National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Public-Private 

Partnerships for 

Space Capability

Development

Driving Economic Growth 

and NASA’s Mission

April 2014
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Contents

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National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Satellite Servicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Interplanetary Small Satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Robotic Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Microgravity Research for Biomedial Applications . . . 17

Liquid Rocket Engines for Launch Vehicles . . . . . . . 21

Wireless Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Space Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Earth Observation Data Visualization . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Authors and Study Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Endnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Introduction

1

This report is the result of a study into potential areas 

of public-private partnerships for space capability 

development that could meet NASA’s mission objectives 

as well as generate significant economic returns to 

the American economy . The study focused on 8 areas 

of space capability development that show positive 

indicators of private-sector interest and investment, new 

business formation, and alignment with NASA’s goals 

– thus making them strong candidates for economic 

stimulation with increased NASA partnerships . The term 

“public-private partnerships” is used to represent a broad 

spectrum of partnership implementation methodologies 

and is not meant to convey a specific agreement 

mechanism or strategy . Please note that the 8 areas 

highlighted in this report do not represent an exhaustive 

examination of all the potential areas that could benefit 

from public-private partnerships .

The National Aeronautics and Space Act, 51 USC 

§ 20112(a)(4), and the National Space Policy, 2010, 

mandate NASA work with industry to advance the 

commercial space sector:

National Aeronautics and Space Act

To seek and encourage, to the maximum extent 

possible, the fullest commercial use of space

National Space Policy 

A robust and competitive commercial space sector 

is vital to continued progress in space. The United 

States is committed to encouraging and facilitating 

the growth of a U.S. commercial space sector that 

supports U.S. needs, is globally competitive, and 

advances U.S. leadership in the generation of new 

markets and innovation-driven entrepreneurship

Three examples from NASA’s history of space 

capability development illustrate the great potential for 

economic impact: the history of NASA’s assistance in 

the growth of the American semiconductor industry, 

NASA’s investments that helped establish the U .S . 

commercial communications satellite industry, and 

NASA’s partnerships for the development of U .S . 

commercial cargo space transportation systems . Each 

of these contributed to U .S . economic growth in different 

ways; through providing substantial early demand 

as an anchor customer for an important component 

technology, through the direct development of a 

commercially valuable space technology, and through 

investing in the development of new private-sector 

space transportation capabilities .

Integrated circuits

The worldwide revolution in personal computers, mobile 

phones and digital home applications has been made 

possible by the low-cost production of integrated circuits 

– a process that was given a critical early boost from 

the Apollo Program with demand for large numbers of 

integrated circuits for the Apollo Guidance Computer . 

Although integrated circuits had been independently 

invented in the corporate labs of Texas Instruments and 

Fairchild Semiconductors, it was the Apollo Program, and 

other U .S . space programs, that made up over 70 percent

of the worldwide demand for the components as late as 

1965 . Although progress in integrated circuits was not an 

objective of the program, the need to advance computing 

capabilities to meet the needs of the Apollo Program led 

to the program becoming an early anchor customer in the 

development of integrated circuits technology . With the 

Figure 1. The Display and Keyboard (DSKY) mounted in 

the Main Display Console of Apollo 13’s Command Module 

“Odyssey.” The DSKY is connected to the Apollo Guidance 

Computer. Source: Bruce Yarbro/Smithsonian Institution.
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National Aeronautics and 

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stringent quality and performance requirements of Apollo, 

early semiconductor companies learned through filling 

a government need how to scale-up the production of a 

technology that would soon have broad application . The 

price of these circuits would plummet as these companies 

perfected manufacturing methods aided by Apollo . 

This demand provided an opportunity for American 

semiconductor manufacturers in Silicon Valley to increase 

the scale of their operations, thereby reducing the cost 

of semiconductors to the point where their incorporation 

into other applications – such as personal computers – 

became economically possible . The U .S . investment in 

the Apollo program thus provided a critical source of early 

demand as an anchor customer in the origin of modern 

day Silicon Valley . 

Communication Satellites

In addition to providing a source of demand for new 

technological capabilities, NASA has also engaged in 

the direct development and demonstration of promising 

new commercial space technologies which have, in turn, 

provided the basis for American leadership in commercial

satellite applications . The explicit development of 

communication satellites was one of the core objectives 

laid out in President Kennedy’s famous speech to 

Congress that announced the Apollo objective on the 

25th of May, 1961 . In addition to the challenge of a Moon 

mission and weather satellites, he also highlighted, “Third, 

an additional 50 million dollars will make the most of our 

present leadership, by accelerating the use of space 

satellites for world-wide communications .” AT&T was also 

developing its own Telstar commercial satellite . Shortly 

thereafter, NASA signed a contract with the Hughes 

Corporation to build Syncom for the demonstration 

of synchronous orbit, on-orbit station keeping, and 

measurements of communication link performance in 

synchronous altitude . NASA continued this active role of 

assisting the U .S . commercial communications satellite 

industry up through the late 1970s with the Applications 

Technology Satellite 6 (ATS-6), launched in 1974, which 

was both the world’s first Direct Broadcast Satellite (as 

part of the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment 

between NASA and ISRO) and the first experimental 

Figure 2. NASA’s ATS-6 undergoing testing. Source: NASA.

use of ion thrusters for in-space electric propulsion on 

a communications satellite . NASA has thus historically 

had success in developing and demonstrating genuinely 

commercially valuable space technologies, and then 

allowing for the successful transfer of those technologies 

and capabilities to American industry .

Commercial Orbital Transportation Services

The Commercial Orbital Transportation Services 

(COTS) effort is an important example of the potential for 

partnerships to enable capability development that is then 

available to both Government and industry customers 

while also advancing U .S . economic competitiveness . 

The forecast shortfall in International Space Station 

(ISS) logistics needs after the Shuttle retired provided 

a significant market opportunity for the emergence of 

commercial space transportation services . To stimulate 

the commercial space transportation industry’s ability 

to fulfill these needs, NASA established a two-phased 

approach. The first phase was the COTS partnerships 

for the development and demonstration of transportation 

systems to low-Earth orbit . The follow-on phase was 

the procurement for Cargo Resupply Services (CRS) 
Introduction

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to support the extended operations of the ISS which 

offered a predictable and reliable market for the new 

transportation systems . Although the CRS procurement 

was conducted under an independent full and open 

competition, the contractors were required to demonstrate

the ability of meet ISS integration requirements prior to 

execution of the resupply missions .

Under the COTS effort, NASA used its Space Act 

Agreement authority to enter into partnerships for the 

development and demonstration of new commercial 

cargo space transportation systems to low-Earth orbit 

(LEO) . Through competitively-awarded funded Space 

Act Agreements with SpaceX and Orbital Sciences, 

NASA acted both as an investor and advisor by providing 

seed money and technical expertise that resulted in 

two new U .S . private sector space launch vehicles and 

spacecraft – the Falcon 9/Dragon and the Antares/

Cygnus. COTS was the first NASA program since 

the development of the Space Shuttle in the 1980s to 

successfully result in new space transportation systems 

capable of carrying cargo to and from human destinations

in LEO . In addition to this critical achievement, these new 

capabilities eliminated NASA’s dependence on Russia 

Figure 3. SpaceX’s Dragon vehicle is berthed with the 

International Space Station on May 25, 2012 as part of 

COTS-2+, the second demonstration mission required 

under NASA’s Commercial Orbital Transportation Services 

(COTS) program. Source: NASA.

and other foreign countries for cargo transportation to 

the ISS . Development and demonstration of these new 

transportation capabilities was achieved at a significantly 

lower cost than traditional NASA development efforts . 

Using a fixed price, milestone based payment approach, 

the financial risk to the Government was minimized and 

over half the development costs were financed by the 

COTS partners . Furthermore, the availability of new 

low-cost U .S . launch capabilities in the private-sector is 

allowing the U .S . to be globally competitive and recapture 

a larger share of the launch market lost to international 

competitors over the past decade . Through partnerships, 

the COTS example demonstrates that NASA can enable 

the development of critical space capabilities, realize costsavings by leveraging private-investment and innovation, 

and contribute to U .S . economic growth and economic 

competitiveness .

This study has focused on areas where there are positive 

indicators of potential economic impact and potential for 

partnership between NASA and industry . The objective, 

however, is not to provide a single set of answers 

but rather to explore a set of questions . Where could 

increased NASA demand stimulate an important general 

purpose technology next, as it did with semiconductors? 

Where could NASA help develop and demonstrate the 

technology for a whole new U .S . industry – as it did 

with the commercial satellite industry? Where could 

NASA apply the commercial space partnership model 

pioneered in the COTS effort to further develop the 

capabilities needed for sustainable exploration of the 

solar system, while cost-effectively leveraging private 

sector investment and NASA expertise driving economic 

growth in the process? This study provides some of the 

core material - empirical data and economic analysis - to 

assist with thinking through these critical questions . This 

report provides empirical data and economic intelligence 

in the following areas – satellite servicing, interplanetary 

small satellites, robotic mining, microgravity research for 

biomedical applications, liquid rocket engines for launch 

vehicles, wireless power, space communications, and 

earth observation data visualization .
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National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration

Satellite Servicing

• Global satellite industry largest commercial space market with $190B in revenues

$2 .2B (1997-2007) in lost revenue from GEO satellites launched to wrong orbit

$700M in insurance claims since 2008 as a result of satellites deployed to wrong orbits or fuel leaks 

86 potential satellite servicing opportunities identified for 1990-2010

Two major companies, ATK and MDA Corporation, invested significant sums in satellite servicing

• 

• 

• 

• 

Interplanetary Small Satellites

• Number of cubesats launched each year is growing

Four companies currently operate constellations of satellites under 150 kg; two start-ups, Skybox Imaging and Planet Labs, 

began launching small satellites in 2013

Over $100M raised by small satellite companies in venture capital and angel investment over the last few years 

Over $1M in capital has been raised through Kickstarter for new small satellite companies

• 

• 

• 

Robotic Mining

• Total profits from terrestrial mining was $133B in 2011

Global market for mining expected to grow 8 .5 percent annually through 2018

U .S . companies—including Planetary Resources, Moon Express, and Deep Space Industries—have announced plans to mine 

extraterrestrial resources

• 

• 

Microgravity Research for Biomedical Applications

• $93B U .S . biotechnology industry has over 2,000 companies; industry expected to grow as population ages; 57 percent of the 

industry is biomedical technologies 

Large biotech companies, Amgen and Merck, are conducting research on ISS 

Demand for drugs to treat diseases similar to those resulting from extended spaceflight is high; ~30 percent of the best-selling 

100 drugs are for degenerative diseases like arthritis, cancer, and osteoporosis 

• 

• 

Liquid Rocket Engines for Launch Vehicles

• Aerojet Rocketdyne and SpaceX are primary manufacturers of LREs, four other U .S . companies at various stages of 

developing LREs

$2 .5B to $3B annual revenue for the commercial launch industry with an average of 19 launches a year 

In the next 10 years, the commercial launch market is expected to grow to an annual average of 31 launches 

• 

• 

Wireless Power

• Demand for electricity is expected to double between 2000 and 2030 

• The wireless charging market is expected to grow from $1B to $6B by 2020

Space Communications

• Telecommunications is a $4 .9T industry; communications satellite services is $114B and grew 7 percent in 2012

In 2002, telecom satellites provided 1 .4 terabits per second; demand expected to grow to 1,000 terabits per second by 2020 

U .S . and European governments investing in laser communications that can significantly increase data rates

• 

• 

Earth Observation Data Visualization

• Global geospatial services industry revenues estimated at $73B in 2012 

Space-based remote sensing technology revenue is estimated to grow at CAGR of 7 percent from 2012 to 2017

Demand for geospatial data is increasing; smart phones market penetration is growing at 20 percent a year, and use of sensors 

is growing at 30 percent a year

One established commercial satellite remote sensing company, with at least four new companies being formed in the U .S .

• 

• 

• 

Table 1. Major economic indicators for each capability area
Satellite Servicing

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Satellite servicing involves the robotic or human capability to rescue, reposition, repair, inspect, or 

refuel satellites . Satellite servicing capabilities also offer the potential to mitigate and remove orbital 

debris . As humans venture farther from Earth, crews will need to be more self-reliant . The ability to 

perform servicing on spacecraft is thus likely to increase in importance . Satellite servicing has the 

potential to increase the service life of on-orbit assets and save costs by reducing mission risk . NASA 

is currently advancing this industry by testing technologies for servicing spacecraft . Public-private 

partnerships could help close the business case for U .S . companies, allowing the U .S . to become the 

world leader in satellite servicing while providing NASA capabilities for fixing or extending the life of its 

spacecraft .

Commercial Application

Commercial satellite servicing applications involve 

using autonomous servicing spacecraft for a variety 

of scenarios including: rescuing satellites in stranded 

orbits; repositioning satellites into orbital slots or 

graveyard orbits; refueling satellites; inspecting 

satellites; assisting with the deployment of jammed 

solar arrays and antennas; moving out-of-place 

thermal blankets and cables; and transplanting 

components from retired satellites into operating 

ones . Satellite servicing systems can also be used 

as a proxy upper stage to deliver satellites with less 

propellant, which could translate into lower launch 

costs . Once deployed by the launch vehicle, the onorbit servicing spacecraft would pick up the satellite 

and transport it to its destination . Satellite servicing 

may also provide an option to identify and remove 

orbital debris .

Some geosynchronous satellite telecommunication 

operators like Intelsat welcome the opportunity 

to launch satellites featuring greater transponder 

capacity in lieu of propellant mass . More capable 

satellites could improve the competitive advantage 

for satellite telecommunication providers over 

competitors providing terrestrial services . 

NASA Application

NASA deployed and successfully tested a satellite 

refueling demonstrator during the 2011-2013 Robotic 

Refueling Mission aboard the International Space 

Station (ISS) . This mission demonstrated that satellites 

not specifically designed for refueling could in fact be 

refueled using a remote control robot . However, NASA 

crewmembers have serviced and repaired satellites 

Figure 4. NASA’s Robotic Refueling Mission system being 

installed on the International Space Station. Source: NASA. 

and spacecraft on orbit for the past 30 years . NASA’s 

first servicing mission was the 1973 Skylab mission 

to affix a new thermal shield lost during launch and 

to deploy a stuck solar panel . The shield, which also 

served as protection from micrometeroids had to be 

replaced to ensure Skylab did not overheat . Other onorbit repair missions include the 1984 rescue mission 

of the Solar Maximum Mission, the 1984 rescue and 

refurbishment of Palapa B2 and Westar 6, and five 

Hubble Space Telescope servicing missions since 

1993 . General maintenance and servicing of the ISS 

also strengthens satellite servicing capabilities . 

The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency 

(DARPA), with participation by NASA engineers, 

conducted the successful Orbital Express satellite 

servicing demonstration mission in 2007 .

Market Overview

There are 1,046 satellites in operation around Earth; 
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National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration

432 are in geosynchronous orbit (GEO) and 614 are in 

medium Earth orbit (MEO) or LEO .1 Satellites in GEO 

represent the greatest market potential for satellite 

servicing because that’s where most of the high-value, 

commercial communication satellites are located .2

Satellite services such as television, telephone, 

data, and remote sensing generated about $190 

billion in revenue in 2012 .3

 Companies that operate 

satellites in GEO are responsible for the majority of 

this revenue . A typical GEO communications satellite 

with 48 transponders will generate about $96 million in 

annual revenue, with a potential increased operating 

revenue total of $480 million over a five-year life 

extension enabled by satellite servicing .4

 Each year, 

around 25 GEO satellites are retired; about 10 (40 

percent) of them are only retired because they run 

out of propellant .5 Satellites may also be deployed to 

wrong orbits due to hardware failure . For example, in 

1990, Intelsat 603 was deployed to the wrong orbit 

due to a launch vehicle upper stage failure . In 1992, 

it was rescued by the Space Shuttle and redeployed 

to the proper orbit, ultimately generating $800 million 

for Intelsat through 2012 .6 In cases of partial loss, 

the satellite can use onboard fuel to complete its 

journey, ultimately reducing its service life . Satellite 

operators have filed about $700 million in insurance 

claims between 2006 and 2010 as a result of satellites 

deployed to wrong orbits or experiencing fuel leaks .7

In 2011, Intelsat planned to invest $280 million in a 

Space Infrastructure Servicing (SIS) system being 

developed by Canada-based MacDonald, Dettwiler, 

and Associates, Limited (MDA) . This deal was 

suspended because MDA could not close the business 

case .8

 However, MDA continues to pursue the SIS . 

The Department of Defense (DoD) is also interested in 

pursuing satellite servicing, and has invested in a few 

missions that can contribute to building this capability . 

The Air Force spent about $180 million on two 

successful missions (XSS-10 in 2003 and XSS-11 in 

2005) designed to explore proximity operations and the 

orbital maneuvering necessary to carry out inspections . 

DARPA, in collaboration with NASA, is currently 

pursuing a satellite disassembly and reassembly proofof-concept mission called Phoenix, which is expected 

to launch in 2016 or 2017 . Phoenix’s objective is to 

repurpose components from a retired satellite and 

combine them with new elements transported to 

orbit to create a new satellite . DARPA plans to award 

$36 million in contracts to support the effort, and has 

already signed contracts with MDA for $28 million and 

ATK for $1 .7 million to develop the satellite bus .9

In the near-term, missions designed to test proofsof-concept for replicating techniques ideal in a typical 

operational environment, will characterize the market . 

These missions are expected to take place through the 

end of the decade . In addition, the industry is seeking 

to standardize satellite fittings, orbital protocols, and 

procedures to help reduce servicing costs and the 

potential for damage to a satellite being serviced . 

Some satellite operators, like SES Global, project that 

satellite servicing is likely about ten years away, while 

others, like Intelsat, are more publicly optimistic about 

the potential of satellite servicing . 

Demand

Between 1990 and 2010, 556 satellites were launched 

to GEO .10 Of those, 128 satellites reached end of 

life (EOL) status that could be categorized as either 

serviceable (85 percent) or non-serviceable (15 

percent) . Some of the satellites reached EOL as 

planned when their propellant tanks became depleted, 

while others became inactive due to technical or 

unknown causes . According to a 2011 study by The 

Aerospace Corporation, 86 of the 128 inactive satellites 

have been identified as potential on-orbit servicing 

Figure 5. Approximate size of the satellite servicing market by type, based on historical EOL data for satellites 

launched from 1990 to 2010.
targets . About 50 of these represent opportunities for 

refueling or repositioning and 36 are potential targets 

for repairs and deployment assistance . (See Figure 5 .) 

In addition, there are approximately 2,500 inactive 

satellites in orbit around the Earth .11 DARPA projects 

that 1,300 GEO satellites, most of which are inactive 

due to depleted propellant tanks, are candidates 

for component replacement and refurbishment . The 

total value of these satellites is about $300 billion .12

DARPA’s Phoenix mission aims to explore techniques 

that could be used to tap this market . 

Another potential area of demand that is not yet well 

understood involves on-orbit inspections, which may 

aid failure analysis to improve designs, determine 

repair or other corrective actions, and assist in 

assignment of liability in insurance claims . Mitigation 

and removal of orbital debris may also benefit from 

satellite servicing capabilities . 

Supply

ViviSat, backed by ATK, and MDA, who recently 

acquired Space Systems/Loral, are the two North 

American companies currently involved in satellite 

servicing . 

ViviSat is offering a system that attaches itself to a 

satellite running low on propellant and provides stationkeeping and maneuvering services . ViviSat’s ATK-built 

Mission Extension Vehicles (MEV) will do precisely 

what their name describes, but will not be capable of 

refueling or otherwise servicing a satellite . MDA, the 

company that designed and manufactured the robotic 

arms used aboard the Space Shuttle and ISS, aims to 

provide a full servicing spacecraft using its SIS vehicle . 

The SIS will feature robotic limbs capable of grasping 

satellites and servicing them as needed . ViviSat’s MEV 

is designed to dock with about 90 percent of GEO 

satellites . MDA’s SIS docks with about 75 percent of 

GEO satellites .13 The cost to develop, launch, and 

operate a notional satellite servicing spacecraft similar 

to an SIS is estimated to be about $540 million .14 

In addition, Germany’s space agency, DLR, signed a 

study contract with Astrium to design DEOS, a robotic 

technology demonstration mission focused on the 

repair and refueling of satellites . DEOS is tentatively 

planned for launch around 2018 .15

Barriers and Uncertainties

The technologies necessary to service satellites 

exists today, however, there are several technical 

and economic challenges . Technical challenges 

include rendezvous, docking, or berthing with a 

satellite; ensuring a fully sealed connection for 

propellant transfer; the identification and swap 

out of components; and autonomous operations . 

The technologies involved are not new and are 

not necessarily complex, but their integration into 

a mission remains the biggest technical hurdle . In 

terms of economic challenges, it is not clear how 

perceived risks in a rescue mission are handled from 

a cost perspective . Various factors, both space- and 

ground-based, dictate whether building a new satellite 

or simply refueling one already on orbit would be the 

optimal path .16

Figure 6. Artist impression of the servicer turning the client 

for docking maneuver. Source: SpaceTech GmbH.

7
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Interplanetary Small Satellites

9

Interplanetary small satellites are spacecraft that conduct missions beyond low Earth orbit (LEO) 

and have a mass less than 500 kg . Interplanetary small satellites are designed to reduce costs 

by reducing mass . Small satellite approaches for interplanetary probes aim to push innovation 

and reduce mass without reducing capabilities . Private-sector small satellite companies have also 

independently raised over $140 million in venture capital and angel financing over the last few 

years .1

 A number of these companies have interplanetary ambitions . Public-private partnerships 

in small satellites could help NASA explore the universe while pushing technology that would help 

improve the capability of U .S . satellites .

Commercial Application

Small satellites are becoming a larger component 

of the overall commercial telecommunications and 

remote sensing market, with companies such as 

ORBCOMM, Skybox Imaging, and Planet Labs 

launching small satellites . These small satellites 

are often components of constellations consisting 

of multiple satellites . Several commercial providers 

operate small satellites primarily for asset tracking 

and remote sensing . The masses of these satellites 

range between 100 and 500 kg . Universities and 

research centers tend to deploy satellites with 

masses below 10 kg for purposes of technology 

demonstration or education, with 10 cm x 10 cm x 10 

cm (1U) cubesats (< 5 kg) representing the majority 

of these . From 2004 to 2013, 198 cubesats were 

launched .2 About 360 are projected to launch through 

2019 .3 An emerging commercial application for small 

satellites is near real-time remote sensing, with two 

U .S . companies, Planet Labs and Skybox Imaging, 

pursuing constellations beginning in 2013 .

Although there are currently no commercial 

companies employing interplanetary small satellites, 

Planetary Resources is developing its earth orbiting 

remote sensing telescopes to identify asteroids for 

purposes of resource extraction .

NASA Application

NASA has launched small satellites into interplanetary 

space since the 1960s as part of the agency’s 

science and communications technology programs . 

The low mass was dictated by the capabilities of 

launch vehicles of the time rather than advances 

in satellite technology, but the constraint motivated 

Figure 7. NASA’s Deep Space 1, which had a mass of 

370 kg, visited asteroid 9969 Braille and comet Borrelly. 

Source: NASA.

miniaturization of electronics and sensor technologies 

that in turn fueled commercial applications like 

global broadcast television and satellite telephone 

calls . As launch vehicles became more capable, the 

masses of interplanetary spacecraft grew . Since the 

1990s, however, NASA has launched several small 

interplanetary spacecraft, including lunar orbiter 

Clementine (with DoD), asteroid probe Deep Space 

1, comet probe Stardust, Lunar Prospector, and the 

Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory probes that 

orbited the Moon .

Interplanetary small satellite missions include the Lunar 

Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer (LADEE), 

launched in September 2013, and InSight Mars lander 

mission, planned for launch in 2016 . 

NASA continues to foster small satellite development 

to support exploration objectives because advanced 
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National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration

research in this area could transform the way the agency 

explores the solar system . For example, to help alleviate 

high launch costs, NASA arranges free launches for 

selected university payloads through the agency's 

CubeSat Launch Initiative (CSLI), which manages the 

Educational Launch of Nanosatellites (ELaNa) missions . 

Some small satellite program objectives are to use a 

swarm of small satellites linked through an intelligent 

network, microlanders and rovers for planetary surface 

investigations, and the use of a single large platform that 

stores and deploys small probes and landers . 

Market Overview

Demand for inexpensive small satellites is growing, 

while companies currently operating large satellites 

are seeking lighter platforms that translate to cost 

savings . ORBCOMM operates a constellation of 40 

asset-tracking satellites, the largest number of small 

satellites operated by a private entity, and has plans to 

launch eighteen 142-kilogram satellites through 2014 . 

BlackBridge and DMCii are companies that operate 

constellations of five small satellites or less, each with 

masses below 150 kg . New companies like Skybox 

Imaging and Planet Labs are launching constellations of 

small satellites to provide near real-time remote sensing 

data easily purchased through the Internet . Planetary 

Resources plans to launch a cubesat technology 

demonstrator in 2014 and at least one small telescope 

into LEO by 2015 . The telescope will be used to identify 

asteroids for potential mining, with selected candidates 

becoming targets for physical exploration . 

Figure 8. Small satellites (<500 kg) launched worldwide 

(2004-2013).4

Figure 9. Cubesats (1U through 6U) launched worldwide 

(2005-2013). No cubesats were launched in 2004.4

Though GEO satellites generally have masses above 

500 kg, some GEO operators are looking to decrease 

the mass of platforms in an effort to improve their 

business cases . Companies like Satmex and Asia 

Broadcast Satellite have recently contracted with 

Boeing for satellite buses that decrease mass by 

using solar electric rather than chemical propulsion . 

This lower mass means significant cost savings 

by allowing less expensive launch options like 

dual manifesting or using smaller launch vehicles . 

Lockheed Martin Corp ., Space Systems Loral, and 

Thales Alenia plan to produce satellite buses featuring 

solar-electric propulsion in the next few years .

In the past 10 years, approximately 523 satellites 

weighing less than 200 kg have been launched 

worldwide .4

 This number includes cubesats . About 

70 percent of these are operated by civilian space 

agencies and non-profit organizations. Only ten 

percent are commercially operated, none of which 

are interplanetary . In 2013, 151 satellites with mass 

at or below 200 kg were launched . That number is 

expected to grow to substantially during the next few 

years . About 198 cubesats (1U up to 6U stacks) were 

launched during the past decade, with 48 percent 

launched in 2013 alone . 

Projections for small satellites under 50 kg tend 

to be low as these satellites are primarily built by 

universities that do not publish details of missions, 

and are launched as secondary payloads .

New companies have been able to use Kickstarter to 

raise over $1 million in $500 increments, which is a 

new way of infusing capital into the space market .5
Demand

The number of small satellites launched each year is 

steadily growing, because of the relatively low costs 

associated with their construction and operation . 1U 

Cubesats (< 5 kg) represent the largest portion of 

this growth with nearly 290 ready to launch by 2015 

or in various phases of integration .6 About 150-200 

cubesats are planned for launch in 2014 with 360 

expected through the end of the decade . In addition, 

an unprecedented 250 cracker-sized "kicksats" will be

released in early 2014 .7 Most of the expected cubesat 

launches are part of constellations being explored by 

the U.S. government or non-profit organizations. 

In 2010, the National Reconnaissance Office 

contracted Boeing to build as many as 50 tripleunit (3U) cubesats as part of its Colony program .8

DARPA and the Army’s Space and Missile Defense 

Command (SMDC) are also investigating applications 

using small satellites .9 DARPA’s Space Enabled 

Effects for Military Engagements (SeeMe) program 

features disposable microsatellites and SMDC-One, 

a 4-kilogram communications demonstrator .10 DARPA 

is also investigating options designed to facilitate 

rapid delopyment of small satellites at more affordable 

costs with its Experimental Spaceplan (XS-1) program 

announced in September 2013 .11

Demand for small interplanetary satellites is sporadic and 

is currently entirely composed of government operators 

like NASA . If Planetary Resources or other small satellite 

start-ups were successfully fielding interplanetary smallsatellite capabilities, this may spark more commercial 

demand for interplanetary small satellites .

Supply

Most major U .S . satellite manufacturers also build small 

satellites as part of their product line . Internationally, 

UK-based Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd . (SSTL) is 

considered a worldwide leader in building a variety of 

small satellites . The table on the next page shows the 

major manufacturers of small satellites . Other providers 

are attempting to appeal to the small satellite market 

with off-the-shelf kits that can be modified to suit 

buyers’ needs . Most buyers are universities, research 

institutions, and government agencies . 

The U .S . Department of Defense is working 

with industry partners to develop on-demand 

microsatellites . Microcosm, a U .S . company, was 

awarded a contract by the U .S . Army to develop 

the Nanoeye microsatellite, which will provide the 

military with access to low-cost small satellites that 

can be launched on demand as their needs arise .12

Microcosm is also working with NASA Ames Research 

Center on Hummingbird, a new class of rapidly-build 

interplanetary space probes featuring small, low-cost 

satellites .

Barriers and Uncertainties

Configuring small satellites to function within a 

network, which involves precision flight and proximity 

operations, remains a challenge . This has been 

demonstrated on systems like the GRAIL mission to 

the Moon, which involved two linked satellites . 

Decreasing telecommunication satellite size requires 

continued advances in miniaturization and ensuring 

that these satellites remain fully capable despite 

decreasing mass . However, while smaller components 

may translate into smaller satellites, it may also mean 

adding a higher number of components within the 

same volume as a traditional satellite, increasing 

capability but also mass . Put another way, the solution 

presented by this approach is that instead of lowering 

the cost per kilogram of launch, the objective is to 

increase functionality of the satellite per kilogram 

launched . 

Small satellite developers and manufacturers may 

change the nature of the space industrial base by 

lowering the barriers to entry and allowing more 

suppliers to enter the market place to satisfy diverse 

market needs .

If small satellites are used for services once provided 

by large satellites, operators would need to reconsider 

business models to reflect the technical differences 

between the two approaches .

11
.
Robotic Mining

13

Robotic mining Robotic mining is the extraction, processing, and transport of materials using 

autonomous or semi-autonomous equipment . In-situ resource utilization (ISRU) in space is of 

interest to NASA for sustaining long duration missions in deep space . Emerging commercial space 

mining ventures are similarly interested in mining asteroids and other planetary bodies for minerals 

and resources . On Earth, the mining industry is also leading to the development and utilization 

of robotic mining technologies . Partnerships between NASA, commercial space companies, and 

American mining technology companies could position the U .S . for economic growth and leadership 

in autonomous mining technologies .

Commercial Application

Some terrestrial mining companies use robotic mining 

equipment for accessing, processing, and transporting 

raw materials . The use of robotic or semi-autonomous 

mining equipment such as precision drills, loaders, 

rock breakers, and haul trucks reduces labor and 

equipment costs, increases safety, and increases 

productivity . 

Technologies used to develop terrestrial autonomous 

mining equipment will also be needed by commercial 

space mining ventures . These ventures plan to 

develop robotic mining capabilities that identify, 

characterize, extract, and process volatiles, metals, 

and rock from the Moon and asteroids . These 

materials could support space exploration through 

the extraction, processing, and provision of volatiles 

in-space—hydrogen and oxygen from ice—and 

potentially address demands on Earth, particularly 

platinum group elements (PGEs) which include 

platinum, palladium, and rhodium from asteroids .

NASA Application

Robotic mining capabilities are critical to NASA’s 

plans for long-duration space missions to asteroids, 

the Moon, and Mars . NASA is developing robotic 

prospecting and mining capabilities necessary for 

space exploration through a number of programs, 

including the Regolith Advanced Surface Systems 

Operations Robot (RASSOR), the Regolith and 

Environment Science and Oxygen and Lunar Volatile 

Extraction (RESOLVE), and the Moon Mars Analog 

Mission Activities (MMAMA) . 

The Lunabotics Mining Competition is a university 

competition sponsored by NASA, Caterpillar, SpaceX, 

Figure 10. Artist rendition of a robotic mining mission on a 

near Earth asteroid. Source: NASA/Denise Watt.

Newmont Mining Corporation, and Honeybee Robotics . 

Competitors are challenged to design and build an 

excavator that can mine and deposit a minimum of 10 

kilograms of simulated moon dust within 10 minutes . 

Market Overview

In 2011, the global mining industry posted a record 

$133 billion in profits and is expected to witness 

significant growth until 2017.1 Companies have 

adopted new technologies like robotics to increase 

productivity, which are anticipated to lead the industry 

towards sustained growth .2 In 2010, the top 40 

mining companies announced $120 billion in capital 

expenditures .3 In 2011 these companies invested $98 

billion in capital projects and announced a record $140 

billion in capital expenditures for 2012 as they expect 

demand to remain strong . The global market for mining 

equipment is expected to grow 8 .5 percent annually 

through 2018 .4
14

National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration

While demand has been high, supply has failed to keep

up, a situation that is likely to continue due to:

• decreasing grades and rising input cost, which are 

changing cost bases; 

• evolving fiscal regimes and resource nationalism; 

• continuing disruptions to production; 

• increasing remoteness of deposits; and

• higher capital costs to bring supply to market .5

Access to space-based PGEs is an incentive for 

prospecting, extracting, and processing materials from 

asteroids .6

 PGEs are rare, expensive, and critical to 

today’s economy .

Demand

The global mining industry is expected to grow at a 

compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 7 .4 percent 

from 2012-2017, reaching $1 .7 trillion . Growth is driven 

by increased demand for iron ore by power plants, 

the construction industry, and ports; use of aluminum 

in the transportation sector; and growth of the oil and 

gas sector .7 The global market for mining equipment is 

expected to grow 8 .5 percent annually through 2018 

to $117 billion, and the Asia/Pacific region will likely 

remain the fastest growing market .8

To date, the adoption of automation in terrestrial mining 

has been slow due to technical and labor issues . 

Several large mining companies are already using 

autonomous or semi-autonomous equipment and 

remote virtual control room technologies that allow 

miners to operate equipment from thousands of miles 

Company Selected terrestrial robotic 

equipment investments

Rio Tinto

Investing in $518 million for 

autonomous heavy-haul trains, ready 

in 2015.9

 150 Komatsu autonomous 

haulers, and remote operations center.

BHP Billiton 12 to 15 automated Caterpillar trucks 

by late 2013.10

Fortescue Metals 

Groups

Planning to commission a large fleet of 

autonomous Caterpillar haulers at its 

newest mines.11

Table 2. Selected future autonomous mining equipment 

investments for terrestrial mining.

away . Table 2 provides examples of near-term demand 

for robotic mining equipment .

Demand for PGEs, considered by some commercial 

firms to be a potential driver of extraterrestrial mining, is 

tied to economic growth, since the demand for platinum 

used in catalytic converters increases as vehicle sales 

increase .12 PGEs are also used in the agriculture, 

chemical, petroleum, electrical, electronic, dental, 

medical, and aerospace industries .

There was a small surplus of PGEs in 2011 . Other 

commercial firms, such as Planetary Resources, see 

water and other volatiles for use in space as being 

the core drivers of the development of space mining 

capabilities . 

Supply

A number of countries manufacture terrestrial 

mining equipment, including automated equipment . 

These include U .S .-based Caterpillar, Komatsu 

(Japan), Sandvik (Sweden), Atlas Copco (Sweden), 

Hitachi Construction Machinery (Japan), and Volvo 

Construction Equipment (Sweden) .

Several institutions are also investing in robotic mining 

technology, including Canada’s Northern Centre for 

Advanced Technology (NORCAT), Carnegie Mellon 

University’s Robotics Institute, and the Colorado School 

of Mines . In 2013, Anglo American and Carnegie Mellon 

University’s Robotics Institute initiated a five-year 

agreement to explore and develop robotic technologies 

for mining applications .13 Additionally, Rio Tinto and 

university partners support at least four separate 

research centers dedicated to advancing mining 

robotics for driverless trucks and automated trains . 

Four U .S .-based companies plan to develop automated 

technologies and equipment that enable commercial 

mining of the Moon and asteroids . These ventures are 

summarized in Table 3 on the following page . 
15

Barriers and Uncertainties

Commercial space-based mining ventures face 

a number of hurdles, including raising sufficient 

financing to start development and operations, 

designing and testing space-qualified equipment, 

proving sufficient demand to offset launch and 

development costs and yield profits, and determining 

the composition and deposits present in asteroids . 

Additionally, although there are good reasons to 

believe that prices for PGEs will remain high or 

increase, PGE prices are vulnerable to the discovery 

of more cost effective substitutes . 

Company, Plans, and Timelines Investors/Partners Investments/Technologies

Planetary Resources, Inc.

Plan to launch a low Earth orbit 

telescope in 2015 to spot candidate 

asteroids. Followed by subsequent 

missions to gather hi-resolution 

imagery to assess the value and 

feasibility of mining candidate 

asteroids.

Investors (partial list): Larry Page (Google), 

Eric Schmidt (Google), Ross Perot, Jr., (The 

Perot Group), Bechtel

Investments not announced. 

Over $1.5M raised through 

Kickstarter in 2013. Technology 

development contracts related 

to miniaturized technologies 

for resource recovery,14 deep 

space optical communications, 

and efficient micro-propulsion.15

Deep Space Industries, Inc.

Plan to launch Cubesats in 2015 

to scout out near-Earth asteroids 

followed by a 32-kg probe to return 

up to 45 kilograms of asteroid 

samples back to Earth.

Investments unknown. Stated attempt to 

raise $3M in 2013; and $10M in 2014.

Investments unknown. 

Attempting to raise $3M in 

2013; and $10M in 2014.16

Moon Express

Moon Express plans to send 

a series of low-cost robotic 

missions to the Moon for mining its 

resources.

Founders/Investors: Bob Richards (cofounder of ISU), Barney Pell (Powerset), 

Naveen Jain (InfoSpace, Intellius)

NASA awarded Moon Express 

$500K as part of the Innovative 

Lunar Demonstration Data 

(ILDD) Program.17

Astrorobotic

Astrobotic delivers payloads to the 

lunar surface, and prospects for 

resources using rovers and landers.

Partners: Carnegie Mellon University, 

Caterpillar

NASA awarded Astrobiotic 

a contract to develop 

technologies for exploring 

caves on the Moon, Mars, and 

beyond as part of its Innovative 

Advanced Concepts program.

Shackleton Energy

Plan to send two robotic prospecting 

missions to the Moon by 2015 to 

characterize the nature and extent 

of water available. Mining starts in 

2021,18 at the earliest.

Founder/Investors: Bill Stone (Stone 

Aerospace), Dale Tietz, Jim Keravala

A 2011 crowdfunding campaign 

attempted to raise $1.2M 

but did not reach the target 

amount.19

Table 3. Commercial space mining ventures.
.
Microgravity Research

for Biomedical Applications

Microgravity is used in several research areas, including biomedical sciences. This report 

focuses on its use in biomedical applications. Microgravity is used by researchers in 

numerous areas of biomedical science as a tool for discovery in a variety of medically 

important applications. Biomedical research in the ISS microgravity laboratory environment 

offers an unparalleled, sustained opportunity for discovery in a variety of medically 

important applications leading to social and economic benefits. 

Commercial Application

Microgravity’s potential value to biomedical and 

pharmaceutical research has prompted several 

organizations to conduct exploratory research in 

space, including Amgen, Merck, and the J . Craig 

Venter Institute (JCVI) . Companies are most 

interested in conducting space-based microgravity 

research to address five medical concerns. 

Current research in these areas is being hindered 

by terrestrial gravitational effects, which can be 

overcome in space .

1) Drugs to treat diseases affecting the elderly. 

Pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies have 

increased research into drugs that treat conditions 

commonly observed in elderly populations .1,2 Studying 

the effects of microgravity on humans in space 

can provide insights into cardiovascular disease 

and osteoporosis that could help focus future drug 

development efforts .3,4

2) Drugs to treat cancer. Microgravity research 

complements current trends in cancer research by 

reducing the mechanical stresses experienced by 

tissues grown in bioreactors, and facilitating the 

development of tissues into more mature, differentiated 

forms, enabling researchers to observe cancer 

cells and tissues in an environment that is more 

representative of conditions in the body . One area 

of contribution includes the refinement of bioreactor 

designs optimized to grow tumors in the laboratory to 

test the effectiveness of new drugs, and improvements 

in microencapsulation technology as a potential 

approach to deliver drugs to cancer cells .5,6

3) Drugs to treat infectious diseases. Some 

bacteria are more virulent in space; this finding could 

have important implications for the development of 

therapeutics .7,8 There have been several cases of 

17

Figure 13. Space radiation targeting a DNA strand. 

Source: NASA.

humans developing resistance to current antibiotics 

creating a public health problem of increasing 

magnitude . Better understanding of the triggers of 

virulence obtained through research on the ISS could 

hasten the development of new treatments . 

4) Tissue engineering and regenerative medicine 

using space-grown stem cells. Ground-based 

research using rotating wall bioreactors has shown 

that reduced-stress cultures encourage stem cell 

proliferation while sustaining stem cells’ ability to 

differentiate and demonstrate growth of larger, better 

functioning, and more organized tissue .9,10,11 Spacebased culture is a logical next step for this promising 

area of research .12 This has important implications 

for therapies like regenerative medicine and tissue 

engineering, which rely on stem cells and are already 

yielding clinical products . 

5) Protein crystallization for drug discovery and 

development. In many instances, microgravity 

produces larger, better-organized protein crystals 

during crystallization than Earth-based methods, 

providing higher-resolution protein structures that help 

focus drug development .13 A number of crystallization 

experiments have been conducted on the ISS . A 

protein crystallized on the ISS is now a candidate 
National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration

Figure 14. NASA is partnering with industry to develop 

treatments for antibiotic-resistant organisms. Astrogenetix 

is developing a vaccine candidate to address methicillinresistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), a common 

antibiotic-resistant bacterium, as part of the ISS National 

Laboratory Pathfinder Vaccine missions. Astrogenetix 

previously developed a vaccine candidate targeting 

Salmonella based on research conducted on Space Shuttle 

flights. Source: Photo Researchers. 

treatment for Duchenne’s muscular dystrophy and 

market leader Merck is currently negotiating with the 

Center for the Advancement of Science in Space 

(CASIS), the manager of the U .S . National Laboratory 

segment of the ISS, to conduct crystallization research 

on therapeutic monoclonal antibodies on the station .14

NASA Application

NASA began exploratory microgravity experiments in 

1973 with Skylab . Since that time, less than one year 

of dedicated laboratory research time has accrued .15

Hundreds of biotechnology experiments have been 

performed on the ISS, most studying the effects of 

microgravity on human health to enable humans to live 

and work in space . Human exposure to microgravity 

is associated with health conditions like bone loss, 

muscle atrophy, decreased cellular immune response, 

impaired wound healing, and neurological alterations . 

NASA’s ISS research can provide insight leading to 

new therapeutics to treat these and similar conditions, 

many of which are also prevalent in our aging 

population . 

The CASIS is under a cooperative agreement to help 

NASA maximize the use of the ISS for research . In 

November 2012, CASIS announced its first research 

grant awards for three projects that advance protein 

crystallization in microgravity . The projects will determine 

the three-dimensional structures of protein molecules, 

potentially leading to more focused drug development . 

Market Overview

The U .S . biotechnology industry is expected to be a $93 

billion industry comprised of nearly 2,000 businesses 

in 2013 . Exports will account for $7 billion (7 .5 percent) 

of industry revenue in 2013, and international trade will 

play a larger role in the near term as larger companies 

expand to operations overseas .16 The largest segment of 

the industry (57 percent) is in human health technologies, 

which includes medical diagnostics and pharmaceuticals . 

Cancer was the biggest focus of the U .S . biotechnology 

industry in 2012, accounting for 43 percent of the clinical 

pipeline .17 Infectious diseases accounted for 10 percent of 

the pipeline . Companies with large shares of the industry 

include Merck and Amgen . 

Figure 15. Human health technologies, such as pharmaceuticals, comprise the largest segment of the biotechnology 

industry. Source: IBISWorld.

18
19

Demand

The demand for biotechnology products, especially 

pharmaceuticals, will grow as the proportion of 

individuals aged 65 and over increases . The 

biotechnology industry in the U .S . is expected to grow 

8 .9 percent from 2013-2018,18 while brand name 

pharmaceutical manufacturing will grow 1 .9 percent .19

The smaller growth in pharmaceuticals is partially due 

to patents expiring, allowing for a greater availability 

of generic drugs . Research and development (R&D) 

expenditures in the pharmaceutical industry grew 

at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 6 

percent from $26 billion in 2000 to $50 billion by 

the end of 2011 .20 Large pharmaceutical companies 

like Novartis, Roche, Merck, Pfizer, and Johnson & 

Johnson spent the most on R&D in 2012 .21

Demand for drugs to treat diseases with effects 

similar to those resulting from extended space flight 

is also high . More than one-third of the 100 bestselling drugs in 2012 treat degenerative diseases like 

arthritis, cancer, multiple sclerosis, osteoporosis, and 

cardiovascular disease, indicating an increasingly 

strong market for these drugs in the coming years .22

By 2030, 19 percent of the U .S . population will be 

over 65 years of age .23 Heart disease and cancer 

are the most common causes of death in the U .S ., 

respectively, and the American Cancer Society 

estimates that more than 1 .6 million new cases of 

cancer will be diagnosed in the U .S . in 2012 . 

Spending on stem cell research is also increasing . 

The National Institutes of Health (NIH) plans to 

spend nearly $3 billion on stem cell research in both 

FY 2013 and FY 2014, indicating their increasing 

importance as potential therapies .24 The global market 

for research using adult stem cells is projected to 

reach $3 .2 billion by 2017,25 which does not include 

research using embryonic stem cells or non-human 

stem cells .

Supply

There are no ground-based methods capable 

of achieving zero gravity . The NASA-developed 

rotating wall bioreactor can reduce the effects of 

gravity enough for initial testing and insights in many 

instances, but tissue growth in microgravity may allow 

organized three-dimensional tissues to become large 

enough to enable greater medical advances .26

Several commercial space organizations currently 

host or intend to host microgravity experiments on 

their vehicles . Bigelow Aerospace intends to market 

its orbital space modules to tourists, corporations, 

and scientists, providing the ability to conduct longerduration experiments . Currently, only SpaceX’s Dragon 

provides the only means of returning substantial cargo 

and scientific experiments to Earth.27 However, Sierra 

Nevada Corporation's Dream Chaser will provide 

similar capability within a few years . The Cygnus 

module from Orbital Sciences Corporation . can 

remain in orbit for up to two years before reentering .28

Suborbital reusable vehicles such as Blue Origin's 

New Shepard, Virgin Galactic’s SpaceShipTwo, or 

XCOR’s Lynx provide the potential for 3 to 5 minutes of 

microgravity for experiments. These flights complement 

ISS investigations by offering researchers additional 

platforms on which to fly experiments. 

Barriers and Uncertainties

Conducting research and development in space is much 

more difficult and expensive in comparison to ground 

based laboratories and is only considered when no 

terrestrial option is available . In addition, few in-space 

studies have been done in specific areas of interest to 

biotech companies (versus the general area e .g . “cancer 

research” or “tissue engineering”) and thus, corporate 

sponsored space research is still largely exploratory . 

Further, a number of accommodations are required to 

make space-based microgravity research more feasible 

for biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries . These 

include: 1) accommodating best practices in the field 

to leverage schedules that meet customers’ needs; 

2) providing sustained and frequent access to the 

microgravity environment, including the return of samples 

to Earth; 3) providing crew support; 4) providing advanced 

analytical technologies; and 5) supporting exploratory 

development and basic research with results published 

in open literature . Some of these accommodations are 

already in place or becoming available, but attracting 

paying customers for ISS research will require additional 

accommodations and support to meet their needs .
.
Liquid Rocket Engines

for Launch Vehicles

21

Liquid rocket engines (LREs) are part of the primary propulsion system for launch vehicles and 

spacecraft . Facilitating the development of safe, reliable, cost effective engines could further position 

the U .S . to regain some of the launch vehicle market share lost during the past decade . The success 

of NASA’s Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) effort to enable the development 

of cost-effective commercial space transportation systems demonstrated the potential of a publicprivate partnership model . Facilitating the development of safe, reliable, cost effective engines for 

government and commercial customers could further position the U .S . to gain back launch vehicle 

market share lost during the past decade .

Commercial Application

LREs are currently being used to power the core stages 

of the Atlas V (RD-180) and Delta IV (RS-68A), the first 

and second stages of SpaceX Falcon vehicles (Merlin), 

the SpaceX Dragon thrusters (Draco), and the first 

stage of the Orbital Sciences Antares vehicle (AJ26) . 

Aerojet Rocketdyne currently produces the RD-180 

(as a partner with Russia’s NPO Energomash under 

joint company RD AMROSS), the RS-68A, the AJ26 

(of Russian origin, production licensed), and the RL10 

used to power the Atlas V and Delta IV upper stages . 

Development of simpler, less expensive U .S . LREs 

is currently underway by a variety of U .S . companies 

including Aerojet Rocketdyne, Blue Origin, Masten 

Space Systems, and Orbital Technologies Corporation 

(ORBITEC) . XCOR Aerospace and United Launch 

Alliance (ULA) are jointly developing a liquid rocket 

engine featuring a piston pump .

U .S . launch vehicles like the Atlas V and Antares use 

foreign-built LREs to power their first stages. India’s 

Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle and South 

Korea’s Naro-1 use Russian stages featuring LREs . 

NASA Application

Through the COTS program, NASA enabled the 

development of new space transportation systems 

including launch vehicles and orbital spacecraft . This 

program helped establish the U .S . as a cost-effective 

provider of global launch services while helping to regain 

market share lost to foreign providers . The program 

resulted in the successful introduction of the SpaceX 

Falcon 9, powered by the Merlin series of engines, 

and Orbital Sciences Corporation’s Antares, which is 

powered by Aerojet Rocketdyne’s AJ26 engines .

Figure 16. SpaceX’s Merlin engine at its factory in 

Hawthorne, CA. Source: SpaceX.

Continued emphasis on cost-effective liquid engines 

will support NASA as it extends human presence into 

the solar system . New concepts resulting in lowercost liquid oxygen (LOX)/hydrocarbon engines, in 

particular, could help NASA more effectively achieve 

its interplanetary exploration plans .

New concepts in LREs could reduce costs needed to 

support NASA’s SLS and MPCV exploration programs . 

NASA has worked with Aerojet Rocketdyne to develop 

the RS-25E and the J-2X engines for the SLS program . 

The expendable RS-25E, which is derived from the 

refurbished Space Shuttle Main Engine (RS-25D), 

is designed as a less complex and costly engine .1

The J-2X, which may someday be used to power an 

improved SLS second stage, features a simplified 

design as well as parts manufactured using less 

expensive automated techniques .2
22

National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration

NASA is also working with Ball Aerospace to produce 

a spacecraft thruster using an environmentally friendly 

propellant to replace the toxic hydrazine commonly used . 

The new propellant will also provide 50 percent better 

performance than hydrazine .3 NASA’s Green Propellant 

Infusion Mission, due to launch in 2015, will be the first to 

employ and test the new propulsion system .

Market Overview

The commercial launch industry generates annual 

revenues of approximately $2 .5 billion to $3 billion, 

with an average of 19 commercial launches per year, 

out of a total average of 77 launches per year .4 The 

U .S . has lost market share in commercial launches 

for several years . In 2008, the U .S . had 21 percent 

(6 launches) of the market . In 2011, the U .S . had no 

commercial launches, and in 2012, the U .S . captured 

10 percent (2 launches) of the market . Figure 17 

shows the the number of commercial launches 

from 1993 through 2012, with a projection to 2021 . 

Beginning in 2013, the U .S . is expected to increase its 

market share from an annual average of 13 percent 

(2008-2012) to 28 percent . SpaceX’s commercial 

satellite launch contracts and flights to the ISS are 

driving the increase in U .S . market share .

As Orbital Science Corporation and SpaceX continue 

to attract commercial customers, the U .S . commercial 

launch market share is expected to grow . At the Satellite 

2013 conference, SpaceX’s entrance into the commercial 

launch market was seen as a potential market gamechanger by a number of satellite operators .

Figure 17. Historical worldwide orbital launches and 

forecast by geostationary (GSO) and non-GSO (NGSO) 

(1993-2022).5

NASA and the DoD are exploring low-cost alternatives 

to the expensive Aerojet Rocketdyne RL10 currently 

used to power the Atlas V and Delta IV upper stages .6

 To 

eliminate reliance on the Russian RD-180 engine used 

to power the Atlas V, DoD is seeking a large advanced 

LRE as a replacement .7

Demand

Demand for U .S .-built LREs is currently limited to U .S . 

launch service providers and spacecraft operators . 

Projections for worldwide commercial orbital launch 

activity show that demand will grow during the next ten 

years . Figure 17 illustrates the projected number of 

worldwide commercial orbital launches, with an expected 

average of 31 launches per year beginning in 2013 . 

Supply

There are two major manufacturers of advanced LREs 

in the United States: Aerojet Rocketdyne and SpaceX . 

Aerojet Rocketdyne, owned by GenCorp, sell engines 

to NASA, Orbital Sciences Corporation, United Launch 

Alliance, and some satellite manufacturers . SpaceX 

does not currently offer its engines commercially .

Aerojet Rocketdyne’s RS-68A, which powers the Delta 

IV, is the largest LRE powered by hydrogen fuel in the 

world and designed specifically to reduce costs. It is 

constructed of 80 percent fewer parts than the Space 

Shuttle Main Engine, an engine with similar capabilities .8

The new Merlin-1D engine used for both stages of the 

Falcon is more efficient and reliable than typical LREs, 

featuring a simpler design and fewer parts .

Another potential advanced LRE is being developed 

by ORBITEC called the VR-3A Vision . The VR-3A 

features simpler construction than its competitors . 

Reducing engine complexity and increasing robustness 

in reusability are design characteristics that can translate 

to lower costs . Blue Origin is also developing a large 

LRE called the BE-3, which will be used to power the 

company’s Reusable Booster System .

Table 7 lists advanced LREs currently in service or 

under development in the U .S . There are additional 

development efforts for small LREs for suborbital 

vehicles . Masten Space Systems and XCOR 
Aerospace are developing small, reusable LREs 

for their suborbital launch systems . Sierra Nevada 

Corporation continues to develop hybrid liquid-solid 

engines following successful use of an 88 kN (65,000 

lbf) unit used in the SpaceShipOne vehicle to win 

the Ansari X PRIZE in 2004 . Flight tests of the more 

advanced RocketMotorTwo engine began in 2013 

aboard SpaceShipTwo .

Barriers and Uncertainties

The commercial launch market is relatively small 

with an average of only 19 launches over the past 

ten years . It is unclear whether this small market 

can support multiple LRE manufacturers . An aging 

work force, not being revitalized with young scientists 

and engineers, is considered a risk factor by a few 

providers .9

The small size of the launch market, approximately 

80 launches worldwide of which ~20 are commercial 

launches, makes it is difficult for multiple companies 

to become established . The fact that U .S . LRE 

manufacturers are effectively constrained from selling 

their engines outside the U.S. amplifies the problem. 

Additional challenges include vertical integration 

business models, which inhibit mixing and matching .

Company Engine Thrust Vehicle Year Notable Features

Aerojet 

Rocketdyne RS-68A 3,123 kN (702,000lbf) Delta IV 2012 80 percent fewer parts than Space Shuttle Main Engine.10

Aerojet 

Rocketdyne RS-25E 1,668 kN (375,000 lbf)

SLS core 

stage TBD Based on the reusable Space Shuttle Main Engine with fewer parts.11

Aerojet 

Rocketdyne AJ26 1,505 kN (338,000 lbf)

Antares 

first stage 2013

Modified Soviet era NK-33, oxygen kerosene engine. 

Enhancements include a gimbal block for thrust vectoring 

capability, new wiring harnesses and electrical circuitry, 

electromechanical valve actuators, and instrumentation.12

Aerojet 

Rocketdyne J-2X 1,308 kN (294,000 lbf)

SLS upper 

stage TBD Simpler and more capable version of J-2 engines from the Apollo Program uses 3D manufactured components.13

Blue Origin BE-3 489 kN 

(110,000 lbf)

Reusable 

Booster 

System

TBD LOX, liquid hydrogen engine used to power Blue Origin’s 

Reusable Booster System.14

ORBITEC VR-3A 

Vision

133 kN 

(30,000 lbf) TBD TBD

Less complex engine, has fewer parts, is easily scalable 

and uses an innovative vortex cooling system in the 

combustion chamber. Potential use may include cryogenic 

upper stages of the Atlas V, Delta IV, and SLS.15

SpaceX Merlin 654 kN 

(147,000 lbf)

Falcon 9 

and Falcon 

Heavy

2010 Simple design and automated manufacturing results in 

lower labor costs.16

SpaceX Raptor/

MCT TBD TBD ~2015

Little public information available. Burns methane and 

LOX. The engine appears to be an upper stage related to 

journeys to Mars.17

XCOR

XR-5K18 

XR-5M15 

XR-4A3

4 kN (2,900 lbf) 

33 kN (7,500 lbf) 

0.5 kN (400 lbf)

Lynx 

TBD 

EZ Rocket

~2014 

TBD 

2001

XCOR has been developing LREs for over a decade. 

It has also developed LRE thrusters like the currently 

available XR-3N22 and XR-3E17.18

XCOR/ULA

LH2 

Engine 

Program

33.9 kN 

(25,000 lbf)

EELV 

cryogenic 

upper stage

TBD Joint effort to develop a lower-cost, risk-managed LRE 

the operates with a piston pump instead of a turbopump.19

Table 7. Major advanced LREs in service or currently being developed in the U.S., by thrust (at sea level).

23
.
Wireless Power

25

Wireless power is the capability to transmit power over both short and long distances without wires . 

Magnetic induction and resonance technologies allow near-field transmission of power to electronic 

devices within short distances . Achieving long distance power transmission requires power to be 

beamed as millimeter waves, microwaves, or lasers to a receiver located either on a device, a 

vehicle to be powered, or to the electric power grid . These technologies would complement military 

efforts to power unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) wirelessly as well as potential commercial efforts 

to supply energy through long-distance power beaming . Becoming the global leader in wireless 

power would give the U .S . a larger share of the over $2 trillion dollar global electricity market . Publicprivate partnerships could help advance U .S . competitiveness in the growing wireless power market 

while helping enable NASA’s exploration missions .

Commercial Application

Currently, the most widely used form of wireless power 

is near-field electrical device and vehicle charging. 

This includes wireless technologies such as magnetic 

inductors and resonators for mobile device charging 

mats, beaming power throughout a room to charge 

electrical devices and appliances, and charging 

electric vehicles (vehicles that travel on a ‘charging’ 

road). In 2012, the World Economic Forum identified 

wireless powering of electronic devices as one of its top 

emerging technology areas, stating these technologies 

were “poised to have as significant an impact on 

personal electronics as Wifi had on Internet use.”1

Wireless charging of electric vehicles is expected to 

become another significant application of wireless power 

as the number of electric vehicles continues to grow .2

The most ambitious commercial application of wireless 

power beaming is providing power to the electric power 

grid from space . Space-based power beaming remains 

in an early stage of conceptual and technological 

development and might never become commercially 

viable . Nonetheless, wireless power from space 

remains of interest as a form of clean, sustainable 

power that could potentially provide electricity to 

military bases for energy assurance, for emergency 

power for disaster relief, and to allow nations to 

become more energy independent . The military is also 

interested in beaming power from ground-stations to 

UAS, allowing them to remain permanently aloft . A 

network of power sources, beamed-energy groundstations, and UAS could be a more cost-effective form 

of point-to-point beamed energy transmission than 

direct wireless power transmission from space .

Figure 18. The University of Michigan’s MClimber, an 

entrant into the 2006 Space Elevator Games - Power 

Beaming competition. The system successfully reached 

50-meter mark. Source: Dustin Sensiba.

NASA Application

NASA has studied long distance wireless power 

transmission for multiple applications including 

powering rovers in dark craters on planetary surfaces, 

powering aerospace vehicles and providing launch 

propulsion. NASA first studied long-distance wireless 

power transmission from space in the 1970s, and 

then again in 1996 through 2000 . Between 2006 and 

2009 NASA conducted the Power Beaming Centennial 

Challenge that called on competitors to develop a 

wireless power system that could power a robotic 

climber to climb a cable one kilometer vertically with 

ground-based power . Three companies competed and 

LaserMotive, LLC, won the prize .

In 2011, NASA’s Ride the Light project awarded $3 

million to six companies to develop low-cost, modular 
National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration

power beaming concepts to provide power and 

propulsion to aerospace vehicles (including UAS) 

and study new receiving technologies . NASA’s Ames 

Research Center continues to study beamed energy 

propulsion through its Millimeter-Wave Thermal Launch 

System (MTLS). Near-field magnetic resonance power 

beaming has also been studied for space applications 

by technologists at Kennedy Space Center .

Figure 19. The MTLS concept. Source: NASA/ARC.

Long-range beamed power concepts are also being 

investigated for applications in space . The Solar Power

via Arbitrarily Large Phased Array (SPS-ALPHA) is 

being explored under the NASA Innovative Advanced 

Concepts program . An international team will pursue 

proof-of-concept experiments to determine the 

feasibility of building massive arrays using thousands 

of small, remotely operated elements . 

The potential to provide wireless power for satellite 

or spacecraft subsystems is another area of 

development . NASA is considering concepts related 

to wireless transmission of data and power for 

avionics in spacecraft and inflatable habitats. This 

approach is being pursued to determine if it would 

facilitate more efficient interaction between crews, 

vehicles, and equipment .

Market Overview

Each year, the global electricity industry generates 

over 20 trillion kilowatt (kW) hours of electricity . 

Leading countries in electricity generation are the 

U .S ., China, Japan, and Russia . In the U .S ., electricity

generation had over $120 billion in revenue in 2012, 

while global revenues are predicted to reach over $2 

trillion by 2017 .3

The UAS market continues to be a growing sector 

of the world aerospace market, with $6 .6 billion in 

revenues in 2012 . The U .S . accounts for the majority 

of sales (55 percent) of UAS as well as the majority of 

research and development technologies (62 percent) .4

Currently, the U .S . has more than 7,000 UAS .

The wireless charging industry also continues to 

grow as the number of consumer mobile devices 

increases . In 2012, the industry reached $1 billion .5

The consumer electronic devices industry itself was 

$170 billion .6 The charging of plug-in electric vehicles 

is a growing piece of the charging industry . In 2012, 

there were 120,000 plug-in, electric vehicles globally . 

However, wireless charging for these vehicles is still 

in development .

Demand

According to the International Energy Agency’s 2002 

Energy Outlook report, world electricity demand is 

projected to double between 2000 and 2030, growing 

at an annual rate of 2 .4 percent .7 This is faster than 

any other final energy source. Electricity’s share of 

total final energy consumption will rise from 18 percent 

in 2000 to 22 percent in 2030 .8 Electricity demand is 

strongest in developing countries, where it will climb 

by over 4 percent per year over the projection period, 

more than tripling by 2030 .8 Consequently, developing 

countries’ share of global electricity demand will jump 

from 27 percent in 2000 to 43 percent in 2030 .9 In the 

U .S ., total electricity demand is expected to grow 28 

percent from 3,839 billion kW hours in 2011 to 4,930 

billion kW hours in 2040 .10

Despite defense cuts, the market for UAS is expected 

to continue to be strong, having proven to be a 

high priority asset for the U .S . and other militaries 

worldwide . The UAS market is forecasted to grow 

at 12 percent annually between 2013 and 2018, 

generating $89 billion .11

The wireless charging market is expected to grow 

from $1 billion in 2012 to $6 billion in 2020 due to 

increasing power requirements for mobile devices 

26
and charging hotspots in public places .12 Additionally, 

charging capabilities are being added to laptops 

and automobiles, further increasing demand . Nearly 

all electric vehicle manufacturers have announced 

partnerships for wireless charging, with annual sales 

of 283,000 units of wireless charging equipment for 

electric vehicles expected by 2020 .

Supply

At the 2012 Space Power Symposium in Naples, Italy, 

engineers and advocates from Russia, China, and 

Japan presented papers on concepts for delivering 

power from space . A Russian Federal Space Agency 

(Roscosmos) representative presented a plan for a 

100 kW working prototype power beaming system, but 

did not announced a launch date . A China Association 

for Science and Technology representative presented 

a 100 kW low Earth orbit demonstration system for 

2025; with a stated goal of a fully operational system 

by 2050 . A Japanese government representative at 

the conference revealed plans for a small-scale power 

beaming test of 160 feet for 2014 and hopes to start 

generating power from space in 2030 . In 2009, U .S . 

developer Solaren announced the development of a 

system planned to begin supplying 200 megawatts of 

power to Pacific Gas and Electric in 2016.13 However, 

the latest information available is from 2009, and 

there is no sign of significant financial investment in 

any of these initiatives to date .14

LaserMotive has demonstrated powering a Lockheed 

Martin Stalker UAS using their laser power beaming 

system . Additionally, Teledyne Brown, Aerojet, ATK, 

LaserMotive, Carnegie Mellon University, Teledyne 

Scientific, Boeing, and The Aerospace Corporation all 

participated in NASA’s Ride the Light project .

A number of wireless charging technologies are being 

developed in commercial industry . More than 125 

businesses have joined wireless power consortiums 

to develop a standard for wireless charging and 

companies like Texas Instruments have begun 

selling products to integrate wireless charging into 

the next generation of mobile devices . Many plug-in 

electric vehicle providers have also partnered with 

industry to develop wireless charging technologies . 

Partnerships include: Siemens working with BMW; 

Witricity and Delphi working with Toyota, Mitsubishi, 

and Audi; Qualcomm working with Renault and Delta 

Motorsports; and Evatran is working with SPX Service 

Solutions, Google, and Hertz Corporation . 

Wireless charging of transit vehicles requires the 

development of both infrastructure and vehicles . The 

Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology 

(KAIST) has two wirelessly charged electric vehicles 

in operation . One is a bus that transports students 

around the KAIST campus; the second is an 

amusement park tram in Seoul .15 In November 2012, 

Utah State University unveiled a similar technology to 

wirelessly charge a bus .

Barriers and Uncertainties

Studies by NASA and the Department of Defense 

have shown that beaming power from space to the 

ground is technically feasible . The cost of these 

systems is estimated to be in the range of $15 to $20 

billion . Many experts believe that the costs of spacebased solar power prevent the business case from 

closing .16 If anticipated advances in technologies for 

reducing the costs of other terrestrial energy sources 

come to fruition, space-based solar power may never 

be economically competitive with other sources, even 

with major reductions in the cost of access to space .

27
.

..
Space Communications

29

Space communication technologies transmit and relay data between satellites, vehicles in space, 

and assets on the ground . Satellite telecommunications provide vital data links for the global 

economy and for our national security . NASA made significant contributions to the early satellite 

telecommunications market by developing capabilities originally designed to support NASA missions, 

which also supported national recognition of the economic and political importance of satellite 

telecommunications . NASA’s role in satellite telecommunications shifted from overall leader in the 

1960s to a niche technology developer in the 1970s . Today, NASA’s focus on space communications 

is to support its missions . As the global demand for bandwidth continues to grow, NASA is working 

to improve the quality of space communications using advanced technology . The potential exists 

for NASA to make a significant impact on the U .S . telecommunications market . Public-private 

partnerships with the U .S . telecommunications industry could increase U .S . market share in the 

largest commercial space market while increasing NASA’s options for space communications .

Commercial Application

Commercial telecommunications companies use 

space communications for broadcast services; fixed 

satellite services (FSS) for telephone, television, data 

(including Internet), and radio signals; and mobile 

satellite services (MSS) for cellular telephones, 

maritime, and aircraft services . Laser communication 

technologies could increase throughput by over 1,000 

times through higher data rates and greater frequency 

reuse while avoiding the problems of highly regulated 

radio frequency spectrum . 

NASA Application

NASA uses space communication technologies to 

transmit and relay data between satellites, vehicles 

in space, and assets on the ground for GEO, LEO, 

cis-lunar space, and deep space activities . Advanced 

space communications using laser and radio frequency 

technologies could provide data rates that are 10 to 

100 times faster than current state-of-the-art radio 

frequency systems (e .g ., Ka-band) while reducing both 

retransmissions and data loss .1,2 Laser communication 

technologies could decrease the overall mass and 

power of spacecraft while improving the tracking of 

interplanetary missions to centimeter-level range 

accuracy . 

NASA tested its first high-data-rate laser 

communication system, the Lunar Laser 

Communication Demonstration (LLCD), in 2013 . 

NASA’s Laser Communications Relay Demonstration 

Figure 20. Artist’s impression of a laser communications 

system employed near Jupiter. Source: NASA.

(LCRD) will demonstrate laser communications on a 

commercial platform in 2017 .

Innovative approaches to low-cost telecommunications 

can also help meet NASA’s Exploration communication 

needs as it expands its activities in cis-lunar space .

Market Overview

The global telecommunications industry generated 

$4 .9 trillion in revenue in 2012 .3 The satellite 

communications industry is a part of the global 

telecommunications industry, but in 2012 represented 

just 4 percent (or nearly $190 billion) of total 

telecommunications revenues . The satellite industry 

has four components, as defined by the Satellite 

Industry Association: satellite services, satellite 

manufacturing, satellite launch, and ground equipment . 
National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration

Of the four industry segments, the satellite services 

segment is by far the largest, generating over $113 

billion in global revenue in 2012, a 5 percent increase 

over 2011 .4

Within satellite services, consumer services provide 

satellite television, radio, and broadband Internet . 

Consumer services are the primary growth driver for 

the satellite industry, generating $93 billion in revenue 

in 2012 . The FSS segment consists of transponder 

agreements (purchasing transponder usage from 

commercial satellite service operators) and end-to-end 

managed services . FSS is a $16 .4 billion industry . MSS 

companies, which provide data and voice services via 

satellite, generated $2 .4 billion in 2012 .5

The satellite telecommunications market has grown 

between 5 percent and 15 percent over the past six 

years, outpacing world and U .S . economic growth .6

NASA has made significant contributions to the satellite 

telecommunications market . NASA launched the Signal 

Communication by Orbiting RElay satellite in 1958, 

which provided the first voice-radio transmission from 

space . NASA and commercial partners also launched 

the first privately sponsored communications satellite 

(Telstar 1 in 1962) and TIROS 1 in 1960, which 

sent the first television images from space. NASA 

and commercial partners also launched Syncom 2 

in 1963, the first geosynchronous satellite, which 

transmitted live coverage of the 1964 Olympic Games 

in Tokyo to stations in North America and Europe . 

NASA’s Applications Technology Satellite (ATS) 

Figure 21. Satellite systems before and after ACTS. 

Source: NASA.

series from 1966-1974 demonstrated communications 

technologies, carrying more signal traffic than 

any satellite before them and pioneering Ka-band 

communications. ATS-1 was the first satellite to take 

independently uplinked signals and convert them 

for downlink on a single carrier .7

 NASA’s Advanced 

Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS), 

launched in 1993, pioneered the use of Ka-band and 

spot beam technologies introducing a major shift in how 

commercial satellite communications are designed . 

The U .S . telecommunications industry can once 

again leverage NASA’s innovations and expertise 

to ensure that data rates provided by U .S . satellite 

telecommunications providers do not lag behind those 

of other countries . 

Demand

Global demand for bandwidth has grown in the past 

decade and is expected to continue to grow through 

2020 . In 2002, providers provided 1 .4 terabits per 

second and are expected to provide more than 1,000 

terabits per second by 2020 .8 Due to the limited 

number of slots in GEO, this increase in demand will 

not be met with a significant increase in launches, 

but rather through more capable satellites . About 18 

commercial telecommunication satellites per year are 

expected to launch for the next 10 years .9

The U .S . Government, primarily the DoD, obtains 

over 80 percent of its telecommunications needs from 

commercial satellites,10 and spends over $1 billion 

annually on commercial satellite capacity .11

Supply

There are approximately 50 satellite operators globally . 

In 2012, there were 20 commercial fixed satellite 

service operators with over $100 million in annual 

revenue . The “big four” operators are Intelsat, SES, 

Eutelsat, and Telesat . These four operators generate 

approximately 45 percent of all fixed satellite service 

revenues, and 40 percent of the market of fixed and 

mobile services when taken together .12

New companies and services in this sector include 

O3b, which aims to provide affordable and high-quality 

Internet connectivity across emerging markets via 

30
satellites in medium Earth orbit . United Kingdom-based 

O3b launched its first four satellites into space in 2013. 

SES, Google, and HSBC Bank are among O3b’s 

financial backers.13 LightSquared, a U .S . company, has 

proposed to offer a U .S . 4G-LTE wireless broadband 

network via satellite, and reported that they had raised 

more than $2.3 billion in debt and equity financing, 

although the company is currently in the process of 

a voluntary bankruptcy restructure after the Federal 

Communications Commission blocked its network over 

interference concerns .14

Government agencies are currently the main suppliers 

of in-space communications . However, commercial 

industry has begun in-space communication services 

within LEO . Inmarsat offers Broadband Global Area 

Network service to LEO users at ~500 kbps downlink 

rate today with 5th Generation Global Express capability 

planned to offer 50 Mbps down by 2015 . 

The predominant space communication technology 

is radio, which will likely remain the case for the next 

decade . However, as the demand for bandwidth 

increases, organizations are investigating alternatives 

to radio communications to increase bandwidth and 

provide continuously high data rates . For example, 

NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), the 

German Aerospace Center (DLR), and the U .S . DoD 

are investing in laser communications .15,16,17,18 These 

investments by the U .S . and Europe however are for 

competing designs that are currently not interoperable . 

The DoD’s space communications programs include 

the Near Field Infrared Experiment (NFIRE) satellite, 

which is equipped with a laser communication terminal . 

Outside of the government, Planetary Resources 

has identified deep space laser communication as 

a critical technology for its asteroid mining and is 

planning to invest in laser communications on the 

ARKYD satellite . Additional companies interested in 

laser communications include service providers like 

Inmarsat, and satellite manufacturers Ball Aerospace, 

Northrop Grumman, Lockheed Martin, Space Systems 

Loral, and Boeing .

Europe is also investing in laser communications . ESA 

launched the ARTEMIS satellite to GEO in 2001, which 

included a laser communication system that has been 

used to communicate with the SPOT-4 remote sensing 

satellite and an aircraft at cruising altitude . ARTEMIS is 

considered a precursor mission to the European Data 

Relay Satellite (EDRS), a GEO-based, hosted payload 

system that will feature laser relay capability between 

satellites, aircraft, and ground stations. The first EDRS 

payload will be launched in 2014 aboard Eutelsat’s 

Eurobird 9B satellite . In cooperation with ESA and 

CNES, Inmarsat launched Alphasat on July 25, 2013, 

built jointly by Thales Alenia and EADS Astrium, which 

will demonstrate a laser communications payload . In 

the U .S ., NASA’s LCRD will be a hosted payload on 

a Space Systems Loral satellite in 2017, which will 

have a laser communications terminal .19,20 Other space 

agencies in China, Canada, Europe, and India regularly 

assist their domestic telecommunications satellite 

manufacturers through research and development 

funding and support . 

Barriers and Uncertainties

NASA is not a consumer of commercial satellite 

capacity . Although the U .S . government is the single 

largest buyer of satellite capacity, its purchases 

represent less than 10 percent of satellite services 

revenues . NASA and commercial telecommunication 

industry needs and objectives are not completely 

aligned which may make it difficult to find partnering 

opportunities .

31
.
Earth Observation

Data Visualization

33

There are hundreds of instruments (sensors and cameras) on satellites in orbit and on airborne 

platforms observing the Earth and collecting data . These data include visible light images; infrared 

images; radar and laser pulses; and thermal imaging, among others . Earth observation data is used 

extensively for scientific, civil, humanitarian, and commercial applications . For customers to benefit 

from geographic data, tools and technologies provided by the geospatial services industry are needed 

to support integrating, managing, analyzing and displaying information . Geospatial tools enable users 

to view, understand, question, interpret, and visualize data in many ways that reveal relationships, 

patterns, and trends in the form of maps, globes, reports, and charts that aid decision making .

The massive volume, complexity, and diversity of data collected through satellite Earth and 

airborne observations qualify it as “big data” . Understanding and using this data requires innovative 

approaches to data analysis and visualization .

Diversity of Earth observation data fused with data from other sources is creating an explosion of 

user applications from tracking weather to resources to tracking artifacts . Public-private partnerships 

that combine NASA’s unique expertise in Earth science data collection, processing, and visualization 

with capabilities of U .S . data analysis companies could improve national efforts to study planet 

Earth, promote innovations, and facilitate commercial applications .

Commercial Application

Earth observation data are collected continuously from 

both government and commercial satellites . These data 

have become powerful tools in helping industry better 

understand resources, develop products and services, 

and manage markets . Data are used by companies 

as diverse as retail stores seeking to understand peak 

business times, to agribusinesses monitoring crop 

growth, to the weather industry collecting information 

on impending storms . Other uses of Earth observation 

data include monitoring oil and gas pipelines, managing 

natural resources, monitoring crops and pollution, 

identifying sites for mining, obtaining competitive 

intelligence, and commercial weather services . Earth 

observation data can also be used to support homeland 

security, monitor infrastructure, and help predict disease

outbreaks . 

NASA Application

One of NASA’s goals is to understand the Earth as 

a system . NASA data improves prediction of climate, 

weather and natural hazards . Twelve NASA-sponsored 

data centers provide routine, standardized Earth 

science data, information, and services to research 

scientists, applied researchers, applications users, 

students, and the public . NASA works with other U .S . 

Figure 22. Image of Colima Volcan from NASA's Terra 

satellite. The image is part of the U.S. Geological Survey 

Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS) Center 

“Earth as Art” image gallery. Source: USGS.

government agencies and academia to understand 

the effects of natural and human-induced changes to 

the Earth . NASA’s understanding of the data allows 

it to form unique partnerships with user-communities 

like wildland firefighters and developing nations. 

California firefighters use NASA data to identify areas 

with prevalent dry-vegetation that are susceptible to 

wildfires. NASA’s SERVIR program is a joint venture 

with the U .S . Agency for International Development 

(USAID), providing satellite-based data and practical 
National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration

applications to help developing nations in Central 

America, East Africa and the Himalayas improve their 

environmental decision-making . In addition to the Earth 

Science data centers, NASA works with a variety of 

commercial partners, such as Google and Amazon to 

help manage Earth science data . Many commercial 

companies are also using Landsat data .1

Market Overview

In 2011,the U .S . geospatial industry generated 

approximately $73 billion in revenues and comprised 

at least 500,000 high-wage jobs .2

 This includes 

tools, technologies, and services for individuals and 

organizations to use location-based information . 

Satellite imagery is an important part of the market . 

Demand will likely grow due to increasing use of data . 

Technologies for making use of geospatial information 

will become increasingly important to companies and 

organizations in the near term . End-user markets, 

such as those listed under commercial applications, 

are multi-million if not billion dollar markets .

Demand

Growth in the geospatial services industry is expected 

to be robust . Diverse data products and widespread 

use in industries including increasing adoption of the 

technology in oil and gas distribution, electric power, 

and government sectors drive this growth . There is 

investment and acquisition interest in companies that 

create products using earth observation data, such as 

The Climate Corporation, which received investment from 

Google Ventures and others to build an online platform 

for agriculture insurance using earth science data and 

models, and which was acquired in 2013 for $930 million .3

Experts in the remote sensing industry expect the amount 

of available imagery data to increase in the coming years . 

Space agencies like NASA and the European Space 

Agency (ESA) will deliver more data, including more 

imagery data . Space-based remote sensing products are 

expected to grow . About nine million scenes from Landsat 

(built by NASA and operated by the U .S . Geological 

Survey) were downloaded in 2012 .4 More broadly, over 

636 million data products were downloaded in 2012 from 

NASA’s Earth Observation System Data and Information 

System (EOSDIS) .5

 In FY 2013, EOSDIS had a total 

“Indeed, data is the next big thing. And it’s 

not because, according to IBM, the digital universe will grow to eight zetabytes 

by 2015. The real impetus is the potential 

insights we can derive from this new, vast, 

and growing natural resource.” 

Perry Rotella 

Forbes Magazine

archive volume of about 9 .8 petbytes (PB) .6

 Demand 

for additional processing capabilities and services are 

expected to grow in the future to meet the need for 

climate data records . Demand for space-based, climate 

change data is expected to reach over 350 PB in 2030 .7

There is currently a steady demand for commercial 

remote sensing satellites . Launches of remote sensing 

satellites account for 7 percent of the launch market, and 

have had a steady demand for one or two dedicated 

launches per year .8

 A 2011 survey of nearly 250 firms 

in the industry indicated that the international market 

for U.S. remote sensing firms was expanding, with the 

percent of business activities undertaken by U .S .-based 

organizations in foreign areas projected to increase from 

7 .5 percent in 2010 to 10 percent by 2020 .9

Figure 23. Climate change data is projected to grow nearly 

350 PB by 2030. Source: NASA.

34
Supply

U .S . companies providing geospatial services include: 

ESRI, Intergraph, MapInfo, Global Information Systems

Inc ., New Century Software, TerraGo Technologies, 

and SharedGeo . Data analytics companies interested 

in Earth Observation products include IBM, Cray, Cisco 

and Google . ESRI and IBM recently worked together 

to link information about customers of communication’s 

company KDDI, with ESRI’s geographic information to 

provide data to firms for marketing campaigns. 

NASA, the Department of Defense, the National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and 

the U .S . Geological Survey operate dozens of remote 

sensing satellites, including the Landsat series . The 

U .S . Government works closely with the international 

community and other countries’ space agencies, through 

Committee on Earth Observation Satellites and the 

intergovernmental Group on Earth Observatories to 

coordinate and share Earth observation data . This data 

is also publicly available .

U .S . commercial satellite Earth observation companies 

include: Digital Globe, Planet Labs, and Skybox . In 2012, 

Skybox raised over $90 million from venture capital firms, 

and launched its first satellite in December 2013 aboard 

a Russian Dnepr vehicle .10 To date, Planet Labs has 

raised $65 million from venture capital firms and launched 

its Flock-1 constellation of 28 satellites in January 2014 

aboard an Orbital Sciences Corp . Antares vehicle .11

A U .S . company, PlanetIQ, plans to launch a small 

satellite constellation to commercially provide GPS Radio 

Occultation (GPS-RO) measurements . The provision , of remote sensing satellite manufacturing worldwide is 

very competitive; satellite providers include companies in 

China, South Korea, Japan, Europe and India .

Barriers and Uncertainties

U .S . regulations currently limit commercial satellite 

remote sensing companies to selling imagery with 

a 50-centimeter resolution to non-U .S . government 

customers . This restricts U .S . competitiveness, as foreign 

companies are introducing data products with a resolution 

greater than 50 centimeters . The U .S . Government is 

currently reviewing the policy, which is expected to be 

relaxed in 2014 to enable U .S . companies to provide 

imagery with 25 centimeter resolution .12

Several new remote sensing satellite companies will 

begin providing imagery products and services in 2014 . 

These companies plan to use constellations of very small, 

inexpensive satellites to obtain imagery of the Earth 

with revisit times measured in hours . Large, established 

players like DigitalGlobe operate satellites with revisit 

times measured in days . It is uncertain if there is a large 

enough market for near real-time imagery .

The use of unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) to obtain 

high resolution imagery is anticipated . It is unclear how 

this will impact the the market for satellite imagery .

35

Figure 24. Landsat images showing the urban growth of Las Vegas, with the city as it appeared in 1984 (left) and in 

2007 (right). Source: USGS.
.
Conclusion

37

The topics explored within this report are areas for As NASA develops its deep space exploration 

potential partnership that could result in supporting strategy, identification of options for leveraging 

NASA’s Mission as well as provide U .S . economic private investment and contributing to U .S . economic 

benefits. Research into these areas displayed positive competitiveness in the process will be critical to 

private-sector indicators and alignment with NASA establishing a sustainable path . NASA will continue to 

interests . Using a standardized method to explore each drive advances in science, technology, aeronautics, and 

area provided a framework to investigate publicly available space exploration to enhance knowledge, education, 

data beyond what is often traditionally considered . innovation, economic vitality, and stewardship of 

Earth. However, NASA will also continue to be fiscally Although the primary objective of the report is to constrained given the current economic conditions provide general economic intelligence on promising while trying to engage in tasks of extraordinary risk, areas for partnerships, the study also found that: complexity, and national priority . Having the capability 1 . Economic analysis and market evaluation are to consider non-traditional approaches such as valuable additions to the Agency’s strategic partnerships will be essential to NASA achieving decision-making and acquisition processes for its overall mission . We hope the information in this program formulation; report shows the value that economic intelligence and 

2 . Public-private partnerships deserving of particular economic analysis can contribute to our ability to plan 

attention are those that have attracted private for the future . We also hope that this analysis will lead 

capital, have technical merit, contribute to to broader recognition that by leveraging public-private 

achieving NASA’s overall Mission, and are in the partnerships as a regular part of the agency’s approach 

national interest; and, to space capability development, NASA’s programs can 

be a fundamental driver of U .S . economic growth in the 3 . The development of strategies and architectures 21st century for space exploration that include public-private 

partnerships should be encouraged .
38

National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration
Authors and 

Study Contributors

39

AUTHORS AND EDITORS

Alex MacDonald (HQ)

Office of the Chief 

Technologist

Author and Developer

The Tauri Group

Andrea Riley (HQ)

Office of Strategy 

Formulation

Dave DiPietro (GSFC)

Larry Gagliano (MSFC)

Steve Gonzalez (JSC)

Jenn Gustetic (HQ)

Diana Hoyt (HQ)

Dave Huntsman (GRC)

Roger Lepsch (HQ)

Rod Liesveld (HQ)

Alan Lindenmoyer (JSC)

Dan Lockney (HQ)

Karen Lucht (HQ)

Yolanda Marshall (JSC)

Ted Mecum (GSFC)

STUDY CONTRIBUTORS

Lynn Harper (ARC) 

Space Portal

Dan Rasky (ARC) 

Space Portal

Margarita Sampson (HQ) 

Office of Strategy Formulation

Dennis Stone (JSC) 

Commercial Crew & Cargo Program

Marc Timm (HQ)

Commercial Spaceflight Development Division

Edgar Zapata (KSC) 

Modeling and Simulation

DISCUSSION AND INPUT 

CONTRIBUTORS

Rob Ambrose (JSC)

Rich Antcliff (LaRC)

Patricia Bahr (JSC)

Louis Barbier (HQ)

Bob Bauer (GSFC)

Hal Bell (HQ)

Diane Byerly (JSC)

Nona Cheeks (GSFC)

Marybeth Edeen (JSC)

Michelle Ferebee (LaRC)

Diane Frazier (HQ)

Darryl Mitchell (GSFC)

Mark Nall (MSFC)

Meg Nazario (GRC)

Jose Nunez (KSC)

Nancy Potts (KSC)

Jonathan Root (GSFC)

Howard Ross (GRC)

Robert Savely (JSC)

Jim Schier (HQ)

Mary Stevens (HQ)

Karen Thompson (KSC)

Bruce Underwood (WFF)

Azita Valinia (GSFC)

Allison Zuniga (HQ) 
40

Endnotes National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration

Satellite Servicing

1

 Union of Concerned Scientists Satellite Database, http://www .ucsusa .org/nuclear_weapons_and_global_

security/space_weapons/technical_issues/ucs-satellite-database .html (accessed August 15, 2013) . 

2

 Andrew Long, M . Richards, D . Hastings, "On-Orbit Servicing: A New Value Proposition for Satellite Design 

and Operation," Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, 44(4) (2007) .

3

 Satellite Industry Association, "State of the Satellite Industry Report," June 2013 .

4

 Patrick French, "$$$ Per Transponder," Northern Sky Research, February 28, 2012 (http://www .nsr .com/

news-resources/the-bottom-line/-per-transponder/) and Benedict, Bryan, "Rationale of Need of In-Orbit 

Servicing Capabilities for GEO Spacecraft," Intelsat, November 13, 2013 (http://spirit.as.utexas.edu/~fiso/

telecon/Benedict_11-13-13/Benedict_11-13-13 .pdf) .

5

 Jeff Foust, "The space industry grapples with satellite servicing," The Space Review, June 25, 2012 .

6

 Ibid .

7

 Peter B . DeSelding, "MDA Designing In-orbit Servicing Spacecraft, Space News, March 3, 2010 .

8

 Peter B . DeSelding, "MDA, Intelsat Scrap In-orbit Servicing Deal," Space News, January 17, 2012 .

9

 Jeffrey Hill, "DARPA to Issue Contracts Supporting Phoenix Satellite Repurposing Program," Satellite Today, 

January 4, 2012 .

10 Nicholas Cohen, G . Richardson, S . Martinelli, and J . Betser, "Extending Satellite Lifetimes in 

Geosynchronous Orbit with Servicing," AIAA Space 2011 Conference and Exposition, September 27-29, 2011 . 

This paper summarizes analysis conducted by The Aerospace Corporation .

11 "Innovators Sought for DARPA Satellite Servicing Technology Program," DARPA press release, October 20, 2011 . 

See also "DARPA Keen To Recycle Old Satellites . . .Anyone Have Some Extra Recycle Bags? (Saving Satellites)," 

SatNews, January 14, 2014 . 

12 Ibid .

13 Frank Morring, "An End to Space Trash?" Aviation Week, March 22, 2011 . See also Peter B . DeSelding, 

"Intelsat Signs Up for MDA's Satellite Refueling Service," Space News, March 14, 2011 .

14 Intelsat, "Commercial In-Orbit Servicing: Life Extension, Mission, Recovery, Inspection, and Towing," May 9, 2013 .

15 Astrium, "Astrium Wins DEOS Contract to Demonstrate In-Orbit Servicing," news release, accessed June 18, 

2013, http://www .astrium .eads .net/en/press_centre/-kx9 .html . 

16 NASA, "On-Orbit Satellite Servicing Study: Project Report," October 2010 .

Interplanetary Small Satellites

1

 Planet Labs raised $52 million in 2013 (http://blog .planet-labs .com/2013/12/18/planet-labs-raises-52m-inseries-b-financing/) and Skybox Imaging raised about $91 million by mid-2012 (http://www.skyboximaging.com/

news/skybox-raises-70-million-in-new-financing).

2

 All data regarding the number of satellites launched and those projected for launch are maintained by a space 

industry database managed by The Tauri Group using publicly available information . The database includes 

payload and vehicle specifications, company details, and other data.

3

 Tauri database .

4

 Tauri database .

5

 Examples include $1.5 million raised by Planetary Resources for its first Arkyd satellite (http://www.

planetaryresources.com/2013/07/planetary-resources-surpasses-us-1-5-million-to-launch-worlds-first-
41

Endnotes

crowdfunded-space-telescope/) and $116,890 raised by Southern Stars for its Skycube cubesat, launched in 

January 2014 (https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/880837561/skycube-the-first-satellite-launched-by-you/posts).

6

 Tauri database .

7

 The 250 kicksats, or "Sprites," will be launched from a single 3U cubesat (https://www .kickstarter .com/projects/

zacinaction/kicksat-your-personal-spacecraft-in-space) .

8

 Turner Brinton, "NRO Taps Boeing for Next Batch of Cubesats," Space News, April 8, 2010 .

9

 DARPA, "Tactical Technology Office," http://www.darpa.mil/Our_Work/TTO/Programs/Space_Enabled_Effects_

for_Military_Engagements_%28SeeMe%29 .aspx (accessed June 18, 2013) .

10 Ducommun Incorporated, "The Warfighter Need," Ducommun.com, http://www.ducommun.com/miltec/mms/

satellites .aspx (accessed June 18, 2013) .

11 Warwick, Graham, " Darpa Targets Lower Launch Costs With XS-1 Spaceplane," Aviation Week & Space 

Technology, December 2, 2013 .

12 http://www .sbir .gov/sbirsearch/detail/233913 .

Robotic Mining

1

 PricewaterhouseCoopers, press release, " Global mining industry posts record $133bn in profits in 2011 while 

share prices plunge," June 5, 2012 (http://press .pwc .com/GLOBAL/global-mining-industry-posts-record-133bnin-profits-in-2011-while-share-prices-plunge-/s/f9fac57d-4d17-4d77-963b-82f5cad2db2a).

2

 Lucintel, "Global Mining Industry 2012-2017: Trend, Profit, and Forecast Analysis," September 2012, http://

www .researchandmarkets .com/research/qmx4nx/global_mining (accessed June 9, 2013) .

3

 PricewaterhouseCoopers, "Global Mining Industry Posts Record $133bm in Profits in 2011 While Share 

Prices Plunge," news release, June 5, 2012 . 

4

 Freedonia, "World Mining Equipment to 2015 – Industry Market Research, Market Share, Market Size, Sales, 

Demand Forecast, Market Leaders, Company Profiles, Industry Trends, news release, January 2012.

5

 PricewaterhouseCoopers, "Global Mining Industry Posts Record $133bm in Profits in 2011 While Share 

Prices Plunge," news release, June 5, 2012 .

6

 Boyle, Alan, "Billionaire-backed Asteroid Mining Venture Starts With Space Telescopes," MSNBC.com, April 

23, 2012 (http://cosmiclog .nbcnews .com/_news/2012/04/23/11339522-billionaire-backed-asteroid-miningventure-starts-with-space-telescopes?lite) . 

7

 Lucintel, "Global Mining Industry 2012-2017: Trend, Profit, and Forecast Analysis," September 2012, http://

www .researchandmarkets .com/research/qmx4nx/global_mining (accessed June 9, 2013) .

8

 Freedonia, "World Mining Equipment to 2015 – Industry Market Research, Market Share, Market Size, Sales, 

Demand Forecast, Market Leaders, Company Profiles, Industry Trends, news release, January 2012.

9

 "Rio Tinto's Mine of the Future," NextBigFuture.com, http://nextbigfuture .com/2013/05/rio-tintos-mine-offuture .html (accessed May 28, 2013) . 

10 Hernandez, Vittorio, "BHP Billiton to Test Use of Robot Trucks in Jimblebar Mine," International Business 

Times, November 1, 2012 (http://au .ibtimes .com/articles/400250/20121101/bhp-billiton-test-use-robot-trucksjimblebar .htm# .UcBaGOs5Acp) . 

11 "Surface Excavators at Fortescue: Production with Precision," Vermeer.com, http://www2 .vermeer .com/

vermeer/NA/en/N/newsroom/detail/4143 (accessed May 28, 2013) .

12 Market Data Tables, http://www .platinum .matthey .com/publications/market-data-tables/ (accessed March 14, 2014) .
42

National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration

13 Chakravorty, Swagato, "Mining Robotics: Anglo American (LON: AAL) to Develop Robotic Technology," 

Wealthdaily.com, http://www .wealthdaily .com/articles/mining-robotics/3897 (accessed May 28, 2013) .

14 Planetary Resources, "Bechtel Partners with Planetary Resources for Space Initiative," press release, April 16, 2013 . 

15 Planetary Resources, "Technology," web page, http://www .planetaryresources .com/technology/ (accessed 

May 28, 2013) . 

16 Kaplan, Jeremy A ., "Investors Shrug at Pie in the Sky Plans to Mine Asteroids, Moon," FoxNews.com, http://

www .foxnews .com/science/2013/01/26/investors-shrug-at-pie-in-sky-plans-to-mine-asteroids-moon/ (accessed 

May 28, 2013) .

17 "NASA Awards Moon Express New Task in $10M Commercial Lunar Data Contract," PRNewswire.com, 

http://www .prnewswire .com/news-releases/nasa-awards-moon-express-new-task-in-10m-commercial-lunardata-contract-141499323 .html (accessed May 28, 2013) . 

18 Franzen, Carl, "Another Space Mining Company Still Struggling to get Off the Ground," http://idealab .

talkingpointsmemo .com/2012/04/just-another-space-mining-company .php (accessed May 28, 2013) . 

19 Ibid .

Microgravity Research for Biomedical Applications

1

 “Top 20 Best-Selling Drugs Approved and Launched During 2012," Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology 

News, April 8, 2013, http://www .genengnews .com/insight-and-intelligence/top-20-best-selling-drugs-approvedand-launched-during-2012/77899791/ (accessed May 3, 2013) . 

2

 “FDA Approved Drugs, 2013,” Center Watch, http://www .centerwatch .com/drug-information/fda-approvals/ 

(accessed May 3, 2013) .

3

 “Top 20 Best-Selling Drugs Approved and Launched During 2012," Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology 

News, April 8, 2013, http://www .genengnews .com/insight-and-intelligence/top-20-best-selling-drugs-approvedand-launched-during-2012/77899791/ (accessed May 3, 2013) . 

4

 “FDA Approved Drugs, 2013,” CenterWatch, http://www .centerwatch .com/drug-information/fda-approvals/ 

(accessed May 3, 2013) .

5

 Ranalvo, Yann, “Vivo Biosciences Inks Deal with NASA,” Birmingham Business Journal, January 3, 2013 

(http://www .bizjournals .com/birmingham/news/2013/01/03/Vivobiosciences-tumors-research .html?page=all) . 

6

 “Top 10 Innovations 2012,” The Scientist, December 1, 2012 (http://www .the-scientist .com/?articles .view/

articleNo/33341/title/Top-10-Innovations-2012/) . 

7

 Rosenzweig, J.A. and O. Abogunde, K. Thomas, A. Lawal, Y.U. Nguyen et al., "Spaceflight and Modeled Microgravity 

Effects on Microbial Growth and Virulence," Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 85(4): 885-91 (2010) . 

8

 Searles, S .C . and C .M . Woolley, R .A . Petersen, L .E . Hyman, and S .M . Nielsen-Preiss, "Modeled Microgravity 

Increases Filamentation, Biofilm Formation, Phenotypic Switching, and Antimicrobial Resistance in Candida 

Albicans," Astrobiology, 11(8): 825-36 (2011) . 

9

 Colvin, G .A . and J .F . Lambert, J .E . Carlson, C .I . McAuliffe, M . Abedi et al ., "Rhythmicity of Engraftment and 

Altered Cell Cycle Kinetics of Cytokine-Cultured Murine Marrow in Simulated Microgravity Compared with 

Static Cultures," In Vitro Cellular & Developmental Biology – Animal, 38(6): 343-351 (2002) . 

10 Yuge, L . and T . Kajiume, H . Tahara, Y . Kawahara, C . Umeda, et al ., "Microgravity Potentiates Stem Cell 

Proliferation While Sustaining the Capability of Differentiation," Stem Cells Development, 15, 921-929 (2006) . 

11 Barzegari A . and A .A Saei, "An Update to Space Biomedical Research: Tissue Engineering in Microgravity 

Bioreactors," BioImpacts, 2(1): 23-32 (2012) . 
Endnotes

43

12 Wolf, David, “Tissue Engineering and the International Space Station,” SpaceRef.com, February 2, 2011 

(http://www .spaceref .com/news/viewsr .html?pid=36118) .

13 Daniels, David, “Optimizing Protein Expression,” Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology News, September 15, 

2012 (http://www .genengnews .com/gen-articles/optimizing-protein-expression/4478/) . 

14 Wesley, Sean, "15 Years of International Space Station Research Illumination," NASA press release, 

December 4, 2013 (15 Years of International Space Station Research Illumination) . 

15 Uhran, Mark L ., "Microgravity-Related Patent History," 1st Annual International Space Station Research & 

Development Conference, Denver, CO, June 26-28, 2012 .

16 IBISWorld, IBISWorld Industry Report NN001: Biotechnology in the US, March 2013 .

17 Ernst & Young, Beyond Borders: Biotechnology Industry Report 2013, 2013 .

18 IBISWorld, IBISWorld Industry Report NN001: Biotechnology in the US, March 2013 .

19 IBISWorld, IBISWorld Industry Report 32541a: Brand Name Pharmaceutical Manufacturing in the U.S.,” 

March 2013 .

20 “R&D Spending Climbs; Drug Approvals Fall,” Drug Development and Discovery, September 7, 2012 (https://

www .dddmag .com/news/2012/09/r-d-spending-climbs-drug-approvals-fall?qt-current_issue_vital_signs=1) . 

21 “Top 20 Biopharma R&D Spenders,” Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology News, March 12, 2013 (http://

www .genengnews .com/gen-articles/top-20-biopharma-r-d-spenders/4787/) . 

22 “U .S . Pharmaceutical Sales – 2012,” Drugs.com (http://www .drugs .com/stats/top100/2012/sales, updated 

May 2013) . The list is based on retail sales in 2012 and is updated quarterly . 

23 Department of Health and Human Services Administration on Aging, “Projected Future Growth of the Older 

Population,” (http://www .aoa .gov/Aging_Statistics/future_growth/future_growth .aspx) . 

24 National Institutes of Health, “Estimates of Funding for Various Research, Condition, and Disease 

Categories,” April 10, 2013 (http://report .nih .gov/categorical_spending .aspx) . 

25 “Increasing Investment in Stem Cell Technology and Promising Research Outcomes Drives the Stem Cell 

Research Market, According to New Report by Global Industry Analysts," PRWeb, May 10, 2012 (http://www .

prweb .com/releases/stem_cells_research/adult_embryonic_stem_cell/prweb9494590 .htm) . 

26 Becker, J .L and G .R . Souza, "Using Space-Based Investigations to Inform Cancer Research on Earth," 

Nature Reviews Cancer, 13: 315-327 (2013) . 

27 Higginbotham, Adam, “Robert Bigelow Plans a Real Estate Empire in Space," Bloomberg Businessweek 

Technology, May 2, 2013 (http://www .businessweek .com/articles/2013-05-02/robert-bigelow-plans-a-realestate-empire-in-space#p4) . 

28 Orbital Sciences Corporation, correspondence of March 14, 2014 .

Liquid Rocket Engines for Launch Vehicles 

1

 Bergin, Chris, "The engines that refused to retire – RS-25s prepare for SLS testing," NASASpaceflight.com, 

June 9, 2013 .

2

 "Norris, Guy, "J-2X Hot-Fire-Tests First Additive-Manufactured Part," Aviation Week & Space Technology, 

September 23, 2013 .

3

 http://www .ballaerospace .com/page .jsp?page=281 .

4

 Data obtained and described in this paragraph primarily from two annual publications produced by the 

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation (FAA AST), the Commercial Space 

Transportation Forecasts (https://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/reports_studies/
44

National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration

forecasts/) and the Commercial Space Transportation Year in Review (https://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/

headquarters_offices/ast/reports_studies/year_review/).

5 2013 Commercial Space Transportation Forecasts, FAA AST, May 2013 .

6

 Rosenberg, Zach, " NASA, US Air Force to study joint rocket engine," FlightGlobal.com, April 12, 2012 .

7

 Gruss, Mike, "Bill Would Require Pentagon To Study U .S . Alternative to RD-180," Space News, November 22, 2013 .

8

 Wood, B .L ., “Propulsion for the 21st Century – RS-68,” presented at the 38th Joint Liquid Propulsion 

Conference (Indianapolis, IA: July 8-10, 2002) . 

9

 Thomas, Dale, “NIRPS: A Year of Progress and Challenge,” presented at NIRPS First Annual Workshop 

(December 6, 2012) .

10 Belfiore, Michael, "Most Powerful Hydrogen Rocket Ever Is Set for Launch Friday," Popular Mechanics, June 

28, 2012 .

11 Bergin, Chris, "The engines that refused to retire – RS-25s prepare for SLS testing," NASASpaceflight.com, 

June 9, 2013 .

12 http://www .rocket .com/loxhydrocarbon-booster-engines .

13 "Norris, Guy, "J-2X Hot-Fire-Tests First Additive-Manufactured Part," Aviation Week & Space Technology, 

September 23, 2013 .

14 "Blue Origin Debuts the American-made BE-3 Liquid Hydrogen Rocket Engine," Blue Origin press release, 

December 3, 2013 .

15 Zamprelli, Paul, " ORBITEC’s Rocket Engine Soars Above the Mojave Desert," ORBITEC press release, 

October 25, 2012 . See also Messier, Doug, "ORBITEC Tests New Vision Rocket Engine," Parabolicarc.com, 

September 27, 2012 . 

16 Bergin, Chris, " SpaceX joy at Merlin 1D test – Orbital fire up their AJ-26 engine," NASASpaceflight.com, 

June 26, 2012 .

17 Rosenberg, Zach, “SpaceX aims big with massive new rocket,” FlightGlobal.com, October 15, 2012 .

18 http://www .xcor .com/engines/ .

19 "XCOR Aerospace and United Launch Alliance Announce Important Milestone in Liquid Hydrogen Engine 

Program," XCOR press release, September 23, 2013 .

Wireless Power

1

 World Economic Forum, “The Top 10 Emerging Technologies for 2012,” (http://forumblog .org/2012/02/the2012-top-10-emerging-technologies/) . 

2

 Ibid . 

3

 "Global Electric Utilities Industry 2012-2017: Trend, Profit, and Forecast Analysis,” PRNewswire.com (http://

www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/global-electric-utilities-industry-2012-2017-trend-profit-and-forecastanalysis-177512211 .html) .

4

 Teal Group, “Teal Group Predicts Worldwide UAV Market Will Total $89 Billion in Its 2012 UAV Market Profile 

and Forecast,” news release, April 11, 2012 .

5

 Heimbuch, Jaymi, "Wireless Charging Market To Hit $11 .8 Billion by 2020," Treehugger.com, November 24, 2010 .

6

 Meece, Mickey, " Giving Those Old Gadgets a Proper Green Burial," New York Times, January 5, 2011 .

7

 http://www .worldenergyoutlook .org/media/weowebsite/2008-1994/weo2002_part1 .pdf .

8

 Ibid .
Endnotes

45

9

 Ibid .

10 International Atomic Energy Agency, “Power to the People: The World Outlook for Electricity Investment" 

(http://www .iaea .org/Publications/Magazines/Bulletin/Bull461/power_to_the_people .html) . 

11 "Teal Group Predicts Worldwide UAV Market Will Total $89 Billion in Its 2013 UAV Market Profile and 

Forecast," Teal Group press release, June 17, 2013 .

12 Leber, Jessica, "Wireless Charging—Has Its Time Finally Arrived?" MIT Technology Review, September 11, 2012 .

13 Boyle, Alan, “PG&E Makes Deal for Space Solar Power,” NBCNews .com, April 13, 2009 (http://www .

nbcnews .com/id/30198977/ns/technology_and_science-space/t/pge-makes-deal-space-solar-power/# .UcH_

yes5Acp) .

14 U .S . Energy Information Administration, “Annual Energy Outlook 2013” (http://www .eia .gov/forecasts/aeo/

MT_electric .cfm) . 

15 Electric Vehicle Discussion List, “EVLN: KAIST OLEV Shuttle e-Bus Provides Student & Faculty Rides,” 

EVDL.org, February 21, 2013 (http://www .evdl .org/archive/index .html#nabble-td4661457) .

16 Cole, Emmet, “Space-based Solar Farms Power Up,” BBC.com, February 27, 2013 (http://www .bbc .com/

future/story/20130226-space-based-solar-farms-power-up) . 

Space Communications

1

 NASA, “Deep Space Optical Communications,” http://gcd .larc .nasa .gov/projects/deep-space-opticalcommunications/ (accessed May 6, 2013) . 

2

 Hsu, Jeremy, “NASA to Boost Speed of Deep Space Communications,” Space.com, January 22, 2010 .

3 State of the Satellite Industry Report, Satellite Industry Association, June 2013 .

4

 Ibid .

5

 Ibid .

6

 Ibid .

7

 Glover, Daniel R ., “NASA Experimental Communications Satellites, 1958-1995,” (http://history .nasa .gov/SP4217/ch6 .htm) .

8

 Brodkin, Jon, “Bandwidth Explosion: As Internet Use Soars, Can Bottlenecks be Averted?” Ars Technica, May 

2, 2012 . 

9 2013 Commercial Space Transportation Forecasts, FAA AST, May 2013 . 

10 Rosenberg, Barry, "DOD's reliance on commercial satellites hits new zenith," DefenseSystems .com, 

February 25, 2010 .

11 Osterthaler, Tip, "Essential National Communications Infrastructure Needed," MilsatMagazine.com, October 

2012 . See also de Selding, Petyer B ., "U .S . Government-leased Satellite Capacity Going Unused," Space 

News, November 29, 2012 .

12 Satellite Operator Financial Analysis 3rd Edition: Market Summary, Northern Sky Research, October 2013 .

13 "O3b Networks raises total funding of US$1 .2 billion," O3b press release, November 29, 2010 . See also 

http://www .o3bnetworks .com/media-centre/faqs .

14 Kary, Tiffany and Michael Bathon, "LightSquared Files Bankruptcy After Network Blocked," Bloomberg 

Technology, May 15, 2012 . See also http://www .bloomberg .com/news/2012-05-14/lightsquared-failed-wirelessventure-files-for-bankruptcy.html and http://www.lightsquared.com/about-us/our-investor/.
46

National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration

15 de Selding, Peter B ., “European Laser Comm System Draws Bead on U .S . Military Market,” Space News, 

April 8, 2013 . 

16 Technology Horizons: Game-Changing Technologies for the Lunar Architecture, NASA report, September 2009 . 

17 Heine, F . and H . Kampfner, R . Lange, R . Czichy, R . Meyer et al ., “Optical Inter-Satellite Communication 

Operational,” presented at The 2010 Military Communications Conference, San Jose, California, October 31, 

2010 (http://202 .194 .20 .8/proc/MILCOM2010/papers/p2284-lange .pdf) .

18 de Selding, Peter B ., “European Laser Comm System Draws Bead on U .S . Military Market,” Space News, 

April 8, 2013 .

19 Ibid .

20 Laser Communications Relay Demonstration, NASA report (http://esc .gsfc .nasa .gov/267/LCRD .html) .

Earth Observation Data Visualization

1

 https://landsat .usgs .gov/satellite_data_bus_partners .php .

2 Geospatial Services: A $1.6 Trillion Growth Engine for the U.S. Economy, The Boston Consulting Group, June 2012 .

3

 http://www .crunchbase .com/organization/the-climate-corporation .

4

 https://landsat .usgs .gov/mission_headlines2012 .php .

5

 https://earthdata .nasa .gov/about-eosdis/performance .

6

 Chang, Hyo Duck, B . Krupp and L . Wanchoo, "EOSDIS FY2012 Annual Metrics Report," February 2013 

(https://earthdata .nasa .gov/about-eosdis/performance/eosdis-annual-metrics-reports) .

7

 http://open .nasa .gov/blog/2012/10/04/what-is-nasa-doing-with-big-data-today/ .

8 2013 Commercial Space Transportation Forecasts, FAA AST, May 2013 .

9

 ASPRS, Ten-Year Remote Sensing Industry Forecast, Phase VI, November 2011 .

10 Skybox Imaging raised about $91 million by mid-2012 (http://www .skyboximaging .com/news/skybox-raises70-million-in-new-financing).

11 Vance, Ashlee, " Satellite Imaging Startups Skybox, Planet Labs Race to Cover Earth," Bloomberg Business 

Week, February 13, 2014 . 

12 de Selding, Peter B ., "DigitalGlobe Foresees Billion-dollar Business in Five Years," Space News, November 

27, 2013 .