama, but because one of the two 

covers on the camera failed to release, only a 180° 

panorama was received. Illumination was akin to 

a cloudy day on Earth. The image clearly showed 

flat rocks strewn around the lander. The Venera 9 

orbiter meanwhile entered a 1,510 × 112,200-kilometer orbit around the planet at 34° 10′ inclination and acted as a communications relay for the 

lander. It became the first spacecraft to go into 

orbit around Venus. The Soviets announced on 

22 March 1976 that the orbiter’s primary mission, 

which included using French-made ultraviolet 

cameras to obtain photographs in 1,200 kilometer 

swaths, had been fulfilled.

149

Venera 10

Nation: USSR (93)

Objective(s): Venus orbit and landing

Spacecraft: 4V-1 (no. 661)

Spacecraft Mass: 5,033 kg (in Earth orbit)

Mission Design and Management: NPO imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D-1 (8K82K no. 

285-02 + 11S824M no. 2L)

Launch Date and Time: 14 June 1975 / 03:00:31 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/24

Scientific Instruments:

Orbiter:

1. imaging system

2. infrared radiometer

3. infrared radiometer

4. photometer

5. photopolarimeter

6. ultraviolet imaging spectrometer

7. radiophysics experiment

8. magnetometer

9. plasma electrostatic spectrometer

10. charged particle traps

Lander:

1. panoramic imaging system
1975 129

2. 5 thermometers

3. 6 barometers

4. mass spectrometer

5. anemometer (ISV)

6. IOV-75 photometers

7. MNV-75 nephelometers

8. gamma-ray spectrometer

9. radiation densitometer

10. accelerometers

Results: Venera 10, like its sister craft Venera 9, fully 

accomplished its mission to soft-land on Venus and 

return data from the surface. The spacecraft followed an identical mission to its twin, arriving only 

a few days later after two trajectory corrections on 

21 June and 18 October 1975. The 1,560-kilogram 

lander separated from its parent on 23 October and 

entered the atmosphere two days later at 01:02 UT. 

During reentry, the lander survived loads as high 

as 168 g’s and temperatures as high 12,000°C. It 

performed its complex landing procedures without 

fault (see Venera 9 for details) and landed without 

incident at 05:17:06 UT approximately 2,200 kilometers from the Venera 9 landing site. (Times were 

only announced for reception of landing signal on 

Earth). Landing coordinates were a 150-kilometer 

radius of 15.42° N / 291.51° E. Venera 10 transmitted for a record 65 minutes from the surface, 

although it was designed to last only 30 minutes. 

A photo of the Venera 10 landing site showed a 

smoother surface than that of its twin. The small 

image size was part of the original plan, and was 

determined by the slow telemetry rates and an 

estimated 30-minute lifetime. Like Venera 9, the 

Venera 10 lander was supposed to take a 360° 

panorama but covered only 180° of the surroundings because of a stuck lens cover. Soviet officials 

later revealed that termination of data reception 

from both Venera 9 and 10 landers was not due 

to the adverse surface conditions but because the 

orbiter relays for both spacecraft flew out of view. 

Gamma-ray spectrometer and radiation densitometer (shaped a bit like a paint-roller deployed on the 

surface) data indicated that the surface layer was 

akin to basalt rather than granite as hinted by the 

information from Venera 8. The Venera 10 orbiter 

meanwhile entered a 1,620 × 113,000-kilometer 

orbit around Venus inclined at 29° 30′, transmitting 

data until at least June 1976. Unlike the Venera 9 

orbiter, photographs taken by the Venera 10 orbiter 

were never released and it remains unclear whether 

it actually carried a camera.

150

Viking 1

Nation: USA (56)

Objective(s): Mars landing and orbit

Spacecraft: Viking-B

Spacecraft Mass: 3,527 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / LaRC (overall) / JPL (Orbiter)

Launch Vehicle: Titan IIIE-Centaur (TC-4 / Titan 

no. E-4 / Centaur D-1T)

Launch Date and Time: 20 August 1975 / 21:22:00 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral / Launch Complex 41

Scientific Instruments:

Orbiter:

1. imaging system (2 vidicon cameras) (VIS)

2. infrared spectrometer for water vapor mapping (MAWD)

3. infrared radiometer for thermal mapping 

(IRTM)

Lander:

1. imaging system (2 facsimile cameras)

2. gas chromatograph mass spectrometer 

(GCMS)

3. seismometer

4. x-ray fluorescence spectrometer

5. biological laboratory

6. weather instrument package (temperature, 

pressure, wind velocity)

7. remote sampler arm

Aeroshell:

1. retarding potential analyzer

2. upper-atmosphere mass spectrometer

3. pressure, temperature, and density sensors
130 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

Carl Sagan, a member of the Viking science team, posing with a life-size model of the Viking Lander in Death Valley, 

California in the mid-1970s. At the time, Sagan was professor of astronomy at Cornell University. Credit: NASA/JPL

Results: Viking 1 was the first of a pair of complex 

deep space probes that were designed to reach 

Mars and collect evidence on the possibility (or 

lack of) for life on Mars. Each spacecraft was composed of two primary elements, an orbiter (2,339 

kilograms) and a lander (978 kilograms). The 

Orbiter design heavily borrowed from the Mariner 

buses, while the Lander looked superficially like a 

much larger version of the Surveyor lunar lander. 

Prior to launch, the batteries of the first spacecraft 

were discharged, prompting NASA to replace the 

original first spacecraft with the second, which 

was launched as Viking 1. After three mid-course 

corrections (on 27 August 1975, and 10 and 15 

June 1976), the spacecraft entered orbit around 

Mars on 19 June 1976. Initial orbital parameters 

were 1,500 × 50,300 kilometers. The following 

day, the orbiter moved into an operational orbit at 

1,500 × 32,800 kilometers. The same day, when 

the Orbiter began transmitting back photos of the 

primary landing site in the Chryse region, scientists discovered that the area was rougher than 

expected. Using the new photos, scientists targeted the lander to a different site on the western 

slopes of Chryse Planitia (“Golden Plain”). The 

Lander separated from the Orbiter at 08:32 UT 

on 20 July 1976, and after a complicated atmospheric entry sequence during which the probe 

took air samples, Viking Lander 1 set down safely 

at 22.483° N / 47.94° N at 11:53:06 UT on 20 July 

1976 (about 28 kilometers from its planned 

target). Once down, the spacecraft began taking 

high-quality photographs (in three colors) of its 

surroundings. Besides high-resolution images, the 

lander also took a 300° panorama of its surroundings that showed not only parts of the spacecraft 

itself but also the gently rolling plains of the environs. Instruments recorded temperatures ranging 
1975 131

from –86°C (before dawn) to –33°C (in the afternoon). The seismometer on the lander was, however, inoperable. On 28 July, the lander’s robot 

arm scooped up the first soil samples and deposited them into a special biological laboratory that 

included a gas chromatograph mass spectrometer. 

The cumulative data from the four samples collected could be construed as indicating the presence of life (“weak positive”), but the major test for 

organic compounds using the gas chromatograph 

experiment, capable of detecting organic compounds that comprised more than 10–100 parts 

per billion in the soil, gave negative results. Data 

showed an abundance of sulfur, certainly different 

from any known material found on Earth or the 

Moon. While the primary mission for both Viking 

1 and Viking 2 ended in November 1976, activities continued through the Extended Mission 

(November 1976 to May 1978) and the Continuation Mission (May 1978 to July 1979). Viking 

1’s orbiter then continued a “Survey Mission” from 

July 1979 to July 1980. The Lander continued to 

return daily (and then eventually weekly) weather 

reports as part of the Viking Monitor Mission. In 

January 1982, it was renamed the Thomas Mutch 

Memorial Station in honor of Thomas A. Mutch 

NASA scientists at the Langley Research Center in Virginia stand in front of the aeroshell that protected the Viking 

Lander I during its entry into the Martian atmosphere in 1976. The aeroshell was made of the heat shield and a “backshell” which contained parachutes and other components used for entry. Credit: NASA/JPL
132 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

(1931–1980) the leader of the Viking imaging team 

who had passed away on 6 October 1980. The 

lander operated until 11 November 1982 when 

a faulty command sent from Earth resulted in an 

interruption of communications. Further attempts 

to regain contact proved to be unsuccessful. The 

Orbiter, after taking many more high-resolution 

images of the planet and its two moons, far superior than those from Mariner 9, was shut down 

on 7 August 1980 after it ran out of attitude control propellant on its 1,489th orbit around Mars. 

Current projections are that the orbiter will enter 

the Martian atmosphere sometime around 2019.

Panoramic image taken by Viking Lander 2, created by combining standard low resolution color images with 

standard high resolution black and white images. Credit: NASA/JPL

151

Viking 2

Nation: USA (57)

Objective(s): Mars landing and orbit

Spacecraft: Viking-A

Spacecraft Mass: 3,527 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / LaRC (overall) / JPL (Orbiter)

Launch Vehicle: Titan IIIE-Centaur (TC-3 / Titan 

no. E-3 / Centaur no. D-1T)
1975 133

Viking 2 Lander image showing the spacecraft and part of Utopia Planitia, looking 

due south. The American flag, color grid, and bicentennial symbols (for the 200th 

anniversary of the Declaration of the Independence, celebrated in 1976) are visible in 

this image, and were used to calibrate color images as they were received on Earth. 

The image was taken on 2 November 1976. Credit: NASA/JPL

Launch Date and Time: 9 September 1975 / 18:39:00 

UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral / Launch Complex 41

Scientific Instruments:

Orbiter:

1. imaging system (2 vidicon cameras) (VIS)

2. infrared spectrometer for water vapor mapping (MAWD)

3. infrared radiometer for thermal mapping 

(IRTM)

Lander:

1. imaging system (2 facsimile cameras)

2. gas chromatograph mass spectrometer 

(GCMS)

3. seismometer

4. x-ray fluorescence spectrometer

5. biological laboratory

6. weather instrument package (temperature, 

pressure, wind velocity)

7. remote sampler arm

Aeroshell:

1. retarding potential analyzer

2. upper-atmosphere mass spectrometer

3. pressure, temperature, and density sensors

Results: Viking-A was scheduled to be launched 

first, but had to be launched second due to a 

problem with its batteries that had to be repaired. 

After a successful launch and a mid-course correction on 19 September 1975, Viking 2 entered 

orbit around Mars nearly a year after launch on 

7 August 1976. Initial orbital parameters were 

1,502 × 35,728 kilometers inclined at 55.6°. As 

with Viking 1, photographs of the original landing site indicated rough terrain, prompting mission planners to select a different site at Utopia 

Planitia near the edge of the polar ice cap where 

water was located, i.e., where there was a better 

chance of finding signs of life. The Lander separated from the Orbiter without incident at 20:19 

UT on 3 September 1976 and after atmospheric 

entry, landed safely at 22:37:50 UT, about 6,460 

kilometers from the Viking 1 landing site. Touchdown coordinates were 47.968° N / 225.71° W. 

Photographs of the area showed a rockier, flatter site than that of Viking 1. The lander was in 

fact tilted 8.5° to the west. Panoramic views of 

the landscape showed a terrain different from 

that of Viking 1, with much less definition and 
134 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

very little in the way of horizon features. Because 

of the lack of general topographical references on 

the ground, imagery from the orbiters was unable 

to precisely locate the lander. The biology experiments with scooped up soil collected on three 

occasions (beginning on 12 September) produced 

similar results to its twin, i.e., inconclusive on the 

question of whether life exists or ever has existed 

on the surface of Mars. Scientists believed that 

Martian soil contained reactants created by ultraviolet bombardment of the soil that could produce 

characteristics of living organisms in Earth soil. On 

16 November 1976, NASA announced that both 

Viking 1 and Viking 2 missions had successfully 

accomplished their mission goals and announced 

an Extended Mission that continued until May 

1978 followed by a Continuation Mission until 

July 1979. The Orbiter continued its successful 

imaging mission, approaching as close as 28 kilometers to the Martian Moon Deimos in May 1977. 

A series of leaks prompted termination of Orbiter 

2 operations on 24 July 1978 while the Lander 2 

continued to transmit data until 12 April 1980. 

In July 2001, the Viking 2 lander was renamed 

the Gerald Soffen Memorial Station after Gerald 

Soffen (1926–2000), the NASA Project Scientist for Viking who had died recently. In total, the 

two Viking Orbiters returned 52,663 images of 

Mars and mapped about 97% of the surface at a 

resolution of 300 meters resolution. The Landers 

returned 4,500 photos of the two landing sites.

152

[Luna]

Nation: USSR (94)

Objective(s): lunar sample return

Spacecraft: Ye-8-5M (no. 412)

Spacecraft Mass: 5,795 kg

Mission Design and Management: NPO imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D (8K82K no. 

287-02 + 11S824 no. 1401L)

Launch Date and Time: 16 October 1975 / 14:04:56 

UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/23

Scientific Instruments:

1. stereo imaging system

2. LB09 drill for sample collection

3. radiation detector

4. radio altimeter

Results: This was the second attempt by the Soviet 

Union to send an “advanced” lunar sample return 

craft to the Moon, equipped with the capability to 

dig for a deeper core. The first spacecraft (Luna 

23) was damaged during landing on the Moon in 

October 1974. On this mission, the first three 

stages of the Proton-K launch vehicle worked without fault, but the Blok D stage, during its first burn 

for insertion into Earth orbit, failed. The expensive 

payload burned up in Earth’s atmosphere without 

ever reaching Earth orbit.
135

1976

153

Helios 2

Nation: Federal Republic of Germany (2)

Objective(s): solar orbit

Spacecraft: Helios-B

Spacecraft Mass: 370 kg

Mission Design and Management: DFVLR / NASA / 

GSFC

Launch Vehicle: Titan IIIE-Centaur (TC-5 / Titan 

no. E-5 / Centaur D-1T)

Launch Date and Time: 15 January 1976 / 05:34:00 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral / Launch Complex 41

Scientific Instruments:

1. plasma detector

2. flux gate magnetometer

3. 2nd flux gate magnetometer

4. plasma and radio wave experiment

5. cosmic ray detector

6. low energy electron and ion spectrometer

7. zodiacal light photometer

8. micrometeoroid analyzer

9. search coil magnetometer

10. Faraday effect experiment

Results: Helios 2 was the second spacecraft launched 

to investigate solar processes as part of cooperative 

project between the Federal Republic of Germany 

and the United States in which the former provided 

the spacecraft and the latter the launch vehicle. 

Although similar to Helios 1, the second spacecraft 

had improved systems designed to help it survive 

longer. Like its twin, the spacecraft was put into heliocentric orbit; all communications with the spacecraft 

was directed from the German Space Operation 

Center near Munich. In contrast to Helios 1, Helios 

2, flew three million kilometers closer to the Sun, 

achieving perihelion on 17 April 1976 at a distance 

of 0.29 AU (or 43.432 million kilometers), a distance 

that makes Helios 2 the record holder for the closest ever flyby of the Sun. As a result, the spacecraft 

was exposed to 10% more heat (or 20°C more) than 

its predecessor. The spacecraft provided important 

information on solar plasma, the solar wind, cosmic 

rays, and cosmic dust, and also performed magnetic 

field and electrical field experiments. Besides its 

investigation of the Sun and solar environment, both 

Helios 1 and Helios 2 observed the dust and ion tails 

of at least three comets, C/1975V1 West, C/1978H1 

Meier, and C/1979Y1 Bradfield. Helios 2’s downlink 

transmitter, however, failed on 3 March 1980 and 

no further usable data was received from the spacecraft. Ground controllers shut down the spacecraft 

on 7  January 1981 to preclude any possible radio 

interference with other spacecraft in the future.

A technician stands next to one of the 

twin Helios spacecraft. Credit: NASA/

Max Planck Institute for Solar System 

Research
136 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

154

Luna 24

Nation: USSR (95)

Objective(s): lunar sample return

Spacecraft: Ye-8-5M (no. 413)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,800 kg

Mission Design and Management: NPO imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D (8K82K no. 

288-02 + 11S824 no. 1501L)

Launch Date and Time: 9 August 1976 / 15:04:12 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/23

Scientific Instruments:

1. stereo imaging system

2. LB09 drill for sample collection

3. radiation detector

4. radio altimeter

Results: Luna 24 was the third attempt to recover 

a sample from the unexplored Mare Crisium 

(after Luna 23 and a subsequent launch failure 

in October 1975), the location of a large lunar 

mascon. After a trajectory correction on 11 August 

1976, Luna  24 entered orbit around the Moon 

three days later. Initial orbital parameters were 115 

× 115 kilometers at 120° inclination. After further 

changes to its orbit on 16 and 17 August, which 

brought the orbit down to an elliptical 120 × 12 

kilometers, Luna 24 began its descent to the surface at perilune by firing its descent engine. Just 6 

minutes later, the spacecraft set down safely on the 

lunar surface at 06:36 UT on 18 August 1976 at 12° 

45′ N / 62° 12′ E (as announced at the time), not 

far from where Luna 23 had landed. Later analysis 

showed that the spacecraft landed just 10 meters 

from the rim of a 65-meter diameter impact crater. 

After appropriate commands from ground control, 

within 15 minutes of landing, the lander deployed 

its sample arm and pushed its drilling head (using 

a rotary drilling mode) about 2.25 meters into the 

nearby soil. Because the drill entered at an angle, 

the probable surface depth of the sample was 

about 2 meters. The sample was safely stowed 

in the small return capsule, and after nearly a 

day on the Moon, Luna 24 lifted off successfully 

from the Moon at 05:25 UT on 19 August 1976. 

After an uneventful return trip lasting 84 hours, 

Luna 24’s capsule entered Earth’s atmosphere and 

parachuted down to Earth safely at 05:55 UT on 

23  August 1976 about 200 kilometers southeast 

of Surgut in western Siberia. Study of the recovered 170.1 grams of soil indicated a laminated type 

structure, as if laid down in successive deposits. 

Tiny portions of the sample were exchanged with 

NASA in December 1976. At the time, the Luna 

24 sample puzzled investigators because its titanium content and “maturity” (amount of time the 

sample was exposed to the space environment) 

were very different than expected at Mare Crisium. 

Images from NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance 

Orbiter (LRO) in 2012 showed that lander sampled impact ejecta from a nearby 64-meter diameter crater that brought up material from deeper 

lava flows that had not been previously exposed to 

the space environment. Thus, the Luna 24 sample 

probably represented subsurface materials only 

exposed to the space environment for a relatively 

short time. LRO images helped refine the landing 

target area as 12.7146° N / 62.2129° E, which was 

only 2.32 kilometers from the crashed Luna 23. 

Luna 24 remains the last Soviet or Russian probe 

to the Moon. A Japanese spacecraft (Hiten, page 

179) returned to the Moon nearly 14 years later.
137

1977

155

Voyager 2

Nation: USA (58)

Objective(s): Jupiter flyby, Saturn flyby, Uranus 

flyby, Neptune flyby

Spacecraft: Voyager-2

Spacecraft Mass: 721.9 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Titan IIIE-Centaur (TC-7 / Titan 

no. 23E-7 / Centaur D-1T)

Launch Date and Time: 20 August 1977 / 14:29:44 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral / Launch Complex 41

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging science system (ISS)

2. ultraviolet spectrometer (UVS)

3. infrared interferometer spectrometer (IRIS)

4. planetary radio astronomy experiment (PRA)

5. photopolarimeter (PPS)

6. triaxial fluxgate magnetometer (MAG)

7. plasma spectrometer (PLS)

8. low-energy charged particles experiment 

(LECP)

9. plasma waves experiment (PWS)

10. cosmic ray telescope (CRS)

11. radio science system (RSS)

One of the two Voyager Golden Records displayed with a 

Voyager spacecraft. Credit: NASA/JPL

Results: The two-spacecraft Voyager missions were 

designed to replace original plans for a “Grand 

Tour” of the planets that would have used four 

highly complex spacecraft to explore the five outer 

planets during the late 1970s. NASA canceled the 

plan in January 1972 largely due to anticipated 

costs (projected at $1 billion) and instead proposed 

to launch only two spacecraft in 1977 to Jupiter and 

Saturn. The two spacecraft were designed to 

explore the two gas giants in more detail than the 

two Pioneers (Pioneers 10 and 11) that preceded 

them. In 1974, mission planners proposed a mission in which, if the first Voyager was successful, 

the second one could be redirected to Uranus and 

then Neptune using gravity assist maneuvers. Each 

of the two spacecraft were equipped with slow-scan 

color TV to take images of the planets and their 

moons and also carried an extensive suite of instruments to record magnetic, atmospheric, lunar, and 

other data about the planetary systems. The design 

of the two spacecraft was based on the older Mariners, and they were known as Mariner 11 and Mariner 12 until 7 March 1977 when NASA 

Administrator James C. Fletcher (1919–1991) 

announced that they would be renamed Voyager. 
138 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

Power was provided by three plutonium dioxide 

radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) 

mounted at the end of a boom. Although launched 

after Voyager 1, Voyager 2 exited the asteroid belt 

after its twin and then followed it to Jupiter and 

Saturn. Its primary radio transmitter failed on 

5  April 1978 and the spacecraft used its backup 

past that point. Voyager 2 began transmitting 

images of Jupiter on 24 April 1979 for time-lapse 

movies of atmospheric circulation. Unlike Voyager 

1, Voyager 2 made close passes to the Jovian moons 

on its way into the system, with scientists especially interested in more information from Europa 

and Io (which necessitated a 10-hour long “volcano 

watch”). During its encounter, it relayed back spectacular photos of the entire Jovian system, including its moons Callisto, Ganymede, Europa (at 

205,720-kilometer range, much closer than Voyager 

1), Io, and Amalthea, all of which had already been 

surveyed by Voyager 1. Voyager 2’s closest encounter to Jupiter was at 22:29 UT on 9 July 1979 at a 

range of 645,000 kilometers. It transmitted new 

data on the planet’s clouds, its newly discovered 

four moons, and ring system as well as 17,000 new 

pictures. When the earlier Pioneers had flown by 

Jupiter, they noticed few atmospheric changes 

Stunning image of Miranda taken by Voyager 2 on 24 January 1986 during the spacecraft’s flyby of 

Uranus. This particular image was made from nine separate photos combined to obtain a full disc. 

Credit: NASA/JPL
1977 139

from one encounter to the second; in this case, 

Voyager 2 detected many significant changes, particular a drift in the Great Red Spot as well as 

changes in its shape and color. With the combined 

cameras of the two Voyagers, at least 80% of the 

surfaces of Ganymede and Callisto were mapped 

out to a resolution of 5 kilometers. Following a 

mid-course correction 2 hours after its closest 

approach to Jupiter, Voyager 2 sped to Saturn, its 

trajectory determined to a large degree by the decision, taken in January 1981, to try and send the 

spacecraft to Uranus and Neptune later in the 

decade. Its encounter with the sixth planet began 

on 22 August 1981, two years after leaving the 

Jovian system, with imaging of the moon Iapetus. 

Once again, Voyager 2 repeated the photographic 

mission of its predecessor, although it actually flew 

23,000 kilometers closer to Saturn. Closest 

High-altitude cloud streaks are visible in Neptune’s atmosphere in a picture taken during Voyager 2’s flyby of the gas giant 

in 1989. Credit: NASA/JPL
140 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

encounter was at 01:21 UT on 26 August 1981 at 

101,000 kilometer range. The spacecraft provided 

more detailed images of the ring “spokes” and 

kinks, and also the F-ring and its shepherding 

moons, all found by Voyager 1. Voyager 2’s data 

suggested that Saturn’s A-ring was perhaps only 

300 meters thick. As it flew behind and up past 

Saturn, the probe passed through the plane of 

Saturn’s rings at a speed of 13 kilometers/second; 

for several minutes during this phase, the spacecraft was hit by thousands of micron-sized dust 

grains that created “puff” plasma as they were 

vaporized. Because the vehicle’s attitude was 

repeatedly shifted by the particles, attitude control 

jets automatically fired many times to stabilize the 

vehicle. During the encounter, Voyager 2 also 

photographed the Saturn moons Hyperion (the 

“hamburger moon”), Enceladus, Tethys, and 

Phoebe as well as the more recently discovered 

Helene, Telesto, and Calypso. Although Voyager 2 

had fulfilled its primary mission goals with the two 

planetary encounters, mission planners directed 

the veteran spacecraft to Uranus on a four-and-ahalf-year-long journey during which it covered 33 

AU’s. In fact, its encounter with Jupiter was optimized in part to ensure that future planetary flybys 

would be possible. The Uranus encounter’s geometry was also defined by the possibility of a future 

encounter with Neptune: Voyager 2 had only 5.5 

hours of close study during its flyby, the first of any 

human-made spacecraft past the planet Uranus. 

Long-range observations of the planet began on 

The 34 meter High Efficiency Antenna in the foreground was nicknamed the “Uranus Antenna” because it was built in 

the 1980s to receive signals during Voyager 2’s Uranus encounter. The antenna is located at the Goldstone Deep Space 

Communications Complex in California. Credit: NASA
1977 141

4 November 1985 when signals took approximately 

2.5 hours to reach Earth. Light conditions were 

400 times less than terrestrial conditions. Closest 

approach to Uranus took place at 17:59 UT on 

24 January 1986 at a range of 81,500 kilometers. 

During its flyby, Voyager 2 discovered 10 new 

moons (given such names as Puck, Portia, Juliet, 

Cressida, Rosalind, Belinda, Desdemona, Cordelia, 

Ophelia, and Bianca—obvious allusions to 

Shakespeare), two new rings in addition to the 

“older” nine rings, and a magnetic field tilted at 55° 

off-axis and off-center. The spacecraft found wind 

speeds in Uranus’ atmosphere as high as 724 kilometers/hour and found evidence of a boiling ocean 

of water some 800 kilometers below the top cloud 

surface. Its rings were found to be extremely variable in thickness and opacity. Voyager 2 also 

returned spectacular photos of Miranda, Oberon, 

Ariel, Umbriel, and Titania, five of Uranus’ larger 

moons. In flying by Miranda at a range of only 

28,260 kilometers, the spacecraft came closest to 

any object so far in its nearly decade-long travels. 

Images of the moon showed a strange object whose 

surface was a mishmash of peculiar features that 

seemed to have no rhyme or reason. Uranus itself 

appeared generally featureless in the photographs 

taken. The spectacular news of the Uranus encounter was interrupted the same week by the tragic 

Challenger accident that killed seven astronauts 

during their Space Shuttle launch on 28 January. 

Following the Uranus encounter, the spacecraft 

performed a single mid-course correction on 

14  February 1986—the largest ever made by 

Voyager 2—to set it on a precise course to Neptune. 

Voyager 2’s encounter with Neptune capped a 7 

billion-kilometer journey when on 25 August 1989 

at 03:56 UT, it flew 4,800 kilometers over the cloud 

tops of the giant planet, the closest of its four 

flybys. It was the first human-made object to fly by 

the planet. Its 10 instruments were still in working 

order at the time. During the encounter, the spacecraft discovered six new moons (Proteus, Larissa, 

Despina, Galatea, Thalassa, and Naiad) and four 

new rings. The planet itself was found to be more 

active than previously believed, with 1,100 kilometer winds. Hydrogen was found to be the most 

common atmospheric element, although the abundant methane gave the planet its blue appearance. 

Images revealed details of the three major features 

in the planetary clouds—the Lesser Dark Spot, the 

Great Dark Spot, and Scooter. Voyager photographed two-thirds of Neptune’s largest moon 

Triton, revealing the coldest known planetary body 

in the solar system and a nitrogen ice “volcano” on 

its surface. Spectacular images of its southern 

hemisphere showed a strange, pitted “cantaloupe”-type terrain. The flyby of Neptune concluded Voyager 2’s planetary encounters, which 

spanned an amazing 12 years in deep space, virtually accomplishing the originally planned Grand 

Tour of the solar system, at least in terms of targets 

reached if not in science accomplished. Once past 

the Neptune system, Voyager 2 followed a course 

below the ecliptic plane and out of the solar 

system. Approximately 56 million kilometers past 

the encounter, Voyager 2’s instruments were put in 

low power mode to conserve energy. After the 

Neptune encounter, NASA formally renamed the 

entire project the Voyager Interstellar Mission 

(VIM). Of the four spacecraft sent out to beyond 

the environs of the solar system in the 1970s, three 

of them—Voyagers 1 and 2 and Pioneer 11—were 

all heading in the direction of the solar apex, i.e., 

the apparent direction of the Sun’s travel in the 

Milky Way galaxy, and thus would be expected to 

reach the heliopause earlier than Pioneer 10 which 

was headed in the direction of the heliospheric 

tail. In November 1998, 21 years after launch, 

non-essential instruments were permanently 

turned off, leaving seven instruments still operating. Through the turn of the century, JPL continued to receive ultraviolet and particle/fields data. 

For example, on 12  January 2001, an immense 

shock wave that had blasted out of the outer heliosphere on 14 July 2000, finally reached Voyager 2. 

During the six-month journey, the shock wave had 

ploughed through the solar wind, sweeping up and 

accelerating charged particles. The spacecraft 
142 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

provided important information on high-energy 

shock-energized ions. On 30 August 2007, Voyager 

2 passed the termination shock and then entered 

the heliosheath. By November 5, 2017, the spacecraft was 116.167 AU (17.378 billion kilometers) 

from Earth, moving at a velocity of 15.4 kilometers/

second relative to the Sun, heading in the direction 

of the constellation Telescopium. At this velocity, it 

would take about 19,390 years to traverse a single 

light-year. Data from the remaining five operating 

instruments—the cosmic ray telescope, the lowenergy charged particles experiment, the magnetometer, the plasma waves experiment, and the 

plasma spectrometer—could be received as late 

as 2025.

This false color image of Jupiter’s Great Red Spot taken by Voyager 1 was assembled from three black-and-white negatives. Credit: NASA/JPL

156

Voyager 1

Nation: USA (57)

Objective(s): Jupiter flyby, Saturn flyby

Spacecraft: Voyager-1

Spacecraft Mass: 721.9 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Titan IIIE-Centaur (TC-6 / Titan 

no. 23E-6 / Centaur D-1T)

Launch Date and Time: 5 September 1977 / 12:56:01 

UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral / Launch Complex 41
1977 143

Image showing the general trajectories of the four NASA 

probes, Pioneers 10 and 11 and Voyagers 1 and 2, sent 

out of the solar system. As of February 2017, Voyager 1 

was at a distance of 20.6 billion kilometers from the Sun 

while Voyager 2 was at 17 billion kilometers. Both Voyagers are headed towards the outer boundary of the solar 

system in search of the heliopause, the region where the 

Sun’s influence wanes and the beginning of interstellar 

space can be sensed. Credit: NASA/JPL

Scientific Instruments:

1. imaging science system (ISS)

2. ultraviolet spectrometer (UVS)

3. infrared interferometer spectrometer (IRIS)

4. planetary radio astronomy experiment (PRA)

5. photopolarimeter (PPS)

6. triaxial fluxgate magnetometer (MAG)

7. plasma spectrometer (PLS)

8. low-energy charged particles experiment 

(LECP)

9. plasma waves experiment (PWS)

10. cosmic ray telescope (CRS)

11. radio science system (RSS)

Results: Voyager 1 was launched after Voyager 2, 

but because of a faster route, it exited the asteroid belt earlier than its twin, having overtaken Voyager 2 on 15 December 1977. It began its Jovian 

imaging mission in April 1978 at a range of 265 

million kilometers from the planet; images sent 

back by January the following year indicated that 

Jupiter’s atmosphere was more turbulent than 

during the Pioneer flybys in 1973–1974. Beginning 

on 30 January, Voyager 1 took a picture every 96 

seconds for a span of 100 hours to generate a color 

timelapse movie to depict 10 rotations of Jupiter. 

On 10 February 1979, the spacecraft crossed into 

the Jovian moon system and in early March, it 

had already discovered a thin (less than 30 kilometers thick) ring circling Jupiter. Voyager 1’s closest encounter with Jupiter was at 12:05 UT on 

5 March 1979 at a range of 280,000 kilometers, 

following which it encountered several of Jupiter’s 

Moons, including Amalthea (at 420,200-kilometer 

range), Io (21,000 kilometers), Europa (733,760 

kilometers), Ganymede (114,710 kilometers), and 

Callisto (126,400 kilometers), in that order, returning spectacular photos of their terrain, opening up 

a completely new world for planetary scientists. 

The most interesting find was on Io, where images 

showed a bizarre yellow, orange, and brown world 

with at least eight active volcanoes spewing material into space, making it one of the most (if not the 

most) geologically active planetary body in the solar 

system. The presence of active volcanoes suggested 

that the sulfur and oxygen in Jovian space may be a 

result of the volcanic plumes from Io which are rich 

in sulfur dioxide. The spacecraft also discovered 

two new moons, Thebe and Metis. Following the 

Jupiter encounter, Voyager 1 completed an initial 

course correction on 9 April 1979 in preparation 

Voyager 1 acquired this image of Io on 4 March 1979 about 

11 hours before closest approach to the Jupiter Moon, at 

a range of 490,000 kilometers from the target. Visible is 

an enormous volcanic explosion silhouetted against dark 

space. Credit: NASA/JPL
144 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

for its meeting with Saturn. A second correction on 

10 October 1979 ensured that the spacecraft would 

not hit Saturn’s moon Titan. Its flyby of the Saturn 

system in November 1979 was as spectacular as 

its previous encounter. Voyager 1 found five new 

moons, a ring system consisting of thousands of 

bands, wedge-shaped transient clouds of tiny particles in the B ring that scientists called “spokes,” a 

new ring (the “G-ring”), and “shepherding” satellites 

on either side of the F-ring—satellites that keep 

the rings well-defined. During its flyby, the spacecraft photographed Saturn’s moons Titan, Mimas, 

Enceladus, Tethys, Dione, and Rhea. Based on 

incoming data, all the moons appeared to be composed largely of water ice. Perhaps the most interesting target was Titan, which Voyager 1 passed 

at 05:41 UT on 12 November at a range of 4,000 

kilometers. Images showed a thick atmosphere 

that completely hid the surface. The spacecraft 

found that the moon’s atmosphere was composed 

of 90% nitrogen. Pressure and temperature at the 

surface was 1.6 atmospheres and –180°C, respectively. Atmospheric data suggested that Titan might 

be the first body in the solar system (apart from 

Earth) where liquid might exist on the surface. In 

addition, the presence of nitrogen, methane, and 

more complex hydrocarbons indicated that prebiotic chemical reactions might be possible on 

Titan. Voyager 1’s closest approach to Saturn was 

at 23:46 UT on 12 November 1980 at a range of 

126,000 kilometers. Following the encounter with 

Saturn, Voyager 1 headed on a trajectory escaping 

the solar system at a speed of about 3.5 AU per 

year, 35° out of the ecliptic plane to the north, in 

the general direction of the Sun’s motion relative to 

nearby stars. Because of the specific requirements 

for the Titan flyby, the spacecraft was not directed 

to Uranus and Neptune. The final images taken 

by the Voyagers comprised a mosaic of 64 images 

taken by Voyager 1 on February 14, 1990 at a distance of 40 AU of the Sun and all the planets of the 

solar system (although Mercury and Mars did not 

appear, the former because it was too close to the 

Sun and the latter because Mars was on the same 

side of the Sun as Voyager 1 so only its dark side 

faced the cameras). This was the so-called “pale 

blue dot” image made famous by Cornell University professor and Voyager science team member 

Carl Sagan (1934-1996). These were the last of a 

total of 67,000 images taken by the two spacecraft. 

All the planetary encounters finally over in 1989, 

the missions of Voyager 1 and 2 were declared part 

of the Voyager Interstellar Mission (VIM), which 

officially began on 1 January 1990. The goal was 

to extend NASA’s exploration of the solar system 

beyond the neighborhood of the outer planets to 

the outer limits of the Sun’s sphere of influence, 

and “possibly beyond.” Specific goals include collecting data on the transition between the heliosphere, the region of space dominated by the Sun’s 

magnetic field and solar field, and the interstellar 

medium. On 17 February 1998, Voyager 1 became 

the most distant human-made object in existence 

when, at a distance of 69.4 AU from the Sun when 

it “overtook” Pioneer 10. On 16 December 2004, 

Voyager scientists announced that Voyager 1 had 

reported high values for the intensity for the magnetic field at a distance of 94 AU, indicating that 

it had reached the termination shock and had now 

entered the heliosheath. The spacecraft finally 

exited the heliosphere and began measuring the 

interstellar environment on 25 August 2012, the 

first spacecraft to do so. On 5 September 2017, 

NASA marked the 40th anniversary of its launch, 

as it continues to communicate with NASA’s 

Deep Space Network and send data back from 

four still-functioning instruments—the cosmic ray 

telescope, the low-energy charged particles experiment, the magnetometer, and the plasma waves 

experiment. Each of the Voyagers contain a “message,” prepared by a team headed by Carl Sagan, in 

the form of a 30-centimeter diameter gold-plated 

copper disc for potential extraterrestrials who might 

find the spacecraft. Like the plaques on Pioneers 

10 and 11, the record has inscribed symbols to 

show the location of Earth relative to several pulsars. The records also contain instructions to play 

them using a cartridge and a needle, much like a 
1977 145

vinyl record player. The audio on the disc includes 

greetings in 55 languages, 35 sounds from life on 

Earth (such as whale songs, laughter, etc.), 90 minutes of generally Western music including everything from Mozart and Bach to Chuck Berry and 

Blind Willie Johnson. It also includes 115 images 

of life on Earth and recorded greetings from then 

U.S. President Jimmy Carter (1924– ) and then-UN 

Secretary-General Kurt Waldheim (1918–2007). 

By 5 November 2017, Voyager 1 was 140.931 AU 

(21.083 billion kilometers) from Earth, the farthest 

object created by humans, and moving at a velocity 

of 17.0 kilometers/second relative to the Sun.

147

1978

157

Pioneer Venus 1

Nation: USA (60)

Objective(s): Venus orbit

Spacecraft: Pioneer Venus Orbiter

Spacecraft Mass: 582 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / ARC

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Centaur (AC-50 / Atlas no. 

5030D)

Launch Date and Time: 20 May 1978 / 13:13:00 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral / Launch Complex 36A

Scientific Instruments:

1. charged particle retarding potential analyzer (ORPA)

2. ion mass spectrometer (OIMS)

3. thermal electron temperature Langmuir 

probe (OETP)

4. neutral particle mass spectrometer (ONMS)

5. cloud photopolarimeter (OCPP)

6. temperature sounding infrared radiometer 

(OIR)

7. magnetic field fluxgate magnetometer 

(OMAG)

8. solar wind plasma analyzer (OPA)

9. surface radar mapper (ORAD)

10. electric field detector (OEFD)

11. transient gamma ray burst detector 

(OGBD)

12. radio occultation experiment

13. atmospheric and solar corona turbulence 

experiment

14. drag measurements experiment

15. 2 radio science experiments to determine 

gravity field

16. ultraviolet spectrometer (OUVS)

Results: Formally approved by NASA in August 

1974, the Pioneer Venus project comprised two 

spacecraft to explore the atmosphere and surface 

of Venus. Both spacecraft used a basic cylindrical 

bus. Pioneer Venus 1, the orbiter, was designed to 

spend an extended period in orbit around Venus 

mapping the surface using a radar package. After 

a six-and-a-half-month-long journey, the spacecraft entered an elliptical orbit around Venus at 

15:58  UT on 4 December 1978. It was the first 

American spacecraft to enter orbit around Venus, 

about three years after the Soviets accomplished 

the same feat. The initial orbital period was 23 

hours, 11 minutes, which was altered within two 

orbits to the desired 24 hours—a maneuver that 

would allow the orbit’s high and low points (about 

160 kilometers) to occur at the same time each 

Earth day. Data from the radar mapper allowed scientists to produce a topographical map of most of 

the Venusian surface between 73° N and 63° S at a 

resolution of 75 kilometers. The data indicated that 

Venus was much more smooth and spherical than 

Earth. The orbiter identified the highest point on 

Venus as Maxwell Montes, which rises 10.8 kilometers above the mean surface. Infrared observations 

implied a clearing in the planet’s atmosphere over 

the north pole. In addition, ultraviolet light photos 

showed dark markings that covered the clouds in 

the visible hemisphere. Cameras also detected 

almost continuous lightning activity in the atmosphere. The spacecraft confirmed that Venus has 

little, if any magnetic field. Because of the nature of 

its orbit, Pioneer Venus 1 passed through the planet’s bow shock twice per revolution, and using its 

magnetometer, scientists were able to observe how 

the planet’s ionosphere interacted with the solar 

wind. Although the mapping radar was switched 

off on 19 March 1981 (having mapped 93% of the 
148 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

band between 74° N and 63° S), it was reactivated 

again in 1991, 13 years after launch, to explore the 

previously inaccessible southern portions of the 

planet. In May 1992, Pioneer Venus 1 began the 

final phase of its mission, maintaining its periapsis 

between 150 and 250 kilometers until propellant 

depletion. The last transmission was received at 

19:22 UT on 8 October 1992, as its decaying orbit 

no longer permitted communications. The spacecraft burned up the atmosphere soon after, ending 

a successful 14-year mission that was planned to 

last only eight months.

158

Pioneer Venus 2

Nation: USA (61)

Objective(s): Venus impact

Spacecraft: Pioneer Venus Multiprobe

Spacecraft Mass: 904 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / ARC

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Centaur (AC-51 / Atlas no. 

5031D)

Launch Date and Time: 8 August 1978 / 07:33 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral / Launch Complex 36A

Scientific Instruments:

Spacecraft Bus:

1. neutral mass spectrometer (BNMS)

2. ion mass spectrometer (BIMS)

Large Probe:

1. neutral mass spectrometer

2. solar flux radiometer

3. gas chromatograph

4. infrared radiometer

5. cloud particle size spectrometer

6. nephelometer

Small Probes (each):

1. neutral mass spectrometer

2. gas chromatograph

3. solar flux radiometer

4. infrared radiometer

5. cloud particle size spectrometer

6. temperature, pressure, acceleration sensors

7. nephelometer

Pioneer Project Manager Charlie Hall inspects the Pioneer 

Venus multiprobe at Hughes Aircraft Company in

December 1976. Credit: NASA/TRW

Results: Pioneer Venus 2, the twin to Pioneer Venus 

1, comprised a main bus, a Large Probe (316.5 

kilograms), and three identical Small Probes, all of 

which were designed to collect data during independent atmospheric entry into Venus. The probes 

were each shaped like cones and not designed to 

survive past surface impact. After a course correction on 16 August 1978, Pioneer Venus 2 released 

the 1.5 diameter Large Probe on 16 November 

1978, while about 11.1 million kilometers from 

the planet. Four days later, the bus released the 

three Small Probes (North, Day, and Night Probes) 

while 9.3 million kilometers from Venus. All five 

components reached the Venusian atmosphere on 

9 December 1978, with the Large Probe entering 

first. Using a combination of air drag and a parachute, the Large Probe descended through the 

atmosphere, entering at a velocity of 11.6 kilometers/second, slowing down, until it impacted 
1978 149

on the Venusian surface at 19:40 UT, landing at 

4.4° N / 304.0° longitude at a velocity of 32 kilometers/hour. Transmissions ceased at impact as 

expected. The three 76-centimeter diameter Small 

Probes arrived in the atmosphere within minutes 

of the bigger one and descended rapidly through 

the atmosphere without the benefit of parachutes. 

They each opened their instrument doors at altitudes of about 70 kilometers and began to transmit information about the Venusian atmosphere 

immediately. Each took about 53–56 minutes to 

reach the surface. Amazingly, two of three probes 

survived the hard impact. The so-called Day Probe 

transmitted data from the surface for 67 minutes, 

37 seconds, before succumbing to the high temperatures, pressures, and power depletion. Information from its nephelometer indicated that dust 

raised from its impact took several minutes to 

settle back to the ground. All three Small Probes 

suffered instrument failures, but not significant 

enough to jeopardize their main missions. Their 

landing coordinates were: 60° N / 4° E longitude 

(North Probe); 32° S / 318° E (Day Probe); and 

27° S / 56° E (Night Probe). The main bus, meanwhile, burned up in the atmosphere at an altitude 

of 120 kilometers—about 1.5 hours after the other 

probes—and provided key data on higher regions. 

Data from the probes indicated that between 10 

and 50 kilometers there is almost no convection 

in the atmosphere, while below a haze layer at 30 

kilometers, the atmosphere is relatively clear. In 

addition, below an altitude of 50 kilometers, the 

temperatures reported from the four probes indicated very little differences even though their entry 

sites were separated by thousands of kilometers.

159

ISEE-3

Nation: USA (62)

Objective(s): Sun–Earth L1 Lagrange Point, Comet 

Giacobini-Zinner flyby

Spacecraft: ISEE-C

Spacecraft Mass: 479 kilograms

Mission Design and Management: NASA / GSFC

Launch Vehicle: Delta 2914 (no. 144 / Thor no. 633)

Launch Date and Time: 12 August 1978 / 15:12 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral / Launch Complex 17B

Scientific Instruments:

1. solar wind plasma detector

2. vector helium magnetometer

3. low energy cosmic ray experiment

4. medium energy cosmic ray experiment

5. high energy cosmic ray experiment

6. plasma waves spectrum analyzer

7. energetic particle anisotropy spectrometer 

(EPAS)

8. interplanetary and solar electrons 

experiment

9. radio mapping of solar disturbances 

experiment

10. solar wind ion composition experiment

11. cosmic ray isotope spectrometer

12. x-rays and gamma-ray bursts experiment

13. gamma-ray bursts experiment

14. cosmic-ray energy spectrum chargedparticle telescope

Results: ISEE-3 was the third of three International 

Sun-Earth Explorers (ISEE) designed and operated by NASA in cooperation with the European 

Space Agency (ESA). NASA built the first and 

third spacecraft while ESA built the second. The 

three spacecraft were to simultaneously investigate a wide range of phenomena in interplanetary space. After launch, on 20 November 1978, 

ISEE-3 was successfully placed in a halo orbit 

around the L1 Sun–Earth Lagrange Point on the 

sunward side of Earth, about 1.5 million kilometers from Earth where the gravitational forces of 

Earth and the Sun are exactly counterbalanced. 

ISEE-3 became not only the first spacecraft to be 

put into orbit around a libration point, but also the 

first spacecraft to monitor the solar wind approaching Earth. ISEE-3 completed its primary mission 

in 1981, but Goddard Space Flight Center scientists proposed sending the spacecraft first, through 
150 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

Earth’s magnetic tail, and second, into position to 

intercept a comet. By 10 June 1982, the spacecraft 

began to use its thrusters to move into the tail of 

Earth’s magnetosphere. ISEE-3 completed the 

first deep survey of Earth’s tail and detected a huge 

plasmoid of electrified gas that was ejected from 

Earth’s magnetosphere. After a proposal by NASA 

scientist Robert Farquhar, NASA agreed in August 

1982 to redirect the spacecraft for a rendezvous 

with Comet 21P/Giacobini-Zinner. Subsequently, 

after a series of five complex flybys of the Moon 

(the last on 22 December 1983 at a range of only 

120 kilometers), ISEE-3 was sent on a trajectory 

to encounter the comet. At this point, the spacecraft was renamed the International Cometary 

Explorer (ICE). On 11 September 1985 at 11:02 

UT, ICE passed within 7,862 kilometers of the 

comet’s nucleus, becoming the first spacecraft to 

fly past a comet. The spacecraft returned excellent 

data on the comet’s tail, confirming theories that 

comets are essentially “dirty snowballs” of ice, with 

surface material sleeting off during motion. ICE 

also flew to 40.2 million kilometers of the sunward 

side of Comet Halley on 28 March 1986 and provided upstream solar wind data. After daily data 

return was ended in December 1995, NASA eventually terminated ICE operations and support on 

5 May 1997 although the spacecraft’s transmitter 

was left on in order to facilitate tracking. In 2014, 

a team of independent scientists, engineers, and 

programmers organized an effort to “recapture” the 

spacecraft during its planned return to the vicinity 

of Earth in August 2014. The stated goal was to 

have ICE enter an orbit near Earth and “resume its 

original mission” with its 5 remaining operational 

instruments. With funding that came entirely from 

the public, the project achieved a new footing by 

signing an agreement with NASA in May 2014 that 

allowed the ISEE-3 Reboot Team to make use of a 

defunct NASA spacecraft. A first firing of thrusters 

on 2 July, the first time in 27 years, was successful 

but a longer firing on 8 July failed, probably due 

to a lack of nitrogen. In the event, the spacecraft 

passed by the Moon at 18:16 UT on 10 August 

2014 at a range of 15,600 kilometers, just as had 

been expected years before. The spacecraft will 

continue in its existing trajectory (in heliocentric 

orbit) and return to the vicinity of Earth in 17 years.

160

Venera 11

Nation: USSR (96)

Objective(s): Venus flyby and landing

Spacecraft: 4V-1 (no. 360)

Spacecraft Mass: 4,447.3 kg

Mission Design and Management: NPO imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D-1 (8K82K no. 

296-01 + 11S824M no. 3L)

Launch Date and Time: 9 September 1978 / 03:25:39 

UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/23

Scientific Instruments:

Spacecraft Bus:

1. plasma spectrometer

2. Konus gamma-ray detector

3. Signe-2MZ1 gamma and x-ray burst 

detector

4. DUMS-1 ultraviolet spectrometer

5. magnetometer

6. solar wind detectors

7. cosmic ray detectors

Lander:

1. imaging system

2. Sigma gas chromatograph

3. mass spectrometer

4. gamma-ray spectrometer

5. Groza lightning detector

6. temperature and pressure sensors

7. nephelometer

8. anemometer

9. optical spectrophotometer

10. remote soil collector
1978 151

11. x-ray fluorescence cloud aerosol analyzer

12. Arakhis x-ray fluorescence spectrometer + 

drill

13. PrOP-V penetrometer

Results: Venera 11 was one of two identical probes 

(the other being Venera 12) that followed up on 

the highly successful Soviet missions to Venus 

in 1975. Venera 11 and 12 differed from their 

predecessors principally in the fact each carried 

a flyby bus + lander combination instead of the 

previous orbiter + lander combination. Engineers 

reverted to the flyby combination partly because 

of the weight limitations of the 1978 launch 

window, but also because flyby probes afforded 

better transmission time for landers. Several of 

the scientific instruments were also modified and 

new ones added. During the outbound trip to 

Venus, Venera 11 was beset with technical problems. In the very first communications session 

with the spacecraft, it became apparent that the 

solar orientation system failed (coinciding with 

the deployment of the VHF and UHF antennae). 

Proper orientation was restored soon enough, 

with Venera 11 in a nominal constant solar-stellar orientation mode, although this was maintained only intermittently. There were also failures 

of the primary and backup fans of the cooling 

system on the descent module detected immediately after launch. On 17 October, a “curtain” on 

the radiative heater on the lander was closed, a 

month earlier than planned, to accommodate the 

higher than expected heating. These measures 

appeared to partially work to bring temperatures 

down on the lander. Venera 11 arrived at Venus 

after two course corrections on 16  September 

and 17 December 1978. On 23 December 1978, 

the lander separated from the flyby probe and 

entered the Venusian atmosphere two days later 

at a velocity of 11.2 kilometers/second. The lander 

probe descended through the atmosphere using 

a system of three progressively larger parachutes 

(areas of 1.4 m2, 6 m2, and 24 m2). At an altitude of 

46 kilometers, the final parachute was jettisoned 

and the lander effective dropped the rest of the 

way—for 52 minutes 58 seconds—guided only by 

a circular airbrake (with flaps). During this phase 

the lander carried out chemical analyses of the 

composition of the atmosphere and clouds, spectral analyses of the scattered solar radiation in the 

atmosphere, studied the electrical discharges in 

the atmosphere, and measured temperature, pressure, and windspeeds. The lander safely landed on 

Venus at 03:24 UT on 15 December 1978, impacting at a velocity of approximately 8 meters/second. 

Landing coordinates were 14° S / 299° longitude. 

Within 32 seconds, the imaging system and the 

soil sampling system simultaneously began operation. The latter collected soil for chemical and 

physical analysis, but soil analysis was unsuccessful because the soil was not properly deposited to 

an examination container for analysis (probably 

due to leaking air which disturbed the soil). The 

lander also failed to take color panoramas of the 

Venusian surface due to unopening of the lens 

covers of the camera system. The lander relayed 

information for a total of 95 minutes, the point of 

transmission cutoff being a function of the range 

of visibility of the flyby probe. The spectrophotometer on Venera 11 reported that only 3–6% of 

sunlight actually reached the Venusian surface. 

One of the odd findings was its recording of a loud 

noise some 32 minutes after landing. The Venera 

11 flyby probe entered heliocentric orbit after 

flying past the planet at a range of 35,000 kilometers. A major course correction on 7 February 1979 

(c. 350 meters/second delta-V) was done to ensure 

ideal conditions for the use of the Soviet-French 

Signe-2MZ1 experiment to study the localization 

of gamma-ray bursts, but it exhausted almost all 

of its propellants. As the distance from the Sun 

increased, the bus depended on its gyroscopes for 

orientation. Last contact was on 1 February 1980, 

probably due to improper orientation. The bus’s 

orbit ranged from 1.715 × 1.116 AU.
152 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

161

Venera 12

Nation: USSR (97)

Objective(s): Venus flyby and landing

Spacecraft: 4V-1 (no. 361)

Spacecraft Mass: 4,457.9 kg

Mission Design and Management: NPO imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D-1 (8K82K no. 

296-02 / 11S824M no. 4L)

Launch Date and Time: 14 September 1978 / 02:25:13 

UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 81/24

Scientific Instruments:

Spacecraft Bus:

1. plasma spectrometer

2. Konus gamma-ray detector

3. Signe-2MZ1 gamma and x-ray burst 

detector

4. DUMS-1 ultraviolet spectrometer

5. magnetometer

6. solar wind detectors

7. cosmic ray detectors

Lander:

1. imaging system

2. Sigma gas chromatograph

3. mass spectrometer

4. gamma-ray spectrometer

5. Groza lightning detector

6. temperature and pressure sensors

7. nephelometer

8. anemometer

9. optical spectrophotometer

10. remote soil collector

11. x-ray fluorescence cloud aerosol analyzer

12. Arakhis x-ray fluorescence spectrometer + 

drill

13. PrOP-V penetrometer

Results: Venera 12 was the identical sister craft 

to Venera 11 with a bus-lander configuration, 

the latter weighing 1,645 kilograms (mass on 

the surface of Venus would be 750 kilograms). 

Launched successfully towards Venus, the spacecraft performed two mid-course corrections on 

21 September and 14 December 1978. During the 

outbound trip one of the telemetry tape recorders failed, leading to more frequent use of the 

remaining tape recorder to relay information. As 

planned, on 17  November controllers closed the 

“curtain” of the radiation heater to begin cooling 

down the lander. Further such actions (on 9–10 

and 13–14 December) brought down the temperature on the lander to a nominal –12.3°C although 

by the time of atmospheric entry the temperature 

was up to 5°C. Flying a shorter trajectory than 

its sister, Venera 12 moved “ahead” of Venera 11, 

and as with its twin, two days prior to the planetary encounter, the flyby probe released its lander. 

On 21 December the lander entered the Venusian 

atmosphere at a velocity of 11.2 kilometers/second 

and performed a descent profile almost identical to 

the earlier Veneras 9 and 10 in 1975. Release of the 

final chute occurred at 46 kilometers altitude and 

for the next 52 minutes and 11 seconds, the lander 

descended freely with only some airbraking flaps 

installed on its circular ring for resistance. A vast 

amount of information was collected and relayed to 

the flyby probe. The lander safely touched down at 

03:30 UT on 21 December 1978. Landing coordinates were 7° S / 294° E longitude, about 800 kilometers from its twin. From the ground, the probe 

relayed data for a record 110 minutes, although like 

Venera 11, the spacecraft suffered two major failures: its soil sample delivery instrument failed to 

deposit the soil appropriately for scientific analysis; 

and the lens cover on the camera failed to release, 

effectively rendering the color imaging system 

useless. The flyby probe passed by the planet at a 

range of 35,000 kilometers after performing its data 
1978 153

transmission mission and then entered heliocentric 

orbit with parameters of 0.715 × 1.156 AU. As with 

the Venera 11 flyby probe, a major course correction (c. 350 meters/second delta-V) on 5 February 

1979 on Venera 12 was designed to ensure proper 

data collection from the Soviet-French Signe-2MZ1 

experiment on the localization of gamma-ray bursts. 

About a year-and-a-half after launch, Venera 12 was 

fortuitously in position to study the newly discovered Comet C/1979 Y1 (Bradfield). On 13 February 

1980, the spacecraft was properly oriented (with the 

use of its gyro-platform) to study the comet (which 

was about 50 kilometers closer to the Sun than the 

spacecraft). The DUMS-1 ultraviolet spectrometer 

was used to get a spectral signature of the comet 

both that day and later on 17 March 1980. In midApril, the three-axis orientation system on the bus 

failed and the spacecraft was spin-stabilized, which 

prevented further communication after a last session on 18 April 1980.

155

1981

162

Venera 13

Nation: USSR (98)

Objective(s): Venus flyby and landing

Spacecraft: 4V-1M (no. 760)

Spacecraft Mass: 4,397.85 kg

Mission Design and Management: NPO imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D-1 (8K82K no. 

311-01 + 11S824M no. 5L)

Launch Date and Time: 30 October 1981 / 06:04 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 200/40

Scientific Instruments:

Spacecraft Bus:

1. magnetometer

2. cosmic ray detector

3. solar wind detectors

4. Signe-2MZ2 gamma-ray burst detector

Lander:

1. x-ray fluorescence spectrometer + VB02 drill

2. x-ray fluorescence spectrometer for aerosols

3. imaging system

4. pressure and temperature sensors

5. mass spectrometer

6. Groza-2 lightning detector

7. Sigma-2 gas chromatograph

8. nephelometer

A model of the PrOP-V penetrometer installed on Veneras 13 and 14. Credit: T. Varfolomeyev
156 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

9. spectrophotometer

10. Bizon-M accelerometer

11. humidity sensor

12. PrOP-V soil mechanical/electrical probe

13. seismometer

Results: Venera 13 was part of the third pair of heavy 

Venus flyby/lander probes launched towards Venus 

by the Soviet Union in the 1970s (after Venera 9/10 

and Venera 11/12). The Soviets picked the landing 

site for Venera 13 based on information passed on 

by NASA from the Pioneer Venus Orbiter vehicle. 

They were supposed to fly in 1980 but the failures 

of the soil sampler and cameras on Venera 11/12 

forced a longer redesign process and these vehicles—especially the landers (each 1,643.72 kilograms) may have been the most rigorously tested 

deep space vehicles ever launched by the Soviets. The “new” spaceships had an improved set 

of instruments (such as the spectrophotometer, 

the gas chromatograph, and mass spectrometer) 

including a redesigned soil sampler as compared 

with its predecessors. Controllers implemented 

two mid-course corrections on 10 November 1981 

and 21 February 1982. During the outbound phase, 

there were some anomalies: after the first midcourse correction, for example, there anomalies 

detected in two of the science instruments (Konus 

and RPP-01) and a data tape recorder failed. The 

Venera 13 lander separated from its parent on 

27 February 1982. The capsule entered the Venusian atmosphere and began relaying atmospheric 

data back to the flyby probe which continued to 

fly past the planet after a 36,000-kilometer range 

encounter. After a roughly 1-hour-long descent, the 

lander set down on the Venusian surface at 03:57:21 

UT on March 1, 1982. Landing velocity was about 

7.5 meters/second and landing coordinates were 

7.55° S / 303.69° E longitude. The probe continued to transmit for another additional 127 minutes, 

far beyond the planned lifetime of 32 minutes. 

The probe found temperature and pressure to be 

462°C and 88.7 atmospheres, respectively. Venera 

13 repeated the attempts at color surface photography (using red, green, and blue filters) that failed 

on Venera 11 and 12, and succeeded by relaying to 

Earth the first color photographs of the surface of 

Venus. Venera 13 returned eight successive panoramas showing a field of orange-brown angular rocks 

and loose soil. Successful soil analysis (which failed 

on Venera 11/12) showed soil similar to terrestrial 

leucitic basalt with a high potassium content. The 

flyby module entered a heliocentric orbit after 

relaying back to Earth all the data collected from 

the lander. Its engine was fired twice, on 10 June 

and 14 October 1982, as part of a test to provide 

engineering data for the anticipated Halley’s Comet 

flyby by the Vega spacecraft. The bus continued to 

provide data until at least 25 April 1983.

163

Venera 14

Nation: USSR (99)

Objective(s): Venus flyby and landing

Spacecraft: 4V-1M (no. 761)

Spacecraft Mass: 4,394.5 kg

Mission Design and Management: NPO imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D-1 (8K82K no. 

311-02 + 11S824M no. 6L)

Launch Date and Time: 4 November 1981 / 05:31 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 200/39

Scientific Instruments:

Spacecraft Bus:

1. magnetometer

2. cosmic ray detector

3. solar wind detectors

4. Signe-2MZ2 gamma-ray burst detector

Lander:

1. x-ray fluorescence spectrometer + VB02 

drill

2. x-ray fluorescence spectrometer for aerosols

3. imaging system

4. pressure and temperature sensors

5. mass spectrometer

6. Groza-2 lightning detector
1981 157

7. Sigma-2 gas chromatograph

8. nephelometer

9. spectrophotometer

10. Bizon-M accelerometer

11. humidity sensor

12. PrOP-V soil mechanical/electrical probe

13. seismometer

Results: Venera 14 was identical to its twin, Venera 

13. The spacecraft carried out two mid-course 

corrections on the way to Venus, on 14 November 1981 and 25 February 1982. There were some 

anomalies en route: failures in the Konus device 

and erratic temperatures detected in the lander 

module (the outer shell holding the lander). Like 

Venera 13, one of the data tape recorders also 

failed. Also, the second mid-course correction 

imparted slightly lower velocity than expected (a 

shortfall of 1.9 meters/second). Later analysis indicated a possible failure in the turbopump assembly 

of the main engine. During flyby and release of the 

lander, the planned burn of the flyby vehicle was 

increased by 1 minute due to less than expected 

thrust, to ensure that the flyby bus did not burn up 

in the Venusian atmosphere and to give sufficient 

time to receive data from the lander. The lander 

probe separated from its flyby parent on 3 March 

1982 before the entry cycle began but the flyby 

vehicle’s main engine provided much less impulse 

than anticipated—a shortage of 56.4 meters/

second imparted velocity. Fortunately, this was still 

enough to make sure that the flyby probe did not 

impact on Venus but it significantly reduced the 

relay time for data. The lander’s main parachute 

opened at an altitude of 63.5 kilometers, thus activating the atmospheric instruments. The parachute 

was released at an altitude of 47 kilometers, and 

the 750-kilogram lander fell to the surface using 

only the atmosphere as a retarding medium. The 

probe made safe contact with the Venusian surface 

at 07:00:11 UT on 3 March 1982 and continued 

57 minutes of transmissions. Landing coordinates 

were 13.055° S / 310.19° E longitude, about 1,000 

kilometers from the Venera 13 landing site. As with 

its twin, Venera 14 returned color photographs of its 

surroundings and examined a soil sample (about one 

cubic centimeter taken from a 30-millimeter deep 

sample). Soil was deposited in a chamber sealed off 

from the outside environment and was then successively transferred through a series of chambers 

by blowing air until the sample was deposited in 

its final chamber with a temperature of only 30°C. 

Here it was examined by the x-ray fluorescence 

spectrometer. Temperature and pressure outside 

were considerably higher than at the Venera 13 

site: 470°C and 93.5 atmospheres respectively. 

One minor failing of the mission was that one of 

the ejected caps from the cameras fell just where 

the PrOP-V penetrometers, designed to test soil 

properties, were about to operate; instead of testing 

the soil, PrOP-V simply tested the material of the 

lens cap. The flyby probe meanwhile passed Venus 

at a range of 36,000 kilometers—much closer than 

originally planned—and entered heliocentric orbit, 

continuing to provide data on solar x-ray flares. It 

performed one trajectory change on 14 November 

1982 to provide engineering data for the upcoming 

Vega missions to encounter Halley’s Comet. The 

bus continued to return data until 9 April 1983. 

A minor controversy surrounded the later Venera 

missions when a scientist from the Academy of 

Sciences’ Institute of Space Research, Leonid 

Ksanformaliti, claimed that images from these missions revealed the possibility of “fauna” on Venus. 

Despite many Russians and Western analysts 

who debunked his claims, in a series of articles in 

2012, 2013, and 2014 in the official journal of the 

Academy, Ksanformaliti insisted that the presence 

of “artificial” and repeating shapes (“stems”) in 

the images from Venera 9, 10, 13, and 14 proved 

his hypothesis. All his claims, however, could be 

explained by the technical limitations of transmitting the images back to Earth.

159

1983

164

Venera 15

Nation: USSR (100)

Objective(s): Venus orbit

Spacecraft: 4V-2 (no. 860)

Spacecraft Mass: 5,250 kg

Mission Design and Management: NPO imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D-1 (8K82K no. 

321-01 / 11S824M no. 8L)

Launch Date and Time: 2 June 1983 / 02:38:39 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 200/39

Scientific Instruments:

1. Polyus-V side-looking radar

2. Omega-V 4-channel radiometric system

3. Radio occultation experiment

4. FS-1/4 infrared spectrometer

5. cosmic ray detectors

6. solar wind detectors

7. KS-18-6V to measure galactic and solar protons

Results: Venera 15/16 were a pair of two dedicated 

radar mappers designed to extend the studies 

began by the American Pioneer Venus Orbiter in 

constructing a detailed map of the surface down 

to about 1–2-kilometer resolution. For these missions, Soviet designers lengthened the central 

bus of the earlier Veneras (by 1 meter), installed 

much larger solar batteries, and attached a large 

side-looking radar antenna in place of the descent 

lander module on the earlier spacecraft. The infrared spectrometer was provided by the German 

Democratic Republic. Venera 15 carried out two 

mid-course corrections on 10 June 1983 and 

1 October 1983 before successfully entering orbit 

around Venus at 03:05 UT on 10 October. Initial 

orbital parameters were 904.5 × 64,687 kilometers at 87.5° inclination, i.e., a near polar orbit. 

Two more orbital corrections were carried out on 

17 October and 2 November leaving the spacecraft 

in an 873 × 65,000-kilometer orbit. The spacecraft’s 

mapping operations began six days after entering 

orbit, over the north pole. About three months after 

entering Venusian orbit, it was discovered that the 

main omni-directional antennae on both Venera 15 

and 16 were not naturally facing the direction of 

Earth (connected as they were by the need to have 

the solar panels constantly facing the direction of 

the Sun). Instead the solar panels were angled at 

45° to direct sunlight. Using a special command to 

re-orient the antenna into proper orientation (using 

springs) in January 1984 proved successful on 

Venera 16 but not Venera 15. A subsequent engine 

firing on 9 April 1984 shook Venera 15 sufficiently 

that the antenna finally moved into proper orientation. Because of the nature of the spacecraft’s orbit, 

the two orbiters mapped only the area from 30° N 

to the pole, about 115 million square kilometers. 

The official mission of both vehicles was to end on 

10 March 1984 but was extended on account that 

both spacecraft were in excellent condition. The 

primary photography mission was completed on 

10 July 1984. After that, an “optional program” of 

scientific work continued through the remainder of 

the year. On 30 December 1984, controllers found 

that the orientation system had exhausted its nitrogen. Last contact was made with the spacecraft on 

5 January 1985.
160 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

165

Venera 16

Nation: USSR (101)

Objective(s): Venus orbit

Spacecraft: 4V-2 (no. 861)

Spacecraft Mass: 5,300 kg

Mission Design and Management: NPO imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D-1 (8K82K no. 

321-02 + 11S824M no. 9L)

Launch Date and Time: 7 June 1983 / 02:32 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 200/40

Scientific Instruments:

1. Polyus-V side-looking radar

2. Omega-V 4-channel radiometric system

3. Radio occultation experiment

4. KS-18-6V infra-red spectrometer

5. cosmic ray detectors

6. solar wind detectors

7. KS-18-6V to measure galactic and solar 

protons

Results: Venera 16 arrived at Venus orbit at 06:22 

UT on 14 October 1983 after en-route course corrections on 15 June and 5 October 1983. Its initial 

orbital parameters were 977.3 × 67,078 kilometers. It began its mapping operations six days later 

in its 24-hour, 34-minute period near-polar orbit. 

Its operational orbit, reached on 22 October was 

944 × 65,336 kilometers, its orbital plane 4° 27′

inclined to that of its sister craft. Venera 16 typically followed Venera 15 over the same surface area 

after a three-day gap. Mapping resolution of both 

Venera 15 and 16 was comparable to that possible 

with the 300-meter dish at Arecibo in Puerto Rico 

although the Soviet orbiters provided coverage over 

latitudes higher than 30°, too far north for Earthbased observations. Both spacecraft also used an 

East German infrared spectrometer to map the 

planet in infrared wavelengths to provide a “heat 

atlas” of the atmosphere. The original missions of 

both spacecraft were to end by 10 March 1984 

but due to the excellent condition of the vehicles, 

ground controllers extended the primary mission 

into the summer. On 21 June 1984, controllers 

altered Venera 16’s orbit, and less than a month 

later, on 10 July, both vehicles finished their main 

missions, to photograph the northern hemisphere 

of Venus at a resolution of 1–2 kilometers. Venera 

16 ended its extended mission rather strangely: on 

13 June 1985, controllers were faced with an emergency situation on the Vega 1 spacecraft related to 

loss of orientation. A command was sent to Vega 1 

to activate the recovery mode (constant solar-stellar 

mode orientation). Because the operating frequency of Vega 1 and Venera 16 were identical, 

the command activated Venera 16’s search for an 

appropriate star to orient itself. The process unfortunately exhausted all the remaining propellant on 

Venera 16 and controllers lost contact. Because it 

had already fulfilled its primary mission, controllers did not consider this a great loss. In 1988, the 

Main Directorate of Geodesy and Cartography 

published a full album entitled “Atlas of Venus” 

(Atlasa venery) of annotated images generated by 

the Venera 14 and 15 missions. A 2013 article in 

a Russian journal claimed that these two orbital 

missions—Venera 15 and 16—were the “most 

successful [missions] in the history of automated 

spaceflight in the 1970s–1980s.”
161

1984

166

Vega 1

Nation: USSR (102)

Objective(s): Venus atmospheric entry and landing, 

Halley’s Comet flyby

Spacecraft: 5VK (no. 901) = 5VS (Venus orbiter) + 

5VP (Halley flyby + Venus lander)

Spacecraft Mass: c. 4,840 kg

Mission Design and Management: NPO imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D-1 (Proton-K no. 

329-01 + 11S824M no. 11L)

Launch Date and Time: 15 December 1984 / 09:16:24 

UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 200/39

Scientific Instruments:

Lander:

1. meteorological complex to measure temperature and pressure

2. VM-4 instrument to measure moisture 

content

3. Sigma-3 gas chromatograph

4. IFP aerosol x-ray fluorescence spectrometer

5. ISAV-A optical aerosol analyzer

6. ISAV-S ultraviolet spectrometer

7. LSA laser aerosol meter

8. Malakhit-M aerosol mass spectrometer 

(MS 1S1)

9. BDRP-AM25 soil x-ray fluorescence spectrometer + drill

10. GS-15STsV gamma-ray spectrometer

11. PrOP-V penetrometer/soil ohmmeter

Balloon:

1. temperature and pressure sensors

2. vertical wind anemometer

3. nephelometer

4. light level/lighting detector

Bus:

1. magnetometer (MISHA)

2. PLAZMAG-1 plasma energy analyzer

3. Tyunde-M energetic particle analyzer

4. neutral gas mass spectrometer (ING)

5. APV-V high-frequency plasma wave analyzer

6. APV-N low-frequency plasma wave analyzer

7. dust mass spectrometer (PUMA)

8. SP-1 and SP-2 dust particle counters

9. dust counter and mass analyzer (DUCMA)

10. Foton dust particle recorder

11. imaging system (TVS)

12. infrared spectrometer (IKS)

13. ultraviolet, visible, infrared imaging spectrometer (TKS)

Results: The twin-spacecraft Vega project, named 

after the combination of Venera and Galley, the 

Russian words for “Venus” and “Halley,” was perhaps the most ambitious deep space Soviet mission to date. The mission had three major goals: to 

place advanced lander modules on the surface of 

Venus, to deploy balloons (two each) in the Venusian atmosphere, and by using Venusian gravity, to 

fly the remaining buses past the Comet Halley. The 

entire mission was a cooperative effort between 

the Soviet Union (who provided the spacecraft and 

launch vehicle) with contributions from Austria, 

Bulgaria, Hungary, the German Democratic 

Republic (East Germany), Poland, Czechoslovakia, 

France (whose contribution was significant), and 

the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany). 

In addition, one instrument, a comet dust (flux) 

analyzer, was provided by an American cosmic ray 

physicist, John A. Simpson (1916–2000), at the 

University of Chicago. This instrument turned out 

to be the only American instrument that directly 
162 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

studied Halley’s comet during its 1986 encounter. 

While the landers were similar to ones used before 

for exploring Venus, the balloon gondolas were 

completely new Soviet-made vehicles that carried 

U.S.-French nephelometers to measure aerosol 

distribution in the atmosphere. The cometary flyby 

probes, which contained a 120-kilogram scientific package, were protected against high-velocity impacts from dust particles. After a successful 

flight to Venus, Vega 1 released its 1,500-kilogram 

descent module on 9 June 1985, two days before 

atmospheric entry. As the lander descended, at 

61 kilometers altitude, it released the first helium-inflated plastic balloon with a hanging gondola 

underneath it. Mass was around 20.8 kilograms. 

As the balloon drifted through the Venusian atmosphere (controlled partly by ballast), it transmitted 

important data on the atmosphere back to a network of tracking antennas on Earth. Balloon 1 survived for 46.5 hours, eventually succumbing due 

to battery failure, having traversed about 11,600 

kilometers. The lander set down safely on the 

ground at 03:02:54 UT on 11 June 1985 at 8.1° N / 

176.7° longitude on the night side of Venus in the 

Mermaid Plain north of Aphrodite and transmitted from the surface for 56 minutes. Temperature 

and pressure at the landing site were 467°C and 

93.88 atmospheres, respectively. The soil sample 

drill failed to complete its soil analysis, having spuriously deployed about 15 minutes before reaching 

the surface, but the mass spectrometer returned 

important data. The Vega 1 bus flew by Venus at 

a range of 39,000 kilometers and then headed for 

its encounter with Halley. After course corrections 

on 25 June 1985 and 10 February 1986, the spacecraft began its formal studies of the comet on 4 

March when it was 14 million kilometers from its 

target. During the 3-hour encounter on 6 March 

1986, the spacecraft approached to within 8,889 

kilometers (at 07:20:06 UT) of Halley. Vega 1 took 

more than 500 pictures via different filters as it flew 

through the gas cloud around the coma. Although 

the spacecraft was battered by dust, none of the 

instruments were disabled during the encounter. 

Vega 1 collected a wealth of information on Halley 

including data on its nucleus, its dust production 

rate, its chemical composition, and its rotational 

rate. After subsequent imaging sessions on 7 and 

8 March 1986, Vega 1 headed out to heliocentric 

orbit where it continued to transmit data from at 

least some of its instruments until last contact on 

30 January 1987.

167

Vega 2

Nation: USSR (103)

Objective(s): Venus atmospheric entry, Halley’s 

Comet flyby

Spacecraft: 5VK (no. 902) = 5VS (Venus orbiter) + 

5VP (Halley flyby + Venus lander)

Spacecraft Mass: 4,840 kg

Mission Design and Management: NPO imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D-1 (8K82K no. 

325-02 + 11S824M no. 12L)

Launch Date and Time: 21 December 1984 / 09:13:52 

UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 200/40

Scientific Instruments:

Lander:

1. meteorological complex to measure temperature and pressure

2. VM-4 instrument to measure moisture 

content

3. Sigma-3 gas chromatograph

4. IFP aerosol x-ray fluorescence spectrometer

5. ISAV-A optical aerosol analyzer

6. ISAV-S ultraviolet spectrometer

7. LSA laser aerosol meter

8. Malakhit-M aerosol mass spectrometer 

(MS 1S1)

9. BDRP-AM25 soil x-ray fluorescence spectrometer + drill

10. GS-15STsV gamma-ray spectrometer

11. PrOP-V penetrometer/soil ohmmeter
1984 163

Balloon:

1. temperature and pressure sensors

2. vertical wind anemometer

3. nephelometer

4. light level/lighting detector

Bus:

1. magnetometer (MISHA)

2. PLAZMAG-1 plasma energy analyzer

3. Tyunde-M energetic particle analyzer

4. neutral gas mass spectrometer (ING)

5. APV-V high-frequency plasma wave 

analyzer

6. APV-N low-frequency plasma wave analyzer

7. dust mass spectrometer (PUMA)

8. SP-1 and SP-2 dust particle counters

9. dust counter and mass analyzer (DUCMA)

10. Foton dust particle recorder

11. imaging system (TVS)

12. infrared spectrometer (IKS)

13. ultraviolet, visible, infrared imaging spectrometer (TKS)

Results: Vega 2 was the sister spacecraft to Vega 1, 

and essentially performed a near-identical mission 

to its twin. The main lander probe set down without problems at 03:00:50 UT on 15 June 1985 

in the northern region of Aphrodite, about 1,500 

kilometers south-east of Vega. Landing coordinates 

were 7.2° S / 179.4° longitude. Temperature and 

pressure were recorded as 462°C and 87.11 atmospheres, respectively. The spacecraft transmitted 

from the surface for 57 minutes. Unlike its twin, 

the Vega 2 lander was able to collect and investigate a soil sample; the experiment identified an 

anorthosite-troctolite rock, rarely found on Earth, 

but present in the lunar highlands. According to 

the lander’s data, the area was probably the oldest 

explored by any Venera vehicle. The mass spectrometer did not return any data. The balloon, released 

upon entry into the atmosphere, flew through the 

Venusian atmosphere, collecting data like its twin 

and survived for 46.5 hours of data transmission, 

traveling a slightly longer distance than its compatriot from Vega 1. Neither balloon on Vega 1 

nor Vega 2 detected any lightning in the Venusian 

atmosphere. After releasing its lander, the flyby 

probe continued on its flight to Comet Halley. The 

spacecraft initiated its encounter on 7 March 1986 

by taking 100 photos of the comet from a distance 

of 14 million kilometers. Vega 2’s closest approach 

(8,030 kilometers) to Halley was at 07:20 UT two 

days later when the spacecraft was traveling at a 

velocity of 76.8 kilometers/second (slightly lower 

than Vega 1’s 79.2 kilometers/second). During the 

encounter, Vega 2 took 700 images of the comet of 

much better resolution than those from its twin, 

partly due to the presence of less dust outside of 

the coma during this transit, although many of the 

images were overexposed due to a failure in the 

primary pointing software. Ironically, Vega 2 sustained an 80% power loss during the encounter 

(as compared to Vega 1’s 40%). Seven instruments 

between the two spacecraft were partially damaged, although no instrument on both were incapacitated. After further imaging sessions on 10 and 

11 March 1986, Vega 2 finished its primary mission 

and headed out into heliocentric orbit. Like Vega 1, 

Vega 2 continued “a series of scientific investigations” until last contact on 24 March 1987.

165

1985

168

Sakigake

Nation: Japan (1)

Objective(s): Halley’s Comet flyby

Spacecraft: MS-T5

Spacecraft Mass: 138.1 kg

Mission Design and Management: ISAS

Launch Vehicle: Mu-3S-II (no. 1)

Launch Date and Time: 7 January 1985 / 19:26 UT

Launch Site: Kagoshima / Launch Complex M1

Scientific Instruments:

1. solar wind ion detector

2. plasma wave probe

3. 2 magnetometers

Results: The MS-T5 spacecraft, named Sakigake 

(“pathfinder”) after launch, was the first deep 

space spacecraft launched by any other country 

apart from the Soviet Union or the United States 

(Two German Helios probes had been launched by 

NASA). Japan’s goal had been to launch a single 

modest probe to fly past Comet Halley as part of 

a test to prove out the technologies and mission 

operations of the actual mission. Japan’s Institute of Space and Astronautical Sciences (ISAS) 

launched this test spacecraft, known as MS-T5, 

nearly identical to the “actual” spacecraft launched 

later. The spin-stabilized spacecraft was launched 

by a new Japanese launch vehicle, the Mu-3S-II. 

Following two course corrections on 10 January and 

14  February 1985, Sakigake was sent on a longrange encounter with Halley. The original distance 

to the comet was planned to be 3 million kilometers 

but was altered to a planned 7.6 million kilometers when the launch had to be delayed due to bad 

weather and problems with the launch vehicle. The 

spacecraft served as a reference vehicle to permit 

scientists to eliminate Earth atmospheric and ionospheric contributions to the variations in Giotto’s 

transmissions from within the coma. The spacecraft’s closest approach to Halley was at 04:18 UT 

on 11 March 1986 when it was 6.99 million kilometers from the comet. Nearly six years after the Halley 

encounter, Sakigake performed a gravity assist by 

Earth on 8 January 1992 at 88,790-kilometer range. 

After two more distant flybys through Earth’s tail 

(in June 1993 and July 1994), Sakigake maintained 

weekly contact with the ground until telemetry was 

lost on 15 November 1995. Earlier, Japanese scientists had hoped to send the spacecraft on a flyby 

past Comet 21P/Giacobini-Zinner in 1998 but 

these were abandoned due to lack of sufficient propellant. Although telemetry was lost, ground control 

continued to receive a beacon signal until 7 January 

1999, 14 years after launch.

169

Giotto

Nation: European Space Agency (1)

Objective(s): Halley’s Comet flyby

Spacecraft: Giotto

Spacecraft Mass: 960 kg

Mission Design and Management: ESA

Launch Vehicle: Ariane 1 (V14)

Launch Date and Time: 2 July 1985 / 11:23:16 UT

Launch Site: CSG / ELA-1

Scientific Instruments:

1. neutral mass spectrometer (NMS)

2. ion mass spectrometer (IMS)

3. Giotto radio experiment (GRE)

4. dust impact detection system (DID)
166 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

5. Rème plasma analyzer (RPA)

6. Johnstone plasma analyzer (JPA)

7. energetic particles analyzer (EPA)

8. magnetometer (MAG)

9. optical probe experiment (OPE)

10. Halley multicolor camera (HMC)

11. particulate impact analyzer (PIA)

Results: Giotto was the first deep space probe 

launched by the European Space Agency (ESA). It 

was named after famed Italian Renaissance painter 

Giotto di Bondone (c. 1267–1337) who had 

depicted Halley’s Comet as the Star of Bethlehem 

in his painting Adoration of the Magi. Because the 

cylindrical spacecraft was designed to approach 

closer to Halley than any other probe, it was 

equipped with two dust shields separated by 23 

centimeters, the first to bear the shock of impact 

and spread the impact energy over larger areas of the 

second thicker rear sheet. The design of the spacecraft was based on the spin-stabilized magnetospheric Geos satellites launched in 1977 and 1978. 

After launch, and further course corrections on 26 

August 1985, 12 February 1986, and 12 March 

1986, Giotto was put on a 500-kilometer-range 

flyby trajectory to the comet’s core. Ballistics data 

on its precise voyage was based upon tracking 

information from the Soviet Vega 1 and 2 probes. 

The Giotto spacecraft eventually passed by Halley 

on 14 March 1986. Closest encounter was at a 

distance of 596 kilometers at 00:03:02 UT, the 

spacecraft being the only one among the large 

armada of spacecraft sent to investigate Halley that 

actually entered the ionosphere of the comet. At 

a range of 137.6 million kilometers from Earth, 

just 2 seconds before closest approach, telemetry 

stopped due to impact with a heavy concentration 

of dust that probably knocked the spacecraft’s high 

gain antenna out of alignment with Earth. Fortunately, data transmission was restored within 21.75 

seconds (with proper orientation of the antenna 

restored after 32 minutes). On average, Giotto had 

been hit 100 times a second by particles weighing 

up to 0.001 grams. By the end of its encounter with 

Halley, the spacecraft was covered in at least 26 

kilograms of dust stemming from 12,000 impacts. 

Giotto returned 2,000 images of Halley. After the 

encounter, ESA decided to redirect the vehicle for 

a flyby of Earth. The spacecraft was officially put 

in hibernation mode on 2 April 1986. Course corrections on 10, 20, and 21 March 1986, however, 

set it on a 22,000-kilometer flyby of Earth on 2 July 

1990 for a gravity assist (the first time that Earth 

had been used for such a purpose) to visit a new 

target: Comet 26P/Grigg-Skjellerup, which Giotto 

flew by at 15:30 UT on 10 July 1992 at range of 

approximately 200 kilometers. Eight experiments 

provided extensive data on a wide variety of cometary phenomena during this closest ever flyby of 

a comet. After formal conclusion of the encounter, Giotto was put in hibernation on 23 July 1992. 

Later, in September 1999, ESA scientists revealed 

that a second comet or cometary fragment may 

have been accompanying Grigg-Skjellerup during 

the encounter in 1992. The spacecraft repeated a 

flyby of Earth at 02:40 UT on 1 July 1999 at range 

of 219,000 kilometers but was not reactivated.

170

Suisei

Nation: Japan (2)

Objective(s): Halley’s Comet flyby

Spacecraft: Planet-A

Spacecraft Mass: 139.5 kg

Mission Design and Management: ISAS

Launch Vehicle: Mu-3S-II (no. 2)

Launch Date and Time: 18 August 1985 / 23:33 UT

Launch Site: Kagoshima / Launch Complex M1

Scientific Instruments:

1. ultraviolet imaging system

2. electrostatic analyzer

Results: Planet-A, named Suisei (“comet”) after 

launch, was the second of two Japanese probes 

launched towards Halley during the 1986 Earth 

encounter. The cylindrical spacecraft was launched 

directly on a deep space trajectory without entering 
1985 167

intermediate Earth orbit. The main payload of 

the spacecraft was an ultraviolet-based imaging 

system that could study the huge hydrogen corona 

around the comet. After a course correction on 

14  November 1985, Suisei flew within 152,400 

kilometers of the comet’s nucleus on 8 March 1986 

at 13:06 UT, returning ultraviolet images of the 20 

million-kilometer diameter hydrogen gas coma. 

Even at that relatively large distance from the 

comet, the spacecraft was hit by at least two dust 

particles, each 1 millimeter in diameter. After the 

Halley encounter, in 1987, ISAS decided to send 

the spacecraft through an elaborate trajectory for 

an encounter with Comet 21P/Giacobini-Zinner on 

24 November 1998, 13 years after launch. Suisei 

performed a series of trajectory corrections on 

5–10 April 1987 to send it on a gravity assist around 

Earth on 20 August 1992 at a range of 60,000 kilometers. Unfortunately, hydrazine for further corrections had been depleted by 22 February 1991. 

The planned encounter on 28 February 1998 with 

Giacobini-Zinner (as well as a far distance flyby of 

Comet 55P/Tempel-Tuttle) had to be cancelled, 

formally ending the mission.

169

1988

171

Fobos 1

Nation: USSR (104)

Objective(s): Mars flyby, Phobos encounter

Spacecraft: 1F (no. 101)

Spacecraft Mass: 6,220 kg

Mission Design and Management: NPO imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D-2 (8K82K no. 

356-02 + 11S824F no. 2L)

Launch Date and Time: 7 July 1988 / 17:38:04 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 200/39

Scientific Instruments:

Orbiter:

1. Lima-D laser mass spectrometer analyzer

2. Dion secondary ion mass analyzer

3. radar system (RLK) (of which Plazma ionosphere study instrument only on Fobos 1)

4. videospectrometric system (VSK)

5. KRFM-ISM infrared spectrometer

6. Termoskan infrared spectrometer

7. IPNM-3 neutron detector (only on Fobos 1)

8. GS-14 STsF gamma-emission spectrometer

9. Ogyust optical radiation spectrometer (ISO)

10. scanning energy-mass spectrometer 

(ASPERA)

11. plasma spectrometer (MPK)

12. Ester electron spectrometer

13. plasma wave analyzer (APV-F / PWS)

14. flux gate magnetometer (FGMM)

15. magnetometer (MAGMA)

16. Terek solar telescope/coronograph (only on 

Fobos 1)

17. RF-15 x-ray photometer

18. ultrasound spectrometer (SUFR)

19. gamma-ray burst spectrometer (VGS)

20. Lilas gamma-ray burst spectrometer

21. solar photometer (IFIR)

22. Taus proton and alpha-particle spectrometer [not listed in all sources]

23. Harp ion and electron spectrometer [not 

listed in all sources]

24. Sovikoms energy, mass, and charge spectrometer [not listed in all sources]

25. Sled charged-particle spectrometer [not 

listed in all sources]

DAS:

1. Al’fa x-ray and alpha-particle backscattering spectrometer

2. Stenopee (Libratsiya) sun sensor to measure librations

3. 2 cameras

4. vibration measurement instrument (VIK) + 

temperature sensor

5. transponder

Results: Fobos 1 and 2 were part of an ambitious 

mission to Mars and its 27-kilometer diameter 

moon Phobos that culminated a decade-long program of development. A truly multinational project that was the last hurrah for Soviet planetary 

exploration, the missions involved contributions 

from 14 other nations including Austria, Bulgaria, 

Czechoslovakia, Finland, France (undoubtedly 

the most active partner), East Germany, West 

Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Poland, Switzerland, 

Sweden, and the European Space Agency. NASA 

provided some tracking support through its Deep 

Space Network. Each spacecraft, with a newly 

designed standardized bus known as the UMVL, 

comprised a Mars orbiter for long-term studies of 

the planet and a 67-kilogram Long-Term Autonomous Station (DAS) which would land on Phobos, 

anchored by a harpoon driven into the soil, to study 
170 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

its geological and climactic conditions. The core 

of the bus was an autonomous engine unit (using 

the S5.92 engine, later named Fregat) that essentially acted as the fifth stage of the Proton launch 

vehicle, boosting the spacecraft to Mars from a 

highly eccentric Earth orbit attained after a firing 

of the Blok D upper stage. After each spacecraft 

entered orbit around Mars, they were designed to 

make very close (c. 50 meters) flybys of Phobos 

(on 7 April 1989 for Fobos 1), and sample surface 

material using two innovative methods (using a 

laser and using a beam of krypton ions) that would 

actively disturb the soil of Phobos. Instruments 

would then measure and evaluate the response. 

After the Phobos flyby, it was planned for the 

spacecraft to continue science missions directed 

at Mars from Martian orbit. The spacecraft were 

loaded with an unprecedented array of experiments, making them probably the most highly 

instrumented deep space mission ever launched. 

Fobos 1 performed a course correction en route to 

Mars on 16 July 1988. On 29 August 1988, instead 

of a routine command to switch on the GS-14STsF 

gamma-emission spectrometer, an erroneous command was issued as a result of a programming error, 

to turn off the orientation and stabilization system. 

As a result, the spacecraft lost proper solar orientation, i.e., the solar panels faced away from the Sun 

and thus began to lose power. There was no word 

from Fobos 1 at the next scheduled communications session on 2 September. Continuing attempts 

to establish contact failed, and on 3 November 

1988, the Soviets officially announced that there 

would be no further attempts at contact. The engineer who sent the false command was apparently 

barred from working on the shift teams for Fobos 2. 

Fobos 1 meanwhile flew by Mars without entering 

orbit (scheduled for 23 January 1989) and eventually entered heliocentric orbit. The most significant scientific data from the mission came from 

the Terek solar telescope, which returned important information on some of the then-least studied 

layers of the solar atmosphere, the chromosphere, 

the corona, and the transition layer.

172

Fobos 2

Nation: USSR (105)

Objective(s): Mars flyby, Phobos encounter

Spacecraft: 1F (no. 102)

Spacecraft Mass: 6,220 kg

Mission Design and Management: NPO imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D-2 (8K82K no. 

356-01 + 11S824F no. 1L)

Launch Date and Time: 12 July 1988 / 17:01:43 UT

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / Site 200/40

Scientific Instruments:

Orbiter:

1. Lima-D laser mass spectrometer analyzer

2. Dion secondary ion mass analyzer

3. radar system (without Plazma ionosphere 

study instrument, only on Fobos 1) (RLK)

4. videospectrometric system (VSK)

5. KRFM-ISM infrared spectrometer

6. Termoskan infrared spectrometer

7. GS-14 STsF gamma-emission spectrometer

8. Ogyust optical radiation spectrometer (ISO)

9. scanning energy-mass spectrometer 

(ASPERA)

10. plasma spectrometer (MPK)

11. Ester electron spectrometer

12. plasma wave analyzer (APV-F / PWS)

13. flux gate magnetometer (FGMM)

14. magnetometer (MAGMA)

15. x-ray photometer (RF-15)

16. ultrasound spectrometer (SUFR)

17. gamma-ray burst spectrometer (VGS)

18. Lilas gamma-ray burst spectrometer

19. solar photometer (IFIR)

20. Termoskop

21. Taus proton and alpha-particle spectrometer [not listed in all sources]

22. Harp ion and electron spectrometer [not 

listed in all sources]
1988 171

23. Sovikoms energy, mass, and charge spectrometer [not listed in all sources]

24. Sled charged-particle spectrometer [not 

listed in all sources]

DAS:

1. Alfa x-ray and alpha-particle backscattering 

spectrometer

2. Stenopee (Libratsiya) sun sensor to measure librations

3. 2 cameras

4. vibration measurement instrument (VIK) + 

temperature sensor

5. transponder

PrOP-FP:

1. penetrometer with ground sampler

2. accelerometers

3. x-ray fluorescence spectrometer

4. magnetometer (MFP)

5. kappameter

6. gravimeter

7. surface temperature sensors

8. instrument to measure surface electrical 

resistance

9. instrument to measure position tilt

Results: Fobos 2 had the same mission as its twin 

Fobos 1, to orbit Mars and fly past Phobos (on 

13 June 1989) but had an additional payload, a 

small 43-kilogram instrumented “hopper” known 

as PrOP-FP that would make 20-meter jumps 

across the surface of Phobos for about 4 hours. 

The orbiter also had a slightly different instrument complement—it did not carry the IPNM, 

Plazma, and Terek instruments carried on Fobos 1. 

PrOP-FP (Device to Evaluate Mobility—Phobos) 

had its own power supply system, radio transmitter, 

and a suite of scientific instruments. This “rover” 

was designed to perform hops ranging from 10 to 

40 meters and take data measurements after each 

hop. Despite some onboard anomalies, Fobos 2 

carried out two en route course corrections on 

21  July 1988 and 23 January 1989. One of the 

two radio transmitters failed, while its Buk computer was acting erratically due to faulty capacitors 

in the computer’s power supply, a fact that was 

known before launch. At 12:55 UT on 29 January 

1989, the spacecraft fired its engine to enter orbit 

around Mars. Initial orbital parameters were 819 × 

81,214 kilometers at 1.5° inclination. In the initial 

months in orbit around Mars, the spacecraft conducted substantive investigations of the Red Planet 

and also photographed areas of its surface. During 

this period, controllers implemented four further 

orbital corrections in order to put its trajectory on 

an encounter course with Phobos. The spacecraft 

also jettisoned its Fregat upper stage (which had 

fired its engine to enter Mars orbit). Fobos 2 took 

high resolution photos of the moon on 23 February 

(at 860 kilometers range), 28 February (320 kilometers), and 25  March 1989 (191 kilometers), 

covering about 80% of its surface. Release of its 

lander was scheduled for 4–5 April 1989, but on 

27 March during a regularly planned communications session at 15:58 UT, there was no word from 

the spacecraft. A weak signal was received between 

17:51 and 18:03 UT, but there was no telemetry 

information. The nature of the signal indicated that 

the spacecraft had lost all orientation and was spinning. Future attempts to regain communication 

were unsuccessful and the mission was declared 

lost on 14 April 1989. The most probable cause 

was failure of the power supply for the Buk computer, something that had actually happened earlier in the mission (on 21 January 1989). On this 

occasion, controllers failed to revive the vehicle. 

Roald Sagdeev (1932– ), the director of the Institute of Space Research noted in the journal Priroda

(Nature) in mid-1989 that “I think we should seek 

the cause of the failure in the very organization 

of the project, in its planning” adding that “the 

relationships between the customer [the science 

community] and contractor [Lavochkin]...are 

clearly abnormal.”

173

1989

173

Magellan

Nation: USA (63)

Objective(s): Venus orbit

Spacecraft: Magellan

Spacecraft Mass: 3,445 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: STS-30R Atlantis

Launch Date and Time: 4 May 1989 / 18:47:00 UT

Launch Site: Kennedy Space Center / Launch 

Complex 39B

Scientific Instruments:

1. synthetic aperture radar (RDRS)

Results: Magellan, named after the Portuguese 

explorer Ferdinand Magellan (1480–1521), was 

the first deep space probe launched by the United 

States in almost 11 years, and also the first launched 

by the Space Shuttle. The Challenger disaster in 

January 1986 profoundly impacted the Shuttle 

launch manifest into the 1990s, which included a 

number of planetary missions. Magellan, for example, was delayed by at least a year. The spacecraft 

was designed to use a Synthetic Aperture Radar 

(SAR) to map 70% of the Venusian surface down to 

a resolution of 120–300 meters. The basic bus was 

assembled using spare parts left over from various 

prior missions including Voyager, Galileo, Ulysses, 

and Mariner 9. Magellan was deployed by the 

STS-30R crew and released at 01:01 UT on 5 May 

1989 from Atlantis’ payload bay. One hour later, a 

two-stage Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) fired to send 

the spacecraft on a trajectory to rendezvous with 

Venus. After three en route trajectory corrections 

(the first two on 21 May 1989, 13 March 1990, 

and 25 July 1990), Magellan arrived in Venus orbit 

on 10 August 1990. Orbital parameters were 297 

× 8,463 kilometers at 85.5° inclination. Six days 

after entering orbit, Magellan suffered a communications outage lasting 15 hours. After a second 17 

hour-interruption on 21 August, the ground sent 

up new preventative software to reset the system in 

case of such anomalies. Beginning 15 September 

1990, the spacecraft began returning high-quality 

radar images of the Venusian terrain that showed 

evidence of volcanism, tectonic movement, turbulent surface winds, kilometers of lava channels, and 

pancake-shaped domes. Magellan completed its 

first 243-day cycle (i.e., the time it took for Venus 

to rotate once under Magellan’s orbit) of radar mapping on 15 May 1991, providing the first clear views 

of 83.7% of the surface. The spacecraft returned 

1,200 Gbits of data, far exceeding the 900 Gbits 

of data from all NASA planetary missions combined at the time. The spacecraft’s second mapping 

cycle, already beyond the original goals of the mission, ended on 15 January 1992, raising coverage to 

96%. A third cycle that focused on stereo imaging 

ended on 13 September 1992, finished coverage 

at 98%. Further cycles—a fourth (ending on 23 

May 1993), a fifth (ending on 29  August 1994), 

and a sixth (ending on 13 October 1994)—focused 

on obtaining gravimetric data on the planet. In 

the summer of 1993, controllers commanded the 

spacecraft to drop into the outermost regions of 

the Venusian atmosphere and then successfully 

used an aerobraking method to circularize its orbit. 

Contact was lost after 10:05 UT on 13  October 

1994 as the spacecraft was commanded to plunge 

into the atmosphere to gather aerodynamic data. 

The spacecraft burned up in the Venusian atmosphere about 10 hours later after one of the most 

successful deep space missions. Magellan found 

that at least 85% of the Venusian surface is covered 
174 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

with volcanic flows. The spacecraft’s data suggested that despite the high surface temperatures 

(475°C) and high atmospheric pressures (92 atmospheres), the complete lack of water makes erosion an extremely slow process on the planet. As a 

result, surface features can persist for hundreds of 

millions of years. In addition, the spacecraft found 

that such phenomena as continental drift are not 

evident on the planet. Its imagery contributed to 

the best high-resolution radar maps of Venus’ surface to date, improving on the images returned by 

the Soviet Venera 15 and 16 in the 1980s.

This simulated color global view of the surface of Venus taken by Magellan is centered at 180°E longitude. Data gaps in 

Magellan’s data were filled in by information from Pioneer Venus. Most notably, the simulated hues are based on color 

images from the Soviet Venera 13 and Venera 14 spacecraft. Credit: NASA/JPL
1989 175

174

Galileo

Nation: USA (64)

Objective(s): Jupiter orbit and atmospheric entry

Spacecraft: Galileo (Orbiter and Entry Probe)

Spacecraft Mass: 2,380 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: STS-34R Atlantis

Launch Date and Time: 18 October 1989 / 16:53:40 UT

Launch Site: Kennedy Space Center / Launch 

Complex 39B

Scientific Instruments:

Orbiter:

1. solid state imager (SSI)

2. near-infrared mapping spectrometer (NIMS)

3. ultraviolet spectrometer / extreme ultraviolet spectrometer (UVS/EUV)

4. photopolarimeter-radiometer (PPR)

5. magnetometer (MAG)

6. energetic particles detector (EPD)

7. plasma subsystem (PLS)

8. plasma wave subsystem (PWS)

9. heavy ion counter (HIC)

10. dust detector subsystem (DDS)

Atmospheric Entry Probe:

1. atmospheric structure instrument

2. neutral mass spectrometer

3. helium abundance interferometer

4. net-flux radiometer

5. nephelometer

6. lightning/radio-emission instrument

Results: Galileo, one of NASA’s most ambitious 

deep space exploration projects, was the result of 

plans dating back to the early 1980s to deploy a 

Jupiter orbiter and probe. In its final configuration, 

the orbiter was a 4.6-meter tall spacecraft designed 

to operate for 22 months in Jovian orbit using 10 

instruments/experiments to study the planet’s 

atmosphere, satellites, and magnetosphere. 

Galileo, named after the Italian astronomer Galileo 

Galilei (1564–1642), carried a 337-kilogram probe 

designed to return data as it entered the Jovian 

atmosphere (by parachute) to identify atmospheric 

materials and conditions that cannot be detected 

from outside. Because of limitations of a Space 

Shuttle/IUS combination, NASA decided to use a 

complex multiple gravity assist scheme that 

required three flybys (two of Earth and one of 

Venus) on its way to Jupiter. The STS-34R crew 

released the spacecraft 6.5 hours after launch; an 

hour later, the two-stage IUS fired to send Galileo 

on its way. Galileo flew past Venus at 05:58:48 UT 

on 10 February 1990 at a range of 16,106 kilometers during which it conducted an extensive survey 

of the planet (including imaging). Having gained 

8,030 kilometers/hour in velocity, the spacecraft 

flew by Earth twice, the first time at 960 kilometers 

range at 20:34:34 UT on 8 December 1990 when it 

detected chemical signatures associated with lifeform activity in atmospheric trace elements on our 

home planet. The spacecraft also conducted lunar 

observations. A major problem occurred on 11 April 

1991 when the high-gain antenna failed to fully 

deploy, thus eliminating the possibility of data 

transmission during its flyby of the asteroid 951 

Gaspra. A low-gain antenna was instead used for 

the remainder of the mission, augmented by ingenious strategies including the use of data compression software that allowed a higher data throughput 

than was originally possible with the low-gain 

antenna. Becoming the first human-made object to 

fly past an asteroid, Galileo approached the minor 

planet Gaspra to a distance of 1,604 kilometers at 

22:37 UT on 29 October 1991. The encounter provided much data including 150 images of the asteroid. Galileo then sped to its second encounter with 

the Earth–Moon system, with a flyby of Earth at 

303.1 kilometers at 15:09:25 UT on 8 December 

1992, adding 3.7 kilometers/second to its cumulative velocity. Galileo flew by a second asteroid, 243 

Ida, at 16:51:59 UT on 28 August 1993 at a range 

of 2,410 kilometers, providing further data on 

minor planets. Later in July 1994, as it was speeding towards Jupiter, Galileo provided astronomers’ 

only direct observations of Comet D/1993 F2 
176 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

Shoemaker-Levy 9’s impact into the Jovian atmosphere. Galileo’s atmospheric entry probe, based 

on the design of the large probe of the Pioneer 

Venus multiprobe, was finally released on 13 July 

1995 when the spacecraft was still 80 million kilometers from Jupiter. The probe hit the atmosphere 

at 6.5° N / 4.4° W at 22:04:44 UT on 7 December 

1995, traveling at a relative velocity of 48 kilometers/hour, and returned valuable data for 58 minutes as it plunged into the Jovian cauldron. The 

entry probe endured a maximum deceleration of 

228 g’s about a minute after entry when temperatures scaled up to 16,000°C. The probe’s transmitter failed 61.4 minutes after entry when the 

spacecraft was 180 kilometers below its entry ceiling, evidently due to the enormous pressure (22.7 

atmospheres). Data, originally transmitted to its 

parent and then later transmitted back to Earth, 

indicated an intense radiation belt 50,000 kilometers above Jupiter’s clouds, few organic compounds, 

and winds as high as 640 meters/second. The entry 

probe also found less lightning, less water vapor, 

and half the helium than had been expected in the 

upper atmosphere. The Galileo orbiter, meanwhile, 

fired its engine at 00:27 UT on 8 December, 

becoming Jupiter’s first human-made satellite. Its 

orbital period was 198 days. Soon after, Galileo 

began its planned 11 tours over 22 months exploring the planet and its moons, including flybys of 

Ganymede (for the first time on 27 June 1996) and 

Europa (on 6 November 1997). Having fulfilled its 

original goals, NASA implemented a two-year 

extension to 31 December 1999 with the Galileo 

Europa Mission (GEM) during which the spacecraft conducted numerous flybys of Jupiter’s 

moons, each encounter yielding a wealth of scientific data. These included flybys of Europa nine 

times (eight between December 1997 and February 

1999 and once in January 2000), Callisto four 

times (between May 1999 and September 1999), 

and Io three times (in October 1999, November 

1999, and February 2000). On the last flyby of Io, 

Galileo flew only 198 kilometers from the surface 

of Io sending back the highest resolution photos 

yet of the volcanically active moon. On 8 March 

2000, NASA announced plans to extend Galileo’s 

mission again, with a new phase beginning October 

2000 called the Galileo Millennium Mission. The 

idea was to coordinate investigations of Jupiter and 

its environs—particular the interaction of the solar 

wind with the planet’s magnetosphere—with the 

Cassini spacecraft (on its way to Saturn) that was 

expected to fly past Jupiter in December 2000. 

This second extension was largely possible due to 

the extreme accuracy of navigation during the prior 

phases of the mission that had saved a significant 

amount of maneuvering propellant. The RTGs on 

board the spacecraft were still delivering about 

450  W in 2000, although power capacity was 

declining at a rate of about 7 W per year. Under the 

Millennium Mission, Galileo flew by Ganymede, 

the largest moon in the solar system, on 20 May at 

a range of 809 kilometers and made its final flyby 

(also of Ganymede) on 28 December 2000 at a 

range of 2,337 kilometers. In January 2001, both 

Galileo and Cassini together encountered the magnetosphere bow shock within a half hour of each 

other. As the mission entered its final phase, mission scientists arranged for three final flybys of Io, 

primarily to obtain more data on the moon’s magnetic field and heat generation that drives its volcanism. A final flyby of Callisto (in May 2001) 

resulted in some very high-resolution photographs 

and led to the Io encounters in August and October 

2001 and in January 2002, the last one at a staggering 101.5 kilometers range, the closest it had gotten 

to any moon in its entire mission. This close 

encounter increased Galileo’s orbit such that it 

could be easily commanded in the future to terminate its mission in Jupiter’s atmosphere. A flyby of 

Amalthea in November 2002 provided key information on the moon’s density and preceded its 

closest flyby of Jupiter itself. Beginning March 

2003, Galileo was contacted once a week only to 

verify its status. Many years of operation in the 

Jovian system had exposed the spacecraft to intense 

radiation, taking a toll on many systems and instruments. Because Galileo had not been sterilized, to 
1989 177

prevent contamination, it was decided to have the 

vehicle burn up in the Jovian atmosphere instead 

of risking impact on a moon such as Europa. 

Having completed its 35th orbit around Jupiter and 

after accompanying the planet for three-quarters of 

a circuit around the Sun, Galileo flew into the 

atmosphere at a velocity of 48.2 kilometers/second, 

just south of equator, on 21 September 2003 at 

18:57 UT. In its nearly eight-year mission around 

Jupiter, Galileo had returned an unprecedented 

amount of data on the planet and its environs. For 

example, Galileo discovered far less lightning activity (about 10% of that found in an equal area on 

Earth) than anticipated, helium abundance in 

Jupiter very nearly the same as in the Sun (24% 

compared to 25%), extensive resurfacing of Io’s 

surface due to continuing volcanic activity since 

the Voyagers flew by in 1979, and evidence for 

liquid water ocean under Europa’s icy surface (with 

indications of similar liquid saltwater layers under 

the surfaces of Ganymede and Callisto). Jupiter’s 

ring system was found to be made of dust from 

impacts on the four small inner moons. Galileo also 

discovered materials linked to organic compounds 

(clay-like minerals known as phyllosilicates) on the 

icy crust of Europa, perhaps produced by collisions 

with an asteroid or a comet. The spacecraft also 

identified the first internal magnetic field of a 

moon (Ganymede) that produces a “minimagnetosphere” within Jupiter’s larger magnetosphere. By March 2000, the spacecraft had 

returned about 14,000 images back to Earth.

179

1990

175

Hiten and Hagoromo

Nation: Japan (3)

Objective(s): lunar flyby and lunar orbit

Spacecraft: MUSES-A and Hagoromo subsatellite

Spacecraft Mass: 185 kg (MUSES-A), 12 kg 

(Hagoromo)

Mission Design and Management: ISAS

Launch Vehicle: Mu-3S-II (no. 5)

Launch Date and Time: 24 January 1990 / 11:46:00 UT

Launch Site: Kagoshima / Launch Complex M1

Scientific Instruments:

Hiten:

1. cosmic dust detector (MDC)

Results: This two-module Japanese spacecraft was 

designed to fly past the Moon and release an 

orbiter. It was the first Japanese lunar mission and 

also the first robotic lunar probe since the flight 

of the Soviet Luna 24 in 1976. MUSES-A (for 

Mu-launched Space Engineering Satellite), named 

Hiten (“musical angel”) after launch, was put into a 

highly elliptical orbit around Earth that intersected 

with the Moon’s orbit. Due to a problem with the 

orbital injection burn, the probe’s orbital apogee 

was 290,000 kilometers, much less than the hoped 

for 476,000 kilometers, but after a number of subsequent maneuvers, Hiten reached its originally 

planned nominal orbit. At 19:37 UT on 18 March, 

during its first flyby of the Moon, Hiten released 

into lunar orbit, a small 12-kilogram “grandchild” 

satellite named Hagoromo. Hagoromo did not 

carry any science instruments and was designed 

to only transmit telemetry and diagnostic data 

back to Earth, but it made Japan the first nation 

besides the Soviet Union and the United States 

to put a spacecraft into lunar orbit. Hagoromo’s 

initial orbital parameters were 20,000 × 7,400 

kilometers. Although the maneuver successfully 

demonstrated the use of the swingby technique to 

enter lunar orbit, communications with Hagoromo 

had already been lost shortly before release on 

21  February when its S-band transmitter failed. 

Hiten, meanwhile, passed by the Moon at 20:04:09 

UT on 18 March at a distance of 16,472.4 kilometers and continued on its trajectory, simulating the orbital path of the proposed Geotail 

spacecraft. By 4 March 1991, Hiten had carried 

out seven more lunar flybys and began a phase 

of aerobraking into Earth’s atmosphere—a feat it 

carried out for the first time by any spacecraft on 

19 March (at 00:43 UT) at an altitude of 125.5 

kilometers, which lowered Hiten’s relative velocity 

by 1.712 meters/second and its orbital apogee by 

8,665 kilometers. A second aerobraking over Earth 

occurred at 11:36 UT on 30 March at 120 kilometers altitude, reducing velocity by 2.8 kilometers/

second and apogee by another 14,000 kilometers. 

With its primary mission now over, Hiten began 

an unexpected extended mission to experiment 

with a novel method to enter lunar orbit. After a 

ninth and tenth flyby of the Moon, the latter on 2 

October 1991, Hiten was put into a looping orbit 

that passed the Earth–Moon L4 and L5 Lagrange 

Points in October 1991 and January 1991, respectively, where it activated its MDC cosmic dust 

detector, jointly built with Germany. Circling back 

to the Moon for its eleventh flyby of the Moon at 

13:33 UT on 15 February 1992 at a range of 422 

kilometers, Hiten used a portion of its last remaining propellant to fire its engine (for 10 minutes) 

and insert itself into lunar orbit. This profile to 

enter lunar orbit that required very little delta-V on 

the part of the spacecraft was developed by JPL 
180 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

mathematician Edward Belbruno (1951– ). Initial 

orbital parameters around the Moon were 422 × 

49,400 kilometers. A final amount of propellant 

was then used two months later, on 10 April 1993 

to deorbit Hiten, which crashed onto the lunar surface at 18:03:25.7 UT at 55.3° E / 34.0° S.

176

Ulysses

Nation: ESA and USA (1)

Objective(s): heliocentric orbit

Spacecraft: Ulysses

Spacecraft Mass: 371 kg

Mission Design and Management: ESA / NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: STS-41 Discovery

Launch Date and Time: 6 October 1990 / 11:47:16 UT

Launch Site: Kennedy Space Center / Launch 

Complex 39B

Scientific Instruments:

1. solar wind plasma experiment (BAM)

2. solar wind ion composition experiment 

(GLG)

3. magnetic fields experiment (HED)

4. energetic particle composition/neutral gas 

experiment (KEP)

5. low energy charged particle composition/

anisotropy experiment (LAN)

6. cosmic rays and solar particles experiment 

(SIM)

7. radio/plasma waves experiment (STO)

8. solar x-rays and cosmic gamma-ray bursts 

experiment (HUS)

9. cosmic dust experiment (GRU)

Results: The Ulysses mission was an outgrowth of 

the abandoned International Solar Polar Mission 

(ISPM) that originally involved two spacecraft—

one American and one European—flying over 

opposite solar poles to investigate the Sun in 

three dimensions. Eventually, NASA cancelled its 

spacecraft, significantly eroding the confidence of 

international partners in the reliability of NASA 

as a partner, and the mission merged into a single 

spacecraft, provided by ESA. The scientific payload 

was shared by ESA and NASA, with the latter providing the RTG power source (similar to one used 

on Galileo), a Space Shuttle launch, and tracking 

from its Deep Space Network. Ground control 

operations were shared by both the Americans 

and Europeans. The vehicle was designed to fly 

a unique trajectory that would use a gravity assist 

from Jupiter to take it below the ecliptic plane and 

pass the solar south pole and then above the ecliptic to fly over the north pole. Eventually, 13 years 

after ESA’s science council had approved the mission, and considerably delayed by the Challenger 

disaster, on 6 October 1990, about 7.5 hours after 

launch, Ulysses was sent on its way into heliocentric orbit via an Inertial Upper Stage/PAM-S 

motor combination. Escape velocity was 15.4 kilometers/second, higher than had been achieved by 

either of the Voyagers or Pioneers, and the fastest 

velocity ever achieved by a human-made object at 

the time. After a mid-course correction on 8 July 

1991, Ulysses passed within 378,400 kilometers of 

Jupiter at 12:02 UT on 8 February 1992, becoming the fifth spacecraft to reach Jupiter. After a 

17-day period passing through and studying the 

Jovian system, the spacecraft headed downwards 

and back to the Sun. From about mid-1993 on, 

Ulysses was constantly in the region of space dominated by the Sun’s southern pole, as indicated by 

the constant negative polarity measured by the 

magnetometer. South polar observations extended 

from 26 June to 6 November 1994, when the vehicle was above 70° solar latitude. It reached a maximum of 80.2° in September 1994. Its instruments 

found that the solar wind blows faster at the south 

pole than at the equatorial regions. Flying up above 

the solar equator on 5 March 1995, Ulysses passed 

over the north polar regions between 19 June and 

30 September 1995 (maximum latitude of 80.2°). 

Closest approach to the Sun was on 12 March 

1995 at a range of 200 million kilometers. ESA 

officially extended Ulysses’ mission on 1 October 

1995, renaming this portion as the Second Solar 
1990 181

Orbit. Three times during its mission, the spacecraft unexpectedly passed through comet tails—

the first time in May 1996 (Comet C/1996 B2 

Hyakutake), the second time in 1999 (Comet 

C/1999 T1 McNaught-Hartley), and the third 

time in 2007 (Comet C/2006 P1 McNaught). The 

spacecraft made a second pass over the solar south 

pole between September 2000 and January 2001 

and the northern pole between September and 

December 2001. At the time, the Sun was at the 

peak of its 11-year cycle; Ulysses found that the 

southern magnetic pole was much more dynamic 

than the north pole and lacked any fixed clear location. ESA’s Science Program Committee, during 

a meeting on 5–6 June 2000, agreed to extend 

the Ulysses mission from the end of 2001 to 30 

September 2004. In 2003–2004, Ulysses spun out 

towards its aphelion (furthest point in its orbit) and 

made distant observations of Jupiter. ESA’s Science 

Program Committee approved a fourth extension 

of the Ulysses mission so that it could continue 

investigations over the Sun’s poles in 2007 and 

2008. In early 2008, ESA and NASA announced 

that the mission would finally terminate within 

the subsequent few months, having operated more 

than four times its design life. With communications systems failing as well as power depleting 

due to the decline of the RTGs (and thus allowing 

the hydrazine fuel in its attitude control system to 

freeze), the spacecraft was on its last breath at that 

point. Mission operations continued at reduced 

capacity until loss of contact on 30 June 2009, 

more than 18.5 years after launch. Ulysses’ principal findings include data that showed that there is 

a weakening of the solar wind over time (which was 

at a 50-year low in 2008), that the solar magnetic 

field at the poles is much weaker than previously 

assumed, that the Sun’s magnetic field “reverses” 

in direction every 11 years, and that small dust 

particles coming in from deep space into the solar 

system are 30 times more abundant than previously assumed.

183

1992

177

Geotail

Nation: USA/Japan (1)

Objective(s): high elliptical Earth orbit

Spacecraft: Geotail

Spacecraft Mass: 1,009 kg

Mission Design and Management: ISAS / NASA

Launch Vehicle: Delta 6925 (no. D212)

Launch Date and Time: 24 July 1992 / 14:26 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

Launch Complex 17A

Scientific Instruments:

1. magnetic fields measurement monitor (MGF)

2. low energy particles experiment (LEP)

3. electric field monitor (EFD)

4. energetic particles and ion composition 

experiment (EPIC)

5. high-energy particle monitors (HEP)

6. plasma wave instrument (PWI)

7. comprehensive plasma instrument (CPI)

Results: The Geotail mission was a joint project 

of Japan’s ISAS (and later, from 2003, JAXA), 

and NASA, executed as part of the International 

Solar Terrestrial Physics (ISTP) project, which 

also included the later Wind, Polar, SOHO, and 

Cluster missions. This particular mission’s goal was 

to study the structure and dynamics of the long tail 

region of Earth’s magnetosphere, which is created 

on the nightside of Earth by the solar wind. During 

active periods, the tail couples with the near-Earth 

magnetosphere, and often releases energy that is 

stored in the tail, thus activating auroras in the 

polar ionosphere. Although technically not a deep 

space or planetary mission, Geotail, in its extremely 

elliptical orbit, performed numerous lunar flybys, 

some closer than the distance at which the Soviet 

Luna 3 took the first pictures of the farside of the 

Moon. The spin-stabilized spacecraft (20 rpms) 

was designed with a pair of 100-meter tip-to-tip 

antennae and two 6-meter-long masts. On its fifth 

orbit around Earth, near apogee, on 8 September 

1992, the spacecraft flew by the Moon at a range 

of 12,647 kilometers. The flyby raised apogee 

from 426,756 kilometers to 869,170 kilometers. 

Such flybys continued almost every month subsequent to that, and ultimately raised the spacecraft’s apogee to 1.4 million kilometers. During 

these orbits, Geotail observed the magnetotail’s far 

region (from 80 to 220 times the radius of Earth 

or “Re”). Geotail’s 14th and last flyby of the Moon 

occurred on 25 October 1994 at a range of 22,445 

kilometers and as a result, placed the spacecraft 

in orbits with progressively lower apogees. In 

November 1994, Geotail’s apogee was 50 Re and 

by February 1995, it was down to 30 Re. The lower 

orbit was designed to allow the spacecraft to begin 

the second part of its mission, to study magnetotail 

sub-storms near Earth. During these orbits, perigee was about 10 Re, while the orbital inclination 

to the ecliptic plane was about –7° in order that 

the apogee would be located in the magnetotail’s 

neutral plane during the winter solstice. Later in 

the decade, Geotail’s orbit was adjusted so that it 

passed just inside Earth’s magnetosphere’s boundary plane on the dayside. In 2012, the spacecraft 

celebrated twenty years of continuous operation, 

and in 2014, despite having an original lifetime 

of only four years, was still sending back data on 

the formation of auroras, the nature of energy funneled from the Sun into near-Earth space, and the 

ways in which Earth’s magnetic field lines move 

and rebound, thus producing explosive bursts that 

affect our magnetic environment.
184 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

178

Mars Observer

Nation: USA (65)

Objective(s): Mars orbit

Spacecraft: Mars Observer

Spacecraft Mass: 1,018 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Titan III (CT-4)

Launch Date and Time: 25 September 1992 / 17:05:01 

UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

Space Launch Complex-40

Scientific Instruments:

1. Mars Observer camera (MOC)

2. thermal emission spectrometer (TES)

3. pressure modulator infrared radiometer 

(PMIRR)

4. Mars Observer laser altimeter (MOLA)

5. magnetometer/electron reflectometer 

(MAG/ER)

6. gamma-ray spectrometer (GRS)

7. radio science experiment (RS)

8. Mars balloon relay receiver (MBR)

Results: Mars Observer was designed to carry out 

a high-resolution photography mission of the Red 

Planet over the course of a Martian year (687 days) 

from a 378 × 350-kilometer polar orbit. Building 

on the research done by the Viking missions, it carried a suite of instruments to investigate Martian 

geology, atmosphere, and climate in order to fill in 

gaps on our knowledge of planetary evolution. A 

mere 31 minutes after launch, the new Transfer 

Orbit Stage (TOS), using the Orbus 21 solid rocket 

motor, fired to boost the spacecraft on an encounter 

trajectory with Mars. After a 725 million-kilometer voyage lasting 11 months, at 00:40 UT on 22 

August 1993, just two days prior to planned entry 

into Mars orbit, the spacecraft stopped sending 

telemetry (as planned), but then never resumed 

14 minutes later. Despite vigorous efforts to regain 

contact, Mars Observer remained quiet. When the 

spacecraft did not reestablish command as a result 

of a stored program that was designed to do in case 

of five days of silence, mission planners finally gave 

up hope on salvaging the mission. The results of 

a five-month investigation proved to be inconclusive, but one likely cause of the catastrophic failure 

may have been a fuel line rupture that could have 

damaged the spacecraft’s electronics, throwing the 

vehicle into a spin. In addition, the fact that the 

Mars Observer bus was a repurposed Earth science 

satellite bus may have also compromised the spacecraft’s ability to adapt to the deep space environment. While none of the primary mission objectives 

were accomplished, the spacecraft did return data 

during its interplanetary cruise. Scientific instruments developed for Mars Observer were later used 

on several subsequent Mars probes, including Mars 

Global Surveyor (launched in 1996), Mars Climate 

Orbiter (1998), Mars Odyssey (2001), and Mars 

Reconnaissance Orbiter (2005).
185

1994

179

Clementine

Nation: USA (66)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: Clementine

Spacecraft Mass: 424 kg

Mission Design and Management: BMDO / NASA

Launch Vehicle: Titan IIG (no. 23G-11)

Launch Date and Time: 25 January 1994 / 16:34 UT

Launch Site: Vandenberg AFB / SLC-4W

Scientific Instruments:

1. ultraviolet/visible camera (UV/Vis)

2. near-infrared camera (NIR)

3. laser image detection and ranging system 

(LIDAR)

4. long-wave infrared camera (LWIR)

5. high-resolution camera (HIRES)

6. 2 star tracker cameras

7. bistatic radar experiment

8. S-band transponder Doppler gravity 

experiment

9. charged particle telescope (CPT)

Results: Clementine was the first U.S. spacecraft 

launched to the Moon in over 20 years (since 

Explorer 49 in June 1973). The spacecraft, also 

known as the Deep Space Program Science Experiment (DSPSE), was designed and built to demonstrate a set of lightweight technologies such as 

small-imaging sensors and lightweight gallium 

arsenide solar panels for future low-cost missions 

flown by the Department of Defense. Specifically, 

Clementine was a technology proving mission for 

the DOD’s Brilliant Pebbles program for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), which required a large 

fleet of inexpensive spacecraft. Clementine carried 

15 advanced flight-test components and 9 science 

instruments. After launch, the spacecraft remained 

in a temporary parking orbit until 3 February 1994, 

at which time a solid-propellant rocket ignited to 

send the vehicle to the Moon. After two subsequent 

Earth flybys on 5 and 15 February, on 19 February 

Clementine successfully entered an elliptical polar 

orbit (430 × 2,950 kilometers) around the Moon 

with a period of five days. In the following two 

months, it transmitted about 1.6 million digital 

images of the lunar surface, many of them with 

resolutions down to 100–200 meters, in the process, providing scientists with their first look at 

the total lunar landscape including polar regions. 

After completing its mission goals over 297 orbits 

around lunar orbit, controllers fired Clementine’s 

thrusters on 3 May to inject it on a rendezvous 

trajectory (via an Earth flyby) with the asteroid 

1620 Geographos in August 1994. However, due 

to a computer problem at 14:39 UT on 7 May that 

caused a thruster to fire and use up all propellant, 

the spacecraft was put in an uncontrollable tumble 

at about 80 rpms with no spin control. Controllers 

were forced to cancel the asteroid flyby and return 

the vehicle to the vicinity of Earth. A power supply 

problem further diminished the operating capacity 

of the vehicle. Eventually, on 20 July, lunar gravity 

took control of Clementine and propelled it into 

heliocentric orbit. The mission was terminated 

on 8 August when falling power supply levels no 

longer allowed clear telemetry exchange. Surprisingly, because the spacecraft was fortuitously in 

the correct attitude to power up again, ground controllers were able to briefly regain contact between 

20 February and 10 May 1995. On 3 December 

1996, the Department of Defense announced 

that Clementine data indicated that there was ice 

in the bottom of a permanently shadowed crater 
186 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

on the lunar south pole. Scientists estimated the 

deposit to be approximately 60,000 to 120,000 

cubic meters in volume, i.e., comparable to a small 

lake that is four football fields in surface area and 

5 meters deep. This estimate was very uncertain, 

however, due to the nature of the data. An accounting of Clementine’s legacy should include the fact 

that methods developed for the project became the 

basis for NASA’s “Faster, Better, Cheaper” initiative 

which ultimately paved the way for the Agency’s 

Discovery program.

180

Wind

Nation: USA (67)

Objective(s): Sun–Earth L1 Lagrange Point

Spacecraft: Wind

Spacecraft Mass: 1,250 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / GSFC

Launch Vehicle: Delta 7925-10 (no. D227)

Launch Date and Time: 1 November 1994 / 09:31:00 

UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

Launch Complex 17B

Scientific Instruments:

1. radio and plasma wave experiment (WAVES)

2. energetic particle acceleration, composition, and transport experiment (EPACT)

3. solar wind and suprathermal ion composition experiment (SMS)

– solar wind ion composition spectrometer (SWICS)

– high mass resolution spectrometer 

(MASS)

– suprathermal ion composition spectrometer (STICS)

4. solar wind experiment (SWE)

5. 2 triaxial fluxgate magnetometers (MFI 

magnetic field investigation)

6. three-dimensional plasma and energetic 

particle investigation (3DP)

7. transient gamma-ray spectrometer (TGRS)

8. Konus gamma-ray burst studies experiment

Results: Wind was part of the International Solar 

Terrestrial Physics (ISTP) program, a joint project between (principally) the United States, 

Japan, and the European Space Agency (although 

a few other countries such as Russia, the Czech 

Republic, and France made significant contributions) to study the behavior of the solar-terrestrial 

system. Participating spacecraft included Geotail, 

Wind, Polar, SOHO, and Cluster. The first of 

two NASA-sponsored Global Geospace Science 

(CGS) vehicles, the Wind spacecraft carried eight 

instruments (including the French WAVES and 

the Russian Konus) to investigate the solar wind’s 

encounters with Earth’s magnetosphere and ionosphere in order to determine the origins and 

three-dimensional characteristics of the solar wind. 

The spacecraft’s original mission was to directly 

move to the L1 Lagrange point but because the 

SOHO and ACE spacecraft were directed to that 

location, the WIND mission was reformulated to 

operate for some time in a unique figure-eightshaped elliptical orbit around Earth at 28,000 × 1.6 

million kilometers, partially maintained by periodic 

“double flybys” of the Moon. In this orbit, Wind was 

positioned so as to make use of lunar gravity assists 

to maintain its apogee over the day hemisphere of 

Earth and conduct magnetospheric observations. 

The closest of its 19 flybys of the Moon between 

1 December 1994 and 17 November 1998 took 

place on 27 December 1994 at a range of 11,834 

kilometers. Finally, by November 1996, Wind was 

in a “halo orbit” around the Sun–Earth L1 libration 

point where solar and terrestrial gravity are approximately equal. Parameters varied between 235 and 

265 Earth radii. In this orbit, Wind measured the 

incoming solar wind, and magnetic fields and particles on a continuous basis, providing about an 

hour warning to the other ISTP-related spacecraft 

on changes in the solar wind. On 17 November 

1998, Wind began to move into a series of “petal” 

orbits, designed to take it out of the ecliptic plane. 

Wind’s trips above and below the ecliptic (up to 
1994 187

60°) allowed the spacecraft to sample regions of 

interplanetary space and the magnetosphere that 

had not been previously studied. By 2004, it was 

back at L1 where it has remained. The original 

projected lifetime of the vehicle was anticipated to 

be three to five years but WIND continues to be 

largely operational in 2017, 22 years after its launch, 

with one instrument, the TGRS gamma-ray spectrometer turned off, and a couple of detectors on 

the EPACT instrument, non-functional. Current 

projections suggest that it will have enough fuel to 

remain at L1 for at least another 60 years. Despite 

the formal conclusion of the ISTP in December 

2001, Wind continues to play a supporting role 

for a variety of other spacecraft supporting solar 

research, including Polar, Cluster, Geotail, Image, 

SOHO, and ACE.

189

1995

181

SOHO

Nation: ESA and USA (2)

Objective(s): Sun–Earth L1 Lagrange Point

Spacecraft: SOHO

Spacecraft Mass: 1,864 kg

Mission Design and Management: ESA / NASA

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Centaur IIAS (AC-121 / Atlas 

IIAS no. 8206 / Centaur II)

Launch Date and Time: 2 December 1995 / 08:08:01 

UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

Launch Complex 36B

Scientific Instruments:

1. solar-ultraviolet measurements of emitted 

radiation experiment (SUMER)

2. coronal diagnostic spectrometer (CDS)

3. extreme ultraviolet imaging telescope (EIT)

4. ultraviolet coronograph spectrometer (UVCS)

5. large angle and spectrometric coronograph 

(LASCO)

6. solar wind anisotropies experiment (SWAN)

7. charge, element, and isotope analysis 

experiment (CELIAS)

8. comprehensive suprathermal and energetic 

particle analyzer (COSTEP)

9. energetic and relativistic nuclei and electron experiment (ERNE)

10. global oscillations at low frequencies 

experiment (GOLF)

11. variability of solar irradiance and gravity 

oscillations experiment (VIRGO)

12. Michelson Doppler imager/solar oscillations investigation (MDI/SOI)

Results: The ESA-sponsored Solar and Heliospheric 

Observatory (SOHO) carries 12 scientific instruments to study the solar atmosphere, helioseismology, and the solar wind. Information from the 

mission has allowed scientists to learn more about 

the Sun’s internal structure and dynamics, the 

chromosphere, the corona, and solar particles. The 

SOHO and Cluster missions, part of ESA’s Solar 

Terrestrial Science Programme (STSP), are ESA’s 

contributions to the International Solar Terrestrial Physics (ISTP) program, which has involved 

the work of other spacecraft such as Wind and 

ACE, which, like SOHO, operate in the vicinity 

of the Sun–Earth L1 point. NASA contributed 

three instruments on SOHO as well as launch and 

flight operations support. About two months after 

launch, on 14 February 1996, SOHO was placed at 

a distance of 1.5 million kilometers from Earth in 

an elliptical Lissajous orbit around the L1 libration 

point where it takes approximately six months to 

orbit L1 (while the L1 itself orbits the Sun every 

12 months). The spacecraft returned its first image 

on 19 December 1995 and was fully commissioned 

for operations by 16 April 1996. SOHO finished its 

planned two-year study of the Sun’s atmosphere, 

surface, and interior in April 1998. Communications with the spacecraft were interrupted for four 

months beginning 24 June 1998, after which the 

spacecraft was apparently spinning, losing electrical power, and not pointing at the Sun. After intensive search efforts, by 25 September, controllers 

managed to regain control and return SOHO to 

“normal mode.” Because of the failure of onboard 

gyros, ESA developed a special gyroless method of 

orientation (which used reaction wheels) that was 

successfully implemented beginning 1 February 

1999. Barring three instruments, the spacecraft 
190 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

was functional and was declared operational once 

again by mid-October 1998. SOHO’s original lifetime was three years (to 1998), but in 1997, ESA 

and NASA jointly decided to prolong the mission 

to 2003, thus enabling the spacecraft to compare 

the Sun’s behavior during low dark sunspot activity 

(1996) to the peak (around 2000). One of SOHO’s 

most important discoveries has been locating the 

origin of the fast solar wind at the corners of honeycomb-shaped magnetic fields surrounding the edges 

of large bubbling cells located near the Sun’s poles. 

Another has been its discovery, as of September 

2015, of over 3,000 comets (more than one-half of 

all known comets), by over 70 people representing 

18 different nations. These discoveries were made 

possible because of the LASCO instrument that 

while observing the Sun, blocked out the Sun’s 

glare, rendering comets visible. SOHO’s mission at 

L1 has now been extended six times, most recently 

in June 2013, to at least December 2016. In 

December 2015, SOHO marked 20 years of continuous operation, having fundamentally changed our 

conception of the Sun “from a picture of a static, 

unchanging object in the sky to the dynamic beast 

it is,” in the words of Bernhard Fleck, the ESA project scientist for SOHO. The longevity of the mission has allowed SOHO to cover an entire 11-year 

solar cycle and the beginning of a new one. One of 

the recent highpoints of the mission was SOHO’s 

observation of a bright comet plunging toward the 

Sun on 3–4 August 2016 at a velocity of nearly 2.1 

million kilometers/hour.
191

1996

182

NEAR Shoemaker

Nation: USA (68)

Objective(s): asteroid (Eros) orbit and landing

Spacecraft: NEAR

Spacecraft Mass: 805 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / GSFC / APL

Launch Vehicle: Delta 7925-8 (no. D232)

Launch Date and Time: 17 February 1996 / 20:43:27 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

Launch Complex 17B

Scientific Instruments:

1. multi-spectral imager (MSI)

2. magnetometer (MAG)

3. near infrared spectrometer (NIS)

4. x-ray/gamma ray spectrometer (XGRS)

5. laser rangefinder (NLR)

6. radio science and gravimetry experiment

Results: Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous (NEAR) 

was the first mission flown under NASA’s Discovery program, a series of low-cost (less than c. $150 

million in mid-nineties dollar amounts) planetary 

science projects that were selected competitively 

and led by a Principal Investigator rather than a 

NASA manager. NEAR’s primary goal was to rendezvous with the minor planet 433 Eros (an S-class 

asteroid), approximately 355 million kilometers 

from Earth, and gather data on its physical properties, mineral components, morphology, internal 

mass distribution, and magnetic field. The spacecraft was the first to rely on solar cells for power 

during operations beyond Mars orbit. On the way to 

its primary mission, NEAR performed a 25-minute 

flyby of the asteroid 253 Mathilde on 27 June 1997. 

Closest approach to 1,200 kilometers was at 12:56 

UT. During the encounter, the spacecraft photographed 60% of the minor planet from a range of 

1,200 kilometers. The collected information indicated that the 4.5 billion-year-old asteroid is covered with craters and less dense than previously 

believed. After a mid-course correction on 3 July 

1997, NEAR flew by Earth on 23 January 1998 at 

07:23 UT for a gravity assist on its way to Eros. 

Closest approach was 540 kilometers. After the 

Earth flyby encounter, NEAR’s previously planned 

mission profile had to be revised in the light of an 

aborted engine burn on 20 December 1998 that 

prevented a critical trajectory correction to meet 

up with Eros a month later. Instead, NEAR was 

put on a backup trajectory that afforded a different flyby than that originally planned. As part of 

this new plan, the spacecraft first flew past Eros 

on 23 December 1998 at 18:41:23 UT at a range 

of 3,827 kilometers (distance measured from the 

center of mass) during which it observed about 

60% of the asteroid, and discovered that the minor 

planet was smaller than expected. NEAR also 

found that the asteroid has two medium-sized craters, a long surface ridge, and a density similar to 

Earth’s crust. After several more trajectory adjustments, NEAR finally moved into orbit around Eros 

at 15:33 UT on 14 February 2000, roughly a year 

later than intended, becoming the first humanmade object to orbit a minor planet. Orbital parameters were 321 × 366 kilometers. Through 2000, 

NEAR’s orbit was shifted in stages to permit specific research programs. There were a few problems in the lead up to the landing on the asteroid. 

For example, on 13 May 2000, controllers had to 

turn off the Near Infrared Spectrometer due to an 

excessive power surge. By 30 April the spacecraft 

was in its operational orbit at an altitude of about 

50 kilometers from Eros’ center. Later, on 13 July, 
192 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

NEAR entered an even lower orbit at 35 kilometers 

that brought the vehicle as close as 19 kilometers 

from the surface. After about 10 days, it moved 

back into a higher orbit. On 26 October, NEAR 

performed another close flyby of the surface, this 

time to just 5.3 kilometers. By the end of the year, 

the spacecraft had entered a circular 35-kilometer 

low orbit around the asteroid, and began to make 

a series of very close passes—on the order of 5 

to 6 kilometers—to its surface. Following a slow 

controlled descent, during which it took 69 highresolution photos of Eros, NEAR touched down 

on Eros at a gentle 6.4 kilometers/hour, just south 

of a saddle-shaped feature named Himeros, on 12 

February 2001 at 19:44 UT. This was the first time 

a U.S. spacecraft was the first to land on a celestial 

body, having been beaten by the Soviets in landing on the Moon, Mars, and Venus. Remarkably, 

the orbiter survived contact and returned valuable 

data, especially from its gamma-ray spectrometer, 

for about two weeks. Last contact with NEAR was 

on 28 February 2001, the spacecraft having succumbed to the extreme cold (–173°C). NASA’s 

attempt to contact the probe nearly two years later 

on 10 December 2002 was unsuccessful. NEAR 

data showed that Eros had no magnetic field. It 

mapped more than 70% of the surface using the 

near infrared spectrometer and provided important 

data about the asteroid’s interior. The spacecraft 

returned about 10 times more data than originally 

planned, including 160,000 images. Earlier, on 

14  March 2000, a month after entering asteroid 

orbit, NASA renamed the NEAR spacecraft NEAR 

Shoemaker in honor of Eugene M. Shoemaker 

(1928–1997), the renowned geologist.

183

Mars Global Surveyor

Nation: USA (69)

Objective(s): Mars orbit

Spacecraft: MGS

Spacecraft Mass: 1,030.5 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Delta 7925 (no. D239)

Launch Date and Time: 7 November 1996 / 17:00:49 

UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

Launch Complex 17A

Scientific Instruments:

1. Mars orbital camera (MOC)

2. Mars orbital laser altimeter (MOLA)

3. thermal emission spectrometer (TES)

4. magnetometer/electron reflectometer 

(MAG/ER)

5. radio science experiment (RS)

6. Mars relay antenna for future spacecraft 

(MR)

Results: Mars Global Surveyor was the first spacecraft in NASA’s new Mars Surveyor Program, a new 

generation of American space probes to explore 

Mars every 26 months from 1996 to 2005, and formulated (in 1994) to economize costs and maximize returns by involving a single industrial partner 

with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory to design, build, 

and deliver a flight-worthy vehicle for Mars every 

two years. (A new Mars Exploration Program was 

inaugurated in 2000.) The Mars Global Surveyor 

spacecraft carried five instruments similar to 

those carried by the lost Mars Observer probe that 

fell silent in 1993. Among its instruments was a 

French-supplied radio relay experiment to serve 

as a downlink for future Mars landers, including 

for the then-planned Russian Mars 96 mission. 

After mid-course corrections on 21 November 

1996 and 20 March 1997, Mars Global Surveyor 

entered a highly elliptical orbit around Mars on 

12 September 1997 after engine ignition at 01:17 

UT. Initial orbital parameters were 262 × 54,026 

kilometers. Commencement of its planned twoyear mission was delayed because one of its two 

solar panels (-Y) had not fully deployed soon after 

launch. The solar panels were designed to act as 

atmospheric brakes to alter its orbit. As a result, 

mission planners reconfigured the aerobraking process required to place the vehicle in its intended 
1996 193

orbit: the modified aerobraking maneuver began on 

17 September 1997 and lasted until 11 October. A 

second aerobraking phase lasted from November 

1997 to March 1998 and a third one began in 

November 1998 whose goal was to reduce the 

high point of its orbit down to 450 kilometers. 

The revised maneuvers were finally completed on 

4 February 1999 with a major burn from its main 

engine. A subsequent firing on 19 February finally 

put Mars Global Surveyor into a near-circular polar 

orbit at 235 kilometers—and on 9 March 1999, 

its mapping mission formally began. The orbit 

was Sun-synchronous, ensuring that all its images 

were taken by the spacecraft of the same surface 

features at different times under identical lighting conditions. Despite the early problems, Mars 

Global Surveyor, already during its movement to its 

new orbit, began to send back impressive data and 

high-resolution images of the surface of Mars. The 

spacecraft tracked the evolution of a dust storm, 

gathered information on the Martian terrain, found 

compelling evidence indicating the presence of 

liquid water at or near the surface (first announced 

by NASA on 22 June 2000). During its mission, 

Mars Global Surveyor also produced the first 

three-dimensional profiles of Mars’ north pole using 

laser altimeter readings. The spacecraft’s primary 

mission was concluded on 1 February 2001, by 

which time it had returned 83,000 images of Mars, 

more than all previous missions to Mars combined. 

In addition, the laser altimeter essentially mapped 

almost all of the planet, by firing approximately 

500 billion pulses at the surface, providing topographical data that was more detailed than many 

places on Earth. On 1 February 2001, Mars Global 

Surveyor’s mission was extended for a year, and 

then again on 1 February 2002, this time continuing 11 months. In the early 2000s, the spacecraft 

supported other missions to Mars, including that of 

Mars Odyssey (in 2001) and the Mars Exploration 

Rovers (in 2004) by providing either atmospheric 

data or relaying telemetry back to Earth. Between 

2004 and 2006, it conducted experiments simultaneously with the European Mars Express. On 

1 October 2006, mission planners, based on the 

recommendations of a Senior Review Board, once 

again extended its mission by another two years 

but only a month later, on 2 November, the spacecraft lost contact with Earth when attempting to 

orient a solar panel. Although weak signals were 

received three days later, on 21 November 2006, 

NASA announced that the mission of Mars Global 

Surveyor was over. The final problem was probably 

related to a flaw in the system’s software.

184

Mars 8 / Mars 96

Nation: Russia (106)

Objective(s): Mars orbit and landing

Spacecraft: M1 (no. 520)

Spacecraft Mass: 6,795 kg

Mission Design and Management: NPO imeni 

Lavochkina

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok D-2 (8K82K no. 

392-02 + 11S824F no. 3L)

Launch Date and Time: 16 November 1996 / 20:48:53 

UT

Launch Site: GIK-5 / Site 200/39

Scientific Instruments:

Orbiter:

1. Argus imaging complex

– TV camera (HRSC)

– spectroscopic camera (WAOSS)

– Omega infrared and optical spectrometer

2. infrared Fourier spectrometer (PFS)

3. Termoskan mapping radiometer

4. Svet mapping spectrometer

5. Spikam multi-channel spectrometer

6. ultraviolet spectrophotometer (UFS-M)

7. long-wave radar (RLK)

8. Foton gamma-ray spectrometer

9. Neytron-S neutron spectrometer

10. mass spectrometer (MAK)

11. Aspera-S ion and particles power and mass 

analyzer
194 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

12. Fonema omni non-scanning energy-mass 

ion analyzer

13. Dimio omni ionosphere energy mass 

spectrometer

14. Mari-prob ionospheric plasma spectrometers

15. Maremf electron analyzer/magnetometer

16. Elisma wave complex experiment

17. Sled-2 low energy charged particle 

spectrometer

18. precision gamma-ray spectrometer (PGS)

19. Lilas-2 cosmic and solar gamma-burst 

spectrometer

20. Evris stellar oscilllation photometer

21. solar oscillation spectrometer (SOYa)

22. Radius-M dosimeter

23. tissue-equivalent dosimeter (TERS)

Small Autonomous Stations (MAS):

1. meteorology complex (MIS)

2. meteorology complex (DPI)

3. alpha-particle proton and x-ray spectrometer

4. Optimizm seismometer/magnetometer/

inclinometer

5. panoramic camera (PanCam)

6. descent phase camera (DesCam)

7. soil oxidization capacity instrument (MOx)

Penetrators:

1. PTV-1 camera

2. Mekom meteorological unit

3. Pegas gamma-ray spectrometer

4. Angstrem x-ray spectrometer

5. Alfa alpha/proton spectrometer

6. Neytron-P neutron spectrometer

7. Grunt accelerometers

8. Termozond temperature probes

9. Kamerton seismometer

10. IMAP-7 magnetometer

Results: Mars 8, the only Soviet/Russian lunar or 

planetary probe in the 1990s, was an ambitious 

mission to investigate the evolution of the Martian 

atmosphere, its surface, and its interior. Originally 

planned as two spacecraft, Mars 94 and Mars 96, 

the missions were delayed and became Mars 96 

and Mars 98. Subsequently Mars 98 was cancelled 

leaving Mars 96 as the first Russian deep space 

mission beyond Earth orbit since the collapse of 

the Soviet Union. The entire spacecraft comprised 

an orbiter, two small autonomous stations, and two 

independent penetrators. The three-axis stabilized 

orbiter carried two platforms for pointing several 

optical instruments for studying the Martian surface and atmosphere. After an initial period in 

low orbit lasting three to four weeks acting as a 

relay to the landers, the orbiter was designed to 

spend approximately two Earth years in a 250 × 

18,000-kilometer orbit at 101° inclination mapping 

Mars. The orbiter would have released the two 

88-kilogram small autonomous stations (Malaya 

avtonomnaya stantsiya, MAS), four to five days 

before entering orbit. The small stations would 

have landed on the Martian surface, cushioned 

by an inflatable shell that was to split open after 

landing. The stations were to have transmitted data 

daily (initially) and then every three days for about 

20 minutes each session. The stations would have 

also studied soil characteristics and taken photos 

on the surface. The two 123-kilogram penetrators, 

each 2.1 meters long, would have impacted the 

Martian surface at a velocity of 76 meters/second 

to reach about 6 to 8 meters in depth. The plan was 

for the orbiter to release them between 7 and 28 

days after entering orbit. During their one-year lifetimes, the penetrators would have served as nodes 

of a seismic network. In the event, the Proton-K 

rocket successfully delivered the payload to Earth 

orbit (after the first firing of the Blok D-2 upper 

stage). Initial orbit parameters were 150.8 × 165.7 

kilometers at 51.53° inclination. At that point, the 

Blok D-2 was to fire once again to place Mars 8 

into an elliptical orbit, after which the Fregat propulsion module (with its S5.92 engine) would have 

sent the spacecraft on a Martian encounter trajectory. The Blok D-2 was to have fired at 10:57:46 

UT on 16 November for 528 seconds but either 

didn’t fire or shut down very soon after ignition, 

thus putting its precious payload into an incorrect 

and similar orbit of 143.7 × 169.6 kilometers. Mars 

8 and its Fregat module then automatically separated from the Blok D-2. The latter seems to have 
1996 195

fired (as planned earlier), placing Mars 8 in an 80 × 

1,500-kilometer orbit that deposited the planetary 

probe in Earth’s atmosphere, with reentry between 

12:30 and 01:30 UT on November 17, probably 

over southern Chile. Various parts of the vehicle, 

including 200 grams of plutonium-238, must have 

survived the reentry although there have been no 

reports of detection. Mars 8 was scheduled to 

arrive in Mars orbit on 23 September 1997.

185

Mars Pathfinder

Nation: USA (70)

Objective(s): Mars landing and roving operations

Spacecraft: Mars Pathfinder

Spacecraft Mass: 870 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Delta 7925 (no. D240)

Launch Date and Time: 4 December 1996 / 06:58:07 

UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

Launch Complex 17B

Scientific Instruments:

Pathfinder Lander:

1. IMP imager for Mars Pathfinder (including 

magnetometer and anemometer)

2. atmospheric and meteorology package 

(ASI/MET)

Sojourner Rover:

1. imaging system (three cameras)

2. laser striper hazard detection system

3. alpha proton x-ray spectrometer (APXS)

4. wheel abrasion experiment

5. materials adherence experiment

6. accelerometers

On 21 July 1997, the Mars Pathfinder’s Sojourner rover 

takes its Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer measurement 

on a rock near the landing site. Credit: NASA/JPL

Results: Mars Pathfinder was an ambitious mission 

to send a lander and a separate remote-controlled 

rover to the surface of Mars, the second of NASA’s 

Discovery missions. Launched one month after 

Mars Global Surveyor, Pathfinder was sent on a 

slightly shorter seven-month trajectory designed 

for arrival earlier. The main spacecraft included 

a 10.5-kilogram six-wheeled rover known as 

Sojourner capable of traveling 500 meters from the 

main ship at top speeds of 1 centimeter/second. 

The mission’s primary goal was not only to demonstrate innovative, low-cost technologies, but also to 

return geological, soil, magnetic property and atmospheric data. After a 7-month traverse and four 

trajectory corrections (on 10 January, 3 February, 

6 May, and 25 June 1997), Pathfinder arrived at 

Mars on 4 July 1997. The spacecraft entered the 

atmosphere using an atmospheric entry aeroshell 

that slowed the spacecraft sufficiently for a supersonic parachute to deploy and slow the package to 

68 meters/second. After separation of the aeroshell 

heatshield, the lander detached, and at about 355 

meters above the surface, airbags inflated in less 

than a second. Three solid propellant retro-rockets 

reduced velocity further (firing about 100 meters 

above the surface) but were then discarded at 21.5 

meters altitude—they flew up and away along 

with the parachute. The lander-within-the-airbag 

impacted on the surface at a velocity of 14 meters/

second generating about 18 g’s of acceleration. The 

package bounced at least 15 times before coming 

to rest, following which the airbags deflated revealing the lander. Landing time for Pathfinder was 
196 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

16:56:55 UT on 4 July 1997 at 19° 7′ 48′′ N / 33° 

13′ 12′′ W in Ares Vallis, about 19 kilometers southwest of the original target. The next day, Pathfinder 

deployed the Sojourner rover on the Martian surface via landing ramps. Sojourner was the first 

wheeled vehicle to be used on any planet. During 

its 83-day mission, the rover covered hundreds of 

square meters, returned 550 photographs and performed chemical analyses at 16 different locations 

near the lander. The latter meanwhile transmitted 

more than 16,500 images and 8.5 million measurements of atmospheric pressure, temperature, and 

windspeed. Data from the rover suggested that 

rocks at the landing site resembled terrestrial volcanic types with high silicon content, specifically a 

rock type known as andesite. Although the planned 

lifetime of Pathfinder and Sojourner were expected 

to be one month and one week respectively, these 

times were exceeded by 3 and 12 times respectively. 

Final contact with Pathfinder was at 10:23  UT 

on 27 September 1997. Although mission planners tried to reestablish contact for the next five 

months, the highly successful mission was officially 

declared over on 10 March 1998. After landing, 

Mars Pathfinder was renamed the Sagan Memorial 

Station after the late astronomer and planetologist 

Carl Sagan. In 2003, Sojourner was inducted into 

the Robot Hall of Fame. On 21 December 2006, 

NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter’s HIRISE 

camera photographed the flood plain of the Ares 

and Tiu outflow channels; images clearly showed 

the Pathfinder and associated hardware.
197

1997

186

ACE

Nation: USA (71)

Objective(s): Sun–Earth L1 Lagrange Point

Spacecraft: ACE

Spacecraft Mass: 752 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / GSFC

Launch Vehicle: Delta 7920-8 (no. D247)

Launch Date and Time: 25 August 1997 / 14:39 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

Launch Complex 17A

Scientific Instruments:

1. solar wind ion mass spectrometer (SWIMS) 

and solar wind ion composition spectrometer (SWICS)

2. ultra-low energy isotope spectrometer 

(ULEIS)

3. solar energetic particle ionic charge analyzer (SEPICA)

4. solar isotope spectrometer (SIS)

5. cosmic ray isotope spectrometer (CRIS)

6. solar wind electron, proton, and alpha monitor (SWEPAM)

7. electron, proton, and alpha-particle monitor 

(EPAM)

8. magnetometer (MAG)

9. real time solar wind experiment (RTSW)

Results: The Advanced Composition Explorer 

(ACE) spacecraft was designed to study spaceborne energetic particles from the Sun–Earth L1 

libration point, about 1.4 million kilometers from 

Earth. Specifically, the spacecraft was launched 

to investigate the matter ejected from the Sun to 

establish the commonality and interaction between 

the Sun, Earth, and the Milky Way galaxy. In addition, ACE also provides real-time space weather 

data and advanced warning of geomagnetic storms. 

ACE’s nine instruments have a collecting power 

that is 10 to 10,000 times greater than anything 

previously flown. After launch, the spacecraft’s 

Delta 2 launch vehicle’s second stage reignited 

(after 4 hours) to insert the satellite into a 177 × 

1.37 million-kilometer orbit. After reaching apogee 

a month after launch, ACE inserted itself into its 

Lissajous orbit around the L1 point. The spacecraft 

was declared operational on 21 January 1998 with 

a projected two- to five-year lifetime. As of early 

2015, it continues to provide near-real-time 24/7 

coverage of solar wind parameters and measure 

solar energetic particle intensities. With the exception of the SEPICA instrument (data from which 

was no longer received after 4 February 2005), all 

instruments on ACE remain operational as of mid2017, and the propellant on board could theoretically allow a mission until about 2024.

187

Cassini-Huygens

Nation: US and ESA (3)

Objective(s): Saturn orbit, Titan landing

Spacecraft: Cassini and Huygens

Spacecraft Mass: 5,655 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL / ESA

Launch Vehicle: Titan 401B-Centaur (TC-21 / Titan 

401 no. 4B-33)

Launch Date and Time: 15 October 1997 / 08:43 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

Launch Complex 40
198 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

Scientific Instruments:

Cassini:

1. cosmic dust analyzer (CDA)

2. visible and infrared mapping spectrometer 

(VIMS)

3. imaging science system (ISS)

4. radar

5. ion and neutral mass spectrometer (INMS)

6. radio and plasma wave spectrometer 

(RPWS)

7. plasma spectrometer (CAPS)

8. ultraviolet imaging spectrograph (UVIS)

9. magnetospheric imaging instrument (MIMI)

10. dual technique magnetometer (MAG)

11. composite infrared spectrometer (CIRS)

12. radio science subsystem (RSS)

Huygens:

1. atmospheric structure instrument (HASI)

2. gas chromatograph neutral mass spectrometer (GC/MS)

3. aerosol collector and pyrolyzer (ACP)

4. descent imager/spectral radiometer (DISR)

5. surface science package (SSP)

6. Doppler wind experiment (DWE) Engineers process NASA’s Cassini spacecraft at Kennedy 

Space Center in Florida ahead of its launch to Saturn on 15 

October 1997. Credit: NASA

Results: The Cassini-Huygens project was the result 

of plans at NASA dating from the early 1980s and 

formally approved in 1989 as a joint NASA-ESA 

mission. Having survived several attempts by 

Congress to cancel the mission, the mission that 

emerged was a cooperative project with ESA (as 

well as the Italian Space Agency, ASI) involving a 

NASA-supplied spacecraft, Cassini, that orbits 

Saturn, and an ESA-supplied lander, Huygens, 

which descended into the atmosphere of Titan, 

Saturn’s largest moon, in 2005. ASI provided the 

high-gain and low-gain antenna assembly and a 

major portion of the radio system. The primary scientific goals of the mission included a diverse set of 

investigations of Saturn, its moons, and its near 

environment. The 3,132-kilogram orbiter with an 

original design life of 11 years was powered by 

three radioisotope thermoelectric generators 

(RTGs), of the same design as the RTGs carried 

aboard Ulysses, Galileo, and New Horizons. The 

335-kilogram Huygens, named after the Dutch 

physicist Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695), was 

designed to investigate Titan’s atmosphere’s chemical properties and measure wind, temperature, 

and pressure profiles from 170 kilometers down to 

the Moon’s surface. The probe was not designed to 

survive past landing although scientists did not rule 

out the possibility entirely. Cassini’s trip to Saturn 

included four gravity assists. Seven months after 

launch, the spacecraft passed Venus on April 26, 

1988 at a range of 284 kilometers, gaining 26,280 

kilometers/hour. Cassini performed a second flyby 

of Venus on June 24, 1999 at a range of 623 kilometers and one of Earth at 03:28 UT on 18 August 

1999 at a range of 1,171 kilometers, before heading 

to Jupiter. During this portion of the traverse, 

Cassini passed by the asteroid 2685 Masursky on 
1997 199

This graphic illustrates how scientists on NASA’s Cassini mission think water interacts with rock at the bottom of the ocean 

of Saturn’s icy moon Enceladus, producing hydrogen gas (H2). Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Southwest Research Institute
200 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

23 January 2000, flying as close as 1.5 million kilometers at 09:58 UT. During the encounter, Cassini 

used its remote sensing instruments to investigate 

the asteroid’s size and dimensions and albedo. 

Nearly a year later, on 30 December 2000, the 

spacecraft passed by Jupiter at a distance of about 

9.7 million kilometers. Among the data it returned 

was a detailed global color image of Jupiter, probably the most complete of the whole planet ever produced. In 2001–2002, controllers noticed a “haze” 

in images returned by the narrow-angle camera but 

these were eliminated following phases of heating 

the spacecraft. Its investigations en route to Saturn 

included an experiment in October 2003 in which 

scientists observed a frequency shift in radio waves 

to and from the probe as those signals traveled 

close to the Sun. These results confirmed theoretical predictions based on Einstein’s general theory 

of relativity. In May 2004, Cassini-Huygens entered 

the Saturn system, i.e., the gravitational pull of 

Saturn became higher than the pull from the Sun. 

After over five years of inactivity, Cassini’s main 

engine was fired on 27 May as a test prior to orbital 

insertion. After a flyby of the Moon Phoebe on 

June 11 (at a distance of just 2,068 kilometers), 

Cassini performed one more correction five days 

later. Finally, on 1 July 2004, the spacecraft engine 

fired for 96 minutes, thus inserting CassiniHuygens into a 0.02 × 9 million-kilometer orbit 

around Saturn. It was the first human-made object 

to enter orbit around Saturn. In its initial months, 

Cassini provided detailed data on Titan during 

This artist’s impression is based on images taken by ESA’s Huygens probe which landed on the surface of Saturn’s moon 

Titan. The parachute that slowed Huygens’ reentry can be seen in the background, still attached to the lander. Credit: ESA
1997 201

three flybys (on 2 July, 27 October, and 

13  December) and discovered two small new 

moons (Methone and Pallene). On Christmas Day 

2004 at 02:00 UT, the Huygens lander, which had 

remained dormant for more than six years, separated from Cassini and began its 22-day coast to 

Titan. It entered Titan’s atmosphere at 09:05:56 

UT on 14 January 2005 and within 4 minutes had 

deployed its 8.5-meter diameter main parachute. A 

minute later, Huygens began transmitting a wealth 

of information back to Cassini for over 2 hours 

before impacting on the surface of Titan at 11:38:11 

UT at a velocity of 4.54 meters/second. Landing 

coordinates were 192.32° W / 10.25° S, about 7 

kilometers from its target point. A problem in the 

communications program limited the number of 

images that Huygens transmitted to Cassini, from 

about 700 to 376. Yet, to the excitement of planetary scientists back on Earth, it continued its transmissions for another 3 hours and 10 minutes during 

which it transmitted a view of its surroundings (224 

images of the same view). Huygens appears to have 

landed in surface resembling “sand” made of ice 

grains; surface pictures showed a flat plain littered 

with pebbles as well as evidence of liquid acting on 

the terrain in the recent past. Subsequent data confirmed the existence of liquid hydrocarbon lakes in 

the polar regions of Titan. In April 2016, ESA 

announced that one of Titan’s three large seas close 

to the north pole, known as Ligela Mare, is filled 

with pure liquid methane, with a seabed covered by 

a “sludge” of organic-rich material. The Cassini 

orbiter meanwhile continued its main orbital mission investigating the Saturn system, its voyage 

punctuated by repeated “targeted” flybys—flybys 

actively implemented by trajectory corrections—of 

various moons, particularly Titan, Enceladus, 

Tethys, Hyperion, Dione, Rhea, and Iapetus. 

Cassini ended its primary mission on 27 May 2008 

with its 43rd flyby of Titan. During this period, the 

spacecraft discovered two new moons (Daphnis 

and Anthe), uncovered much valuable data about 

Titan, including the first radar images of the moon’s 

surface taken during its 27 October 2004 flyby and 

clear evidence of existing large lakes of liquid 

hydrocarbon in the northern latitudes of Titan, and 

performed a number of radio occultation experiments to study the size-distribution of particles in 

Saturn’s rings and atmosphere. Perhaps the most 

exciting flyby was one on 12  March 2008 when 

Cassini flew within 50 kilometers of the surface of 

Enceladus, passing through the plumes from its 

southern geysers. The spacecraft detected water 

and carbon dioxide and also mapped surface features. In April 2008, NASA approved a two-year 

extension of its mission (i.e., 60 more Saturn 

orbits), which officially began on 1 July 2008 and 

was called the Cassini Equinox Mission, named as 

such because the mission coincided with Saturn’s 

equinox. Further moons of Saturn were identified 

(Aegaeon and S/2009 S 1, the latter a “propeller 

moonlet” perhaps only 400 meters across) while 

additional encounters with Enceladus allowed 

Cassini to acquire very high-resolution images of 

its surface and directly sample its cryo-volcanic 

plumes that appear to contain complex organic 

chemicals. During the two-year Equinox Mission, 

which ended in September 2010, Cassini performed 26 targeted flybys of Titan, 7 of Enceladus, 

and 1 each of Dione, Rhea, and Helene. On 

3 February 2010, NASA announced that Cassini’s 

mission would continue beyond the original twoyear extension into the new Cassini Solstice 

Mission that would last until September 2017, a 

few months past Saturn’s summer solstice. The 

new mission was named after the Saturnian 

summer solstice occurring in May 2017, which 

marked the beginning of summer in the northern 

hemisphere and winter in the southern hemisphere. (The spacecraft had arrived at Saturn just 

after the planet’s northern winter solstice. The 

extension thus allowed scientists to study a complete seasonal period of the planet.) The Cassini 

Solstice Mission was guided principally by its ability to continue close studies of Titan (particularly 

seasonal climate change such as storms, flooding, 
202 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

and changes in lakes) and Enceladus (particularly, 

its “astrobiological potential”) but also some of the 

other icy moons (such as Dione and Rhea), the 

planet itself (and its magnetosphere), and its rings. 

The extension allowed 155 orbits around Saturn 

155 times, plus 54 flybys of Titan, 11 of Enceladus, 

2 of Rhea, and 3 of Dione. At the beginning of the 

Solstice Mission, on 2 November 2010, Cassini 

ran into a problem when a malfunction in the 

spacecraft’s computer shut down all nonessential 

systems. Slowly, over a period of about three weeks, 

controllers were able to restore all of Cassini’s 

instruments to working order. Only one targeted 

flyby of Titan was affected during the interim. On 

6 March 2014, the spacecraft conducted its 100th 

flyby of Titan (at a range of 1,500 kilometers), conducting gravity measurements in order to explore 

the existence of a global subsurface ocean. By July 

2014, Cassini had identified at least 101 distinct 

geysers erupting on the south polar region of 

Enceledaus. Researchers concluded that it is possible for liquid water to reach all the way to the 

surface from the moon’s underground sea (whose 

existence had been announced in April 2014). The 

presence of this salty underground ocean, about 

30–40 kilometers thick, under a 10-kilometer ice 

shell, raises the possibility that microbial life might 

exist there. Significant events in 2015–2016 

included a close flyby (at 47,000 kilometers) of 

Rhea in February 2015, allowing very high-resolution images of the natural satellite, a flyby (at 

34,000 kilometers) of the irregularly-shaped 

Hyperion in May 2015 showing a deeply impactscarred surface, and two last flybys of Dione in 

June and August 2015, at just 516 and 474 kilometers range, respectively. Perhaps the most spectacular mission event of the year was Cassini’s 

“deep-dive” to just 49 kilometers above the south 

polar region of the geologically active Enceladus in 

October 2015. During the encounter, the spacecraft’s gas analyzer and dust detector instruments 

sampled the moon’s plume of gas and dust-sized icy 

particles. A final flyby of Enceladus was carried out 

in December at a range of 4,999 kilometers, concluding a chapter in the Cassini mission’s encounters with Saturn’s moons. In December 2015, 

Cassini initiated a number of delicate orbital 

maneuvers designed to tilt the spacecraft’s orbit 

out of Saturn’s ringplane. Each maneuver was followed by a gravity-assist from Titan (“Titan does all 

the heavy lifting,” noted Earl Maize, Cassini project manager at JPL), thus sending the vehicle to an 

increasingly higher inclination (relative to Saturn’s 

equator). These maneuvers set up Titan for its final 

dramatic year in 2016–2017, involving two distinct 

phases of the mission. On 30  November 2016, 

Cassini set off on a path that carried it high above 

and under Saturn’s poles, diving every seven days 

through the hitherto unexplored region at the outer 

edge of the main rings. This phase of the mission, 

called “Cassini’s Ring-Grazing Orbits” involved 20 

“dives” through this region, that ended on 22 April 

2017. During some of these passes, the spacecraft 

directly sampled ring particles and molecules of 

faint gases close to the rings. In March and April 

2017, ring crossings had the spacecraft fly through 

the dusty outer regions of the F ring. After the last 

ring-grazing orbit concluded on 22 April 2017, a 

flyby of Titan reshaped Cassini’s trajectory to send 

it on a new phase of the mission, the “Grand 

Finale,” involving 22 plunges, the first on 26 April 

through the 2,400-kilometer gap between Saturn 

and its innermost ring. The mission concluded on 

15  September 2017 on its 293rd orbit of Saturn 

when Cassini plunged into the Saturnian atmosphere ending one of the most ambitious and spectacular missions in the history of planetary 

exploration. By most estimates, the spacecraft 

burned up in the atmosphere and was destroyed 

about 45 seconds after the last transmission. 

During the final moments of the descent, data 

from eight of Cassini’s science instruments beamed 

important data back to Earth, giving insight into 

the planet’s formation and evolution. Cassini was 

named after Italian astronomer Giovanni Cassini 

(1625–1712).
1997 203

188

Asiasat 3 / HGS 1

Nation: Asia Satellite Telecommunications Co. (1)

Objective(s): geostationary orbit, circumlunar 

mission

Spacecraft: Asiasat 1

Spacecraft Mass: 3,465 kg

Mission Design and Management: Asiasat (operator) + 

Hughes (design and manufacture)

Launch Vehicle: Proton-K + Blok DM3 (8K82K no. 

394-01 / Blok DM3 no. 5L)

Launch Date and Time: 24 December 1997 / 23:19 UT

Launch Site: GIK-5 / Site 81/23

Scientific Instruments: [none]

Results: The lunar flyby accomplished by Asiasat 3 

was not part of a science mission but rather the 

end result of a rescue mission of a satellite that had 

been stranded in an incorrect orbit. Asiasat 3 was 

a communications satellite, based on the Hughes 

HS-601HP bus, launched by the Russians for Asia 

Satellite Telecommunications Co. Because of the 

improper second firing of the Blok DM3 upper 

stage, the satellite ended up in a useless 203 × 

36,000-kilometer orbit around the Earth and written off as a loss by Asiasat. Insurance underwriters 

subsequently signed an agreement with Hughes 

Global Systems who built the satellite to salvage 

the vehicle and bring it to its originally intended 

geostationary orbit by using as little propellant as 

possible. Using 11 carefully-planned burns beginning 12 April 1998, controllers raised the orbit’s 

apogee to 321,000 kilometers. Then, with the 12th 

firing on 7 May 1998, the spacecraft was sent on 

a nine-day round trip around the Moon, approaching as close as 6,200 kilometers to its surface on 

13 May. Using this gravity assist, Asiasat 3 hurled 

back into a usable orbit. By 16 May 1998, perigee 

had been raised to 42,000 kilometers and inclination reduced from 51° to 18°. A second circumlunar mission began on 1 June that culminated in a 

34,300-kilometer flyby of the Moon on 6 June, a 

distance closer than the Soviet Luna 3. After four 

more engine firings, the satellite was finally in a 

24-hour geosynchronous orbit by 17 June 1998 

above 153°. The satellite, now owned by Hughes, 

was renamed HGS 1. In 1999, HGS-1 was bought 

by PanAmSat and renamed PAS 22 and moved to 

60° W, and subsequently, in July 2002, it was deactivated and moved to a graveyard orbit.

205

1998

189

Lunar Prospector

Nation: USA (72)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: Lunar Prospector

Spacecraft Mass: 300 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / ARC

Launch Vehicle: Athena-2 (LM-004)

Launch Date and Time: 7 January 1998 / 02:28:44 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

SLC-46

Scientific Instruments:

1. electron reflectometer and magnetometer 

(MAG/ER)

2. gamma-ray spectrometer (GRS)

3. neutron spectrometer (NS)

4. alpha particle spectrometer (APS)

5. Doppler gravity experiment (using S-band 

antenna) (DGE)

Results: Lunar Prospector was designed to collect 

data to compile the first complete compositional 

and gravity maps of the Moon during its planned 

one-year mission in lunar polar orbit. It was the 

third mission of NASA’s Discovery Program of lowcost, highly-focused, and relatively frequent missions that were competitively selected. After two 

mid-course corrections, Lunar Prospector entered 

orbit around the Moon 105 hours after launch. 

Initial parameters were 92 × 153 kilometers. After 

two further corrections on 13 and 15 January, 

the spacecraft entered its operational 100 × 100-

kilometer orbit at 90° inclination with a period of 

118 minutes. Perhaps of most interest to scientists 

was to continue investigations into the signs of 

water ice on the Moon as found by the Clementine 

probe. In March 1998, NASA announced that data 

from Lunar Prospector suggested the presence of 

water ice at both the lunar poles; the neutron spectrometer instrument detected hydrogen, assumed 

to be in the form of water. The information indicated that a large amount of water ice, possibly 

as much as 300 million (metric) tons was mixed 

into the regolith at each pole, the first direct evidence of water ice at the lunar poles. The spacecraft also detected strong localized magnetic fields, 

mapped the global distribution of major rock types, 

and discovered signs of a 600-kilometer diameter, iron-rich core. On 10 December 1998, Lunar 

Prospector’s orbit was lowered to 40 kilometers 

to perform high-resolution studies. A subsequent 

maneuver on 28 January 1999 changed the orbit 

to 15 × 45 kilometers and ended the space probe’s 

primary mission but began an extended mission 

for an additional seven months. Lunar Prospector 

was deliberately impacted onto the shadowed 

Shoemaker crater on the lunar surface at 09:52:02 

UT on 31  July 1999. Observations of the resulting dust cloud by Earth-based telescopes showed 

no spectral signature characteristic of water vapor. 

The vehicle carried part of the cremated remains of 

geologist Eugene Shoemaker to the lunar surface.

190

Nozomi

Nation: Japan (4)

Objective(s): Mars orbit

Spacecraft: Planet-B

Spacecraft Mass: 536 kg

Mission Design and Management: ISAS

Launch Vehicle: M-V (no. 3)
206 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

Launch Date and Time: 3 July 1998 / 18:12 UT

Launch Site: Kagoshima / Launch Complex M-5

Scientific Instruments:

1. Mars imaging camera (MIC)

2. magnetic field measurement instrument 

(magnetometer) (MGF)

3. electron spectrum analyzer (ESA)

4. ion spectrum analyzer (ISA)

5. ion mass imager (IMI)

6. electron and ion spectrometer (EIS)

7. thermal plasma analyzer (TPA)

8. probe for electron temperature (PET)

9. plasma wave and sounder (PWS)

10. neutral mass spectrometer (NMS)

11. Mars dust counter (MDC)

12. extra ultraviolet scanner (XUV)

13. ultraviolet imaging spectrometer (UVS)

14. low frequency plasma wave analyzer (LFA)

Results: Nozomi, Japan’s fourth “deep space” probe, 

was also its first planetary spacecraft and the first 

directed to Mars that was not from the United 

States or the Soviet Union/Russia. The spacecraft 

was slated to enter a highly elliptical orbit around 

Mars on 11 October 1999. Its mission was to conduct long-term investigations of the planet’s upper 

atmosphere and its interactions with the solar 

wind and track the escape trajectories of oxygen 

molecules from Mars’ thin atmosphere. It was 

also to have taken pictures of the planet and its 

moons from its operational orbit of 300 × 47,500 

kilometers; during perigee, Nozomi would have 

performed remote sensing of the atmosphere and 

surface while close to apogee, the spacecraft would 

have studied ions and neutral gas escaping from 

the planet. Although designed and built by Japan, 

the spacecraft carried a set of 14 instruments 

from Japan, Canada, Germany, Sweden, and the 

United States. After entering an elliptical parking 

orbit around Earth at 340 × 400,000 kilometers, 

Nozomi was sent on an interplanetary trajectory 

that involved two gravity-assist flybys of the Moon 

on 24 September and 18 December 1998 (at 2,809 

kilometers), and one of Earth on 20 December 

1998 (at 1,003 kilometers). The gravitational assist 

from Earth as well as a 7-minute engine burn put 

Nozomi on an escape trajectory towards Mars. 

Unfortunately, a problem valve resulted in loss 

of propellant, leaving the spacecraft with insufficient acceleration to reach its nominal trajectory. 

Subsequently, because two more mid-course corrections on 21 December used more propellant 

than intended, Nozomi’s originally planned mission had to be completely reconfigured. The new 

plan involved four further years in heliocentric 

orbit, during which time it would conduct two 

more Earth flybys (in December 2002 and June 

2003) leading to a Mars encounter in December 

2003, four years after its original schedule. While 

heading towards Earth, on 21 April 2002, powerful solar flares damaged Nozomi’s communications 

and power systems, causing the hydrazine to freeze 

in the vehicle’s attitude control system. Contact 

was lost with the spacecraft on 15 May but two 

months later, controllers found the spacecraft’s 

beacon. Mission scientists were able to thaw the 

frozen fuel as it approached Earth and the flybys 

were accomplished as intended: on 21 December 

2002 at a range of 29,510 kilometers and once 

again on 19 June 2003 at a range of 11,023 kilometers. Soon after, the spacecraft’s luck finally ran 

out: on 9 December 2003, in anticipation of the 

Mars orbit insertion (planned for five days later), 

the main thruster failed, essentially ending its mission. Instead, ground controllers commanded lower 

thrust attitude control thrusters to fire to ensure that 

Nozomi would not impact onto the Martian surface, 

which would have been a problem since the spacecraft had not been sterilized. The spacecraft passed 

by Mars at a range of 1,000 kilometers and remains 

in heliocentric orbit. Despite not accomplishing its 

primary mission, Nozomi provided important data 

from its suite of scientific instruments.
1998 207

191

Deep Space 1

Nation: USA (73)

Objective(s): technology testing, comet flyby

Spacecraft: DS1

Spacecraft Mass: 486 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Delta 7326-9.5 (no. D261)

Launch Date and Time: 24 October 1998 / 12:08:00 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

Launch Complex 17A

Technology Instruments:

1. ion propulsion system

2. solar concentrator array with refractive 

linear element technology (SCARLET)

3. autonomous navigation system (AutoNav)

4. remote intelligent operations software 

(Remote Agent RAX)

5. Beacon monitor operations experiment

6. small deep-space transponder (SDST)

7. miniature integrated camera spectrometer 

(MICAS)

8. plasma experiment for planetary exploration 

instrument (REPE)

9. Ka-band solid-state power amplifier

Results: Deep Space 1 (DS1) was designed to test 

new innovative technologies appropriate for future 

deep space and interplanetary missions. It was the 

first in a new series of technology demonstration 

missions under NASA’s New Millennium program. 

The spacecraft’s main goals were to test 12 “highrisk” technologies as ion propulsion, autonomous 

optical navigation, a solar power concentration 

array, and a combination miniature camera/imaging spectrometer. As a bonus, the spacecraft also 

flew by the asteroid 9969 Braille. After a successful launch into parking orbit around Earth, a third 

stage burn at 13:01 UT on 24 October 1998 put 

DS1 on a heliocentric trajectory. On 10 November 

controllers commanded the ion thruster to fire for 

the first time but it operated for only 4.5 minutes 

before stopping. Two weeks later, on 24 November 

1998, controllers once again fired Deep Space 1’s 

ion propulsion system (fueled by xenon gas) when 

the spacecraft was 4.8 million kilometers from 

Earth. This time, the engine ran continuously for 

14 days and demonstrated a specific impulse of 

3,100 seconds, as much as 10 times higher than 

possible with conventional chemical propellants. 

The mission tested its payload extensively to ensure 

that future users of such technologies would not 

take on unnecessary risks. DS1 passed by the nearEarth asteroid 9660 Braille at 04:46 UT on 29 July 

1999 at a range of only 26 kilometers at a velocity of 15.5 kilometers/second. Although it was the 

closest asteroid flyby to date, it was only partially 

successful due to a problem that compromised 

data delivered to the onboard navigational system. 

These difficulties prevented a closer encounter, 

originally planned at 240 meters range. The few 

images returned from very long range were out of 

focus although much other data was useful. DS1 

found Braille to be 2.2 kilometers at its longest and 

1 kilometer at its shortest. Once the successful 

primary mission was over by 18 September 1999, 

NASA formulated an extended mission. Originally, 

the plan had been to have DS1 fly by the dormant Comet 107P/Wilson-Harrington in January 

2001 and the Comet 19P/Borrelly in September 

2001, but the spacecraft’s star tracker failed on 

11 November 1999. The continuation of the mission without the use of the star tracker—which initially was thought to be fatal to the mission since the 

spacecraft could not point its ion engine or sensors 

in the proper directions—required considerable 

ingenuity and effort on the part of controllers. Over 

two months, the operations team struggled to have 

the spacecraft point its antenna to Earth allowing it 

to download data on the tracker’s failure (as well as 

other data collected by DS1). Over the subsequent 

five months, the team devised an innovative plan 

to revive the vehicle, by “building” a new attitude 

control system operating without the failed star 

tracker. Although it was no longer possible to visit 

the bonus targets (given its limited capability), DS1 
208 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

was still healthy enough to be targeted to Borrelly 

with the hope of arriving in September 2001. By 

the end of 1999, DS1’s ion engine had expended 

22 kilograms of xenon to impart a total delta V of 

1,300 meters/second. On its way to Borrelly, it set 

the record for the longest operating time for a propulsion system in space. By 17 August 2000, the 

engine had been operating for 162 days as part of 

an eight-month run. On 22 September 2001, DS1 

entered the coma of Comet Borrelly, making its closest approach of 2,171 kilometers to the nucleus at 

22:29:33 UT. Traveling at 16.58 kilometers/second 

relative to the nucleus at the time, it returned some 

of the best images of a comet ever as well as other 

significant data. The spacecraft’s ion engine was 

finally turned off on 18 December 2001, having 

operated for 16,265 hours and provided a total 

delta-V of 4.3 kilometers/second, the largest delta-V 

achieved by a spacecraft with its own propulsion 

system. By this point, the spacecraft had operated 

far beyond its planned lifetime and was running low 

on attitude control hydrazine. A radio receiver was 

left on in case future contact with the spacecraft 

was desired, although an attempt in March 2002 to 

contact the spacecraft was unsuccessful.

192

Mars Climate Orbiter

Nation: USA (74)

Objective(s): Mars orbit

Spacecraft: MCO

Spacecraft Mass: 638 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Delta 7427-9.5 (no. D264)

Launch Date and Time: 11 December 1998 / 18:45:51 

UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Force Station / 

Launch Complex 17A

Scientific Instruments:

1. pressure modulated infrared radiometer 

(PMIRR)

2. Mars color imaging system (two cameras) 

(MARCI)

Results: Mars Climate Orbiter (MCO) was the 

second probe in NASA’s Mars Surveyor program, 

which also included the Mars Global Surveyor 

(launched in November 1996) and Mars Polar 

Lander (launched in January 1999). Mars Climate 

Orbiter was designed to arrive at roughly the same 

time as Mars Polar Lander and conduct simultaneous investigations of Mars’ atmosphere, climate, and 

surface. Arrival in orbit was dated for 23 September 

1999; MCO would then attain its operational 

near-circular Sun-synchronous orbit at 421 kilometers by 1 December 1999. The satellite was also 

designed to serve as a communications relay for 

Mars Polar Lander. After the lander’s mission lasting 

three months, MCO would have performed a twoyear independent mission to monitor atmospheric 

dust and water vapor and take daily pictures of the 

planet’s surface to construct an evolutionary map 

of climatic changes. Scientists hoped that such 

information would aid in reconstructing Mars’ climatic history and provide evidence on buried water 

reserves. After the end of its main mapping mission 

on 15 January 2001, Mars Climate Orbiter would 

have acted as a communications relay for future 

NASA missions to Mars. After launch, the spacecraft was put into a Hohmann transfer orbit to 

intersect with Mars. It performed four mid-course 

corrections on 21  December 1998, 4 March, 

25 July, and 15 September 1999. At 09:00:46 UT 

on 23 September 1999, the orbiter began its Mars 

orbit insertion burn as planned. The spacecraft 

was scheduled to reestablish contact after passing 

behind Mars, but, unfortunately, no further signals 

were received from the spacecraft. An investigation 

indicated that the failure resulted from a navigational error due to commands from Earth being 

sent in English units (in this case, pound-seconds) 

without being converted into the metric standard 

(Newton-seconds). The error caused the orbiter to 

miss its intended 140–150-kilometer altitude orbit 

and instead fall into the Martian atmosphere at 

approximately 57 kilometers altitude and disintegrate due to atmospheric stresses.
209

1999

193

Mars Polar Lander and 

Deep Space 2

Nation: USA (75)

Objective(s): Mars landing

Spacecraft: MPL

Spacecraft Mass: 576 kg total (including 290 kg 

lander)

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Delta 7425-9.5 (no. D265)

Launch Date and Time: 3 January 1999 / 20:21:10 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

Launch Complex 17B

Scientific Instruments:

1. stereo surface imager (SSI)

2. robotic arm (RA)

3. meteorology package (MET)

4. thermal and evolved has analyzer (TEGA)

5. robotic arm camera (RAC)

6. Mars descent imager (MARDI)

7. light detection and ranging instrument 

(LIDAR)

8. Mars microphone

Results: The Mars Polar Lander (MPL) was one of 

NASA’s Mars Surveyor missions that called for a 

series of small, low-cost spacecraft for sustained 

exploration of Mars. MPL’s primary goal was to 

deploy a lander and two penetrators (known as 

Deep Space 2) on the surface of Mars to extend 

our knowledge on the planet’s past and present 

water resources. The objective was to explore the 

never-before studied carbon dioxide ice cap, about 

1,000 kilometers from the south pole. The mission also called for recording local meteorological 

conditions, analyzing samples of polar deposits, 

and taking multi-spectral images of local areas. 

MPL was to have performed its mission simultaneously with that of the Mars Climate Orbiter 

that would have acted as a communications relay 

during its surface operations. MPL itself comprised a bus section (for power, propulsion, and 

communications during the outbound voyage) and 

a 290-kilogram lander that stood 1.06 meters tall 

on the ground. The lander was equipped with a 

2-meter long remote arm to dig into the terrain and 

investigate the properties of Martian soil (using 

the Thermal and Evolved Gas Analyzer). Having 

arrived at Mars on 3 December 1999, the spacecraft would enter the atmosphere, and about 10 

minutes prior to landing, would jettison its cruise 

stage and solar panels and then release the two 

3.572 kilogram (each) Deep Space 2 microprobes. 

Unlike Mars Pathfinder, MPL was scheduled 

to make a completely controlled landing using 

retro-rockets all the way to the surface. Landing 

was scheduled for 21:03 UT on 3 December 1999 

with two-way communications planned to begin 20 

minutes later. The two Deep Space 2 microprobes 

(renamed Amundsen and Scott on 15 November 

1999), meanwhile, would impact the ground at a 

speed of 200 meters/second about 50–85 seconds 

prior to the lander and about 100 kilometers away. 

Each penetrator was designed to obtain a small 

sample of subsurface soil using an electric drill for 

analysis. The microprobes’ mission was expected 

to last about 36 hours while the lander mission 

would continue until 1 March 2000. Mars Polar 

Lander successfully left Earth on a Mars transfer 

trajectory on 3 January 1999. During its traverse 

to Mars, the spacecraft was stowed inside an aeroshell capsule. The complete vehicle approached 

Mars in early December in apparently good health. 

Last contact with the vehicle was at 20:02 UT on 
210 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

3 December 1999 as the spacecraft slewed to entry 

attitude. Then, traveling at 6.9 kilometers/second, 

the capsule entered the Martian atmosphere about 

8 minutes later. Controllers expected to reestablish contact 24 minutes after landing (scheduled for 20:14 UT) but no signal was received. 

With no communications for over two weeks, on 

16 December 1999, NASA used the Mars Global 

Surveyor orbiting Mars to look for signs of the 

lander on the Martian surface, but the search 

proved fruitless. On 17 January 2000, NASA finally 

terminated all attempts to establish contact with 

the lost lander. An independent investigation into 

the failure, whose results were released publicly on 

28 March 2000, indicated that the most probable 

cause of the failure was the generation of spurious 

signals when the lander’s legs deployed during the 

descent. These signals falsely indicated that the 

spacecraft had touched down on Mars when in fact 

it was still descending. The main engines prematurely shut down, and the lander fell to the Martian 

landscape. The demise of MPL undoubtedly set 

NASA’s Mars exploration program back and also 

spelled the effective end of NASA’s “Faster, Better, 

Cheaper” initiative for low-cost highly innovative 

missions. The Phoenix lander, which arrived on 

Mars in 2008, subsequently accomplished most of 

the original Mars Polar Lander’s objectives. MPL 

carried a CD-ROM with the names of one million 

children from around the world as part of the “Send 

Your Name to Mars” program formulated to foster 

interest in space exploration among young people.

194

Stardust

Nation: USA (76)

Objective(s): comet sample return, comet flybys

Spacecraft: Stardust

Spacecraft Mass: 385 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Delta 7426-9.5 (no. D266)

Launch Date and Time: 7 February 1999 / 21:04:15 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

Launch Complex 17A

Scientific Instruments:

1. dust flux monitor instrument (DFMI)

2. cometary and interstellar dust analyzer 

(CIDA)

3. navigation camera (NC)

4. stardust sample collection (SSC)

5. dynamic science experiment (DSE)

Results: Stardust was the fourth of NASA’s Discovery 

program of low-cost exploration missions (after 

NEAR, Mars Pathfinder, and Lunar Prospector), 

and the first American mission dedicated solely to 

studying a comet. It was also the second robotic 

mission (after Genesis) designed to bring extraterrestrial material from beyond lunar orbit back to 

Earth. Its primary goal was to fly by the Comet Wild 

2 (pronounced “vilt 2”), collect samples of dust from 

the coma of the comet as well as additional interstellar particles, and then return the samples to Earth. 

Stardust comprised a 254-kilogram spacecraft that 

included a 45.7-kilogram return capsule shaped 

like a blunt-nosed cone. It had five major components: a heat shield, back shell, sample canister, 

parachute system, and avionics. The samples were 

to be collected using a low-density microporous 

silica-based substance known as aerogel, attached 

to panels on the spacecraft to “soft-catch” and preserve the cometary materials. The spacecraft was 

launched into heliocentric orbit that would bring it 

around the Sun and past Earth for a gravity-assist 

maneuver to direct it to Wild 2 after a flyby of the 

minor planet Annefrank in November 2002. After 

mid-course corrections on 28 December 1999, 

18 January, 20 January, and 22 January 2000, its first 

interstellar dust collection operation was carried 

out between 22 February and 1 May 2000. After 

approximately a year in heliocentric orbit, Stardust 

flew by Earth (at a range of 6,008 kilometers) on 

15 January 2001 for a gravity assist to send it on a 

second sample collection exercise between July and 

December 2002. On 2 November 2002 at 04:50 

UT, Stardust flew by asteroid 5535 Annefrank at a 
1999 211

range of 3,078 kilometers. During the encounter, 

the spacecraft’s dust collectors collected samples 

while its camera returned 72 images. Over a year 

later, on 31 December 2003, the spacecraft entered 

the coma of Comet Wild 2 (or 81P/Wild) with the 

closest encounter (at a range of 250 kilometers) 

taking place at 19:22 UT on 2 January 2004. The 

sample collector, which had been deployed on 

24 December was retracted about 6 hours after 

closest approach, stowed, and then sealed in the 

“sample vault.” The imaging system also took 72 

images of the comet’s nucleus. Exactly as planned, 

after a 4.63 billion-kilometer trip lasting over two 

years, at 05:57 UT on 15 January 2006, Stardust’s 

Sample Return Capsule (SRC) separated from the 

main vehicle and, 4 hours later, entered Earth’s 

atmosphere. Slowed down by the drogue and main 

parachutes, the capsule landed at 10:10 UT within 

a 30 × 84-kilometer landing zone at the U.S. Air 

Force Test and Training Range in Utah. Because of 

high winds, the capsule drifted north of the ground 

track, but fortunately a locator beacon allowed rescuers to find the capsule 44 minutes after landing. 

The capsule had returned more than 10,000 particles larger than 1 micrometer from Wild 2. The 

main spacecraft, meanwhile was diverted so as 

not to reenter Earth’s atmosphere. At 06:13 UT on 

15 January, it fired its engines, flew past Earth and 

then the Moon before entering hibernation mode 

on 29 January 2004 and remains in a 3-year-long 

heliocentric orbit. In July 2007, NASA approved 

an extended mission for Stardust known as New 

Exploration of Tempel 1 (NExT) that envisaged a 

flyby of Comet Tempel 1 (or 9P/Tempel), which 

had been the target for Deep Impact’s impact 

probe in 2005. The spacecraft, now known as 

Stardust/NExT, flew by Tempel 1 at 04:42:00 UT 

on 15 February 2011 at a range of 181 kilometers, 

returning 72 images of the nucleus. This was the 

first time a comet had been revisited. It was also 

during this flyby that investigators were able to 

conclusively identify the impact crater from Deep 

Impact’s Impactor probe. Stardust carried out a 

final engine burn on 24 March 2011 exhausting 

all of its propellant. It sent its last transmission at 

12:33 UT the same day, ending an 11-year mission. 

The analysis of the samples returned showed the 

presence of a wide range of organic compounds. 

In August 2014, NASA announced that seven rare, 

microscopic interstellar dust particles dating from 

the very origins of the solar system were among the 

samples collected by Stardust.

213

2001

195

2001 Mars Odyssey

Nation: USA (77)

Objective(s): Mars orbit

Spacecraft: 2001 Mars Odyssey

Spacecraft Mass: 1,608.7 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Delta 7925-9.5 (no. D284)

Launch Date and Time: 7 April 2001 / 15:02:22 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

SLC-17A

Scientific Instruments:

1. thermal emission imaging system 

(THEMIS)

2. gamma ray spectrometer (GRS)

3. Mars radiation environment experiment 

(MARIE)

Results: As of mid-2017, 2001 Mars Odyssey holds 

the record for the longest surviving continually 

active spacecraft in orbit around a planet other 

than Earth, at 16 years and counting. This, the 

first launch in NASA’s revamped Mars Exploration 

Program (which was originally approved in 1993 

but restructured in October 2000 after the failures associated with “Faster, Better, Cheaper”), 

was designed to investigate the Martian environment, providing key information on its surface 

and the radiation hazards future explorers might 

face. The goal was to map the chemical and mineralogical makeup of Mars as a step to detecting 

evidence of past or present water and volcanic 

activity on Mars. It was also designed to act as a 

relay for future landers, and did so for the Mars 

Exploration Rovers (Spirit and Opportunity), the 

Mars Science Laboratory, and the Phoenix lander. 

During the coast to Mars, in August 2001, the 

MARIE radiation instrument failed to respond but 

was successfully revived by March 2002. About 

200 days after launch, at 02:38 UT on 24 October 

2001, Mars Odyssey successfully entered orbit 

around Mars after a 20-minute, 19-second-long 

engine burn. The initial orbit was highly elliptical 

(272 × 26,818 kilometers), taking the spacecraft 

18.6 hours to complete one circuit. The spacecraft 

then implemented an unusual aerobraking maneuver that used the planet’s atmosphere to gradually 

bring the satellite closer to the Martian surface 

on every succeeding orbit. This process saved an 

estimated 200 kilograms of propellant. Once the 

aerobraking was over, by 30 January 2002, Mars 

Odyssey was in its nearly Sun-synchronous polar 

orbit of 400 × 400 kilometers at 93.1° inclination, 

allowing the initiation of its science and mapping 

mission on 19 February 2002. This phase lased 

917 Earth days during which entire ground tracks 

were repeated every two sols. One of the most 

exciting findings of Mars Odyssey came early on 

in the mission. In May 2002, NASA announced 

that the probe had identified large amounts of 

hydrogen in the soil, implying the presence of ice 

possibly a meter below the planet’s surface. Much 

later, in March 2008, mission scientists revealed 

that Mars Odyssey had found evidence of salt 

deposits in 200 locations in southern Mars. These 

chloride minerals were left behind as places where 

water was once abundant. Having fully completed 

its primary mission by August 2004, mission planers began a series of extended missions starting 

24 August 2004. NASA approved seven two-year 

extensions of the Mars Odyssey mission, in 2004, 

2006, 2008, 2010, 2012, 2014, and 2016. Each 

was dedicated to a specific set of objectives. For 

example, the fourth extension ending in August 
214 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

2012 was dedicated to observing the year-to-year 

variations in polar ice, clouds, and dust storms. One 

of its instruments, the MARIE radiation experiment, stopped working on 28 October 2003, after 

a large solar event bombarded the spacecraft early 

in the mission, most likely because of a damaged 

computer chip. In addition, one of the spacecraft’s 

reaction wheels failed in June 2012, but a spare, 

installed on board as a redundancy, was activated 

and spun into service a month later. A few months 

later, in August 2012, NASA used Mars Odyssey’s 

THEMIS instrument to help select a landing site 

for the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) and later 

acted as a relay for the MSL rover Curiosity. By 

July 2010, NASA was able to announce that Mars 

Odyssey’s camera had helped construct the most 

accurate global map of Mars ever, using 21,000 

images from the THEMIS instrument. These 

pictures have been smoothed, matched, blended, 

and cartographically controlled to make a giant 

mosaic available to users online. Later that year, 

on 15 December 2010, Mars Odyssey claimed 

the record for the longest operating spacecraft at 

Mars, with 3,340 days of operation. In December 

2016, the spacecraft put itself into “safe mode” 

due to a problem with orientation relative to 

Earth and the Sun but by early January 2017 

was restored to full operating status. During its 

many years in Martian orbit, Mars Odyssey globally mapped the amount and distribution of the 

numerous chemical elements and minerals in the 

Martian surface and also tracked the radiation 

environment in low Mars orbit, both necessary 

before humans can effectively explore the Martian 

surface. By mid-2016, the THEMIS instrument 

had returned more than 208,000 images in visible-light wavelengths and more than 188,000 in 

thermal-infrared wavelengths.

196

Microwave Anisotropy Probe (MAP)

Nation: USA (78)

Objective(s): Sun–Earth L2 Lagrange Point

Spacecraft: Explorer 80

Spacecraft Mass: 840 kilograms

Mission Design and Management: NASA / GSFC

Launch Vehicle: Delta 7425-10 (no. D286)

Launch Date and Time: 30 June 2001 / 19:46:46 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

SLC-17B

Scientific Instruments:

1. Pseudo-Correlation Radiometer (fed by two 

back-to-back reflectors)

Results: The Microwave Anisotropy Probe was 

designed to map the relative Cosmic Microwave 

Background (CMB) temperature with high angular resolution and sensitivity over the full sky. In 

order to achieve this, MAP used differential microwave radiometers that measured temperature differences between two points on the sky from its 

operational position at the Sun–Earth L2 Lagrange 

Point, about 1.5 million kilometers from Earth. 

The two back-to-back telescopes were designed to 

focus microwave radiation from two spots on the 

sky approximately 140° apart and feed it to 10 separate differential receivers. The MAP mission was 

a successor to the Cosmic Background Explorer 

(COBE) mission, also known as Explorer 46, 

launched in 1989. The spacecraft was launched 

into an initial orbit of 167 × 204 kilometers at 

28.8° inclination. A third stage burn directed MAP 

into a highly elliptical orbit at 182 × 292,492 kilometers at 28.7° degrees. After three large elliptical loops around Earth, the spacecraft flew by the 

Moon on 30 July and arrived at the Sun–Earth L2 

on 1 October 2001. Its position at L2 minimizes 

the amount of contaminating solar, terrestrial, and 
2001 215

lunar emissions while also ensuring a stable thermal state. At L2, MAP was in a 6-month Lissajous 

orbit. In 2003, MAP was renamed the Wilkinson 

Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) in honor 

of cosmologist and mission scientist David Todd 

Wilkinson (1935–2002) who passed away the year 

before. Since its operational mission began, NASA 

has issued public “data releases” in 2003, 2006, 

2008, 2010, and 2012 that have added an immense 

amount of rich information to our understanding 

of the origins of the universe. First and foremost, 

WMAP’s data played a major role in precisely confirming the origin, content, age, and geometry of 

the universe. Among its many findings has been: 

the first fine-resolution (0.2 degree) full-sky map of 

the microwave sky; a more precise determination of 

the age of the universe (13.77 billion years); more 

accurate data on the curvature of space; data that 

has allowed scientists to reduce the volume of cosmological parameters by a factor of over 68,000; 

and the discovery that dark matter and dark energy 

(in the form of the cosmological constant) make up 

about 24.0% and 71.4% of the universe, respectively. 

All of these findings and others cumulatively provided more confirmation for the prevailing standard 

model of Big Bang cosmology, the Lambda-CDM 

model. After 9 years of operation, in October 2010, 

the WMAP spacecraft was moved to a derelict 

heliocentric graveyard orbit outside L2 where the 

probe will circle the Sun once every 15 years.

197

Genesis

Nation: USA (79)

Objective(s): solar wind sample return, Sun–Earth 

L1 Lagrange Point

Spacecraft: Genesis

Spacecraft Mass: 636 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Delta 7326-9.5 (no. D287)

Launch Date and Time: 8 August 2001 / 16:13:40 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

SLC-17A

Scientific Instruments:

1. solar wind ion monitor

2. electron monitor

Results: During its nearly two years in halo orbit 

around the Sun–Earth L1 point, the Genesis, the 

fifth Discovery-class spacecraft, was designed to 

collect samples of the solar wind and then subsequently return them to Earth. The collection 

device, fixed inside the return capsule, was made 

of a stack of four circular metallic trays, one that 

would be continuously exposed, and the other 

three deployed depending on particular solar wind 

characteristics. After insertion into a low parking 

orbit around Earth, the third stage fired exactly an 

hour after launch, at 17:13 UT on 8 August 2001 to 

send the spacecraft towards its destination at L1. 

On 16 November, a 4-minute. 28-second burn of 

its engine put Genesis into a halo orbit around L1 

with a radius of about 800,000 kilometers and a 

period of six months. The first array was exposed 

for sample collecting a little over two weeks later 

on 30 November, while the others, depending on 

the particular array, were left exposed from 193 

days (coronal mass ejection collector) to 887 days 

(the bulk arrays). The prior record for a solar wind 

collector (on Apollo 16 in 1972) had been a short 

45 hours. All the trays were stowed away on 1 April 

2004, and exactly three weeks later, on 22 April, 

the spacecraft fired its four thrusters and began its 

long trek back via an unusual trajectory that took it 

past the Moon (at a range of 250,000 kilometers), 

Earth (at 392,300 kilometers), and then to L2, 

which it reached in July 2004. Swinging around 

L2 it headed in the direction of Earth. About 5.5 

hours prior to reentry on 8 September, the spacecraft bus ejected its return capsule and then fired 

its thrusters to enter a parking orbit around Earth 

partly as a precaution in case separation had not 

occurred. The capsule successfully separated 

and hit Earth’s atmosphere, experiencing a force 
216 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

of 27 g’s. The drogue parachute (which would 

have deployed the main chute) unfortunately did 

not deploy, and the capsule hit the ground at an 

estimated speed of 311 kilometers/hour at 15:58 

UT on 8 September 2004. The “landing” was, as 

designed, in the Dugway Proving Ground in the 

Utah Test and Training Range, but obviously the 

capsule was severely damaged and contaminated. 

The shattered sample canister was taken to a clean 

room and, over the subsequent month, disassembled carefully. Teams eventually tagged 15,000 

fragments of the return capsule. Despite the condition of the capsule, over a period of several years, 

project scientists were able to glean a significant 

amount of data from the recovered debris and published results detailing, for example, the identification of argon and neon isotopes in samples of three 

types of solar wind captured by the spacecraft. 

An investigation into the accident found that the 

drogue failed to deploy due to a design defect that 

allowed an incorrect orientation during assembly of 

gravity-switch devices that initiate deployment of 

the spacecraft’s drogue parachute and parafoil. The 

main Genesis bus meanwhile headed back to L1 

and then entered heliocentric orbit. Contact was 

maintained until 16 December 2004.
217

2002

198

CONTOUR

Nation: USA (80)

Objective(s): comet flyby

Spacecraft: Contour

Spacecraft Mass: 970 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / APL

Launch Vehicle: Delta 7425-9.5 (no. D292)

Launch Date and Time: 3 July 2002 / 06:47:41 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

SLC-17A

Scientific Instruments:

1. remote imager/spectrograph (CRISP)

2. forward imager (CFI)

3. neutral gas ion mass spectrometer (NGIMS)

4. dust analyzer (CIDA)

Results: This sixth Discovery-class mission (after 

Mars Pathfinder, NEAR, Lunar Prospector, 

Stardust, and Genesis) was designed to fly by at 

least two cometary nucleii with the goal of compiling topographical and compositional maps, 

sending back imagery, and collecting data on 

the structure and composition of their comas. 

Named Comet Nucleus Tour (CONTOUR), 

the spacecraft would carry out its principal mission from heliocentric orbit with encounters with 

Comet 2P/Encke (on 12 November 2003), 73P/

Schwassmann-Wachmann-3 (on 19 June 2006) 

and possibly, 6P/d’Arrest (16 August 2008). The 

spacecraft was successfully launched into a high 

apogee orbit (with a period of five-and-a-half 

days). Controllers implemented at least 23 orbital 

maneuvers over the next 43 days (and 25 orbits) 

to position CONTOUR properly for its planned 

burn to heliocentric orbit on 15 August. On that 

day, at 08:49 UT, its solid propellant apogee motor 

fired as the spacecraft was approaching perigee over the Indian Ocean and out of radio contact. Unfortunately, nothing was ever heard from 

CONTOUR again. Later investigation showed 

that the spacecraft had broken up during its burn. 

The spacecraft probably suffered structural failure due to “plume heating” as its main engine was 

firing, caused either by problems in the design of 

the probe or the solid rocket motor itself.

219

2003

199

Hayabusa

Nation: Japan (5)

Objective(s): asteroid sample return

Spacecraft: MUSES-C + MINERVA

Spacecraft Mass: 510 kg

Mission Design and Management: ISAS / JAXA

Launch Vehicle: M-V (no. 5)

Launch Date and Time: 9 May 2003 / 04:29:25

Launch Site: Kagoshima / M-V

Scientific Instruments:

1. light detection and ranging instrument 

(LIDAR)

2. near infrared spectrometer (NIRS)

3. x-ray fluorescence spectrometer (XRS)

4. wide-range camera (ONC-W)

5. telescopic camera (AMICA)

6. four ion thrusters

Results: With this mission, Japan hoped to be the 

first nation to visit a minor planet and return samples from it. The plan was for the spacecraft to 

launch in 2003, encounter its target in 2005, and 

then return to Earth, with a landing in the Woomera 

Test Range in South Australia in 2007. NASA 

had originally planned to supply a nano-rover for 

the mission but backed out from the mission in 

November 2000. Instead, ISAS built its own rover, 

called MINERVA (Micro/Nano Experimental 

Robot Vehicle for Asteroid), a 16-sided “hopper” 

that weighed only 600 grams and was equipped 

with six thermometers, a pair of stereoscopic cameras, and a short-focus camera. MUSES-C, named 

Hayabusa (or “Peregrine falcon”) after launch, 

lifted off with MINERVA and was inserted directly 

into a solar orbit of 0.860 × 1.138 AU. Its goal, to 

rendezvous with asteroid 1998SF36 (now renamed 

Itokawa after the founding figure of the Japanese 

space program). During its outbound trip, controllers operated its ion engines, although one (of a total 

of four) failed soon after launch. As per its mission 

profile, the spacecraft returned towards Earth for a 

gravity assist flyby on 19 May 2004 at a range of 

3,725 kilometers and then moved into a 1.01 × 1.73 

AU heliocentric orbit. Unfortunately, right after 

this, Hayabusa was caught in the aftermath of a 

massive solar eruption that degraded its solar cells 

(and thus power to its ion engines). Mission managers scrambled to come up with a new schedule, 

delayed now for both the asteroid encounter and 

return to Earth. As it approached in the direction of 

Itokawa, the spacecraft’s ion engines (one of which 

had operated for 10,400 hours) were shut off, and 

its main engine fired at 01:17 UT on 12 September 

2005 to terminate its “approach phase.” At the time, 

it was only 20 kilometers from its target. In its station-keeping mode, Hayabusa took hundreds of 

high resolution pictures, but by 3 October, two of its 

three reaction wheels controlling the attitude had 

failed. Yet, the spacecraft was able to conduct two 

“rehearsal” landings (on 4 and 9 November). During 

a third rehearsal, at a distance of about 55 meters, 

controllers commanded the mother ship to release 

MINERVA. Because tracking was being transferred 

from a Japanese antenna to a NASA one, key information was lacking about Hayabusa’s vertical speed. 

By the time the command reached Hayabusa, it 

was actually moving away at 15 meters/second. As 

a result, MINERVA missed its target and flew into 

heliocentric orbit. Remarkably, the little rover operated as planned for 18 hours. On 19 November, the 

main spacecraft successfully executed a descent run 

and landed softly at 21:09:32 UT at 6° S / 39° E in 

the middle of a feature named “MUSES Sea.” The 
220 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

probe rebounded but settled down in a stable position by 21:41 UT. (The spacecraft was preceded by 

one of three target markers that had the names of 

880,00 people engraved on it). The spacecraft was, 

however, not properly aligned and took off at 22:15 

UT in what was the first ever liftoff from a celestial body apart from Earth or the Moon. During a 

second landing at 22:07 UT on 25 November, the 

spacecraft was supposed to fire two small projectiles 

to generate a spray of soil for collection, but later 

data indicated this probably did not occur, although 

some material was clearly collected. Hayabusa 

immediately lifted off again, although it had suffered some damage during landing that caused a 

propellant leak in the attitude control system. This 

caused a cascade of problems including loss of solar 

orientation necessary for the spacecraft to have any 

power. With contact becoming rather intermittent, 

on 8 December tracking stations noted an abrupt 

change in attitude and a decrease in signal strength. 

At this point, Hayabusa was tumbling. Remarkably, 

controllers re-established contact (presumably after 

the tumbling had ceased when the leaking propellant 

had run out) on 23 January 2006. The spacecraft’s 

condition was dire but JAXA was able to revive a 

number of systems. A year later, on 17–18 January 

2007, the lid of the sample catcher was closed, and 

the catcher stowed into the return capsule. Finally, a 

plan to use its ion thrusters to return it to Earth was 

implemented: on 25 April 2007, two ion engines 

began to fire, continuing for about seven months. 

A second firing period began on 4 February 2009, 

designed to bring the spacecraft back to Earth. By 

this time, only one of the four thrusters was operable, 

which itself failed in November, leaving Hayabusa 

four months short of the firing time needed to get 

back to Earth. Japanese engineers came up with an 

ingenious solution, to use the ion source from one 

engine (engine B) with the neutralizer from another 

(engine A). The final phase of operation of the ion 

thruster concluded on 27 March 2010, followed by 

four short course corrections. On 13 June 2010, 

at a range of 40,000 kilometers from Earth, the 

spacecraft released its return capsule, just 3 hours 

before reaching Earth’s atmosphere. Both entered 

the atmosphere at 13:51 UT and began to decelerate. While the mother ship burned up as expected, 

the return capsule was unscathed. It deployed its 

parachute and landed just 500 meters from its target 

point in the Woomera Test Range in Australia at 

14:12 UT and was successfully recovered soon after. 

In November 2010, Japanese scientists announced 

that the return capsule had indeed returned 1,500 

grains of rock (most smaller in size than 10 micrometers) from Itokawa, this being the second sample 

(after that from Genesis) returned from another 

celestial body other than the Moon.

200

Mars Express and Beagle 2

Nation: European Space Agency (2)

Objective(s): Mars orbit, Mars landing

Spacecraft: Mars Express

Spacecraft Mass: 1,186 kg

Mission Design and Management: ESA

Launch Vehicle: Soyuz-FG + Fregat (no. E15000-

005 + 14S44 no. 1005)

Launch Date and Time: 2 June 2003 / 17:45:26 UT

Launch Site: GIK-5 / Site 31/6

Scientific Instruments:

Mars Express:

1. visible and infrared mineralogical mapping 

spectrometer (OMEGA)

2. ultraviolet and infrared atmospheric spectrometer (SPICAM)

3. sub-surface sounding radar altimeter 

(MARSIS)

4. planetary fourier spectrometer (PFS)

5. analyzer of space plasmas and energetic 

atoms (ASPERA)

6. high resolution stereo camera (HRSC)

7. Mars Express lander communications 

(MELACOM)

8. Mars radio science experiment (MaRS)

9. camera (VMC)
2003 221

Beagle 2:

1. gas analysis package

2. environmental sensors

3. 2 stereoscopic cameras

4. microscope

5. Mössbauer spectrometer

6. x-ray spectrometer

7. planetary underground tool (PLUTO)

Results: ESA’s first planetary mission (although 

launched by the Russians) had two parts, an 

orbiter and a lander. The orbiter was designed to 

image the entire surface of Mars in high resolution, produce a map of the mineral composition of 

its surface, map the composition of its atmosphere, 

determine the structure of the sub-surface (to a 

depth of a few kilometers), and study the effects of 

the atmosphere on its surface as well as the interaction of the atmosphere with the solar wind. It 

carried a number of instruments that were originally on the ill-fated Russian Mars 8 probe; several other nations also contributed, including the 

U.S., Poland, Japan, and China. The 33.2-kilogram 

British Beagle 2 lander (its name, an allusion to 

the HMS Beagle that carried the young Charles 

Darwin (1809–1882) on his historic voyage) was 

designed to conduct exobiology research and geochemistry research on the Martian surface. Its scientific suite included a gas analysis package that 

used a set of 12 gas heating ovens to heat soil to 

study released gases. After launch, the Fregat stage 

ignited twice, first to Earth orbit and second (at 

19:03 UT) to send the spacecraft into heliocentric 

orbit. About 6 hours prior to entry into Mars orbit, 

at 08:31 UT on 19 December 2003, Mars Express 

successfully released Beagle 2, and without any 

active means of propulsion on board, it began its 

passive journey to the surface of Mars, landing 

as expected by 03:14 UT on 25  December. The 

American 2001 Mars Odyssey was programmed 

to relay the first signals from Beagle but heard 

nothing. Mars Express meanwhile fired its main 

engine at 02:47 UT on Christmas Day and entered 

an initial Mars orbit of 260 × 187,500 kilometers 

(with a period of 10 days), ESA thus achieving 

what had only been accomplished before by the 

United States and Soviet Union. After about a 

hundred days, in early May, the orbiter was in a 

10,107 × 298-kilometer orbit with an orbital period 

of 6.7 hours. Attempts to contact Beagle 2 proved 

unsuccessful and the lander aspect of the mission 

was declared officially lost on 6 February 2004. In 

January 2015, ESA announced that high-resolution 

images taken by NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance 

Orbiter (MRO) showed Beagle 2’s wreckage on the 

Martian surface. The pictures revealed the lander 

partially deployed on the surface, confirming that 

entry, descent, and the landing sequence had gone 

well. Further improvement of these images by 

University College, London in the spring of 2016 

led researchers to conclude by October 2016 that 

Beagle 2 did indeed touch down softly on Mars and 

had possibly deployed three of its four solar panels. 

The malfunction that killed the mission more likely 

happened soon after landing rather than before. 

Undoubtedly, the lander’s development program 

was mismanaged with fatal shortcomings including 

insufficient testing of key systems. Mars Express 

meanwhile began to return valuable data on the Red 

Planet. It deployed the first of its two 20-meter long 

radar booms for the MARSIS experiment about a 

year later, on 4 May 2005, the second one being 

deployed on 14 June. The two booms together 

created a 40-meter-long dipole antenna to operate 

the MARSIS experiment. The spacecraft returned 

spectacular images of the planet’s terrain; during 

its first Martian year, it had mapped one-quarter 

of the surface at a resolution of 20 meters per pixel 

in color and more than half of the surface at 50 

meters. Within its first five years in orbit, the spacecraft had discovered relatively recent evidence of 

volcanic and glacial processes and the presence of 

water ice below the surface. Mars Express mapped 

the various types of ice in the polar regions and 

determined the history of water abundance on 

Mars. One of its most striking discoveries has been 

to confirm the existence of Methane in the atmosphere (announced on 30 March 2004), a presence 

independently confirmed by ground observations, 
222 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

but later clarified by data from Curiosity. The 

mission of Mars Express was first extended to 

October 2007, and then again to May 2009, far 

exceeding its original 687-Earth day lifetime. A 

further five extensions have followed since then, 

with the most recent one extending the mission to 

2016. During these extended missions, the spacecraft aided the operation of future Mars probes 

such as NASA’s Phoenix lander (in 2008) and 

also collected data on Phobos. On 3 March 2010, 

for example, Mars Express passed by Phobos at a 

range of just 67 kilometers, the closest any spacecraft had ever come to it by that time. This distance was beaten on 29 December 2013, when the 

spacecraft approached within just 45 kilometers 

of the Martian moon. Earlier, in August 2011, the 

probe ran into problems with its onboard computer 

memory and entered “safe mode” twice in response 

to emergencies. Fortunately, by 24 November 2011, 

controllers were able to bring the spacecraft back 

to full operating capacity. By the time of the 10th 

anniversary of its launch, ESA was able to release a 

near-complete topographical map of Mars showing 

the mountains, craters, ancient river beds, and lava 

flows that mark the planet. A potentially dangerous event for Mars Express was the flyby of Comet 

C/2013 A1 (also known as Siding Spring) near 

Mars on 19 October 2014. Because the range of 

the comet was only 385,000 kilometers, there were 

concerns about the possibility of the comet’s coma 

enveloping Mars and along with it, the operational 

spacecraft in the vicinity of Mars (including at that 

time, the American Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, 

2001 Mars Odyssey, MAVEN, the European Mars 

Express, and the Indian Mars Orbiter Mission). 

In February 2015, scientists announced, based 

on data from Mars Express and NASA’s MRO, 

that Phlegra Montes, a complex network of hills, 

ridges, and basins spanning 1,400 kilometers might 

hide large quantities of water-ice, perhaps only 20 

meters below the surface. During three years, the 

Mars Express team continued with an interesting media experiment using the simple low-resolution camera originally designed to image the 

lost Beagle 2 lander. After the search for Beagle 2 

concluded in 2003, that camera was switched off, 

but in 2007, ESA switched it back on, this time 

entirely for education and outreach. Images from 

the so-called Mars Webcam has been used by 

the public in dozens of countries, as enthusiasts 

downloaded, shared, and processed images, originally posted on a Flickr page. By May 2016, some 

19,000 images, some of them based on requests 

from schools and youth clubs, had been viewed 

over two million times. In October 2016, Mars 

Express helped in the collection and transfer of 

data for the ill-fated Schiaparelli EDM lander that 

set down upon Mars. In November 2014, funding 

for the Mars Express mission was extended for the 

sixth time, to December 2016, and it continues to 

operate at full strength in mid-2017.

201

Spirit

Nation: USA (81)

Objective(s): Mars surface exploration

Spacecraft: Mars Exploration Rover 2 (MER 2) 

[became MER-A]

Spacecraft Mass: 1,062 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Delta 7925-9.5 (no. D298)

Launch Date and Time: 10 June 2003 / 17:58:47 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

SLC-17A

Scientific Instruments:

1. Panoramic Mast Assembly

a. panoramic cameras (Pancam)

b. navigation cameras (Navcam)

c. miniature thermal emission spectrometer (Mini-TES)

2. Mössbauer spectrometer (MB)

3. alpha particle x-ray spectrometer (APXS)

4. magnets (to collect dust particles)

5. microscopic imager (MI)

6. rock abrasion tool (RAT)
2003 223

Image showing three generations of Mars rovers developed at JPL in Pasadena, California. They are on display here at 

JPL’s Mars yard testing area. Front center is the flight spare (called Marie Curie) for Sojourner which landed on Mars in 

1977 as part of Mars Pathfinder. On the left is a Mars Exploration Rover Project test rover that is a working “sibling” to 

Spirit and Opportunity, which both landed in 2004. Finally, on the right is a ground model the size of Curiosity, which 

landed in 2012. The two JPL engineers shown are Matt Robinson (left) and Wesley Kuykendall. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

Results: Spirit and Opportunity were two rovers that 

together represented the Mars Exploration Rover 

Mission (MER), itself part of NASA’s Mars Exploration Program. The twin missions’ main scientific 

objective was to search for a range of rocks and soil 

types and then look for clues for past water activity 

on Mars. Each rover, about the size of a golf cart 

and seven times heavier (185 kilograms) than the 

Sojourner rover on Mars Pathfinder, was targeted 

to opposite sides of the planet in locales that were 

suspected of having been affected by liquid water 

in the past. The plan was for the rovers to move 

from place to place and perform on-site geological 

investigations and take photographs with mastmounted cameras (about 1.5 meters off the ground) 

providing 360° stereoscopic views of the terrain. A 

suite of instruments (MB, APXS, the magnets, MI, 

and RAT) were deployed on a robotic arm (known 

as the Instrument Deployment Device, IDD). The 

arm would place the instruments directly against 

soil or rock and activate the instruments. The complete spacecraft was launched into an intermediate 

parking orbit around Earth of 163 × 4,762 kilometers at 28.5° inclination before the PAM-D upper 

stage fired to send it on to heliocentric orbit on a 

trajectory to intercept Mars. A mid-course correction followed 10 days later. After three more corrections, the spacecraft’s “Cruise Stage” carrying 

the Spirit rover approached Mars for the landing 

on 4 January 2004. About 15 minutes prior to entry 

into the atmosphere, the lander (inside its protective aeroshell) separated from the Cruise Stage. 

At an altitude of 6 to 7.5 kilometers, a parachute 

deployed, followed 30 seconds later by release of 
224 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

the aeroshell’s bottom heat shield. Within another 

10 seconds, the rover unreeled down a “bridle” (or 

tether) while still descending at a rate of 70 meters/

second. Four massive airbags, of the same type as 

the ones used on Mars Pathfinder, inflated soon 

after, followed by firing of the retrorockets at the 

base of the parachute until the lander was about 

8.5 meters off the ground. The retrorockets were 

needed since the Martian atmosphere is less than 

1% the density of Earth, and parachutes alone 

cannot reduce velocity. The entire package hit 

the Martian landscape at 04:26 UT at a velocity 

of 14 meters/second, bouncing a total of 28 times 

before rolling to a stop about 250–300 meters from 

point of first impact. Landing coordinates were 

14.5692° S / 175.4729° E, about 13.4 kilometers 

from the planned target, inside the Gusev crater. 

The area was henceforth known as the Columbia 

Memorial Station. Through it all, the lander transmitted data via Mars Global Surveyor. About an 

hour-and-a-half after impact and after deflation of 

the airbags, MER-A deployed its petal solar panels, 

now relaying information to Earth via 2001 Mars 

Odyssey. Immediately after, Spirit began to transmit spectacular images back to Earth. The rover 

ran into a major problem on 21 January 2004 when 

NASA’s Deep Space Network lost contact. Due to 

a problem in Spirit’s flash memory subsystem, the 

rover entered a “fault mode.” Fortunately, controllers were able to reformat the flash memory and 

send up a software patch (to preclude memory 

overload). Normal operations resumed again on 

5 February and the day after, Spirit used its Rock 

Abrasion Tool (RAT) to ground down the surface 

of a rock (called “Adirondack”), a feat performed 

for the very first time on Mars. Investigating 

the exposed interior allowed scientists important insights into the composition of Martial soil. 

The original planned mission was to have lasted 

90 Martian days (to approximately 4 April 2004). 

Yet, mission planners were able to repeatedly formulate extended missions well beyond the rover’s 

original lifetime. Some of the subsequent highlights included a visit to Bonneville Crater, about 

370 meters from its original landing point, then on 

to the base of Columbia Hills where it spent an 

extended period of time. By 2005, the rover began 

slowly making its way uphill to the apex of Husband Hill, over terrain that was both rocky and 

sandy. It stopped at many locations to investigate, 

often using the RAT. In March 2005, a peculiar and 

strange event, the passing of dust devils that swept 

dust from the top of the solar panels, increased 

power coming to Spirit from the usual 60% to 93%, 

thus significantly extending the lifetime of the 

mission. On 29 September 2005, the rover finally 

reached the summit of Husband Hill, a small flat 

plain, from which Spirit was able to take 360° panoramas in real color of the Gusev Crater. Early the 

following year, the rover was directed to the north 

face of McCool Hill where it was assumed that 

Spirit would receive sufficient sunlight to maintain 

operations through the impending Martian winter. 

The trip to McCool Hill was eventually canceled 

partly because a front wheel had stopped working. 

This malfunction proved to be beneficial since 

the inactive wheel scraped off the upper layer of 

Martian soil as the rover moved, exposing bright 

silica-rich dust that indicated contact between 

soil and water. In early 2007, controllers passed 

on new software to both Spirit and Opportunity. 

These new programs allowed the rovers to autonomously decide on a number of different actions, 

such as whether to transmit a particular image 

back to Earth or whether to extend the remote 

arm. Through much of the (Earth) summer of 

2007, however, both Spirit and Opportunity faced 

massive dust storms that eroded their ability to 

operate effectively, mainly due to lack of power 

generated from the solar panels. These concerns 

did not abate into 2008 as another winter storm 

at the end of that year further reduced the output 

of Spirit’s solar panel to about 89 watt-hours per 

Martian day (where a nominal amount would be 

about 700 watt-hours per day). At such low levels, 

the rover needed to resort to using its own batteries 

which, if ran dry, would basically end the mission. 

Through 2009, a series of fortuitous events—such 
2003 225

as wind that blew dust off the panels—slowly 

increased power generated by the solar panels. By 

April 2009, the rover was back to about 372 watt 

hours per day, sufficient for “normal” science activities to resume. Unfortunately, soon after, on 1 May 

2009, while driving south beside the western edge 

of a low plateau called Home Plate, Spirit was rendered immobile in soft soil, its wheels unable to 

generate traction against the ground. Subsequently, 

on 28 November, another of Spirit’s six wheels, the 

right rear one, stopped working. By late January 

2010, after many attempts to move Spirit had not 

bore fruit, mission planners reformulated the Spirit 

mission as a “stationary science platform.” One of 

its goals would now be to study the tiny wobbles in 

Mars’ rotation to determine the nature of the planet’s core—whether it is liquid or solid. In order to 

do that, however, the rover had to be tilted slightly 

to the north to expose its panels to the Sun, since 

the winter sun would be in the northern sky. In the 

end, the desired tilt was not achieved, and after 

22 March 2010, JPL was not able to regain contact 

with Spirit again. Despite more than 1,300 commands sent to Spirit, NASA officially concluded its 

recovery efforts on 25 May 2011. The most probable cause of the loss of contact was the excessive 

cold that made its survival heaters ineffective. By 

the time it stopped, Spirit had traveled 7.73 kilometers across the Martian plains. It had operated 

for 6 years, 2 months, and 19 days, more than 25 

times its original intended lifetime.

202

Opportunity

Nation: USA (82)

Objective(s): Mars surface exploration

Spacecraft: Mars Exploration Rover 1 (MER 1) 

[became MER-B]

Spacecraft Mass: 1,062 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Delta 7925H (no. D299)

Launch Date and Time: 8 July 2003 / 03:18:15 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

SLC-17B

Scientific Instruments:

1. Panoramic Mast Assembly

a. panoramic cameras (Pancam)

b. navigation cameras (Navcam)

c. miniature thermal emission spectrometer (Mini-TES)

2. Mössbauer spectrometer (MB)

3. alpha particle x-ray spectrometer (APXS)

4. magnets (to collect dust particles)

5. microscopic imager (MI)

6. rock abrasion tool (RAT)

Results: For description and background, see entry 

for Spirit. After launch, the MER-1 rover was dispatched on its six-month trek to Mars. After a final 

course correction on 16 January 2004, the spacecraft dived into the Martian atmosphere on 

25 January 2004. The descent to the surface was 

uneventful with no anomalies. The lander, enclosed 

in the airbags, touched down at 04:54 UT and then 

bounced at least 26 times before coming to rest in 

Meridiani Planum at 1.9483° S / 354.47417° E, 

about 14.9 kilometers from the intended target. 

This area was now named the Challenger Memorial 

Station, in tribute to the Space Shuttle crew lost in 

1986. Opportunity landed in a relatively flat plain 

but within an impact crater known as Eagle. After 

extensive studies within Eagle, on 22 March 2004, 

Opportunity climbed up the edge of the crater and 

rolled out and headed for a new phase of its mission in Endurance Crater, about 750 meters away. 

Having exited Eagle, the rover took some spectacular shots of the abandoned area where the lander, 

backshell, and parachute were still visible. Near its 

discarded heat shield, Opportunity discovered an 

unusual basketball-sized rock in January 2005 

(known as “Heat Shield Rock”) that turned out to 

be an iron-nickel meteorite. Later that year, the 

rover drove into an area where several of its wheels 

were buried in sand, rendering the vehicle immobile. JPL controllers were able to maneuver the 

vehicle a few centimeters at a time and free 
226 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

Opportunity in June 2005 after six weeks of rest. 

Through the remainder of the year and into 2006, 

the rover headed slowly in a southward direction 

towards the 800-meter diameter Victoria crater, 

first arriving at Erebus, a highly eroded impact 

crater about 300 meters in diameter. In March 

2006, it then began its 2- kilometer journey to 

Victoria, a crater wider and deeper than any yet 

examined by the two rovers. After a 21-month trip, 

Opportunity arrived at Victoria in September 2006 

and sent back striking pictures of its rim. The following year, 2007, was an important test for 

Opportunity given the severe dust storms that 

plagued Mars. By 18 July, the rover’s solar panels 

were reporting power at only 128 watt hours, the 

lowest for either rover at that point. All science 

activities were indefinitely suspended for 

Opportunity which faced much more severe conditions than Spirit. After about six weeks and abatement of the dust storms, Opportunity was back in 

action, and on 11  September 2007, it entered 

Victoria Crater, staying inside for almost a year 

sending back a wealth of information on its soil. 

Opportunity’s next target was the enormous 

Endeavour Crater, 22 kilometers in diameter. On 

the way there, the rover found the so-called 

Marquette Island rock, “different in composition 

and character from any known rock on Mars or 

meteorite from Mars,” according to Steve Squyres 

(1956– ), the principal investigator for the rovers. 

The rock appeared to have originated deep in the 

Martian crust and someplace far away from the 

landing site, unlike almost all the rocks previously 

studied by Opportunity. On 24 March 2010, 

Opportunity passed the 20-kilometer milestone on 

Mars, more than double the distance recorded by 

Spirit, and far in excess of what was originally considered a nominal mission—600 meters. Two 

months later, on 20 May—with Spirit already inactive—Opportunity broke the record set by the 

Viking 1 Lander for the longest continuous operation on the surface of Mars, 6 years and 116 days. 

Another milestone was passed when Opportunity, 

still heading towards Endeavour Crater, passed the 

30-kilometer mark on 1 June 2011. Finally, after a 

journey of nearly three years and about 21 kilometers, Opportunity arrived at Endeavour crater on 

9  August 2011. In September 2011, NASA 

announced that an aluminum cuff that served as a 

cable shield on each of the RATs on the rovers was 

made from aluminum recovered from the World 

Trade Center towers, destroyed during the terrorist 

attacks on 11 September 2001. Honeybee Robotics, 

which helped build the tool, had its offices in New 

York that day not far from the attacks. As a memorial to the victims, JPL and Honeybee worked 

together to include the aluminum on the Mars 

rovers. Through late 2012 and into 2013, 

Opportunity worked around a geographic feature 

named Matijevic Hill (which overlooks the 

Endeavour crater), analyzing rocks and soil. On 

16 May 2013, NASA announced that Endeavour 

had passed the previous record for the farthest distance traveled by any NASA vehicle on another 

celestial body, 35.744 kilometers, a record set by 

the Apollo 17 Lunar Roving Vehicle in December 

1972. By August 2013, Opportunity was at Solander 

Point, an area of contact between a rock layer that 

was formed in acidic wet conditions long before 

and an older one from a more “neutral” environment. Both Cape York (location of Matijevic Hill) 

and Solander Point are raised segments near the 

western rim of the Endeavour crater. On 4 January 

2014, Opportunity passed 10 years on the surface 

of Mars, now with relatively clean surfaces on the 

solar panels that had allowed increased power to 

the rover. A “selfie” from March 2014 showed a 

rover cleaned by wind events earlier in the month 

that raised hopes for continuing the mission. As it 

continued its exploration mission on the Martian 

surface, on 28 July 2014, NASA announced that 

Opportunity had passed the distance record set on 

another celestial body, set by Lunokhod 2, when 

the American rover’s odometer showed 40.25 kilometers, exceeding the Soviet vehicle’s record of 39 

kilometers. However, Russian analysis from LRO 

images suggest that Lunokhod 2 may have traveled 

as much as 42 kilometers, rather than the revised 
2003 227

39 (itself a “revision” up from 37 kilometers). While 

the rover was generally in good health, because of 

the large number of computer resets in the preceding month, which interfered with its science goals, 

mission planners implemented a complete reformat of its flash memory on 4 September 2014. The 

same day, NASA announced a further (ninth) 

extension of the mission of Opportunity to another 

two years with a mission to nearby Marathon Valley. 

At the beginning of September, it had covered 

40.69 kilometers. At launch, like its sister rover, 

Spirit, Opportunity was designed to have a lifetime 

of 90 sols (Martian days)—about three Earth 

months. In December 2014, NASA announced 

that the rover had been plagued with problems 

with saving telemetry information into its 

“non-volatile” (or flash) memory, a problem traced 

to one of its seven memory banks (Bank 7). By May 

2015, NASA controllers configured the memory so 

the rover was operating only in RAM-only mode. 

On 25 March 2015, NASA announced that, having 

traveled 42.195 kilometers (or 26.219 miles), 

Opportunity became “the first human enterprise to 

exceed marathon distance of travel on another 

world.” In June 2015, because Mars passed almost 

directly behind the Sun (from Earth’s perspective) 

and therefore communications were curtailed. 

Later, through its seventh Martian winter (during 

Earth winter 2015–2016), at a time when it was 

kept at “energy-minimum” levels due to the relative 

lack of solar energy, Opportunity kept busy, using 

its Rock Abration Tool to remove surface dust from 

a target called “Private John Potts,” the name a reference to a member of the Lewis and Clark 

Expedition. During this period, Opportunity continued to explore the western rim of the 22-kilometer 

wide Endeavour crater, particularly the southern 

side of Marathon Valley, which slices through 

Endeavour crater’s rim from west to east. On 

10 March 2016, while making its closest approach 

to a target near the crest of Knudsen Crater, it 

drove at a tilt of 32°, breaking the record for the 

steepest slope driven by any rover on Mars (a record 

previously set by Opportunity during a climb in 

January 2004). In October 2016, Opportunity 

began a two-year extended mission that is to 

include investigations in the “Bitterroot Valley” portion of the western rim of the Endeavour Crater. 

The plan is for the rover to travel into a gully that 

slices Endeavor and is about two football fields in 

length. Opportunity Principal Investigator Steve 

Squyres noted that scientists were “confident [that] 

this is a fluid-carved gully, and that water was 

involved.” On 7 February 2017, Opportunity passed 

the 44-kilometer mark on its odometer, as it made 

slow progress towards its next major scientific 

objective, a gully named Perseverance Valley, which 

it reached by the first week of May. Having collected several panoramas of high-value targets in 

the gully, on 4 June, the rover experienced a problem due to a stall on the left front wheel, which left 

the wheel “toed out” by 33 degrees. Fortunately, 

after several straightening attempts, the wheel 

appeared to be steering straight again, although 

controllers could identify any conclusive cause for 

the problem. For about three weeks during June 

and July, there was reduced communication with 

the rover due to a solar conjunction (when the Sun 

comes between Earth and Mars). In mid-July, 

Opportunity finally entered Perseverance Valley 

and began driving down into the gully during which 

time, rover energy levels dropped due to reduced 

Sun exposure. As of 31 October 2017, Opportunity’s 

odometer read 45.04 kilometers.

203

SIRTF / Spitzer Space Telescope

Nation: USA (83)

Objective(s): solar orbit

Spacecraft: Space Infrared Telescope Facility 

(SIRTF)

Spacecraft Mass: 950 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL / 

Caltech

Launch Vehicle: Delta 7920H (no. D300)
228 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

Image showing assembly of the Spitzer Space Telescope, 

the infrared telescope designed to study the early universe, young galaxies, and star formation. Credit: Russ 

Underwood, Lockheed Martin Space Systems; courtesy 

NASA/JPL-Caltech.

Launch Date and Time: 25 August 2003 / 05:35:39 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

SLC-17B

Scientific Instruments:

1. infrared array camera (IRAC)

2. infrared spectrograph (IRS)

3. multiband imaging photometer for Spitzer 

(MIPS)

Results: SIRTF was the fourth and last of NASA’s 

“Great Observatories,” after the Hubble Space 

Telescope (launched in 1990), the Compton 

Gamma Ray Observatory (1991), and the Chandra X-Ray Observatory (1999). It carried an 

85-centimeter infrared telescope and three scientific instruments as part of the Cryogenic Telescope 

Assembly (CTA). Its planned two-and-a-half-year 

mission was designed to detect infrared radiation 

from its vantage point in heliocentric orbit. The 

CTA was cooled to only 5 degrees above absolute 

zero (or a temperature of –268°C) using 360 liters 

of liquid helium, ensuring that the observatory’s 

“body heat” did not interfere with the observation of relatively cold cosmic objects. The Delta 

II Heavy (in a two-stage Delta 7925H configuration) inserted the second stage and payload into 

an initial orbit of 166 × 167 kilometers at 31.5° 

before the second stage ignited again at 06:13 UT 

on 25 August 2003 to send both the stage and the 

observatory into a hyperbolic orbit where SIRTF, 

by 3 September passed into an “Earth-trailing 

orbit” around the Sun. It ejected its dust cover on 

29 August and then opened its aperture door the 

day after. In this orbit, at 0.996 × 1.019 AU, Earth 

(rather prominent in the infrared) does not hinder 

observation of potential targets of observation. 

On 18 December 2003, the SIRTF was renamed 

the Spitzer Space Telescope in honor of Lyman S. 

Spitzer, Jr. (1914–1997), one of the first to propose the idea of using telescopes in space. One of 

the early successes of the mission (in 2005) was 

to capture direct light from extrasolar planets for 

the first time. Many other findings followed in the 

subsequent four years, including seeing the light 

from the earliest objects in the universe, mapping the weather on an extrasolar planet for the 

first time, finding water vapor on another extrasolar planet, and identifying a new ring (the Phoebe 

ring) around Saturn. The observatory worked 

far longer than expected and its supply of liquid 

helium finally depleted at 22:11 UT on 15 May 

2009, nearly six years after launch. At that point, 

mission scientists reformulated the mission as the 

Spitzer Warm Mission, which would use the two 

shortest-wavelength modules of the IRAC instrument, which did not require the cryogenic helium 

to operate, for future observations. More discoveries followed. In August 2010, for example, data 

from Spitzer revealed the identification of the first 

Carbon-rich planet (known as WASP-12b) orbiting 

a star. In October 2012, astronomers announced 
2003 229

that data from the observatory had allowed a more 

precise measurement of the Hubble constant, the 

rate at which the universe is stretching apart. The 

following year, Spitzer celebrated 10 full years 

of operation in space and continued operation 

of its two instruments which, in August 2014, 

observed an eruption of dust around a star (NGC 

2547-ID8), possibly caused by a collision of large 

asteroids. Such impacts are thought to lead to the 

formation of planets. Continuing discoveries based 

on results from Spitzer (as well as data integrated 

with information from other space-based observatories such as Swift) were announced in April 2015 

(discovery of one of the most distant planets ever 

identified, about 13,000 light-years from Earth) 

and in March 2016 (discovery of the most remote 

galaxy ever detected, a high-redshift galaxy known 

as GN-z11). The latter was detected as part of the 

Frontiers Field project that combines the power of 

all three of NASA’s Great Observatories, Spitzer, 

Hubble, and Chandra. In August 2016, mission 

planners at JPL announced a new phase of the 

Spitzer mission known simply as “Beyond,” leveraged on a two-and-a-half-year mission extension 

granted by NASA earlier in the year. Because the 

distance between Spitzer and Earth has widened 

over time, during Beyond, its antenna must be 

pointed at higher angles towards the Sun to communicate with Earth. As a result, parts of the spacecraft will experience increasing amounts of heat. 

Simultaneously, its solar panels will be pointed 

away from the Sun in this configuration, thus putting onboard batteries under more stress. These 

challenges will be a part of the Beyond phase as 

Spitzer continues to explore planetary bodies both 

within and beyond the solar system. In October 

2017, NASA announced that it was seeking information from potential funders who might be able 

to support operation of the telescope after NASA 

funding runs out in March 2019. With such possible funding, it might be possible to operate Spitzer 

beyond September of that year when operations 

are expected to cease with government funding.

204

SMART-1

Nation: European Space Agency (3)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: SMART-1

Spacecraft Mass: 367 kg

Mission Design and Management: ESA

Launch Vehicle: Ariane 5G (no. V162) (L516)

Launch Date and Time: 27 September 2003 / 23:14:46 

UT

Launch Site: Centre spatial Guyanais / ELA-3

Scientific Instruments:

1. advanced Moon micro-imager experiment 

(AMIE)

2. demonstration of a compact x-ray spectrometer (D-CIXS)

3. x-ray solar monitor

4. SMART-1 infrared spectrometer (XSM)

5. electric propulsion diagnostic package 

(EPDP)

6. spacecraft potential, electron and dust 

experiment (SPEDE)

7. Ka band TT&C experiment (KATE)

Results: The Small Missions for Advanced Research 

in Technology (SMART)-1 spacecraft was a technology demonstrator designed to test solar-electric 

propulsion and other deep space technologies on 

the way to the Moon. A second part of the mission 

would focus on studying polar mountain peaks that 

are in perpetual sunlight as well as the dark parts 

of the lunar parts that might contain ice. The ESA 

spacecraft, the first European spacecraft to enter 

orbit around the Moon, had a French-built Hall 

effect thruster (known as PPS®1350) derived from 

a Russian ion propulsion system originally designed 

by OKB Fakel, a Russian company that specializes 

in attitude control thrusters using ion and plasma 

sources. The thruster used xenon propellant to generate 88 mN of thrust (about the weight of a postcard) and a specific impulse of 1,650 seconds. The 
230 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

engine was powered by solar arrays which generated 

the 1,350 watts needed to power the ion engines. 

Initially launched into a geostationary transfer 

orbit of 7,035 × 42,223 kilometers by the Ariane 

5 hypergolic EPS upper stage (with a 2,600 kgf 

thrust Aestus engine), SMART-1 used its electric 

propulsion system to slowly spin out into higher and 

higher elliptical orbits in what was a highly efficient 

mission profile. Two days every week, mission controllers at the European Space Operations Centre 

(ESOC) in Darmstadt, Germany, repeated burns of 

the ion engine, gradually expanding the spacecraft’s 

spiral orbit. By the time it was 200,000 kilometers 

out, the Moon’s gravity began to exert a significant 

influence on SMART-1. Nine days after its last perigee (on 2 November 2004), the spacecraft passed 

through the L1 Lagrange Point into a region dominated by the Moon’s gravitational field. At 17:47 UT 

on 15 November, the vehicle then passed through 

its first perilune, having moved into polar orbit 

around the Moon. Initial orbital parameters were 

6,704 × 53,208 kilometers, with an orbital period 

of 129 hours. During the following weeks, SMART1’s ion engine fired to gradually reduce orbital 

parameters to allow closer views of the surface; it 

reached its operational orbit (with an orbital period 

of about 5 hours) by 27 February 2005. While in 

orbit, SMART-1’s instruments studied the Moon’s 

topography and surface texture as well as mapping the surface distribution of minerals such as 

pyroxenes, olivines, and feldspars, thus improving 

the data returned by Clementine. The mission was 

designed to end in August 2005 but was extended 

a year to August 2006 with plans for an impact. On 

17 September 2005, the ion engine was fired for the 

last time, having exhausted all its propellant, leaving the vehicle in a natural orbit determined only 

by lunar gravity (and the gravitational influences 

of Earth and the Sun) and the occasional use of 

its attitude control thrusters. By that time, the ion 

engine had fired for 4,958.3 hours, a record length 

of operation in space for such an engine. The mission of SMART-1 finally ended at 05:42:22 UT on 

3 September 2006 when the spacecraft was deliberately crashed onto the nearside of the Moon in 

Lacus Excellentiaie at 46.2° W / 34.3° S. Its impact 

(at 2 kilometers/second) created a dust cloud visible 

with Earth-based telescopes.
231

2004

205

Rosetta and Philae

Nation: ESA (4)

Objective(s): comet orbit and landing

Spacecraft: Rosetta Orbiter / Rosetta Lander

Spacecraft Mass: 3,000 kg (includes 100 kg lander)

Mission Design and Management: ESA

Launch Vehicle: Ariane 5G+ (V158) (no. 518G)

Launch Date and Time: 2 March 2004 / 07:17:44 UT

Launch Site: CSG / ELA-3

Scientific Instruments:

Rosetta Orbiter:

1. ultraviolet imaging spectrometer (ALICE)

2. comet nucleus sounding experiment by 

radiowave transmission (CONSERT)

3. cometary secondary ion mass analyzer 

(COSIMA)

4. grain impact analyzer and dust accumulator (GIADA)

5. micro-imaging dust analysis system 

(MIDAS)

6. microwave instrument for the Rosetta 

orbiter (MIRO)

7. optical, spectroscopic and infrared remote 

imaging system (OSIRIS)

8. Rosetta orbiter spectrometer for ion and 

neutral analysis (ROSINA)

 Rosetta plasma consortium (RPC)

9. radio science investigation (RSI)

10. visible and infrared thermal imaging spectrometer (VIRTIS)

Philae:

1. alpha proton x-ray spectrometer (APXS)

2. cometary sampling and composition instrument (COSAC)

3. Ptolemy evolved gas analyzer

4. comet nucleus infrared and visible analyzer 

(CIVA)

5. Rosetta lander imaging system (ROLIS)

6. comet nucleus sounding experiment by 

radiowave transmission (CONSERT)

7. multi-purpose sensors for surface and 

sub-surface science (MUPUS)

8. Rosetta lander magnetometer and plasma 

monitor (ROMAP)

9. surface electric sounding and acoustic 

monitoring experiments (SESAME)

10. sample and distribution device (SD2)

Results: Rosetta was a European deep space probe 

launched on an originally projected 11.5-year mission to rendezvous, orbit, land, and study the 67P/

Churyumov-Gerasimenko comet. Part of ESA’s 

Horizon 2000 cornerstone missions, which 

includes SOHO (launched 1995), XMM-Newton 

(1999), Cluster II (2000), and INTEGRAL (2002), 

Rosetta consists of two parts—an orbiter (Rosetta) 

and a lander (Philae)—each equipped with a variety of scientific instruments. Originally, the mission was targeting comet 46P/Wirtanen but when 

the launch was delayed due to problems with the 

Ariane 5, the mission was redirected to ChuryumovGerasimenko. Rosetta was launched into an escape 

trajectory with a 17-minute burn of Ariane’s EPS 

second stage, putting the spacecraft on a trajectory 

that culminated in a 0.885 × 1.094 AU heliocentric 

orbit inclined at 0.4° to the ecliptic. Its voyage to 

its target comet was punctuated by a series of gravity-assist maneuvers, the first of which occurred at 

22:09 UT on 4 March 2005 when Rosetta flew by 

Earth (over the Pacific, west of Mexico) at a distance of 1,954.7 kilometers. A most risky flyby of 

Mars followed on 25 February 2007, when Rosetta 

came a mere 250 kilometers close to the Red 
232 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

Planet, experiencing a short and critical period out 

of contact with Earth and in Mars’ shadow. Both 

these flybys produced spectacular photographs of 

Earth and Mars, respectively. The assist sent the 

spacecraft towards Earth for a second time, arriving and flying past our planet at a range of 5,295 

kilometers on 13 November 2007. Before the final 

Earth flyby (on 12 November 2009), Rosetta performed a close flyby (just 800 kilometers) of asteroid 2867 Steins in the main asteroid belt at 18:58 

UT on 5 September 2008, collecting a large 

amount of information. A second asteroid flyby, 

that of 21 Lutetia at 16:10 UT on 10 July 2010 at 

a range of 3,162 kilometers, produced spectacular 

images (using the OSIRIS instrument) of a battered minor planet riddled with craters. Resolution 

was as high as 60 meters in a body whose longest 

side is around 130 kilometers. Soon after, in June 

2011, Rosetta was placed under “hibernation” as it 

made its way beyond the orbit of Jupiter—where 

there was no solar energy to power the vehicle—

and back again close to the Sun. On 20 January 

2014, its internal clock “awoke” the spacecraft and 

sent a signal back to Earth that all was well. Now 

only 9 million kilometers from its primary target, 

Rosetta began its final race to comet 67P/C-G. On 

6 August 2014, at a distance of 405 million kilometers from Earth (about halfway between the 

orbits of Mars and Jupiter), Rosetta finally rendezvoused with the comet as it completed the last of 

10 maneuvers (that began in May 2014) to adjust 

velocity and direction. During close operations 

near the comet, on 15 September, scientists identified a landing site for the spacecraft, “Site J” 

(later named “Agilkia”), located near the smaller of 

the comet’s two “lobes.” By this time (10 September 

2014), the spacecraft was in a roughly 29-kilometer 

orbit around 67P/C-G, becoming the first spacecraft to orbit a cometary nucleus. Just prior to the 

planned landing, on 12  November, controllers 

identified a problem in Philae’s active descent 

system thruster which provides thrust to avoid a 

rebound, but it was decided to move on with the 

landing and rely only on the harpoons instead of 

the thruster to keep the spacecraft moored. At 

08:35 UT on 12 November, the two spacecraft 

separated, initiating Philae’s 7-hour descent to the 

comet at a relatively velocity of just 1 meter/

second. A signal confirming the touchdown arrived 

at Earth at 16:03 UT (about 28 minutes, 20 seconds after the actual event). It later transpired the 

Philae had actually landed three times on the 

comet (at 15:34:04, 17:25:26, and 17:31:17 UT 

comet time) as the two harpoons did not fire as 

intended after each touchdown. Later analysis 

showed that all of the three methods to secure the 

lander had faced some problems: the ice screws, 

which were designed for soft materials, did not 

penetrate the hard surface of the Agilkia region; 

the thruster failed to fire due to a problem with a 

seal; and the harpoons also did not fire due to an 

electrical problem. As a result, Philae bounced on 

the surface several times before settling down 

about one kilometer away from its intended landing site in an area known as Abydos. All of its 

instruments were subsequently activated for data 

collection. For a short period, ESA controllers did 

not know the disposition of the lander as it went 

into hibernation, but on 14 November, contact 

was reestablished with Philae, following which all 

of its collected data was transferred to the mothership. Due to exhaustion of the primary battery, last 

contact with Philae was at 00:36 UT on 

15 November, thus coming to about 64 hours of 

independent operation (and 57 hours on the surface). During its mission, Philae completed 80% of 

its planned “first science sequence,” returning 

spectacular images of its surroundings, showing a 

cometary surface covered by dust and debris in 

size measuring anywhere from a millimeter to a 

meter. Philae also found complex molecules that 

could be the key building blocks of life, monitored 

the daily rise and fall of temperature, and assessed 

the surface properties and internal structure of the 

comet. ESA controllers hoped that the lander 

could be revived in August 2015 when sunlight fell 

on the lander and its solar panels, but assumed 

that Philae’s mission was essentially over by 
2004 233

November 2014. As hoped, the Philae lander was 

awoken after seven months of hibernation. At 

20:28 UT on 13 June 2015, controllers at ESA’s 

European Space Operations Center in Darmstadt 

received signals (about 663 kbits of data over 85 

seconds) from the lander, suggesting at least initially that Philae was “doing very well” and “ready 

for operations,” according to DLR Philae Project 

Manager Stephan Ulamec. A second smaller burst 

was received at 21:26 UT on 14 June followed by 

six more bursts by 9 July 2015, after which time 

Rosetta was no longer in range to receive data from 

Philae. A year after landing, in November 2015, 

mission teams still remained hopeful that there 

would be renewed contact with the lander, especially as the Rosetta orbiter began to approach the 

lander again. But in February 2016, ESA 

announced that it was unlikely that Rosetta would 

ever pick up any more signals from Philae again, 

partly due to failures in a transmitter and a receiver 

on board. On 5 September 2016, ESA announced 

that they had conclusively identified the landing 

site of Philae in images taken by Rosetta’s OSIRIS 

narrow-angle camera when the orbiter approached 

to just 2.7 kilometers of the surface. Rosetta, 

meanwhile, had continued its primary mission 

orbiting Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko as 

the comet itself arced closer to the Sun. In 

November 2014, the orbiter adjusted its orbit several times to position it about 30 kilometers above 

the comet, interrupted by a brief “dip” down to 20 

kilometers for about 10 days in early December. 

On 4 February 2015, Rosetta began moving into a 

new path for an encounter, timed for 12:41 UT on 

14 February, at a range of just six kilometers. The 

flyby took the spacecraft over the most active 

regions of the comet, allowing scientists to seek 

zones where gas and dust accelerates from the surface. In June 2015, ESA extended Rosetta’s mission to at least September 2016 (an extension of 

nine months from its original “nominal” mission). 

During this extension, Rosetta was party to Comet 

67P/C-G’s closest approach to the Sun, a distance 

of 186 million kilometers, on 13 August 2015. At 

the perihelion, gases and dust particles around the 

comet reached peak intensity, clearly visible in the 

many spectacular images sent back by the orbiter. 

Finally, at 20:50 UT on 30 September 2016, 

Rosetta carried out a final maneuver sending it on 

a collision course with the comet from a height of 

19 kilometers. During the descent, Rosetta studied the comet’s gas, dust, and plasma environment 

very close to the surface and took numerous 

high-resolution images. The decision to end the 

mission was predicated on the fact that the comet 

was heading out beyond the orbit of Jupiter again, 

and thus, there would be little power to operate 

the spacecraft. Confirmation of final impact 

arrived at Darmstadt at 11:19:37 UT on 

30  September 2016, thus ending one of ESA’s 

most successful planetary missions. Besides collecting a vast amount of data on the properties of 

the comet, including its interior, surface and surrounding gas, dust, and plasma, Rosetta’s key findings include the discovery of water vapor in comet 

67P/G-C (vapor that is significantly different from 

that found on Earth), the detection of both molecular nitrogen and molecular oxygen for the first 

time at a comet, the existence of exposed water ice 

on the comet’s surface, and the discovery of amino 

acid glycine (commonly found in proteins) and 

phosphorus (a component of DNA and cell membranes) in the comet.

206

MESSENGER

Nation: USA (84)

Objective(s): Mercury orbit

Spacecraft: MESSENGER

Spacecraft Mass: 1,107.9 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / APL

Launch Vehicle: Delta 7925H (no. D307)

Launch Date and Time: 3 August 2004 / 06:15:57 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

SLC-17B
234 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

This image acquired by NASA’s Messenger spacecraft on 

2 October 2013 by its Wide Angle Camera (WAC) shows 

the sunlit side of the planet Mercury. Messenger was the 

first spacecraft to go into orbit around Mercury. Credit: 

NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Carnegie Institution of Washington

Scientific Instruments:

1. Mercury dual imaging system (MDIS)

2. gamma-ray spectrometer (GRS)

3. neutron spectrometer (NS)

4. x-ray spectrometer (XRS)

5. magnetometer (MAG)

6. Mercury laser altimeter (MLA)

7. Mercury atmospheric and surface composition spectrometer (MASCS)

8. energetic particle and plasma spectrometer 

(EPPS)

9. radio science experiment (RS)

Results: MESSENGER (Mercury Surface, Space 

Environment, Geochemistry, and Ranging) was 

the seventh Discovery-class mission, and the first 

spacecraft to orbit Mercury. Its primary goal was 

to study the geology, magnetic field, and chemical 

composition of the planet. It was the first mission to Mercury after Mariner 10, more than 30 

years before. MESSENGER was launched into 

an initial parking orbit around Earth after which 

its PAM-D solid motor fired to put the spacecraft 

on an escape trajectory into heliocentric orbit at 

0.92 × 1.08 AU and 6.4° inclination to the ecliptic. The six-and-a-half-year road to Mercury was 

punctuated by several gravity-assist maneuvers 

through the inner solar system, including one flyby 

of Earth (on 2 August 2005), two flybys of Venus 

(on 24 October 2006 and 5 June 2007), and three 

flybys of Mercury (on 14 January 2008, 6 October 

2008, and 29 September 2009). The gravity-assist 

maneuvers allowed the spacecraft to overcome the 

problem of massive acceleration that accompanies 

flight toward the Sun; instead, the flybys helped 

to decelerate MESSENGER’s velocity relative to 

Mercury and also conserve propellant for its orbital 

mission (although it prolonged the length of the 

trip). The Earth flyby allowed mission controllers 

to properly calibrate all of the spacecraft’s instruments while also returning spectacular images 

of the Earth–Moon system. During the second 

Venusian flyby (at a range of only 338 kilometers), 

MESSENGER relayed back a vast amount of data, 

including visible and near-infrared imaging data on 

the upper atmosphere. Some of the investigations, 

especially its study of the particle-and-fields characteristics of the planet, were coordinated with 

ESA’s Venus Express mission. The three Mercury 

flybys further slowed down the spacecraft, although 

during the last encounter in September 2009, 

MESSENGER entered a “safe mode” and, as a 

result, collected no data on Mercury. Fortunately, 

the spacecraft revived 7 hours later. MESSENGER 

finally entered orbit around Mercury at 00:45 UT 

18 March 2011, nearly seven years after launch 

and began formal data collection on 4 April. The 

vehicle’s orbit was highly elliptical, approximately 

9,300 × 200 kilometers with a 12-hour orbital 

period. One of MESSENGER’s most remarkable 

images was its mosaic of the Solar System, obtained 

on 18  February 2011 with all the planets visible 

except Uranus and Neptune, a visual counterpart 

to the image of the solar system taken by Voyager 1 

on 14  February 1990. The spacecraft completed 

its primary year-long mission on 17 March 2012, 

having taken nearly 100,000 images of the surface 
2004 235

of Mercury. Among its initial discoveries was finding high concentrations of magnesium and calcium 

on Mercury’s nightside, identifying a significant 

northward offset of Mercury’s magnetic field from 

the planet’s center, finding large amounts of water 

in Mercury’s exosphere, and revealing evidence of 

past volcanic activity on the surface. In November 

2011, NASA announced that MESSENGER’s 

mission would be extended by a year, thus allowing the spacecraft to monitor the solar maximum in 2012. The extended mission lasted from 

18  March 2012 to 17 March 2013. During this 

phase, by 20 April, with the help of three engine 

firings, the orbital period was reduced to 8 hours. 

It was also during this period, in early May 2012, 

that MESSENGER took its 100,000th photograph from orbit. By this time, the imaging instrument had globally mapped in both high-resolution 

monochrome and color, the entire surface of the 

planet. It was during this first extended mission 

that the spacecraft found evidence of water ice at 

Mercury’s poles, frozen at locations that never see 

sunlight (made possible by the fact that the tilt of 

Mercury’s rotational axis is almost zero.) A second 

extension was soon granted that extended the 

mission to March 2015, and on 6 February 2014, 

NASA reported that MESSENGER had taken 

its 200,000th orbital image, far exceeding the 

original expectation of at least 1,000 photographs. 

During the second extension, MESSENGER 

photographed two comets: Comet 2P/Encke and 

Comet C/2012 S1 (also known as Comet ISON). 

Beginning the summer of 2014, controllers began 

moving MESSENGER gradually, burn by burn, to 

a very low orbit for a new research program. By 

12 September 2014, just after the 10th anniversary of its launch, the spacecraft’s orbit was down 

to a mere 25 kilometers. Since then, mission controllers implemented at least two orbital maneuvers (on 12 September and 24 October) to raise 

its orbit and continue its latest extended mission. 

By Christmas Day 2014, it was clear that the 

spacecraft’s propellants were running out and that 

MESSENGER would impact the planet in late 

March 2015. On 21 January 2015, mission controllers carried out one last maneuver to raise the 

spacecraft’s orbit sufficient to continue more science activities to early in the spring. On 16 April 

2015, NASA announced that the spacecraft would 

impact the surface of Mercury by 30 April after it 

ran out of propellant. As scheduled, on that day, at 

19:26 UT, MESSENGER slammed into the planet’s surface at about 14,080 kilometers/hour, creating a new crater on Mercury. Impact coordinates 

were probably close to 54.4° N / 149.9° W, near 

the Janácek crater in Suisei Planitia.

237

2005

207

Deep Impact

Nation: USA (85)

Objective(s): comet impact, comet flyby

Spacecraft: DIF + DI Impactor

Spacecraft Mass: 650 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Delta 7925-9.5 (no. D311)

Launch Date and Time: 12 January 2005 / 18:47:08 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

SLC-17B

Scientific Instruments:

Flyby Spacecraft:

1. high resolution instrument (HRI)

2. medium resolution instrument (MRI)

Impactor:

1. impact or targeting sensor (ITS)

Results: Unlike previous cometary flyby missions, 

such as Vega, Giotto, and Stardust, the Deep 

Impact spacecraft, the eighth mission in NASA’s 

Discovery program, was intended to study the interior composition of a comet by deploying an impact 

probe that would collide with its target. The spacecraft comprised two distinct parts, a flyby bus and 

an impactor. The former, weighing 601 kilograms, 

was solar powered and carried two primary instruments. The HRI, the main science camera for Deep 

Impact, was one of the largest space-based instruments ever built for planetary science. It combined 

a visible-light multi-spectral CCD camera (with a 

filter wheel) and an imaging infrared spectrometer 

called the Spectral Imaging Module (SIM). The 

MRI was the functional backup for the HRI, and 

like the HRI, it also served as a navigation aid for 

Deep Impact. The 372-kilogram Impactor carried 

the ITS, nearly identical to the MRI, but without 

the filter wheel, which was designed to measure 

the Impactor’s trajectory and to image the comet 

from close range before impact. One of the more 

unusual payloads on board was a mini-CD with 

the names of 625,000 people collected as part 

of a campaign to “Send Your Name to a Comet!” 

After launch, Deep Impact was put into low Earth 

orbit, then an elliptical orbit (163 × 4,170 kilometers), and after a third stage burn, the spacecraft 

and its PAM-D upper stage departed on an Earth 

escape trajectory. There were some initial moments 

of anxiety when it was discovered that the spacecraft had automatically entered “safe mode” shortly 

after entering heliocentric orbit, but by 13 January, 

Deep Impact returned to full operational mode 

following a program to “tumble” the vehicle using 

its thrusters. The spacecraft traveled 429 million 

kilometers for nearly six months (including course 

corrections on 11 February and 4 May 2005) on an 

encounter with Comet 9P/Tempel. As the spacecraft approached its target, it spotted two outbursts 

of activity from the comet, on 14 June and 22 June 

2005. At 06:00 UT (or 06:07 UT Earth-receive 

time) on 3 July 2005, Deep Impact released the 

Impactor probe, which, using small thrusters, 

moved into the path of the comet, where it hit the 

following day, 4 July at 05:44:58 UT at a relative 

velocity of 37,000 kilometers/hour. The impact 

generated an explosion the equivalent of 4.7 tons of 

TNT and a crater estimated to be about 150 meters 

in diameter. Minutes after the impact, the Flyby 

probe passed the nucleus at a range of about 500 

kilometers at 05:59 UT on 3 July and took images 

of the resultant crater (although it was obscured 

by the dust cloud), ejecta plume, and the entire 

nucleus. Simultaneous observations of the impact 

were coordinated with ground-based observatories 
238 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

as well as space-based ones, such as the European 

Rosetta (which was about 80 million kilometers 

from the comet), Hubble, Spitzer, the Swift x-ray 

telescope, and XMM-Newton. The Impactor itself 

took images as little as 3 seconds before impact, 

which were transmitted via the flyby vehicle 

back to Earth. Controllers registered about 4,500 

images from the three cameras over the next few 

days. Based on the results of Deep Impact’s investigations, scientists concluded that Comet Tempel 

1 had probably originated in the Oort Cloud. The 

data also showed that the comet was about 75% 

empty space. Although Deep Impact’s primary 

mission was over, because the vehicle still had 

plenty of propellant left, on 3 July 2007, NASA 

approved a new supplemental mission for Deep 

Impact, known as EPOXI, derived from the combination of the two components of this extended 

flight: Extrasolar Planet Observations (EPOCh) 

and Deep Impact Extended Investigation (DIXI). 

This so-called “Mission of Opportunity” was originally focused on Comet 85P/Boethin; on 21 July 

2005, Deep Impact was set on a trajectory to conduct a flyby of Earth in anticipation of the intercept 

of Boethin. Unfortunately, scientists lost track of 

Comet Boethin (possibly because the comet had 

broken up) and Deep Impact was instead directed 

towards Comet 103P/Hartley (or Hartley 2) beginning with a burn on 1 November 2007. EPOXI’s 

new plan set Deep Impact on three consecutive 

Earth flybys, spread over two years (in December 

2007, December 2008, and June 2010) before the 

final trek to meet Comet Hartley 2. These flybys 

essentially “stole some energy” from the spacecraft, thus dropping Deep Impact into a smaller 

orbit around the Sun. Before the second Earth 

flyby, Deep Impact performed its EPOCh mission 

using the HRI instrument to perform photometric 

investigations of extrasolar planets around eight 

distant stars, returning nearly 200,000 images. In 

the fall of 2010, Deep Impact began its investigations of Comet Hartley 2, conducting its flyby of 

the target at a range of 694 kilometers at 15:00 UT 

on 4 November 2010. As with the encounter with 

Comet Tempel 1, Deep Impact used its three instruments to study Hartley 2 for three weeks. Some of 

the images were so clear that scientists were able 

to identify jets of dust with particular features on 

the comet’s nucleus. The data showed that the two 

lobes of Hartley 2 were different in composition. 

Once past this second cometary encounter, Deep 

Impact had little propellant for further cometary 

investigations, but there was a possibility that the 

spacecraft, if still in working condition, could be 

used for a flyby of Near Earth Asteroid 2002 GT in 

2020. With that goal in mind, thrusters were fired 

in December 2011 and October 2012 for targeting purposes. In the meantime, the spacecraft was 

used for remote study of faraway comets such as 

C/200P1 (Garradd) in early 2012 and C/2012 S1 

(ISON) in early 2013. Communications with Deep 

Impact were lost sometime between 11 August and 

14 August 2013, and after “considerable effort” 

to contact the spacecraft, NASA announced on 

20  September that it had officially abandoned 

efforts to contact Deep Impact.

208

Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter

Nation: USA (86)

Objective(s): Mars orbit

Spacecraft: MRO

Spacecraft Mass: 2,180 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Atlas V 401 (AV-007)

Launch Date and Time: 12 August 2005 / 11:43:00 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

SLC-41

Scientific Instruments:

1. high resolution imaging science experiment camera (HiRISE)

2. context camera (CTX)

3. Mars color imager (MARCI)

4. compact reconnaissance imaging spectrometer (CRISM)
2005 239

An image from the HiRISE instrument on board NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) shows a fissure, less than 

500 meters across at its widest point, on Olympus Mons on Mars. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Univ. of Arizona

5. Mars climate sounder (MCS)

6. shallow subsurface radar (SHARAD)

7. Optical navigation camera

8. Electra communications package

9. Gravity field investigation package

10. Atmospheric structure investigation

Results: Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) is a 

large orbiter, modeled in part on NASA’s highly 

successful Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft, 

designed to photograph Mars from orbit for about 

two Earth years. Its primary goals were to map the 

Martian surface with a high-resolution camera (the 

HiRISE 0.5-meter diameter reflecting telescope, 

the largest ever carried on a deep space mission), at 

least partly to help select sites for future landing 

missions. Supplementary investigations included 

studies of the Martian climate, weather, atmosphere, and geology. Along with the basic six instruments, MRO also carried an optical navigation 

camera and Electra, a UHF telecommunications 

package to provide navigation and communications 

support to other landers and rovers on the surface 

of Mars. After launch, MRO entered orbit around 

Earth. Soon after, the Centaur upper stage fired for 

a second time to dispatch its payload (and itself) to 

escape velocity on a trajectory to intercept with 

Mars. After a seven-month trip through interplanetary space and three mid-course corrections, MRO 

approached Mars and, on 10 March 2006, fired its 

six engines (which displayed slightly reduced 

thrust), and successfully entered into a highly elliptical orbit around the Red Planet with parameters 

of 426 × 44,500 kilometers with a period of 35.5 

hours. A subsequent combination of aerobraking in 

the upper atmosphere and engine burns between 

7 April and 11 September 2006 left MRO in its 

final operational orbit of approximately 250 × 316 

kilometers. Two months later, it began its primary 

science mission, joining five other active spacecraft 

in orbit or on the surface of Mars: Mars Global 
240 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

Surveyor, 2001 Mars Odyssey, the two Mars 

Exploration Rovers, and the European Mars 

Express. By December 2006, the operation of one 

of MRO’s instruments, the Mars climate sounder, 

was suspended due to anomalies in its field of view. 

All other instruments, however, returned vast 

amounts of uninterrupted and valuable data during 

the first two years of MRO’s operations, known as 

the Primary Science Phase, which extended from 

November 2006 to November 2008. One of the 

early findings from imagery collected by HiRISE 

was the presence of liquid carbon dioxide or water 

on the surface of Mars in its recent past. During 

the Extended Science Phase, from November 2008 

to December 2010, MRO faced a number of technical obstacles, primarily related to seemingly 

spontaneous rebooting of its computer four times 

in 2009. At one point, the spacecraft was essentially shut down beginning 26 August. Finally, on 

8 December, engineers commanded the orbiter out 

of “safe mode” and slowly began initiating science 

operations using its scientific instruments. As it 

was back on the job, MRO passed an important 

symbolic milestone on 3 March 2010 when it had 

reached 100 terabits of data transmitted back to 

Earth, which NASA said was “more than three 

times the amount of data from all other deep-space 

missions combined.” MRO continued to return 

high quality data, despite another reboot event in 

September 2010. Many of its activities were coordinated with other Mars spacecraft. For example, 

in December 2010, researchers used data from the 

CRISM instrument to help the Opportunity rover 

study the distribution of minerals in Endeavour 

Crater on the ground. A new phase of MRO’s mission began in December 2010, the Extended 

Mission, whose goal was to explore seasonal processes on Mars, search for surface changes, and 

also provide support for other Martian spacecraft 

including the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL). It 

was during this period, in March 2011, that MRO 

passed its five-year anniversary orbiting Mars. 

Later in August, NASA announced that MRO data 

indicated that water might actually be flowing on 

Mars during the warmest months of the year; MRO 

images had shown dark finger-like features, known 

as Recurring Slope Linea (RSLs) that appear and 

disappear on some slopes during late spring through 

summer but disappear during winter. On 14 March 

2012, MRO captured a 20-kilometer-high dust 

devil whirling its way across the Amazonis Planitia 

region of northern Mars. Later, in October 2012, 

NASA initiated MRO’s second Extended Mission, 

which expired in October 2014. Late in 2013, 

MRO turned its gaze outwards, to Comet ISON, a 

comet racing in from the Oort Cloud, which passed 

by Mars on 29 September. During this second 

Extended Mission, MRO passed the point of transmitting 200 terrabits of science data back to Earth. 

Once again, there was a computer anomaly on 

board the spacecraft: on 9 March 2014, MRO put 

itself in safe mode after an unscheduled swap from 

one main computer to another. Four days later, the 

vehicle resumed normal science operations (along 

with its activities relaying data back to Earth from 

the Curiosity rover). Because of the impending 

flyby of Mars by Comet C/2013A1 (or Comet 

Siding Spring) on 19 October 2014, NASA began 

to shift the orbit of MRO (as well as its other operational orbiter, 2001 Mars Odyssey) to minimize 

risk of damage from material shed by the comet. 

Orbit adjustments were made by MRO on 2 July 

and then again on 27 August. In the event, MRO 

captured the best ever views of a comet from the 

Oort Cloud when Siding Spring flew by Mars on 

19 October. The spacecraft also suffered no damage as a result of the flyby. For the seventh time in 

its time in orbit, MRO put itself in a precautionary 

standby mode on 11 April 2015 when there was an 

unplanned switch from one main computer to 

another. Within a week the spacecraft once again 

returned to full operational capability. Later, in 

January 2016, controllers completed a planned 

flash-memory rewrite in one of the spacecraft’s 

redundant computers in order to load new data in 

the form of tables on the positions of Earth and the 

Sun. Earlier, in August 2015, MRO celebrated a 

decade since its launch, by which time it had 
2005 241

orbited Mars 40,000 times and returned 250 terabits of data; NASA announced that every week, the 

spacecraft was still returning more information on 

Mars than the weekly total of all other active Mars 

missions. Soon after, in September 2015, scientists 

published evidence in the journal Nature Geoscience

that data from MRO’s imaging spectrometer provided the strongest evidence yet that liquid water 

still flows intermittently on present-day Mars. 

Scientists later concluded that water ice makes up 

half or more of an underground layer in the Utopia 

Planitia region. In July 2016, research results were 

published indicating that gullies on modern day 

Mars—channels with an alcove at the top and 

deposited material at the bottom—were probably 

not formed by flowing liquid water, and instead 

perhaps by the freeze and thaw of carbon dioxide 

frost. The data from MRO also provided the basis 

for a large crowd-sourced experiment in 2016. 

Using the Planet Four: Terrains Web site, ten thousand volunteers used images (taken by the Context 

Camera) of the Martian south polar regions to 

identify targets for closer inspection (by the 

HiRISE camera), thus generating new insights on 

seasonal slabs of carbon dioxide and erosional features on Mars known as “spiders.” On 28 September 

2016, MRO was to have provided critical communications support for the arrival of the InSight Mars 

lander mission (enabled in part by an orbital 

maneuver carried out more than a year before, on 

29 July 2015). However, the InSight launch was 

postponed to 2018 due to development problems 

in one of its instruments as well as the relative 

infrequency of the short launch window chosen for 

the mission. At several points during its mission, 

MRO photographed artificial objects on the 

Martian surface. In January 2015, NASA 

announced that high resolution images taken by 

MRO had identified Beagle 2’s wreckage on the 

Martian surface. Similarly, images taken in 

December 2014 and April 2015 by the HiRISE 

instrument also showed NASA’s Curiosity rover 

inside Gale Crater. Later, in October 2016, images 

taken by both the Context Camera and the HiRISE 

camera showed ESA’s Schiaparelli test lander that 

stopped transmitting before final impact. In early 

2017, nearly 11 years after arriving at Mars, MRO 

remains operational and the second longest-lived 

spacecraft to orbit Mars, after 2001 Mars Odyssey.

209

Venus Express

Nation: European Space Agency (5)

Objective(s): Venus orbit

Spacecraft: VEX

Spacecraft Mass: 1,270 kg

Mission Design and Management: ESA

Launch Vehicle: Soyuz-FG + Fregat (no. Zh15000-

010 + 14S44 no. 1010)

Launch Date and Time: 9 November 2005 / 03:33:34 UT

Launch Site: GIK-5 / Site 31/6

Scientific Instruments:

1. analyzer of space plasma and energetic 

atoms (ASPERA)

2. Venus Express magnetometer (MAG)

3. planetary Fourier spectrometer (PFS)

4. ultraviolet and infrared atmospheric spectrometer (SPICAV/SOIR)

5. Venus radio science experiment (VeRa)

6. visible and infrared thermal imaging spectrometer (VIRTIS)

7. Venus monitoring camera (VMC)

Results: Venus Express was a spacecraft, similar in 

design to ESA’s Mars Express, designed to conduct 

a global investigation of the Venusian atmosphere, 

its plasma environment, and surface characteristics, from a 24-hour near-polar elliptical orbit 

around Venus. The spacecraft was launched by a 

Soyuz-FG/Fregat combination owned by Starsem, a 

French company which markets the Russian Soyuz 

in its “European” version. The Soyuz-FG delivered 

the payload into a low Earth orbit, with the Fregat 

firing a second time 96 minutes after launch to send 

the entire stack out of Earth orbit towards Venus. 

The spacecraft carried out a single mid-course 
242 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

correction on the way to Venus, on 11 November 

2005, before arriving at Venus on 11 April 2006 

after a five-month journey. The main engine fired 

at 07:10:29 UT (spacecraft time) to insert Venus 

Express into orbit around the planet, thus becoming the first European spacecraft to orbit Venus. It 

achieved its operational orbit—250 × 66,000 kilometers—by 7 May 2007. The original mission of 

Venus Express was anticipated to last no more than 

500 Earth days, but the mission was extended five 

times past its nominal mission (which ended on 

19 September 2007); it was extended first to May 

2009, then to December 2009, then to December 

2012, then to 2014, and finally to 2015. Among 

its initial accomplishments was to generate a complete temperature map of the southern hemisphere 

of the planet by December 2006. Further major 

findings included evidence for past oceans on the 

surface of Venus, a higher prevalence of lightning 

on Venus than Earth, and the discovery of a huge 

“double atmospheric vortex” at the south pole of 

the planet. In 2011, scientists studying data from 

Venus Express reported the existence of a layer of 

ozone in the upper atmosphere of the planet. After 

eight years in orbit, as propellant supplies to maintain its elliptical orbit began running low, routine 

science experiments were concluded on 15 May 

2014, and mission scientists decided undertake a 

series of aerobraking campaigns during which the 

spacecraft would “dip” deeper into the atmosphere 

than it had before. The lowest point of 129.1 kilometers was reached on 11 July. The duration of 

these “dips” was about 100 seconds long with maximum dynamic pressure at 0.75 Newton per square 

meter, probably a record for a spacecraft still operating in orbit around a planetary body. After about 

a month in late June and early July “surfing in and 

out” of the Venusian atmosphere, during which 

time critical data was collected on the effects of 

atmospheric drag and heating, the spacecraft performed a 15-day climb back up, beginning 12 July, 

which ended by reaching an orbit with a lowest 

point of 460 kilometers. Having reached this orbit, 

Venus Express decayed naturally the remainder of 

the year. There was an attempt in late November 

to arrest this decay but contact with the spacecraft 

was lost on 28 November 2014, with only intermittent telemetry and telecommand links after that 

point. On 16 December, ESA officially announced 

the end of the mission although a carrier signal was 

still being received. The last time that this X-band 

carrier signal was detected was on 19 January 

2015, suggesting that the orbiter burned up in the 

atmosphere soon after.
243

2006

210

New Horizons

Nation: USA (87)

Objective(s): Pluto flyby

Spacecraft: New Horizons

Spacecraft Mass: 478 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / APL

Launch Vehicle: Atlas V 551 (AV-010)

Launch Date and Time: 19 January 2006 / 19:00:00 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

SLC-41

Scientific Instruments:

1. Ralph visible and infrared imager/

spectrometer

2. Alice ultraviolet imaging spectrometer

3. radio-science experiment (REX)

4. long-range reconnaissance imager (LORRI)

5. solar wind and plasma spectrometer (SWAP)

6. Pluto energetic particle spectrometer science investigation (PEPSSI)

7. student dust counter (SDC)

Results: New Horizons is a mission sent to study the 

dwarf planet Pluto, its moons, and other objects in 

the Kuiper Belt, a region of the solar system that 

extends from about 30 AU, near the orbit of 

Neptune, to about 50 AU from the Sun. The first 

mission of NASA’s New Frontiers program—a 

medium-class, competitively selected, and 

Principal Investigator-led series of missions—that 

also includes Juno and OSIRIS-REx, New Horizons 

was the first spacecraft to encounter Pluto, a relic 

from the formation of the solar system. By the time 

of its Pluto system encounter, the spacecraft had to 

travel farther away and for a longer time period 

(more than nine years) than any previous deep 

space spacecraft ever launched. The design of the 

spacecraft was based on a lineage traced back to 

the CONTOUR and TIMED spacecraft, both also 

built by the Applied Physics Laboratory at Johns 

Hopkins University. Besides its suite of scientific 

instruments, New Horizons carries a cylindrical 

radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG), a 

spare from the Cassini mission, that provided about 

250 W of power at launch (decaying to 200 W by 

the time of the Pluto encounter). After reaching 

initial Earth orbit at 167 × 213 kilometers, the 

Centaur upper stage fired (for a second time) for 9 

minutes to boost the payload out to an elliptical 

orbit that stretched to the asteroid belt. A second 

firing of the Star 48B solid rocket accelerated the 

spacecraft to a velocity of 58,536 kilometers/hour, 

the highest launch velocity attained by a humanmade object relative to Earth. It was now set on a 

trajectory to the outer reaches of the solar system. 

Controllers implemented mid-course corrections 

on 28 and 30 January and 9 March 2006, and a 

month later, on 7 April, New Horizons passed the 

orbit of Mars. A fortuitous chance to test some of 

the spacecraft’s instrumentation—especially 

Ralph—occurred on 13 June 2006 when New 

Horizons passed by a tiny asteroid named 132524 

APL at a range of 101,867 kilometers. The spacecraft flew by the solar system’s largest planet, 

Jupiter, for a gravity assist maneuver on 28 February 

2007 with a closest approach at 05:43:40 UT. The 

encounter increased the spacecraft’s velocity by 

14,000 kilometers/hour, shortening its trip to Pluto 

by three years. During the flyby, New Horizons carried out a detailed set of observations over a period 

of four months in early 2007. These were both 

designed to gather new data on Jupiter’s atmosphere, ring system, and moons (building on 

research from Galileo) and to test out instruments. 
244 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

Although observing the moons from distances 

much farther than Galileo, New Horizons was still 

able to return impressive pictures of Io (including 

eruptions on its surface), Europa, and Ganymede. 

Following the Jupiter encounter, New Horizons 

sped its way towards the Kuiper Belt, performing a 

mid-course correction on 25 September 2007. It 

was in hibernation mode from 28 June 2007 during 

which time the spacecraft’s on-board computer 

kept tabs on mission systems, transmitting special 

codes indicating that operations were either nominal or anomalous. During hibernation, most major 

systems of New Horizons were deactivated, revived 

only about two months every year. The second, 

third, and forth hibernation cycles were activated 

on 16 December 2008, 27 August 2009, and 

29  August 2014. It passed the halfway point to 

Pluto on 25 February 2010. The discovery of new 

NASA’s New Horizon spacecraft captured this high-resolution enhanced color view of Pluto on 14 July 2015. The image 

combines blue, red, and infrared images taken by the Ralph/Multispectral Visual Imaging Camera (MVIC). Resolution is 

as high in places as 1.3 kilometers. Credit: NASA/JHUAPL/SwRI
2006 245

moons (Kerberos and Styx) around Pluto during 

the mission added to suspicions that there might 

be debris or dust around Pluto. Mission planners 

devised two possible contingency plans in case 

debris increased as the spacecraft approached 

Pluto, either using its antenna facing the incoming 

particles as a shield, or flying closer to Pluto where 

there might be less debris. On 6 December 2014, 

ground controllers revived New Horizons from 

hibernation for the last time to initiate its active 

encounter with Pluto. At the time, it took 4 hours 

and 25 minutes for a signal to reach Earth from the 

spacecraft. The spacecraft began its approach 

phase towards Pluto on 15 January 2015, its trajectory adjusted with a 93-second thruster burn on 

10 March. Two days later, with about four months 

remaining before its close encounter, New Horizons 

finally became closer to Pluto than Earth is to the 

Sun. Pictures of Pluto began to reveal distinct features by 29 April, with detail growing literally week 

by week into its approach. A final 23-second engine 

burn on 29 June accelerated New Horizons towards 

its target by 27 centimeters/second, also fine-tuning its trajectory. There was a minor concern on 

4  July when New Horizons entered “safe mode” 

due to a timing flaw in the spacecraft command 

sequence. Fortunately, the spacecraft returned to 

fully nominal science operations by 7 July. Three 

days later, data from New Horizons was used to 

conclusively answer one of the most basic mysteries about the dwarf planet: its size. Mission scientists concluded that Pluto is 2,370 kilometers in 

diameter, slightly larger than prior estimates. 

Charon was confirmed to be 1,208 kilometers in 

diameter. Finally, at 11:49 UT on 14 July 2015, 

New Horizons flew by about 7,800 kilometers 

above the surface of Pluto. About 13 hours later, at 

00:53 UT on 15 July, a 15-minute series of status 

messages was received at mission operations at 

Johns Hopkins University’s APL (via NASA’s Deep 

Space Network) confirming that the flyby had 

been fully successful. Besides collecting data on 

Pluto and Charon (flyby at 28,800 kilometers 

range), New Horizons also observed Pluto’s other 

This mosaic of Pluto’s largest moon Charon was taken by the Long Range Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI) on New Horizons just prior to closest approach on 14 July 2015. 

The scene at the bottom is approximately 200 kilometers. Resolution is as high as 310 

meters. Credit: NASA/JHUAPL/SwRI 
246 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

satellites, including Nix, Hydra, Kerberos, and Styx. 

The download of the entire set of data collected 

during the Pluto/Charon encounter—about 6.25 

gigabytes of data—took over 15 months, and officially completed at 21:48 UT on 25 October 2016. 

Such a lengthy period was necessary because the 

spacecraft was roughly 4.5 light-hours from Earth 

and it could only transmit 1–2 kb/second. Data 

from New Horizons clearly indicated that Pluto and 

its satellites were far more complex than imagined, 

and scientists were particularly surprised by the 

degree of “current activity” on Pluto’s surface. The 

atmospheric haze and lower-than-predicted atmospheric escape rate forced scientists to fundamentally revise earlier models of the system. Pluto, in 

fact, displays evidence of vast changes in atmospheric pressure and possibly past presence of running or standing liquid volatiles on its surface. There 

are hints that Pluto could have an internal water-ice 

ocean today. Photographs clearly showed a vast 

thousand-kilometer-wide heart-shaped nitrogen 

glacier (called Sputnik Planitia) on the surface, 

undoubtedly the largest known glacier in the solar 

system. On Charon, images showed an enormous 

equatorial extension tectonic belt, suggesting a 

long-past water ice ocean. In the fall of 2015, after 

its Pluto encounter, mission planners began to redirect New Horizons for a flyby on 1 January 2019 

with 2014 MU69, a Kuiper belt object that is approximately 6.4 billion kilometers from Earth. Four 

course corrections were implemented in the fall 

while a fifth was carried out on 1 February 2017. 

The goal of the encounter is to study the surface 

geology of the object, measure surface temperature, 

map the surface, search for signs of activity, measure its mass, and detect any satellites or rings. As 

of 3 April, the spacecraft was halfway from Pluto to 

its target. Soon after, on 10 April, New Horizons 

entered hibernation mode, when much of the vehicle remained in unpowered mode for “a long summer’s nap” that lasted until 11 September. During 

this time, the flight computer broadcast a weekly 

beacon-status tone back to Earth, and another data 

stream once a month on spacecraft health and 

safety data. On the first anniversary of its Pluto/

Charon flyby, on 14 July 2017, the New Horizons 

team unveiled new detailed maps of both planetary 

bodies. As of 4 November 2017 New Horizons was 

40.31 AU (6.03 billion kilometers) from Earth and 

traveling at approximately 14.22 kilometers/second 

(relative to the Sun) heading generally in the direction of the constellation Sagittarius. The mission is 

currently extended through 2021 to explore additional Kuiper belt objects. 

211

STEREO A and STEREO B

Nation: USA (88)

Objective(s): solar orbit

Spacecraft: Stereo A / Stereo B

Spacecraft Mass: 623 kg / 658 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / GSFC / APL

Launch Vehicle: Delta 7925-10L (no. D319)

Launch Date and Time: 26 October 2006 / 00:52:00 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

SLC-17B

Scientific Instruments:

1. Sun Earth connection coronal and heliospheric investigation (SECCHI)

a. extreme ultraviolet imager (EUVI)

b. inner coronagraph (COR1)

c. outer coronagraph (COR2)

d. heliospheric imager (HI)

2. interplanetary radio burst tracker (SWAVES)

3. in-situ measurements of particles and 

CME transients (IMPACT)

4. plasma and suprathermal ion composition 

(PLASTIC)

Results: STEREO (Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory), the third mission in NASA’s Solar Terrestrial 

Probes (STP) program, consists of two space-based 

observatories to study the structure and evolution of 

solar storms as they emerge from the Sun and move 

out through space. The two spacecraft, one ahead 

of Earth in its orbit and the other trailing behind, 
2006 247

are providing the first stereoscopic images of the 

Sun, and collecting data on the nature of its coronal mass ejections (CMEs), represented by large 

bursts of solar wind, solar plasma, and magnetic 

fields that are ejected out into space. Such CMEs 

can disrupt communications, power grids, satellite operations, and air travel here on Earth. Both 

spacecraft were inserted into an initial orbit around 

Earth at 165 × 171 kilometers. Following a second 

and third burn, the two spacecraft were sent into a 

translunar orbit, planned at 182 × 40,3810 kilometers at 28.5° inclination. Just after the final burn, at 

01:19 UT, STEREO A separated from STEREO B. 

On the fifth orbit for both, on 15 December 2006, 

both spacecraft swung by the Moon, and using a 

gravitational assist maneuver, were sent to different 

orbits. STEREO A was in a solar orbit inside Earth’s 

orbit (and “Ahead”) while STEREO B remained in 

a high Earth orbit. STEREO B encountered the 

Moon again on 21 January 2007, and was accelerated into the opposite direction from STEREO A; 

it entered heliocentric orbit outside of Earth’s orbit 

(and “behind”). The orbital periods of STEREO A 

and STEREO B are 347 days and 387 days, respectively. The two spacecraft separate from each other 

at a (combined) annual rate of 44°. A star tracker 

failed briefly on STEREO B but this had no impact 

on the mission. Later, in May 2009, the same 

spacecraft was successfully rebooted with a new 

guidance and control software. A similar reset was 

implemented with STEREO A in August of the 

same year. A transponder malfunction in July 2013 

briefly interrupted science activities on STEREO 

B. More seriously, the spacecraft suffered a failure 

of its Inertial Measurement Unit in January 2014 

but controllers managed to revive the spacecraft 

quickly. At various points, the spacecraft were 

separated from each other by 90° and 180°. The 

latter occurred on 6 February 2011 allowing the 

entire Sun to be seen at once for the first time by 

any set of spacecraft. On 23 July 2012, during an 

“extreme” solar storm more powerful than anything 

seen in the past 150 years, STEREO A was able 

to collect significant data on the phenomenon. 

Unanticipated high temperatures in the high 

gain antenna feed horns of both spacecraft were 

detected in June 2014, effectively reducing the 

data return rate, thus curtailing the science program. Because of this problem, mission scientists 

formulated a reduced program of science operations for STEREO A in August 2014, one that was 

further thwarted by a massive proton storm (caused 

by a large solar flare on the far side of the Sun) on 3 

September 2014. The high- energy particle fluxes 

were so high that star trackers on both STEREO 

spacecraft were reset. Later, on 1  October, communications were lost with STEREO B immediately after a planned reset of the spacecraft. All 

attempts to recover contact were in vain and it is 

thought that anomalies in the guidance and control 

system of the spacecraft might have rendered the 

spacecraft powerless as a result of drift away from 

direct exposure of the Sun to its solar panels. Controllers hoped at the time that eventually STEREO 

B would drift into “proper” orientation (much like 

SOHO in 1998) and would power up and resume 

its mission. Remarkably, 22 months after loss of 

contact, on 21 August 2016, NASA’s DSN reestablished communications with STEREO B (having 

tried once a month through this period). Controllers concluded that STEREO B was probably 

spinning out of control around its principal axis of 

inertia. This uncontrolled orientation allowed some 

power generation but not enough time to upload a 

software fix. STEREO A meanwhile was entered 

into a “safe mode” deliberately in March 2015 for 

several months during a superior solar conjunction, 

i.e., a period when the spacecraft is on the opposite side of the Sun from Earth. Communication 

was reestablished with the spacecraft on 11 July 

2015 when images were received again, although 

the science program remained at a low status until 

17  November 2015 when STEREO A began to 

operate at full capacity again. The key element 

here was the transmission of real-time data, known 

as beacon data from coronagraph imagery. As of 

early 2017, STEREO A continues to operate without problems.

249

2007

212

Artemis P1 and Artemis P2

Nation: USA (89)

Objective(s): Earth–Moon L1 and L2 Lagrange 

points, lunar orbits

Spacecraft: THEMIS B / THEMIS C

Spacecraft Mass: 126 kg (each)

Mission Design and Management: NASA / University 

of California–Berkeley

Launch Vehicle: Delta 7925-10C (no. D323)

Launch Date and Time: 17 February 2007 / 23:01:00 

UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

SLC-17B

Scientific Instruments:

1. electric field instruments (EFI)

2. fluxgate magnetometer (FGM)

3. search coil magnetometer (SCM)

4. electrostatic analyzer (ESA)

5. solid state telescope (SST)

Results: The two Artemis lunar orbit missions were 

repurposed from the original Time History of 

Events and Macroscale Interactions during Substorms (THEMIS) mission that involved five NASA 

satellites, THEMIS A, B, C, D, and E, which studied a type of magnetic phenomena (“substorms”) in 

Earth’s magnetosphere that tend to intensify auroras near Earth’s poles. Each of the five satellites carried identical instrumentation. After a burn of the 

third stage, the five THEMIS spacecraft—initially 

joined but soon separated—were deposited into a 

469 × 87,337 km × 16.0° orbit around Earth. In its 

“string-of-pearls” configuration, the five THEMIS 

satellites carried out its initial mission without any 

significant anomalies. On 19 May 2008, Space 

Sciences Laboratories, developer of the spacecraft 

at University of California–Berkeley, announced 

that NASA had extended the THEMIS mission to 

2012 and that two of the THEMIS satellites, B and 

C, would venture into lunar orbit as part of a new 

mission under the name ARTEMIS (Acceleration, 

Reconnection, Turbulence and Electrodynamics 

of the Moon’s Interaction with the Sun). In this 

new mission, THEMIS B and C were renamed 

ARTEMIS P1 and ARTEMIS P2, respectively, 

and redirected to study the Earth–Moon Lagrange 

points, the solar wind, the Moon’s plasma wake, 

and the interaction between Earth’s magnetotail 

and the Moon’s own weak magnetism. (The “P1” 

and “P2” designations were leftover terminology 

from the THEMIS mission which used “P1” and 

“P2” to denote the operational orbits of THEMIS 

B and C). On the 40th anniversary of the Apollo 

XI landing, on 20 July 2009, ARTEMIS P1 and P2 

officially began low thrust maneuvers that, over the 

course of the following year-and-a-half, led them 

to the L2 and L1 Lagrange points, opposite the 

near and far sides of the Moon, respectively. (This 

phase included a lunar flyby on 28 March 2010 

by ARTEMIS P2.) On 25 August 2010, an engine 

burn propelled ARTEMIS P1 into orbit around the 

Earth–Moon L2 Lagrange point, located on the far 

side of the Moon, about 61,300 kilometers above 

the lunar surface. This was the first time that a 

spacecraft had successfully entered orbit around 

an Earth–Moon libration point. The second spacecraft, ARTEMIS P2 arrived at L1 on 22 October 

2010 by which time P1 had completed about 

four revolutions around L2. Although the stationkeeping at the Lagrange points on the way to the 

Moon was motivated to avoid Earth’s long shadows 

in its original orbits (thus keeping the spacecraft 

operational), here at the two Lagrange points, the 
250 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

two spacecraft collected magnetospheric data from 

opposite sides of the Moon, critical for simultaneous measurements of particles and electric and 

magnetic fields to build a three-dimensional map 

of the acceleration of energetic particles near the 

Moon’s orbit. On 27 June 2011, ARTEMIS P1 successfully entered lunar orbit with an initial orbit of 

roughly 3,543 × 27,000 kilometers while its sister 

vehicle, ARTEMIS P2 arrived on 17 July 2011, 

after a two-year journey from Earth orbit. Over 

the next three months, mission controllers implemented a series of maneuvers to move the second 

spacecraft into an orbit with a period of 27.5 hours, 

similar to its companion, but moving in the opposite direction. The two spacecraft, orbiting in opposite directions around the Moon, began to provide 

the first 3D measurements of the Moon’s magnetic 

field to determine its regional influence on solar 

wind particles. More specifically, the two spacecraft revealed new information on the lunar “wake” 

that extends about 12 lunar radii and in particularly 

how its void distorts the interplanetary magnetic 

field causing it to bulge moonward. As of January 

2016, the two spacecraft remained in good health 

and operating in their stable but highly elliptical 

lunar orbits. Mission scientists marked the tenth 

anniversary of the launch in February 2017, with 

the spacecraft still in good health.

213

Phoenix

Nation: USA (90)

Objective(s): Mars landing

Spacecraft: Phoenix Lander

Spacecraft Mass: 664 kg (350 kg lander)

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL / 

University of Arizona

Launch Vehicle: Delta 7925-9.5 (no. D325)

Launch Date and Time: 4 August 2007 / 09:26:34 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

SLC-17A

Scientific Instruments:

1. robotic arm (RA)

2. microscopy, electrochemistry, and conductivity analyzer (MECA)

3. robotic arm camera (RAC)

4. surface stereo imager (SSI)

5. thermal and evolved gas analyzer (TEGA)

6. Mars descent imager (MARDI)

7. meteorological station (MET)

Results: The Phoenix mission was a landing mission to Mars, the first under NASA’s new Mars 

Scout Program to send a series of small, low-cost, 

low complexity, and higher frequency robotic missions to Mars. (The second and last mission in 

the series was MAVEN launched in 2013; Mars 

missions were then folded into the Discovery 

Program where they would compete with missions 

to other planetary destinations). Its science goals 

included studying the history of water on Mars in 

all its phases, searching for evidence of habitable 

zones, and assessing the biological potential of the 

ice–soil boundary. More broadly, the lander was 

designed to determine whether life ever existed 

on Mars, characterize the climate and geology 

of the Red Planet, and help prepare for future 

human exploration of its surface. The spacecraft 

was essentially built on the basis of the abandoned 

and never-launched Mars Surveyor 2001 Lander 

and contained other instruments built in support 

of the unsuccessful Mars Polar Lander mission. It 

was the first NASA mission to Mars that was led 

directly from a public university, the University of 

Arizona, more specifically its Lunar and Planetary 

Laboratory. The primary mission was designed to 

last 90 sols (Mars days) or approximately 92 Earth 

days. After two burns of the Delta’s second stage, 

the PAM-D upper stage (with a Star 48 motor) fired 

at 10:44 UT on 4 August 2007 to send the Phoenix 

lander towards Mars. It conducted mid-course corrections on 10 August and 30 October 2007, and 
2007 251

10 April and 17 May 2008, the latter two directing it toward the northern polar region of Mars. 

As it approached Mars, the orbits of three other 

spacecraft orbiting Mars—Mars Reconnaissance 

Orbiter (MRO), 2001 Mars Odyssey, and Mars 

Express—were adjusted so that they could observe 

Phoenix’s entry into the atmosphere. In addition, 

MRO’s HiRISE instrument was used to thoroughly 

scout out the landing area, with some images identifying rocks smaller than the lander itself. Phoenix 

entered the Martian atmosphere at nearly 21,000 

kilometers/hour on 25 May 2008 and touched 

down safely on the surface at 23:38:38 UT in the 

Green Valley of Vastitas Borealis. It was the first 

successful landing of a stationary soft-lander on 

Mars since Viking 2, 32 years before. During its 

descent, MRO’s HiRISE camera clearly photographed Phoenix suspended from its parachute, 

the first time one spacecraft photographed another 

during a planetary landing. The lander waited 15 

minutes for the dust to settle before unfurling its 

solar panels. The first images showed a flat surface marred by pebbles and troughs, but no large 

rocks or hills as expected given its northern position. Within four days, Phoenix had transmitted a 

complete 360° panorama of the cold Martian surface, deployed the nearly 2.5-meter robotic arm, 

and started returning regular weather reports. On 

31 May, the robotic arm scooped up dirt and began 

sampling Martian soil for ice. Already by 19 June 

2008, mission scientists were able to conclude that 

clumps of bright material in the so-called “DodoGoldilocks” trench dug by the robotic arm were 

probably water ice: the material had vaporized in 

four days after the scoop. On 31 July 2008, NASA 

officially announced that, based on an analysis (by 

TEGA’s mass spectrometer) of a sample collected 

by the lander, that there is water on Mars. William 

Boynton of the University of Arizona noted that 

such data adds to the claims from the 2001 Mars 

Odyssey orbiter whose data also indicated likewise. On 5 August, in response to media rumors 

about the possibility of life on Mars, the Phoenix 

team announced that they had found perchlorates 

on the surface of Mars that neither confirmed nor 

refuted the possibility of life on Mars. The results 

also led scientists to revisit the data from the Viking 

Landers. By the end of August, Phoenix had completed its originally planned 90-day mission, which 

was extended to 30 September. On 12 September, 

the lander scoop delivered a new soil sample to its 

Wet Chemistry Laboratory that mixed an aqueous 

solution from Earth to the soil as part of a process 

to identify soluble nutrients and other chemicals 

in the soil. Early results suggested that the soil was 

alkaline, composed of salts and other chemicals 

such as perchlorate, sodium, magnesium, chloride, 

and potassium. On 13 October, Phoenix weathered a dust storm and recovered another soil sample, the sixth, into the TEGA instrument. But as 

the Martian winter was upon the landing site, the 

lander went into safe mode on 28  October 2008 

due to insufficient sunlight and poor weather conditions. During safe mode, non-critical activities were 

suspended while the spacecraft awaited further 

instructions from mission control. There was daily 

communication with the lander from 30 October to 

2 November but no signals were received after that. 

On 10 November, NASA announced the lander had 

“finishe[d its] successful work on [the] Red Planet,” 

and on 1  December, the Agency announced that 

NASA “had stopped using its Mars orbiters to 

hail the lander.” The loss of the spacecraft was a 

combination of low power and the dust storm. 

During the cold harsh winter, CO2 ice—some of it 

as thick as 19 centimeters—probably built up on 

the lander, sufficiently heavy to break the fragile 

solar arrays. Because of this kind of damage, subsequent communications attempts with the lander, 

in early 2010, were unsuccessful. On 24 May 2010, 

NASA announced that the project was formally 

ended. Images from MRO conclusively showed 

that Phoenix’s solar panels were severely damaged 

by the freezing during the Martian winter.
252 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

214

Kaguya

Nation: Japan (6)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: SELENE plus Okina (Rstar) and Ouna 

(Vstar)

Spacecraft Mass: 2,900 kg

Mission Design and Management: JAXA

Launch Vehicle: H-IIA 2022 (no. 13)

Launch Date and Time: 14 September 2007 / 01:31:01 

UT

Launch Site: Tanegashima / Area Y1

Scientific Instruments:

1. x-ray spectrometer (XRS)

2. gamma-ray spectrometer (GRS)

3. multi-band imager (MI)

4. spectral profiler (SP)

5. terrain camera (TC)

6. lunar radar sounder (LRS)

7. laser altimeter (LALT)

8. lunar magnetometer (LMAG)

9. charged particle spectrometer (CPS)

10. plasma energy angle and composition 

experiment (PACE)

11. radio science experiment (RS)

12. upper atmosphere and plasma imager (UPI)

13. four-way Doppler measurements by relay 

satellite and main orbiter transponder 

(RSAT)

14. differential VLBI radio source experiment 

(VRAD)

15. high-definition television (HDTV)

Results: SELENE (Selenological and Engineering 

Explorer), named Kaguya (“Moon princess”) after 

launch as a result of a public poll, was the second 

Japanese lunar probe, whose goal was to orbit the 

Moon and collect data on the origins and geological 

evolution of Earth’s only natural satellite, study the 

lunar surface environment, and carry out radio science experiments. The Japanese noted it was “the 

largest lunar mission since the Apollo program.” 

Besides the main lunar satellite, SELENE, the 

mission also included two small spin-stabilized 

sub-satellites, each weighing 53 kilograms. These 

were the Relay Satellite (Rstar) and the VRAD 

satellite (Vstar). Upon launch, they were renamed 

Okina and Ouna, which mean “honorable elderly 

man” and “honorable elderly woman,” respectively. 

Originally slated for launch in 2003 but delayed to 

2007 due to problems with the H-II launch vehicle, the probe was launched into a highly elliptical parking orbit of 282 × 232,960 kilometers. On 

3  October 2007, Kaguya entered into an initial 

polar orbit around the Moon at 101 × 11,741 kilometers, the first time that a Japanese spacecraft 

had done so. The two subsatellites, Okina and 

Ouna, were released on 9 October at 00:36 UT and 

12 October at 04:28 UT into corresponding orbits: 

115 × 2,399 kilometers and 127 × 795 kilometers. 

The orbiter itself attained its operational circular 

orbit at 100 kilometers by 19 October. Soon, on 

31 October, Kaguya’s two main HDTV cameras—

each a 2.2 megapixel CCD HDTV camera—took 

the first high definition images of the Moon. A 

week later, on 7 November, the satellite took spectacular footage of an “Earthrise,” the first since the 

Apollo missions in the 1970s. The fully operational 

phase of the mission began on 21 December following a successful checkout of all the onboard 

instruments. By 9 April 2008, JAXA was able to 

announce that Kaguya, using its Laser Altimeter, 

had been able to collect enough data to construct 

the topography of the entire lunar surface, with data 

points 10 orders larger than the previous model of 

the lunar surface, produced by the Unified Lunar 

Control Network in 2005, based largely on the 

American Clementine spacecraft. Its subsequent 

achievements include detecting gravity anomalies 

on both the near and far side of the Moon (based 

on Doppler data from both Kaguya and the Okina 

spacecraft) and the first optical observation of the 

permanently shadowed interior of the Shackleton 

Crater. Kaguya completed its original planned mission by late October 2008, with hopes to continue 

to March 2009 followed by impact in August 2009. 
2007 253

However, because of a faulty reaction wheel, the 

extended mission was ended early. On 1 February 

2009, Kaguya’s orbit was lowered to approximately 

50 kilometers. The orbiter then impacted the Moon 

at 18:25 UT on 10 June 2009 at 65.5° S / 80.4° E 

near Gill Crater. Okina had already impacted the 

Moon at 10:46 UT on 12 February 2009.

215

Dawn

Nation: USA (91)

Objective(s): Vesta and Ceres orbit

Spacecraft: Dawn

Spacecraft Mass: 1,217.7 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Delta 7925H-9.5 (no. D327)

Launch Date and Time: 27 September 2007 / 11:34:00 

UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

SLC-17B

Scientific Instruments:

1. framing camera (FC)

2. visible and infrared mapping spectrometer 

(VIR)

3. gamma ray and neutron detector (GRaND)

This image from Dawn shows Kupalo Crater on Ceres. 

The crater, one of the youngest on the minor planet, 

measures 26 kilometers across. The image was taken on 

21  December 2015 from Dawn’s low-altitude mapping 

orbit from a distance of approximately 385 kilometers. 

Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/UCLA/MPS/DLR/IDA

Results: Dawn, the ninth mission in NASA’s 

Discovery Program, was launched on a nearly-decade long mission to study two very different 

objects which both accreted early in the history of 

the solar system, the asteroid Vesta (arrival in 2011) 

and the dwarf planet Ceres (arrival in 2015). The 

investigation of these objects—the two largest in 

the asteroid belt—was driven by the three principal 

scientific motivations: to investigate the conditions 

at the origin of the solar system; to find the nature 

of the building blocks from which the inner planets 

were formed; and to contrast the very different evolutionary paths of Ceres and Vesta. Besides its 

complement of scientific equipment, Dawn also 

carried three xenon ion thrusters (derived from the 

technology used on the Deep Space 1 spacecraft), 

each with a thrust of 91 mN and a specific impulse 

of 3,100 seconds. Some of the scientific equipment was provided by German and Italian institutions. After launch, Dawn was accelerated to 

escape velocity of 11.50 kilometers/second by the 

PAM-D solid propellant third stage which fired at 

12:29 UT. The spacecraft passed lunar orbit at 

around 14:30 UT on 28 September and entered 

solar orbit at roughly 1.00 × 1.62 AU. Long-term 

cruise with the ion thrusters began on 17 December 

2007, and completed on 31 October 2008, nearly 

11 months later. Subsequently, a single trajectory 

correction on 20 November 2008 orchestrated a 

gravity assist flyby past Mars at a range of 542 kilometers on 17 February 2009. Over two years later, 

Dawn began to approach its first target, Vesta, 

returning progressively higher resolution images of 

the protoplanet. At around 05:00 UT on 16 July 

2011, Dawn gently slipped into orbit around Vesta 

at an altitude of about 16,000 kilometers, thus 

becoming the first spacecraft to orbit any object in 

the main asteroid belt. Using its xenon-ion engine, 
254 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

it moved into a closer “survey” orbit at an altitude of 

about 2,700 kilometers by 2 August, staying at that 

orbit until the end of the month. Later, on 

27  September, it moved into a closer orbit at an 

altitude of 680 kilometers (with an orbital period of 

12.3 hours) staying there until 2 November, during 

which period it fully mapped Vesta six times, 

including in color and in stereo. By 8 December, 

the spacecraft was in a 4.3-hour orbit at an average 

altitude of just 210 kilometers. Original plans were 

This mosaic image shows the mysterious mountain Ahuna Mons on Ceres. The images were taken by NASA’s Dawn 

spacecraft from a low-altitude mapping orbit, about 385 kilometers above the surface, in December 2015. Credit: NASA/

JPL-Caltech/UCLA/MPLS/DLR/IDA/PSI
2007 255

to carry out a 70-day mission at that low orbit but 

this was extended to 1 May, during which the 

spacecraft took 13,000 photos covering most of 

Vesta as well as more than 2.6 million visible and 

IR spectra. From 23 June to 25  July, Dawn was 

back up to 680 kilometers conducting more mapping, including of areas that had not been visible 

before. Data from the extended period of study in 

2012 allowed scientists to estimate the size of its 

dense iron-nickel core (about 220 kilometers 

across), and conclusively identify Vesta as one of 

the few remaining remnants of large planetoids 

that formed the rocky planets of the solar system. 

In December 2012, investigators announced that 

Dawn had detected sinuous gullies on the surface 

of Vesta that might have been caused by liquid 

water—similar gullies on Earth are carved by liquid 

water. The data collected by Dawn suggested that 

Vesta is more closely related to terrestrial planets 

such as Earth (and its Moon) than to typical asteroids. Dawn’s findings also showed that Vesta is the 

source of more meteorites on Earth than Mars or 

the Moon. Pictures also identified immense basins 

on the surface of Vesta such as the 400-kilometer 

diameter Veneneia and the 500-kilometer diameter Rheasilvia basins, created by impacts two and 

one billion years ago, respectively. At 07:26 UT on 

5 September 2012, Dawn escaped the gravitational grip of Vesta and headed towards its second 

destination, the dwarf plant Ceres. During its stay 

at Vesta, the two bodies travelled around the Sun 

for 685 million kilometers. On the way to Ceres, 

Dawn stopped normal ion thrusting and spuriously 

entered “safe mode” on 11  September 2014. 

Fortunately, ground controllers were able to determine the source of the problem—a coincidental 

combination of high-energy particles that disabled 

the ion propulsion system and a previously 

unknown bug in the spacecraft software—and 

resumed normal ion firing by 15  September. 

Approach operations to Ceres began in January 

2015 although during the approach phase, Dawn 

took fewer photographs of its target (than with 

Vesta) due to problems with two of its four reaction 

wheels, the first of which failed on 17 June 2010. 

Needing at least three wheels to be operational, the 

mission team devised a plan to allow the spacecraft 

to operate using only two (in case another failed) in 

combination with hydrazine reaction control 

thrusters. A second wheel indeed failed, on 

8  August 2012, just as Dawn was spiraling away 

from Vesta and beginning its trip to Ceres. The 

mission team implemented plans to conserve the 

much needed hydrazine (now more valuable than 

ever). All of these strategies allowed Dawn to 

approach Ceres slightly compromised but largely 

operational. At 00:39 UT on 7 March 2015, Dawn 

finally entered initial (polar) orbit around Ceres, 

thus becoming the first mission to study a dwarf 

plant, ahead of the New Horizons encounter with 

Pluto four months later. Dawn also became the 

first spacecraft to orbit two different celestial bodies (other than the Sun, of course). In planning for 

the mission, scientists had envisioned four different circular mapping orbits—called RC3, Survey, 

HAMO, and LAMO—around Ceres, from one as 

high as 13,600 kilometers (RC3) to as low as 385 

kilometers (LAMO). Dawn remained in its first 

mapping orbit, RC3, from 23 April to 9 May 2015 

carrying out photography, taking spectra at infrared 

and visible wavelengths, and searching for lofted 

dust as evidence of water vapor. On 9 May the 

spacecraft began using its ion engine to spiral down 

to reach its second mapping orbit by 3 June at 

about 4,400 kilometers, with its science mission 

beginning two days later. The orbital period at this 

point was 3.1 days. During this phase, lasting eight 

orbits, Dawn carried out extensive scientific observations over the sunlit side of Ceres. This phase, 

completed by 30 June, was punctuated by a minor 

alarm on 27 June due to anomalies in two of the 

scientific instruments, and a problem on 30 June 

when the spacecraft went into safe mode due to a 

problem with its orientation (later traced to a 

mechanical gimbal system that swivels one of its 

three ion engines). On 13 August 2015, it arrived 

in its third mapping orbit and stopped using its ion 

thrusters. Orbital altitude was 1,470 kilometers 
256 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

with a period of 19 hours. Its science mission in 

this orbit began four days later. Over the next six 

months, the spacecraft mapped Ceres six times. 

Mission Director at JPL Marc Rayman noted that 

this would be “some of the most intensive observations of its entire mission.” At 23:30 UT on 

23 October, Dawn turned one of its ion engines 

(no. 2) to move to its next orbit, a passage that 

took about seven weeks. On 7 December, the 

engine was turned off as the spacecraft reached its 

final mapping orbit at about 385 kilometers altitude. After some further orbital tweaking on 11–

13 December, Dawn’s orbit was synchronized with 

Ceres’ rotation around its axis. Finally, on 

18  December, the spacecraft began its next science phase in its new orbit, which it maintained 

for nearly nine months until 2 September 2016. 

During this period, the spacecraft obtained extensive data with its combined gamma-ray and neutron spectrometer as well as its infrared mapping 

spectrometer. Circling the dwarf planet every 5.4 

hours, the standard high-resolution mapping programs were also in effect. By 3 May, Dawn’s time 

in orbit around Ceres exceeded its time in orbit 

around Vesta in 2011–2012. A couple of months 

later, on 30 June 2016, JPL announced that Dawn 

had concluded its fully completed prime mission. 

By this point, it had taken 69,000 images and 

completed 2,450 orbits around both Vesta and 

Ceres. In addition, the ion engines had fired for 

48,500 hours. NASA approved an extended mission at the time, opting not to have Dawn travel to 

a large asteroid known as Adeona but to continue 

to explore Ceres. On 2 September 2016, Dawn 

began a new five-week journey to a higher orbit 

after a highly successful stay at lower altitudes. 

The spacecraft reached a new orbit at 1,480 kilometers with an orbital period of 18.9 hours by 6 

October, having begun an extended science mission 10 days later. On 4 November, it began climbing higher again and reached its sixth science orbit 

(known as “extended mission orbit 3” or XMO3) 

on 5 December at about 7,520 × 9,350 kilometers 

altitude. Here it measured the cosmic ray noise to 

calibrate the data on Ceres’ nuclear radiation that 

was collected when it was at 385 kilometers. 

Dawn was basically in good condition in early 

2017 despite a temporary switch to “safe mode” 

on 17 January. On 23 April 2017, mission controllers discovered that two of the remaining reaction 

wheels on board the spacecraft had stopped working, thus jeopardizing attitude control. By using 

hydrazine, controllers were able to return Dawn to 

standard flight configuration. A few days later, on 

29 April, Dawn successfully observed Ceres at 

opposition, i.e., from a position between Ceres 

and the Sun, allowing the spacecraft to view the 

bright Occator Crater from a new perspective. 

Soon after celebrating the tenth anniversary of its 

launch, NASA announced on 19  October 2017 

that it had authorized a second extension to the 

mission. During the extension, Dawn will descend 

to lower than before—possibly 200 kilometers—

to continue studies of the dwarf planet, focused 

on measuring the number and energy of gamma 

rays and neutrons. One of the most important discoveries made by Dawn was the existence of widespread ice just below the surface of Ceres, 

announced in December 2016. Dawn carries a 

memory chip with the names of more than 

360,000 people who submitted their names as 

part of an outreach effort in 2005 and 2006.

216

Chang’e 1

Nation: China (1)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: Chang’e yihao

Spacecraft Mass: 2,350 kg

Mission Design and Management: China National 

Space Administration

Launch Vehicle: Chang Zheng 3A (no. Y14)

Launch Date and Time: 24 October 2007 / 10:05:04 

UT

Launch Site: Xichang / LC 3
2007 257

Scientific Instruments:

1. stereoscopic CCD camera

2. Sagnac-based interferometer spectrometer 

imager

3. laser altimeter

4. microwave radiometer

5. gamma and x-ray spectrometer

6. space environment monitor system (a 

high-energy particle detector and 2 solar 

wind detectors)

Results: Chang’e 1 was the first deep space mission 

launched by China, part of the first phase of the 

so-called Chinese Lunar Exploration Program, 

divided into three phases of “circling around the 

Moon,” “landing on the Moon,” and “returning 

from the Moon” that would be accomplished 

between 2007 and 2020. The goal of this first 

mission, besides proving basic technologies and 

testing out several engineering systems, was to 

create a three-dimensional map of the lunar surface, analyze the distribution of certain chemicals on the lunar surface, survey the thickness of 

the lunar soil, estimate Helium-3 resources, and 

explore the space environment (solar wind, etc.) 

in near-lunar space. The spacecraft itself was 

based on the design of the reliable DFH-3 satellite 

bus. After launch, the spacecraft entered a 205 × 

50,900-kilometer orbit for a day before firing its 50 

kgf thrust main engine at 09:55 UT on 25 October 

to raise perigee to 593 kilometers. Subsequent 

burns (this time near perigee) were performed on 

26 October (at 09:33 UT), 29 October (at 09:49 

UT), and 31 October (at 09:15 UT) increasing 

apogee to 71,600, 119,800, and finally 400,000 

kilometers, respectively. On its way to the Moon, 

Chang’e 1 (or CE-1, as it was often named in the 

Chinese English-language press) made one midcourse correction before entering lunar orbit with 

a 22-minute burn that began at 02:15 UT on 

5 November 2007, thus becoming the first Chinese 

spacecraft to orbit the Moon. Initial orbital parameters were 210 × 860 kilometers. Two maneuvers 

on 6 and 7 November lowered perigee to 1,716 

and 200 kilometers, respectively. Its final working 

orbit—a 200-kilometer polar orbit with a period of 

127 minutes—was reached soon after on the same 

day. On 20 November, CE-1 returned the first raw 

image of the lunar surface, and by 28 November, 

all its scientific instruments were fully operational. 

A composite of 19 strips of raw images was issued 

by the Chinese media on 26 November at a ceremony attended by Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao. 

There was some controversy regarding this image 

which some believed was a fake or a copy of an 

image returned by Clementine but this proved not 

to be so: the high-quality image was indeed quite 

real. Through December 2007, CE-1 continued to 

photograph the Moon (including in stereo), and 

began imaging the polar regions in January 2008. 

The spacecraft successfully fulfilled its 1-year mission after which it continued extended operations. 

On 12 November 2008, Chinese space authorities 

issued a full-Moon image map produced using 

CE-1 images taken over 589 orbits covering 100% 

of the lunar surface with a resolution of 120 meters. 

In December 2008, over a period of two weeks, 

the spacecraft’s perigee was progressively lowered to 15 kilometers to test operations for future 

orbiter and lander spacecraft. Finally, on 1 March 

2009, CE-1 was commanded to impact on to the 

lunar surface, making contact at 08:13:10 UT at 

52.27°  E and 1.66° S, thus becoming the first 

Chinese object to make contact with the Moon. 

Its most significant achievement was to produce 

the most accurate and highest resolution 3D map 

of the lunar surface.

259

2008

217

Chandrayaan-1 and MIP

Nation: India (1)

Objective(s): lunar orbit, lunar impact

Spacecraft: Chandrayaan-1 / MIP

Spacecraft Mass: 1,380 kg

Mission Design and Management: ISRO

Launch Vehicle: PSLV-XL (no. C11)

Launch Date and Time: 22 October 2008 / 00:52:11 UT

Launch Site: Sriharikota / SLP

Scientific Instruments:

Main Satellite:

1. terrain mapping camera (TMC)

2. hyper spectral imager (HySI)

3. lunar laser ranging instrument (LLRI)

4. high energy x-ray spectrometer (HEX)

5. Moon impact probe (MIP)

6. Chandrayaan-1 x-ray spectrometer (CIXS)

7. near infrared spectrometer (SIR-2)

8. Sub keV atom reflecting analyzer (SARA)

9. miniature synthetic aperture radar (Mini 

SAR)

10. Moon mineralogy mapper (M3)

11. radiation dose monitor (RADOM)

MIP:

1. radar altimeter

2. video imaging system

3. Chandra’s altitudinal composition explorer 

(mass spectrometer) (CHASE)

Results: Chandrayaan-1, the first Indian deep space 

mission, was launched to orbit the Moon and dispatch an impactor to the surface. Scientific goals 

included the study of the chemical, mineralogical, and “photo-geologic” mapping of the Moon. 

Besides five Indian instruments, the spacecraft 

carried scientific equipment from the United 

States, the U.K., Germany, Sweden, and Bulgaria. 

Chandrayaan-1 was launched into an initial geostationary transfer orbit of 225 × 22,817 kilometers at 17.9° inclination. Over a period of 13 days, 

the apogee of the orbit was increased by five burns 

of its 44.9 kgf Liquid Engine that successively 

raised orbit on 23 October (to 37,900 kilometers), 

25 October (to 74,715 kilometers), 26 October 

(to 164,600 kilometers), 29 October (to 267,000 

kilometers), and 4 November (to 380,000 kilometers). Finally, the probe successfully entered lunar 

orbit after a burn that began at 11:21 UT on 8 

November and lasted about 13.5 minutes. Initial 

lunar orbital parameters were 7,502 × 504 kilometers. Between lunar orbit insertion on 8 November 

and 12 November, Chandrayaan-1’s orbit was 

reduced gradually so that it ended up finally in 

its operational polar orbit at about 100 kilometers 

above the lunar surface. Two days later, at 14:36 

UT, Chandrayaan released its 29-kilogram Moon 

Impact Probe (MIP) which fired a small deorbit 

motor and went into freefall, sending back readings from its three instruments until it crashed 

onto to the lunar surface at 15:01  UT near the 

Shackleton crater at the lunar south pole. Indian 

scientists reported that data from the CHASE 

instrument, which took readings every 4 seconds 

during its descent, suggested the existence of 

water in the lunar atmosphere, although the data 

remains inconclusive absent further verification. 

Chandrayaan-1 experienced abnormally high temperatures beginning late November 2008, and for a 

time, it could only run one scientific instrument at 

a time. In May 2009, the spacecraft was delivered 

to a higher 200-kilometer orbit, apparently in an 

attempt to keep the temperatures aboard the satellite to tolerable levels. Chandrayaan-1 also suffered 
260 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

a star sensor failure after nine months of operation 

in lunar orbit. A backup sensor also failed soon 

after, rendering inoperable the spacecraft’s primary 

attitude control system. Instead controllers used a 

mechanical gyroscope system to maintain proper 

attitude. Last contact with the spacecraft was at 

20:00 UT on 28 August 2009, thus falling short of 

its planned two-year lifetime, although ISRO noted 

that at least 95% of its mission objectives had been 

accomplished by then. The most likely cause of the 

end of the mission was failure of the power supply due to overheating. Perhaps Chandrayaan-1’s 

most important finding was related to the question of water on the Moon. In September 2009, 

scientists published results of data collected by 

the American M3 instrument which had detected 

absorption features on the polar regions of the surface of the Moon usually linked to hydroxyl- and/

or water-bearing molecules. This finding was followed later, in August 2013, by a further announcement of evidence of water molecules locked in 

mineral grains on the surface of the Moon, i.e., 

“magmatic water,” or water that originates from 

deep in the Moon’s interior. Magmatic water had 

been found in samples returned by Apollo astronauts but not from lunar orbit until the operation 

of the M3 instrument, although Cassini, during its 

flyby of the Moon in August 1999, had detected 

(using its VIMS instrument) water molecules and 

hydroxyl. Later, NASA’s Deep Impact-EPOXI mission, which flew by the Moon in June 2009 also 

returned the same type of data.
261

2009

218

Kepler

Nation: USA (92)

Objective(s): solar orbit

Spacecraft: Kepler

Spacecraft Mass: 1,039 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / ARC / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Delta 7925-10L (no. D339)

Launch Date and Time: 7 March 2009 / 03:49:57 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

SLC-17B

Scientific Instruments:

1. photometer (Schmidt telescope)

Results: Kepler, the tenth in the series of lowcost, low-development-time, and highly-focused 

Discovery class science missions, is designed to discover Earth-like planets orbiting other stars in our 

region of the Milky Way. More specifically, Kepler 

has been equipped to look for planets whose size 

spans from one-half to twice the size of Earth (“terrestrial planets”) in the habitable zone of their stars 

where liquid water might exist in the natural state 

on the surface of the planet. Its scientific goals 

include determining the abundance of these planets and the distribution of sizes and shapes of their 

orbits, estimating the number of planets in multiple-star systems, and determining the properties of 

stars that have planetary systems. Kepler detects 

planets by observing transits, tiny dips in the brightness of a star when a planet crosses in front of it. 

The spacecraft is basically a single instrument—in 

this case, a specially designed 0.95-meter diameter aperture telescope and image sensor array—

with a spacecraft built around it. (The diameter 

of the telescope’s mirror is 1.4 meters, one of the 

largest mirrors beyond Earth orbit). As originally 

planned, it was designed to monitor about 100,000 

main-sequence stars over a period of three-and-ahalf years. Kepler was initially launched into Earth 

orbit at 185 × 185 kilometers at 28.5° inclination. Subsequently, after another first stage burn, 

the second stage fired to set Kepler on an escape 

trajectory into solar orbit. It passed lunar orbit at 

04:20 UT on 9 March, eventually entering heliocentric orbit at 0.97 × 1.041 AU at 0.5° inclination 

to the solar ecliptic. In order to improve resolution, 

on 23 April 2009, mission planners optimized the 

focus of the telescope by moving the primary mirror 

40 micrometers toward the focal plane and tilting 

it by 0.0072°. Less than a month later, on 13 May, 

Kepler finished its commissioning and began its 

operational mission. Already during its first six 

weeks of operation, Kepler discovered five exoplanets (which were named Kepler 4b, 5b, 6b, 7b, 

and 8b), which NASA announced in January 2010. 

Later, in April 2010, mission scientists published 

results that showed that Kepler had discovered the 

first confirmed planetary system with more than 

one planet transiting the same star, Kepler-9. That 

discovery was the result of surveying more than 

156,000 stars over a period of seven months. The 

planetary system orbiting Kepler-11, a yellow dwarf 

star about 2,000 light years from Earth, included 

six planets. NASA announced in February 2011 

that these planets were larger than Earth, with 

the largest ones comparable in size to Uranus and 

Neptune. In 2011, Kepler suffered at least two 

“safe mode” events, when the spacecraft essentially shut down science operations as a result of a 

suspected anomaly. In both cases, in February and 

March, the Kepler project team were able to revive 

the vehicle relatively quickly, within two to three 

days. In September, mission scientists announced 
262 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

the discovery of a planet (Kepler-16b) orbiting 

two stars, where we might expect a double sunset, 

much like the fictional planet Tatooine depicted 

in the film Star Wars. (A subsequent double-star 

system was announced in January 2012 and multiple planets orbiting multiple stars—the Kepler-47 

system—was announced in August 2012). Finally, 

in December 2011, NASA announced that Kepler 

had found its first planet (Kepler-22b) in the “habitable zone” of a star where liquid water could exist 

on the planet’s surface. In April 2012, the mission, 

closing in on its three-and-a-half-year lifetime, 

was formally extended through fiscal year 2016 

after a review of its operations, with the extended 

mission beginning on 15 November 2012. By that 

time, Kepler had identified more than 2,300 planet 

candidates and confirmed more than 100 planets. Based on data collected by Kepler, scientists 

were able to announce in January 2013 that about 

17% of stars (about one-sixth) have an Earth-sized 

planet in an orbit closer than Mercury is to our Sun. 

Given that the Milky Way has about 100 billion 

stars, this would suggest at least 17 billion Earthsized worlds in our galaxy. (In November 2013, this 

number was revised up to 40 billion). Following 

two brief lapses into “safe mode” in May, one of the 

spacecraft’s four reaction wheels (no. 4) was found 

to have failed. Given that an earlier one failed in 

July 2012 and that at least three such wheels were 

needed to accurately aim the telescope, there was 

anxiety that the mission might be jeopardized. 

Subsequent to that point, and after another safe 

mode event in late May, Kepler operated in Point 

Rest State (PRS) mode—where the spacecraft 

used thrusters and solar pressure to control pointing—while controllers devised a way to reactivate 

the wheels necessary for accurate pointing of the 

spacecraft. After several months of activity, on 

15 August 2013, NASA officially announced that 

it would be ending efforts to fully recover Kepler. 

NASA solicited proposals from the public on how 

to reformulate a new mission for Kepler given its 

obvious limitations. During this period, in October 

2013, Kepler mission scientists announced that 

they had conclusively identified the first Earthsized rocky planet, Kepler-78b, which circles its 

host star every eight-and-a-half years, making it a 

very hot planet. A further announcement in April 

2014 confirmed the discovery of the first Earthsized planet (Kepler-186f) in the “habitable zone” 

of a star. At the end of the year, the Kepler team 

proposed a new mission, known as K2 (“Second 

Light”), using the two remaining reaction wheels 

to investigate smaller and dimmer red dwarf stars. 

Mission definition of the K2 proposal continued 

into 2014, with the mission finally approved by 

NASA in May 2014 and data collection beginning on 30 May. Observations continued through 

the year with several “campaigns” of data collection. As of January 2015, Kepler had found 1,004 

confirmed exoplanets in about 400 star systems. 

By November 2016, Kepler, now in its K2 mission 

(which included “relaxed fault or sensitivity limits”) 

was in its eleventh “campaign” of scientific observation, which began on 24 September. There was 

some concern on the eve of Campaign 9, slated to 

begin on 8 April, when controllers found the spacecraft in a “fuel-intensive coma,” a kind of emergency mode much more serious than a “safe mode” 

and closer to complete systems failure. Fortunately, 

controllers were slowly able to fully revive the 

spacecraft by 22 April. On 9 June 2016, NASA 

announced that Kepler would continue science 

operations through to the end of Fiscal Year 2019 

by which time, on-board propellant would probably be depleted. The spacecraft was named after 

the famed German astronomer Johannes Kepler 

(1571–1630).

219

Herschel

Nation: European Space Agency (6)

Objective(s): Sun–Earth L2 Lagrange Point

Spacecraft: Herschel

Spacecraft Mass: 3,400 kg
2009 263

Mission Design and Management: ESA

Launch Vehicle: Ariane 5ECA (no. V188)

Launch Date and Time: 14 May 2009 / 13:12 UT

Launch Site: Kourou / ELA 3

Scientific Instruments:

1. infrared telescope

2. heterodyne instrument for the far infrared 

(HIFI)

3. photoconductor array camera and spectrometer (PACS)

4. spectral and photometric imaging receiver 

(SPIRE)

Results: Both Herschel and Planck were launched by 

the same Ariane launch vehicle and were both ESA 

missions (with significant NASA contributions) 

but they had different science missions. Herschel, 

the largest infrared telescope ever launched into 

space (3.5-meter mirror), was designed to study 

the origin and evolution of stars and galaxies, the 

chemical composition of atmospheres and surfaces 

of solar system bodies, and molecular chemistry 

across the universe, to help understand the evolution of the universe. Herschel’s mirror, one-anda-half times bigger than the one on Hubble, was 

made almost entirely of silicon carbide, 12 such 

segments being brazed together. Following launch, 

Ariane’s ESC-A stage sent both Herschel and 

Planck into a highly elliptical transfer orbit of 270 

× 1,197,080 kilometers at 6° inclination to enable 

the spacecraft to reach the Sun–Earth L2 Lagrange 

Point, the local gravitationally stable point that is 

fixed in the Sun–Earth System, about 1.5 million 

kilometers directly “behind” Earth as viewed from 

the Sun. Herschel did not have a dedicated engine 

for major course changes but used its own small 

thrusters for minor corrections. Herschel’s operating lifetime was expected to be about three-anda-half years, determined by the amount of coolant 

available for its instruments. In mid-July 2009, 

about two months after launch, Herschel entered 

a Lissajous orbit of 800,000 kilometers (average) 

radius around L2 and soon, on 21 July, began 

active operations. (Herschel’s distance from Earth 

varied, depending on its orbital position, between 

1.2 and 1.8 million kilometers). The observatory’s 

operations were organized in 24-hour cycles where 

it communicated with ground control for 3 hours 

every day with the remainder of the time dedicated to scientific observations. Less than a year 

later, at a symposium to discuss the first results of 

Herschel, scientists reported a number of major 

findings: Herschel had found high-mass protostars around two ionized regions in the Milky Way, 

showing an early phase in the evolution of stars; the 

HIFI instrument (which had actually been inoperable due to a glitch between August 2009 and 

February 2010) had investigated the trail of water 

in the universe over a wide range of scales, from the 

solar system to extragalactic sources; and Herschel 

found a previously unresolved population of galaxies in the GOODS (Great Observatories Origins 

Deep Survey) fields identified by the Hubble, 

Spitzer, and Chandra spacecraft. In August 2011, 

Herschel mission scientists reported that they had 

identified molecular oxygen in the Orion molecular 

cloud complex, previously reported by the Swedish 

Odin satellite. Herschel data also suggested that 

much of Earth’s water could have come from comets, results suggested by observations of Comet 

Hartley 2—although this notion has been dispelled 

since. Observations by Herschel, in fact, confirmed that Comet Shoemaker-Levy’s impact into 

Jupiter in 1994 had actually delivered water to the 

gas giant. One of the oldest objects in the universe 

was located in 2013; scientists published results in 

April that showed the existence of a starburst galaxy which had produced over 2,000 solar masses of 

stars a year, originating only 880 million years after 

the Big Bang. On 29 April 2013, Herschel finally 

ran out of the liquid helium coolant required to 

maintain the operational temperature of the instrument detectors. On 13–14 May the spacecraft 

conducted a maneuver with its thrusters to boost 

it out of orbit around L2 and into its final resting 

place in heliocentric orbit. (A possible end on the 

lunar surface was also contemplated but not chosen because of cost). Following a last maneuver 

to deplete the propellant on board, at 12:25 UT 
264 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

on 17 June 2013, the final command to terminate 

communications was sent to Herschel, rendering 

the spacecraft dead. After a highly successful mission, the inert spacecraft will remain in heliocentric orbit. Scientists continued analyzing the vast 

amount of data returned from the observatory. For 

example, in January 2014, scientists announced 

that data from Herschel indicated the definitive 

detection of water vapor on the dwarf planet Ceres, 

a discovery which came prior to the arrival of 

NASA’s Dawn mission at Ceres. This research was 

part of the so-called Measurements of 11 Asteroids 

and Comets Using Herschel (MACH-11) program. 

The observatory is named after British astronomers William Herschel (1738–1822) and his sister 

Caroline Herschel (1750–1848).

220

Planck

Nation: European Space Agency (7)

Objective(s): Sun–Earth L2 Lagrange Point

Spacecraft: Planck

Spacecraft Mass: 1,950 kg

Mission Design and Management:

Launch Vehicle: Ariane 5ECA (no. V188)

Launch Date and Time: 14 May 2009 / 13:12 UT

Launch Site: Kourou / ELA-3

Scientific Instruments:

1. low frequency instrument (LFI)

2. high frequency instrument (HFI)

3. telescope

Results: Both Herschel and Planck were launched 

by the same Ariane launch vehicle as ESA missions (although Herschel, especially, had significant NASA contributions) but they had different 

science objectives. Planck, named after German 

physicist Max Planck (1858–1947) was the 

first European space observatory whose primary 

objective was to study the Cosmic Microwave 

Background (CMB). The spacecraft used sensitive 

radio receivers operating at very low temperatures 

to determine the black body equivalent temperature of the background radiation. Such measurements were then used to produce detailed maps of 

directional (anisotropic) temperature differences 

in the CMB radiation field, improving upon observations made by NASA’s Wilkinson Microwave 

Anisotropy Probe (WMAP)—Planck had a higher 

resolution and sensitivity than WMAP. Besides 

mapping CMB anisotropies, Planck would also 

provide data to test inflationary models of the early 

universe, measure the amplitude of structures 

in the CMB, and perform measurements of the 

Sunyaev-Zeldovich effect (the distortion of CMB 

by high energy electrons through inverse Compton 

scattering). The Planck spacecraft was made up 

of two primary components, the payload and service modules. The former contained a telescope 

with primary and secondary mirrors that collected 

microwave radiation and directed it into the focal 

plane units. The octagonal service module (SVM) 

was common to both Herschel and Planck, both 

being cornerstone missions in ESA’s science program (along with Rosetta and Gaia). Like Herschel, 

Planck was put into an elliptical orbit that eventually led to Sun–Earth L2 where it entered a 

Lissajous orbit with a 400,000-kilometer radius on 

3 July 2009. ESA announced that Planck’s High 

Frequency Instrument reached their low temperatures of –273.05°C, making them the “coolest” 

known objects in space. (This temperature is only 

0.1°C above absolute zero, the coldest temperature 

theoretically possible in our universe.) Such low 

temperatures are necessary to study CMB, the “first 

light” released by the universe only 380,000 years 

after the Big Bang. This visible light gradually faded 

and moved to the microwave wavelengths due to the 

expansion of the universe. By studying, with Planck’s 

two instruments, patterns imprinted in that light 

today, scientists sought to understand the Big Bang 

and the very early universe. The spacecraft began 

its first “all-sky” survey on 13 August working for 

two continuous weeks, generating excellent preliminary results within a month. On 15 January 2010, 

ESA extended the mission by 12 months (from 
2009 265

its original end point of late 2011). In July 2010, 

ESA reported that Planck had returned its first 

all-sky image, “the moment that Planck was conceived for,” as ESA Director of Science and Robotic 

Exploration David Southwood (1945– ) noted. The 

image spanned the closest portions of the Milky 

Way to the “furthest reaches of space and time.” As 

expected, the High Frequency Instrument’s sensor 

ran out of coolant on 14 January 2012, concluding 

its ability to detect this faint energy, but not before 

fully completing its survey of the early universe, i.e., 

the remnant of light from soon after the Big Bang 

itself. Based on data from Planck collected over its 

initial work spanning 15.5 months, in March 2013, 

ESA released the most detailed map ever created 

of the CMB. The map suggested that the universe 

is slightly older than earlier thought; the data points 

to an age of 13.798±0.037 billion years. In August 

2013, having completed its mission, Planck was 

“nudged” away from its L2 orbit towards a more stable orbit around the Sun. Through September and 

October, mission controllers prepared the spacecraft for shutdown by using up its remaining fuel. 

Finally, at 12:10:27 UT, on 23 October 2013, ESA 

sent the final command to shut down Planck, ending a highly successful mission.

221

Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO)

Nation: USA (93)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: LRO 

Spacecraft Mass: 1,850 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / GSFC

Launch Vehicle: Atlas V 401 (no. AV-020)

Launch Date and Time: 18 June 2009 / 21:32:00 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

SLC-41

Scientific Instruments:

1. cosmic ray telescope for the effects of radiation (CRaTER)

NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) captured 

this oblique view of the Moon, looking east-to-west over 

the Apennine Mountains towards Hadley Rille (upper left). 

Mount Hadley, at center right, casts a long shadow. The 

crew of Apollo 15 landed between the Apennines and 

Hadley Rile in 1971. Credit: NASA/Arizona State University

2. diviner lunar radiometer experiment (DLRE)

3. Lyman-Alpha mapping project (LAMP)

4. lunar exploration neutron detector (LEND)

5. lunar orbiter laser altimeter (LOLA)

6. lunar reconnaissance orbiter camera (LROC)

7. Mini-RF miniature radio frequency radar

Results: The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) 

was part of NASA’s now-cancelled Lunar Precursor 

Robotic Program (which also included LCROSS) 

and was the first U.S. mission to the Moon in over 

10 years. LRO’s primary goal was to make a 3D 

map of the Moon’s surface from lunar polar orbit 

as part of a high-resolution mapping program to 

identify landing sites and potential resources, 

investigate the radiation environment, and prove 

new technologies in anticipation of future automated and human missions to the surface of the 

Moon. LRO was launched together with LCROSS; 

the Centaur upper stage boosted them both into 

high apogee orbits soon after launch. At 11:27 UT 

on 23 June 2009, LRO successfully entered orbit 

around the Moon, having fired its rocket motor 
266 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

on the far side of the Moon. Initial orbital parameters were roughly 30 × 216 kilometers. A series 

of four engine firings over the next four days left 

LRO in its optimal orbit—roughly circular at 50 

kilometers—allowing the satellite to begin its primary mission on 25 September 2009, expected to 

last one year and overseen by NASA’s Exploration 

Systems Mission Directorate (ESMD). During this 

period, LRO gathered information on day-night 

temperature maps, contributed data for a global 

geodetic grid, and conducted high-resolution imaging. The spacecraft paid particular emphasis to the 

polar regions, where constant solar illumination 

might be possible and where there is the possibility of water in the permanently shadowed regions. 

In September 2010, LRO operations were handed 

over to NASA’s Science Mission Directorate 

(SMD) to continue the science phase of the mission (rather than activities purely related to exploration and future missions) for another five years. 

Among LRO’s achievements was to take extremely 

high-resolution photographs of landing sites of several older lunar landers and impact vehicles, such 

as landing sites from all the Apollo landing missions 

(plus Surveyor III near the Apollo 12 site) and the 

Apollo 13, 14, 15, and 17 Saturn IVB upper stages. 

Other targets included the later Ranger impact 

probes (VI, VII, VIII, and IX), and the Soviet Luna 

16, 17, 20, 23, and 24 soft-landers, and the Chinese 

Chang’e 3 lander/rover. In November 2011, NASA 

released the highest resolution near-topographical 

map of the Moon ever created, showing surface 

features over nearly the entire moon. An interactive mosaic of the lunar north pole was published 

in March 2014. LRO also carried out the first 

demonstration of laser communication with a lunar 

satellite when, in January 2013, NASA scientists 

beamed an image of the Mona Lisa from the Next 

Generation Satellite Laser Ranging (NGSLR) station at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in 

Greenbelt, Maryland. to the LOLA instrument 

on board LRO. One of the LRO instruments, the 

Mini-RF partially failed in January 2011, although 

fortunately, it had already completed its primary 

science objectives by that time. On 4 May 2015, 

controllers at Goddard Space Flight Center sent 

commands to LRO to fire its engines twice to 

change its orbit, taking it closer to the Moon than 

before—a polar orbit of about 20 × 165 kilometers. Perilune was close to the lunar South Pole. 

The new orbit allowed LRO’s LOLA instrument 

to produce better return signals and also allow it 

On June 10, 2011, Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) took this dramatic view of the Tycho crater. The summit of the 

central peak is 2 kilometers above the crater floor. Credit: NASA/Arizona State University
2009 267

to better measure specific regions near the South 

Pole that have unique illumination conditions. One 

of the more interesting finds of the orbiter was its 

identification, in December 2015, of the hitherto 

unknown impact site of Apollo 16’s S-IVB upper 

stage that was deliberately impacted on the lunar 

surface in 1972. In early 2017, LRO was still in 

excellent shape with propellant use limited to a few 

kilograms per year. Total remaining in early 2017 

was about 30 kilograms. It is not unlikely that the 

spacecraft will remain operational in its low elliptical orbit—which was about 30 × 150 kilometers in 

late 2016—for several more years.

222

Lunar Crater Observation and 

Sensing Satellite (LCROSS)

Nation: USA (94)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: S-S/C

Spacecraft Mass: 621 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / ARC

Launch Vehicle: Atlas V 401 (no. AV-020)

Launch Date and Time: 18 June 2009 / 21:32:00 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

SLC-41

Scientific Instruments:

1. visible camera

2. 2 near infrared cameras

3. 2 mid-infrared cameras

4. visible spectrometer

5. 2 near infrared spectrometers

6. total luminescence photometer (TLP)

Results: The mission of Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS), like LRO, 

part of NASA’s now-cancelled Lunar Precursor 

Robotic Program, was to confirm the presence of 

water ice in a permanently shadowed crater at the 

Moon’s south pole. Notably, both missions were 

originally funded as part of NASA’s human spaceflight Constellation program to return humans to 

the Moon. Ancillary goals for LCROSS included 

the testing of new modular subsystems for potential use in future mission architectures. Its mission profile involved impacting a Centaur upper 

stage on the surface of the Moon and then flying 

LCROSS through the debris plume about four minutes later to collect data on the soil, and then itself 

impact a little later. LCROSS was launched along 

with the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) 

and traveled to the Moon as a “co-manifested” 

payload aboard the launch vehicle. The Centaur 

upper stage entered a 180 × 208-kilometer parking 

orbit before firing again at 22:15 UT on 18 June 

to reach a 194 × 353,700-kilometer orbit at 28.2° 

inclination. At that point, LRO separated from the 

Centaur-LCROSS combination, and the Centaur 

then vented some remaining propellant, which 

slightly altered its orbit to 133 × 348,640-kilometer 

orbit at 28.0° inclination, ensuring a lunar flyby. 

The combined Centaur-LCROSS then passed 

the Moon at a distance of 3,270 kilometers at 

10:29 UT on 23 June and entered into an Earth 

polar orbit at approximately 357,000 × 582,000 

kilometers at 45° inclination with an orbital period 

of 37 days. The combined stack reached apogees near the Moon on 10 July, 16  August, and 

22 September until its trajectory intersected with 

that of the Moon on 9 October. A serious problem 

was discovered earlier, on 22 August, when mission controllers found that a sensor problem had 

caused the spacecraft burning through 140 kilograms of propellant, more than half of the amount 

remaining at the time. The loss meant that the 

original mission could still be accomplished but 

with very little margin. At 01:50 UT on 9 October, 

Centaur and LCROSS separated. The former then 

crashed onto the surface of the Moon at 11:31 UT 

in the Cabeus crater at the lunar South Pole. 

The impact excavated roughly 350 (metric) tons 

of lunar material and created a crater estimated 

to be about 20 meters in diameter. Four minutes 

later, LCROSS flew through the resulting debris 

plume that rose above the lunar surface, collecting 

data before it itself struck the Moon at 11:36 UT 
268 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

at a velocity of 9,000 kilometers/hour. The LRO’s 

Diviner instrument obtained infrared observations 

of the LCROSS impact point as it flew by about 

90 seconds after the impact at a range of about 

80 kilometers. On 13 November 2009, NASA formally announced that data from LCROSS “indicates that the mission successfully uncovered 

water...near the Moon’s south pole.” Nearly a 

year later, on 21 October 2010, mission scientists 

announced new data, including evidence that the 

lunar soil within Cabeus was rich in useful materials (mercury, magnesium, calcium, silver, sodium) 

and that the Moon is chemically active and has 

a water cycle. They also confirmed that in some 

places the water on the south pole is in the form of 

pure ice crystals.
269

2010

223

Venus Climate Orbiter (VCO) / 

Akatsuki

Nation: Japan (7)

Objective(s): Venus orbit

Spacecraft: PLANET-C

Spacecraft Mass: 517.6 kg

Mission Design and Management: JAXA

Launch Vehicle: H-IIA 202 (no. 17)

Launch Date and Time: 20 May 2010 / 21:58:22 UT

Launch Site: Tanegashima / Area Y1

Scientific Instruments:

1. 1-micron camera (IR1)

2. 2-micron camera (IR2)

3. ultraviolet imager (UVI)

4. longwave infrared camera (LIR)

5. lightning and airglow camera (LAC)

6. ultra-stable oscillator (USO)

7. radio science experiment (RS)

Artist’s impression of Japan’s Venus Climate Orbiter. Credit: JAXA/Akihiro Ikeshita
270 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

Results: This was Japan’s first interplanetary mission after Nozomi (launched in 1998), that spacecraft having failed to enter orbit around Mars. 

The goal of Venus Climate Orbiter, or Akatsuki 

(“dawn”) as it was known after launch, was to 

investigate atmospheric circulation in Venus by 

globally mapping clouds and minor constituents 

with four cameras at ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, detect lightning, and observe the vertical 

structure of the atmosphere. A nominal mission 

would last two or more years in an elliptical orbit 

around Venus at 300 × 80,000 kilometers. The scientific goals of VCO were closely related to those 

of ESA’s Venus Express launched in 2005. VCO 

was launched with a fleet of satellites, including three Japanese cubesats (KSAT, Negai*, and 

Waseda-Sat 2). The H-IIA rocket’s second stage 

restarted in Earth orbit to accelerate three other 

spacecraft to escape velocity: Akatsuki, UNITEC 

1, and IKAROS. On 21 May 2010, Akatsuki conducted a mid-course correction to sharpen its trajectory to Venus orbit. This was the first time that 

a ceramic thruster (with 51 kgf thrust), made of 

silicon nitride, was used in space conditions. The 

spacecraft was supposed to enter Venus orbit by 

firing its orbital maneuvering engines at 23:40 UT 

on 6 December 2010. Although the engine fired 

on time, it apparently cut off early. When communications were reestablished with Akatsuki (after a 

planned blackout due to occultation), the spacecraft was found to be in “safe mode” and spinstabilized, slowly rotating once every 10 minutes. 

A later investigation (whose results were issued on 

30 June 2011) showed that the engine had fired for 

less than 3 minutes (instead of 12 minutes), thus 

providing insufficient delta-V to enter Venusian 

orbit. Apparently, salt deposits jammed a valve that 

delivered fuel to the combustion chamber, making 

the combustion oxidizer-rich. The thruster nozzle 

was probably damaged in the firing. Soon, JAXA 

scientists began devising a backup plan to enter 

Venusian orbit in November 2015, which would be 

possible if subsequent tests of thruster were successful. On 7 and 14 September 2011, test firings 

were carried out of the beleaguered engine which 

showed that the thrust was about one-ninth of 

normal (about 4.1 kg). As a result, a new plan was 

formulated to discard all the unused oxidizer (65 

kilograms), lightening the spacecraft, and using the 

smaller reaction control system (RCS) thrusters to 

attempt Venus orbital insertion on 22 November 

2015. Three firings of the RCS system (587.5, 

544, and 342 seconds in length) in November 

2011 were successful in altering the trajectory of 

VCO for rendezvous with Venus in either 2015 

(preferable in terms of spacecraft lifetime) or 2016 

(preferable in terms of the original science mission). The main problem at this time was VCO’s 

exposure to incredibly high temperatures as it sped 

through perihelion—six times by April 2014—conditions it was not designed to survive, described 

by JAXA as “three times hotter than that of Earth.” 

Yet telemetry showed that the spacecraft was still 

functioning. In January 2015, the planned Venus 

orbit insertion was shifted to early December 2015 

with a possible apogee of 300,000 to 400,000 kilometers. As per the new plan, Akatsuki successfully 

entered orbit around Venus on 7 December 2015 

by using its attitude control thrusters for 20 minutes, following earlier spacecraft from the former 

Soviet Union, the United States, and the European 

Space Agency. Initial orbital parameters were 

approximately 440,000 × 400 kilometers at 3° inclination and an orbital period of 13 days 14 hours, 

fortuitously much lower than mission planners 

had hoped to achieve in original pre-launch planning. (Originally, the plan was to have an apoapsis 

of 79,000 kilometers and an orbital period of 30 

hours, partly to match the flow of Venusian winds 

for part of the spacecraft’s orbit.) The new orbit had 

one drawback—it meant that Akatsuki would be in 

Venus’ shadow for part of each day, longer than the 

90-minute limit set for the spacecraft. Remarkably, 

despite the stress from overheating, three of the five 

cameras on Akatsuki remained in perfect condition 

and sent back impressive imagery of the planet. On 

26 March 2015, the vehicle lowered the high point 

of its orbit to about 330,000 kilometers, shortening 
2010 271

its orbital period to about nine days. After several months of checkout, on 28  April 2016, the 

spacecraft finally began its standard science mission. In March 2017, JAXA announced that two 

of the cameras, the 1-μm and 2-μm cameras) on 

Akatsuki had “pause[d] scientific observations” as 

of 9 December 2016 due to an electrical problem. 

Perhaps the most significant discovery of Akatsuki 

was the detection, in December 2015, of a bowshaped feature in the Venusian atmosphere stretching about 9,600 kilometers from almost pole to 

pole, a feature which some have called a “sideways 

smile.” In a paper published in January 2017 in 

Nature Geoscience, scientists suggested the “smile” 

was the result of a gravity wave, a kind of disturbance in Venusian winds that propagates upwards 

as a result of the topography on the surface. In 

September 2017, Japanese scientists announced, 

based on Akatsuki data, the discovery of an equatorial jet in the Venusian atmosphere. Like a number 

of other deep space vehicles, Akatsuki carried the 

names of people (260,214 names) printed in fine 

letters on an aluminum plate.

224

Shin’en

Nation: Japan (8)

Objective(s): Venus flyby

Spacecraft: UNITEC 1

Spacecraft Mass: 20 kg

Mission Design and Management: UNISEC

Launch Vehicle: H-IIA 202 (no. 17)

Launch Date and Time: 20 May 2010 / 21:58:22 UT

Launch Site: Tanegashima / Area Y1

Scientific Instruments:

1. radiation counter

2. camera

Results: The UNISEC Technology Experiment 

Carrier 1 (UNITEC 1) was a Japanese student-built 

spacecraft designed for a flyby of Venus to study 

the effects of deep space travel on computers. 

Intended to be the first student spacecraft to operate beyond geocentric orbit, it was built and operated by UNISEC (University Space Engineering 

Consortium), a collaborative program involving 20 

Japanese universities developing nano-satellites. 

Known as Shin’en (“abyss”) after launch, the satellite carried six computers, a camera, a radiation 

counter, a low-power communications system, and 

solar cells for power. The launch and transplanetary injection occurred without incident (see Venus 

Climate Orbiter). Shin’en was the last spacecraft 

to separate from the multi-satellite stack and enter 

heliocentric orbit. The plan was for it to fly past 

Venus in December 2010. Although signals from 

the spacecraft were received on the first day after 

launch, there was no further communication 

after 15:43 UT on 21 May 2010 when Shin’en 

was 320,000 kilometers from Earth. A beacon 

was tracked until 31 May when it also stopped. 

The inert spacecraft flew past Venus sometime in 

December 2010.

225

IKAROS

Nation: Japan (9)

Objective(s): Venus flyby

Spacecraft: IKAROS

Spacecraft Mass: 310 kg

Mission Design and Management: JAXA

Launch Vehicle: H-IIA 202 (no. 17)

Launch Date and Time: 20 May 2010 / 21:58:22 UT

Launch Site: Tanegashima / Area Y1

Scientific Instruments:

1. instrument to measure variation in dust 

density (ALADDIN)

2. gamma-ray burst polarimeter (GAP)

Results: One of the most unique and innovative 

missions in the history of deep space exploration, 

IKAROS (Interplanetary Kite-craft Accelerated by 

Radiation of the Sun) was the world’s first spacecraft to use solar sailing as the main propulsion. 
272 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

The mission was designed to demonstrate the 

deployment of a large (20 m diameter), squareshaped, and thin (7.5 micron) solar sail membrane, 

which had integrated into it thin-film solar cells to 

generate power for the main payload. It had instruments to measure the acceleration generated by 

radiation pressure. While radiation pressure constituted the main form of propulsion, the spacecraft 

used variable reflectance LCD panels (80 of them) 

for smaller attitude control movements. The sail also 

carried the ALLADIN (Arrayed Large-Area Dust 

Detectors in Interplanetary Space) instrument, 

which was a network of eight “channels” or separate 

(polyvinylidene difluoride) PVDF sensors attached 

to the sail. Collectively they had a detection area 

of 0.54 m2, making it, according to JAXA, “the 

world’s largest dust detector” ever sent into space. 

ALLADIN’s goal was to count and time hypervelocity impacts by micrometeoroids larger than 

a micron in size during its 6-month voyage to the 

vicinity of Venus. Launched along with the Venus 

Climate Orbiter, IKAROS was sent on a trajectory 

to Venus with its co-payloads, VCO and Shin’en. 

After separation from the launch vehicle, IKAROS, 

shaped like a drum, was spun up to 5 rpms, then 

spun down to 2 rpm to deploy four “tip mass” 

objects that uncoiled from the drum. At this point, 

on 3 June 2010, the “quasi-static” stage of the sail 

deployment began. The spacecraft spun up to 25 

rpm and the membrane gradually unfurled through 

centrifugal force, slowing the central drum down to 

about 5–6 rpm once the four booms had reached to 

15-meter-diameter lengths by 8 June. The second 

stage, the “dynamic” phase of the deployment began 

at that point when a stopper was dislodged at the 

center, releasing in 5 seconds the entire membrane 

(which after deployment, took about 100 seconds to 

stop vibrating). By 10 June, the full membrane was 

deployed with the spacecraft spinning at 1–2 rpms. 

At this point, IKAROS was 7.7 million kilometers 

from Earth and actively generating power from its 

thin-film solar cells. Two small separation cameras 

(DCAM2 and DCAM1) were deployed on 15 and 

19 June, respectively, to take pictures of the solar 

sail. On 9 July, JAXA announced that IKAROS was, 

indeed, being accelerated by the solar sail (at a value 

0.114 grams). On 13 July, the spacecraft successfully implemented attitude control using the LCDs 

on its solar panel, another first in the history of space 

exploration. IKAROS flew by Venus on 8 December 

2010 at a range of 80,800 kilometers, essentially 

completing its originally planned mission, which 

JAXA extended into the indefinite future. Slowly, 

attitude control degraded on IKAROS, making 

it more difficult to communicate with. In March 

2013, the IKAROS project team was disbanded but 

the project was reactivated three months later, on 

20 June 2013 and telemetry was received from that 

point until 12 September 2013. There was intermittent detection of transmissions in 2014, punctuated 

by long periods of hibernation. In mid-March 2015, 

IKAROS appeared to wake up from hibernation. 

On 23 April 2015, ground controllers found the 

spacecraft about 120 million kilometers from Earth. 

However, after last data reception on 21 May 2015, 

IKAROS entered hibernation mode again, for the 

fifth time, when the spacecraft was about 110 million kilometers from Earth.

226

Chang’e 2

Nation: China (2)

Objective(s): lunar orbit, Sun–Earth L2, asteroid 

flyby

Spacecraft: Chang’e erhao

Spacecraft Mass: 2,480 kg

Mission Design and Management: CNSA

Launch Vehicle: Chang Zheng 3C

Launch Date and Time: 1 October 2010 / 10:59:57 UT

Launch Site: Xichang / LC2

Scientific Instruments:

1. CCD camera (TDI)

2. descent camera

3. directional antenna surveillance camera

4. solar wing surveillance camera
2010 273

5. engine surveillance camera

6. gamma-ray spectrometer

7. x-ray spectrometer

8. laser altimeter

Results: The original mission of Chang’e 2 (or CE-2) 

was as backup to Chang’e 1 (CE-1), to basically 

repeat that mission with an improved suite of 

instruments. After Chang’e 1’s highly successful 

mission, additional tasks were attached to CE-2, 

such that this mission essentially became a pathfinder mission to Chang’e 3 (CE-3), a landing 

mission. Unlike CE-1, CE-2 was launched on a 

more ambitious direct translunar trajectory (at 

212 × 356,996 kilometers at 28.5° inclination), 

which required the more powerful Chang Zheng 

3C launch vehicle. A midcourse correction on 

2  October 2010 was so accurate that further 

adjustments were unnecessary on the way to the 

Moon. The spacecraft successfully entered lunar 

orbit after 4 days and 16 hours of flight (as opposed 

to 12 days for CE-1) at an orbit of 120 × 80,000 

kilometers. Three adjustments followed on 7, 8, 

and 9 October that resulted in CE-2 being in its 

operational circular orbit at 100 kilometers. All of 

its instruments, activated during the coast to the 

Moon, continued operations in lunar orbit without problems. On 26 October at 13:27 UT, CE-2 

fired its four 1 kgf thrusters for over 18 minutes to 

bring down perilune to 15 kilometers so that the 

spacecraft could photograph the planned landing site of CE-3 in Sinus Iridum. It returned to 

its nominal orbit two days later after obtaining a 

large number of high resolution images of the surface, some down to 1.2 to 1.5 meters resolution. In 

February 2012, Chinese authorities released a full 

map of the Moon at 7 meters resolution, claimed 

at the time as the highest resolution map of the 

Moon. Of all recent probes to the Moon, only the 

photographs from Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter 

(LRO) had higher resolution. CE-2’s main lunar 

orbital mission concluded on 1 April 2012 but 

because the spacecraft still had a relatively large 

amount of maneuvering propellant still left, mission planners decided in early 2013 to formulate 

an extended mission, one that would culminate 

with a flight to the Sun–Earth L2 Lagrange Point. 

By 23 May 2013, CE-2 completed a second survey 

of Sinus Iridium from a low altitude and filled in 

some surface details where earlier data was of relatively low detail. On 8 June 2011, CE-2 raised its 

apolune to 3,583 kilometers. The next day, CE-2’s 

main engine (50 kgf thrust) fired for 18 minutes, 

boosting the spacecraft out of lunar orbit. Finally, 

on 25 August 2011 at 15:24 UT, the 1 kgf thrusters 

fired to place CE-2 in a 180-day period Lissajous 

orbit around L2, about 1.5 million kilometers from 

Earth. China thus became only the third country 

or entity (after the United States and ESA) to send 

a spacecraft to a Lagrange Point. There, Chang’e 2 

studied charged particles near Earth’s magnetic tail 

and observed possible x-ray and gamma-ray bursts 

from the Sun. The spacecraft departed L2 on 

15 April 2012 (although this was not announced by 

the Chinese until 14 June) and headed for a flyby 

encounter with the asteroid 4179 Toutatis, about 

7 million kilometers from Earth. On 13 December 

2012 at 08:30:09 UT, Chang’e 2 flew by Toutatis at 

a distance of just 1.9 kilometers (much better than 

the 30 kilometers hoped), making China the fourth 

nation or entity after the U.S., ESA, and Japan to 

perform an asteroid flyby. The encounter occurred 

at a relative velocity of 10.73 kilometers/second, 

giving very little time (about a minute) for useful 

imaging but some excellent pictures were returned. 

After the Toutatis encounter, CE 2 remains in heliocentric orbit, with Chinese controllers maintaining 

contact in 2014 when the probe was as far as 100 

million kilometers from Earth. On 23 October 

2016, chief scientist for China’s Lunar Exploration 

Project, Ouyang Ziyuan, announced that Chang’e 2 

had “fulfilled its mission,” that it remained in heliocentric orbit (apparently as “the smallest man-made 

asteroid in the solar system,” which was not true as 

some of NASA’s early Pioneers were smaller), and 

that the spacecraft would be returning “somewhere 

closer to the earth around 2029.” There was no 

word on whether the Chinese still maintained any 

contact with the spacecraft.

275

2011

227

Juno

Nation: USA (95)

Objective(s): Jupiter orbit

Spacecraft: Juno

Spacecraft Mass: 3,625 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Atlas V 551 (AV-029)

Launch Date and Time: 5 August 2011 / 16:25:00 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

SLC-41

Scientific Instruments:

1. gravity science system (GS)

2. microwave radiometer (MWR)

3. vector magnetometer (MAG)

4. JADE and JEDI plasma and energetic particle detectors

5. Waves radio/plasma wave sensor

6. ultraviolet imager/spectrometer (UVS)

7. infrared imager/spectrometer (JIRAM)

8. JunoCam

Results: Juno, NASA’s second New Frontiers mission (after New Horizons), was designed to study 

Jupiter from polar orbit around the gas giant. Its 

specific science goals include studying the planet’s composition, gravity field, magnetic field, and 

polar magnetosphere, as well investigating the 

nature of the planet’s core, the amount of water in 

its atmosphere, mass distribution, and the winds 

in its clouds. Juno is the first mission to Jupiter 

not to use radioisotope thermoelectric generators 

(RTGs) for power and relies on three giant solar 

arrays symmetrically arranged around the spacecraft that provide 450 watts of power in orbit 

around Jupiter. At launch, the optimal mission was 

planned to last about 14 Earth months in Jovian 

orbit. Juno entered parking orbit around Earth (at 

194 × 226 kilometers at 28.8° inclination) and 

then a hyperbolic escape orbit less than 45 minutes after launch. As it headed outwards toward 

the asteroid belt, on 1 February 2012, Juno carried 

out its first mid-course correction, a firing lasting 25 minutes. Further course corrections were 

implemented on 30 August and 14 September 

2012. The spacecraft passed the halfway point 

to Jupiter at 12:25 UT on 12 August 2013. Juno 

returned to the vicinity of Earth, using a gravity assist maneuver to pick up more speed, on 

8 October 2013. Several of its instruments were 

activated as preliminary tests to see if they were 

in working condition. Twice after the flyby, Juno 

entered “safe mode” and shut down all inessential 

systems but ground controllers were quickly able 

to return the spacecraft to normal operating mode. 

On 13 January 2016, Juno broke the record for the 

furthest distance from the sun—793 million kilometers—where a spacecraft has been powered by 

solar power. The record had previously been held 

by ESA’s Rosetta space probe and set in October 

2012. After a mid-course correction on 3 February, 

on 27 May, Juno crossed from the primary gravitational influence of the Sun to that of Jupiter. 

A month later, on 30 June, Juno entered Jupiter’s 

magnetosphere. Finally, after an almost five-year 

trip, Juno fired its Leros-1b engine for 35 minutes and 1 second (from 03:18 to 03:53 UT Earth 

receive time) and entered an elliptical and polar 

orbit—known as a “capture orbit”—around Jupiter 

of 8.1 million × 4,200 kilometers with an orbital 

period of 53.5 days. Five of its scientific instruments were powered up on 6 July with the rest 

activated by the end of the month. According to 

the original plan, Juno’s dedicated science mission 
276 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

was designed to begin only after two complete capture orbits, nearly two months after orbital insertion, and after a minor orbital correction on 13 July. 

In its first capture orbit, Juno made its first pass 

through perijove (lowest point) on 27 August when 

it approached the gas giant at a range of only 4,200 

kilometers at 13:44 UT. This would be the closest 

the spacecraft would get to the planet during its 

primary mission, and it was the first time that its 

entire suite of scientific instruments was activated 

to study the planet as it flew by at a velocity of 

208,000 kilometers/hour. Just prior to the perijove 

flyby on 19 October, at about 06:47 UT, Juno suddenly entered “safe mode” when a software performance monitor caused a reboot of the spacecraft’s 

main computer. The switch to safe mode necessitated a postponement of exit from capture orbit to 

a new orbit with a period of 14 days; the burn was 

postponed to allow engineers to verify the performance of two helium check valves in the spacecraft’s fuel pressurization system (associated with 

its main engine). On 24 October, the spacecraft 

exited safe mode and carried out a 31-minute burn 

using its smaller thrusters to slightly adjust its 

orbit. Juno successfully carried out its third flyby 

of Jupiter on 11 December at 17:04 UT, at a range 

of 4,150 kilometers, this time focusing on investigations on Jupiter’s interior structure via its gravity 

field. (Only the JIRAM instrument was inactive 

during the flyby). During the flyby, Juno’s JunoCam 

(a visible-light camera) captured spectacular 

images of one of Jupiter’s so-called eight “string of 

pearls”—large counterclockwise rotating storms in 

the planet’s southern hemisphere. For the fourth 

close flyby of Jupiter, at 12:57 UT on 2 February, 

NASA opened up an online vote for the public to 

choose in selecting what pictures should be taken. 

Juno’s perijove for this encounter was 4,300 kilometers, while it was traveling at 57.8 kilometers/

second. About two weeks later on 17 February 

2017, NASA announced that Juno would remain 

in its 53-day capture orbit for the remainder of its 

primary mission and still be able to accomplish its 

science goals. Mission planners took this decision 

This stunning view of Jupiter was acquired by NASA’s 

Juno spacecraft on 19 May 2017 using its JunoCam from 

an altitude of 12,857 kilometers. Although the small bright 

clouds that dot the entire south tropical zone appear tiny, 

they are actually towers approximately 50 kilometers 

wide and 50 kilometers high that cast shadows below. 

Credit: NASA/SWRI/MSSS/Gerald Eichstadt/Sean Doran
2011 277

to avoid firing Juno’s main engine due to concerns 

about the valves on the engine that did not operate 

as expected the previous October. There was concern that firing the engine would put the vehicle 

in a “less-than-desirable” orbit. In its capture orbit, 

scientists believe that Juno can still complete its 

primary science mission in 12 orbits, performed 

through 2018. If the spacecraft is operational 

at that time, there will remain the option of an 

extended mission. The orbiter performed its fifth 

close pass of Jupiter on 18 May 2017, swooping 

down to about 3,500 kilometers above the planet’s clouds. All science instruments operated as 

planned. An even more spectacular flyby, its sixth, 

occurred on 10 July, when Juno flew over the Great 

Red Spot at an altitude of 9,000 kilometers, just 

11 minutes and 33 seconds after reaching perijove 

(at 3,500 kilometers). The spacecraft remained in 

fine operation in the same orbit through its seventh 

(on 1 September) and eighth (on 24 October) pass 

to perijove. As part of an educational program with 

the LEGO group, Juno carries three aluminum figurines into outer space, each about 3.8 cm large, 

that of Galileo Galilei, the Roman god Jupiter, and 

his wife Juno. There is also a plaque, provided by 

the Italian Space Agency, dedicated to Galileo 

and including a facsimile of handwritten text by 

him. In June 2016, musicians Trent Reznor (of 

Nine Inch Nails) and Atticus Ross shared a nearly 

9-minute piece of music to celebrate the Juno mission. The track originally scored NASA’s short film 

about Juno entitled “Visions of Harmony.”

228

Ebb and Flow

Nation: USA (96)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: GRAIL-A / GRAIL-B

Spacecraft Mass: 202.4 kg (each)

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Delta 7920H (no. D356)

Launch Date and Time: 10 September 2011 / 13:08:52 

UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

SLC-17B

Scientific Instruments:

1. lunar gravity ranging system (LGRS)

2. MoonKAM (Moon Knowledge Acquired 

by Middle school student) lunar-imaging 

system

3. radio science beacon (RSB)

Results: Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory 

(GRAIL), the eleventh of NASA’s Discovery Program, was a dual-spacecraft mission that involved 

placing two identical spacecraft in orbit around 

the Moon to use high-quality gravitational field 

mapping to determine its internal structure. As 

the two spacecraft flew over areas of greater and 

greater gravity, the probes moved slightly toward 

and away from each other, while an instrument 

measured changes in their relative velocity, providing key information on the Moon’s gravitational 

field. The nominal mission was planned to be 

three months. (The process used was very similar 

to the one employed by NASA’s Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment or GRACE since 

2001, which used a similar instrument to GRAIL’s 

LGRS). The spacecraft itself is a design evolution of the U.S. Air Force’s Experimental Satellite 

System-11 (XSS-11) launched in 2005 while the 

avionics were derived from NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO). The names “Ebb” and 

“Flow” were given to GRAIL-A and GRAIL-B, 

respectively after a national contest (won by the 

fourth grade students at Emily Dickinson Elementary School in Bozeman, Montana). GRAIL made 

use of a low-energy translunar cruise that involved 

passing near the Sun–Earth L1 Lagrange Point 

and then heading for a rendezvous with the Moon. 

The two spacecraft arrived in lunar orbit about 

25 hours apart, on 31 December 2011 (Ebb) and 

2 January 2012 (Flow). The primary science phase 

of the two lunar satellites extended from 7 March 

to 29 May 2012. A second science phase, as part 

of the extended mission, was initiated on 8 August 
278 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

2012. Both spacecraft were then decommissioned 

and powered down in anticipation of deliberate 

impact onto the lunar surface which occurred on 

17 December 2012. Both Ebb and Flow impacted 

at 75.62° N / 26.63° W, crashing into the ground at 

1.68 kilometers/second. The outcome of the mission was a gravitational map of the Moon unprecedented in its detail. In addition, the MoonKAM 

(Moon Knowledge Acquired by Middle school students), a digital video imaging system, was used as 

part of the education and public outreach activities of GRAIL. Each MoonKAM consisted of a 

digital video controller and four camera heads, one 

pointed slightly forward, two pointed below, and 

one pointed slightly backward. During the Ebb and 

Flow missions, MoonKam was operated by undergraduate students at the University of California–

San Diego under the supervision of faculty, as well 

as Sally Ride Science, the foundation organized 

by America’s first woman astronaut, Sally K. Ride 

(1951–2012) to encourage young people to enter 

careers in science, technology, engineering, and 

mathematics.

229

Fobos-Grunt

Nation: Russia (107)

Objective(s): Mars orbit, Phobos flyby, landing, soil 

sample return

Spacecraft: Fobos-Grunt

Spacecraft Mass: 13,505 kg (including 115 kg for 

Yinghuo-1)

Mission Design and Management: NPO imeni 

Lavochkina / IKI RAN

Launch Vehicle: Zenit-2SB41.1

Launch Date and Time: 8 November 2011 / 20:16:03 UT

Launch Site: Baikonur Cosmodrome / Site 45/1

Scientific Instruments:

1. gas chromatograph package (TDA analyzer 

+ KhMS-1F chromatograph + MAL-1F 

mass spectrometer)

2. gamma-ray spectrometer (FOGS)

3. neutron spectrometer (KhEND)

4. Mössbauer spectrometer (MIMOS)

5. laser mass spectrometer (LAZMA)

6. mass spectrometer for secondary ions 

(MANAGA)

7. Fourier spectrometer (AOST)

8. gravimeter (GRAS-1)

9. seismometer (SEYSMO)

10. thermo-detector (TERMOFOB)

11. long-wave radar (DPR)

12. micrometeoroid detector (METEOR)

13. plasma complex (FPMS)

14. ultra-stable oscillator (USO)

15. optical sun star sensor (LIBRATSIYA)

16. microscope (MikroOmega)

17. dosimeter (LYULIN)

18. TV system (TSNN)

19. stereo and panoramic TV cameras

Results: Fobos-Grunt was a highly ambitious mission to the Martian system that had the goal of 

returning a sample (about 200 g) from Phobos. It 

was also the first Russian deep space/interplanetary mission since the failed mission of Mars 

8 in 1996, 15 years earlier. Besides the main 

Russian spacecraft (which included significant 

scientific contributions from ESA and several 

European countries), Fobos-Grunt also carried a 

small passenger payload, the Chinese Yinghuo-1 

Mars orbiter. The scientific goals of the mission 

included studying the physical and chemical 

characteristics of Phobos soil, the environment 

around Phobos, the seasonal and climatic variations of the Martian atmosphere and surface, and 

testing out several new technologies. The spacecraft was divided into three parts: a Flight Stage 

(PM), a Return Vehicle (VA)—which included a 

Reentry Vehicle (SA)—and the Main Propulsion 

Unit (MDU). After a voyage lasting about 10 

months, Fobos-Grunt would have entered a highly 

elliptical Martian orbit with an 80,000-kilometer 

apogee, sometime in August/September 2012. At 

this point, the MDU would have separated from 

the main spacecraft, along with the truss structure 
2011 279

and the Chinese payload. These three objects 

would have remained in a 900 × 77,000 equatorial 

kilometer orbit while the main Fobos-Grunt spacecraft (with the Flight Stage and Return Vehicle) 

would have made two major burns to move into 

a 9,900-kilometer circular orbit. Following several more months in Mars orbit, the probe would 

have rendezvoused with Phobos, and then after 

a few more months, landed on its surface sometime in January 2013. A robotic arm would have 

performed 15–20 scoops totaling about 85–156 

grams of soil, which would have been loaded into 

the Reentry Vehicle. The 287-kilogram Return 

Vehicle would then have taken off in April 2013 

and headed back to Earth while the lander would 

have continued its surface experiment program 

for about a year. On approach to Earth in August 

2014, the Return Vehicle would have released the 

7-kilogram Reentry Vehicle, which would have 

reentered Earth’s atmosphere, performing a hard 

landing (without a parachute) in the Sary Shagan 

test range in Kazakhstan. None of this happened. 

Within 2.5 hours after launch, at 22:55:48 UT, the 

MDU propulsion stage (derived from Fregat) was 

supposed to fire to insert the payload into an elliptical orbit. A subsequent burn would then send 

the probe towards Mars. At the time that the first 

burn would have finished, ground tracking stations 

were, however, unable to find Fobos-Grunt. Later, 

at 20:25 UT on 22 November, a tracking station 

belonging to ESA received a signal from the probe 

(after a command had been sent to turn on one 

of the transmitters on the spacecraft). After a further brief communications session (with ESA) 

the next day and one with Russian stations on 

24 November, no further contact was established 

with Fobos-Grunt. ESA gave up attempts to contact the probe on 2 December. American space 

assets tracked the probe in a 209 × 305-kilometer 

orbit in early December. The spacecraft and upper 

stage combination made an uncontrolled reentry 

on 15 January 2012, with wreckage apparently 

falling into the Pacific or parts of South America. 

An investigation later showed the probable cause 

of failure was a programming error that caused 

the simultaneous reboot of two channels of the 

onboard computer (TsVM22). The MDU never 

actually fired.

A simplified illustration of the Russian Fobos-Grunt lander package. The half-spherical object at the top was the descent 

capsule that would carry samples from the Martian moon Phobos back to Earth. Credit: ESA/Lavochkin Association
280 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

230

Yinghuo-1

Nation: China (3)

Objective(s): Mars orbit

Spacecraft: Yinghuo-1

Spacecraft Mass: 113 kg

Mission Design and Management: CNSA

Launch Vehicle: Zenit-2SB41.1

Launch Date and Time: 8 November 2011 / 20:16:03 UT

Launch Site: Baikonur Cosmodrome / Site 45/1

Scientific Instruments:

1. plasma package (including electron analyzer, ion analyzer, mass spectrometer)

2. fluxgate magnetometer

3. radio-occultation sounder

4. optical imaging system (2 cameras)

Results: This was a passenger payload on board 

the Russian Fobos-Grunt spacecraft, and a first 

attempt by the Chinese to test out an initial mission in Mars orbit. Nominal orbital parameters 

were planned to be highly elliptical—the low point 

would vary from 400 to 1,000 kilometers, while the 

high point would stretch out to 74,000 to 80,000 

kilometers. This would be an equatorial orbit (5° 

inclination) with an orbital period of 72.8 hours. 

The spacecraft had a design lifetime of about one 

year that it would use to study the surface, atmosphere, ionosphere, and magnetic field of Mars. 

The payload was carried on a Russian spacecraft 

as a result of an agreement signed by the Chinese 

and the Russians in March 2007. The plan was for 

Yinghuo-1 to be released from Fobos-Grunt once 

the latter entered Martian orbit. As described in 

the entry for Fobos-Grunt, although launched 

successfully, the Russian Martian probe never 

left Earth orbit. As such, there was no way for the 

Chinese to test the spacecraft in Mars orbit. Both 

Fobos-Grunt and Yinghuo-1 reentered Earth’s 

atmosphere on 15 January 2012.

231 

Curiosity

Nation: USA (97)

Objective(s): Mars landing and rover

Spacecraft: MSL

Spacecraft Mass: 3,893 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / JPL

Launch Vehicle: Atlas V 541 (AV-028 + Centaur)

Launch Date and Time: 26 November 2011 / 15:02:00 

UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

SLC-41

Scientific Instruments:

1. mast camera (Mastcam)

2. Mars hand lens imager (MAHLI)

3. Mars descent imager (MARDI)

4. alpha x-ray spectrometer (APXS)

5. chemistry and camera (ChemCam)

6. chemistry and mineralogy x-ray diffraction/x-ray fluorescence instrument 

(CheMin)

7. sample analysis at Mars instrument suite 

(SAM)

8. radiation assessment detector (RAD)

9. dynamic albedo of neutrons (DAN)

10. rover environment monitoring station 

(REMS)

11. Mars science laboratory entry descent and 

landing instrument (MEDLI)

Results: The Mars Science Laboratory (MSL), part 

of NASA’s Mars Exploration Program, consists of a 

large (899 kilogram) rover called Curiosity and a 

“sky crane” descent stage to bring the rover down to 

the Martian surface. Both were fixed inside an 

aeroshell for entry into the Martian atmosphere. 

The principal goal of the mission is to assess 

whether Mars ever had an environment hospitable 

for lifeforms such as microbes. To do this, Curiosity 

carries the most advanced complement of instruments ever sent to the surface of Mars. The rover is 

designed to scoop up soil and rocks and investigate 
2011 281

their formation, structure, 

and chemical composition 

in order to look for the 

chemical building blocks 

of life (carbon, hydrogen, 

nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur). Curiosity 

is able to travel up to 90 

meters per hour on its sixwheeled rocker-bogie 

system, and is powered by 

a radioisotope power 

system to generate power 

from the heat of plutonium’s radioactive decay, 

which ensured an operating lifetime of at least a full 

Martian year (687 Earth 

days). Curiosity operations 

depend heavily on the 

orbital communications 

capabilities of 2001 Mars 

Odyssey and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. The 

robot was named 

“Curiosity” after a nationwide student contest involving more than 9,000 

entries. The winning entry was submitted by Clara 

Ma, a sixth-grade student from Sunflower Elementary School in Lenexa, Kansas. Curiosity’s expense, 

estimated at more than $1 billion, as well as the 

two-year delay in its launch, led to the institution 

of stronger requirements to maintain baseline cost 

and baseline schedules for future missions. After 

launch by an Atlas V 541 (powered by a Russian 

RD-180 engine), MSL was delivered into a 165 × 

324-kilometer orbit around Earth at 35.5° inclination. At 15:33 UT, the Centaur upper stage fired to 

send the payload—the cruise stage and MSL—on 

a trajectory to Mars. MSL used a unique entry, 

descent, and landing (EDL) profile, designed to 

accommodate for the fact that the Martian atmosphere is too thin for regular parachutes and standard aerobraking but too thick for deceleration 

with rockets. MSL’s relatively heavy weight—

much heavier than anything ever landed on 

Mars—presented engineers with some serious 

challenges. The EDL used by MSL was entirely 

autonomous without ground intervention and 

involved four separate stages: guided entry, parachute descent, powered descent, and sky crane 

landing, all of which took a total of only 7 minutes 

on 6 August 2012. The guided entry within the 

aeroshell was helped by small attitude control jets 

that narrowed the landing ellipse for MSL to a 20 

× 7-kilometer area. Having slowed down to Mach 

1.7, a supersonic parachute deployed (similar to 

those on Viking, Mars Pathfinder, and MER). The 

heat shield (from the aeroshell) was then discarded, and at about 1.8 kilometers altitude, with 

velocity down to 100 meters/second, the actual 

descent stage with Curiosity underneath it was 

This image was taken by NASA’s Curiosity rover on the surface of Mars on 30 October 

2016. Taken by the Mast Camera (Mastcam), the photo shows a smooth-surfaced 

object about the size of a golf ball which was informally named “Egg Rock.” The grid 

of shiny points visible in the object resulted from laser pulses produced by Curiosity’s 

Chemistry and Camera (ChemCam) instrument. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS
282 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

released from the aeroshell, and eight variable 

thrust monopropellant hydrazine thrusters fired to 

slow the payload down further until Curiosity was 

slowly lowered from the descent stage with a 7.6-

meter tether known as the sky crane system. The 

rover was then gently brought down to the surface 

at 05:17 UT on 6 August 2012. Just 2 seconds after 

the rover touched down, the sky crane/descent 

stage was freed and flew away and crashed about 

650 meters away. Curiosity landed at Gale Crater, 

a 154-kilometer diameter impact crater estimated 

to be 3.5–3.8 billion years old. The precise landing 

coordinates are 4.5895° S / 137.4417° E. NASA 

named the landing site Bradbury Landing site after 

Ray Bradbury (1920–2012), author of The Martian 

Chronicles. On 15 August, Curiosity began initial 

instrument and mobility checks (including a test of 

the laser on a rock using the ChemCam instrument 

on 19 August). The rover began its first drive on 

29 August, slowly taking about two months to cross 

about 400 meters east to a location named Glenelg. 

During the fall of 2012, Curiosity identified several 

interesting rocks that it investigated using both the 

MAHLI and APXS instruments. An area called 

“Rocknest” was also identified as an area to test out 

the scoop on the rover’s remote arm. On 27 

September 2012, NASA announced that Curiosity 

had found hints of an ancient streambed, indicating that there might have been a “vigorous flow” of 

water on Mars. On 27 October 2012, Curiosity 

conducted its first x-ray diffraction analysis of 

Martian soil, and on 3 December, NASA announced 

the results of Curiosity’s first extensive soil analysis, which had revealed the presence of water molecules, sulfur, and chlorine. The small amounts of 

carbon detected could not be properly sourced and 

might have been from instrument contamination. 

More conclusively, in March 2013, NASA 

announced the data from the rover (based on an 

investigation of the so-called “John Klein” rock) 

This low-angle self-portrait of NASA’s Curiosity rover shows the vehicle at the site from which it reached down to drill 

into a rock target called “Buckskin.” Bright powder resulting from that drill, carried out on 30 July 2015, can be seen in 

the foreground. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS
2011 283

suggested that Gale Crater was once suitable for 

microbial life. The result of further analysis showed 

the existence of water, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide. In terms of rover operations, on 28  February 2013, the rover’s active 

computer’s flash memory developed a problem that 

made the computer reboot in a loop. As a result, 

controllers switched to the backup computer that 

became operational on 19 March. After drilling a 

rock in February, Curiosity drilled its second rock 

(“Cumberland”) on 19 May 2013, generating a hole 

about 6.6 centimeters deep and delivering the 

material to its laboratory instruments. In early July 

2013, Curiosity exited the Glenelg area and began 

a long trek to the mission’s main destination, 

Mount Sharp. A long drive on 17 July of 38 meters 

meant that Curiosity had now traveled a total distance of 1 kilometer since it landed. As Curiosity 

continued toward Mount Sharp, NASA announced 

further findings. On 19 September 2013, scientists 

revealed that data from Curiosity of samples of the 

atmosphere taken six times from October to June 

2012, confirmed that the Martian environment 

lacks methane, suggesting that there is little chance 

that there might be methanogenic microbial activity on Mars at this time. At the end of the year, on 

7 November, the rover abruptly reverted to “safe 

mode” (apparently due to a software error) but controllers revived the vehicle within three days to 

resume nominal surface operations. Later, on 

17 November, there was a spurious voltage problem that suspended work for a few days. By 

5  December, the rover’s ChemCam laser instrument had been used for more than 100,000 shots 

fired at more than 420 different rock or soil targets. 

Through the next few months, Curiosity returned 

many spectacular images (including of Earth in the 

Martian night sky). One image returned in April 

2014 showed both Ceres and Vesta. In May 2014, 

Curiosity drilled into a sandstone slab rock 

(“Windjana”), the third time on its traverse, this 

time at a waypoint along the route towards the mission’s long-term destination on the lower slopes of 

Mount Sharp. Curiosity passed its two-year mark 

on Mars on 5  August 2014, having already far 

exceeded its original objectives. In August 2014, 

Curiosity was about to make its fourth drilling 

experiment but mission planners decided not to at 

the last minute as it was thought that the rock 

(“Bonanza King”) was not stable enough. Finally, on 

11 September 2014, Curiosity arrived at the slopes 

of Mount Sharp (or Aeolis Mons), now 6.9 kilometers away from its landing point. In less than two 

weeks, on 24 September 2014, the rover’s hammering drill was used to drill about 6.7 centimeters into 

a basal-layer outcrop on Mount Sharp and collected 

the first powdered rock sample from its ultimate 

target. Perhaps the most striking announcement of 

the mission was made on 16 December 2014, when 

NASA scientists announced that Curiosity had 

definitively identified the first instance of organic 

molecules on Mars. These were found in a drilled 

sample of the Sheepbed mudstone in Gale Crater. 

While these could be from organisms, it is more 

This plaque on board Curiosity bears the signatures of several U.S. officials including that of then-President Barack 

Obama and Vice-President Joe Biden. The image was taken by the rover’s Mars Hand Lens Imager (MAHLI) on 19 

September 2012, the rover’s 44th Martian day on the Red 

Planet. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS
284 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

likely that the substance is from dust and meteorites that have landed on the planet. At the same 

time, new data showed that there was a recent tenfold spike and then decrease in the abundance of 

methane—still very tiny—in the Martian atmosphere. Curiosity was visible in a photograph taken 

on 13 December 2014 by the HiRISE camera on 

board Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO); the 

image clearly showed the rover as it was examining 

part of the basal layer of Mount Sharp inside Gale 

Crater. A later image, from 8 April 2015, also 

showed Curiosity very clearly on the lower slope of 

Mount Sharp. In late January 2015, Curiosity used 

a new, low-percussion-level drilling technique to 

collect sample powder from a rock target called 

Mojave 2. Preliminary results (based on analysis by 

the CheMin instrument) suggested more acidic 

qualities in the form of jarosite, than previous 

drilled samples. On 24 February, Curiosity used its 

drill for the sixth time, this time to collect sample 

powder from inside a rock known as Telegraph 

Peak that was resting on the upper portion of 

Pahrump Hills (also the site for the two previous 

drilling experiments). Three days later, Curiosity 

experienced a so-called “fault-protection action” 

that stopped the robot from transferring sample 

material between devices because of an “irregularity” in the electric current. After a series of tests 

running through early March, mission planners 

finally directed the robotic arm to resume its work 

on 11 March and have it deliver the sample to the 

CheMin analytic instrument. Later in March, scientists published results (in the Proceedings of the 

National Academy of Science) from the SAM instrument suite that indicated for the first time the existence of nitrogen on the surface of Mars released 

during the heating of Martian sediments. The 

nitrogen, which NASA called “biologically useful” 

was in the form of nitric oxide, perhaps released 

from the breakdown of nitrates. The discovery 

added more weight to the argument that ancient 

Mars might have been “habitable for life.” On 

16 April, Curiosity passed the 10-kilometer mark 

on its travels as it moved through a series of shallow 

valleys between Pahrump Hills and Logan Pass, its 

next science destination. Curiosity resumed full 

operations after a period of limited activity for most 

of June when Mars passed nearly behind the Sun 

(relative to Earth). In late July, the rover found 

unusual bedrock in a target named Elk, one with 

unexpectedly high level of silica, which suggests 

conditions suitable for preserving ancient organic 

material. On 12 August 2015, Curiosity finally finished its work at Marias Pass, where it had been 

since May, and where it had drilled a rock target 

named Buckskin and found rocks with high silica 

and hydrogen content. It then headed upward and 

Visible at the bottom (the thick vertical rod) is the Rover 

Environmental Monitoring Station (REMS) built by the 

Centro de Astrobiologia (CAB) in Madrid, Spain. The pencil-like instrument sticking out to the left is Boom 1 which 

houses a suite of infrared sensors to measure the intensity of infrared radiation emitted by the ground. The large 

structure at the top includes the Mastcam (Mast Camera) 

and the white rectangular-shaped ChemCam (Chemistry & 

Camera) instruments. Credit: NASA/JPL/MSSS/Ed Truthan
2011 285

southwest up Mount Sharp. Much later, in June 

2016, scientists published results from an investigation of Buckskin noting that the silica mineral in 

question was tridymite, a material generally linked 

to silicic volcanism. Continuing its studies at 

Mount Sharp, on 29 September 2015 Curiosity 

drilled its eighth hole (and fifth at Mount Sharp), 

one that was 65-mm deep in a rock known as Big 

Sky as part of an experiment to analyze Martian 

rocks in both the CheMin and SAM instrument 

suites. New results from Curiosity, published in 

October 2015, confirmed that billions of years ago 

there were definitely water lakes on Mars. Scientists determined that water helped deposit sediment into Gale Crater, and the sediment was 

deposited as layers that formed the foundation for 

Mount Sharp, the mountain in the middle of Gale. 

At the end of the year, in December 2015, Curiosity 

began close examination (and returned spectacular 

images) of dark sand dunes up to two stories tall, 

located at Bagnold Dunes, a band along the northwestern side of Mount Sharp. Through the subsequent few weeks, the rover took several samples 

from the Samib Dune, that were sorted by grain 

size for closer studies. Moving on from the dunes 

in early March, Curiosity climbed onto the 

Naukluft Plateau on the lower side of Mount 

Sharp, ending up in a stretch of extremely rugged 

and difficult-to-navigate terrain, whose bedrock 

was shaped by long periods of wind erosion into 

ridges and knobs. Here, the rover continued to take 

drill samples (its 10th and 11th). On 2 July 2016, 

Curiosity suddenly entered into safe standby mode, 

but controllers were able to return it to normal 

operations a week later. The cause of the original 

switch to safe mode was a software “mismatch” in 

a particular mode, involving writing images from 

some cameras’ memories into files on the rover’s 

main computer. Among the many thousands of 

images returned by Curiosity, some of the most 

spectacular were those of the Murray Buttes region 

of lower Mount Sharp. Color images showed beautiful vistas not unlike “a bit of the American desert 

southwest,” according to Curiosity Project 

Scientist Ashwin Vasavada. Curiosity began a 

second two-year extended mission on 1 October 

2016, continuing its explorations of lower Mount 

Sharp. At that point, the rover had returned more 

than 180,000 images to Earth; NASA declared that 

the mission “has already achieved its main goal of 

determining whether the landing region ever 

offered environmental conditions that would have 

been favorable for microbial life.” Engineers put a 

halt on using the rover’s drill soon after, while 

taking what would have been the seventh drill 

sample of the year. On 1 December, the Curiosity 

team discovered that the rover had not completed 

the commands for drilling; apparently, the rover 

had detected a fault in the “drill feed mechanism” 

which was supposed to extend the drill to touch the 

rock target. This problem remained unresolved 

until May 2018 when a new method of “percussive” drilling finally opened the path to further use 

of the instrument. Despite the problem with the 

drill, Curiosity was once again investigating active 

sand dunes (the so-called Bagnold Dunes). As of 

23 February 2017, Curiosity had driven 15.63 kilometers since landing. By this time, it was clear to 

NASA engineers that the zig zag treads on 

Curiosity’s wheels were suffering damage, jeopardizing the wheels’ ability to carry the weight of the 

rover. Damage to only three treads (or “grousers”) 

would indicate that the wheel had reached 60% of 

its lifetime. Lessons from damage to Curiosity’s 

wheels will play a major role in the design of future 

Mars rovers. In March 2017, JPL controllers 

uploaded a software for traction control that helped 

the rover adjust wheel speed depending on the 

rocks it is climbing. The traction control algorithm 

uses real-time data to vary the wheel speed, thus 

reducing pressure from the rocks. “Armed” with 

the new software, in July, Curiosity began a campaign to study a ridge on lower Mount Sharp, informally named Vera Rubin Ridge after the recently 

departed astronomer, Vera Florence Cooper Rubin 

(1928–2016). The ridge was thought to be rich in 

an iron-oxide mineral known as hematite that can 

form under wet conditions. Two months later, the 
286 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

rover began making a steep ascent toward the ridge 

top. On 17 October 2017, for the first time in 10 

months, the rover cautiously touched its sampler 

drill to a surface rock. While it was still several 

months away from resuming full-scale drilling 

operations on the Martian surface, this and subsequent tests allowed ground controllers to test techniques, including using the motion of the robotic 

arm directly to advance the extended bit into the 

rock, thus working around the mechanical problem 

that suspended drill work. NASA made some significant attempts to involve the public in the 

Curiosity mission. On the third anniversary of 

landing on Mars, in August 2015, the Agency made 

available two online tools for public engagement. 

Mars Trek was a free web-based application that 

provides high-quality visualizations of the planet 

derived from 50 years of NASA exploration of 

Mars, while Experience Curiosity was a platform to 

allow viewers to experience in 3D, movement along 

the surface of Mars based on data from both 

Curiosity and MRO. Around the time of Curiosity’s 

third anniversary on Mars, in August 2016, NASA 

also released a social media game, Mars Rover, for 

use on mobile devices where users can drive a rover 

through Martian terrain while earning points.
287

2013

232

LADEE

Nation: USA (98)

Objective(s): lunar orbit

Spacecraft: LADEE

Spacecraft Mass: 383 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / ARC / GSFC

Launch Vehicle: Minotaur V (no. 1)

Launch Date and Time: 7 September 2013 / 03:27:00 UT

Launch Site: Mid Atlantic Regional Spaceport 

(MARS) / Pad 0B

Scientific Instruments:

1. ultraviolet and visible light spectrometer 

(UVS)

2. neutral mass spectrometer (NMS)

3. lunar dust experiment (LDEX)

4. lunar laser communications demonstration 

experiment (LLCD)

Results: The Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer (LADEE), the first mission in 

the Lunar Quest series, was designed to orbit the 

Moon and study its thin atmosphere and the lunar 

dust environment, specifically to collect data on the 

global density, composition, and time variability of 

the exosphere. By studying the Moon’s exosphere—

an atmosphere that is so thin that its molecules 

do not collide with each other—LADEE’s instruments helped further the study of other planetary 

bodies with exospheres such as Mercury and some 

of Jupiter’s moons. After insertion into low parking around Earth after launch from the Wallops 

Flight Facility—the first lunar launch from that 

location—Minotaur’s fifth stage (with a Star 37FM 

solid motor) fired at 03:43 UT to boost the payload 

into a highly elliptical Earth orbit of 200 × 274,600 

kilometers at 37.7° inclination. LADEE took a path 

to lunar orbit used by several other recent lunar 

spacecraft that involved flying increasingly larger 

Earth orbits (in this case, three orbits) over a period 

of a month, with the apogee increasing until it was 

at lunar distance. On the third orbit, on 6 October, 

as LADEE approached the Moon, it fired its own 

engine and entered into an initial elliptical lunar 

orbit with a 24-hour period. On 9 and 12 October, 

further burns brought LADEE down into a 235 × 

250-kilometer orbit. These events occurred exactly 

during the period when the U.S. Government—and 

therefore NASA—shut down briefly, opening back 

up on 16 October. One of the early experiments was 

use of the LLCD system, carried out on 18 October 

2013 when the spacecraft, using the optical laser 

system, transmitted good data to a ground station 

385,000 kilometers away. Finally, on 20 November, 

LADEE successfully entered its planned equatorial 

orbit of 20 × 60 kilometers, allowing the probe to 

make frequent passes from lunar day to lunar night. 

When the Chinese Chang’e 3 lunar lander arrived 

at the Moon, LADEE (more specifically, it’s NMS 

neutral mass spectrometer) was used to observe the 

specific masses of the substances (such as water, 

nitrogen, carbon monoxide, and hydrogen) that 

would be expected to be found given the operation 

of Chang’e’s operation in near-lunar space. In the 

event, LADEE’s data found no effects—no increase 

in dust, no propulsion products, etc.—that could 

be attributed to Chang’e 3. Another experiment 

that involved another spacecraft was NASA’s Lunar 

Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) taking a photo of 

LADEE in orbit at 01:11 UT on 15 January 2014. 

Its 100-day science mission, during which LADEE 

collected an enormous amount of data, came formally to an end by early March 2014. The three science payloads worked fulltime during this period: 
288 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

the UVS instrument acquired more than 700,000 

spectra of the exosphere. The NMS instrument 

positively identified argon-40 in the atmosphere 

(first identified by an Apollo surface experiment 

40 years before). Finally, the LDEX recorded more 

than 11,000 impacts from dust particles from a dust 

cloud engulfing the Moon. In early 2014, LADEE 

began to gradually lower its orbital altitude in anticipation of its final impact on the Moon. Controllers 

lowered LADEE’s orbit to within 2 kilometers of 

the lunar surface to ensure impact. On its penultimate orbit, on 17 April, LADEE swooped down 

to as low as 300 meters of the lunar surface, and 

contact was lost at 04:30 UT on 18 April when it 

moved behind the Moon. Controllers estimated 

that the spacecraft probably struck the Moon on 

the eastern rim of Sundman V crater between 04:30 

and 05:22 UT at a speed of 5,800 kilometers/hour. 

Later, on 28  October 2014, NASA announced 

that its LRO spacecraft had successfully imaged 

the impact location of LADEE on the far side of 

the Moon.

233

Mangalyaan / Mars Orbiter 

Mission (MOM)

Nation: India (2)

Objective(s): Mars orbit

Spacecraft: Mars Orbiter Spacecraft

Spacecraft Mass: 1,337 kg

Mission Design and Management: ISRO

Launch Vehicle: PSLV-XL (no. C25)

Launch Date and Time: 5 November 2013 / 09:08 UT

Launch Site: SHAR / PSLV pad

Scientific Instruments:

1. Mars color camera (MCC)

2. thermal infrared imaging spectrometer (TIS)

3. methane sensor for Mars (MSM)

4. Mars exospheric neutral composition analyzer (MENCA)

5. Lyman alpha photometer (LAP)

Results: India’s first interplanetary spacecraft was 

designed and built in a relatively short period of 

time, with a total development time of 4 years and 

2 months, although official government approval 

came as late as August 2012. The main spacecraft bus was a modified I-1 bus used on the 

lunar Chandrayaan-1 mission. The mission was 

essentially a technology demonstrator although it 

carried a set of modest scientific instruments to 

study the surface features, morphology, mineralogy, 

and Martian atmosphere. With the mission, India 

accomplished a remarkable feat, becoming only the 

fourth nation or agency to have a spacecraft orbit 

Mars, after the former Soviet Union, the United 

States, and the European Space Agency. Japan had 

tried and failed, while a Chinese rocket had yet to 

launch a probe to Mars (although its Yinghuo-1 

orbiter launched by the Russians failed to leave 

Earth orbit due to the malfunctioning Russian 

upper stage). The name Mangalyaan was formally 

attached to the mission before launch while in the 

development period the spacecraft was known variously as the Mars Orbiter Spacecraft, the Mars 

Orbiter Satellite, or the Mars Orbiter Mission. 

Mangalyaan entered an initial orbit around Earth at 

251 × 23,892 kilometers at 19.4° inclination. The 

mission profile to Mars involved six engine burns 

(the fourth on 10  November was partially successful) over a month in progressive larger Earth 

orbits to accumulate sufficient velocity to escape 

Earth’s sphere of influence. A seventh engine 

burn lasting over 22 minutes, beginning at 19:19 

UT on 30 November, inserted Mangalyaan into 

heliocentric orbit. On the way to Mars, the spacecraft conducted three mid-course corrections (on 

11 December 2013, 11 June, and 22 September) 

before a successful burn (lasting over 23 minutes) 

of the main 44.9 kgf thrust engine put the probe 

into Mars orbit on 24 September 2014. This was 

a highly elliptical orbit at 421.7 × 76,993.6 kilometers with an orbital period of nearly 73 hours. 

Mangalyaan returned its first global image of Mars, 

a spectacular picture captured by the MCC instrument, on 28 September 2014 from an altitude of 
2013 289

74,580 kilometers with about a 4-kilometer resolution that showed various morphological features 

and thin clouds in the Martian atmosphere. The 

ground team maneuvered the spacecraft to avoid a 

possible encounter with Comet C/2013 A1 (Siding 

Spring) which passed by Mars on 19 October 2014, 

one of seven spacecraft on or around Mars that had 

to take measures to prevent damage. The comet 

passed by Mars at a range of about 132,000 kilometers shedding material around Mars, some at a 

velocity of 56 kilometers/second putting many of 

these spacecraft in danger. Mangalyaan’s instruments remained fully operational through late 2014, 

and on 1 January 2015 ISRO scientists marked 100 

days of successful operations around Mars. Mission 

planners were confident that the spacecraft would 

meet its planned lifetime of six months or 180 days 

in orbit around Mars. As with many other spacecraft in and around Mars, Mangalyaan was subjected to a communications blackout in June 2015 

when Mars’ orbit took it behind the Sun relative 

to Earth. Mangalyaan commemorated a successful operational year orbiting Mars in September 

2015 although at the time, scientific results from 

its instruments had yet to be publicly shared. The 

13 pictures released by that time were largely 

taken in September and October 2014 although, 

because of MOM’s unique orbit, they show the 

kind of wide-angle images have rarely been seen 

from Mars orbit. Finally, in March 2016, scientists 

published the first results (in Geophysical Research 

Letters) of the MENCA instrument. Further results 

from other instruments were made available in the 

fall of 2016. Newly released images included some 

of the most spectacular views from orbit showing 

many surface patterns. One note of concern was a 

possible problem with the MSM methane sensor, 

data from which has yet to be released. There were 

some reports that the sensor itself had a design flaw. 

NASA Goddard Space Flight Center scientists had 

apparently briefed ISRO personnel on the problem 

in February 2016 and suggested that the instrument instead be repurposed for albedo mapping 

and measuring reflected sunlight. On 17  January 

2017, ISRO controllers changed Mangalyaan’s 

orbit as a strategy to avoid the eclipse season when 

the spacecraft would be in Mars’ shadow for as 

much as 8 hours per day. The burn used about 

20 kilograms of propellant, leaving 13 kilograms 

remaining for further maneuvers. It is hoped that 

the spacecraft can transmit data until 2020.

234

MAVEN

Nation: USA (99)

Objective(s): Mars orbit

Spacecraft: MAVEN

Spacecraft Mass: 2,454 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / GSFC / 

University of Colorado-Boulder

Launch Vehicle: Atlas V 401 (AV-038 + Centaur)

Launch Date and Time: 18 November 2013 / 18:28:00 

UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station / 

SLC-41

Scientific Instruments:

1. P&F particle and fields package

a. solar wind electron analyzer (SWEA)

b. solar wind ion analyzer (SWIA)

c. supra thermal and thermal ion composition (STATIC)

d. solar energetic particle experiment (SEP)

e. Langmuir probe and waves experiment 

(LPW)

f. magnetometer (MAG)

2. RS remote sensing package

a. imaging ultraviolet spectrometer (IUVS)

3. NGIMS neutral gas and ion mass spectrometer package

Results: The Mars Atmosphere and Volatile 

Evolution (MAVEN) mission was selected as part 

of NASA’s now-cancelled Mars Scout Program 

to explore the atmosphere and ionosphere of the 

planet and their interaction with the Sun and solar 

wind. The goal is to use this data to determine how 
290 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

the loss of volatiles from the Martian atmosphere 

has affected the Martian climate over time, and 

thus contribute to a greater understanding of terrestrial climatology. The Mars Scout Program involved 

low cost spacecraft (less than $450 million) but 

was cancelled in 2010 after approval of MAVEN 

and the Phoenix lander. Further Mars missions 

would now be selected competitively under the 

Discovery Program. Because of a U.S. Government 

shutdown in the fall of 2013, MAVEN nearly 

didn’t get off the ground. Fortunately, MAVEN was 

defined as part of “critical infrastructure,” allowing 

the launch to proceed on time on 18 November 

2013. The payload successfully reached a 167 × 

315-kilometer parking orbit around Earth (at 26.7° 

inclination). Soon, the Centaur upper stage (with 

its RL-10A-4-2 engine), fired the spacecraft into 

a hyperbolic Earth orbit at 195 × 78,200 kilometers at 27.7° inclination. On 21 November, another 

burn inserted the spacecraft on a Trans-Mars 

trajectory, with further mid-course corrections 

on 3  December 2013 and 27 February 2014. At 

03:24 UT on 21 September 2014, MAVEN successfully entered orbit around Mars after a 10-month 

journey when its six main engines fired, two by two 

in succession, and burned for 33 minutes and 26 

seconds to slow the craft. The spacecraft entered 

a six-week commissioning phase before beginning 

science operations. The initial orbital period was 

35.02 hours. The primary mission, in an orbit with 

a period of 4.5 hours, included five “deep-dip” 

campaigns, during which MAVEN’s periapsis was 

lowered from 150 kilometers to about 125 kilometers to collect data on the boundary between 

the upper and lower atmosphere. By mid-October 

all of its scientific instruments were turned on. 

Because of the close Martian flyby (about 139,500 

kilometers) of Comet C/2013 A1 (Siding Spring) 

Engineers and technicians test deploy the two solar panels on NASA’s MAVEN spacecraft. The image was taken in the 

Payload Hazardous Servicing Facility at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center before launch in November 2013. Credit: NASA/

Kim Shiflett
2013 291

on 19 October, controllers took precautions to protect MAVEN from damage. In the event, MAVEN 

survived without any damage, and also returned 

valuable data on the comet’s effects on the Martian 

atmosphere. MAVEN began its one-year primary 

science mission on 16 November, carrying out regular observations of the Martian upper atmosphere, 

ionosphere, and solar-wind interactions with its 

nine scientific instruments. MAVEN completed 

the first of its five “deep-dip” maneuvers between 

10 and 18 February 2015. As with most of these 

dives, the first three days were used to lower the 

periapsis, with the remaining five days used for scientific investigations over roughly 20 orbits. Given 

that the planet rotates under the spacecraft, the 

20 orbits allow the opportunity to explore different 

longitudes spaced around Mars, essentially giving 

it a global reach. The following month, based on 

data collected in December 2014, mission scientists announced that they had detected two unanticipated phenomena in the Martian atmosphere, 

one involving a high-altitude dust cloud (at about 

150–300 kilometers altitude) and the other, a 

bright ultraviolet auroral glow in the northern hemisphere. Like all the other probes in orbit or on the 

surface of Mars, communications with MAVEN 

were put on hold during the Mars conjunction in 

June 2015. MAVEN commemorated a year in orbit 

in September 2015 by which time it had carried 

out four deep dive campaigns. By this time, NASA 

had approved an extended mission past November. 

In a major reveal in November 2015, scientists 

published the results (in the journals Science and 

Geophysical Research Letters) of their analysis of 

data from MAVEN, which identified the processes 

that contributed to the transition of the Martian 

climate from an early, warm, and wet environment 

that might have supported surface life to the cold 

and dry world at the present. More specifically, the 

information helped to determine the most accurate 

rate at which the Martian atmosphere was currently losing gas to space via “stripping” to the solar 

wind. In late November and early December 2015, 

MAVEN made a series of close flybys of Phobos, 

coming within 500 kilometers of its surface, and 

collecting spectral images using the IUVS instrument. On 3 October 2016, MAVEN completed an 

entire Mars year of scientific observations. The following year, on 28 February 2017, MAVEN carried 

out a small orbital maneuver, the first of its kind, 

to avoid a possible impact with Phobos. During 

MAVEN’s second Martian year in orbit, through 

2017, research was being coordinated with simultaneous atmospheric observations by ESA’s Trace 

Gas Orbiter.

235

Chang’e 3 and Yutu

Nation: China (4)

Objective(s): lunar landing and rover

Spacecraft: Chang’e sanhao

Spacecraft Mass: 3,780 kg (140 kg Yutu)

Mission Design and Management: CNSA

Launch Vehicle: CZ-3B (no. Y23)

Launch Date and Time: 1 December 2013 / 17:30 UT

Launch Site: Xichang / Launch Complex 2

Scientific Instruments:

Lander:

1. terrain camera (TCAM)

2. landing camera (LCAM)

3. Moon-based ultraviolet telescope (MUVT)

4. extreme ultraviolet camera (EUVC)

Yutu:

1. panoramic camera (PCAM)

2. lunar penetrating radar (LPR)

3. imaging spectrometer (VIS-NIR)

4. active particle induced x-ray spectrometer 

(APXS)

Results: Launched as part of the second phase of the 

Chinese Lunar Exploration Program, Chang’e 3 

was the most sophisticated robotic probe launched 

by the Chinese to date. The spacecraft included 

a four-legged soft-lander and a small rover named 

Yutu (“Jade Rabbit”) to traverse the lunar surface. 

The 765-kilogram lander was based around an 
292 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

octagon-shaped body with four legs, a throttleable 

engine at the bottom, refoldable solar panels, a 

radioisotope heater unit to generate heat, and three 

engineering monitoring cameras at the top. The 

lander’s mission lifetime was one year. Besides the 

technological objectives of the mission, the lander 

and rover also had some scientific objectives including investigating the lunar topography and geological structure of the Moon; studying the material 

composition of the lunar surface; surveying the 

space environment between the Moon, Earth, and 

Sun; and carrying out astronomical observations 

from the lunar surface. The launch was marred by 

hardware from the rocket that landed on villages 

downrange from the launch site, although no one 

was hurt. The payload was inserted directly into a 

lunar transfer orbit of 210 × 389,109 kilometers 

at 28.5° inclination. After two mid-course corrections (on 2 and 3 December), the spacecraft fired 

its engine at 09:41 UT for 6 minutes and entered a 

100-kilometer circular orbit around the Moon. On 

10 December, Chang’e 3 lowered is orbit to a 15 × 

100-kilometer orbit. When it reached perilune on 

14 December, its engine fired at 13:00 UT for a 

powered descent to the lunar surface (apparently 

one orbit earlier than planned, probably to ensure 

a live broadcast on Chinese TV). The 11-minute 

landing sequence was punctuated by a “hazard 

avoidance maneuver” about 100 meters above the 

surface. The main engine cut out at 4 meters above 

the surface, and the lander settled down naturally the rest of the way, landing at 13:11 UT, thus 

becoming the first spacecraft to soft-land on the 

Moon since the Soviet Luna 24 in 1976. Landing 

Image taken on 13 January 2014 by the panoramic camera (PCAM) on board the Chinese Yutu lunar rover as it looked 

back at the Chang’e 3 lander. Credit: Chinese Academy of Sciences / China National Space Administration / The Science 

and Application Center for Moon and Deepspace Exploration / Emily Lakdawalla 
2013 293

coordinates were announced as 19.51°  W  / 

44.12°  N, in the northwestern portion of Mare 

Imbrium which, as is turns out was different 

than what was announced earlier—Sinus Iridum. 

Immediately after landing, Chang’e 3 deployed its 

solar panels. Soon, a command was sent to Yutu to 

deploy its two solar panels and unlock its wheels. 

Yutu was a 6-wheeled mobile spacecraft capable of 

transmitting video in real time and able to perform 

relatively simple soil analyses. Like the lander, the 

rover had its own radioisotope heater units (using 

plutonium-238) for heating. It also had sensors that 

enabled it to automatically negotiate over obstacles 

on the surface. Its original planned lifetime was 

three months, during which it was expected to 

travel an area of 3 square kilometers. At 20:10 UT 

on 14 December, the rover began to slowly move 

toward the rover transfer mechanism, which then 

slowly lowered itself until its tracks touched the 

lunar surface. At 20:35 UT, the rover wheeled 

down and touched the surface. The rover remained 

at Point A, about 10 meters north of the lander for 

about 13 hours until it turned around and cameras 

on the rover and lander took pictures of each other 

on 15 December. The rover then slowly moved to 

Point B and entered into sleep mode for four days. 

Woken up on 20 December, Yutu traveled about 

21 meters from Point B to C and then to Point 

D, testing its robotic arm on 23 December. Both 

lander and rover entered into hibernation mode on 

25 and 26 December, respectively, in anticipation 

of the lunar night. On 11–12 January the lander 

and Yutu were brought out of sleep to begin their 

second lunar day. The rover, however, ran into a 

Image taken on 17 December 2013 by the Lander Terrain Camera (TCAM) on board the Chinese Chang’e 3 lander showing the Yutu rover on the surface of the Moon. Credit: Chinese Academy of Sciences / China National Space Administration / The Science and Application Center for Moon and Deepspace Exploration / Emily Lakdawalla 
294 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

major problem later in the month; on 25 January, 

the Chinese media announced that Yutu had suffered a “mechanical control anomaly” caused by 

the “complicated lunar surface environment.” 

Because the problem occurred just before the rover 

was entering hibernation for its second lunar night, 

controllers had to wait until hibernation was over 

to confirm the problem. After failing to hear from 

the rover on 10 February, ground controllers established contact two days later but it was clear at this 

point that Yutu was no longer capable of moving 

across the lunar surface, apparently because of 

a control circuit malfunction in its driving unit. 

Instead, mission scientists reformulated a limited 

mission for Yutu as a stationary science platform. 

Total traverse distance was computed as 0.114 

kilometers. Because the problem on the rover was 

in a unit that also controlled the mobility of the 

solar panels to face the Sun, controllers expected 

the rover to lose power, but the rover appears to 

have communicated with mission control through 

at least early September 2014. The lander meanwhile entered a “maintenance mode” at some point 

in mid-2014 but continued operating through the 

year. In January 2015, over a year after landing, the 

Chinese media announced that the lander was still 

returning data, having entered its 14th lunar night, 

thus making it the longest functioning spacecraft 

on the lunar surface. The lander was said to be in 

contact at least once a month well into fall 2016 

and sending back scientific data from at least one 

instrument, its ultraviolet telescope. The Chinese 

also released entire datasets of imagery from both 

the lander and the rover in January 2016. As far as 

Yutu, in March 2015, Ye Peijian confirmed that the 

rover was immobile but still working. The rover was 

still maintaining communications to at least July 

2016 but the following month, Yutu was officially 

declared dead after operating for 31 months. At 

least one instrument on the lander (the ultraviolet 

telescope) was still active as of June 2018.

236

Gaia

Nation: ESA (8)

Objective(s): Sun–Earth L2 Lagrange Point

Spacecraft: Gaia

Spacecraft Mass: 2,029 kg

Mission Design and Management: ESA

Launch Vehicle: Soyuz-ST-B / Fregat-MT (SoyuzST-B no. E15000-004/104, Fregat-MT no. 1039)

Launch Date and Time: 19 December 2013 / 09:12:18 

UT

Launch Site: CSG / ELS pad

Scientific Instruments:

1. astrometric instrument (ASTRO)

2. photometric instrument

3. radial velocity spectrometer (RVS)

Results: Gaia is a European space observatory whose 

goal is to chart a three-dimensional map of the 

Milky Way galaxy in order to reveal the composition, formation, and evolution of the galaxy. More 

specifically, Gaia provides high-quality positional 

and radial velocity measurements to produce a stereoscopic and kinematic census of about one billion stars in our galaxy (about 1% of the total) and 

the Local Group. Launched by a Russian Soyuz, 

the Fregat upper stage pushed Gaia into a 175 × 

175-kilometer Earth orbit, and then fired again for 

a long burn into a 344 × 962,690-kilometer orbit at 

15.0° inclination. It performed a mid-course correction the day after launch. On 8 January 2014, 

Gaia entered its operational orbit around the Sun–

Earth L2, about 1.5 million kilometers from Earth, 

when its engine fired to boost the spacecraft into 

a 263,000 × 707,000-kilometer halo orbit around 

L2 with a period of 180 days. After four further 

months of calibration, alignment, and proper 

focusing of the telescopes on board, Gaia began its 

five-year mission on 25 July 2014 to produce the 
2013 295

most accurate 3D map of the Milky Way galaxy. 

In its observation mode, Gaia spins slowly (once 

every 6 hours), sweeping its two telescopes across 

the entire sky and focusing the received light 

simultaneously onto a single digital camera, the 

largest flown in space, with nearly a billion pixels 

(106 CCDs each with 4,500 × 1,996 pixels). It 

will observe each of its billion stars an average 

of 70 times over five years. In September 2014, 

ESA announced that Gaia had discovered its first 

supernova, Gaia14aaa, some 500 million lightyears away from Earth. A minor anomaly, “a stray 

light problem” was detected shortly after launch 

that might degrade the quality of some of the 

results, especially for the faintest stars, but ESA 

scientists are confident that mitigation schemes 

will compensate for the problem. In August 2015, 

Gaia completed its first year of science observations, during which it had recorded 272 billion 

positional or astrometric measurements, 54.4 

billion photometric data points, and 5.4 billion 

spectra. On 6 November 2015, the spacecraft 

was placed perfectly to see a lunar transit across 

the Sun, viewed from Gaia’s vantage point as a 

small, dark circle crossing the face of the Sun. On 

14 September 2016, ESA released its first dataset 

from Gaia that included positions and G magnitudes for about one billion stars based on observations from 25 July 2014 to 16 September 2015. 

A second data release is planned for April 2018 

and will include positions, parallaxes, and proper 

motions for approximately one billion stars. Final 

Gaia results in the form of complete datasets are 

not expected to be publicly available until the early 

2020s. Besides its primary goal of mapping stars, 

Gaia also carries out observations of known asteroids within our solar system, providing data on the 

orbits and physical properties of these bodies.

An artist’s rendering of ESA’s Gaia astrometry spacecraft. Credit: ESA/ATG medialab

297

2014

237

Chang’e 5-T1

Nation: China (5)

Objective(s): circumlunar flight, Earth–Moon L2 

Lagrange Point, lunar orbit

Spacecraft: Zhongguo tanyue gongcheng san qi zai 

ru fanhui feixing shiyan qi

Spacecraft Mass: 3,300 kg

Mission Design and Management: CNSA

Launch Vehicle: Chang Zheng 3C/G2 (or Chang 

Zheng 3C/E)

Launch Date and Time: 23 October 2014 / 18:00:04 UT

Launch Site: Xichang

Scientific Instruments:

1. cameras

2. biological payloads

Results: This mission, called Chang’e 5 Flight Test 

Device (or CE 5-T1), was a precursor to the planned 

Chang’e 5 mission, which, at the time of writing, is 

slated to land on the Moon and return lunar samples (at least 2 kilograms) back to Earth in 2019. 

The spacecraft consists of a bus (DFH-3A) similar to the CE-1 and CE-2 lunar orbiters, but with 

a large decent vehicle, resembling a scaled-down 

version of the piloted Shen Zhou descent module. 

During this flight, the reentry module carried a 

complement of biological payloads. The goal of the 

test mission was to fly a full-scale circumlunar mission so as to flight-test the reentry vehicle—particularly the heatshield—in real conditions before 

the actual sample return mission. This was the first 

circumlunar mission and recovery of a spacecraft 

since the Soviet Zond 8 mission in 1970. The payload entered into a parking orbit around Earth after 

successful firing of the launch vehicle’s first three 

stages. The third stage then reignited for about 3 

minutes to send the payload on a translunar trajectory of 209 × 413,000 kilometers. Soon after 

TLI, the spacecraft deployed its solar arrays and 

implemented at least two mid-course corrections 

(on 24 and 25 October). Chang’e 5-T1 entered 

the Moon’s gravitational influence at 13:30 UT, 

before flying around the far side of the Moon, 

with the closest distance of approximately 12,000 

kilometers reached at 19:03 UT on 27 October. 

Throughout its voyage to the Moon, the spacecraft 

relayed back spectacular pictures of both Earth 

and the Moon. On the four-day trip home, the 

spacecraft performed one mid-course correction. 

Before entry into Earth’s atmosphere, at 21:53 UT 

on 31 October, the headlight-shaped descent vehicle separated from the service module when about 

5,000 kilometers from Earth; 5 minutes later, the 

service module fired its engine (for about 12 minutes) to go back into a translunar orbit. The descent 

vehicle, meanwhile, completed a “double-dip” 

reentry into Earth’s atmosphere to reduce g-loads. 

Artist’s rendering of the Chinese Chang’e 5-T1 spacecraft. 

The headlight-shaped object is the descent module that 

was successfully recovered after its circumlunar mission. 

Credit: chinaspacereport.com
298 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

The second time it entered Earth’s atmosphere, 

it deployed its parachute system at 10 kilometers 

altitude and safely touched down at 22:42 UT in 

China’s Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. The 

descent vehicle was located just 5 minutes after 

touchdown. Yang Mengfeil, the “commander” 

of the lunar exploration program at CASC noted 

that “[f]rom what we have seen, the capsule is in 

good condition... and will lay a solid foundation 

for our future space program.” Meanwhile, the service module of CE 5-T1 circled back into a high 

Earth orbit (540,000 × 600 kilometers) that slung 

it back towards the Moon, which it passed by on 

23 November after two mid-course corrections. On 

23 November, after reaching perilune and with the 

help of gravity assist from the Moon, the spacecraft 

headed to the Earth–Moon L2 Lagrange Point 

where it arrived on 27 November and entered into a 

Lissajous-type orbit at 20,000 × 40,000 kilometers 

with a period of 14 days. A little over a month later, 

at 15:00 UT on 4 January 2015, the service module 

left L2 after three circuits around it, and headed 

back toward the Moon. Six days later, at around 

19:00 UT, the spacecraft returned back into lunar 

orbit with initial parameters of 200 × 5,300 kilometers with a period of 8 hours. Over the following 

two days, CE 5-T1 made three orbital corrections, 

ending up, by 11 January, in a 200-kilometer orbit. 

Once at the Moon, the spacecraft conducted two 

“virtual target” rendezvous tests in February and 

March 2015 to rehearse for the future CE-5 mission. Later, between 30 August and 2 September 

2015, CE 5-T1 carried out an intensive photography mission, some of it at altitudes as low as 30 kilometers. The campaign was dedicated to identifying 

potential landing sites for the Chang’e 5 sample 

return mission. By 1 March 2016, the spacecraft 

had completed over 4,100 orbits around the Moon. 

The Chinese launch vehicle’s upper stage carried 

a secondary payload called the Manfred Memorial 

Moon Mission (LX0OHB-4M or 4M) prepared by 

the Germany company OHB System and managed 

by LuxSpace. The experiment, in honor of its OHB 

founder Manfred Fuchs (1938–2014) weighed 

14 kilograms and contained two instruments, a 

radio beacon and a radiation dosimeter (provided 

by the Spanish company iC-Málaga). Last contact with the radio beacon was at 01:35 UT on 

11 November 2014.

238

Hayabusa 2

Nation: Japan (10)

Objective(s): asteroid rendezvous and sample return

Spacecraft: Hayabusa 2, Rover1a, Rover1b, Rover2, 

MASCOT

Spacecraft Mass: 600 kg

Mission Design and Management: JAXA

Launch Vehicle: H-IIA (no. F26)

Launch Date and Time: 3 December 2014 / 04:22:04 UT

Launch Site: Tanegashima / Area Y1

Scientific Instruments:

1. near infrared spectrometer (NIRS3)

2. thermal infrared imager (TIR)

3. multiband imager (ONC-T)

4. laser altimeter (LIDAR)

5. separation camera (DCAM)

MASCOT:

1. MicrOmega infrared microscope

2. magnetometer (MAG)

3. radiometer (MARA)

4. wide-angle camera (CAM)

Results: Hayabusa 2 is a Japanese spacecraft on 

a six-year mission to rendezvous and land on a 

C-class asteroid, (162173) 199 JU3, dispatch a 

series of landers and a penetrator, collect samples 

from it, and then return to Earth. The probe is an 

evolutionary follow-on to the Hayabusa (1) mission, launched in 2003, which had similar goals. 

The new mission is designed to be “more reliable 

and robust” and has several improved systems from 

its predecessor. Hayabusa 2’s flight profile involves 

an Earth gravity-assist flyby in December 2015 

before a rendezvous with its target asteroid in July 

2018. At the asteroid, Hayabusa 2 will deploy a 
2014 299

target marker (somewhat like a little beanbag filled 

with granular particles) to establish an artificial 

landmark, and then land on the planetary body. 

Five of these target markers are carried aboard 

the spacecraft, as opposed to three on its predecessor. As it touches the surface multiple times, 

Hayabusa 2 will activate its SMP sampler mechanism which will release a small projectile to be shot 

into the ground so material is ejected that is collected by a “catcher.” Additionally, Hayabusa 2 will 

deploy several passenger payloads, including the 

10-kilogram MASCOT (Mobile Asteroid Surface 

Scout), a joint French-German lander that is capable of lifting off the asteroid and landing again to 

sample different areas with its suite of instruments. 

Hayabusa 2 will also carry the SCI (Small Carry-on 

Impactor), a small explosive penetrator that will 

use a 2-kilogram pure copper “lump” (or a “liner”) 

30 centimeters in diameter that will be dropped to 

the surface of the asteroid at a velocity of 2 kilometers/second to make an artificial crater. A palmsize deployable camera (DCAM3) will observe 

the explosive impact of the SCI while the mother 

ship is positioned on the opposite side of the asteroid during the impact to protect it. Hayabusa 2 

also carries three 1-kilogram rovers installed on 

MINERVA-II1 (which has Rover1A and Rover1B) 

and MINERVA-II2 (which has Rover2). They will 

take pictures and collect temperature data at various points. Once its mission is over, Hayabusa 2 

will leave orbit around the asteroid in December 

2019 and return to Earth a year later, in December 

2020, for a reentry and recovery of the samples 

collected. After a successful launch, Hayabusa 2 

and its fellow travelers left the Earth–Moon system on 6 December 2014, entering heliocentric 

orbit at 0.915 × 1.089 AU at 6.8° inclination to the 

ecliptic. It completed an initial period of checkout 

by 2 March 2015 and then began to move into its 

“cruising phase” while heading to asteroid 1999 

JU3. Less than a year later, on 3 December 2015, 

Hayabusa 2 carried out an Earth flyby at a range of 

3,090 kilometers over the Hawaiian islands. The 

encounter increased the spacecraft’s velocity by 

about 1.6 kilometers/second to about 31.9 kilometers/second (relative to the Sun). The spacecraft, 

remaining in good health, performed its first major 

firing of its ion engines from 22 March to 5 May 

2016, followed by a shorter (3.5 hour) firing on 

20 May to adjust its trajectory.

Artist’s concept of Hayabusa 2 collecting samples from 

asteroid 1999 JU3. Credit: JAXA

239

PROCYON

Nation: Japan (11)

Objective(s): asteroid flyby

Spacecraft: PROCYON

Spacecraft Mass: 65 kg

Mission Design and Management: JAXA / University of 

Tokyo

Launch Vehicle: H-IIA (no. F26)

Launch Date and Time: 3 December 2014 / 04:22:04 UT

Launch Site: Tanegashima / Area Y1

Scientific Instruments:

1. optical telescope

2. ion thrusters

Results: The PROCYON (Proximate Object Close 

Flyby with Optical Navigation) spacecraft, a lowcost “micro-spacecraft for deep space exploration” 

was designed to accomplish two goals: to demonstrate the successful use of a micro-spacecraft for 

deep space activity and to fly by an asteroid, 1999 
300 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

JU3 (later renamed 162173 Ryugu). Launched 

at the same time as the Hayabusa 2 mission, 

PROCYON is accompanying the larger spacecraft 

to its own asteroid target, designated (185851) 

2000 DP107 (an asteroid that has its own moon). 

The plan for the mission was that it would pass 

within 50 kilometers of the target at a relative flyby 

velocity of 10 kilometers/second. The spacecraft, 

largely built from commercial off-the-shelf equipment is equipped with a micro-propulsion system named I-COUPS (Ion thruster and Cold-gas 

thruster developed for PROCYON) that uses ion 

engines and multiple cold gas thrusters fed from 

the same tank (containing 2.5 kilograms xenon at 

launch). After launch with Hayabusa 2 (see entry 

for that mission) into low Earth parking orbit, the 

H-IIA rocket’s second stage fired again for 4 minutes, 1 second to accelerate the entire payload 

(Hayabusa 2, PROCYON, and ArtSat-2) into heliocentric orbit. While Hayabusa separated from the 

upper stage 3 minutes, 40 seconds after the burn 

was complete, PROCYON separated 15 minutes 

after Hayabusa and, like its compatriots, entered 

heliocentric orbit. University of Tokyo and JAXA 

announced that they had received the first signals 

from PROCYON at 00:51 UT on 3 December and 

that it was on its confirmed interplanetary trajectory. By 10 March 2015, the on-board ion engine 

had operated for 223 hours but then stopped functioning apparently due to a high voltage problem, 

thus potentially threatening both the planned 

Earth flyby on 3 December 2015 and the asteroid 

flyby on 12 May 2016. When it was clear that the 

engine could no longer be restarted, in May 2015, 

the asteroid flyby was abandoned. In the event, 

PROCYON flew past Earth on 3 December at a 

range of 2.7 million kilometers. Despite the loss of 

the asteroid flyby, PROCYON used its telescopic 

imager to return photos of Earth and the Earth–

Moon system during its Earth flyby.

240

Shin’en 2

Nation: Japan (12)

Objective(s): heliocentric orbit

Spacecraft: Shin’en 2

Spacecraft Mass: 17 kg

Mission Design and Management: Kagoshima University

Launch Vehicle: H-IIA (no. F26)

Launch Date and Time: 3 December 2014 / 04:22:04 UT

Launch Site: Tanegashima / Area Y1

Scientific Instruments:

1. dosimeter

Results: Shin’en 2 is a small satellite amateur radio 

payload—also given the Oscar designation of FujiOscar 82—that carried a radio operating in the 

amateur UHF and VHF bands. During its mission, 

it was to simply downlink basic telemetry parameters (voltage, current, temperature, etc.) as well 

as data from the NASA-supplied radiation dosimeter. Radio enthusiasts could also uplink messages 

to the satellite. Once the satellite and its sister 

payloads were sent out to heliocentric orbit after 

launch, Shin’en 2 separated from the H-IIA second 

stage at 06:16 UT about 6 minutes, 40 seconds 

after the separation of Hayabusa 2. Contact with 

Shin’en 2 was established soon after, although the 

last reported transmission was on 14 December 

from 20:13 UT to 23:00 UT when the spacecraft 

was between 4.67 and 4.72 million kilometers from 

Earth. Like its sister spacecraft, Shin’en 2 flew by 

Earth on 4 December at 10:27 UT, at a range of 

about 5.71 million kilometers. Attempts to detect 

signals from Shin’en 2 at the time proved to be 

unsuccessful.
2014 301

241

DESPATCH / ArtSat-2

Nation: Japan (13)

Objective(s): heliocentric orbit

Spacecraft: DESPATCH / Fuji-Oscar 81

Spacecraft Mass: 30 kg

Mission Design and Management: Tama Art University

Launch Vehicle: H-IIA (no. F26)

Launch Date and Time: 3 December 2014 / 04:22:04 UT

Launch Site: Tanegashima / Y1

Scientific Instruments: [none]

Results: DESPATCH (Deep Space Amateur 

Troubadour’s Challenge) or ArtSat-2 was a project developed at Tama Art University to build a 

3D-printed sculpture and launch it into deep space. 

The sculpture, measuring 50 × 50 × 45 centimeters, contained a 7-watt CW radio transmitter that 

operated in an amateur UHF frequency (437.325 

MHz) and transmitted automatically generated 

“poetic” messages (in English) from space using 

telemetry numbers derived from voltage and temperature readings on board. As a whole, the project 

was designed to combine art and technology into 

a singular whole, to create a “deep-space sculpture” while also producing “generative poetry.” The 

on-board batteries were designed to work for only 

seven days until the spacecraft was about 3 million 

kilometers from Earth. After launch and insertion 

into heliocentric orbit, it separated from the H-IIA 

upper stage around 06:21 UT on 3 December 

2014. ArtSat personnel received transmissions of 

its “cosmic poem” after launch, but the poem was 

transmitted at irregular intervals. By 14 December, 

ArtSat-2 was already 4.7 million kilometers from 

Earth and in a 0.7 × 1.3 AU orbit and still transmitting. On 3 January 2015, the Tama Art University 

team concluded attempts to receive further transmissions from ArtSat-2 since the on-board battery 

had a lifetime of 27 days after launch. Despite its 

death, it has fully achieved its goal of being “the 

most distant artwork in the world.” Like its sister 

spacecraft, Hayabusa-2, PROCYON, and Shin’en 

2, DESPATCH performed an Earth flyby on 

4 December at a range of 5.8 million kilometers. 

DESPATCH was also known as Fuji-Oscar 81.

A full-scale prototype (engineering model) of DESPATCH. 

Credit: ArtSat

303

2015

242

DSCOVR

Nation: USA (100)

Objective(s): Sun–Earth L1 Lagrange Point

Spacecraft: Triana

Spacecraft Mass: 570 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA / NOAA / 

USAF

Launch Vehicle: Falcon 9 v1.1

Launch Date and Time: 11 February 2015 / 23:03:02 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral / SLC-40

Scientific Instruments:

1. PlasMag plasma-magnetometer (magnetometer, Faraday cup, electrostatic analyzer)

2. Earth Polychromatic Imaging Camera (EPIC)

3. National Institute of Standards and Technology Advanced Radiometer (NISTAR)

Results: Deep Space Climate Observatory 

(DSCOVR) is a joint mission between NASA, 

NOAA, and the USAF designed as a successor 

NASA’s Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE), 

whose goal is to provide real-time solar wind observations from an L1 orbit. The roots of the project 

date back to Triana, originally conceived in 1998 by 

then-Vice President Albert A. Gore, Jr. (1948– ), as 

a NASA Earth science mission to provide a (near) 

continuous view of Earth from space (and also use 

a radiometer to take direct measurements of sunlight reflected and emitted from Earth). Despite 

being originally slated for launch on STS-107 

(the tragic mission of Space Shuttle Columbia in 

2003), Triana was canceled in 2001 and the satellite put into storage. Seven years later, in 2008, 

the Committee on Space Environmental Sensor 

Mitigation Options (CSESMO) determined 

that using that spacecraft would be “the optimal 

solution for meeting NOAA and USAF space 

weather requirements.” The satellite was removed 

from storage in November 2008 and recertified 

for launch with some modifications. The satellite, designed on the basis of the Small Explorer 

Program (SMEX-Lite) bus, was launched into an 

initial orbit of 184 × 186 kilometers at 37° inclination. About 30 minutes following launch, Falcon 

9’s second stage re-ignited to boost DSCOVR into 

a 187 × 1,371,156-kilometer transfer orbit at 37° 

inclination. By 24 February, the spacecraft had 

reached the halfway mark to the L1 position, traveling nearly 0.8 million kilometers. By 8 June, 100 

days after launch, DSCOVR finally reached the 

Sun–Earth L1 point, and entered a Lissajous orbit, 

about 1.5 million kilometers from Earth, where it 

has a continuous view of the Sun and the sunlit side 

of Earth. Its primary mission is to provide a suite of 

diverse data on variations in the solar wind, provide early warning on coronal mass ejections, and 

observe Earth climate changes in ozone, aerosols, 

dust and volcanic ash, cloud altitudes, and vegetation cover. DSCOVR also takes full Earth pictures 

about every 2 hours, returning its first views of the 

entire sunlit side of Earth from approximately 1.6 

million kilometers (using the EPIC instrument). 

In October 2015, NASA launched a Web site that 

posted at least a dozen new color images every day 

from EPIC. Earlier, on 16–17 July, the spacecraft 

took striking images of the Moon moving over the 

Pacific Ocean near North America. Similar pictures, showing the farside of the Moon had been 

taken by Deep Impact in May 2008 but from a 

much further distance of 50 million kilometers. 

On 28 October 2015, NASA officially handed over 

control of DSCOVR to NOAA (more specifically, 

its Space Weather Prediction Center, SWPC) 
304 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

for the latter agency to begin optimizing the final 

settings for its space weather instruments. The 

spacecraft completed its first year in deep space 

on 11 February 2016, now serving as the U.S.’s primary warning system for solar magnetic storms and 

solar wind data. Real-time data from DSCOVR and 

space weather forecasts were available to the general public beginning July 2016 from the SWPC 

Web site; the center also began coordinating the 

work of DSCOVR with GOES-16 which was 

launched on 19 November 2016.

243

LISA Pathfinder

Nation: ESA (9)

Objective(s): Sun–Earth L1 Lagrange Point

Spacecraft: SMART-2

Spacecraft Mass: 1,910 kg

Mission Design and Management: ESA

Launch Vehicle: Vega (no. VV06)

Launch Date and Time: 3 December 2015 / 04:04:00 UT

Launch Site: Kourou / ELV

Scientific Instruments:

1. LISA Technology Package (LTP)

2. Disturbance Reduction System (DRS)

Results: LISA Pathfinder is a technology demonstrator for future spaceborne gravitational wave 

detectors, such as the proposed Evolved Laser 

Interferometer Space Antenna (eLISA), tentatively 

planned for 2034. The spacecraft is equipped to 

test one of the key concepts behind gravitational 

wave detectors, that free particles follow geodesics 

in space-time. It does this by tracking the relative motions of two test masses in nearly perfect 

gravitational free fall, using picometer resolution 

laser interferometry. The name “LISA” comes from 

“Laser Interferometer Space Antenna,” an earlier 

abandoned concept for an observatory to study 

gravitational waves. The spacecraft has a main science spacecraft and a separable propulsion module, the latter used for raising LISA Pathfinder’s 

orbit after launch and sending it to its operational 

Lissajous orbit around the Sun–Earth L1 Lagrange 

Point. The science spacecraft carries two test 

packages. The first, LTP, contains two identical 

test masses (Gravitational Reference Sensors), 

each weighing 2 kilograms in the form of 46-mm 

gold-platinum cubes suspended in its own vacuum container. Contributors include teams from 

France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, 

Switzerland, and the UK. The second, DRS, is a 

NASA-built system, originally from the canceled 

Space Technology 7 mission, made up of two clusters of colloidal micro-propulsion thrusters and 

a computer. LISA Pathfinder was launched into 

an initial orbit of 208 × 1,165 kilometers. Vega’s 

liquid propellant fourth stage (known as AVUM) 

then refired to put the spacecraft into a 209 × 

1,521-kilometer orbit at 6.0° inclination. The 

propulsion module then slowly fired six times, 

thus raising LISA Pathfinder’s apogee until it 

began a cruise to L1. After a six-week trip and a 

final 64-second firing, the spacecraft arrived in a 

Lissajous orbit around L1 on 22 January 2016. At 

11:30 UT, the propulsion module separated from 

the science section. Its final orbit was a roughly 

500,000 × 800,000-kilometer orbit around L1. 

About two weeks later, on 3 February, ESA controllers at the European Space Operations Center 

(ESOC) at Darmstadt, Germany, retracted eight 

locking “fingers” pressing on the two gold-platinum 

cubes, at the time held in position by two rods. 

These rods were retracted from the first test mass 

on 15 February, and from the second the following 

day. Finally, on 22 February, controllers set the two 

cubes completely free to move under the effect of 

gravity alone, with actively maneuvering spacecraft 

around them. In the subsequent few months, the 

LISA Pathfinder team applied a number of different forces to the cubes to study their reaction. For 

example, one experiment involved raising the temperature of the housing, thus heating the very few 

gas molecules remaining in there to measure the 

effect on the cubes. After several months of successful experiments, at 08:00 UT on 25 June 2016, 
2015 305

the LTP completed its “nominal operations phase,” 

thus transitioning to work on NASA’s DRS experiment. Almost simultaneously, on 21–22 June, 

ESA approved a mission extension, beginning 

1 November, for seven months, during which investigators will be working with LTP. The mission was 

finally concluded on 30 June 2017. Earlier, in June 

2016, mission scientists published the first results 

of the LISA Pathfinder experiments, confirming 

that the two cubes were falling freely under the 

influence of gravity alone, to a precision level more 

than five times better than originally expected.

LISA Pathfinder operates from a vantage point in space about 1.5 million kilometers from Earth towards the Sun, orbiting 

the first Sun–Earth Lagrange point, L1. Credit: ESA-C. Carreau

307

2016

244

ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter / 

Schiaparelli EDM Lander

Nation: ESA / Russia (1)

Objective(s): Mars orbit and landing

Spacecraft: TGO / EDM

Spacecraft Mass: 4,332 kg total including 3,755 kg 

TGO and 577 kg Schiaparelli EDM

Mission Design and Management:

Launch Vehicle: Proton-M + Briz-M (8K82M no. 

93560 + Briz-M no. 99560)

Launch Date and Time: 14 March 2016 / 09:31 UT

Launch Site: Baikonur Cosmodrome / Site 200/39

Scientific Instruments:

TGO:

1. Nadir and Occultation for Mars Discovery 

spectrometer (NOMAD)

2. Atmospheric Chemistry Suite spectrometers (ACS)

3. Color and Stereo Surface Imaging System 

(CaSSIS)

4. Fine-Resolution Epithermal Neutron 

Detector (FREND)

EDM:

1. Dust Characterization, Risk Assessment, 

and Environmental Analyzer on the 

Martian Surface (DREAMS)

2. Atmospheric Mars Entry and Landing 

Investigation and Analysis (AMELIA)

3. Descent Camera (DECA)

4. Combined Aerothermal Sensor Package 

(COMARS+)

5. Instrument for Landing – Roving Laser 

Retroreflector Investigations (INRRI)

Results: The first in a series of joint missions 

under the ExoMars program between ESA and 

Roskosmos, the Russian space agency, the ExoMars 

Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO) is designed to study 

methane and other atmospheric trace gases present in small concentrations in the Martian atmosphere. Despite their relative scarcity (less than 1% 

of the atmosphere), studying these gases could provide evidence for possible biological or geological 

activity. Organisms on Earth release methane when 

they digest nutrients, although geological processes 

(such as the oxidation of certain minerals) can also 

release methane. ExoMars TGO was originally a 

collaborative project with NASA but the latter’s 

contribution was cut due to lack of support in 

2012, leading to cooperation with the Russians. As 

currently envisioned, the two ExoMars missions 

involve the TGO and Schiaparelli (first mission) 

and a lander-rover (second mission) in 2020, both 

launched by the Russians, who also are contributing hardware to both missions. Besides its primary 

mission, ExoMars TGO also had two secondary 

missions: to deliver the Schiaparelli Entry, Descent, 

and Landing Demonstrator Module (EDM), an 

Italian-built lander designed to test technologies 

planned for use in future soft-landings on Mars; 

and to serve as a data relay to support communications for the ExoMars 2020 rover and surface science platform. The orbiter included instruments 

developed by Belgium (NOMAD), Russia (ACS 

and FREND), and Switzerland (CaSSIS). EDM’s 

scientific mission was limited to measurements 

of several atmospheric parameters (such as wind 

speed and direction, humidity, pressure, etc.). Its 

small technical camera, weighing 0.6 kilograms, 

was a refurbished spare flight model of the Visual 

Monitoring Camera flown on ESA’s Herschel and 
308 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

Planck spacecraft. Teams from Italy, France, the 

Netherlands, Finland, Spain, and Belgium contributed to EDM. The Russian Proton-M + Briz-M 

combination inserted the payload stack into an initial 185 × 185-kilometer orbit at 51.5° inclination. 

A second Briz-M firing after one orbit raised the 

orbit to 250 × 5,800 kilometers, and a third burn 

raised it further to 696 × 21,086 kilometers. A final 

fourth firing sent the payload to escape velocity 

with spacecraft release from Briz-M occurring at 

20:13 UT on the day of the launch. On 14 March 

2016, ExoMars adjusted its trajectory with a 

52-minute burn. Finally, on 19 October, TGO fired 

its engine for 139 minutes from 13:05 to 15:24 

UT to enter its planned initial orbit around Mars 

of 346 × 95,228 kilometers at 9.7° inclination. 

Three days earlier, at 14:42 UT on 16 October, 

the orbiter had released the EDM that was programmed to autonomously perform an automated 

landing sequence. After it entered the atmosphere 

at 14:42 UT on 19 October, the sequence would 

include parachute deployment, front heat shield 

release (at between 11 and 7 kilometers altitude), 

retrorocket braking (starting at 1,100 meters altitude), and a final freefall from a height of 2 meters, 

cushioned by a crushable structure. During this 

phase, Schiaparelli was to have captured 15 images 

of the approaching surface. Unfortunately, the signal from the lander was lost a short time before the 

planned landing sequence initiated. Later analysis 

showed that the parachute deployed normally at an 

altitude of 12 kilometers and the heatshield was 

released as planned at 7.8 kilometers. However, at 

some point, an inertial measurement unit sent an 

incorrect reading of the vehicle’s rotation, which in 

turn generated an incorrect estimated altitude (in 

fact, a negative altitude) which triggered premature release of the parachute and backshell, firing 

of the thrusters and activation of ground systems 

even though the lander was still at an altitude of 

3.7 kilometers. As such, the Schiaparelli simply 

plummeted from that altitude to the ground at 

near terminal velocity and was destroyed. During 

atmospheric entry, some data was collected by the 

COMARS+ instrument. The day after the crash, 

NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) 

photographed the crash site in Meridiani Planum. 

Higher resolution images taken on 25 October 

and 1 November (the latter in color) showed more 

detail. Impact coordinates were 6.11° W / 2.07° S. 

The orbiter, meanwhile, began several months of 

aerobraking to reach its nominal 400-kilometer circular orbit for its primary science mission slated to 

begin in late 2017. In November 2016, TGO was 

in a highly elliptical 230–310 × 98,0000-kilometer 

orbit with an orbital period of 4.2 days. Between 

20 and 28 November, it tested and calibrated its 

four scientific instruments for the first time. In 

January 2017, the orbiter carried out three maneuvers by firing its main engine to adjust inclination 

to 74°, necessary for its primary science mission 

to begin later in the year. By March 2017, TGO 

was in a one-day 200 × 33,000-kilometer orbit and 

was using the atmosphere to adjust the orbit by a 

process of gradual aerobraking. The goal was to 

achieve a final operational circular orbit at 400 kilometers by March 2018 at which time full-scale science operations would begin. Earlier, in December 

2016, ESA announced the formal approval of the 

second joint European-Russian ExoMars mission, 

tentatively slated for launch in 2020.

245

OSIRIS-REx

Nation: USA (101)

Objective(s): asteroid sample return

Spacecraft: OSIRIS-REx

Spacecraft Mass: 2,110 kg

Mission Design and Management: NASA GSFC / University of Arizona

Launch Vehicle: Atlas V 411 (no. AV-067)

Launch Date and Time: 8 September 2016 / 23:05 UT

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral / SLC-41
2016 309

Scientific Instruments:

1. Camera Suite (PolyCam, MapCam, 

SamCam) (OCAMS OSIRIS-REx)

2. Laser Altimeter (OLA OSIRIS-REx)

3. Visible and IR Spectrometer (OVIRS 

OSIRIS-REx)

4. Thermal Emission Spectrometer (OTES 

OSIRIS-REx)

5. Regolith X-Ray Imaging Spectrometer 

(REXIS OSIRIS-REx)

6. Touch-And-Go Sample Acquisition 

Mechanism (TAGSAM)

NASA’s OSIRIS-REx spacecraft is shown here in an artist’s impression. OSIRIS-REx is the third mission in NASA’s New 

Frontiers Program. Credit: NASA/University of Arizona

Results: The Origins, Spectral Interpretation, 

Resource Identification, Security, Regolith 

Explorer (OSIRIS-REx) mission is the third major 

planetary science mission falling under NASA’s 

New Frontiers Program (after New Horizons 

launched in 2006 and Juno launched in 2011). 

The goal of the mission is to reach a near-Earth 

asteroid 101955 Bennu (formerly known as 1999 

RQ36), collect a 59.5-gram sample, and then 

return it to Earth. The science mission, developed 

by scientists at the University of Arizona, will open 

up the possibilities to glean more information on 

how planets formed and how life began and help 

scientists understand asteroids that could impact 

Earth in the future. About 55 minutes after launch, 

after a boost by the Centaur upper stage, OSIRISREx separated from the Atlas V and the solar 

arrays deployed. At 17:30 UT, on 9 September, the 

spacecraft crossed the orbital path of the Moon at 

a range of 386,500 kilometers. Three days later, 

it was in heliocentric orbit at 0.77 × 1.17 AU. 

Beginning 19  September, the mission team activated all of its scientific instruments. The larger 

Trajectory Correction Maneuver (TCM) thrusters were fired (for 12 seconds) for the first time 

on 7 October for a mid-course correction. The 

spacecraft also carries three other sets of thrusters—the Attitude Control System (ACS), a Main 

Engine (ME), and Low Thrust Reaction Engine 

Assembly (LTR) thrusters—thus providing significant redundancy for maneuvers. On 28 December 

2016, the spacecraft conducted its first Deep 

Space Maneuver (DSM-1), firing the main engine 

to position it properly for an Earth gravity-assist 
310 BEYOND EARTH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016

encounter in late 2017. A second firing, the first 

to use the spacecraft’s Attitude Control System 

(ACS) thrusters, on 25  August 2017, further 

sharpened its trajectory by changing the velocity 

by 47.9 centimeters/second. About a month later, 

on 22 September, OSIRIS-REx passed over Earth 

at a range of 17,237 kilometers as part of a gravity-assist maneuver that tilted its orbit to match 

Bennu. During the encounter, the spacecraft took 

several high-resolution pictures of both Earth 

and the Moon. The actual asteroid encounter is 

scheduled to begin in August 2018, culminating 

in a rendezvous with Bennu. OSIRIS-REx will 

survey the asteroid for about a year beginning 

October 2018 and select a final touchdown site. 

The actual sample collection will be carried out 

by the TAGSAM instrument which will release 

a burst of nitrogen gas to blow regolith particles 

into a sampler head at the end of a robotic arm. 

The spacecraft is capable of returning to the asteroid in case of a first failed attempt at sample collection. In March 2021, there will be a window 

to depart from Bennu, allowing OSIRIS-REx to 

begin its Earthward return trip. If all goes well, the 

spacecraft will return to Earth in September 2023, 

when the sample return capsule will separate from 

the main spacecraft and enter Earth’s atmosphere, 

landing at the Utah Test and Training Range.
311

Tables

Tables 313

Table 1. Master Table of All Launch Attempts for Deep Space, Lunar, and Planetary Probes 1958–2016

Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch place / pad1 Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design and Operation Objective Outcome2

1958

1 [Pioneer 0] Able 1 38.5 kg 08-17-58 / 12:18 CC / 17A Thor Able I / 127 USA ARPA / AFBMD lunar orbit F2 [Luna] Ye-1 / 1 c. 360 kg 09-23-58 / 07:03:23 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / B1-3 USSR OKB-1 lunar impact F3 Pioneer Able 2 38.3 kg 10-11-58 / 08:42:13 CC / 17A Thor Able I / 1 USA NASA / AFBMD lunar orbit F4 [Luna] Ye-1 / 2 c. 360 kg 10-11-58 / 21:41:58 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / B1-4 USSR OKB-1 lunar impact F5 Pioneer II Able 3 39.6 kg 11-08-58 / 07:30:20 CC / 17A Thor-Able I / 2 USA NASA / AFBMD lunar orbit F6 [Luna] Ye-1 / 3 c. 360 kg 12-04-58 / 18:18:44 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / B1-5 USSR OKB-1 lunar impact F7 Pioneer III — 5.87 kg 12-06-58 / 05:44:52 CC / 5 Juno II / AM-11 USA NASA / ABMA / JPL lunar flyby F

1959

8 Soviet Space Rocket 

[Luna 1]

Ye-1 / 4 361.3 kg 01-02-59 / 16:41:21 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / B1-6 USSR OKB-1 lunar impact P

9 Pioneer IV — 6.08 kg 03-03-59 / 05:10:56 CC / 5 Juno II / AM-14 USA NASA / ABMA / JPL lunar flyby P10 [Luna] Ye-1A / 5 c. 390 kg 06-18-59 / 08:08 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / I1-7 USSR OKB-1 lunar impact F11 Second Soviet Space 

Rocket [Luna 2]

Ye-1A / 7 390.2 kg 09-12-59 / 06:39:42 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / I1-7b USSR OKB-1 lunar impact S

12 Automatic Interplanetary Station [Luna 3] Ye-2A / 1 278.5 kg 10-04-59 / 00:43:40 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / I1-8 USSR OKB-1 lunar flyby S13 [Pioneer, P-3] P-3 / Able IVB 168.7 kg 11-26-59 / 07:26 CC / 14 Atlas Able / 1 USA NASA / AFBMD lunar orbit F

1960

14 Pioneer V P-2 / Able 6 43.2 kg 03-11-60 / 13:00:07 CC / 17A Thor Able IV / 4 USA NASA / AFBMD solar orbit S15 [Luna] Ye-3 / 1 ? 04-15-60 / 15:06:44 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / I1-9 USSR OKB-1 lunar flyby F16 [Luna] Ye-3 / 2 ? 04-19-60 / 16:07:43 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / I1-9a USSR OKB-1 lunar flyby F17 [Pioneer, P-30] P-30 / Able VA 175.5 kg 09-25-60 / 15:13 CC / 12 Atlas Able / 2 USA NASA / AFBMD lunar orbit F18 [Mars] 1M / 1 480 kg 10-10-60 / 14:27:49 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / L1-4M USSR OKB-1 Mars flyby F

1 CC = Cape Canaveral, CK = Cape Kennedy, CSG = Le Centre Spatial Guyanais, GIK-5 = Baikonur, KSC = Kennedy Space Center, MARS = Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport, 

NIIP-5 = Baikonur, SHAR = Sriharikota, VAFB = Vandenberg Air Force Base

2 F = failure, IP = in progress, P = partial success, S = success
314 BEYOND EARH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016 Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch place / pad1 Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design and Operation Objective Outcome2 19 [Mars] 1M / 2 480 kg 10-14-60 / 13:51:03 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / L1-5M USSR OKB-1 Mars flyby F 20 [Pioneer, P-31] P-31 / Able VB 176 kg 12-15-60 / 09:10 CC / 12 Atlas Able / 3 USA NASA / AFBMD lunar orbit F 1961 21 Heavy Satellite [Venera] 1VA / 1 c. 645 kg 02-04-61 / 01:18:04 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / L1-7V USSR OKB-1 Venus impact F 22 Automatic Interplane- tary Station [Venera 1] 1VA / 2 643.5 kg 02-12-61 / 00:34:38 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / L1-6V USSR OKB-1 Venus impact F 23 Ranger I P-32 306.18 kg 08-23-61 / 10:04 CC / 12 Atlas Agena B / 1 USA NASA / JPL deep space orbit F 24 Ranger II P-33 306.18 kg 11-18-61 / 08:12 CC / 12 Atlas Agena B / 2 USA NASA / JPL deep space orbit F 1962 25 Ranger III P-34 330 kg 01-26-62 / 20:30 CC / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 3 USA NASA / JPL lunar impact F 26 Ranger IV P-35 331.12 kg 04-23-62 / 20:50 CC / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 4 USA NASA JPL lunar impact P 27 Mariner I P-37 202.8 kg 07-22-62 / 09:21:23 CC / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 5 USA NASA / JPL Venus flyby F 28 [Venera] 2MV-1 / 3 1,097 kg 08-25-62 / 02:56:06 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T103-12 USSR OKB-1 Venus impact F 29 Mariner II P-38 203.6 kg 08-27-62 / 06:53:14 CC / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 6 USA NASA / JPL Venus flyby S 30 [Venera] 2MV-1 / 4 c. 1,100 kg 09-01-62 / 02:12:33 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T103-13 USSR OKB-1 Venus impact F 31 [Venera] 2MV-2 / 1 ? 09-12-62 / 00:59:13 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T103-14 USSR OKB-1 Venus flyby F 32 Ranger V P-36 342.46 kg 10-18-62 / 16:59:00 CC / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 7 USA NASA / JPL lunar landing P 33 [Mars] 2MV-4 / 3 c. 900 kg 10-24-62 / 17:55:04 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T103-15 USSR OKB-1 Mars flyby F 34 Mars 1 2MV-4 / 4 893.5 kg 11-01-62 / 16:14:06 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T103-16 USSR OKB-1 Mars flyby P 35 [Mars] 2MV-3 / 1 ? 11-04-62 / 15:35:14 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T103-17 USSR OKB-1 Mars impact F 1963 36 [Luna] Ye-6 / 2 1,420 kg 01-04-63 / 08:48:58 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T103-09 USSR OKB-1 

37 [Luna] Ye-6 / 3 1,420 kg 02-03-63 / 09:29:14 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T103-10 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing F38 Luna 4 Ye-6 / 4 1,422 kg 04-02-63 / 08:16:38 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T103-11 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing F39 Kosmos 21 [Zond] 3MV-1A / 2 or 1 c. 800 kg 11-11-63 / 06:23:34 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / G103-18 USSR OKB-1 deep space and 

recovery

F
Tables 315

Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch place / pad1 Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design and Operation Objective Outcome2

1964

40 Ranger VI Ranger-A / P-53 364.69 kg 01-30-64 / 15:49:09 CK / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 8 USA NASA / JPL lunar impact P41 [Zond] 3MV-1A / 4A or 2 c. 800 kg 02-19-64 / 05:47:40 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / G15000-26 USSR OKB-1 Venus flyby F42 [Luna] Ye-6 / 6 c. 1,420 kg 03-21-64 / 08:14:33 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M / T15000-20 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing F43 Kosmos 27 [Venera] 3MV-1 / 5 948 kg 03-27-64 / 03:24:43 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T15000-27 USSR OKB-1 Venus impact F44 Zond 1 [Venera] 3MV-1 / 4 948 kg 04-02-64 / 02:42:40 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T15000-28 USSR OKB-1 Venus impact F45 [Luna] Ye-6 / 5 c. 1,420 kg 04-20-64 / 08:08:28 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M / T15000-21 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing F46 Ranger VII Ranger-B / P-54 365.6 kg 07-28-64 / 16:50:07 CK / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 9 USA NASA / JPL lunar impact S47 Mariner III Mariner-64C 260.8 kg 11-05-64 / 19:22:05 CK / 13 Atlas-Agena D / 11 USA NASA / JPL Mars flyby F48 Mariner IV Mariner-64D 260.8 kg 11-28-64 / 14:22:01 CK / 12 Atlas-Agena D / 12 USA NASA / JPL Mars flyby S49 Zond 2 3MV-4A / 2 996 kg 11-30-64 / 13:25 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / G15000-29 USSR OKB-1 Mars flyby P

1965

50 Ranger VIII Ranger-C 366.87 kg 02-17-65 / 17:05:00 CK / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 13 USA NASA / JPL lunar impact S51 [Surveyor Model] SD-1 951 kg 03-02-65 / 13:25 CK / 36A Atlas Centaur / 5 USA NASA / JPL deep space orbit F52 Kosmos 60 [Luna] Ye-6 / 9 c. 1,470 kg 03-12-65 / 09:25 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / G15000-24 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing F53 Ranger IX Ranger-D 366.87 kg 03-21-65 / 21:37:02 CK / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 14 USA NASA / JPL lunar impact S54 [Luna] Ye-6 / 8 c. 1,470 kg 04-10-65 / 08:39 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M / R103-26 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing F55 Luna 5 Ye-6 / 10 1,476 kg 05-09-65 / 07:49:37 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M / U103-30 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing F56 Luna 6 Ye-6 / 7 1,442 kg 06-08-65 / 07:40 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M / U103-31 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing F57 Zond 3 3MV-4 / 3 950 kg 07-18-65 / 14:32 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / U103-32 USSR OKB-1 lunar flyby S58 Surveyor Model 1 SD-2 950 kg 08-11-65 / 14:31:04 CK / 36B Atlas Centaur / 6 USA NASA / JPL deep space orbit S59 Luna 7 Ye-6 / 11 1,506 kg 10-04-65 / 07:56:40 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M / U103-27 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing F60 Venera 2 3MV-4 / 4 963 kg 11-12-65 / 04:46 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M / U103-42 USSR OKB-1 Venus flyby S61 Venera 3 3MV-3 / 1 960 kg 11-16-65 / 04:13 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya / U103-31 USSR OKB-1 Venus impact S62 Kosmos 96 [Venera] 3MV-4 / 6 c. 950 kg 11-23-65 / 03:14 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya / U103-30 USSR OKB-1 Venus flyby F63 Luna 8 Ye-6 / 12 1,552 kg 12-03-65 / 10:46:14 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M / U103-28 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing F64 Pioneer VI Pioneer-A 62.14 kg 12-16-65 / 07:31:21 CK / 17A Thor Delta E / 35 USA NASA / ARC solar orbit S
316 BEYOND EARH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016 Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch place / pad1 Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design and Operation Objective Outcome2 1966 65 Luna 9 Ye-6M / 202 1,583.7 kg 01-31-66 / 11:41:37 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M / U103-32 USSR Lavochkin lunar landing S 66 Kosmos 111 [Luna] Ye-6S / 204 c. 1,580 kg 03-01-66 / 11:03:49 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M / N103-41 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit F 67 Luna 10 Ye-6S / 206 1,583.7 kg 03-31-66 / 10:46:59 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M / N103-42 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit S 68 Surveyor Model 2 SD-3 784 kg 04-08-66 / 01:00:02 CK / 36B Atlas Centaur / 8 USA NASA / JPL deep space orbit F 69 Surveyor I Surveyor-A 995.2 kg 05-30-66 / 14:41:01 CK / 36A Atlas Centaur / 10 USA NASA / JPL lunar landing S 70 Explorer XXXIII AIMP-D 93.4 kg 07-01-66 / 16:02:25 CK / 17A Thor Delta E1 / 39 USA NASA / GSFC lunar orbit P 71 Lunar Orbiter I LO-A 386.9 kg 08-10-66 / 19:26:00 CK / 13 Atlas Agena D / 17 USA NASA / LaRC lunar orbit S 72 Pioneer VII Pioneer-B 62.75 kg 08-17-66 / 15:20:17 CK / 17A Thor Delta E1 / 40 USA NASA / ARC solar orbit S 73 Luna 11 Ye-6LF / 101 1,640 kg 08-24-66 / 08:03:21 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M / N103-43 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit S 74 Surveyor II Surveyor-B 995.2 kg 09-20-66 / 12:32:00 CK / 36A Atlas Centaur / 7 USA NASA / JPL lunar landing F 75 Luna 12 Ye-6LF / 102 1,640 kg 10-22-66 / 08:42:26 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M / N103-44 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit S 76 Lunar Orbiter II S/C 5 385.6 kg 11-06-66 / 23:21:00 CK / 13 Atlas Agena D / 18 USA NASA / LaRC lunar orbit S 77 Luna 13 Ye-6M / 205 1,620 kg 12-21-66 / 10:17:08 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M / N103-45 USSR Lavochkin lunar landing S 1967 78 Lunar Orbiter III S/C 6 385.6 kg 02-05-67 / 01:17:01 CK / 13 Atlas Agena D / 20 USA NASA / LaRC lunar orbit S 79 Surveyor III Surveyor-C 997.9 kg 04-17-67 / 07:05:01 CK / 36B Atlas Centaur / 12 USA NASA/ JPL lunar landing S 80 Lunar Orbiter IV S/C 7 385.6 kg 05-04-67 / 22:25:00 CK / 13 Atlas Agena D / 22 USA NASA / LaRC lunar orbit S 81 Kosmos 159 [Luna] Ye-6LS / 111 1.640 kg 05-16-67 / 21:43:57 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M / Ya716-56 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit P 82 Venera 4 1V / 310 1,106 kg 06-12-67 / 02:39:45 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M / Ya716-70 USSR Lavochkin Venus impact S 83 Mariner V Mariner-67E 244.9 kg 06-14-67 / 06:01:00 CK / 12 Atlas Agena D / 23 USA NASA / JPL Venus flyby S 84 Kosmos 167 [Venera] 1V / 311 c. 1,100 kg 06-17-67 / 02:36:38 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M / Y7`6-71 USSR Lavochkin

85 Surveyor IV Surveyor-D 1,037.4 kg 07-14-67 / 11:53:29 CK / 36A Atlas Centaur / 11 USA NASA / JPL lunar landing F86 Explorer XXXV AIMP-E 104.3 kg 07-19-67 / 14:19:02 CK / 17B Thor Delta E1 / 50 USA NASA / GSFC lunar orbit S87 Lunar Orbiter V S/C 3 385.6 kg 08-01-67 / 22:33:00 CK / 13 Atlas Agena D / 24 USA NASA / LaRC lunar orbit S88 Surveyor V Surveyor-E 1,006 kg 09-08-67 / 07:57:01 CK / 36B Atlas Centaur / 13 USA NASA / JPL lunar landing S
Tables 317

Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch place / pad1 Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design and Operation Objective Outcome2

89 [Zond] 7K-L1 / 4L c. 5,375 kg 09-27-67 / 22:11:54 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 229-01 USSR TsKBEM circumlunar F90 Surveyor VI Surveyor-F 1,008.3 kg 11-07-67 / 07:39:01 CK / 36B Atlas Centaur / 14 USA NASA / JPL lunar landing S91 [Zond] 7K-L1 / 5L c. 5,375 kg 11-22-67 / 19:07:59 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 230-01 USSR TsKBEM circumlunar F92 Pioneer VIII Pioneer-C 65.36 kg 12-13-67 / 14:08:00 CK / 17B Thor Delta E-1 / 55 USA NASA / ARC solar orbit S

1968

93 Surveyor VII Surveyor-G 1,040.1 kg 01-07-68 / 06:30:00 CK / 36A Atlas Centaur / 15 USA NASA / JPL lunar landing S94 [Luna] Ye-6LS / 112 1,640 kg 02-07-68 / 10:43:54 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M / Ya716-57 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit F95 Zond 4 7K-L1 / 6L c. 5,375 kg 03-02-68 / 18:29:23 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 231-01 USSR TsKBEM deep space P96 Luna 14 Ye-6LS / 113 1,640 kg 04-07-68 / 10:09:32 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M / Ya716-58 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit S97 [Zond] 7K-L1 / 7L c. 5,375 kg 04-22-68 / 23:01:27 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 232-01 USSR TsKBEM circumlunar F98 Zond 5 7K-L1 / 9L c. 5,375 kg 09-14-68 / 21:42:11 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 234-01 USSR TsKBEM circumlunar S99 Pioneer IX Pioneer-D 65.36 11-08-68 / 09:46:29 CK / 17B Thor Delta E1 / 60 USA NASA / ARC solar orbit S100 Zond 6 7K-L1 / 12L c. 5,375 kg 11-10-68 / 19:11:31 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 235-01 USSR TsKBEM circumlunar S

1969

101 Venera 5 2V / 330 1,130 kg 01-05-69 / 06:28:08 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M / V716-72 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing S102 Venera 6 2V / 331 1,130 kg 01-10-69 / 05:51:52 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M / V716-73 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing S103 [Zond] 7K-L1 / 13L c. 5,375 kg 01-20-69 / 04:14:36 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 237-01 USSR TsKBEM circumlunar F104 [Luna/Lunokhod] Ye-8 / 201 c. 5,700 kg 02-19-69 / 06:48:48 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 239-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar rover F105 [N1] 7K-L1S / 2 6,900 kg 02-21-69 / 09:18:07 NIIP-5 / 110P N1 / 3L USSR TsKBEM lunar orbit F106 Mariner VI Mariner-69F 381 kg 02-25-69 / 01:29:02 CK / 36B Atlas Centaur / 20 USA NASA / JPL Mars flyby S107 [Mars] M-69 / 521 c. 4,850 kg 03-27-69 / 10:40:45 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 240-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit F108 Mariner VII Mariner-69G 381 kg 03-27-69 / 22:22:01 CK / 36A Atlas Centaur / 19 USA NASA / JPL Mars flyby S109 [Mars] M-69 / 522 c. 4,850 kg 04-02-69 / 10:33:00 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 233-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit F110 [Luna] Ye-8-5 / 402 c. 5,700 kg 06-14-69 / 04:00:48 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 238-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample F111 [N1] 7K-L1S / 5 c. 6,900 kg 07-03-69 / 20:18:32 NIIP-5 / 110P N1 / 15005 USSR TsKBEM lunar orbit F112 Luna 15 Ye-8-5 / 401 5,667 kg 07-13-69 / 02:54:42 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 242-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample F
318 BEYOND EARH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016 Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch place / pad1 Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design and Operation Objective Outcome2 113 Zond 7 7K-L1 / 11 c. 5,375 kg 08-07-69 / 23:48:06 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 243-01 USSR TsKBEM circumlunar S 114 [Pioneer] Pioneer-E 65.4 kg 08-27-69 / 21:59:00 CK / 17A Thor Delta L / D73 USA NASA / ARC solar orbit F 115 Kosmos 300 [Luna] Ye-8-5 / 403 c. 5,700 kg 09-23-69 / 14:07:37 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 244-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample F 116 Kosmos 305 [Luna] Ye-8-5 / 404 c. 5,700 kg 10-22-69 / 14:09:59 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 241-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample F 1970 117 [Luna] Ye-8-5 / 405 c. 5,700 kg 02-06-70 / 04:16:05 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 247-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample F 118 Venera 7 3V / 630 1,180 kg 08-17-70 / 05:38:22 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M / Kh15000-62 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing S 119 Kosmos 359 [Venera] 3V / 631 c. 1,200 kg 08-22-70 / 05:06:08 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M / Kh15000-61 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing F 120 Luna 16 Ye-8-5 / 406 5,725 kg 09-12-70 / 13:25:52 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 248-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample S 121 Zond 8 7K-L1 / 14 c. 5,375 kg 10-20-70 / 19:55:39 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 250-01 USSR TsKBEM circumlunar S 122 Luna 17 Lunokhod 1 Ye-8 / 203 5,700 kg 11-10-70 / 14:44:01 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 251-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar rover S 1971 123 Mariner 8 Mariner-71H 997.9 kg 05-09-71 / 01:11:02 CK / 36A Atlas Centaur / 24 USA NASA / JPL Mars orbit F 124 Kosmos 419 [Mars] 3MS / 170 4,549 kg 05-10-71 / 16:58:42 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 253-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit F 125 Mars 2 4M / 171 4,625 kg 05-19-71 / 16:22:44 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 255-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars 

P

126 Mars 3 4M / 172 4,625 kg 05-28-71 / 15:26:30 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 249-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit / 

landing

P

127 Mariner 9 Mariner-71I 997.9 kg 05-30-71 / 22:23:04 CK / 36B Atlas Centaur / 23 USA NASA/ JPL Mars orbit S128 Apollo 15 Particle & 

Fields SubSat

35.6 kg 08-04-71 / 20:13:19 Apollo 15 CSM 112 Saturn V / 510 USA NASA / MSC lunar orbit S

129 Luna 18 Ye-8-5 / 407 5,725 kg 09-02-71 / 13:40:40 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 256-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample F130 Luna 19 Ye-8LS / 202 5,330 kg 09-28-71 / 10:00:22 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 257-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit P

1972

131 Luna 20 Ye-8-5 / 408 5,725 kg 02-14-72 / 03:27:58 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 258-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample S123 Pioneer 10 Pioneer-F 258 kg 03-02-72 / 01:49:04 CK / 36A Atlas Centaur / 27 USA NASA / ARC Jupiter flyby S
Tables 319

Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch place / pad1 Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design and Operation Objective Outcome2

133 Venera 8 3V / 670 1,184 kg 03-27-72 / 04:15:06 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M / S1500-63 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing S134 Kosmos 482 [Venera] 3V / 671 c. 1,180 kg 03-31-72 / 04:02:33 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M / S1500-64 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing F135 Apollo 16 Particle & 

Fields SubSat

42 kg 04-24-72 / 09:56:09 Apollo 16 CSM 

113

Saturn V / 511 USA NASA / MSC lunar orbit S

136 [N1] 7K-LOK / 6A c. 9,500 kg 11-23-72 / 06:11:55 NIIP-5 / 110L N1 / 15007 USSR TsKBEM lunar orbit F

1973

137 Luna 21

Lunokhod 2

Ye-8 / 204 5,700 kg 01-08-73 / 06:55:38 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 259-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar rover S

138 Pioneer 11 Pioneer-G 258.5 kg 04-06-73 / 02:11:00 CK / 36B Atlas Centaur / 30 USA NASA / ARC Jupiter, Saturn 

flyby

S

139 Explorer 49 RAE-B 330.2 kg 06-10-73 / 14:13:00 CC / 17B Delta 1913 / 95 USA NASA / GSFC lunar orbit S140 Mars 4 3MS / 52S 4,000 kg 07-21-73 / 19:30:59 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 261-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit F141 Mars 5 3MS / 53S 4,000 kg 07-25-73 / 18:55:48 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 262-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit S142 Mars 6 3MP / 50P 3,880 kg 08-05-73 / 17:45:48 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 281-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars landing P143 Mars 7 3MP / 51P 3,880 kg 08-09-73 / 17:00:17 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 281-02 USSR Lavochkin Mars landing F144 Mariner 10 Mariner-73J 502.9 kg 11-03-73 / 05:45:00 CC / 36B Atlas Centaur / 34 USA NASA / JPL Mercury, Venus 

flyby

S

1974

145 Luna 22 Ye-8LS / 206 5,700 kg 05-29-74 / 08:56:51 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 282-02 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit S146 Luna 23 Ye-8-5M / 410 5,795 kg 10-28-74 / 14:30:32 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 285-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample F147 Helios 1 Helios-A 370 kg 11-10-74 / 07:11:02 CC / 41 Titan IIIE-Centaur / 2 FRG DFVLR / NASA solar orbit S

1975

148 Venera 9 4V-1 / 660 4,936 kg 06-08-75 / 02:38:00 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 286-01 USSR Lavochkin Venus orbit / 

landing

S

149 Venera 10 4V-1 / 661 5,033 kg 06-14-75 / 03:00:31 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 285-02 USSR Lavochkin Venus orbit / 

landing

S

150 Viking 1 Viking-B 3,527 kg 08-20-75 / 21:22:00 CC / 41 Titan IIIE-Centaur / 4 USA NASA / JPL Mars orbit / 

landing

S

151 Viking 2 Viking-A 3,527 kg 09-09-75 / 18:39:00 CC / 41 Titan IIIE-Centaur / 3 USA NASA / JPL Mars orbit / 

landing

S
320 BEYOND EARH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016 Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch place / pad1 Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design and Operation Objective Outcome2 152 [Luna] Ye-8-5M / 412 5,795 kg 10-16-75 / 04:04:56 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 287-02 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample F 1976 153 Helios 2 Helios-B 370 kg 01-15-76 / 05:34:00 CC / 41 Titan IIIE-Centaur / 5 FRG DFVLR / NASA solar orbit S 154 Luna 24 Ye-8-5M / 413 c. 5,800 kg 08-09-76 / 15:04:12 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 288-02 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample S 1977 155 Voyager 2 Voyager-2 721.9 kg 08-20-77 / 14:29:44 CC / 41 Titan IIIE-Centaur / 7 USA NASA / JPL Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus

S

156 Voyager 1 Voyager-1 721.9 kg 09-05-77 / 12:56:01 CC / 41 Titan IIIE-Centaur / 6 USA NASA / JPL Jupiter, Saturn 

flyby

S

1978

157 Pioneer Venus 1 Pioneer Venus 

Orbiter

582 kg 05-20-78 / 13:13:00 CC / 36A Atlas Centaur / 50 USA NASA / ARC Venus orbiter S

158 Pioneer Venus 2 Pioneer Venus 

Multiprobe

904 kg 08-08-78 / 07:33 CC / 36A Atlas Centaur / 51 USA NASA / ARC Venus impacts S

159 ISEE-3 ISEE-C 479 kg 08-12-78 / 15:12 CC / 17B Delta 2914 / 144 USA NASA / GSFC Sun–Earth L1 S160 Venera 11 4V-1 / 360 4,447.3 kg 09-09-78 / 03:25:39 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 296-01 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing S161 Venera 12 4V-1 / 361 4,457.9 kg 09-14-78 / 02:25:13 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 296-02 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing S

1981

162 Venera 13 4V-1M / 760 4,397.8 kg 10-30-81 / 06:04 NIIP-5 / 200P Proton-K / 311-01 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing S163 Venera 14 4V-1M / 761 4,394.5 kg 11-04-81 / 05:31 NIIP-5 / 200L Proton-K / 311-02 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing S

1983

164 Venera 15 4V-2 / 860 5,250 kg 06-02-83 / 02:38:39 NIIP-5 / 200L Proton-K / 321-01 USSR Lavochkin Venus orbit S165 Venera-16 4V-2 / 861 5,300 kg 06-07-83 / 02:32 NIIP-5 / 200P Proton-K / 321-02 USSR Lavochkin Venus orbit S

1984

166 Vega 1 5VK / 901 c. 4,840 kg 12-15-84 / 09:16:24 NIIP-5 / 200L Proton-K / 329-01 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing, 

Halley flyby

S

167 Vega 2 5VK / 902 c. 4,840 kg 12-21-84 / 09:13:52 NIIP-5 / 200P Proton-K / 325-02 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing, 

Halley flyby

S
Tables 321

Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch place / pad1 Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design and Operation Objective Outcome2

1985

168 Sakigake MS-T5 138.1 kg 01-07-85 / 19:26 Kagoshima / M1 Mu-3S-II / 1 Japan ISAS Halley flyby S169 Giotto Giotto 960 kg 07-02-85 / 11:23:16 CSG / ELA 1 Ariane 1 / V14 ESA ESA Halley flyby S170 Suisei Planet-A 139.5 kg 08-18-85 / 23:33 Kagoshima / M1 Mu-3S-II / 2 Japan ISAS Halley flyby S

1988

171 Fobos 1 1F / 101 6,220 kg 07-07-88 / 17:38:04 NIIP-5 / 200L Proton-K / 356-02 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit / 

Phobos flyby /landings

F

172 Fobos 2 1F / 102 6,220 kg 07-12-88 / 17:01:43 NIIP-5 / 200P Proton-K / 356-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit / 

Phobos flyby / landings

P

1989

173 Magellan Magellan 3,445 kg 05-04-89 / 18:47:00 KSC / 39B STS-30R / IUS USA NASA / JPL Venus orbit S174 Galileo Galileo 2,380 kg 10-18-89 / 16:53:40 KSC / 39B STS-34R / IUS USA NASA / JPL Jupiter orbit / 

probe entry

S

1990

175 Hiten / Hagoromo MUSES-A / 

MUSES-A subsat

185 kg / 12 kg

01-24-90 / 11:46:00 Kagoshima / M1 Mu-3S-II / 5 Japan ISAS lunar encounter ̨/ 

orbit

S

176 Ulysses Ulysses 371 kg 10-06-90 / 11:47:16 KSC / 39B STS-41 / IUS ESA / 

USA

ESA / NASA / JPL solar orbit S

1992

177 Geotail Geotail 1,009 kg 07-24-92 / 14:26 CC / 17A Delta 6925 / D212 Japan / 

USA

ISAS / NASA high Earth orbit S

178 Mars Observer Mars Observer 1,018 kg 09-25-92 / 17:05:01 CC / 40 Titan III / 4 USA NASA / JPL Mars orbit F

1994

179 Clementine Clementine 424 kg 01-25-94 / 16:34 VAFB / SLC-4W Titan IIG / 11 USA BMDO / NASA lunar orbit S180 Wind Wind 1,250 kg 11-01-94 / 09:31:00 CC / 17B Delta 7925-10 / D227 USA NASA / GSFC Sun–Earth L1 S

1995

181 SOHO SOHO 1,864 kg 12-02-95 / 08:08:01 CC / 36B Atlas Centaur IIAS ̨/ 

121

ESA / USA

ESA / NASA Sun–Earth L1 S
322 BEYOND EARH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016 Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch place / pad1 Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design and Operation Objective Outcome2 1996 182 NEAR Shoemaker NEAR 805 kg 02-17-96 / 20:43:27 CC / 17B Delta 7925-8 / D232 USA NASA / GSFC / APL asteroid

S

183 Mars Global Surveyor MGS 1,030.5 kg 11-07-96 / 17:00:49 CC / 17A Delta 7925 / D239 USA NASA / JPL Mars orbit S184 Mars 8 M1 / 520 6,795 kg 11-16-96 / 20:48:53 GIK-5 / 200L Proton-K / 392-02 Russia Lavochkin Mars landing F185 Mars Pathfinder Mars Pathfinder 870 kg 12-04-96 / 06:58:07 CC / 17B Delta 7925 / D240 USA NASA / JPL Mars landing S

1997

186 ACE ACE 752 kg 08-25-97 / 14:39 CC / 17A Delta 7920-8 / D247 USA NASA / GSFC Sun–Earth L1 S187 Cassini-Huygens Cassini / 

Huygens

5,655 kg 10-15-97 / 08:43 CC / 40 Titan 401B-Centaur / 

21

USA / ESA

NASA / JPL / ESA Saturn orbit, 

Titan landing

S

188 Asiasat 3 HGS 1 3,465 kg 12-24-97 / 23:19 GIK-5 / 81L Proton-K / 394-01 Asiasat Asiasat / Hughes circumlunar S

1998

189 Lunar Prospector Lunar 

Prospector

300 kg 01-07-98 / 02:28:44 CC / 46 Athena 2 / LM-004 USA NASA / ARC lunar orbit S

190 Nozomi Planet-B 536 kg 07-03-98 / 18:12 Kagoshima / M-5 M-V / 3 Japan ISAS Mars orbit F191 Deep Space 1 DS1 486 kg 10-24-98 / 12:08:00 CC / 17A Delta 7326-9.5 / D261 USA NASA / JPL asteroid flyby, 

comet flyby

S

192 Mars Climate Orbiter MCO 638 kg 12-11-98 / 18:45:51 CC / 17A Delta 7425-9.5 / D264 USA NASA / JPL Mars orbit F

1999

193 Mars Polar Lander / 

Deep Space 2

MPL / DS-2 576 kg 01-03-99 / 20:21:10 CC / 17B Delta 7425-9.5 / D265 USA NASA / JPL Mars landing F

194 Stardust Stardust 385 kg 02-07-99 / 21:04:15 CC / 17A Delta 7426-9.5 / D266 USA NASA / JPL comet sample 

return, comet flybys

S

2001

195 2001 Mars Odyssey 2001 Mars 

Odyssey

1,608.7 kg 04-07-01 / 15:02:22 CC / 17A Delta 7925-9.5 / D284 USA NASA / JPL Mars orbit S

196 WMAP Explorer 80 840 kg 06-30-01 / 19:46:46 CC / 17B Delta 7425-10 / D286 USA NASA / GSFC Sun–Earth L2 S197 Genesis Genesis 636 kg 08-08-01 / 16:13:40 CC / 17A Delta 7326-9.5 / D287 USA NASA / JPL solar wind 

sample return, Sun–Earth L1

P
Tables 323

Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch place / pad1 Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design and Operation Objective Outcome2

2002

198 CONTOUR CONTOUR 970 kg 07-03-02 / 06:47:41 CC / 17A Delta 7425-9.5 / D292 USA NASA / APL comet encounters F

2003

199 Hayabusa MUSES-C, 

MINERVA

510 kg 05-09-03 / 04:29:25 Kagoshima / M-V M-V / 5 Japan ISAS / JAXA asteroid sample 

return

P

200 Mars Express Mars Express, 

Beagle 2

1,186 kg 06-02-03 / 17:45:26 GIK-5 / 31 Soyuz-FG / E15000-005 Europe ESA Mars orbit, 

landing

P

201 Spirit MER-2 1,062 kg 06-10-03 / 17:58:47 CC / 17A Delta 7925-9.5 / D298 USA NASA / JPL Mars surface 

exploration

S

202 Opportunity MER-1 1,062 kg 07-08-03 / 03:18:15 CC / 17B Delta 7925H / D299 USA NASA / JPL Mars surface 

exploration

S

203 Spitzer Space 

Telescope

SIRTF 950 kg 08-25-03 / 05:35:39 CC / 17B Delta 7920H / D300 USA NASA / JPL / Caltech solar orbit S

204 SMART-1 SMART-1 367 kg 09-27-03 / 23:14:46 CSG / ELA 3 Ariane 5G / V162 Europe ESA lunar orbit S

2004

205 Rosetta, Philae Rosetta, Philae 3,000 kg 03-02-04 / 07:17:44 CSG / ELA 3 Ariane 5G+ / V158 Europe ESA comet orbit and 

landing

S

206 MESSENGER MESSENGER 1,107.9 kg 08-03-04 / 06:15:57 CC / 17B Delta 7925H-9.5 / D307 USA NASA / APL Mercury orbit S

2005

207 Deep Impact DIF, DI 650 kg 01-12-05 / 18:47:08 CC / 17B Delta 7925-9.5 / D311 USA NASA / JPL comet impact, 

flyby

S

208 Mars Reconnaissance 

Orbiter

MRO 2,180 kg 08-12-05 / 11:43:00 CC / 41 Atlas V 401 / 007 USA NASA / JPL Mars orbit S

209 Venus Express VEX 1,270 kg 11-09-05 / 03:33:34 Baikonur / 31 Soyuz-FG / 

Zh15000-010

Europe ESA Venus orbit S

2006

210 New Horizons New Horizons 478 kg 01-19-06 / 19:00:00 CC / 41 Atlas V 551 / 010 USA NASA / APL Pluto flyby S211 STEREO Ahead, 

STEREO Behind

Stereo A, Stereo B

623 kg658 kg

10-26-06 / 00:52:00 CC / 17B Delta 7925-10L (D319) USA NASA / GSFC / APL solar orbit S

2007

212 Artemis P1, 

Artemis P2

THEMIS B, THEMIS C

2 × 126 kg 02-17-07 / 23:01:00 CC / 17B Delta 7925-10C / D323 USA NASA / UC-Berkeley Earth–Moon L1, 

Earth–Moon L2, lunar orbit

S
324 BEYOND EARH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016 Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch place / pad1 Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design and Operation Objective Outcome2 213 Phoenix Phoenix Lander 680 kg 08-04-07 / 09:26:34 CC / 17A Delta 7925-9.5 / D325 USA NASA / JPL / UofA Mars landing S 214 Kaguya SELENE 2,900 kg 09-14-07 / 01:31:01 Tanegashima / Y1 H-IIA 2022 / 13 Japan JAXA lunar orbit S 215 Dawn Dawn 1,218 kg 09-27-07 / 11:34:00 CC / 17B Delta 7925H-9.5 / D327 USA NASA / JPL Vesta, Ceres orbit S 216 Chang’e 1 Chang’e 1 2,350 kg 10-24-07 / 10:05:04 Xichang / LC 3 CZ-3A / Y14 China CNSA lunar orbit S 2008 217 Chandrayaan-1 Chandrayaan-1, MIP 1,380 kg 10-22-08 / 00:52:11 SHAR / SLP PSLV-XL / C11 India ISRO lunar orbi

S

2009

218 Kepler Kepler 1,039 kg 03-07-09 / 03:49:57 CC / 17B Delta 7925-10L / D339 USA NASA / ARC / JPL solar orbit S219 Herschel Herschel 3,400 kg 05-14-09 / 13:12 CSG / ELA 3 Ariane 5ECA / V188 ESA ESA Sun–Earth L2 S220 Planck Planck 1,950 kg 05-14-09 / 13:12 CSG / ELA 3 Ariane 5ECA / V188 ESA ESA Sun–Earth L2 S221 Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter LRO 1,850 kg 06-18-09 / 21:32:00 CC / 41 Atlas V 401 / 020 USA NASA / GSFC lunar orbit S222 Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing 

Satellite

LCROSS 621 kg 06-18-09 / 21:32:00 CC / 41 Atlas V 401 / 020 USA NASA / ARC lunar orbit S

2010

223 Akatsuki VCO 517.6 kg 05-20-10 / 21:58:22 Tanegashima / Y1 H-IIA 202 / 17 Japan JAXA Venus orbit S224 Shin’en UNITEC 1 20 kg 05-20-10 / 21:58:22 Tanegashima / Y1 H-IIA 202 / 17 Japan JAXA Venus encounter P225 IKAROS IKAROS 310 kg 05-20-10 / 21:58:22 Tanegashima / Y1 H-IIA 202 / 17 Japan JAXA Venus flyby S226 Chang’e 2 Chang’e 2 2,480 kg 10-01-10 / 10:59:57 Xichang / LC2 CZ-3C China CNSA lunar orbit, Sun–

Earth L2, asteroid flyby

S

2011

227 Juno Juno 3,625 kg 08-05-11 / 16:25:00 CC / 41 Atlas V 551 / 29 USA NASA / JPL Jupiter orbit S228 Ebb, Flow GRAIL-A, 

GRAIL-B

2 × 202.4 kg

09-10-11 / 13:08:53 CC / 17B Delta 7920H-10 / D356 USA NASA / JPL lunar orbit S

229 Fobos-Grunt 13,505 kg 11-08-11 / 20:16:03 Baikonur / 45 Zenit-2SB41.1 Russia Lavochkin / IKI / RAN Mars orbit, 

Phobos flyby, sample return

F
Tables 325

Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch place / pad1 Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design and Operation Objective Outcome2

230 Yinghuo-1 113 kg 11-08-11 / 20:16:03 Baikonur / 45 Zenit-2SB41.1 China CNSA Mars orbit F231 Curiosity MSL 3,893 kg 11-26-11 / 15:02:00 CC / 41 Atlas V 541 / 28 USA NASA / JPL Mars landing and 

roving

S

2013

232 LADEE LADEE 383 kg 09-07-13 / 03:27:00 MARS / 0B Minotaur V / 1 USA NASA / ARC / GSFC lunar orbit S233 Mangalyaan MOM 1,337 kg 11-05-13 / 09:08 SHAR / PSLV pad PSLV-XL / C25 India ISRO Mars orbit S234 MAVEN MAVEN 2,454 kg 11-18-13 / 18:28:00 CC / 41 Atlas V 401 / 38 USA NASA / GSFC / UofC Mars orbit S235 Chang’e 3, Yutu Chang’e 3, Yutu 3,780 kg 12-01-13 / 17:30 Xichang / LC2 CZ-3B / Y23 China CNSA lunar landing, surface exploration S236 Gaia Gaia 2,029 kg 12-19-13 / 09:12:18 CSG / ELS Soyuz-ST-B / 

E15000-004

ESA ESA Sun–Earth L2 S

2014

237 Chang’e 5-T1 3,300 kg 10-23-14 / 18:00:04 Xichang CZ-3C/G2 China CNSA circumlunar, 

Earth–Moon L2, lunar orbit

S

238 Hayabusa 2 600 kg 12-03-14 / 04:22:04 Tanegashima / Y1 H-IIA / F26 Japan JAXA asteroid rendezvous, sample 

return

IP

239 PROCYON 65 kg 12-03-14 / 04:22:04 Tanegashima / Y1 H-IIA / F26 Japan JAXA asteroid flyby P240 Shin’en 2 17 kg 12-03-14 / 04:22:04 Tanegashima / Y1 H-IIA / F26 Japan JAXA solar orbit F241 ArtSat-2 DESPATCH 30 kg 12-03-14 / 04:22:04 Tanegashima / Y1 H-IIA / F26 Japan JAXA solar orbit S

2015

242 DSCOVR Triana 570 kg 02-11-15 / 23:03:02 CC / 40 Falcon 9 v.1.1 USA NASA / NOAA / USAF Sun–Earth L1 S243 LISA Pathfinder SMART-2 1,910 kg 12-03-15 / 04:04:00 CSG / ELV Vega / VV06 ESA ESA Sun–Earth L1 S

2016

244 ExoMars TGO / 

Schiaparelli

TGO / EDM Lander

4,332 kg 03-14-16 / 09:31 Baikonur / 200L Proton-M / 93560 ESA / 

Russia

ESA / Roskosmos Mars orbit and 

landing

S/P

245 OSIRIS-REx OSIRIS-REx 2,110 kg 09-08-16 / 23:05 CC / 41 Atlas V 411 / AV-067 USA NASA asteroid sample 

return

IP
326 BEYOND EARH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016 Table 2. Programs UNITED STATES Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch place / pad1 Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design & Operation Objective Out- come2 PIONEER [Pioneer 0] Able 1 38.5 kg 08-17-58 / 12:18 CC / 17A Thor Able I / 127 USA ARPA / AFBMD lunar orbit F Pioneer Able 2 38.3 kg 10-11-58 / 08:42:13 CC / 17A Thor Able I / 1 USA NASA / AFBMD lunar orbit F Pioneer II Able 3 39.6 kg 11-08-58 / 07:30:20 CC / 17A Thor-Able I / 2 USA NASA / AFBMD lunar orbi

— 5.87 kg 12-06-58 / 05:44:52 CC / 5 Juno II / AM-11 USA NASA / ABMA / JPL lunar flyby F

Pioneer IV

— 6.08 kg 03-03-59 / 05:10:56 CC / 5 Juno II / AM-14 USA NASA / ABMA / JPL lunar flyby P

[Pioneer, P-3] P-3 / Able IVB 168.7 kg 11-26-59 / 07:26 CC / 14 Atlas Able / 1 USA NASA / AFBMD lunar orbit FPioneer V P-2 / Able 6 43.2 kg 03-11-60 / 13:00:07 CC / 17A Thor Able IV / 4 USA NASA / AFBMD solar orbit S[Pioneer, P-30] P-30 / Able VA 175.5 kg 09-25-60 / 15:13 CC / 12 Atlas Able / 2 USA NASA / AFBMD lunar orbit F[Pioneer, P-31] P-31 / Able VB 176 kg 12-15-60 / 09:10 CC / 12 Atlas Able / 3 USA NASA / AFBMD lunar orbit FPioneer VI Pioneer-A 62.14 kg 12-16-65 / 07:31:21 CK / 17A Thor Delta E / 35 USA NASA / ARC solar orbit SPioneer VII Pioneer-B 62.75 kg 08-17-66 / 15:20:17 CK / 17A Thor Delta E1 / 40 USA NASA / ARC solar orbit SPioneer VIII Pioneer-C 65.36 kg 12-13-67 / 14:08 CK / 17B Thor Delta E-1 / 55 USA NASA / ARC solar orbit SPioneer IX Pioneer-D 65.36 11-08-68 / 09:46:29 CK / 17B Thor Delta E1 / 60 USA NASA / ARC solar orbit S[Pioneer] Pioneer-E 65.4 kg 08-27-69 / 21:59 CC / 17A Thor Delta L / 73 USA NASA ARC solar orbit FPioneer 10 Pioneer-F 258 kg 03-02-72 / 01:49:04 CK / 36A Atlas Centaur / 27 USA NASA / ARC Jupiter flyby SPioneer 11 Pioneer-G 258.5 kg 04-06-73 / 02:11 CK / 36B Atlas Centaur / 30 USA NASA / ARC Jupiter, Saturn flyby SPioneer Venus 1 Pioneer Venus 

Orbiter

582 kg 05-20-78 / 13:13:00 CC / 36A Atlas Centaur / 50 USA NASA / ARC Venus orbiter S

Pioneer Venus 2 Pioneer Venus 

Multiprobe

904 kg 08-08-78 / 07:33 CC / 36A Atlas Centaur / 51 USA NASA / ARC Venus impacts S

1 CC = Cape Canaveral, CK = Cape Kennedy, CSG = Le Centre Spatial Guyanais, GIK-5 = Baikonur, KSC = Kennedy Space Center, MARS = Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport, 

NIIP-5 = Baikonur, SHAR = Sriharikota, VAFB = Vandenberg Air Force Base

2 F = failure, IP = in progress, P = partial success, S = success
Tables 327

Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch 

place / pad1

Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design & Operation Objective Outcome2

RANGER

Ranger I P-32 306.18 kg 08-23-61 / 10:04 CC / 12 Atlas Agena B / 1 USA NASA / JPL deep space orbit FRanger II P-33 306.18 kg 11-18-61 / 08:12 CC / 12 Atlas Agena B / 2 USA NASA / JPL deep space orbit FRanger III P-34 330 kg 01-26-62 / 20:30 CC / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 3 USA NASA / JPL lunar impact FRanger IV P-35 331.12 kg 04-23-62 / 20:50 CC / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 4 USA NASA JPL lunar impact PRanger V P-36 342.46 kg 10-18-62 / 16:59:00 CC / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 7 USA NASA / JPL lunar landing PRanger VI Ranger-A / P-53 364.69 kg 01-30-64 / 15:49:09 CK / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 8 USA NASA / JPL lunar impact PRanger VII Ranger-B / P-54 365.6 kg 07-28-64 / 16:50:07 CK / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 9 USA NASA / JPL lunar impact SRanger VIII Ranger-C 366.87 kg 02-17-65 / 17:05:00 CK / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 13 USA NASA / JPL lunar impact SRanger IX Ranger-D 366.87 kg 03-21-65 / 21:37:02 CK / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 14 USA NASA / JPL lunar impact S

MARINER

Mariner I P-37 202.8 kg 07-22-62 / 09:21:23 CC / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 5 USA NASA / JPL Venus flyby FMariner II P-38 203.6 kg 08-27-62 / 06:53:14 CC / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 6 USA NASA / JPL Venus flyby SMariner III Mariner-64C 260.8 kg 11-05-64 / 19:22:05 CK / 13 Atlas-Agena D / 11 USA NASA / JPL Mars flyby FMariner IV Mariner-64D 260.8 kg 11-28-64 / 14:22:01 CK / 12 Atlas-Agena D / 12 USA NASA / JPL Mars flyby SMariner V Mariner-67E 244.9 kg 06-14-67 / 06:01:00 CK / 12 Atlas Agena D / 23 USA NASA / JPL Venus flyby SMariner VI Mariner-69F 381 kg 02-25-69 / 01:29:02 CK / 36B Atlas Centaur / 20 USA NASA / JPL Mars flyby SMariner VII Mariner-69G 381 kg 03-27-69 / 22:22:01 CK / 36A Atlas Centaur / 19 USA NASA / JPL Mars flyby SMariner 8 Mariner-71H 997.9 kg 05-09-71 / 01:11:01 CK / 36A Atlas Centaur / 24 USA NASA / JPL Mars orbit FMariner 9 Mariner-71I 997.9 kg 05-30-71 / 22:23:04 CK / 36B Atlas Centaur / 23 USA NASA / JPL Mars orbit SMariner 10 Mariner-73J 502.9 kg 11-03-73 / 05:45:00 CC / 36B Atlas Centaur / 34 USA NASA / JPL Mercury, Venus flyby S

SURVEYOR

[Surveyor Model] SD-1 951 kg 03-02-65 / 13:25 CK / 36A Atlas Centaur / 5 USA NASA / JPL deep space orbit FSurveyor Model 1 SD-2 950 kg 08-11-65 / 14:31:04 CK / 36B Atlas Centaur / 6 USA NASA / JPL deep space orbit SSurveyor Model 2 SD-3 784 kg 04-08-66 / 01:00:02 CK / 36B Atlas Centaur / 8 USA NASA / JPL deep space orbit FSurveyor 1 Surveyor-A 995.2 kg 05-30-66 / 14:41:01 CK / 36A Atlas Centaur / 10 USA NASA / JPL lunar landing S
328 BEYOND EARH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016 Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch place / pad1 Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design & Operation Objective Out- come2 Surveyor II Surveyor-B 995.2 kg 09-20-66 / 12:32:00 CK / 36A Atlas Centaur / 7 USA NASA / JPL lunar landing F Surveyor III Surveyor-C 997.9 kg 04-17-67 / 07:05:01 CK / 36B Atlas Centaur / 12 USA NASA/ JPL lunar landing S Surveyor IV Surveyor-D 1,037.4 kg 07-14-67 / 11:53:29 CK / 36A Atlas Centaur / 11 USA NASA / JPL lunar landing F Surveyor V Surveyor-E 1,006 kg 09-08-67 / 07:57:01 CK / 36B Atlas Centaur / 13 USA NASA / JPL lunar landing S Surveyor VI Surveyor-F 1,008.3 kg 11-07-67 / 07:39:01 CK / 36B Atlas Centaur / 14 USA NASA / JPL lunar landing S Surveyor VII Surveyor-G 1,040.1 kg 01-07-68 / 06:30:00 CK / 36A Atlas Centaur / 15 USA NASA / JPL lunar landing S EXPLORER Explorer XXXIII AIMP-D 93.4 kg 07-01-66 / 16:02:25 CK / 17A Thor Delta E1 / 39 USA NASA / GSFC lunar orbit P Explorer XXXV AIMP-E 104.3 kg 07-19-67 / 14:19:02 CK / 17B Thor Delta E1 / 50 USA NASA / GSFC lunar orbit S Explorer 49 RAE-B 330.2 kg 06-10-73 / 14:13:00 CC / 17B Delta 1913 / 95 USA NASA / GSFC lunar orbit S LUNAR ORBITER Lunar Orbiter I LO-A 386.9 kg 08-10-66 / 19:26:00 CK / 13 Atlas Agena D / 17 USA NASA / LaRC lunar orbit S Lunar Orbiter II S/C 5 385.6 kg 11-06-66 / 23:21:00 CK / 13 Atlas Agena D / 18 USA NASA / LaRC lunar orbit S Lunar Orbiter III S/C 6 385.6 kg 02-05-67 / 01:17:01 CK / 13 Atlas Agena D / 20 USA NASA / LaRC lunar orbit S Lunar Orbiter IV S/C 7 385.6 kg 05-04-67 / 22:25:00 CK / 13 Atlas Agena D / 22 USA NASA / LaRC lunar orbit S Lunar Orbiter V S/C 3 385.6 kg 08-01-67 / 22:33:00 CK / 13 Atlas Agena D / 24 USA NASA / LaRC lunar orbit S APOLLO PARTICLE AND FIELDS SATELLITE Apollo 15 Particle & Fields Sat 35.6 kg 08-04-71 / 20:13:19 Apollo 15 CSM 112 Saturn V / 510 USA NASA / MSC lunar orbit S Apollo 16 Particle & Fields Sat 42 kg 04-24-72 / 09:56:09 Apollo 16 CSM 113 Saturn V / 511 USA NASA / MSC lunar orbit S VIKING Viking 1 Viking-B 3,527 kg 08-20-75 / 21:22:00 CC / 41 Titan IIIE-Centaur / 4 USA NASA / JPL Mars or

Viking 2 Viking-A 3,527 kg 09-09-75 / 18:39:00 CC / 41 Titan IIIE-Centaur / 3 USA NASA / JPL Mars orbit / landing S

VOYAGER

Voyager 2 Voyager-2 721.9 kg 08-20-77 / 14:29:44 CC / 41 Titan IIIE-Centaur / 7 USA NASA / JPL Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, 

Neptune flyby

S

Voyager 1 Voyager-1 721.9 kg 09-05-77 / 12:56:01 CC / 41 Titan IIIE-Centaur / 6 USA NASA / JPL Jupiter, Saturn flyby S
Tables 329

Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch 

place / pad1

Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design & Operation Objective Outcome2

ISEE

ISEE-3 ISEE-C 479 kg 08-12-78 / 15:12 CC / 17B Delta 2914 / 144 USA NASA GSFC Sun–Earth L1 S

MAGELLAN

Magellan Magellan 3,445 kg 05-04-89 / 18:47:00 KSC / 39B STS-30R / IUS USA NASA / JPL Venus orbit S

GALILEO

Galileo Galileo 2,380 kg 10-18-89 / 16:53:40 KSC / 39B STS-34R / IUS USA NASA / JPL Jupiter orbit / probe 

entry

S

MARS OBSERVER

Mars Observer Mars Observer 1,018 kg 09-25-92 / 17:05:01 CC / 40 Titan III / 4 USA NASA / JPL Mars orbit F

CLEMENTINE

Clementine Clementine 424 kg 01-25-94 / 16:34 VAFB / 

SLC-4W

Titan IIG / 11 USA BMDO / NASA lunar orbit S

WIND

Wind Wind 1,250 kg 11-01-94 / 09:31:00 CC / 17B Delta 7925-10 / D227 USA NASA / GSFC Sun–Earth L1 S

NEAR

NEAR Shoemaker NEAR 805 kg 02-17-96 / 20:43:27 CC / 17B Delta 7925-8 / D232 USA NASA / GSFC / APL asteroid orbit, landing S

MARS GLOBAL SURVEYOR

Mars Global Surveyor MGS 1,030.5 kg 11-07-96 / 17:00:49 CC / 17A Delta 7925 / D239 USA NASA / JPL Mars orbit S

MARS PATHFINDER

Mars Pathfinder Mars Pathfinder 870 kg 12-04-96 / 06:58:07 CC / 17B Delta 7925 / D240 USA NASA / JPL Mars landing S

ACE

ACE ACE 752 kg 08-25-97 / 14:39 CC / 17A Delta 7920-8 / D247 USA NASA / GSFC Sun–Earth L1 S

LUNAR PROSPECTOR

Lunar Prospector Lunar Prospector 300 kg 01-07-98 / 02:28:44 CC / 46 Athena 2 / LM-004 USA NASA / ARC lunar orbit S

DEEP SPACE

Deep Space 1 DS1 486 kg 10-24-98 / 12:08:00 CC / 17A Delta 7326-9.5 / D261 USA NASA / JPL asteroid flyby, comet 

flyby

S

MARS CLIMATE ORBITER

Mars Climate Orbiter MCO 638 kg 12-11-98 / 18:45:51 CC / 17A Delta 7425-9.5 / D264 USA NASA / JPL Mars orbit F
330 BEYOND EARH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016 Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch place / pad1 Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design & Operation Objective Out- come2 MARS POLAR LANDER Mars Polar Lander / Deep Space 2 MPL / DS-2 576 kg 01-03-99 / 20:21:10 CC / 17B Delta 7425-9.5 / D265 USA NASA / JPL Mars landing F STARDUST Stardust Stardust 385 kg 02-07-99 / 21:04:15 CC / 17A Delta 7426-9.5 / D266 USA NASA / JPL comet sample retur

S

2001 MARS ODYSSEY

2001 Mars Odyssey 2001 Mars 

Odyssey

1,608.7 kg 04-07-01 / 15:02:22 CC / 17A Delta 7925-9.5 / D284 USA NASA / JPL Mars orbit S

MAP

MAP Explorer 80 840 kg 06-30-01 / 19:46:46 CC / 17B Delta 7425-10 / D286 USA NASA / GSFC Sun–Earth L2 S

GENESIS

Genesis Genesis 636 kg 08-08-01 / 16:13:40 CC / 17A Delta 7326-9.5 / D287 USA NASA / JPL solar wind sample 

return, Sun–Earth L1

P

CONTOUR

CONTOUR CONTOUR 970 kg 07-03-02 / 06:47:41 CC / 17A Delta 7425-9.5 / D292 USA NASA / APL comet flyby F

MER

Spirit MER-2 1,062 kg 06-10-03 / 17:58:47 CC / 17A Delta 7925-9.5 / D298 USA NASA / JPL Mars surface 

exploration

S

Opportunity MER-1 1,062 kg 07-08-03 / 03:18:15 CC / 17B Delta 7925H / D299 USA NASA / JPL Mars surface 

exploration

S

SPITZER

Spitzer Space Telescope SIRTF 950 kg 08-25-03 / 05:35:39 CC / 17B Delta 7920H / D300 USA NASA / JPL / 

Caltech

Solar orbit S

MESSENGER

MESSENGER MESSENGER 1,107.9 kg 08-03-04 / 06:15:57 CC / 17B Delta 7925H-9.5 / D307 USA NASA / APL Mercury orbit S

DEEP IMPACT

Deep Impact DIF, DI 650 kg 01-12-05 / 18:47:08 CC / 17B Delta 7925-9.5 / D311 USA NASA / JPL comet impact, flyby S

MRO

Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter

MRO 2,180 kg 08-12-05 / 11:43:00 CC / 41 Atlas V 401 / 007 USA NASA / JPL Mars orbit S
Tables 331

Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch 

place / pad1

Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design & Operation Objective Outcome2

NEW HORIZONS

New Horizons New Horizons 478 kg 01-19-06 / 19:00:00 CC / 41 Atlas V 551 / 010 USA NASA / APL Pluto flyby S

STEREO

STEREO Ahead, STEREO Behind

Stereo A, Stereo B

623 kg 658 kg

10-26-06 / 00:52:00 CC / 17B Delta 7925-10L (D319) USA NASA / GSFC / APL solar orbit S

ARTEMIS

Artemis P1, Artemis P2

THEMIS B, THEMIS C

2 × 126 kg 02-17-07 / 23:01:00 CC / 17B Delta 7925-10C / D323 USA NASA / UC-Berkeley Earth–Moon L1, Earth–

Moon L2, lunar orbit

S

PHOENIX

Phoenix Phoenix Lander 664 kg 08-04-07 / 09:26:34 CC / 17A Delta 7925-9.5 / D325 USA NASA / JPL Mars landing S

DAWN

Dawn Dawn 1,218 kg 09-27-07 / 11:34:00 CC / 17B Delta 7925H / D327 USA NASA / JPL Vesta, Ceres orbit S

KEPLER

Kepler Kepler 1,039 kg 03-07-09 / 03:49:57 CC / 17B Delta 7925-10L / D339 USA NASA / ARC / JPL solar orbit S

LRO / LCROSS

Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter

LRO 1,850 kg 06-18-09 / 21:32:00 CC / 41 Atlas V 401 / 020 USA NASA / GSFC lunar orbit S

Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite

LCROSS 621 kg 06-18-09 / 21:32:00 CC / 41 Atlas V 401 / 020 USA NASA / GSFC lunar orbit S

JUNO

Juno Juno 3,625 kg 08-05-11 / 16:25:00 CC / 41 Atlas V 551 / 29 USA NASA / JPL Jupiter orbit IP

GRAIL

Ebb, Flow GRAIL-A, 

GRAIL-B

2 × 202.4 kg

09-10-11 / 13:08:52 CC / 17B Delta 7920H-10 / D356 USA NASA / JPL lunar orbit S

MSL

Curiosity MSL 3,893 kg 11-26-11 / 15:02:00 CC / 41 Atlas V 541 / 28 USA NASA / JPL Mars landing and 

surface exploration

S

LADEE

LADEE LADEE 383 kg 09-07-13 / 03:27:00 MARS / 0B Minotaur V / 1 USA NASA / ARC / GSFC lunar orbit S
332 BEYOND EARH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016 Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch place / pad1 Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design & Operation Objective Out- come2 MAVEN MAVEN MAVEN 2,454 kg 11-18-13 / 18:28:00 CC / 41 Atlas V 401 / 38 USA NASA / GSFC / UofC Mars orbit S DSCOVR DSCOVR Triana 570 kg 02-11-15 / 23:03:02 CC / 40 Falcon 9 v.1.1 USA NASA / NOAA / USAF Sun–Earth L1 S SOVIET UNION / RUSSIA Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch place / pad Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design & Operation Objective Out- come LUNA [Luna] Ye-1 / 1 c. 360 kg 09-23-58 / 07:03:23 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / B1-3 USSR OKB-1 lunar impact F [Luna] Ye-1 / 2 c. 360 kg 10-11-58 / 21:41:58 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / B1-4 USSR OKB-1 lunar impact F [Luna] Ye-1 / 3 c. 360 kg 12-04-58 / 18:18:44 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / B1-5 USSR OKB-1 lunar impact F Soviet Space Rocket [Luna 1] Ye-1 / 4 361.3 kg 01-02-59 / 16:41:21 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / B1-6 USSR OKB-1 lunar impact P Second Soviet Space Rocket [Luna 2] Ye-1A / 7 390.2 kg 09-12-59 / 06:39:42 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / I1-7b USSR OKB-1 lunar impact S Automatic Interplane- tary Station [Luna 3] Ye-2A / 1 278.5 kg 10-04-59 / 00:43:40 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / I1-8 USSR OKB-1 lunar flyby S [Luna] Ye-3 / 1 ? 04-15-60 / 15:06:44 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / I1-9 USSR OKB-1 lunar flyby F [Luna] Ye-3 / 2 ? 04-19-60 / 16:07:43 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / I1-9a USSR OKB-1 lunar flyby F [Luna] Ye-6 / 2 1,420 kg 01-04-63 / 08:48:58 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T103-09 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing F [Luna] Ye-6 / 3 1,420 kg 02-03-63 / 09:29:14 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T103-10 USSR OKB-1 

Luna 4 Ye-6 / 4 1,422 kg 04-02-63 / 08:16:38 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T103-11 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing F[Luna] Ye-6 / 6 c. 1,420 kg 03-21-64 / 08:14:33 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T15000-20 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing F[Luna] Ye-6 / 5 c. 1,420 kg 04-20-64 / 08:08:28 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T15000-21 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing FKosmos 60 [Luna] Ye-6 / 9 c. 1,470 kg 03-12-65 / 09:25 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / G15000-24 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing F
Tables 333

Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch place 

/ pad

Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design & Operation Objective Outcome

[Luna] Ye-6 / 8 c. 1,470 kg 04-10-65 / 08:39 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M / R103-26 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing FLuna 5 Ye-6 / 10 1,476 kg 05-09-65 / 07:49:37 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M / U103-30 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing FLuna 6 Ye-6 / 7 1,442 kg 06-08-65 / 07:40 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M / U103-31 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing FLuna 7 Ye-6 / 11 1,506 kg 10-04-65 / 07:56:40 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / U103-27 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing FLuna 8 Ye-6 / 12 1,552 kg 12-03-65 / 10:46:14 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M / U103-28 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing FLuna 9 Ye-6M / 202 1,583.7 kg 01-31-66 / 11:41:37 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M / U103-32 USSR Lavochkin lunar landing SKosmos 111 [Luna] Ye-6S / 204 c. 1,580 kg 03-01-66 / 11:03:49 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M / N103-41 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit FLuna 10 Ye-6S / 206 1,583.7 kg 03-31-66 / 10:46:59 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M / N103-42 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit SLuna 11 Ye-6LF / 101 1,640 kg 08-24-66 / 08:03:21 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M / N103-43 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit SLuna 12 Ye-6LF / 102 1,640 kg 10-22-66 / 08:42:26 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M / N103-44 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit SLuna 13 Ye-6M / 205 1,620 kg 12-21-66 / 10:17:08 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M / N103-45 USSR Lavochkin lunar landing SKosmos 159 [Luna] Ye-6LS / 111 1.640 kg 05-16-67 / 21:43:57 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M / Ya716-56 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit P[Luna] Ye-6LS / 112 1,640 kg 02-07-68 / 10:43:54 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M / Ya716-57 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit FLuna 14 Ye-6LS / 113 1,640 kg 04-07-68 / 10:09:32 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M / Ya716-58 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit S[Luna/Lunokhod] Ye-8 / 201 c. 5,700 kg 02-19-69 / 06:48:48 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 239-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar rover F[Luna] Ye-8-5 / 402 c. 5,700 kg 06-14-69 / 040:0:48 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 238-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample FLuna 15 Ye-8-5 / 401 5,667 kg 07-13-69 / 02:54:42 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 242-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample FKosmos 300 [Luna] Ye-8-5 / 403 c. 5,700 kg 09-23-69 / 14:07:37 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 244-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample FKosmos 305 [Luna] Ye-8-5 / 404 c. 5,700 kg 10-22-69 / 14:09:59 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 241-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample F[Luna] Ye-8-5 / 405 c. 5,700 kg 02-06-70 / 04:16:05 NIIP-5 / 81 Proton-K / 247-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample FLuna 16 Ye-8-5 / 406 5,725 kg 09-12-70 / 13:25:52 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 248-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample SLuna 17 Lunokhod 1 Ye-8 / 203 5,700 kg 11-10-70 / 14:44:01 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 251-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar rover SLuna 18 Ye-8-5 / 407 5,725 kg 09-02-71 / 13:40:40 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 256-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample FLuna 19 Ye-8LS / 202 5,330 kg 09-28-71 / 10:00:22 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 257-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit PLuna 20 Ye-8-5 / 408 5,725 kg 02-14-72 / 03:27:58 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 258-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample S
334 BEYOND EARH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016 Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch place / pad Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design & Operation Objective Out- come Luna 21 Lunokhod 2 Ye-8 / 204 5,700 kg 01-08-73 / 06:55:38 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 259-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar rover S Luna 22 Ye-8LS / 206 5,700 kg 05-29-74 / 08:56:51 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 282-02 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit S Luna 23 Ye-8-5M / 410 5,795 kg 10-28-74 / 14:30:32 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 285-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample F [Luna] Ye-8-5M / 412 5,795 kg 10-16-75 / 04:04:56 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 287-02 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample F Luna 24 Ye-8-5M / 413 c. 5,800 kg 08-09-76 / 15:04:12 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 288-02 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample S MARS [Mars] 1M / 1 480 kg 10-10-60 / 14:27:49 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / L1-4M USSR OKB-1 Mars flyby F [Mars] 1M / 2 480 kg 10-14-60 / 13:51:03 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / L1-5M USSR OKB-1 Mars flyby F [Mars] 2MV-4 / 3 c. 900 kg 10-24-62 / 17:55:04 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T103-15 USSR OKB-1 Mars flyby F Mars 1 2MV-4 / 4 893.5 kg 11-01-62 / 16:14:06 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T103-16 USSR OKB-1 Mars flyby P [Mars] 2MV-3 / 1 ? 11-04-62 / 15:35:15 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T103-17 USSR OKB-1 Mars impact F [Mars] M-69 / 521 c. 4,850 kg 03-27-69 / 10:40:45 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 240-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit F [Mars] M-69 / 522 c. 4,850 kg 04-02-69 / 10:33:00 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 233-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit F Kosmos 419 [Mars] 3MS / 170 4,549 kg 05-10-71 / 16:58:42 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 253-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit F Mars 2 4M / 171 4,625 kg 05-19-71 / 16:22:44 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 255-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit / landing P Mars 3 4M / 172 4,625 kg 05-28-71 / 15:26:30 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 249-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit / landing P Mars 4 3MS / 52S 4,000 kg 07-21-73 / 19:30:59 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 261-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit F Mars 5 3MS / 53S 4,000 kg 07-25-73 / 18:55:48 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 262-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit S Mars 6 3MP / 50P 3,880 kg 08-05-73 / 17:45:48 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 281-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars landing P Mars 7 3MP / 51P 3,880 kg 08-09-73 / 17:00:17 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 281-02 USSR Lavochkin Mars landing F Fobos 1 1F / 101 6,220 kg 07-07-88 / 17:38:04 NIIP-5 / 200L Proton-K / 356-02 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit / 

landings

F

Fobos 2 1F / 102 6,220 kg 07-12-88 / 17:01:43 NIIP-5 / 200P Proton-K / 356-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit / Phobos flyby / 

landings

P

Mars 8 M1 / 520 6,795 kg 11-16-96 / 20:48:53 GIK-5 / 200L Proton-K / 392-02 Russia Lavochkin Mars landing F
Tables 335

Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch place 

/ pad

Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design & Operation Objective Outcome

Fobos-Grunt 13,505 kg 11-08-11 / 20:16:03 Baikonur / 45 Zenit-2SB41.1 Russia Lavochkin / IKI Mars orbit, Phobos flyby, 

sample return

F

VENERA

Heavy Satellite [Venera]

1VA / 1 c. 645 kg 02-04-61 / 01:18:04 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / L1-7V USSR OKB-1 Venus impact F

Automatic Interplanetary Station [Venera 1] 1VA / 2 643.5 kg 02-12-61 / 00:34:37 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / L1-6V USSR OKB-1 Venus impact F[Venera] 2MV-1 / 3 1,097 kg 08-25-62 / 02:56:06 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T103-12 USSR OKB-1 Venus impact F[Venera] 2MV-1 / 4 c. 1,100 kg 09-01-62 / 02:12:30 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T103-13 USSR OKB-1 Venus impact F[Venera] 2MV-2 / 1 ? 09-12-62 / 00:59:13 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T103-14 USSR OKB-1 Venus flyby FKosmos 27 [Venera] 3MV-1 / 5 948 kg 03-27-64 / 03:24:43 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T15000-27 USSR OKB-1 Venus impact FZond 1 [Venera] 3MV-1 / 4 948 kg 04-02-64 / 02:42:40 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T15000-28 USSR OKB-1 Venus impact FVenera 2 3MV-4 / 4 963 kg 11-12-65 / 04:46 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M / U103-42 USSR OKB-1 Venus flyby SVenera 3 3MV-3 / 1 960 kg 11-16-65 / 04:13 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya / U103-31 USSR OKB-1 Venus impact SKosmos 96 [Venera] 3MV-4 / 6 c. 950 kg 11-23-65 / 03:14 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya / U103-30 USSR OKB-1 Venus flyby FVenera 4 1V / 310 1,106 kg 06-12-67 / 02:39:45 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M / Ya716-70 USSR Lavochkin Venus impact SKosmos 167 [Venera] 1V / 311 c. 1,100 kg 06-17-67 / 02:36:38 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M / Y7`6-71 USSR Lavochkin Venus impact FVenera 5 2V / 330 1,130 kg 01-05-69 / 06:28:08 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M / V716-72 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing SVenera 6 2V / 331 1,130 kg 01-10-69 / 05:51:52 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M / V716-73 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing SVenera 7 3V / 630 1,180 kg 08-17-70 / 05:38:22 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M / 

Kh15000-62

USSR Lavochkin Venus landing S

Kosmos 359 [Venera] 3V / 631 c. 1,200 kg 08-22-70 / 05:06:08 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M / 

Kh15000-61

USSR Lavochkin Venus landing F

Venera 8 3V / 670 1,184 kg 03-27-72 / 04:15:06 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M / S1500-63 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing SKosmos 482 [Venera] 3V / 671 c. 1,180 kg 03-31-72 / 04:02:33 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M / S1500-64 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing FVenera 9 4V-1 / 660 4,936 kg 06-08-75 / 02:38:00 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 286-01 USSR Lavochkin Venus orbit / landing SVenera 10 4V-1 / 661 5,033 kg 06-14-75 / 03:00:31 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 285-02 USSR Lavochkin Venus orbit / landing SVenera 11 4V-1 / 360 4,447.3 kg 09-09-78 / 03:25:39 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 296-01 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing S
336 BEYOND EARH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016 Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch place / pad Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design & Operation Objective Out- come Venera 12 4V-1 / 361 4,457.9 kg 09-14-78 / 02:25:13 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 296-02 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing S Venera 13 4V-1M / 760 4,397.8 kg 10-30-81 / 06:04 NIIP-5 / 200P Proton-K / 311-01 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing S Venera 14 4V-1M / 761 4,394.5 kg 11-04-81 / 05:31 NIIP-5 / 200L Proton-K / 311-02 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing S Venera 15 4V-2 / 860 5,250 kg 06-02-83 / 02:38:39 NIIP-5 / 200L Proton-K / 321-01 USSR Lavochkin Venus orbit S Venera 16 4V-2 / 861 5,300 kg 06-07-83 / 02:32 NIIP-5 / 200P Proton-K / 321-02 USSR Lavochkin Venus orbit S Vega 1 5VK / 901 c. 4,840 kg 12-15-84 / 09:16:24 NIIP-5 / 200L Proton-K / 329-01 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing, Halley flyby S Vega 2 5VK / 902 c. 4,840 kg 12-21-84 / 09:13:52 NIIP-5 / 200P Proton-K / 325-02 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing, Halley flyby S OBJECT-PROBE (EARLY ZOND) Kosmos 21 [Zond] 3MV-1A / 2 c. 800 kg 11-11-63 / 06:23:34 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / G103-18 USSR OKB-1 deep space and recovery F [Zond] 3MV-1A / 4A c. 800 kg 02-19-64 / 05:47:40 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / G15000-26 USSR OKB-1 Venus flyby F Zond 2 3MV-4A / 2 996 kg 11-30-64 / 13:25 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / G15000-29 USSR OKB-1 Mars flyby P Zond 3 3MV-4A / 3 950 kg 07-18-65 / 14:32 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / U103-32 USSR OKB-1 lunar flyby S ZOND (LATER) [Zond] 7K-L1 / 4L c. 5,375 kg 09-27-67 / 22:11:54 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 229-01 USSR TsKBEM circumlunar F [Zond] 7K-L1 / 5L c. 5,375 kg 11-22-67 / 19:07:59 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 230-01 USSR TsKBEM circumlunar F Zond 4 7K-L1 / 6L c. 5,375 kg 03-02-68 / 18:29:23 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 231-01 USSR TsKBEM deep space P [Zond] 7K-L1 / 7L c. 5,375 kg 04-22-68 / 23:01:27 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 232-01 USSR TsKBEM circumlunar F Zond 5 7K-L1 / 9L c. 5,375 kg 09-14-68 / 21:42:11 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 234-01 USSR TsKBEM circumlunar S Zond 6 7K-L1 / 12L c. 5,375 kg 11-10-68 / 19:11:31 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 235-01 USSR TsKBEM circumlunar S [Zond] 7K-L1 / 13L c. 5,375 kg 01-20-69 / 04:14:36 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 237-01 USSR TsKBEM circumlunar F Zond 7 7K-L1 / 11 c. 5,375 kg 08-07-69 / 23:48:06 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 243-01 USSR TsKBE

Zond 8 7K-L1 / 14 c. 5,375 kg 10-20-70 / 19:55:39 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 250-01 USSR TsKBEM circumlunar S

N1 DEEP SPACE TESTS

[N1] 7K-L1S / 2 6,900 kg 02-21-69 / 09:18:07 NIIP-5 / 110P N1 / 3L USSR TsKBEM lunar orbit F[N1] 7K-L1S / 5 c. 6,900 kg 07-03-69 / 20:18:32 NIIP-5 / 110P N1 / 15005 USSR TsKBEM lunar orbit F[N1] 7K-LOK / 6A c. 9,500 kg 11-23-72 / 06:11:55 NIIP-5 / 110L N1 / 15007 USSR TsKBEM lunar orbit F
Tables 337

GERMANY

Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch place / pad Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design & Operation Objective Outcome

HELIOS

Helios 1 Helios-A 370 kg 11-10-74 / 07:11:02 CC / 41 Titan IIIE-Centaur / 2 FRG DFVLR / NASA solar orbit SHelios 2 Helios-B 370 kg 01-15-76 / 05:34:00 CC / 41 Titan IIIE-Centaur / 5 FRG DFVLR / NASA solar orbit S

JAPAN

Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch place / pad Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design & Operation Objective Outcome

PLANET

Sakigake MS-T5 138.1 kg 01-07-85 / 19:26 Kagoshima / M1 Mu-3S-II / 1 Japan ISAS Halley flyby SSuisei Planet-A 139.5 kg 08-18-85 / 23:33 Kagoshima / M1 Mu-3S-II / 2 Japan ISAS Halley flyby SNozomi Planet-B 536 kg 07-03-98 / 18:12 Kagoshima / M-5 M-V / 3 Japan ISAS Mars orbit F

MUSES

Hiten / Hagoromo MUSES-A / 

MUSES-A subsat

185 kg / 12 kg

01-24-90 / 11:46:00 Kagoshima / M1 Mu-3S-II / 5 Japan ISAS lunar flyby / orbit S

Hayabusa MUSES-C, 

MINERVA

510 kg 05-09-03 / 04:29:25 Kagoshima / M-V M-V / 5 Japan ISAS / JAXA asteroid sample return P

Hayabusa 2 600 kg 12-03-14 / 04:22:04 Tanegashima / Y1 H-IIA / F26 Japan JAXA asteroid rendezvous, 

sample return

IP

SELENE

Kaguya SELENE 2,900 kg 09-14-07 / 01:31:01 Tanegashima / Y1 H-IIA 2022 / 13 Japan JAXA lunar orbit S

VCO

Akatsuki VCO 517.6 kg 05-20-10 / 21:58:22 Tanegashima / Y H-IIA 202 / 17 Japan JAXA Venus orbit IP

SHIN’EN

Shin’en UNITEC 1 20 kg 05-20-10 / 21:58:22 Tanegashima / Y H-IIA 202 / 17 Japan JAXA Venus flyby PShin’en 2 17 kg 12-03-14 / 04:22:04 Tanegashima / Y1 H-IIA / F26 Japan JAXA solar orbit F
338 BEYOND EARH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016 Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch place / pad Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design & Operation Objective Out- come IKAROS IKAROS IKAROS 310 kg 05-20-10 / 21:58:22 Tanegashima / Y H-IIA 202 / 17 Japan JAXA Venus flyby S PROCYON PROCYON 65 kg 12-03-14 / 04:22:04 Tanegashima / Y1 H-IIA / F26 Japan JAXA asteroid flyby IP DESPATCH ArtSat-2 DESPATCH 30 kg 12-03-14 / 04:22:04 Tanegashima / Y1 H-IIA / F26 Japan JAXA solar orbit S EUROPEAN SPACE AGENCY Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch place / pad Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design & Operation Objective Out- come GIOTTO Giotto Giotto 960 kg 07-02-85 / 11:23:16 CSG / ELA 1 Ariane 1 / V14 ESA ESA Halley flyby S MARS EXPRESS Mars Express Mars Express, Beagle 2 1,186 kg 06-02-03 / 17:45:26 GIK-5 / 31 Soyuz-FG / E15000-005 Europe ESA Mars orbit, landing P SMART SMART-1 SMART-1 367 kg 09-27-03 / 23:14:46 CSG / ELA 3 Ariane 5G / V162 Europe ESA lunar orbit S ROSETTA Rosetta, Philae Rosetta, Philae 3,000 kg 03-02-04 / 07:17:44 CSG / ELA 3 Ariane 5G+ / V158 Europe ESA comet orbit and landing S VENUS EXPRESS Venus Express VEX 1,270 kg 11-09-04 / 03:33:34 GIK-5 / 31 Soyuz-FG / Zh15000-010 Europe ESA Venus orbit S HERSCHEL / PLANCK Herschel Herschel 3,400 kg 05-14-09 / 13:12 CSG / ELA 3 Ariane 5ECA / V188 ESA ESA

Planck Planck 1,950 kg 05-14-09 / 13:12 CSG / ELA 3 Ariane 5ECA / V188 ESA ESA Sun–Earth L2 S

GAIA

Gaia Gaia 2,029 kg 12-19-13 / 09:12:18 CSG / ELS Soyuz-ST-B / E15000-004 ESA ESA Sun–Earth L2 S

LISA

LISA Pathfinder SMART-2 1,910 kg 12-03-15 / 04:04:00 CSG / ELV Vega / VV06 ESA ESA Sun–Earth L1 S
Tables 339

EUROPEAN SPACE AGENCY / UNITED STATES

Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch place / pad Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design & Operation Objective Outcome

ULYSSES

Ulysses Ulysses 371 kg 10-06-90 / 11:47:16 KSC / 39B STS-41 / IUS ESA / USA ESA / NASA / JPL solar orbit S

SOHO

SOHO SOHO 1,864 kg 12-02-95 / 08:08:01 CC / 36B Atlas Centaur IIAS / 

121

ESA / USA ESA / NASA Sun–Earth L1 S

CASSINI-HYUGENS

Cassini-Huygens Cassini / Huygens 5,655 kg 10-15-97 / 08:43 CC / 40 Titan 401B-Centaur / 

21

USA / ESA NASA / JPL / ESA Saturn orbit, Titan 

landing

S

JAPAN / UNITED STATES

Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch place / pad Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design & Operation Objective Outcome

GEOTAIL

Geotail Geotail 1,009 kg 07-24-92 / 14:26 CC / 17A Delta 6925 / D212 Japan / 

USA

ISAS / NASA high Earth orbit S

ASIASAT

Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch place / pad Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design & Operation Objective Outcome

ASIASAT

Asiasat 3 HGS 1 3,465 kg 12-24-97 / 23:19 GIK-5 / 81L Proton-K / 394-01 Asiasat Asiasat / Hughes circumlunar S
340 BEYOND EARH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORATION, 1958–2016 CHINA Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch place / pad Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design & Operation Objective Out- come CHANG’E Chang’e 1 Chang’e 1 2,350 kg 10-24-07 / 10:05:04 Xichang / LC 3 CZ-3A / Y14 China CNSA lunar orbit S Chang’e 2 Chang’e 2 2,480 kg 10-01-10 / 10:59:57 Xichang / LC2 CZ-3C China CNSA lunar orbit, Sun–Earth L2,

S

Yinghuo-1 113 kg 11-08-11 / 20:16:03 Baikonur / 45 Zenit-2SB41.1 China CNSA Mars orbit FChang’e 3, Yutu Chang’e 3, Yutu 3,780 kg 12-01-13 / 17:30 Xichang / LC2 CZ-3B / Y23 China CNSA lunar landing, roving SChang’e 5-T1 3,300 kg 10-23-14 / 18:00:04 Xichang CZ-3C/G2 China CNSA circumlunar, Earth–

Moon L2, lunar orbit

S

INDIA

Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch place 

/ pad

Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design & Operation Objective Outcome

CHANDRYAAN

Chandrayaan-1 Chandrayaan-1, 

MIP

1,380 kg 10-22-08 / 00:42:11 SHAR / SLP PSLV-XL / C11 India ISRO lunar orbit, lunar impact S

MANGALYAAN

Mangalyaan MOM 1,337 kg 11-05-13 / 09:08 SHAR / PSLV 

pad

PSLV-XL / C11 India ISRO Mars orbit S

EUROPEAN SPACE AGENCY / RUSSIA

Official Name Spacecraft / no. Mass Launch date / time Launch place 

/ pad

Launch vehicle / no. Nation Design & Operation Objective Outcome

EXOMARS

ExoMars TGO / Schiaparelli

TGO / EDM Lander

4,332 kg 03-14-16 / 09:31 Baikonur / 

200L

Proton-M / 93560 ESA / 

Russia

ESA / Roskosmos Mars orbit and landing S/P
Tables 341

Table 3.Total Lunar Spacecraft Attempts by Nation/Agency 

1958–2016

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

India

China

ESA

Asiasat

Japan

Soviet Union/

Russia

USA

TOTAL LUNAR SPACECRAFT ATTEMPTS 

BY NATION/AGENCY 1958–2016

Total or Partial Success

Total Spacecraft Attempts

United StatesSoviet Union/RussiaJapanAsiasatESAChinaIndia

1958 4 3

1959 2 4

1960 2 2

1961 0 0

1962 3 0

1963 0 3

1964 2 2

1965 2 7

1966 5 6

1967 8 3

1968 1 5

1969 0 9

1970 0 4

1971 1 2

1972 1 2

1973 1 1

1974 0 2

1975 0 1

1976 0 1

1977 0 0

United StatesSoviet Union/RussiaJapanAsiasatESAChinaIndia

1978 0 0

1979 0 0

1980 0 0

1981 0 0

1982 0 0

1983 0 0

1984 0 0

1985 0 0

1986 0 0

1987 0 0

1988 0 0

1989 0 0

1990 0 0 1

1991 0 0 0

1992 0 0 0

1993 0 0 0

1994 1 0 0

1995 0 0 0

1996 0 0 0

1997 0 0 0 1

United StatesSoviet Union/RussiaJapanAsiasatESAChinaIndia

1998 1 0 0 0

1999 0 0 0 0

2000 0 0 0 0

2001 0 0 0 0

2002 0 0 0 0

2003 0 0 0 0 1

2004 0 0 0 0 0

2005 0 0 0 0 0

2006 0 0 0 0 0

2007 2 0 1 0 0 1

2008 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

2009 2 0 0 0 0 0 0

2010 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

2011 2 0 0 0 0 0 0

2012 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2013 1 0 0 0 0 1 0

2014 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

2015 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2016 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Total Spacecraft 

Attempts

41 57 2 1 1 4 1

Total or Partial 

Success

31 22 2 1 1 4 1
342 BEYOND EARH: A CHRONICLE OF DEE P SPACE EXPLORA

Table 4.Total Mars Spacecraft Attempts by Nation/Agency 

1958–2016

0 5 10 15 20 25

ESA/Russia

India

China

ESA

Japan

USA

Soviet Union/

Russia

TOTAL MARS SPACECRAFT ATTEMPTS 

BY NATION/AGENCY 1958–2016

Total or Partial Success

Total Spacecraft Attempts

Soviet Union/RussiaUnited StatesJapanESAChinaIndiaESA/Russia

1958

1959

1960 2

1961 0

1962 3

1963 0

1964 0 2

1965 0 0

1966 0 0

1967 0 0

1968 0 0

1969 2 2

1970 0 0

1971 3 2

1972 0 0

1973 4 0

1974 0 0

1975 0 2

1976 0 0

1977 0 0

Soviet Union/RussiaUnited StatesJapanESAChinaIndiaESA/Russia

1978 0 0

1979 0 0

1980 0 0

1981 0 0

1982 0 0

1983 0 0

1984 0 0

1985 0 0

1986 0 0

1987 0 0

1988 2 0

1989 0 0

1990 0 0

1991 0 0

1992 0 1

1993 0 0

1994 0 0

1995 0 0

1996 1 2

1997 0 0

Soviet Union/RussiaUnited StatesJapanESAChinaIndiaESA/Russia

1998 0 1 1

1999 0 1 0

2000 0 0 0

2001 0 1 0

2002 0 0 0

2003 0 2 0 1

2004 0 0 0 0

2005 0 1 0 0

2006 0 0 0 0

2007 0 1 0 0

2008 0 0 0 0

2009 0 0 0 0

2010 0 0 0 0

2011 1 1 0 0 1

2012 0 0 0 0 0

2013 0 1 0 0 0 1

2014 0 0 0 0 0 0

2015 0 0 0 0 0 0

2016 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

Total Spacecraft 

Attempts

18 20 1 1 1 1 1

Total or Partial 

Success

7 15 0 1 0 1 1
Tables 343

Table 5.Total Venus Spacecraft Attempts by Nation/Agency 

1958–2016

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

ESA

Japan

USA

Soviet Union/

Russia

TOTAL VENUS SPACECRAFT ATTEMPTS 

BY NATION/AGENCY 1958–2016

Total or Partial Success

Total Spacecraft Attempts

Soviet Union/RussiaUnited StatesESAJapan

1958

1959

1960

1961 2

1962 3 2

1963 0 0

1964 3 0

1965 3 0

1966 0 0

1967 2 1

1968 0 0

1969 2 0

1970 2 0

1971 0 0

1972 2 0

1973 0 0

1974 0 0

1975 2 0

1976 0 0

1977 0 0

Soviet Union/RussiaUnited StatesESAJapan

1978 2 2

1979 0 0

1980 0 0

1981 2 0

1982 0 0

1983 2 0

1984 2 0

1985 0 0

1986 0 0

1987 0 0

1988 0 0

1989 0 1

1990 0 0

1991 0 0

1992 0 0

1993 0 0

1994 0 0

1995 0 0

1996 0 0

1997 0 0

Soviet Union/RussiaUnited StatesESAJapan

1998 0 0

1999 0 0

2000 0 0

2001 0 0

2002 0 0

2003 0 0

2004 0 0 1

2005 0 0 0

2006 0 0 0

2007 0 0 0

2008 0 0 0

2009 0 0 0

2010 0 0 0 3

2011 0 0 0 0

2012 0 0 0 0

2013 0 0 0 0

2014 0 0 0 0

2015 0 0 0 0

2016 0 0 0 0

Total Spacecraft 

Attempts

29 6 1 3

Total or Partial 

Success

17 5 1 3

345

Abbreviations

ABMA Army Ballistic Missile Agency

ACE Advanced Composition Explorer

AFBMD Air Force Ballistic Missile Division

AIMP Advanced International Monitoring 

Platform

ALS Automatic Lunar Station

AMS Automatic Interplanetary Station

APL Applied Physics Laboratory

ARC Ames Research Center

ARPA Advanced Projects Research Agency

ARTEMIS Acceleration, Reconnection, Turbulence and Electrodynamics of the 

Moon’s Interaction with the Sun

AU astronomical unit

BMDO Ballistic Missile Defense Organization

CIA Central Intelligence Agency

CMB Cosmic Microwave Background

CNSA Chinese National Space 

Administration

COBE Cosmic Background Explorer

CONTOUR Comet Nucleus Tour

CTA Cryogenic Telescope Assembly

DAS Long-Term Autonomous Station

DESPATCH Deep Space Amateur Troubadour’s 

Challenge

DFVLR German Test and Research Institute 

for Aviation and Space Flight

DIXI Deep Impact Extended Investigation

DLR German Aerospace Center

DOK Engine Orientation Complex

DRK Long-Range Radio Complex

DSCOVR Deep Space Climate Observatory

DSN Deep Space Network

DSPSE Deep Space Program Science 

Experiment

EDM Entry, Descent and Landing Demonstrator Module

ELA Launch Assembly

EPOCh Extrasolar Planet Observations

ESA European Space Agency

ESC Cryogenic Upper Stage

ESMD Exploration Systems Mission 

Directorate

ESOC European Space Operations Center

EVA Extra-Vehicular Activity

GEM Galileo Europa Mission

GIK State Testing Cosmodrome

GOODS Great Observatories Origins Deep 

Survey

GRAIL Gravity Recovery and Interior 

Laboratory

GSFC Goddard Space Flight Center

GSMZ State Union Machine Building Factory

IASTP International Solar-Terrestrial Physics

ICE International Cometary Explorer

IGY International Geophysical Year

IKAROS Interplanetary Kite-Craft Accelerated 

by Radiation of the Sun

IKI Institute of Space Research

IMP Interplanetary Monitoring Platform

ISAS Institute of Space and Astronautical 

Sciences

ISEE International Sun-Earth Explorers

ISRO Indian Space Research Organization

ISTP International Solar Terrestrial Physics

IUS Inertial Upper Stage

JAXA Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

JPL Jet Propulsion Laboratory

LADEE Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer

LaRC Langley Research Center

LC Launch Complex

LCROSS Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing 

Satellite

LK Lunar Ship

LOK Lunar Orbital Ship
346 BEYOND EARH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORA

LRO Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter

MAP Microwave Anisotropy Probe

MASCOT Mobile Asteroid Surface Scout

MAVEN Mars Atmosphere and Volatile 

Evolution

MCO Mars Climate Orbiter

MDU Main Propulsion Unit

MER Mars Exploration Rover

MESSENGER Mercury Surface, Space Environment, 

Geochemistry, and Ranging

MGS Mars Global Surveyor

MINERVA Micro/Nano Experimental Robot 

Vehicle for Asteroid

MIP Moon Impact Probe

MOM Mars Orbiter Mission

MPL Mars Polar Lander

MRO Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter

MSC Manned Spacecraft Center

MSL Mars Science Laboratory

MUSES Mu Space Engineering Spacecraft

NASA National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration

NEAR Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous

NExT New Exploration of Tempel

NGSLR Next Generation Satellite Laser 

Ranging

NIIP Scientific-Research and Testing Range

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration

NPO Scientific-Production Association

NRO National Reconnaissance Office

OKB Experimental-Design Bureau

OSIRIS-REx Origins, Spectral Interpretation, 

Resource Identification, Security, 

Regolith Explorer

PAM Payload Assist Module

PROCYON Proximate Object Close Flyby with 

Optical Navigation

PrOP Device to Evaluate Mobility

RAE Radio Astronomy Explorer

RAN Russian Academy of Sciences

RIFMA X-Ray Isotopic Fluorescence Analysis 

Method

RTG radioisotope thermal generator

SAR synthetic aperture radar

SDI Strategic Defense Initiative

SELENE Selenological and Engineering 

Explorer

SETI Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence

SIM Spectral Imaging Module

SIRTF Space Infrared Telescope Facility

SLC Space Launch Complex

SMART Small Missions for Advanced 

Research in Technology

SMD Science Mission Directorate

SOHO Solar and Heliospheric Observatory

STEREO Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory

STL Space Technology Laboratories

STSP Solar Terrestrial Science Program

TETR Test and Training Satellite

TCM trajectory correction maneuver

TGO Trace Gas Orbiter

THEMIS Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions during Substorms

TsKBEM Central Design Bureau of Experimental Machine Building

TsKBM Central Design Bureau of Machine 

Building

UCLA University of California Los Angeles

UMVL Unified Mars Venus Moon

UNISEC University Space Engineering 

Consortium

UNITEC UNISEC Technology Experiment 

Carrier

USAF United States Air Force

USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

UT Universal Time

VCO Venus Climate Orbiter

VIM Voyager Interstellar Mission

WMAP Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy 

Probe
347

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Unofficial Websites

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com/pioneer10-tracker

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com/pioneer11-tracker

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Online Fora

Novosti kosmonavtiki forum

NASAspaceflight.com forum

351

About the Author

Asif A. Siddiqi is a Professor of History at Fordham University in New York. He specializes in 

the history of science and technology and modern 

Russian history, having received his Ph.D. from 

Carnegie Mellon University in 2004. He has written extensively on a variety of topics related to the 

history of science and technology, especially on the 

social and cultural dimensions of the Russian fascination with the cosmos. His most recent book was 

The Rockets’ Red Glare: Spaceflight and the Soviet 

Imagination, 1857–1957 (Cambridge University 

Press, 2010), exploring the co-production of technology and culture in Russian society in the late 

19th and early 20th centuries that led to the launch 

of Sputnik. His earlier book, Challenge to Apollo: 

The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945–1974

(NASA SP-2000-4408, 2000) was the first major 

scholarly work on Cold War–era Soviet space 

achievements. He is currently working on several 

book projects including one on the Stalinist Gulag 

and another on the early history of the Indian space 

program. In 2016, he received the Guggenheim 

Fellowship from the John Simon Guggenheim 

Memorial Foundation for a projected work on a 

global history of space exploration entitled “Departure Gates: Histories of Spaceflight on Earth.”

353

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1958–2000. Monographs in Aerospace History, 

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Flight Research, 1969–1979. Monographs 

in Aerospace History, No. 25, 2001. NASA 

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Anderson, Seth B. Memoirs of an Aeronautical 

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1940–1970. Monographs in Aerospace History, 

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A Bibliography Commemorating the One-Hundredth Anniversary of the First Powered 

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American X-Vehicles: An Inventory—X-1 to 

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A Chronology Commemorating the One-Hundredth Anniversary of the First Powered 

Flight on December 17, 1903. Monographs 

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Bowles, Mark D., and Robert S. Arrighi. NASA’s 

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Wallace, Lane, and Christian Gelzer. Nose Up: 

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Matranga, Gene J., C. Wayne Ottinger, Calvin 

R. Jarvis, and D. Christian Gelzer. Unconventional, Contrary, and Ugly: The Lunar Landing 

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McCurdy, Howard E. Low-Cost Innovation in 

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360 BEYOND EARH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORA

Asteroid Rendezvous (NEAR) Mission. Monographs in Aerospace History, No. 36, 2005. 

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Seamans, Robert C., Jr. Project Apollo: The Tough 

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on Revolutionary Advanced Concepts for Aeronautics. Monographs in Aerospace History, No. 

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Peebles, Curtis. The Spoken Word: Recollections 

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SP-2009-4543.

Merlin, Peter W. Ikhana: Unmanned Aircraft 

System Western States Fire Missions. Monographs in Aerospace History, No. 44, 2009. 

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Arrighi, Robert. Pursuit of Power: NASA’s Propulsion Systems Laboratory No. 1 and 2. Monographs in Aerospace History, No. 48, 2012. 

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Renee M. Rottner. Making the Invisible Visible: A 

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Ta, Julie B., and Robert C. Treviño. Walking to 

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50, 2016. NASA SP-2016-4550.

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Ross, James C. NASA Photo One. Monographs 

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The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics: An Annotated Bibliography. Monographs 

in Aerospace History, No. 55, 2014. NASA 

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Emblems of Exploration: Logos of the NACA 

and NASA. Monographs in Aerospace History, 

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Electronic Media, NASA SP-4600

Remembering Apollo 11: The 30th Anniversary 

Data Archive CD-ROM. NASA SP-4601, 1999.

Remembering Apollo 11: The 35th Anniversary 

Data Archive CD-ROM. NASA SP-2004-4601, 

2004. This is an update of the 1999 edition.

The Mission Transcript Collection: U.S. Human 

Spaceflight Missions from Mercury Redstone 3 

to Apollo 17. NASA SP-2000-4602, 2001.

Shuttle-Mir: The United States and Russia Share 

History’s Highest Stage. NASA SP-2001-4603, 

2002.

U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission Presents 

Born of Dreams—Inspired by Freedom. NASA 

SP-2004-4604, 2004.

Of Ashes and Atoms: A Documentary on the NASA 

Plum Brook Reactor Facility. NASA SP-2005-

4605, 2005.

Taming Liquid Hydrogen: The Centaur Upper 

Stage Rocket Interactive CD-ROM. NASA 

SP-2004-4606, 2004.

Fueling Space Exploration: The History of NASA’s 

Rocket Engine Test Facility DVD. NASA 

SP-2005-4607, 2005.

Altitude Wind Tunnel at NASA Glenn Research 

Center: An Interactive History CD-ROM. 

NASA SP-2008-4608, 2008.

A Tunnel Through Time: The History of NASA’s 

Altitude Wind Tunnel. NASA SP-2010-4609, 

2010.

Conference Proceedings, 

NASA SP-4700

Dick, Steven J., and Keith Cowing, eds. Risk and 

Exploration: Earth, Sea and the Stars. NASA 

SP-2005-4701, 2005.

Dick, Steven J., and Roger D. Launius. Critical 

Issues in the History of Spaceflight. NASA 

SP-2006-4702, 2006.

Dick, Steven J., ed. Remembering the Space Age: 

Proceedings of the 50th Anniversary Conference. 

NASA SP-2008-4703, 2008.

Dick, Steven J., ed. NASA’s First 50 Years: Historical Perspectives. NASA SP-2010-4704, 2010.

Societal Impact, NASA SP-4800

Dick, Steven J., and Roger D. Launius. Societal 

Impact of Spaceflight. NASA SP-2007-4801, 

2007.

Dick, Steven J., and Mark L. Lupisella. Cosmos 

and Culture: Cultural Evolution in a Cosmic 

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Dick, Steven J. Historical Studies in the Societal 

Impact of Spaceflight. NASA SP-2015-4803, 

2015.

363

Index

A

Able 1, 5

Able 2, 6–7

Able 3, 7–8

Able 6, 17

Able IVB, 16, 18

Able VA (Pioneer), 18

Able VB (Pioneer), 20

“abyss,” 271

Academy of Sciences (USSR), 27, 57, 119, 157

ACE (Advanced Composition Explorer), xiii, xiv, 186–187, 

189, 197, 303

AIMP (Anchored Interplanetary Monitoring Platform), 59, 

71–72. See also Explorer XXXIII; Explorer XXXV

Air Force, U.S., 5, 6–8, 40, 211, 303, 310

Akatsuki, 269–271

Akim, Efraim, 57

Aldebaran, 110

Aldrin, Edwin E. “Buzz,” 90

American Lunar Orbiter project, 57

Ames Research Center, 20, 69, 116

Amundsen (probe), 209

Annefrank (minor planet), 210–211

Apollo 11, 65, 90

Apollo 12, 65–66, 66, 96, 266

Apollo 13, 266

Apollo 14, 266

Apollo 15, 107, 265, 266

Apollo 15 Particle and Fields Satellite, 104, 104

Apollo 16, 107, 215, 267

Apollo 16 Particles and Fields Subsatellite, 111–112

Apollo 17, 113–114, 226, 266

Lunar Roving Vehicle, 226

Apollo Lunar Module, 66

Apollo program, 37, 77, 113, 252, 265–266. See also individual missions

anniversary, 249

communication systems, 81

feasibility of crewed landing, 41

ground tracking network, 92

landing data, 58

landing sites, 45, 47, 59–60, 63, 65. See also Moon 

landing sites

landing sites photographed, 266

Manned Space Flight Network, 72

Moon landing, 249

Moon mapping, 72

Moon samples, 260

simulated trajectory, 65

surface experiment, 288

Apollo VIII, 84, 96

Applied Physics Laboratory (APL), xiv, 245

Armstrong, Neil A., 90

Army, U.S., 5, 9

ARTEMIS (Acceleration, Reconnections, Turbulence and 

Electrodynamics of the Moon’s Interaction with the 

Sun), 249–250

ArtSat-2, 300–301

artwork, 266, 301

Asiasat 3, 203

asteroid belt, 109, 114–115, 138, 143, 232, 243, 253, 275

asteroids, 175, 177, 185, 238, 273, 295, 298, 298–300, 299

Adeona, 256

Annefrank, 210–211

Bennu, 309–310

Braille, 207

Eros, 191–192

Itokawa, 219–220

Masursky, 198, 200

with moons, 300

Toutatis, 273

Vesta, 253–256, 283

Atlantis (Space Shuttle), 173, 175

Atlas Centaur 5, 45–46, 45

Austria, 161, 169

Automatic Interplanetary Stations (AMS), 13–16, 21–22, 49

Automatic Lunar Stations (ALS), 33, 52, 55, 56

B

Bach, Johann Sebastian, 145

Beagle 2, 220–222, 241

Bean, Alan L., 66, 66

Belbruno, Edward, 180

Belgium, 307–308

Berry, Chuck, 145

Beyond (mission), 229

Biden, Joe, 283

Big Bang, 215, 263–265

Block I Rangers, 22, 23, 26. See also Mariner R series

Block II Rangers, 25, 30, 30, 37

Block III Rangers, 37, 41, 47

Blok L launch vehicle, 46

Boynton, William, 251

Bradbury, Ray, 282

Bulgaria, 161, 169, 259
364 BEYOND EARH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORA

C

Canada, 206

Carter, Jimmy, 145

Cassini, Giovanni, 202

Cassini-Huygens, xi, 176, 197–202, 198, 243, 260

Cassini spacecraft, 198

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 15

Centro de Astrobiologia (CAB), 284

Ceres, 253–256, 264, 283

Ahuna Mons, 254

Kupalo crater, 253

Challenger accident (Space Shuttle), 141, 173, 180, 225

Chandra (spacecraft), 263

Chandra X-Ray Observatory, 228–229

Chandrayaan-1, 259–260, 288

Chang’e 1 (CE-1), 256–257

Chang’e 2 (CE-2), 272–273

Chang’e 3 (CE-3), 266, 273, 287, 291–294

Chang’e 3 rover, 266, 291–294

Chang’e 5-T1 (CE-5 T1), 297–298, 297

Chelomey, Vladimir, 73, 93

Cherenkov Effect, 8

China, 221, 256–257, 272–273, 278, 280, 291–294, 

297–298

China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation 

(CASC), 298

Clementine, 116, 185–186, 230, 252, 257

Cluster, 183, 186–187, 189

Cluster II, 231

COBE (Cosmic Background Explorer), 214

Columbia accident (Space Shuttle), 224, 303

“comet,” 166

comets, xiii, 135, 153, 165–167, 175–176, 177, 181, 190, 

210–211, 231–233, 264

amino acids, 233

artificial, 6

Boethin, 238

Borrelly, 207–208

Bradfield, 135, 153

Churyumov-Gerasimenko, 231–233

composition of, 150, 237–238

d’Arrest, 217

Encke, 217, 235

Garradd, 238

Giacobini-Zinner, 149–150, 165, 167

Grigg-Skjellerup, 166

Halley, 61, 150, 156–157, 161–163, 165–167

Hartley 2, 238, 263

Hyakutake, 181

ISON, 235, 238–240

Kohoutek, 54, 122

McNaught-Hartley, 181

Meier, 135

possibility of life, 232–233

Schwassmann-Wachmann-3, 217

“Send Your Name to a Comet” mini-CD, 237

Shoemaker-Levy, 175–176, 263

Siding Spring, 222, 240, 289–291

Tempel 1, 211, 237–238

Tempel-Tuttle, 167

water vapor, 233

West, 135

Wild 2, 210–211

Wilson-Harrington, 207

Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, 228

Compton scattering, 264

Conrad, Charles, Jr., 66

Constellation, 267–268

CONTOUR (Comet Nucleus Tour), 217, 243

Cornell University, 130, 144

Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB), 214, 264–265

cosmic rays, 22, 39, 54, 75, 81, 124, 135

noise, 256

photons, 6

solar versus galactic, 60

cosmonauts, 73–74, 97, 112

Crimea, 98

Cryogenic Telescope Assembly (CTA), 228

Curiosity rover, 103, 214, 222, 240–241, 280–286, 282, 284

plaque, 283

Czech Republic, 186

Czechoslovakia, 107, 161, 169

D

Darwin, Charles, 221

Dawn, 253–256, 264

“dawn,” 270

Deep Impact, 211, 237–238, 260, 303

Deep Space 1 (DS1), 207–208

Deep Space 2, 209–210

Deep Space Amateur Troubadour’s Challenge, 301

Deep Space Climate Observatory (DSCOVR), 303–304

Deep Space Network (DSN), 10, 75, 115, 144, 169, 180, 

224, 245, 247

Station 63, 115

Deep Space Program Science Experiment (DSPSE), 

185–186

Department of Defense, U.S., 5, 7, 185

di Bondone, Giotto, 166

Discovery program, 186, 268, 290

CONTOUR, 217

Dawn, 253

Deep Impact, 237

Genesis (mission), 215

GRAIL, 277

Kepler (mission), 261

Lunar Prospector, 205

Mars Pathfinder, 195

MAVEN, 250, 290

MESSENGER, 234

NEAR, 191

Stardust, 210

DIXI (Deep Impact Extended Investigation), 238

Dolgopolov, Vladimir, 89

Dovgan’, V.G., 97
Index 

E

Earth, 13, 35, 283

magnetic field, 51, 183, 249

magnetic tail, 59–60, 75, 104, 150, 249, 273

meteorites, 255

“pale blue dot,” 144

Eastman Kodak, 59–60

Ebb, 277–278

8K78 launch vehicle, 19

Einstein’s general theory of relativity, 200

EPOXI, 238, 260

European Space Agency (ESA), 149, 165–166, 169, 

180–181, 186

asteroid flyby, 273

Cassini-Huygens, 198

Director David Southwood, 265

European Space Operations Centre (ESOC), 230

first planetary mission, 220–222

Herschel, 262–264

international missions, 278–279, 304

ISEE-3 mission, 149–150

Planck, 264–265

Rosetta/Philae, 231–233

supernova discovered, 295

Evolved Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (eLISA), 304

ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO), 307–308

exoplanets, 11, 261–262

Explorer 35, 104

Explorer 46, 214

Explorer 47, 125

Explorer 49, 116–117, 116, 185

Explorer 50, 125

Explorer VI, 16–17

Explorer XXXIII, 59, 71. See also AIMP (Anchored 

Interplanetary Monitoring Platform)

Explorer XXXV, 71–72, 104. See also AIMP (Anchored 

Interplanetary Monitoring Platform)

Extrasolar Planet Observations (EPOCh), 238

F

Farquhar, Robert, 150

Federal Aviation Agency (FAA), 54

Fedorov, I.L., 97

Finland, 169, 308

Fleck, Bernhard, 190

Fletcher, James C., 137–138

Flow, 277–278

Fobos 1, 169–171

Fobos 2, 169–171

Fobos-Grunt, 278–280, 279

France, 96, 98, 99–101, 102, 107, 114, 229

deceived by Soviets, 100–101

gamma rays, 151, 153

Hayabusa 2, 299

international missions, 161, 169, 186, 304, 308

Mars Observer, 192

Starsem, 241

Fuchs, Manfred, 298

Fuji-Oscar 81, 300–301

G

Gaia (mission), 264, 294–295, 295

galaxies, 228, 263. See also Local Group; Milky Way galaxy

Galilei, Galileo, 175, 277

Galileo, 173, 175–177, 180, 198, 243–244

gamma rays, 25, 57, 256

Genesis (spacecraft), 210–211, 215–217, 220

Geophysical Research Letters, 289, 291

Geotail, xiii, 179, 183, 186–187

Gerald Soffen Memorial Station, 134

Germany, 165, 179, 206, 253, 298

Democratic Republic (“East Germany”), 96, 159–161, 

169

European Space Operations Centre (ESOC), 230

Federal Republic (“West Germany”), 124–125, 135, 

161, 169

Hayabusa 2, 299

international missions, 259, 304

Giotto, 165–166, 237

Glennan, T. Keith, 8

Global Geospace Science (CGS) vehicles, 186

Goddard Space Flight Center, 59, 149, 266, 289

GOES-16, 304

Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex, 10, 41, 

88, 140

GOODS (Great Observatories Origins Deep Survey), 263

Gore, Albert A., Jr., 303

GRACE (Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment), 277

GRAIL (Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory), 

277–278

“Grand Tour” of outer planets, 137, 141

Great Britain, 107, 221

H

Hagoromo, 179

Hall, Charlie, 148

Halley’s Comet, 61, 150, 156–157, 161–163, 165–167

Hayabusa, 219–220

Hayabusa 1, 298–300

Hayabusa 2, 298–301, 299

Heavy Satellite, 21

Helios 1/2, 124–125, 135, 135, 165

Herschel, 262–264, 307

Herschel, Caroline, 264

Herschel, William, 264

High Efficiency Antenna, 140

HiRISE camera/reflecting telescope, 238–241, 251, 284

Hiten, 136, 179–180

HMS Beagle, 221

Honeybee Robotics, 226

Horizon 2000 program, 231

Hubble constant, 229

Hubble Space Telescope, 228–229, 238, 263
366 BEYOND EARH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORA

Hughes Aircraft Company, 58, 73, 148

Charlie Hall, 148

Hughes Global Systems (HGS) 1, 203

Hungary, 161, 169

Huygens, Christiaan, 198

Huygens probe, 197–202, 200

I

ICE (International Cometary Explorer), 150

iC-Malaga, 298

IKAROS (Interplanetary Kite-craft Accelerated by 

Radiation of the Sun), 270–272

Image, 187

India, 107, 222, 259–260, 288–289

Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), 288–289

InSight Mars lander, 241

Institute of Space and Astronautical Sciences (ISAS), 

165–167, 179, 183, 205, 219

Institute of Space Research (USSR), 157, 171

INTEGRAL (International Gamma-Ray Astrophysics 

Laboratory), 231

Interplanetary Monitoring Platform (IMP), 125, 195

Intrepid, 66, 66

Iraq, 96

Ireland, 169

Irwin, James B., 104

ISEE (International Sun-Earth Explorers)-3, 149–150

ISPM (International Solar Polar Mission), 180

ISTP (International Solar Terrestrial Physics), 183, 

186–187, 189

Italian Space Agency (ASI), 198, 277

Italy, 253, 304, 307–308

J

“Jade Rabbit,” 291

Japan, 136, 165–167, 179–180, 183, 252–253, 288, 301

asteroids, 273, 298–300

first minor planet sample return, 219–220

international missions, 186, 205–206, 221

Mars mission, 205–206

Shin’en, 271

Venus Climate Orbiter (VCO), 269–272

Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), 183, 

219–220, 252, 269–272, 298–300

Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), 41, 42, 53, 72–73, 180, 

192–193

Beyond (mission), 229

Block I Rangers, 26

Cassini-Huygens, 202

Curiosity rover, 285

Director William H. Pickering, 28

Mission Director Marc Rayman, 256

mission websites, xiv

Opportunity rover, 225–226

personnel, 42, 223

Project Manager Earl Maize, 202

Spirit rover, 225

Surveyor, 58

Voyager 2, 141

Jiabao, Wen, 257

Johns Hopkins University, 243, 245

Johnson, Willie, 145

Juno, 243, 275–277, 309

Juno (goddess), 277

Jupiter, xiii, 276

Amalthea (moon), 138, 143, 176

atmosphere, 116, 177, 275

Callisto (moon), 109, 138–139, 143, 176–177

Comet Shoemaker-Levy impact, 263

Europa (moon), 109, 138, 143, 176–177, 244

Ganymede (moon), 109, 138–139, 143, 176–177, 244

Great Red Spot, 109, 115, 139, 142, 277

Io (moon), 109, 138, 143, 143, 176–177, 244

magnetic field, 177, 275

magnetic tail, 109

Metis (moon), 143

moons, 109, 115, 138, 143, 175–177, 243–244, 287. 

See also individual

photographed, 142, 200

polar regions, 114

possibility of water, 275

radiation belts, 115, 176

ring, 109

“string of pearls,” 276

Thebe (moon), 143

Jupiter (god), 277

K

Kaguya, 252–253

Karachevtseva, Irina, 114

Kennedy, John F., 28, 85

Kennedy Space Center, 7, 198, 290

Kepler (mission), 261–262

Kepler, Johannes, 262

Kitt Peak National Observatory, 70

Klein, John, 282

Kohoutek (comet), 54, 122

Korolev, Sergey, 69

Kosmos 21, xv, 34–35, 37, 44

Kosmos 27, 38–39

Kosmos 60, 46

Kosmos 96, 51–52

Kosmos 111, 56–57

Kosmos 159, 67–68, 79

Kosmos 167, 70–71

Kosmos 300, 92

Kosmos 305, 92

Kosmos 359, 94

Kosmos 482, 111

Kosmos numbers, xv, 35

Kryukov, Sergey, 106, 110

Ksanformaliti, Leonid, 157

Kuiper Belt, 243–244, 246

Kuykendall, Wesley, 223
Index 

L

LADEE (Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment 

Explorer), 287–288

Lagrange Points, 186–187

ACE, 197

ARTEMIS, 249–250

Chang’e 3, 273

Chang’e 5-TI, 298

DSCOVR, 303

Genesis, 215–216

GRAIL, 277

Hiten, 179

ISEE-3, 149

L-1, 305

LISA Pathfinder, 304

MAP, 214

Planck, 264

SMART-1, 230

SOHO, 189

Langley Research Center, 131

Latypov, G.G., 97

Lavochkin design bureau, 55, 69, 87, 89, 97, 102

Chief Designer Sergey Korolev, 106

Chief Designer Sergey Kryukov, 106

mission failures, 171

mission websites, xiv

LCROSS (Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing 

Satellite), 265, 267–268

LEGO group, 277

Lewis and Clark Expedition, 227

libration points. See Lagrange Points

LISA Pathfinder, 304–305, 305

Local Group, 294. See also galaxies; Milky Way galaxy

Lovell, Bernard, 56

Luna 1, 11–12

Luna 2, 12–13, 48, 114

Luna 3, 13–17, 13, 14, 15, 48, 183, 203

Automatic Interplanetary Station (AIS), 49

TV imaging system, 19

Luna 4, 34

Luna 5, 47–48

Luna 6, 48

Luna 7, 49–50

Luna 8, 52–53

Luna 9, 55–56, 64

Luna 10, 57, 61

Luna 11, 61–62, 67

Luna 12, 62, 64

Luna 13, 64

Luna 14, 79

Luna 15, 90–91

Luna 16, 94–97, 95, 105, 107, 266

flux, 124

Luna 17, 97–98, 266

Luna 18, 104–105, 107

Luna 19, 105–106, 123

Luna 20, 107, 124, 266

Luna 21, 113–114

Luna 22, 123

Luna 23, 123–124, 134, 136, 266

Luna 24, 136, 179, 266, 292, 292–293

Luna Ye-3, 17–18

Lunar Exploration Program (China), 257, 273, 291, 298

Lunar Orbiter I, 59–60

Lunar Orbiter II, 62–65, 63

Lunar Orbiter III, 65

Lunar Orbiter IV, 67

Lunar Orbiter V, 67, 72

Lunar Orbiters, 57, 60, 77

Lunar Precursor Robotic Program, 265, 267

Lunar Prospector, 54, 205, 210, 217

Lunar Quest program, 287

Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO), 265–267, 273, 

287–288

Luna 16, 96

Luna 17, 98

Luna 20, 107

Luna 21, 114

Luna 23, 124

Luna 24, 136

Lunar Roving Vehicle, 226

Lunokhod, 105

Lunokhod 1, 97–98, 113–114

Lunokhod 2, 113–114, 123, 226–227

LuxSpace, 298

M

Ma, Clara, 281

MACH-11 (Measurements of 11 Asteroids and Comets 

Using Herschel), 264

Magellan, 173–174

Magellan, Ferdinand, 173

magnetic fields

Earth, 32, 59

interplanetary, 17, 22, 59, 71, 75

Moon, 6, 13, 20, 57, 59

Venus, 28

Maize, Earl, 202

Manfred Memorial Moon Mission, 298

Mangalyaan, 288–289

Manned Space Flight Network, 72

Marie Curie rover, 223

Mariner, 86, 125, 130, 137

mission designations, xv

Mariner 8, 99, 103

Mariner 9, xv, 103, 119, 132, 173

Mariner 10, xv, 115, 121–122, 234

Mariner I, 26, 28

Mariner II, 17, 27–28, 27, 28, 70

Mariner III, 28, 41

Mariner IV, xv, 41–43, 42, 70

Mariner R series, 26–28, 28. See also Block I Rangers

Mariner V, xv, 43, 69, 70

Mariner VI, 86–88, 86

Mariner VII, 86, 87–88

Mars (planet), 26, 42, 50, 117, 118, 119, 281

atmospheric composition, 70, 102, 120, 221–222, 241
368 BEYOND EARH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORA

climate, 208, 278

comet Siding Spring, xv

Curiosity rover, 282, 283, 284

Deimos (moon), 103, 134

evolution of, 99

exploration of, 21

features of, 43

first Mars mission, 18–19

Hellas crater, 88

landscape, 103

Martian year, 281

moons, 132. See also individual

Olympus Mons, 239

orbit attempts, 20

panorama, 130, 132, 251

passenger payload, 280

Phobos (moon), 88, 103, 169–171, 222, 278–279, 291

polar regions, 209

possibility of life, 134, 250, 280–286

possibility of water, 193, 213, 221, 240, 251, 282, 285

rovers, 100–101, 100, 103

soil composition, 131, 213–214, 251, 285

Sojourner, 195

solar wind, 291

source of meteorites, 255

topographical map, 222

Utopia Planitia, 133

Viking 2, 132, 133

Mars (probes), 18–20, 30–31

Mars 1, 31–32, 31, 34

Mars 2, 100–102, 106, 120

Mars 3, 101–103, 106, 120

Mars 4, 117–118, 121

Mars 5, 118–119

Mars 6, 119–121, 119, 226

Mars 7, 119–121

Mars 8, 193–195, 221, 278

Mars 94, 194

Mars 96, 192–195

Mars 98, 194

Mars 1960A, xv

Mars Climate Orbiter (MCO), 184, 208–209

Mars Exploration Program, 192–193, 213, 222–223, 225, 

280

Mars Exploration Rover Project test rover, 223

Mars Express, 193, 220–222, 240–241, 251

Mars Global Surveyor (MGS), 184, 192–193, 195, 208, 

210, 224, 239–240

Mars Observer, 184, 192

Mars Odyssey, 184, 193, 213–214, 221–222, 224, 

240–241, 251, 281

Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), 222, 288–289

Mars Pathfinder, 195–196, 209–210, 217, 223–224, 281

Mars Polar Lander (MPL), 208–210, 250

Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO), 184, 196, 221–222, 

238–241, 251, 277, 281

Curiosity rover, 284

Mars 3, 103

Schiaparelli crash site, 308

Mars Science Laboratory (MSL), 213–214, 240, 280–281

Mars Scout Program, 250, 289–290

Mars Surveyor 2001 Lander, 250

Mars Surveyor program, 192, 208–209

Mars Webcam, 222

Mars1960A, xv

Marsnik 1, xv

Martian Chronicles, The, 282

mascons, 57, 61, 72, 106

MASCOT (Mobile Asteroid Surface Scout), 298–299

MAVEN (Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution), 222, 

250, 289–291, 290

McDowell, Jonathan, xiv

Mengfeil, Yang, 298

MER (Mars Exploration Rover Mission), 223–225, 281

Mercury, xiii, 121–122, 144, 233–235, 234, 262, 287

magnetic field, 122

MESSENGER (Mercury Surface, Space Environment, 

Geochemistry, and Ranging), 233–235

Microwave Anisotropy Probe (MAP), xiv, 214–215

Milky Way galaxy, 141, 197, 261–263, 265, 294–295. See 

also galaxies; Local Group

MINERVA (Micro/Nano Experimental Robot Vehicle for 

Asteroid), 219, 299

Mishin, Vasiliy, 73

Mitchell, Don, xiv, 127

Mona Lisa, 266

Moon, 13, 23, 25, 40, 45–50, 116, 265, 309

Alphonsus crater, 47

Aristarchus crater, 62

Autolycus crater, 13

Cabeus crater, 267–268

Chang’e 5-TI, 297

Copernicus crater, 62–63, 63

cosmonauts, 73–74

crewed missions, 267

distance from Earth, 98

dust cloud, 288

evolution of, 16, 252

full map, 273

Gill crater, 253

gravitational field, 57, 59, 64, 65, 71, 106

gravitational map, 205, 278

ionosphere, 71

Kepler crater, 50, 53

Krafft crater, 64

Lake of Excellence (Lacus Excellentiaie), 230

landing sites, 72. See also Apollo program landing sites

LeMonnier crater, 113

lunar samples, 94–96

lunar transit, 295

magnetic field, 6, 13, 20, 57, 205, 250

Marius crater, 56

Ocean of Storms (Oceanus Procellarum), 56, 58, 64–66

plasma wake, 249

polar regions, 185, 267–268

possibility of water, 185–186, 205, 260, 267–268

radiation, 65, 71–72, 79

radiation belts (lack of), 13, 57
Index 

Reiner crater, 56

robotic circumlunar program, 80, 84–85

rovers, 85, 97, 113–114, 291–294, 292, 293

Sea of Clouds (Mare Nubium), 41, 48

Sea of Crisis (Mare Crisium), 91, 107, 124, 136

Sea of Fertility (Mare Fecunditatis), 96, 105, 107

Sea of Rains (Mare Imbrium), 62, 97, 293

Sea of Serenity (Mare Serenitatis), 13, 113

Sea of Tranquility (Mare Tranquilitatis), 45, 65, 73

Seleucus crater, 64

Shackleton crater, 252, 259

Shoemaker crater, 205

Sinus Iridum (Bay of Rainbows), 273, 293

Sinus Medii (Central Bay), 62, 71, 74

soil composition, 64, 66, 74, 77, 107, 123, 136, 268

solar wind, 104

source of meteorites, 255

Sundman V crater, 288

surface photographs, 61

surveys of, 67

topographical map, 266

Tycho crater, 77, 266

Webb crater, 96

Yutu, 292, 293

Moon Impact Probe (MIP), 259–260

“Moon Princess,” 252–253

Moscow State University, 114

Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 145

Muller, Paul M., 57, 72

MUSES-C, 219

music, 145, 277

“musical angel,” 179

Mutch, Thomas A., 131–132

N

National Academy of Sciences, 27, 284

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), 

6, 18, 46, 116

Administrator James Fletcher, 137–138

Administrator James Webb, 28, 69

Administrator T. Keith Glennan, 8

Callisto (moon), 176–177

“data releases,” 215

European Space Agency (ESA), 149–150, 198

Exploration Systems Mission Directorate (ESMD), 266

Explorer 49 contact, 117

“Faster, Better, Cheaper,” 186, 210, 213

Galileo Europa Mission (GEM), 176

Galileo Millennium Mission, 176

government shut down, 287

“Grand Finale,” 202

“Great Observatories,” 228–229, 263

international missions, 149–150, 169–170, 180–181, 

183, 189–190, 262–265, 304–305

Mariner II contact, 28

Mariner-Mars project, 41–43

mission planners, 27

online photography voting, 276

partnership with Germany, 124–125, 165

partnership with Japan, 183, 219, 300

personnel, 9, 131, 135, 198, 290

Pioneer Venus Orbiter, 156

Pioneer VI mission, 53

Pioneer VII mission, 61

Science Mission Directorate (SMD), 266

soft-landing vehicles, 58–59, 73

spacecraft tracking, 65

three-axis stabilized spacecraft, 59

Venus missions, 26, 70

“Visions of Harmony,” 277

Voyager Interstellar Mission (VIM), 141, 144

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA), 303

National Reconnaissance Office (NRO), 60

Nature Geoscience, 241, 271

NEAR (Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous) Shoemaker, 

191–192, 210

Neptune, xiii, 109, 116, 139, 234

exoplanet comparison, 261

Kuiper Belt comparison, 243

moons, 141

Voyager 1, 144

Voyager 2, 137–141

Netherlands, the, 304, 308

New Exploration of Tempel 1 (NExT), 211

New Frontiers, 243, 275, 309

New Horizons, 198, 243–246, 255, 275, 309

New Millennium program, 207

Next Generation Satellite Laser Ranging (NGSLR), 266

Nozomi, 205–206, 270

O

Obama, Barack, 283

“Object-Probes” (Soviet), 34–35, 37–39, 43

Odin (satellite), 263

OHB Systems, 298

OKB Fakel, 229

Opportunity rover, 213, 223–227, 240

Orion constellation, 263

OSIRIS-REx (Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource 

Identification, Security, Regolith Explorer), 243, 

308–310, 309

P

PanAmSat, 203

PAS 22, 203

“pathfinder,” 165

“Peregrine falcon,” 219

Philae, 231–233

Phoenix, 210, 213, 222, 250–251, 290

Pickering, William H., 9, 28

Pioneer, 16–18, 20, 91–92, 125, 138, 180, 273

Pioneer 0, 5
370 BEYOND EARH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORA

Pioneer 10, 108–110, 114–116, 125, 137–138, 141, 

143–144

overtaken by Voyager 1, 144

plaque, 108, 116, 144

trajectory, 143

Pioneer 11, 110, 114–116, 125, 137, 141, 143–144

plaque, 108, 116, 144

trajectory, 143

Pioneer I, 6–7, 7

Pioneer II, 7–8

Pioneer III, 8–9, 9, 11–12

Pioneer IV, 10–12

Pioneer IX, 54, 80–81, 109

Pioneer V, 17

Pioneer Venus 1, 147–148

Pioneer Venus 2, 148–149, 148, 176

Pioneer Venus Orbiter, 156, 159

Pioneer VI, 53–54, 53, 60, 75

Pioneer VII, 54, 60–61, 75

Pioneer VIII, 54, 61, 75, 88

Planck, 263–265, 307

Planck, Max, 264

Planet-A, 166–167

Pluto, xiii, 243–246, 244, 255

Charon (moon), 245–246, 245

moons (other), 245–246

Poland, 161, 169, 221

Polar (ISTP), 183, 186–187

Potts, John, 227

Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 284

PROCYON (Proximate Object Close Flyby with Optical 

Navigation), 299–301

Project Apollo. See Apollo program

Project Genetrix, 15–16

PrOP-FP, 171

PrOP-M mobile device, 100, 101

PrOP-V penetrometer, 155, 157

Pulsar Scientific-Research Institute, 118

R

Radio Astronomy Explorer (RAE) program, 116–117

Ranger Block I, 22, 23, 26

Ranger Block II, 25, 30, 37

Ranger Block III, 37, 41, 47

Ranger I, 22–23, 22

Ranger II, 22, 23

Ranger III, 25–26

Ranger IV, 25–26

Ranger IX, 46–47

Ranger missions, 77

Ranger V, 30

Ranger VI, 37, 266

Ranger VII, 40–41, 47, 266

Ranger VIII, 45, 47, 63, 266

Rayman, Marc, 256

Reznor, Trent, 277

Ride, Sally K., 278

Robinson, Matt, 223

Robot Hall of Fame, 196

Rosetta, 231–233, 238, 264, 275

Roskosmos, 307–308

Ross, Atticus, 277

Rover Environmental Monitoring Station (REMS), 284

rovers, 61, 213, 222–225, 223, 240, 283, 299, 307. See 

also individual

Mars, 103, 213–214, 222–227, 240–241, 280–286

Moon, 85, 97, 113–114, 226, 266, 291–294, 292, 293

Rubin, Vera Florence Cooper, 285

S

Sagan, Carl, 130, 144, 196

Sagan Memorial Station, 196

Sagdeev, Roald, 171

Sagittarius constellation, 116, 246

Sakigake, 165

Saliga, Stephen A., 7

Sally Ride Science foundation, 278

Samos E-1 spy satellite, 60

Saturn, 109, 114, 139, 176

Anthe (moon), 201

atmosphere, 116

Calypso (moon), 140

Daphnis (moon), 201

Dione (moon), 144, 201–202

Enceladus (moon), 140, 144, 199, 201–202

evolution of, 202

Helene (moon), 140, 201

Hyperion (moon), 140, 201–202

Iapetus (moon), 139, 201

magnetic field, 115

Mimas (moon), 144

moons, 144, 198–201. See also individual

Phoebe (moon), 140, 200, 228

Rhea (moon), 144, 201–202, 255

rings, 140, 202, 228

Telesto (moon), 140

Tethys (moon), 140, 144, 201

Titan (moon), 116, 144, 197–202, 200

Schiaparelli, 222, 241, 307–308

Science, 291

Scott, David R., 104

Scott, (probe), 209

Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI), 81

Second Solar Orbit, 180–181

Second Soviet Space Rocket, 12–13

SELENE (Selenological and Engineering Explorer), 

252–253

“Send Your Name to Mars” CD-ROM, 210

“Send Your Name to the Asteroid Belt,” 256

September 11 Terrorist Attacks, 226

Shakespeare, William, 145

Shin’en, 271

Shin’en 2, 300–301

Shoemaker, Eugene M., 192, 205
Index 

Simpson, John A., 161

SIRTF, xiv, 227–229, 228, 238, 263

Sjogren, William L., 57, 72

Small Explorer Program (SMEX-Lite), 303

SMART (Small Missions for Advanced Research in 

Technology), 229–230, 304

Soffen, Gerald, 134

SOHO (Solar & Heliospheric Observatory), 183, 186–187, 

189–190, 231, 247

Sojourner, 195–196, 195, 223

solar plasma, 22

solar sailing, 272

solar system, 108, 117, 141, 143, 229, 234, 246

asteroids, 253, 273, 295

composition of, 263

dust particles, 181, 211

escape from, 108–110, 115–116, 125, 141–144

Ganymede (moon), 176

“Grand Tour” of outer planets, 141

origin of, 211, 243, 253, 255

outer, 243

photographed, 234

possibility of water, 144

Solar Terrestrial Probes (STP) program, 246

Solar Terrestrial Science Programme (STSP), 189

solar wind, 51, 54, 81, 106, 124, 135, 147, 150, 189, 249, 

257. See also Sun

composition of, 216

coronal mass ejections (CME), 247

Earth approach, 149, 186, 249

interaction with cometary tail, 60–61

interaction with Martian atmosphere, 291

interplanetary, 70–72, 104, 115, 176, 206, 221, 250, 

289, 291

magnetosphere, 183, 186

near-real-time measurements, 197

origin of, 190

samples, 215

variations, 109, 141, 180, 186, 303

weakening of, 116, 181

South Africa, 18, 27, 88

Southwood, David, 265

Soviet Space Rocket, 11–13

Soyuz, 73, 112, 241, 294

space race, 85, 96, 99–100, 118, 192

Moon race, 90

Space Sciences Laboratories, 249

Space Shuttle, 141, 173, 175, 180, 225, 303. See also

individual

Space Technology 7, 304

Space Technology Laboratories (STL), 5–6, 8, 16

Spain, 88, 284, 298, 304, 308

Spirit rover, 213, 222–227

Spitzer, Lyman S., Jr., 228

Spitzer Space Telescope, 227–229, 228, 238, 263

Spitzer Warm Mission, 228

Sputnik, xv, 6

“Sputnik 27,” xv

Squyres, Steve, 226–227

Star Wars, 262

Stardust, 6, 210–211, 217, 237

Stardust/NExT, 211

Starsem, 241

STEREO (Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory), 246–247

Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), 185

Suisei, 166–167

Sun, 60–61. See also solar wind

atmosphere, 54, 170, 189

composition of, 32

corona, 53

coronal mass ejections (CME), 247

farside, 53–54

first heliocentric orbit of, 11

flares, 12

magnetic fields, 181, 190, 247

plasma, 22

radiation, 102–103, 123, 273

stereoscopic images, 247

storms, 54, 109, 303

sunspots, 190

x-rays, 157

Sunyaev-Zeldovich effect, 264

Surveyor, xiii, 72, 77, 109, 130

Surveyor I, 58–59, 66, 77

Surveyor II, 61–62, 65–66

Surveyor III, 65–66, 66, 77, 266

Surveyor IV, 71, 73

Surveyor lunar lander, 46, 109, 130

Surveyor Model 1, 45, 49, 78

Surveyor Model 2, 58, 78

Surveyor probes, 72

Surveyor program, 209

Surveyor V, 72–73, 77

Surveyor VI, 74, 77

Surveyor VII, 77

Sweden, 169, 206, 259, 263

Swift x-ray telescope, 229, 238

Switzerland, 169, 304, 307

T

Tama Art University, 301

Tatooine (fictional planet), 262

Taurus constellation, 110

Telebit, 17

Telescopium constellation, 142

Terek solar telescope, 170

TETR C, 92

Tetr I (Test and Training Satellite I), 75

Tetr II (TETR-B), 81

THEMIS (Time History of Events and Macroscale 

Interactions during Substorms), 214, 249

3MV-4 spacecraft, 48

TIMED (Thermosphere Ionosphere Mesosphere 

Energetics and Dynamics), 243

Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO), 291, 307

2001 Mars Odyssey. See Mars Odyssey
372 BEYOND EARH: A CHRONICLE OF DEEP SPACE EXPLORA

U

Ulamec, Stephan, 233

Ulysses, 173, 180–181, 198

Unified Lunar Control Network, 252

UNISEC Technology Experiment Carrier 1 (UNITEC 1), 

252, 270–271

United Kingdom, 259, 304

University College, London, 221

University of Arizona, 250–251, 309

University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), 53

University of California–Berkeley, 249

University of California–San Diego, 278

University of Tokyo, 300

University Space Engineering Consortium (UNISEC), 271

Uranus, xiii, 137–141, 261

Miranda (moon), 138, 141

“Uranus Antenna,” 140

U.S. Lunar Rover, 61

USSR Academy of Sciences, 27, 57, 119, 157

USSR Institute of Space Research, 157, 171

Ustinov, Dmitriy, 56

V

Van Allen belts, 6, 9, 12, 32

Vasavada, Ashwin, 285

Vasil’yev, Yu. F., 97

Vega, 95, 117, 156–157, 237, 304

Vega 1, 160–163, 166

Vega 2, 162–163, 166

Venera, 26–27, 29, 33, 38, 51, 111, 161, 163

Venera 1, 21–22, 29

“Venera 2,” 39

Venera 2, 50–51

Venera 3, 51

Venera 4, 29, 68–69, 68, 70–71, 83–84, 93

Venera 5, 69, 83–84, 93

Venera 6, 83–84, 93

Venera 7, 93–94, 106, 110–111

Venera 8, 106, 110–111, 129

Venera 9, 127–129, 152, 156–157, 157

Venera 10, 128–129, 152, 156–157

Venera 11, 150–153, 156

Venera 12, 151–153, 156

Venera 13, 155–157, 174

Venera 14, 155–157, 160, 174

Venera 15, 159–160, 174

Venera 16, 159–160, 174

Venus, 16–17, 26–29, 43, 52, 121, 174

Atlas of Venus (Atlasa venery), 160–163

atmosphere, 69, 84, 149, 242, 270–271

impact attempts, 21–22

lightning on, 242

magnetic field (lack of), 69–70

panorama, 127

possibility of life, 157

radiation belts (lack of), 69

soil composition, 129, 173–174

surface color photographs, 156

surface conditions, 83–84, 94, 111, 127, 151

surveys of, 175

tectonic activity, 173

topographical map, 147

volcanism, 173–174

Venus Climate Orbiter (VCO), 269–272, 269

Venus Express, 234, 241–242, 270

Viking, 99, 118, 130, 131, 184, 251, 281

Viking 1, 129–134, 226

Viking 2, 131–134, 133, 251

VNII Transmash, 97

Voyager, 110, 173, 177, 180

Golden Records, 137, 144–145

Voyager 1, 109–110, 116, 137–145, 234

trajectory, 143

Voyager 2, 116, 137–144, 144

trajectory, 143

W

Waldheim, Kurt, 145

WAVES, 186

Webb, James E., 28, 69

Wilkinson, David Todd, 215

Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP), 215, 264

Wind, xiv, 183, 186–187, 189

Worden, Alfred M., 104

World Trade Center Towers, 226

X

XMM-Newton, 231, 238

Y

Ye-6 lunar lander, 55, 57

Ye-6 program, 33, 38–39, 47, 50. See also individual Luna 

missions

Ye-6 spacecraft, 52

Ye-8 lunar rover, 61

Yenisey unit, 14–16, 15

Yeremenko, N.M., 97

Yinghuo-1, 278, 280, 288

Yutu, 291–294, 292, 293

Yutu rover, 292–294, 292, 293

Z

Ziyuan, Ouyang, 273

“Zond 1,” 34–35

Zond 1, 39

Zond 2, 43–44, 51

Zond 3, 48–49, 48, 61

Zond 4, xiii, 78

Zond 5, 79–80

Zond 6, 80–82

Zond 7, 91

Zond 8, 96–97, 297

Zond program, xiii, 37, 39, 73–74, 79, 84, 100
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