# U n i t e d S t a t e s C o u r t o f A pp e a l s

For the Eig hth Circu it

_ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

No . 1 8 -1 1 48

_ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

T o m J o h ns o n ,

l l ll l l l l l l l l l l ll l l l l l Pl a i nt i

f f - Ap p el lee

,

v

.

Pat ri ck M cCarv er, i n h i s i n d iv i d u al an d o ffi ci al cap aci t y as an o ffi cer o f t h e Ci t y

o f M i n n eap o l i s ; Ci t y

o f M i n n eap o li s fo r J o h n LaLu zern e, Deceas ed

,

l l l l l l l ll l ll l l l l l l l l l Def

en d a n t s - Ap pel l an t s ,

Ci t y o f M i n n eap ol is

,

ll l l l l l l l l l l l l ll l ll l l Def

en da n t

.

_ __ _ _ __ _ __ _ _

Ap p eal fro m

Un i t ed St at es Di s t ri ct Co u rt
fo r t h e Di s t ri ct o f M i n nes o t a - M in n eap o l i s

_ __ _ _ __ _ __ _ _

Su b m i t t ed : Feb ru ary

1 3 , 2 01 9

Fi l ed : No v em

b er 1 , 2 0 1 9

_ __ _ _ __ _ __ _ _

Befo re LOKEN, COLLOTON, an d KELLY, Ci rcu i t J u d g es

.

_ __ _ _ __ _ __ _ _COLLOTON, Ci rcu i t J u d g e.

T o m J o h n s o n su ed Serg ean t Pat ri ck M cCarv er an d Offi cer J o h n LaLu z e r n e

u n d er 4 2 U.S.C. § 1 9 83

, al l eg i n g t h at t h e o ffi cers v i o l at ed h is co ns t i t u t i o nal ri g h t s by

carry i n g ou t an arres t wi t h ou t p ro b ab l e cau s e an d i n ret al i at io n fo r sp eech

, fal s i fy i n g

a p o li ce rep o rt

, u s i n g ex ces s i v e fo rce ag ai n s t hi m , an d co n s p i ri n g t o v i o l at e h i s ri g ht s

. Th e o ffi cer s u n s u c ces s fu l l y m o v ed fo r s u m m ary ju d g m en t

, an d th ey ap p eal t h e

d i s t ri ct co u rt ’ s d en ial o f q ual i fi ed i m m u n i ty . W e affi rm

i n p art an d rev ers e i n p art

.

I.

J o h n s o n i s a 6-fo o t 3 -i n ch

, 2 8 4 -p o u n d p ro fes s io n al fo o t b al l p l ay er, wh o m o s t

re cen t l y p l ay ed d efen s i v e t ack l e fo r th e M in n es o t a Vi k i n g s

. Becau s e t h i s ap p eal

ari s es fro m t he d en ial o f a m o t i o n fo r s u m m ary ju dg m en t, we reci te an y d i s p ut ed fact s

i n t he l i g h t m o s t fav o rab l e t o J o h n s o n.

On Oct o b er 5

, 2 01 4 , aro u n d 2 : 1 5 a.m ., J o h n s o n was wai t i ng i n si d e t he l o b by

o f a n ig h t cl u b cal l ed “ Sev en ” fo r a p ark i n g at ten d an t t o ret u rn wi t h h i s car. Th e cl u b

h ad cl o s ed at 2 : 0 0 a.m , b u t J oh n s o n , al o n g w i t h o th er p at ro n s , rem ai n ed i n s i de.

Bry an t W eb s t er, t h e cl u b ’ s l ead s ecu ri t y d o orm an , ap p ro ach ed J o h n s o n. A cco rd i n g

t o J o hn s o n , W eb s t er t o ld Jo h ns o n t h at h e n eed ed t o l eav e b ecau se h i s b o o t s v i o l at ed

t h e d res s co d e. J o h n so n arg u ed t h at h e s ho u l d b e al lo wed t o wai t i n t h e l ob b y , an d

W eb s t er wal k ed away

.

W eb s t er s u b seq uen t l y t o l d Serg ean t Pat ri ck M cCarv er, an o ff-d u t y p o l i ce

o ffi cer wo rk i n g fo r t h e cl ub

, t h at J o h n so n need ed t o leav e. M cCa r v er ap p ro ach ed

J o h n so n an d t o l d h i m to l eav e. J o h n s o n ex p l ai n ed t o M cCarv er t hat h e was wai t i n g

fo r h i s c a r a nd s h owed hi m a v al et p ark i n g recei p t

. He q u es ti o n ed w h y M cCarv er

was s i n gl i n g hi m o u t w h en o t h ers were al s o wai t i n g fo r t h ei r cars

. M cCarv er’ s fel l o w

-2

-o ff-d u t y o ffi cer, J o h n LaLu zer n e , wal k ed ov er an d al s o t o ld J o h n s o n h e need ed to

l eav e.

M cCarv er p u t h i s h an d o n J o h n so n ’ s t ri cep an d n u dg ed h i m to ward s t h e d o o r.

J o h n so n b eg an wal k in g b ack ward t o ward t h e do o r, t el l i n g t h e o ffi cers , “ y o u d o n ’ t

h av e t o p u t y o u r h an d s o n m e,” an d as k i n g t h em , “ w h y are y o u t ou ch i n g m e”? Th e

o ffi cers g u i d ed Jo h n so n t o w ard t h e d o o r, an d McCarv er t hen s h o ved h i m ag ai n s t i t

. J o h n so n p re s s e d ag ai n s t th e d o o r, wh ich op en ed sl i gh t ly

, an d t h en b o u n ced b ack

t o ward s t h e offi cers

. M cCarv er d i rect ed p ep p er s p ray at J o h n s on , an d b o t h o ffi cers

t h en p us h ed h i m

o u t t h e d o or.

Ou t s i d e t h e cl u b

, J o h n s o n cal l ed a car t o d ri ve h i m h om e. W h i l e w ai t i n g fo r

t h e car to arri v e, J o h n s o n s at on a p l an t er d i rect l y o u t s i d e t he cl u b

. M o re th an fi ft een

m i n u t es l a t er, th e o ffi cers wal k ed o u t of t he cl u b

, an d J o h n s o n b eg an fi lm i n g t h em

wi t h h i s cel l p h o n e cam era. M cCarv er s aw J o h n so n , ap p ro ach ed hi m , an d as k ed fo r

h i s i den t i fi cat i o n

. J o hn s o n s ai d t h at h e p os s es sed h i s i d en t i fi cat i o n , b ut was n o t g o i n g

t o g i v e i t t o M cCarv er, b ecau s e h e h ad n o t “ d o n e an y t h i n g wro n g .”

M cCarv er s l ap p ed t h e cel l p ho n e o u t o f J o h n s o n ’ s h an d

, an d t h e p h o n e h i t t h e

g ro u nd an d s h at tered

. J o hn s o n s t o od up , b en t o ver, p i ck ed u p th e ph o ne, an d s at b ack

d o wn . Bo t h o ffi cers t urn ed o n t h ei r t as er g u n s , an d M cCarv er t as ed J o h n s o n i n t h e

b ack

, p u l l i n g t he tri g g er t wi ce. Th e fi rs t ti m e M cCarv er s q ueezed th e t ri g g er fo r n i n e

s eco n d s ; t h e s eco n d t i m e fo r fi v e. J o h n s o n fel l t o t h e g ro u n d

, an d th e o ffi cers p u t h i m

o n h i s s i d e.

Th e offi cers han d cu ffed J o h n so n an d to o k h i m t o t h e Hen n ep i n Co u n t y J ai l fo r

b o o k i n g

. Th e co u nt y at t o rn ey ch arg ed J o hn s on w ith t res p as s , di s o rd erl y co n d u ct

, an d

o b s t ru ct i ng l eg al pro ces s. Aft er a week -l o n g t ri al

, a j u ry acq u i t t ed h i m of al l ch arg es

.

-3

-J o h n s o n s u ed M cCarv er, LaLu zern e , a n d t h e Ci t y o f M in n eap o l i s , al l eg i n g

cl ai m s u n d er fed eral an d s t at e l aw. He v o lu n t ari l y d i s m i s sed h i s cl ai m a g a i n s t t h e

Ci t y an d h i s s t a t e

- l a w cl ai m ag ai n s t t h e o ffi cers

. Th e o ffi cers m o v ed fo r s u m m ary ju d g m en t o n th e fed eral cl ai m s , arg u i n g t h at q u al i fi ed i m m u ni t y p recl u d ed t h e

l aws u i t

. Th e d is t ri ct co u r t d en i ed t h e m o t i o n , co n cl u di ng t h at t h ere were g en u i n e

d i s p u t es o f m at eri al fact t h at req u i red a t ri al

.

II.

As an i n i ti al m at t er, J o h ns o n co n ten d s t h at becau s e t h e d i s t ri ct co u rt

d et erm i n ed t h at fact u al d i sp u tes p recl u d ed su m m ary ju d g m en t

, we l ack j u ri s d i ct i o n

t o rev i ew t h o s e ru l i ng s

. W e o rd i n ari l y l ack ju ri s di ct i o n to deci d e “ wh i ch fact s a p art y

m a y , o r m a y n o t

, b e ab l e t o p ro v e at t ri al ,” Jo h n s o n v. Jo nes , 51 5 U.S. 3 0 4

, 3 1 3
(1 9 9 5), an d we are “ co ns t rai n ed by t he vers i o n o f t h e fact s t h at t h e d i s t ri ct co u rt

as s u m ed o r l i k el y as s u m ed i n reach i n g it s d eci s i o n .” Th o mp s o n v. Mu r r a y , 8 0 0 F.3 d

9 7 9

, 9 83 (8 t h Ci r. 2 0 1 5). Bu t w e d o h av e “ au t h o ri t y to d eci de t h e p u rel y l eg al i s s u e

o f wh et her t h e fact s al l eg ed b y t h e p l ai n t i ff are a v i ol at io n o f cl earl y es t ab l i s h ed l aw.”

Fr a nkl in ex r el

. Es ta t e o

f Fr an kl i n v. Pet er

s o n , 8 78 F.3 d 6 3 1

, 6 3 5 ( 8 t h Ci r. 2 0 1 7 ).

Th e o ffi cers as k u s t o rev i ew t hat p u rel y l eg al i s s u e, s o we h av e ju ri s d ict i o n

.

W h en a d efen d an t as s ert s a d efen s e o f q u al i fi ed im m un i t y , a p l ai n t i f

f m u s t

s h o w t h at t h e fact s t ak en i n t h e l i g ht m o s t fav orab l e t o hi m es t ab l i s h (1 ) t h at t h e

d e f e n d a n t v i o l at ed hi s co ns t it u t i o n al ri g h t an d (2 ) t h at t h e ri g h t was cl earl y

es t ab l i s h ed at t h e t i m e o f t h e i n ci d en t

. P e a r s o n v. Ca l l a ha n , 5 5 5 U.S. 2 2 3

, 2 3 2
(2 0 0 9). A ri gh t i s “ c l earl y es t ab l i s h ed ” o n l y i f t h e v i o lat i o n was “ b ey on d d eb at e”

s u ch t h at o n ly a p l ai n l y i n co m p et en t o ffi cer o r a k n owi n g l awb reak er wo u l d en g ag e

i n th e al l eg ed m i s co n d u ct

. Di s tr i ct o f Co l u mb i a v. W

es b y , 1 3 8 S. Ct

. 5 7 7

, 5 8 9 (2 0 1 8 )

(q u o ti n g As h cr o

f t v. a l -Ki d

d

, 5 6 3 U.S. 7 3 1 , 7 4 1 (2 0 1 1 )).

-4

-A.

J o h n s o n fi rs t al l eg es v i o l at io n s o f t h e Fi rs t an d Fo u rt h Am en d m en ts ari s i n g

fro m h i s arres t

. He co n t en ds t hat t h e o ffi cers v i o l at ed h i s Fo u rt h Am en d m en t ri g ht

t o b e free fro m an u nreas o nab l e s ei zu re wi t h o u t p ro bab l e cau s e. Un d er t h e Fi rs t

Am en d m en t

, h e cl ai m s th at t h e o ffi cers carri ed o ut a ret al i at o ry arres t b as ed o n h i s

ex erci s e o f a ri g ht t o free s peech wh en h e fi l m ed t h e o ffi cers

. An a r r e s t g e n eral l y

d o es n o t v i o l at e th e Fo u rt h Am en d m en t o r t h e Fi rs t Am en d m en t wh en i t i s s u p p o rt ed

b y p ro b ab l e cau s e t h at t h e arres t ee co m m i t ted a m i s d em ean o r o ffen s e i n t h e pres en ce

o f an arres t i n g offi cer. S ee Ni eves v. Ba r t l et t

, 1 3 9 S. Ct

. 1 7 15

, 1 7 2 3 -2 4 (2 0 1 9 );

At wa t er v. Ci t

y o f L a g o V i s ta

, 5 3 2 U.S. 3 1 8, 3 5 4 (2 0 01 ). Th e o ffi cers h ere are

e n t i t l e d to q ual i fi ed i m

m u n i t y o n t h es e Fi rs t an d Fo urt h Am en dm en t cl ai m s i f

J o h n so n ’s a r r e s t w as s up p o rt ed b y at leas t ar g ua b l e p ro b ab l e cau s e. W a t er s v.

Ma d s o n , 9 2 1 F.3 d 7 2 5

, 7 4 1 (8 th Ci r. 2 0 1 9 ); W a l ker v

. C i t y o f Pi n e Bl u

f f

, 41 4 F.3 d

9 8 9

, 9 9 2 (8 t h Ci r. 2 0 0 5 ). A rg u ab l e pro b ab l e cau s e ex i s t s i f i t tu rn s o u t t h at an o ffi cer

l ack ed ad eq u at e g ro u n d s fo r an arres t

, b u t m ad e an o bject i v el y reas o n a b l e m i s t ak e

ab o ut th e ex is t en ce o f p ro b ab l e cau se. Bo r gma n v. Ked l ey , 6 4 6 F.3 d 5 1 8

, 5 2 3 (8 th

Ci r

. 2 0 11 ). Th e o ffi cers co n ten d t h at t h ere was at l eas t arg u ab l e p ro bab l e cau s e to

arres t J o hn s on fo r t res p as s , o b st ru ct i o n o f ju s t i ce, an d d is ord erl y co n d uct

.

A pers o n co m

m i t s a m i s d em ean or u nd er Mi n n es o t a l aw w h en h e “ t res p as s es

o n th e p rem i s es o f an o th er an d

, wi t h o u t cl ai m o f ri g h t

, refu s es t o d e p a r t fro m t h e

p rem i s es o n d em an d of th e l awfu l p o s s es s o r.” M i n n

. St at

. § 6 09 .6 0 5

, s ub d .1 (b )(3 ).

A “ d em an d o f t h e l awfu l p os s es s o r” m ay co m e fro m t h e p o ss es s or o r hi s ag en t

. S t a t e

v. Du b o s e , No

. A1 5 -0 0 6 9, 2 0 1 5 W L 9 4 3 7 52 1

, at * 2 (M i n n. Ct

. Ap p

. Dec. 2 8

, 2 0 1 5 );

s ee St a t e v. Qu i nn el l

, 1 5 1 N.W .2 d 5 9 8

, 6 0 2 -0 3 (M i n n

. 1 96 7 ). Th e t erm “ ag en t ” i s

“ o n e o f w i d e s i g ni fi cat i o n ” i n t h i s co n t ex t

, an d a p o l ice o ffi cer can b e t he ag en t o f a

p ri v at e l an d o w n er fo r t h e pu rp o s e o f co n v ey i ng a rev o cat i o n o f l i cen se o r a d em an d

t o d ep art

. Q u i nn el l , 1 5 1 N.W .2 d at 6 0 2

.

-5

-It is u n d i s p u ted t h at aft er t h e cl u b cl os ed , t h e l ead s ecu ri t y d o o rm an W eb s t er

t o l d J o h n s o n t h at h e was n o l o n g er al l owed i n t h e cl u b an d n eed ed to l eav e. M o m en t s

l at er, W eb s t e r t o l d M cCarv er, wh i l e p o i n t i ng at J o h n s o n , t h at “ [h ] e n eed s t o l eav e

r i g h t n o w.” M cCarv er t h en ap p ro ach ed J o hn s o n an d al s o t o l d h i m t o l eav e

. LaLu zern e t o l d J o h n s o n t o l eav e. J o h ns o n ad m i ts th at h e d id n o t l eav e p ro m p t l y aft er

recei v i ng M cCarv er’ s i n s t ru ct i o n t o ex it

. He i ns t ead arg ued wi t h M cCarv er, fi rs t

t el l i n g hi m t h at h e was wai t i n g fo r h i s v eh i cl e an d t h en as ki n g wh y h e was b ei n g

s i ng l ed ou t. J o h n s o n co n t en ds t h at h e d id n o t t r e s p a s s , h o wev er, b ecau s e h e h ad a

cl ai m o f ri g h t t o rem ai n i n th e l o b b y t o wai t fo r hi s car, an d m i n i m al fu rt h er

i n v es t i g at i o n wo u l d h av e v eri fi ed t h at ri g h t

.

W e co n cl u de th at th e o ffi cers are en t it l ed t o q u al i f i e d i m m u n i t y o n t h es e

cl ai m s

. E v en i f J o h n so n i n i t i al ly h ad a ri g h t t o wai t i n t h e l o b by

, a reas o n ab le o ffi cer

co u ld hav e b el i ev ed t h at W eb s t er o r t h e o ffi cers t h em s el v es rev o k ed t h at ri g h t by

d i rect i n g J o h n so n t o leav e. S ee Qu i n n el l

, 1 5 1 N.W .2 d at 6 02 -0 3 ; S ta t e v. Br a g g , No

. A1 7 -0 2 8 7

, 2 0 1 8 W L 8 1 72 8 3

, at * 3 (M i n n. Ct

. Ap p

. Feb

. 1 2

, 2 0 1 8 ). M i n i m al fu rt h er

i n v es t i g at i o n wo u l d n o t h av e affect ed t h at co ncl u s i o n. W h at t h e o ffi cers s aw , in

ad d it i o n t o w h at W eb s ter to l d M cCarv er, al o n g wi t h J o hn s o n ’ s res i s tan ce t o t h e

o ffi cers ’ co m

m an ds t o l eav e, p ro v i d ed arg u ab l e p ro b ab l e cau s e t o arres t fo r t res p as s

.

J o h n s o n al s o cl ai m s th at t h ere i s a fact ual d is p u te ab o ut wh et h er M c C a rv er

h eard W eb s t er t el l J o h n s o n t h at h e n eed ed t o l eav e. W i t h ou t h eari n g t h at di rect i o n,

h e arg u es , M cCarv er l ack ed pro b ab l e cau s e t h at J o h ns o n w as tres p as s i n g

. Bu t

wh et h er o r n o t M cCarv er h eard W eb st er’ s s t at em en t t o J o h n so n , i t i s u n d i s p u t ed t h at

W eb s t er t o l d M cCarv er t h at J o h n s o n n eed ed t o l eav e; t h at Jo h ns o n d id n o t h ear t h e

W eb s t er-M cCarv er co m

m u ni cat i o n d o es n ot creat e a g en u in e d i s p u t e. J o hn s o n t h en

refu sed t o l eav e aft er M cCarv er an d LaLu zern e t ol d hi m t o d o so

. T h es e u n d i s p u t ed

fact s are s u ffi ci en t t o es tab l i s h arg u ab l e p ro bab l e cau s e t h at J o h n s on t res p as s ed

, s o

-6

-an y d i s pu t e ab o u t M cCarv er heari n g W eb s t er’ s co m m u ni cat i on t o J o h n so n i s n ot

m at eri al

.

In d en y in g q ual i fi ed i m

m u n i t y, t h e d i s t ri ct co u rt t ho u g h t “ [t ] h e fact t h at t h e

o ffi cers al l owed a s u b s t an t i al l en g t h o f t i m e t o p as s b efo re a r r e s t i n g J o h n s o n cas t s

d o u b t o n t h e o ffi cers ’ cl ai m t h at t h ey h ad p ro b ab l e cau se t o arres t hi m .” T h at an al y s i s

ap p ears t o co n fu s e t h e s ub ject i v e b el i efs o f t h e o ffi cer s w i t h t h e o b ject i v e

req u i rem en t s o f t h e Fo urt h Am en dm en t . W h et h er t h e o ffi cers s u b ject i v el y t h o u g ht

t h ere was p ro b ab l e cau s e t o arres t fo r t res p as s i s i rrel ev an t

. Ca r p en t er v. G a g e , 6 8 6

F.3 d 6 44

, 6 4 9 (8 t h Ci r. 2 0 1 2). W e ex am i ne o n l y t h e o bject i v e q u es ti o n wh et h er t h e

ci rcu m s t an ces k n o w n t o t h e o ffi cers es t ab l is h ed a fai r p ro b ab i li t y t h at J o h n so n

co m m i t t ed an o ffen s e. J oh n s o n ’ s refu s al t o l eav e aft er ag en t s of t he cl u b rev o k ed h i s

l i cen se t o rem ai n es t ab l i s hed arg u ab l e p ro b ab l e cau s e t o b el i ev e t h at h e t res p as s ed

. Arg uab l e p ro b ab l e cau s e th at h e h ad co m m i t t ed an o ffen s e i n s i d e t h e cl u b co n t i n u ed

t o ex is t fi ft een m i n u t es l at er wh en t h e o ffi cers arres t ed J o h n s o n

. W h et h er t h e o ffi cers

ex erci s ed p o o r ju dg m en t i n el ect i n g t o arres t J oh n s o n aft er t he o ri g i n al d i s p u t e was

res o l ved i s n ot p ert i n en t t o t h e o b ject i ve p ro b ab l e-cau s e an al ys i s u n d er t he Fo u rt h

Am en d m en t

.

Th e o ffi cers al so cl ai m q u al i fi ed i m m u n it y o n J oh n s o n ’ s cl ai m un d er t h e Du e

Pro ces s Cl au se. J o h n s o n as s ert s t h at th e o ffi cers d ep ri v ed h i m o f l i b ert y wi t h o u t d u e

p ro ces s o f l aw b y fal s i fy i n g a rep o rt o f h i s arres t

. An y d ep ri v a t i o n of J o h n s o n ’ s

l i bert y b efo re hi s cri m i n al t ri al

, h o wev er, i s go v ern ed b y th e Fo u rt h Am en d m en t an d

i t s p ro h i b i t i o n o n u n reas o n ab le s ei zu res

. Ma n u el v. Ci t y of Jo l i et

, 1 3 7 S. Ct

. 9 1 1

, 9 1 7
(2 0 1 7). (On t hi s is s u e, M a n u el ab ro g at ed M

o r a n v

. Cl a r

ke

, 2 96 F.3 d 6 3 8

, 6 4 6 -4 7
(8 t h Ci r. 2 0 02 ) (en b an c ).) An y p o s t -t r ia l cl ai m b as ed o n th e al l eg ed fal s e rep o rt

req u i r e s a s h o w i n g t h at t h e rep o rt was u s ed to d ep ri v e Jo h n s o n of l i b ert y i n s o m e

way

. S ee W in s l o w v. S

m i t h

, 6 9 6 F.3 d 7 1 6

, 7 3 5 (8 t h Ci r. 2 0 1 2). T h e ju ry acq u i t t ed

J o h n so n , an d h e s u ffered no d ep ri v at i o n o f l i b ert y aft er t h e tri al

. Acco rd i n g l y , t h ere

-7

-i s i n s u ffi ci en t ev i d en ce to su p po rt a fi n d i n g t h at t h e offi cers v i o lat ed J o h ns o n ’ s ri g h t s

u n d er t h e Du e Pro ces s Cl au s e.

Fo r t h es e reas o n s , t h e offi cers are en t i tl ed to q ual i fi ed i m m u n i t y o n J o h n s o n ’ s

cl ai m s al leg i n g fal s e arres t u n d er t h e Fo u rt h Am en d m en t, ret al i at o ry arres t u n d er t h e

Fi rs t Am en d m en t

, an d d ep ri v at i o n o f l i b ert y i n vi o l at i o n o f t h e Du e Pro ces s Cl au s e.

B.

Th e o ffi cers n ex t as s ert q u al i fi ed i m m u n i t y o n J o h n s o n ’ s cl ai m s t h at t h e

o ffi cers v i o l at ed h i s Fo u rt h Am en d m en t ri g h t t o b e free fro m an u n reas o n ab l e u s e o f

fo rce. Jo h ns o n as s ert s t h at t h e o ffi cers v i ol at ed h i s ri g h t s wh en t h ey s h o v ed h i m in

t h e c l u b l o b b y , ap p l i ed pep p er s p ray in h is face at t h e cl u b ’ s ex i t

, an d s tu n n ed h i m

wi t h a t as er g u n wh i l e he wai t ed fo r a car o u t s i d e t h e cl u b

. An o ffi cer’ s u s e o f fo rce

v i o l at es t h e Fo u rt h Am en d m en t i f i t i s o b ject i v el y u n reas on ab le. Gr a h a m v. Co n n o r , 4 9 0 U.S. 38 6, 3 9 7 (1 9 8 9 ). Reas o n ab l en es s i s ju d g e d f r o m th e pers p ect i v e o f

reas on ab l e o ffi cers o n t h e s cen e, “ in l i g h t o f t h e fact s an d ci rcu m s t an ces co n fro n t i n g

t h em , wi t h o ut reg ard t o t h ei r u n d erl y i n g i n t en t o r m o t i vat i on .” Id

. at 3 9 6 -9 7

.

J o h n s o n fi rs t cl ai m s t h at t h e o ffi cers u s ed ex ces si v e fo rce wh en t hey p u s h ed

h i m i n t h e cl ub l o b b y an d ap p l i ed p ep p er s p ray at t h e cl ub ’ s ex it

. J o h n so n

ack n owl ed ged t h at h e i n i t i al l y d i d n o t co m p l y w i t h M cCarv er’ s i n st ru ct io n s t o l eav e,

an d t h at he b eg an b ack i ng t o ward th e d o o r o n l y aft er M cCarv er p u s h ed h i m i n t h at

d i rect i o n

. Su rv ei l l an ce v i deo s h o ws t h at wh en J o hn s on m ad e co n t act wi t h t h e d o o r,

t h e d o or op en ed sl i g h t ly

. Bu t i n s t ead o f ex i t i n g t hro u g h t h e part i al ly -o p en ed d o o r,

J o h n so n s t o p p ed an d rai sed h i s h an d s i n f r o n t o f h i s ch es t

. Al th ou g h J o h n so n

t e s t i f i ed t h at h e was t ry in g t o l eav e i n co m p l i an ce wi t h t h e o ffi cers ’ o rd er s , a

reas on ab l e o ffi cer co u l d h a v e b e l i ev ed t hat J oh n s o n was res i s t i n g, an d th at i t was

n eces s ary t o u s e fo rce to eject h i m fro m t h e cl u b . Th e am ou n t o f fo rce ap p l i ed was

-8

-n o t u n reas o n ab l e u n d er t he ci rcu m s t an ces , g i v en J o hn s on ’ s ap p aren t res i s tan ce, s i ze,

an d s t ren g t h

. Th e o ffi cers are t h u s en t i t led to q u al i fi ed i m m u n i t y o n J o h n so n ’ s cl ai m s

al l eg in g u s e o f ex ces si v e fo rce i n s i de t he cl ub

.

M cCarv er as s ert s t h a t h e i s al s o en t i t l ed t o q ual i fi ed i m m u ni t y o n J o h n s o n ’ s

cl ai m th at McCarv er u s ed ex ces s i v e fo rce by t as i ng hi m o u t s i d e t h e cl u b

. On t h i s

p o i n t

, we ag ree w i t h J o h n s o n

. Th ere are g en u in e d i s p u t es o f m at eri al fact ab o ut

wh et h er M cCarv er’ s u s e of th e t as er v i o l at ed Jo h ns o n ’ s cl earl y es t ab l i sh ed ri g h t s

u n d er t h e Fo u rt h Am en d m en t

.

It i s u n d i s p ut ed t h at m o re t han fi ft een m i n u t es aft er J o h n s o n e x i t ed t h e cl u b,

t h e o ffi cers wen t o u t s i d e an d s aw t h at J o h n so n w as s it t in g o n a p l an t er wh il e fi l m i n g

t h em wi t h h is cel l p h o n e. M cCarv er ap p ro ach ed Jo h n s o n an d k n o ck ed J o h n s o n ’ s

p h o n e t o t h e g ro u nd

. J o hn s on s t o o d u p , b en t ov er, p i ck ed up h is p h o n e, an d s at b ack

d o wn o n t h e p lan t er.

Th e p art i es di s ag ree ab ou t wh at h ap p en ed n ex t

. J o h ns o n t es ti fi ed t h at “ [o ] nce [h e] s at do wn ,” M cCarv er t as ed h i m i n t h e b ack

. Th e o ffi cers co n t en d t h at J o h n so n

s t oo d up ag ai n b e f

o r e M cCarv er fi red h is t as er: LaLu zern e t es t i fi ed t h at J o h n so n

s t ep p ed o n t o t h e p l an t er an d “ l u n g ed b ack d o wn at ” h i m ; M cCarv er as s ert s t h at

J o h n so n “ s t ep p ed o n t o t h e ben ch ” s u rro un d in g th e p l a n t er, an d p u s h ed LaLu zern e

away fro m h i m

. Th e o ffi cers arg u e t h at we s h ou l d d i s r e g a r d J oh n s o n ’ s acco u nt

b ecau s e i t i s “ b lat an t l y co nt rad i ct ed ” b y v i d eo fo o t ag e fro m a s ecu ri t y cam era. See

S co tt v

. Ha r ri s , 5 50 U.S. 37 2, 3 8 0 (2 00 7 ). Th e d is tri ct co u rt s aw n o b l at an t

co n trad i ct i o n an d co n cl u d ed th at “ t h e v i d eo i s m o re s u p p o rt i v e o f J oh n s o n ’ s v ers i o n

o f t h e i n ci d en t .” H av i n g rev i ewed t h e ev i d en ce o u rs el v es , we d eem i t i n co n cl u s i ve.

In rev i ewi ng t h e d en i al o f a m o t i on fo r s u m m ary ju d g m en t

, t her e f

o r e , w e accep t

J o h n so n ’ s v ers i o n t h at h e w as s eat ed p eacefu l l y o n th e p l an t er wh en M cCarv er t as ed

h i m

.

-9

-At t h e t i m e o f t h e i n ci d en t

, i t was cl earl y es t ab l i s hed t h at i t was u n reas o n ab l e

u n d er th e Fo urt h Am en d m en t t o ap p l y a t as er t o a “ n o n v i o l en t

, s u s p ect ed

m i s d em ean an t w h o w a s n o t fl eei n g o r res i s t i n g arres t

, [an d] wh o p o s ed l it t l e t o n o

t h reat t o an y o n e’ s s afet y .” Br o wn v. Ci t y o f Go l d en V a ll ey , 5 7 4 F.3 d 4 9 1 , 4 9 9 (8 th

Ci r. 2 0 0 9 ). Tak i n g t h e fact s i n t h e l i g h t m o s t fav o rab l e t o J o hn s on , M cCarv er

v i o l at ed t h i s cl earl y es t ab l i s h ed r i g h t w hen h e ap p l i ed t h e t as er t o J o hn s on

. Th e

d i s t ri ct co u rt co rrect l y d et erm i n ed t h at t h ere are g en u i n e i ss u es o f m at eri al fact t h at

p recl u d e s u m

m ary j u d gm en t o n t h is cl ai m

.

* * *

Fo r t h e fo reg o i n g reas o n s , we rev ers e th e d is tri ct co u rt ’ s o rd er d en y i n g

q u al i fi e d i m

m u n i t y fo r t h e o ffi cers o n J o h n s o n ’ s cl ai m s al l eg i n g fal se arres t

,
ret al i a to ry arres t

, d ep ri v at i o n o f l i b ert y wi th ou t d u e p ro ces s, an d u s e o f ex ces s i v e

fo rce i n s i d e t h e cl u b

. W e affi rm t h e o rd er w i t h res p e c t t o J o h n s o n ’ s cl ai m ag ai n s t

M cCarv er al l eg i n g u s e o f ex ces s i v e fo rce b y t h e t as er.

KELLY, Ci rcu i t J u d ge, co n cu rri n g i n p art an d d i s s en t i n g i n p art

.

I ag ree t h at t he o ffi cers are en t i t l e d t o q u al i fi ed i m m u n i t y o n J o h n s o n ’ s

d ep ri v at i o n -o f-l ib ert y cl ai m becau se h e s u ffered no p o st -t ri al d ep ri vat i o n o f l i b ert y

. I al s o ag ree t h e offi cers are n o t en t i t l ed t o q u al i fi ed i m m u ni t y o n J o h n s o n ’ s cl ai m fo r

ex ces s i v e fo rce ari s i ng fro m t h e t a s i n g

. I d i sag ree, h owev er, t h at th e o ffi cers are

en t i t l ed to qu al i fi ed i m

m u n i ty o n J o h n s o n ’ s rem ai n in g Fo u rt h Am en dm en t cl ai m s fo r

fal s e arres t an d ex ces s i v e fo rce, as wel l as h i s Fi rs t Am en d m en t ret al iat i on cl ai m

.

-1 0

-I

Th e c o u r t co n cl u d es t h at t h e o ffi cers are en ti t l ed t o q u al i fi ed i m m u n i t y o n

J o h n so n ’ s cl ai m s fo r fal s e arres t u n d er t h e Fo u rt h Am en dm en t an d ret al i at o ry arres t

u n d er t he Fi rs t A m en d m en t b ecau s e th e offi cers h ad arg u ab l e p ro b ab l e cau s e t o arres t

J o h n so n fo r t res p as s . I d i s ag ree.

A p ers on i s gu i l t y o f m i s d em ean or t res p as s i n M i n n es o t a i f h e o r s h e

“ i n ten t i o n al l y

. . . t res p as s es on t h e p rem i s es o f an o t h er an d , wi t h ou t cl ai m o f ri g h t

, refu ses t o d ep art fro m t h e p rem i s es o n d em an d o f t h e l awfu l p o ss es s o r.” Mi n n

. St at

. § 6 09 .6 0 5

. “ Ex pres s o r i m p l i ed co n s en t ”— t h at i s , a l ice n s e t o rem ai n o n t h e

p rem i s es

— fro m s om eo n e “ w h o h as t h e au t h o ri ty to g i v e s u ch co n s en t i s a d efen s e to

t h e ch arg e o f cri m i nal tres p as s

. ” St at e v

. Ho y t

, 30 4 N.W .2 d 8 8 4, 8 8 9 (M i n n

. 1 9 8 1 ).

An act i s n o t t res p as s i f “ co m m i t t ed i n g o o d fai t h b y o n e wh o act u al ly

. . . b el i ev es

t h at h e i s au t h o ri zed ” t o rem ai n o n th e p rem i s es

. St at e v. Brech on , 3 5 2 N.W .2 d 7 4 5,

7 4 9 (M i n n

. 1 9 84 ) (cl ean ed u p ). A pers o n ’ s b el i ef t h at h e h as a ri g h t to rem ai n o n t h e

p rem i s es n eed n ot b e fact u al ly co rrect ; a m i s t ak en bu t reas o n ab l e cl ai m o f ri g h t i s a

d efen s e t o t res p as s

. Ho y t , 3 0 4 N.W .2 d at 8 9 1

.

Vi ewi n g t h e reco rd i n th e l i gh t m o st fav o rab l e to J o h n s o n , t h e o ffi cers l ack ed

arg u ab le p ro b ab l e cau s e t o arres t h i m fo r t res p as s

. J us t b efo re 2 : 0 0 a.m

. o n Oct o b er

5

, 2 0 1 4

, J o hn s o n s t ep p ed o u t si d e Sev en t o g i v e h i s t ick et t o t h e v al et an d t h en wai t ed

fo r h i s car in s id e, w h ere ab ou t a d ozen ot h ers were al s o wai t i n g

. Sev en ’ s do o rm an , Bry an W eb s ter, as k ed J o h n s o n t o l eav e. J oh n s o n to l d W eb s t er he was wai t in g fo r t h e

v a l e t

, an d W eb s t er res p on d ed t h at hi s b o o t s v i o lat ed t h e cl u b d res s co d e. J o h n so n

ex p lai n ed t h at h e had b een t o Sev en b efo re w i t h i t s own ers , w eari n g t he s am e b o ot s ,

an d s ai d h e d i d n o t u n d ers t an d wh y h e was b ei ng s i n g led o ut fro m ev ery o n e el s e al s o

wai t i n g in t h e l o b b y

. W h en J oh n s o n s h owed W eb s t er hi s v al et t ick et

, W eb st er as k ed

,

-1 1

-“ W h o are y o u ? ” J o h n s o n res p o n d ed

, “ I’ m n ob o d y .” W eb s t er s ai d

, “ F* * * i t ,” an d

wal k ed away

.

M i n neap o l i s p o li ce o ffi cers Pat ri ck M cCarv er an d J o h n LaLu zern e w ere al s o

i n s i d e Sev en t h at ev en in g , wo rk i n g as s e c u r i t y i n t h ei r fu ll p o l i ce u n i fo rm s

. 1 Aft er

W eb s t er h ad wal k ed away fro m J o h n s o n , o n e of th e offi cers an n o u n ced t h at ev ery o n e

s h o u ld l eav e t h e cl u b

. J o h n so n as s u m ed t h i s d i d no t in cl u d e t h o s e wai t i n g fo r t h e

v al et b ecau s e, w h en h e l o o k ed aro u n d , n o o ne el se res p on d ed t o t h e an n o u n cem en t

b y l eav i n g

. McCarv er s o o n ap p ro ach ed J o h n so n an d t o l d h i m t o l e a v e

. J o h n so n

s h o we d h i m h i s val et t i ck et an d ex p l ai n ed h e w as wai t i n g fo r h i s car. At t hi s , M cCarv er p u s h ed J o h n s o n

. J o h n s o n b eg an back i n g u p t o ward th e ex it

, t el l i n g

M cCarv er t h at i t was n o t n eces s ary t o p u s h

. As J o h ns o n was b ack i n g u p , t h e o ffi cers

co n ti n u ed t o p us h h i m

. Jo h n s on p l aced h i s han d s n ear h i s ch es t t o p ro t ect h i m s el f,

an d di d n o t cu rs e o r rai s e h i s vo i ce. On ce J o hn s on was al m o s t at t h e ex it

, M cCarv er

p u s h ed h i m h ard

, an d J oh n s o n b o u n ced off t h e d oo r. J o h n s o n s ai d

, “ Y ou d o n ’ t h av e

t o d o t h at .” McCarv er t h en s p ray ed J o hn s on ’ s face wi t h p ep per s p ray , an d t h e

o ffi cers p u s h ed h i m

o u t t h e d o o r.

A reas o n ab l e o ffi cer wo u l d u nd ers t an d t h at J o hn s on was n o di fferen t t h an an y

o t h er p ers o n w ai ti n g i n t h e l o b b y fo r t h e v al et t o b ri n g aro u n d t h ei r car. W h i l e

W eb s t er to l d J o h n s on h e wo u l d h av e t o l eav e b ecau s e t h e o wn er wo u l d no t al l o w h i s

b o o t s , J o h n s on ex p l ai ned t h e o wn er h ad p rev i ou s ly al l o wed h i s bo o t s

. Heari n g t h i s

ex p lan at i o n , W eb st er wal k ed away

. W h en McCarv er ap p ro ach ed J o h n s o n an d t o ld

h i m t o l eav e, J oh n s o n s ai d h e was i n fact l eav i n g , b u t was ju st wai t i n g fo r t h e v al et

l i ke t h e res t of t he p at ro n s— a cl ai m o f r i g h t t o be i n s i de t he l o bb y

. See Ho y t

, 3 0 4

N.W

. 2d at 8 9 1

. M cCarv er t h en p u sh ed J o h n s o n as h e was b ack in g u p t o w ard t h e ex i t

. Vi ewi n g t h e fact s i n t he l i gh t m o s t fav orab l e t o J o hn s on , h e was n ot refu s i n g t o l eav e

1 Th ei r d o i n g s o was i n v i o l at i o n o f p ol i ce d ep art m en t p o l i cy

.

-1 2

-t h e p rem i s es , an d h i s ri g ht t o rem ai n i n t h e l o b by h ad n o t b een rev ok ed

. Rat h er, h e

was l awfu l l y i ns i de awai t i n g t h e v al et

. As s u ch

, t h e el em en t s o f t res p a s s were n ot

s at i s fi ed

, an d t h e o ffi cers are n o t e n t i t l e d t o q ual i fi ed i m m u ni t y o n J o h n s o n ’ s fal s e

arres t cl ai m

.

II

B e c au s e I b el i ev e t h e o ffi cers l ack ed ev en arg u ab l e p ro bab l e cau s e t o arres t

J o h n so n , I al so b el iev e h i s Fi rs t Am en d m en t ret al i at i o n cl ai m rem ai n s v i ab l e.

J o h n s on al l eg es t h e o ffi cers arres t ed h i m i n ret al i at i o n fo r reco rd i n g t h em w i t h h i s

cel l p ho n e o u t s i de t h e cl u b

. To s u c c e e d o n a cl ai m fo r ret al iat o ry arres t

, J o h n so n

m u s t sh o w (1 ) h e en g ag ed i n a p ro t ect ed act i v i t y ; (2 ) t h e g o v ern m en t o ffi ci a l t o o k

ad v ers e a c t i o n ag ai ns t h im th at wo u l d ch i l l a p ers o n o f ord i n ary fi rm n es s fro m

co n ti n u i n g t h e act i v i t y ; (3 ) t he ad v ers e act io n w a s m o t i vat ed at l eas t i n p art b y t h e

ex erci s e o f t h e p ro t ect ed act i vi ty ; an d (4 ) l ack o f p ro bab l e cau s e o r arg uab l e p ro b ab l e

cau s e fo r t h e arres t

. See Ho y l an d v

. M cM en o m y , 8 6 9 F.3 d 6 4 4, 65 5 (8 t h Ci r. 2 0 1 7 ).

Th e o f f i c e r s d o no t d i s p u t e t he fact s u n d erl y i n g t h i s cl ai m , b u t i n st ead arg u e

t h e y are en t it led t o qu al i fi ed i m m u n i t y b ecau s e J o hn s on ’ s ri g ht to reco rd an d

p h o t o g rap h t h e o ffi cers was n o t cl earl y es t ab l i s h ed

. W h i l e t h i s Co u rt h as no t d eci d ed

t h i s p reci s e q u es t io n , I w o u l d j o i n e v ery ci rcu i t th at has d o n e s o an d h o l d t h at t h e

Fi rs t Am en d m en t p ro t ect s t he ri g h t t o reco rd po l i ce o ffi cers in p u b l i c. See Fi el d s v.

Ci t y o f Ph i l ad el ph i a, 86 2 F.3 d 35 3

, 3 60 (3 d Ci r. 2 0 1 7 ); T u rn er v

. Li eu t en an t Dri v er,

8 4 8 F.3 d 6 7 8

, 6 9 0 (5 t h Ci r. 2 0 1 7 ); ACLU o f Il l. v

. Al v arez, 6 7 9 F.3 d 5 83

, 5 9 5 (7 th

Ci r. 2 0 1 2); G l i k v

. Cu n n i ffe, 6 5 5 F.3 d 7 8

, 8 2 ( 1 s t Ci r. 2 01 1 ); Sm i t h v

. Ci t y o f

Cu m m i n g, 2 12 F.3 d 1 3 3 2

, 1 3 3 3 (1 1 t h Ci r. 2 0 0 0 ); Fo rd y ce v. Ci t y of Seat tl e, 5 5 F.3 d

4 3 6 , 4 3 9 (9 t h Ci r. 1 9 9 5 ).

-1 3

-M o reo v er, ab s en t b i n d i n g au t h o ri t y fro m th i s Co u rt

, a “ r o b u s t co n s en s u s o f

cas es o f pers u as i v e au t h o ri t y ” can it s el f “ cl earl y es t ab l i s h” t he fed eral ri g h t J o h n so n

al l eg es

. See Tay l o r v

. Bark es , 1 3 5 S. Ct

. 2 0 4 2

, 20 4 4 (2 0 15 ); As h cro ft v

. al -Ki d d

, 5 6 3

U.S. 7 3 1

, 7 4 2 (2 0 1 1 ). By t h e t i m e t he o ffi cers arres t ed Jo h n s o n , al l fo u r ci rcu i t co u rt s

t h at h ad co n s i d ered t he q ues t i on d eci d e d t h a t f i l m i n g t h e p o l i ce i n p u b l i c i s a Fi rs t

Am en d m e n t ri g ht

. See Al v arez, 6 7 9 F.3 d at 5 9 5 ; Gl i k

, 6 5 5 F.3 d at 8 2 ; Sm i t h

, 2 1 2

F.3 d at 1 3 3 3 ; Fo rd y ce, 55 F.3 d at 4 3 9

. T h i s “ ro b us t co n s en s u s ,” t o g et h er wi t h o u r

g en eral p ro n ou n cem en t t h at a ci t i zen ’ s “ ri g h t t o ex erci s e Fi rs t Am en d m en t freed o m s

wi t h o u t faci n g ret al iat i o n fro m g o v ern m en t o ffi ci al s i s cl earl y es t ab l i s h ed ,” Bari b eau

v

. Ci t y o f M i n neap o l is

, 59 6 F.3 d 4 65

, 4 8 1 (8 t h Ci r. 2 0 1 0 ), was m o re t h an su ffi ci en t

t o p u t McCarv er an d LaLu zern e o n n o t i ce t h at t h ey were v io l at i n g J o h n s o n ’ s cl earl y

es t ab l i s h ed ri g h t

, see al -Ki d d

, 5 6 3 U.S. at 7 41

. Co n s eq u en t l y , I wo u l d h o l d t h at t h e

o ffi cers are n o t en t it l ed t o q u al i fi ed i m m u n i ty fo r t h i s cl ai m

.

III

Fi n al l y , t h e co u rt co n cl u d es t h e o ffi cers are en ti t led t o q u al i fi ed i m m u n i t y o n

J o h n so n ’ s cl ai m o f ex ces s i v e fo rce fo r u si ng p ep p er s p ray an d p u s h i n g h i m i n s i d e t h e

cl u b

, b ecau s e su ch fo rce “ was n o t u n reas o n ab l e u nd er t h e ci rcu m s t an ces

. ” I di s ag ree.

An o ffi cer’ s u s e of fo rce v i o l at e s t h e Fo urt h Am en d m en t i f i t i s “ o bject i v el y

u n reas o nab l e.” Tat u m v

. Ro b i ns o n , 8 5 8 F.3 d 5 4 4

, 5 4 7 (8 t h Ci r. 2 0 1 7 ).

Reas o n ab le ne ss de p e nds o n t h e ci rcu m s t an ces su rro u n d i n g t h e u s e o f fo rce, i n cl u d i n g

“ t h e sev eri ty o f t h e cri m e at i ss u e, wh et h er t he s u s p ect p o s es an i m m ed iat e t h reat to

t h e s afet y o f t h e offi cers o r o th ers , a n d wh et h er h e i s act iv el y res i st in g arres t o r

at t em p t i n g t o ev ad e arres t b y fl i g h t .” Id

. (q u ot i n g Grah am v

. Co n n o r, 4 9 0 U.S. 3 8 6,

3 9 6 (1 98 9 )).

-1 4

-Here, v i ewi n g t h e fact s i n t h e l i g h t m o s t fav o rab l e to J o h n s o n , a ju ry co u l d fi n d

t h e offi cers were o b

ject i vel y u n reas o n ab l e i n p u s h i n g an d p ep per-s p ray i n g h i m

. As

t o t h e fi rs t Grah am fact o r, J o h n s o n had no t co m m i t t ed an y cri m e b efo re M c C a r v e r

d i rect l y p ep p er-s p ray ed h is face, wh i ch we h av e ch aract eri zed as “ s ig n ifi can t fo rce.”

See i d

. at 5 5 0; s ee al so Bro wn v

. Ci t y o f Go l d en Val l ey , 5 7 4 F.3 d 4 91

, 50 0 n .6 (8 th

Ci r. 2 0 0 9 ) (ci t i n g t es t i m o n y t h at “ Tas er an d p ep p er sp ray are co eq u al s on t he u s e o f

fo rce co n t i n u u m ”). Th i s st ro n g l y fav o rs fi nd i n g ex ces s i v e fo rce. See Tat u m , 8 5 8

F.3 d at 5 48 ; Pet ers o n v . Ko p p , 7 5 4 F.3 d 5 9 4

, 6 00 (8 t h Ci r. 2 01 4 ).

As t o t h e s eco n d fact o r, a reas o nab l e o ffi cer wo u ld n o t h av e t h ou g h t J o h n so n

p o s ed an i m

m ed i at e t h reat t o an y o n e’ s safet y

. J o h n s o n w as l eav i n g t he cl u b

, t el l i n g

t h e o ffi cers t h at t h ey d id n o t n eed t o p u sh h im

, j u s t b efo re M cCarv er p ep p er-s p ray ed

h i s face. Jo hn s o n m ad e “ n o v erb al t h reat s or p h y s i c a l m o v em en ts in d icat i n g a

t h reat .” See Tat u m , 8 5 8 F.3 d at 5 4 9. In d eed

, Eri c Fren ch

, Sev en ’ s m an ag er o n d u t y ,

t es t i fi ed t h at J o h n s o n rem ai n ed “ p ret t y cal m ” t h ro u g h t h e wh o l e o rd eal

. Th is fu rt h er

u n d erm i n es t h e reas o n ab l en es s o f t h e o ffi cers ’ co n d u ct

. See i d

. (fi n d in g i t o bject i v el y

u n reas o nab l e t o u s e p ep p er s p ray on a s us p e c t ed m is d em ean an t wh o was “ an g ri l y

arg u i n g ” wi t h t h e p o l i ce b u t m ak i n g n o p h y s i cal o r v erb al t h reat s ).

Th i rd an d fi n al l y , a reas o n ab l e o ffi cer wo u l d no t b el iev e Jo h n s o n was res i s t i n g

arres t

. In s t ead

, J o h n s o n was t ry i n g t o l eav e th e l o b b y as req u es ted wh en t h e o ffi cer

p ep per-s p ray ed h i m

. In an y ev en t

, ev en “ [n ] o n co m p l i an ce an d ar gui n g d o no t am o u nt

t o act i v e res i s tan ce.” See i d

. Vi ewi n g t h e fact s i n t h e l i g h t m o s t fav o rab l e to

J o h n so n , t h e t h ree Grah am fact o rs p ro v i d e n o j u s t i fi cat io n fo r p u s h i ng an d p ep p ers p ray i n g h i m an d

, as a res u lt

, t h e o ffi cers ’ u s e o f fo rce was o b ject i v el y u n reas o n ab l e.

See i d .; Pet ers o n, 7 54 F.3 d at 6 0 0

.

Th e offi cers al s o arg u e t hat t h e ri g ht at i s s u e was no t cl earl y es t ab l i s h ed

. Bu t

b y th e t i m e t h ey act ed o n Oct o b e r 5

, 2 0 1 4

, w e h ad h el d i n Pet ers o n v

. Ko p p t h at i t

-1 5

-was o b

ject i v el y u n reas on ab l e fo r t h e p o l ice t o u se p ep per s p ray o n a n o n-fl eei n g , n o n

v i o l en t s u s p ect w h o “ t o o k a few s t ep s back ward

, p ut h is h an d s u p , an d s ai d ‘ [y ] o u

can ’ t h an d l e m e l i ke t h at ’ ” i m m ed i at el y b efo re b ei n g p ep p er-s p ray ed

. See Pet ers o n,

7 5 4 F.3 d at 59 7

, 6 0 0

. Becau s e th es e fact s a re s u ffi ci en t l y s i m i l ar t o t h i s cas e,

M cCarv er an d L aLu zern e h ad “ fai r warn i n g ” t hat t h ei r act i o n s were u n co ns t i t u t i o n al

. See i d. a t 6 0 0 ; s ee al s o Hen d ers o n v. M u n n , 4 3 9 F.3 d 4 9 7

, 5 0 3 (8 th Ci r. 2 0 0 6 )

(d en y i n g q u al i fi ed i m

m u n it y t o an o ffi cer wh o p ep p er-s p ray ed a s u s p ect p o s i n g “ l i t t l e

o r n o t hreat ” to an y on e’ s s afet y ). M cCarv e r a n d LaLu zern e v io lat ed J o h n s o n ’ s

cl earl y es t ab l i s h ed ri g ht an d q u al i fi ed i m m u n i t y d o es n o t ap p l y

. See Pet ers o n , 7 5 4

F.3 d at 6 00

.

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