UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT

DISTRICT OF NEW HAMPSHIRE

Stonyfield Farm, Inc.

Plaintiff and 

Counterclaim-Defendant

v. Civil No. 08-cv-488-JL

Opinion No. 2009 DNH 150

Agro-Farma, Inc.

Defendant and

Counterclaim-Plaintiff

v.

Schreiber Foods, Inc.

Counterclaim-Defendant

OPINION AND ORDER

This case involves a dispute among yogurt manufacturers over

a relationship gone sour. The plaintiff, Stonyfield Farm, Inc.,

alleges that the defendant, Agro-Farma, Inc., which had been

manufacturing Greek yogurt for Stonyfield for more than a year,

delivered defective goods in violation of its warranties and then

intentionally terminated the relationship in violation of its

contractual obligations and consumer protection laws. AgroFarma, which blames Stonyfield for the breakdown of the

relationship, has brought various counterclaims against

Stonyfield and its current Greek yogurt manufacturer, Schreiber

Foods, Inc., alleging that they have been misappropriating AgroFarma’s trade secrets and other confidential information.

Case 1:08-cv-00488-JD Document 40 Filed 10/07/09 Page 1 of 26
The specific counterclaims at issue are Counts 4 1

(misappropriation of ideas), 5 (unfair competition), 6 (unjust

enrichment), and 7 (constructive trust). 

2

Stonyfield and Schreiber have now moved, under Rule 12(c) of

the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, for judgment on the

pleadings with respect to four of Agro-Farma’s counterclaims,1

which they contend are pre-empted by New Hampshire’s version of

the Uniform Trade Secret Act (“UTSA”). See N.H. Rev. Stat. §

350-B:7. Both sides agree that if New Hampshire law applies, it

pre-empts all four counterclaims. They disagree, however, about

the proper choice of law. Agro-Farma argues that New York law

applies and provides no basis for pre-emption because New York

has not adopted the UTSA. 

This court has subject-matter jurisdiction under 28 U.S.C.

§ 1332(a)(1) (diversity). After holding oral argument, the court

grants the motion. Under both a contractual choice-of-law

provision and general choice-of-law principles, New Hampshire law

governs Agro-Farma’s counterclaims and pre-empts the ones

targeted in Stonyfield and Schreiber’s motion.

I. Applicable legal standard

A motion for judgment on the pleadings under Rule 12(c) is

evaluated under essentially the same standard as a Rule 12(b)(6)

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3

motion for failure to state a claim. Perez-Acevedo v. RiveroCubano, 520 F.3d 26, 29 (1st Cir. 2008); Pasdon v. City of

Peabody, 417 F.3d 225, 226 (1st Cir. 2005). To survive such a

motion, the party bringing the claims (here, Agro-Farma) must

make “factual allegations that ‘raise a right to relief above the

speculative level, on the assumption that all the allegations in

the complaint are true.’” Simmons v. Galvin, 575 F.3d 24, 30

(1st Cir. 2009) (quoting Perez-Acevedo, 520 F.3d at 29 (quoting

Bell Atl. Corp. v. Twombly, 550 U.S. 544, 555 (2007))). Because

a Rule 12(c) motion “calls for an assessment of the merits of the

case at an embryonic stage,” the facts must be construed in the

light most favorable to Agro-Farma, drawing all reasonable

inferences in its favor. Perez-Acevedo, 520 F.3d at 29. The

court is not, however, confined to the complaint; it may consider

“the pleadings as a whole,” including “documents the authenticity

of which are not disputed by the parties; . . . documents central

to the plaintiff’s claim; [and] documents sufficiently referred

to in the complaint.” Curran v. Cousins, 509 F.3d 36, 43-44 &

n.5 (1st Cir. 2007) (quotation omitted). With the facts so

construed, questions of law are ripe for resolution at the

pleadings stage. Simmons, 575 F.3d at 30. The following

statement of facts conforms to those requirements. 

Case 1:08-cv-00488-JD Document 40 Filed 10/07/09 Page 3 of 26
The NDA defines the term “Confidential Information” broadly 2

to mean “the data, know-how, trade secrets, patents, engineering

specifications, material formulations, product concepts,

formulae, recipes, ingredients, devices, techniques, financial or

budgetary information, costs, customer and supplier lists,

marketing and sales information, and other information related to

the business activities of the Disclosing Party, regardless of

any restrictive markings, and which the Receiving Party learns or

receives from the Disclosing Party.” NDA at § 1.1.

4

II. Background

Two yogurt manufacturers, Stonyfield and Agro-Farma, entered

into a co-packing relationship in 2006, under which Agro-Farma

(located in New York) began to produce non-fat yogurt for

Stonyfield (located in New Hampshire) to market under

Stonyfield’s brand name. At the outset, both parties signed a

Confidentiality and Nondisclosure Agreement (“NDA”), prepared by

Stonyfield without input from Agro-Farma, that “set forth the

terms and conditions that apply when one party discloses

Confidential Information to the other to ensure the protection [2]

of such information.” NDA, Recital 3. The NDA contained a

choice-of-law provision, which stated in full: “This Agreement

shall be construed in accordance with, and governed by, the laws

of the State of New Hampshire, without application of its choice

of law provisions.” Id. at § 9.1.

Shortly into the relationship, Stonyfield and Agro-Farma

began discussing the possibility of developing another type of

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5

yogurt -- organic Greek yogurt -- also to be manufactured by

Agro-Farma in New York and marketed by Stonyfield. Unlike most

other types of yogurt sold in this country, Greek yogurt is

strained to remove the whey, resulting in a creamier product,

richer in protein and lower in lactose. Stonyfield had never

before produced or marketed Greek yogurt and did not have the

knowledge and expertise necessary to do so. Agro-Farma, however,

did have such knowledge and expertise. 

As these discussions continued, Stonyfield requested that

Agro-Farma share confidential information about the production

processes, equipment, and ingredients it would use to produce the

new Greek yogurt, including the names of specific yogurt

cultures. Agro-Farma agreed to do so on a confidential basis,

pursuant to the NDA and other oral assurances from Stonyfield. 

During the next year-and-a-half, representatives from Stonyfield

made more than one hundred trips to Agro-Farma’s facility in New

York to observe yogurt production. A few business meetings were

also held in New Hampshire.

Agro-Farma began production of the new Greek yogurt, called

“Oikos,” in May 2007, about a year after the discussions began. 

From time to time, Stonyfield sent purchase orders to Agro-Farma

for additional quantities of Oikos, which Agro-Farma produced and

delivered to Stonyfield in New York on the dates requested. 

Case 1:08-cv-00488-JD Document 40 Filed 10/07/09 Page 5 of 26
The parties did reach a long-term agreement in July 2006 3

regarding the production of the original low-fat yogurt, which

also contained a New Hampshire choice-of-law provision.

6

Agro-Farma then submitted invoices for the delivered product, and

Stonyfield regularly paid them. Other than the NDA mentioned

above, the parties never executed a written agreement concerning

the long-term production of Oikos. Stonyfield, though, 3

repeatedly told Agro-Farma that it intended a long-term endeavor

and announced in a press release that the two companies had

“partnered” together to create a new Greek yogurt.

The relationship between Stonyfield and Agro-Farma fell

apart in the latter half of 2008, in part because of a dispute

over pricing. Stonyfield also claimed that the pH levels on

substantial quantities of Oikos were too low, requiring

destruction of the product, and therefore refused to pay AgroFarma the outstanding balance due. Agro-Farma denied that the

yogurt was defective. As a result of these disagreements, AgroFarma stopped producing Oikos for Stonyfield in November 2008. 

Stonyfield filed this suit against Agro-Farma in this court about

a week later, alleging breach of warranty, breach of contract,

and unfair competition under the New Hampshire consumer

protection laws. 

Case 1:08-cv-00488-JD Document 40 Filed 10/07/09 Page 6 of 26
See Agro-Farma, Inc. v. Stonyfield Farm, Inc., et al., No. 4

09-cv-00315-TJM-DEP (N.D.N.Y. 2009). 

7

Stonyfield then resumed production of Oikos in January 2009

with Schreiber, a Wisconsin-based manufacturer that, according to

Agro-Farma, had never before manufactured Greek yogurt. 

Stonyfield and Schreiber began discussing such an arrangement as

early as March 2008, even before the relationship between

Stonyfield and Agro-Farma deteriorated. Agro-Farma alleges that,

in order to resume production so quickly, Stonyfield must have

shared with Schreiber confidential information that it learned

from Agro-Farma about how to produce Oikos. Now that Oikos is

back on the market, it competes directly with Agro-Farma’s own

brand of Greek yogurt, called “Chobani.” Some stores have

refused to sell Chobani because they already carry Oikos.

Facing this federal suit in New Hampshire, Agro-Farma filed

its own parallel suit against Stonyfield and Schreiber in New

York state court, which Stonyfield removed to federal court in

the Northern District of New York. Agro-Farma then voluntarily 4

dismissed the New York suit and instead brought its claims in

this court as counterclaims against Stonyfield and Schreiber,

which consented to joinder as a counterclaim defendant under

Federal Rules of Civil Procedure 13(h), 19, and 20. 

Case 1:08-cv-00488-JD Document 40 Filed 10/07/09 Page 7 of 26
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Specifically, Agro-Farma has brought the following eleven

counterclaims: (1) breach of contract against Stonyfield for

violating the NDA; (2) trade secret misappropriation against

Stonyfield; (3) trade secret misappropriation against Schreiber;

(4) misappropriation of ideas against Stonyfield; (5) unfair

competition against Stonyfield for willfully misusing AgroFarma’s confidential information; (6) unjust enrichment against

Stonyfield and Schreiber for profiting off Oikos through the use

of Agro-Farma’s confidential information; (7) constructive trust

against Stonyfield and Schreiber for all profits obtained from

Oikos; (8) permanent injunction against Stonyfield and Schreiber

to stop their use of Agro-Farma’s confidential information; (9)

cost of goods sold and delivered against Stonyfield; (10) account

stated against Stonyfield; and (11) a UCC claim for recovery of

the price of goods against Stonyfield. Stonyfield and Schreiber

have moved for judgment on the pleadings with respect to four

tort claims: counterclaims 4 through 7.

III. Analysis

The only disputed issue raised by this motion is which

state’s law applies to Agro-Farma’s counterclaims: New Hampshire

or New York. Stonyfield and Schreiber argue that New Hampshire

law governs because of the choice-of-law provision in the NDA or,

Case 1:08-cv-00488-JD Document 40 Filed 10/07/09 Page 8 of 26
9

alternatively, under general choice-of-law principles. If so,

both sides agree that New Hampshire’s version of the UTSA preempts the four counterclaims at issue. See N.H. Rev. Stat. §

350-B:7. Agro-Farma argues, however, that New York law governs

and provides no basis for pre-emption because New York has not

adopted the UTSA. As explained below, the court agrees with

Stonyfield and Schreiber that New Hampshire law applies under

both the NDA’s choice-of-law provision and general choice-of-law

principles, each of which will be addressed in turn.

A. Contractual choice-of-law

First, Stonyfield and Schreiber argue that New Hampshire law

governs Agro-Farma’s counterclaims because of the choice-of-law

provision in the NDA, which states: “This Agreement shall be

construed in accordance with, and governed by, the laws of the

State of New Hampshire, without application of its choice of law

provisions.” NDA at § 9.1. Agro-Farma argues that this

provision applies, at most, to contract claims arising from the

NDA and is inapplicable to the four tort claims targeted in

Stonyfield and Schreiber’s motion. Because this court’s

jurisdiction is based on diversity, the relevant question is

“what a [New Hampshire] state court would do with the choice of

law provision.” New Eng. Surfaces v. E.I. du Pont de Nemours &

Case 1:08-cv-00488-JD Document 40 Filed 10/07/09 Page 9 of 26
10

Co., 546 F.3d 1, 9 (1st Cir. 2008) (citing Klaxon Co. v. Stentor

Elec. Mfg. Co., 313 U.S. 487, 496 (1941)).

It is well established under New Hampshire law that “[w]here

parties to a contract select the law of a particular jurisdiction

to govern their affairs, that choice will be honored if the

contract bears any significant relationship to that

jurisdiction.” Hobin v. Coldwell Banker Residential Affils.,

Inc., 144 N.H. 626, 628 (2000) (quoting Ky. Fried Chicken Corp.

v. Collectramatic, Inc., 130 N.H. 680, 684 (1988)). In this

case, the NDA certainly bears a significant relationship to New

Hampshire, where Stonyfield is located and where the parties held

at least some business meetings. See, e.g., Allied Adjustment

Svc. v. Heney, 125 N.H. 698, 700 (1984) (holding that a state

bore a significant relationship “as the State of incorporation

and the place of business of [one of the parties]”). Thus, the

NDA’s choice-of-law provision is enforceable as written. The

more difficult question, though, is whether it extends to AgroFarma’s tort claims.

New Hampshire law provides no clear answer. Both the New

Hampshire Supreme Court and the First Circuit Court of Appeals

have applied contractual choice-of-law provisions to tort claims. 

See Hobin, 144 N.H. at 628-33 (misrepresentation claim and goodfaith and fair dealing claim); Ne. Data Sys., Inc. v. McDonnell

Case 1:08-cv-00488-JD Document 40 Filed 10/07/09 Page 10 of 26
11

Douglas Computer Sys. Co., 986 F.2d 607, 609-10 (1st Cir. 1993)

(unfair trade practices claim). In both cases, however, the

provisions were slightly broader than the NDA provision at issue

here. See Hobin, 144 N.H. at 628 (involving a provision that

purported “to govern the agreement and [the parties’] ‘legal

relationships’”); Ne. Data Sys., 986 F.2d at 609 (involving a

provision that purported to govern “[t]his Agreement and the

rights and obligations of the parties hereto”). Here, the

provision addresses how the NDA should be “construed” and

“governed,” but contains no reference to the parties’ broader

“legal relationships” or “rights and obligations.” 

The court of appeals seemed not to ascribe much significance

to this distinction, calling the two types of provisions

“similar” and even citing a case that involved the narrower type

of provision -- virtually identical to the one in this case -- to

support its application of the broader type to a tort claim. Ne.

Data Sys., 986 F.2d at 610 (citing Scheck v. Burger King Corp.,

756 F. Supp. 543, 545-46 (S.D. Fla. 1991)). Other courts,

though, have tended to view the distinction as significant and

have been less willing to apply the narrower type of provision to

tort claims. See, e.g., Krock v. Lipsay, 97 F.3d 640, 645 (2d

Cir. 1996); Black Box Corp. v. Markham, 127 Fed. Appx. 22, 25-26

(3d Cir. 2005); Benchmark Elecs., Inc. v. J.M. Huber Corp., 343

Case 1:08-cv-00488-JD Document 40 Filed 10/07/09 Page 11 of 26
12

F.3d 719, 726 (5th Cir. 2003); Green Leaf Nursery v. E.I. DuPont

de Nemours & Co., 341 F.3d 1292, 1300-01 (11th Cir. 2003); but

see Nedlloyd Lines B.V. v. Super. Ct., 834 P.2d 1148, 1153-54

(Cal. 1992) (holding that even the narrower provisions generally

will apply to both contract and tort claims). 

After surveying the case law, the Seventh Circuit Court of

Appeals has cautioned against giving it too doctrinaire or

mechanical an interpretation:

One can, it is true, find cases that say contractual

choice of law provisions govern only contractual

disputes and not torts. But what the cases actually

hold is that such a provision will not be construed to

govern torts as well as contract disputes unless it is

clear that this is what the parties intended. When it

is clear, the provision is enforced.

Kuehn v. Childrens Hosp., 119 F.3d 1296, 1302 (7th Cir. 1997)

(Posner, C.J.). This reading is confirmed by a leading treatise,

which explains that “most American courts tend to view it as a

matter of contractual intent, which in turn depends largely, but

not exclusively, on the phrasing of the choice-of-law clause.” 

E. Scoles & P. Hay et al., Conflict of Laws 811 (4th ed. 2004)

(emphasis in original). 

In addition to the language of the provision, the other

factor that attracts a great deal of attention in these cases is

the nature of the particular tort claims at issue -- and the

Case 1:08-cv-00488-JD Document 40 Filed 10/07/09 Page 12 of 26
The court of appeals has expressed similar sentiments with 5

respect to forum selection clauses. See Lambert v. Kysar, 983

F.2d 1110, 1121-22 (1st Cir. 1993) (concluding that “[t]he better

general rule . . . is that contract-related tort claims involving

the same operative facts as a parallel claim for breach of

contract should be heard in the forum selected by the contracting 

parties,” so as not to “reward attempts to evade enforcement of

forum selection agreements through artful pleading of tort claims

in the context of a contract dispute”) (quotation omitted). 

Courts have found Lambert’s reasoning to be equally valid in the

choice-of-law context. See McAdams v. Mass. Mut. Life Ins. Co.,

No. 99-30284, 2002 WL 1067449, at *12 (D. Mass. 2002).

13

extent, if any, to which they hinge upon the contract. For

example, in Northeast Data Systems, where the court of appeals

applied a choice-of-law provision to an unfair trade practices

claim, it emphasized that the claim was essentially an

“embroidered” contract claim, with an added allegation of “bad

motive,” and that it “would undermine the parties’ choice of law

agreement” to “permit[] one of them, through artful pleading, to

bring what is little more than a breach of contract claim, under

law that both parties have agreed would not apply.” 986 F.2d at

609-10. Conversely, the court of appeals refused to apply the 5

choice-of-law provision to a fraud claim, because that claim

“concerne[d] the validity of the formation of the contract” and

thus could not be viewed as contract-dependent. Id. at 611; but

see Hobin, 144 N.H. at 632 (applying choice-of-law provision to a

misrepresentation claim).

Case 1:08-cv-00488-JD Document 40 Filed 10/07/09 Page 13 of 26
14

Here, the contract in question, which is a non-disclosure

agreement, involves precisely the same subject matter as AgroFarma’s tort claims, all of which are based on the alleged

disclosure and misuse of confidential information covered by the

NDA. In fact, at oral argument, Agro-Farma could not identify

any allegedly tortious conduct that would not also constitute a

violation of the NDA. Agro-Farma protests that the tort claims

could have been brought even if the NDA did not exist. But the

fact of the matter is that the NDA does exist and purports to

“set forth the terms and conditions that apply when one party

discloses Confidential Information to the other to ensure the

protection of such information.” NDA, Recital 3. While the NDA

might not be Agro-Farma’s only theoretical path to recovery for

the alleged misappropriation of its confidential information, it

is by far the simplest and most promising path. See, e.g.,

Sylmark Holdings Ltd. v. Silicone Zone Int’l Ltd., 783 N.Y.S.2d

758, 770-71 (N.Y. Sup. Ct. 2004) (holding under New York law --

which Agro-Farma seeks to apply -- that to prove trade secret

misappropriation the plaintiff “must show (1) that it possesses a

trade secret, and (2) that defendant is using that trade secret

in breach of an agreement, confidence, or duty, or as a result of

discovery by improper means”) (emphasis added); Oasis Music, Inc.

v. 900 U.S.A., Inc., 614 N.Y.S.2d 878, 881 (N.Y. Sup. Ct. 1994)

Case 1:08-cv-00488-JD Document 40 Filed 10/07/09 Page 14 of 26
15

(holding under New York law that to prove misappropriation of

ideas the plaintiff must show “[f]irst a requisite legal

relationship . . . between the parties,” either “based on an

express contract, an implied-in-fact contract, or a quasicontract,” and “second, the idea must be novel and concrete”)

(emphasis added). Proving an intentional breach of the NDA would

get Agro-Farma most of the way, if not all the way, to recovery

under its various tort claims. Thus, from a practical

perspective, Agro-Farma’s tort claims can fairly be described as

“embroidered” contract claims, requiring “little more than a

breach of contract” plus a “bad motive.” Ne. Data Sys., 986 F.2d

at 609-10.

While perhaps not every choice-of-law provision in a nondisclosure agreement will encompass tort claims relating to the

misappropriation of confidential information, the language of

this particular NDA strongly suggests that the parties intended

for New Hampshire law to govern such claims, at least as pled by

Agro-Farma in this case. The NDA expressly provides that “the

mutual objective of the parties hereto is to provide appropriate

protection for Confidential Information . . . that the parties

may learn or receive from each other in the course of their

dealings and/or business relationship.” NDA, Recital 1. 

Similarly, the NDA provides that “the parties wish to enter this

Case 1:08-cv-00488-JD Document 40 Filed 10/07/09 Page 15 of 26
To the extent that Agro-Farma claims that it did not 6

subjectively intend for the choice-of-law provision to govern

tort claims, the New Hampshire Supreme Court follows the

fundamental principle of contract law that contracts “are to be

construed according to the intention of the parties as expressed

in the language used therein and not according to an unexpressed

intention which may have been in the mind of either of the

parties.” D. Latchis, Inc. v. Borofsky Bros., Inc., 115 N.H.

401, 404 (1975) (citation omitted). Agro-Farma’s subjective

intent cannot override the objective intent expressed in the NDA.

16

Agreement to set forth the terms and conditions that apply when

one party discloses Confidential Information to the other to

ensure the protection of such information.” Id. at Recital 3. 

Together with the choice-of-law provision, this language

constitutes the best evidence of the parties’ intent. 

6

This court therefore concludes that the NDA’s choice-of-law

provision requires the application of New Hampshire law to AgroFarma’s counterclaims. A number of other district courts have

reached similar conclusions in cases involving non-disclosure

agreements and trade secret misappropriation claims. See, e.g.,

Facility Wizard Software, Inc. v. Se. Tech. Svcs., LLC, No. 08-C5382, 2009 WL 2059934, at *4 (N.D. Ill. 2009); VFD Consulting,

Inc. v. 21st Svcs., 425 F. Supp. 2d 1037, 1046 (N.D. Cal. 2006);

Convolve, Inc. v. Compaq Computer Corp., No. 00-CV-5141, 2006 WL

839022, at *5 n.6 (S.D.N.Y. 2006); Dorazio v. Capitol Specialty

Plastics, Inc., No. 01-6548, 2002 WL 31546171, at *4 (E.D. Pa.

Case 1:08-cv-00488-JD Document 40 Filed 10/07/09 Page 16 of 26
Compare Paracor Fin., Inc. v. Gen. Elec. Capital Corp., 96 7

F.3d 1151, 1165 (9th Cir. 1996) (holding that a “choice-of-law

clause . . . is a contractual right and generally may not be

invoked by one who is not a party to the contract”), with

Hatfield v. Halifax PLC, 564 F.3d 1177, 1182 (9th Cir. 2009)

(allowing an express third-party beneficiary to enforce a choiceof-law provision). 

17

2002); but see Precision Screen Machs. Inc. v. Elexon, Inc., No.

95-C-1730, 1996 WL 495564, at *3 (N.D. Ill. 1996). 

This court’s conclusion is limited, however, in two

important respects. First, it applies only to the particular

counterclaims alleged here by Agro-Farma and should not be

construed to mean that the parties’ choice-of-law provision would

encompass other types of tort claims not tied so closely to the

subject matter of the NDA. Second, it applies only to AgroFarma’s claims against Stonyfield, not its claims against

Schreiber, which was neither a party to the NDA nor an express

third-party beneficiary. As explained below, to the extent that 7

the NDA does not independently resolve the choice-of-law

question, general choice-of-law principles nonetheless also favor

the application of New Hampshire law to Agro-Farma’s

counterclaims against both Stonyfield and Schreiber.

Case 1:08-cv-00488-JD Document 40 Filed 10/07/09 Page 17 of 26
There is some uncertainty about whether these five factors 8

must be considered when there is an applicable choice-of-law

provision. The New Hampshire Supreme Court recently stated, in

remanding a case, that the “court must consider” these five

factors in determining “whether the parties’ choice of law clause

is enforceable.” Fog Motorsports No. 3, Inc. v. Arctic Cat Sales

Inc., No. 2008-930, slip op. at 2 (N.H. Aug. 21, 2009). 

Historically, though, New Hampshire courts have enforced choiceof-law provisions without reference to the five factors. See

Hobin, 144 N.H. at 628; KFC, 130 N.H. at 684; Allied Adjustment,

125 N.H. at 700. Whether or not the New Hampshire Supreme Court

intended for Fog Motorsports to overrule, sub silentio, a long

line of cases, cf. Collins v. City of Manchester, 147 N.H. 701,

703 (2002) (rejecting a purported sub silentio ruling as a

misinterpretation), the outcome here does not depend on this

issue, because the court concludes that New Hampshire law applies

under both the contractual choice-of-law provision and the fivefactor analysis. 

18

B. General choice-of-law principles

The New Hampshire Supreme Court has identified five “choiceinfluencing considerations” that guide its choice-of-law analysis

with respect to tort claims, absent a controlling choice-of-law

provision. They are: (1) predictability of results; (2) 8

maintenance of reasonable orderliness and good relationship among

the states in our federal system; (3) simplification of the

judicial task; (4) advancement by the court of its own state’s

governmental interests rather than those of other states; and (5)

the court’s preference for what it regards as the sounder rule of

law. Ferren v. Gen. Motors Corp. Delco Battery Div., 137 N.H.

423, 425 (1993) (citing Clark v. Clark, 107 N.H. 351, 354-55

(1966)). The relative importance of each factor varies depending

Case 1:08-cv-00488-JD Document 40 Filed 10/07/09 Page 18 of 26
19

on the type of case. Id. As explained below, all five factors

support the application of New Hampshire law to Agro-Farma’s

counterclaims against Stonyfield and Schreiber, with the most

compelling factors here being predictability and simplification. 

The first factor, predictability, “is usually implicated

only in suits involving contractual or similar consensual

transactions” and “emphasizes the importance of applying to the

parties’ bargain or other dealings the law on which they agreed

to rely at the outset.” Keeton v. Hustler Magazine, Inc., 131

N.H. 6, 17 (1988) (citing Clark, 107 N.H. at 354). This is such

a lawsuit. At the outset of their relationship, Stonyfield and

Agro-Farma both signed an NDA with a New Hampshire choice-of-law

provision. Whether or not the NDA independently resolves the

choice-of-law question, see supra section III.A, it certainly

made New Hampshire law the most predictable choice in a case

involving Stonyfield’s allegedly unauthorized disclosure to a

third party of Agro-Farma’s confidential information. Cf.

Barrett v. Ambient Pressure Diving, Ltd., 2008 DNH 199, 3

(McAuliffe, C.J.) (concluding, under this factor, that product’s

owner’s manual established an expectation that English law would

apply to product liability claims, even though the plaintiff

never “agreed to be bound” by it). The court therefore finds

Case 1:08-cv-00488-JD Document 40 Filed 10/07/09 Page 19 of 26
20

that this factor weighs heavily in favor of applying New

Hampshire law.

The second factor, maintenance of reasonable orderliness and

good state relations, “requires only that ‘a court not apply the

law of a State which does not have a substantial connection with

the total facts and the particular issue being litigated.’” 

Keeton, 131 N.H. at 18 (quoting LaBounty v. Am. Ins. Co., 122

N.H. 738, 742-43 (1982)). Here, both New Hampshire and New York

have a substantial connection with the case. Even assuming that

New York has the more substantial connection, the New Hampshire

Supreme Court has expressly rejected the argument that this

factor favors the state of “greatest” significance. Keeton, 131

N.H. at 18. Multiple states can be -- and in this case are --

“sufficiently connected . . . to warrant further scrutiny” under

the other factors. See LaBounty, 122 N.H. at 743 (finding that

three states met this hurdle).

The factor that weighs most heavily in favor of applying New

Hampshire law is the third one: simplification of the judicial

task. This case involves a variety of overlapping claims and

counterclaims, with closely related subject matter and legal

theories, asserted against parties located in three different

states. Both sides acknowledge that New Hampshire law will

govern their contract claims arising under the NDA. And the

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NDA’s choice-of-law provision requires that New Hampshire law be

applied to Agro-Farma’s counterclaims against Stonyfield. See

infra section III.A. Applying a different state’s laws to the

claims against Schreiber, or even to some of the claims against

Stonyfield (setting aside, momentarily, the choice-of-law

provision), would make this case unnecessarily confusing and

could lead to seemingly inconsistent results. Conversely,

applying New Hampshire law will ensure a consistent approach to

all overlapping claims and all parties. In addition, by applying

New Hampshire law, the court will be able to consolidate a number

of Agro-Farma’s common-law claims into a single statutory trade

secret claim, because of the UTSA pre-emption discussed infra at

section III.C. All around, the case will become much simpler to

adjudicate. While simplicity “is not the whole end of law, and

opposing considerations may outweigh it,” Clark, 107 N.H. at 354,

the court sees no countervailing considerations that would

outweigh it in this case.

The fourth factor, advancement of governmental interests,

becomes important only when New Hampshire has a “particularly

strong policy in reference to local rules of law,” id., which the

other states’ laws under consideration would “fail[] to achieve.” 

Lessard v. Clarke, 143 N.H. 555, 558 (1999). Otherwise, New

Hampshire’s interest “is limited to ‘the fair and efficient

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administration of justice.’” Id. (quoting Clark, 107 N.H. at

355). Here, as in many other cases, this factor seems to be of

limited importance. See LaBounty, 122 N.H. at 743. To the

extent it carries any weight, however, this factor also favors

the application of New Hampshire law. The New Hampshire Supreme

Court has noted that the purpose behind the UTSA is to create

“more certain standards” for the protection of trade secrets and

other confidential information, in response to the “uneven” and

“uncertain[]” standards that applied at common law. Mortgage

Specialists, Inc. v. Davey, 153 N.H. 764, 775-76 (2006)

(quotations omitted). Since New York has not adopted the UTSA,

its common-law framework would not achieve New Hampshire’s stated

-- and arguably strong -- policy objective.

The last factor is “the court’s preference for what it

regards as the sounder rule of law.” Clark, 107 N.H. at 355. 

This factor tends to play a “tie-breaker” role in close cases. 

Scoles & Hay, supra, at 56 & n.25 (citing Lessard, 143 N.H. at

555, and Ferren, 137 N.H. at 423). All other things being equal,

if one state’s rule “lies in the backwater of the modern stream,”

LaBounty, 122 N.H. at 743 (quotation omitted), then the court may

choose to apply another state’s rule that it regards as “wiser,

sounder, and better calculated to serve the total ends of

justice.” Benoit v. Test Sys., Inc., 142 N.H. 47, 53 (1997)

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(citation omitted). In this case, no tiebreaker appears

necessary, as all of the other factors support application of New

Hampshire law. Were it needed, however, this factor would tip

the scales in favor of New Hampshire law. Over the past three

decades, at least 44 states (including New Hampshire) have

adopted the UTSA in some form. See Burbank Grease Svcs., LLC v.

Sokolowski, 717 N.W.2d 781, 792 (Wis. 2006). New York is one of

a handful of states that have resisted this trend. Given that

the vast majority of states have deemed the UTSA to be a sounder

rule of law, the court sees no basis for concluding otherwise.

This reasoning applies not only to Agro-Farma’s

counterclaims against Stonyfield, but also to its counterclaims

against Schreiber. Of course, the predictability factor carries

less weight with respect to Schreiber, since it was not a party

to the NDA. But it still favors New Hampshire law, because

Schreiber allegedly obtained Agro-Farma’s confidential

information through a relationship with Stonyfield, a New

Hampshire company, making New Hampshire law the most predictable

choice for Schreiber as well. Moreover, the simplification

factor carries even more weight with respect to Schreiber,

because it would be especially confusing and needlessly complex

to apply different states’ laws to the same basic claims brought

jointly against Stonyfield and Schreiber. For all of these

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Agro-Farma did not brief the pre-emption issue and conceded 9

pre-emption (if New Hampshire law applies) at oral argument.

24

reasons, the court concludes that general choice-of-law

principles require the application of New Hampshire law to all of

Agro-Farma’s counterclaims.

C. Pre-emption under UTSA

In light of this court’s conclusion that New Hampshire law

applies to Agro-Farma’s counterclaims, both sides agree that New 9

Hampshire’s version of the UTSA pre-empts the four counterclaims

targeted by Stonyfield and Schreiber’s motion –- i.e.,

misappropriation of ideas, unfair competition, unjust enrichment,

and constructive trust. See N.H. Rev. Stat. § 350-B:7. The New

Hampshire Supreme Court has interpreted the UTSA as pre-empting

common-law claims to the extent that they are “based upon the

misappropriation of trade secrets or other information.” 

Mortgage Specialists, 153 N.H. at 780. Here, both sides agree

that all four counterclaims at issue fall within that category. 

Having analyzed each of them, this court agrees with the parties

and therefore dismisses the four counterclaims as pre-empted. 

Cf. Ethypharm S.A. France v. Bentley Pharms., Inc., 388 F. Supp.

2d 426, 434 (D. Del. 2005) (deeming an unjust enrichment claim

pre-empted by the UTSA); Digital Envoy, Inc. v. Google, Inc., 370

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Document no. 25. 10

25

F. Supp. 2d 1025, 1035 (N.D. Cal. 2005) (deeming unfair

competition and unjust enrichment claims pre-empted by the UTSA);

Gray ex rel. Mid Atl. Lumber Co. v. Split Rock Hardwoods, Inc.,

No. 01-C-0043-C, 2001 WL 34373159, *5 (W.D. Wis. 2001) (deeming

constructive trust claim pre-empted by UTSA).

Notwithstanding the pre-emption of those four counterclaims,

the court notes that Agro-Farma retains its other seven

counterclaims, including in particular its contract claim against

Stonyfield under the NDA (Count 1), which is expressly exempted

from the UTSA’s preemption provision, see N.H. 350-B:7(II)(a),

and its trade secret misappropriation claims against both

Stonyfield and Schreiber (Counts 2 and 3), which will be governed

by the UTSA. See N.H. Rev. Stat. §§ 350-B (setting forth the

elements of such a claim and authorizing various forms of relief,

including compensatory damages, unjust enrichment damages,

reasonable royalties, injunctive relief, exemplary damages, and

attorney’s fees).

IV. Conclusion

For the foregoing reasons, Stonyfield and Schreiber’s motion

for judgment on the pleadings with respect to Counts 4 10

(misappropriation of ideas), 5 (unfair competition), 6 (unjust

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26

enrichment), and 7 (constructive trust) of Agro-Farma’s

counterclaims is GRANTED.

SO ORDERED.

_____________________________

Joseph N. Laplante

United States District Judge

Dated: October 7, 2009

cc: Peter S. Cowan, Esq.

Robert J. Fluskey, Jr., Esq.

Kevin M. Kearney, Esq.

Thomas J. Donovan, Esq.a

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