**CHAPTER 4APOLLO TECHNOLOGY**

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Akens, David S. *Saturn Illustrated Chronology*. Huntsville,AL: Historical Office, George C. Marshall Space Flight Center,1971. Covering the period April 1957- April 1968, this fifth editionof the chronology contains numerous photos and a more or lessblow-by-blow account of the design and development of the Saturnlaunch vehicle family. It includes a useful glossary, a 528-itembibliography of specialized sources, and an index. The MarshallHistory Office also began in 1960 preparing annual histories andlater, chronologies, of the center, which also contain much informationon the design and development of Saturn.

"Apollo 11 Television Cameras." *Optical Spectra*.3 (September/October 1969): 65-69. One of several articles inthis issue dealing with the Apollo program, this particular accountfocuses on the television cameras used in the command module andon the Moon's surface. It discusses their technical features andpossible future applications.

Arabian, D.D. "Action on Mission Evaluation and Flight Anomalies."*Astronautics and Aeronautics*. 8 (March 1970): 72-75. Arabian,chief of the Apollo program's test division, explains how specialistsat the Manned Spacecraft Center resolved anomalies that they identifiedin Apollo equipment.

Baker, David. "Apollo Hardware: Inventory and Disposition."*Spaceflight*, 16 (April 1974): 137-39. A listing of spacecraft,launchers, and other Apollo hardware with information about locationof some of the items.

______. "The Apollo Service Propulsion System." *Spaceflight*.11 (August 1969): 287-90. A technical discussion of the propulsionsystem for the command and service module.

______. "The Apollo Spacecraft: Guidance and Navigation."*Spaceflight*. 11 (November 1969): 386-89. An extremely technicaldiscussion of the complex guidance and navigation systems forApollo spacecraft through Apollo 11.

______. "Lunar Roving Vehicle: Design Report." *Spaceflight*.13 (July 1971): 234-40. A detailed but comprehensible accountof the design and development of the lunar rover, written beforeits initial deployment on Apollo 15.

Bilstein, Roger E. *Stages to Saturn: A Technological Historyof the Apollo/Saturn Launch Vehicles*. Washington, DC: NationalAeronautics and Space Administration SP-4206, 1980. This thoroughand well-written book gives a detailed but highly readable accountof the enormously complex process whereby the Marshall Space FlightCenter under the direction of Wernher von Braun developed thelaunch vehicles used in the Apollo program ultimately to sendtwelve humans to the Moon. Based on exhaustive research and equippedwith extensive bibliographic references, this book comes as closeto being a definitive history of the Saturn rocket program asis ever likely to appear. Moreover, it is not simply a technicalhistory but covers the decision-making process that lay behindthe technological development, making it not just a history ofhardware development but also an analysis of technical managementand organization. As one reviewer said in *Air University Review*,"This volume is just one of many excellent histories producedby government and contract historians for the NASA History Office....Thebook is enhanced by many excellent appendixes and charts, andit has a thorough essay on sources and documentation....AuthorRoger Bilstein...gracefully wends his way through a maze of technicaldocumentation to reveal the important themes of his story; rarelyhas such a nuts-and-bolts tale been so gracefully told."

______. "From the S-IV to the S-IVB: The Evolution of a RocketStage for Space Exploration." *Journal of the British InterplanetarySociety*. 32 (December 1979): 452-8. This article exploresthe evolution of the S-IVB stage used in the Saturn IB and SaturnV launch vehicles. Noting that the liquid-hydrogen fuel for thisstage "presented unique design challenges," Bilsteinshows that although the earlier S-IV and its successor, the S-IVB"were developed and built by two different contractors,"NASA arranged for the information from the one to be availablefor the development of the other, helping to ensure the successof the Apollo mission. This detailed but readable article alsoshows the debts of both stages to previous designs for space andmissile systems such as Thor.

Boeing Company. *Apollo/Saturn V Roll of Honor*. Seattle,WA: The Boeing Co., 1970. This rare book, filled with photos anddiagrams, covers every aspect of Boeing's manufacturing, assembly,and testing at the Michoud Plant in Louisiana of the first stage(S-IC) of the Saturn V rocket. It also covers Boeing's activitiesat NASA's Marshall, Kennedy, and Manned Space Flight centers aswell as its involvement in Apollo technical integration at NASAHeadquarters in Washington, DC. The "roll of honor"reference in the title refers to a 174-page collection of shortbiographical sketches of Boeing personnel involved in the Apolloprogram. There is also a list of associate contractors at theend of the thick, large-format volume, a copy of which is availablein the rare book collection of the Library of Congress and anotherin the NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Office,NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

Bond, Aleck C., and Faget, M[axime Allen]. *Technologies ofManned Space Sys- tems*. New York: Gordon and Breach, 1965.A useful early description of the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollosystems.

Boynton, John H., and Kleinknecht, Kenneth S. "Systems DesignExperience from Three Manned Space Programs." *Journalof Spacecraft and Rockets*. 7 (July 1970): 770-84. Two managersat the Manned Spacecraft Center summarize the systems design experiencefor Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo. 77 bibliographic notes.

Brooks, Courtney G., and Ertel, Ivan D. *The Apollo Spacecraft:A Chronology, Volume III, October 1, 1964-January 20, 1966*.Washington, DC: NASA SP-4009, 1973. This volume in the series(see below for volume 1 under Ertel) covers primarily the detailedengineering of the three spacecraft being manufactured by NorthAmerican and Grumman--the command and service and the lunar excursionmodules.

Brooks, Courtney G.; Grimwood, James M.; and Swenson, Loyd S.,Jr. *Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft*.Washington: National Aeronautics and Space Administration SP-4205,1979. The authors of this book describe it accurately in theirpreface (p. xiv) as beginning "with the creation of NASAitself and with the definition of a manned space flight programto follow Mercury. It ends with Apollo 11, when America attainedits goal of the 1960s, landing the first men on the moon and returningthem to the earth. The focal points of this story are the spacecraft--thecommand and service modules and the lunar module." Basedon exhaustive documentary and secondary research as well as 341interviews, this well- written volume covers the design, development,testing, evaluation, and operational use of the Apollo spacecraftthrough July 1969.

Dooling, Dave. "The Evolution of the Apollo Spacecraft, Part1," *Spaceflight*, 16 (March 1974): 82-88. An accountof the background discussions and activities leading up to thedevelopment of the Apollo hardware in the 1960s.

______. "The Evolution of the Apollo Spacecraft, Part 2,"*Spaceflight*, 16 (April 1974): 127-36. A continuation ofthe discussion of the design and development of the Apollo hardwarein the 1960s, including the decision in favor of the lunar (ratherthan Earth) orbit rendezvous of the lunar excursion module andthe command and service modules following the trip to the Moon.

Ertel, Ivan D., and Morse, Mary Louise. *The Apollo Spacecraft:A Chronology, Volume I, Through November 7, 1962*. Washington,DC: NASA SP-4009, 1969. This chronology actually begins in 1923with Hermann Oberth's book on rocketry but proceeds rather quicklythrough the launch of Explorer I with a Jupiter-C in January 1958to the beginnings of Project Mercury later that year. The bulkof the volume recounts the actual history of the Apollo spacecraftthemselves through 7 November 1962 when NASA selected Grummanto develop the lunar excursion module under the direction of theManned Spacecraft Center. A useful foreword provides context forthe remainder of the volume, while a number of appendices addfurther information in the form of a glossary, tables, and charts.

Ertel, Ivan D.; and Newkirk, Roland W.; with Brooks, CourtneyG. *The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology, Volume IV, January21, 1966-July 13, 1974*. Washing- ton, DC: NASA SP-4009, 1978.This volume, organized similarly, carries the story through tothe end of the program. It includes all flight tests of the Apollospacecraft, the last five Gemini flights, the Apollo 204 fire,the follow-on review board activities, the efforts at redefinitionthat followed its recommendations, and the entirety of the mannedApollo flight program together with its results.

Evanzia, W.J. "A Look at Apollo Electronics." *IEEESpectrum*. 6 (Septem- ber 1969): 81-86. A discussion with photosand a map of the electronics devices used on the Mercury, Gemini,and Apollo missions with their spinoff benefits for life on Earth.

Faget, Max[ime Allen]. *Manned Space Flight*. New York: Rinehartand Winston, 1965. This little book by then-assistant directorfor engineering and development at the Manned Spacecraft Centerdiscusses the technical problems involved in developing mannedspacecraft and the elements of science present in engineeringsolutions. Necessarily technical in places, the book is writtenin layman's language as much as possible and equipped with photosand diagrams to make it accessible to the general reader.

Gatland, Kenneth W. *Manned Spacecraft*. New York: Macmillan,1976. Covering Skylab, Apollo-Soyuz, and the Russian space effortas well as Apollo, this little encyclopedia by one of the majorpopularizers of space's technical side provides a good deal ofinformation and many photographs and diagrams for the interestedgeneral reader.

General Motors Corporation. *Apollo 11; guidance and navigationsummary: CM software, LM software, ASPO 45 CRT displays, launchand burn schedule*. Milwaukee, WI: AC Electronics Division,1969. This highly technical publication will be unintelligibleto the technically uninitiated reader but contains a wealth ofinformation for those trained in electronic engineering.

"A Golf Cart to Cruise on the Moon." *Life*. 11June 1971, pp. 70-74. 10 color photos. Very good coverage of theMoon car to be carried on Apollo 15, including testing by theApollo 15 astronauts.

Heppenheimer, T.A. "Requiem for a Heavyweight." *Airand Space/Smithsonian*. 4 (June-July 1989): 50-55, 59-60. Abrief and somewhat popular account of the development of the SaturnV booster with several photos and an illustration of the SaturnV configuration.

Hu, Steve S. Editor. *Saturn V/Apollo and beyond*. Tarzana,CA: American Astronautical Society, 1968. 4 volumes. Also availablein the AAS astronautics microfiche series. This compilation publishesthe papers presented at the AAS National Meeting, held June 11-14,1967, at Huntsville, Alabama, cosponsored by the University ofAlabama, Marshall Space Flight Center, and United States ArmyMissile Command. It includes a great variety of papers rangingfrom one on "The Saturn Instrument Unit" to "TheThermoluminescence of the Moon." Most of the papers are highlytechnical and equipped with scholarly references. Each is typicallyaccompanied by an abstract and biographical material on the author(s),but there is no table of contents or index to these four volumes,so they are hard to use without the separate chronological, numerical,and author index to its publications that the AAS later prepared.

Kleinknecht, Kenneth S. "Design Principles Stressing Simplicity."*Astronautics and Aeronautics*. 8 (March 1970): 46-49. Thisbrief account by the manager for the command and service modulesat the Manned Spacecraft Center discusses the principles establishedto guide engineers designing hardware for the mission.

Kosloski, Lillian D. *U.S. Space Gear: Outfitting the Astronaut*.Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1993. With morethan 150 illustrations, this book describes the development ofeach component of the space suit from Project Mercury to the Shuttle.

Kudish, Henry. "The Lunar Rover." *Spaceflight*.12 (July 1970): 270-74. A brief discussion by the project managerat Boeing of the design of the lunar rover. Easy to understandwith a photo and several diagrams.

Lankes, L.R. "The Role of Optics in the Apollo Program."*Optical Spectra*. 3 (September/October 1969): 39-56. Thislengthy account discusses the many optical devices used on theApollo 11 mission. They included a variety of cameras, lenses,filters, light meters, mirrors, sights, and combinations thereofinto sextants and telescopes. This variety of equipment funneleda significant portion of the information obtained from the mission.Somewhat technical in places, for the most part this account isaccessible to the lay reader.

Lay, Bierne. *Earthbound Astronautics: The Builders of Apollo-Saturn*.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1971. A breezy and rathersuperficial account of the government and industry team that designed,managed, and built the Apollo spacecraft. For the general readerrather than the serious researcher except to the extent that itimparts some of the flavor of the enterprise and provides anecdotes,character sketches, and the like.

Lloyd, Mallon. *Suiting up for Space*. New York: John Day,1971. Details the development of the space suit in Europe andthe United States through the full- pressure suits used in Mercury,Gemini, and Apollo.

"Lunar Roving Vehicle." *Space World*. December1971, pp. 12-25. As the title suggests, a detailed descriptionwith diagrams and photos of the lunar roving vehicle used on Apollo15.

Mast, L.T.; Mayper, V.; and Pilnick, C. *Survey of Saturn/ApolloCheckout Automation, Spring 1965; Detailed Description*. SantaMonica, CA: The Rand Corp., 1966. Besides a study of the checkouttesting system for the Saturn launch vehicle, this report providesinformation on stages and launch vehicles, test planning, andprogramming.

Morse, Mary Louise, and Bays, Jean Kernahan. *The Apollo Spacecraft:A Chronology, Volume II, November 8, 1962-September 30, 1964*.Washington, DC: NASA SP-4009, 1973. Organized like the previousvolume (by Ertel and Morse) in the series, this one covers theperiod from the conceptual design of the Apollo spacecraft throughthe formal inspection and review of the so-called Block II commandand service module mockup. Included are the reorganization ofthe Office of Manned Space Flight under George E. Mueller andhis appointment of Maj. Gen. Sam Phillips as deputy director andthen director of the Apollo program.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Office of CongressionalRelations. *Saturn SA-1*. Washington, DC: Office of CongressionalRelations, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, n.d.This booklet contains a series of documents and illustrationsfrom 1961, prepared to explain to Congress the impending firstlaunch of the Saturn I (Saturn-Apollo 1) rocket on 27 October1961. Useful for its specific information about that initial versionof the Saturn family of launch vehicles that ultimately carriedhumans to the Moon.

Ordway, Frederick Ira, III, and Sharpe, Mitchell R. Foreword byWernher von Braun. *The Rocket Team*. New York: Crowell,1979. This popular history by an associate of von Braun who haswritten widely on space issues and another noted writer aboutspace is devoted almost exclusively to the V-2 rocket with onlya few pages providing an overview of the Saturn program.

Pellegrino, Charles R., and Stoff, Joshua. *Chariots for Apollo:The Making of the Lunar Module*. New York: Atheneum, 1985.A popular and not always accurate discussion of the developmentof the Lunar Module by Grumman.

"Project Apollo: The Last Lap." *Spaceflight*.11 (June 1969): 186-8. A foretaste of Apollo 11 with a descriptionof the lunar module.

"Project Apollo: The Portable Life Support System."*Spaceflight*. 12 (April 1970): 155-7. Describes the systeminside the Apollo space suit that supports life during lunar excursionsor extra-vehicular activities.

Simpkinson, S.H. "Testing to Insure Mission Success."*Astronautics and Aeronau- tics*. 8 (March 1970): 50-55.Simpkinson, who ran the Apollo spacecraft test program, discussesthe testing procedures used to date in the Apollo program, includingchanges introduced after the Apollo 204 fire. He lists sixteenprinciples and recommendations resulting from the experience thusfar in the program.

Stachurski, Richard J. "A Look at Apollo Ground Support Control."*Air University Review*. 23 (March-April 1972): 55-67. Thisarticle by a junior Air Force officer who served two tours withNASA discusses NASA's ground tracking network in a broad and comprehensibleway with a number of photos to illustrate a key element in carryingout the Apollo and other missions into space.

Stengel, Robert F. "Manual Attitude Control of the LunarModule." *Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets*. 7 (August1970): 941-48. An extremely technical description of the way theastronaut-pilot controlled the lunar module. 15 reference notesand 12 figures.

Swenson, Loyd S., Jr. "On the Mixture of Science and Technologyin the *Apollo 8* Circumlunar and the *Apollo 11* LunarLanding Missions." *Actes du XIIIe Congres Internationald'Histoire des Sciences*. 12 (1974): 226-46. These remarks,delivered as a paper at the 13th International Congress of theHistory of Science in Moscow in 1971, concludes that the Apollo8 and Apollo 11 missions fit better into the rubric of the historyof technology than the history of science, with the latter missionrepresenting a "compromise between scientific and engineeringtrade-offs" that could hardly satisfy either scientists orengineers. However, the follow-on Apollo missions after the technologyhad been demonstrated did yield greater scientific returns onthe technological investment.

Tomayko, James E. "Achieving Reliability: The Evolution ofRedundancy in American Manned Spacecraft." *Journal ofthe British Interplanetary Society*. 38 (1985): 545-53. Devotedmainly to the computer systems on the Shuttle, this brief articlealso discusses the backup systems employed on Gemini and Apollo.

______. *Computers in Space Flight: The NASA Experience*.NASA Contractor Report 182505, 1988, multilith. Much broader inits coverage than Apollo, this rather technical and conceptuallynarrow study contains a lengthy chapter on the computers usedin the lunar program.

______. *Computers in Spaceflight: The NASA Experience*,published as volume 18, *Encyclopedia of Computer Science andTechnology*, Kent, Allen, and Williams, James G., editors.New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1987. A published version of thereport above.

______. "Digital Fly-by-Wire: A Case of Bidirectional TechnologyTransfer." *Aerospace Historian*. 33 (Spring 1986):10-18. This article deals mostly with post-Apollo technology butdoes discuss the origins of the fly-by-wire concept in the attitudecontrol devices used for the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo spacecraft.

______. "NASA's Manned Spacraft Computers." *Annalsof the History of Comput- ing*. 7 (January 1985): 7-18. Arguesthat contrary to popular belief, NASA has not been at the forefrontof computer development except in the areas of fault toleranceand software verification. Elsewhere, NASA has used existing computertechnology that has already proved itself, thereby ensuring reliability.

United States General Accounting Office. *Incentive Provisionsof Saturn V Stage Contracts: Report to the Congress on the NationalAeronautics and Space Administra- tion*. Washington, DC: GeneralAccounting Office, 1970. A detailed report discussing NASA's $26.2million in schedule incentives written into contracts for theS-IC and S-IVB Saturn V stages. GAO believed the incentives wereunnecessary but NASA argued that they reduced costs, permittedmission adjustments, and kept the program costs at the minimumobtainable.

United States General Accounting Office. *Overstatement of ContractTarget Cost for First Stage of Saturn V Launch Vehicle: Reportto the Congress on the National Aeronautics and Space Administration*.Washington, DC: General Accounting Office, 1970. This short reportconcludes that Boeing overcharged NASA for the first stage ofthe Saturn V launch vehicle by about $695,000. Boeing disagreed.United States General Accounting Office. *Overstatement of ContractTarget Costs for F-1 Rocket Engines for Saturn V Launch Vehicle:Report to the Congress on the National Aeronautics and Space Administration*.Washington, DC: General Accounting Office, 1970. A detailed reportclaiming that North American Rockwell overcharged NASA by $6.5million for the Saturn V's F-1 engine. North American disagreedgenerally with the findings.

United States General Accounting Office. *Review of the SaturnS-IVB-503 stage accident under the Apollo Program; Report to theCongress on the National Aeronautics and Space Administration*.Washington, DC: General Accounting Office, 1969. A report on theacceptance test firing of the S-IVB-503 stage of the Saturn launchvehicle, in which the stage exploded and was destroyed, it estimatescosts of $13.3 million for the accident. The report concludedthat if McDonnell Douglas Corporation and its subcontractors hadfollowed established quality assurance procedures, there probablywould have been no accident.

United States House, Committee on Science and Astronautics, Subcommitteeon NASA Oversight. *Investigation into Apollo 204 accident,Hearings, Ninetieth Congress, first session*. Washington, DC:Govt. Print. Off., 1967. This 3-volume committee print containstestimony, a summary of actions taken on the findings and determina-tions of the accident review board, the report of that board itself,and a report on the principal new features of the new (Block II)command and service module as compared with the one involved inthe accident (Block I), together with a description of the testingplanned to validate the changes made.

Widnall, William S. "Lunar Module Digital Autopilot."*Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets*. 8 (January 1971): 56-67.A highly technical discussion of the autopilot system on the lunarmodule. 16 reference notes and 10 figures.

Williamson, Mark. "Engineering the Lunar Module." *Space*.7 (1 May 1991): 20. The author retraces how Grumman fought tokeep the weight of the Apollo Lunar Module down while maintainingthe project on schedule.

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