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IN THE SUPREME COURT OF THE STATE OF KANSAS

No. 123,797

STATE OF KANSAS,

Appellee,

v.

TYLER BRANDON MCDONALD,

Appellant.

SYLLABUS BY THE COURT

1.

The Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution protects the right of an 

individual to be secure in his or her person and not subject to unreasonable searches and 

seizures by the government. Section 15 of the Kansas Constitution Bill of Rights offers 

the same protections.

2. 

A public safety stop is a seizure and an exception to the Fourth Amendment 

warrant requirement.

3. 

A warrantless traffic stop can be justified for public safety reasons if the safety 

reasons are based upon specific and articulable facts. Suspicion of criminal activity is not 

a legitimate basis for a public welfare stop. In this case, the facts are insufficient to allow 

a warrantless seizure and do not support a valid public safety stop.

Review of the judgment of the Court of Appeals in 63 Kan. App. 2d 75, 524 P.3d 448 (2023). 

Appeal from Geary District Court; CHARLES A. ZIMMERMAN, magistrate judge. Oral argument held 
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September 11, 2023. Opinion filed March 8, 2024. Judgment of the Court of Appeals affirming the 

district court is reversed. Judgment of the district court is reversed.

Kristen B. Patty, of Wichita, argued the cause and was on the brief for appellant. 

Natalie Chalmers, assistant solicitor general, argued the cause, and Tony Cruz, assistant county 

attorney, and Derek Schmidt, attorney general, were on the brief for appellee.

The opinion of the court was delivered by

STEGALL, J.: After dark on a late summer evening in Geary County, a sheriff's 

deputy initiated a public welfare stop of Tyler Brandon McDonald. The deputy was 

patrolling the Outlet Park area near Milford Lake when he observed McDonald's vehicle 

parked in a parking space near the entrance of the park. The deputy could see that 

McDonald was alone and alert in his vehicle. Relying on his prior knowledge of a 

murder-suicide in the area, the deputy decided to initiate a public welfare stop. 

The deputy pulled in behind McDonald's vehicle, activated his rear emergency 

lights, and ran McDonald's license plate. As he was approaching McDonald's car, the 

deputy heard voices and believed McDonald was having a phone conversation via 

Bluetooth. When McDonald rolled down his window, the deputy smelled marijuana. 

The deputy asked for McDonald's license, called for backup, and initiated a search of 

McDonald's car, finding marijuana and a grinder. 

McDonald filed a motion to suppress evidence obtained from the vehicle search, 

arguing that the public safety stop violated his Fourth Amendment rights. The district 

court denied his motion and convicted him for possession of marijuana and possession of 

drug paraphernalia. McDonald timely appealed and the Court of Appeals affirmed. State 

v. McDonald, 63 Kan. App. 2d 75, 524 P.3d 448 (2023). Because we hold this was an 

invalid public safety stop, we reverse. 
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"On a motion to suppress, an appellate court generally reviews the district court's 

findings of fact to determine whether they are supported by substantial competent 

evidence and reviews the ultimate legal conclusion de novo." State v. Cash, 313 Kan. 

121, 125-26, 483 P.3d 1047 (2021). When the material facts supporting a district court's 

decision on a motion to suppress evidence are not in dispute, the ultimate question of 

whether to suppress is a question of law over which an appellate court has unlimited 

review. State v. Hanke, 307 Kan. 823, 827, 415 P.3d 966 (2018). The State has the 

burden to prove a search or seizure was legal. State v. Cleverly, 305 Kan. 598, 605, 385 

P.3d 512 (2016).

The Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution protects the right of an 

individual to be secure in his or her person and not subject to unreasonable searches and 

seizures by the government. State v. Ryce, 303 Kan. 899, 909, 368 P.3d 342 (2016). 

Section 15 of the Kansas Constitution Bill of Rights offers the same protections. 303 

Kan. at 909; State v. Williams, 297 Kan. 370, 376, 300 P.3d 1072 (2013). 

There are generally four types of encounters between individuals and police: 

(1) voluntary or consensual encounters, (2) investigatory detentions, (3) public safety or 

public welfare stops, and (4) arrests. State v. Guein, 309 Kan. 1245, 1253, 444 P.3d 340 

(2019). Here the parties both argue—and testimony confirms—that the deputy was 

attempting to execute a public safety stop. The deputy even testified that McDonald 

would only have been free to leave, after he finished the public safety stop. 

As far as the Fourth Amendment is concerned, a public safety traffic stop is a 

seizure. Martin v. Kansas Dept. of Revenue, 285 Kan. 625, 636, 176 P.3d 938 (2008), 

overruled on other grounds by City of Atwood v. Pianalto, 301 Kan. 1008, 350 P.3d 1048 

(2015). Any warrantless search or seizure is presumptively unreasonable unless it falls 

within a recognized exception to the warrant requirement. State v. Neighbors, 299 Kan. 

234, 239, 328 P.3d 1081 (2014). Public safety or community caretaking reasons may 
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justify a warrantless seizure even when no civil or criminal infractions have occurred, 

so long as the encounter is based on specific and articulable facts. Hanke, 307 Kan. at

827-28.

The public safety exception was first discussed by the United States Supreme 

Court in Cady v. Dombrowski, 413 U.S. 433, 93 S. Ct. 2523, 37 L. Ed. 2d 706 (1973). 

Cady involved a warrantless search, not a seizure. But we have cited Cady's underlying 

public safety rationale as persuasive in adopting the public safety exception to the Fourth 

Amendment warrant requirement in State v. Vistuba, 251 Kan. 821, 824, 840 P.2d 511 

(1992), disapproved on other grounds in State v. Field, 252 Kan. 657, 847 P.2d 1280 

(1993). In that case, we held that a warrantless traffic stop can be justified for public 

safety reasons "if the safety reasons are based upon specific and articulable facts." 

Vistuba, 251 Kan. at 824; see State v. Ellis, 311 Kan. 925, 929-30, 469 P.3d 65 (2020). 

Instances of courts policing the limits on law enforcement's use of public welfare 

stops is nothing new. We have previously said "[d]espite repeated admonitions to the 

State that police may not use public welfare checks as a basis for conducting background 

investigations and warrant checks . . . such conduct persists." Ellis, 311 Kan. at 942; see 

also State v. Gonzales, 36 Kan. App. 2d 446, 453, 141 P.3d 501 (2006) ("Once safety 

stops are permitted, then there must be limits placed upon them; otherwise, any pretext 

could serve as a reason to stop."). A valid public-safety stop therefore requires an officer 

to believe such a stop is necessary to protect the individual or the public based on the 

specific and articulable facts of the particular situation. Ellis, 311 Kan. at 929-30. Several 

Kansas cases provide examples as to what can constitute sufficient specific and 

articulable facts. 

In Vistuba, we recognized the legitimacy of a lawful public welfare stop when an

officer pulled over a moving vehicle because the person was driving erratically, driving 

slowly, hugging the curb, swerving on the shoulder, and the officer had a reasonable 
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belief that the driver was either ill or falling asleep. 251 Kan. at 822, 824. The officer 

testified that while she believed the driver was not committing any crime, the driver was 

posing a danger to himself and others on the road. 251 Kan. at 822; see also State v. 

Messner, 55 Kan. App. 2d 630, 631-32, 634, 419 P.3d 642 (2018) (valid public welfare 

stop when defendant had spent eight hours incoherent in a grocery store and police 

followed and stopped him after he was asked to leave the store out of concern for his own 

safety); State v. McKenna, 57 Kan. App. 2d 731, 731-32, 740, 459 P.3d 1274 (2020) 

(valid public welfare stop when police viewed a driver slumped over and unresponsive in 

her car); Nickelson v. Kansas Dept. of Revenue, 33 Kan. App. 2d 359, 360, 365, 102 P.3d 

490 (2004) (valid public safety stop when, pursuant to standard highway patrol 

procedures, officer observed defendant pull off the highway onto a secluded farm plug 

and turn off his lights); State v. Tilson, No. 108,253, 2013 WL 2920147, at *1, 3 (Kan. 

App. 2013) (unpublished opinion) (valid public welfare stop when police observed 

defendant walking in the street at 3:30 a.m. near his overturned car with scratches and 

blood on his hands and defendant's friend had reported he was likely a danger to himself).

In this case, however, the facts do not support a valid safety stop. The deputy

stated he was concerned because it was dark, it was late, the car was parked in a 

"secluded" area, there was a single occupant inside the car, there had been prior safety 

incidents in the area in past years, people often do illegal activity in that area, and that he 

didn't know what McDonald was thinking. On examination, we find these facts 

insufficient to allow a warrantless seizure. 

First, it was approximately 9 p.m., the park was still open to the public, and 

McDonald was legally parked near the entrance. None of these facts indicate something 

is wrong or that McDonald is in danger. Next, we assign no value to the bare fact 

McDonald was alone. Upon approaching the vehicle, the deputy could even hear what he 

believed was McDonald speaking on the phone. And the fact there had been past issues in 
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the park with criminal activity is irrelevant because the deputy admitted he did not 

suspect any criminal activity, and suspicion of criminal activity is not a legitimate basis 

for a public welfare stop. 

Finally, turning to the deputy's concern based on his experiences working prior 

instances of self-harm, we find no specific and articulable facts in the record to support 

those concerns here. The deputy had not received any calls, reports, or other information 

that McDonald was in any type of danger. McDonald did not appear to be in an adverse

physical state or doing anything which would indicate he was at any risk of self-harm. 

Sitting alone, talking on the phone via Bluetooth, while legally parked in an open public 

park is simply not enough. Moreover, the deputy not knowing what McDonald was 

thinking is not a specific and articulable fact giving rise to public safety concerns. 

We hold the stop unconstitutional in violation of the Fourth Amendment. 

Accordingly, we reverse the lower courts and reverse McDonald's convictions. 

Judgment of the Court of Appeals affirming the district court is reversed. 

Judgment of the district court is reversed.