The Global 

Exploration 

Roadmap

August 2013

International Space Exploration

Coordination Group
“The surface of the Earth is the shore of the cosmic ocean. 

From it we have learned most of what we know. 

Recently, we have waded a little out to sea, enough to dampen our toes or, 

at most, wet our ankles.

The water seems inviting. The ocean calls.” 

 —Dr. Carl Sagan
The Global

Exploration

 Roadmap

The Global Exploration Roadmap is being developed by space agencies participating in the 

International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG). The roadmap builds on the vision 

for coordinated human and robotic exploration of our solar system that was established in The 

Global Exploration Strategy: the Framework for Coordination (May 2007). In doing so it reflects a 

coordinated international effort to prepare for collaborative space exploration missions beginning 

with the International Space Station (ISS) and continuing to the Moon, near-Earth asteroids, 

and Mars. Space agencies agree that human space exploration will be most successful as an 

international endeavour, given the challenges of these missions. Agencies also agree that pursuing 

this endeavour will deliver significant social, intellectual and economic benefits to people on Earth. 

This document presents the status of the space agency exploration road mapping activity. By 

sharing the results of this work with the broader community, space agencies seek to generate 

innovative ideas and solutions for meeting the challenges ahead.
What is New in the Global 

Exploration Roadmap?

The initial release of the Global Exploration Roadmap in 

September 2011 provided an opportunity for stakeholders 

across the globe to engage in national and international 

dialogue about space exploration to destinations where 

humans may someday live and work. Ideas and feedback 

generated through this dialogue have strengthened agency 

planning efforts and led to some of the changes included 

in this version. 

The initial roadmap identified two potential pathways toward 

the driving goal of human exploration of Mars: “Asteroid Next” 

and “Moon Next.” Each pathway was expanded through 

conceptual mission scenarios, which served as references 

to inform preparatory activities. Building on this work, the 

2013 roadmap includes a single reference mission scenario 

that reflects the importance of a stepwise evolution of critical 

capabilities which are necessary for executing increasingly 

complex missions to multiple destinations, leading to human 

exploration of Mars. The roadmap demonstrates how initial 

capabilities can enable a variety of missions in the lunar 

vicinity, responding to individual and common goals and 

objectives, while contributing to building the partnerships 

required for sustainable human space exploration.

Participating space agencies continue to prepare for human 

exploration beyond low-Earth orbit. The expanded chapter 

on preparatory activities reflects accomplishments in the five 

original areas: ISS utilization, robotic missions, advanced 

technologies, next generation capabilities, and analogues. 

A sixth section has been added, focusing on human health 

and performance risk mitigation.

Italy France

Canada Germany

European Space Agency India

Japan Republic of Korea

United States Ukraine

Russia United Kingdom
Daybreak over Gale Crater, Mars, the home to Curiosity since August 2012 

Table of Contents

Executive Summary 1

Chapter 1. Introduction 7

Chapter 2. Common Goals and Objectives 

of Space Exploration

9

Chapter 3. A Long-Range Human Exploration Strategy 13

Chapter 4. Human Exploration Preparatory Activities 25

Chapter 5. Conclusion 41

Executive 

Summary

The Global Exploration Roadmap highlights the efforts of 

agencies participating in the ISECG to prepare for human 

and robotic exploration of destinations where humans 

may someday live and work. Enabling humans to explore the 

surface of Mars in a manner that is sustainable, affordable, 

and productive is a long-term goal that we will use to help 

shape our near-term activities. This goal informs capability 

evolution and technology investments. The pathway to Mars 

extends human presence to enable exploration of multiple 

destinations, including the Moon and near-Earth asteroids. 

The Global Exploration Roadmap creates a framework for 

interagency discussions in three areas: 1) common goals 

and objectives, 2) a long-range human exploration strategy, 

and 3) coordination of exploration preparatory activities. By 

understanding the elements common to their exploration 

goals and objectives, and by collaborating to examine 

potential long-range scenarios, agencies continue to inform 

near-term decisions affecting their exploration preparation and 

to create opportunities for the partnerships which will realize 

future missions.

1
Global Exploration Roadmap

The roadmap reflects a common long-range human exploration 

strategy that begins with the ISS and expands human presence 

into the solar system, leading to human missions on the surface of Mars. It focuses on the first steps in implementing this 

strategy: utilizing the ISS, continuing to expand the synergies 

between human and robotic missions, and pursuing discoverydriven missions in the lunar vicinity that evolve capabilities 

and techniques needed to go further. By taking these first steps, 

missions into deep space and the Mars system would be enabled 

in a sustainable manner.

International Space Station

The ISS provides the opportunity for research and technology 

demonstrations which benefit from its unique location. It is also 

the foundation of exploration, advancing critical capabilities to 

take humans further into space and reducing the cost of human 

space flight. 

Robotic Missions to Discover and Prepare

Expanding on synergies between human and robotic missions 

will increase the unique contribution of each to achieving exploration goals and objectives. Robotic missions will provide new 

discoveries and serve as precursors to human exploration, contributing knowledge of the Moon, asteroids and Mars that will 

make subsequent human missions safer and more productive.

Human Missions Beyond Low-Earth Orbit

Human missions in the lunar vicinity and on the lunar surface 

would allow international partners to advance the capabilities 

needed for future Mars missions, while using the presence of 

the crew to explore the Moon and near-Earth asteroids. Missions 

to Mars will need reliable transportation, habitation, and other 

critical capabilities which can be advanced in the lunar vicinity 

and at the surface of the Moon. Deep space missions will be 

defined in the future, informed by new discoveries and enhanced 

by new technologies.

International Space Station 

General Research and Exploration

Preparatory Activities 

Commercial or Government Low-Earth Orbit Platforms and Missions 

2013 2020 2030 

ISRO Mars ExoMars InSight 

Hayabusa2 OSIRIS-REx Apophis

Luna-25 Luna-26 Luna 27 

Chandrayaan-2

MAVEN ExoMars 

LADEE 

Note: ISS partner agencies have agreed to use the ISS until at least 2020.

Rosetta 

Robotic Missions to Discover and Prepare 

SELENE-2 Luna 28/29

Human Missions Beyond Low-Earth Orbit

SELENE-3 

Sustainable

Human Missions

to Mars Surface 

Explore Near-Earth Asteroid

Extended Duration Crew

Missions

Humans to

Lunar Surface

RESOLVE 

Multiple Locations

in the Lunar Vicinity 

Mars Sample

Return and

Precursor

Opportunities 

Missions to

Deep Space and 

Mars System 

Mars 2020 JAXA Mars

Precursor

Global Exploration Roadmap

2
Executive Summary

Common Goals and Objectives

The Global Exploration Roadmap is driven by a set of goals and supporting objectives that reflect commonality while respecting 

each individual agency’s priorities. They demonstrate the rich potential for exploration of each of the target destinations, delivering 

benefits to people on Earth. The definitions listed below remain largely unchanged and demonstrate the synergy between science 

and human exploration goals and objectives.

Develop Exploration Technologies and Capabilities

Develop the knowledge, capabilities, and infrastructure required to live and 

work at destinations beyond low-Earth orbit through development and testing 

of advanced technologies, reliable systems, and efficient operations concepts 

in an off-Earth environment.

Engage the Public in Exploration

Provide opportunities for the public to engage interactively in space exploration.

Enhance Earth Safety

Enhance the safety of planet Earth by contributing to collaborative pursuit of planetary 

defense and orbital debris management mechanisms.

Extend Human Presence

Explore a variety of destinations beyond low-Earth orbit with a focus on continually 

increasing the number of individuals that can be supported at these destinations, 

the duration of time that individuals can remain at these destinations, and the level 

of self-sufficiency.

Perform Science to Enable Human Exploration

Reduce the risks and increase the productivity of future missions in our solar 

system, characterizing the effect of the space environment on human health and 

exploration systems.

Perform Space, Earth, and Applied Science

Engage in science investigations of, and from, solar system destinations and conduct 

applied research in the unique environment at solar system destinations.

Search for Life

Determine if life is or was present outside of Earth and understand the environments 

that support or supported it.

Stimulate Economic Expansion

Support or encourage provision of technology, systems, hardware, and services 

from commercial entities and create new markets based on space activities that 

will return economic, technological, and quality-of-life benefits to all humankind. 

ISS Commander Chris Hadfield communicates the 

significance of research activities on board the station.

Manufacturing has begun on the JAXA’s Hayabusa2 flight 

article that is scheduled to launch in 2014.

Robo-Ops is an example of how planetary surface exploration 

challenges engage the minds of students around the world.

ESA’s Mars Express image of the Reull Vallis region of Mars, 

showing a river-like structure that stretches for almost 1,500 km 

and is believed to have been formed long ago by running water.

3
A Long-Range Human Exploration Strategy

By examining various pathways to Mars, agencies have continued to study capabilities which are required for human missions 

beyond low-Earth orbit. The ISECG Mission Scenario reflects 

a coordinated international effort to advance common goals and 

objectives while enabling interested agencies to pursue their 

priorities and prepare for critical contributions to Mars missions. 

All nations will not necessarily participate in every element or 

mission depicted in this roadmap. Sustainable human exploration missions to Mars will be possible if multiple agencies 

contribute capabilities and expertise. In addition, long-term 

sustainability may also be enhanced through availability of 

commercial services and use of public-private partnerships. 

Using planned and conceptual capabilities, the ISECG Mission 

Scenario identifies a set of missions in the lunar vicinity and on 

the lunar surface that advance readiness for human Mars missions after 2030. Extended duration crew missions in the lunar 

vicinity and missions to an easily accessible asteroid will enable 

discoveries and allow demonstration of the transportation, habitation, robotic servicing and other key systems on which longduration missions into deep space must rely. Human 

missions to the lunar surface will allow critical demonstrations 

of planetary exploration capabilities and techniques, while 

pursuing the highest priority lunar science objectives.

This mission scenario promotes the integration of robotic and 

human missions for achieving common objectives and developing concepts for increased human-robotic partnership. The 

ISECG Mission Scenario serves as a reference for agencies by 

informing studies and other exploration preparatory activities.

ISECG Mission Scenario

Russian

Piloted

System

Orion

&

SLS

Evolvable

Deep Space

Habitat

Initial

Cargo

Delivery

Small

Cargo

Lander

Human

Surface

Mobility

Crewed

Lunar

Lander

Orion

& SLS

(Upgrade)

2020 2030 

Multi-Destination

Transportation

Capabilities

(Planned and Conceptual) 

Test Missions

LADEE Luna 25 Luna 26 

Chandrayaan-2

Luna 27 SELENE-2 

Rosetta Hayabusa2

(Sample Return) 

OSIRIS-REx

(Sample Return) 

Orion

& SLS

(Upgrade) 

Commercial or Government-Owned Platforms 

Luna 28/29

(Sample Return)

Human-Assisted

Sample Return 

Potential Commercial Opportunities 

Staging Post for Crew 

to Lunar Surface 

MAVEN ISRO Mars

Orbiter Mission 

ExoMars

2016

ExoMars

2018

Mars

2020

JAXA

Mars

Precursor

InSight 

Icon indicates rst use opportunity. 

Commercial/institutional launchers not shown.

Human Scale EDL Test Mission Opportunities 

Extended

Duration

Crew

Missions 

Moon 

Mars 

Asteroid Redirection

Advanced

Electric

Propulsion

SELENE-3 

Near-Earth Objects Apophis

Potential Commercial Opportunities 

Explore Near-Earth Asteroid

Humans to Lunar Surface 

International Space Station 

Low-Earth Orbit 

Beyond Low-Earth Orbit 

Lunar Vicinity

RESOLVE 

Mars Sample Return Mission

Opportunities 

Sustainable Human 

Missions to the 

Mars System

Robotic Mission

Human Mission

Cargo Mission 

Human-Assisted Sample Return

4
Executive Summary

Human Exploration Preparatory Activities

Across the globe, engineers and scientists are working on many of the essential preparatory activities necessary to extend human presence further into space. By developing a common roadmap, agencies hope to appropriately coordinate their current investments, and 

work together in ways that maximize return on investments and enable earlier realization of their goals and objectives. Significant 

activities are underway in the following areas, each presenting opportunities for coordination and cooperation.

Use of the ISS for Exploration

The ISS is an excellent platform on which to prepare for 

future exploration missions. New activities in the areas of 

exploration technologies, human health research and operations simulations have been identified, and many have begun 

operation on board the ISS. Critical capabilities used to support the ISS will be advanced toward exploration requirements, 

such as lower mass, lower power and higher reliability.

Robotic Missions

Precursor robotic missions are essential for filling strategic 

knowledge gaps related to safe and successful human missions 

and for ensuring maximum return on the investments required 

for subsequent human exploration. Activities to increase the 

synergy between human and robotic missions driven by science 

and human exploration goals remain a high priority.

Advanced Technology Development

No single agency can invest robustly in all the needed technology 

areas that represent key challenges for executing human missions 

beyond low-Earth orbit. Creating opportunities for appropriate 

leveraging of global investments in technology development 

and demonstration has been a focus of participating agencies.

Development of New Space Systems and Infrastructure 

Human exploration beyond low-Earth orbit will require a new 

generation of capabilities and systems which build on existing 

capabilities and incorporate technologies still to be developed. 

Significant progress continues to be made preparing human 

transportation systems for initial test flights while other key 

capabilities continue to be studied by interested agencies.

Analogue Activities

Testing in a relevant environment allows refinement of system 

designs and mission concepts, helping prepare for exploration 

beyond low-Earth orbit. Agencies are sharing lessons learned and 

plans for future analogue campaigns in order to gain maximum 

benefit from these activities.

Managing Health and Human Performance Risks

Long duration missions and surface operations present numerous risks to crew health and performance. Agencies are actively 

studying these effects and possible mitigation techniques, such 

as countermeasures and biomedical diagnostics, but much work 

remains to be done.

NASA’s Orion spacecraft under test in preparation for the test flight in 2014.

ASI is developing the DREAMS (Dust characterization, Risk assessment and 

Environment Analyzer on Martian Surface) instrument suite to help characterize 

Mars landing site environments.

5
Conclusion

The Global Exploration Roadmap demonstrates that progress 

continues to be made in the effort to prepare for future exploration missions. Human exploration of the Moon, asteroids 

and Mars will strengthen humanity’s future, bringing nations 

together in a common cause, revealing new knowledge, inspiring people, and stimulating innovation. As more nations undertake space exploration activities, they see the importance of 

partnering to achieve their objectives. This document is an 

international roadmap, following a path that allows interested 

nations to advance their capabilities in a stepwise fashion 

toward critical roles on human missions to Mars. It reflects 

consensus that addressing the challenges of exploring space 

will require the best efforts of all stakeholders, governmental 

and non-governmental.

The following observations are made to assist in this effort:

1. In order to build a sustainable human space exploration 

endeavour that lasts decades, agency leaders should maintain 

a focus on delivering value to the public.

2. With the goal of enabling several partners to contribute 

critical capabilities to future human missions, agencies note 

that near-term collaborative missions on the ISS, in the 

lunar vicinity, on the lunar surface, and robotic missions 

may be used to simulate and better inform preparations for 

future international missions to Mars.

3. New mission concepts, such as human-assisted sample return 

and tele-presence should be further explored, increasing 

understanding of the important role of humans in space for 

achieving common goals.

4. Robotic science missions provide an important technique 

for obtaining the data needed to prepare for human exploration beyond low-Earth orbit. It is generally accepted by 

both the science and exploration communities that measurements and data sets obtained from robotic missions support 

both the advancement of science and preparation for human 

exploration.

5. Agencies should increase efforts to pursue a coordinated 

approach to mitigating the human health and performance 

risks of extended duration exploration missions, putting 

priority on efforts to reduce countermeasure mass and 

volume, and on driving risks to an acceptable level.

The Global Exploration Roadmap facilitates the dialogue 

between human space flight, science, education and other 

space exploration stakeholder communities to advance a 

coordinated space exploration roadmap that addresses their 

highest priority goals and objectives. Collaborative work on 

the conceptual ISECG Mission Scenario will strengthen space 

exploration planning and ensure that the complementary capabilities of both humans and robotic systems enable humankind 

to meet the most ambitious space exploration challenges. The 

roadmap can serve to strengthen governmental support for 

international cooperation in human and robotic space exploration and provide the technical basis for informing necessary 

agreements among agencies and governments.

The Circumferential Dome Weld Tool, located at NASA’s Michoud Assembly

Facility in Louisiana, will be used to create the SLS core stage domes out

of 12 panels.

6
Chapter 1.

Introduction

7

Since the first release of the Global Exploration Roadmap 

in September 2011, agencies have been making progress 

toward space exploration goals. They have planned and 

launched robotic missions, carried out new experiments on 

the ISS, and advanced new technologies and capabilities. 

Much work remains to be done to define implementable 

plans. By updating the roadmap, the participating agencies 

hope it can continue to inform the activities necessary 

to realize the vision of coordinated human and robotic 

exploration of destinations where humans may one day 

live and work.

Stakeholder engagement with the roadmap, whether 

conducted in a coordinated international manner or by 

agencies individually, has generated many innovative ideas 

and constructive feedback. This feedback has been taken 

into account in this update of the roadmap. 
Exploring Together

Achieving the vision of sustainable human space exploration, 

including human missions to Mars, will require political commitment and resource availability over an extended period of 

time. History has repeatedly shown that finding ways to meet 

the challenges of safe and sustainable human space flight results 

in solutions with applications much broader than space flight. 

Benefits are derived from the achievements of human and 

robotic missions. They also result from the many activities 

associated with the mission that take place along the path to 

launch. It is important to ensure consistent realization and 

broader dissemination of the benefits generated by all space 

exploration activities.

Although human exploration of the surface of Mars presents 

complex technological and human performance challenges, 

progress continues to be made. The pathway to Mars begins 

with the ISS. Exploration preparation activities such as technology demonstrations, human health research, and operations 

simulations are being conducted. Advancing habitation and 

other critical systems supporting the ISS contributes to reducing 

the risks associated with human missions beyond low-Earth orbit. 

With the next generation of space transportation capabilities 

opening the door to missions beyond low-Earth orbit for the 

first time since Apollo, missions in the vicinity of the Moon 

can provide needed opportunities for learning to operate 

effectively beyond the relative comfort of low-Earth orbit. 

These missions strengthen and expand the partnerships that 

will enable sustainable human space exploration.

Using Mars missions as a long-term driving goal, the ISECG 

Mission Scenario defines a stepwise evolution of human exploration capabilities that advance exploration of the Moon and a 

near-Earth asteroid. Capabilities which enable lunar surface 

exploration advance the readiness of partners for Mars surface 

missions. Continuous human presence on the Moon may 

follow, driven by government or non-government rationale, 

using existing and additional capabilities.

The ISECG Mission Scenario provides a framework to facilitate 

discussion on mission concepts and innovative ideas for meeting 

exploration challenges. It is considered technically feasible and 

programmatically implementable, creating opportunities for 

capabilities developed by various providers to enable exciting 

missions that meet shared goals and objectives.

The exploration of space, initiated more than 50 years ago, 

has contributed to enabling successful commercial activities in 

Earth orbit related mainly to communication, navigation, and 

Earth observation satellites. In recent years, commercial industry has continued to invest in space transportation and exploration services in response to government demands, incentive 

prizes, or simply to offer new services to the public. Several 

private ventures seeking commercial opportunities beyond 

low-Earth orbit have been initiated. The Global Exploration 

Roadmap recognizes that sustainable exploration must actively 

encourage new services and markets. Just as Earth orbit has 

been established as an important economic sphere, the same 

potential exists at future exploration destinations. The success 

of cargo delivery missions to the ISS demonstrates the feasibility of establishing public-private partnerships to stimulate the 

future availability of commercial services. 

The Global Exploration Roadmap is an important tool for agencies in preparing for future roles and in seeking stakeholder 

feedback. The roadmap facilitates the agencies’ preparation of 

exploration activities, allowing them to demonstrate to stakeholders the coherence of their proposals and plans in a broader 

international context. 

The need to make human space flight more affordable continues 

to drive changes in the way agencies develop and operate space 

systems. The ISS partners are pursuing initiatives which lower 

the cost of operating the ISS and travelling to and from it. These 

initiatives should drive innovations which benefit exploration 

beyond low-Earth orbit. Innovations in research and technology 

are also essential. Success will come from finding innovative 

solutions to exploration challenges and pursuing the activities 

and partnerships which enable the best ideas to be realized.

Observation: 

 In order to build a sustainable human space 

exploration endeavour that lasts decades, agency 

leaders should maintain a focus on delivering value 

to the public.

8
Chapter 2. 

Common Goals 

and Objectives of 

Space Exploration

Development of a Global Exploration Roadmap should be 

based on a clear understanding of the outcomes expected 

by participating agencies. It is important that mission 

scenarios reflect what space agencies want to accomplish, 

as articulated by specific goals and supporting objectives 

of space exploration.

9
The Global Exploration Roadmap is driven by a set of common 

space exploration goals and supporting objectives defined collectively by participating space agencies. The formulation of goals 

and objectives is an iterative process that reflects ongoing refinements as agency priorities evolve. Since the release of the initial 

Global Exploration Roadmap, these goals have been widely 

communicated, building a solid basis for determining the 

specific objectives of individual missions beyond low-Earth orbit.

These goals and objectives reflect the integrated nature of science 

and exploration and also build on the synergies which exist 

between human and robotic space exploration missions. In planning future human missions it will be essential to understand and 

address the highest priority science objectives. 

The common goals, listed in alphabetical order, are described 

below:

• Develop Exploration Technologies and Capabilities.

Develop the knowledge, capabilities, and infrastructure 

required to live and work at destinations beyond low-Earth 

orbit through development and testing of advanced technologies, reliable systems, and efficient operations concepts in an 

off-Earth environment. Pursuing this goal also yields spinoff 

products, new materials and manufacturing processes, and 

various technologies that can address major global challenges.

• Engage the Public in Exploration. Space agencies have 

a responsibility to return value directly to the public that 

supports them by disseminating knowledge and sharing in 

the excitement of discovery. A participatory approach to 

exploration helps provide this value and maximizes opportunities to leverage public contributions to exploration 

missions. Pursuing this goal also creates opportunities to 

educate and inspire citizens, particularly young people, and 

to contribute to the cultural development of communities.

• Enhance Earth Safety. Enhance the safety of planet Earth 

by collaborating in the pursuit of planetary defense and orbital 

debris management mechanisms. Pursuing this goal lowers 

the risk of unforeseen future catastrophic asteroid collisions, 

as well as damage to current space assets in Earth orbit.

• Extend Human Presence. Explore a variety of destinations 

beyond low-Earth orbit with a focus on continually increasing 

the number of individuals that can be supported at these destinations, the duration of time that individuals can remain there, 

and the level of self-sufficiency. Extending and sustaining 

human presence beyond low-Earth orbit enables humankind 

to live and work in space, to harness solar system resources 

for use in space and on Earth, and eventually to settle on other 

planets. Pursuing this goal expands the frontiers of humanity, 

opens doors to future utilization of space, and reshapes how we 

think of ourselves and our place in the universe.

A meteorite contrail is seen in this frame grab made from a video recorded 

with a dashboard camera on a highway from Kostanai, Kazakhstan, to Russia’s 

Chelyabinsk region Friday, February 15, 2013. (AP Photo/Nasha gazeta, www.ng.kz) 

A Curiosity Mastcam photo showing a shale outcropping with crossbedding indicative of sediment transport in stream flows.

10
Chapter 2. Common Goals and Objectives of Space Exploration

• Perform Science to Enable Human Exploration. Reduce 

the risks and increase the productivity of future missions in 

our solar system by characterizing the effect of the space 

environment on human health and exploration systems. This 

is essential for human exploration and will enable a human 

presence across the solar system. Pursuing this goal also 

yields innovation for Earth-based health care.

• Perform Space, Earth, and Applied Science. Engage in 

scientific investigations of solar system destinations, and 

conduct applied research in the unique environment at these 

destinations. Pursuing this goal delivers valuable knowledge 

to society and deepens understanding of our home planet.

• Search for Life. Determine if life is or was present outside 

of Earth and understand the environments that support it. 

The search for life is a central goal of space exploration. 

Pursuing this goal continues the cultural quest of humankind 

to determine whether we are alone in the universe, and 

answers deeply rooted questions about our origin and 

evolution. The question of whether life exists beyond Earth 

has great philosophical and scientific significance.

• Stimulate Economic Expansion. Support or encourage 

provision of technology, systems, hardware, and services 

from commercial entities and create new markets based on 

space activities that will return economic, technological, 

and quality-of-life benefits to all humankind. Pursuing this 

goal generates new industries, spurs innovation in fields such 

as robotics and energy systems, and creates high-technology 

employment opportunities. It allows the creation of commercial services and spinoffs to take place in a more effective 

and timely manner. As space activities evolve from government research to exploration to utilization, new economic 

possibilities may extend beyond low-Earth orbit to the Moon 

and elsewhere in the solar system. 

An exploration strategy will be based on goals and objectives that 

allow the sustainment and growth of each agency’s aspirations for 

human space missions. As space agencies continue to refine their 

goals and objectives, they will share them and ensure that the 

Global Exploration Roadmap reflects the existing commonality.

This mosaic is produced by combining multiple images of the Moon’s south polar 

region. Regions in white are illuminated more often than grey regions. Many of the 

black areas are permanently shadowed and likely contain volatile deposits.

11
Key Supporting Objectives

Goal Objective

Develop Exploration Technologies and Capabilities Test countermeasures and techniques to maintain crew health and performance, and 

radiation mitigation technologies and strategies.

Demonstrate and test power generation and storage systems.

Develop and test high-performance mobility, extravehicular activity, life support, and 

habitation capabilities.

Demonstrate the use of robots to explore autonomously and to supplement astronauts’ 

exploration activities.

Develop and validate tools, technologies, and systems that extract, process, and utilize 

resources to enable exploration missions.

Demonstrate launch and advanced in-space propulsion capabilities.

Develop thermal management systems, including cryogenic fluid management capabilities.

Learn how to best perform basic working tasks and develop protocols for operations.

Test and demonstrate advanced entry, descent, and landing technologies.

Test automated rendezvous and docking, on-orbit assembly, and satellite-servicing 

capabilities.

Develop and demonstrate technologies to support scientific investigation.

Develop space communications and navigation capabilities.

Engage the Public in Exploration Use interactive communications tools to provide virtual experiences using real and live 

exploration data.

Enlist amateur/citizen scientists to contribute to exploration-related knowledge collection.

Enhance Earth Safety Characterize potential near-Earth asteroid collision threats.

Test techniques to mitigate the risk of asteroid collisions with Earth.

Manage orbital debris around the Earth.

Extend Human Presence Explore new destinations.

Increase opportunities for astronauts from all partner countries to engage in exploration.

Increase the self-sufficiency of humans in space.

Perform Science to Enable Human Exploration Evaluate human health in the space environment and develop methods to mitigate health risks.

Monitor and predict radiation in the space environment.

Characterize the geology, topography, and conditions at destinations.

Characterize available resources at destinations.

Evaluate the impacts of the surface, near-surface, and atmospheric environment on 

exploration systems.

Perform Space, Earth, and Applied Science Perform Earth observation, heliophysics, and astrophysics from space.

Gather scientific knowledge of destinations.

Gather scientific knowledge of solar system evolution.

Perform applied research.

Search for Life Find evidence of past or present life.

Explore the past or present potential of solar system destinations to sustain life.

Stimulate Economic Expansion Provide opportunities for the integration of commercial transportation elements into the 

exploration architecture.

Provide opportunities for the integration of commercial surface and orbital elements into 

the exploration architecture.

Evaluate potential for commercial goods and services at destinations, including markets 

for discovered resources.

12
Chapter 3.

A Long-Range Human 

Exploration Strategy

Space agencies participating in ISECG have defined a 

long-range human exploration strategy that begins with the 

ISS and expands human presence into the solar system, 

leading to human missions to explore the surface of Mars. 

Unquestionably, sending humans to Mars in a sustainable 

way over time will be the most challenging and rewarding 

objective of human space exploration in the foreseeable 

future. These missions will require new technologies and 

significant advances in the capabilities we have today.

To enable a sustainable programme of human exploration 

of Mars, it is necessary to have a stepwise approach that 

reduces risk, tests advanced technologies and demonstrates 

new human space exploration capabilities. It is important 

that each mission can be defined in a way that takes a 

step toward Mars, while maximizing the opportunity to 

meet exploration objectives such as science, technology 

demonstration and public engagement.

13
From Strategy to Roadmap: Conceptual Mission Scenario

The ISECG Mission Scenario reflects the near-term initiatives 

in implementing the common strategy, namely: 1) fully utilizing 

the ISS, 2) continuing efforts to expand on synergies between 

human and robotic missions, and 3) discovery-driven missions 

in the lunar vicinity that evolve capabilities and techniques 

needed for Mars, while enabling discoveries on the Moon and 

near-Earth asteroids. This scenario reflects a coordinated international effort to advance common goals and objectives while 

enabling interested agencies to pursue their priorities and prepare for critical contributions to human Mars missions. 

The scenario reflects a stepwise development and demonstration of capabilities necessary for executing increasingly 

complex missions, while focusing on discoveries at multiple 

destinations. Activities in the lunar vicinity and on the lunar 

surface can enable a variety of objectives related to asteroid and 

lunar exploration and significantly advance readiness for human 

exploration of Mars. Ongoing and planned robotic and human 

missions are critical for preparing for human missions to Mars. 

Several driving principles (listed below) reflect the characteristics of a sustainable human exploration effort. The principles 

are highly interdependent, and it is the combination of these 

principles, rather than any individual one, that drives the development of sustainable mission scenarios. For example, affordability constraints at global levels dictate a stepwise approach 

to the development of new capabilities and a careful assessment of the need and timing for achieving redundancy for 

critical exploration functions. Affordability is also a function 

of the anticipated exploration value, as budgets may be subject 

to increase or decrease depending upon achieved exploration 

goals. Defining an affordable sequence for evolving capabilities that builds on competencies existing globally, enables a 

truly international space exploration effort.

Principles Driving the Mission Scenario:

Affordability–Take into account budget constraints 

Affordability of a complex exploration programme must be maintained over 

extended periods of time. Cost must be a consideration when formulating 

programmes and throughout programme execution. Innovations and 

integration of advanced technologies must be driven by the goal to 

reduce costs. Each agency’s planned contributions must accommodate 

realistic expectations regarding cost and the future availability of funding.

Exploration Value–Generate public benefits and meet exploration 

objectives

Sustainable human space exploration must respond to exploration goals 

and objectives and deliver value to the public as well as to participating 

stakeholder communities, beginning early in the process and continuing 

throughout the journey. 

International Partnerships–Provide early and sustained opportunities 

for diverse partners

Broad international cooperation is not only critical for enabling increasingly 

complex exploration missions, but also an important contributor to achieving exploration value. Mission scenarios must build on the competencies 

and long-term interests of each agency, large or small, allowing each to 

sustain and grow its aspirations for space exploration. Collaborations will be 

established at all levels (missions, capabilities, technologies), with various 

levels of interdependency among the partners. These collaborations should 

be set up to ensure resiliency of the programme against failures, delays or 

programmatic issues. In addition, opportunities for new partners should be 

available to strengthen robustness of the overall partnership. 

Capability Evolution–Execute missions of increasing complexity based 

on the stepwise development of capabilities

Sustainable human exploration beyond low-Earth orbit, toward the 

long-term goal of human missions to Mars, requires building upon existing 

capabilities and competencies, increasing performance with each step. 

New technologies should be pursued and applied to address challenges. 

Exploration mission challenges necessitate advancing and demonstrating 

critical capabilities to manage risk.

Human/Robotic Partnership–Maximize synergy between human 

and robotic missions 

Combine the unique and complementary capabilities of humans and 

robotic systems, enabling a greater set of goals to be met effectively, 

cost-efficiently and safely. Robotic precursor missions will prepare for 

human missions by acquiring strategic knowledge about future destinations and demonstrating critical technologies. Use of robots to assist 

and complement crew activities will also enhance the productivity and 

benefits of eventual human exploration missions to any given destination.

Robustness –Provide for resilience to programmatic and technical 

challenges 

A robust human space exploration programme will have sufficient flexibility 

to cope with unplanned changes or crisis situations, whether they are due 

to catastrophic events, changes in the partnership structure, adjustments 

in available funding or evolution of the exploration goals and objectives. 

To achieve robustness, dissimilar redundancies of critical functions 

should be applied early, where practicable. 

14
Chapter 3. A Long-Range Human Exploration Strategy

ISECG Mission Scenario

The ISECG conceptual mission scenario reflects missions in the 

next 25 years which significantly advance exploration objectives on the path to Mars. Missions in the lunar vicinity, such 

as those to an easily accessible asteroid or an evolvable Deep 

Space Habitat, can enable discoveries and allow demonstration 

of the systems on which long-duration missions into deep space 

must rely. Human missions to the lunar surface can allow demonstrations of planetary exploration capabilities and techniques, 

while pursuing the highest priority lunar science objectives.

As an evolution of the international coordination, the scenario 

reflects an integrated approach to human and robotic exploration. Crew presence brings human decision making, adaptability, 

and resourcefulness, enabling a larger set of science and exploration objectives to be met. Human-assisted sample return and 

tele-presence represent new and integrated approaches to space 

exploration with the potential to increase benefits. Mars sample 

return, a priority for the planetary science community, could bring 

insights which aid the preparation for eventual human surface 

missions. Human and robotic mission planners have begun a discussion on whether human presence could enhance sample return, 

while advancing other human space exploration objectives.

Human missions to the surface of Mars will require advances 

in entry, descent and landing capabilities. A human-scale Mars 

landing test is envisioned, providing an opportunity to also meet 

other science and precursor mission objectives. 

The increasing role of private initiatives in low-Earth orbit 

opens the possibility that similar initiatives may be extensible 

to missions beyond. 

ISECG Mission Scenario

Russian

Piloted

System

Orion

&

SLS

Evolvable

Deep Space

Habitat

Initial

Cargo

Delivery

Small

Cargo

Lander

Human

Surface

Mobility

Crewed

Lunar

Lander

Orion

& SLS

(Upgrade)

2020 2030 

Multi-Destination

Transportation

Capabilities

(Planned and Conceptual) 

Test Missions

LADEE Luna 25 Luna 26 

Chandrayaan-2

Luna 27 SELENE-2 

Rosetta Hayabusa2

(Sample Return) 

OSIRIS-REx

(Sample Return) 

Orion

& SLS

(Upgrade) 

Commercial or Government-Owned Platforms 

Luna 28/29

(Sample Return)

Human-Assisted

Sample Return 

Potential Commercial Opportunities 

Staging Post for Crew 

to Lunar Surface 

MAVEN ISRO Mars

Orbiter Mission 

ExoMars

2016

ExoMars

2018

Mars

2020

JAXA

Mars

Precursor

InSight 

Icon indicates rst use opportunity. 

Commercial/institutional launchers not shown.

Human Scale EDL Test Mission Opportunities 

Extended

Duration

Crew

Missions 

Moon 

Mars 

Asteroid Redirection

Advanced

Electric

Propulsion

SELENE-3 

Near-Earth Objects Apophis

Potential Commercial Opportunities 

Explore Near-Earth Asteroid

Humans to Lunar Surface 

International Space Station 

Low-Earth Orbit 

Beyond Low-Earth Orbit 

Lunar Vicinity

RESOLVE 

Mars Sample Return Mission

Opportunities 

Sustainable Human 

Missions to the 

Mars System

Robotic Mission

Human Mission

Cargo Mission 

Human-Assisted Sample Return

15
Major Capabilities of Future Exploration Architectures

By examining various pathways to Mars, agencies have continued 

to study capabilities which enable human exploration of multiple 

destinations beyond low-Earth orbit. Sustainable missions to Mars 

will be possible if multiple agencies contribute critical capabilities. 

Agencies seek to make contributions which are consistent with 

their expertise and national objectives. Exploration capabilities 

will build on those developed in support of the ISS and other 

governmental or commercial space endeavours. 

Exploration transportation capabilities under development today 

will enable missions in the lunar vicinity and are designed to be 

evolvable to support additional missions, such as lunar surface 

and deep space missions. Other capabilities, such as habitation, 

surface power, servicing and mobility will be needed over the 

long term and can be advanced in a stepwise manner to support 

exploration mission needs.

Icon Capability Name Description

NASA Orion Crew vehicle capable of delivering a crew to exploration destinations and back to Earth. 

NASA Space Launch System (SLS)

Launch vehicle with the capability to deliver cargo or crew beyond low-Earth orbit. Initial capability evolves 

with advanced boosters and an upper stage to enable increasingly complex missions with further evolution 

to support crewed Mars missions.

Cryogenic Propulsion Stage (CPS)

Included in SLS evolution plans, an in-space propulsion capability utilizing cryogenic hydrogen and 

oxygen as propellants. Could provide additional performance for missions to the lunar vicinity, lunar 

surface or Mars. Mission durations will require long-duration storage of cryogenic propellants.

ROSCOSMOS Next Generation

Space Launch Vehicle

Launch vehicle with the capability to deliver cargo or crew beyond low-Earth orbit. The next 

generation space launch vehicle and the next generation spacecraft together constitute 

the Russian Piloted System.

ROSCOSMOS Next Generation 

Spacecraft Crew vehicle capable of delivering a crew to exploration destinations and back to Earth.

Evolvable Deep Space Habitat A human-tended habitat which is evolvable to advance in-space habitation, spacewalk, and staging 

capabilities ultimately required for human Mars missions.

Servicing Support Systems Systems and tools to enable crew and robots to service space systems and assemble larger capabilities. 

These systems can augment the functionality of the Orion and/or the evolvable Deep Space Habitat.

Cargo Logistics Delivery Systems Systems designed to serve as logistic vehicles for resupplying orbital infrastructures in lunar vicinity 

with pressurized and unpressurized payloads.

Small Cargo Lander System designed to deliver robotics and cargo on the lunar surface to meet lunar exploration objectives.

Crewed Lunar Lander Human-rated lunar lander that may have attributes of reusability, may be composed of two or more 

stages, and delivers crew and cargo to the lunar surface.

Lunar Surface Elements These systems have the capabilities that enable humans to effectively complete surface destination 

objectives, including human surface mobility, habitation and support elements.

Advanced In-Space Propulsion In-space stage using nontraditional propulsion technologies, such as high power electric and nuclear 

propulsion, to enable deep-space crew exploration of an asteroid and Mars.

16
Chapter 3. A Long-Range Human Exploration Strategy

Mission Themes

The ISECG Mission Scenario includes three different mission themes. Each theme includes a group of missions which may be accomplished with planned and conceptual capabilities. While each of these mission themes has its own rationale and is driven by individual 

objectives, each is considered a meaningful step toward the international partner-provided capabilities necessary for deep space and 

Mars missions. These themes also maximize the opportunity provided by the presence of the crew to address science priorities and 

engage the public in innovative ways. 

The three themes are as follows:

1. Exploration of a Near-Earth Asteroid–robotically deflecting an asteroid to enable its exploration in the lunar vicinity 

to demonstrate advanced electric propulsion, crew transportation 

and operation capabilities. This mission theme responds to a 

NASA initiative and includes opportunities for partnership.

2. Extended Duration Crew Missions–long-duration missions 

in the lunar vicinity for advancing deep space exploration 

capabilities and creating innovative opportunities for exploration of the Moon through a human-robotic partnership. This 

mission theme represents an achievable near-term step and 

has been defined with the goal to directly advance capabilities 

for future exploration missions targeting the Moon and deep 

space. This mission definition has been advanced collectively 

by ISECG agencies’ representatives.

3. Humans to the Lunar Surface–missions to the lunar surface 

providing opportunities to address priority lunar exploration 

objectives benefiting from human presence on the surface and 

advancing habitation, mobility and other planetary exploration 

capabilities. This mission theme addresses one of the exploration destinations. Many agencies consider human missions to the 

lunar surface as an essential step in preparation for human Mars 

missions. Lunar missions are favored by agencies who view 

the Moon as the next step for human planetary exploration and 

NASA may contribute to such missions. Lunar missions have 

been studied individually and collectively, for several years.

It is important to enable beyond-low-Earth orbit missions while 

still operating and utilizing the ISS. Avoiding a gap between ISS 

and beyond-low-Earth orbit missions preserves the capabilities 

and expertise needed, as well as leveraging the ISS partnership 

for implementing future missions. Continued access to the ISS 

also enables exploration preparation activities, such as technology 

demonstration, human health and performance risk mitigation, 

and operations simulations to continue.

This figure illustrates how the 

systems and capabilities currently 

supporting the ISS form the basis 

for those needed to take humans 

farther into space. The habitation 

and other critical systems supporting 

astronauts on board the ISS will be 

evolved to meet exploration mission 

requirements. The crew and cargo 

transportation capabilities supporting the ISS provide a strong foundation for realizing similar capabilities 

needed for missions in the lunar 

vicinity. The stepwise evolution of 

current capabilities to those needed 

to execute missions in the lunar 

vicinity and the lunar surface will 

enable the international partnership 

to master the capabilities necessary 

to go farther into space.

Critical systems

onboard the ISS

Cargo Delivery

Advanced Electric

Propulsion

Evolvable Deep

Space Habitat Lunar

Lander

Surface Cargo

Delivery

Crew and Cargo

Transportation Systems

ISS

Exploration of a

Near-Earth Asteroid

Humans to the

Lunar Surface

Extended Duration 

Crew Missions in 

the Lunar Vicinity

Capability

Evolution

Toward Mars

SLS

& Orion

Russian

Piloted

System

remove Mars image , add Orion/SLS and 

Russian Piloted system, add arrow from 

ISS capabilities to the ovals BLEO

17
Exploration of a Near-Earth Asteroid

This mission concept calls for a robotic mission to capture and 

redirect a small near-Earth asteroid and guide it to a stable orbit 

in the lunar vicinity, so that it is within reach of the Orion with 

the initial SLS performance. An asteroid of less than 10 meters 

in diameter would be targeted. An object of this size does not 

pose a threat to Earth. Once the redirected asteroid has achieved 

a stable orbit, astronauts (and robotic spacecraft) can visit and 

explore the object. Recognizing the variability of potential 

targets, other mission concepts are under study with the goal 

of maximizing the benefit for exploration and other in-space 

applications of technologies demonstrated on the mission.

Mission Activities

The robotic mission to redirect the asteroid will travel to the target object and employ rendezvous and capture techniques that 

may be suitable for other missions to non-cooperative targets, 

such as potentially hazardous asteroids or large uncontrollable 

space debris. Once the asteroid is delivered to a stable lunar 

orbit, astronauts in the Orion can visit and explore. Docking, 

grappling, or a similar approach would enable the crew to remain 

in the vicinity of the asteroid and accomplish planned tasks. 

Astronauts could perform spacewalks to enable closer examination of the asteroid, taking measurements and gathering samples 

for return to Earth. Mission activities could include: 

• Characterize the composition of the asteroid 

• Identify any resources and assess their potential for extraction

• Apply human evaluation 

capabilities to select samples 

for return to Earth laboratories, demonstrating sample 

acquisition, caching, storage 

operations, and crew transfer 

operations for future 

human-assisted sample 

return missions 

More than 10,000 near-Earth 

asteroids have been discovered. 

Several are considered to be 

possible targets for a mission 

of this nature, and global efforts 

to identify and characterize 

these objects are expanding. 

Characterization of potential 

targets contributes information towards understanding of the 

object’s orbit, mass, spin rate and type. Each of these variables 

will affect mission and flight design. Ground-based and potentially space-based assets will be used to determine these characteristics of possible targets and are expected to be able to reduce 

their uncertainties to the point that a target can be determined to 

fall within the required range with reasonable confidence. 

This conceptual mission advances high-power solar electric 

propulsion technologies that are essential for the safe and 

affordable exploration of Mars. This mission demonstrates 

large solar array structures and higher power electric propulsion systems. It provides the opportunity to integrate solar 

electric power systems into human exploration architectures, 

as human exploration of the asteroid will take place utilizing the integrated stack consisting of the Orion vehicle and 

robotic spacecraft.

Contributions to Mars Mission Readiness

Near-Earth asteroid missions could demonstrate the following 

core capabilities:

• Space Launch System, Orion

• 30-50 kW Solar Electric Propulsion System

• Spacewalk, rendezvous, proximity operations, docking 

or grapple, deep space navigation and communications

Very large solar arrays with roughly twice the power generating potential of today’s state-of-the-art will be needed to power 

the proposed solar electric propulsion system.

18
Chapter 3. A Long-Range Human Exploration Strategy

Extended Duration Crew Missions

Advancing habitation capabilities beyond those currently in use 

on the International Space Station will be necessary to enable 

future deep space missions. This set of conceptual missions relies 

on the delivery of an evolvable Deep Space Habitat in the lunar 

vicinity that can accommodate life support and other habitation 

systems to demonstrate their use in an integrated fashion beyond 

low-Earth orbit. Several extended duration missions to the 

human-tended habitat are envisioned. Crew presence in the lunar 

vicinity will provide innovative opportunities for lunar exploration through applying human-robotic partnership concepts as 

outlined on page 22.

Mission Activities

A notional series of crewed missions using both the Russian 

piloted system and the NASA Orion have been defined. Key 

mission activities include:

• Advancing deep space human space flight operations and 

techniques, including staging operations

• Conducting high priority science benefiting from human 

presence, including human-assisted lunar sample return

• Testing technologies and subsystems benefitting from the 

deep space environment

• Characterizing human health and performance in a deep 

space environment

A single launch of the SLS could deliver the evolvable Deep 

Space Habitat to Earth Moon Lagrange Point 2. Using advanced 

solar electric propulsion, the habitat could be relocated to other 

locations in the lunar vicinity to meet science or exploration 

objectives. The initial configuration of the evolvable Deep Space 

Habitat will be driven by early mission objectives and SLS performance. Functionality can be added to the habitat as mission 

requirements dictate, to include such things as specific science 

equipment, servicing systems, additional docking ports, or fully 

closed-loop life support system elements. The crew would visit 

the habitat for stays of up to 90 days. Ninety-day stays have been 

chosen as an initial goal in order to test life support systems, perform crew health maintenance studies and drive reductions in 

the supply chain. Actual mission durations will be determined 

based on specific mission objectives, while balancing the benefits gained from longer crew stays against the cost of additional 

resupply missions. 

In preparation for surface access missions, functionality could be 

added to the evolvable Deep Space Habitat so it may also serve 

as a staging post. Using a staging post to access the lunar surface 

facilitates integration of international and commercially available 

transportation assets as well as innovative lander concepts (such 

as a re-usable lander). This approach also offers the opportunity to 

simulate certain aspects of Mars surface access missions. In this 

way, it prepares partners interested in playing a critical role on 

human Mars missions to advance their capabilities and techniques 

as well as demonstrate architectural concepts directly relevant for 

human Mars missions while exploring the Moon.

Contributions to Mars Mission Readiness

Extended duration missions in the deep space environment could:

• Demonstrate deep space exploration capabilities such as 

SLS, Orion, advanced Russian crew transportation capabilities 

and life support systems, achieving an acceptable level of risk 

prior to travel to destinations away from the relative safety 

of Earth’s orbit

• Demonstrate autonomous crew operation capability

• Demonstrate operations with reduced supply chain

• Increase experience with complex deep space staging operations

• Advance core technologies and radiation protection strategies 

for long duration missions

• Demonstrate interactive human and robotic operations 

analogous to Mars operational concepts

• Gain experience with solar electric propulsion used on a crewed 

spacecraft

Artist’s concept of an evolvable Deep Space Habitat.

19
Human Lunar Surface Missions

This theme introduces conceptual human lunar surface access 

missions from the evolvable Deep Space Habitat. The optimum 

location of the staging post has not been determined at this time. 

Staging could be done from low lunar orbit, high lunar orbit or 

a Lagrange point, with each bringing unique advantages and 

constraints. Driven by the fulfillment of key lunar science and 

Mars preparation objectives, the mission scenario defines a lunar 

campaign with an ‘exit strategy’ consistent with moving forward 

with Mars mission readiness. However, participating agencies 

recognize that the fundamental capabilities are available to support additional missions in the event that lunar science or other 

exploration activities are identified.

Mission Activities

The major activities of human missions to the lunar surface 

would include:

• Test advanced surface power technologies

• Address high priority objectives of the science community 

which benefit from human surface presence 

• Characterize human health and performance in a partial 

gravity environment

• Demonstrate long distance mobility concepts 

• Explore concepts for human-robotic partnership in planetary 

surface exploration

• Utilize precision landing technologies demonstrated on 

robotic missions 

• Advance knowledge base related to use of lunar resources

• Explore landing sites of interest for extended durations

Recent data from robotic missions, such as high resolution 

images, chemical composition data, and new analyses of 

Apollo samples (and lunar meteorites) using modern analysis 

techniques show that the Moon can tell us a lot about the formation of the solar system, and how it has evolved over time. 

This work has strengthened the scientific rationale for lunar 

exploration, which would benefit from returning humans to 

the lunar surface.

This mission scenario envisions a series of mobility-based 

extended-stay missions of increasing duration for up to one 

month in length. A crew would be delivered on a yearly basis to 

landing sites of interest and would explore the terrain in detail. 

As assets that enable longer stays are delivered to the surface, 

the ability to accomplish mission objectives will correspondingly 

increase substantially. Mars mission simulations would also be 

possible by delivering crew to the lunar surface after a lengthy 

stay on the evolvable Deep Space Habitat. 

This mission scenario does not rely on the availability of lunar 

resources. Findings from robotic prospecting and extraction 

demonstration missions will inform future decisions regarding 

the promise of using lunar resources and may modify lunar 

surface or other human exploration approaches. 

With a large number of planned lunar robotic missions in the 

next decade, it is considered likely that logistic services to the 

lunar surface will become commercially available, so they are 

included on the mission scenario. 

Contributions to Mars Mission Readiness

Human missions to the lunar surface could:

• Demonstrate staging operations with an Earth-return vehicle

• Demonstrate extended crew mobility and habitation systems

• Demonstrate advanced power systems

• Characterize human health and performance, combining deep 

space and partial gravity environment exposure

• Demonstrate operations concepts and enhanced crew autonomy 

for surface exploration

• Potentially provide the opportunity for advancing concepts 

related to use of local resources

The human-rated Moon lander (European concept) on the lunar surface.

20
Chapter 3. A Long-Range Human Exploration Strategy

Human Mars Mission Risk Reduction

The ISECG Mission Scenario reflects a dedicated effort to 

define initial steps beyond low-Earth orbit that make a significant contribution to preparing for future Mars missions while 

enabling discovery along the way. The Mars mission risk reduction table, shown below, identifies key areas where solutions are 

needed to reduce the risk of human missions to an acceptable 

level. They have been derived from Mars mission architecture 

studies done by participating agencies and external groups in 

the past. The table reflects an assessment of opportunities to 

demonstrate the maturity of a technology, capability or operation to enable a human mission to the Martian surface and the 

respective risk reduction. The level of maturity was divided 

into three broad categories:

• Full utilization in relevant environment–same level of maturity 

required for a Mars surface mission.

• Sufficient risk reduction in relevant environment–not identical 

to requirement for a Mars surface mission, but ample in reducing 

risk for the Mars surface mission.

• Initial feasibility validation/partial validation–capability, 

technology or operational approach may be mature, but not in 

a relevant environment or partial demonstration of a capability, 

technology or operation.

The table is intended to be a top level illustration of how the 

ISECG Mission Scenario can drive the incremental reduction 

of risk. Missions in the lunar vicinity provide both the environments and key elements to significantly reduce most Mars 

mission risks. For example, a series of extended duration crew 

missions would enable both transportation and habitation risks to 

be reduced. A crew mission to an asteroid increases confidence 

in crew transportation and spacewalk capabilities. Lunar surface 

missions address habitation, mobility and other risks which are 

unique to operations on planetary surfaces. Following the conclusion of the lunar surface campaign, sustainable missions into 

deep space and Mars would be possible. If an orbital or fly-by 

mission to Mars or its moons were desired, that mission could 

effectively retire all but the key atmospheric and surface risks. 

And while crew members are vital for many of the Mars risks, 

an uncrewed medium-to-large scale robotic mission to the Mars 

surface would be sufficient for the residual atmospheric and 

surface risks.

	Full utilization in relevant environment

	Sufficient risk reduction in relevant environment

	Initial feasibility validation/partial validation

Earth ISS/Low-Earth 

Orbit

Lunar Vicinity 

(Earth-Moon Lagrange 

Point (EML), Moon Orbit)

Moon 

Surface

Mars 

Vicinity

Mars Surface 

(Robotic Mission)

Beyond Low-Earth Orbit Crew Transportation   

Heavy Lift Launch   

Reduced Supply Chain    

Autonomous Crew Operations     

Deep Space Staging Operations  

Mars Ascent   

Space Radiation Protection/Shielding    

Life Support & Habitation Systems    

Entry, Descent, & Landing Systems   

Surface Power and Energy Management   

Surface Mobility   

Human Robotic Integration      

Mars In-Situ Resource Utilization   

Long Duration Human Health     

Deep Space Operation Techniques    

Note: This table assumes critical capabilities will be provided by multiple agencies.

Observation: 

 With the goal of enabling several partners to contribute critical capabilities to future human missions, agencies 

note that near-term collaborative missions on the ISS, in the lunar vicinity, on the lunar surface, and robotic 

missions may be used to simulate and better inform preparations for future international missions to Mars. 21
Human-Robotic Partnership

The conceptual architecture represented in the ISECG Mission Scenario provides the opportunity to study ideas which further 

expand the human-robotic partnership. New mission concepts, defined below, merit further study.

Human-Assisted Sample Return 

The concept of human-assisted sample return is based on the 

assumption that human missions in the lunar vicinity will take 

place for advancing broader exploration goals and taking the 

first steps toward enabling human missions to the Moon, deep 

space and Mars. The presence of a crew can enhance the value 

of samples to the exploration community in the following ways:

• Increased science return with a larger and more diverse set 

of samples 

• Reduced complexity of robotic mission, transferring sample 

handling responsibilities to the crew

• Improved mission robustness and reliability due to having 

a human in the loop 

• Better opportunities for public engagement due to astronaut 

involvement, enabling demonstration of the significance of 

lunar science to a broader community

• Broader opportunities for international cooperation

Human space flight capabilities related to sample acquisition and 

return should strive to minimize the hardware and complexity 

required on the robotic vehicles.

Tele-Presence

Tele-presence can be defined as tele-operation of a robotic 

asset on a planetary surface by a person who is relatively 

close to the planetary surface, perhaps orbiting in a spacecraft or positioned at a suitable Lagrange point. Tele-presence 

is a capability which could significantly enhance the ability 

of humans and robots to explore together, where the specific 

exploration tasks would benefit from this capability. These 

tasks could be characterized by:

• High-speed mobility

• Short mission durations

• Focused or dexterous tasks with short-time decision-making

• Reduced autonomy or redundancy on the surface asset

• Contingency modes/failure analysis through crew interaction

From the ISS, astronaut Chris Cassidy operated this high-fidelity planetary rover, 

located at Ames Research Center’s analogue facility. The ISS is conducting 

demonstrations such as this to gather engineering data useful to advancing 

the concept of tele-presence.

Artist’s concept of opportunities to apply tele-presence capabilities to surface 

telerobotic operation.

Observation: 

 New mission concepts, such as human-assisted 

sample return and tele-presence should be further 

explored, increasing understanding of the important 

role of humans in space for achieving common goals.

22
Chapter 3. A Long-Range Human Exploration Strategy

Use of Local Resources

Maintaining human presence beyond low-Earth orbit would 

benefit significantly from use of local resources. Use of local 

resources would limit the cost and complexity of bringing all the 

needed supplies from Earth. The most promising uses for local 

resource utilization are in life support systems or as propellants. 

The technology and capabilities needed to do this cost effectively 

and safely have progressed from paper concepts to systems 

developed and tested at analogue sites, but more work is required. 

Mars resource utilization has primarily focused on providing 

rocket propellant (oxygen and possibly fuel) for ascent from the 

Mars surface to orbit, by processing carbon dioxide collected 

from the Mars atmosphere. Orbiting science spacecraft as well 

as Mars landers and rovers have confirmed that water, found in 

varying concentrations, depths, and forms all across the Mars 

surface, may also hold promise for future use. For example, the 

Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter confirmed the finding of water ice 

on the floor of certain craters, and the Phoenix lander confirmed 

dirty ice just below the surface at high latitudes. 

While the Moon does not have an atmosphere, the lunar regolith 

is known to contain oxygen. Techniques for its extraction have 

been proposed and demonstrated in the laboratory and in the 

field. In addition, the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, Kaguya, 

Chandrayaan, and the Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing 

Satellite (LCROSS) have contributed information regarding the 

availability and distribution of volatiles at the lunar poles. Existing data indicate higher levels of hydrogen in the polar region, 

and the LCROSS spacecraft identified water and other volatiles 

at a single location in a permanently shadowed crater. However, 

neither the exact concentration of the volatiles in the regolith, 

nor the precise distribution (widely available near the surface 

or largely in permanently shadowed regions) are known. 

To gain an understanding of whether lunar volatiles could be 

used in a cost effective and safe manner, it is necessary to understand more about the nature and distribution of the volatiles and 

whether they could be processed cost effectively. The first step is 

robotic prospecting to take measurements on the lunar surface. 

Several of the planned robotic missions can be considered prospecting missions. Additional information may be needed prior 

to committing to a processing demonstration mission, such 

as a mission with a rover capable of entering permanently 

shadowed regions of the lunar poles. 

As much as 50 percent of near-Earth objects are thought to be 

potential resource targets, containing hydrated minerals and, 

in the case of dormant comets (e.g., P/Wilson-Harrington), 

subsurface reservoirs of water ice. Whether these volatiles can be 

used in a cost-effective manner is unclear. Because small bodies 

like asteroids and comets do not have significant gravity fields, 

the ISS may be a good location to demonstrate concepts for asteroid resource extraction and processing. A second step would be 

a small in-situ demonstration on a target remotely identified and 

characterized by ground-based and space-based telescope assets. 

If these initial steps look promising, human missions to the 

Moon or an asteroid would provide valuable insight, assessment and troubleshooting for the robotic installation of a larger 

resource recovery and return facility.

While there are differences in the physical, mineral, and chemical forms of the soil on the Moon, asteroids, and on Mars, 

as well as different types and concentrations of ice and other 

volatiles, commonalities in technologies and processes can 

be found to reduce the cost and risk of using local resources. 

Planned robotic missions to the Moon and asteroids can provide information relevant to potential future Mars resource 

utilization by contributing information related to prospecting 

and processing techniques and equipment.

The RESOLVE payload concept shown prospecting for volatiles in a polar region 

of the Moon.

23
Standards to Promote Interoperability 

Partnerships among agencies in which each provides capabilities on the critical path to completion of mission objectives 

have become common, as mission complexity has increased 

and interagency relationships have strengthened. This is true for 

both human and robotic exploration initiatives. Large multinational exploration missions will require agencies to accept and 

manage interdependency at different levels: architecture, mission, infrastructure, and systems. The nature of human exploration beyond low-Earth orbit will necessitate acceptance of, and 

commitment to, a level of interdependency that is beyond our 

current experience and that will increase interoperability across 

the architecture.

Efforts to promote future interoperability of space systems are 

critically important. Pursuing interoperability initiatives, such 

as international standards and common interfaces, will ensure 

different systems and nations can work together in exploring the 

solar system. This is a proven approach to lowering the cost and 

risk of complex exploration missions. 

Agencies participating in the Interagency Operations Advisory 

Group (IOAG), Space Frequency Coordination Group (SFCG), 

and the Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems (CCSDS) 

have collaborated on establishing data communications and 

mission operations architectures, coordinating spectrums for 

space communications, and technical standards for cross 

support which take advantage of current and anticipated 

state-of-the-art technologies. 

Most of that work is already underway. These teams have 

developed service catalogs and technical standards which 

respond to the anticipated needs of future exploration missions. 

These services and standards will enable highly internetworked 

mission operations and facilitate the integration of new partners 

into complex human space exploration missions. More information about these international organizations is available at: 

www.ioag.org, www.sfcgonline.org, and www.ccsds.org. 

In addition to the efforts in communications and operations, 

onboard systems standards are equally important. For example, 

initiatives such the International Docking System Standard and 

Onboard Data Interface Standards are essential for fostering 

onboard interoperability. Work on such standards continues. By 

applying them, vehicles developed by many nations can conduct 

missions such as those shown in the ISECG Mission Scenario 

and increase robustness in space exploration endeavours.

The NASA Docking System, shown here undergoing prototype testing, is compatible with the International Docking System Standard. Two ISS ports will be augmented 

with the system in 2015 to support visiting vehicles. 

24
Photo credit: AMASE/K.O. Storvik

Chapter 4.

Human Exploration 

Preparatory Activities

Across the globe, engineers and scientists are working on 

many of the essential preparatory activities necessary to 

extend human presence into space and explore the planet 

Mars. By referring to a common roadmap, agencies are 

able to coordinate their preparatory activities in ways that 

maximize return on investments and enable realization of 

their goals and objectives.

Significant activities are underway in the following areas, 

each presenting opportunities for near-term coordination 

and cooperation, and each having direct and indirect benefit 

to people on Earth:

•	 Use of the ISS for exploration

•	 Robotic missions: An invaluable contribution to human

exploration

•	 Advanced technologies

•	 A new generation of space systems and infrastructure

•	 Analogues to simulate exploration destinations

•	 Managing health and human performance risks for space

exploration

25
Use of the ISS for Exploration

With the decision to operate the ISS until at least 2020, ISS 

partner agencies continue to conduct a wide range of utilization 

activities on board the ISS, including life and physical sciences 

research, Earth and space observation, technology demonstrations, as well as many educational activities and initiatives. 

Fundamental and applied research activities in each of these 

areas contribute to overall scientific knowledge and generate significant benefits for humanity. In addition, ISS partner 

agencies are conducting activities which prepare for missions 

beyond low-Earth orbit. 

Exploration missions will be at much greater distances from 

Earth, necessitate longer astronaut stays in space, and present 

new risks. The ISS is well suited to address these challenges. 

Exploration related activities on board the ISS can be grouped 

into four main areas of focus, as shown below. 

Exploration Focus Areas

•	 Exploration Technology Demonstrations

On-orbit demonstration or validation of advanced and 

promising technology that enables or improves exploration 

mission readiness.

•	 Maturing Critical Systems

Driving evolution in capabilities supporting the ISS today, 

such as increased reliability, reduced mass and reduced 

power consumption.

•	 Optimizing Human Health and Performance

Research to understand and reduce risks to human health 

and performance.

•	 Operations Simulations

Furthering the understanding of the operations challenges 

associated with exploration missions.

Astronaut Kevin Ford works with InSPACE-3, investigating a 

new class of smart materials that may improve the safety and 

performance of mechanical systems in space and on Earth. 

Selected Recent Accomplishments 

u The first phase of activities 

for the Robotics Refueling 

Mission experiment has 

successfully demonstrated 

how humans and robots 

working together can accomplish certain tasks 

which are fundamental to spacecraft repair, refueling and upgrade. New tests are planned for the 

coming years. 

u The ISS cardiovascular 

equipment developed by 

CNES and partners (DLR for 

CARDIOLAB, ROSCOSMOS 

for CARDIOMED) is used to 

monitor key physiological 

parameters of the astronauts. The results are 

instrumental in preventing cardiovascular dysfunction in long-duration human exploration missions. 

In addition, CNES is expanding cardiovascular 

studies through investigations planned in the 

Chinese crewed module, TianGong.

u CSA’s Microflow technology investigation tests a 

miniaturized flow cytometer 

in microgravity. Flow cytometry is used to focus blood 

and other body fluids into a 

controlled stream, enabling quantification of 

components and monitoring of physiological 

and cellular activity. The goal is a smaller and safer 

operational instrument for real-time medical care 

and monitoring during space flight.

26
Chapter 4. Human Exploration Preparatory Activities

Areas of Investigation

Crew Health and Performance

Human research on the ISS aims to devise and validate strategies to ensure optimal crew health and performance. Research 

is leading to a better understanding of risks and development 

of novel countermeasures against these risks. Countermeasures 

against cardiovascular, musculoskeletal, and neurological/

behavioral challenges associated with space flight are critical 

for human space exploration. Nutritional countermeasures are 

also essential, given the impact of diet and nutrition on human 

health–in space and on Earth. Recent results have shown that 

having adequate vitamin D contributes to the bone health of 

returning astronauts. Other research has identified potential 

factors which might predispose individuals to certain vision 

changes during flight which could cause problems on future 

long-duration exploration missions.

One-Year Crew Mission

Four cosmonauts spent more than one year in space on board 

the Russian MIR space station. The longest mission, lasting 

438 days, was conducted by Valery Polyakov from 1994–95. 

Since that time, significant advances in habitability systems 

and physiological response have been made. Countermeasures 

against the debilitating effects of microgravity on the human 

body have advanced considerably, with effective strategies for 

counteracting bone and muscle losses being employed. To look 

for relevant threshold effects in health and performance, the ISS 

partners have decided to extend the stay of two crew members 

beyond the current six-month stay to 12 months in 2015. This 

one-year mission will provide the opportunity to validate 

physical countermeasures applied to maintain bones, muscles 

and overall fitness, and use modern analysis techniques to 

identify any new areas of concern.

Crew Autonomy

Missions to Mars will require a degree of crew autonomy not 

seen in the operation and utilization of the ISS. Providing the 

crew with the training and tools to operate complex spacecraft 

without the constant supervision of ground control centers 

will be necessary due to long communication delays (up to 

20 minutes each way for Mars missions). Studies on board the 

ISS have begun to reveal the considerations associated with 

delayed communication and increased crew autonomy.

Life Support

Living in space for long durations with little or no resupply 

of water and oxygen is a fundamental capability that is being 

matured through day-to-day 

operations on the only platform 

capable of the task–the ISS. 

This is because the technologies dealing with gases and liquids are highly dependent on 

the gravity environment. The 

ISS Programme is using routine 

upgrades of the current life support systems to increase operational availability and reduce 

system mass, consumables, 

and power needs beyond the current technology. 

Alternate prototype technologies for exploration missions, such 

as Amine Swingbed carbon dioxide removal, are also operating 

on the ISS. The Amine Swingbed technology is targeted for use 

on the Orion.

Space Power and Energy

Solar array demonstrations in 

space are important because 

they can be done in an environment without the filtering caused 

by the atmosphere, while also 

providing the appropriate thermal and dynamic loading conditions. Fuel cells and other systems that operate with fluids, especially two-phased fluids, benefit from testing in the microgravity 

environment. 

New solar cell materials have already been demonstrated on 

the ISS, and solar array demonstrations are now being considered on ISS resupply vehicles. Advanced regenerative fuel cell 

technologies, whose operations depend on considerable fluid 

management, are also envisioned for demonstration on the ISS 

to determine the performance of the systems in microgravity.

Work on the ESA Advanced Closed 

Loop Life Support System is an 

example of what is needed to 

reduce astronaut reliance on 

resupply of breathing gasses 

during long-duration missions.

Advanced ISS batteries.

27
Human-Robotic Partnership

Robotic and telerobotic systems 

operating in and around a crewed 

spacecraft, with or without crewrobot interaction, illustrate a concept of operations that enables 

the unique contribution of each 

to enhance mission objectives. 

Robonaut, the robot crew member, has started to execute routine 

ISS maintenance tasks which would normally take time away from 

the crew’s ability to do research. Low-latency telerobotics demonstrations planned for the ISS will evaluate the benefits of using 

crew in orbit around a planetary surface to perform high-value 

exploration activities by controlling robots on the surface.

Advanced Communications and Navigation

Technologies associated with 

automated communication, 

navigation and docking/berthing have matured greatly with 

ISS resupply vehicles such as 

Progress, H-II Transfer Vehicle, 

Automated Transfer Vehicle 

and Dragon. The dynamics of 

deep space navigation and docking are completely different 

and will drive significant advances. Some of these advances 

can be tested on the ISS; others will require missions beyond 

low-Earth orbit to master. Several navigation systems are under 

evaluation for demonstration on the ISS. Disruption tolerance 

systems are already being demonstrated on the ISS, with 

increased utilization of the protocols planned. 

New Space Suits

Extravehicular activity systems 

upgrades, stowage management, 

and environment (dust, background noise) demonstrations are 

already being performed on the 

ISS. Next generation space suit 

subsystems will be delivered to 

the ISS in the next several years.

Human robotic collaboration onboard 

the ISS.

The Space Communications and 

Navigation testbed installed on the 

ISS advances research on radio 

communications and the Global 

Positioning System.

Prototype Portable Life Support System 

to be flown aboard the ISS.

Entry and Descent Systems

Visiting vehicles re-enter 

Earth’s atmosphere following 

missions to the ISS. There are 

also several methods to deploy 

small satellites from the ISS 

which will re-enter the atmosphere. These opportunities can 

be used to demonstrate capabilities and increase knowledge 

of atmosphere entry environments. 

Several demonstrations have recorded data characterizing the 

environment in a vehicle breaking up in the atmosphere, providing insight into defining this environment. Ablative material 

that is being considered for future spacecraft is also being used 

on uncrewed vehicles returning from the ISS without risking a 

crew in the demonstration.

Materials, Structures and Manufacturing

Long-duration exploration missions will experience the ultra 

violet, thermal and radiation 

environment of space, requiring 

the use of materials on spacecraft 

which can survive these harsh 

conditions. The ISS provides a 

long-duration platform where 

these materials can be evaluated. The first inflatable habitable 

module to be tested with humans in space will take place 

in 2015. The demonstration will assess the structural integrity 

and leak rate of this inflatable structure in the radiation and 

micrometeroid environment of the ISS.

Re-Entry Breakup Recorder (REBR)

The European Technology Exposure 

Facility mounted outside the 

Columbus module.

ISS Partners continue their efforts to make the use of the ISS available to non-ISS 

partner nations. Researchers from 80 nations have taken advantage of the ISS to 

perform a variety of investigations. ISS partner agencies welcome proposals for 

using the ISS to advance readiness for future exploration missions.

28
Robotic Missions: An Invaluable 

Contribution to Human Exploration 

Since Project Apollo, robotic missions have served as the precursors to human exploration missions. Beginning with Ranger, 

Surveyor, and Lunar Orbiter, the data collected have defined the 

boundary conditions and provided information on the environment to inform the first human missions to the Moon. Agencies 

are planning a number of robotic missions to destinations reachable by humans. Almost all are done through international partnership. Most of these robotic missions are driven by scientific 

objectives; some have originated as human precursor missions. 

In each case, information is gathered which is useful for meeting science and human exploration goals. Increasingly, science 

missions in the formulation phase are creating opportunities 

to gather information and demonstrate technologies needed to 

prepare future human missions. 

To facilitate this effort, strategic 

knowledge gaps have been 

defined and discussed by 

participating agencies. These 

are summarized on page 31.

Robotic missions to human 

destinations that are planned 

by agencies contributing to the 

roadmap are shown on page 30.

Self-portrait of NASA’s Mars rover Curiosity at John Klein 

rock in May 2013. 

Selected Recent Accomplishments

u Ongoing observations 

from NASA’s Lunar 

Reconnaissance Orbiter 

have provided high 

resolution images, precision topography, thermal mapping, and other 

advanced remote sensing data that provide a 

dramatically more comprehensive understanding 

of the lunar environment, associated hazards to 

human space flight, and the location of potential 

resources.

u JAXA’s Hayabusa explorer 

characterized asteroid 

Itokawa and enabled a 

comprehensive analysis 

of the first samples ever 

returned directly from 

an asteroid to Earth, 

providing quantitative links between the 

chemical analyses of meteorites found on Earth 

to spectroscopic measurements of asteroids.

u NASA’s Curiosity captured 

data which characterized 

the Mars atmosphere during entry and descent and 

the first measurements 

of space radiation on the 

surface of Mars.

Hayabusa2 Flight Model under 

development

Observation: 

 Robotic science missions provide an important technique for obtaining the data needed to prepare for 

human exploration beyond low-Earth orbit. It is generally 

accepted by both the science and exploration communities that measurements and data sets obtained from 

robotic missions support both the advancement of 

science and preparation for human exploration.

29
Planned Robotic Missions to Future Human Destinations

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025

LRO (2009)

Luna-27

SELENE 2 SELENE 3

LADEE

MAVEN

Luna-25

ExoMars 2018

Mars Express (2003)

MER (2003)

ISRO Mars Orbiter Mission

Mars 2020

Mars Precursor Mission

ExoMars 2016

MRO (2005)

GAIA (Asteroid Characterization)

Curiosity (2011)

InSight

NEOSSat (Asteroid Finder Mission)

Hayabusa2

Apophis

OSIRIS-REx

Marco Polo-R

Luna-28

Luna-29

Luna-26

Lander/Rover

Orbiter

Sample Return

Rosetta (2004)

Post ExoMars

Mission

Chandrayaan-2

Most robotic missions are conducted with international 

participation of some nature. Forms of international cooperation 

include joint development of the spacecraft, provision of 

instrumentation, and others. The table to the right highlights 

some examples of international cooperation on robotic missions. 

The lead agency for developing the spacecraft is shown as 

well as the agencies providing contributions to scientific 

instrumentation.

Mission Lead Agency Agencies Providing Instruments

Curiosity NASA CNES, CSA, DLR, Roscosmos, 

Spain

ExoMars ESA, Roscosmos ASI, Belgian Space Agency, CNES, 

DLR, NASA, Spain, Swiss Space 

Office, and UK Space Agency

Hayabusa2 JAXA CNES, DLR

InSight NASA CNES, DLR, UK Space Agency, 

Switzerland, and Spain

OSIRIS-REx NASA CSA

30
Chapter 4. Human Exploration Preparatory Activities

Strategic Knowledge Gaps: Definition and Assessment

In order to prepare for future human missions, system and mission planners desire data that characterize the environments, 

identify hazards, and assess resources. Recent, currently operating, and future science missions are invaluable resources 

for providing this data. The knowledge developed from this 

data will inform the selection of future landing sites, inform 

the design of new systems, and reduce the risk associated with 

human exploration. While some data can be obtained through 

ground-based activities, other data can only be gained in space 

by remote sensing, in-situ measurements or sample return. 

Recognizing that much of the information desired by human 

mission planners is of equal interest to the science community, 

ISECG participating agencies have worked with relevant groups 

to identify Strategic Knowledge Gaps (SKGs) associated with 

future human destinations. In consultation with key independent 

analysis/assessment groups from NASA, ESA Topical Teams, 

and JAXA experts, the list has been integrated and grouped by 

areas of knowledge for each destination. 

The list of SKGs has been prioritized on the basis of crew/mission risks, relevance to mission scenario, and applicability to 

more than one destination.

The table below provides an example of SKGs for each potential destination, Moon, asteroid, and Mars. It provides insight 

into how the gaps are categorized and the information which is 

available on each gap. The list of SKGs has been summarized 

and the high-level SKGs list can be found on the ISECG Web 

site1

. It contains information on the gaps and their priority. It 

also identifies specific measurements which would contribute 

to filling the gaps. Lastly, the list gives insights into how recent 

and planned robotic missions and ground-based activities will 

contribute information related to the gaps, and where additional 

measurements will be useful to fill the gaps.

Whether robotic mission formulation is primarily for scientific investigation or to prepare for human exploration, there 

are opportunities to significantly increase the benefit to each 

community. The SKG analysis will support the identification 

of the appropriate steps toward further coordination in order 

to increase the value of space exploration investments to our 

global stakeholder community. The SKG work is intended to 

inform the definition of objectives for future robotic missions 

and ground-based activities. 

Destination Knowledge 

Domain

Strategic Knowledge Gap: 

Description and Priority Target Measurement

Mission or Ground Based 

Activity 

Addressing the SKG

Additional 

Measurements: 

R = Robotic Mission

SR = Sample Return

G = Ground Based 

Activities

Moon Resource 

Potential

Lunar Cold Trap Volatiles:

Composition/quantity/distribution/form of water/H species 

and other volatiles associated 

with lunar cold traps. 

In-situ measurement of volatile 

characteristics and distribution 

within permanently shadowed 

lunar craters or other sites 

identified using remote sensing 

data (e.g., from LRO)

Roscosmos Luna-25/

Luna-27/Luna-28 and 29 

NASA-CSA RESOLVE R, SR

Near-Earth

Objects 

(NEO)

Human 

Mission

Target

NEO Composition/Physical 

Characteristics: Rotation 

State

Light curve and radar observations from different ground 

(Earth based telescopes) and 

space based assets.

e.g.: Goldstone Observatory 

(US); Bisei Spaceguard Center (Japan), Observatoire du 

Pic du Midi (France)

G, R

Mars Atmosphere

Atmospheric Modeling: The 

atmospheric models for Mars 

have not been well validated 

due to a lack of sufficient 

observational data, and thus 

confidence in them is limited. 

Density, pressure, temperature, and wind data, trajectory 

performance information

NASA Viking, Pathfinder, 

MGS, MERs, Phoenix, 

MRO, MSL

ESA Mars Express

ESA-Roscosmos 

ExoMars 2016, 2018

G, R

1www.globalspaceexploration.org

A sunrise view of Tycho crater’s central peak 

captured by NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter.

ISECG remembers Dr. Michael 

Wargo (NASA) who led the 

international effort to identify 

human exploration SKGs. His 

talents and enthusiasm for 

space exploration will be missed 

by many around the world.

31
DLR’s humanoid robot, Justin, demonstrates dexterous tool handling.

Advanced Technologies

While space-faring nations have made major technology progress and surmounted great challenges over the last 50 years, 

additional technological advances are required to enable sustainable future exploration missions. To achieve this, a summary of 

the exploration technology development activities of participating agencies has been shared and discussed. Gaining a common 

understanding of the activities and priorities of other agencies 

can inform agency decision making in each individual investment 

area. By sharing information related to technology focus areas, 

opportunities for collaboration can be identified.

Sustainable missions to Mars, including exploration of intermediate destinations, will require certain technologies that 

have been identified as critical needs. These are summarized 

on page 33. By assessing ongoing technology development 

activities against critical needs, it is possible to identify development gaps, i.e., technologies where the current portfolio of 

activities from the participating agencies is unlikely to meet 

the required performance in the desired timeframe. These findings 

may provide opportunities for increasing collaboration between 

interested agencies.

Selected Recent Accomplishments

u The Robotic Exploration 

of Extreme Environments 

research alliance established in Germany in 2012 

aims to share expertise 

between lunar robotic systems and terrestrial 

deep sea exploration to identify, develop and 

test technologies that will support operations 

in highly inaccessible terrain, either on Earth 

or other planets. 

u JAXA is developing key 

technology for advanced 

cryogenic propulsion 

stages, including a high 

performance expander 

bleed cycle engine with 

re-ignition capability, efficient propellant 

utilization, and advanced tank insulation.

u NASA successfully 

conducted a suborbital 

flight test to demonstrate 

the feasibility of inflatable heat shields as a 

means to eventually land 

larger payloads on Mars. This technology could 

increase the capacity of landed missions for both 

science and human exploration missions.

The next generation of large Canadian Space Agency robotic manipulators 

will feature telescopic booms and will meet the tight packaging and launch 

constraints of future exploration vehicles, such as Orion.

32
Chapter 4. Human Exploration Preparatory Activities

Critical Technology Needs by Technology Area2

In-Space Propulsion Technologies (TA02) Life Support & Habitation Systems (TA06)

•	Liquid Oxygen/Methane Cryogenic Propulsion System (Mars Lander)

•	Advanced In-Space Cryogenic Propellant Storage & Liquid Acquisition

•	Electric Propulsion & Power Processing

•	Nuclear Thermal Propulsion (NTP) Engine

•	Closed-Loop & High Reliability Life Support Systems

•	Fire Prevention, Detection & Suppression (reduced Pressure)

•	EVA Deep Space Suits, including lunar & Mars environment

•	Advanced EVA Mobility (Suit Port)

Space Power & Energy Storage (TA03) Long Duration Human Health (TA06)

•	High Strength & Autonomously Deployable In-Space Solar Arrays

•	Fission Power for Electric Propulsion & Surface Missions

•	Regenerative Fuel Cells

•	High Specific Energy & Long Life Batteries

•	Space Flight Medical Care, Behavioral Health & Performance

•	Microgravity Biomedical Countermeasures

•	Human Factors & Habitability

•	Space Radiation Protection/Shielding

Robotics, Telerobotics & Autonomous Systems (TA04) Human Exploration Destination Systems (TA07)

•	Telerobotic control of robotic systems with time delay

•	Robotic Systems Working Side-by-Side with Suited Crew

•	Autonomous Vehicle, Crew, & Mission Ground Control Automation

Systems

•	Automated/Autonomous Rendezvous & Docking & Target Relative

Navigation

•	Anchoring Techniques & EVA Tools for Micro-G Surface Operations (NEO)

•	Surface Mobility

•	Lunar & Mars ISRU In-Situ Resource Utilization

•	Dust Mitigation

Entry, Descent, & Landing Systems (TA09)

•	Entry, Descent, & Landing (EDL) –Mars Exploration Class Missions

•	Precision Landing & Hazard Avoidance

Communication & Navigation (TA05) Thermal Management Systems (TA14)

•	High Data Rate Forward & Reverse Link Communications

•	High-rate, Adaptive, Internetworked Proximity Communications

•	In-Space Timing & Navigation for Autonomy

•	Low Temperature Mechanisms (lunar poles)

•	Robust Ablative Heat Shield–Thermal Protection Systems (Mars & lunar

re-entry velocities) 

Many of the critical technology needs listed in the table above are being pursued by space agencies around the world. However, 

appropriately funding the areas of critical technology highlighted below would yield novel approaches to and significantly increased 

capabilities for exploration missions:

1. Nuclear Power for Electric Propulsion and Planetary 

Surface Applications

Surface fission power systems on the order of 40 kWe, at 

150 kg/kWe, would greatly enhance exploration and science 

activities on the Moon and Mars. A power system of these 

characteristics would also advance the state of electric propulsion vehicles. Very high power electric propulsion vehicles, 

on the order of >1 MWe with low mass (<15 kg/kWe), can 

more efficiently deliver cargo and crew to beyond-low-Earth 

orbit destinations. 

2. High Rate, Adaptive, Internetworked Proximity 

Communications

This ability enables high data rate (>20Mb between peers) 

communications between multiple in-space flight elements 

for situational awareness, and element proximity radios to 

sense radio frequency conditions and adapt autonomously. 

In addition, this capability enables elements to store, forward, 

and relay/route information to other elements intelligently 

and enables element radios to be reprogrammed from 

ground-based assets when communications are available.

2The definitions of the technology areas can be found at www.nasa.gov.

33
3. Low Temperature Mechanisms for Surface Missions

Future deep space missions will demand safe and reliable 

mechanical systems over long durations and in extremely 

challenging environments, such as cryogenic temperatures 

and ultra-high vacuum. Long life, cryogenic actuators are a 

key technology challenge and needed for outer planet and 

deep space probe missions. Long-life-by-design, modular 

(for ease of integration) actuators consisting of motors, gearboxes, position/speed sensors, and motor controller electronics will need to be capable of operating in dusty asteroid or 

lunar environments at temperatures between 40K and 400K 

for years in order to meet those reliability demands.

The same analysis also identified several areas for which a 

majority of participating agencies (i.e., six or more) have stated 

investment plans as follows:

• Automated/autonomous rendezvous and docking, proximity 

operations, and target relative navigation

• Telerobotic control of robotic systems with time delay

• Anchoring techniques and extravehicular activity tools for 

microgravity surface operations

• Long duration space flight medical care

• Long duration space flight behavioral health and performance

• Microgravity biomedical countermeasures for long duration 

space flight

• Space radiation protection

• In-flight environmental monitoring

• Surface mobility

• Thermal control

Although this preliminary analysis did not thoroughly and completely assess the ISECG community’s technology portfolio, 

it has provided an ability to evaluate critical needs mapped to 

investment planning for the individual agencies. As with any 

high-level analysis, follow-up discussions with the specific 

agency technology developers will provide the level of detail 

needed for making informed decisions.

Two rovers demonstrate reliable autonomous mobility software in an analogue 

environment (K-REX on the left, and Artemis Jr./Canadian Space Agency).

NASA is developing high-power electric propulsion systems to provide reliable 

operation for long-duration missions.

For the first time, instrumentation to measure pressure and temperature during 

Mars entry and descent was flown on the Curiosity mission. This knowledge will 

lead to improvements in future Mars heat shield design.

34
A New Generation of Space 

Systems and Infrastructure

Human exploration beyond low-Earth orbit will require a new 

generation of capabilities. These future systems will incorporate technologies still to be developed, and build not only upon 

existing capabilities and competencies, but also on the lessons 

learned and experience gained from them. New systems must 

be reliable and safe, because interplanetary resupply missions 

from Earth will not be able to reach the crew on short notice, 

and quick return to Earth will not be possible. Progress is being 

made in developing key transportation systems necessary to 

support human exploration.

NASA’s Orion Spacecraft

Orion is NASA’s space exploration crew vehicle, capable of taking humans on long-duration deep space missions and returning them to Earth. The first flight of Orion on the Space Launch 

System is scheduled in 2017. Orion consists of three modules, a 

launch abort system, a crew module and a service module.

The Launch Abort System, positioned on a tower atop the 

crew module, activates within milliseconds to propel the crew 

module to safety in the event of an emergency during launch or 

climb to orbit. 

The Crew Module is the transportation capsule that provides a 

safe habitat for the crew, provides storage for consumables and 

research instruments, and serves as the docking port for crew 

transfers. The crew module is the only part of the Orion that 

returns to Earth after each mission.

The Service Module is the powerhouse that fuels and propels 

the Orion spacecraft, providing the capability for orbital 

transfer, attitude control, and high-altitude ascent aborts. 

Service Module systems also provide the water, oxygen and 

nitrogen needed for a habitable environment, generate and store 

electrical power, and maintain the temperature of the vehicle’s 

Selected Recent Accomplishments

u Hardware for NASA’s 

Orion is being integrated 

in preparation for the first 

orbital test of the new 

spacecraft, planned for 

late 2014. 

u NASA’s Michoud Assembly 

Facility is being prepared 

for assembly of the core 

stage of the Space Launch 

System. The Vertical Weld 

Center will be used to 

create the large stage 

from barrel sections.

u NASA is developing 

launch site infrastructure 

to prepare, assemble, 

test, launch and recover 

the SLS and Orion flight 

systems at Kennedy 

Space Center

u ESA is advancing work on 

a development model of 

the International Berthing 

and Docking Mechanism 

(IBDM) designed in full 

coherence with the International Docking System 

Standards. It allows docking with reduced 

impact loads and therefore enables docking 

to a wide range of targets, including with low 

mass/inertia. Elements of the IBDM may be 

integrated into existing docking devices to 

enhance their versatility.

35
systems and components. The Service Module is mated to 

the Crew Module throughout the mission, until just prior to 

re-entering Earth’s atmosphere. The European Space Agency will 

provide the service module for Orion’s uncrewed Exploration 

Mission 1, scheduled for 2017.

All of the spacecraft subsystems and components built across 

the country are coming together at the Kennedy Space Center. 

They will be integrated into NASA’s Orion spacecraft for the 

Exploration Flight Test 1 in 2014. Data gathered from the flight 

test will influence design decisions, validate existing computer 

models, drive innovative new approaches to space systems 

development, and reduce overall mission risks and costs for 

later Orion flights.

NASA’s Space Launch System

The Space Launch System is the heavy-lift launch vehicle 

that will enable future exploration missions. As a human-rated 

launcher, it can carry the Orion and its crew to destinations 

beyond low-Earth orbit. It is evolvable and could be used to 

launch habitats, transfer stages, landers, robotic spacecraft 

and other capabilities needed for future missions. In support 

of robotic precursor missions and science missions, the Space 

Launch System could provide the volume needed to allow 

simpler designs and the velocity required to send spacecraft

 to their destinations with shorter transit times.

In 2017, the Space Launch System’s initial 70 ton configuration will make its first flight–an uncrewed test of the Orion 

spacecraft. In 2021, it will transport the Orion and its crew to 

trans-lunar injection. The 70 ton rocket is comprised of a liquid 

hydrogen/oxygen core stage with four engines, two five-segment 

solid rocket boosters, and an interim cryogenic upper stage. 

The Space Launch System will evolve from a 70 ton lift capability to the 130 ton configuration. While focused on delivering 

the initial capability for a 2017 launch date, work has already 

begun to evolve the rocket. For example, hardware risk-reduction is taking place for both liquid and solid advanced boosters. 

In addition, NASA is studying options for advanced cryogenic 

upper stages to enable additional missions as the system evolves 

into the most capable launch vehicle ever flown. 

Roscosmos’ Transportation System

A new Russian piloted space transportation system is under 

development. The new system will build on the extensive 

accomplishments of the Soyuz vehicle and be capable of 

taking astronauts to the vicinity of the Moon and return them 

to Earth. It is comprised of a next generation crew transportation 

system and a next generation space launch vehicle. The first 

flight of the new crew transportation vehicle is envisioned 

for the 2018 timeframe. The new launcher will follow and be 

evolvable to lift more than 50 tons to low-Earth orbit. 

The crew transportation vehicle will carry and support crew 

beyond low-Earth orbit. Extended stays are possible when 

docked to an in-space habitat or related capability. 

The next generation launcher will launch from the new Russian 

Cosmodrome in Vostochny. The Cosmodrome is planned to be 

operational with the first launch of a Soyuz rocket in 2015.

Artist’s rendition of the Space Launch System.

Artist’s rendition of Orion and the upper stage of the Space Launch System.

Looking forward, enabling exploration missions will require 

critical contributions from many space agencies. While NASA 

and Roscosmos are developing a new generation of exploration 

systems, other space agencies are undertaking studies intended 

to inform individual decision making regarding exploration mission scenarios and agency roles. The ISECG Mission Scenario 

informs these studies.

36
Analogues to Simulate 

Exploration Destinations

A wide range of analogue sites and facilities are in use today 

by space agencies around the world to simulate exploration 

missions, helping prepare for exploration beyond low-Earth 

orbit. Agencies are regularly sharing information related to 

planning of analogue campaigns and lessons learned in order 

to maximize the usefulness of these activities.

Future missions, such as those envisioned in this Global Exploration Roadmap, will require new capabilities, techniques, and 

operational modes to be tested extensively in relevant environments to 1) confirm that systems will function as desired in relevant environments as well as revealing unanticipated behavior, 

2) compare the performance of alternative combinations of systems and operations, and 3) train flight crews, ground support 

personnel, engineers, and managers.

Analogue activities are also extremely useful to the science 

community for interpreting data from past or ongoing missions. 

In addition to these technical roles, these analogue activities 

could be used, as recent experience has shown, to engage the 

public with interesting and exciting mission simulations well 

before actual missions take place.

Analogue activities can involve testing of scientific, technological, or operational questions. They can also span a continuum 

ranging from very focused, tightly controlled, single-purpose 

tests to multi-faceted, integrated combinations of scientific, 

technological, and operational features designed to simulate different phases of a mission. These activities require physical locations or facilities that can simulate some aspects of the mission 

environment in order to test the system or activity in question.

Since the first release of the Global Exploration Roadmap, 

agencies have conducted a number of successful analogue activities that represent meaningful steps toward readiness for future 

missions beyond low-Earth orbit. Several examples include:

Technology Development Analogue Tests. All agencies continue 

developing technologies that can be applied to near-term robotic 

activities. For example, JAXA conducted field tests of a small 

robotic rover to test new devices, such as a laser ranging imager, 

a laser induced breakdown spectrometer, and autonomous operations in the desert on the Izu-Oshima Island near Tokyo (see 

photo), where geological conditions are similar to either the Moon 

or Mars. As a key member in a 

public-private partnership for 

development of future space 

exploration technologies, ASI 

developed the Mars Terrain 

Demonstrator facility and the 

(Mars) Entry, Descent, and Landing facility. These ASI facilities 

are being used to test rovers and 

landing vehicles in a simulated 

Martian environment.

Critical systems to sustain human presence on other planetary bodies have been tested on Earth in preparation for validation by future 

robotic missions. In an analogue simulation that will inform future 

planetary surface missions, a team consisting of NASA, CSA, the 

Smithsonian, and the University of Mainz (Germany) conducted a 

10-day series of simulations and tests of In-Situ Resource Utilization technologies and operations in Hawaii. The main test, conducted in 2012, included the Regolith and Environment Science 

and Oxygen and Lunar Volatile Extraction (RESOLVE) prototype. 

The RESOLVE instruments suite provided by NASA, and the 

Canadian drill and avionics mounted on CSA’s Artemis Jr. rover, 

is an experiment package designed to find, characterize and map 

the presence of ice and other volatiles in almost permanently shadowed areas at the lunar poles. This simulation illustrates preparations for more sustainable missions by using local raw materials 

to offset supplies transported from Earth.

JAXA’s small rover demonstration 

in volcanic region.

Concordia: a Franco-Italian base in Anctartica used as a 

human exploration analogue.

37
Exploration Mission Operations Simulations. In a series of 

simulations spanning 2011 and 2012, NASA’s Research and 

Technology Studies team compared several different combinations of robotic devices, EVA personnel, and astronauts 

in small space exploration vehicles to learn about effective 

approaches to explore small near-Earth asteroids. These simulations also evaluated the most advantageous locations for 

members of the four-person crew, whether that was in an EVA 

suit, inside an exploration vehicle, or remaining at the deep 

space habitat. They evaluated the impacts of a communications 

time delay on Earth-based mission control personnel providing 

traditional support functions from different remote locations 

(NASA JSC and ESA ESTEC). Results from these simulations 

demonstrated that an EVA crew member is most effectively 

utilized in accomplishing high priority tasks.

In parallel to technological developments, agencies also carry 

out analogue activities focusing on science and techniques to 

improve knowledge of key human factors that could enhance 

the performance and reduce risks of future missions. Several 

examples include:

Simulations of Human Factors and Performance. A six-person crew, including three Russians, two Europeans and one Chinese, carried out a 520-day simulation of a human Mars mission, 

called Mars500 at the Russian Institute for Biomedical Problems 

in Moscow. The purpose of this study was to gather data, knowledge and experience to help prepare for a real mission to Mars. 

Sealed in a chamber in June 2010, the six crew members had 

only personal contact with each other plus voice contact with a 

simulated control centre and family and friends as would normally happen in a human space mission. A unidirectional time 

delay of up to 20 minutes was built into communications with 

the control center to simulate an interplanetary mission, and the 

crew was given a diet almost identical to that used for the ISS. 

The study helped to determine key psychological and physiological effects of living in such an enclosed environment for 

extended periods of time.

ASI, CNES, and ESA, in cooperation with the French Polar 

Institute (Institut Paul Emile Victor) and the Italian Antarctic 

Research Programme, are supporting a variety of human health 

and performance-related investigations in medicine, physiology 

and psychology, using the unique environment of Concordia 

Station (isolation, confinement, climate, hypoxia) as a human 

exploration analogue.

CNES, DLR, and ESA are supporting experiments in Moon 

gravity, Mars gravity, and micro-gravity on an aircraft flying 

parabolic trajectories (see photo below). These experiments 

address a wide range of research topics, with an emphasis on 

human health and performance. Beyond technological developments and research on human factors, agencies also carry 

out analogue activities focusing on science and techniques to 

analyze and characterize planetary science. 

Analogue Tests of Science Operations and Techniques. CSA 

has conducted a series of multi-deployment analogue missions: 

1) robotic detection of methane was tested at natural seeps in 

the Canadian arctic (Axel Heiberg Island) and within an abandoned mine (Asbestos, QC); 2) multi-platform exploration of 

underwater microbialites demonstrated novel imaging and communication technologies (Pavilion Lake, BC; in collaboration 

with NASA); and 3) deployments to Canadian impact structures 

(Mistastin, Sudbury) investigated how best to combine human 

and robotic capabilities for sample return selection.

Agencies anticipate continued use of analogues comparable to 

those described here as part of a stepwise approach for implementing new capabilities needed for missions beyond lowEarth orbit: first technology and operations development on 

Earth, followed by proof of concept in analogue campaigns, 

then robotic mission validation, and finally incorporation into 

a human space exploration architecture.

Partial-gravity parabolic flights have recently been jointly conducted by CNES, 

DLR and ESA to simulate the Moon and Mars environments

38
Managing Health and Human 

Performance Risks for Space 

Exploration 

Crew health and performance are critical to successful human 

exploration beyond low-Earth orbit. Long-duration missions 

and planetary operations bring numerous risks that must be 

understood and mitigated in order to keep astronauts healthy 

and productive. The main risk drivers are long-duration exposure 

to radiation and microgravity. In addition, onboard capabilities 

that allow for autonomous early diagnosis and treatment of 

injuries and disease processes are critical. 

To address these challenges, agencies are actively performing 

studies in laboratories, ground analogues and on board the ISS. 

Much work remains to be done, and agencies are increasingly 

cooperating to enable timely answers in support of exploration 

mission needs. This is very important because with a common 

understanding of risks and effective mitigation approaches, 

agencies have the opportunity to leverage investments in the 

research or hardware development to mitigate risks.

Since crew health and performance are primary, critical concerns, the ISS partner agencies 

are actively seeking to use ISS 

research to extend human space 

mission durations while ensuring 

the crew remains healthy and 

able to perform well. The health 

risks are significant enough 

to drive decisions related to planning of exploration missions 

beyond low-Earth orbit. These are listed in the table on the next 

page. The “stoplight” chart gives a visual characterization of the 

current postures for these risks relative to several exploration 

mission scenarios.

Hip QCT monitors changes in 

hip bone structure (fracture risk 

assessment) on the ISS.

JAXA astronaut Akihiko Hoshide uses the advanced resistive exercise device 

on board the ISS.

The short arm human centrifuge at DLR enables hypergravity research to 

understand the gravity impacts on the human physiology and performance.

39
• Red (Unacceptable): A risk with one or more of its attributes (i.e., consequence, likelihood, uncertainty) currently exceeding 

established human health and performance standards for that mission scenario.

• Yellow (Acceptable): A risk with all of its attributes (i.e., consequence, likelihood, uncertainty) well understood and characterized, 

such that they meet existing standards but are not fully controlled, resulting in “acceptance” of a higher risk posture. Lowering the 

risk posture is important, but the risk is not expected to preclude a mission.

• Green (Controlled): A risk with all of its attributes (i.e., consequence, likelihood, uncertainty) well understood and characterized, 

with an accepted mitigation strategy in place to control the risk. It is still helpful to pursue optimized mitigation opportunities such 

as compact and reliable exercise devices.

Main Human Health and Performance Risks for Exploration

Not mission 

limiting 

GO

Not mission 

limiting, but 

increased risk 

GO

Mission limiting

NO GO

Mission

ISS 

(6 mo)

Lunar 

(6 mo)

Deep 

Space 

(1 yr)

Mars 

(3 yr)

Musculoskeletal: Long-term health risk of early onset osteoporosis 

Mission risk of reduced muscle strength and aerobic capacity

Sensorimotor: Mission risk of sensory changes/dysfunctions

Ocular Syndrome: Mission and long-term health risk of microgravity-induced visual impairment and/or elevated 

intracranial pressure

Nutrition: Mission risk of behavioral and nutritional health due to inability to provide appropriate quantity, quality 

and variety of food

Autonomous Medical Care: Mission and long-term health risk due to inability to provide adequate medical care 

throughout the mission (Includes onboard training, diagnosis, treatment, and presence/absence of onboard physician)

Behavioral Health and Performance: Mission and long-term behavioral health risk

Radiation: Long-term risk of carcinogenesis and degenerative tissue disease due to radiation exposure–Largely 

addressed with ground-based research

Toxicity: Mission risk of exposure to a toxic environment without adequate monitoring, warning systems or understanding of potential toxicity (dust, chemicals, infectious agents)

Autonomous Emergency Response: Medical risks due to life support system failure and other emergencies (fire, 

depressurization, toxic atmosphere, etc.), crew rescue scenarios

Hypogravity: Long-term risk associated with adaptation during intravehicular activity and extravehicular activity 

on the Moon, asteroids, Mars (vestibular and performance dysfunctions) and postflight rehabilitation

All of the identified risk areas are the subject of vigorous independent research activities across the international partnership. 

To take maximum advantage of the opportunity provided by 

the ISS, the partners agreed that an international approach to 

addressing these risks, using all available assets, was the best 

way to ensure readiness for global exploration. Existing working 

groups, such as the International Space Life Sciences Working 

Group, are being utilized to ensure a coordinated international 

effort. Agencies are increasing efforts to share operational medical and biomedical science data, standardize techniques and 

methodologies, share hardware and crew subjects onboard the 

ISS. These efforts are underway and a key to success. 

In addition to research, the ISS provides the capability to 

validate countermeasures and mitigation strategies. Countermeasures used on the ISS are largely effective at managing 

health and performance risks. However, progress must be 

made before exploration missions can be successful. 

Observation: 

 Agencies should increase efforts to pursue a 

coordinated approach to mitigating the human 

health and performance risks of extended duration 

exploration missions, putting priority on efforts to 

reduce countermeasure mass and volume, and on 

driving risks to an acceptable level.

40
41

Chapter 5.

Conclusion

The Global Exploration Roadmap reflects international 

efforts to define a pathway for human exploration of the 

solar system, with Mars as the ultimate goal. International 

cooperation will not only enable these challenging missions, 

but also increase the probability of their success. Over time, 

updates to this roadmap will continue to reflect the efforts of 

participating agencies to collaboratively develop exploration 

mission scenarios and coordinate their preparation.
Since its inception, space exploration has produced numerous 

benefits for humanity. Knowledge gained has driven scientific and technological innovation that continues to contribute 

to new products and services. The cultural and inspirational 

impact to people on Earth stimulates our curiosity and sense 

of place in the universe. Overcoming the challenges and realizing the capabilities needed to explore will bring nations 

together with the capacity to address mutual challenges and 

common opportunities.

Continuation of the Global Exploration Roadmap activity 

and development of coordinated national efforts will require 

considerable dialogue on how to align the policies and plans 

of participating space agencies, as well as address the intergovernmental considerations that affect its successful implementation. Decisions regarding implementation of specific 

mission scenarios will not be made by ISECG. They will follow national policy decisions and international consultation 

at multiple levels – informed by products (architectures, mission designs, etc.) developed collectively. In the coming years, 

many nations will be developing their domestic policy and 

legal frameworks to most effectively implement sustainable 

human space exploration.

Additionally, some agencies are engaged in dialogue with private sector entities who are beginning to move forward with 

plans to invest in projects beyond low-Earth orbit. For such 

private sector efforts to succeed they need the certainty of a 

long-term governmental commitment to space exploration, 

the continued opportunity to introduce ideas into government 

thinking and applicable legal mechanisms. 

While this document does not create commitments of any kind 

on behalf of any of the participants, the Global Exploration 

Roadmap is an important step in an evolving process toward 

achieving a global, strategic, coordinated, and comprehensive 

approach to space exploration.

The key observations of the Global Exploration Roadmap that 

was released in September 2011 were a focus of attention over 

the last two years. The following new key observations are 

presented for consideration.

1. In order to build a sustainable human space exploration 

endeavour that lasts decades, agency leaders should maintain 

a focus on delivering value to the public.

2. With the goal of enabling several partners to contribute 

critical capabilities to future human missions, agencies note 

that near-term collaborative missions on the ISS, in the lunar 

vicinity, on the lunar surface, and robotic missions may be 

used to simulate and better inform preparations for future 

international missions to Mars.

3. New mission concepts, such as human-assisted sample return 

and tele-presence should be further explored, increasing understanding of the important role of humans in space for achieving 

common goals.

4. Robotic science missions provide an important technique for 

obtaining the data needed to prepare for human exploration 

beyond low-Earth orbit. It is generally accepted by both the 

science and exploration communities that measurements and 

data sets obtained from robotic missions support both the 

advancement of science and preparation for human exploration.

5. Agencies should increase efforts to pursue a coordinated 

approach to mitigating the human health and performance 

risks of extended duration exploration missions, putting 

priority on efforts to reduce countermeasure mass and 

volume, and on driving risks to an acceptable level.

This and subsequent iterations of the Global Exploration 

Roadmap should provide the technical basis for informing 

the necessary binding agreements between agencies and 

governments. 

42

Water Ice on Mars
Space is indifferent to what we do; it has 

no feeling, no design, no interest in whether 

or not we grapple with it. But we cannot 

be indifferent to space, because the grand, 

slow march of intelligence has brought us, 

in our generation, to a point from which we 

can explore and understand and utilize it. 

To turn back now would be to deny our 

history, our capabilities.

~ James A. Michener
International Space Exploration

Coordination Group

The Global Exploration Roadmap is a nonbinding product 

of the International Space Exploration Coordination Group 

(ISECG). This second iteration will be followed by periodic 

updates as the content evolves and matures. ISECG was 

established by 14 space agencies to advance the Global 

Exploration Strategy by providing a forum where interested 

agencies can share their objectives and plans, and explore 

concepts that make use of synergies. ISECG is committed to 

the development of products that enable participating agencies 

to take concrete steps toward partnerships that reflect a globally 

coordinated exploration effort.

Publishing services provided by:

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Headquarters

Washington, DC 20546-0001

www.nasa.gov

NP-2013-06-945-HQ

G-28568

This document is available online at http://www.globalspaceexploration.org