To learn more about NASA and the Office of International and Interagency Relations, 

please visit NASA’s Web site at www.nasa.gov.
To the Reader: 

When the National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration (NASA) was 

created in 1958, its founding legislation—the National Aeronautics and 

Space Act—directed the new Agency 

to pursue cooperation “with other 

nations and groups of nations.” This 

principle of international cooperation 

has been a guiding philosophy for 

NASA, and it has never been more 

important than it is today. Such collaboration will 

be essential to addressing the inherently global and 

interrelated scientific challenges that will face us in the 

years ahead: expanding human exploration beyond the 

frontiers of low-Earth orbit; broadening human knowledge by answering profound questions about the Earth 

and the universe we live in; solving technical issues 

related to air traffic management, aviation safety, and 

the impact of aviation on climate and the environment; 

and leveraging technology investments to push the 

boundaries of innovation. 

In carrying out its mandate of research and space 

exploration, NASA has, since its establishment, 

entered into more than 3,000 agreements with over 

120 nations and international organizations. NASA’s 

global partnerships are represented today by more 

than 600 active agreements with partner entities 

around the world. These partnerships offer multiple 

benefits to NASA and its partners, from accelerating 

the pace of scientific progress through open access to 

science mission data to sharing risks and costs while 

promoting discovery and advancement. 

While a few longstanding international partners (such 

as Japan, Russia, Canada, the European Space Agency, 

and several European nations) account for a large percentage of NASA’s international activities, NASA has 

expanded its “global reach” in recent years to include 

cooperative activities with new partners in Africa, 

Asia, and the Americas. This is in part a reflection 

of growing global interest in the use of Earth science 

data for societal benefit—particularly in support of 

local decision-making about such important topics as 

agricultural productivity, water management, disaster 

prediction and response, and vector-borne diseases. 

Of the many examples of NASA’s international cooperation described in this book, perhaps the best known is 

the International Space Station. This orbiting research 

laboratory—built by the United States, Canada, Europe, 

Japan, and Russia—has been called home by a rotating 

crew of six from around the world for 13 years of 

continuous crewed operations. In another well-known 

mission, several international partners contributed to 

NASA’s Curiosity rover, which made headlines in 2012 

with its historic precision landing on Mars to investigate whether that planet has ever had an environment 

capable of supporting life. NASA is continuing to pursue 

international partnerships on programs that push the 

boundaries of human and robotic space exploration, 

such as the James Webb Space Telescope, the Global 

Precipitation Measurement mission, the Space Launch 

System, and the Orion crew module. Our international 

partners are also an intrinsic part of planning for future 

programs, such as an innovative asteroid initiative 

that will pave the way for an eventual human mission 

to Mars by leveraging ongoing investments in space 

technology, science, and space exploration. 

I would like to invite you, through the pages of this 

publication, to learn more about NASA’s continuing 

international partnerships. I am confident that these 

examples will provide you with a sense of the breadth 

of NASA’s cooperation with other nations, as well as 

the accompanying benefits that such cooperation has 

always yielded.

Michael F. O’Brien

Associate Administrator

Office of International and Interagency Relations

Table of Contents

International Missions and Projects

Argentina

Aquarius/Scientific Application Satellite-D (Aquarius/SAC-D) .....2

Scientific Application Satellite-C (SAC-C) ....................................3

Australia 

Deep Space Network (DSN) .........................................................4

Aircraft Icing Research .................................................................5

Austria

Magnetospheric MultiScale (MMS) ..............................................6

Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions during 

Substorms (THEMIS) and Acceleration, Reconnection, 

Turbulence and Electrodynamics of the Moon’s Interaction 

with the Sun (ARTEMIS) ............................................................7

Belgium

Juno ..............................................................................................8

Solar Probe Plus (SPP) ..................................................................9

Bermuda

Mobile Tracking Station .............................................................10

Brazil

Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) Feasibility Study .......11

Ozone Cooperation ....................................................................12

Canada

Aircraft Icing Research ...............................................................13

CloudSat .....................................................................................14

International Space Station (ISS) ................................................ 15

James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) ........................................16

Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) .................................................17

Origins Spectral Interpretation Resource Identification Security–

Regolith Explorer (OSIRIS-REx) ................................................18

Resource Prospector Mission (RPM) ..........................................19

Robotic Refueling Mission (RRM) .............................................20

SCISAT-1 ....................................................................................21

Soil Moisture Active Passive Mission (SMAP) .............................22

Terra ...........................................................................................23

Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions during 

Substorms (THEMIS) and Acceleration, Reconnection, 

Turbulence and Electrodynamics of the Moon’s Interaction 

with the Sun (ARTEMIS) ..........................................................24

Czech Republic

Van Allen Probes ........................................................................25

Denmark

LEGO.........................................................................................26

Mars Exploration Rovers (MER) ................................................27

Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array (NuSTAR) .....................28

SCIENCE

HUMAN EXPLORATION AND OPERATIONS

AERONAUTICS RESEARCH

EDUCATION AND OUTREACH

MULTILATERAL REPRESENTATION 

AND COORDINATION
Table of Contents

Europe (European Space Agency collaborations 

with individual European countries)

Cassini-Huygens .........................................................................29

Herschel ......................................................................................30

Mars Express ...............................................................................31

Planck .........................................................................................32

Solar Orbiter ...............................................................................33

Solar TErrestrial RElations Observatory (STEREO) ..................34

European Space Agency

Cluster-II ....................................................................................35

Euclid .........................................................................................36

ExoMars .....................................................................................37

Hubble Space Telescope (HST) ..................................................38

International Space Station (ISS) ................................................39

ISS-Early Utilization ...................................................................40

ISS-Human Research Facility-European Physiology Module

(ISS HRF-EPM) .........................................................................41

James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) ........................................42

 JUpiter ICy moons Explorer (JUICE) .........................................43

Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA Pathfinder) ...............44

Rosetta ........................................................................................45

Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) .............................46

X-ray Multi-Mirror-Newton (XMM-Newton) ............................47

Finland

 Angry Birds Space .......................................................................48

France

Aircraft Icing Research ...............................................................49

 Airframe Noise and Environmental Noise Mitigation .................50

Cloud-Aerosol LIDAR and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite

Observations (CALIPSO) ...........................................................51

 DEvice for the study of Critical LIquids and Crystallization– 

Directional Solidification Insert (DECLIC-DSI) ........................52

 Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope .............................................53

 Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and 

Heat Transport (InSight) ............................................................54

Juno ............................................................................................55

Magnetospheric MultiScale (MMS) ............................................56

 Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution Mission (MAVEN) .....57

Mars Odyssey .............................................................................58

 Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) .................................................59

 Ocean Surface Topography Mission (OSTM) .............................60

 Solar Probe Plus (SPP) ................................................................61

 Space Environment Testbed-1 (SET-1) ........................................62

 Surface Water Ocean Topography (SWOT) ...............................63
Table of Contents

Germany

Chandra X-ray Observatory ........................................................64

Computational Fluid Dynamics Research (CFD) .......................65

Dawn Asteroid Rendezvous Mission ...........................................66

Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope .............................................67

Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) ................68

Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Follow-On 

(GRACE-FO) .............................................................................69

Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and 

Heat Transport (InSight) ............................................................70

Mars Exploration Rovers (MER) ................................................71

Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) .................................................72

Solar Probe Plus (SPP) ................................................................73

Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA) .......74

Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions during 

Substorms (THEMIS) and Acceleration, Reconnection, 

Turbulence and Electrodynamics of the Moon’s Interaction 

with the Sun (ARTEMIS) ..........................................................75

Two Wide-angle Imaging Neutral-atom Spectrometers

(TWINS) ...................................................................................76

India

Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM)/Megha-Tropiques .....77

Oceansat-2 ..................................................................................78

Italy

BepiColombo ..............................................................................79

Dawn Asteroid Rendezvous Mission ...........................................80

Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope .............................................81

Juno ............................................................................................82

Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) .........................................83

Multi-Purpose Logistics Module (MPLM) .................................84

Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array (NuSTAR) .....................85

Swift Gamma-ray Burst Explorer ................................................86

Japan

Astro-H ......................................................................................87

CALorimetric Electron Telescope (CALET) ...............................88

Disruption Tolerant Networking (DTN) ....................................89

Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope .............................................90

Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) ..................................91

Hayabusa/Hayabusa-2 ................................................................92

Hinode .......................................................................................93

International Space Station (ISS) ................................................94

Magnetospheric MultiScale (MMS) ............................................95

Sonic Boom Research .................................................................96

Suzaku ........................................................................................97
Table of Contents

Terra ...........................................................................................98

 Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) .........................99

Republic of Korea

 Advanced Colloids Experiment (ACE) ......................................100

Heliophysics and Space Physics ................................................. 101

The Netherlands 

Aura ..........................................................................................102

 Flight Deck System Design .......................................................103

Norway

 Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS) .........................104

 Ka-band Radio Frequency (RF) Propagation 

Monitoring Station ...................................................................105

 NASA Isbjørn Facility at SvalSat ...............................................106

Russia

International Space Station (ISS) ..............................................107

 Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO).......................................108

Mars Odyssey ...........................................................................109

 Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) ............................................... 110

Wind ........................................................................................ 111

Spain

 Deep Space Network (DSN) ..................................................... 112

 Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) ............................................... 113

Sweden

 Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope ........................................... 114

Magnetospheric MultiScale (MMS) .......................................... 115

Switzerland

 Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) .................................... 116

Thailand

Vector-Borne Disease Control Research .................................... 117

United Kingdom

Aura .......................................................................................... 118

Hinode ..................................................................................... 119

 Space Environment Testbed-1 (SET-1) ......................................120

Swift Gamma-ray Burst Explorer ..............................................121

Worldwide Missions, Programs, 

and Networks

 Aerosol Robotic Network (AERONET) ...................................124

 Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS) .......................................125

Astrobiology and Analogs .........................................................126

Balloons ....................................................................................127

Education .................................................................................128

Exhibits.....................................................................................129

 Famine Early Warning System Network (FEWS-NET) ...........130
Table of Contents

Global Exploration Strategy (GES) ........................................... 131

Global Learning and Observations to Benefit 

The Environment (GLOBE) .....................................................132

International Astronauts ...........................................................133

International Space Weather Initiative (ISWI) ..........................134

International Space Station Utilization: Science and Technology 

Research and Development .......................................................135

SERVIR ....................................................................................136

Sounding Rockets .....................................................................137

Space Geodesy ..........................................................................138

Multilateral Representation

and Coordination

Committee on Earth Observation Satellites (CEOS) ................140

Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) ...............................140

Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems (CCSDS) ......140

Global Geodetic Observing System (GGOS) ............................140

Group on Earth Observations (GEO) .......................................140

Interagency Operations Advisory Group (IOAG) ......................140

Interagency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC) ...140

International Astronautical Federation (IAF) ............................140

International Charter on Space and Major Disasters ................. 141

International Committee on GNSS (ICG) ................................ 141

International Forum for Aviation Research (IFAR) ................... 141

International Living With a Star (ILWS) .................................. 141

International Mars Exploration Working Group (IMEWG) ..... 141

International Ocean-Colour Coordinating Group (IOCCG).... 141

International Space Education Board (ISEB) ............................ 141

International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG) 142

International Telecommunications Union (ITU) ......................142

 UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space 

(COPUOS) ...............................................................................142

Index by NASA Mission and Program Area ........143

List of Acronyms ................................................................. 147

1

INTERNATIONAL MISSIONS AND PROJECTS
2

Science

Argentina

Aquarius/SAC-D 

Aquarius/Scientific Application Satellite–D

NASA and the Argentine National Commission on Space Activities 

(CONAE) are cooperating on the Aquarius/Scientific Application 

Satellite–D (SAC-D) mission, which launched in June 2011 from 

Vandenberg Air Force Base (VAFB), California. NASA provided the 

Aquarius instrument, which measures global sea surface salinity, and 

executed the launch of SAC-D. CONAE provided the spacecraft bus, 

data-collection system, high-sensitivity camera, microwave radiometer, 

and New Infrared Sensor Technology (NIRST). Through CONAE, 

France provided the Carmen I instrument and Italy provided the 

Radio Occultation Sounder for Atmosphere (ROSA) instrument. 

Data-processing, dissemination, and archiving tasks are performed 

by NASA. Mission operations are conducted at the CONAE ground 

station in Córdoba, Argentina.

The Aquarius/SAC-D mission provides data that helps scientists better 

understand the climatic interactions between the global water cycle and 

ocean circulation by systematically mapping the spatial and temporal 

variations of sea surface salinity. Aquarius measures sea surface salinity 

variability—the key tracer for freshwater input and output to the ocean 

associated with precipitation, evaporation, ice-melting, and river runoff. 

These measurements, combined with sea surface temperature (SST) 

from other satellites, assist in determining sea surface density, which 

controls the formation of water masses and regulate the three-dimensional ocean circulation. The science goals of the mission are to observe 

and model the processes that relate salinity variations to climatic 

changes in the global cycling of water in order to understand how 

these variations influence the general ocean circulation. The Aquarius 

instrument yielded NASA’s first global map of the salinity of the ocean 

surface, demonstrating Aquarius’s ability to detect large-scale salinity 

distribution features clearly and with sharp contrast. 

For more information on the Aquarius/SAC-D satellite, please visit 

http://aquarius.nasa.gov/ and http://www.conae.gov.ar/eng/satelites/sac-d.html.

An artist’s concept of the Aquarius/SAC-D satellite orbiting 

Earth. (Credit: Argentine Commission on Space Activities)

This map shows salinity near the ocean surface as 

measured by NASA’s Aquarius instrument on Argentina’s 

SAC-D satellite. Lower values are represented in purples 

and blues; higher values are shown in shades of orange 

and red.
3

Science

Argentina

SAC-C

Scientific Application Satellite–C

The Scientific Application Satellite–C (SAC-C) mission, launched in 

2000, is a joint mission between NASA and the Argentine National 

Commission on Space Activities (CONAE) to study the geomagnetic 

field, atmospheric structure, and terrestrial and marine environments.

CONAE provided the spacecraft bus, data-collection system, 

Multispectral Medium Resolution Scanner (MMRS), High-Resolution 

Panchromatic Camera (HRPC), High-Sensitivity Technological 

Camera (HSTC), and a whale-tracker experiment. Through CONAE, 

Italy provided the Italian Navigation Experiment (INES) and Italian 

Star Tracker (IST), and France supplied the Influence of Space 

Radiation on Advanced Components (ICARE) payload. NASA 

executed the launch of SAC-C and also contributed the magnetic 

mapping payload (MMP) and the Global Positioning System (GPS) 

Occultation and Passive reflection Experiment (GOLPE).

Although SAC-C lost its maneuvering capability in 2011, many of 

its instruments continue to provide science data. Argentine and U.S. 

science teams use data from the SAC-C mission as well as from the 

Aquarius/Scientific Application Satellite–D (SAC-D) mission, which 

carries similar instruments on board. 

The SAC-C spacecraft is part of the Earth-observing Morning 

Constellation of satellites, which fly in formation and include SAC-C, 

Landsat 7, Earth Observing-1 (EO-1), and Terra. 

For more information on SAC-C, please visit http://www.conae.gov.ar/

eng/satelites/sac-c.html.

An artist’s concept of the SAC-C satellite orbiting Earth. 

(Credit: Argentine Commission on Space Activities)
4

Human Exploration and Operations

Australia

DSN

Deep Space Network

The Australian Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research 

Organization (CSIRO), on behalf of NASA, manages the Canberra 

Deep Space Communication Complex (CDSCC), located 40 kilometers southwest of Canberra near the Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve. The 

CDSCC is one of three facilities that comprise NASA’s Deep Space 

Network (DSN). The United States and Australia have engaged in 

DSN cooperation since the late 1950s, and the CDSCC was officially 

opened as a NASA DSN facility in 1965. 

NASA’s DSN is an international network of antennas that communicates with interplanetary spacecraft, is used by radio and radar 

astronomers to observe the solar system and the universe, and supports 

Earth-orbiting satellites. NASA’s three DSN facilities are Goldstone, 

in the Mojave Desert, California; CDSCC, near Canberra, Australia; 

and the Madrid Deep Space Communications Complex (MDSCC), in 

Robledo de Chavela, Spain. 

These DSN facilities are located approximately 120° apart around the 

world, which permits constant observation of spacecraft as the Earth 

rotates. Each location has an 8- to 14-hour viewing period for contact 

with spacecraft. The DSN provides the two-way communications link 

that tracks, guides, and controls the spacecraft and returns the telemetry 

and scientific data it collects. Incoming data to the three DSN facilities 

are processed and transmitted to NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) 

in Pasadena, California, for further processing and distribution to science 

teams over a modern ground communications network.

Each DSN facility consists of three classes of deep space antennas 

equipped with ultra-sensitive receiving systems and large parabolic dish 

antennas: a 34-meter-diameter high-efficiency antenna, a 34-meter 

beam waveguide antenna, and a 70-meter antenna.

NASA is currently building two additional beam waveguide antennas 

at the CDSCC facility in Canberra to increase NASA’s deep space 

capability in the Southern Hemisphere.

NASA periodically uses CSIRO’s 64-meter antenna at Parkes Radio 

Astronomy Observatory in New South Wales, Australia, to augment 

CDSCC. In 2002, this antenna was upgraded by NASA to be compatible with future NASA deep space missions. 

For more information on the DSN and CDSCC, please visit http://

deepspace.jpl.nasa.gov/dsn/ and http://www.cdscc.nasa.gov/.

A view of Canberra’s 70-meter (230-foot) antenna with 

flags from the three Deep Space Network sites.

A view of the Canberra Complex.
5

Aeronautics Research

Australia

Aircraft Icing Research

The aviation community is tackling a phenomenon called ice crystal 

engine icing, in which tiny ice particles are ingested by and melt 

inside warm aircraft engines, forming a thin film of water that covers 

the engine interior and then traps additional ice crystals. As more ice 

crystals enter the engine, the melted film of water refreezes, and ice 

builds up inside the engine. If enough ice builds up and breaks free, 

it can travel through the engine and damage critical parts, or it may 

melt and cause the engine to lose power or shut down altogether. Since 

1988, safety officials have documented more than 150 such incidents 

in which jet engines have experienced power loss, affecting various 

types of jet aircraft from commercial airliners to the smallest business 

airplanes. In addition to safety concerns, these events can also lead to 

costly engine repairs. 

To explore and further the science surrounding ice crystal engine icing, 

NASA will join a team of European researchers on a flight campaign 

that will collect data about ice crystals and their environment. A 

ground research effort will use this data to better simulate aircraftengine-icing conditions for full-scale engine tests. Researchers hope to 

answer questions about what causes ice crystals to form, where they are 

most likely to occur, and under what conditions they become a hazard 

that leads to engine-icing problems. The primary campaign to collect 

data will take place in Darwin, Australia. 

In addition to NASA, the research team consists of scientists from the 

following governmental and private entities: Airbus, Australia’s Bureau 

of Meteorology, Boeing, Environment Canada, the National Research 

Council of Canada, Transport Canada, the U.S. Federal Aviation 

Administration, and the U.S. National Center for Atmospheric 

Research (NCAR).

For more information on the campaign, please visit http://www.nasa.

gov/centers/glenn/news/pressrel/2010/10-069_water.html and http://www.

nasa.gov/topics/aeronautics/features/preps_solve_engine_icing.html.

A computer rendering of the research aircraft NASA will 

use to collect vital atmospheric data about where, when, 

and how high-altitude ice crystals occur.

Polar opposites attract in the puzzling case of ice crystal 

engine icing, where the frozen crystals can be ingested into 

the core of a jet engine.
6

Science

Austria

MMS

Magnetospheric MultiScale

NASA’s Magnetospheric MultiScale (MMS) mission is a solar-terrestrial probe mission comprising four identically instrumented spacecraft 

that will use Earth’s magnetosphere as a laboratory to study the microphysics of three fundamental plasma processes: magnetic reconnection, 

energetic particle acceleration, and turbulence. These processes occur 

in all astrophysical plasma systems but can be studied in situ only in 

our solar system and most efficiently only in Earth’s magnetosphere, 

where they control the dynamics of the geospace environment and play 

an important role in the processes known as “space weather.” The four 

MMS spacecraft are currently planned for launch by NASA in 2014.

NASA is collaborating on the MMS mission with the Aeronautics 

and Space Agency (ALR) of the Austrian Research Promotion Agency 

(FFG) through the Space Research Institute of the Austrian Academy 

of Science (IWF/ÖAW). NASA is also cooperating with the Japan 

Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), the French National Center for 

Space Studies (CNES), and the Swedish National Space Board (SNSB) 

on the mission. 

MMS investigates how the magnetic fields of the Sun and Earth 

connect and disconnect, explosively transferring energy from one to 

the other in a process known as magnetic reconnection. This process 

limits the performance of fusion reactors and is the final governor of 

geospace weather, which affects modern technological systems such 

as telecommunications networks, Global Positioning System (GPS) 

navigation, and electrical power grids. MMS’s four spacecraft will 

measure plasmas, fields, and particles in a near-equatorial orbit that 

will frequently encounter reconnection in action. 

The four MMS spacecraft will carry identical instrument suites of 

plasma analyzers, energetic particle detectors, magnetometers, and 

electric field instruments; they will also carry a device to prevent 

spacecraft charging from interfering with the highly sensitive 

measurements required in and around the diffusion regions. FFG/

ALR is providing the four MMS spacecraft with components for the 

Active Spacecraft Potential Control (ASPOC) system and the Digital 

Fluxgate Magnetometer (DFM), as well as gun detector electronics 

(GDE) for the Electron Drift Instrument (EDI). NASA is providing 

the spacecraft, the launch, and overall mission management.

For more information on MMS, please visit http://mms.gsfc.nasa.gov/.

An artist’s concept of the four identical Magnetospheric 

MultiScale spacecraft investigating magnetic reconnection 

within Earth’s magnetic field. (Credit: Southwest 

Research Institute)
7

Science

Austria

THEMIS

Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions 

during Substorms 

and

ARTEMIS 

Acceleration, Reconnection, Turbulence and 

Electrodynamics of the Moon’s Interaction with 

the Sun 

NASA’s Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions during 

Substorms (THEMIS) mission originated as a 2-year mission consisting of five identical satellites, or probes, launched together in 2007 

to study the violent and colorful eruptions in auroras. The mission 

incorporates a network of ground-based auroral observatories. 

THEMIS helps to determine which physical processes in near-Earth 

space initiate violent substorm eruptions in the Earth’s magnetosphere. 

Substorms intensify auroras and create a dramatic “dancing” effect in 

them. Aligning five identical probes over observatories on the North 

American continent has allowed scientists to collect coordinated 

measurements along the Earth’s magnetic field lines, thereby providing 

the first comprehensive look at the onset of substorms and the manner 

in which they trigger auroral eruptions.

In 2009, NASA assigned two of the THEMIS satellites to a 

new mission—the Acceleration, Reconnection, Turbulence and 

Electrodynamics of the Moon’s Interaction with the Sun (ARTEMIS) 

mission—to measure solar wind turbulence at the Moon. Having 

repositioned two of the five THEMIS probes in coordinated, lunarequatorial orbits, ARTEMIS is now performing the first systematic, 

two-point observations of the distant magnetotail, the solar wind, and 

the lunar space environment. The primary objectives of the mission are 

to study how particles are accelerated at reconnection sites and shocks 

and how turbulence develops and evolves in Earth’s magnetotail and 

in the solar wind. The mission will determine the structure, formation, 

refilling, and downstream evolution of the lunar wake. The three 

remaining THEMIS satellites continue to study substorms that are 

visible in the Northern Hemisphere as aurora borealis. 

The Austrian Space Agency (ASA) and the Space Research Institute of 

the Austrian Academy of Sciences (IWF/ÖAW) developed and tested 

the fluxgate magnetometer (FGM) electronics, a subsystem of the 

fluxgate magnetometer instrument, on all five probes. The Canadian 

Space Agency (CSA), the French National Center for Space Studies 

(CNES), and the German Aerospace Center (DLR) also contributed to 

this mission. NASA’s contributions include the spacecraft, the launch, 

the ground network of observatories, and overall mission management.

For more information on THEMIS, please visit http://www.nasa.gov/

mission_pages/themis/main/index.html.

For more information on ARTEMIS, please visit http://www.nasa.gov/

mission_pages/artemis/index.html.

An artist’s concept of one of the Time History of Events 

and Macroscale Interactions during Substorms spacecraft 

orbiting Earth.
8

Science

Belgium

Juno

NASA’s Juno spacecraft, launched in 2011 and slated to arrive in orbit 

around Jupiter in 2016, will gather data on Jupiter’s interior structure, 

atmospheric composition and dynamics, and polar magnetosphere. 

This data will be used by scientists to study the origin and evolution 

of Jupiter, thereby furthering our understanding of planetary and 

solar-system formation.

Using a spinning, solar-powered spacecraft, Juno will make maps of the 

gravitational and magnetic fields, auroral emissions, and atmospheric 

composition of Jupiter from a polar orbit. Juno will carry precise 

high-sensitivity radiometers, magnetometers, and gravity science 

systems. Juno’s 32 orbits over 11 days will sample Jupiter’s full range of 

latitudes and longitudes. From its polar perspective, Juno will combine 

in situ and remote sensing observations to explore the polar magnetosphere and determine what drives Jupiter’s remarkable auroras. Jupiter’s 

solid core and abundance of heavy metals in the atmosphere make it an 

ideal model to help improve our understanding of the origin of giant 

planets. Juno will measure global abundances of oxygen and nitrogen 

by mapping the gravitational field and using microwave observations of 

water and ammonia.

The Belgian Federal Science Policy Office (BELSPO) and the Liège 

Space Center (CSL) have participated in the development of Juno 

payloads. BELSPO contributed the Scan Mirror Assembly (SMA) to 

the Ultraviolet Spectrometer (UVS) instrument for the Juno mission. 

The UVS instrument will remotely sense Jupiter’s auroral morphology 

and brightness, provide a context for the in situ measurements, and 

map the mean energy and flux of precipitating particles. 

For more information on the Juno mission, please visit http://juno.nasa.

gov/ and http://missionjuno.swri.edu/.

An artist’s concept of the Juno spacecraft orbiting Jupiter.
9

Science

Belgium

SPP

Solar Probe Plus

NASA’s Solar Probe Plus (SPP) mission is a project in the Living With 

a Star (LWS) program, a series of missions designed to gather critical 

information about the Sun and its effects on Earth and other planetary 

systems. By flying into the Sun’s outer atmosphere, SPP will gather data 

on the processes that heat the corona and accelerate the solar wind, 

solving two fundamental mysteries that have been top-priority science 

goals for many decades. The Belgian Federal Science Policy Office 

(BELSPO) and the Liège Space Center (CSL) are collaborating with 

NASA on the Wide-field Imager for Solar Probe (WISPR) investigation 

on SPP. France and Germany are also participating in this mission.

NASA plans to launch SPP in 2018 from Cape Canaveral Air Force 

Station (CCAFS) in Florida. The mission is planned to last almost 7 

years, and the spacecraft will eventually come within 3.7 million miles 

of the Sun’s surface, well within the orbit of Mercury and about eight 

times closer than any spacecraft has ever approached.

SPP will study the streams of charged particles that the Sun hurls into 

space from a vantage point where the processes that heat the corona and 

produce solar wind actually occur. At its closest approach, SPP will zip 

past the Sun at 125 miles per second, protected by a carbon-composite 

heat shield that must withstand up to 2600° Fahrenheit and survive 

blasts of radiation and energized dust at levels not experienced by any 

previous spacecraft. The primary scientific objectives to be carried 

out during the SPP mission include: determining the structure and 

dynamics of the magnetic fields at the sources of both fast and slow 

solar wind, tracing the flow of energy that heats the corona and accelerates the solar wind, and determining what mechanisms accelerate and 

transport energetic particles. Instruments include a wide-field imager, 

fast-ion analyzer, fast-electron analyzer, energetic-particle instrument, 

magnetometer, and plasma-wave instrument. 

Belgian contributions to the mission include modeling, testing, and 

evaluating the WISPR investigation on the SPP. The WISPR investigation is a single, visible-light telescope with a wide field of view that will 

track density fluctuations in the solar corona by imaging visible sunlight 

scattered by electrons in the corona as the spacecraft traverses through 

its perihelion passes. Fluctuations can arise from dynamic events, such 

as coronal mass ejections, and also from the “quiescent” slow and fast 

solar wind. In addition, the rapid motion of the spacecraft through the 

corona will result in significant apparent changes due to shifts in its 

viewpoint, enabling tomographic reconstruction of the structures.

For more information on SPP, please visit http://solarprobe.gsfc.nasa.gov/

and http://solarprobe.jhuapl.edu/science/index.php.

The solar panels of the Solar Probe Plus spacecraft are 

folded into the shadow of its protective shield as the probe 

gathers data on its approach to the Sun. (Credit: Johns 

Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory)
10

Science

Bermuda

Mobile Tracking Station 

In March 2012, NASA and the government of Bermuda signed 

an agreement to establish a temporary mobile tracking station in 

Bermuda. The tracking instrumentation consists of transportable 

systems provided by NASA’s Research Range Services (RRS) program 

and operated by RRS launch range contractors. NASA anticipates 

using this temporary mobile tracking station several times per year. 

NASA’s Wallops Flight Facility (WFF) is expected to become the 

prime mid-Atlantic launch range for a new generation of expendable 

launch vehicles (ELVs) and resupply missions to the International 

Space Station (ISS). The Bermuda site is essential for WFF operations 

to fulfill the considerable set of requirements for current and future 

NASA missions, including: the use of ELVs to deliver satellites to orbit, 

the provision of Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) supply missions 

to the ISS, the launch of extended-duration sounding rockets to orbit 

for up to 7 days, and the launch of long-range sounding rockets. The 

Bermuda location provides a 360° unobstructed view that enables 

tracking of satellites into orbit. 

The Bermuda mobile station will acquire vehicle performance data 

for approximately 5 minutes, starting approximately 4 minutes after 

lift-off. It will also have range-destruct-command relay capability from 

WFF. The station consists of modular components such as an electronics control van, several small optical systems, radar and telemetry 

antennas, and movable power systems that are physically located on 

Cooper’s Island.

In addition to benefiting from both local educational opportunities 

related to NASA’s tracking activities and local contractor work, the 

government of Bermuda expressed an interest in understanding shore 

erosion and localized atmospheric changes. As part of the agreement, 

therefore, WFF will provide Bermuda with information it has developed on the study of shoreline erosion and the use of sensors and data 

for determining the state of the atmosphere in selected locations with 

respect to variables such as temperature, moisture, wind velocity, and 

barometric pressure. 

For more information on the mobile tracking station in Bermuda, 

please visit http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2012/mar/HQ_12-

074_Bermuda_Agreement.html.

NASA’s mobile tracking station in Bermuda provides 

telemetry, radar, and command and control services.
11

Science

Brazil

GPM

Global Precipitation Measurement Feasibility Study 

NASA and the Brazilian Space Agency (AEB) are conducting a joint 

scientific and engineering feasibility study of potential cooperation in 

Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM)–related scientific research, 

ground validation of GPM satellite data, and other related activities. 

The GPM mission is an international network of satellites that provides 

next-generation global observations of rain and snow. Building upon 

the success of the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM), the 

GPM concept centers on the deployment of a “Core” satellite carrying 

an advanced radar/radiometer system to measure precipitation from 

space and serve as a reference standard to unify precipitation measurements from a constellation of research and operational satellites. 

Through improved measurements of global precipitation, the GPM 

mission will help to advance our understanding of Earth’s water and 

energy cycle, improve forecasting of extreme events that cause natural 

hazards and disasters, and extend current capabilities in using accurate 

and timely information of precipitation to directly benefit society.

The GPM mission is a multisatellite constellation project that is being 

jointly developed by NASA and the Japan Aerospace Exploration 

Agency (JAXA). The data acquired by the GPM mission will be beneficial for monitoring and predicting climatological and meteorological 

changes and for improving the accuracy of weather and precipitation 

forecasts. The GPM Core Observatory launched February 2014.

For more information on the GPM mission, please visit http://pmm.

nasa.gov/precipitation-measurement-missions.

An artist’s concept of the GPM core observatory and other 

satellites in the GPM network orbiting Earth.
12

Science

Brazil

Ozone Cooperation

NASA and the Brazilian Space Agency (AEB) are working together to 

study the concentrations of various atmospheric constituents in order 

to contribute to an improved understanding of the Earth’s ozone layer. 

This project supplements measurements being made from NASA’s 

Wallops Flight Facility (WFF), Virginia, and other sites for coverage of 

high Earth latitudes. 

Measurements made from Natal, Brazil, provide near-equatorial data 

needed for coverage of low Earth latitudes. Natal is one of 14 observation sites for collection of these data. The precise location of the site is 

40 kilometers north of the city of Natal in the small seaside village of 

Maxaranguape. Brazil has utilized balloon-borne ozonesonde assets in 

Natal since 1978.

These measurements are supplemented by ozonesonde data obtained 

from other NASA-AEB cooperative projects, including the NASA 

Southern Hemisphere ADditional OZonsondes (SHADOZ) project. 

The purpose of SHADOZ is to profile the climatology of tropical 

ozone in the equatorial zone and to validate and improve satellite 

remote sensing techniques for estimating tropical ozone. AEB’s responsibilities for this activity are carried out through the Brazilian National 

Institute for Space Research (INPE).

Fore more information on NASA’s ozone study activities, please visit 

http://croc.gsfc.nasa.gov/shadoz/.

For access to ozone study data from Wallops Flight Facility and INPE, 

please visit http://uairp.wff.nasa.gov/.

A balloon is prepared for a scheduled flight from a launch 

site at a seaside village called Maxaranguape, located 40 

kilometers north of the city of Natal, Brazil. 
13

Aeronautics Research

Canada

Aircraft Icing Research 

The aviation industry has experienced numerous engine power-loss 

events associated with ice crystal formation in high-altitude convective 

weather, often in a warm tropical environment. As a result, the 

aviation industry has identified the need for detailed measurements 

of the fundamental behavior of ice crystal formation on modern gas 

turbine engines in warm-air environments. NASA is partnering with 

the Canadian National Research Council (NRC) to conduct rig-test 

experiments in ground-based facilities to improve understanding of ice 

crystal accretion physics on heated surfaces, which are representative of 

gas turbine components. 

NASA’s collaboration with the NRC will support the development of 

ground-based simulation test capabilities for both organizations. These 

simulation capabilities will in turn be used to shape future regulatory 

requirements for aircraft that fly in environments that are likely to 

produce ice crystals in aircraft engines. The research will be conducted 

over a multiyear period at facilities located in both the United States 

and Canada. 

NASA and NRC will also cooperate in the multiyear High Ice Water 

Content (HIWC) field campaign and conduct joint research to 

improve the measurement capabilities of high ice-water content and 

mixed phase (liquid and ice) environments. Cooperation in HIWC and 

joint icing research will support modifications to existing atmospheric 

instruments and the development of isokinetic probes used for groundbased and flight-based measurements. 

For more information on NASA’s icing research, please visit http://

www.nasa.gov/topics/aeronautics/features/preps_solve_engine_icing.html.

Technicians install a series of horizontal spray bars inside 

an opening to a NASA test facility that will simulate 

engine -icing conditions on the ground. 

More than 20 meteorological instruments outside and 

inside the Gulfstream aircraft will be used to collect data on 

engine-icing conditions. 
14

Science

Canada

CloudSat

NASA and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) jointly developed the 

Cloud Profiling Radar for NASA’s CloudSat satellite that was launched 

in April 2006. CloudSat measures the vertical structure of clouds from 

space. It is the first satellite to fly millimeter-wave radar that is capable of 

seeing a large fraction of clouds and precipitation, ranging from very thin 

cirrus clouds to thunderstorms producing heavy precipitation. CloudSat 

collects data that is needed to evaluate and improve the way in which 

clouds are represented in global climate models, thereby contributing to 

better predictions of cloud formations and a more detailed understanding 

of their role in both climate change and cloud-climate feedback. 

CloudSat was launched together with the French National Center for 

Space Studies (CNES) Cloud-Aerosol LIDAR (light detection and 

ranging) and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations (CALIPSO) 

spacecraft. It is flying in orbital formation as part of the Afternoon 

Constellation (A-Train) of Earth science satellites, including NASA’s 

Aqua and Aura and CNES’s Polarization and Anisotropy of Réflectances 

for Atmospheric Sciences coupled with Observations from a LIDAR 

(PARASOL) mission. CloudSat maintains a tight formation with 

CALIPSO in order to overlap measurement footprints at least 50 percent 

of the time. 

For more information on CloudSat, please visit http://cloudsat.atmos.

colostate.edu/.

An artist’s concept of NASA’s CloudSat spacecraft, which 

will provide the first global survey of cloud properties to 

better understand their effects on weather and climate.
15

Human Exploration and Operations

Canada

ISS

International Space Station

The Canadian Space Agency’s (CSA) primary contribution to the 

International Space Station (ISS) Program is the Mobile Servicing 

System (MSS), which consists of the Mobile Base System, Space Station 

Remote Manipulator System (SSRMS), and the Special Purpose 

Dexterous Manipulator (Dextre). 

The ISS Program is a partnership among the space agencies of 

Canada, Europe, Japan, Russia, and the United States. International 

crews have continuously inhabited the ISS since November 2000. 

Cargo transportation is provided by European, Russian, and Japanese 

vehicles and by NASA’s contracts for Commercial Resupply Services 

(CRS). Crew transportation and rescue is provided by the Russian 

Federal Space Agency and, beginning in 2017, by NASA’s commercial 

crew transportation services. 

NASA’s contributions to the ISS Program include overall management, 

coordination, and integration of the ISS Program across the partnership 

for operations, safety, transportation, and integrated hardware 

performance. NASA hardware components include the U.S. laboratory 

module, the airlock for extravehicular activities (EVA), truss segments 

to support the U.S. solar arrays and thermal radiators, three connecting 

nodes, and living quarters. 

The ISS functions as an orbital microgravity and life sciences laboratory, 

a test bed for new technologies in areas such as life support and robotics, 

and a platform for astronomical and Earth observations. The ISS also 

serves as a unique engineering test bed for flight systems and operations 

critical to NASA’s future exploration missions. U.S. research on the ISS 

concentrates on the long-term effects of space travel on humans and on 

technology development activities in support of exploration. The ISS is 

a stepping-stone for human exploration and scientific discovery beyond 

low-Earth orbit. 

CSA’s MSS played a key role in the on-orbit construction of the ISS and 

continues to play a key role in general ISS operations and maintenance. 

The MSS is comprised of three main elements: the SSRMS, called 

Canadarm2—a 17-meter-long robotic arm with seven motorized joints; 

the Mobile Base System—a moveable work platform that transports 

the Canadarm2 along rails covering the length of the ISS, serves as a 

storage facility for astronauts during space walks, and can serve as a base 

for both the Canadarm2 and Dextre simultaneously; and Dextre—a 

smaller, 3.5 meter-long, two-arm robot that can perform delicate 

maintenance and servicing tasks on the exterior of the ISS, where 

precise handling is required. CSA’s MSS Operation Complex, located 

at CSA Headquarters in St. Hubert, Quebec, supports the operation 

and maintenance of the MSS and is the main facility for MSS mission 

planning, equipment monitoring, and training.

For more information on CSA’s contributions to the ISS, please visit 

http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/iss/default.asp and http://www.nasa.gov/

mission_pages/station/main/index.html.

Astronaut Rick Linnehan conducts a spacewalk during the 

STS-123 mission while anchored to a Canadarm2 mobile 

foot restraint. During the spacewalk, Linnehan helped 

install the tool-change-out mechanisms on the Canadianbuilt Dextre robotic system, the final element of the ISS 

Mobile Servicing System.

In the grasp of the ISS robotic Canadarm2, the H-II Transfer 

Vehicle 3 (HTV-3) Exposed Pallet is moved for installation 

on the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) HTV-3 

while it is docked to the Space Station in July 2012.
16

Science

Canada

JWST

The James Webb Space Telescope

The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), planned for launch in 

2018, will be a large infrared telescope with a 6.5-meter primary 

mirror. JWST will enable the study of every phase in the history of our 

universe, ranging from the first luminous glows after the Big Bang, to 

the formation of solar systems capable of supporting life on Earth-like 

planets, to the evolution of our own solar system. JWST is an international collaboration between NASA, the Canadian Space Agency 

(CSA), and the European Space Agency (ESA). CSA is providing 

the Fine Guidance Sensor (FGS)/Near-Infrared Imager and Slitless 

Spectrograph (NIRISS) for the telescope.

Referred to as the JWST Observatory, the space-based portion of the 

JWST system consists of three parts: the Optical Telescope Element 

(OTE), the Spacecraft Element, and the Integrated Science Instrument 

Module (ISIM). The OTE is the eye of the JWST, collecting light from 

space and providing it to scientific instruments. The Spacecraft Element 

is composed of the spacecraft bus (which provides support functions 

for the observatory) and the sunshield system (which separates the 

observatory into a warm Sun-facing side and a cold side that faces away 

from the Sun). The ISIM contains four instruments: the Mid-Infrared 

Instrument (MIRI), the Near-Infrared Spectrograph (NIRSpec), the 

Near-Infrared Camera (NIRCam), and the FGS/NIRISS. JWST’s 

instruments will be designed to work primarily in the infrared range of 

the electromagnetic spectrum, with some capability in the visible range.

Several innovative technologies have been developed for JWST, including a folding, segmented primary mirror that is adjusted to shape after 

launch; ultra-lightweight beryllium optics; detectors capable of recording extremely weak signals; microshutters that enable programmable 

object selection for the spectrograph; and a cryocooler for cooling the 

mid-infrared detectors to the required 7° kelvin operating temperature.

The CSA-provided FGS is a broadband guider camera that is used 

for both “guide star” acquisition and fine pointing. Its field of view is 

sufficient to provide a 95-percent probability of acquiring a guide star 

for any valid pointing direction. The FGS will provide mission-critical 

support for the JWST Observatory’s attitude control system. NASA is 

responsible for the design and development of the JWST Observatory 

and for overall management of the mission.

For more information on JWST, please visit http://jwst.gsfc.nasa.gov/.

An artist’s concept of the JWST.

Designed to block solar light and keep the JWST 

observatory operating at cryogenic temperature, the 

five-layer sunshield consists of thin membranes made 

from a polymer-based film and supporting equipment such 

as spreader bars, booms, cabling, and containment shells.
17

Science

Canada

MSL

Mars Science Laboratory

NASA’s Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) mission utilized an innovative 

sky crane to set down the Curiosity rover onto the surface of Mars in 

August 2012, where it began its mission to assess whether Mars has 

ever had an environment capable of supporting small life forms called 

microbes. The MSL mission, launched by NASA in November 2011, 

is planned to last at least one Martian year (687 Earth days), but it has 

the potential to operate for much longer.

The primary scientific objective, to be carried out during the surface 

science phase of the MSL mission, is to assess the biological potential 

of at least one target area by characterizing the local geology and 

geochemistry, investigating planetary processes relevant to habitability 

(including the role of water), and characterizing the broad spectrum 

of surface radiation. The landing site, Gale Crater, was selected based 

on an assessment of safety and planetary protection and an analysis by 

the scientific community. Since its landing, MSL has already begun to 

make new and exciting science discoveries, such as observing a nat ural 

intersection of three kinds of terrain at an area called Glenelg and 

finding evidence that a stream once ran across the area on Mars where 

the rover is driving. Although earlier missions detected the presence of 

water on Mars, the images taken by MSL of rocks that contain ancient 

streambed gravel are the first of their kind.

The Canadian Space Agency (CSA) provided MSL’s Alpha Particle 

X-ray Spectrometer (APXS), which will measure the abundance of 

chemical elements in rocks and soils. The instrument will be placed 

in contact with rock and soil samples on Mars in order to expose the 

material to alpha particles and x rays that are emitted during the radioactive decay of the element curium. Scientists will use the APXS to help 

characterize and select rock and soil samples by examining the interiors 

of the rocks revealed through abrasion. By analyzing the elemental 

composition of rocks and soils, scientists hope to understand how the 

material first formed and whether it was later altered by wind, water, or 

ice. During the first use of the robotic arm to “touch” a rock, the MSL 

team used the APXS to study the rock—called Jake Matijevic—and 

to identify its chemical make-up. Earlier versions of this APXS flew on 

NASA’s Mars Pathfinder and Mars Exploration Rover missions.

For more information on the MSL mission and the APXS instrument, 

please visit http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/ and http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.

gov/msl/mission/instruments/spectrometers/apxs/.

This artist’s concept features NASA’s MSL Curiosity 

rover, a mobile robot for investigating Mars’s past and/or 

present ability to sustain microbial life. (Credit: NASA/Jet 

Propulsion Laboratory–Caltech)
18

Science

Canada

OSIRIS-REx

Origins Spectral Interpretation Resource 

Identification Security–Regolith Explorer

The Origins Spectral Interpretation Resource Identification Security–

Regolith Explorer (OSIRIS-REx), planned for launch in 2016, is the 

first U.S. mission developed to return a sample from an asteroid to 

Earth. The OSIRIS-REx mission is designed to return a minimum of 

60 grams of bulk regolith and 26 square centimeters of surface material 

from the asteroid. Analysis of these samples could provide unprecedented insight into pre-solar history through the initial stages of planet 

formation and up to the origin of life. NASA is collaborating with the 

Canadian Space Agency (CSA) and the French National Center for 

Space Studies (CNES) on this mission. 

The mission’s target asteroid is an accessible volatile- and organic-rich 

remnant from the early solar system. In April 2013, the asteroid was 

named “Bennu” as a result of an international naming contest. Bennu 

is the name of an Egyptian deity that is usually depicted as a heron. 

This name was chosen for the asteroid because OSIRIS-REx’s Touchand-Go Sample Mechanism (TAGSAM) arm and solar panels resemble 

the neck and wings of Bennu. 

Prior to sample acquisition, OSIRIS-REx will perform comprehensive 

global mapping of the texture, mineralogy, and chemistry of Bennu, 

thereby resolving geological features, revealing its geologic and dynamic 

history, and providing context for the returned samples. Mission 

scientists will also study the Yarkovsky effect, whereby sunlight striking 

a rotating body in space can, over time, exert enough force on the 

object to change its orbit.

OSIRIS-REx is scheduled to rendezvous with Bennu in 2019, and the 

sample return capsule should land on Earth in 2023. The OSIRIS-REx 

science instrument suite is expected to consist of a camera, a laser 

alti meter, a visible and infrared spectrometer, a thermal emission 

spectrometer, and a regolith x-ray imaging spectrometer.

CSA is providing the OSIRIS-REx Laser Altimeter (OLA), which 

has two separate transmitter assemblies to provide high-resolution 

topographical information. OLA, whose science team is led by the 

University of Calgary, will scan the entire surface of the asteroid to 

create a highly accurate, three-dimensional model that will provide 

mission scientists with fundamental and unprecedented information on 

the asteroid’s shape, topography, surface processes, and evolution. This 

instrument will also create local maps to assist scientists in selecting the 

best sites for sample collection. 

For more information on OSIRIS-Rex, please visit http://science.nasa.

gov/missions/osiris-rex/, http://www.atmosp.physics.utoronto.ca/MOPITT/

home.html, and http://osiris-rex.lpl.arizona.edu/.

An artist’s concept of OSIRIS-REx approaching the Bennu 

asteroid. The mission seeks to return a sample that will 

help scientists investigate planet formation and the origin 

of life; the data collected at the asteroid will also aid our 

understanding of asteroids that can impact Earth. (Credit: 

NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center/University of Arizona)
19

Human Exploration and Operations

Canada

RPM

Resource Prospector Mission

NASA is cooperating with the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) to 

develop a mission to characterize the presence of water and other 

volatiles on the lunar surface by direct ground-truth measurements. 

The mission will also validate the feasibility of extracting volatiles 

and oxygen from the lunar regolith and serve as a precursor for future 

prospecting missions to a variety of locations around the solar system.

NASA has been working on a Resource Prospector Mission (RPM) 

payload, an advanced instrument package designed to be mounted on a 

rover and driven over the surface of the Moon to map the distribution 

of water ice and other useful compounds. 

In July 2012, on the Mauna Kea volcano in Hawaii, NASA, with the 

cooperation of CSA, demonstrated the ability of the RPM payload 

mounted atop a Canadian rover to be maneuvered in a lunar-like 

landscape and perform the tasks necessary to map the distribution 

of water ice and other useful compounds on the lunar surface. With 

CSA’s coring drill, avionics, and rover, the Hawaii field demonstration 

prepared RPM for a possible future mission to the Moon. 

Current collaborations with CSA include engineering studies for a 

coring drill for the RPM mission and analyses on rover operations 

concepts. CSA has contemplated contributing a rover to the flight 

mission, and studies are proceeding. Launch of an RPM mission could 

occur as early as 2018.

For more information on the 2012 Field Demonstration, please visit 

http://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/ground/resolverover.html.

The Resource Prospector Mission is a miniature drilling 

and chemistry plant packaged onto a medium-sized rover 

to collect and analyze volatiles in lunar regolith.
20

Human Exploration and Operations

Canada

RRM

Robotic Refueling Mission 

The Robotic Refueling Mission (RRM) is a joint NASA–Canadian 

Space Agency (CSA) technology demonstration that CSA conducted on 

the International Space Station (ISS). The RRM payload is located on 

an external pallet on the ISS. It consists of task boards that represent the 

external interfaces of a legacy satellite and specialized tools that attach 

and are used by CSA’s Special Purpose Dexterous Manipulator (Dextre). 

Dextre utilizes the four unique RRM tools to demonstrate a suite of 

satellite-servicing and refueling tasks, including cutting and manipulating protective blankets and safety wires, unscrewing caps and accessing 

valves, and transferring fluid. RRM performs tasks to demonstrate the 

ability to robotically refuel and repair satellites in orbit that were not 

designed to be serviced. This is the first use of Dextre for technology 

research and development; previously it had been used only for robotic 

maintenance of the ISS. 

The RRM payload was launched on Space Transportation System 

(STS)–135 in July 2011 and began operations in March 2012. RRM 

operations are entirely remote-controlled by flight controllers at NASA’s 

Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) in Greenbelt, Maryland; Johnson 

Space Center (JSC) in Houston, Texas; Marshall Space Flight Center 

(MSFC) in Huntsville, Alabama; and CSA’s control center in St. 

Hubert, Quebec.

Robotic refueling and servicing could extend a satellite’s lifespan, 

potentially offering satellite owners and operators years of additional 

service and revenue, more value from the initial satellite investment, 

and significant savings in delayed replacement costs.

For more information on this joint NASA-CSA mission, please visit 

http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/RRM.html 

and http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/iss/rrm/default.asp.

The RRM module is prepared for launch on STS-135 at 

NASA’s Kennedy Space Center.

Spacewalker Mike Fossum, while anchored to the 

Canadian Space Agency’s Dextre robot, carries the RRM 

module from the Atlantis cargo bay to a temporary platform 

on the International Space Station.
21

Science

Canada

SCISAT-1

NASA and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) continue to cooperate 

on CSA’s SCISAT-1 mission, which was launched in 2003 from 

Vandenberg Air Force Base (VAFB), California. In addition to 

providing the launch on a Pegasus rocket, NASA contributed to the 

development of the Atmospheric Chemistry Experiment (ACE)–

Fourier Transform Spectrometer (FTS) instrument. NASA also provided science team support and algorithm development for analyzing 

the data.

The overall objective of the SCISAT-1 mission is to improve understanding of the depletion of the ozone layer, with close attention paid to 

the layer over Canada and the Arctic. Scientists combined the measurements obtained by the ACE-FTS and the Canadian Measurements of 

Aerosol Extinction in the Stratosphere and Troposphere Retrieved by 

Occultation (MAESTRO) instruments (also flying on SCISAT-1) with 

data gathered by ground-based, balloon-based, and other space-based 

missions in order to predict future trends relating to the chemistry 

of the ozone layer and its dynamics. SCISAT-1 provides near-global 

coverage, with observations of gas constituents, aerosols, and clouds in 

the stratosphere, as well as observations in the troposphere. SCISAT-1’s 

high accuracy and fine vertical resolution as it probes the Earth’s 

atmosphere enables it to validate measurements from NASA’s Aura 

mission, which also measures atmospheric composition.

In conjunction with other NASA and international partner instruments 

and missions that probe the Earth’s atmosphere, SCISAT-1 provides 

important data to better understand the chemistry and dynamics of 

the atmosphere that affect Earth’s protective ozone layer and their 

relationship to climate change.

For more information on SCISAT-1, please visit http://www.asc-csa.

gc.ca/eng/satellites/scisat/default.asp.

An artist’s concept of the SCISAT-1 spacecraft.
22

Science

Canada

SMAP

Soil Moisture Active Passive

NASA’s Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP) mission is one of the 

four tier-1 Earth science missions recommended by the U.S. National 

Research Council’s Earth Science Decadal Survey. SMAP will give 

scientists a more detailed look at the intersection of the water, energy, 

and carbon cycles on the land surface, enhancing our understanding of 

the climate system. 

Information from SMAP will be used to improve weather forecasting 

and short-term climate predictions, while also aiding flash flood 

guidance and drought assessment. The SMAP instrument suite will 

consist of a radiometer and a nonimaging synthetic aperture radar 

(SAR). SMAP measurements are expected to yield estimates of soil 

moisture and freeze/thaw state. The SMAP mission is designed to 

acquire these measurements for a period of 3 years and to use a comprehensive validation program to assess random errors and regional biases 

in the soil moisture and freeze/thaw estimates.

SMAP will employ a dedicated spacecraft with an instrument suite 

that is planned for launch into a near-polar, Sun-synchronous orbit no 

earlier than 2014.

The Canadian Space Agency (CSA) is supporting a Canadian science 

team in pre- and post-launch data calibration, validation, and algorithm development activities.

For more information on SMAP, please visit http://science.nasa.gov/

missions/smap/ and http://smap.jpl.nasa.gov/.

An artist’s concept of the SMAP satellite in orbit; the SMAP 

instrument incorporates an L-band radar and an L-band 

radiometer, which enable night or day observations of soil 

moisture through moderate vegetation cover, independent 

of cloud cover.
23

Science

Canada

Terra

The Canadian Space Agency (CSA) provided the Measurements of 

Pollution in the Troposphere (MOPITT) instrument on NASA’s Terra 

satellite, which was launched in 1999. MOPITT measures the pollution 

of Earth’s atmosphere from space using gas correlation spectroscopy. 

Terra, which had a planned mission life of 6 years, is operating in 

extended mission phase. 

MOPITT is Canada’s first major instrument to measure the pollution 

of Earth’s atmosphere from space, as well as the first satellite sensor 

to use gas correlation spectroscopy. The sensor measures emitted and 

reflected radiance from Earth in three spectral bands to determine the 

concentration of carbon monoxide and methane. MOPITT’s spatial 

resolution is 22 kilometers at nadir, and it views Earth in swaths that 

are 640 kilometers wide.

MOPITT’s continuous scan of the atmosphere has provided the world 

with the first long-term global measurements of carbon monoxide and 

methane gas levels in the atmosphere. These data, together with the 

other sensor measurements, are helping to form continuing integrated 

measurements of land, air, water, and life processes. These measurements are used by scientists to predict the long-term effects of pollution, 

to understand the increase of ozone in the lower atmosphere, and to 

guide the evaluation and application of shorter-term pollution controls.

For more information on MOPITT, please visit http://terra.nasa.gov/, 

http://www.atmosp.physics.utoronto.ca/MOPITT/home.html, and http://

www.eos.ucar.edu/mopitt/.

An illustration of how the MOPITT instrument scans a 

swath of Earth’s atmosphere.

This image of South America shows satellite observations 

of carbon monoxide, measured by the MOPITT sensor 

on the Terra satellite, as intense fires burned across the 

continent in September 2007. Carbon monoxide is one 

of several gases released by burning vegetation. (Credit: 

NASA image created by Jesse Allen, Earth Observatory, 

using data provided by the National Center for Atmospheric 

Research and the University of Toronto)
24

Science

Canada

THEMIS

Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions 

during Substorms

and 

ARTEMIS 

Acceleration, Reconnection, Turbulence and 

Electrodynamics of the Moon’s Interaction with 

the Sun 

NASA’s Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions during 

Substorms (THEMIS) mission originated as a 2-year mission consisting of five identical satellites, or probes, launched together in 2007 

to study the violent and colorful eruptions in auroras. The mission 

incorporates a network of ground-based auroral observatories. 

THEMIS helps to determine which physical processes in near-Earth 

space initiate violent substorm eruptions in the Earth’s magnetosphere. 

Substorms intensify auroras and create a dramatic “dancing” effect in 

them. Aligning five identical probes over observatories on the North 

American continent has allowed scientists to collect coordinated 

measurements along the Earth’s magnetic field lines, thereby providing 

the first comprehensive look at the onset of substorms and the manner 

in which they trigger auroral eruptions.

In 2009, NASA assigned two of the THEMIS satellites to a 

new mission—the Acceleration, Reconnection, Turbulence and 

Electrodynamics of the Moon’s Interaction with the Sun (ARTEMIS) 

mission—to measure solar wind turbulence at the Moon. Having 

repositioned two of the five THEMIS probes in coordinated, lunarequatorial orbits, ARTEMIS is now performing the first systematic, 

two-point observations of the distant magnetotail, the solar wind, and 

the lunar space environment. The primary objectives of the mission are 

to study how particles are accelerated at reconnection sites and shocks 

and how turbulence develops and evolves in Earth’s magnetotail and 

in the solar wind. The mission will determine the structure, formation, 

refilling, and downstream evolution of the lunar wake. The three 

remaining THEMIS satellites continue to study substorms that are 

visible in the Northern Hemisphere as aurora borealis. 

The German Aerospace Center (DLR) and the Technical University of 

Braunschweig developed and tested the fluxgate magnetometer (FGM) 

installed on each probe. The Austrian Space Agency (ASA), the Space 

Research Institute of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (IWF/ÖAW), 

the Canadian Space Agency (CSA), and the French National Center 

for Space Studies (CNES) also contributed to this mission. NASA’s 

contributions include the spacecraft, the launch, the ground network of 

observatories, and overall mission management.

For more information on THEMIS, please visit http://www.nasa.gov/

mission_pages/themis/main/index.html.

For more information on ARTEMIS, please visit http://www.nasa.gov/

mission_pages/artemis/index.html.

In addition to the 5 THEMIS spacecraft launched into 

space, 20 THEMIS ground stations located across North 

America can observe aurora from the ground.
25

Science

Czech Republic

Van Allen Probes

The Van Allen Probes mission, part of NASA’s Living With a Star 

(LWS) program, is providing unprecedented insight into the physical 

dynamics of Earth’s radiation belts and giving scientists the data they 

need to make predictions of changes in this critical region of space. The 

mission features two spacecraft, launched in 2012, that orbit Earth and 

sample the harsh radiation belt environment where major space weather 

activity occurs and many spacecraft operate. These two identical 

spacecraft are measuring the particles, magnetic and electric fields, 

and waves that fill geospace. By having two spacecraft take identical 

measurements while following the same path, scientists can begin to 

understand how the belts change in both space and time. 

The Van Allen Probes are designed to help understand the Sun’s 

influence on Earth and in near-Earth space by studying the planet’s 

radiation belts on various scales of space and time. The Van Allen 

Probes spacecraft will allow scientists to study the Van Allen radiation 

belts that surround our planet and to learn more about the processes 

that create them and cause them to vary in size and intensity. The goal 

of the mission is to understand the acceleration, global distribution, 

and variability of energetic electrons and ions in the radiation belts. 

Understanding the radiation belt environment and its variability has 

important practical applications in the areas of spacecraft operations, 

spacecraft and spacecraft system design, mission planning, and 

astronaut safety.

The instruments on the two Van Allen Probes spacecraft will provide 

the measurements needed to characterize and quantify the processes 

that produce relativistic ions and electrons. They will measure the 

properties of the charged particles that comprise the Earth’s radiation 

belts and the plasma waves that interact with them, the large-scale 

electric fields that transport them, and the magnetic field that 

guides them.

Charles University in Prague is collaborating on the flight software 

for the waveform receivers (known as “Waves”), which are part of the 

Electric and Magnetic Field Instrument Suite and Integrated Science 

(EMFISIS) instrument suite. The EMFISIS instrument suite will help 

scientists to better understand the origin and role of plasma waves in 

particle acceleration and in the evolution of the magnetic field.

The Institute of Atmospheric Physics (IAP), as part of the Academy 

of Sciences of the Czech Republic, is cooperating with NASA to share 

heliophysics and space weather research data from new NASA missions 

such as the Van Allen Probes. The IAP will provide the necessary ground 

assets to acquire and process the space weather broadcast data from the 

Van Allen Probes and will share this dataset with NASA researchers.

For more information on the Van Allen Probes, please visit http://

science.nasa.gov/missions/van-allen-probes/.

An artist’s concept of the twin Van Allen Probes spacecraft.

An artist’s rendering showing the two Van Allen Probes 

observing the Sun and its effects on Earth. (Credit: Johns 

Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory)
26

Education and Outreach

Denmark

LEGO 

NASA’s cooperation with the LEGO Group formally began with the 

signing of an international Space Act Agreement in October 2010. This 

relationship has served to develop innovative public education products 

and outreach activities, further NASA’s missions in outreach and 

education, and highlight the shared theme of “Building and Exploring 

Our Future.” 

Since the start of the partnership between LEGO and NASA, many 

projects have been undertaken to encourage interest and awareness in 

NASA’s science, technology, engineering, and exploration programs. 

In fall 2010, during the pre-launch activities of Space Transportation 

System (STS)–133, an activity was set up for children to build their 

vision of the future in space using over 100,000 LEGO bricks at NASA’s 

Kennedy Space Center (KSC). This “Build the Future” event was 

repeated at the subsequent NASA Space Shuttle and rocket launches at 

KSC of STS-134, STS-135, Juno, and the Mars Science Laboratory. 

To help promote NASA’s educational goals related to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education, flight-certified 

LEGO bricks were sent to the International Space Station (ISS) in 

February 2011 aboard STS-134. The astronauts used the educational 

kits to demonstrate to children the differences in building things in the 

microgravity environment of space compared to on Earth. 

LEGO created toy figures (LEGO Minifigures) of Galileo and the 

Roman gods Jupiter and Juno that were affixed to the outside of 

NASA’s Juno spacecraft prior to its launch in August 2011. The 

LEGO Minifigures were developed to help spark public interest in 

the mission and in the study of the planet Jupiter. When the Juno 

spacecraft arrives at its destination, the LEGO Minifigures will be 

the furthest toys from Earth.

LEGO Mindstorms kits, which include the components to build and 

program robots made from LEGO bricks, are also planned to help 

further involve the public in NASA missions. The kits are intended 

to help middle-school teachers learn how to teach robotics in the 

classroom, but they can also be used by extracurricular groups. The kits 

will include components related to a manned trip to Mars and other 

locations, with inductive research ideas based on NASA’s three Space 

Technology Grand Challenges. 

For more information on NASA’s cooperation with LEGO, please visit 

http://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreducators/nasa-lego-partnership.html, 

http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/behindscenes/lego.html, and 

http://www.legospace.com/en-us/Default.aspx.

Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) astronaut 

Satoshi Furukawa presents his completed LEGO model of 

the International Space Station.

NASA and LEGO sponsor a “Build the Future” activity at 

NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in November 2010.
27

Science

Denmark

MER

Mars Exploration Rovers

The Niels Bohr Institute for Astronomy, Physics, and Geophysics (NBI) 

at the University of Copenhagen provided the permanent magnet arrays 

for the Athena Payload on NASA’s Mars Exploration Rover (MER) 

mission. Athena is MER’s science payload, consisting of a package of 

science instruments that includes two instruments for surveying the 

landing site and three instruments located on each rover’s arm for 

close-up study of rocks. Each rover has three sets of permanent magnet 

arrays that work in conjunction with the science instruments and collect 

airborne dust for analysis. A periodic examination of this dust can reveal 

clues about its mineralogy and the planet’s geological history. 

The MER mission, involving two robotic geologists—Spirit and 

Opportunity—is part of NASA’s Mars Exploration Program. Primary 

among the MER mission’s scientific goals is to search for and characterize a wide range of rocks and soils that hold clues to past water activity. 

The MER mission seeks to determine where conditions may once have 

been favorable to life by analyzing the climate and water histories at 

sites on Mars. Each rover is equipped with the Athena science payload, 

which is used to read the geological record at each site, investigate what 

role water played there, and determine how suitable the conditions 

would have been for life.

Spirit and Opportunity worked on Mars well beyond their originally 

planned 3-month missions; Spirit fell silent in March 2010, but 

Opportunity has continued to send data downlinks to Earth. Within 2 

months of landing on Mars, Opportunity found geological evidence of 

an environment that was once wet. 

In 2011, Opportunity discovered bright veins of a mineral deposited 

by water on the Martian surface. This water-related mineral, believed 

to be gypsum, supports the hypothesis that water flowed through 

underground fractures in the rock. The vein is made up of calcium 

sulfate that was identified by Opportunity’s Alpha Particle X-ray 

Spectrometer (APXS). 

NASA’s Opportunity rover is one of five active robotic missions 

at Mars, including NASA’s Mars Odyssey orbiter and Mars 

Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO), the European Space Agency’s (ESA) 

Mars Express orbiter, and NASA’s Mars Science Laboratory (MSL). 

The orbiters and surface missions complement each other in many 

ways. Observations by the rovers provide ground-level understanding 

for interpreting global observations made by the orbiters. In addition to 

their own science missions, the orbiters relay data from the Mars rovers.

For more information on MER, please visit http://marsrovers.nasa.gov/

home/index.html and http://athena.cornell.edu/.

An artist’s concept of an MER on the Martian surface.

This image was captured by the Spirit Rover on January 

15, 2004, as it rolled off its lander platform onto the 

Martian soil.
28

Science

Denmark

NuSTAR

Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array

NASA’s Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array (NuSTAR) mission, 

launched in June 2012, will allow astronomers to study the universe in 

high-energy x rays. Nine days after its launch, engineers at NuSTAR’s 

mission control at University of California Berkeley sent a signal 

to the spacecraft to begin deploying its 10-meter mast. The mast 

was deployed and secured over a span of 26 minutes, making it the 

first deployed mast ever used on a space telescope. As a result of this 

achievement, NuSTAR became the first focusing hard x-ray telescope 

to orbit Earth, and it is expected to greatly exceed the performance of 

the largest ground-based observatories that have examined this region 

in the electromagnetic spectrum. NuSTAR will also complement 

astrophysics missions that explore the cosmos in other regions of the 

spectrum. NASA is collaborating with the Danish Technical University 

and Italian Space Agency (ASI) on the NuSTAR mission. 

NuSTAR is able to focus the high-energy x-ray light into sharp images 

because of a complex, innovative telescope design. High-energy light 

is difficult to focus because it reflects off mirrors only when hitting 

at nearly parallel angles. NuSTAR ingeniously solves this problem 

by using nested shells of mirrors in its design. It has the most nested 

shells ever used in a space telescope—133 in each of two optic units. 

The mirrors were molded from ultrathin glass similar to that found in 

laptop screens and glazed with even thinner layers of reflective coating.

NuSTAR’s optics were constructed by a team that included the 

Danish Technical University, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center 

(GSFC), NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), and the Lawrence 

Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL). The reflective coating was 

applied in Copenhagen, Denmark. ASI is providing the mission with 

the use of the Malindi Ground Station, operated by ASI and located 

in Malindi, Kenya, as the primary NuSTAR data downlink and 

command uplink facility.

For more information on NuSTAR, please visit http://www.nasa.gov/

nustar.

An artist’s concept of NuSTAR orbiting Earth; NuSTAR has 

a 10-meter mast that deploys after launch to separate 

the optics modules (right) from the detectors in the focal 

plane (left). The spacecraft and the solar panels are 

with the focal plane. NuSTAR has two identical optics 

modules in order to increase sensitivity. The background 

is an image of the Galactic Center obtained with the 

Chandra X-ray Observatory. (Credit: NASA/Jet Propulsion 

Laboratory–Caltech)

High-energy x-ray data from NASA’s NuSTAR spacecraft 

has been translated to the color magenta and superimposed on a visible-light view of the Caldwell 5 spiral 

galaxy. NuSTAR is the first orbiting telescope to take 

focused pictures of the cosmos in high-energy x-ray light. 

The visible-light image is from the Digitized Sky Survey. 

(Credit: NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory–Caltech/Digitized 

Sky Survey)
29

Science

Europe

Cassini-Huygens

Cassini-Huygens—a joint mission by NASA, the European Space 

Agency (ESA), and the Italian Space Agency (ASI) to explore Saturn, 

Titan, and the other moons of the Saturnian system—has two 

distinct elements: NASA’s Cassini orbiter and ESA’s Huygens probe. 

ASI provided the high-gain antenna (HGA) and instrumentation 

for the Cassini orbiter. In addition, scientists from the United States 

and Europe contributed to and participated in the science teams that 

designed and developed several of the scientific instruments for Cassini 

and the Huygens probe. 

The Cassini-Huygens spacecraft was launched in 1997, and 7 years 

later it entered the Saturnian system and established orbit around 

Saturn. In December 2004, the Huygens probe was jettisoned from the 

Cassini orbiter and successfully completed its 20-day mission to enter 

the atmosphere and land on the surface of Titan. 

A total of seventeen nations contributed to building Cassini-Huygens, 

and nearly 300 scientists from the United States and Europe study the 

several gigabytes of data generated by the spacecraft on a daily basis. 

The following European countries cooperated with NASA on Cassini’s 

scientific instruments and on two of the Huygens probe’s scientific 

instruments, either through provision of hardware or sponsorship of 

scientists on the instrument science teams that were responsible for the 

design, development, testing, integration, and post-launch operation 

of the instruments: Austria, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, 

Norway, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.

Originally slated for a 2008 decommission, Cassini-Huygens’s mission 

was extended until 2017. Cassini found that Saturn’s rings are a complex 

place where small moons and ring particles jostle and collide, and where 

waves and jets constantly form and dissipate. Cassini discovered an 

icy plume shooting from Enceladus, and subsequent observations have 

revealed that the spray contains complex organic chemicals. Questions 

surrounding Enceladus’s astrobiological potential are at the heart of many 

investigations that are being conducted on the mission. In addition, 

Cassini investigated the structure and complex organic chemistry of 

Titan’s thick, smog-filled atmosphere. On the frigid surface, the spacecraft and its Huygens probe revealed vast methane lakes and widespread 

stretches of wind-sculpted hydrocarbon sand dunes. Cassini researchers 

also deduced the presence of an internal, liquid water-ammonia ocean.

For more information on the Huygens Probe and the Cassini-Huygens 

mission, please visit http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Cassini-Huygens, 

http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/, and http://www.nasa.gov/cassini.

In 2005, the Huygens probe landed on Titan, Saturn’s 

enigmatic moon, and sent back the first-ever images from 

beneath Titan’s thick cloud layers. This artist’s rendering 

is based on those images. The parachute that slowed 

Huygens’s reentry is seen in the background, still attached 

to the lander. (Credit: European Space Agency)

This artist’s concept shows NASA’s Cassini spacecraft 

exploring the magnetic environment of Saturn. Saturn’s 

magnetosphere is depicted in gray, while the complex 

bow shock region—the shock wave in the solar wind that 

surrounds the magnetosphere—is shown in blue. (Credit: 

European Space Agency)
30

Science

Europe

Herschel

The European Space Agency’s (ESA) Herschel Space Observatory 

is a space-based telescope that uses the light of the far-infrared and 

submillimeter portions of the spectrum to study the universe. It is able 

to reveal new information about the earliest, most distant stars and 

galaxies, as well as those closer to Earth in space and time. Herschel 

contains the largest single mirror ever built for a space telescope. 

The Herschel mission launched in May 2009 together with ESA’s 

Planck spacecraft, and the two spacecraft shared the same 4-month 

journey to independently enter their orbits between the Sun and 

Earth. As expected, the liquid-helium coolant on board the Herschel 

spacecraft was exhausted in April 2013, ending the space-based portion 

of the mission; analysis of the data collected, however, will continue for 

many years to come. 

The Herschel telescope focuses light onto three instruments: the 

Spectral and Photometric Imaging Receiver (SPIRE), the Heterodyne 

Instrument for the Far-Infrared (HIFI), and the Photoconductor Array 

Camera and Spectrometer (PACS). SPIRE has two main components: 

a low-to-medium-resolution spectrometer and a photometer. It detects 

protons directly through a web-like bolometer, an instrument that can 

detect very small amounts of energy and convert them into electrical 

signals. The United Kingdom provided the majority of the design, 

development, and calibration of the SPIRE instrument, in cooperation 

with NASA. HIFI is a very-high-resolution heterodyne spectrometer. 

Rather than producing pictures of stars and galaxies, HIFI provides 

extremely detailed spectra of their atoms and molecules. The 

Netherlands provided most of the support for the HIFI instrument, 

also in collaboration with NASA, which provided the NASA Herschel 

Science Center (NHSC) for data archiving and analysis.

For more information on the Herschel Space Observatory, please visit 

http://herschel.jpl.nasa.gov/index.shtml and http://sci.esa.int/science-e/

www/area/index.cfm?fareaid=16.

An artist’s concept of the Herschel Space Observatory. 

(Credit: European Space Agency)
31

Science

Europe

Mars Express

Mars Express, named for its rapid and streamlined development, marks 

the European Space Agency’s (ESA) first visit to another planet in the 

solar system. Mars Express is helping to answer fundamental questions 

about the geology, atmosphere, surface environment, history of water, 

and potential for life on Mars.

The ESA-led Mars Express mission, launched in 2003, consists of an 

orbiter with seven experiments and a lander called Beagle 2. The orbiter 

has been a huge scientific success since it entered orbit in December 

2003. ESA lost contact with the Beagle 2 lander after it was released 

from the orbiter, but its loss has not discouraged ESA from planning 

future attempts to land on Mars.

Working with ESA, NASA provided scientific and engineering 

support to the Mars Express mission, as well as significant Deep Space 

Network communications coverage for the mission. NASA worked 

on a bilateral basis with several ESA member states on the Beagle 2 

lander and each of the seven experiments on the orbiter. NASA’s main 

hardware contributions for the orbiter involved the joint development 

of the Mars Advanced Radar for Subsurface and Ionospheric Sounding 

(MARSIS) instrument with the Italian Space Agency (ASI) and the 

Analyzer of Space Plasmas and Energetic Atoms version 3 (ASPERA-3) 

instrument with the Swedish Institute of Space Physics (IRF). NASA 

also contributed to the development of the following instruments: the 

high-resolution stereo camera (HRSC) and the Mars Radio Science 

Experiment (MaRS) provided by the German Aerospace Center (DLR), 

the ASI-provided Planetary Fourier Spectrometer (PFS), and the Visible 

and Infrared Mineralogical Mapping Spectrometer (OMEGA) and 

Spectroscopy for Investigation of Characteristics of the Atmosphere 

of Mars (SPICAM) provided by the French National Center for Space 

Studies (CNES).

Mars Express has revolutionized scientists’ view of the Red Planet. 

The MARSIS instrument made new measurements of Mars’s south 

polar region that may indicate the presence of extensive frozen water. 

MARSIS also found evidence of buried impact basins. The SPICAM 

instrument discovered an aurora around Mars, and the OMEGA 

instrument revealed that the polar caps on Mars consist chiefly of 

carbon dioxide (CO2

) and exhibit seasonal variations in their coverage.

The OMEGA spectrometer on the Mars Express orbiter has aided in 

the discovery of clay materials, indicating that the planet once hosted 

warm, wet conditions. Concerning these recent discoveries, scientists 

have formulated a hypothesis that suggests Martian environments 

with abundant liquid water on the surface existed only for short 

episodes of time. 

For more information on ESA’s Mars Express mission, please visit 

http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Mars_Express/index.html and http://mars.

jpl.nasa.gov/express/.

An artist’s concept of Mars Express orbiting the Red 

Planet. (Credit: European Space Agency)

This map shows the thickness of layered deposits at the 

south polar region of Mars, an ice-rich geologic unit that 

was probed by the MARSIS instrument.
32

Science

Europe

Planck

From its position at the L2 Lagrange point, the European Space Agency 

(ESA)–led Planck mission, launched in 2009, is able to measure the 

cosmic microwave background (CMB) across nearly the full sky. Planck 

measures both minute temperature fluctuations and the polarization of 

the CMB, which is leading to a better understanding of the large-scale 

structure and history of the universe. With its precision instruments, 

Planck extracts essentially all of the cosmological information contained within the temperature map of the CMB. In addition, its map 

of the CMB polarization provides further insights into the evolution of 

the universe. 

The Planck spacecraft consists of a telescope and two instruments—the 

high-frequency instrument (HFI) and the low-frequency instrument 

(LFI)—that measure neighboring bands of the CMB spectrum. 

The French National Center for Space Studies (CNES), NASA, 

and scientific institutes in the United Kingdom were the primary 

collaborators on the design, construction, and integration of the HFI. 

The Italian Space Agency (ASI), NASA, scientific institutes in the 

United Kingdom, and the Finnish Funding Agency for Technology 

and Innovation (Tekes) were the principal parties in the construction 

and integration of the LFI. In addition to executing the launch, ESA 

provided the telescope and spacecraft for the Planck mission. 

For more information on the Planck mission, please visit http://sci.esa.

int/planck.

An artist’s concept of the Planck spacecraft. (Credit: 

European Space Agency)

Located in the focal plane of the telescope, Planck’s 

low-frequency instrument and high-frequency instrument 

are equipped with a total of 74 detectors covering nine 

frequency channels. Microwave light collected by the 

telescope reaches the instrument detectors via the conical 

feed horns. (Credit: European Space Agency)
33

Science

Europe

Solar Orbiter

Solar Orbiter is a European Space Agency (ESA) mission with significant NASA participation that will explore the near-Sun environment 

to improve our understanding of how the Sun creates the environment 

of the inner solar system and, more broadly, generates the heliosphere 

itself, as well as how fundamental plasma physical processes operate 

near the Sun. NASA is contributing two instruments to the mission 

and is also providing the launch of the spacecraft. ESA is providing the 

spacecraft bus, integration of the instruments onto the bus, mission 

operations, and overall science operations. Individual European nations 

are providing the remainder of the ten-instrument payload. The 

Solar Orbiter mission is scheduled to be launched in 2017 from Cape 

Canaveral Air Force Station (CCAFS) in Florida. 

Solar Orbiter will provide close-up views of the Sun’s polar regions 

and its far side, and it will tune its orbit to the direction of the Sun’s 

rotation to allow the spacecraft to observe a specific region for much 

longer than is currently possible. This will provide better insight into 

the evolution of sunspots, active regions, coronal holes, and other solar 

features and phenomena. 

NASA’s two instrument contributions are the Solar Orbiter 

Heliospheric Imager (SoloHI), a wide-field heliospheric imager provided by the Naval Research Laboratory; and a Heavy Ion Spectrometer 

(HIS) provided by Southwest Research Institute, part of the Solar 

Wind Plasma Analyzer (SWA). NASA is also collaborating individually 

with Belgium, France, Italy, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom on 

these Solar Orbiter instruments. 

For more information on Solar Orbiter, please visit http://science.nasa.

gov/missions/solar-orbiter/.

An artist’s concept of Solar Orbiter observing the Sun. 

(Credit: European Space Agency)

Solar Orbiter, ESA’s next-generation Sun explorer, will 

investigate the connections and the coupling between the 

Sun and the heliosphere, a huge bubble in space created 

by the solar wind. The solar wind can cause auroras and 

disrupt satellite-based communication. (Credit: European 

Space Agency)
34

Science

Europe 

STEREO

Solar TErrestrial RElations Observatory

By flying two spacecraft in orbit around the Sun while separated such 

that each has a view of the opposite sides of our closest star, NASA’s 

Solar TErrestrial RElations Observatory (STEREO) mission provides a 

unique and revolutionary view of the Sun-Earth system. 

The French National Center for Space Studies (CNES), German 

Aerospace Center (DLR), Hungarian Space Office (HSO), Swiss Space 

Office (SSO), and the United Kingdom (U.K.) Space Agency are all 

providing support for this mission, which NASA launched in 2006.

The two nearly identical spacecraft—one ahead of Earth in its solar 

orbit, the other trailing behind—have traced the flow of energy and 

matter from the Sun to Earth. STEREO has also revealed the threedimensional (3-D) structure of coronal mass ejections (CMEs). CMEs 

travel away from the Sun at speeds of approximately one million miles 

per hour (mph) and can create major disturbances in the interplanetary 

medium and trigger severe magnetic storms when they collide with 

Earth’s magnetosphere. The STEREO satellites are a key addition 

to the fleet of space weather detection satellites because, by taking 

advantage of their unique side-viewing perspective, they provide more 

accurate alerts for the arrival time of Earth-directed solar ejections.

Each STEREO spacecraft has four suites of instruments—three led by 

U.S. scientists and one led by French scientists. The STEREO/Wind/

Radio and Plasma Wave Experiment (S/WAVES) is an interplanetary 

radio-burst tracker that traces the generation and evolution of traveling 

radio disturbances from the Sun to the orbit of Earth. CNES is sponsoring the principal investigator and provided this instrument suite. 

In-situ Measurements of Particles and CME Transients (IMPACT) 

samples the 3-D distribution of these solar energetic particles, provides 

the plasma characteristics of them, and measures the local vector magnetic field. The European Space Agency (ESA), CNES, DLR, HSO, 

and SSO contributed to IMPACT. Sun Earth Connection Coronal and 

Heliospheric Investigation (SECCHI) consists of an extreme-ultraviolet 

imager, two white-light coronagraphs, and a heliospheric imager. 

SECCHI studies the 3-D evolution of CMEs from birth at the Sun’s 

surface through the corona and interplanetary medium to its eventual 

impact at Earth. CNES, DLR, and the U.K. Space Agency contributed 

to SECCHI. The PLAsma and SupraThermal Ion Composition 

(PLASTIC) instrument provides key diagnostic measurements on the 

form of mass and charge-state composition of heavy ions and characterizes the CME plasma from ambient coronal plasma. DLR, HSO, and 

SSO contributed to PLASTIC. 

For more information on STEREO, please visit http://www.nasa.gov/

stereo.

An artist’s rendering of a coronal mass ejection sweeping 

past one of the STEREO satellite observatories.

The far side unveiled! This is the first complete image 

of the solar far side, the half of the Sun invisible from 

Earth. Captured in June 2011, this composite image was 

assembled from NASA’s two STEREO spacecraft.
35

Science

European Space Agency

Cluster-II

Since being launched into an elliptical polar orbit in the summer of 

2000, the European Space Agency’s (ESA) four identical Cluster-II 

satellites have continuously crossed from Earth’s magnetic field into 

the solar wind and back again, resulting in the most detailed investigation ever of the interaction between the Sun and Earth. More 

than a dozen years later, the Cluster-II quartet has provided the first 

three-dimensional (3-D) view of near-Earth space and continues to 

unravel the secrets of the invisible particles and magnetic fields that 

envelop our planet.

Cluster-II’s four satellites—Rumba, Samba, Salsa, and Tango—fly in 

formation around Earth to provide a 3-D picture of how the continuous 

solar wind, composed of charged particles and plasma from the Sun, 

affects the near-Earth space environment and its protective magnetic 

bubble, known as the magnetosphere. Each spacecraft carries an 

identical suite of 11 scientific instruments, and the satellites are positioned in orbit to form the four points of a pyramid. This arrangement 

allows for the collection of data that can be used to generate 3-D views 

of structures in both the magnetosphere and solar wind.

As a cooperative science project, ESA and NASA have worked closely 

together throughout the mission. ESA is providing the management of 

the satellites and the science operations, while NASA-sponsored investigators are participating in the operation of the scientific instruments, 

data processing, and analyses of the Cluster-II scientific data.

During its years of discovery, Cluster-II has provided numerous 

new insights into the fundamental processes that influence not only 

near-Earth space, but also the universe as a whole. Cluster-II data has 

been used to study magnetic reconnection, a physical process that can 

cause the ejection of solar plasma jets toward Earth that affect Global 

Positioning System (GPS) and radio communications. Cluster-II has 

confirmed that black auroras—strange electrical phenomena that generate dark, empty regions within the Northern and Southern Lights—are 

a kind of “anti-aurora” that draw electrons from the ionosphere. 

Cluster-II was also able to make a key discovery about “killer electrons,” 

which are high-energy particles trapped in the outer Van Allen radiation 

belt. These particles move close to the speed of light and carry enough 

energy to penetrate satellite shielding and cause electrical shorts that can 

seriously damage vital components.

For more information on the Cluster-II mission, please visit http://sci.esa.

int/science-e/www/area/index.cfm?fareaid=8.

An artist’s concept of the Cluster-II satellites. (Credit: 

European Space Agency)

An illustration of solar wind arriving at Earth’s magnetosphere.
36

Science

European Space Agency 

Euclid 

Euclid is a European Space Agency (ESA)–led mission to map the 

geometry of the dark universe. Seeking to understand the origin of the 

universe’s accelerating expansion, Euclid will probe dark energy and 

measure cosmological parameters. It will employ cosmological probes 

to investigate the nature of dark energy, gravity, and dark matter by 

tracking their observational signatures in the geometry of the universe 

and the cosmic history of structure formation. ESA is scheduled to 

launch Euclid in 2019, and the mission is designed for a 6-year lifespan. 

Euclid will use two complementary techniques to accomplish its 

mission: weak gravitational lensing (WL) and Baryonic Acoustic 

Oscillations (BAO). WL is a unique technique that maps dark matter 

and measures dark energy by quantifying the apparent distortions 

of galaxy images, thereby detecting changes in the galaxy’s observed 

ellipticity that are caused by mass inhomogeneities along the line of 

sight. The lensing signal is derived from the statistical measurement of 

the slight distortions in the shapes of galaxies, taking into account their 

distances. In addition, Euclid surveys yield data on several important 

complementary cosmological phenomena such as galaxy clustering, 

redshift space distortions, and the integrated Sachs-Wolfe effect. 

Euclid consists of a 1.2-meter Korsch telescope that directs light to two 

instruments: the visual imager (VIS) and the near-infrared spectrograph and photometer (NISP). NASA will provide near-infrared (NIR) 

detectors for NISP. VIS provides high-quality images to carry out the 

weak-lensing galaxy-shear measurements. NISP performs imaging 

photometry to provide near-infrared photometric measurements for 

photometric redshifts, and it also carries out slitless spectroscopy to 

obtain spectroscopic redshifts. 

Euclid’s surveys will yield unique data in various fields of astrophysics 

and will provide a primary database for next-generation multiwavelength 

surveys. The mission is planned to produce a dataset, with images and 

photometry, of more than a billion galaxies and several million spectra. 

For more information on Euclid, please visit http://euclid.gsfc.nasa.gov/.

An artist’s impression of Euclid. (Credit: European 

Space Agency)
37

Science

European Space Agency 

ExoMars

ExoMars is the flagship mission set of the European Space Agency’s 

(ESA) robotic exploration program. Consisting of missions to Mars in 

2016 and 2018, the ExoMars program seeks to establish whether life 

ever existed on Mars—one of the outstanding scientific questions of 

our time. In its investigation of the Martian environment, the ExoMars 

program will demonstrate new technologies, thereby paving the way 

for a future Mars Sample Return mission in the 2020s. In 2012, Russia 

joined ESA as a partner on these missions. 

Two missions are foreseen within the ExoMars program: one consisting 

of an orbiter and an Entry, Descent, and Landing (EDL) Demonstrator 

Module (EDM), to be launched in 2016; and the other, with a 

launch date of 2018, featuring a rover to be landed on the surface of 

Mars. The ExoMars program will demonstrate a number of essential 

flight and in situ enabling technologies that are necessary for future 

exploration missions, such as an international Mars Sample Return 

mission, including: EDL of a payload on the surface of Mars; surface 

mobility with a rover; access to the subsurface to acquire samples; and 

sample acquisition, preparation, distribution, and analysis. At the same 

time, a number of important scientific investigations will be carried 

out, including: searching for signs of past and present life on Mars, 

investigating how the water and geochemical environment varies, and 

investigating Martian atmospheric trace gases and their sources.

The 2016 mission will include the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter, which 

will carry the EDM as well as its own suite of scientific instruments to 

detect and study atmospheric trace gases, such as methane. The EDM 

will contain sensors to evaluate the lander’s performance as it descends, 

and additional sensors to study the environment at the landing site. 

NASA is planning to provide the Electra telecommunications package 

on the orbiter, support science co-investigators on some of the orbiter’s 

instruments, provide engineering support to the mission as a whole, 

and provide data-relay support to the EDM on a best-efforts basis.

The 2018 mission will center on the ExoMars rover, which will carry a 

drill and a suite of instruments dedicated to exobiology and geochemistry 

research. NASA intends to provide the mission with engineering support 

and to work with the German Aerospace Center (DLR) in providing 

portions of the Mars Organic Molecule Analyzer (MOMA) instrument.

International cooperation is recognized as a cornerstone of future Mars 

exploration, and NASA and ESA are continuing a dialogue about possible 

future opportunities to collaborate beyond the 2018 launch opportunity.

For more information on ESA’s ExoMars program, please visit http://

exploration.esa.int/science-e/www/area/index.cfm?fareaid=118.

An artist’s concept of the ExoMars orbiter. (Credit: 

European Space Agency)
38

Science

European Space Agency

HST

Hubble Space Telescope

The European Space Agency (ESA) joined NASA in developing the 

Hubble Space Telescope (HST) in 1977. HST was launched by the 

Space Shuttle into low-Earth orbit in 1990. ESA provided the Faint 

Object Camera (FOC), an instrument for high-resolution imagery 

in the ultraviolet, visual, and near-infrared portions of the spectrum; 

two 12-meter solar arrays to provide power for HST; and a second set 

of solar arrays to replace the first set. This second set of arrays was 

installed during Servicing Mission 1 in December 1993, and it operated 

for over 8 years. The second set of solar arrays was replaced with more 

robust solar arrays during Servicing Mission 3B in March 2002. 

ESA was represented on the HST Science Working Group, which was 

the principal mechanism for scientific input to the HST Project Office 

during the development of HST. ESA provided post-launch operational 

support, with experts located at the HST project office and the science 

operations facility. European astronomers receive approximately 15 

percent of HST viewing time.

Over its 22-year history, HST has been used by astronomers to: take 

over a million exposures and assemble hundreds of thousands of images 

that have expanded our knowledge of the universe; take images of 

galaxies in the local universe such as Messier 101 (M101), capturing 

the largest and most detailed photo of a spiral galaxy ever released; 

complete an 8-year effort to measure the expansion of the universe, 

which resulted in one of the most important scientific discoveries of 

our time—that the universe is expanding at an accelerating rate, driven 

by an unknown force; provide convincing evidence for the existence 

of black holes several billion times the mass of the Sun in the nuclei of 

some giant galaxies, as well as find evidence that supermassive black 

holes are at the core of most, if not all, galaxies; discover 16 extrasolar 

planet candidates orbiting a variety of distant stars in the central region 

of our Milky Way galaxy; and confirm the presence of two moons 

around the distant minor planet Pluto.

For more information on HST, please visit http://hubble.nasa.gov/ and 

http://www.spacetelescope.org/about/index.html.

This photo of the HST was taken from Space Shuttle 

Columbia during the STS-109 mission.

This detailed picture of the Helix Nebula shows a 

fine web of filaments, like the spokes of a bicycle, 

embedded in the colorful red and blue gas ring around 

a dying star. The Helix Nebula is one of the nearest 

planetary nebulae to Earth—only 650 light years away. 

(Credit: NASA, National Optical Astronomy Observatory, 

ESA, the Hubble Helix Nebula Team, M. Meixner [Space 

Telescope Science Institute], and T.A. Rector [National 

Radio Astronomy Observatory])
39

Human Exploration and Operations

European Space Agency

ISS

International Space Station

The European Space Agency’s (ESA) primary contributions to 

the International Space Station (ISS) Program are the Columbus 

Laboratory, Nodes 2 and 3, the Cupola, the Automated Transfer 

Vehicle (ATV), and the European Robotic Arm (ERA).

The ISS Program is a partnership among the space agencies of Canada, 

Europe, Japan, Russia, and the United States. International crews have 

continuously inhabited the ISS since November 2000. Cargo transportation is provided by European, Russian, and Japanese vehicles and 

by NASA’s contracts for Commercial Resupply Services (CRS). Crew 

transportation and rescue is currently provided by the Russian Federal 

Space Agency and, beginning in 2017, will be provided by NASA’s 

commercial crew transportation services. 

NASA’s contributions to the ISS Program include overall management, 

coordination, and integration of the ISS Program across the partnership 

for operations, safety, transportation, and integrated hardware 

performance. NASA hardware components include the U.S. laboratory 

module, the airlock for extravehicular activities (EVA), truss segments 

to support the U.S. solar arrays and thermal radiators, three connecting 

nodes, and living quarters. 

The ISS functions as an orbital microgravity and life sciences 

laboratory, a test bed for new technologies in areas such as life support 

and robotics, and a platform for astronomical and Earth observations. 

The ISS also serves as a unique engineering test bed for flight systems 

and operations critical to NASA’s future exploration missions. U.S. 

research on the ISS concentrates on the long-term effects of space travel 

on humans and on technology development activities in support of 

exploration. The ISS is a stepping-stone for human exploration and 

scientific discovery beyond low-Earth orbit. 

ESA’s Columbus Laboratory houses ISS research facilities for experiments in life and materials science, fluid physics, biosciences, and 

technological applications. Node 2, built by ESA for NASA, connects 

the U.S., European, and Japanese laboratories and provides utilities 

essential to support life on the ISS. The Cupola and Node 3 were both 

built for NASA by ESA. The Cupola is a pressurized observation and 

control tower for the ISS with windows that provide a panoramic view 

through which crew members can observe and guide operations on the 

outside of the ISS. Node 3 is the central home for ISS’s environmental 

control equipment. ESA’s ATVs are logistical resupply vehicles that 

dock to the ISS and provide dry cargo, atmospheric gas, water, and propellant delivery. ESA is providing five ATVs for the ISS. The European 

Robotic Arm is based on the Russian Multipurpose Laboratory Module 

and can be moved to different locations on the exterior of the ISS. 

For more information on the ISS and ESA’s contributions, please visit 

http://www.esa.int/esaHS/ESAQEI0VMOC_iss_0.html and http://www.

nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/main/index.html.

This photo of the European Space Agency’s Columbus 

Laboratory was taken by the Space Shuttle Endeavour’s 

crew on STS-127 as the orbiter circled the Space Station.

The European Space Agency’s “Edoardo Amaldi” 

Automated Transfer Vehicle-3 (ATV-3) approaches the 

International Space Station in March 2012. With a successful docking, the unmanned cargo spacecraft delivers 

220 pounds of oxygen, 628 pounds of water, 4.5 tons 

of propellant, and nearly 2.5 tons of dry cargo, including 

experiment hardware, spare parts, food, and clothing.
40

Human Exploration and Operations

European Space Agency

ISS Early Utilization

Recognizing the mutual NASA and European Space Agency (ESA) 

interest in International Space Station (ISS) utilization during early 

phases of the program, the agencies initiated cooperative activities 

to ensure early research opportunities. This cooperation permitted 

the location and operation of hardware and experiments in the U.S. 

Laboratory Module (Destiny) prior to the delivery of the European 

Columbus Laboratory. It also provided flight opportunities for two 

ESA astronauts. As part of this cooperation, ESA contributed a broad 

range of hardware, including the Microgravity Science Glovebox 

(MSG), Minus-80°C Laboratory Freezer for ISS (MELFI), and the 

European Modular Cultivation System (EMCS). 

The MSG is a sealed container with built-in gloves that provides an 

enclosed workspace for investigations conducted in the microgravity 

environment of the ISS. It was launched on Space Transportation 

System (STS)–111 in 2002 and is currently housed in the Columbus 

Laboratory. It provides a safe environment for research with liquids, 

flames, and particles used as a part of everyday research in groundbased facilities on Earth. Without the MSG, many types of hands-on 

investigations on the ISS would be impossible or severely restricted.

The MELFI was launched on STS-121 in 2006. It is a rack-sized 

facility designed to provide the ISS with refrigerated volume for the 

storage and fast freezing of life science and biological samples.

The EMCS was also launched on STS-121. It is a combination centrifuge and growth chamber that is designed to carry out plant-growth 

experiments in controlled partial gravity and microgravity conditions. 

EMCS experiments contribute to food production research that may 

benefit astronauts on long-term missions, such as an expedition to 

Mars. These experiments are used for research on insects, amphibians, 

and invertebrates, as well as for studies with cell and tissue cultures. 

Furthermore, plant-cell-root and physiology experiments provide 

insight into the growth processes in plants, which could help to 

improve food-production techniques both in space and on Earth. 

Materials Science Research Rack–1 (MSRR-1) was delivered to the 

ISS during STS-128 in 2009. It is the primary facility for U.S.-

sponsored materials science research on the ISS and is contained in 

an International Standard Payload Rack (ISPR) that is equipped with 

the Active Rack Isolation System (ARIS) for the best possible microgravity environment. The MSRR-1 accommodates dual experiment 

modules and provides simultaneous on-orbit processing operations 

capability. The first integral experiment module for the MSRR-1, the 

Materials Science Laboratory, is also a cooperative activity between 

NASA and ESA.

For more information, please visit http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/

station/research/index.html.

European Space Agency astronaut Paolo Nespoli, 

Expedition 27’s flight engineer, works with the Microgravity 

Science Glovebox in the Destiny Laboratory of the 

International Space Station.

In the European Modular Cultivation System experiment 

container with Tropi Experiment equipment, plants that 

sprouted from seeds were videotaped, and samples were 

collected for analysis at a molecular level to determine 

what genes are responsible for successful plant growth 

in microgravity. 
41

Human Exploration and Operations

European Space Agency

ISS HRF-EPM

International Space Station Human Research 

Facility–European Physiology Module

The European Space Agency (ESA) and NASA are cooperating on 

the ESA European Physiology Module (EPM) and the NASA Human 

Research Facility (HRF). ESA provided the EPM, a single-rack multiuser facility launched on Space Transportation System (STS)–122 in 

2008 for the Columbus Laboratory on the International Space Station 

(ISS). The Columbus Laboratory module is ESA’s most significant 

contribution to the ISS. 

The EPM and other components support neuroscience research and 

investigations of respiratory and cardiovascular conditions, hormonal 

and body fluid shift, and bone demineralization. The experiment 

results also contribute to researchers’ understanding of terrestrial health 

problems, such as the aging process, osteoporosis, balance disorders, 

and muscle wastage.

Built in Bremen, Germany, the EPM includes the following containers 

for science experiments: ESA’s Multi-Electrode Electroencephalogram 

Mapping Module (MEEMM), for neurologic scans of the brain; ESA’s 

Samples Collection Kit, for collection of different medical instruments 

and boxes for biologic probes; and the German/French Cardiolab, for 

scanning of the cardiovascular system. 

In conjunction with the EPM, NASA’s HRF supports the science 

community by providing the instrumentation and capabilities needed 

to collect and distribute data gained through human life-science 

research in space. NASA and ESA reviewed each other’s plans for 

the development of research hardware to minimize duplication and 

reduce costs while establishing a research capability that will meet the 

requirements of both agencies for biomedical research. 

The HRF provides a space for experiments and instruments, along 

with the means to access ISS services and utilities such as electrical 

power, command and data handling, air and water cooling, and 

pressurized gases. 

For more information on the HRF and EPM, please visit http://www.

esa.int/esaHS/ESA44I0VMOC_iss_0.html, http://www.esa.int/esaHS/

ESAFRG0VMOC_iss_0.html, and http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/

station/research/experiments/EPM.html.

An interior view of the European Columbus Laboratory at 

the Space Station Processing Facility at NASA’s Kennedy 

Space Center in Florida as the module is prepared for flight 

to the International Space Station: European Drawer Rack 

(left), European Physiology Modules Facility (center), Biolab 

and Fluid Science Lab in the launch configuration (right). 

(Credit: European Space Agency/S. Corvaja)

European Space Agency astronaut Thomas Reiter, 

Expedition 13’s flight engineer, prepares the HRF-2 

rack for an upgrade of the Pulmonary Function System 

experiment in the Destiny Laboratory of the International 

Space Station.
42

Science

European Space Agency

JWST

James Webb Space Telescope

The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), planned for launch in 

2018, will be a large infrared telescope with a 6.5-meter primary 

mirror. JWST will enable the study of every phase in the history of our 

universe, ranging from the first luminous glows after the Big Bang, to 

the formation of solar systems capable of supporting life on Earth-like 

planets, to the evolution of our own solar system. JWST is an international collaboration between NASA, the Canadian Space Agency 

(CSA), and the European Space Agency (ESA). 

Referred to as the JWST Observatory, the space-based portion of the 

JWST system consists of three parts: the Optical Telescope Element 

(OTE), the Spacecraft Element, and the Integrated Science Instrument 

Module (ISIM). The OTE is the eye of the JWST, collecting light 

from space and providing it to scientific instruments. The Spacecraft 

Element is composed of the spacecraft bus (which provides support 

functions for the observatory) and the sunshield system (which 

separates the observatory into a warm Sun-facing side and a cold side 

that faces away from the Sun). The ISIM contains four instruments: 

the Mid-Infrared Instrument (MIRI), the Near-Infrared Spectrograph 

(NIRSpec), the Near-Infrared Camera (NIRCam), and the Fine 

Guidance Sensor/Near-Infrared Imager and Slitless Spectrograph 

(FGS/NIRISS). JWST’s instruments will be designed to work primarily in the infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum, with some 

capability in the visible range. 

Several innovative technologies have been developed for JWST, including a folding, segmented primary mirror that is adjusted to shape after 

launch; ultra-lightweight beryllium optics; detectors capable of recording extremely weak signals; microshutters that enable programmable 

object selection for the spectrograph; and a cryocooler for cooling the 

mid-infrared detectors to the required 7° kelvin operating temperature. 

ESA is providing the Ariane 5 Launch Vehicle on which JWST will be 

launched. ESA is also providing two science instruments: the NIRSpec 

and the MIRI Optical Bench Assembly (OBA). NASA is responsible 

for the design and development of the JWST Observatory and for 

overall management of the mission.

For more information on JWST, please visit http://jwst.gsfc.nasa.gov/.

An artist’s concept of the JWST.

Designed to block solar light and keep the JWST 

Observatory operating at cryogenic temperature, the 

five-layer sunshield consists of thin membranes made 

from a polymer-based film and supporting equipment such 

as spreader bars, booms, cabling, and containment shells.
43

Science

European Space Agency

JUICE 

JUpiter ICy moons Explorer

The European Space Agency’s (ESA) JUpiter ICy moons Explorer 

(JUICE) mission, the first large-class mission in ESA’s Cosmic Vision 

2015–2025 program, will spend at least 3 years making detailed 

observations of the biggest planet in the solar system and three of 

its largest moons: Ganymede, Callisto, and Europa. Planned for 

launch in 2022 and arrival at Jupiter in 2030, JUICE will study these 

moons—which are thought to harbor vast water oceans beneath their 

icy surfaces—and map their surfaces, sound their interiors, and assess 

their potential for hosting life in their oceans.

In 2013, ESA selected the JUICE payload complement of 10 instruments plus an experiment using the Very Long Baseline Interferometry 

(VLBI) technique, which will be developed by scientific teams from 

16 European countries, the United States, and Japan. The payload 

complement will address the mission’s science objectives, from in situ 

measurements of Jupiter’s atmosphere and plasma environment to 

remote observations of the surface and interior of the three icy moons. 

NASA will provide the ultraviolet spectrometer (UVS), and it will also 

contribute to the Italian Space Agency (ASI)–led Radar for Icy Moon 

Exploration (RIME) and the Swedish Institute of Space Physics–led 

Particle Environment Package (PEP). 

The NASA-provided UVS, whose mission and science team is led by 

the Southwest Research Institute, will use image capture to explore the 

surfaces and atmospheres of Jupiter’s icy moons and how they interact 

with the Jupiter environment. The instrument will also determine how 

Jupiter’s upper atmosphere interacts with the lower atmosphere below 

it and the ionosphere and magnetosphere above it. The instrument will 

also provide images of the aurora on Jupiter and Ganymede. The Johns 

Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) is leading the 

NASA contribution to PEP, which will include instruments to measure 

the neutral material and plasma that are accelerated and heated to 

extreme levels in Jupiter’s fierce and complex magnetic environment. 

The Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) is leading NASA’s RIME 

contribution: a transmitter and receiver hardware for a radar sounder 

designed to penetrate the icy crust of Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto 

to a depth of about 9 kilometers. This will allow scientists to see for the 

first time the underground structure of these tectonically complex and 

unique icy worlds.

For more information on the JUICE mission, please visit http://sci.esa.

int/juice.

An artist’s concept of JUICE orbiting Jupiter and exploring 

Ganymede. Ganymede is the only moon in the Solar 

System known to generate its own magnetic field, and 

JUICE will seek to observe its unique magnetic and plasma 

interactions with Jupiter’s magnetosphere in detail. (Credit: 

European Space Agency)
44

Science

European Space Agency

LISA Pathfinder

Laser Interferometer Space Antenna Pathfinder

The Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA) Pathfinder mission, 

scheduled to launch in 2014, is a collaborative mission between NASA 

and the European Space Agency (ESA) to demonstrate technologies 

associated with future gravitational-wave observatory concepts. The 

LISA Pathfinder mission aims to validate the performance of technologies for precise spacecraft control. 

The LISA Pathfinder mission consists of two test packages: the LISA 

Technology Package (LTP) provided by ESA and the Disturbance 

Reduction System (DRS) provided by NASA. The LTP is designed 

to comprise one gravitational sensor, an optical bench, and a related 

optical meteorology system. The LTP sensors are used to monitor 

the position of the spacecraft with respect to a freely floating test 

mass. The DRS is designed to include micro-propulsion thrusters, 

supporting electronics, housekeeping avionics, data handling, and 

drag-free attitude control software. The thrusters will be used to adjust 

the position of the spacecraft to keep it centered on the test mass. 

Both of these test packages lay important groundwork for potential 

future space-based gravitational-wave observatories. For this ESA-led 

mission, in addition to providing the LTP, ESA will construct the LISA 

Pathfinder spacecraft and operate the instruments after launch.

For more information on the LISA Pathfinder mission, please visit 

http://nmp.jpl.nasa.gov/st7/ABOUT/About_index.html and 

http://sci.esa.int/science-e/www/area/index.cfm?fareaid=40.

An artist’s rendering of the LISA Pathfinder spacecraft and 

its propulsion module after separation. (Credit: European 

Space Agency)

An artist’s rendering of the LISA Technology Package 

flying on board the LISA Pathfinder spacecraft. The 

partly transparent view reveals the proof masses: two 

46-mm cubes of a gold-platinum alloy that are housed in 

individual vacuum cans. The cubes serve both as mirrors 

for the laser interferometer (red light paths) and as inertial 

references for the spacecraft’s drag-free control system. 

(Credit: European Space Agency)
45

Science

European Space Agency

Rosetta

The European Space Agency’s (ESA) Rosetta spacecraft will be the first 

to explore a comet at close quarters over an extended period of time. 

The mission is comprised of a large orbiter, built to operate for a decade 

at great distances from the Sun, and a small lander called Philae. 

The orbiter and lander each carry a sizable complement of scientific 

experiments designed to carry out the most detailed study of a comet 

ever attempted.

In 2004, ESA launched Rosetta on a 10-year journey to reach Comet 

67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko. The journey includes gravity assists 

from Earth and Mars and flybys of main belt asteroids. After entering 

orbit around Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko in 2014, the orbiter 

will release its small lander onto the icy nucleus and then spend the 

next 2 years orbiting the comet as it heads toward the Sun. 

NASA is providing mission operations and Deep Space Network 

communications support to the Rosetta mission. It is also contributing 

a number of instruments, including the Alice Ultraviolet Imaging 

Spectrometer, the Microwave Instrument for the Rosetta Orbiter 

(MIRO), the Rosetta Plasma Consortium (RPC) Ion and Electron 

Sensor (IES), and the Rosetta Orbiter Spectrometer for Ion and Neutral 

Analysis (ROSINA).

The Rosetta spacecraft participated in the observation campaign of 

NASA’s Deep Impact encounter with Comet Tempel 1 on July 4, 2005. 

Rosetta has also conducted a co-observing session of the planet Jupiter 

with NASA’s New Horizons mission.

For more information on ESA’s Rosetta mission, please visit http://

rosetta.jpl.nasa.gov/.

An artist’s concept of the Rosetta spacecraft on its 

journey to the Churyumov-Gerasimenko comet. (Credit: 

European Space Agency)

An artist’s concept of the small Philae lander on the 

surface of the Churyumov-Gerasimenko comet. (Credit: 

European Space Agency)
46

Science

European Space Agency

SOHO

Solar and Heliospheric Observatory

The Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) is a joint project 

between the European Space Agency (ESA) and NASA to study the 

Sun from its deep core to its outer corona and solar winds. Since 

SOHO’s launch in 1995, the observatory has been providing a vast 

amount of images and data regarding the Sun and the heliosphere. 

Originally designed for a 2-year mission, SOHO has been extended 

numerous times through 2016 to cover an entire 11-year solar cycle and 

the start of the new cycle.

The twelve instruments on board SOHO were provided by European 

and American teams of scientists who continue to operate the 

instruments and process the data. The instruments take images of 

the solar surface, the dynamic layers of the solar atmosphere, and 

the corona, which is observable only in ultraviolet light. By special 

processing of the solar white-light data, scientists can measure the 

magnetic fields around sunspots and look deep into the interior of 

the Sun. Other instruments measure the pulse and total light output 

of the Sun and the speed, density, and composition of solar wind as 

it flows past SOHO. ESA managed the construction, integration, 

and testing of the SOHO spacecraft, and a team of ESA scientists 

has been resident at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) to 

orchestrate the planning of science observations. NASA provided the 

launch of SOHO, operates the spacecraft, and tracks it with the Deep 

Space Network.

From its position orbiting around the L1 Lagrange point (about 1.5 

million kilometers from Earth), SOHO has provided an unprecedented 

breadth and depth of information about the Sun, from its interior 

through its hot and dynamic atmosphere to the solar wind and its 

interaction with the interstellar medium. 

Besides watching the Sun, SOHO has become the most prolific discoverer of comets in astronomical history. As of January 2011, amateur 

astronomers around the world have discovered more than 2,000 

comets using images from SOHO’s Large Angle and Spectrometric 

Coronagraph Experiment (LASCO) instrument. 

For more information on the SOHO mission, please visit http://

sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov/.

This composite image put together from SOHO data shows 

a fiery coronal mass ejection with stunning, bright details 

in the ejected material.

SOHO’s Extreme-ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (EIT) captured 

this image of the Sun as it unleashed a powerful flare.
47

Science

European Space Agency

XMM-Newton

X-ray Multi-Mirror-Newton

The European Space Agency’s (ESA) X-ray Multi-Mirror (XMM)–

Newton satellite, launched into Earth orbit in 1999, carries three advanced 

x-ray telescopes. Each of XMM-Newton’s three telescopes contains 58 

high-precision concentric mirrors, which are nested to offer the largest 

collecting area possible to catch x rays. Additionally, its detectors are very 

sensitive, enabling the telescopes to observe faint objects. 

XMM-Newton uses an unusual technique to focus x rays onto the 

different detectors. An optical telescope works by reflecting and focusing 

light; however, x rays have such high energy that they pass through most 

materials, making reflection impossible. Therefore, in the case of an 

x-ray telescope, the mirrors are arranged so that incoming x rays graze 

off of the mirrors. The shape and highly polished surfaces of the mirrors 

focus the incoming x rays into a beam when they enter the detectors.

The XMM-Newton spacecraft consists of three main instruments. The 

European Photon Imaging Camera (EPIC)—the main camera onboard 

XMM-Newton—can perform both x-ray imaging and spectroscopy. 

Actually three cameras in one, it employs three different detectors 

to view the x rays. The second instrument is a Reflection Grating 

Spectrometer (RGS), which is similar to an optical prism in that it 

spreads out the incoming light according to the wavelength of the 

photon. The third instrument is the Optical/Ultraviolet Monitor (OM), 

which has a 30-centimeter-wide mirror designed to focus optical and 

ultraviolet light coming from the same direction as the x rays observed 

by the other instruments on XMM-Newton. This process allows for the 

simultaneous observations of a target in the optical/ultraviolet and x-ray 

regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. 

XMM-Newton is able to detect and study celestial x-ray sources that are 

otherwise impossible to view from the planet due to Earth’s protective 

atmosphere. Current studies using XMM-Newton have focused on 

black hole observations due to the large amounts of x rays that surround 

these bodies. Data from XMM-Newton, as well as from NASA’s Swift 

satellite, have revealed the youngest black hole known to exist in our 

cosmic neighborhood. The newly discovered young black hole could 

help scientists better understand how massive stars explode, which ones 

leave behind black holes, and the number of black holes in our galaxy.

ESA designed and built the XMM-Newton spacecraft, along with 

the three main instruments aboard the spacecraft. ESA also controls 

spacecraft operations. NASA provides access to the mission for U.S. 

astronomers through the Guest Observer facility at the Goddard Space 

Flight Center (GSFC).

For more information on XMM-Newton, please visit http://xmm.gsfc.

nasa.gov/ and http://xmm.sonoma.edu/index.html.

An artist’s rendering of XMM-Newton orbiting Earth. 

(Credit: European Space Agency)
48

Education and Outreach

Finland

Angry Birds Space

NASA is cooperating with Rovio Entertainment Ltd., a Finnish 

video-game development company, on its production of a space-related 

version of the video game Angry Birds. This cooperation facilitates 

better public understanding of NASA’s programs and missions, aids 

the dissemination of NASA educational and outreach materials to 

new audiences, and provides an engaging education opportunity for 

audiences worldwide. NASA’s Space Act Agreement with Rovio also 

ensures reasonable and accurate depictions of space physics and NASA 

missions. To further these objectives, NASA provides Rovio with 

various materials, such as audio, video, transcripts, and images. 

On March 8, 2012, NASA released a video by NASA astronaut Don 

Pettit, who gave a demonstration of microgravity and its effect on 

the trajectories of objects on board the International Space Station 

(ISS). He explained that this scientific principle would be seen in the 

new version of the game Angry Birds Space, when the trajectory of the 

game’s fictional birds are changed by the gravitational fields of nearby 

planets. Rovio released Angry Birds Space to the public soon after, on 

March 22, 2012.

The video by Don Pettit is accessible while playing the game and can 

also be viewed at http://www.nasa.gov/microgravity/.

For more information on NASA and Rovio’s cooperation on Angry 

Birds Space, please visit http://www.nasa.gov/microgravity/ and http://

www.youtube.com/watch?v=lxI1L1RiSJQ.

Astronaut Don Pettit demonstrates microgravity on the 

International Space Station.

An image from Angry Birds Space, used by permission of 

Rovio Entertainment Ltd.
49

Aeronautics Research

France

Aircraft Icing Research

A key NASA aeronautics research interest involves understanding the 

phenomena of aircraft icing. NASA and the French Aerospace Lab 

(ONERA) began conducting cooperative computational fluid dynamics 

(CFD) modeling of ice accretions in 2006 using subscale and full-scale 

airfoil models. The objectives of the collaboration were to establish 

an aerodynamic database for a full-scale airfoil with high-fidelity 

ice contamination, to develop methodologies for accurate subscale 

iced-aerodynamic simulation, to improve iced-CFD methods, and to 

better understand iced aerodynamics. Two ice-accretion test campaigns 

were completed in the NASA Glenn Research Center (GRC) Icing 

Research Tunnel (IRT) in Cleveland, Ohio, and two iced-aerodynamic 

test campaigns were completed in the ONERA F1 pressurized, lowspeed, large-scale wind tunnel in Fauga-Mauzac, France. 

High-fidelity, artificial ice shapes were made from the ice accreted 

on both a full-scale and a subscale two-dimensional airfoil model in 

the NASA IRT facility. The full-scale ice accretions were then used 

in aerodynamic tests at the ONERA F1 facility. During the first 

F1 campaign, aerodynamic performance data were obtained across 

a range of the aerodynamically differing artificial ice shapes. The 

second campaign was devoted to detailed Particle Image Velocimetry 

(PIV) flow measurements of the airflow over the ice-contaminated 

airfoil. The subscale artificial ice shapes were used in aerodynamic 

tests at the University of Illinois’s low-speed tunnel. The F1 tests were 

the first such tests of full-scale, high-fidelity iced aerodynamics and 

produced a large benchmark database. This database, in conjunction 

with the subscale aerodynamic database, facilitated the development of 

improved methods for scaled iced-aerodynamic testing. 

For more information on NASA’s icing research, please visit http://ntrs.

nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20110023761_2011025037.pdf.

This post-flight image shows ice contamination as a 

result of encountering Supercooled Large Droplet (SLD) 

conditions near Parkersburg, West Virginia.

A commuter transport engine undergoes testing in the 

Icing Research Tunnel at the NASA Glenn Research Center.
50

Aeronautics Research

France

Airframe Noise and Environmental Noise Mitigation

A major goal of both NASA and the French Aerospace Lab (ONERA) 

is to mitigate environmental noise of civil aircraft during takeoff and 

landing. Both agencies have devoted significant resources to developing 

numerical methods for predicting airframe noise, and they are collaborating on means to both identify and reduce the noise associated with 

aircraft engines and landing gear. 

Aircraft engines generate a significant portion of aircraft noise, and 

acoustic liners mounted upstream and downstream of an engine’s rotor 

fan are used extensively for the reduction of this noise. Advances in 

the prediction and measurement of the effectiveness of acoustic liners 

to reduce noise radiated from aircraft engines are important to the 

continued improvement of engine noise reduction capabilities. These 

advances require the development of advanced simulation techniques 

along with high-fidelity experimental data.

A less obvious source of landing and takeoff noise comes from the 

airframe. High-lift devices on the wing and aircraft landing gear 

are currently the largest airframe noise sources for civil transport. 

Computational studies to understand the complex flow around landing 

gear may lead to methods to reduce this source.

These studies, when integrated with experimental flight-test and 

wind-tunnel data, could lead to quieter, more efficient airframe 

components, which will become part of a new generation of ultra-quiet, 

low-emission, subsonic aircraft designs, and lead to reduced fuel 

consumption and quieter skies over our neighborhoods. 

For more information on airframe noise and environmental noise 

mitigation, please visit http://www.nas.nasa.gov/SC10/Khorrami_

LandingGearNoise_Backgrounder.html.

Technician Donald Day adjusts a one-quarter-scale model 

before a test in the Basic Aerodynamics Research Tunnel. 

NASA’s Langley Research Center aeronautics researchers 

are studying how to make landing gear quieter.

A test rig is assembled at NASA’s Glenn Research Center 

to evaluate the noise reduction of a newly developed 

metallic foam liner.
51

Science

France

CALIPSO

Cloud-Aerosol LIDAR and Infrared Pathfinder 

Satellite Observations

The Cloud-Aerosol LIDAR and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite 

Observation (CALIPSO) satellite, a joint NASA–French National 

Center for Space Studies (CNES) mission, provides new insight into 

the role that clouds and atmospheric aerosols (i.e., airborne particles) 

play in regulating Earth’s weather, climate, and air quality. CALIPSO 

combines an active light detection and ranging (LIDAR) instrument 

with passive infrared and visible imagers to probe the vertical structure 

and properties of thin clouds and aerosols over the globe. This data 

helps to improve our understanding of the role that aerosols and clouds 

play in regulating the Earth’s climate—in particular, how aerosols and 

clouds interact with one another.

CALIPSO was launched by NASA in 2006 with the Canadian Space 

Agency (CSA)–NASA CloudSat satellite. CALIPSO and CloudSat fly 

in orbital formation as part of the Afternoon Constellation (A-Train) 

of Earth-orbiting remote sensing satellites that include NASA’s Aqua 

and Aura spacecraft and CNES’s Polarization and Anisotropy of 

Réflectances for Atmospheric Sciences coupled with Observations from 

a LIDAR (PARASOL). 

CALIPSO provides a unique, 3-year, coincident set of global data on 

aerosol and cloud properties, radiative fluxes, and atmospheric state. 

The scientific advances enabled by this coincident dataset improve 

short-term (measured in days) weather forecasts, as well as forecasts 

on seasonal-to-interannual timescales. CALIPSO augments the 

capabilities of the civilian operational Earth-observing satellite used by 

the National Weather Service, offering a unique capability to monitor 

volcanic plumes and the long-range transport of pollutants that impact 

air quality and visibility.

Data from CALIPSO helps scientists to improve predictions of the 

regional impacts of long-term climate change, ensuring a scientific basis 

for understanding and assessing the impact of climate change. 

CNES provided the Proteus platform, satellite engineering and 

operations, the Imaging Infrared Radiometer (IIR), algorithm development for the IIR, and a data site for the mission. NASA provided 

the Wide-Field Camera (WFC), the payload telemetry system to 

downlink the payload data, the payload onboard computer, and the 

payload structure. NASA launched the CALIPSO satellite, and it also 

commands and controls the payload. CNES commands and controls 

the platform.

For more information on CALIPSO, please visit http://www.nasa.gov/

mission_pages/calipso/main/.

An artist’s concept of the CALIPSO satellite orbiting Earth.
52

Human Exploration and Operations

France 

DECLIC-DSI

DEvice for the study of Critical LIquids and 

Crystallization–Directional Solidification Insert 

DEvice for the study of Critical LIquids and Crystallization (DECLIC) 

is a miniature laboratory that was installed on the International Space 

Station (ISS) in 2009. The French National Center for Space Studies 

(CNES) and NASA collaborated on the development, launch, and 

operation of DECLIC–Directional Solidification Insert (DSI). 

DECLIC is a multi-user facility that has a range of optical equipment 

to investigate low- and high-temperature critical fluids behavior, 

chemical reactivity in supercritical water, directional solidification of 

transparent alloys, and, more generally, to investigate transparent media 

in the microgravity environment of the ISS. One of the three modules 

that were developed for DECLIC is the DSI, which was dedicated to 

the study of solidification to improve the understanding of metallurgical processes. It involved the in situ and real-time observation of the 

microstructures that form at the liquid-solid interface when transparent 

materials solidify. This made it possible to create and transfer images 

from the investigation back to Earth, instead of creating heavy samples 

for post mortem characterization that would have required transport 

from orbit back to Earth. 

By the end of November 2010, DECLIC-DSI completed four successful 

solidifications, and the research team captured 7,000 images during the 

final session to meet all scientific objectives. The study of solidification 

microstructure formation is important in the design and processing of 

new material. Experiments such as DECLIC provide a better understanding of the relationship between micro- and macrostructure formation 

during solidification processes. The experiment ultimately could result in 

new and better materials for use in manufacturing on Earth.

For more information on DECLIC-DSI, please visit http://www.nasa.

gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/DECLIC-DSI.html and 

http://www.cnes.fr/web/CNES-en/6831-declic.php.

The DECLIC hardware fits into the two lockers in the top 

right quarter of EXpedite the PRocessing of Experiments 

to Space Station (EXPRESS) Rack 4 on the International 

Space Station.
53

Science

France

Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope

The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, launched by NASA in 2008, 

is a spacecraft with the ability to detect gamma rays created by the 

most energetic objects and phenomena in the universe. Among the 

topics of cosmological interest studied by the mission are dark matter 

and the periods of star and galaxy formation in the early universe. The 

mission is an astrophysics and particle physics partnership developed 

by NASA in collaboration with the U.S. Department of Energy, with 

important contributions from academic institutions and partners in 

France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Sweden, and the United States.

Because of their tremendous energy, gamma rays travel through the 

universe largely unobstructed. This means that Fermi is able to observe 

gamma-ray sources located near the edge of the visible universe. 

Gamma rays detected by Fermi originate near the otherwise-obscured 

central regions of exotic objects like supermassive black holes, pulsars, 

and gamma-ray bursts.

In order to study these high-energy waves, two main instruments are 

used: the Large Area Telescope (LAT) and the Gamma-ray Large Area 

Space Telescope (GLAST) Burst Monitor (GBM). When in survey 

mode, the LAT scans the entire sky every 3 hours. The instrument 

detects photons with energies ranging from 20 million electron volts to 

over 300 billion electron volts. In its first month of operation, the GBM 

instrument spotted 31 gamma-ray bursts, which occur when massive 

stars die or when orbiting neutron stars spiral together and merge. By the 

end of 2011, Fermi had detected more than 100 gamma-emitting pulsars; 

before its launch, only 7 of these were known to emit gamma rays. Newly 

developed methods of analysis promise to spur additional discoveries. 

NASA is working with a number of French institutions on Fermi’s 

LAT Calorimeter, including the Nuclear Studies Center of BordeauxGradignan; the Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission 

(CEA) Department of Astrophysics, Particle Physics, Nuclear Physics, 

and Associated Instrumentation; CEA Saclay; the National Institute of 

Nuclear and Particle Physics (IN2P3); the Laboratory of Theoretical 

Physics and Astrophysics, Montpellier; and the Laboratoire LeprinceRinguet, École Polytechnique.

For the Fermi mission, France provided support for the development 

of the LAT, specifically on the detector that will calculate the amount 

of energy in the gamma rays. Along with France and NASA, the 

following organizations are also contributors to the Fermi mission: 

the German Aerospace Center (DLR), Italian Space Agency (ASI), 

Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), and the Swedish Royal 

Institute of Technology (KTH).

For more information on the FERMI mission, please visit http://fermi.

gsfc.nasa.gov/.

An artist’s concept of the Fermi spacecraft orbiting Earth.
54

Science

France

InSight

Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, 

Geodesy and Heat Transport

NASA’s Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and 

Heat Transport (InSight) mission is designed to improve our understanding of the evolutionary formation of rocky planets, including 

Earth, by investigating the interior structure and processes of Mars. 

The mission will also enable scientists to investigate the dynamics of 

Martian tectonic activity and meteorite impacts, which could offer 

clues about such phenomena on Earth.

The InSight mission, planned for launch in March 2016 and arrival 

at Mars in September 2016, consists of a single geophysical lander on 

Mars to study the planet’s deep interior. The InSight science payload 

comprises two instruments: the Seismic Experiment for Interior 

Structure (SEIS) and the Heat Flow and Physical Properties Package 

(HP3). Additionally, the Rotation and Interior Structure Experiment 

(RISE) will use the spacecraft’s communication system to provide 

precise measurements of planetary rotation. The InSight payload comprises two additional subsystems: the Instrument Deployment System 

(IDS), which is a robotic arm system for deploying the instruments 

on the ground; and an Auxiliary Payload Sensor Subsystem (APSS) of 

wind, temperature, pressure, and magnetic-field sensors.

The French National Center for Space Studies (CNES) is expected 

to lead an international consortium, including Germany, Spain, 

Switzerland, and the United Kingdom, to provide the SEIS instrument. 

SEIS will measure seismic waves traveling through the interior of Mars 

to determine its interior structure and composition. 

The German Aerospace Center (DLR) is expected to lead the development of the HP3 instrument. HP3 will determine the geothermal 

heat flux of Mars by obtaining thermal measurements in the shallow 

subsurface, which uniquely constrains the planetary heat engine that 

drives geologic processes. 

For more information on the InSight mission, please visit http://insight.

jpl.nasa.gov/home.cfm.

An artist’s concept of InSight investigating the interior of 

Mars. InSight is based on the proven NASA Phoenix Mars 

spacecraft and lander design, with state-of-the-art avionics 

from the NASA Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and Gravity 

Recovery and Interior Laboratory missions. (Credit: NASA/

Jet Propulsion Laboratory–Caltech)
55

Science

France

Juno

NASA’s Juno spacecraft, launched in 2011 and slated to arrive in orbit 

around Jupiter in 2016, will gather data on Jupiter’s interior structure, 

atmospheric composition and dynamics, and polar magnetosphere. 

This data will be used by scientists to study the origin and evolution 

of Jupiter, thereby furthering our understanding of planetary and 

solar-system formation.

Using a spinning, solar-powered spacecraft, Juno will make maps of the 

gravitational and magnetic fields, auroral emissions, and atmospheric 

composition of Jupiter from a polar orbit. Juno will carry precise 

high-sensitivity radiometers, magnetometers, and gravity science 

systems. Juno’s 32 orbits over 11 days will sample Jupiter’s full range of 

latitudes and longitudes. From its polar perspective, Juno will combine 

in situ and remote sensing observations to explore the polar magnetosphere and determine what drives Jupiter’s remarkable auroras. Jupiter’s 

solid core and abundance of heavy metals in the atmosphere make it an 

ideal model to help improve our understanding of the origin of giant 

planets. Juno will measure global abundances of oxygen and nitrogen 

by mapping the gravitational field and using microwave observations of 

water and ammonia.

The French National Center for Space Studies (CNES) contributed 

electro-optics for the Juno mission’s Jovian Auroral Distributions 

Experiment (JADE) electron sensor instrument. The JADE instrument 

will work with some of Juno’s other instruments to identify the particles and processes that produce Jupiter’s stunning auroras. 

For more information on the Juno mission, please visit http://juno.nasa.

gov and http://missionjuno.swri.edu/.

This artist’s concept depicts NASA’s Juno spacecraft above 

Jupiter’s north pole.
56

Science

France

MMS

Magnetospheric MultiScale mission

NASA’s Magnetospheric MultiScale (MMS) mission is a solar-terrestrial 

probe mission comprising four identically instrumented spacecraft that 

will use Earth’s magnetosphere as a laboratory to study the microphysics of three fundamental plasma processes: magnetic reconnection, 

energetic particle acceleration, and turbulence. These processes occur 

in all astrophysical plasma systems but can be studied in situ only in 

our solar system and most efficiently only in Earth’s magnetosphere, 

where they control the dynamics of the geospace environment and play 

an important role in the processes known as “space weather.” The four 

MMS spacecraft are currently planned for launch by NASA in 2014.

NASA is collaborating on the MMS mission with the French National 

Center for Space Studies (CNES), with support from the French 

Laboratory of Plasma Physics (LPP). NASA is also cooperating with 

the Aeronautics and Space Agency (ALR) of the Austrian Research 

Promotion Agency (FFG), the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency 

(JAXA), and the Swedish National Space Board (SNSB) on the mission. 

MMS investigates how the magnetic fields of the Sun and Earth 

connect and disconnect, explosively transferring energy from one to 

the other in a process known as magnetic reconnection. This process 

limits the performance of fusion reactors and is the final governor of 

geospace weather, which affects modern technological systems such 

as telecommunications networks, Global Positioning System (GPS) 

navigation, and electrical power grids. MMS’s four spacecraft will 

measure plasmas, fields, and particles in a near-equatorial orbit that 

will frequently encounter reconnection in action. 

The four MMS spacecraft will carry identical instrument suites of 

plasma analyzers, energetic particle detectors, magnetometers, and 

electric field instruments; they will also carry a device to prevent 

spacecraft charging from interfering with the highly sensitive measurements required in and around the diffusion regions. CNES is designing 

and developing the Search Coil Magnetometers (SCM) and support 

electronics for the four MMS spacecraft. CNES will also support the 

integration and testing of the SCM. NASA is providing the spacecraft, 

the launch, and overall mission management.

For more information on MMS, please visit http://mms.gsfc.nasa.gov/.

Violent reconnection events can occur as looping lines of 

magnetic force collide on the surface of the Sun.
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Science

France

MAVEN

Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution Mission

NASA’s Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN) mission, 

launched in November 2013, will orbit Mars for 1 year and provide 

the first direct measurements to address key scientific questions about 

Mars’s evolution. There is evidence that Mars once had a denser 

atmosphere that supported the presence of liquid water on the surface. 

As part of a dramatic climate change, Mars lost most of its atmosphere. 

MAVEN is expected to make definitive scientific measurements of 

processes controlling Mars’s present-day atmospheric loss that will offer 

clues about the planet’s atmospheric history. 

The French National Center for Space Studies (CNES) provided the 

Solar Wind Electron Analyzer (SWEA), a component of the Particles 

and Fields Package, to measure solar wind and ionospheric electrons. 

CNES provided similar SWEA analyzers on the Solar TErrestrial 

RElations Observatory (STEREO) mission.

MAVEN carries a payload of eight instruments: the SWEA, the 

Solar Wind Ion Analyzer (SWIA), the SupraThermal and Thermal 

Ion Composition (STATIC) instrument, the Solar Energetic Particle 

detector, the Langmuir Probe and Waves (LPW) instrument, a magnetometer, an Imaging Ultraviolet Spectrograph (IUVS), and a Neutral 

Gas and Ion Mass Spectrometer (NGIMS).

For more information on the MAVEN mission, please visit http://

mars.jpl.nasa.gov/programmissions/missions/future/maven/ and http://lasp.

colorado.edu/home/maven/.

Engineers inspect the MAVEN primary structure, which 

is built out of composite panels of aluminum honeycomb 

sandwiched between graphite composite face sheets and 

attached to one another with metal fittings. The entire 

structure weighs only 275 pounds (125 kilograms). (Credit: 

NASA/Lockheed Martin)
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Science

France

Mars Odyssey

The French National Center for Space Studies (CNES), as a member 

of the Gamma Ray Spectrometer (GRS) Science Team, provided four 

germanium detectors for the GRS instrument suite and science support 

for NASA’s Mars Odyssey mission, which was launched in 2001.

The Mars Odyssey spacecraft mapped, for the first time, the amount 

and distribution of chemical elements and minerals that make up the 

Martian surface. Odyssey’s maps of hydrogen distribution led scientists 

to discover vast amounts of water ice in the polar regions of Mars, 

buried just beneath the surface. Odyssey also recorded the radiation 

environment in low-Mars orbit to determine the radiation-related risk 

to future human explorers who may one day go to Mars. 

The GRS instrument suite—one of three primary instrument packages 

on the Mars Odyssey—has collected data on the distribution of 

elements at the surface of Mars and searched for water across the planet. 

The GRS instrument suite detects and counts gamma rays and neutrons from the Martian surface. Scientists use the GRS data to calculate 

the ratio of elemental abundances on the surface by associating the 

spectral distribution of the gamma rays with known nuclear transitions 

lines. By counting the number of neutrons as a function of energy, 

it is possible to calculate the hydrogen abundance, thus inferring the 

presence of water.

Odyssey is one of five active robotic missions at Mars, which include 

NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO), Mars Exploration Rover 

(MER) (Opportunity), the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL), and the 

European Space Agency’s (ESA) Mars Express orbiter. The orbiters and 

surface missions complement each other in many ways. Observations 

by the rovers provide ground-level understanding for interpreting global 

observations by the orbiters. In addition to their own science missions, 

the orbiters relay data from the Mars Rovers.

For more information on Mars Odyssey, please visit http://marsprogram.

jpl.nasa.gov/odyssey/overview/.

This artist’s rendering (not to scale) portrays ice-rich layers 

in the soils of Mars being detected by the Gamma-Ray 

Spectrometer suite of instruments aboard NASA’s 2001 

Mars Odyssey spacecraft. Measurements indicate that the 

upper meter (3 feet) of soil in the polar regions contains an 

ice-rich zone with an ice abundance of 20 to 50 percent 

by mass. (Credit: NASA/JPL/University of Arizona/Los 

Alamos National Laboratories)

This mosaic image of the Valles Marineris canyon, colored 

to resemble the Martian surface, comes from the Thermal 

Emission Imaging System (THEMIS), a visible-light and 

infrared-sensing camera on the Mars Odyssey orbiter.
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Science

France

MSL

Mars Science Laboratory

NASA’s Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) mission utilized an innovative 

sky crane to set down the Curiosity rover onto the surface of Mars in 

August 2012, where Curiosity began its mission to assess whether Mars 

has ever had an environment capable of supporting small life-forms 

called microbes. The MSL mission, launched by NASA in November 

2011, is planned to last at least one Martian year (687 Earth days), but 

it has the potential to operate for much longer.

The primary scientific objective, to be carried out during the surface 

science phase of the MSL mission, is to assess the biological potential 

of at least one target area by characterizing the local geology and 

geochemistry, investigating planetary processes relevant to habitability 

(including the role of water), and characterizing the broad spectrum of 

surface radiation. Since its landing, MSL has made new and exciting 

science discoveries, such as observing a natural intersection of three 

kinds of terrain at an area called Glenelg and finding evidence that 

a stream once ran across the area on Mars where the rover is driving. 

Although earlier missions detected the presence of water on Mars, the 

images taken by MSL of rocks that contain ancient streambed gravel 

are the first of their kind.

The French National Center for Space Studies (CNES) provided significant hardware for two of MSL’s instrument suites: the Laser-Induced 

Remote Sensing for Chemistry and Micro-Imaging (ChemCam) and 

the Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM). For the ChemCam instrument 

suite, CNES provided the ChemCam mast unit, including the 

laser, telescope, camera, and front-end electronics. The ChemCam 

instrument suite is used to characterize the geology of the Mars landing 

region, investigate planetary processes relevant to past habitability, 

assess the biological potential of a target environment, and look for 

toxic materials. Looking at rocks and soils from a distance, ChemCam 

fires its laser to analyze the elemental composition of vaporized materials from areas smaller than 1 millimeter on the surface of Martian 

rocks and soils. An onboard spectrograph provides detail about 

minerals and microstructures in rocks by measuring the composition of 

the resulting plasma—a visible brief glow of ionized material.

CNES provided the gas chromatograph portion of the SAM instrument suite. SAM is used to study geochemical conditions that are 

directly relevant to the larger goal of assessing the habitability of Mars. 

SAM also searches for compounds of the element carbon, including 

methane, that are associated with life and explores ways in which they 

are generated and destroyed in the Martian ecosphere.

For more information on the MSL mission and the ChemCam and 

SAM instrument suites, please visit http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/, 

http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/mission/instruments/spectrometers/

chemcam/, and http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/mission/instruments/

spectrometers/sam/.

This image shows the increasing wheel size among the Mars 

explorers: Mars Pathfinder (left), Mars Exploration Rover 

(center), and Mars Science Laboratory (right).
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Science

France

OSTM

Ocean Surface Topography Mission

The Ocean Surface Topography Mission (OSTM), launched by NASA 

in 2008, provides continuity of ocean topography measurements 

beyond the 1992 Topex/POSEIDON and 2001 Jason-1 missions for 

determining ocean circulation, climate change, sea-level rise, and 

societal applications (e.g., El Niño and hurricane forecasting).

OSTM functions as a bridge to an operational mission for the continuation of multidecadal ocean topography measurements. OSTM is a joint 

project between the French National Center for Space Studies (CNES), 

NASA, the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA), and the European Organisation for the Exploitation of 

Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT). This mission illustrates a 

clear transition from research and development agencies to operational 

agencies for ocean surface topography measurements in both Europe 

and the United States. CNES provided the satellite platform, payload 

module, a Poseidon-3 dual-frequency radar altimeter, the Doppler 

Orbitography and Radiopositioning Integrated by Satellite (DORIS) 

receiver package, and DORIS auxiliary instruments. NASA provided 

the microwave radiometer, laser retro-reflector, and Global Positioning 

System (GPS) receiver package, and it also launched the satellite.

NOAA established an operations control center, along with communication and data acquisition stations, and it operates and controls the 

OSTM satellite. NOAA also provides operational data processing, 

distribution, and archiving. EUMETSAT provides an Earth terminal, 

operational data processing, and distribution to European users. 

For more information on OSTM, please visit http://sealevel.jpl.nasa.gov/

and http://www.aviso.oceanobs.com/.

An artist’s rendering of the OSTM satellite orbiting Earth. 

(Credit: NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory–Caltech)
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Science

France

SPP

Solar Probe Plus

NASA’s Solar Probe Plus (SPP) mission is a project in the Living With 

a Star (LWS) program, a series of missions designed to gather critical 

information about the Sun and its effects on Earth, human activities, 

and other planetary systems. By flying into the Sun’s outer atmosphere, 

SPP will gather data on the processes that heat the corona and 

accelerate the solar wind, solving two fundamental mysteries that have 

been top-priority science goals for many decades. The French National 

Center for Space Studies (CNES) is collaborating with NASA on the 

Solar Wind Electrons Alphas and Protons (SWEAP) instrument and 

the SPP Fields experiment. Belgium and Germany are also participating on this mission.

The SPP mission, scheduled to launch in 2018, is planned to last 

almost 7 years, and the spacecraft will eventually come within 3.7 

million miles from the surface of the Sun, well within the orbit of 

Mercury and about eight times closer than any spacecraft has ever 

approached. The SPP’s orbit will provide it with a unique vantage point 

to study the streams of charged particles that the Sun hurls into space 

from the region where the processes that heat the corona and produce 

solar wind actually occur. At its closest approach SPP will zip past the 

Sun at 125 miles per second, protected by a carbon-composite heat 

shield that must withstand up to 2600° Fahrenheit and survive blasts of 

radiation and energized dust at levels not experienced by any previous 

spacecraft. The primary scientific objectives to be carried out during 

the SPP mission include: determining the structure and dynamics of 

the magnetic fields at the sources of both fast and slow solar wind, 

tracing the flow of energy that heats the corona and accelerates the 

solar wind, and determining what mechanisms accelerate and transport 

energetic particles. Instruments include a wide-field imager, fast-ion 

analyzer, fast-electron analyzer, energetic-particle instrument, magnetometer, and plasma-wave instrument. 

CNES contributions to the SPP mission include the design, fabrication, 

and delivery of the Thermal Noise Receiver (TNR)/High-Frequency 

Receiver electronics and the Search Coil Magnetometer (SCM) 

sensor and preamplifier for the Fields experiment, as well as testing 

and evaluation of SWEAP instrument components. The Fields 

experiment consists of two instruments: a plasma-wave instrument 

and a magnetometer. The Fields experiment will measure the solar 

wind plasma density using several complementary techniques and at 

a very high time resolution. These instruments will be used to study 

how the Sun’s corona is heated and accelerated to produce the solar 

wind. The SWEAP investigation consists of two instruments: a solar 

probe cup and a solar probe analyzer. The SWEAP instruments will 

count the most abundant particles in the solar wind (electrons, protons, 

and helium ions), measure their properties, and capture some of the 

particles for direct analysis.

For more information on SPP, please visit http://solarprobe.gsfc.nasa.gov/.

An artist’s concept of the Solar Probe Plus spacecraft, 

fully deployed in cruise configuration and flying past Venus 

during one of the seven gravity assists that will send it 

closer to the Sun. (Credit: Johns Hopkins University Applied 

Physics Laboratory)
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SET-1

Space Environment Testbed–1

The Space Environment Testbed–1 (SET-1) project performs flight 

and ground investigations to address the Living With a Star (LWS) 

program’s goal of understanding how interactions between the Sun 

and Earth affect humanity. The SET-1 project is the element of the 

LWS program that characterizes the space environment and its impact 

on hardware performance in space. The goal of the SET-1 project is to 

improve the engineering approach to accommodation and/or mitigation 

of the effects of solar variability on spacecraft design and operations. 

The French National Center for Space Studies (CNES) is collaborating 

with NASA on this project. International participation also includes the 

United Kingdom Space Agency.

The primary science objectives for the SET-1 project are to define space 

environment effects and mechanisms, to reduce design margins, and to 

improve design and operations guidelines. When margins for spacecraft 

design and operations are reduced, “space-environment-tolerant” and 

new technologies can be used more frequently, the fraction of spacecraft 

resources available for payloads can be increased or launch-vehicle 

requirements can be reduced, and routine operations above low-Earth 

orbit (LEO) can be performed at the same cost as LEO operations. 

NASA and CNES are conducting the Commercial Off-The-Shelf–2 

(COTS-2) digital technologies experiment as part of the SET-1 project. 

The experiment will be used to measure the effects of the space ionizing radiation environment on COTS-2 digital microelectronics devices 

in order to improve performance prediction in space for future digital 

devices. CNES will be providing for the design and the breadboard 

fabrication of the COTS-2 digital microelectronics devices experiment. 

The SET-1 will be flown on the Air Force Research Laboratory 

Demonstration and Science Experiments (DSX) spacecraft and is 

scheduled to launch in 2014. 

For more information on SET-1, please visit http://science.nasa.gov/

missions/space-environment-testbeds/.

Two giant rings of charged particles called the Van Allen 

radiation belts surround Earth. The belts pose a hazard to 

satellites, which must protect their sensitive components 

with adequate shielding if their orbit requires significant 

time in the radiation belts. The Space Environment 

Testbeds will improve hardware performance in the 

space-radiation environment.
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SWOT 

Surface Water Ocean Topography

The joint NASA–French National Center for Space Studies (CNES) 

Surface Water Ocean Topography (SWOT) mission, planned for 

launch in 2020, will improve our understanding of the world’s oceans 

and its terrestrial surface waters. It will use wide-swath altimetry to 

measure spatial fields of surface elevations for both inland waters and 

the oceans. This will lead to new information about the dynamics of 

water stored at the land’s surface (in lakes, reservoirs, wetlands, and 

river channels) and improved estimates of deep-ocean and near-coastal 

marine circulation.

Plans are for NASA to provide the payload module, the Ka-band Radar 

Interferometer (KaRIn) Microwave Radiometer (MR) with its antenna, 

a laser retroreflector array (LRA), a Global Positioning System (GPS) 

receiver package, and all launch services. NASA will also provide a 

payload control center and ground terminals, as well as data processing, 

archiving, and distribution infrastructure for the mission. CNES plans 

to provide the spacecraft bus, the dual-frequency (Ku/C band) Nadir 

Altimeter, the Doppler Orbitography and Radiopositioning Integrated 

by Satellite (DORIS) receiver package, and the Radio Frequency Unit 

(RFU) for the KaRIn instrument. CNES may also provide a command 

and control center for the satellite, ground terminals, and data 

processing, archiving, and distribution infrastructure for the mission. 

Through NASA, the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) plans to provide 

Extended Interaction Klystrons (EIK) for the KaRIn.

For more information on SWOT, please visit http://eospso.gsfc.nasa.gov/

missions/surface-water-ocean-topography and http://swot.jpl.nasa.gov/.

An artist’s depiction of SWOT orbiting Earth.
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Chandra X-ray Observatory

The Chandra X-ray Observatory, launched on the Space Shuttle in 

1999, is part of NASA’s fleet of “Great Observatories” along with the 

Hubble Space Telescope and the Spitzer Space Telescope. Chandra 

allows scientists from around the world to obtain unprecedented x-ray 

images of exotic environments in order to help understand the structure 

and evolution of the universe. Having already surpassed its originally 

planned 5-year lifetime, Chandra’s observations are rewriting textbooks 

and helping to advance technology. 

The Chandra telescope system consists of four pairs of mirrors and their 

support structure. X-ray telescopes function differently than optical 

telescopes in that high-energy x-ray photons penetrate into a mirror much 

as bullets slam into a wall, and then the photons ricochet off the mirrors. 

The shape of the mirrors directs the photons to one spot, where the four 

scientific instruments then analyze information from these photons. 

The German Aerospace Center (DLR) is cooperating with NASA on 

Chandra by providing contributions to the Electron, Proton, Helium 

Instrument (EPHIN) and the Low-Energy Transmission Grating for 

Cosmic X-ray Spectrometer (LETGS). The EPHIN detector monitors 

the local charged particle environment as part of the scheme to 

protect the two focal-plane science instruments from particle radiation. DLR also sponsored the participation of the German scientist 

for the EPHIN cooperation. 

For more information on Chandra, please visit http://www.nasa.gov/

mission_pages/chandra/main/ and http://chandra.harvard.edu/.

The highly distorted supernova remnant shown in this 

image may contain the most recent black hole formed in 

the Milky Way galaxy. The image combines x rays from 

NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory (blue and green), radio 

data from the National Science Foundation’s Very Large 

Array (pink), and infrared data from Caltech’s Palomar 

Observatory (yellow).

Chandra observations of the massive spiral galaxy NGC 

5746 revealed a large halo of hot gas (blue) surrounding 

the optical disk of the galaxy (white). The halo extends 

more than 60,000 light-years on either side of the disk of 

the galaxy.
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CFD

Computational Fluid Dynamics

NASA and the German Aerospace Center (DLR) began cooperating 

on enhancing computational fluid dynamics (CFD) capabilities for 

flow and acoustic field simulations and validation studies in 2007. This 

cooperation enables NASA and DLR to engage in advanced modeling 

and simulation research that will be critical for the development of 

more predictive and accurate fluid dynamics simulations.

NASA-DLR cooperation on CFD activities include: research that 

contributes to the development of improved prediction methods using 

high-fidelity simulations of unsteady flow fields, and to the development of validated physics-based multidisciplinary design and analysis 

tools for aircraft; projects that contribute to the development of validated simulations and techniques for high-fidelity analysis of fluid flow 

phenomena and that focus on advanced flow simulation capabilities for 

higher-order methods, large eddy simulations, and hybrid methods for 

nonequilibrium flows; and research that contributes to noise reduction, 

environmental research using aero-acoustic simulation capabilities and 

methods, and validation of employed approaches to model generation 

of turbulence and noise.

For more information on NASA’s computational fluid dynamics 

research, please visit http://www.aeronautics.nasa.gov/fap/aboutus.html.

A CFD validation test of the DLR F6 Commercial Aircraft 

Configuration in the National Transonic Facility at NASA 

Langley Research Center.

A Navier-Stokes simulation of a V-22 Osprey rotor 

in hover; magenta indicates high vorticity, and blue 

indicates low vorticity.
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Dawn Asteroid Rendezvous Mission

NASA’s Dawn mission, launched in 2007, sent an orbiting space probe 

to examine the dwarf planet Ceres and the asteroid Vesta, two of the 

most massive members of the asteroid belt. In addition to being the 

first NASA science mission to make use of ion propulsion, Dawn will 

also be the first mission to visit and orbit two distinct bodies other than 

Earth and the Moon. 

Dawn’s goal is to characterize the conditions and processes of the solar 

system’s earliest epoch by investigating in detail two of the largest 

protoplanets that have remained relatively intact since their formations. 

Together with many other smaller bodies, Ceres and Vesta reside in the 

extensive zone between Mars and Jupiter called the asteroid belt. Each 

has followed a very different evolutionary path, constrained by the 

diversity of processes that operated during the first few million years of 

solar system evolution. 

The Dawn spacecraft successfully entered into orbit around Vesta in 

July 2011, and it has since revealed that the asteroid is a layered planetary building block with an iron core—the only one known to have 

survived the earliest days of the solar system. Dawn departed Vesta in 

September 2012 and will begin to study Ceres upon its arrival in 2015.

The German Aerospace Center (DLR) developed, supported, and 

integrated two framing cameras (FC) that provide scientific imagery for 

the Dawn mission.

For more information on the Dawn mission, please visit http://dawn.jpl.

nasa.gov/mission/index.asp.

This artist’s rendering shows NASA’s Dawn spacecraft 

orbiting the giant asteroid Vesta. The depiction of Vesta is 

based on images obtained by Dawn’s framing cameras. 

(Credit: NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory–Caltech)

Scientists at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory inspect the 

Dawn spacecraft.
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Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope

The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, launched by NASA in 2008, 

is a spacecraft with the ability to detect gamma rays created by the 

most energetic objects and phenomena in the universe. Among the 

topics of cosmological interest studied by the mission are dark matter 

and the periods of star and galaxy formation in the early universe. The 

mission is an astrophysics and particle physics partnership, developed 

by NASA in collaboration with the U.S. Department of Energy, with 

important contributions from academic institutions and partners in 

France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Sweden, and the United States. NASA is 

working with the German Aerospace Center (DLR), which is supporting the German Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics 

(MPE) on the Fermi mission.

Because of their tremendous energy, gamma rays travel through the 

universe largely unobstructed. This means that Fermi is able to observe 

gamma-ray sources located near the edge of the visible universe. 

Gamma rays detected by Fermi originate near the otherwise-obscured 

central regions of exotic objects like supermassive black holes, pulsars, 

and gamma-ray bursts.

In order to study these high-energy waves, two main instruments 

are used: the Large Area Telescope (LAT) and the Gamma-ray 

Large Area Space Telescope (GLAST) Burst Monitor (GBM). When 

in survey mode, the LAT scans the entire sky every 3 hours. The 

instrument detects photons with energies ranging from 20 million 

electron volts to over 300 billion electron volts. In its first month 

of operation, the GBM instrument spotted 31 gamma-ray bursts, 

which occur when massive stars die or when orbiting neutron stars 

spiral together and merge. By the end of 2011, Fermi had detected 

more than 100 gamma-emitting pulsars; before its launch, only 7 of 

these were known to emit gamma rays. Newly developed methods of 

analysis promise to spur additional discoveries. 

For the Fermi mission, through DLR’s support, the Max Planck 

Institute built all of the sensors and the power-supply box and support 

on the GBM instrument. One of its scientists is the GBM co-principal 

investigator. Along with DLR and NASA, the following organizations 

are also contributors to the Fermi mission: the French Alternative 

Energies and Atomic Energy Commission (CEA), Italian Space Agency 

(ASI), Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), and the Swedish 

Royal Institute of Technology (KTH).

For more information on the Fermi mission, please visit http://fermi.gsfc.

nasa.gov/.

The Fermi spacecraft shortly before launch. The solar 

panels are folded at the sides. The GBM detector modules 

and the telemetry antennas can be seen on the left side.
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GRACE

Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment

The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) is a NASA 

Earth System Science Pathfinder mission that was initiated through 

a partnership with the German Aerospace Center (DLR). GRACE 

consists of a pair of identical satellites in coplanar formation flight 

whose relative velocities are measured with submicron-per-second 

velocities over a range of more than 200 kilometers. This tandem 

formation provides spatial and temporal gravity field measurements of 

a few micrograms (a few parts per billion) to measure the movement of 

mass within the Earth system. 

In 2003, using only 111 days of GRACE satellite data, the GRACE 

science team released a preliminary model of Earth’s gravity field 10 

to 100 times more accurate than the previous model, which had been 

constructed from decades of geodetic data. GRACE improvements to 

the gravity field data have advanced numerous fields of endeavor, from 

the observation of the Lense-Thirring effect of general relativity to 

improvements in continental scale leveling for mapping and development projects. The gravity field of Earth varies both in space and time 

according to the movement of mass due to tectonic forces, ocean and 

atmospheric circulation, and changing hydrology from weather and 

climate changes. GRACE’s time-variable gravity data is yielding crucial 

information about the distribution and movement of mass within the 

solid Earth and its fluid surroundings, such as estimated post-glacial 

rebound rates, changes in the polar ice sheets and mountain glaciers, 

changes in water distribution within the world’s major drainage basins, 

changes in deep ocean circulation, and, finally, the relative contributions of ocean warming and water mass distribution to sea level change. 

NASA provided the two GRACE spacecraft, Microwave Ranging 

Instrument (MRI), accelerometers, and Global Positioning System 

(GPS) hardware. DLR provided the launch and, through its German 

Space Operations Center (GSOC), is providing mission operations, 

controlling the satellite flight operations, and providing data downlink 

and archive facilities. 

GRACE is helping oceanographers unlock the secrets of ocean 

circulation and its effect on climate. Launched on March 17, 2002, 

from Plesetsk Cosmodrome in Arkhangelsk Oblast, Russia, GRACE 

is currently in an extended period of operations beyond its planned 

mission life of 5 years. 

For more information on GRACE, please visit http://www.csr.utexas.

edu/grace/ and http://www.dlr.de/.

An artist’s concept of the twin GRACE satellites 

orbiting Earth.
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GRACE-FO

Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Follow-On 

The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Follow-On 

(GRACE-FO), a partnership between NASA and the German 

Research Centre for Geosciences (GFZ), will provide continuity of 

measurements acquired by the 2002 Gravity Recovery and Climate 

Experiment mission. These measurements provide high-resolution 

global data on the Earth’s gravity field, including how this field varies 

over time. 

GRACE-FO will consist of a pair of identical satellites in coplanar 

formation flight whose relative velocities are measured with submicronper-second velocities over a range of more than 200 kilometers. This tandem formation provides spatial and temporal gravity-field measurements 

of a few micrograms (a few parts per billion) to measure the movement 

of mass within the Earth system. The mission may also demonstrate a 

new laser ranging technology to support future gravity missions. 

NASA will provide the two GRACE-FO spacecraft, Microwave 

Ranging Instrument (MRI), accelerometers, and Global Positioning 

System (GPS) hardware, and it will lead joint development with GFZ 

of a Laser Ranging Interferometer (LRI). GFZ will provide the launch, 

mission operations, control of the satellite flight operations, and data 

downlink and archive facilities. GRACE-FO will be launched in the 

2017 timeframe.

For more information on GRACE-FO, please visit http://www.nasa.

gov/grace/ and http://grace.jpl.nasa.gov/.

Due to an uneven distribution of mass inside the planet, 

Earth’s gravity field is not uniform—that is, it has “lumps.” 

This model greatly exaggerates the scale so that smaller 

features can be seen. The GRACE Follow-On mission will 

continue the GRACE mission’s mapping of the precise 

location and size of these lumps, enabling a greater 

understanding of the structure of Earth. (Credit: NASA/

University of Texas Center for Space Research)
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InSight

Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, 

Geodesy and Heat Transport

NASA’s Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and 

Heat Transport (InSight) mission is designed to improve our understanding of the evolutionary formation of rocky planets, including 

Earth, by investigating the interior structure and processes of Mars. 

The mission will also enable scientists to investigate the dynamics of 

Martian tectonic activity and meteorite impacts, which could offer 

clues about such phenomena on Earth.

The InSight mission, planned for launch in March 2016 and arrival 

at Mars in September 2016, consists of a single geophysical lander on 

Mars to study the planet’s deep interior. The InSight science payload 

comprises two instruments: the Seismic Experiment for Interior 

Structure (SEIS) and the Heat Flow and Physical Properties Package 

(HP3). Additionally, the Rotation and Interior Structure Experiment 

(RISE) will use the spacecraft’s communication system to provide precise measurements of planetary rotation. The InSight payload includes 

two additional subsystems: the Instrument Deployment System (IDS), 

which is a robotic arm system for deploying the instruments on the 

ground; and an Auxiliary Payload Sensor Subsystem (APSS) of wind, 

temperature, pressure, and magnetic-field sensors.

The German Aerospace Center (DLR) is expected to lead the development of the HP3 instrument. HP3 will determine the geothermal 

heat flux of Mars by obtaining thermal measurements in the shallow 

subsurface that uniquely constrain the planetary heat engine that drives 

geologic processes. 

The French National Center for Space Studies (CNES) is expected 

to lead an international consortium, including Germany, Spain, 

Switzerland, and the United Kingdom, to provide the SEIS instrument. 

SEIS will measure seismic waves traveling through the interior of Mars 

to determine its interior structure and composition. 

For more information on the InSight mission, please visit http://insight.

jpl.nasa.gov/home.cfm.

An artist’s rendering of the formation of rocky bodies 

in the solar system—how they form, differentiate, and 

evolve into terrestrial planets. (Credit: NASA/Jet Propulsion 

Laboratory–Caltech)
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MER

Mars Exploration Rovers

The Mars Exploration Rover (MER) mission, involving two robotic 

geologists—Spirit and Opportunity—is part of NASA’s Mars 

Exploration Program, a long-term robotic exploration of the Red 

Planet. The rovers were launched separately in 2003 and landed in 

different areas of Mars in January 2004.

Primary among the MER mission’s scientific goals is to search for and 

characterize a wide range of rocks and soils that hold clues to past water 

activity. The MER mission seeks to determine where conditions may 

once have been favorable to life by analyzing the climate and water 

histories at sites on Mars. Each rover is equipped with the Athena 

science payload, which is used to read the geological record at each site, 

investigate what role water played there, and determine how suitable 

the conditions would have been for life.

The German Aerospace Center (DLR) provided two science instruments for the Athena payload: the Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer 

(APXS), which determines the elemental composition of rocks and soils 

while providing scientists with information about crustal formation 

and weathering processes; and the Mössbauer Spectrometer (MB), 

which determines the composition and abundance of iron-bearing 

minerals and examines the magnetic properties of surface materials. 

The MB also provides information about early Martian environmental 

conditions and possible fossil evidence.

DLR also sponsored three German scientists for the MER Science 

Team, who are using MER data to research soil composition at both 

global and local scales, investigate Martian dust, and research Martian 

soil mechanics, including soil perturbations and soil characteristics.

Spirit and Opportunity worked on Mars for well beyond their originally planned 3-month missions: Spirit fell silent in March 2010, but 

Opportunity has continued to send data downlinks to Earth. Within 2 

months of landing on Mars in early 2004, Opportunity found geological evidence of an environment that was once wet. Years of analysis of 

observations made in 2005 by Spirit’s APXS and MB produced a 2011 

report that an outcrop on Husband Hill bears a high concentration of 

carbonate, providing evidence of a wet, nonacidic ancient environment 

that may have been favorable for microbial life.

For more information on MER, please visit http://marsrovers.nasa.gov/

home/index.html and http://athena.cornell.edu/the_mission.

An artist’s concept of an MER on the Martian surface.
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MSL

Mars Science Laboratory

NASA’s Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) mission utilized an innovative 

sky crane to set down the Curiosity rover onto the surface of Mars in 

August 2012, where it began its mission to assess whether Mars has 

ever had an environment capable of supporting small life forms called 

microbes. The MSL mission, launched by NASA in November 2011, 

is planned to last at least one Martian year (687 Earth days), but it has 

the potential to operate for much longer.

The primary scientific objective, to be carried out during the surface 

science phase of the MSL mission, is to assess the biological potential 

of at least one target area by characterizing the local geology and 

geochemistry, investigating planetary processes relevant to habitability 

(including the role of water), and characterizing the broad spectrum 

of surface radiation. The landing site, Gale Crater, was selected based 

on an assessment of safety and planetary protection and an analysis by 

the scientific community. Since its landing, MSL has already begun to 

make new and exciting science discoveries, such as observing a natural 

intersection of three kinds of terrain at an area called Glenelg and 

finding evidence that a stream once ran across the area on Mars where 

the rover is driving. Although earlier missions detected the presence of 

water on Mars, the images taken by MSL of rocks that contain ancient 

streambed gravel are the first of their kind.

The German Aerospace Center (DLR) provided significant input 

to the Radiation Assessment Detector (RAD), which characterizes 

the broad spectrum of radiation at the surface of Mars—an essential 

precursor to human exploration of the planet. The RAD also measures 

and identifies all high-energy radiation on the Martian surface, such as 

protons, energetic ions of various elements, neutrons, and gamma rays. 

This includes not only direct radiation from space but also secondary 

radiation produced by the interaction of space radiation with the 

Martian atmosphere and surface rocks and soils.

For more information on the MSL mission and the RAD instrument, 

please visit http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/ and http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.

gov/msl/mission/instruments/radiationdetectors/rad/.

This artist’s concept depicts the moment immediately after 

NASA’s Curiosity rover, lowered via a unique sky-crane 

system, touched down onto the Martian surface. After the 

spacecraft detected the touchdown, pyrotechnic cutters 

severed the connections between the rover and the 

spacecraft’s descent stage, which then flew away, coming 

back to the surface a safe distance away. (Credit: NASA/

Jet Propulsion Laboratory–Caltech)
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SPP

Solar Probe Plus

NASA’s Solar Probe Plus (SPP) mission is a project in the Living With 

a Star (LWS) program, a series of missions designed to gather critical 

information about the Sun and its effects on Earth, human activities, 

and other planetary systems. By flying into the Sun’s outer atmosphere, 

SPP will gather data on the processes that heat the corona and accelerate the solar wind, solving two fundamental mysteries that have been 

top-priority science goals for many decades. The German Aerospace 

Center (DLR) is collaborating with NASA on the Wide-field Imager 

for Solar Probe (WISPR) investigation on SPP. Belgium and France are 

also participating on this mission.

NASA plans to launch SPP in 2018 from Cape Canaveral Air Force 

Station (CCAFS) in Florida. The mission is planned to last almost 7 

years and the spacecraft will eventually come within 3.7 million miles 

from the surface of the Sun, well within the orbit of Mercury and about 

eight times closer than any spacecraft has ever approached.

SPP will study the streams of charged particles that the Sun hurls into 

space from a vantage point where the processes that heat the corona 

and produce solar wind actually occur. At its closest approach SPP will 

zip past the Sun at 125 miles per second, protected by a carboncomposite heat shield that must withstand up to 2600° Fahrenheit and 

survive blasts of radiation and energized dust at levels not experienced 

by any previous spacecraft. The primary scientific objectives to be 

carried out during the SPP mission include: determining the structure 

and dynamics of the magnetic fields at the sources of both fast and 

slow solar wind, tracing the flow of energy that heats the corona and 

accelerates the solar wind, and determining what mechanisms accelerate and transport energetic particles. Instruments include a wide-field 

imager, fast-ion analyzer, fast-electron analyzer, energetic-particle 

instrument, magnetometer, and plasma-wave instrument. 

DLR contributions to the SPP mission include analysis and evaluation 

of the WISPR investigation and the development of software for 

WISPR data analysis and modeling tasks. The WISPR investigation is 

a single visible-light telescope with a wide field of view that will track 

density fluctuations in the solar corona by imaging visible sunlight 

scattered by electrons in the corona as the spacecraft traverses through 

its perihelion passes. Fluctuations can arise from dynamic events, such 

as coronal mass ejections, and also from the “quiescent” slow and fast 

solar wind. In addition, the rapid motion of the spacecraft through the 

corona will result in significant apparent changes due to shifts in its 

viewpoint, enabling tomographic reconstruction of the structures.

For more information on SPP, please visit http://solarprobe.gsfc.nasa.gov/.

An artist’s depiction of Solar Probe Plus as it deploys 

its solar arrays and begins drawing power for its trip 

toward the Sun. (Credit: Johns Hopkins University Applied 

Physics Laboratory)
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SOFIA

Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy

NASA and the German Aerospace Center (DLR) are collaborating 

on the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA). 

SOFIA is not a spacecraft but rather consists of a 2.5-meter telescope 

aboard a modified Boeing 747SP. Not only can it study the universe in 

the infrared and submillimeter spectrum, but SOFIA is also integral to 

the development of new observation techniques and instrumentations. 

As a flying observatory, SOFIA consists of two main sections: the modified Boeing 747SP and the telescope. The telescope accommodates a 

wide variety of scientific instruments operating across a wide range of 

wavelengths. One of only 45 747SPs ever produced, the SOFIA aircraft 

was used for commercial passenger transport through 1995. The “SP” 

designation means “special performance,” a reference to the extended 

range of the aircraft that was achieved via a shorter body than other 

747 models. NASA acquired the SOFIA aircraft in 1997 and began 

large modifications in 1998 to transform it into a flying observatory.

The telescope employs three main mirrors, the largest a 2.7-meter 

concave mirror that initially captures the light. After reflecting off 

the other two mirrors, an image is focused on the focal point, where 

the instruments capture and analyze the data. SOFIA’s science 

instruments include cameras, spectrometers, and photometers that 

together operate across a very wide range of infrared wavelengths. 

Once the information is gathered, scientists can use it to analyze 

black holes, the birth and death of stars, the formation of solar 

systems, and various other space phenomena.

DLR is contributing the telescope, along with two of the six firstgeneration instruments. DLR also provides additional operation 

support during the course of the resulting flights.

For more information on SOFIA, please visit http://www.sofia.usra.edu/

index.html.

With the large door over its 2.5-meter, German-built 

telescope wide open, NASA’s Stratospheric Observatory 

for Infrared Astronomy 747SP aircraft soars over southern 

California’s high desert.

A close-up of the SOFIA telescope in flight.
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THEMIS

Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions 

during Substorms

and 

ARTEMIS 

Acceleration, Reconnection, Turbulence and 

Electrodynamics of the Moon’s Interaction with 

the Sun 

NASA’s Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions during 

Substorms (THEMIS) mission originated as a 2-year mission consisting of five identical satellites, or probes, launched together in 2007 

to study the violent and colorful eruptions in auroras. The mission 

incorporates a network of ground-based auroral observatories. 

THEMIS helps to determine which physical processes in near-Earth 

space initiate violent substorm eruptions in the Earth’s magnetosphere. 

Substorms intensify auroras and create a dramatic “dancing” effect in 

them. Aligning five identical probes over observatories on the North 

American continent has allowed scientists to collect coordinated 

measurements along the Earth’s magnetic field lines, thereby providing 

the first comprehensive look at the onset of substorms and the manner 

in which they trigger auroral eruptions.

In 2009, NASA assigned two of the THEMIS satellites to a 

new mission—the Acceleration, Reconnection, Turbulence and 

Electrodynamics of the Moon’s Interaction with the Sun (ARTEMIS) 

mission—to measure solar wind turbulence at the Moon. Having 

repositioned two of the five THEMIS probes in coordinated, lunarequatorial orbits, ARTEMIS is now performing the first systematic, 

two-point observations of the distant magnetotail, the solar wind, and 

the lunar space environment. The primary objectives of the mission are 

to study how particles are accelerated at reconnection sites and shocks 

and how turbulence develops and evolves in Earth’s magnetotail and 

in the solar wind. The mission will determine the structure, formation, 

refilling, and downstream evolution of the lunar wake. The three 

remaining THEMIS satellites continue to study substorms that are 

visible in the Northern Hemisphere as aurora borealis. 

The German Aerospace Center (DLR) and the Technical University of 

Braunschweig developed and tested the fluxgate magnetometer (FGM), 

which is included on each probe. The Austrian Space Agency (ASA), 

the Space Research Institute of the Austrian Academy of Sciences 

(IWF/ÖAW), the Canadian Space Agency (CSA), and the French 

National Center for Space Studies (CNES) also contributed to this 

mission. NASA’s contributions include the spacecraft, the launch, the 

ground network of observatories, and overall mission management.

For more information on THEMIS, please visit http://www.nasa.gov/

mission_pages/themis/main/index.html.

For more information on ARTEMIS, please visit http://www.nasa.gov/

mission_pages/artemis/index.html.

An artist’s concept of ARTEMIS P1 and P2 orbiting the 

Moon. (Credit: NASA/Conceptual Image Lab)
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TWINS

Two Wide-angle Imaging Neutral-atom Spectrometers

NASA’s Two Wide-angle Imaging Neutral-atom Spectrometers 

(TWINS) mission is providing stereo imaging of the Earth’s magnetosphere—the region surrounding the planet that is controlled by its 

magnetic field and contains the Van Allen radiation belts and other 

energetic charged particles. The two identical instruments, TWINS-A 

and TWINS-B, are providing three-dimensional (3-D) global visualization of this region, which is leading to greatly enhanced understanding of the connections between different regions of the magnetosphere 

and their relation to the solar wind. The German Aerospace Center 

(DLR) and the University of Bonn are collaborating with NASA on the 

TWINS mission.

The TWINS-A instrument was launched on a U.S. satellite in 2006, 

and the TWINS-B spacecraft launched on a U.S. satellite in 2008. 

With the two instruments in orbit, the TWINS mission began 

stereo imaging in 2008 and has since observed numerous co-rotating 

interaction region (CIR)–driven storms. This stereo imaging is yielding 

substantial progress in the characterization of the global 3-D distribution of the ring current. 

The TWINS mission images the charge exchange neutral atoms over 

a broad energy range ( 1–100 kiloelectron volts [keV]) using two 

identical instruments on two widely spaced high-altitude, highinclination spacecraft. This enables 3-D visualization and the resolution of large-scale structures and dynamics within the magnetosphere. 

In contrast to traditional space experiments, which make measurements 

at only one point in space, imaging experiments provide simultaneous 

viewing of different regions of the magnetosphere. Stereo imaging as 

performed by TWINS takes the next step of producing 3-D images, 

which greatly improve our understanding of the global aspects of the 

terrestrial magnetosphere.

The TWINS instrumentation consists of an energetic neutral atom 

(ENA) imager and a Lyman alpha detector. The ENA imager provides 

indirect remote sensing of the ring current ions, and the Lyman alpha 

detector gives a measure of the neutral hydrogen cloud around the 

Earth, known as the geocorona. Additional environmental sensors are 

providing contemporaneous measurements of the local charged-particle 

environments. The University of Bonn provided the Lyman-alpha 

detector devices for the TWINS instruments and is participating in the 

joint analysis of the scientific data from the mission.

For more information on the TWINS mission, please visit http://science.

nasa.gov/missions/twins/.

The highly elliptical orbit of TWINS offers a good view 

of the ring current—a hoop of charged particles that 

encircles Earth. (Credit: Southwest Research Institute)
77

Science

India

GPM/Megha-Tropiques

Global Precipitation Measurement/Megha-Tropiques

The Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) mission is an 

international network of satellites that provide next-generation global 

observations of rain and snow. Building upon the success of the 

Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM), the GPM concept 

centers on the deployment of a “Core” satellite carrying an advanced 

radar/radiometer system to measure precipitation from space and 

serve as a reference standard to unify precipitation measurements 

from a constellation of research and operational satellites. The 

GPM Core Observatory carries the first space-borne Ku/Ka-band 

Dual-frequency Precipitation Radar (DPR), provided by the Japan 

Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), as well as a multichannel GPM 

Microwave Imager (GMI) provided by NASA. 

Through improved measurements of precipitation globally, the GPM 

mission will help to advance our understanding of Earth’s water and 

energy cycle, improve climate prediction, advance numerical weather 

prediction, improve forecasting of extreme events that cause natural 

hazards and disasters, and extend current capabilities in using accurate 

and timely information of precipitation to directly benefit society. 

GPM, initiated by NASA and JAXA as a global successor to TRMM, 

comprises a consortium of international space agencies, including 

the French National Center for Space Studies (CNES), the Indian 

Space Research Organisation (ISRO), the U.S. National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the European Organisation 

for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT), and 

others. The GPM Core Observatory launched in February 2014 on a 

Japanese H-IIA launch vehicle.

As a part of the future GPM constellation of satellites, NASA is 

partnering with ISRO and CNES on the joint Indian-French MeghaTropiques mission, which was launched in 2011. Megha-Tropiques’s 

main instruments are the Microwave Analysis and Detection of 

Rain and Atmospheric Structures (MADRAS) microwave imager 

for studying precipitation and cloud properties, the Sounder for 

Probing Vertical Profiles of Humidity (SAPHIR) microwave sounding 

instrument for atmospheric water vapor, and the Scanner for Radiation 

Budget (ScaRaB) radiometer devoted to the measurement of outgoing 

radiative fluxes at the top of the atmosphere. 

NASA, ISRO, and CNES benefit from partnering on GPM and 

Megha-Tropiques through data sharing, scientific collaborations on 

satellite intercalibration, precipitation retrieval algorithm development, 

and ground validation. Additionally, MADRAS and SAPHIR data 

help NASA to improve sampling for GPM multisatellite global precipitation products.

For more information on the GPM mission, please visit http://pmm.

nasa.gov/precipitation-measurement-missions.

An artist’s depiction of Megha-Tropiques satellite orbiting 

Earth. (Credit: French National Center for Space Studies)
78

Science

India

Oceansat-2

Oceansat-2, launched by India in 2009, is second in the Indian Space 

Research Organisation’s (ISRO) series of Indian remote sensing 

satellites dedicated to ocean research (though Oceansat-2 also conducts 

atmospheric science). Oceansat-2 carries three sensors: the Ocean Color 

Monitor (OCM-2), which retrieves sea spectral reflectance; a Ku-band 

pencil-beam scatterometer capable of measuring ocean surface vector 

winds; and an Italian payload called the Radio Occultation Sounder for 

Atmosphere (ROSA), which provides a vertical profile of the atmosphere.

Oceansat-2 is providing continuity with the services and applications of 

the Oceansat-1 OCM-1 data and with additional data from a Ku-band 

pencil-beam scatterometer. Oceansat-2 is a three-axis, body-stabilized 

spacecraft placed into a near-circular Sun-synchronous orbit at an 

altitude of 720 kilometers, with an equatorial crossing time of around 

1,200 hours. 

NASA and ISRO are cooperating on Oceansat-2 by evaluating 

and optimizing OCM-2 data for research and increasing access to 

the global data. ISRO, NASA, and the U.S. National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) share the common goal of 

optimizing the quality and maximizing the utility of the Oceansat-2 

scatterometer data for the benefit of future global and regional 

scientific research and operational applications. The cooperative plan 

envisions continuing efforts to optimize the quality of the operational 

data stream over the near term and longer term for climate research.

For more information on Oceansat-2, please visit http://www.isro.org/

satellites/oceansat-2.aspx.

Data from Oceansat-2’s OCM-2 instrument was used to 

produce this image of India and the waters of the Bay of 

Bengal. (Credit: Indian Space Research Organisation)

This map, produced with data from Oceansat-2’s 

Ku-band pencil-beam scatterometer, shows the strength 

and direction of Hurricane Sandy’s ocean surface 

winds in October 2012. (Credit: Indian Space Research 

Organisation/NASA)
79

Science

Italy

BepiColombo

BepiColombo is a planned two-spacecraft mission consisting of the 

Mercury Planetary Orbiter (MPO), provided by the European Space 

Agency (ESA), and the Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter (MMO), provided by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA). The MPO 

will study the surface and internal composition of the planet, while the 

MMO will study Mercury’s magnetosphere. NASA will contribute the 

Strofio instrument as part of the Italian Space Agency (ASI)–led Search 

for Exospheric Refilling and Emitted Natural Abundances (SERENA) 

suite of instruments on board the MPO. 

Strofio is designed to obtain the first direct measurements of absolute 

abundances—both chemical and isotopic—of the exospheric constituents sampled along the low-altitude polar orbit of the MPO spacecraft. 

Strofio is the only instrument that can detect all of the neutral species 

that reach the spacecraft; optical and x-ray spectrometers can detect 

only those with emissions or absorptions at specific wavelengths. In 

contrast to optical techniques, Strofio can make measurements with 

high sensitivity, both in full sunlight and in Mercury’s shadow. This 

unique capability enables Strofio to determine the diurnal and latitudinal variations in Mercury’s exosphere that are critical to understanding 

its origins and variability. Strofio will operate with the other components of the SERENA instrument suite: the Emitted Low-Energy 

Neutral Atoms (ELENA) instrument, the Miniature Ion Precipitation 

Analyzer (MIPA), and the Planetary Ion Camera (PICAM).

The BepiColombo mission is scheduled to be launched by ESA in 2015 

from Kourou, French Guiana.

For more information on BepiColombo and Strofio, please visit http://

sci.esa.int/bepicolombo and http://discovery.nasa.gov/strofio.cfml.

An artist’s impression of BepiColombo starting its 6- 

year interplanetary journey to Mercury. (Credit: European 

Space Agency)

The BepiColombo Mercury Composite Spacecraft is 

ready for a launcher separation shock test at ESA’s 

European Space Research and Technology Centre 

(ESTEC) in Noordwijk, the Netherlands. (Credit: 

European Space Agency)
80

Science

Italy

Dawn Asteroid Rendezvous Mission

NASA’s Dawn mission, launched in 2007, sent an orbiting space probe 

to examine the dwarf planet Ceres and the asteroid Vesta, two of the 

most massive members of the asteroid belt. In addition to being the 

first NASA science mission to make use of ion propulsion, Dawn will 

also be the first mission to visit and orbit two distinct bodies other than 

Earth and the Moon. 

Dawn’s goal is to characterize the conditions and processes of the solar 

system’s earliest epoch by investigating in detail two of the largest 

protoplanets that have remained relatively intact since their formations. 

Together with many other smaller bodies, Ceres and Vesta reside in the 

extensive zone between Mars and Jupiter called the asteroid belt. Each 

has followed a very different evolutionary path, constrained by the 

diversity of processes that operated during the first few million years of 

solar system evolution. 

The Dawn spacecraft successfully entered into orbit around Vesta in 

July 2011, and it has since revealed that the asteroid is a layered planetary building block with an iron core—the only one known to have 

survived the earliest days of the solar system. Dawn departed Vesta in 

September 2012 and will begin to study Ceres upon its arrival in 2015. 

The Italian Space Agency (ASI) developed, supported, and integrated 

the Visual and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (VIR-MS) instrument 

for the Dawn Mission. The VIR-MS is a high-spatial-resolution 

spectrometer that is used to study both the surface and atmosphere 

of the two protoplanets by acquiring a spectrally resolved image of a 

two-dimensional scene.

For more information on the Dawn mission, please visit http://dawn.jpl.

nasa.gov/mission/index.asp.

An artist’s concept of the Dawn spacecraft. (Credit: 

University of California, Los Angeles)

This image obtained by the framing camera on NASA’s 

Dawn spacecraft shows the south pole of the giant 

asteroid Vesta. (Credit: NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory/

University of California, Los Angeles/Max Planck Society/

German Aerospace Center/Institute of Computer and 

Network Engineering, Braunschweig)
81

Science

Italy

Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope

The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, launched by NASA in 2008, 

is a spacecraft with the ability to detect gamma rays created by the 

most energetic objects and phenomena in the universe. Among the 

topics of cosmological interest studied by the mission are dark matter 

and the periods of star and galaxy formation in the early universe. The 

mission is an astrophysics and particle physics partnership developed 

by NASA in collaboration with the U.S. Department of Energy, with 

important contributions from academic institutions and partners in 

France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Sweden, and the United States.

Because of their tremendous energy, gamma rays travel through the 

universe largely unobstructed. This means that Fermi is able to observe 

gamma-ray sources located near the edge of the visible universe. 

Gamma rays detected by Fermi originate near the otherwise-obscured 

central regions of exotic objects like supermassive black holes, pulsars, 

and gamma-ray bursts.

In order to study these high-energy waves, two main instruments are 

used: the Large Area Telescope (LAT) and the Gamma-ray Large Area 

Space Telescope (GLAST) Burst Monitor (GBM). When in survey 

mode, the LAT scans the entire sky every 3 hours. The instrument 

detects photons with energies ranging from 20 million electron volts 

to over 300 billion electron volts. In its first month of operation, 

the GBM instrument spotted 31 gamma-ray bursts, which occur 

when massive stars die or when orbiting neutron stars spiral together 

and merge. By the end of 2011, Fermi had detected more than 100 

gamma-emitting pulsars; before its launch, only 7 of these were known 

to emit gamma rays. Newly developed methods of analysis promise to 

spur additional discoveries. 

The Italian Space Agency (ASI) provided particle physics and astrophysics expertise toward the mission and built the LAT Tracker. Along 

with ASI and NASA, the following organizations are also contributors 

to the Fermi mission: the German Aerospace Center (DLR), the 

French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission (CEA), 

Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), and the Swedish Royal 

Institute of Technology (KTH).

For more information on the FERMI mission, please visit http://fermi.

gsfc.nasa.gov/.

The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope discovered 

gamma-ray bubbles that extend 50,000 light-years—or 

roughly half of the Milky Way’s diameter.
82

Science

Italy

Juno

NASA’s Juno spacecraft, launched in 2011 and slated to arrive in orbit 

around Jupiter in 2016, will gather data on Jupiter’s interior structure, 

atmospheric composition and dynamics, and polar magnetosphere. 

This data will be used by scientists to study the origin and evolution 

of Jupiter, thereby furthering our understanding of planetary and 

solar-system formation.

Using a spinning, solar-powered spacecraft, Juno will make maps of the 

gravitational and magnetic fields, auroral emissions, and atmospheric 

composition of Jupiter from a polar orbit. Juno will carry precise 

high-sensitivity radiometers, magnetometers, and gravity science 

systems. Juno’s 32 orbits over 11 days will sample Jupiter’s full range of 

latitudes and longitudes. From its polar perspective, Juno will combine 

in situ and remote sensing observations to explore the polar magnetosphere and determine what drives Jupiter’s remarkable auroras. Jupiter’s 

solid core and abundance of heavy metals in the atmosphere make it an 

ideal model to help improve our understanding of the origin of giant 

planets. Juno will measure global abundances of oxygen and nitrogen 

by mapping the gravitational field and using microwave observations of 

water and ammonia.

The Italian Space Agency (ASI) contributed two instruments for the 

Juno mission: the Jovian Infrared Auroral Mapper (JIRAM) and the 

Ka-band Transponder (KaT). The JIRAM instrument will be used to 

collect high-resolution images of Jupiter’s atmosphere, combining the 

use of an infrared camera and a spectrometer. KaT will be used to aid 

in the sensitive gravity tracking experiments. ASI also contributed a 

novel education and outreach article: a small aluminum plaque honoring Galileo Galilei. ASI intends to use this item to create new interest 

in science by highlighting its own heritage.

For more information on the Juno mission, please visit http://juno.nasa.

gov/ and http://missionjuno.swri.edu/.

An artist’s rendering of the Juno spacecraft.
83

Science

Italy

MRO

Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter

The Italian Space Agency (ASI) provided the Shallow Subsurface 

Radar (SHARAD), one of the six science instruments on NASA’s Mars 

Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) mission, which launched in August 

2005 and arrived at Mars in March 2006.

MRO is investigating the history of water on Mars by performing 

remote sensing science investigations from Mars orbit. MRO conducts 

observations in several parts of the electromagnetic spectrum—including ultraviolet and visible imaging, visible to near-infrared imaging 

spectrometry, thermal infrared atmospheric sounding, and radar 

subsurface profiling—at spatial resolutions that are substantially better 

than any preceding Mars orbiter. MRO is also used to identify and 

characterize sites for future landed missions and to provide critical 

telecommunications relay capability for other Mars missions.

SHARAD is probing the three-dimensional cross-sections of the layer 

structure of the upper 500–1,000 meters of the Martian surface with 

high-vertical-resolution and landform-scale horizontal sampling for 

the shallow subsurface. The goal is to characterize subsurface layering 

and to determine whether liquid or frozen water exists within the first 

few hundred feet of Mars’s crust. SHARAD works by sending out and 

recording the return of radar pulses of energy, emitted and captured 

by the SHARAD antenna. The timing of the radar return is sensitive 

to changes in the electrical properties of the rock, sand, and any water 

present in the surface and subsurface. Water, like high-density rock, is 

very conducting and will have a very strong radar return. Changes in 

the reflection characteristics of the subsurface, such as layers deposited 

by geological processes throughout Mars’s history, will also be visible.

For more information on MRO and SHARAD, please visit http://

marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov and http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/MRO/

spacecraft/sc-instru-sharad.html.

This artist’s concept of the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter 

highlights the spacecraft’s radar capability. The SHARAD 

instrument “looks” under the first few hundred feet (up to 

1 kilometer) below the Martian surface. (Credit: NASA/Jet 

Propulsion Laboratory)

The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter’s SHARAD instrument 

returned this enhanced-color view of the eastern rim and 

floor of Victoria Crater on Mars, which the Mars Exploration 

Rover Opportunity was investigating at the same time.
84

Human Exploration and Operations

Italy

MPLM 

Multi-Purpose Logistics Module

The Italian Space Agency’s (ASI) contribution to the International 

Space Station (ISS) Program consisted of three Multi-Purpose Logistics 

Modules (MPLMs) named Leonardo, Raffaello, and Donatello. The 

Leonardo eventually became a Permanent Multipurpose Module 

(PMM). In exchange for the development and manufacturing of 

these elements as NASA-provided contributions to the ISS Program, 

NASA is providing to ASI several astronaut flight opportunities and 

utilization rights aboard the ISS. 

NASA’s contributions to the ISS Program include overall management, 

coordination, and integration of the ISS Program across the partnership 

for operations, safety, transportation, and integrated hardware 

performance. NASA hardware components include the U.S. laboratory 

module, the airlock for extravehicular activities (EVA), truss segments 

to support the U.S. solar arrays and thermal radiators, three connecting 

nodes, and living quarters. NASA also provides cargo transportation 

via the Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) contract. 

The ISS functions as an orbital microgravity and life sciences laboratory, a test bed for new technologies in areas such as life support and 

robotics, and a platform for astronomical and Earth observations. The 

ISS also serves as a unique engineering test bed for flight systems and 

operations critical to NASA’s future exploration missions. U.S. research 

on the ISS concentrates on the long-term effects of space travel on 

humans, as well as on technology development activities in support of 

exploration. Hailed as one of the most ambitious engineering feats in 

human history, the ISS is a stepping-stone for human exploration and 

scientific discovery beyond low-Earth orbit. 

The MPLMs were pressurized, reusable logistics modules that functioned 

both as cargo carriers between the ground and the ISS and as attached 

ISS modules. As cargo carriers aboard the Space Shuttles, MPLMs 

carried laboratory racks filled with equipment, experiments, and supplies 

to the ISS, then carried excess materials from the ISS to the ground. 

While berthed to the ISS, the MPLMs were fully functioning extra work 

areas (with components that provided life support, fire detection and 

suppression, electrical distribution, and computer functions).

During Space Shuttle Discovery’s final flight in 2011, a refurbished 

Leonardo was delivered and permanently mounted to the ISS. This 

former MPLM, now a PMM, is berthed to the nadir port of Node 1. 

The PMM added an additional 2,472 cubic feet of stowage and science 

activity space to the ISS.

For more information on ASI’s contributions to the ISS, please visit 

http://mplm.msfc.nasa.gov/mission.html and http://www.nasa.gov/

mission_pages/station/behindscenes/PMM_transformation.html.

The former Leonardo MPLM arrives via STS-135 at 

the International Space Station (ISS), where it takes up 

residence as a permanent ISS module, adopting the new 

name of Permanent Multipurpose Module (PMM). The 

PMM adds an additional 2,472 cubic feet of stowage and 

science activity space to the ISS.

STS-135 mission specialist Sandy Magnus is surrounded 

by supplies and equipment in the PMM.
85

Science

Italy

NuSTAR

Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array

NASA’s Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array (NuSTAR) mission, 

launched in June 2012, will allow astronomers to study the universe in 

high-energy x rays. Nine days after its launch, engineers at NuSTAR’s 

mission control at the University of California Berkeley sent a signal 

to the spacecraft to begin deploying its 10-meter mast. The mast 

was deployed and secured over a span of 26 minutes, making it the 

first deployed mast ever used on a space telescope. As a result of this 

achievement, NuSTAR became the first focusing hard x-ray telescope 

to orbit Earth, and it is expected to greatly exceed the performance of 

the largest ground-based observatories that have observed this region 

in the electromagnetic spectrum. NuSTAR will also complement 

astrophysics missions that explore the cosmos in other regions of the 

spectrum. NASA is collaborating with the Italian Space Agency (ASI) 

and Danish Technical University on the NuSTAR mission. 

NuSTAR is able to focus the high-energy x-ray light into sharp images 

because of a complex, innovative telescope design. High-energy light 

is difficult to focus because it reflects off mirrors only when hitting 

at nearly parallel angles. NuSTAR ingeniously solves this problem 

by using nested shells of mirrors in its design. It has the most nested 

shells ever used in a space telescope—133 in each of two optic units. 

The mirrors were molded from ultrathin glass similar to that found in 

laptop screens and glazed with even thinner layers of reflective coating.

ASI is providing the mission with use of the Malindi Ground Station, 

operated by ASI and located in Malindi, Kenya, as the primary 

NuSTAR data downlink and command uplink facility. 

For more information on NuSTAR, please visit http://www.nasa.gov/

nustar.

An artist’s concept of NASA’s NuSTAR spacecraft orbiting 

Earth; NuSTAR hunts for hidden black holes and other 

exotic cosmic objects. (Credit: NASA/Jet Propulsion 

Laboratory–Caltech)

This view of the historical supernova remnant Cassiopeia 

A was taken by NASA’s NuSTAR spacecraft. Blue indicates 

the highest energy x-ray light, where NuSTAR has made 

the first resolved image ever of this source. Red and 

green show the lower end of NuSTAR’s energy range, 

which overlaps with NASA’s high-resolution Chandra 

X-ray Observatory. The starry background picture is from 

the Digitized Sky Survey. (Credit: NASA/Jet Propulsion 

Laboratory–Caltech/Digitized Sky Survey)
86

Science

Italy

Swift Gamma Ray Burst Explorer

NASA’s Swift Gamma Ray Burst Explorer mission is a multiwavelength 

astrophysics observatory that is making a comprehensive study of 

hundreds of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) in order to determine the origin 

and physical processes of GRB events. The Swift mission was launched 

by NASA in November 2004 and was expected to have an orbital 

lifetime of approximately 8 years. Updated orbital lifetime projections 

for Swift predict that it will remain in orbit potentially until 2022. The 

Italian Space Agency (ASI) and the United Kingdom Space Agency are 

cooperating with NASA on the operation of the Swift mission. 

GRBs are incredibly intense releases of gamma radiation, which is 

a particularly energetic form of light that can be generated only by 

the most powerful astronomical events. Swift is a next-generation 

satellite that observes GRBs—a first-of-its-kind, multi-wavelength 

observatory dedicated to advancing GRB science. Its three instruments 

work together to patrol about one-sixth of the sky at a time in order to 

pinpoint and observe GRBs and afterglows in the gamma-ray, x-ray, 

ultraviolet, and optical wavebands.

ASI provided the Swift x-ray mirror and associated components for 

the x-ray telescope (XRT), and it also led the development of XRT 

data-analysis software and data-processing software. The XRT takes 

images and measures the light energy (spectra) of afterglows that follow 

GRBs. Additionally, the Italian ground station at Malinda, Kenya, 

serves as the primary ground station for the entire Swift mission. ASI 

also provided the network infrastructure (ASINet) and maintains the 

transmission of Swift data between Malinda and the ASINet gateway 

at NASA’s Johnson Space Center (JSC). ASI also provides the Italian 

Swift Archive Center. 

For more information on Swift and the XRT, please visit http://swift.

gsfc.nasa.gov and http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/swift/spacecraft/

index.html.

An artist’s rendering of the Swift spacecraft with a gammaray burst in the background. (Credit: Spectrum Astro)

This stunning vista of the Andromeda Galaxy at ultraviolet 

wavelengths was recorded by NASA’s Swift satellite. The 

mosaic image is composed of 330 individual images 

covering a region 200,000 light-years wide.
87

Science

Japan

Astro-H

Astro-H is a powerful orbiting observatory being developed by the 

Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) for the purpose of 

studying extremely energetic processes in the universe. Astro-H is 

expected to launch in 2014 from the Tanegashima Space Center 

(TNSC) in Japan. The Astro-H mission is a cooperative Japan-U.S. 

x-ray astronomy mission initiated by JAXA’s Institute of Space and 

Astronautical Science (ISAS). Astro-H will provide unprecedented 

sensitivity for high-resolution spectroscopy of cosmic x-ray sources. 

Astro-H will be comprised of a suite of four highly complementary 

instruments spanning the x-ray energy band from 0.3 to 600 

kiloelectron volts (keV). The Soft X-ray Spectrometer (SXS), which is 

being developed jointly by a team led by NASA’s Goddard Space Flight 

Center (GSFC) and JAXA’s ISAS, is a high-resolution, nondispersive 

x-ray spectrometer operating between 0.3 and 12 keV. It represents the 

core instrument on Astro-H, providing a high-resolution spectroscopic 

capability for the Astro-H mission and covering the energy band 

where all of the astrophysically abundant elements have characteristic 

emission lines that can be used for a wide range of spectral studies 

of matter under extreme conditions. Three additional scientific 

instruments provided by JAXA will extend the bandpass to produce an 

observatory with extraordinary new capabilities. The Soft X-ray Imager 

(SXI) will cover the same energy band as the SXS and will expand the 

observatory’s field of view with a new-generation charge-coupled device 

(CCD) camera. The Hard X-ray Imager (HXI) will perform sensitive 

imaging spectroscopy in the 5–80 keV band using specially coated 

x-ray optics, and the nonimaging Soft Gamma-ray Detector (SGD) will 

extend the observatory’s energy band to 600 keV.

The SXS will test theories of structure formation by measuring the 

velocity field of x-ray–emitting gas in clusters of galaxies and the energy 

output from the jets and winds of active galaxies. SXS will measure 

metal abundances in the oldest galaxies, providing information about 

the origin of the elements. SXS will also observe matter in extreme 

gravitational fields, obtaining time-resolved spectra from material 

approaching the event horizon of a black hole. 

For more information on Astro-H, please visit http://science.nasa.gov/

missions/astro-h.

An artist’s rendering of ASTRO-H spacecraft with galaxies—

one of the things it will study—in the background. (Credit: 

JAXA/Akihiro Ikeshita)
88

Human Exploration and Operations

Japan

CALET

CALorimetric Electron Telescope 

The CALorimetric Electron Telescope (CALET) is an all-sky 

gamma-ray and electron astrophysics observatory selected by the Japan 

Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) for deployment on the Japanese 

Experiment Module (JEM)–Exposed Facility (EF) on the International 

Space Station (ISS). CALET is planned for a 2014 launch on an H-II 

Transfer Vehicle (HTV) to the ISS.

The goal of the CALET Mission is to investigate the high-energy 

universe by observing cosmic-ray electrons. The CALET detector 

consists of the Imaging Calorimeter (IMC), the Total AbSorption 

Calorimeter (TASC), the Charge Detector (CHD), and a gamma-ray 

burst monitor. CALET has a unique capability to observe electrons 

and gamma rays in the high-energy spectrum. This capability enables 

CALET to search for nearby cosmic-ray sources and dark matter. 

CALET will also monitor gamma-ray bursts. 

JAXA is developing the equipment and most mission instrumentation 

for the satellite bus, providing the launch on the HTV to the ISS, and 

providing the on-orbit location for CALET on board the JEM-EF. 

JAXA will also operate CALET in orbit and has established the 

international CALET Science Team. NASA is providing technical 

expertise in the design, development, and testing of CALET mission 

equipment. NASA has also selected U.S. scientists to participate on the 

CALET Science Team, and NASA will archive CALET data at NASA’s 

Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC). 

For more information on the CALET mission, please visit http://calet.

phys.lsu.edu/Instrumentation.php and http://asd.gsfc.nasa.gov/.

CALET will be located on the International Space Station’s 

Japanese Experiment Module–Exposed Facility.
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Human Exploration and Operations

Japan

DTN

Disruption Tolerant Networking

Disruption Tolerant Networking (DTN) is a new technology that 

will extend the reach of the terrestrial Internet across the solar system. 

DTN addresses the common spaceflight configuration in which data 

must be exchanged between Earth and remote space vehicles but for 

which there is no end-to-end data path currently available, a circumstance that can cause long delays.

NASA is currently partnering with multiple space agencies to develop, 

demonstrate, and infuse the DTN technology to support international 

cooperative space exploration missions launching in 2015 and beyond. 

Part of NASA’s risk-mitigation strategy is to flight-test the DTN protocols in a real mission environment. The ISS provides an ideal platform, 

and NASA has begun to use the ISS as an international flight laboratory 

for maturing DTN to flight readiness.

Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency’s (JAXA) participation in the 

DTN development program brings many benefits, including the use 

of JAXA’s Data Relay Test Satellite (DRTS) and the employment of 

the Japanese Experiment Module on board the ISS (called the JEM, or 

“Kibo”) to expand the topology for testing and flight-demonstrating the 

new protocols in a collaborative international environment, leading to 

increased future interoperability for space exploration missions. 

JAXA will use the DTN protocols to interact with special software test 

applications that will be implemented in the NASA Commercial Generic 

Bioprocessing Apparatus (CGBA) payload located in NASA’s Destiny 

Laboratory on the ISS, which is equipped with DTN capabilities. 

The two CGBA—CGBA-4 and CGBA-5—serve as communications 

test computers that transmit messages between the ISS and ground 

mission-control centers. 

Two-way connectivity will be established from JAXA’s ground facilities 

to NASA via the JAXA DRTS and the ISS onboard payload networks 

(including networks within the Kibo module) in order to establish an 

internetworked data communications dialog. This cooperation is built 

upon the mutual benefit of joint testing, evaluation, and demonstration 

of interoperable space internetworking technologies utilizing the emerging suite of DTN data communications protocols. 

For more information on Disruption Tolerant Networking, please visit 

http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/DTN.html.

JAXA’s Kibo module will provide networks for two-way 

connectivity from JAXA’s ground facilities to a NASA payload.
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Science

Japan

Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope

The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, launched by NASA in 2008, 

is a spacecraft with the ability to detect gamma rays created by the 

most energetic objects and phenomena in the universe. Among the 

topics of cosmological interest studied by the mission are dark matter 

and the periods of star and galaxy formation in the early universe. The 

mission is an astrophysics and particle physics partnership developed 

by NASA in collaboration with the U.S. Department of Energy, with 

important contributions from academic institutions and partners in 

France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Sweden, and the United States.

Because of their tremendous energy, gamma rays travel through the 

universe largely unobstructed. This means that Fermi is able to observe 

gamma-ray sources located near the edge of the visible universe. 

Gamma rays detected by Fermi originate near the otherwise-obscured 

central regions of exotic objects like supermassive black holes, pulsars, 

and gamma-ray bursts.

In order to study these high-energy waves, two main instruments are 

used: the Large Area Telescope (LAT) and the Gamma-ray Large Area 

Space Telescope (GLAST) Burst Monitor (GBM). When in survey 

mode, the LAT scans the entire sky every 3 hours. The instrument 

detects photons with energies ranging from 20 million electron volts 

to over 300 billion electron volts. In its first month of operation, 

the GBM instrument spotted 31 gamma-ray bursts, which occur 

when massive stars die or when orbiting neutron stars spiral together 

and merge. By the end of 2011, Fermi had detected more than 100 

gamma-emitting pulsars; before its launch, only 7 of these were known 

to emit gamma rays. Newly developed methods of analysis promise to 

spur additional discoveries. 

NASA is working with a Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency 

(JAXA)–led team comprising partners from the University of Tokyo, 

Tokyo Institute of Technology, Institute for Cosmic-Ray Research 

(ICRR), JAXA’s Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS), 

and Hiroshima University on the Fermi mission. The Japanese partners 

provided oversight in the making of the silicon-strip detectors in the 

LAT Tracker. Along with Japan and NASA, the following organizations are also contributors to the Fermi mission: the German Aerospace 

Center (DLR), Italian Space Agency (ASI), the French Alternative 

Energies and Atomic Energy Commission (CEA), and the Swedish 

Royal Institute of Technology (KTH).

For more information on the FERMI mission, please visit http://fermi.

gsfc.nasa.gov/.

In this illustration, one photon (purple) carries a million times 

the energy of the other. Some theorists predict travel delays 

for higher-energy photons; however, Fermi data on two 

photons from a gamma-ray burst fail to show this effect. 

(Credit: NASA/Sonoma State University/Aurore Simonnet)
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Science

Japan

GPM

Global Precipitation Measurement

The Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) mission is an 

international network of satellites that provide next-generation global 

observations of rain and snow. Building upon the success of the 

Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM), the GPM concept 

centers on the deployment of a “Core” satellite carrying an advanced 

radar/radiometer system to measure precipitation from space and serve 

as a reference standard to unify precipitation measurements from a 

constellation of research and operational satellites. The GPM Core 

Observatory, launched in February 2014, carries the first space-borne 

Ku/Ka-band Dual-frequency Precipitation Radar (DPR) provided 

by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), as well as a 

multichannel GPM Microwave Imager (GMI) provided by NASA. 

Through improved measurements of precipitation globally, the GPM 

mission will help to advance our understanding of Earth’s water and 

energy cycle, improve climate prediction, advance numerical weather 

prediction, improve forecasting of extreme events that cause natural 

hazards and disasters, and extend current capabilities in using accurate and timely information of precipitation to directly benefit society. 

GPM, initiated by NASA and JAXA as a global successor to TRMM, 

comprises a consortium of international space agencies, including 

the French National Center for Space Studies (CNES), the Indian 

Space Research Organisation (ISRO), the U.S. National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the European Organisation 

for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT), and 

others. The GPM Core Observatory launched in February 2014 on a 

Japanese H-IIA launch vehicle.

JAXA delivered the DPR to NASA in March 2012. The DPR 

was designed and built by JAXA and Japan’s National Institute of 

Information and Communications Technology (NICT). The DPR 

is more sensitive to light rain rates and snowfall than the TRMM 

precipitation radar. In addition, simultaneous measurements by the 

overlapping of the DPR’s Ka/Ku-bands can provide new information 

on particle drop size distributions over moderate precipitation 

intensities. By providing new microphysical measurements from the 

DPR to complement cloud and aerosol observations, GPM is expected 

to provide further insights into how precipitation processes may be 

affected by human activities.

For more information on the GPM mission, please visit http://pmm.

nasa.gov/precipitation-measurement-missions.

The Dual-frequency Precipitation Radar (DPR) instrument’s 

electrical integration onto the GPM Core Observatory was 

completed in May 2012 at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight 

Center. The DPR is comprised of two radars: Ka-band 

Radar (13 gigahertz) and Ku-band Radar (35 gigahertz). 

JAXA built both radars for the GPM Core Observatory. 
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Hayabusa/Hayabusa-2

Hayabusa was an unmanned mission led by the Japan Aerospace 

Exploration Agency (JAXA) that collected a surface sample of 

material from the asteroid 25143 Itokawa and returned the sample to 

Earth for analysis. 

Hayabusa was launched in May 2003 and rendezvoused with the 

Itokawa asteroid in September 2005. Hayabusa mapped the asteroid 

in the visible, infrared, and x-ray spectra while also performing gravity 

modeling with its laser altimeter.

After Hayabusa collected samples from the asteroid, the samples were 

stored in containers inside a sealed sample return capsule that detached 

from the Hayabusa spacecraft, entered Earth’s atmosphere, and used a 

parachute for a soft landing on the ground in Australia in June 2010. 

The Hayabusa mission tested four advanced technology systems: the 

electric propulsion (ion drive) engines, an autonomous navigation 

system, the sample collection system, and the sample capsule that 

re-entered the Earth’s atmosphere. NASA resources provided scientific 

support and backup spacecraft tracking, telemetry, command, and 

navigation support through the Deep Space Network.

The Hayabusa mission continues to advance our understanding of 

near-Earth asteroids. NASA scientists are participating in experiments 

using the returned asteroid material samples.

In 2014, JAXA plans to launch Hayabusa-2 to the asteroid 1999 JU3 in 

an attempt to build upon the success of the original Hayabusa mission, 

and NASA intends to participate in this follow-up by providing a level 

of support similar to what it provided during the original mission.

For more information on Hayabusa, please visit http://hayabusa.jaxa.

jp/e/, http://www.jspec.jaxa.jp/e/activity/hayabusa2.html, and http://nssdc.

gsfc.nasa.gov/database/MasterCatalog?sc=2003-019A.

An artist’s rendering of Hayabusa above the surface of the 

Itokawa asteroid.

Hayabusa’s sample-return capsule and parachute lie on 

the ground in Australia’s Woomera Prohibited Area. (Credit: 

Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency)
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Science

Japan

Hinode

Hinode is a Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)–led solar 

physics mission that is providing the first solar optical telescope 

in space. NASA and the United Kingdom are collaborators on the 

mission. Launched by JAXA in 2006 from the Uchinoura Space 

Center in Japan, Hinode data is helping scientists to better understand 

how magnetic fields interact with plasma to produce solar variability 

and how the solar photosphere and corona act as a system. The Hinode 

mission aims to solve how the generation of the solar-magnetic field 

and its emergence through the photosphere governs the structure of the 

entire solar atmosphere. 

The Hinode mission includes a suite of three science instruments—the 

Solar Optical Telescope (SOT), the x-ray telescope (XRT), and the 

Extreme-ultraviolet Imaging Spectrometer (EIS)—to study the interaction between the Sun’s magnetic field and its high-temperature, ionized 

atmosphere. Hinode is circling Earth in a polar, Sun-synchronous 

orbit that allows the spacecraft’s instruments to remain in continuous 

sunlight for 9 months each year.

Hinode’s instruments have produced fantastic detail of both visible 

and magnetic features on the Sun’s surface and in its atmosphere, the 

corona. Since 2006, the Hinode mission has helped to explain the 

origin of the solar wind, discovered potential candidates for how the 

corona gets so hot, and provided images of the complex magnetic 

structures looping up and out of active regions on the Sun. Hinode’s 

Solar Optical Telescope has delivered images that show greatly magnified views of the Sun’s surface. These images are revealing new details 

about solar convection, the process that drives the rising and falling of 

gases in the lowest atmospheric region, the photosphere. Hinode’s Solar 

Optical Telescope is the first space-borne instrument to measure the 

strength and direction of the Sun’s magnetic field. 

JAXA is the overall lead for the Hinode mission and provided the 

spacecraft, launch vehicle, and management of space operations. The 

satellite systems were developed by JAXA and Mitsubishi Electric 

Corporation. The large Solar Optical Telescope was jointly developed 

by the United States and Japan. JAXA and the National Astronomical 

Observatory of Japan (NAOJ) worked on the telescope optics, and 

NASA developed the focal-plane package. For the x-ray telescope, 

NASA provided grazing-incidence mirror optics, while JAXA provided 

the charge-coupled device (CCD) camera. Development of the EIS was 

led by the United Kingdom, with the support of NASA and JAXA.

For more information on Hinode, please visit http://www.nasa.gov/

mission_pages/solar-b/.

An artist’s concept of the Hinode spacecraft orbiting Earth 

with an active Sun in the background. (Credit: Japan 

Aerospace Exploration Agency)

Hinode captured this image of the January 6, 2011, solar 

eclipse. (Credit: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency)
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Human Exploration and Operations

Japan

International Space Station

The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency’s (JAXA) primary contributions to 

the International Space Station (ISS) Program are the Japanese Experiment 

Module (JEM)—called “Kibo,” which means “hope” in Japanese—and the 

H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV), an unmanned logistics resupply vehicle.

The ISS Program is a partnership among the space agencies of Canada, 

Europe, Japan, Russia, and the United States. International crews have 

continuously inhabited the ISS since November 2000. Cargo transportation 

is provided by European, Russian, and Japanese vehicles and by NASA’s 

contracts for Commercial Resupply Services (CRS). Crew transportation and 

rescue is provided by the Russian Federal Space Agency and, beginning in 

2017, by NASA’s commercial crew transportation services. 

NASA’s contributions to the ISS Program include overall management, 

coordination, and integration of the ISS Program across the partnership for 

operations, safety, transportation, and integrated hardware performance. 

NASA hardware components include the U.S. laboratory module, the airlock 

for extravehicular activities (EVA), truss segments to support the U.S. solar 

arrays and thermal radiators, three connecting nodes, and living quarters. 

The ISS functions as an orbital microgravity and life sciences laboratory, a 

test bed for new technologies in areas such as life support and robotics, and 

a platform for astronomical and Earth observations. The ISS also serves as 

a unique engineering test bed for flight systems and operations critical to 

NASA’s future exploration missions. U.S. research on the ISS concentrates 

on the long-term effects of space travel on humans and on technology 

development activities in support of exploration. The ISS is a stepping-stone 

for human exploration and scientific discovery beyond low-Earth orbit.

The JEM laboratory houses facilities that support space medicine, biology, 

Earth observations, material production, and biotechnology and communications research. JEM experiments and systems are operated from the 

mission control room at Tsukuba Space Center (TKSC) in Japan. 

The HTV is an autonomous logistical resupply vehicle that berths to the 

ISS using the Space Station Remote Manipulation System (SSRMS). The 

HTV can carry cargo in both its internal pressurized carrier as well as in an 

unpressurized carrier for the exterior placement of cargo such as batteries. It 

is launched on JAXA’s H-IIB launch vehicle and can carry dry cargo, gases, 

and water. After delivering its cargo to the ISS, the HTV is reloaded with 

trash and waste products before it is unberthed and deorbited, whereupon it 

incinerates during reentry. 

For more information on the ISS and Japan’s contributions, please visit

http://iss.jaxa.jp/en/ and http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/cooperation/

index.html.

JAXA astronaut Akihiko Hoshide works in the newly 

installed Kibo Japanese Pressurized Module. 

The International Space Station’s Canadarm2 unberths 

the unpiloted JAXA HTV-3, filled with trash and unneeded 

items, in preparation for its release from the station.
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Japan 

MMS

Magnetospheric MultiScale

NASA’s Magnetospheric MultiScale (MMS) mission is a solar-terrestrial 

probe mission comprising four identically instrumented spacecraft that 

will use Earth’s magnetosphere as a laboratory to study the microphysics of three fundamental plasma processes: magnetic reconnection, 

energetic particle acceleration, and turbulence. These processes occur 

in all astrophysical plasma systems but can be studied in situ only in 

our solar system and most efficiently only in Earth’s magnetosphere, 

where they control the dynamics of the geospace environment and play 

an important role in the processes known as “space weather.” The four 

MMS spacecraft are currently planned for launch by NASA in 2014.

NASA is collaborating on the MMS mission with the Japan Aerospace 

Exploration Agency (JAXA). NASA is also cooperating with the 

Aeronautics and Space Agency (ALR) of the Austrian Research 

Promotion Agency (FFG), the French National Center for Space 

Studies (CNES), and the Swedish National Space Board (SNSB). 

MMS investigates how the magnetic fields of the Sun and Earth 

connect and disconnect, explosively transferring energy from one to 

the other in a process known as magnetic reconnection. This process 

limits the performance of fusion reactors and is the final governor of 

geospace weather, which affects modern technological systems such 

as telecommunications networks, Global Positioning System (GPS) 

navigation, and electrical power grids. MMS’s four spacecraft will 

measure plasmas, fields, and particles in a near-equatorial orbit that 

will frequently encounter reconnection in action. 

The four MMS spacecraft will carry identical instrument suites of plasma 

analyzers, energetic particle detectors, magnetometers, and electric field 

instruments; they will also carry a device to prevent spacecraft charging 

from interfering with the highly sensitive measurements required in and 

around the diffusion regions. JAXA is supporting the design and development of the Dual Ion Spectrometers (DIS) as part of the Fast Plasma 

Instrument (FPI) for the four MMS spacecraft. NASA is providing the 

spacecraft, the launch, and overall mission management.

For more information on MMS, please visit http://mms.gsfc.nasa.gov/.

An artist’s rendering of the four identical MMS spacecraft. 

(Credit: Southwest Research Institute)
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Aeronautics Research

Japan

Sonic Boom Research

A sonic boom is the thunder-like noise that a person on the ground 

hears when an aircraft flies overhead at supersonic speeds—faster than 

the speed of sound. Because the aircraft is traveling faster than sound, 

the pressure change in the air caused by its passage is nearly instantaneous. This shock wave of pressure travels out from the aircraft in all 

directions, eventually reaching the ground, where it is heard as a boom. 

The shape, length, and weight of the aircraft all affect the magnitude 

of the boom.

NASA and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) are working together to better understand the impact that sonic booms have on 

residential and commercial buildings and the resulting human response 

to the noise heard inside these buildings. NASA and JAXA are sharing 

test methods and the results of testing conducted by both agencies in 

the laboratory and in the field. Laboratory tests of human response to 

sonic booms indoors have been conducted in unique boom-simulation 

facilities at both NASA and JAXA, and the results have been shared to 

aid in the development of prediction models. In the field, JAXA has 

partnered with NASA for tests at Edwards Air Force Base in California 

of sonic boom transmission into large buildings. NASA and JAXA have 

also shared data from separate field tests of sonic boom propagation 

effects. Over the longer term, NASA and JAXA hope to be able to use 

these experiences and shared data, along with advances in sonic boom 

simulation, to predict human response to sonic booms experienced 

inside residential and commercial buildings.

NASA and JAXA are also cooperating in sonic boom modeling, which 

is a key technology that will contribute to the ability of next-generation 

supersonic aircraft to fly at supersonic speeds over land without 

significant disturbance to the public. Such a vehicle could fly from Los 

Angeles to New York City in less than 3 hours at Mach 1, and from 

Los Angeles to Tokyo in about 5 hours at Mach 2. 

For more information on sonic booms, please visit http://www.nasa.gov/

centers/dryden/news/FactSheets/FS-016-DFRC.html.

This F-18 aircraft from NASA’s Dryden Research Center conducts sonic boom testing for the NASA–JAXA cooperation.

The Vibro-Acoustic Device is used in the NASA–JAXA 

sonic boom research testing. 
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Science

Japan

Suzaku

The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency’s (JAXA) Suzaku satellite, 

launched by JAXA in 2005, is a powerful orbiting observatory for 

studying extremely energetic processes in the universe, such as neutron 

stars, active and merging galaxies, black holes, and supernovae. 

The Suzaku spacecraft features the X-ray Imaging Spectrometer (XIS), 

which is comprised of four individual charge-coupled device (CCD) 

x-ray cameras that provide high-sensitivity imaging over a large field 

of view and a hard x-ray detector (HXD) that is used for broadband 

spectroscopy up to the gamma-ray region. The Suzaku spacecraft also 

featured the high-resolution x-ray spectrometer (XRS); however, this 

instrument, which thermally detected individual x-ray photons and 

measured their energies with a high degree of precision and sensitivity, 

was only operational for 3 weeks due to a series of events associated 

with helium gas entering the dewar vacuum space. NASA collaborated 

with JAXA on the development of the XRS and XIS instruments. 

Suzaku has been providing insight on galaxy clusters, which are millions of light-years across. Theses clusters can be examined using x-ray 

imaging due to the hot x-ray–emitting gas that fills the space between 

the galaxies. In 2011, Suzaku provided the clearest picture to date of 

the size, mass, and chemical content of the Perseus Galaxy Cluster, 

which is located 250 million light-years away. As scientists increase 

their understanding of the content of normal matter in galaxy clusters, 

they improve their ability to study the evolution of the universe. 

For additional information on the Suzaku mission, please visit http://

www.nasa.gov/astro-e2 and http://suzaku.gsfc.nasa.gov/.

The Suzaku X-Ray Spectrometer in the laboratory.

This image from Japan’s Suzaku spacecraft shows the 

x-ray glow of the 100-million-degree-Fahrenheit gas 

that fills the Perseus cluster. (Credit: Japan Aerospace 

Exploration Agency)
98

Science

Japan

Terra

Japan’s Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) provided the 

Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer 

(ASTER) instrument for NASA’s Terra satellite. ASTER provides 

high-spatial-resolution, multispectral images of Earth’s surface and 

clouds. It has 14 spectral bands in the visible-to-thermal infrared wavelength region and high spatial resolution of 15 to 90 meters. Terra was 

launched in 1999 as the flagship mission of NASA’s Earth Observing 

System. It carries five instruments that observe Earth’s atmosphere, 

oceans, landmasses, snow and ice, and radiant energy. Taken together, 

these observations provide unique insight into how the Earth system 

works and how it is changing. Terra had a planned mission life of 6 

years and is now operating in extended mission phase.

ASTER is the high-spatial-resolution instrument on the Terra satellite. 

ASTER’s ability to serve as a “zoom” lens for the other Terra instruments is particularly important for change detection, calibration/ 

validation, and land-surface studies. All three ASTER telescopes (visible and near-infrared, short-wavelength infrared, and thermal infrared) 

are pointable in the cross-track direction. In addition, a second visible 

and near-infrared camera looks aft along a track and provides the 

capability to produce high-quality digital terrain topography. 

Millions of ASTER scenes and derived products have been distributed 

to users around the world through the Ground Data System at Japan’s 

Earth Remote Sensing Data Analysis Center and the U.S. Land 

Processes Distributed Active Archive Center in Sioux Falls, South 

Dakota. ASTER data and derived products—including detailed maps 

of land surface temperature, emissivity, reflectance, and elevation—are 

important scientific tools to users from many Earth science disciplines. 

The ASTER products are routinely used in studying geologic processes, 

monitoring land-cover conditions and change, investigating hydrologic 

resources and processes, monitoring crop condition and development, 

studying natural disasters (e.g., flooding and volcanic activity), and 

performing many other important research and practical applications. 

For more information on ASTER or NASA’s Terra mission, please visit 

http://terra.nasa.gov/, http://asterweb.jpl.nasa.gov/, and http://www.ersdac.

or.jp/eng/index.E.html.

Terra is in a circular Sun-synchronous polar orbit that 

takes it from north to south (on the daylight side of the 

Earth) every 99 minutes. Terra collects data about Earth’s 

biogeochemical and energy systems using five sensors 

that observe the atmosphere, land surface, oceans, snow 

and ice, and energy budget.

Three weeks after Hurricane Ike came ashore near 

Galveston, Texas, residents returned to find their houses in 

ruins. The image on the left was acquired by Terra’s ASTER 

instrument prior to the hurricane. In the image on the right, 

taken soon after the hurricane, vegetation is displayed in 

red and inundated areas are shown in blue-green. (Credit: 

NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center/Japan’s Ministry of 

Economy, Trade, and Industry/Japan Space Systems and 

U.S.-Japan ASTER Science Team)
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Science

Japan

TRMM

Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission

The Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM), launched by 

the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) in 1997, monitors 

tropical rainfall and the associated release of energy that helps to 

power the global atmospheric circulation that shapes both weather and 

climate. NASA provided the spacecraft and four instruments and is 

responsible for mission operations. In addition to providing the launch, 

JAXA provided the precipitation radar. TRMM had a planned mission 

life of 3 years, but is now operating in extended mission phase.

TRMM contributes to the understanding of the role of precipitation in 

the climate system and how much energy is transported in the global 

water cycle. TRMM scientists use data from TRMM and other NASA 

satellites to study the interactions among water vapor, clouds, and 

precipitation, as well as their role in regulating climate and weather. 

The TRMM mission has produced a long-term, high-quality 

precipitation record and continues to provide real-time data to 

operational agencies worldwide. Among its many accomplishments, 

the TRMM mission has: helped to narrow considerably the range of 

uncertainty in previous space-based rainfall estimates; made possible 

the quantification of the diurnal cycle of precipitation and convective 

intensity over land and ocean tropics-wide on fine scales; provided the 

first comprehensive estimates of how rainfall is directly related to latent 

heat release in the atmosphere, a key characteristic in understanding 

the impact of tropical rainfall on the general circulation of the 

atmosphere; yielded new insights into the dynamics of tropical waves 

and oscillations, providing the basis of hypotheses on the dynamics of 

convective-climate feedbacks; and generated data that are used to assess 

hurricane and typhoon locations and intensities and that have played 

an important role in the research and analysis of tropical cyclones.

For more information on TRMM, please visit http://trmm.gsfc.nasa.gov/.

The TRMM spacecraft obtained this view of Hurricane 

Irene making landfall along the North Carolina coast in 

August 2011. The green regions represent areas where 

the storm is dumping at least half an inch of rain per hour; 

dark red represents about two inches per hour.

The TRMM satellite passed above tornado-producing 

storms just east of Dallas, Texas, in April 2012. The TRMM 

Microwave Imager (TMI) and precipitation radar show a 

distinct line of tornadic thunderstorms extending from 

Arkansas through central Texas. The radar data provide 

a three-dimensional view of the intensity and vertical 

distribution of precipitation.
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Science

Republic of Korea

ACE 

Advanced Colloids Experiment 

The Advanced Colloids Experiment (ACE) is the first in a series of 

microscopic imaging investigations of materials that contain small 

colloidal particles, which have the specific characteristic of remaining 

evenly dispersed and distributed within the material. This investigation 

takes advantage of the unique environment on board the International 

Space Station (ISS) to study the effects induced by Earth’s gravity on 

these colloidal materials in order to examine flow characteristics and the 

evolution and ordering effects within them. Engineering, manipulation, 

and the fundamental understanding of materials of this nature potentially enhance our ability to produce, store, and manipulate materials 

that rely on similar physical properties. The ACE investigation consists 

of 20 sample discs that each contain up to 10 wells of colloidal particles. 

ACE is a joint experiment between NASA and Chungnam National 

University (CNU) in South Korea. 

The intent of the experiment is to observe, understand, and learn how 

to control colloidal processes. ACE addresses basic physics questions 

about colloids, but some of the results may eventually have applications for space exploration. Super-critical fluids, which represent one 

of the applications of the critical point (i.e., phase boundary) experiment, are a potential application in propulsion systems for future 

spacecraft design. In addition, associated shelf-life studies impact not 

only products on store shelves, but also those being stored for later 

use in space. The ACE samples provide important data that is not 

available on Earth, such as data that can guide our understanding 

of crystallization, production quality control, and phase separation 

(e.g., shelf-life and product collapse). A better understanding of these 

processes could have an enormous commercial impact in terms of 

quality, production, and longevity.

The ACE experiment is conducted on board the ISS in the Fluids 

Integrated Rack (FIR) using the Light Microscopy Module (LMM). 

NASA is providing four sets of sample modules that will be filled with 

CNU’s sample material. CNU cooperates with NASA on the science 

investigations and shares the resulting CNU ISS test data. The first 

9-day sample run took place in August 2012. The current plan is to 

launch a set of sample modules about once a year from 2012 through at 

least 2015, and possibly as late as 2016. 

For more information on ACE, please visit http://www.nasa.gov/

mission_pages/station/research/experiments/ACE-1.html#results.

NASA astronaut Kevin Ford, International Space Station 

Expedition 34’s commander, is shown in the Destiny 

Laboratory Module with the Fluids Integration Rack/Light 

Microscopy Module/Advanced Colloids Experiment. 
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Science

Republic of Korea

Heliophysics and Space Physics

NASA and the Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute (KASI) 

are collaborating in the area of solar and space physics (heliophysics) 

and space weather research. Heliophysics research and exploration 

focuses on studying the Sun, the heliosphere, and planetary environments as elements of a single, interconnected system that contains 

dynamic space weather and evolves in response to solar, planetary, 

and interstellar conditions. By sharing the data of NASA heliophysics 

missions—in particular, the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO), Van 

Allen Probes, and Magnetospheric MultiScale (MMS) missions—

NASA and KASI will increase their scientific output and productivity 

to the benefit of heliophysics science and space weather research. 

Launched in 2010, SDO is designed to help us understand the 

Sun’s influence on Earth and near-Earth space by studying the solar 

atmosphere on small scales of space and time and in many wavelengths 

simultaneously. NASA’s Van Allen Probes mission, launched in 2012, 

provides insight into the dynamics of particle acceleration within 

the radiation belts and gives scientists the data they need to make 

predictions of changes in this critical region of space. The MMS 

mission, scheduled for launch in 2014, will use Earth’s magnetosphere 

as a laboratory to study the microphysics of magnetic reconnection, a 

fundamental plasma-physical process that converts magnetic energy 

into heat and the kinetic energy of charged particles.

As part of its agreement with NASA, KASI is building the Korean 

Data Center for SDO, which will provide free and unfettered access 

for scientists to the resident archive of SDO data without use and 

disclosure restrictions. The Korean Data Center for SDO provides 

scientific data not only to Korean institutes and universities but also to 

the international space weather community. In addition, in May 2012, 

KASI dedicated a new, 7-meter antenna that will provide worldwide 

access to the Van Allen Probes’ real-time space weather data. 

For more information on NASA and KASI collaboration, please visit 

http://www.nasa.gov/topics/solarsystem/sunearthsystem/main/News081210-

kasi.html.

For more information on the NASA Heliophysics Research Program, 

please visit http://science.nasa.gov/heliophysics/.

Heliophysics is the study of the Sun and its interactions 

with Earth and the solar system.
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Science

The Netherlands

Aura

NASA’s Aura (Latin for “breeze”) satellite, launched by NASA in 

2004, measures changes in the composition, chemistry, and dynamics 

of the Earth’s atmosphere for research and applications that are 

relevant to ozone trends, air quality, and climate. Aura is operating in 

a Sun-synchronous, near-polar, low-Earth orbit. The Netherlands, in 

cooperation with the Finnish Meteorological Institute (FMI), provided 

Aura’s Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI). 

OMI is a nadir-viewing wide-field imaging spectrometer that measures 

the solar radiation backscattered by the Earth’s atmosphere and surface 

with a wide-field telescope feeding two imaging grating spectrometers. 

Each spectrometer employs a charge-couple device (CCD) detector. 

OMI measures the complete spectrum in the ultraviolet/visible wavelength range with a very high spectral resolution. Daily global coverage 

is achieved with a spatial resolution of about 15 by 25 kilometers.

OMI measures total ozone and other atmospheric parameters related 

to ozone chemistry and climate. OMI can distinguish between aerosol 

types (i.e., smoke, dust, and sulfates) and can measure both the cloud 

pressure and coverage, thereby providing the data to derive tropospheric 

ozone. OMI maps pollution products on urban scales and tracks its 

transcontinental transport. 

The OMI International Science Team consists of scientists from the 

Netherlands, Finland, and the United States. It is responsible for 

algorithm development, in-flight instrument calibration and trend 

monitoring, data processing, validation, and analysis. 

Aura has provided valuable ozone measurements; tropospheric maps 

of carbon monoxide, water vapor, and cloud ice; and measurements of 

the stratosphere. These measurements enable scientists to study ozone 

trends, air quality changes, and their linkage to climate change.

For more information on the OMI and Aura, please visit http://aura.

gsfc.nasa.gov/index.html, http://aura.gsfc.nasa.gov/instruments/omi/index.

html, and http://www.knmi.nl/omi/publ-en/news/index_en.html.

An artist’s concept of Aura satellite orbiting Earth.

Data from the Ozone Monitoring Instrument on NASA’s 

Aura satellite show long, faint tracks of elevated nitrogen 

dioxide (NO2

) levels along certain shipping routes. For more 

than a decade, scientists have observed “ship tracks” in 

natural-color satellite imagery of cloud layers over the 

ocean. These bright trails are a visible sign of pollution 

from ship exhaust, and scientists can now see that ships 

have a more subtle signature as well.
103

Aeronautics Research

The Netherlands

Flight Deck System Design

A flight deck is the volume of space on an aircraft that is designed to 

accommodate at least one human operator and to provide interfaces 

between the operator(s) and the remainder of the flight deck system. 

The flight deck system includes the entity or entities that have the 

authority and responsibility for directing the flight of an aircraft, 

all subsystems that directly interface to the entity or entities, and all 

interfaces between them.

NASA and the Netherlands’ National Aerospace Laboratory (NLR) are 

pursuing collaborative research in state-of-the-art flight-deck-system 

design methods and tools. Experiments will be conducted that are 

related to shared situation awareness, command generation, action 

coordination, conflict detection and resolution, and the management of 

automation-initiated behaviors such as hazard avoidance and selfseparation from aircraft. The overarching objective of the experiments 

will be to evaluate design concepts against their safety potential and to 

validate modeled predictions of performance and safety attributes.

NASA believes that future flight deck systems should systematically 

incorporate integrated displays, decision-making functions, information management, and dynamically allocated human/automation 

task responsibilities. The ideal future flight deck system would be 

aware of the state of the vehicle and the operator and would respond 

appropriately. The system would sense internal and external hazards, 

evaluate them, and provide key information to facilitate timely and 

appropriate responses. The system would also be robust and adaptable 

to the addition of new functions and information sources as they 

become available.

For more information on NLR, please visit http://www.nlr.nl/.

The flight deck of the NASA B-737 Flying Laboratory.

The NASA B-737 Flying Laboratory.
104

Science

Norway

IRIS

Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph

Understanding the interface between the photosphere and corona 

remains a fundamental challenge in solar and heliospheric science. The 

Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS) mission opens a window 

of discovery into this crucial region by tracing the flow of energy and 

plasma through the chromosphere and the transition region into the 

corona using spectrometry and imaging. Launched by NASA in 2013, 

IRIS is NASA-led mission with important support from the Norwegian 

Space Centre (NSC). The primary goal of IRIS is to better understand 

how the solar atmosphere is energized.

IRIS is designed to provide significant new information to increase 

our understanding of energy transport into the corona and solar wind 

and to provide an archetype for all stellar atmospheres. IRIS’s unique 

instrument capabilities, coupled with state-of-the-art three-dimensional 

(3-D) modeling, will fill a large gap in our knowledge of this dynamic 

region of the solar atmosphere. The mission will extend the scientific 

output of existing heliophysics spacecraft that follow the effects of 

energy release processes from the Sun to Earth. By combining 

high-resolution imaging and spectroscopy for the entire chromosphere 

and adjacent regions, IRIS will advance our understanding of the solar 

drivers of space weather from the corona to the far heliosphere. IRIS 

will resolve in space, time, and wavelength the dynamic geometry from 

the chromosphere to the low-temperature corona to shed much-needed 

light on the physics of this magnetic interface region.

NASA and NSC will collaborate on IRIS observations, which will be 

collected through the ground station located at the NSC Kongsberg 

Satellite Services station in Svalbard, Norway. NASA and NSC will 

work together to explore the solar chromosphere and transition region 

through the use a solar telescope and spectrograph. NSC will also 

support joint scientific analysis activities in Norway and the United 

States, including analysis of the IRIS observations using 3-D numerical 

models from the Institute of Theoretical Astrophysics at the University 

of Oslo, Norway. 

For more information on IRIS, please visit http://iris.lmsal.com/.

An artist’s depiction of the IRIS spacecraft.

The fully integrated spacecraft and science instrument for 

NASA’s IRIS mission is seen in a clean room at the Lockheed 

Martin Space Systems facility in Sunnyvale, California. 

The solar arrays are deployed in the configuration they will 

assume when in orbit. (Credit: Lockheed Martin)
105

Human Exploration and Operations

Norway

Ka-band Radio Frequency (RF) Propagation 

Monitoring Station

NASA and the Norwegian Space Centre (NSC) are cooperating on 

an experiment to determine the expected Ka-band performance of 

the forthcoming upgrades to the Near Earth Network (NEN) ground 

station operating at Svalbard, Norway, with respect to atmospheric propagation effects. In particular, validation of anticipated atmosphericinduced attenuation losses and increases in system temperature are 

being conducted by deploying a microwave radiometer specifically 

designed to measure how much the atmosphere contributes to Ka-band 

link degradation. 

Conducting this measurement campaign will directly provide 

enhanced system planning through the accurate determination of 

expected link availability at Ka-band, improved science mission 

planning by managing expectations and maximizing mission success 

and data throughput, and necessary preparation for deployment of the 

NEN Ka-band Polar Network. 

These studies are being carried out in preparation for supporting 

high-priority Ka-band NASA Earth Science missions such as Surface 

Water Ocean Topography (SWOT). The propagation data gathered by 

the monitoring station will be used to optimize key specifications for 

the Ka-band link. 

Data collection began in early 2011 and will continue through 2015. 

For more information, please visit http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.

ntrs.nasa.gov/20120000737_2012000660.pdf.

Svalbard is located in the northernmost part of Norway, 

within the Arctic Circle.
106

Human Exploration and Operations

Norway

NASA Isbjørn Facility at SvalSat

The Norwegian Space Centre (NSC) provided the facility infrastructure at the Svalbard Satellite Station (SvalSat) in Longyearbyen, 

Svalbard, to support the establishment and operation of the NASA 

Isbjørn Facility, a satellite- and launch-vehicle-tracking, data-acquisition, and control facility. The NASA Isbjørn Facility and SvalSat have 

been in operation since 1997.

SvalSat is the northernmost ground station in the world, and it provides 

telemetry, tracking, and command (TT&C) and data reception for 

polar-orbiting satellites. It also provides launch and early orbit support 

for orbital launches, as well as tracking of sounding rockets.

The NSC provided the infrastructure at SvalSat for the NASA Isbjørn 

Facility, including installation of basic utilities and communications, 

such as power, water, and telephone; installation of a fiber optic 

telecommunications link from Svalsat to Longyearbyen; construction 

of a station building to house SvalSat tenants, including NASA and 

the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA); 

coordination of SvalSat activity with Norwegian Government officials 

and regulatory bodies; and spectrum management. 

NASA provided, installed, and currently contracts for the operation 

and maintenance by Kongsberg Satellite Services (KSAT) of the NASA 

Isbjørn Facility, including all of the instrumentation, one 11-meter S-X 

band antenna, and associated ground support equipment. NASA uses 

the Isbjørn Facility to provide tracking and data-acquisition services for 

polar-orbiting Earth observation satellites, including Landsat-7. 

In 2003, NASA and NOAA provided for the installation by KSAT of 

approximately 3,000 kilometers of fiber optic cable from SvalSat to 

the Andøya Rocket Range in Norway, and from Andøya to New York. 

This fiber optic communication network replaced the need for satellite 

communications services and enables real-time transmission and 

processing of tracking, data acquisition, and control data for NASA’s 

Earth science satellites at a substantial savings to NASA.

SvalSat currently has six antenna systems, including two operational 

11-meter systems and one 13-meter S- and X-band system. NASA has 

access to three of these antennas under a pooled-service concept. 

For more information on the NASA Isbjørn Facility at SvalSat, please 

visit http://scp.gsfc.nasa.gov/gn/norway.htm.

Four of the six protective radar domes (radomes) over the 

telemetry and command antennas at SvalSat.

A close-up of one of the six radomes at SvalSat.
107

Human Exploration and Operations

Russia

ISS

International Space Station

The Russian Federal Space Agency’s (Roscosmos) primary contributions to the International Space Station (ISS) Program are Soyuz 

crew transportation, Progress logistics transportation, the Zvezda 

Service Module, the Pirs Airlock and Docking Compartment, the 

Multipurpose Laboratory Module (MLM), and the U.S.-owned/

Russian-built Zarya Functional Cargo Block (FGB). 

The ISS Program is a partnership among the space agencies of Canada, 

Europe, Japan, Russia, and the United States. International crews 

have continuously inhabited the ISS since November 2000. Cargo 

transportation is provided by European, Russian, and Japanese vehicles 

and by NASA’s contracts for Commercial Resupply Services (CRS). 

Crew transportation and rescue is provided by the Russian Federal 

Space Agency and, beginning in 2017, by NASA’s commercial crew 

transportation services. 

NASA’s contributions to the ISS Program include overall management, 

coordination, and integration of the ISS Program across the partnership 

for operations, safety, transportation, and integrated hardware 

performance. NASA hardware components include the U.S. laboratory 

module, the airlock for extravehicular activities (EVA), truss segments 

to support the U.S. solar arrays and thermal radiators, three connecting 

nodes, and living quarters. 

The ISS functions as an orbital microgravity and life sciences 

laboratory, a test bed for new technologies in areas such as life support 

and robotics, and a platform for astronomical and Earth observations. 

The ISS also serves as a unique engineering test bed for flight systems 

and operations critical to NASA’s future exploration missions. U.S. 

research on the ISS concentrates on the long-term effects of space travel 

on humans and on technology development activities in support of 

exploration. The ISS is a stepping-stone for human exploration and 

scientific discovery beyond low-Earth orbit.

Zarya, the first component of the ISS, was built in Russia under a U.S. 

contract and, as such, is a U.S. contribution to the ISS. Zvezda is the 

structural and functional center of the Russian segment of the ISS. 

The Pirs Airlock provides the capability for EVAs from Zvezda and the 

Docking Compartment provides a port for docking Soyuz and Progress 

logistics vehicles. The MLM will be used for experiments, docking, and 

cargo, and it will serve as a crew work and rest area. The Soyuz vehicle 

transports three crewmembers to the ISS and serves as the emergency 

lifeboat should the crew need to return to Earth. The Progress is a 

resupply vehicle used for cargo and propellant deliveries. Progress 

engines can boost the ISS to higher altitudes and perform orientation 

control of the ISS. 

For more information on the ISS and Russia’s contributions, please visit 

http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/assembly_elements.

html, and http://www.federalspace.ru/?lang=en.

Soyuz TMA-7 orbiting Earth. The Soyuz is a crew 

transportation and rescue vehicle and can support up to 

three crewmembers.

This photo, taken by astronauts on board the International 

Space Station (ISS), shows the Russian Soyuz spacecraft 

(left) and the Progress spacecraft (right) docked to the ISS 

as it flies over the Nile River Delta in Egypt. The cities of 

Cairo and Alexandria are both visible in the frame. (Credit: 

NASA, European Space Agency)
108

Science

Russia

LRO

Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter

The Russian Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos) provided the Lunar 

Exploration Neutron Detector (LEND) instrument for NASA’s Lunar 

Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO), which NASA launched in June 2009.

The primary objective of the LRO is to obtain data that will facilitate 

returning humans safely to the Moon and enable extended stays. The 

high-priority investigations defined for LRO included high-resolution 

imaging for characterizing landing site selection and safety, geodetic 

global topography for the next steps in exploration, measurements 

to globally assess polar resources and their accessibility for human 

exploration, and radiation measurements for future human exploration 

on the Moon. 

The LEND team is led by the Space Research Institute of the Russian 

Academy of Sciences (IKI RAS) and consists of scientists from IKI 

RAS, the University of Arizona, the University of Maryland, and 

NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC). One of six instruments 

aboard the LRO, LEND has passive collimators of neutrons that 

provide high-spatial-resolution maps of neutron emission at the lunar 

surface to search for evidence of water ice and provide measurements 

of the lunar radiation environment—crucial information for future 

human exploration. 

Using LEND data as a primary source of information along with 

the results of other LRO instruments, NASA chose Cabeus crater as 

a location for lunar surface bombardment by NASA’s Lunar Crater 

Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS). This experiment studied 

the composition of the lunar surface to look for water ice by measuring 

the parameters of debris plume. The resulting data confirmed the 

presence of water ice and characterized its distribution in permanently 

shadowed regions of the moon. The availability of water resources 

could enable the production of oxygen, drinking water, and rocket 

fuel—all of which have previously been serious barriers to human 

exploration. 

LEND is a modified and enhanced version of the Russian High-Energy 

Neutron Detector (HEND), which launched in 2001 aboard NASA’s Mars 

Odyssey spacecraft and continues to look for water deposits on Mars. 

For more information on LEND, please visit http://lro.gsfc.nasa.gov/ and 

http://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/lend.html.

An artist’s rendering of the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter 

leaving Earth orbit for its journey to the Moon.

A picture of the Lunar Exploration Neutron Detector 

instrument. (Credit: Space Research Institute of the 

Russian Academy of Sciences).
109

Science

Russia 

Mars Odyssey

The Russian Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos), along with its participating entity, the Space Research Institute of the Russian Academy 

of Sciences (IKI RAS), provided the High-Energy Neutron Detector 

(HEND) instrument for NASA’s 2001 Mars Odyssey mission.

Mars Odyssey mapped, for the first time, the amount and distribution 

of chemical elements and minerals that make up the Martian surface. 

Odyssey’s maps of hydrogen distribution led scientists to discover vast 

amounts of water ice in the polar regions of Mars, buried just beneath 

the surface. Odyssey recorded the radiation environment in low-Mars 

orbit to determine the radiation-related risk to future human explorers 

who may one day go to Mars. 

The HEND is a part of the Gamma Ray Spectrometer (GRS) 

instrument suite, one of three primary instrument packages on the 

Mars Odyssey. The GRS instrument suite has provided data on the 

elemental distribution at the surface of Mars and searched for water 

across the planet. Specifically, this instrument suite detects and counts 

gamma rays and neutrons from the Martian surface. By associating the 

spectral distribution of the gamma rays with known nuclear transitions 

lines, it is possible to calculate the ratio of elemental abundances on the 

surface. By counting the number of neutrons as a function of energy, 

it is possible to calculate the hydrogen abundance, thus inferring the 

presence of water.

In 2008, the Odyssey orbiter found salt deposits in the southern 

highlands of Mars, in basins with channels leading into them. These 

features are reminiscent of salt-pan deposits on Earth, which are 

consistent with water flowing over a long period of time. The salt 

deposits could have come from water that had evaporated, leaving 

mineral deposits that had built up over the years. The presence of 

these salt deposits could aid in answering the most important scientific 

question driving Mars research: did life ever exist on the Red Planet?

For more information on the Mars Odyssey, please visit http://

marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/odyssey/overview/.

For more information on the HEND instrument, please visit http://

www.iki.rssi.ru/hend/index-engl.htm.

An artist’s concept of the 2001 Mars Odyssey orbiting Mars.

Observations by Russia’s High-Energy Neutron Detector on 

NASA’s 2001 Mars Odyssey spacecraft show a global view 

of Mars in high-energy “fast” neutrons. The low flux of fast 

neutrons (blue and purple colors) in the north polar region 

suggests an abundance of hydrogen in the soil. (Credit: 

NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory/University of Arizona/

Roscosmos/Space Research Institute)
110

Science

Russia

MSL

Mars Science Laboratory

NASA’s Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) mission utilized an innovative 

sky crane to set down the Curiosity rover onto the surface of Mars in 

August 2012, where it began its mission to assess whether Mars has 

ever had an environment capable of supporting small life forms called 

microbes. The MSL mission, launched by NASA in November 2011, 

is planned to last at least one Martian year (687 Earth days), but it has 

the potential to operate for much longer.

The primary scientific objective, to be carried out during the surface 

science phase of the MSL mission, is to assess the biological potential 

of at least one target area by characterizing the local geology and 

geochemistry, investigating planetary processes relevant to habitability 

(including the role of water), and characterizing the broad spectrum 

of surface radiation. The landing site, Gale Crater, was selected based 

on an assessment of safety and planetary protection and an analysis by 

the scientific community. Since its landing, MSL has already begun to 

make new and exciting science discoveries, such as observing a natural 

intersection of three kinds of terrain at an area called Glenelg and 

finding evidence that a stream once ran across the area on Mars where 

the rover is driving. Although earlier missions detected the presence of 

water on Mars, the images taken by MSL of rocks that contain ancient 

streambed gravel are the first of their kind.

The Space Research Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IKI 

RAS) provided the Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons (DAN) detector to 

the MSL mission. DAN searches for water by looking for neutrons 

escaping from the planet’s surface. Cosmic rays from space constantly 

bombard the surface of Mars, knocking neutrons in surface soils and 

rocks out of their atomic orbits. If liquid or frozen water happens to be 

present, hydrogen atoms in water molecules slow the neutrons down. 

As a result, some of the neutrons escaping into space have less energy 

and move more slowly. These slower particles can be measured with a 

neutron detector such as DAN. Scientists expect to find hydrogen on 

Mars in two forms: water ice and minerals that have molecules of water 

in their crystal structures. DAN’s pulsing neutron generator is sensitive 

enough to detect water content as low as one-tenth of one percent and 

resolve layers of water and ice beneath the surface. DAN will focus a 

beam of neutrons onto the Martian surface. The neutrons are expected 

to travel 1–2 meters below the surface before being absorbed by 

hydrogen atoms in subsurface ice.

For more information on the MSL mission and the DAN instrument, 

please visit http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/ and http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.

gov/msl/mission/instruments/radiationdetectors/dan/.

This image of NASA’s Curiosity rover shows the location of 

the two components of the Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons 

instrument. The neutron generator is mounted on the right 

hip (visible in this view), and the detectors are on the opposite 

hip. (Credit: NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory–Caltech)
111

Science

Russia

Wind

NASA’s Wind satellite, launched in 1994, became the first of two 

NASA spacecraft in the Global Geospace Science (GGS) Program 

and was also part of the International Solar-Terrestrial Physics (ISTP) 

Science Initiative. The Wind mission includes the Russian Konus 

experiment, which was the first Russian scientific instrument to fly on 

an American satellite. 

The Wind satellite operates at the sunward Sun-Earth Lagrange point 

(L1), giving scientists an opportunity to study the enormous flow of 

energy and momentum known as the solar wind. Wind measures the 

mass, momentum, and energy of the solar wind that is transferred into 

the space environment around Earth.

The Konus experiment provides omnidirectional and continuous 

coverage of cosmic gamma-ray transients. The instrument monitors 

cosmic gamma-ray bursts, soft gamma repeaters (SGR), solar flares, 

and other transients with the moderate energy resolution available from 

scintillation spectrometers. In conjunction with other instruments, 

Konus has helped to determine gamma-ray burst locations, thereby 

enabling the prompt and ongoing study of this elusive phenomenon. 

NASA’s Wind satellite remains in operation. 

For more information on Wind/Konus, please visit http://pwg.gsfc.nasa.

gov/wind.shtml.

An artist’s concept of the Wind spacecraft.
112

Human Exploration and Operations

Spain

DSN

Deep Space Network

The Spanish National Institute of Aerospace Technology (INTA), on 

behalf of NASA, manages the Madrid Deep Space Communications 

Complex (MDSCC), located 60 kilometers west of Madrid, Spain, in 

Robledo de Chavela. The MDSCC has been in operation since 1964 as 

one of three facilities that comprise NASA’s Deep Space Network (DSN).

NASA’s DSN is an international network of antennas that communicates with interplanetary spacecraft, is used by radio and radar 

astronomers to observe the solar system and the universe, and supports 

selected Earth-orbiting satellites. NASA’s three DSN facilities are 

Goldstone, in the Mojave Desert, California; the Canberra Deep Space 

Communication Complex (CDSCC), near Canberra, Australia; and 

MDSCC, near Madrid, Spain. 

These DSN facilities are located approximately 120° apart around the 

world, which permits constant observation of spacecraft as the Earth 

rotates. Each location has an 8- to 14-hour viewing period for contact 

with spacecraft. The DSN provides the two-way communications 

link that tracks, guides, and controls the spacecraft and returns the 

tele metry and scientific data collected by the spacecraft. Incoming 

data to the three DSN facilities are processed and transmitted to 

NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in Pasadena, California, for 

further processing and distribution to science teams over a modern 

ground-communications network.

Each DSN facility consists of three classes of deep space antennas: a 

34-meter-diameter high-efficiency antenna, a 34-meter beam waveguide antenna, and a 70-meter antenna. 

For more information on the DSN and MDSCC, please visit http://

deepspace.jpl.nasa.gov/dsn/ and http://www.mdscc.org/.

Deep Space Station–63 (DSS-63) at Madrid Deep Space 

Network Complex.

An aerial view of Madrid Deep Space Network Complex.
113

Science

Spain

MSL

Mars Science Laboratory

NASA’s Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) mission utilized an innovative 

sky crane to set down the Curiosity rover onto the surface of Mars in 

August 2012, where it began its mission to assess whether Mars has 

ever had an environment capable of supporting small life forms called 

microbes. The MSL mission, launched by NASA in November 2011, is 

planned to last at least one Martian year (687 Earth days), but has the 

potential to operate for much longer.

The primary scientific objective, to be carried out during the surface 

science phase of the MSL mission, is to assess the biological potential 

of at least one target area by characterizing the local geology and 

geochemistry, investigating planetary processes relevant to habitability 

(including the role of water), and characterizing the broad spectrum 

of surface radiation. The landing site, Gale Crater, was selected based 

on an assessment of safety and planetary protection and an analysis by 

the scientific community. Since its landing, MSL has already begun to 

make new and exciting science discoveries, such as observing a natural 

intersection of three kinds of terrain at an area called Glenelg and 

finding evidence that a stream once ran across the area on Mars where 

the rover is driving. Although earlier missions detected the presence of 

water on Mars, the images taken by MSL of rocks that contain ancient 

streambed gravel are the first of their kind.

The Spanish Center for Astrobiology (CAB), part of the National 

Institute for Aerospace Technology (INTA), provided MSL’s Rover 

Environmental Monitoring Station (REMS) instrument suite. Spain’s 

Center for the Development of Industrial Technology (CDTI) also 

provided components of the rover high-gain antenna subsystem. 

REMS provides a daily report of atmospheric weather conditions on 

Mars. From its vantage point attached to the vertical mast on the 

MSL deck, REMS measures atmospheric pressure, humidity, ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, wind speed, wind direction, ground 

temperature, and air temperature.

For more information on the MSL mission and the REMS instrument, 

please visit http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/ and http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.

gov/msl/mission/instruments/environsensors/rems/.

This image from NASA’s Curiosity rover shows the first 

sample of powdered rock extracted by the rover’s drill and 

transferred from the drill to the rover’s scoop. The scoop 

is 1.8 inches (4.5 centimeters) wide. The image was 

obtained by Curiosity’s Mast Camera in February 2013. 

(Credit: NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory–Caltech/Malin 

Space Science Systems)
114

Science

Sweden

Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope

The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, launched by NASA in 2008, 

is a spacecraft with the ability to detect gamma rays created by the 

most energetic objects and phenomena in the universe. Among the 

topics of cosmological interest studied by the mission are dark matter 

and the periods of star and galaxy formation in the early universe. The 

mission is an astrophysics and particle physics partnership developed 

by NASA in collaboration with the U.S. Department of Energy, with 

impor tant contributions from academic institutions and partners in 

France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Sweden, and the United States.

Because of their tremendous energy, gamma rays travel through the 

universe largely unobstructed. This means that Fermi is able to observe 

gamma-ray sources located near the edge of the visible universe. 

Gamma rays detected by Fermi originate near the otherwise-obscured 

central regions of exotic objects like supermassive black holes, pulsars, 

and gamma-ray bursts.

In order to study these high-energy waves, two main instruments 

are used: the Large Area Telescope (LAT) and the Gamma-ray 

Large Area Space Telescope (GLAST) Burst Monitor (GBM). When 

in survey mode, the LAT scans the entire sky every 3 hours. The 

instrument detects photons with energies ranging from 20 million 

electron volts to over 300 billion electron volts. In its first month 

of operation, the GBM instrument spotted 31 gamma-ray bursts, 

which occur when massive stars die or when orbiting neutron stars 

spiral together and merge. By the end of 2011, Fermi had detected 

more than 100 gamma-emitting pulsars; before its launch, only 7 of 

these were known to emit gamma rays. Newly developed methods of 

analysis promise to spur additional discoveries. 

The Swedish Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) provided sensors 

for the LAT Calorimeter. Along with Sweden and NASA, the following 

organizations are also contributors to the Fermi mission: the German 

Aerospace Center (DLR), Italian Space Agency (ASI), Japan Aerospace 

Exploration Agency (JAXA), and French Alternative Energies and 

Atomic Energy Commission (CEA).

For more information on the FERMI mission, please visit http://fermi.

gsfc.nasa.gov/.

An artist’s concept of the Fermi spacecraft orbiting Earth.
115

Science

Sweden

MMS

Magnetospheric MultiScale

NASA’s Magnetospheric MultiScale (MMS) mission is a solar-terrestrial 

probe mission comprising four identically instrumented spacecraft that 

will use Earth’s magnetosphere as a laboratory to study the microphysics of three fundamental plasma processes: magnetic reconnection, 

energetic particle acceleration, and turbulence. These processes occur 

in all astrophysical plasma systems but can be studied in situ only in 

our solar system and most efficiently only in Earth’s magnetosphere, 

where they control the dynamics of the geospace environment and play 

an important role in the processes known as “space weather.” The four 

MMS spacecraft are currently planned for launch by NASA in 2014.

NASA is collaborating on the MMS mission with the Swedish 

National Space Board (SNSB), with support from the Royal Institute 

of Technology (KTH) and the Swedish Institute of Space Physics 

(IRF). NASA is also cooperating with the Aeronautics and Space 

Agency (ALR) of the Austrian Research Promotion Agency (FFG), the 

Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), and the French National 

Center for Space Studies (CNES) on the mission. 

MMS investigates how the magnetic fields of the Sun and Earth 

connect and disconnect, explosively transferring energy from one to 

the other in a process known as magnetic reconnection. This process 

limits the performance of fusion reactors and is the final governor of 

geospace weather, which affects modern technological systems such 

as telecommunications networks, Global Positioning System (GPS) 

navigation, and electrical power grids. MMS’s four spacecraft will 

measure plasmas, fields, and particles in a near-equatorial orbit that 

will frequently encounter reconnection in action. 

The four MMS spacecraft will carry identical instrument suites of 

plasma analyzers, energetic particle detectors, magnetometers, and 

electric field instruments; they will also carry a device to prevent spacecraft charging from interfering with the highly sensitive measurements 

required in and around the diffusion regions. SNSB, through KTH 

and IRFU, is designing and developing the Spin-Plane Double Probe 

(SDP) instrument for measuring the direct current electric fields on the 

MMS spacecraft, as well as the Low-Voltage Power Supply (LVPS) for 

the MMS FIELDS investigation for the four MMS spacecraft. SNSB 

will also support the integration and testing of the SDP and LVPS for 

the instrument suite. NASA is providing the spacecraft, the launch, 

and overall mission management.

For more information on MMS, please visit http://mms.gsfc.nasa.gov/.

Flight structures for MMS #3 (top) and MMS #4 (bottom) 

are shown after being integrated into a “mini-stack” 

testing configuration for environmental testing at NASA’s 

Goddard Space Flight Center. This is also the configuration 

that will be used for shipping the four spacecraft to Cape 

Canaveral, Florida, for launch. The structures seen here 

include the flight thrust tubes, spacecraft, and Instrument 

decks, in addition to mass simulators for the solar arrays 

and instruments.
116

Science

Switzerland

IBEX

Interstellar Boundary Explorer

NASA’s Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX), launched in 2008, is the 

first spacecraft designed to collect data across the entire sky about the 

heliosphere and its boundary. Scientists have used this data to construct 

the first comprehensive map of the boundary of our solar system and its 

location in the Milky Way galaxy. IBEX, which is orbiting Earth just 

slightly outside of its magnetosphere, is discovering what the interactions 

are between the solar wind caused by the Sun and the interstellar medium 

that exists at the edge of our solar system. The University of Bern in 

Switzerland is cooperating with NASA on this mission.

Scientific results from the IBEX spacecraft have shown that our solar 

system is traveling slower with respect to the interstellar medium, and 

that interstellar material is coming into our solar system from a slightly 

different direction than previously thought. IBEX has also captured 

the best and most complete glimpse yet of what lies beyond the solar 

system. These new measurements give clues about how and where our 

solar system formed, the forces that physically shape our solar system, 

and the history of other stars in the Milky Way. IBEX has also been 

able to create new maps that help scientists understand parts of the 

universe that were once unseen, to place these observations in the 

context of the Sun’s variability, and to describe how that variability 

interacts with the interstellar medium just beyond the heliosphere. One 

of the most exciting discoveries of the mission was the detection of an 

unsuspected ribbon of energetic neutral particles located just outside 

our solar system.

The University of Bern provided the IBEX-Hi Pre-collimator, the 

IBEX-Lo Pre-collimator, and the IBEX-Lo Outer Electrostatic Analyzer 

for the mission. IBEX also features a pair of energetic neutral atom 

(ENA) cameras to observe the global interactions between the solar 

wind and interstellar medium, providing a much deeper understanding 

of the Sun’s interaction with the galaxy. From this data, maps of the 

boundary are created. 

For more information on IBEX, please visit http://www.ibex.swri.edu/.

An artist’s concept of the IBEX spacecraft. (Credit: NASA/

Goddard Conceptual Image Lab)

An artist’s representation of Earth’s magnetosphere; the 

pink area in front of Earth’s magnetopause is the region 

where IBEX has detected energetic neutral atoms. Our 

magnetosphere boundary does not give off light that we 

can detect, so we must use particle sensors like those of 

IBEX to study regions like this.
117

Science

Thailand

Vector-Borne Disease Control Research

Mosquitoes are estimated to transmit disease to more than 700 million 

people annually, resulting in over a million deaths each year. NASA and 

Mahidol University have been collaborating since 2001 to develop new 

techniques using remote sensing technology to assist in the monitoring 

and control of vector-borne diseases. The scientific objectives of the joint 

research include mapping the breeding sites for the major vector species, 

identifying potential sites for larvicide and insecticide applications, 

exploring the linkages of vector population and transmission intensity to 

environmental variables, monitoring the impact of climate change and 

human activities on vector population and transmission, and developing 

a predictive model for disease distribution. 

This activity is part of NASA’s Applied Sciences program area, which 

focuses on Earth science applications to public health, particularly 

regarding infectious disease, emergency preparedness and response, and 

environmental health issues. The application focus area explores issues 

of toxic and pathogenic exposure, as well as natural and humanmade 

hazards and their effects, for risk characterization/mitigation and 

improvements to health and safety.

For more information on Vector-Borne Disease Control Research, 

please visit http://www.sc.mahidol.ac.th/research/vectors.html.

Thailand’s Chao Phraya River forms at the confluence 

of smaller rivers near Nakhon Sawan and flows past 

Bangkok to the Gulf of Thailand. In October 2011, Thailand 

experienced massive flooding, including in Bangkok. 

As rivers overflowed in Thailand, the Tônlé Sab and the 

Mekong River remained swollen in neighboring Cambodia. 

The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer 

(MODIS) on NASA’s Terra satellite captured the top image 

in October 2011. 

For comparison, the bottom image shows the same area in 

October 2010. These images use a combination of visible 

and infrared light to better distinguish between water and 

land. Vegetation is green, clouds are pale blue-green, and 

water is dark blue. In 2011, water rests on floodplains 

between Phitsanulok and Nakhon Sawan. Meanwhile, 

Tônlé Sab has spread well beyond its 2010 boundaries. 

The presence of stagnant water, and the fact that many 

residents were forced to live in close quarters with 

livestock, contributed to the toll from vector-borne diseases 

such as Dengue fever.
118

Science

United Kingdom

Aura

NASA’s Aura (Latin for “breeze”) satellite, launched by NASA in 2004, 

measures changes in the composition, chemistry, and dynamics of 

the Earth’s atmosphere for research and applications that are relevant 

to ozone trends, air quality, and climate. Aura is operating in a Sunsynchronous, near-polar low-Earth orbit. 

The National Environment Research Council (NERC) of the United 

Kingdom, in cooperation with the United Kingdom Space Agency, is 

collaborating with NASA on the jointly developed High-Resolution 

Dynamic Limb Sounder (HIRDLS) instrument. 

HIRDLS is one of four instruments on board Aura. The other three 

instruments are the NASA-provided Microwave Limb Sounder (MLS), 

the NASA-provided Tropospheric Emission Spectrometer (TES), and 

the Netherlands-provided Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI). 

These instruments offer unique and complementary capabilities that 

enable daily global observations of Earth’s atmospheric ozone layer, 

air quality, and key climate parameters contributing to Aura’s overall 

mission. 

HIRDLS is a 21-channel, infrared, limb-scanning radiometer designed 

to obtain profiles over most of the globe, both day and night, and to 

provide complete Earth coverage every 12 hours. HIRDLS is designed 

to sound the upper troposphere, stratosphere, and mesosphere in order 

to determine temperature and the concentrations of gases and aerosols 

crucial to ozone chemistry and climate. The locations of polar stratospheric clouds and cloud tops are particularly important. To improve 

our understanding of atmospheric processes, HIRDLS provides vertical 

concentrations throughout the stratosphere with improved sensitivity, 

accuracy, and vertical resolution. 

The Aura instruments have provided valuable ozone measurements; 

tropospheric maps of carbon monoxide, water vapor, and cloud ice; 

and measurements of the stratosphere. These measurements enable the 

investigation of questions about ozone trends, air quality changes, and 

their linkage to climate change. 

For more information on the HIRDLS, please visit http://aura.gsfc.nasa.

gov/index.html and http://aura.gsfc.nasa.gov/instruments/hirdls/index.html.

An artist’s concept of the Aura satellite orbiting Earth.
119

Science

United Kingdom

Hinode

Hinode is a Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)–led solar 

physics mission that is providing the first solar optical telescope in 

space. NASA and the United Kingdom (U.K.) are collaborators on 

the mission. 

Launched by JAXA in 2006 from the Uchinoura Space Center in 

Japan, Hinode data is helping scientists better understand how magnetic fields interact with plasma to produce solar variability and how 

the solar photosphere and corona act as a system. The Hinode mission 

aims to solve how the generation of the solar-magnetic field and its 

emergence through the photosphere governs the structure of the entire 

solar atmosphere. 

The Hinode mission includes a suite of three science instruments—the 

Solar Optical Telescope (SOT), the x-ray telescope (XRT), and the 

Extreme-ultraviolet Imaging Spectrometer (EIS)—to study the interaction between the Sun’s magnetic field and its high-temperature, ionized 

atmosphere. Hinode is circling Earth in a polar, Sun-synchronous 

orbit that allows the spacecraft’s instruments to remain in continuous 

sunlight for 9 months each year.

Hinode’s instruments have produced fantastic detail of both visible 

and magnetic features on the Sun’s surface and in its atmosphere, the 

corona. Since 2006, the Hinode mission has helped explain the origin 

of the solar wind, discovered potential candidates for how the corona 

gets so hot, and provided images of the complex magnetic structures 

looping up and out of active regions on the Sun. Hinode’s Solar 

Optical Telescope has delivered images that show greatly magnified 

views of the Sun’s surface. These images are revealing new details about 

solar convection, the process that drives the rising and falling of gases 

in the lowest atmospheric region, the photosphere. Hinode’s Solar 

Optical Telescope is the first space-borne instrument to measure the 

strength and direction of the Sun’s magnetic field. 

The EIS was built by a consortium led by the U.K.’s Mullard Space 

Science Laboratory. The U.K. also provided overall program management and system engineering functions for the spectrometer design, 

development, integration, and test activities, in addition to scientific 

support for all phases of the mission. Support for the operation of 

Hinode is funded by the U.K. Space Agency, which works with the 

Science and Technology Facilities Council to fund researchers who 

exploit the scientific data yielded by the mission. NASA provided 

telescope components and major EIS optical components.

For more information on Hinode, please visit http://www.nasa.gov/

mission_pages/solar-b/.

An artist’s concept of the Hinode spacecraft.

This x-ray image of the Sun was taken by the Hinode

X-ray Telescope.
120

Science

United Kingdom

SET-1

Space Environment Testbed–1

The Space Environment Testbed–1 (SET-1) project performs flight 

and ground investigations to address the Living With a Star (LWS) 

program’s goal of understanding how interactions between the Sun 

and Earth affect humanity. The SET-1 project is the element of 

the LWS Program that characterizes the space environment and its 

impact on hardware performance in space. The project goal for SET-1 

is to improve the engineering approach to accommodation and/or 

mitigation of the effects of solar variability on spacecraft design and 

operations. The United Kingdom (U.K.) Space Agency is collaborating 

with NASA on this mission. International participation also includes 

the French National Center for Space Studies (CNES).

The primary science objectives for the SET-1 project are to define space 

environment effects and mechanisms, to reduce design margins, and to 

improve design and operations guidelines. When margins for spacecraft 

design and operations are reduced, “space-environment-tolerant” and 

new technologies can be used more frequently, the fraction of spacecraft resources available for payloads can be increased or launch vehicle 

requirements can be reduced, and routine operations above low-Earth 

orbit (LEO) can be performed at the same cost as for LEO operations. 

NASA and the U.K. Space Agency are conducting a British investigation entitled “Cosmic Radiation Environment Dosimetry and 

Charging Experiment” (CREDANCE) as part of the SET-1 project. 

The investigation uses a correlative environment monitor (CEM) to 

measure the energetic space-radiation environment during the mission. 

The CEM measurements will support the data analysis for other 

experiments on the SET-1 project and can be used to improve and/or 

validate environment specification models for electrons, protons, and 

heavy ions, and to predict solar particle events. 

The U.K. Space Agency will make available an experiment carrier that 

can be used by the CREDANCE CEM, and it will provide the interface between the CEM and the host spacecraft. SET-1 will be flown on 

the Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) Demonstration and Science 

Experiments (DSX) spacecraft and is scheduled to launch in 2014. 

For more information on SET, please visit http://science.nasa.gov/

missions/space-environment-testbeds/.

This image shows sunspot predictions for Solar Cycle 

24. The space-radiation environment poses a hazard to 

spacecraft, which must therefore protect their sensitive 

components with adequate radiation shielding. Planning 

for satellite orbits and space missions often requires 

knowledge of solar activity levels years in advance. The 

Space Environment Testbeds will improve hardware 

performance in the space-radiation environment.
121

Science

United Kingdom

Swift Gamma-ray Burst Explorer

NASA’s Swift Gamma Ray Burst Explorer mission is a multiwavelength 

astrophysics observatory that is making a comprehensive study of 

hundreds of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) in order to determine the origin 

and physical processes of GRB events. The Swift mission was launched 

by NASA in November 2004 and was expected to have an orbital lifetime of approximately 8 years. Updated orbital lifetime predictions for 

Swift project it to remain in orbit potentially until 2022. The United 

Kingdom (U.K.) Space Agency and the Italian Space Agency (ASI) are 

cooperating with NASA on the operation of the Swift mission. 

GRBs are incredibly intense releases of gamma radiation, which is a 

particularly energetic form of light that can only be generated by the 

most powerful astronomical events. Swift is a next-generation satellite 

that observes GRBs—a first-of-its-kind, multiwavelength observatory 

dedicated to advancing GRB science. Its three instruments work 

together to patrol about one-sixth of the sky at a time in order to 

pinpoint and observe GRBs and afterglows in the gamma-ray, x-ray, 

ultraviolet, and optical wavebands.

Scientific institutes in the United Kingdom cooperated with NASA on 

both the development of the X-ray Telescope (XRT) and on the assembly of the Ultraviolet and Optical Telescope (UVOT), having supplied 

system engineering support and expertise for the XRT design; provided 

the XRT structural finite element model, thermal finite element model, 

focal plane camera assembly, and other major components for the XRT; 

and developed the XRT and UVOT data analysis software. 

For more information on Swift and the XRT, please visit http://swift.

gsfc.nasa.gov/ and http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/swift/spacecraft/

index.html.

An artist’s rendering of NASA’s Swift spacecraft.

This composite image, taken from three Swift UVOT 

ultraviolet images, highlights the luminous hot gas in the 

Crab Nebula, a supernova remnant. (Credit: NASA, Penn 

State University/Erik Hoversten)

123

WORLDWIDE MISSIONS AND PROGRAMS
124

Science

Worldwide

AERONET

Aerosol Robotic Network

Aerosol particles come from both human and natural sources, can be 

observed everywhere in the world, and play a key role in climate. The 

Aerosol Robotic Network (AERONET) is an optical, ground-based, 

aerosol-monitoring network of Sun photometers and data archive system 

supported by NASA and expanded by a federation of over 80 countries 

and regions. Data from this collaboration provide globally distributed, 

near-real-time observations of spectral aerosol optical depths, aerosol size 

distributions, and precipitable water in diverse aerosol environments. 

By providing accurate measurements from the ground, AERONET 

has emerged as the best tool to validate the accuracy of satellite 

instruments. For example, scientists have relied upon AERONET to 

reconcile differences between aerosol measurements from the Moderate 

Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and the Multiangle 

Imaging SpectroRadiometer (MISR), two instruments on NASA’s 

Terra satellite.

The data undergo preliminary processing (real-time data), reprocessing 

(final calibration approximately 6 months after data collection), quality 

assurance, archiving, and distribution from NASA’s Goddard Space 

Flight Center master archive database and from several identical 

databases maintained globally. The data provide algorithm validation 

of satellite aerosol retrievals, as well as characterization of aerosol 

properties unavailable from satellite sensors.

NASA has agreements to support AERONET Sun photometer sites in 

36 countries: Bangladesh, Bermuda, Bolivia, Colombia, Estonia, France, 

India, Indonesia, Israel, Japan, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Malaysia, Moldova, 

Mongolia, Morocco, Mozambique, New Zealand, Norway, Pakistan, 

Peru, the Philippines, Poland, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South 

Africa, South Korea, Spain, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey, Uganda, the 

United Arab Emirates, the United States, and Vietnam. 

AERONET Sun photometer sites are independently operated in an 

additional 55 locations. The AERONET sites in these locations, 

while not directly supported by NASA, are tied into the network and 

their data is openly shared: Amsterdam Island, Antarctica, Argentina, 

Ascension Island, Australia, Austria, the Azores, Barbados, Belarus, 

Belgium, Brazil, Burma, Canada, Cape Verde, China, Crozet Island, 

Cuba, Cyprus, Denmark, Egypt, Finland, French Polynesia, Germany, 

Guadeloupe, Guam, Guyane, Iran, Italy, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, 

Maldives, Mali, Mauritania, Mauritius, Mexico, Midway Islands, 

North Mariana Islands, Nauru, Nepal, Netherlands, Niger, Nigeria, 

Papua New Guinea, Portugal, Puerto Rico, Romania, Senegal, Sweden, 

Switzerland, Tajikistan, Tenerife Island, Ukraine, the United Kingdom, 

and Zambia.

For more information on AERONET, please visit http://aeronet.gsfc.

nasa.gov/.

Sun photometers measure the intensity of sunlight arriving 

directly from the Sun. They are pointed directly at the Sun 

and measure direct sunlight. Since haze and aerosols 

block some direct sunlight, a Sun photometer is an ideal 

instrument for measuring haze.

Close up of AERONET’s Sun photometer on Bhola Island 

in Bangladesh.
125

Science

Worldwide

AMS

Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer

The AMS project addresses fundamental issues shared by physics, 

astrophysics, and cosmology on the origin and structure of the universe. The visible matter in the universe (i.e., stars) composes up to less 

than 5 percent of the total mass that is known to exist. The other 95 

percent is dark—either dark matter, which is estimated at 20 percent 

of the universe by weight, or dark energy, which makes up the balance. 

AMS specifically looks for dark matter, as well as antimatter, which in 

the Big Bang theory of the origins of the universe is required to exist in 

equal parts to matter. 

The first AMS results, released in April 2013, provided the most precise 

measurement to date of the ratio of positrons to electrons in cosmic 

rays. Measurements of this key ratio may eventually provide our first 

glimpse into the nature of dark matter. NASA Administrator Charles 

Bolden noted that the results “could help foster a new understanding of 

the fields of fundamental physics and astrophysics.”

The AMS project is led by the U.S. Department of Energy. The 

principal investigator is Nobel-laureate physicist Samuel Ting. The 

AMS project is composed of an international team from the following 

16 countries: China, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, 

Mexico, the Netherlands, Portugal, Romania, Russia, South Korea, 

Spain, Switzerland, Taiwan, and the United States. The European 

Space Agency (ESA) and the European Organization for Nuclear 

Research (CERN) are also members of the AMS team.

For more information on AMS, please visit http://ams.nasa.gov/.

A computer-generated drawing of the AMS-02.

The AMS-02 after installation on the International Space 

Station’s (ISS) S3 Upper Inboard Payload Attach Site on the 

S3 Truss segment. The AMS-02 will remain active for the 

duration of the ISS Program.
126

Human Exploration and Operations

Worldwide

Astrobiology and Analogs

Astrobiology is a multidisciplinary field of research that encompasses 

studies of the origin, evolution, distribution, and future of life in the 

universe. Research in exobiology and evolutionary biology ranges from 

the molecular biology of the origin of life, to the biochemistry of 

adaptation to extreme environments, to studies of fossil life on Earth, 

to prebiotic chemistry on worlds such as Titan. The NASA Astrobiology 

Program is developing and demonstrating sensors, robotics, and human 

exploration techniques and technologies in terrestrial analog environments 

for use in space-based astrobiological studies and related investigations.

NASA astrobiologists collaborate with astrobiologists around the 

world on data analysis, field research, flight experiments, mission 

planning, and more. Field sites for astrobiology research have ranged 

from Antarctica to Alaska, Australia, Canada, Chile, China, Hawaii, 

Mexico, and Norway, as well as elsewhere in the continental United 

States. Many of these sites also provide value beyond the realm of 

astrobiology by serving as “analogs” to destinations of interest to future 

human explorers—the Moon, Mars, and asteroids, for example. Analog 

missions are conducted at these often remote locations due to their 

physical similarities to the extreme environments associated with these 

exploration destinations. NASA engineers and scientists work with 

international partners at these sites to test robotic equipment, vehicles, 

habitats, communications, and power systems. 

The NASA Astrobiology Institute (NAI) has supported the work of 

U.S. investigators whose investigations are part of the plan for the 

European Space Agency’s (ESA) ExoMars mission to study the biochemical environment on Mars. Formally, the NAI has 13 international 

partners: the European Astrobiology Network Association, the Nordic 

Network of Astrobiology, and national astrobiology research institutes 

in Australia, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, France, Germany, the United 

Kingdom, Mexico, Russia, and Spain. U.S. scientists on NAI research 

teams are collaborating with researchers at universities in Athens, 

Leeds, Leiden, Oslo, Paris, Taipei, Tokyo, and Toronto, as well as 

scientists at the Vatican Observatory and the Brazilian Space Agency 

(AEB). NASA also collaborates with astrobiologists from other nations 

through international organizations such as the Committee on Space 

Research (COSPAR) of the International Council for Science. 

In attempting to learn about the origin and evolution of life, astrobiologists studying microbial communities in extreme environments on 

Earth have discovered that the limits within which terrestrial life can 

exist are far broader and that the diversity of microbial life is far greater 

than scientists previously thought. These findings are contributing 

to the important field of genomics (the study of genes and their 

functions), aiding planning for experiments and missions to search 

for evidence of possible life on Mars and other planetary bodies, and 

generally improving our understanding of the nature and diversity of 

life on Earth and potentially elsewhere.

For more information on the Astrobiology program, please visit http://

astrobiology.nasa.gov/.

Titan’s heavy atmosphere is loaded with organic molecules 

that may provide insights on the evolution of Earth’s early 

environment and the emergence of life.

Far above the Arctic Circle off the northern coast of 

Norway lies a small chain of islands known as Svalbard. 

The rugged beauty, ancient fossil beds, and volcanic past 

of these islands make them an ideal place to learn how 

to explore other worlds for signs of life. The Advanced 

Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer 

(ASTER) on NASA’s Terra satellite captured this false-color 

image of the region in June 2001.
127

Science

Worldwide

Balloons

Large unmanned helium balloons provide NASA with an inexpensive 

means to place scientific and technology payloads into a near-space 

environment at a fraction of the cost of a satellite mission. In addition, 

balloon missions can be prepared for flight in as little as 6 months. 

The unique capabilities of this program are crucial for the development 

of new technologies and payloads for NASA’s space flight missions. 

Many important scientific observations in fields such as hard x-ray, 

gamma-ray, and infrared astronomy; cosmic rays; atmospheric studies; 

and others have been made from balloons.

Balloons play a major role in the education and training of young 

scientists and engineers. It is possible for undergraduate and graduate 

students to design and conduct a balloon science mission within the 

average time of a graduate degree program. Many of the principal 

investigators and engineers leading NASA’s space missions got their 

start in the balloon program.

NASA currently flies conventional and long-duration balloon missions. 

Typically, a conventional balloon flight will last from 6 to 36 hours, 

while a long-duration flight can last up to several weeks. In 2009, 

NASA successfully launched and demonstrated a newly designed 

super-pressure balloon that is capable of flying at constant altitude for 

mission durations up to 100 days at any geographic latitude. 

Balloon launches occur from permanent launch sites in Palestine, 

Texas, and Fort Sumner, New Mexico. NASA also uses sites in Sweden, 

Australia, and Antarctica. Presently, NASA has a treaty with the 

government of Australia for a balloon launch site in Alice Springs, 

Australia, and has concluded agreements for launches from Sweden’s 

ballooning facility in Esrange, Sweden. The scientific balloon payloads 

that NASA launches are built by and gather scientific data for use by 

teams that include members from universities around the globe. 

The NASA Balloon Program Office is located at the Goddard Space 

Flight Center (GSFC) Wallops Flight Facility (WFF). 

For more information on NASA’s Balloon Program, please visit http://

www.nasa.gov/centers/wallops/home/organization.html.

A NASA high-altitude, long-duration balloon carrying the 

Balloon-borne Large Aperture Sub-millimeter Telescope 

(BLAST) prepares for launch at McMurdo Station in 

Antarctica. By providing sensitive, large-area, sub-millimeter surveys, BLAST helps address important questions 

regarding the formation and evolution of stars, galaxies, 

and clusters. (Credit: BLAST)

Scientists race through the Antarctic snow to launch 1 of 

20 balloons as part of NASA’s Balloon Array for Radiation 

belt Relativistic Electron Losses (BARREL) mission. Each 

balloon is equipped with instruments to help track how 

electrons from giant radiation belts surrounding Earth 

travel down magnetic field lines toward the poles. BARREL 

works in conjunction with NASA’s Van Allen Probes.
128

Education and Outreach

Worldwide

Education

Students and educators from around the world partake in NASA 

education programs and take advantage of NASA education resources 

to enrich their understanding of science, technology, engineering, and 

mathematics (STEM) subject matter. NASA utilizes unique assets like 

the International Space Station (ISS) to inspire the next generation 

of scientists and explorers with such programs as the Amateur Radio 

on the International Space Station, ISSLive!, and Earth Knowledge 

Acquired by Middle School Students (EarthKAM). Students exercise in 

the footsteps of space’s elite explorers through NASA’s Mission X: Train 

Like an Astronaut program, which encourages students to develop 

good health and fitness habits, while at the same time teaching students 

important STEM concepts.

NASA maximizes technology to reach as broad an audience as possible. 

One such example is NASA’s Digital Learning Network (DLN), which 

links classrooms from around the world in virtual classes with subject 

matter experts who teach a variety of STEM topics. 

Carefully crafted design competitions challenge students to solve 

engineering problems while working together to excel as a team. 

Annual events like the Lunabotics Mining Competition and the Great 

Moonbuggy Race bring students from around the world to challenge 

and showcase their ingenuity. 

NASA recognizes the importance of international collaboration in 

education and actively participates in a number of international forums. 

NASA is a founding member of the International Space Education 

Board, an active member of the International Astronautical Federation’s 

Space Education and Outreach Committee, a strong supporter of 

the International Space University, and the lead on the ISS Program 

Science Forum’s Working Group on Education. Through internships, 

NASA is able to provide a platform where U.S. students and students 

from around the world can work together to learn how collaboration 

can lead to innovative solutions.

NASA’s educational materials are readily available on the NASA Web 

site or via the Central Operation of Resources for Educators. 

A sample of NASA educational activities with international participation include: Amateur Radio on the International Space Station; Green 

Aviation University Engineering Contest; Digital Learning Network; 

EarthKAM; Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory (GRAIL) 

Moon Knowledge Acquired by Middle School Students (MoonKAM); 

Great Moonbuggy Race; NASA Aeronautics High School Contest; 

International Observe the Moon Night; ISSLive!; Lunabotics Mining 

Competition; Mission X: Train Like an Astronaut; Museum Alliance; 

Spaceward Bound; and Zooniverse.

For more information on NASA’s education program, please visit http://

www.nasa.gov/education.

Teams compete in the annual Great Moonbuggy Race.

With students and Leland Melvin (NASA astronaut and 

NASA Associate Administrator for Education) looking on, 

musical artist will.i.am posts a tweet shortly after his song 

“Reach for the Stars” was beamed back from the Curiosity 

Mars rover and broadcast to a live audience at NASA’s 

Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California. (Credit: 

NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory–Caltech)
129

Education and Outreach

Worldwide

Exhibits

NASA, on a limited basis due to cost and other constraints, provides 

and supports NASA- and space-themed exhibits around the world. 

These exhibits, which typically attract great interest, help educate 

and inform audiences of NASA’s programs, missions, and discoveries. 

Because it receives many more requests for exhibits than it can accommodate, NASA carefully evaluates each exhibit request and considers 

how NASA’s participation in the particular event could contribute to the 

Agency’s mission. NASA often coordinates with the U.S. Department 

of State to evaluate requests and identify broader U.S. Government 

interests that could be advanced through NASA’s provision of an 

exhibit. In some cases, NASA proactively offers to provide an exhibit 

and/or conduct outreach activities if doing so furthers the interests of 

NASA and the United States.

There are a number of ways NASA can support an event, depending 

upon the nature of the event and the venue. These options include: the 

use of publicly available NASA media, including photographs, images, 

pop-up displays, science data, and audio and video recordings; the loan 

of a moon rock, special artifact, or model; and/or on-site appearances 

and assistance by NASA personnel. Standard procedures require that 

the production, shipping, insurance, security measures, and other 

exhibit-related overhead and logistics meet NASA standards and are 

funded by the exhibit sponsors. 

Some private companies can provide space-themed exhibits. A 

family-owned company in Finland, called John Nurminen Events, has 

developed what is considered to be the world’s largest touring space 

exhibition, entitled NASA: A Human Adventure. This exhibition, 

which is geared toward international audiences, is focused on the 

history and value of space exploration. It covers over 2,000 square 

meters and displays over 250 original objects and replicas. Included 

in the collection are space capsules, rocket engines, astronaut suits, 

space telescopes, and satellites. NASA entered into an international 

agreement with John Nurminen Events in 2010 to facilitate NASA 

participation in the exhibition. The exhibition premiered in Stockholm, 

Sweden, in January 2011; traveled next to Madrid, Spain, in December 

2011; and then opened in Istanbul, Turkey, in September 2012. The 

exhibition will travel to several more cities in the coming years. 

For more information on NASA exhibits, please visit http://www.nasa.

gov/about/exhibits/index.html, http://www.ahumanadventure.com/, and 

http://www.nasa.gov/about/exhibits/indexFeature-RequestExhibit.html. 

NASA’s exhibit at the United Nations in Vienna, Austria, during 

its celebration of 50 years of peaceful space exploration.

A look inside the NASA: A Human Adventure exhibition by 

John Nurminen Events.
130

Science

Worldwide 

FEWS-NET

Famine Early Warning System Network

The Famine Early Warning System Network (FEWS-NET), operated 

by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), collaborates with international, 

regional, and national partners to provide timely and rigorous early 

warning and vulnerability information on emerging and evolving food 

security issues. FEWS-NET professionals in Africa, Central America, 

Haiti, Afghanistan, and the United States monitor and analyze relevant 

data and information in terms of their impact on livelihoods and 

markets to identify potential threats to food security. 

Once these issues are identified, FEWS-NET uses a suite of communications and decision support products to help decision makers act to 

mitigate food insecurity. These products include monthly food security 

updates for 25 countries, regular food security outlooks and alerts, and 

briefings and support for contingency- and response-planning efforts. 

FEWS-NET also focuses its efforts on developing capacity, building 

and strengthening networks, developing useful policy information, and 

building consensus around food-security problems and solutions. 

NASA satellites and instruments (such as Terra, Aqua, the Tropical 

Rainfall Measuring Mission, and the Moderate Resolution Imaging 

Spectroradiometer [MODIS]), as well as other products (such as 

the NASA Land Atmosphere Near-real-time Capability for Earth 

Observing System [EOS] [LANCE]), support these efforts by providing continuously updated imagery of affected areas. MODIS Land 

Surface Temperature data are used to calculate actual evapotranspiration values over the entire African continent. 

Products from this system were used to help support the formal 

declaration of famine in Somalia by the United Nations and the U.S. 

Agency for International Development (USAID) in July 2011.

For more information on FEWS-NET, please visit http://www.fews.net/

Pages/default.aspx.

A 2008 MODIS image of winter snowpack (right) 

shows that the snowpack was significantly lighter than 

in 2007 (left) because of the prevailing dry weather 

pattern across Afghanistan. (Credit: NASA/MODIS, U.S. 

Department of Agriculture)

This September 2002 Normalized Difference Vegetation 

Index (NDVI) image depicts vegetation density across 

Africa. Areas where vegetation density is less than the 

20-year average are colored brown, while above-average 

density is colored green. Such images are used to 

track drought conditions that may threaten subsistence 

agriculture, which is the primary food source for 

populations around the world. (Credit: NASA/MODIS)
131

Human Exploration and Operations

Worldwide 

GES

Global Exploration Strategy 

In early 2006, NASA initiated a dialogue with representatives of 13 

science and space agencies from around the world with the goal of 

coordinating a global strategy for exploration. Following a year of 

focused discussions, NASA—along with organizations representing 

Australia, Canada, China, the European Space Agency (ESA), France, 

Germany, Great Britain, India, Italy, Japan, Russia, the Republic of 

Korea, and Ukraine—released “The Global Exploration Strategy: The 

Framework for Coordination.” This framework document, which is the 

product of a shared vision of space exploration focused on solar system 

destinations where humans may someday live and work, represented an 

important first step in coordinating space exploration efforts toward 

common goals. 

The authors of the framework document recognized the need for a 

voluntary, nonbinding mechanism by which space agencies could 

exchange information on their respective space exploration plans. 

In 2007, the participating agencies established terms of reference for 

an International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG). 

The ISECG plays a key role in helping to identify gaps, overlaps, and 

synergies in the space exploration plans of participating agencies. 

Building on the Global Exploration Strategy’s vision to coordinate 

human and robotic exploration of our solar system, in 2011, the 

participating agencies of the ISECG developed and released the first 

iteration of the “ISECG Global Exploration Roadmap.” This document 

reflects the international effort to define feasible and sustainable 

exploration pathways to near-Earth asteroids, the Moon, and Mars, and 

creates a framework for greater international exploration discussions. 

The roadmap demonstrates the importance of the International Space 

Station as a first step and a bridge to the exploration of destinations 

beyond low-Earth orbit. The roadmap will be updated over time to 

reflect evolving global consensus on exploration destinations and 

priorities. The latest updated version illustrates planned and conceptual 

near-term missions that advance human and robotic exploration 

starting in the Earth-Moon system. It also takes into account innovative ideas and concepts from external stakeholders since the roadmap 

was first issued in September 2011.

The release of the framework document, the subsequent establishment 

of the exploration coordination group, and the release of the first 

Global Exploration Roadmap represent important steps in an evolving 

process toward a comprehensive global approach to space exploration. 

Although this multilateral effort is nonbinding, the process is consistent with ongoing bilateral and multilateral discussions that NASA 

hopes will lead to cooperative agreements for specific projects. 

For more information on the ISECG, the Global Exploration 

Roadmap, or the Global Exploration Strategy, please visit http://www.

globalspaceexploration.org/home.

In 2007, 14 science and space agencies from around 

the world released “The Global Exploration Strategy: The 

Framework for Coordination.”
132

Science

Worldwide

GLOBE

Global Learning and Observations to Benefit 

the Environment

The Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the Environment 

(GLOBE) program is an international program that was initiated on 

Earth Day in 1995 as a hands-on, primary- and secondary-school-based 

science and education program that unities students, teachers, 

scientists, and community members around the world in studying and 

conducting research about Earth’s environment, connecting the local 

perspective to the vantage from space. Bilateral agreements establish 

partnerships between the United States and international partner 

nations. International partners sponsor GLOBE activities in their 

countries, designing and funding their own implementation strategies 

to be compatible with their national and regional educational priorities. 

NASA leads the GLOBE program in close partnership with the U.S. 

National Science Foundation and the U.S. National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), with support from the U.S. 

Department of State. 

There are 109 participating countries in the GLOBE program. Since 

its inception in 1995, over 1.5 million students in more than 24,000 

schools have participated in the program. GLOBE students take 

important environmental measurements focusing on atmosphere and 

climate, hydrology, soils, land cover biology, and phenology. GLOBE 

students have entered over 23 million environmental measurements 

into the international database on the GLOBE Web site. This data 

is freely available for use by students and scientists worldwide. By 

involving students in scientific data collection and research, including 

taking measurements, analyzing data, and participating in research 

collaborations with other students, GLOBE provides students with a 

full and practical understanding of the scientific process. 

The following 109 countries participate in the GLOBE program: 

Argentina, Austria, Bahamas, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belgium, Benin, 

Bolivia, Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Canada, Cape Verde, 

Chad, Chile, Colombia, Congo, Costa Rica, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech 

Republic, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Egypt, El 

Salvador, Estonia, Ethiopia, Fiji, Finland, France, Gabon, Gambia, 

Ghana, Greece, Guatemala, Guinea, Honduras, Hungary, Iceland, 

India, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Kuwait, 

Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lebanon, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, 

Macedonia, Madagascar, Maldives, Mali, Malta, Marshall Islands, 

Mauritania, Mexico, Micronesia, Moldova, Monaco, Mongolia, 

Montenegro, Morocco, Namibia, Nepal, Netherlands, New Zealand, 

Niger, Nigeria, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Palau, Panama, Paraguay, 

Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Romania, Russia, Rwanda, 

Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Serbia, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Sri 

Lanka, Suriname, Switzerland, Tanzania, Thailand, Trinidad and 

Tobago, Tunisia, Turkey, Uganda, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, the 

United Kingdom, the United States, and Uruguay.

For more information on GLOBE, please visit http://www.globe.gov/.

GLOBE students in Benin log data from a rain gauge. 

(Credit: GLOBE)

GLOBE students in their classroom in Nepal, India. 

(Credit: GLOBE)
133

Human Exploration and Operations

Worldwide

International Astronauts

NASA works with numerous international space agencies, including the 

Canadian Space Agency (CSA), the European Space Agency (ESA), the 

Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), and the Russian Federal 

Space Agency (Roscosmos), to assemble international astronaut crews. 

During the 135 Space Shuttle missions, 63 international astronauts 

and cosmonauts from 15 different countries flew on the Space Shuttle 

89 times. Since November 2000, International Space Station (ISS) 

Expedition crews have continuously inhabited the ISS. Astronauts, 

cosmonauts, and non-astronaut space flight participants from 15 

different countries (including the United States) have visited the ISS. 

The Multilateral Crew Operations Panel (MCOP)—consisting of representatives from ESA, JAXA, CSA, Roscosmos, and NASA—defines 

the processes, standards, and criteria for selection, assignment, training, 

and certification of an ISS crew for flight. The MCOP typically assigns 

ISS Expedition mission crews 21⁄2 years prior to their mission. 

Each ISS Expedition crew consists of dedicated astronauts and 

cosmonauts who train together to prepare for their missions. The ISS 

Expedition crew’s training regimen takes crewmembers around the 

world as they travel to training facilities at each ISS partner agency 

to prepare for the wide variety of tasks that they will need to perform 

while on orbit. Crewmembers receive training in a wide variety of 

areas, including extra-vehicular activity (EVA), robotics, ISS systems, 

payloads, Soyuz spacecraft, leadership and human behavior, survival 

skills, and foreign languages. Crewmembers also complete more 

in-depth, specialized training for the particular role that he or she has 

been assigned to fill during the mission. 

For more information on astronauts, please visit http://www.nasa.gov/

astronauts/ and http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/index.html.

The six-person Expedition 20 crew poses in “star-burst” 

formation for an in-flight portrait in the Harmony node of 

the International Space Station. Pictured clockwise from 

right (center) are: Russian cosmonaut Gennady Padalka, 

Canadian astronaut Robert Thirsk, Japanese astronaut 

Koichi Wakata, U.S. astronaut Michael Barratt, Russian 

cosmonaut Roman Romanenko, and ESA astronaut Frank 

De Winne. 
134

Science

Worldwide 

ISWI

International Space Weather Initiative 

The International Space Weather Initiative (ISWI) is a program of 

international cooperation to advance space weather science through 

the establishment of a distributed network of globally deployed science 

instruments that are used to collect space weather data for analysis and 

interpretation. ISWI was initiated as a follow up to the International 

Heliophysical Year of 2007, with a focus strictly on space weather. The 

goal of ISWI is to develop the scientific insight necessary to understand 

space weather science and to reconstruct and forecast near-Earth space 

weather. This includes instrumentation, data analysis, modeling, 

education, training, and public outreach.

ISWI seeks to establish and coordinate space weather monitoring 

stations across the globe to fill in gaps of observations of the near-Earth 

environment and of Earth’s atmosphere, and also to encourage heliophysics research and education in developing nations. In conjunction 

with the United Nations, ISWI has installed and coordinated nearly 

1,000 instruments located in 100 countries around the world. 

The global network of these instruments provides scientists with 

constant viewing of both the Sun and the ionosphere, which has 

helped to spark the writing of numerous scientific papers and inspired 

the establishment of new graduate school programs across the world. 

This growth in space research and graduate programs has helped to 

increase the number of space scientists around the world and fostered 

international partnerships, which was the main motivation for the 

United Nations’ involvement with ISWI. 

Recent monitoring of the ionosphere by scientists in Algeria, Libya, and 

other countries in the ISWI network revealed that the ionosphere over 

that region is unusually active even in otherwise quiet times, leading 

to increased interruption of radio communications. This information 

could only have been determined by observing numerous communication signals traveling different paths through the same disturbance. 

For more information on ISWI, please visit http://iswi-secretariat.org/.

Technological infrastructure affected by space weather 

events includes satellites, aircraft, and power grids. A 

web of interdependencies makes the modern economy 

especially sensitive to solar storms. This is why advancing 

our understanding of the causes of space weather and 

improving its forecasting are critical goals.
135

Human Exploration and Operations

Worldwide

International Space Station Utilization: Science and 

Technology Research and Development

The International Space Station (ISS) is the only multinational spacebased research and technology test bed, and it provides an unparalleled 

capability for research that cannot be pursued on Earth. The three 

major science laboratories aboard the ISS—the U.S. Destiny, European 

Columbus, and Japanese Kibo facilities—as well as external test beds 

and observatory sites enable astronauts to conduct a wide variety of 

experiments in the unique microgravity and ultra-vacuum environment 

of low-Earth orbit. 

NASA is carrying out a number of science and technology research and 

development activities on the ISS in collaboration with agencies from 

around the world. Two examples of such collaboration include:

Capillary Channel Flow Experiment—Germany

Capillary Channel Flow (CCF) is a versatile experiment for studying a 

variety of inertial-capillary-dominated flows that are key to spacecraft 

systems and that cannot be studied on the ground. The results of CCF 

help innovate existing applications, and inspire new ones, in the field 

of the aerospace community that faces the challenge of containment, 

storage, and handling of large liquid inventories (e.g., fuels, cryogens, 

and water) aboard spacecraft. The results will be immediately useful for 

the design, testing, and instrumentation needed to verify and validate 

the liquid management systems of current orbiting, design-stage, and 

advanced spacecraft that are envisioned for future lunar and Mars 

missions. The results will also be used to improve life-support-system 

design and phase separation and to enhance current system reliability.

For more information on CCF, please visit http://issresearchproject.grc.

nasa.gov/MSG/CCF/.

Bisphosphonates Study—Japan

One of the most significant medical concerns for long-duration human 

space flight is the potential for bone mass loss. Astronauts can experience regional losses of 1 to 2 percent per month while in space. The 

Bisphosphonates Study tests the effectiveness of bisphosphonates—a 

group of antiresorptive agents that block the breakdown of bone and 

are used to treat osteoporosis and other disorders related to bone 

turnover—as a countermeasure to space-flight-induced bone loss. If 

shown to be effective, bisphosphonates or other antiresorptive agents 

could help prevent several bone-related problems for crewmembers on 

the ISS and on future long-duration missions. These problems include 

loss of bone mineral mass and the possibility of developing renal stones 

during or after space flight.

For more information on the Bisphosphonates Study, please visit http://

www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/Bisphosphonates.

html.

Astronaut Sunita Williams, International Space Station 

Expedition 15’s flight engineer, performs one of the 

multiple tests of the Capillary Flow Experiment (CFE) 

investigation in the Destiny Laboratory of the ISS.
136

Science

Worldwide

SERVIR

SERVIR is a joint program between NASA and the U.S. Agency for 

International Development (USAID) that provides satellite-based Earth 

observation data and science applications to help developing nations 

in Central America, East Africa, and the Himalayas improve their 

environmental decision making. 

SERVIR, which means “to serve” in Spanish, uses images and 

data from Earth-observing satellites and a new camera system 

on the International Space Station (ISS) called the ISS SERVIR 

Environmental Research and Visualization (ISERV) system to provide 

critical information about wildfires, floods, landslides, air quality, 

extreme weather, biodiversity, and changes in land cover. This information helps countries to assess environmental threats and respond to 

damage from natural disasters. In a very real sense, SERVIR provides 

basic information for living on Earth.

SERVIR began in 2004 as a collaborative effort among NASA, 

USAID, the World Bank, and the Central American Commission for 

Environment and Development (CCAD). The program, managed at 

NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) in Huntsville, Alabama, 

opened its first “hub” in Panama in 2005 to serve Central America and 

the Dominican Republic in cooperation with the Water Center for the 

Humid Tropics of Latin America and the Caribbean (CATHALAC). 

Additional hubs were opened in 2008 in Nairobi, Kenya, serving 

all of East Africa, and in 2010 in Kathmandu, Nepal, serving the 

Kush-Himalaya region. These hubs are partnerships with the Regional 

Center for Mapping of Resources for Development in Nairobi and 

the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development in 

Kathmandu, respectively. Additional hubs are under consideration for 

other developing regions of the world.

The SERVIR hubs consist of teams of scientific experts who translate 

satellite data into useful information for governments and nongovernmental organizations in the host nations. SERVIR’s objective is 

to make each hub an integral, self-sustaining part of the national and 

regional information infrastructure. The SERVIR Coordination Office 

at the Marshall Space Flight Center provides scientific expertise and 

technologies to help the hubs advance their knowledge and capabilities. 

USAID’s expertise in international development, training, and capacity-building helps bring NASA expertise and assets to bear on real-world 

problems by, as they say at SERVIR, “connecting space to village.”

For more information on SERVIR, please visit https://servirglobal.net/

Global/About.aspx.

Dan Irwin, SERVIR Program Director, NASA Marshall Space 

Flight Center (fifth from right), and Nancy Searby, NASA 

Applied Sciences Capacity Building Program Manager 

(fourth from right), stand with SERVIR team members 

from the Nairobi, Kenya, hub as they display Malawi 

and Rwanda land cover maps developed in a SERVIR 

Greenhouse Gas Inventories project. Pictured from left to 

right are: Hilda Manzi, Stephen Karanu, Fred Ogor Mokua, 

Andre Kooiman, Dan Irwin, Nancy Searby, Viola Kirui, 

Ababu Jaffer, and Phoebe Oduor. (Credit: SERVIR)

Canadian astronaut Chris Hadfield with the ISERV camera 

in Destiny Module’s Earth-facing window, shortly after 

ISERV was delivered to the ISS.
137

Science

Worldwide

Sounding Rockets

The NASA Sounding Rocket Program (NSRP) is a suborbital space 

flight program that supports NASA-sponsored science research 

activities, other U.S. agencies, and international sounding rocket 

groups and scientists. The approximately 20 suborbital missions flown 

annually by NSRP provide researchers with unparalleled opportunities 

to build, test, and fly new instrument and sensor design concepts 

while simultaneously conducting world-class scientific research. The 

short mission life cycle of sounding rockets, coupled with a hands-on 

approach to instrument design, integration, and flight, helps ensure 

that the next generation of space scientists receive the training and 

experience necessary to move on to NASA’s larger, more complex space 

science missions. The cost structure and risk posture under which the 

program is managed stimulates innovation and technology maturation 

and enables rapid response to scientific events. 

With the capability to fly higher than many low-Earth orbiting 

satellites and the ability to launch on demand, sounding rockets offer, 

in many instances, the only means to study specific scientific phenomena of interest to many researchers. Unlike the instruments on board 

most orbital spacecraft or in ground-based observatories, sounding 

rockets can place instruments directly into regions where and when the 

phenomena is occurring to enable direct, in situ measurements. The 

mobile nature of the program enables researchers to conduct missions 

from strategic vantage points worldwide. Telescopes and spectrometers 

to study solar and astrophysics are flown on sounding rockets to 

collect unique science data and to test prototype instruments for future 

satellite missions. An important aspect of most satellite missions is the 

calibration of space-based sensors. Sounding rockets offer calibration 

and validation flights for many space missions, particularly solar 

observatories such as NASA’s Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO).

NASA’s Wallops Flight Facility (WFF), located on Virginia’s eastern 

shore, is the only facility in the United States that designs, manufactures, fabricates, integrates, tests, and launches sounding rockets for 

scientific research. In addition to launching sounding rockets from 

WFF, NASA’s Sounding Rocket Program launches these rockets from 

a variety of sites throughout the world, including Australia, Brazil, 

Canada, Greenland, Kenya, Norway, the Marshall Islands, and Peru. 

For more information on NASA’s Sounding Rocket Program, please 

visit http://sites.wff.nasa.gov/code810/.

NASA successfully tested a Talos Terrier Oriole Sounding 

Rocket in September 2012 from the Agency’s launch range 

at the Wallops Flight Facility in Virginia. It was the first 

flight of the 65-foot-tall Talos Terrier Oriole, which is being 

developed to support high-altitude space science research.

One of two Charge and Mass of Meteoric Smoke Particles 

(CHAMPS) sounding rockets that were launched in October 

2011 from the Andoya Rocket Range in northern Norway. 

CHAMPS instruments provided the first measurements 

of both the number density and size of meteoric dust 

particles, which are the seeds for the bright “noctilucent” 

clouds that appear over the poles at night.
138

Science

Worldwide

Space Geodesy

Space geodesy is the science of accurately measuring and understanding 

Earth’s geometric shape, its orientation in space, and its gravity field. 

Geodetic observing systems and the global geodetic infrastructure 

underlie navigation systems and support a wide array of military, 

research, civil, and commercial applications.

The global space geodetic infrastructure consists of a network that 

combines four techniques—Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR), Very Long 

Baseline Interferometry (VLBI), the Global Positioning System (GPS), 

and the Doppler Orbitography and Radiopositioning Integrated by 

Satellite (DORIS) system—to define the terrestrial and celestial 

reference frames and Earth’s orientation in space. Among the many 

important applications are the study of ocean circulation, sea level 

change, changes in Earth’s ice caps, deformation leading to earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides. The space geodetic network 

also enables precision deep-space, air, and land navigation used in most 

scientific and commercial applications.

NASA cooperates with over 30 countries in space geodesy research in 

support of the Global Geodetic Observing System (GGOS). NASA 

also supports the International GPS Service (IGS), the International 

VLBI Service (IVS), and the International Laser Ranging Service 

(ILRS). These three organizations place geodetic network operations, 

analysis, and standards within an international framework of cooperation and collaboration under the aegis of the International Association 

of Geodesy. 

As part of the cooperation, NASA often loans equipment to host 

countries for use in space geodetic ground stations. The host countries, 

in turn, provide utilities, security, housing, operation, and maintenance 

of the equipment. These ground stations provide critical geodetic 

reference points within the host country. The inclusion of the stations 

within the global geodetic infrastructure significantly improves the 

accuracy of measurements at all scales.

All preprocessed and analyzed NASA space geodetic data are available 

from the Crustal Dynamics Data Information System (CDDIS) at 

Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC). The CDDIS also is a major data 

archive for the GGOS. 

For more information on the space geodetic network, please visit http://

space-geodesy.nasa.gov/ and http://science.gsfc.nasa.gov/solarsystem/sgp/.

NASA’s Next-Generation Satellite Laser Ranging (NGSLR) 

system, located at the Goddard Geophysical and 

Astronomical Observatory in Greenbelt, Maryland, is shown 

ranging to the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter orbiting the 

Moon. This process provides the information needed to 

model the onboard clock drift and allows high-precision 

orbit determination.

This 12-meter antenna is part of the next-generation 

geodetic Very Long Baseline Interferometry system 

at NASA’s Goddard Geophysical and Astronomical 

Observatory in Greenbelt, Maryland. Essential new features 

include the fast antenna, broadband receiver, and high-rate 

recording at four settable bands.
139

MULTILATERAL REPRESENTATION AND COORDINATION

NASA is an active member of the international space, science, aeronautics, education, 

technology, and exploration communities. Through its participation in numerous international 

and multilateral committees, boards, and other groups, NASA’s global reach extends beyond 

its specific missions and cooperative activities. NASA’s active engagement in these groups 

helps it advance many important programmatic and policy priorities, such as sharing and 

coordinating the Agency’s future plans, strategies, and science research priorities and initiatives; exchanging information and ideas on education and outreach initiatives; staying current 

on the latest cutting-edge science and technology developments in aeronautics and space; 

coordinating key Earth-science observations and activities; collaborating on the next steps 

in space exploration; and sharing and coordinating many other important areas of research, 

operations, education, and technology. Participation in these groups provides NASA with an 

opportunity to meet and discuss program and policy priorities not only with its longstanding 

and traditional partners but also with newer and potential nontraditional international partners. 

The following pages contain a small sample of the international and multilateral groups in 

which NASA participates.
140

Multilateral Representation and Coordination 

Committee on Earth Observation Satellites 

(CEOS): Established in 1984, the Committee on Earth 

Observation Satellites is the focal point for international 

coordination of space-borne Earth observation activities. 

CEOS currently focuses on key areas of climate, 

deforestation and forest carbon, agriculture and food 

security, disasters, water, and oceans to optimize societal 

benefits through the cooperation of members in mission 

planning and in the development of compatible data 

products, formats, services, applications, and policies. 

CEOS is the space component of the Global Earth 

Observation System of Systems (GEOSS), which facilitates coordinated, comprehensive, and sustained Earth 

observations and information that will inform decisions 

and actions for sustainable development, societal benefit, 

and an improved understanding of the Earth system. 

CEOS works closely with U.N. agencies in support of 

nine societal benefit areas and with other international 

organizations that complement its mission. For more 

information on CEOS, visit http://www.ceos.org/.

Committee on Space Research (COSPAR): Established 

in 1958 by the International Council of Scientific Unions, 

the Committee on Space Research provides the scientific 

community with a platform to promote scientific research 

in space on an international level, with particular emphasis 

on the exchange of results, information, and opinions. 

COSPAR also provides a forum, open to all scientists, 

for the discussion of problems that may affect scientific 

space research. These objectives are achieved through the 

organization of scientific assemblies, publications, and 

other means. For more information on COSPAR, visit 

http://cosparhq.cnes.fr/about.

Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems 

(CCSDS): Founded in 1982 by the major space agencies 

of the world, the Consultative Committee for Space Data 

Systems is a multinational forum for the development 

of communications and data-system standards for space 

flight. The CCSDS develops recommendations for 

data- and information-systems standards to promote 

interoperability and cross-support among cooperating 

space agencies and to enable multiagency space flight 

collaboration (both planned and contingency) and new 

capabilities for future missions. CCSDS standardization 

reduces the cost burden of space flight missions by 

allowing cost-sharing between agencies and cost-effective 

commercialization. For more information on CCSDS, 

visit http://public.ccsds.org/default.aspx.

Global Geodetic Observing System (GGOS):

Established in 2003 as the observing system of the 

International Association of Geodesy (IAG), the Global 

Geodetic Observing System provides consistent observations of the spatial and temporal changes of the shape 

and gravitational field of Earth, as well as the temporal 

variations of Earth’s rotation. GGOS represents IAG in 

the Group on Earth Observation (GEO) and is IAG's 

contribution to the Global Earth Observation System of 

Systems (GEOSS). For more information on GGOS, visit 

http://www.iag-ggos.org/.

Group on Earth Observations (GEO): Established 

following the 2002 U.N. World Summit on Sustainable 

Development, the Group on Earth Observations is a 

voluntary partnership of governments and international 

organizations that aims to build a Global Earth 

Observation System of Systems (GEOSS). The goal is to 

facilitate the coordination of future decisions and actions 

using comprehensive and sustained Earth observations 

and information in support of nine societal benefit areas: 

agriculture, biodiversity, climate, disasters, ecosystems, 

energy, health, water, and weather. GEO aims to improve 

interoperability, information-sharing, and the delivery 

of information to users. For more information on GEO, 

visit http://www.earthobservations.org/index.shtml.

Interagency Operations Advisory Group (IOAG):

Created in 1999, the IOAG provides a forum to identify 

common needs across multiple international agencies for 

coordinating space communications policy, high-level 

procedures, technical interfaces, and other matters 

related to interoperability and space communications. 

The IOAG was established by the Inter-Operability 

Plenary, which was convened by six space agencies to 

encourage interagency interoperability for cross-support, 

in an effort to realize the additional economies resulting 

from an ability to share the large capital investments 

made by each agency in mission-support systems. For 

more information on IOAG, visit https://www.ioag.org/.

Interagency Space Debris Coordination Committee 

(IADC): Founded in 1993, the Interagency Space Debris 

Coordination Committee is an international forum for 

coordinating activities related to the issues of artificial 

and natural debris in space through the exchange of 

information on space debris research activities, the 

facilitation of opportunities for cooperation in space 

debris research, and the identification of debris mitigation options. For more information on IADC, visit http://

www.iadc-online.org/index.cgi.

International Astronautical Federation (IAF): Created 

in 1951 to foster the dialogue between scientists around 

the world and to support international cooperation in all 

space-related activities, the International Astronautical 

Federation is a worldwide federation of organizations 

active in space that is responsible for the premier global 
141

Multilateral Representation and Coordination 

space conference, the International Astronautical Congress 

(IAC). The IAF actively encourages the development of 

astronautics for peaceful purposes and supports the dissemination of scientific and technical information related 

to space. In so doing, it advances knowledge about space, 

fostering the development and application of space assets 

by advancing global cooperation. For more information on 

the IAF, visit http://www.iafastro.com/.

International Charter on Space and Major Disasters:

Since becoming operational in 2000, the International 

Charter on Space and Major Disasters has provided a 

unified system of space data-acquisition and -delivery 

to those affected by natural or human-caused disasters 

through authorized users. Each member agency has 

committed resources to support the provisions of the 

Charter and thus is helping to mitigate the effects 

of disasters on human life and property. In order 

to strengthen the Charter’s contribution to disaster 

management worldwide, member agencies have adopted 

the principle of universal access to enable non-Charter 

member countries to submit requests to the Charter 

for emergency response. For more information on the 

International Charter on Space and Major Disasters, visit 

http://www.disasterscharter.org/web/charter/home.

International Committee on GNSS (ICG): Created 

by the United Nations in 2005, the International 

Committee on Global Navigation Satellite Systems 

(GNSS) promotes the use of GNSS infrastructure on a 

global basis and facilitates the exchange of information. 

The ICG promotes cooperation on civil satellite-based 

positioning, navigation, timing, and value-added services, as well as compatibility and interoperability among 

the GNSS systems, while increasing their use to support 

sustainable development, particularly in the developing 

countries. The ICG information portal is hosted by the 

U.N. Office for Outer Space Affairs as a portal for users 

of GNSS services. For more information on ICG, visit 

http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/SAP/gnss/icg.html.

International Forum for Aviation Research (IFAR):

Established in 2011, the International Forum for Aviation 

Research is a global forum for information exchange 

and networking by government organizations that are 

involved in aeronautics-related research. IFAR is open 

to national aviation research organizations, including 

universities active in aviation research. IFAR aims to 

connect the worldwide aviation research community, 

serve as a venue for information exchange and communication, develop a shared understanding of key challenges 

faced by the global aviation research community, publish 

and disseminate information, and identify and evaluate 

options for new opportunities to cooperate and apply 

the results of aviation research. For more information on 

IFAR, visit http://www.ifar.aero/.

International Living With a Star (ILWS): Established in 

2002, the International Living With a Star program strives 

to stimulate, strengthen, and coordinate space research to 

understand the governing processes of the Earth-Sun system as an integrated entity. ILWS encourages the study of 

the Earth-Sun connected system and its effects on life and 

society, coordinates collaboration in solar-terrestrial studies 

and space missions, and provides effective and user-driven 

access to all data and results from those missions. For more 

information on ILWS, visit http://ilwsonline.org/.

International Mars Exploration Working Group 

(IMEWG): Established in 1993, the International 

Mars Exploration Working Group is comprised of 

representatives from space agencies and major institutions 

around the world that participate in Mars exploration. 

Its charter has three aims: to formulate an international 

strategy for the exploration of Mars, to provide a forum 

for the coordination of Mars exploration missions, and 

to examine the possibilities for the next steps beyond 

currently defined missions. For more information on 

IMEWG, visit http://www.bis.gov.uk/ukspaceagency/whatwe-do/exploring-the-universe/missions-and-programmes/

aurora-space-exploration/global-exploration-strategy/imewg.

International Ocean-Colour Coordinating Group 

(IOCCG):

Established by the Committee on Earth Observation 

Satellites (CEOS) in 1996, the International OceanColour Coordinating Group develops international 

consensus and synthesis in the subject area of satellite 

ocean-color radiometry. An international committee of 

experts heads the group, which is comprised of representatives from national space agencies as well the broader 

scientific community. The IOCCG fosters expertise in the 

use of ocean-color data, promotes data-collecting strategies 

to fill existing time and space, and facilitates the merging 

of and access to ocean-color data. For more information 

on IOCCG, visit http://www.ioccg.org/.

International Space Education Board (ISEB):

Established in 2005 under the leadership of the education 

offices of the founding members—the Canadian Space 

Agency (CSA), European Space Agency (ESA), Japan 

Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), and NASA—the 

International Space Education Board has signaled a new 

era of collaboration in space education. ISEB’s mandate is 

to increase science, technology, engineering, and mathematics literacy achievement in connection with space and 

to support the future workforce needs of space programs. 

To that end, ISEB members discuss global issues of 
142

Multilateral Representation and Coordination 

importance to each member’s outreach and education 

programs and implements joint education initiatives. For 

more information on ISEB, visit http://www.nasa.gov/

offices/education/about/iseb-index.html.

International Space Exploration Coordination Group 

(ISECG): In 2006, 14 space agencies began a series of 

discussions on global interests in space exploration that 

culminated in an articulated vision of peaceful robotic and 

human space exploration called “The Global Exploration 

Strategy: The Framework for Coordination.” The release 

of this document in 2007 inspired the establishment of the 

International Space Exploration Coordination Group, a 

voluntary, nonbinding international coordination mechanism through which participating agencies exchange 

information regarding interests, objectives, and plans in 

space exploration. In 2011, the ISECG released the first 

iteration of “The Global Exploration Roadmap,” which 

advances the Global Exploration Strategy by articulating 

the perspectives of participating agencies on exploration 

goals and objectives, mission scenarios, and coordination 

of exploration preparatory activities. For more information 

on ISECG, visit http://www.globalspaceexploration.org/.

International Telecommunications Union (ITU): 

Founded in Paris in 1865 as the International Telegraph 

Union, the International Telecommunications Union took 

its present name in 1932, and in 1947 it became a specialized agency of the United Nations for information and 

communication technologies (ICTs). The ITU allocates 

the global radio spectrum and satellite orbits, develops the 

technical standards that ensure that networks and technologies seamlessly interconnect, and strives to improve access 

to ICTs to underserved communities worldwide. For more 

information on ITU, visit http://www.itu.int/en/Pages/

default.aspx.

U.N. Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space 

(COPUOS): Established as a permanent committee of the 

U.N. General Assembly in 1958, the Committee on the 

Peaceful Uses of Outer Space is charged with promoting 

the peaceful use of outer space through international 

cooperation, encouraging the use of information derived 

from space exploration and research to benefit humankind 

in general, and helping developing countries build capacity 

to use space-derived data to mitigate problems on Earth. 

Growing originally from 18 establishing members, 

COPUOS now has 71 members, making it one of the 

largest committees in the U.N. For more information 

on COPUOS, visit http://www.oosa.unvienna.org/oosa/

COPUOS/copuos.html.
143

Index by NASA Mission and Program Area

Aeronautics Research Page

Aircraft Icing Research ................................ 5, 13, 49

Airframe Noise and Environmental Noise Mitigation .............50

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) Research ................. 65

Flight Deck System Design ................................. 103

Multilateral Representation and Coordination .................. 139

Sonic Boom Research ......................................96

Education and Outreach

Angry Birds Space .........................................48

Education ..............................................128

Exhibits ................................................129

LEGO ..................................................26

Multilateral Representation and Coordination .................. 139

Human Exploration and Operations

Astrobiology and Analogs ..................................126

CALorimetric Electron Telescope (CALET) .....................88

Deep Space Network (DSN) .............................. 4, 112

DEvice for the study of Critical LIquids and Crystallization–

Directional Solidification Insert (DECLIC-DSI) ................. 52

Disruption Tolerant Networking (DTN) .......................89

Global Exploration Strategy (GES) ........................... 131

International Astronauts ................................... 133

International Space Station (ISS) .................... 15, 39, 94, 107

International Space Station Early Utilization ....................40

International Space Station Human Research Facility–

European Physiology Module (ISS HRF-EPM) .................. 41

International Space Station Utilization: Science and Technology

Research and Development ................................. 135

Ka-band Radio Frequency (RF) Propagation Monitoring Station. . . . 105

Multilateral Representation and Coordination .................. 139

Multi-Purpose Logistics Module (MPLM) ......................84

NASA Isbjørn Facility at SvalSat .............................106

Resource Prospector Mission (RPM) ........................... 19

Robotic Refueling Mission (RRM) ............................20

Science

Advanced Colloids Experiment (ACE) ........................100

Aerosol Robotic Network (AERONET) .......................124

Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS) ......................... 125

Aquarius/Scientific Application Satellite–D (Aquarius/SAC-D) .......2

Astro-H .................................................87
144

Index by NASA Mission and Program Area

Aura ............................................... 102, 118

Balloons ................................................127

BepiColombo ............................................79

Cassini-Huygens ..........................................29

Chandra X-ray Observatory .................................64

Cloud-Aerosol LIDAR and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite

Observations (CALIPSO) ................................... 51

CloudSat ................................................ 14

Cluster-II ................................................ 35

Dawn Asteroid Rendezvous Mission ........................66, 80 

Euclid ..................................................36

ExoMars ................................................37

Famine Early Warning System Network (FEWS-NET) ...........129

Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope ............... 53, 67, 81, 90, 114

Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the

Environment (GLOBE) .................................... 132

Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) ...................... 91

Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) Feasibility Study ......... 11

Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM)/Megha-Tropiques ........77

Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) .............68

Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment

Follow-On (GRACE-FO) ...................................69

Hayabusa/Hayabusa-2 ......................................92

Heliophysics and Space Physics .............................. 101

Herschel .................................................30

Hinode ............................................. 93, 119

Hubble Space Telescope (HST) ...............................38

Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS) ..................104

Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations,

Geodesy and Heat Transport (InSight) ......................54, 70

International Space Weather Initiative (ISWI) ..................134

Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) ........................ 116

James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) .......................16, 42

JUpiter ICy moons Explorer (JUICE) ..........................43

Juno ............................................... 8, 55, 82

Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA) Pathfinder ............44

Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) .........................108

Magnetospheric MultiScale (MMS) .................. 6, 56, 95, 115

Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN) Mission .......57

Mars Exploration Rovers (MER) ........................... 27, 71

Mars Express ............................................. 31

Mars Odyssey ........................................58, 109
145

Index by NASA Mission and Program Area

Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) ..........................83

Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) .................17, 59, 72, 110, 113

Mobile Tracking Station .................................... 10

Multilateral Representation and Coordination .................. 139

Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array (NuSTAR). . . . . . . . . . . . .28, 85

Ocean Surface Topography Mission (OSTM) ...................60

Oceansat-2 ...............................................78

Origins Spectral Interpretation Resource Identification Security–

Regolith Explorer (OSIRIS-REx) ............................. 18

Ozone Cooperation ........................................12

Planck ..................................................32

Rosetta .................................................. 45

Scientific Application Satellite–C (SAC-C) .......................3

SCISAT-1 ............................................... 21

SERVIR ................................................136

Soil Moisture Active Passive Mission (SMAP) ....................22

Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) ....................46

Solar Orbiter .............................................33

Solar Probe Plus (SPP) ................................. 9, 61, 73

Solar TErrestrial RElations Observatory (STEREO) ..............34

Sounding Rockets ........................................ 137

Space Environment Testbed–1 (SET-1) .....................62, 120

Space Geodesy ...........................................138

Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA) ......... 74

Surface Water Ocean Topography (SWOT) .....................63

Suzaku ..................................................97

Swift Gamma-ray Burst Explorer .........................86, 121

Terra ................................................23, 98

Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions during

Substorms (THEMIS) and Acceleration, Reconnection,

Turbulence and Electrodynamics of the Moon’s Interaction

with the Sun (ARTEMIS) .............................. 7, 24, 75

Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) ..................99

Two Wide-angle Imaging Neutral-atom Spectrometers (TWINS) .... 76

Van Allen Probes ..........................................25

Vector-Borne Disease Control Research ....................... 117

Wind .................................................. 111

X-ray Multi-Mirror-Newton (XMM-Newton) ...................47

147

List of Acronyms

A-Train Afternoon Constellation

ACE Advanced Colloids Experiment or 

Atmospheric Chemistry Experiment 

AEB Brazilian Space Agency

(Agência Espacial Brasileira)

AERONET Aerosol Robotic Network

AFRL Air Force Research Laboratory (United States)

ALR Aeronautics and Space Agency 

(Agentur für Luft- und Raumfahrt) (Austria)

AMS Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer

APL Applied Physics Laboratory (United States)

APMS Aviation Performance Measuring System 

APSS Auxiliary Payload Sensor Subsystem

APXS Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer 

ARIS Active Rack Isolation System

ARTEMIS Acceleration, Reconnection, Turbulence and

Electrodynamics of the Moon’s Interaction with 

the Sun

ASA Austrian Space Agency 

ASI Italian Space Agency (Agenzia Spaziale Italiana)

ASINet ASI Network Infrastructure

ASPERA-3 Analyzer of Space Plasmas and Energetic Atoms 

Version 3

ASPOC Active Spacecraft Potential Control 

ASTEP Astrobiology Science and Technology for

Exploring Planets 

ASTER Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and

Reflection Radiometer 

ASTID Astrobiology Science and Technology

Instrument Development 

ATV Automated Transfer Vehicle 

BAO Baryonic Acoustic Oscillations

BARREL Balloon Array for Radiation belt Relativistic 

Electron Losses

BELSPO Belgian Federal Science Policy Office

BLAST Balloon-borne Large Aperture

Sub-millimeter Telescope

CAB Center for Astrobiology (Spain)

CALET CALorimetric Electron Telescope

CALIPSO Cloud-Aerosol LIDAR and Infrared Pathfinder 

Satellite Observations 

CATHALAC Water Center for the Humid Tropics of Latin 

America and the Caribbean

CCAD Central American Commission for Environment 

and Development
148

List of Acronyms

CCAFS Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (United States)

CCD Charge-Coupled Device

CCF Capillary Channel Flow

CCSDS Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems

CDDIS Crustal Dynamics Data Information System 

CDSCC Canberra Deep Space Communication 

Complex (Australia)

CDTI Center for the Development of Industrial 

Technology (Spain)

CEA Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy

Commission (Commissariat à l’énergie atomique 

et aux énergies alternatives) (France)

CEA Saclay CEA Research Center at Saclay (France)

CEM Correlative Environment Monitor

CEOS Committee on Earth Observation Satellites

CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research 

(Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire) 

CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics 

CFE Capillary Flow Experiment

CGBA Commercial Generic Bioprocessing Apparatus

CHAMPS Charge and Mass of Meteoric Smoke Particles

CHD Charge Detector

ChemCam Laser-Induced Remote Sensing for Chemistry and 

Micro-Imaging

CIR Co-rotating Interaction Region

CMB Cosmic Microwave Background 

CME Coronal Mass Ejection 

CNES National Center for Space Studies

(Centre National d’Études Spatiales) (France)

CNU Chungnam National University 

(Republic of Korea)

CONAE National Commission on Space Activities

(Comisión Nacional de Actividades Espaciales)

(Argentina)

COPUOS Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space 

(United Nations)

COSPAR Committee on Space Research 

COTS-2 Commercial Off-The-Shelf–2

CREDANCE Cosmic Radiation Environment Dosimetry and 

Charging Experiment

CRS Commercial Resupply Services

CSA Canadian Space Agency 

CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial 

Research

Organization (Australia)
149

List of Acronyms

CSL Liège Space Center (Centre Spatial de Liège) 

(Belgium)

DAN Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons

DECLIC DEvice for the study of Critical LIquids 

and Crystallization

Dextre Special Purpose Dexterous Manipulator

DFM Digital Fluxgate Magnetometer

DIS Dual Ion Spectrometers

DLN Digital Learning Network 

DLR German Aerospace Center (Deutsches Zentrum

für Luft- und Raumfahrt)

DORIS Doppler Orbitography and Radiopositioning

Integrated by Satellite

DPR Dual-frequency Precipitation Radar

DRS Disturbance Reduction System 

DRTS Data Relay Test Satellite

DSI Directional Solidification Insert

DSN Deep Space Network

DSS Deep Space Station

DSX Demonstration and Science Experiments

DTN Disruption Tolerant Networking

EarthKAM Earth Knowledge Acquired by Middle 

School Students 

EDI Electron Drift Instrument

EDL Entry, Descent, and Landing

EDM EDL Demonstrator Module

EF Exposed Facility

EIK Extended Interaction Klystrons

EIS Extreme-ultraviolet Imaging Spectrometer

EIT Extreme-ultraviolet Imaging Telescope

ELENA Emitted Low-Energy Neutral Atoms

ELM Experiment Logistics Module

ELV Expendable Launch Vehicle

EMCS European Modular Cultivation System 

EMFISIS Electric and Magnetic Field Instrument Suite and 

Integrated Science

ENA Energetic Neutral Atom

EO Earth Observing

EOS Earth Observing System

EPHIN Electron, Proton, Helium Instrument 

EPIC European Photon Imaging Camera

EPM European Physiology Module 

ERA European Robotic Arm 
150

List of Acronyms

ESA European Space Agency 

ESTEC European Space Research and Technology Centre 

EUMETSAT European Organisation for the Exploitation of 

Meteorological Satellites 

EVA Extravehicular Activities 

EXPRESS EXpedite the PRocessing of Experiments to 

Space Station 

FC Framing Cameras 

FCB Functional Cargo Block 

FEWS-NET Famine Early Warning System Network

FFG Austrian Research Promotion Agency 

(Die Österreichische

Forschungsförderungsgesellschaft) (Austria)

FGM Fluxgate Magnetometer 

FGS Fine Guidance Sensor 

FIR Fluids Integration Rack

FMI Finnish Meteorological Institute 

FOC Faint Object Camera

FPI Fast Plasma Instrument

FTS Fourier Transform Spectrometer 

GBM GLAST Burst Monitor 

GBO Ground-Based Observatory 

GDE Gun Detector Electronics

GEO Group on Earth Observation

GEOSS Global Earth Observation System of Systems

GES Global Exploration Strategy 

GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences 

(Deutsches GeoForschungsZentrum)

GGOS Global Geodetic Observing System 

GGS Global Geospace Science

GLAST Gamma-ray Large Area Space Telescope 

GLOBE Global Learning and Observations to Benefit 

the Environment

GMI GPM Microwave Imager

GNSS Global Navigation Satellite Systems

GOLPE GPS Occultation and Passive 

reflection Experiment

GPM Global Precipitation Measurement 

GPS Global Positioning System 

GRACE Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment

GRACE-FO Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment 

Follow-On 

GRAIL Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory
151

List of Acronyms

GRB Gamma-Ray Burst 

GRC Glenn Research Center (United States)

GRS Gamma Ray Spectrometer

GSFC Goddard Space Flight Center (United States)

GSOC German Space Operations Center

HEND High-Energy Neutron Detector 

HFI High-Frequency Instrument 

HGA High-Gain Antenna

HIFI Heterodyne Instrument for the Far-Infrared 

HIRDLS High-Resolution Dynamic Limb Sounder 

HIS Heavy Ion Spectrometer

HIWC High Ice Water Content

HP3 Heat Flow and Physical Properties Package

HRC High-Resolution Camera 

HRF Human Research Facility 

HRPC High-Resolution Panchromatic Camera

HRSC High-Resolution Stereo Camera

HSO Hungarian Space Office 

HST Hubble Space Telescope 

HSTC High-Sensitivity Technological Camera 

HTV H-II Transfer Vehicle 

HXD Hard X-Ray Detector

HXI Hard X-Ray Imager

IAC International Astronautical Congress

IADC Interagency Space Debris

Coordination Committee

IAF International Astronautical Federation

IAG International Association of Geodesy

IAP Institute of Atmospheric Physics (Czech Republic)

IBEX Interstellar Boundary Explorer 

ICARE Influence of Space Radiation on 

Advanced Components 

ICG International Committee on GNSS

ICRR Institute for Cosmic-Ray Research (Japan)

ICT Information and Communication Technology

IDS Instrument Deployment System

IES Ion and Electron Sensor

IFAR International Forum for Aviation Research

IGS International GPS Service 

IIR Imaging Infrared Radiometer

IKI RAS Space Research Institute of the Russian Academy 

of Sciences
152

List of Acronyms

ILRS International Laser Ranging Service 

ILWS International Living With a Star

IMC Imaging Calorimeter

IMEWG International Mars Exploration Working Group

IMPACT In-situ Measurements of Particles and 

CME Transients

IN2P3 National Institute of Nuclear and Particle Physics 

(Institut national de physique nucléaire 

et de physique des particules) (France)

INES Italian Navigation Experiment 

INPE National Institute for Space Research 

(Instituto de Pesquisas Espaciais) (Brazil)

InSight Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, 

Geodesy and Heat Transport

INTA National Institute of Aerospace Technology 

(Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial) 

(Spain)

IOAG Interagency Operations Advisory Group

IOCCG International Ocean-Colour Coordinating Group

IRF Institute of Space Physics 

(Institutet för rymdfysik) (Sweden)

IRIS Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph

IRT Icing Research Tunnel (United States)

ISAS Institute of Space and Astronautical Science 

(Japan)

ISEB International Space Education Board

ISECG International Space Exploration

Coordination Group

ISERV ISS SERVIR Environmental Research

and Visualization

ISIM Integrated Science Instrument Module 

ISPR International Standard Payload Rack 

ISRO Indian Space Research Organisation 

ISS International Space Station

IST Italian Star Tracker 

ISTP International Solar-Terrestrial Physics 

ISWI International Space Weather Initiative

ITU International Telecommunications Union

IUVS Imaging Ultraviolet Spectrograph 

IVS International VLBI Service

IWF/ÖAW Space Research Institute of the Austrian Academy 

of Science (Institut für Weltraumforschung, 

Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften)

(Austria)

JADE Jovian Auroral Distributions Experiment
153

List of Acronyms

JAXA Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency 

JEM Japanese Experiment Module 

JIRAM Jovian Infrared Auroral Mapper 

JPL Jet Propulsion Laboratory (United States)

JSC Johnson Space Center (United States)

JUICE JUpiter ICy moons Explorer

JWST James Webb Space Telescope 

KaRIn Ka-band Radar Interferometer

KASI Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute

KaT Ka-band Transponder

KSAT Kongsberg Satellite Services (Norway)

KSC Kennedy Space Center (United States)

KTH Royal Institute of Technology

(Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan) (Sweden)

LANCE Land Atmosphere Near-real-time Capability 

for EOS

LASCO Large Angle and Spectrometric 

Coronograph Experiment 

LAT Large Area Telescope 

LCROSS Lunar Crater Observation and Sending Satellite 

LEND Lunar Exploration Neutron Detector 

LEO Low-Earth Orbit

LETGS Low-Energy Transmission Grating for Cosmic 

X-ray Spectrometer 

LFI Low-Frequency Instrument 

LIDAR Light Detection and Ranging 

LISA Laser Interferometer Space Antenna 

LLNL Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory

(United States)

LMM Light Microscopy Module

LPP Laboratory of Plasma Physics (France)

LPW Langmuir Probe and Waves

LRA Laser Retroreflector Array

LRI Laser Ranging Interferometer

LRO Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter 

LTP LISA Technology Package 

LVPS Low-Voltage Power Supply

LWS Living With a Star

MADRAS Microwave Analysis and Detection of Rain and 

Atmospheric Structures

MAESTRO Measurements of Aerosol Extinction in the 

Stratosphere and Troposphere Retrieved

by Occultation 
154

List of Acronyms

MaRS Mars Radio Science Experiment 

MARSIS Mars Advanced Radar for Subsurface and 

Ionospheric Sounding 

MAVEN Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution

MB Mössbauer Spectrometer 

MCOP Multilateral Crew Operations Panel

MDSCC Madrid Deep Space Communications Complex 

(Spain)

MEEMM Multi-Electrode Electroencephalogram

Mapping Module

MELFI Minus-80°C Laboratory Freezer for ISS 

MER Mars Exploration Rover 

METI Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (Japan)

MIPA Miniature Ion Precipitation Analyzer

MIRI Mid-Infrared Instrument 

MIRO Microwave Instrument for the Rosetta Orbiter 

MISR Multiangle Imaging SpectroRadiometer

MLM Multipurpose Laboratory Module 

MLS Microwave Limb Sounder

MMO Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter

MMP Magnetic Mapping Payload

MMRS Multispectral Medium Resolution Scanner 

MMS Magnetospheric MultiScale

MODIS Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer

MOMA Mars Organic Molecule Analyzer

MoonKAM Moon Knowledge Acquired by Middle 

School Students

MOPITT Measurements of Pollution in the Troposphere 

MPE Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics 

(Germany)

MPLM Multi-Purpose Logistics Modules 

MPO Mercury Planetary Orbiter

MR Microwave Radiometer

MRI Microwave Ranging Instrument 

MRO Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter 

MSFC Marshall Space Flight Center (United States)

MSG Microgravity Science Glovebox 

MSL Mars Science Laboratory

MSRR-1 Materials Science Research Rack-1 

MSS Mobile Servicing System 

NAI NASA Astrobiology Institute 

NAOJ National Astronomical Observatory of Japan
155

List of Acronyms

NBI Niels Bohr Institute for Astronomy, Physics, and 

Geophysics (Denmark) 

NDVI Normalized Difference Vegetation Index

NEN Near Earth Network

NERC National Environment Research Council 

(United Kingdom)

NGIMS Neutral Gas and Ion Mass Spectrometer

NGSLR Next-Generation Satellite Laser Ranging

NHSC NASA Herschel Science Center

NICT National Institute of Information and 

Communications Technology (Japan)

NIR Near-Infrared

NIRCam Near-Infrared Camera 

NIRISS Near-Infrared Imager and Slitless Spectrograph

NIRSpec Near-Infrared Spectrograph 

NIRST New Infrared Sensor Technology

NISP Near-Infrared Spectrograph and Photometer

NLR Netherlands National Aerospace Laboratory

(Nationaal Lucht- en Ruimtevaartlaboratorium)

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

(Unites States)

NRC National Research Council (Canada)

NSC Norwegian Space Centre

NSRP NASA Sounding Rocket Program

NuSTAR Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array

ÖAW Austrian Academy of Science 

(Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften)

OBA Optical Bench Assembly

OCAMS OSIRIS-REx Camera Suite 

OCM Ocean Color Monitor

OLA OSIRIS-REx Laser Altimeter 

OM Optical/Ultraviolet Monitor

OMEGA Visible and Infrared Mineralogical

Mapping Spectrometer 

OMI Ozone Monitoring Instrument 

ONERA The French Aerospace Lab (Office National 

d’Études et Recherches Aérospatiales) (France)

OSIRIS-REx Origins Spectral Interpretation Resource

Identification Security–Regolith Explorer

OSTM Ocean Surface Topography Mission

OTE Optical Telescope Element 

OTES OSIRIS-REx Thermal Emission Spectrometer

OVIRS OSIRIS-REx Visible and Infrared Spectrometer

PACS Photoconductor Array Camera and Spectrometer 
156

List of Acronyms

PARASOL Polarization and Anisotropy of Réflectances for 

Atmospheric Sciences coupled with Observations

from a LIDAR

PEP Particle Environment Package

PFS Planetary Fourier Spectrometer 

PICAM Planetary Ion Camera

PIV Particle Image Velocimetry

PLASTIC PLAsma and SupraThermal Ion Composition 

PM Pressurized Module

PMM Permanent Multipurpose Module

RAD Radiation Assessment Detector 

REMS Rover Environmental Monitoring Station

REXIS Regolith X-ray Imaging Spectrometer

RF Radio Frequency

RFU Radio Frequency Unit

RGS Reflection Grating Spectrometer

RIME Radar for Icy Moon Exploration

RISE Rotation and Interior Structure Experiment

RMS Remote Manipulator System

ROSA Radio Occultation Sounder for Atmosphere

Roscosmos Russian Federal Space Agency

ROSINA Rosetta Orbiter Spectrometer for Ion and 

Neutral Analysis 

RPC Rosetta Plasma Consortium 

RPM Resource Prospector Mission

RRM Robotic Refueling Mission

RRS Research Range Services

SAC-C Scientific Application Satellite–C

SAC-D Scientific Application Satellite–D

SAM Sample Analysis at Mars

SAPHIR Sounder for Probing Vertical Profiles of Humidity

SAR Synthetic Aperture Radar 

ScaRaB Scanner for Radiation Budget

SCM Search Coil Magnetometer 

SDO Solar Dynamics Observatory

SDP Spin-Plane Double Probe

SECCHI Sun Earth Connection Coronal and 

Heliospheric Investigation

SEIS Seismic Experiment for Interior Structure

SERENA Search for Exospheric Refilling and Emitted 

Natural Abundances

SET-1 Space Environment Testbed–1

SGD Soft Gamma-ray Detector
157

List of Acronyms

SGR Soft Gamma Repeater 

SHADOZ Southern Hemisphere ADditional OZonsondes

SHARAD Shallow Subsurface Radar 

SLD Supercooled Large Droplet 

SLR Satellite Laser Ranging

SMA Scan Mirror Assembly 

SMAP Soil Moisture Active Passive

SNSB Swedish National Space Board

SOFIA Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy 

SOHO Solar and Heliospheric Observatory 

SoloHI Solar Orbiter Heliospheric Imager

SOT Solar Optical Telescope

SPICAM Spectroscopy for Investigation of Characteristics 

of the Atmosphere of Mars 

SPIRE Spectral and Photometric Imaging Receiver 

SPP Solar Probe Plus

SSO Swiss Space Office 

SSRMS Space Station Remote Manipulation System 

SST Sea Surface Temperature 

STATIC SupraThermal and Thermal Ion Composition

STEM Science, Technology, Engineering,

and Mathematics

STEREO Solar TErrestrial RElations Observatory

STS Space Transportation System

SvalSat Svalbard Satellite Station (Norway)

SWA Solar Wind Plasma Analyzer

S/WAVES STEREO/Wind/Radio and Plasma

Wave Experiment 

SWEA Solar Wind Electron Analyzer

SWEAP Solar Wind Electrons Alphas and Protons

SWIA Solar Wind Ion Analyzer

SWOT Surface Water Ocean Topography

SXI Soft X-ray Imager

SXS Soft X-ray Spectrometer

TAGSAM Touch-and-Go Sample Mechanism

TASC Total AbSorption Calorimeter

Tekes Finnish Funding Agency for Technology and

Innovation (Tekniikan Edistämiskeskus)

TES Tropospheric Emission Spectrometer

THEMIS Time History of Events and Macroscale 

Interactions during Substorms 

TKSC Tsukuba Space Center

TMI TRMM Microwave Imager
158

List of Acronyms

TNR Thermal Noise Receiver

TNSC Tanegashima Space Center (Japan)

TRMM Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission 

TT&C Telemetry, Tracking, and Command

TWINS Two Wide-angle Imaging Neutral-atom

Spectrometers

USAID U.S. Agency for International Development

USGS U.S. Geological Survey

UVOT Ultraviolet/Optical Telescope 

UVS Ultraviolet Spectrometer

VAFB Vandenberg Air Force Base (United States)

VIR-MS Visual and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer 

VIS Visual Imager

VLBI Very Long Baseline Interferometry 

WAVES Wind/Radio and Plasma Wave Experiment

WFC Wide-Field Camera

WFF Wallops Flight Facility (United States)

WISPR Wide-field Imager for Solar Probe

WL Weak Gravitational Lensing

XIS X-Ray Imaging Spectrometer

XMM X-Ray Multi-Mirror 

XRS X-Ray Spectrometer

XRT X-Ray Telescope