**CHAPTER 2THE SPACE RACE**

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Breuer, William B. *Race to the Moon: America's Duel with theSoviets*. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1993. This book, written bya journalist who has made a career out of writing World War IIadventures, is neither about the race to the Moon nor the U.S.rivalry with the U.S.S.R. The majority of it is, instead, aboutthe World War II efforts of the German rocket team under Wernhervon Braun at Peenemnde, their wartime exploits, their surrenderto American forces in 1945, and their post-war activities in theU.S. Only 6 of 24 chapters actually deal with Project Apollo,and none of the book goes beyond the popular literature on eitherthe Germans or Apollo.

Bulkeley, Rip. *The Sputniks Crisis and Early United StatesSpace Policy: A Critique of the Historiography of Space*. Bloomington:Indiana University Press, 1991. This is an important discussionof early efforts to develop civil space policy in the aftermathof the Sputnik crisis of 1957. Not explicitly concerned with ProjectApollo, it does contain much information relative to the rivalrybetween the United State and the Soviet Union and how it was affectedby the launching of the Sputnik 1 scientific satellite. It alsodiscusses the debate that took place within the Eisenhower administrationover whether or not to begin an aggressive lunar landing program,the program that ultimately became Apollo. Eisenhower always opposedthe idea of an aggressive lunar landing program, for as he saidat a meeting in February 1958 "he would rather have a goodRedstone than be able to hit the moon, for we didn't have anyenemies on the moon."

Caiden, Martin. *War for the Moon*. New York: E.P. Duttonand Co., 1959. This presents a strong case for the U.S. to rushto the Moon, framed in the context of the Cold War rivalry withthe Soviet Union, written at the time that the first lunar probeswere being launched.

Clark, Philip S. *The Soviet Manned Space Program*. New York:Crown Pub., Orion Books, 1988. This is a general historical workon the Soviet space effort, emphasizing the Cold War rivalrieswith the United States and how they related to several programs,especially the race to the Moon.

_____. "Chelomei's Alternative Manned Lunar Program."*Quest: The History of Spaceflight Magazine*. 1 (Winter 1992):31-34. Vladimir Chelomei was one of the leading spacecraft designersin the Soviet Union in the 1960s. As one of the leading rivalsto Sergei Korolev's efforts in space, Chelomei's design bureauoffered several different proposals for a lunar landing programto beat the Americans. He was unsuccessful in obtaining approvalfor these programs, but that fact that they existed indicatesthat the Soviet leadership could not agree on a method of racingthe Americans to the Moon. This article describes the plans proposedby Chelomei.

_____. "The Soviet Manned Circumlunar Program." *Quest:The History of Spaceflight Magazine*. 1 (Winter 1992): 17-20.This is a solid article based on post-Cold War documentation thatdescribes the Soviet effort to send a piloted spacecraft aroundthe Moon before the Americans did so. Heavily illustrated, andwith tables showing major events in the program.

Cox, Donald W. *America's Explorers of Space; Including a SpecialReport on Project Apollo*. Maplewood, NJ: Hammond, 1969. Thisis a short, 96-page, illustrated history of the rivalry betweenthe Soviet Union and the United States to the Moon. It is a revisionof the 1962 publication by the same author (see below), the newedition being issued to capitalize on the success of Apollo 11.

_____. *The Space Race: From Sputnik to Apollo, and Beyond*.Philadelphia: Chilton Books, 1962. This is a short and rathersimplistic account by a journalist of the major points of theinternational rivalry between the United States and the SovietUnion on the use of space for prestige purposes. It discussesin elementary fashion the Sputnik crisis and the Gagarin 1961orbital mission before describing the Kennedy decision to enterthe Moon race and NASA's early efforts to accomplish it throughProject Apollo.

Daniloff, Nicholas. *The Kremlin and the Cosmos*. New York:Alfred A. Knopf, 1972. A journalistic account of the Soviet spaceprogram with some discussion of the race to the Moon.

Divine, Robert A. *The Sputnik Challenge*. New York: OxfordUniversity Press, 1993. This book, while not dealing with ProjectApollo explicitly, is concerned with Eisenhower's reaction tothe Soviet launch of the Sputnik satellite in 1957. It containsinsights into an ill-formed "alternative" space programpromoted by the Eisenhower White House that emphasized a modesteffort using satellites for exploration and practical applicationsrather than the aggressive and expensive piloted space flightprogram desired by space promoters and NASA leaders.

Doel, Ronald E. "Evaluating Soviet Lunar Science in ColdWar America." *Osi- ris*. 7 (1992): 238-64. An excellentdiscussion of the efforts of the U.S. scientific and governmentalestablishment to ascertain what research the Soviets were doingrelative to the Moon, along with an analysis of Soviet lunar science'sfindings.

Dupas, Alain. *La lutte pour l'espace* (*The Battle forSpace*). Paris: Seuil, 1977. This French-language book containsa discussion of the U.S./U.S.S.R. rivalry in space and the lunarprograms that resulted from it.

Glennan, T. Keith. *The Birth of NASA: The Diary of T. KeithGlennan*. Edited by J.D. Hunley. Washington, DC: NASA SP-4106,1993. This diary of Eisenhower's NASA administrator contains adetailed account of the discussions that took place prior to 1961on the viability and desirability of undertaking an aggressivelunar landing program as a means of demonstrating national superiorityover the Soviet Union. As administrator Glennan sponsored studieson the possibility of Project Apollo, but he always shied awayfrom an aggressive stance on the effort. Funding for studies ofthe proposal were included in the NASA budgets for fiscal years1961 and 1962 by Glennan, but he was unwilling to move beyondthat stage until fundamental work on other space activities hadbeen completed. After leaving office, Glennan watched the Apolloproject closely and while admitting that he was excited by thelunar landing in 1969, he recognized that it was the capstoneof a project he believed had been ill-advised and costly. An introductionto the diary by Roger D. Launius shows how Glennan's backgroundprepared him for his duties as NASA's first administrator.

Harvey, Brian. "Promise Unfulfilled: The Soviet UnmannedMoon Programme, 1969-1988." *Journal of the British InterplanetarySociety*. 43 (1990): 395-98. A solid discussion of the laterefforts of the Soviet Union to explore the Moon with robotic probesusing information made available in the post-Cold War era.

_____. *Race into Space: The Soviet Space Programme*. Chichester,England: Ellis Horwood Ltd., 1988. This is a solid history ofthe development of the Soviet space program through the mid-1980s.It has several chapters on the lunar program, describing whatinformation was available before the official Russian announcementof the race in 1989.

Jastrow, Robert, and Newell, Homer E. "The Space Programand the National Interest." *Foreign Affairs*. 50 (April1972): 532-44. This article is not specifically related to Apollo,but it presents an argument in an important forum about the natureof the space program and comments on the lunar landing programin relation to it. The authors contend that the American spaceprogram sprang principally from considerations of national securityand international prestige. That motivated most of its effortstoward Apollo in the 1960s and has informed them since that time.

Johnson, Nicholas L. "Apollo and Zond--Race around the Moon."*Spaceflight*. 20 (December 1978): 403-412. This retrospectivearticle written ten years after Apollo 8 compares what was knownthen about Apollo with information about the Soviet lunar program,called Zond. The author notes the incredible parallelism of eventsin the two programs, including the Apollo 204 and Soyuz 1 disastersin early 1967, and concludes that the United States and the SovietUnion were in a race to send humans around the Moon in 1968, despiteSoviet claims to the contrary.

_____. *The Soviet Reach for the Moon: The L-1 and L-3 MannedLunar Program and the Story of the N-1 (Moon Rocket)*. Washington,DC: Cosmos Books, 1994. This is a heavily-illustrated volume containinga wealth of information about the history of the Soviet Union'sefforts to race the United States to the Moon in the 1960s. Itincorporates much of the recently available information on theSoviet lunar program and describes how the USSR's very real effortsto reach the Moon failed.

Killian, James R., Jr. *Sputnik, Scientists, and Eisenhower:A Memoir of the First Special Assistant to the President for Scienceand Technology*. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1977. In the wakeof the Soviet orbiting of Sputnik in 1957, President Dwight D.Eisenhower appointed a science advisor to his White House staff,James R. Killian from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.Killian's memoir describes in detail the debates over what courseto take with the civil space program and whether or not to entera Moon race with the Soviet Union.

Kistiakowsky, George B. *A Scientist in the White House*.Introduction by Charles S. Maier. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UniversityPress, 1976. This is the edited diary of George B. Kistiakowsky,the second science advisor to President Eisenhower. Taking officein July 1959, he had previously served on James Killian's advisorycommittee and was well aware of the efforts to best the SovietUnion in space. This diary is revealing about the efforts to keepthe space program small and of the pressure brought to bear onthe administration to race to the Moon.

Koelle, Heinz-Hermann. "Lunar Development, Past and Future:Part 1-Apollo was a Race." *Spaceflight*. 35 (February1993): 48-51. Discusses the development of the concept of sendinghumans to the Moon and describes the U.S. effort with ProjectApollo. Places it in the context of the Cold War, and then continueswith a discussion of the possibility of going back to the Moonat the end of the twentieth century.

Landis, Rob R. "The N-1 and the Soviet Manned Lunar LandingProgram." *Quest: The History of Spaceflight Magazine*.1 (Winter 1992): 21-30. The N-1 launcher was to have been thesuper-rocket that would have taken Soviet cosmonauts to the Moonin the 1960s. Although it was officially denied until 1989, sincethen there have been several discussions of the development ofthe N-1. This article reviews the project, its configuration forcircumlunar flight, the lunar lander it was to carry, and theunsuccessful test program of the launch vehicle.

Lebedev, Daniel A. "The N1-L3 Programme." *Spaceflight*.34 (September 1992): 288-90. This is a useful discussion of thedevelopment of the lunar landing booster, spacecraft, and landerunder development by the Soviet Union in the 1960s. It is basedon sources that came out of Russia with the end of the Cold War.

Lebedev, L.; Lyk'yanov, B.; and Romanov, A. *Sons of the BluePlanet*. New Delhi: Amerind Pub. Co., 1973. Translated fromthe Russian and published for the National Aeronautics and SpaceAdministration and the National Science Foundation. This bookis a basic history of the Soviet space program through the 1960s.It is silent on the possibility of a lunar landing program.

Leskov, Sergei. "How We Didn't Get to the Moon." *Izvestiya*.18 August 1989, pp. 130-135. Translated by David Doughan. Thisis an important official statement from Russian officials on thedetails of the previously secret Soviet race to the Moon conductedin the 1960s. It describes the work of Sergei Korolev and otherdesigners to build the N-1 booster, the difficulties with theprogram, and its cancellation after the U.S. success with Apollo11.

Logsdon, John M., and Dupas, Alain. "Was the Race to theMoon Real?" *Scientific American*. 270 (June 1994):36-43. One of the better discussions, although not written withscholarly apparatus, of the race between the United States andthe Soviet Union to the Moon in the 1960s. The answer to the questionin the title, the authors contend, is a resounding yes. Usingrecently available Soviet documents, they find that the Sovietsmade several secret attempts to develop hardware for a lunar landingthat would beat the U.S. to the Moon. That they were unsuccessfulin doing so resulted from "personal rivalries, shifting politicalalliances and bureau- cratic inefficiencies." These "bredfailure and delays within the Soviet lunar-landing program."The Americans were successful, on the other hand, because theyenjoyed "consistently strong political and public support."

McDougall, Walter A. *...The Heavens and the Earth: A PoliticalHistory of the Space Age*. New York: Basic Books, 1985. ThisPulitzer Prize-winning book analyzes the space race to the Moonin the 1960s. The author, then teaching at the University of California,Berkeley, argues that Apollo prompted the space program to becomeidentified almost exclusively with high-profile, expensive, humanspace flight projects. This was because Apollo became a race againstthe Soviet Union for recognition as the world leader in scienceand technology, and by extension in other fields as well. McDougalljuxtaposes the American effort of Apollo with the Soviet spaceprogram and the dreams of such designers as Sergei P. Korolevto land a Soviet cosmonaut on the Moon. The author recognizesApollo as a significant engineering achievement but concludesthat it was also enormously costly both in terms of resourcesand the direction to be taken in state support of science andtechnology.

_____. "Technocracy and Statecraft in the Space Age: Towardthe History of a Saltation." *American Historical Review*.87 (1982): 1010-40. This well-written article in the premier historicaljournal of the United States places the space race in the context,initially, of World War II and then the Cold War. The author arguesthat because of "Apollo, the space program came to stressengineering over science, competition over cooperation, civilianover military management, and prestige over practical applications."He calls Apollo a "magnificent achievement" but notesthat by "1963-64 left-liberal critics denounced" it"as wasteful given problems of racism and poverty."Much more an assessment of the effect of space upon American societythan a history of developments in space, this wide-ranging essayconcludes that the space race transformed the state into a "promoterof technological progress." Implicit in the analysis is theauthor's doubt that this was beneficial.

Mallove, Eugene F. "Once Upon a Moon Race." *Ad Astra*.February 1990, pp. 14-18. This is a straightforward piece of reportingabout six U.S. university professors who visited Russia and viewedwhat was left of the hardware developed for the Soviet lunar program.The article emphasizes the importance of the race between theU.S. and the Soviet Union in the 1960s.

Mishin, Vasali. "The Moon Programme That Faltered."*Spaceflight*. 33 (March 1991): 2-3. This short article ismost important because it represents an essentially official Russianstatement, by one of the key members of the S.P. Korolev-led designbureau that was working on a lunar landing program. It describesthe efforts to beat the U.S. to the Moon and admits that the planfailed and was therefore denied for more than twenty years.

_____. "The Role of Academician S.P. Korolev in the Developmentof Space Rocket Vehicles for the Lunar Exploration with the Helpof Manned Spaceships." IAA-91-674 paper, delivered at the42d Congress of the International Astronautical Federation, Montreal,Canada, 5-11 October 1991. Copy available in NASA Historical ReferenceCollection, NASA History Office, NASA Headquarters, Washington,DC. This paper, written by one of the senior assistants of SergeiKorolev in the 1960s, presents a detailed examination of the workof Korolev's design bureau on Soviet hardware for use in a lunarexploration program.

Newkirk, Dennis. "More Data on the Soviet Manned Lunar Program."*Quest: The History of Spaceflight Magazine*. 2 (Summer 1993):32-35. This is a heavily- illustrated article on details of theSoviet N-1 "Moon Rocket" built in the late 1960s.

Oberg, James E. "The Moon Race (and the Coverup) in Hindsight."*Spaceflight*. 35 (February 1993): 46-47. Since the Russiansadmitted only twenty years after the fact that they were indeedinvolved in a serious race to the Moon with the United States,Oberg has collected several statements from leaders in the Westwho believed the Soviet Union's claims at the time that it wasnot involved in a lunar program. In the process, he comments thatbad guesses, Soviet lies, and naive assumptions led them to acceptSoviet denials. There are quotations from several major newspapers,politicians such as Senator J. William Fulbright, journalistssuch as Walter Cronkite and John Nobel Wilford, and academicslike William Schauer and Richard Hutton.

_____. *Red Star in Orbit*. New York: Random House, 1981.Written by one of the premier Soviet space watchers, this historyof the Soviet space program is among the best published in Englishprior to the fall of the Soviet Union in 1989. Based on mostlywestern sources, it describes what was then known of the SovietUnion's efforts to land a cosmonaut on the Moon before the U.S.Apollo landing in 1969.

_____. "Russia Meant to Win the 'Moon Race.'" *Spaceflight*.17 (May 1975): 163-171, 200. An early argument, based on semi-officialSoviet statements, that the Soviet Union did try to reach theMoon before the United States.

_____. "Yes, There was a Moon Race." *Air Force Magazine*.73 (April 1990): 92- 97. This article examines recently revealedevidence confirming that the Soviet Union did seek to reach theMoon before the United States during the 1960s. A Soviet uncrewedlunar probe crashed on the Moon's surface shortly before the landingby the U.S. during Apollo 11. The article discusses this eventand numerous other details of schedules for lunar exploration,Soviet lunar boosters and landers, the technical problems theSoviets faced, continuous changes in their goals, and much else,showing clearly the extent of the competition with the U.S. program.

Petrov, G.I. Editor. *Conquest of Outer Space in the USSR*.New Delhi: Amerind Pub. Co., 1973. Translated from the Russianand published for the National Aeronautics and Space Administrationand the National Science Foundation. This book is a collectionof official announcements issued by Tass and material publishedin the Soviet press from October 1967 to 1970. It is silent onthe possibility of a lunar landing program.

Riabchikov, Evgeny. *Russians in Space*. Garden City, NY:Doubleday and Co., 1971. Translated by Guy Daniels. This is atranslation of a Novosti Press, Moscow, publication that recountsthe history of the Soviet space program as it was publicly acknowledgedby the Soviet leadership. There is virtually no discussion ofa lunar landing program by the Soviets, it not being an officially-acknowledgedprogram at the time, but there is considerable description ofthe development of rockets and the activities of cosmonauts inspace.

Shklovskii, Iosif. *Five Billion Vodka Bottles to the Moon;Tales of a Soviet Scien- tist*. New York: W.W. Norton and Co.,1991. An enlightening memoir of Soviet space science during theCold War era. Written with charm and wit.

Smolder, Peter. *Soviets in Space*. New York: Taplinger Pub.Co., 1971. Based on Russian-language technical information andwestern sources, this journalistic account of the Soviet spaceprogram describes the broad base of activities by the Soviet Unionin space through the 1960s. The author concentrates on the activitiesof the cosmonauts but does not discuss at length the possibilityof a lunar landing program. He does, however, discuss the Americanreaction to Soviet space successes in announcing the Apollo program.

Stoiko, Michael. *Soviet Rocketry: Past, Present, and Future*.New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970. The author, an experton rocket technology, provides in this book a popular discussionof Soviet space technology, and by implication the developmentof the Russian space program. Beginning with Sputnik 1, Stoikotraces the development of the various major boosters used in theSoviet space program, as well as the spacecraft development andthe launch facilities built.

Stroup, T.L., and Allen, R.D. "Early Lunar Base Concepts:The Lockheed Experience, Part 1." Paper IAA-92-0190, Presentedat the 43rd Congress of the International Astronautical Federation.Washington, DC, 1992. This is an interesting analysis of plansdeveloped at Lockheed in the 1960s for the permanent colonizationof the Moon. One of the uses advanced for such colonization wasto support Cold War efforts against the Soviet Union.

Vick, Charles P., and DeMeis, Richard. "The Soviet Race tothe Moon." *Aerospace America*. November 1990, pp. 22-25.Another of the popular discussions of the Soviet lunar landingprogram that uses post-Cold War information to describe the detailsof the unsuccessful Soviet effort to beat the Americans to theMoon in the 1960s.

Vladimirov, Leonid. *The Russian Space Bluff: The Inside Storyof the Soviet Drive to the Moon*. New York: Dial Press, 1973.Translated by David Floyd. In the aftermath of the American successwith Apollo 11 to land astronauts on the Moon, this book describeshow far behind the Soviet Union truly was in the development ofspace technology. The author, a Soviet defector who was both ajournalist and a student of engineering, contends that the SovietUnion was involved in a secret effort to beat the Americans tothe Moon and would have used the success as another means of demonstratingthe superiority of the communist system over the capitalism ofthe West. They had done so with Sputnik in 1957 and the Gagarinflight in 1961-- both of which had been secret efforts announcedonly after they had been successful--and they would have doneso again. But the author contends that the Soviet scientific andindustrial complex was insufficient to best the Americans andwhen Apollo 11 was completed, the Soviets quietly dropped theirplans for a lunar landing program.

Young, Hugo; Silcock, Bryan; and Dunn, Peter. "From the Bayof Pigs to the Sea of Tranquility: Why We Went to the Moon."*The Washington Monthly*. April 1970, pp. 28-58. This isa lengthy article castigating the entire space program for wastingbillions of dollars on Project Apollo so that contractors couldacquire greater wealth, government bureaucrats could enhance "turf,"and Congressmen could have more "pork barrel" opportunities.

Young, Steven. "Soviet Union was Far Behind in 1960's MoonRace." *Space- flight*. 32 (January 1990): 2-3. Thisis a linear discussion of the development of the Soviet lunarspacecraft emphasizing the difficulties of the program.

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