UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT

FOR THE DISTRICT OF NEW HAMPSHIRE

United States of America

v. Case No. 06-cv-354-PB

Opinion No. 2010 DNH 203

General Electric Company

MEMORANDUM AND ORDER

The United States has sued General Electric Company (“GE”)

pursuant to Section 107(a) of the Comprehensive Environmental

Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (“CERCLA”) to recover

costs that the United States incurred in responding to soil and

ground water contamination at the Fletcher Paint Works and

Storage Facility Superfund Site in Milford, New Hampshire. 

 Following a bench trial, I determined that General Electric

is a responsible party under Section 107(a) because it arranged

for the disposal of hazardous substances at the site. In an

effort to resolve remaining issues and facilitate an appeal, the

parties entered into a stipulation identifying the response costs

that the parties argue GE will be liable for in the event that my

liability determination is affirmed on appeal. The stipulation

exempts $1,305,921 in costs that the United States incurred in

Case 1:06-cv-00354-PB Document 160 Filed 12/03/10 Page 1 of 14
connection with removal actions at the site in 1993 and 1995. GE

now argues in a motion for partial summary judgment that the

government is barred from recovering the exempted costs by the

applicable statute of limitations. The United States has filed a

cross-motion for summary judgment on the same issue.

In this Memorandum and Order, I determine that the statute

of limitations does not prevent the government from recovering

the costs it seeks. 

I. BACKGROUND

A. Site Activities

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (“EPA”)

became actively involved with the Fletcher Paint Works and

Storage Facility site in 1988 when it removed hundreds of barrels

of hazardous substances from the site and placed a temporary cap

over contaminated soils. The site was placed on the National

Priorities List of Superfund Sites less than a year later.1

The EPA commenced a Remedial Investigation/Feasibility Study

(“RI/FS”) in October 1991 and issued a public-comment draft of

 The EPA organized the site into two “operable units” for 1

administrative purposes. This action deals only with the EPA’s

attempts to recover costs associated with Operable Unit 1.

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the RI/FS in December 1996. It undertook several removal

actions at the site while the RI/FS was underway. In 1991, it

installed a perimeter fence around the property and removed large

containers of hazardous substances. In 1993 it repaired the

fence, demolished and removed a storage shed contaminated with

polychlorinated biphenyl (“PCB”), repaired soil caps covering

contaminated soil, tested materials found at the site to

determine whether they contained PCB, and transported and

disposed of other hazardous substances (collectively “the 1993

Removal Action”). In 1995, the EPA issued a Unilateral

Administrative Order (“UAO”) requiring GE to remove contaminated

soil from adjacent properties, and re-pave a portion of a nearby

street (collectively “the 1995 Removal Action”). 

2

The EPA released a Record of Decision in September 1998 and

initiated physical onsite construction for a portion of the

Remedial Action on December 4, 2000. Thereafter, in July 2001,

it issued a UAO requiring GE to implement the Record of Decision. 

Remedial action is ongoing.

 With respect to the 1995 Removal Action, the government 2

seeks to recover costs incurred in overseeing GE’s compliance

with the UAO.

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B. Litigation History

In 1991, the United States filed a complaint against GE and

Windsor-Embassy Corporation pursuant to Section 107(a) of CERCLA

seeking to recover costs the United States had and would incur in

responding to contamination at the site. The United States and

GE entered into a consent decree in February 1994 requiring GE to

reimburse the EPA for the response costs it had incurred as of

April 30, 1993. The consent decree did not include a finding of

liability and the United States’ request for a declaratory

judgment was dismissed “without prejudice to whatever [] rights

the United States has, including . . . response costs.” 

The United States commenced this action on September 20,

2006. 

III. STANDARD OF REVIEW

Summary judgment shall be granted if “there is no genuine

dispute as to any material fact and the movant is entitled to

judgment as a matter of law.” Fed. R. Civ. P. 56(a). The

evidence submitted in support of the motion for summary judgment

must be considered in the light most favorable to the nonmoving

party, indulging all reasonable inferences in its favor. See

Navarro v. Pfizer Corp., 261 F.3d 90, 94 (1st Cir. 2001). 

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A party seeking summary judgment must first identify the

absence of any genuine issue of material fact. Celotex Corp. v.

Catrett, 477 U.S. 317, 323 (1986). The burden then shifts to the

nonmoving party to “produce evidence on which a reasonable finder

of fact, under the appropriate proof burden, could base a verdict

for it; if that party cannot produce such evidence, the motion

must be granted.” Ayala-Gerena v. Bristol Myers-Squibb Co., 95

F.3d 86, 94 (1st Cir. 1996). 

III. ANALYSIS

The statute of limitations for CERCLA claims is governed by

a somewhat complex statutory scheme. Section 9613(g)(2) provides

that: 

An initial action for recovery of the costs referred to in 

section 9607 of this title must be commenced -

(A)for a removal action, within 3 years after 

completion of the removal action. . . and

(B)for a remedial action, within 6 years after 

initiation of physical on-site construction of the 

remedial action, except that, if the remedial action is

initiated within 3 years after the completion of the 

removal action, costs incurred in the removal action 

may be recovered in the cost recovery action brought 

under this subparagraph.

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In any such action described in this subsection, the 

court shall enter a declaratory judgment on liability 

for response costs or damages that will be binding on 

any subsequent action or actions to recover further 

response costs or damages. A subsequent action or 

actions under section 9607 of this title for further 

response costs. . . may be maintained at any time 

during the response action, but must be commenced no 

later than three years after the date of completion of 

all response action. 

42 U.S.C. § 9613(g)(2) (emphasis added). 

GE’s statute of limitations argument turns on whether the

current action is classified as an “initial action” to recover

removal costs, which ordinarily must be commenced “within 3 years

of the completion of the removal action,” or a “subsequent 3

action” for the recovery of such costs, which may be delayed

until as late as “3 years after the date of completion of all

response action.” 42 U.S.C. § 9613(g)(2). If the current action

is an “initial action,” GE argues that it is time barred because

 The statute of limitations also permits removal action 3

costs to be recovered in a cost recovery action filed more than

three years after the removal action is completed if a remedial

action “is initiated within 3 years after the completion of the

removal action” and the cost recovery action is filed “within 6

years after initiation of physical on-site construction of the

remedial action.” 42 U.S.C. § 9613(g)(2)(b). The United States

argues that its action is timely under this provision even if it

is an “initial action,” but I need not reach its argument because

I determine that the current action is a timely subsequent

action.

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it was filed more than three years after the 1993 and 1995

removal actions were completed. If it is a “subsequent action,”

GE concedes that the government’s claim is timely because all

response actions at the site have not yet been completed. 

The government contends that the 1991 complaint was the

“initial action.” Therefore, it argues that the current action

is a timely “subsequent action.” GE responds by arguing that the

1991 action cannot qualify as an “initial action” because it was

resolved by a consent decree that did not include a liability

determination that is comparable to “a declaratory judgment on

liability for response costs or damages that will be binding on

any subsequent action or actions to recover further response

costs or damages.” 42 U.S.C. § 9613 (g)(2). In short, GE argues

that the entry of a declaratory judgment on liability, or some

equivalent court order, is a definitional requirement for an

“initial action.” 

The only two circuit courts that have squarely addressed

GE’s argument have rejected it, see United States v. Findett

Corp., 220 F.3d 842, 845-46 (8th Cir. 2000); United States v.

Navistar Int’l Transp. Corp., 152 F.3d 702, 709-10 (7th Cir. 

1998), and the reasoning that underlies both decisions is

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compelling.4

 GE attempts to distinguish Findett on the grounds that the 4

consent decree in this case did not resolve liability issues at

all, whereas the defendant in Findett explicitly agreed to

implement the remediation plan selected by the EPA. Findett, 220

F.3d at 844-45. GE also points out that the defendant in

Navistar was actually not liable because the “initial action” in

that case did not name the company as a defendant. Navistar, 152

F.3d at 710. GE’s distinctions, however, do nothing to undermine

the persuasive support the cases provide for the government’s

argument. The fact that the Navistar defendant was not named in

the initial complaint was irrelevant to the court’s determination

that resolution of a case by consent decree did not prevent it

from being an “initial action.” Navistar, 152 f.3d at 710. 

Moreover, while the Findett defendant did agree to implement an

existing remediation plan in that case’s consent decree, there

was still no liability determination, just as in this case. In

fact, the Findett court stated that “the voluntary resolution of

[the government’s] claim without a declaration of liability

renders the suit no less an initial action than one with such a

declaration.” Findett, 220 F.3d at 847.

The other cases that GE cites to support its argument that

the district court must affirmatively establish liability are

inapposite. Each dealt with CERCLA cases where liability had

already been determined, holding only that in those situations

the court must issue a declaratory judgment so that liability

will not be relitigated. See New York v. Green, 420 F.3d 99, 111

(2d Cir. 2005); Beazer East, Inc. v. United States Navy, 1997 WL

173225 *2 (4th Cir. 1997); United States v. USX Corp., 68 F.3d

811, 819 (3d Cir. 1995); Kelley v. E.I. Dupont de Nemours Co., 17

F.3d 836, 844 (6th Cir. 1994). This is consistent with the 

Findett and Navistar courts’ understanding of the declaratory

judgment clause. GE’s cases say nothing about whether a court

must make a liability determination in the first place for a case

to be considered an “initial action.” In fact, several of the

cases were considered by the Findett court, which determined that

they did not undermine the conclusion that a consent decree

without a liability determination does not prevent a claim from

being an “initial action.” Findett, 220 F.3d at 847.

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Subsection 9613(g)(2) does not expressly make the entry of a

declaratory judgment a definitional characteristic of an “initial

action.” Instead, by establishing the limitation periods that

apply to an “initial action” and specifying that a declaratory

judgment of liability must be entered in “any such action,”

Congress suggested that a declaratory judgment on liability is

something that must be entered in an “initial action” rather than

something that defines such an action. Just as important, the

statutory language provides no support for GE’s contention that

the government is barred from taking advantage of the extended

limitations period that applies to “subsequent actions” simply

because the court failed to enter a declaratory judgment in the

“initial action.”

Given the lack of clear guidance in the language of § 9613,

it is appropriate to consider whether GE’s argument is consistent

with the purposes that CERCLA was intended to fulfill. One such

purpose is to encourage settlement as a means of avoiding

protracted litigation. United States v. DiBiase, 45 F.3d 541,

545 (1st Cir. 1995). Superfund sites take many years to clean up

and the work is often done in phases. American Cyanamid Co., 381

F.3d 6, 16 (1st Cir. 2004). Accordingly, the government may be

forced to undertake multiple removal actions while the site is

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studied and a remediation plan is developed. Although it is

clearly efficient for a court to conclude an extensively

litigated initial cost recovery action with a declaratory

judgment on liability that can be used by the government in later

actions, requiring the entry of a declaratory judgment in all

such cases where the government wishes to take advantage of the

extended limitation period that applies to “subsequent actions”

would seriously complicate the settlement process by which most

removal cost recovery actions are resolved. 

As a practical matter, when removal cost recovery actions

are filed early in the cleanup process, it will often be

impossible for a targeted defendant to estimate its exposure in

the event that it is ultimately determined to be a responsible

party. Thus, it is extremely unlikely that it will agree to

participate in a consent decree and pay the cost of even a minor

removal action if it is also required to agree to a declaratory

judgment on liability that can be used against it in subsequent

litigation. Conversely, the government is unlikely to settle a

removal cost recovery action without a liability determination if

it is thereby barred from claiming the benefit of the extended

limitation period that applies to “subsequent actions.” Thus,

GE’s proposed interpretation of § 9613 is contrary to CERCLA’s

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policy of encouraging prompt settlements because it creates

incentives for the parties to litigate removal cost recovery

claims that they would otherwise be prepared to resolve through

settlement if a liability determination could be postponed until

a later date.

Allowing the government to claim the benefit of the extended

statute of limitations when it has resolved an “initial action”

by a consent decree without a finding of liability is also

consistent with one of the primary rationales that underlies

statutes of limitations: ensuring that the other party is on

notice of potential claims. See Tiller v. Atl. Coast Line R.

Co., 323 U.S. 574, 581 (1945) (holding that “[t]here is no reason

to apply a statute of limitations when. . . the respondent has

had notice from the beginning that petitioner was trying to

enforce a claim against it . . .”). Here, GE does not dispute

that the consent decree explicitly reserved the government’s

right to file later claims seeking recovery of response costs,

meaning GE was on notice at all times of the possibility of later

cost recovery actions. In fact, the consent decree noted that

“[t]he Parties expressly understand and agree that all claims for

response costs [incurred after April 1993]. . . may be the

subject of future enforcement actions by the United States.” GE

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thus cannot claim that it did not have full notice of the

likelihood of later suits for subsequent costs, further

undermining its argument for applying the statute of limitations.

On top of these arguments, courts have identified a general

policy of favoring the government on issues involving statutes of

limitations. Badaracco v. Comm’r of Internal Revenue, 464 U.S.

386 (1984) (“Statutes of limitation sought to be applied to bar

rights of the Government, must receive a strict construction in

favor of the Government.”); see also Kelley v. E.I. DuPont de

Nemours & Co., 17 F.3d 836, 843 (6th Cir. 1994) (noting that “the

First Circuit has acknowledged that CERCLA’s limitations periods

are to be broadly construed”) (citing Reardon v. United States,

947 F.2d 1509, 1519 (1st Cir. 1991). Applying this default rule

to § 9613, it is clear any remaining ambiguities in the statutory

language must be resolved in favor of the United States.

In light of the statutory language, as well as the

underlying policies of both CERCLA in particular and statutes of

limitations in general, the declaratory judgment requirement in §

9613(g)(2) is best understood as a directive to courts when an

“initial action” has actually been litigated to conclusion, not

as a requirement for creating initial actions in the first place. 

The United States’ 1991 complaint was thus an “initial action,”

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and the 2006 claim is a “subsequent action” as those terms are

used in § 9613. Because response actions at the Site are

ongoing, the government’s claim for costs stemming from the 1993

and 1995 removal activities is timely. 

IV. CONCLUSION

 For the reasons stated above, I deny GE’s motion for partial

summary judgment (Doc. No. 150) and grant the government’s crossmotion for summary judgment (Doc. No. 152). Because the parties

have stipulated as to all other remaining issues in the case, the

clerk is directed to enter judgment accordingly and close the

case.

SO ORDERED.

/s/Paul Barbadoro 

Paul Barbadoro

United States District Judge

December 3, 2010

cc: Peter A. Biagetti, Esq.

Bret A. Cohen, Esq.

Catherine A. Fiske, Esq.

Peter M. Flynn, Esq.

Donald G. Frankel, Esq.

Bradford T. McLane, Esq.

Jeffrey R. Porter, Esq.

Laura J. Rowley, Esq.

Colin G. Van Dyke, Esq.

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