THI RD DI VI SI ON
ELLI NGTON, P. J.

, DI LLA RD and M C FA DDEN, JJ.

N O T IC E : M otions for r e c ons i de r a tion m us t be ph y sic a l ly r e ce iv ed i n our c le r k ’s offic e w ithin te n da y s of the da te of de c is ion to be de e m ed tim e ly file d.

http://w w w .ga a ppe a l s .us /r ule s

Nov em ber 4, 2015



# I n th e Co u r t o f

A p p eals o f

G eo r g ia

A1 5 A1 27 6

. THE CORPS GROUP et al

. v

. AFTERBURNER, INC. J E-0 6 2

A1 5 A1 27 7 . LOHRENZ v . AFTERBURNER, INC. J E-0 6 3

E LLI N G T O N , Pres i d i n g J ud g e.

Ap p el l an t s J o h n Bo rn em an , K y l e Ho wl i n , J o h n Un d erh i l l

, an d Carey Lo h ren z 1

are fo rm er fi g ht er pi l o t s wh o , aft er wo rk i n g fo r t h e ap pel l ee, Aft erb u rn er, In c., a

m i l i tary av i at i o n-t h em ed b u s i n es s co n s u l t i n g fi rm , fo rm ed t hei r o w n co m p et i n g

m i l i tary av i at i on -t h em ed b u s i n es s co n s u lt i n g fi rm , ap pel l an t Th e Co rp s Gro u p , an d

b eg an ad vi s i n g co m

p an ies o n h o w t o ap p l y m il it ary b at t l e m et h o d o l og y to b u s i n es s

p l an n i n g an d d ev el op m en t

. A f t e r b u rn er su ed Th e Co rp s G ro u p an d t h e i n d i v i d u al

1 Lo h ren z b ro u g ht a s ep arat e ap p eal i n Cas e No

. A1 5A1 2 7 7

. Sh e rai s ed m an y

o f t h e s am e cl ai m s o f erro r as t h o s e rai s ed b y t h e ap p el l an ts in Ca s e N o

. 1 5 A 1 2 7 6.

Becau s e t h es e cas es i nv o l v e t h e s am e p art i es , t h e s a m e u n derl y i n g l aws u i t an d ju d g m en t , an d t he s am e fact s , we co n s o l i d at e t h es e cas es

.ap p el l an t s , al l eg i n g , in t er al i a, 2 t h at t h ey h ad i n fri n g ed o n Aft erb u rn er’ s trad em ark s

an d t rad e d res s i n v i o l at i on o f t h e Lan h am Act

. 3 A Fo rs y t h Co u n ty j u ry ret u rn ed a

v erd i ct fi n d i n g t h at each of t he ap p el la n ts ha d i nte ntiona lly in fri n g ed o n Aft erb u rn er’ s

t rad e d res s an d fo u r o f i t s t rad em ark s an d award ed Aft erb u rn er m o n ey d am ag es

.

Th ereaft er, t h e t ri al co urt en t ered a fi n a l j u d g m en t perm an en t l y en jo in i n g t h e

a p pel lan ts fro m u si n g Aft erb u rn er’ s t rad e d res s an d t rad em ark s

. In res p o n s e t o

Lo h ren z’ s m o ti o n fo r ju d g m en t n o t withst an d i ng t h e verd i ct an d ex trao rd i n ary m o t i o n

fo r a new t ri al

, th e t ri al co u rt g ran t ed a n ew t ri al o n l y a s t o t h e a p p o rt io n m en t o f

m o n et ary d am ag es am o n g Th e Co rp s Gro u p an d t h e i nd i vi d u al s

. Th e ap p el l an t s

co n ten d

, i n t er al i a, t h at t h e t ri al co u rt e r r e d i n d en y i n g t h ei r m o ti o n s fo r a d i rect ed

v erd i ct an d fo r ju d g m en t n o t wi t h s t an d i n g t he v erd i ct as t o Aft erb u rn er’ s L an h am Act

cl a i m s b ecau s e t h e ev i d en ce w as i n s u ffi ci en t t o s u pp o rt a fi n d in g t h at t h ey h ad

2 Aft erb u rn er al s o b ro u g h t o t h er fed eral an d s t at e l aw cl ai m s , an d s om e o f t h e i n d i v i d u al ap p el l an t s fi l ed co u n t ercl ai m s

. M o s t of t h os e o t h er cl ai m s res u l t ed i n a ju d g m en t fo r t h e cl ai m an t , an d n o n e i s t h e s ub ject o f a cl ai m o f erro r o n ap p eal

.

3 Aft erb u rn er av erred i n i t s am en d ed co m p l ai n t s t h at i t h ad s u p eri o r ri g h t s t o

u s e v ari ou s t rad e o r s erv i ce m ark s an d t rad e d res s u nd er t h e Fed eral Trad em ark Act

o f 1 9 46 (1 5 USC § 1 0 5 1 et s eq ., al s o k n o wn as t h e Lan h am Act ).

2i n fri n g ed o n Aft erb u rn er’ s t rad em ark s o r t rad e d res s

. 4 Fo r th e fo l lo wi n g reas o n s , we

ag ree an d rev ers e.

“ Th e s t an d ard fo r g ran t i n g a d i rect ed v erd i ct [an d ] a ju d g m en t n o t wi t h s t an d i n g

t h e v erd i ct are t h e s am e.” (Ci t at i o n an d p un ct u at i o n o m i t t ed .) So u t h Fu lt o n Med i ca l

Cen ter v. Po e , 2 24 Ga. Ap p . 1 0 7 , 1 0 8 (1 ) (4 80 SE2 d 4 0 ) (1 9 9 6 ).

[O] n ap p eal fro m a t ri al co u rt ’ s ru l i ng s o n m o t i o ns fo r d i rect ed v erd i ct

an d ju d g m en t n o t w i t hs t a n d i n g t h e v erd i ct

, we rev i ew an d res o l v e th e

ev i d en ce an d an y do u b t s o r am bi g ui t i es i n fav o r o f t h e verd i ct ; d i rect ed

v erd ict s an d j u d gm en t s n o t wi t h st an d i n g t h e v erd i ct a r e not pr ope r un l es s

t h ere is n o co n fl i ct in t h e ev i den ce as t o a n y m at eri al is su e an d th e

ev i d en ce i n t ro d u ced

, w ith a ll r e a sona ble d ed u ct io ns t h erefro m , d em an d s

a cert ai n v erd i ct

.

(Fo o tn o te o m i t t ed

. ) Vo l R ep a i r s II, In c. v. Kn i

gh t

, 3 2 2 Ga. Ap p

. 4 1 6 (7 45 SE2 d 6 7 3 )

(2 0 1 3). See al s o , Mo or e v. S i n g h

, 3 2 6 Ga. A p p

. 8 0 5, 8 0 9 (1 ) (7 5 5 SE2 d 3 1 9 ) (2 0 1 4 ).

Vi ewed i n t h i s l i g h t , t h e ev i d en ce p res en t ed at t ri al s h o ws as fo l l o ws

.

4 Th e ap p el l an ts al s o co n t en d t h at t h e i n j u n ct io n i s fat al l y

d efect i v e g i v en i t s l ack o f s p eci fi ci t y , t h at th e t ri al co u rt fai l e d t o pro p erl y i n st ru ct t h e ju ry as to

as s es s i n g pers o n al li ab i l i t y fo r t h e al l eg ed i n fri n g em en t

, an d t h at t h e award o f
d am ag es was ex ces s i v e. Gi v en o u r h o l d i n g i n t h es e co ns o l i d at ed cas es , t h es e cl ai m s

o f erro r are m o o t

.

3A f

t e r b u rn er h as b een o fferi n g b us i n es s co ns u l t i ng s erv i ces si n ce 1 9 9 6.

Aft erb u rn er’ s fo u n der an d CEO, J am es M u rp h y , i s a fo rm er Ai r Fo r c e F -1 5 fi g h t er

p i l o t

. Aft er leav i n g t h e m i l it ary , h e d eci d ed t o co n t i nu e s tu d y i n g m i l i t ary m i s s i o n

p l an n i n g m et ho d s an d t o ap p l y t h o s e m et h o ds t o b u s i nes s d ev el o p m en t . In ad d i t i o n

t o ap p l y i n g wh at h e h ad l earn ed fro m h i s o w n m i l i t ary t rai n i n g an d ex p eri en ce,

M u rp h y o b t ai n ed a li cen s e t o t each a s y s t em cal l ed t h e “ Pro m et heu s Pro ces s ,” wh i ch

w as d ev el o p ed b y ret i red Ai r Fo rce Co l o n el J o h n W ard en , t h e o wn er o f Ven t u r i s t

,

In c. Th e Pro m et h eu s Pro ces s i s a m i li t ary s t rat eg i c p l an n in g m o d el d es i g n ed t o h el p

b u s i n es s es an d o rg an i zat i on s d efi n e an d a c h i e ve t h ei r go al s

. M u rp h y t es ti fi ed t h at

,

earl y o n , A ft erb u rn er’ s bu s in es s co n s u l t in g m o d e l h ad m an y el em en t s o f t h e

Pro m et h eu s Pro ces s i n co rp o rat ed wi th i n i t

. M u rp h y ev en t u al l y t erm i n at ed i t s

l i cen si n g ag reem en t wi t h Ve n t u ri s t

, In c., an d s t ream l i n ed Aft erb u rn er’ s b u s i n es s

co n su l t i n g m o del

.

M u rp h y d es cri b ed th e A ft erb u rn er b ran d as “ u n i q ue i n t h e co n s ul t in g s p ace.”

It offers m o t i v at i o n al k ey n o t e s p eak ers , s em i n ars an d wo rk s h o p s t h at feat ure t eam

b u i l d i n g ex erci s es , co rp o rat e co ach in g , an d lead ers h i p t rai ni n g

. Aft erb u rn er fo cu s es

l es s o n th e l o ng -t erm s t rat eg i c p l an n i n g o f t h e Pro m et heu s Pro ces s an d m o re o n

t ea c h in g b u s i n es s peo p l e h o w t o ex ecu t e t h ei r g o al s t h ro u g h a co n t i n u o u s

4i m

p ro v em en t cy cl e t h at M u rp h y i l l us t rat ed i n a m o del u si n g th e el em en t s : “ Pl an ,

b ri ef, ex ecu t e, d eb ri ef, wi n , les so n s l earn ed .” M u rp h y cal l ed th i s m o d el t h e “ Fl awl es s

Ex ecu t io n ” m o d el

, an d i t b ecam e a k ey co m po n en t o f Af

t e r b u rn er’ s m ark et i n g.

Aft erb u rn er d ev el o ped a grap h i c i l l u s t rat i n g i ts m od el

, a s i n gl e ci rc l e co nt ai n i n g a

s p i ral o f arro ws li n k i n g t h e wo rd s “ p l an , deb ri ef, ex ecu t e, d eb ri ef, wi n !” an d u s ed t h e

g rap h i c as a l o g o o n i ts m ark et i n g m at eri al s an d as a t each in g t o ol in i t s p res en t at i o n s

.

Th e Fl awl es s Ex ecu t io n m o del in v o l v ed t each i n g b u s i n es s p eo p le h ow to av o i d “ t as k

s at u rat i o n ”

– t h at i s , b ei n g o v erb u rd en ed b y t o o m an y t as k s

– a n d h o w t o d ev el o p

“ ex ecu t i o n rh y t h m ”

– t h at i s , an acco u n t ab i l i t y p ro ces s i nv o lv i n g t im el y d eb ri efi ng s

s o t h at peo pl e w i l l l earn fro m t h ei r m i s t ak es

. Aft erb u rn er reg is t ered i t s ci rcu l ar l o g o

an d t h e p h ras es “ Fl awl es s Ex ecu t i o n ” an d “ t as k s at urat i o n ” w i th t h e U. S. Pat en t an d

5Trad em ark Offi ce. 5 It al s o co nt en d ed t h at i t h ad co m m o n l aw t rad em ark 6 ri g h t s i n t h e

p h ras e “ ex ecu t i o n rh y t h m .”

5 Aft erb u rn er as sert s t hat i t s t rad em ark s fo r “ f l awl es s ex ecu t i o n ” an d “ t as k

s a t u r at i o n ” are i n co n t es t i b l e, b u t i t p ro v i d es n o reco rd ci t at i o n t o t h e req u i s i t e

s u p p ort i n g ev i d en ce. A m ark b eco m es i n co nt es t i b l e wh en , fi v e y ears aft er reg i s t eri n g

t h e m ark

, t h e h o l d er fi l es th e affi d av i t req u i red b y 1 5 USC § 1 0 65

. On ce a m ark h as b eco m e i n co n t es t ab l e, i t s val i d i t y i s pres u m ed

, s u bject to cert ai n en u m erat ed
d efen s es

. Id

. Fu rt h er, o n ce a m ark h as ach i ev ed i n c o nt es t ab l e st at u s , i ts v al id i t y

can n ot be ch al len g ed o n t h e g ro u n d s t h at i t i s m erel y d es cri p t i v e, ev en i f t h e ch al l en g er can s h o w t h at t h e m ark was i m p r o p e r l y reg i s t ered i n i t ial l y

. Id

. See al s o Co r b i t t Mf

g

. Co

. v. GS O Am., In c ., 1 9 7 FSu p p.2 d 1 3 6 8

, 1 3 7 5 ( I I I ) ( A ) (1 ) (a) (1 ) (S.D. Ga. 2 0 02 ) (“ Un d er t h e ‘ t y p e o f m ark ’ fact or, an i n co n t es tab l e m ark i s p res u m ed

t o be at l eas t d es cri p t i v e wi t h s eco n dary m ean i n g .”) (ci t at i o n an d pu n ct u at i o n

o m it t ed .) Th e t ri al reco rd co n t ai n s ex h i b i t s s h owi n g th at t h es e t rad em ark s were

reg i s tered

. Ho w ev er, t h e r e c o r d d o es n ot sh o w t h at Aft erb urn er fi l ed t h e req u i si t e affi d av i ts an d was t h ereaft er n o t ifi ed b y t h e D i r e c t o r o f t h e U. S. Pat en t an d

T r a d em ark Offi ce t h at t h e affi d av i t s w ere recei v ed

. See Ho mes & La n d Af f i l i a t e s
, LLC v. H o mes & Lo a ns Ma ga z in e, LLC

, 5 98 FSu p p

. 2 d 1 2 48

, 1 2 6 1 (III) (A) (1 ) n .1 0 (M .D. Fl a. 20 0 9 ) (Pl ai n t i ff fai led t o p ro v i d e t he co u rt wi t h p ro o f o f fi l i n g t h e req u i red
affi d av i t.). Co n s eq u en t l y , we d o n o t as s u m e t h at t h e m ark s are i nco n t es t i bl e.

6 Aft erb urn er refers t o i t s m ark s i n t e r c h an g eab l y as “ t rad em ark s ” o r “ s erv i ce

m ark s .” W h i l e a “ t rad em ark ” i d en t i fi es an d di st i n g u i s h es a p ro d u ct

, a “ s erv ice m ark ”
i d en t i fi es a n d d i st i n g u i s h es a s erv i ce. See, e.g ., S a fewa y S to r es
, In c., v. S

a f ewa y Di s co u n t Dr u g

s
, I n c

. , 6 7 5 F 2 d 1 1 60

, 1 1 6 3 (II) (1 1 t h Ci r. 1 9 8 2 ); Br ea ker s o f Pa l m Bea ch

, I n c

. v

. I n t l

. Bea ch Ho tel Dev.

, In c. , 82 4 FSu p p

. 1 5 7 6, 1 5 7 9 n.2 (S.D. Fl a. 1 9 9 3 ). Co u rt s co n d u ct t h e sam e an al y s i s fo r s erv i ce m ark an d t rad em ark i n fri n g em en t cl ai m s

. Ta n a v. Da n t an na ’s

, 6 1 1 F3 d 7 6 7

, 7 72 n .3 (1 1 t h Ci r. 20 1 0 ) (“ Th e i n fri n g em en t an al y s i s i s t he sam e u n d er b o t h s t an dard s an d co urt s t h u s t reat t h e t wo

t erm s as i n t erch an g eab l e i n ad ju d i cat i n g in fri n gem en t cl a im s.”) (ci t at i o n an d

p u n ct u at i o n o m i t t ed ). Co n seq u en t l y , we d o n ot ad d res s wh et h er th e m ark s are s erv i ce

m ark s o r t rad em ark s.

6Aft erb u rn er al s o cl ai m ed t h at it had t h e ex cl u s iv e ri gh t to u se i t s “ t rad e d res s ,”

wh at M u rp h y d es cri b ed as a fi g h t er p il o t m o t i f t h at p erv ad ed al l a s p e c t s o f i t s

b u s i n es s co n su l t i ng s erv i ces

. M u rp h y t es t i fi ed t hat A f t erb u rn er’ s u se o f real p i l o t s

weari n g s t an dard -i s s u e, s ag e g reen fl i g h t s u i t s du ri n g b u s i n es s co n s u l t i n g

p res en t at i o n s co n s ti t u t ed t h e m o s t rel ev an t feat u res o f A ft erb u rn er’ s t rad e d res s

.

Aft erb u rn er al so d eco rat ed i t s s em i n ars l i ke m i l i t a r y b u n k ers an d s q u ad ro n ro o m s ,

o ft en d rap i ng co n feren ce ro o m s wi t h p arach u t es an d cam o ufl ag e n et t in g

. It em p l o y ed

l o u d m u s i c, si ren s , an d t h eat ri cal m o ck en em y at tack s

. Du ri n g co n s ul ti n g ex erci s es ,

Aft erb u rn er o ft en en gag ed cl i en t s i n m i l it ary ex erci s es , u s i ng m ap s , ch eck -l i s t s , an d

o t h er m il i t ary -s ty l e m is s i o n -p l an n i n g p arap h e rn al i a. Cl i en t s s o m et im es ev en wo re

f l i g h t h el m et s du ri n g wo rk s ho p s

. M u rp h y b el i ev ed t h at Aft erb u rn er h ad t h e ex cl u s i ve

ri gh t t o u s e fi g h t er p i l o t an d jet p l an e im ag ery d uri n g i t s s em i n ars , o n i t s web s i t e, an d

i n i ts b ro ch u res an d o t her m ark et i n g m at eri al s

.

J o h n Bo rn em an , t h e CEO o f Th e Co rp s Gro up , t es t i fi ed t h at w h en h e fo rm ed

h i s co m pan y i n 2 0 0 8

, h e k n ew t h at i t wo u l d co m pet e wi t h Aft erb u rn er. He t es t i fi ed

t h at h e in t en d ed t o s t art a M ari n e Co rp s av i at i o n -t h em ed b u s i n es s co n s u lt i ng g ro u p

u s i n g a m o d i fi ed “ Org -X” vers i o n o f t h e Pro m et heu s Pro ces s , as wel l as h i s o wn

p ers o n al ex p eri en ce, i n t each i n g cl i en t s h ow t o ap p l y m i l i tary m i s s i on -p l an n i n g

7p ri n ci p l es t o b u si n es s d ev el o p m en t

. To ward t h at en d

, h e o b t ai n ed p erm i s s i o n t o u s e

t h e Pro m et h eu s Pro ces s fro m Ven t u ri s t

, In c. A l t ho u g h Th e C o r p s Gro u p o ffered

b u s i n es s co n s u l t i n g s erv i ces t h at were si m i l ar t o Aft erb u rn er’ s , l i k e key n o te s p eak ers

an d t e a m -b u i l d i ng s em i n ars an d wo rk -s ho p s , Bo rn em an t es t i fi ed t h at i t s p ri m ary

fo cu s was o n es t ab l i s h in g l o n g-t erm , s trat eg i c b u s i n es s p l an n in g rel at io n s h i p s wi th

cl i en ts

.

W h en Bo rn em an was f

o r m i n g Th e Co rp s Gro u p, Lo h ren z res earch ed t h ei r

co m p et i t o rs

. L o h ren z t es t ifi ed t h at s ev eral i nd i v i d u al s an d co m p an i es o ffered s i m i l ar

m i l i tary av i at i o n -t h em ed b u s in es s co n s u l t i n g s erv i ces , in cl ud i ng Bo s t o n Co n s u l t i n g

Gro up , CVM In s ig h t s , M i ss i o n E x c e l len ce, Ro b W al d m an , Fi g h t er Pi l o t s USA,

M ach 2

, an d Ch eck -6

. Th es e co m p an ies co m

m o n ly u sed i m ag es o f fi g h t er p l an es ,

p i l o t s i n fl i g h t s u i t s , an d m il i tary jarg o n (i n cl ud i n g t h e p l an -ex ecu t e-d eb ri ef m o d el )

i n th e i r m ark et in g

. On e o f t h e co n s u l ti n g s erv i ces had ev en d is cu s s ed h o w t h e

m i l i tary u s es “ a co n cep t o f fl awl es s ex ecu t i o n .”

In u s i n g t he Pro m et h eu s Pro ces s i n i ts b u s i n es s co n s ul ti n g , Th e Co rp s Gro u p ’ s

p res en t ers d i s cu s s ed

, am o n g o t her th i n g s , t h e m i l i t ary ’ s p l an -ex ecu t e-d eb ri ef m o d el

,

as wel l as t h e co n cep t s o f “ t as k o v erl o ad ” an d “ ex ecu t i o n cad en ce.” Bo rn em an

t es t i fi ed t h at

, al t h ou g h h e an d h i s b u s i n es s as s o ci at es h av e d is cu s s ed w i t h cl i en t s t h e

8phe nom en o n o f “ t as k s at u rat i o n ” 7

– m i li t ary jarg o n d es cri b i n g t h e co n d i ti o n o f ha ving

t o o m u ch t o d o in a s h o r t p e r i o d o f ti m e o r wi th i n ad eq u at e res ou rces – Th e Co rp s

Gro up n ev er u s ed t h e p h r a s e as a s l o g an fo r a p ro d u ct o r a serv i ce. Rat h er, i t s

m ark et i n g co n t ai n ed t h e p h ras e “ t as k o v erl o ad

. ” Al s o, it d i d n o t u s e t h e p h ras es

“ fl awl es s ex ecu ti o n ” o r “ ex ecu t i o n rh y t h m .” Rat h er, w h en m ark et i n g o r d i s cu s s i n g

t h e m i l i t ary p l an -ex ecu t e-d eb ri ef m o d el

, i t u sed t h e ph ras es “ Co rp s ex ecu t i o n,”

“ l ead ers i n b u s i n es s ex ecu t i o n ,” an d “ e x ecu t io n cad en ce.” It i l l u s t rat ed t h es e

p ri n ci p l es i n a d i a g r a m d e p i ct i n g t h ree ci rcl es i n a ro w, each co n tai n in g t h e wo rd s

“ p l an , d o , d eb ri ef” an d arro ws s i gn i fy in g t h e cyc l i c a l n at u re of t h e p ro ces s

. Th e

d i ag ram was u s ed i n a “ w h i t e p ap er”

– a t eac h i n g t o o l

– bu t n o t i n i t s m ark et i n g

m at eri al s

. Bo rn em an t es t i fi ed t h at t h es e co ncep ts

, t erm s, an d p ro ces s es are p art o f t h e

Pro m et h eu s Pro ces s – wh i ch i s “ at t h e h eart o f wh at [Th e Co rp s G ro u p d o es ] ”

– an d

were n o t t ak en fro m Aft erb u rn er. Fu rt h er, b o t h Th e Co rp s G r o u p ’s “ ex ecu t i o n

cad en ce” an d Aft erb u rn er’ s “ ex ecu t i o n rh y t h m ” are d eri v ed fro m th e t er m “ b at t l e

rh y t hm ,” a m i l i t ary term u s ed t o d es cri b e t h e pro ces s of det erm in i n g t h e ap p ro p ri at e

t act ical res p o n s e t o h i g h l y ch an g eab l e b at t l efi el d co n d i t i o n s

. O n e o f Aft erb u rn er’ s

7 Lo h ren z t es t i fi ed t h at s he d i s p l ay ed t h e p h ras e “ t as k s at u rat i o n ” o nce d u ri n g

a day -l o ng s em i n ar. It was a co n cep t n ot ed o n a Po wer Po i n t sl id e du ri n g a d i s cu s s i o n

o f “ o n e o f t h e th i n g s t h at can h ap p en t o affect y o u r ab i l i t y t o ex ecu t e [t h e m i s s i o n .] ”

9fo rm er em

p l o y ees t es t ifi ed t h at t h e “ m i s s i o n , bri ef, p l an , ex ecu t e, aft er-act i o n rev i ew,

l es s o n s learn ed ” p ro ces s i s i n h eren t l y p art o f m i l i t ary cu l t u re, a p ro ces s h e ro u t i n el y

ex p eri en ced d uri ng h i s Nav y av i at i o n career. Part o f t h e p ro ces s i s al so s o m et i m es

t au g h t as t he “ OODA Lo o p ,” fo r “ o b s erv e, o ri en t, d eci de, act .”

W i t n es s es fo r Th e Co rp s Gro u p al s o t es t i fi ed t h at

, o t h er t h an em p l oy in g fi g h t er

p i l o t s as b u s i n es s co n s ul tan t s an d u s i n g fi gh t e r p il o t i m ag ery in t h ei r m ark et i n g

m at eri al s , T h e Co rp s Gro u p ’ s pres en t at i on st y le d i ffered fro m Aft erb u rn er’s

. T h ey

u s ed n o n e o f t h e t h eat ri cal s t ag e s et t i n g s t h at Aft erb urn er u s ed du ri n g i t s s em i n ars

–

n o b u n k ers , n o cam o u fl ag e n et t i n g , n o t h eat ri cal en em y at t ack s o r lo u d m

u s i c. Th ey

wo re t h ei r fl i g h t s u i ts o n s t ag e v ery rarel y , an d t y p i cal l y o n ly w h en a cl i en t req u es t ed

t h at t h ey d o s o

. Th ey di d

, h o wev er, en g ag e t h ei r cl i en t s i n m i l i tary -t h em ed ex erci s es ,

b u t t h o s e ex erci s es were n o t own ed b y A ft e r b u r n e r

. T h e Co rp s Gro u p s t res s ed a

M ari n e Co rp s th em e a s o p p o s ed t o an Ai r Fo rce t h em e. A n d i t us ed i t s own t rad e

n am e an d d i s t i n ct iv e l og o o n i t s m ark et i n g m at eri al s an d p res en t at io n m at eri al s

.

T h e reco rd s h ows t h at b o t h Aft erb u rn er an d Th e Co rp s Gro u p m ark et t h ei r

s erv i ces t o s o p hi s ti cate d bus i n es s ex ecu t i v es , m an y o f wh o m rep res en t “ Fo rt u n e 5 0 0 ”

co m p an i es

. Af

t e rb u rn er m ark et s i t s s erv i ces p ri m ari l y t h ro u gh an ag en t

, t h e

In t ern at io n al Sp eak er’ s Bu reau

. Th e Co rp s Gro u p r a r e l y u s ed an ag en t ; rat h er, i t

10rel i ed o n cl i en t referral s

. Aft erb u rn er d i d n o t i d en t i fy an y cl i en t o r p o t en t i al cl i en t

wh o h ad b een co n fu s ed b y t h e p art i es ’ t rad em ark s o r b y th e u s e of m i l i t ary av i at i o n

t h em ed t rad e d res s

. A f

t e r b u rn er’ s o wn b oo k i n g ag en t d i d n o t id en t i fy an y o n e wh o

h ad b een co n fu s ed as t o t h e s ou rce o f t h e s erv i ces o ffered b y ei t h er Th e Co rp s Gro u p

o r b y Aft erb urn er.

1

. Af t er b u r n er ’s Tr a d

e m a r k Cl a i m s

. Th e ju ry fo u n d t h at Th e Co rp s Gro u p

v i o l at ed t h e Lan h am A ct b y in fri n g i n g u p on A f te r bur ne r ’ s r e giste r e d tr a de m ark s “ t as k

s at u rat i o n ,” “ fl awl es s ex ecu t i o n ,” an d i t s ci rcu l ar l o go co n t a i n i n g t h e wo rd s “ p l an ,

b ri ef, ex ecu te

, d e b r i ef, w i n !” It al s o fo u n d th at Th e Co rp s G ro u p i n fri n g ed u p o n

Aft erb u rn er’ s co m

m o n l aw t rad em ark “ ex ecu t io n rh y t h m .” T h e Co rp s Gro u p an d t h e

i n d i v i d u al ap p el l an t s arg u e t h at t h ey were en t i t l ed to a d efen s e ju d g m en t b ecau s e t h e

ev i d en ce s h o ws t h at Aft erb u rn er’ s t rad em ark s are weak

, t h at t h e part i es ’ res p ect i v e

m ark s are s u ffi ci en t l y d i s si m i l ar, t h at t h ere was n o i nt en t t o i nfri n g e , a n d t h at n o

cl i en t o r p o t en t i al cl i en t was co n fu s ed b y an y s im i l ari t y

i n t h e p art i es ’ t rad em ark s.

Th e L an h am Act defi n es a t rad em ark as “ an y wo rd

, n am e, s y m b o l

, o r d ev i ce,

o r an y co m

b i n at i o n t h ereo f” th at i s u s ed b y a p ers on “ t o id en t ify an d di s t i n gu i s h h i s

o r h er g o od s

. . . an d to i nd i cat e t h e s o u rce o f t h e g o o d s [.] ” See 1 5 USC § 1 1 2 7

. 8 Th e

8 Th i s s ect i o n d efi n es s erv i ce m ark s s i m i l arl y

.

11Act en s u res t h at a t rad em ark can s erv e t h e fu n ct i on o f d i s t i n g u i s h in g o n e b u s i n es s ’ s

g o o d s o r s erv i ces b y p ro h i b i t in g o t hers fro m u s i n g a s im i l ar m ark i n a w ay t h a t i s

“ l i k el y t o cau s e co n fu s io n ” am o n g co n s u m ers (t h at i s , b y m ak i n g co n s u m ers wo n d er

wh i ch b u s i n es s creat ed o r o ffered w h i ch p ro d uct s o r s erv i ces ). See 1 5 U.S.C. § 1 1 2 5

(a) (1 ) (A). 9

U n d er t he Lan h am Act

, 1 5 U.S.C. § 1 11 4 (1 ), a d efen d an t i s li ab l e f o r

i n fri ng em en t

, i f, w i th o u t co n s en t

, h e u s es “ i n co m m erce an y

r ep ro d uct i o n , co u n t erfei t

, co p y , o r co l o rab l e i m i tat i o n o f a reg i st e r e d

m ark ” wh i ch “ i s li k el y t o cau s e co n fu s i o n, o r t o cau s e m i s t ak e, o r t o

d ecei v e.” T h u s , t o p rev ai l [o n a ci v i l in fri n gem en t cl ai m b ro u g h t

p u rs uan t t o 1 5 U SC § 1 1 2 5 ]

, a p l ai n t i ff m u st d em o n s t rat e (1 ) t h at i t s

m ark h as p ri o ri t y an d (2 ) t hat t h e defen d an t ’ s m ark i s l i kel y t o cau s e

co n s u m er co n fu s i o n

.

(Ci t at i o n s o m i tt ed .) Fr eh l i n g En t er p r i s es

. , In c. v. In t l

. S e l e c t Gr ou p
, In c. , 1 9 2 F3 d

1 3 3 0

, 1 3 3 5 (III) (1 1 t h Ci r. 1 9 99 ). “ L i k el i h o od of c onf usion m e a ns pr obab l e co n fu s i o n

rat h er t h an m ere po ss i b l e co nfu s i o n .” At la n t a Al ler g y & As t h ma Cl in i c v. Al l er g y &

As t h ma o f At l a n t a
, 6 8 5 FSu p p

. 2 d 1 3 6 0

, 1 37 6 (B) (2 ) (N.D. Ga. 2 0 1 0). Trad em ark

9 Trad em ark law u n der t h e Lan h am Act s erv es t wo es s en ti al fu n ct i o ns

. It ai d s

co n su m ers b y as s u ri n g t h em t h at pro d u ct s wi t h t h e s am e trad em ark co m e fro m t h e

s am e so u rce an d it p ro t ect s t h e eco n o m i c i n v es t m en ts o f th e t r a d e m a rk o wn er. See Qu a l i t ex Co

. v. Ja co b s o n Pr o d u ct s Co

. , 5 1 4 US 15 9

, 1 6 3 -1 6 4 (II) (1 3 1 LE2 d 2 4 8,

1 1 5 SCt 1 3 0 0 ) (1 9 9 5 ).

12ri gh t s fo r u n reg i s t ered m ark s m ay b e g ai n ed in th e co m m o n l aw t h ro u g h act u al p ri o r

u s e in co m

m erce. Ta l ly-Ho

, In c. v. Co a s t Co mmu n i t y Co l l eg e Di s tr i ct

, 8 8 9 F2 d 1 0 1 8,

1 0 2 2 (II) (A) (1 1t h Ci r. 1 9 9 0 ).

Th e ap p el l an t s d o n o t d i s p u t e th at Aft erb u rn er’ s m ark s h av e pri o ri ty ; rat h er,

t h ey co n t en d th ey were en ti t l ed t o a ju d g m en t i n t h e i r f a v o r b ecau s e Aft erb u rn er

fai l ed to carry

i t s b u r d e n o f p r o v i n g t h at a l i k el i h o o d o f co n s u m er co n fu si o n ex i s t s

b et ween t h e part i es ’ t rad em ark s

. In deed

, t h e “ cen t ral i n q u i ry ” i n an i n fri n g em en t cas e

i s “ wh et h er t h ere i s a ‘ l i k el i ho o d o f co n fu s i o n ’ on t h e p art o f co ns u m ers b et ween t h e

n am es an d s y m

b o l s u sed b y t h e t w o p a rt i es .” (Fo o t no t e o m it ted .) Fr eed om S a v. &

Lo a n As s n

. v. W

a y , 7 57 F2 d 1 1 7 6

, 11 7 9 (I) (1 1 th Ci r. 1 9 8 5 ). See al so Jo h n H.

Ha r la n d Co

. v. Cl a rke Ch ecks

, In c. , 7 1 1 F2 d 9 6 6

, 9 7 2 (III) (1 1t h Ci r. 1 9 8 3 ) (“ [T] h e

cri t i cal q u es t i o n i n m o s t [i n fri n g em en t act i on s ] i s w h et her t h ere i s a l i kel i h o o d o f

co n fu s i o n , m i s t ak e, o r d ecep t i o n b et ween t h e reg i s t ered m ark an d t h e al l eg ed l y

i n fri n g i n g m ark .”) (ci t at i o n an d fo o tn o t e o m i t t ed .)

Th e El ev en t h Ci rcu i t h as ad o p t ed a s ev en -fact o r t es t t o d et erm i n e wh et h er t h e

l i kel i h o o d o f co n s u m er co n fu s i o n ex i s t s i n an i n fri n g e m e n t act io n

. Th e fact o rs

i n cl u d e: (1 ) th e s t ren g t h o f t h e pl ai n t i ff’ s m ark

, (2 ) t h e s i m i l ari ty of t h e m ark s , (3 ) t h e

s i m i l ari t y o f t he g oo d s o r s erv i ces t h e m ark s rep res en t

, ( 4 ) t h e s im il ari t y o f t h e

13p art i es ’ ret ai l o u t l et s an d cu s t o m ers , (5 ) t h e s i m i l a r i ty o f ad v ert i s i n g m ed i a, (6 ) t h e

d efen d an t ’ s in t en t, an d (7 ) ev i d en ce o f act u al co nfu s i o n

. F r eh l i n g En t er pr i s es
, In c.

v. In t l

. Sel ect Gr o u

p
, In c. , 1 9 2 F.3 d at 1 3 3 5 (III). “ Th e ex t en t t o wh i ch t wo m ark s are

co n fu s i n g l y sim ila

r can n o t b e as s es s ed wi t h o u t co n si d eri n g al l s ev en fact o rs t o en s u re

t h at t h e d et erm i nat i o n i s m ad e i n li g h t o f t h e t ot al i t y o f t h e ci rcu m st an ces .” W es co

Mf g

. , In c. v. Tr o

p ica l At t r a ct i o n s o

f Pa lm Bea ch

, In c. , 8 3 3 F2 d 1 4 8 4

, 14 8 8 (II) (B)

(1 1 t h Ci r. 1 9 8 7 ). Ho wev er, o f t h e s ev en fact o rs , “ t h e [s tren g th ] o f [t he] m ark an d t h e

ev i d en ce o f act u al co n fu s i o n are t h e m o s t i m po rt an t.” (Ci t at i o n om i t t ed .) Fr eh l i n g

En t er p ri s es
, In c. v. In t l. S

el ect Gr o u p
, In c. , 1 9 2 F3 d at 1 33 5 (III). See al s o S u n t r ee

Tech n o l og i es
., In c. v. Eco sen se In t l

., In c ., 6 9 3 F3 d 1 3 38

, 1 3 4 6 (III) (B) (1 ) (1 1 t h Ci r.

2 0 1 2 ) (acco rd ).

In p erfo rm i n g o u r rev i ew o f wh et h er t h ere ex i s t s a l i k el i h o o d o f co n s u m er

co n fu s i o n i n a t rad em ark i n fri ng em en t cas e u n d er t h e Lan h am Act

, t h is Co u rt m u s t

co n si d er an d ev al u at e t h e ev i den ce s u p p o rt i n g each o f t h e F r e h l i n g fact o rs an d

co n s i d e r t h e w e ig h t t o b e acco rd ed t o each o f t he fact ors u nd er t h e t o t al i t y o f t h e

ci rcu m s t a nces

. See Cu s t o m Mf g

. a n d En gi n eer in g

, In c. v. Mi d

wa y Svcs

., 5 0 8 F3 d 6 4 1,

6 4 9 (1 1 t h Ci r. 2 0 07 ) (“ [A] p p l icat i o n o f t h e Fr eh li n g fact o rs en t ai l s m o re t h an t h e

14m ech an i s t i c su m m at io n of t h e n u m

b er o f f a c t o r s o n each s i d e; it i nv o l v es an

ev al u at i on o f t h e ‘ o v eral l b al an ce.’ ”) (ci t at i o n s o m i t t ed ).

( a ) S t r en g t h of t h e tr a d

ema r ks

. “ Th e s t ren g th o f a t rad em ark i s es s en t i a l l y a

co n si d erat io n of d is t i nct i v en es s

. Th e s t ro n g er (i .e., t h e m o re d is t in ct i v e) t h e m ark

, t h e

g reat er t h e s co p e of pro tect i o n acco rd ed i t

, an d t h e weak er t h e m ark

, t h e l es s

t rad em ark p ro t ect i on i t recei ves .” (Ci t at i o n s an d p un ct u a t i o n o m it t ed .) Tr i l i n k S a w

Ch a i n, LLC v. Bl o un t

, In c ., 58 3 FSu p p .2 d 1 29 3

, 13 1 0 (B) (1 ) (a) (N.D. Ga. 2 0 0 8 ). See

al s o F r eh l i n g En t er

s
., In c. v. In t er n a t io n a l S

el ect Gr o u

p, In c. , 1 9 2 F3 d at 13 3 5 (III)

(acco rd ).

Th e s t ren g t h o f a t rad em ark d ep en d s o n t h e m ark ’ s cl as s ifi cat i o n an d th e

d eg ree t o wh i ch t h i rd p art i es u s e t h e m a rk o r co m p on en t s t h ereo f.

Trad em ar k s m a y b e cl as s i fi ed

, i n d es cen d in g o rd er o f s t ren g t h

, as (1 )

arb i t rary o r fan ci fu l m ark s , wh i ch b ear no l o gi c a l r e l a t i o ns h i p t o th e

p ro d u ct th at t h e y r e p r es en t

, (2 ) s u g ges t i v e m ark s , w h i ch refer t o s o m e

ch aract eri s ti c o f t h e p ro d u ct t h at t h ey rep res en t

, b u t fo r w h i ch a l eap o f

i m ag i n at i o n i s req u ired t o g et fro m t h e m ark t o t h e p ro d uct

, (3 )

d es cri p ti v e m a r k s , wh i ch i d en t i fy a ch aract eri s t ic o r q u al i t y of th e

p ro d u ct t h ey

rep res en t , an d (4 ) g en eri c m ark s

.

(Ci t at i o n s o m i t t ed .) Al a ven Co n s u mer H ea l t h ca r e, In c. v. D r

Fl o r a s , LLC (Cas e No

.

1 : 0 9 -CV-7 05 -TW T, N.D

. G a

. , d eci d ed Feb ru ary 4, 2 0 1 0 ) (2 0 1 0 U.S. Di st

. LEXIS

159 3 6 6

, 4 -5 ( I I I) (A) (1 )). See al s o W el d i n g S vcs
., In c. v. F

o r ma n , 5 0 9 F.3 d 1 3 5 1,

1 3 5 7 -1 3 5 8 (III) (1 1 t h Ci r. 2 0 0 7 ) (acco rd ).

Becau s e Aft erb urn er’ s reg i s tered t rad em ark s h av e a pres u m p t io n o f v al i d i t y ,

s ee 1 5 U.S.C. § 1 0 5 7 (b ), t h e trad em ark s are pres u m ed d is t in ct i v e rat h er t h an m erel y

d es cri p t iv e; h owev er, t hat p res u m p t i o n m ay b e reb u t t ed

. See W el d i ng S vcs

. v.

Fo r ma n , 5 0 9 F3 d at 1 3 5 7 (III) n .3

. (“ Reg i s t rat i o n es t ab l i s h es a reb u t t ab l e

p r e s u m p ti o n t h at t h e m ark s are p ro t ect ab l e o r ‘ di s t i n ct iv e.’ ”) (ci t at io n s om i t t e d ) ;

S ci en t i f i c Ap p l i ca t i on s
, In c. v. En er

g y Co n s er va t i on Co r

p

. o f Amer i ca , 4 3 6 FSu p p.

3 5 4 , 3 6 0 (N.D. Ga. 1 9 7 7 ) (acco rd ).

In t h i s cas e, the C or

p s G r oup pr es en t ed ev id en ce reb u t t i n g t h e p res u m p t i o n t h at

t h e reg i s t ered t rad em ark s are d i s t i n ct i v e b y s h o wi n g t h at Aft erb u rn er’ s m ark s

d e s cri b e p ro ces s es an d co n cep t s t au g h t b o t h i n th e m i l i t ary an d i n m il i tary- t h e m e d

b u s i n es s co n su l t i n g

. Fo r ex am p l e, i t d o es n o t t ak e a l eap o f i m ag in at i o n to d ed uce

t h at “ fl awl es s ex ecu ti o n ” as u s ed i n t h e co n t ex t o f b u s i n es s co n s u l t in g des cri b es a

16p ro ces s fo r s u cces s fu l l y p erfo rm i n g a b u s i n es s p lan

. 1 0 Al l of A f te r b u rn er’ s m ark s t en d

t o ward t h e d es cri pt iv e en d o f t he t rad em ark cl as s i fi cat i on s p ect ru m

. 1 1

Fu rt her, t h e ev id en ce sh o ws t h at t he p l an -ex ecu t e-d eb ri ef p ro ces s , as wel l as

t h e t erm s “ ex e c u t i o n ,” “ t as k s at u rat i o n” an d “ b at t l e rh y t h m ” are u s ed i n Ai r Fo rce,

M ari n e Co rp s , an d Nav y av i at i on

. Th u s , co m p o n en t s o f Aft erb u rn er’ s t rad em ark s are

co m m o n m i l i t ary co n cep t s, p ro ces s es , o r t erm s . Al s o , t h es e p ro ces s es an d co n cep t s

are n o t u n i q u e t o an y o n e m i li t ary -t h em ed b u s i n es s c onsulting g ro u p

. Ven t uri s t

, In c.’ s

Pro m et h eu s Pro ces s pred at ed Aft erb u rn er’ s “ Fl awl es s Ex ecu ti o n ” m o d el

. It u s es t h e

1 0 F o r ex am

p l es o f d es cri p t i v e m ark s, s ee In r e Net t Des ig n s
, In c

. , 2 3 6 F 3 d

1 3 3 9

, 1 3 4 2 (II) (Fed

. Ci r. 2 0 0 1 ) (“ Th e Ul t i m at e Bi k e Rac k ” w a s h e l d t o b e a l au d at o ry d es cri p ti v e p h ras e.); S p r a yi ng S ys tems Co

. v. Del a va n
, In c. , 9 7 5 F2 d 3 8 7,
3 9 5 (III) (B) (7 t h Ci r. Il l

. 1 99 2) (In t h e co n tex t of a s p ray n o zzl e p ro d u ct s , t h e p refi x

“ -J ET” was co n s i d ered d es cri p ti v e.); Ber n a r d v. Co mmer ce Dr u g Co

. , 9 6 4 F2 d 1 3 3 8,

1 3 4 1 (2 d Ci r. 1 9 9 2 ) (“ Art h ri t i c a r e i s a des cri p t i v e t rad em ark i n t he co n tex t h ere

p r es en t ed

. Cl earl y , t h e m ark d es cri bes t h e p ro bl em o r co n d i ti o n (art h ri t i s ) t h a t t h e

t rad em ark ed p r o d u c t is d es i g ned t o rem ed y o r o t h erwi s e deal wi t h

. ”) (ci t at i on s

o m it t ed .); G. Hei l ema n Br ewi n g Co

. v. An h eu s er -Bu s ch

, In c ., 8 7 3 F2 d 9 8 5

, 9 9 6 (III) (B) (7 t h Ci r. 1 9 89 ) (“ LA, as ap p l i ed t o beer, s t an d s fo r an d d es cri b es l o w al co h o l .”);

S ch m i d t v. Qu ig

g , 6 0 9 FSu p p

. 2 2 7

, 2 3 1 (E.D. M ich

. 1 9 8 5 ) (“ Ho ney Bak ed Ham ” i s a d es cri p t i v e m ark t h at h as acq u i red a s eco n d ary m ean i n g .).

1 1 “ Th e d em arcat i o n b et ween each cat eg o ry [o f t rad em ark ] i s m o re b l u rred t h an i t i s d e f i n i t e

. ” (Fo ot no t e o m i t t ed .) Co a ch Ho u s e Res t a u r a n t

, In c. v. Co a ch & S i

x Res t a u ra n ts

, In c. , 9 3 4 F2 d 15 5 1

, 1 5 5 9 (2 ) (b ). See al s o Ro ya l Pa l m Pr o

p er t i es
, LLC

v. Pr emi er Es t a t e Pr op er t i es , (Cas e N o

. 10

- 8 0 2 3 2 -CV-COHN, S.D. Fl a., d eci d ed Ap ri l 1 5

, 2 0 10 ) (2 0 1 0 U.S. Di st . LEXIS 4 7 9 7 1

, (II) (B)) (acco rd ).

17s am e co re p ro ces s es an d co n cep t s a n d m an y o f t he s am e m i l i t ary t erm s. Th e Co rp s

Gro up d em o n s t rat ed t h at o th er b u s i n es s co n su l t i n g gro u p s al s o t each t hes e co n cep t s

an d p ro ces s es an d u s e co m po n en t s o f t h e s am e t erm s i n t hei r m ark et in g , an d t h at at

l eas t o n e o t h er co n s u lt an t u s ed th e t erm “ fl awl es s ex ecu ti o n .” Th i s fai rl y wi d e-s p read

t h i rd -p art y

u s e o f t h e m il i t ary

jarg o n wh i ch m ak es u p co m p o nen t s o f Aft erb u rn er’ s

t rad em ark s weak en s t h em an d d i m i n i s h es t he l ev el of p ro t ect i on affo rd ed t h e m ark s

. 1 2

Fi na lly

, A ft erb urn er p res en t ed n o ev i d en ce d em on s t rat i n g t h at t h e t rad em ark s at i s s u e

h ad b eco m e s o as s o ci at ed wi t h i t t h at t h e m ark s h ad acq u i red s eco nd ary m ean i n g

. 1 3

1 2 See Nu t r i/

S ys tem, In c. v. Co n -S t a n In d us

. , 8 0 9 F2 d 6 0 1, 6 0 5 (B) (9 t h Ci r. 1 9 8 7 ) (fi n d i n g “ Nu t ri /Sy st em ” t o b e a weak m ark b ecau s e “ t h os e i n t h e fo o d an d
h eal t h p ro d u ct s fi el d co m m o n ly u s e ‘ Nu t ri ’ as a p refi x ”); S u n Ba n ks o

f Fl a
., In c. v. S u n Fed

. S a v. & Lo a n As s n

. , 6 5 1 F2 d 3 1 1

, 3 1 7 (II) (A) (5 t h Ci r. 1 9 81 ) (“ [W ] e fi n d

t h e ex t en s i ve t h i rd -p art y u s e o f t h e wo rd ‘ Su n ’ i m p res s i v e ev id en ce t h at t here wo u ld
b e n o l i k el i h o o d o f co n fu s i o n b et ween Su n Ban k s a n d Su n Fed eral .”) (ci t at i on s

o m it t ed ); Al a ven Co ns u mer Hea l t h ca r e, I n c. v. Dr

Fl o r as , LLC (Cas e No

. 1 : 0 9 -CV-7 05 -TW T, N.D. G a., d eci d ed Feb ru ary 4

, 2 01 0 ) (2 0 1 0 U.S. D i s t

. L EXIS
9 3 6 6

, 4 -5 (III) (A) (1 )). (Th e co u rt h el d t h at t h e wi d es p read t hi rd -p art y u s e o f t h e

p refi x “ D r.” weak en ed th e p l ai n t i ff’ s s u g g es t i ve m ark an d d i m i ni s h ed t h e l ev el o f

p ro t ect i o n i t was affo rd ed .);

1 3 A d es cri p ti ve t rad em ark o r a s erv i ce m a r k de v el o p s s eco n dary m ean i n g wh en

t h e co n s u m i n g p u b l i c as s oci at es t h e m ark wi t h a s i n gl e s o u rce. S e e , e.g

. Amer i ca n Tel evi s i on & C o mmu n i ca t i o ns

. Co r p. v. Amer i ca n Co m mu n ica t io n s & Tel evi s i o n, I n c

. , 8 1 0 F2 d 1 5 46

, 1 5 4 9 (II) (1 1 t h Ci r.1 9 8 7 )(“ In o rd er t o es t ab l i s h s eco n d a r y

m ean i n g t h e p l ai n ti ff m

u s t s h o w t h at t h e p ri m ary s i g n i fi can ce o f t h e t erm i n th e m i nd s

o f th e co n s u m er pu b l i c i s n o t t h e pro d u c t b u t t h e p ro d u cer.”); Un i v. o f Geo r g ia
At h l et i c As s n . v. La i t e, 7 5 6 F2 d 1 5 3 5 , 1 5 4 0 (1 1 t h Ci r. 1 9 8 5 ) (acco rd ).

18Th e reco rd ev i d en ce d em o ns t r a t e s t hat A ft erb u rn er’ s t rad em ark s are weak ;

co n seq u en t l y , t h i s fact o r wei g hs i n fav o r o f Th e Co rp s Gro u p

.

(b ) S i mi la r i t

y b et ween t h e ma r

ks

. To as ses s t h e s i m i l ari t y o f t h e t rad em ark s ,

co u rt s “ co m

pare[] t h e m ark s an d co n s i der[] t h e o v eral l im p res s i o n s t hat t h e m a rk s

creat e, i ncl u d in g t he so u n d

, ap p e a r a n c e , an d m an n er in wh i ch t h ey are u s ed .”

(Ci t at i o n o m i t t ed .) F

r eh l i n g E n t er p r i s es , In c. v. In t l . S

el ect Gr o u p, In c ., 1 92 F3 d at

1 3 3 7 (III) (2 ). “ H o w ev er, co u rt s m a y s ti ll v i ew t h e co m p o n en t p art s o f co n fl i ct i n g

co m p o s i t e m ark s as a p rel im i n ary s t ep o n t h e way t o an u l t i m at e d et erm i n at i o n o f

p ro b ab l e cu s t o m er react i o n t o t h e co n fl i ct i n g co m p os i t es as a wh o l e.” (Ci t at i o n an d

p u n ct u at i o n o m i t t ed .) Al aven Co n s u mer Hea lt h ca r e, In c. v. D r Fl o r a s , LLC (Cas e No

.

1 : 0 9 -CV-7 05 -TW T, N.D. G a., d eci d ed Feb ru a r y 4

, 2 0 1 0 ) (2 0 1 0 U.S. Di st

. LEXIS

9 3 6 6

, 7 (III) (A) (2 )). See al s o Su n Ba n ks o f Fl a
., In c. v. Su n Fed

. S

a v. & Lo an As sn

. ,

6 5 1 F2 d at 3 1 6 (II) (A) (s ep arat el y an al y zi n g t h e s t ren gt h an d s i m i l ari t y o f th e p refi x

“ s u n ”).

Th ere are so m e o b v i o u s s i m i l ari t i es b et w een t h e ap p earan ce, s o u n d an d

m ean i n g o f t h e p art i es ’ co n t es ted m ark s

. Th e m ark s “ Fl awl es s Ex ecu t i o n” an d “ Co rp s

ex ecu t i o n ” are s i m i l ar, b u t t h at s i m i l ari t y i s d u e, i n larg e p art

, t o t h e s h a r e d w o r d

“ ex ecu t i o n ,” w h ich i s a wo rd t h at d es cri b es , i n m i li t ary p arl an ce, g et t i n g t h e jo b d o ne.

19“ Tas k o v erl o ad ” an d “ t as k sat urat i on ” are s im il ar p h ras es , bu t

, ag ai n , t h at si m i l ari t y

i s d u e t o t h e s hared wo rd “ t as k ,” wh i ch d es cri bes a jo b t o d o , an d t h e s h ared i d ea o f

h a v i n g t o o m

u ch t o d o. T h e s am e i s tru e o f t h e p h ras es “ ex ecu t io n rh y t h m ” a n d

“ ex ecu t i o n cad en ce.” Th e m ark s s h are a co m m o n d es cri pt i v e wo rd

, “ ex ecu t i o n ,” t h e

wo rd s “ rh y t h m ” an d “ cad en ce” are s y n o n y m s , an d b o t h p h ras es are deri v at i v e o f t h e

m i l i tary p h ras e “ b at t le rh y t h m .” An d

, fi n al l y , Aft erb u rn er’ s ci rcu l ar l o g o co n t ai n i n g

t h e wo rd s “ pl an , b ri ef, ex ecu t e, deb ri ef, wi n !” is s i m i l ar t o Th e Co rp s Gro u p ’ s

d i ag ram (wh i ch wa s n ot u s ed i n t h e Co rp s Gro up ’ s m ark et in g ) co n t ai n i n g th ree l i n k ed

ci rcl es each co n t ai n i n g t he wo rd s “ p l an , d o , d eb ri ef.” Th e s i m i l ari t y , th o u g h

, d eri v es

fro m th e fact th at b o t h i m a g es i l l u s t rat e t h e cy cl i cal p ro ces s o f m i l i t ary m i s s i o n

p l an n i n g t h at ai m s fo r co n t i nu o u s i m p ro v em en t. Th u s , al th o u g h t h e ev i d en ce s h o ws

t h at t h e c o n t e s t e d m ark s h av e co m m o n el em en t s (“ t as k ,” “ ex ecu t i o n , ” “ p l an ,”

“ d eb ri ef” an d t h e cy cl i cal n at u re o f a p ro ces s ), th o s e el em en t s are h i g h ly d es cri p t i v e

(an d p os s i b l y ev en g en eri c) o f t erm s an d p ro ces ses u s ed b o t h i n t h e m i l i t ary an d in

t h e fi el d o f m i l i t ary -t h em ed b u s i n es s co n s u lt i ng

.

Gi v en t he pres en ce of t h es e co m m on d es cri p ti v e el em e n t s i n t he co n t es t ed

m ark s , ev e n s m al l v ari at io ns b et ween t h em are en o u g h to d i st i ng u i s h t h e m ark s ,

p art i cu l arl y i n t h e co n t ex t o f b u s i n es s co n s ul t i n g s erv i ces wh ere th e co m m o n

20el em en t s are u nd ers t o o d t o des cri b e t h e s erv i ces ren d ered

. See, e.g ., Jo hn H. Ha r l a n d

Co

. v. C l a r k

e C h e c ks

, In c

. , 7 1 1 F2 d at 9 7 5 -9 7 6 (III) (B) (fi n d in g o n ly n o m i n al

s i m i l ari t y b et ween t h e m ark s “ M em ory St u b ” an d “ En t ry St u b ” i n t h e co n t ex t o f b an k

c h eck p ro d u ct s g iv en th e p res en ce o f t h e gen eri c wo rd “ s tu b ”); B eech -Nu t

, I n c

. v

.

Wa r n er -La mb er t Co

. , 34 6 FSu p p

. 5 4 7

, 5 4 9 (S.D.N.Y. 1 9 7 2) (h o l d in g t h at “ Bre a t h

Pl eas ers ” d i d no t i n fri n g e o n “ Breat h Sav ers ” i n p art b ecau s e, i n t he co n t ex t o f

b reat h -fres hen i n g can d i es , “ wh ere t h e key wo rd [b reat h ] i s as free as ai r, s m al l

v ari at i o n s are l i k el y t o m ak e en o u g h o f a d ifferen ce t o w a r d o ff ch arg es o f

i n fri n g em en t ”) (ci t at i o n s o m i t t ed ); Al a ven Co n su mer Hea l t hca r e, In c. v. Dr Fl o r a s ,

LLC (Cas e No

. 1 : 0 9 -CV-7 0 5 -TW T, N.D. Ga., d eci d ed Feb ru ary 4

, 2 01 0 ) (2 01 0 U.S.

Di s t

. LEXIS 9 3 6 6

, 6 (I I I ) ( A ) (2 )). (“ Al t h o u gh b o th m ark s i n co rp orat e p l an t s , t h e

s i m i l ari t i es are in s uffi c i e n t t o creat e co n fu s i o n , part i cu l arl y am o ng h erb al

s u p p lem en t s .”). Th u s , t h i s fact o r wei gh s i n fav o r o f Th e Co rp s Gro u p

.

(c) S i mi la r it

y o f t h e p a r t i es ’ s er vi ces
, cl i en t s
, a n d a d ver ti s in g met h o d

s

. Bo th

Aft erb u rn er an d Th e Co rp s Gro u p are s i m i l a r i n t h at t h ey s el l m i l i t ary av i at i o n

t h em ed b u s i nes s co n s ul t i n g s erv i ces

. Th ey d o n o t s el l a p ro d u ct i n a ret ai l o u t l et ;

rat h er t h ey m ark et th ei r s erv i ces t o b u s i n e s s ex ecu t i v es , t h e m ajo ri t y o f wh o m are

s o p h is t i cat ed and se le c tive

. B e c a use th e co n s u m ers o f t h e p art ies ’ b u s in es s co n s u l t i n g

21s erv i ces are m ak i n g a d eci s i on t o s p en d t h o u s an d s o f d o l lars fo r a s p eci al i zed s erv i ce,

t h ere i s l es s o f a l i kel i h o od of co n fu s i o n

. See Or eck Co r p

. v. U.S

. Fl o o r S ys

. , In c ., 8 0 3

F2 d 1 6 6

, 1 7 3 -1 7 4 (I I I ) ( 8 ) (5 t h Ci r. 1 9 8 6 ) (reas o n i n g t h at b ecau s e p u rch as ers were

“ b u y i n g fo r p ro fes s i o n al an d i n s t i t u t i on al p u rp os es at a co s t i n t h e t h o u s a n d s o f

d o l l ars , t h ey are v irt u al l y cert ai n t o b e i n fo rm ed

, d el i berat iv e b u y ers ”) (ci t at i o n

o m it t ed ). Th e p art ies al s o m ark et t h o se s e r v i ces i n a n u m b er of way s , i n cl u d i n g

web si t es an d referral s. Ho wev er, t h e ev id en ce ad d u ced s h o wed t h at t h e p art i es rel y

p ri m ari l y o n d i fferen t m ark et i n g s t rat eg i es , t h at t h ey seek d i fferen t t yp e s o f

co n su l t i n g rel at i o n s h i p s , an d t h at t h ey h av e d ifferen t co n s u l t i n g s ty l es

. Fo r ex am p l e,

Th e Co rp s Gro u p fo cu s es on d ev el o p i n g l o ng -t erm cl i en t rel ationships usi n g t h e m o re

d et ai led Pro m et heu s Pro ces s wh ereas Aft erb u rn er fo c use s on tr a i ning b u s i nes s es h o w

t o ex ecu te i t s b u s in es s p l an s . Aft erb u rn er u s es t h e s erv i ces of a b o ok i n g ag en t ; Th e

Co rp s Gro u p d oes no t

. Aft erb u rn er h as a h i gh l y t h eat ri cal s t y l e co m p l et e wi th

m i l i tary p ro p s ; Th e Co rp s Gro u p d o es n ot

. Gi v en t h i s ev i d en ce, t hes e fact ors wei g h

i n fav o r o f Th e Co rp s Gro u p

.

(d ) Th e Ap

p el l a nt s ’ i n t en t

. It i s un d i s p u t ed t h a t T h e Co rp s Gro u p an d t h e

i n d i v i d u al l y n am ed ap p el l an t s in t e nde d to c om p et e wi t h Aft erb u rn er. Bu t t h e Lan h am

Act d o es n o t p ro t ect ag ai n st co m p et i t i o n. Rat h er, i t p r o t e ct s ag ai n s t u n fai r

22co m

p et i t i o n i n t h e fo rm of cu s t o m er co n fu si o n cau sed b y t h e i n fri ng i n g u s e o f

t rad em ark s

. 1 4 Th u s , fo r t h i s fact o r t o wei g h ag ai n s t t h e ap p el l an t s, Aft erb u rn er m u s t

s h ow th at t h ey u s ed i t s t rad em ark s wi t h th e i n t en t i on of deri v i n g a b en e f i t f r o m

Aft erb u rn er’ s bu s i n es s rep u t at io n o r t h at Th e Co rp s Gro u p was i n t en t i o n al l y b l i n d to

t h e co n fu s i o n b et ween t h e p art i es ’ t rad em ark s

. Fr eh l in g En t er pr i s es
, I n c

. v

. In t l

.

S el ect Gr o u p , In c ., 1 92 F3 d at 1 3 4 0 (III) (6 ). Bad fai th i n t h e ad op t io n an d u s e o f a

t rad em ark n orm al l y i n v o l v es t h e i m i t a t i o n o f p ack ag i n g m at eri al an d t h e u s e o f

s i m i l ar m ark et i n g an d d is t ri b u ti o n m et h o d s o r o t h er effo rt s b y a p a rt y to “ p as s o ff”

i t s p r o d u ct as th at o f an ot h er. See Ams t a r Co rp

. v. Do mi n o’s Pi z z a
, In c. , 6 1 5 F.2 d

2 5 2 , 2 6 3 (III) (6 ) (5 t h Ci r. 1 9 8 0 ).

Th e ev i d en ce s h o w s t h at t h e i n d i vi d u al ap p el l an ts were aware o f Aft erb u rn er’ s

t rad em ark s , h av i n g b een em p l o y ed b y t h e co m

p an y wi t h wh o m t h ey

n ow co m p et e.

W h i l e t h e ju ry m ay i n fer t h at t h ere was an i n t e n t t o i m i t at e t h ei r co m p et it o rs , t h e

d i r e c t ev id en ce d o es n ot s u p p o rt a fi n d in g t hat t h e ap p el l an t s at t em p ted t o p as s o ff

Th e Co rp s Gro u p ’ s s erv ices as t h o s e o f A ft erb u rn er. Bo rn em an t es ti fi ed t h at h e was

1 4 See Li b ma n Co

. v. V

i n i n g In d u s

. , 6 9 F3 d 1 3 6 0

, 1 3 6 3 (7 t h Ci r. 1 9 9 5) (“ [Th e d efen d an t ] n o ti ced t h at [t he pl ai n t i ff’ s ] b ro o m s were s el l i n g b ri s k l y , i n ferred t h at

co n su m ers l i ke b ro o m s wi t h co n t ras t i n g co l o r b an d s , an d d e c i d ed t o cl i m b o n t h e b an dwag o n

. W e cal l th at co m p et i t i o n , n ot b ad fai t h

, p ro v i d ed t h ere i s n o i n t en t i o n to

co n fu s e, an d , s o far as ap p ears , t h ere was n o n e.”) (ci t at i on o m i t ted .)

23s en s i t i v e t o t h e fact t h at h e had a n o n -s o l i ci t at i o n ag reem en t wi t h Aft erb u rn er;

co n seq u e n t l y , h e ad v i s ed h i s cl i en t s o f t h at rel at i o n sh i p

. Fu rt h er, he an d t h e

ap p el l an t s m ad e effo rt s t o d i s t i n g u i s h Th e Co rp s Gr oup’ s se rv i ces fro m Aft erb u rn er’ s

b y ad o p t i n g a u n i q u e l o g o an d b u s i n e s s s t y l e. “ [A] d efen d an t ’ s u s e o f i t s o wn

wel l -k n o wn m ark i n c o n

j u n ct i o n wi t h t h e s p eci fi c m ark o f i t s pro d u ct can s erv e to

en s u re t h at t h ere ari s es n o co n s u m er co n fu s i on ab o u t t h e s o u rce o f t hat p ro d u ct .”

(Ci t at i o n s o m i tt ed .) Gi o r

g i o B ever l

y Hi ll s
, In c. v. Revl on Co n su mer P r o d u ct s Co rp .,

8 6 9 FSu pp . 1 7 6 , 1 82 (A) (2 ) (S.D.N.Y. 1 9 9 4 ).

Th e ap p el l an t s al s o t es t i fi ed t hat t h e co n cep t s an d t erm s t h at t h ey were u s i n g

i n t h ei r m ark et i n g an d s em i n ars cam e fro m t h e i r o w n m i l i t ary ex p eri en ce an d fro m

t h e Pro m et h eu s Pro ces s , n ot fro m Aft erb u rn er. Th e ap p el l an t s ’ t es t i m o n y rev eal s t h at

t h ey h ad a g o o d fai t h b as i s t o u s e t h o s e t erm s an d c o n cep t s an d th e d i ag ram s t h at

i l lu s t rat ed t h em

. M o reo v er, t h e ev i d en ce s h o ws t h at t h e ap pel l an t s m o d i fi ed t h ei r

t erm s , p ro ces s es , an d d i ag ram s t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h em fro m t h o se us ed b y Aft erb u rn er.

Fi n al l y , t h ey di d n ot b el i ev e t h at Aft erb u rn er h ad t h e ex cl u si v e ri g h t t o m ark et a

m i l i tary av i at i o n -t hem ed b u s in es s co n s ul t i n g s erv i ce, an d t hat b el i ef w as co rrect

. See

Di v is i o n 2

, i n fra. G i v e n t h i s ev i d en ce, t h i s fact o r wei g h s i n fav o r o f Th e Co rp s

Gro up

.

24(e) Act u a l co n f u s i o n

. T h e E l ev en t h C i r c u i t h as h el d t h at “ [a] ct u al co n s u mer

co n fu s i o n i s t h e bes t ev i d en ce o f l i k el ih o od o f co n fu si o n

. ” AmBr i t

, In c. v. Kr a

f t

, In c .,

8 1 2 F2 d at 1 5 4 3 (I) (C) (6 ) (em p h as i s s u p p l i ed ). “ Sh o rt -l iv ed co n fu s io n o r co n fu s i o n

o f i n d i v i d u al s c a s u a l l y acq u ai n t ed wi t h a b u s i n es s i s wo rt h y o f l it t le wei g h t wh i l e

co n fu s i o n o f act ual cu s t o m ers o f a b u s i n es s i s wo rt h y o f s u b s t an t i al wei g h t.” Ca l i b er

Au t o

. Li q u i d

a t o r s
, In c. v. Pr emi er Ch r

ys l er
, Jeep

, Do d

g e, LLC

, 6 05 F.3 d 9 3 1

, 9 3 6

(III) (A) (1 1 t h Ci r. Ga. 20 1 0 ). See al s o Al l ia n ce Met a l s
, In c. o f A tl a n t a v. Hi n el

y

In d u st r i es , 2 2 2 F3 d 8 9 5

, 9 0 8 (III) (B) (1 1 t h Ci r. 20 0 0 ) (fo cu s i n g o n co n fu s i o n o f

i n d u s t ri al al u m i n u m b u y ers

– i n cl u d i n g t h e t rad em ark h ol d er’ s cu s t o m ers

– i n t h e

co n tex t o f an i nfri n g em en t d i s p u t e b et ween al um i n u m d i s t ri b u to rs ).

Aft erb u rn er di d n o t p res en t an y ev i den ce o f act u al co n s um er co n fu s i o n,

d es p it e t h e fact th at t h e t wo co m p an i es h ad b een co m

pet i n g wi t h each o t h er fo r s ix

y ears an d h ad each g i v en h u n d red s of p res en t at i o ns , i n d i cat i n g t h at t h ere was l i t t l e

l i kel i h o o d o f act u al co n s um er co n fu s i o n

. See Akt i eb o l a g et El ect r o lu x v. Ar ma t ro n

In t l

., In c ., 9 9 9 F2 d 1

, 4 (1 s t Ci r. 19 9 3 ) (Th at “ W eed E at ers ” an d “ Leaf Eat ers ”

co ex is t ed o n t he m ark et fo r s ix y ears wi t h li t tl e act u al co n fu s i o n s t ro n g l y s u g g es t ed

l i tt l e l i k el i h o o d o f co n fu s i o n

. ). In fact , d u ri n g cl os i n g arg u m en t

, Aft erb u rn er’ s t ri al

co u ns el al l b ut co n ced ed t h at t h ere was n o ev i d en ce o f act u al co n fu s io n ; s t at i n g:

25“ ”[W ] h i l e I’ d l o v e to h av e al l s o rt s o f ev i d en ce o f act u al co n fu s i o n t o m ak e m y cas e

a l o t eas ier, I’ m n ot req u i red t o h av e i t [.] ”

. Th e l ack o f ev i d en ce o f act u al co n s u m er

co n fu s i o n wei g h s i n fav o r o f Th e Co rp s Gro u p.

Becau s e al l o f t h es e fact o rs wei gh in fav o r o f T h e Co rp s Gro u p , t h ere i s n o

n eed to b al an ce t h em

. In d eed

, Aft erb u rn e r f ai l ed t o ad du ce ev i d en ce ov er wh i ch

reas on ab l e p ers o n s co u l d di ffer o n t h e i s s u e o f t h e l i k el i h o o d o f co n s u m er co n fu s i o n

b e tween i t s trad em ark s an d T h e Co rp s Gro u p ’ s co m p et i n g m ark s. Th e ev i d en ce o n

t h i s i s s u e i s u n am

b i g u o u s a nd wi t h o u t co n fl i ct

. Th i s ev i d en ce, an d al l reas o n ab l e

d ed uct i o n s fro m i t

, d em an d s a v erd ict i n fav o r o f Th e Co rp s G ro u p

. Co n s eq u en t l y ,

t h e t ri al co u rt ’ s ord er den y in g t h e Co rp s G ro u p ’ s m o ti o n fo r a d i rect ed v erd i ct an d

m o ti o n fo r a ju d g m en t n o t wi t h s t an d i n g th e v erd i ct i s cl earl y erro n eo us an d m u s t b e

rev ers ed

.

2

. Af ter bu rn er ’s Tr a d

e Dr es s Cl a i ms

. A ft erb u rn er al l eg ed t hat Th e Cor p G ro u p

i n fri n g ed o n i t s u n reg i st ered t rad e d res s an d th at t h e in fri n gi n g u s e co n s t i t u t ed u n fai r

co m p et i t i o n. Th e ap p el lan t s c o n t en d th at Aft erb u rn er fai l ed t o p res en t ev i d en ce

d em o n s t rat i n g t h at i t h ad a d i s t i n ct i ve trad e dres s ap art fro m an u n p ro t ect ab l e s t y l e,

t h em e, o r i dea.

26Sect io n 4 3 (a) (1 ) o f Th e Lan h am Act

, wh i ch p ro t ect s u n reg i s t ered t rad em ark s ,

al s o ex t en d s p ro t e c t i o n t o u n reg i s tered t rad e d res s

. See W a l-Ma r t St o res
, In c. v.

S a ma r a Br o s
., In c

. , 5 2 9 U.S. 2 0 5

, 2 0 9 -2 1 0 (II) (1 20 S C t 1 33 9

, 1 4 6 LEd 2 d 1 8 2

(2 0 0 0). See al s o Or ig i n a l Ap pa l a ch i a n Ar t wo r

ks

, In c. v. To

y Lo f t

, In c. , 68 4 F2 d 8 2 1,

8 3 1 (III) (1 1 t h Ci r. 1 9 8 2 ). “ Trad e d res s ” i s d efi n ed as “ t h e t o t al i m ag e of a p ro d u ct

an d m ay i n cl u d e feat u res su ch as s i ze, s h ap e, co l o r o r co l o r c o m b i nat i o n s , t ex t u re,

g r ap h ics

, o r ev en p art icu l ar s al es t ech n i q u es .” (Fo o t n o t e o m it t ed .) AmBr i t

, In c

. v

.

Kr a f t, In c. , 8 1 2 F2 d at 1 53 5

. M o s t t rad e d res s in fri n gem en t act i o n s i n v o l v e t h e

p ack ag i ng , d es i g n , or l ab el i ng o f g o o d s

. Jo h n H

. Ha r la n d Co

. v. Cl a r

ke Ch ecks

, In c. ,

7 1 1 F2 d at 9 8 0 (IV). Ho wev er, t rad e d res s p ro t ect i o n al s o ex t en d s t o t h e m ark et i n g

o f s erv i ces

. See Pu r e P o w e r Bo o t Ca mp
, In c. v. W a r r i o r Fi t n es s Bo o t Ca mp
, LLC,

8 1 3 FSu p p 2 d 48 9

, 5 37 (VII I ) ( S D N Y 2 0 1 1 ) (“ Th e t erm ‘ t rad e d res s ’ h as a b ro ad

m ean i n g an d is defi n ed as th e ‘ t o t al i m ag e’ o f a bu s i nes s , go o d

, or s erv i ce ‘ as d efi n ed

b y i t s o v eral l co m

p o s i t i o n a n d d es i g n , i ncl u d in g s i ze, s h ap e, co l o r, tex t u re, an d

g rap h i cs .’ ”) (ci t at i o n an d fo o t n o t e o m i tt ed ). “ T rad e dres s g en eral l y fal l s i n t o o n e o f

t wo cat eg ori es : p ro d u ct p ack ag i ng o r pro d u c t d es i g n .” (Ci t at i o n an d fo o t n o t e

o m it t ed .) Id

. It i s di ffi cu l t t o fi t a t rad e d r e s s i nfri n gem en t cl ai m in v o l v i n g t h e

m ark et i n g an d pres en tat i o n st y le o f b u s i nes s co n s u l t in g s erv i ces i n t o o n e o f t h es e t wo

27cl as s ifi cat i o n s ; h o wev er, b as ed o n t h e way t hat Aft erb u rn er d i scu s s es i t s t rad e d res s ,

we co n cl u d e t h at i t i s ap p ro p ri at e t o an al y ze i t s t rad e d res s as a s p eci es o f p ro d u ct

p ack ag i ng

. See i d

. In s u ch cas es , t h e “ [t ] h e t ou ch s to n e t es t fo r a v io l at i o n o f § 4 3 (a)

[o f t h e Lan h am A ct ] is t h e ‘ l ik el i h o o d o f co n fu si on ’ res u l t i n g fro m t h e d efen d an t ’ s

ad o pt i o n o f a t rad e d res s s i m i l ar t o t h e p l ai n t iff’ s .” Or i g i n a l Ap p a l a ch i a n Ar t wo r

ks

,

In c. v. To y Lo f t , In c. , 6 8 4 F.2 d at 8 3 1 -8 3 2 (III).

A d d i t i o nal l y , al th o u g h t rad e d res s i s t h e “ t o t al i m ag e” of a p ro du ct

, we n o t e

p l ai n t i ffs are req u i red to art i cu lat e t h e s p eci fi c i t em s al l eg ed t o co n s t it u t e t h at i m ag e.

W i t h o u t s u ch a p reci s e e x p r e ss i on o f t h e ch aract er an d s co p e o f th e

cl ai m ed t rad e dres s , l i t i gat i o n wi ll b e d i ffi cu l t

, as co u rt s wi l l b e u n ab l e

t o ev al u at e h o w u n i q u e an d u n ex p ect ed t h e d es i g n el em en t s are i n th e

rel ev an t m ark et

. Co u rt s wi l l al s o b e u n ab l e to s h ap e n arro w l y

- t ai l ored

rel i ef i f t h ey d o n ot k n o w w h at d i s t i n ct i v e co m b i n at io n o f i n g red ien t s

d es erv es p ro t ect i o n

. M o r e ove r , a p l ai n t i ff’ s i nab i l i t y t o ex pl ai n to a co u rt

ex act l y w h ich as p ect s o f it s p ro d u ct des i g n(s ) m er i t p r o t ect i o n m ay

i n d i cat e t hat i t s cl ai m is p i t ch ed at an i m p ro per l ev el o f g en eral i t y , i.e.,

t h e cl ai m an t seek s p ro t ect i on fo r an u n p ro t ect ab l e s t y l e, t h em e o r i d ea.

(Ci t at i o n an d p u n ct u at i o n o m i t t ed .) Ab er cr o mb i e & F i t ch S t o res
, In c. v. Am. Ea g l e

Ou t fi t t er s , In c. , 2 8 0 F3 d 6 1 9, 6 3 4 -6 3 5 (III) (B) (6 t h Ci r. 2 0 0 2 ).

28Aft erb u rn er’ s t rad e d res s cl ai m fai l s b ecau s e t he ev i d en ce d o es n o t s u p p o rt a

fi nd i ng o f d i st i n ct iv en es s 1 5 o r tha t th ere ex i st s an y l i k el i h o o d o f co n su m er co n fu s i o n 1 6

b et we e n Aft erb u rn er’ s t rad e d res s an d th at o f Th e Co rp s Gro u p

. Aft erb u rn er

co n ten d s, es s en t i al ly

, t h at i t s t rad e d res s i s i t s m i li t ary av i at i on -t h em ed ap p ro ach t o

b u s i n es s co n su l t i ng

. M u rp h y t es t i fi e d t h at Aft erb urn er’ s u s e o f real p i l o t s weari n g

s t an d ard -i s s u e, s ag e g reen fl ig h t s u i t s d u ri ng b u s i n es s co n s u l t i n g pres en t at i on s

co n st i t u t ed t h e m os t rel ev an t feat u res o f Aft erb u rn er’ s t rad e d res s

. A ft erb u rn er al s o

arg u es t h at i t h as t h e ex cl u s i v e ri g h t t o u se, in t h e co n t e x t o f b u s i n es s co n s u l t i n g

s erv i ces , i m ag es o f fi gh t er p i l o ts

, fl i g h t su i t s , an d jet p lan es on i t s web s i t e, b ro ch u res ,

an d o t h er m ark et i ng m at eri al s b ecau s e th es e it em s d i s t i n g u i s h ed t he co m p an y ’ s

s erv i ces

. Aft erb u rn er al s o co n t en d s th at i t s u s e o f i t s th eat ri cal p ro ps – e.g ., b u n k ers ,

ch art s an d m ap s, l o u d m

u s i c, an d cam o u fl ag e n et t i n g, et c.

– i s al s o p ro t ect ed t rad e

d res s

.

1 5 Trad e dres s , li k e trad em ark s , m ay b e cl as s ifi ed as g en eri c, d e s c r i p t i ve,

s u g g es t i v e, o r arb it rary

. AmBr i t , In c. v. Kr a

ft , In c. , 8 1 2 F2 d at 1 5 3 7 (I) (A).

1 6 It is u n d i sp u t ed t h at Aft erb u rn er p res en t ed n o ev i d en c e o f act u al cu s t o m er

co n fu s i o n as t o t h e s ou rce o f t h e p ar t i e s ’ m i l i t ary -t h em ed b u s i n es s co n s u l t i n g

s erv i ces

. See Di v i s i o n s 1 (e), s u p ra.

29Th e ev i den ce s ho ws th at Th e Co rp s Gro u p rarel y u sed fl i g h t s u i t s i n i t s

p res en t at i o n s a n d i t d i d n ot u s e an y o f A ft erb u rn er’ s t h eat ri cal s t ag e p ro p s

. Rat h er,

Th e Co rp s G ro u p, l i k e Aft erb u rn er, u s ed fi g h ter p i l o t i m ag ery , co n cep t s, t h em es , an d

p ro ces s es

. Fu rt h er , the r e c or d r e f le c ts th at A ft erb u rn er fai l ed t o s p eci fy wh ich feat u res

o f i t s jet fi g h t er i m ag ery are un iq u el y p art o f i t s t rad e d res s , n o r d id i t co m p are t h o s e

s p eci fi c feat u res t o t h e fi g h t er-p i l o t im ag ery t h at Th e Co rp s Gro u p u s ed

. An d t o t h e

ex t en t t h at Th e Co rp s G ro u p u sed m i l i t ary -s t y l ed ex erci s es (i n cl ud i n g m ap s , ch art s ,

an d ch eck -l i s t s ) i n i t s p res en tat i o n s , th e reco rd d oes n o t es t ab l i sh t h at t h e ex erci s es

were d ev el o p ed b y Aft erb u rn er o r t h at t he m at eri al s u sed m i m i ck ed in an y s i g n i fi can t

way A ft erb u rn er’ s ex erci s es

. In s t ead

, t h e ev i d en ce sh o w s t h at Aft erb u rn er a n d Th e

Co rp s Gro u p (as wel l as m an y o t h er b u s in es s co n su l t i n g gro u p s) o ffered cl i en t s

b u s i n es s co n s u l t i n g s erv i ces b as ed o n m i l it ary av i at i o n p lan n i n g m et h o d ol o g i es an d,

i n d o i n g s o , u s ed i m ag ery , p ro ces s es , an d co n cep t s th at referen ced m i l i t ary av i at i o n.

In s h o r t

, t h e ev id en ce s h o ws t hat Aft erb u rn er w as s eek i n g t o p ro t ect a fi g h t er-p i l ot

ma r ket in g t h eme as o p p os ed t o a d i s t i n ct iv e t r a d e d r es s

.

A m ark et i n g t h em e m ay b e ex ecu t ed i n a n u m ber of way s , wh ereas t rad e d res s

i s u n i q u e. Aft erb u rn er en

jo y s t rad e d res s p ro tect i o n wi t h res p ect t o i ts o wn d i s t i n ct i v e

co m b i nat i o n o f m i li t ary

el em en t s an d co n cep t s , b u t n o t t o t h e g en eral el em en t s an d

30co n cep t s t h em s el v es

. See, e.g ., Pu r e Po wer Bo o t Ca m p
, In c. v. W

a r r i o r Fi t nes s Bo ot

Ca mp
, LLC, 8 1 3 FSu p p .2 d at 5 4 3 (B) (2 ). (“ Pu re Po wer, a s a f i t nes s faci l i t y , i s n ot

en t i t l ed t o t h e ex cl u s i v e u s e of fi x ed o b st acl es an d a m i l i t ary th em e

– wh i ch m ay b e

ex ecu t ed i n an y n u m

b er o f way s

. Pu re Po wer en jo y s p ro t ect i on o n l y wi t h res p ect to

i t s o wn d i s t i n ct i v e b l en d an d m an n er o f i m p l em en ti n g t h es e el em en ts an d co n cep t s ,

a n d t hat i m

p l em en t at i o n is q u i t e d ifferen t fro m t h e ‘ l o o k an d feel ’ o f W arri o r

Fi t n es s .”) 1 7

In t h i s cas e, t he reco rd s h o ws t h at Th e Co rp s Gro u p an d Aft erb u rn er b o t h u s ed

fi gh t er p il o t i m ag ery an d co n cep ts d eri v ed fro m m i l i tary av i at i o n, b u t t h at t h ey

ap p li ed t h em i n d i fferen t way s

. Fu rt h er, Aft erb u rn er fai led t o art icu l at e, wi t h an y

cl ari t y , t h e way t h es e m i l i t ary av i at i o n -t h em ed m ark et i n g co m p o n en t s were p ut

t o g et h er i n a u n i qu e way t h at set t h em ap art fro m an y o t h er m i li t ary av i at i o n -t h em ed

1 7 See al so Pr u

f ro ck Lt d

. v. La s a t er , 78 1 F2 d 12 9

, 1 3 2 (II) (8 t h Ci r. 1 98 6 ) (To
al l o w t h e p l ai n ti ff t o p ro t ect i t s “ co u n t ry co o ki n g co n cep t un d er s ect i o n 4 3 (a) o f t h e Lan ham Act wo u l d al l o w i t t o ap pro p ri at e t h e co un t ry c o o k i n g co n cep t t o t h e

ex cl u s i o n o f al l o t h e r s

. ” ) (ci tat i o n s o m i t t ed ); Ha a g en -Da z s
, In c. v. Fr u s en Gl a d

j e Lt d

. , 4 9 3 FSu p p

. 7 3

, 7 5 (S.D.N.Y. 1 9 8 0 ) (“ It wo ul d b e lu d i cro us

. . . to su g ges t t h at [,]
i n o ur free en t erp ri s e s y s t e m , o n e p ro d u cer an d n o t an o t h er i s p erm i t ted t o t ak e

a d v a n t ag e o f [a Scan d i n av i an -t h em ed ] m ark et i n g ap p ro ach t o en han ce co n s u m er

recep t i on o f i t s p ro d u ct .”); D en t o n v. Mr

. Swi s s of Mi s so u ri

, In c. , 5 6 4 F2 d 2 3 6

, 2 4 3 (8 t h Ci r. 19 7 7 ) (“ A fran ch i s o r d o es n o t h av e a b u s i nes s in t eres t cap ab l e o f p ro t ect i o n i n t he m ere m et h o d an d s t y l e o f d o i n g b u s i n es s.”) (ci t at i o n o m i t t ed ).

31co n su l t i n g b u s i n es s

. 1 8 “ Th e l ev el o f g en eral i ty at w h i ch a trad e d res s i s d es cri b ed

, as

wel l as t h e f

a c t t h a t a s i m i l ar t rad e d res s i s al read y b ei n g u s ed b y m an ufact u rers o f

o t h er ki n d s o f p ro du ct s , m ay in d i cat e t h at t h at d res s i s n o m o re t han a co n cep t o r i dea

t o be ap p l i ed t o p art i cu l ar p ro du ct s .” Jef f rey Mi l s t ei n , In c. v. G r eg er

, La wl o r
, Ro t h,

In c. , 5 8 F3 d 2 7

, 3 3 (B) (1 ) (2 d Ci r. 1 9 9 5 )

. B e c au s e Aft erb u rn er fai l ed t o carry i t s

b u rd en o f s h o wi n g t hat i t had a d i s ti n ct i v e t rad e d res s as o p p o s ed t o a m ark et i n g

t h em e, i t was n ot en t it l ed t o t rad e d res s p ro t ect io n u n der t he L an h am Act

.

Co n s eq u en t l y , t he t ri al co u rt erred i n d en y i ng t h e ap p el l an t s ’ m o t i o n fo r a d i rect ed

v erd i ct an d m o t i o n fo r a ju d g m en t n ot wi t h s t an d i n g t h e v erd ict as t o t h es e cl ai m s

.

3

. Becau s e we rev ers e t h e ju d g m en t i n fa v o r o f Aft erb u rn er, t h e tri al co urt ’ s

i n ju n ct i o n , wh i ch was m ad e a p art o f t h e fi n al ju d g m en t , s t an d s v acat ed

.

Ju d g men t r ever sed . Di l l a r d

a n d McFa d

d en , JJ., co n cu r

.

1 8 In i t s o rd er en

jo i n i n g Th e Co rp s Gro u p fro m u s i n g A ft erb u rn er’ s t rad e d res s , t h e co u rt s tat ed : “ [ W]h i l e t h e ev i d en ce at t ri al i nd i cat ed t hat t h e Pl ai nt i ff ro u t i n el y

u s ed fl i gh t s u i t s , cam o u fl ag e net t i n g , p arachute s, se m ina r m a te r i a ls m im i ck in g fi g h t er

p i l o t m i s s i o n p l an n in g d o cu m en t s , v id eo -d i sp l ay s creen s m i m i ck i n g fi g h t er p i l o t jet
rad ar s creen s , an d / o r fi g ht er p i l o t t h em e[d ] m u s i c, t he Co u rt can n o t co n cl u d e wh i ch
i t em , o r co m

b in at i o n o f t h es e i t em s , i f an y o f t h e m , m ak e u p t h e Pl ai n t i ff’ s t rad e d res s

. Th e j u ry ’ s verd i ct i s s i len t i n t h i s reg ard

. ” Th e ju ry ’ s v erd i ct i s s i l en t b ecau s e A f t e r b u rn er d i d n o t i n s i st o n a v erd i ct fo rm wh i ch as ked t h e ju ry to m ak e s p e c i f i c fi nd i ng s as to th e co m

p o n en t s o f Aft erb u r n e r ’s t rad e d res s

. In fact

, Aft erb u rn er reject ed t h e d et ai led v erd ict fo rm p ro p os ed b y t h e co u rt

.

32