# Patent

## Title
Use of Bridge-1 and activators and inhibitors thereof in the treatment of insulin deficiency and diabetes

## Abstract

The present invention is directed to the use of Bridge-1 polynucleotides and Bridge-1 polypeptides, as well as activators and inhibitors of Bridge-1 activity, in the treatment of Bridge-1 mediated disorders, including diabetes.

## Background
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
This application is the National Stage of International Application No. PCT/US2005/021181, filed Jun. 16, 2005, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/579,668, filed Jun. 16, 2004.


FIELD OF THE INVENTION
The present invention relates to the field of transcription factors. More specifically, the present invention relates to a mammalian transcription factor, Bridge-1, to nucleotide and amino acid sequences thereof, and to the use of Bridge-1 in the treatment of developmental and acquired disorders including diabetes.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
Diabetes mellitus results from an absolute or relative deficiency of the hormone insulin. Although absolute deficits in the numbers of insulin-producing pancreatic β cells are seen in Type 1 diabetes, Type 2 diabetes often is accompanied by relative deficits in pancreatic β-cell mass and insulin production in the setting of insulin resistance (Butler, A. E., et al., Diabetes 52:102-110 (2003); Gerich, J. E., Mayo Clin. Proc 78:447-456 (2003); Yoon, K. H., et al., J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88:2300-2308 (2003)). Monogenic heritable forms of insulin-deficient, early-onset diabetes are associated with mutations in genes encoding factors essential for the transcriptional regulation of insulin production in pancreatic β cells (Fajans, S. S., et al., N Engil J Med 345:971-980 (2001)). Five of the six genes linked to maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY), hnf-4α/MODYI, hnf-1α/MODY3. ipf-1(pdx-1)/ MODY4, hnf-1β/MODY5, and neuroDl/MODY6, are transcription factors known to regulate endocrine cell development and/or the glucose-responsive expression of the insulin gene in pancreatic β-cells. Thus transcriptional regulators of pancreatic β-cell mass and insulin production represent an important pool of candidate diabetes genes.
Glucose-responsive regulatory regions that are highly conserved in the insulin promoters of multiple species serve as convergence points for β-cell transcription factors of the homeodomain and basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) classes including several of the designated MODY genes (Steiner, D. F., et al., Annu Rev Genet. 19:463-484 (1985); German, M. S., et al, Genes Dev 6:2165-2176 (1992)). The physiologic regulation of insulin gene expression is dependent on the precise assembly of transcription factors and coactivators within specific concentration ranges. Multiple protein-protein interactions generate functional regulatory complexes that couple with the coactivators Creb-binding protein (CBP) or p300 in the transcriptional activation of the insulin gene (Ohneda, K., et al., Mol Cell Biol 20:900-911 (2000); Asahara, H., et al., Mol Cell Biol 19:8219-8225 (1999); Qiu, Y., et al., Mol Cell Biol 22:412-420 (2002); Stanojevic, V., et al., Endocrinology p. 300 145:918-928 (June 2004).
Bridge-1. By screening for novel interaction partners for the bHLH transcription factor E12 in a clonal β-cell line the present inventors previously identified Bridge-1 as a PDZ-domain coactivator of the insulin gene (Thomas M. K., et al., Mol Cell Biol 19:8492-8404 (1999)). Bridge-1 contains a highly conserved PDZ protein-protein interaction domain and is part of the large family of PDZ-domain proteins that facilitate the assembly of supramolecular protein complexes on PDZ-based scaffolds to transduce localized intracellular signals (Sheng, M., and Sala, C., Annu Rev Neurosci 24:1-29 (2001)). Rat Bridge-1 is a highly conserved, widely expressed protein with substantial homology to the human proteasomal modulator protein PSMD9 (Thomas, M. K., et al., Mol Cell Biol 19:8492-8404 (1999); Watanabe, T. K., et al., Genomics 50:241-250 (1998)). In the adult pancreas Bridge-1 is expressed predominantly in the insulin-expressing pancreatic βcells of the endocrine compartment. Bridge-1 interacts with E12 and E47 to coactivate glucose-responsive enhancers within the insulin promoter, and Bridge-1 antisense constructs substantially reduce insulin promoter activation in insulin-producing cells in vitro (Thomas, M. K., et al., Mol Cell Biol 19:8492-8404 (1999)). Therefore, the present inventors hypothesized that endogenous Bridge-1 signaling regulates insulin production in pancreatic β cells.
P300. Transcriptional coregulators provide important regulatory flexibility in the cellular responsiveness to hormones and extracellular signals. The physiologic importance of coregulator function is highlighted by the association of coactivator dysfunction with multiple human disease states including neurodegeneration, malignancies and metabolic disorders. The nuclear receptor coactivator p300 functions to assemble multimolecular transcriptional regulatory protein complexes through interactions with a large repertoire of transcription factors and components of basal transcription machinery (Vo, N. and Goodman, R. H., J. Biol. Chem. 276:13505-13508 (2001); Chan, H. M. and La Thangue, N. B., J. Cell. Sci. 114:2363-2373 (2001)). The intrinsic acetyltransferase activity of p300 augments the activation of gene transcription through acetylation of histones and transcription factors (Vo, N. and Goodman, R. H., supra). Mutations in the human p300 gene, like those in the related Creb-binding protein (CBP) gene, result in heritable tumors in the Rubinstein-Taybi syndrome (Roelfsema, J. H., et al., Am. J. Hum. Genet. 76:572-580 (2005); Giles, R. H., et al., Trends Genet. 14:178-183 (1998)). Somatic mutations in p300 also occur in sporadic tumors, consistent with the demonstrated function of this coactivator as a tumor suppressor in mouse models (Chan, H. M. and La Thangue, N. B., supra; Iyer, N. G., et al., Oncogene 23:4225-4231 (2004)). Altered levels of expression of p300 modify embryonic development, cellular functions, and responsiveness to extracellular signals (Yao, T. P., et al., Cell 93:361-372 (1998)). For example, in the case of Paget's disease, the hyperresponsiveness of osteoclast precursors to vitamin D is associated with increased expression levels of coactivators including p300 (Kurihara, N., et al., J. Ster. Biochem. Molec. Biol. 89-90:321-325 (2004)). In a mouse model of Huntington's disease, progressive deficits in insulin production are correlated with decreased expression levels of p300 and other transcription factors in insulin-expressing cells (Andreassen, O. A., et al., Neurobiol. Dis. 11:410-424 (2002)).
In early-onset autosomal-dominant heritable forms of diabetes known as maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY), abnormal interactions between mutant MODY transcription factors and p300 may contribute to deficits in insulin production and the pathogenesis of disease. p300 recruitment to the proximal insulin promoter in insulin-producing pancreatic beta cells is associated with hyperacetylation and transcriptional activation (Chakrabarti, S. K., et al., J. Biol. Chem. 278:23617-23623 (2003)), and p300 interactions with the transcriptional regulators PDX-1, NeuroD1, and E47 enhance insulin gene transcription (Qiu, Y., et al., Molec. Cell. Biol. 18:2957-2964 (1998)); Sharna, A., et al., Molec. Cell. Biol. 19:704-713 (1999); Qiu, Y., et al., Molec. Cell. Biol. 22:412-420 (2002); Mosley, A. L., et al., Molec. Endocrinol. 18:2279-2290 (2004); Stanojevic, V., et al., Endocrinol. 145:2918-2928 (2004)). Five direct or indirect transcriptional regulators of insulin gene transcription are encoded by genes associated with MODY (Fajans, S. S., et al., New Engl. J. Med. 345:971-980 (2001)). MODY1 mutations R154X and E276Q in the HNF-4α gene interfere with p300 recruitment and transcriptional activation (Eeckhoute, J., et al., Molec. Endocrinol. 15:1200-1210 (2001)), the MODY4 mutation P63fsdelC results in a truncated cytoplasmic PDX-1 protein with the capacity to sequester p300 (Stanojevic, V., et al., supra), and the MODY6 mutation 206+C disrupts NeuroD1 binding to p300 (Malecki, M. T., et al., Nat. Genet. 23:323-328 (1999)).
PDX-1. The homeodomain transcription factor pancreas duodenum homeobox-1 (PDX-1) is an important regulator of both the embryonic development of the pancreas as well as the function and mass of insulin-expressing pancreatic beta cells (Thomas et al., 2004). PDX-1 has also been referred to as IPF-1, STF-1, IUF-1, GSF, and IDX-1. Homozygous or compound heterozygous disruption of pdx-1 gene expression in mice or in humans results in a common phenotype of pancreatic agenesis (Jonsson et al., 1994; Offield et al., 1996; Schwitzgebel et al., 2003; Stoffers et al., 1997a). Partial reductions of PDX-1 expression levels in genetically-modified mouse models disrupt glucose homeostasis by reducing insulin expression, insulin secretion, and pancreatic beta-cell mass, in part via accelerated apoptosis of insulin-producing pancreatic beta cells (Ahlgren et al., 1998; Brissova et al., 2002; Dutta et al., 1998; Holland et al., 2002; Johnson et al., 2003; Thomas et al., 2001).
In humans, pdx-1 (ipf-1, insulin promoter factor-1) is a diabetes gene. Heterozygous inheritance of an inactivating mutation in pdx-1 results in autosomal-dominant maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY4) (Stoffers et al., 1997b) while heterozygous missense mutations in pdx-1 confer an increased risk of early- or late-onset type 2 diabetes in selected populations, often in combination with other diabetogenic genotypes (Cockburn et al., 2004; Elbein et al., 2004; Hani et al., 1999; Hansen et al., 2000; Macfarlane et al., 1999; Owen et al., 2004; Waeber et al., 2000; Weng et al., 2001; Weng et al., 2002).
PDX-1 is implicated in the transcriptional regulation of a large number of pancreatic islet genes, including insulin and somatostatin (Leonard et al., 1993; Miller et al., 1994; Ohlsson et al., 1993). Nutrient-dependent regulation of insulin gene expression is mediated in part through the regulation of PDX-1 nuclear translocation, DNA-binding and transcriptional activation by glucose (MacFarlane et al., 1994; MacFarlane et al., 1997; Melloul et al., 1993; Petersen et al., 1998; Rafiq et al., 1998; Shushan et al., 1999). PDX-1 participates in the synergistic activation of glucose-responsive enhancers with basic helix-loop-helix transcription factors, such as E12 and E47 (Massari et al., 2000), via its amino-terminal domain (German et al., 1992; Johnson et al., 1997; Peers et al., 1994).
The regulation of PDX-1 target genes also is governed by the interactions of PDX-1 proteins with other transcription factors and coactivators. Nuclear translocation of PDX-1 is regulated by interaction of the PDX-1 homeodomain with the nuclear import receptor importin beta1 (Guillemain et al., 2004). PDX-1 cooperatively activates the somatostatin promoter in conjunction with PBX and the PBX regulating protein-1 (Prep1) (Goudet et al., 1999). Interactions between PBX and a conserved amino acid motif (FPWMK) within PDX-1 are necessary for the proliferation of differentiated pancreatic cells during embryonic pancreas development (Dutta et al., 2001). PDX-1 recruits E47, Beta2/NeuroD1, and the high-mobility group protein HMG(Y) to the insulin promoter (Ohneda et al., 2000). The amino-terminal transactivation domain of PDX-1 (Lu et al., 1996; Peers et al., 1994) interacts with the coactivators Creb-binding protein (CBP) and p300 (Asahara et al., 1999; Qiu et al., 2002; Stanojevic et al., 2004). In contrast, the carboxy-terminal domain of PDX-1 serves as an interaction domain for transcriptional repressors, including phosphorylated carboxy-terminal domain interacting factor 1 (PCIF1) and the histone deacetylases HDAC1 and 2 (Liu et al., 2004; Mosley et al., 2004).
BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
To further investigate the function of the coactivator Bridge-1 in the regulation of glucose homeostasis in vivo, the present inventors generated a transgenic mouse model in which Bridge-1 is overexpressed in the pancreas. The inventors hypothesized that the overexpression of this scaffolding protein would interrupt the balance of coactivator and transcription factor interactions to disrupt the regulation of Bridge-1 target genes. It was discovered that dysregulation of Bridge-1 signaling represses insulin gene expression, increases pancreatic apoptosis, and reduces the number of insulin producing cells to result in severe, early-onset, insulin-deficient diabetes. These studies indicate that signals mediated by Bridge-1 regulate glucose homeostasis and contribute to the pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus.
Thus, in one aspect, the present invention is directed to a method for modulating Bridge-1 activity in a cell comprising contacting said cell with a modulator of Bridge-1 activity. Bridge-1 activity may either be increased or decreased. In one embodiment, the modulator of Bridge-1 activity increases or, alternatively, decreases expression of Bridge-1 in said cell. In another embodiment, expression of a Bridge-1 target gene is increased or, alternatively, decreased. In a preferred embodiment, the modulator of Bridge-1 activity is a peptide, small molecule, or anti-Bridge-1 antibody. In one embodiment, the modulator may be selected from the group consisting of: Activin A, Trichostatin A, or Progesterone.
In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method for modulating apoptosis in a cell or cells comprising modulating Bridge-1 activity in said cell or cells. Bridge-1 activity may either be increased or decreased. In one embodiment, the modulator increases or, alternatively, decreases expression of Bridge-1 in said cell. In a preferred embodiment, apoptosis is increased and the cells are tumor cells. Modulation of apoptosis may also be the result of modulation of a Bridge-1 target gene, for example, by increasing or decreasing target gene expression. Particularly preferred are methods for modulating apoptosis in a cell or cells comprising treating said cells with a Bridge-1 polypeptide, a polynucleotide encoding Bridge-1, or a compound that activates or inhibits expression of Bridge-1 or of a Bridge-1 target gene. Suitable polynucleotides include naked DNA or vectors encoding Bridge-1. Preferably, the apoptosis is modulated in pancreatic βcells.
The invention is further directed to method for modulating islet cell apoptosis in a mammal, such as a human, comprising administering to said mammal a Bridge-1 polypeptide, a polynucleotide encoding Bridge-1, or a compound that activates or inhibits expression of Bridge-1 or of a Bridge-1 target gene.
In another aspect, the invention is directed to a method for modulating cellular replication in a cell or cells comprising modulating Bridge-1 activity in said cell or cells. Bridge-1 activity may be increased or, alternatively, decreased as a result of said modulation. Likewise, replication may either be increased or decreased. In one embodiment, said Bridge-1 activity is expression of Bridge-1. In another embodiment, said Bridge-1 activity is expression of a Bridge-1 target gene. In a preferred embodiment, the invention is directed to a method for modulating replication in a cell or cells comprising treating said cells with a Bridge-1 polypeptide, a polynucleotide encoding Bridge-1, or a compound that activates or inhibits expression of Bridge-1 or of a Bridge-1 target gene. Preferably, said polynucleotides are DNA or vectors encoding Bridge-1. In preferred embodiments, the cells are pancreatic β cells. The invention is also directed to a method for modulating replication of pancreatic β cells in a mammal, such as a human, comprising administering to said mammal a Bridge-1 polypeptide, a polynucleotide encoding Bridge-1, or a compound that activates or inhibits expression of Bridge-1 or of a Bridge-1 target gene.
In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method for modulating the mass of a cell or cells comprising modulating Bridge-1 activity in said cell or cells. In such methods, Bridge-1 activity may be increased or, alternatively, decreased. Likewise, cell mass may be either increased or decreased. In one embodiment, said Bridge-1 activity is expression of Bridge-1. In another embodiment, said Bridge-1 activity is expression of a Bridge-1 target gene. In a preferred embodiment, the invention is directed to a method for modulating the mass of a cell or cells comprising treating said cells with a Bridge-1 polypeptide, a polynucleotide encoding Bridge-1, or a compound that activates or inhibits expression of Bridge-1 or of a Bridge-1 gene. In these methods, said polynucleotide may be DNA, such as a vector, encoding Bridge-1. Preferably, the cells are are pancreatic β cells. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the invention is directed to a method for modulating pancreatic β cell mass in a mammal comprising administering to said mammal a Bridge-1 polypeptide, a polynucleotide encoding Bridge-1, or a compound that activates or inhibits expression of Bridge-1 or of a Bridge-1 target gene.
In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method for modulating insulin production in a cell or cells comprising modulating Bridge-1 activity in said cell or cells. In such methods, Bridge-1 activity may either be increased or decreased. Likewise, insulin production may be increased or decreased as a result of said modulation. In one embodiment, said Bridge-1 activity is expression of Bridge-1. In another embodiment, said Bridge-1 activity is expression of a Bridge-1 target gene. A preferred embodiment of the invention is directed to a method for modulating insulin production in a cell or cell comprising treating said cells with a Bridge-1 polypeptide, a polynucleotide encoding Bridge-1, or a compound that activates or inhibits expression of Bridge-1 or of a Bridge-1 gene. Such polynucleotides can be DNA, such as a vector, encoding Bridge-1. Preferably, the cells are pancreatic β cells. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the present invention is directed to a method for modulating insulin production in a mammal, such as a human, comprising administering to said mammal a Bridge-1 polypeptide, a polynucleotide encoding Bridge-1, or a compound that activates or inhibits expression of Bridge-1 or of a Bridge-1 target gene.
In another aspect, the invention is directed to a method for modulating blood glucose levels in a mammal, such as a human, comprising administering to said mammal a Bridge-1 polypeptide, a polynucleotide encoding Bridge-1, or a compound that activates or inhibits expression of Bridge-1 or of a Bridge-1 target gene.
In yet another aspect, the invention is directed to a method for treating a Bridge-1 mediated disorder in a mammal, such as a human, comprising administering to said mammal a Bridge-1 polypeptide, a polynucleotide encoding Bridge-1, or a compound that activates or inhibits expression of Bridge-1 or of a Bridge-1 gene in said mammal. In a preferred embodiment, the mammal is a human. In another embodiment, the disorder is caused by a mutation in the endogenous Bridge-1 gene. In a preferred embodiment, the disorder is diabetes, such as Type II diabetes mellitus.
In another aspect, the invention is directed to a method for modulating insulin secretion from a cell or cells, comprising modulating Bridge-1 activity in the cells or cells. In such methods, Bridge-1 activity may either be increased or decreased. Likewise, insulin secretion may be increased or decreased as a result of such modulation. In one embodiment, expression of Bridge-1 is increased. In another embodiment, the Briedge-1 activity is expression of Breidge-1 or of a Breidge-1 target gene.
In another aspect, the invention is directed to a method for regulating glucose homeostasis in a cell or cells, comprising modulating Bridge-1 activity in the cell or cells. In such methods, Bridge-1 activity may either be increased or decreased. In one embodiment, expression of Bridge-1 is increased. In another embodiment, the Briedge-1 activity is expression of Breidge-1 or of a Breidge-1 target gene.
In another aspect, the invention is directed to a method for modulating survival of a cell or cells comprising treating the cell or cells with a Bridge-1 polypeptide, a polynucleotide encoding Bridge-1, or a compound that activates or inhibits expression of Bridge-1 or of a Bridge-1 target gene. In a preferred embodiment, the cell or cells are pancreatic β cells.
In another aspect, the invention is directed to a method for treating hyperglycemia in an animal, comprising administering to the animal a Bridge-1 polypeptide, a polynucleotide encoding Bridge-1, or a compound that activates or inhibits expression of Bridge-1 or of a Bridge-1 target gene.
In another aspect, the invention is directed to a method for treating insulin deficiency in an animal, comprising administering to the animal a Bridge-1 polypeptide, a polynucleotide encoding Bridge-1, or a compound that activates or inhibits expression of Bridge-1 or of a Bridge-1 target gene.
In another aspect, the invention is directed to a method for modulating expression of a nucleic acid sequence in a cell or cells, wherein the nucleic acid sequence is operably linked to an insulin promoter enhancer or a somatostatin promoter enhancer, the method comprising treating the cell or cells with a Bridge-1 polypeptide, a polynucleotide encoding Bridge-1, or a compound that activates or inhibits expression of Bridge-1 or of a Bridge-1 target gene. In a preferred embodiment, the cell or cells are pancreatic islet cells, such as α cells, β cells, δ cells, or PP cells. In various embodiments, the nucleic acid sequence may be an insulin gene or a somatostatin gene.
In another aspect, the invention is directed to a non-human transgenic mammal whose somatic and germ cells contain a transgene construct, the transgene construct comprising all or a portion of a nucleotide sequence encoding Bridge-1. Preferably, the transgene construct is expressed in the somatic and germ cells of the transgenic, e.g., in the pancreas of the transgenic mammal. In a preferred embodiment, the expression of an insulin gene in the transgenic mammal is decreased relative to a mammal lacking the transgene construct. In another embodiment, the expression of a glucagon gene in the transgenic mammal is increased relative to a mammal lacking the transgene construct. In yet another embodiment, the expression of a pancreas duodenum homeobox-1 (PDX-1) gene in the transgenic mammal is decreased relative to a mammal lacking the transgene construct. In one embodiment, expression of an Nkx 6.1 gene in the transgenic mammal is decreased relative to a mammal lacking the transgene construct. In another embodiment, expression of a Brain-4 gene is increased in the transgenic mammal relative to a mammal lacking the transgene construct. In another embodiment, apoptosis of pancreatic cells in the transgenic mammal is increased relative to a mammal lacking the transgene construct. In yet another embodiment, the number of insulin-producing cells in the transgenic mammal is decreased relative to a mammal lacking the transgene construct. In various embodiments, the transgenic mammal is diabetic, hyperglycemic, and/or insulin-deficient. In another embodiment, expression of pancreatic preproinsulin in the transgenic mammal is decreased relative to a mammal lacking the transgene construct. In yet another embodiment, the transgene construct encodes a polypeptide consisting of amino acids 1 to 184 of Bridge-1. Preferably, the nucleotide sequence encoding amino acids 1 to 184 of Bridge-1 is expressed in the pancreas of the transgenic mammal. In one embodiment, the number of insulin-producing cells in a transgenic mammal expressing a polypeptide consisting of amino acids 1-184 of Bridge-1 is increased relative to a mammal lacking the transgene. In various embodiments, the transgenic mammal is a rodent (e.g., a mouse or a rat), a pig, a rabbit, a goat, a cow, a horse, or a sheep. Such transgenic mammals (e.g., a mouse, a rat, a pig, a rabbit, a goat, a cow, a horse, or a sheep can be used, for example, in methods for determining whether a test compound administered to the mammal (i) modulates insulin gene expression or insulin activity, (ii) modulates glucagon gene expression or glucagon activity, (iii) modulates PDX-1 gene expression or PDX-1 activity, (iv) modulates Nkx 6.1 gene expression or Nkx 6.1 activity, (v) modulates Brain-4 gene expression or Brain-4 activity, (vi) modulates apoptosis of pancreatic cells, (vii) affects the number of insulin-producing cells, (viii) modulates, mediates, ameliorates, or treats diabetes, hyperglycemia, and/or insulin deficiency, and/or (ix) modulates expression of pancreatic preproinsulin. The test compound can be administered by any of various methods, e.g., orally, intravenously, intraperitoneally, by nasal administration, topically, etc.
In a preferred embodiment, the modulation is Bridge-1 activity is determined by analyzing the ability of Bridge-1 to stimulate transcription of a reporter gene. A preferred assay is the Gal4-Bridge-1 transactivation assay in BHK cells.
In various embodiments of each of the methods of the invention described herein, the method may further comprise contacting a cell or cells with a p300 polypeptide, a polynucleotide encoding p300, or a compound that activates or inhibits expression of p300 or of a p300 target gene. Similarly, the methods of the invention may further comprise contacting a cell or cells with a pancreas duodenum homeobox-1 (PDX-1) polypeptide, a polynucleotide encoding PDX-1, or a compound that activates or inhibits expression of PDX-1 or of a PDX-1 target gene. Likewise, in various embodiments of each method of the invention involving an animal, the method may further comprise administering to the animal a p300 polypeptide, a polynucleotide encoding p300, or a compound that activates or inhibits expression of p300 or of a p300 target gene. Similarly, the methods of the invention involving animals may further comprise administering to the animal a PDX-1 polypeptide, a polynucleotide encoding PDX-1, or a compound that activates or inhibits expression of PDX-1 or of a PDX-1 target gene.
The invention is also directed to methods for modulating the activity of proteins that interact with Bridge-1. Thus, in another aspect, the invention features a method for modulating PDX-1 activity in a cell or cells comprising contacting the cell or cells with a Bridge-1 polypeptide, a polynucleotide encoding Bridge-1, or a compound that activates or inhibits expression of Bridge-1 or of a Bridge-1 target gene. In one embodiment, the PDX-1 activity is increased. In another embodiment, the PDX-1 activity is decreased. In one embodiment expression of a PDX-1 target gene is increased, or, alternatively expression of a PDX-1 target gene is decreased. In various embodiments, the compound that activates or inhibits expression of Bridge-1 or of a Bridge-1 target gene is a peptide, small molecule, or an anti-Bridge-1 antibody. For example, the compound can be Activin A, Trichostatin A, or Progesterone.
In another aspect, the invention features a method for modulating p300 activity in a cell or cells comprising contacting the cell or cells with a Bridge-1 polypeptide, a polynucleotide encoding Bridge-1, or a compound that activates or inhibits expression of Bridge-1 or of a Bridge-1 target gene. In one embodiment, the p300 activity is increased, or, alternatively the p300 activity is decreased. In one embodiment, expression of a p300 target gene is increased, or, alternatively, expression of a p300 target gene is decreased. In various embodiments, the compound that activates or inhibits expression of Bridge-1 or of a Bridge-1 target gene is a peptide, small molecule, or an anti-Bridge-1 antibody. For example, the compound can be Activin A, Trichostatin A, or Progesterone.
In various embodiments of the foregoing methods of the invention, the method may comprise contacting the cell or cells with a Bridge-1 antisense cDNA and/or an anti-Bridge-1 small interfering RNA (siRNA). Such antisense cDNAs and siRNAs can be made and used in accordance with conventional techniques to decrease Bridge-1 activity in a cell.



BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS/FIGURES
FIG. 1 (a-d). Transgenic mouse model for the pancreatic overexpression of Bridge-1. (a) Schematic model of the transgene consisting of a 4.6 kb segment of the mouse pdx-1 promoter, a 900 bp segment of rat Bridge-1 cDNA coding sequence, and a 550 bp segment of rabbit β-globin poly A sequence. (b) Expression of the Bridge-1 transgene in genomic DNA. An autoradiogram from a Southern blot of genomic DNA derived from 5 distinct lines of Bridge-1 transgenic mice (TG) probed with a radiolabeled probe spanning the indicated region (*) of the transgene is shown. (c) Pancreatic Bridge-1 mRNA expression in two distinct lines (TG2 and TG5) of Bridge-1 transgenic mice. cDNA was synthesized from total pancreatic RNA isolated from transgenic (+) or control (−) mice. A 402 bp segment of amplified Bridge-1 cDNA was identified by PCR and subjected to agarose gel electrophoresis. An image of the ethidium bromide-stained gel is shown with the 500 bp marker migration position indicated. (d) Images are shown of paraffin sections of pancreas samples from male Bridge-1 transgenic (TG) or strain-matched control (WT) mice immunostained with anti-Bridge-1 antiserum (in brown) and counterstained with hematoxylin. Pancreatic islets are indicated with arrows.
FIG. 2 (a-f). Pancreatic islet, ductal, and acinar architecture are disrupted in Bridge-1 transgenic mice. (a-f) Hematoxylin- and eosin-stained paraffin sections of male Bridge-1 transgenic (a-c) or control (d-f) mouse pancreas. Pancreatic endocrine tissue (ISLET) in Bridge-1 transgenic mice (arrows, a) shows a loss of defined endocrine/exocrine boundaries and increased cellular and nuclear heterogeneity as compared to control islets (arrow, d). Enlarged and dilated pancreatic ducts (DUCT) are noted in transgenic (arrow, b) as compared to control pancreas (e). Patchy regions of acinar cell disorganization (ACINAR) also are seen in transgenic pancreas (c) as compared to control exocrine tissue (f).
FIG. 3 (a-f). Pancreatic endocrine cells are disorganized with loss of endocrine and exocrine compartment boundaries in Bridge-1 transgenic mice. (a-f) Paraffin sections of Bridge-1 transgenic mouse pancreas stained with hematoxylin and eosin (a, H & E) or immunostained for insulin (b), glucagon (c), and Bridge-1 (d) (in brown) and counterstained with hematoxylin are shown as indicated. The immunostaining pattern for β-catenin as indicated (in brown) is markedly different for Bridge-1 transgenic (e) as compared to control (f) mice.
FIG. 4 (a-l). The spatial relationship of insulin- and glucagon-expressing cells is disrupted in Bridge-1 transgenic mice. (a-f) Pancreatic sections from male transgenic (TG, a-c) and control (WT, d-f) mice were stained with antiserum directed against insulin, glucagon or somatostatin as indicated (brown) and counterstained with hematoxylin. Few insulin-expressing cells are seen within a region of acinar cell enlargement and disorganization in the transgenic pancreas (arrow, a) as compared to control islets (d). Glucagon expression is seen in strands and clusters that surround acinar cells in the transgenic pancreas (arrow, b) as compared to the normal pattern of peripheral glucagon expression surrounding a central core of insulin-expressing cells within the islet (arrow, e). Somatostatin-expressing cells are observed in the endocrine compartment of both transgenic (arrow, c) and control (arrow, f) pancreas. (g-l) Indirect immunofluorescence of pancreas sections from transgenic (TG, g-i) and control (WT, j-l) mice stained for insulin in red (g,j) and glucagon in green (h,k) are shown with the merged images as indicated (i,l). Pancreatic islet architecture is abnormal in the transgenic mice with diminished numbers of insulin-expressing-cells (arrow, g) and a disorganized arrangement of glucagon-expressing cells (arrow, h).
FIG. 5 (a-i). Expression levels of pancreatic β-cell specific transcription factors are reduced in the pancreatic endocrine cells of Bridge-1 transgenic mice. (a-h) Protein expression patterns of PDX-1 and Nkx 6.1 are disrupted in Bridge-1 transgenic mice. Representative images from pancreatic sections from male transgenic (TG, a-d) and control (WT, e-h) mice stained with antiserum directed against PDX-1 (a, e) or Nkx 6.1 (b, f) (in brown) and counterstained with hematoxylin are shown (a, b, e, f). Within the disorganized endocrine cell clusters of Bridge-1 transgenic mice (arrows, a, b) differences in nuclear sizes are seen. PDX-1 (e) and Nkx 6.1 (f) are expressed in the cytoplasm and nuclei of pancreatic β cells comprising the central core of the wild type pancreatic islets. (c, d, g, h) Indirect immunofluorescence images of pancreatic sections costained for PDX-1 in red and glucagon in green (c, g) or for Nkx 6.1 in red and glucagon in green (d, h) are shown. (i) Pancreatic mRNA expression levels of PDX-1 and Nkx 6.1 are reduced in Bridge-1 transgenic mice. We prepared total pancreatic RNA from male Bridge-1 transgenic (TG) and strain- and age-matched control (WT) mice and performed realtime rt-PCR for each sample in triplicate with primers and probes to detect PDX-1, Nkx 6.1, Brain-4, and hypoxanthine phosphoribosyltransferase (HPRT), as indicated. Results shown are the means+/−SEM of the relative expression levels normalized to cyclophilin expression with the mean expression level for the control mice (WT) set at 1 (n=3-5 mice per genotype; *P<0.05; **P<0.01; ns, no significant difference by Student's T test).
FIG. 6 (a-h). Bridge-1 transgenic mice have reduced pancreatic β-cell mass and increased pancreatic apoptosis. (a-c) Paraffin sections of pancreas derived from male Bridge-1 transgenic (TG) or control (WT) mice were immunostained for insulin and counterstained with hematoxylin. For each endocrine cell cluster or islet, insulin-expressing (β cells) and non-expressing (non-β cells) cells were counted. Data presented are the mean+/−SEM (n=3 mice per genotype; 2400-4294 endocrine cells per genotype; **P<0.01; ***P<0.001). (d-f) Paraffin sections of pancreas derived from male Bridge-1 transgenic (TG) or control (WT) mice were immunostained for glucagon and counterstained with hematoxylin. For each endocrine cell cluster or islet, glucagon-expressing (a cells) and non-expressing (non-α cells) cells were counted. Data presented are the mean+/−SEM (n=3 mice per genotype; 5076-8028 endocrine cells per genotype; *P=0.066; **P<0.01). (g) Peroxidase-based TUNEL assays were performed on paraffin sections of pancreas derived from male Bridge-1 transgenic (TG) or control (WT) mice and counterstained with hematoxylin. Representative images of TUNEL-positive cells (in brown) are shown. (h) We prepared total pancreatic protein extracts from two male Bridge-1 transgenic (TG) and two control (WT) mice and conducted Western blots first with anti-cleaved Caspase-3 antiserum and then with anti-Stat-3 antiserum as a loading control. Representative images of Western blots for Stat-3 and the 17 kD activated, cleaved form of Caspase-3 are shown (at left). Densitometric scanning of the Western blots was used to quantify expression of the 17 kD form of Caspase-3 and of Stat-3. Data shown (at right) are the average+/−range of relative expression levels normalized to the average of WT controls (n=2 mice per genotype).
FIG. 7 (a-e). Bridge-1 transgenic mice have insulin deficiency and diabetes. (a) Intraperitoneal glucose tolerance testing of female transgenic mice (closed circles) demonstrates hyperglycemia, reduced glucose-stimulated insulin production and markedly diminished insulin/glucose ratios (n=6 mice per genotype; *P=0.056, **P<0.01; ***P<0.001) as compared to age- and strain-matched control mice (open circles). (b) Fasting glucose and insulin levels and insulin/glucose ratios are shown for male transgenic (TG) and age- and strain-matched control (WT) mice (n=5-7 mice per genotype; ***P<0.001). (c) Bridge-1 transgenic mice with severe diabetes (TG) have marked deficits in pancreatic insulin mRNA expression as compared to control (WT) mice. Autoradiograms are shown of a Northern blot of total pancreatic RNA samples from two transgenic (TG) and two control (WT) male mice probed for insulin or actin mRNA as indicated. (d) We prepared total pancreatic RNA from male Bridge-1 transgenic (TG) and strain- and age-matched control (WT) mice and performed real-time rt-PCR for each sample in triplicate with primers and probes to detect insulin, glucagon, glucokinase, glucose transporter-2 (Glut-2), elastase, and somatostatin, as indicated. Results shown are the means+/−SEM of the relative expression levels normalized to cyclophilin expression with the mean expression level for the control mice (WT) set at 1 (n=3-5 mice per genotype; *P=0.058; **P<0.01; ns, no significant difference by Student's T test). (e) Dose-dependent activation of insulin promoter enhancer elements by Bridge-1 is biphasic. HeLa cells were transiently transfected in triplicate with a multimerized FarFlat enhancer-reporter plasmid and the empty expression vector pcDNA3 or pcDNA3-Bridge-1. For each condition the total amount of pcDNA3 plasmids was constant. Results shown are the mean+/−SEM normalized to the basal activation of the reporter in the presence of pcDNA3 alone.
FIG. 8 Pancreatic islets are enlarged in mutant Bridge-1 (1-184) transgenic mice compared to wild-type mice. Mutant Bridge-1 (1-184) transgenic mice were generated from a transgene encoding mutant rat Bridge-1 (1-184) cDNA downstream of a previously characterized −4.6 kb segment of the mouse PDX-1 promoter and upstream of rabbit β globin poly A tail sequences. The Bridge-1 (1-184) mutant was generated by the introduction of an in-frame premature stop codon that resulted in a truncated expression product comprising amino acids 1-184. Pancreatic sections from mutant transgene and wild-type mice were stained with antiserum directed against insulin and counterstained with hematoxylin. Enlarged pancreatic islets in Bridge-1 mutant (1-184) transgenic mouse pancreas are shown.
FIG. 9. Relative BrdU incorporation in pancreatic islet cells from mutant Bridge-1 (1-184) transgenic mice compared to wild-type. Mutant Bridge-1 transgenic and wild-type mice were injected with BrdU prior to pancreatic harvesting. Replicating islet cells were detected and counted in pancreatic sections with immunodetection of BrdU incorporation. Pancreatic islet cells from Bridge-1 mutant (1-184) transgenic mice have increased replication rates.
FIG. 10. The Bridge-1(1-184) mutant interacts with E12 but lacks transactivation activity. In mammalian two-hybrid studies in HeLa cells, the Bridge-1(1-184) mutant interacts well with E12 (from Thomas et al. 1999) (upper panel). However, the Gal4 DNA-binding domain-Bridge-1(1-184) fusion construct does not activate the Gal4CAT reporter in BHK cells (lower panel). Activities of Bridge-1(1-184) are compared with those of full length Bridge-1(1-222) (100%) in both experiments.
FIG. 11. The Bridge-1(1-184) mutant protein is expressed in BHK cells. Western blot of Gal4 DNA-binding domain-Bridge-1(1-222) (lane 1) and Gal4 DNA-binding domain-Bridge-1(1-184) (lane 2) fusion proteins from representative extracts of transfected BHK cells. Protein extracts were separated by SDS-PAGE, electroblotted and detected with anti-Gal4-DNA-.
FIG. 12. Schematic models of the pIDX-1-Bridge-1(1-222) and pIDX-1-Bridge-1(1-184) transgenes. PDX-1 is designated IDX-1 in this figure. The asterisk designates the in-frame premature stop codon that truncates the Bridge-1(1-184) mutant protein at amino acid 184.
FIGS. 13-15. Figures show activating or inhibitory effect of Activin A, Trichostatin A, or Progesterone, respectively, in Bridge-1 transactivation assay.
FIG. 16. Nucleotide and amino acid sequences of rat Bridge-1 (SEQ ID Nos: 1 and 2).
FIG. 17 (a-d). The coactivator Bridge-1 interacts with multiple domains of p300. (a) Trichostatin A increases transcriptional activation by Bridge-1. BHK cells were transfected in duplicate with 1.5 μg Gal4-Bridge-1 or empty Gal4 expression vector, 3.25 μg pBluescript, and 250 ng of a Gal4-luciferase reporter and treated with vehicle (0), 2, or 4 ng/mL trichostatin A for 24 hours. Results shown are the mean+/−SEM relative luciferase activity of Gal4-Bridge-1 normalized to the empty Gal4 expression vector (n=3-5 transfections). (b) p300 increases the transcriptional activation by Bridge-1. BHK cells were transfected in duplicate with 0-3 μg of the p300 expression vector pCMV-p300 and 0.5 μg Gal4-Bridge-1 or empty Gal4 expression vector and 1 μg of a Gal4-CAT reporter. pBluescript was used to normalize the total DNA content for all conditions. Data shown are the mean of two transfections. (c) Bridge-1 directly interacts with p300. GST-Bridge-1 or GST control proteins were incubated with in vitro translated, radiolabeled [35S]-p300 in GST protein interaction assays. A representative autoradiogram is shown of an SDS polyacrylamide gel from a GST pull-down protein interaction assay with the migration position of [35S]-p300 designated (arrow). (d) Bridge-1 interacts with multiple domains within p300. A schematic diagram depicts protein interaction domains within p300 (adapted from (Chakravarti, E. A., et al., Nature 383:99-103 (1996)) (upper panel). In vitro translated, radiolabeled [35S]-Bridge-1 (+) or empty vector control in vitro transcription and translation reactions (−) were incubated with GST-p300 (1-595), GST-p300 (744-1571), GST-p300 (1572-2370) or GST control (GST) proteins in GST protein interaction assays. Representative autoradiograms of SDS-polyacrylamide gels from a GST pull-down protein interaction assay and of 10% input of the [35S]-Bridge-1 are shown (lower panel).
FIG. 18 (a-b). Sequestration of p300 by the adenoviral protein E1A interferes with transcriptional activation by Bridge-1. (a) Transcriptional activation by Bridge-1 is suppressed by E1A. BHK cells were transfected in duplicate with 1 μg Gal4-Bridge-1 and 0, 50, or 100 ng E1A and 1 μg Gal4-CAT reporter. pBluescript was added to normalize the total amount of DNA for all conditions. Results shown are the mean relative activation levels derived from two transfections, normalized to the activity of Gal-Bridge-1 set at 1.0. (b) Mutant E1A does not interfere with transcriptional activation by Bridge-1. BHK cells were transfected in duplicate with 1 μg Gal4-Bridge-1 and 0, 50, or 100 ng mutant E1A(Δ2-36) and 1 μg Gal4-CAT reporter. Results shown are the mean relative activation levels derived from two transfections, normalized to the activity of Gal-Bridge-1 set at 1.0.
FIG. 19 (a-c). The carboxy-terminal domains of Bridge-1 are required for transcriptional activation. (a) Deletion of carboxy-terminal domains of Bridge-1 reduce transcriptional activation in yeast. Quantitative beta-galactosidase assays were conducted on yeast transformed with LexA-Bridge-1, LexA-Bridge-1(1-72), or LexA-Bridge-1(1-132) expression vectors in conjunction with a LexA-operator-beta-galactosidase reporter. Results shown are the mean of two transformations, normalized to the activity of LexA-Bridge-1 set at 100 percent. (b) Deletion of carboxy-terminal domains of Bridge-1 reduce transcriptional activation in mammalian cells. BHK cells were transfected in duplicate with 1.5 μg Gal4-Bridge-1, Gal4-Bridge-1 (1-72), or Gal4-Bridge-1 (1-133), 3.25 μg pBluescript, and 250 ng of a Gal4-luciferase reporter. Results shown are the mean of 5 transfections, normalized to the activity of Gal4-Bridge-1 set at 100 percent. (c) Relative protein expression levels of Gal4-Bridge-1 deletion mutants on a Western blot of extracts from BHK cells transfected with Gal4-Bridge-1, Gal4-Bridge-1 (1-72), or Gal4-Bridge-1 (1-133), as indicated (+), conducted with anti-Gal4 antiserum.
FIG. 20 (a-e) Mutagenesis of the PDZ domain of Bridge-1 disrupts transcriptional activation. (a) Point mutations within conserved amino acids of the Bridge-1 PDZ domain disrupt transcriptional activation. BHK cells were transfected in duplicate with 4 μg Gal4-Bridge-1 (WT), Gal4-Bridge-1 (V159P), Gal4-Bridge-1 (V164P), Gal4-Bridge-1 (V175P), Gal4-Bridge-1 (D156P), Gal4-Bridge-1 (G151P), or empty Gal4 expression vector (Gal4), as indicated, with 1 μg of a Gal4-CAT reporter. A fluorescence image of a thin layer chromatogram from a representative CAT assay is shown with the fluorescent acetylated products (*) and substrate (S) indicated. (b) Relative Gal4-Bridge-1 mutant protein expression levels are shown on a Western blot of extracts from BHK cells transfected with Gal4-Bridge-1 (WT), Gal4-Bridge-1 (V159P), Gal4-Bridge-1 (V164P), Gal4-Bridge-1 (V175P), Gal4-Bridge-1 (D156P), or Gal4-Bridge-1 (G151P), as indicated, conducted with anti-Gal4 antiserum. (c) The Bridge-1 (D156P) mutant has diminished transcriptional activation. BHK cells were transfected in duplicate with 4 μg Gal4-Bridge-1 or Gal4-Bridge-1 (D156P), as indicated with 1 μg Gal4-CAT reporter. Results shown are the mean+/−SEM of three transfections, normalized to the activity of Gal4-Bridge-1 set at 100 percent. (d) Deletion of the PDZ domain decreases Bridge-1 interactions with p300. GST-Bridge-1, GST-Bridge-1 (1-72), GST-Bridge-1 (1-133), or GST control (GST) proteins were incubated with in vitro translated, radiolabeled [35S]-p300 in GST pull-down protein interaction assays. A representative autoradiogram is shown of an SDS-polyacrylamide gel from a GST pull-down protein interaction assay with the migration position of [35S]-p300 (arrow) indicated. (e) Mutagenesis of the PDZ domain decreases Bridge-1 interactions with p300. GST-Bridge-1, GST-Bridge-1 (D156P), or GST control (GST) proteins were incubated with in vitro translated, radiolabeled [35S]-p300 in GST protein interaction assays in duplicate or triplicate samples. A representative autoradiogram is shown of an SDS-polyacrylamide gel from a GST pull-down protein interaction assay with the migration position of [35S]-p300 (arrow) indicated.
FIG. 21. Proposed model of Bridge-1 interactions with p300 in the activation of target gene transcription. In this schematic diagram p300 interacts with Bridge-1 in multiprotein complexes coupled to the basal transcription machinery (Pol II). Bridge-1 may recruit other transcriptional regulators (designated by X) to p300-containing protein complexes to activate target gene transcription.
FIG. 22. PDX-1 interacts with Bridge-1 in GST pull-down assays. Radiolabeled in vitro translated rat PDX-1 was incubated with glutathione S-transferase (GST) control or glutathione S-transferase fusion proteins encoding rat Bridge-1 (GST-Bridge-1) in GST pull-down assays followed by separation on SDS-polyacrylamide gels and autoradiography. A representative autoradiogram is shown. The migration position of the radiolabeled PDX-1 protein is shown (arrow) and input PDX-1 protein is indicated (INPUT).
FIG. 23 (a-c). Bridge-1 interacts with the amino-terminal transactivation domain of PDX-1. (a) Schematic model of PDX-1 proteins. The full length PDX-1 protein (WT) and PDX-1 protein fragments encoding amino acids 1-38, 1-143, 1-206, and 143-283 are designated as indicated. The amino-terminal transactivation domain and the central DNA-binding homeodomain are designated. (b) Amino-terminal fragments of PDX-1 interact with GST-Bridge-1 in GST pull-down assays. Radiolabeled in vitro translated rat PDX-1 proteins encoding amino acids 1-143 (1), 143-283 (2), 1-206 (3), and full-length PDX-1 (WT, 4) or control in vitro translation reactions conducted with empty expression vector (Vector, 5) were incubated with GST-Bridge-1 or GST control proteins as indicated (+) in GST pull-down assays, separated on SDS-polyacrylamide gels, and assessed by autoradiography. Representative autoradiograms of the GST pull-down assay with arrows indicating the migration positions of PDX-1 mutant proteins (left panel) and relative amounts of input proteins (right panel, INPUT) are shown. (c) Radiolabeled Bridge-1 interacts with amino-terminal fragments of GST-PDX-1. Radiolabeled in vitro translated Bridge-1 (+) or control in vitro translation reactions conducted with empty expression vector (−) were incubated with glutathione S-transferase control (GST) or glutathione S-transferase fusion proteins encoding rat PDX-1 proteins with amino acids 1-38, 1-206, or full-length PDX-1 (WT), as indicated. GST pull-down assays were conducted followed by separation on SDS-polyacrylamide gels and autoradiography. A representative autoradiogram is shown. The migration position of the radiolabeled Bridge-1 protein is shown (arrow) and input Bridge-1 protein is indicated (INPUT).
FIG. 24. Bridge-1 interacts with wild-type and mutant human PDX-1/IPF-1 proteins. Radiolabeled in vitro translated human PDX-1/IPF-1 proteins encoding the wild-type (WT, 6), or mutant sequences P63fsdelC (1), InsCCG243 (2), A140T (3), Q59L (4), or D76N (5) were incubated with GST-Bridge-1 in GST pull-down assays, separated on SDS-polyacrylamide gels, and assessed by autoradiography. Representative autoradiograms of the GST pull-down assay (left panel) and relative amounts of input proteins (right panel, INPUT) are shown. Arrows indicate the migration positions of wild-type (thick, at right) and of P63fsdelC mutant (thin, at left) radiolabeled PDX-1/IPF-1 proteins.
FIG. 25 (a-c). Bridge-1 increases the transcriptional activation of PDX-1. (a) Combination of Gal4-Bridge-1 and Gal4-PDX-1 proteins results in synergistic transcriptional activation. BHK cells were transiently transfected with 500 ng Gal4-CAT reporter and, as indicated (+), 25 ng Gal4-PDX-1, 100 ng Gal4-Bridge-1, or Gal4 empty expression vector for a total of 125 ng of expression vector per sample. Results shown are the mean+/−SEM (n=3 transfections, each conducted in duplicate; *p=0.06 for the Gal4-PDX-1 and Gal4-Bridge-1 combination as compared to Gal4-PDX-1 alone). (b) Bridge-1 increases the activation of rat somatostatin promoter enhancer sequences by PDX-1. BHK cells were transiently transfected with 500 ng (SMS-TAAT1)5-65SMS-CAT reporter, and 150 ng pCMV-PDX-1 (+) or empty pCMV expression vector (−) with 0, 200, or 500 ng pcDNA3-Bridge-1, as indicated. Empty pcDNA3 vector was added as needed to normalize total amounts of DNA in all transfections. A fluorescent image of the acetylated product from a thin layer chromatogram of a CAT assay conducted in duplicate is shown. (c) Bridge-1 increases the synergistic activation of the rat insulin I promoter enhancer FarFlat by PDX-1, E12, and E47. HeLa cells were transiently transfected with 500 ng FarFlat-CAT reporter and 125 ng pCMV-PDX-1, 50 ng pcDNA3-E12, and 50 ng pcDNA3-E47 with 200 ng empty pcDNA3 expression vector (−) or pcDNA3-Bridge-1 (+). Results shown are the mean+/−SEM (n=9 transfections, each conducted in duplicate; p=0.00003).
FIG. 26. Working model of Bridge-1 coactivator function on glucose-response elements of the insulin promoter. Bridge-1 can activate the insulin promoter indirectly via protein-protein interactions with PDX-1 and/or by interactions with E2A proteins such as E12 and E47 (Thomas et al., 1999).
FIG. 27 (a-c). Nucleotide (FIG. 27(a)) and amino acid (FIG. 27(b)) sequences of a human PSMD9 coding sequence (accession no. NM—002813) (SEQ ID Nos: 154 and 155). Genomic sequence of human PSMD9 gene, with the location of various single nucleotide polymorphisms indicated (FIG. 27(c)) (SEQ ID NO:164).
FIG. 28. (a-c) Endogenous Bridge-1 expression is required for insulin promoter activity. (a). In transient transfections of INS-1 cells an antisense Bridge-1 cDNA construct decreased the activation of a rat insulin I promoter (−410-+47)-luciferase reporter. (b). Rat insulin I promoter-reporter activation was reduced to a similar extent by administration of an anti-Bridge-1 small interfering duplex RNA to INS-1 cells. (c). Bridge-1 protein expression levels can be inducibly increased or suppressed in stable INS-1 cells. Double stable rtTA/Tet-Bridge-1 (Sense) or rtTA/Tet-Antisense-Bridge-1 (Antisense) INS-1 cells were treated with 1 μg/mL doxycycline (+) or vehicle (−) prior to isolation of whole cell protein extracts and Western blots with anti-Bridge-1 antiserum.
FIG. 29. (a-c) (a). Neurogenin-3 activates the expression of NeuroD1/Beta-2 in embryonic progenitor cells in the early stages of commitment to the insulin- or glucagon-producing lineages. (b). Neurogenin-3 and NeuroD1/Beta-2 pancreatic mRNA expression levels are upregulated in adult Bridge-1 transgenic mice with diabetes. (c). Neurogenin-3 is expresses in pancreas of adult Bridge-1 transgenic mice but not in the pancreas of control mice.



DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
Multiple forms of heritable diseases are associated with mutations in transcription factors that regulate insulin gene transcription and the development and maintenance of pancreatic β-cell mass. The coactivator Bridge-1 increases the transcriptional activation of glucose-responsive enhancers in the insulin gene via PDZ-domain mediated interactions with E2A transcription factors.
The present inventors have discovered that disruption of Bridge-1 signaling by the pancreatic overexpression of Bridge-1 in transgenic mice represses insulin gene expression to result in insulin deficiency and severe early-onset diabetes. Dysregulation of Bridge-1 signaling increases pancreatic apoptosis with a reduction in the number of insulin-producing pancreatic cells and an expansion of the complement of glucagon-expressing pancreatic a cells. Increased expression of Bridge-1 alters pancreatic islet, acinar, and ductal architecture and disrupts the boundaries between endocrine and exocrine cellular compartments, suggesting that signals transduced through this coactivator influence pancreatic islet morphogenesis and endocrine cell migration. The results indicate that the coactivator Bridge-1 regulates both glucose homeostasis and pancreatic β-cell survival and that coactivator dysfunction in pancreatic β cells limits insulin production and contributes to the pathogenesis of diabetes.
Nucleic Acid Molecules
Nucleic acid molecules useful in the methods of the present invention are disclosed, for example, in pending U.S. application Ser. No. 09/959,123, the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference. Thus, a Bridge-1 “polynucleotide” refers to a molecule having a nucleic acid sequence contained in the full-length Bridge-1 sequence. As used herein, the term “Bridge-1” is intended to encompass rat Bridge-1, its mouse homolog, as well as the human homolog (also known as PSMD9), (See, e.g., Watanabe, T. K et al., Genomics 50 (2), 241-250 (1998). For example, the Bridge-1 polynucleotide can contain the nucleotide sequence of the full-length Bridge-1 cDNA sequence described in 09/959,123, including the 5′ and 3′ untranslated sequences, the coding region, with or without any signal sequence, the protein coding region, as well as fragments, epitopes, domains, and variants of the nucleic acid sequence. Moreover, as used herein, a Bridge-1 “polypeptide” refers to a molecule having the translated amino acid sequence generated from the polynucleotide as broadly defined.
In one embodiment of the present invention, isolated polynucleotides are provided which encode the Bridge-1 protein. Using information provided herein, a nucleic acid molecule of the present invention encoding a Bridge-1 polypeptide may be obtained using standard cloning and screening procedures. As described in U.S. application Ser. No. 09/959,123, the nucleic acid molecule encoding rat Bridge-1 was obtained from a cDNA expression library from rat pancreatic islet cells. The rat Bridge-1 cDNA encodes a protein of about 222 amino acids, which includes a PDZ-like domain. Bridge-1 is widely expressed, since the corresponding transcript was found in several human tissues, including pancreas, testes, kidney, and liver.
Isolated nucleic acids useful in the present invention may be in the form of RNA, such as mRNA, or in the form of DNA, including, for instance, cDNA and genomic DNA obtained by cloning or produced synthetically. The DNA may be double-stranded or single-stranded. Single-stranded DNA or RNA may be the coding strand, also known as the sense strand, or it may be the non-coding strand, also referred to as the anti-sense strand.
By “isolated” nucleic acid molecule(s) is intended a nucleic acid molecule, DNA or RNA, which has been removed from its native environment (e.g., the natural environment if it is naturally occurring), and thus is altered “by the hand of man” from its natural state. For example, recombinant DNA molecules contained in a vector are considered isolated for purposes of the present invention. Additional illustrative examples of isolated DNA molecules include recombinant DNA molecules maintained in heterologous host cells and purified (partially or substantially) DNA molecules in solution. Isolated RNA molecules include in vitro RNA transcripts of the DNA molecules of the present invention as well as partially or substantially purified mRNA molecules. “Purified” as it refers to preparations made from biological cells or hosts should be understood to mean any cell extract containing the indicated DNA or protein including a crude extract of the DNA or protein of interest. For example, in the case of a protein, a purified preparation can be obtained by following an individual technique or a series of preparative or biochemical techniques and the DNA or protein of interest can be present at various degrees of purity in these preparations. The procedures may include for example, but are not limited to, ammonium sulfate fractionation, gel filtration, ion exchange chromatography, affinity chromatography, density gradient centrifugation and electrophoresis. “Substantially pure” should be understood to mean a “highly” purified preparation that contains at least 95% of the DNA or protein of interest. Isolated nucleic acid molecules according to the present invention further include nucleic acid molecules produced synthetically.
Isolated polynucleotides useful of the present invention include DNA molecules comprising the rat or human Bridge-1 and DNA molecules which comprise a sequence substantially different than these molecules but which, due to the degeneracy of the genetic code, still encode the Bridge-1 protein. Of course, the genetic code is well known in the art. Thus, it would be routine for one skilled in the art to generate the degenerate variants described above.
In another aspect, the methods of the present invention utilize isolated nucleic acid molecules encoding the Bridge-1 polypeptide having an amino acid sequence as encoded by the cDNA clone in the plasmid pcDNA3-Bridge-1 deposited with the American Type Culture Collection (ATCC, 10801 University Blvd., Manassas, Va. 20110-2209) and assigned accession number 203947. The methods of the invention also may utilize an isolated polynucleotide having the nucleotide sequence of the Bridge-1 coding region or the nucleotide sequence of the Bridge-1 cDNA contained in the above-described clone, or a nucleic acid molecule having a sequence complementary to one of the above sequences. Such isolated nucleic acid molecules, preferably DNA molecules, are useful as probes for gene mapping by in situ hybridization with chromosomes and for detecting expression of the Bridge-1 gene, or genes homologous to the Bridge-1 gene, in human tissue, for instance, by Northern blot analysis.
In another aspect, the methods of the invention utilize an isolated nucleic acid molecule that hybridizes under stringent conditions to the above-described nucleic acid molecules. As used herein “stringent conditions” is intended to mean, as a non-limiting example, overnight incubation at 42EC in a solution comprising 50% formamide, 5×SSC (150 mM NaCl, 15 mM trisodium citrate), 50 mM sodium phosphate (pH7.6), 5× Denhardt's solution, 10% dextran sulfate, and 20 μg/ml denatured, sheared salmon sperm DNA, followed by washing the filters in 0.1×SSC at about 65EC. Preferably, such “an isolated nucleic acid molecule that hybridizes under stringent conditions” will be at least 15 bp, preferably at least 20 bp, more preferably at least 30 bp, more preferably at least 40 bp, and most preferably, at least 50 bp in length.
As used herein, “fragments” of an isolated DNA molecule having the nucleotide sequence of the deposited cDNA clone described above or the nucleotide sequence as shown in FIG. 16 or the nucleotide sequence of the ORF, i.e. the coding region, as shown in FIG. 16, is intended to mean DNA fragments at least 15 bp, more preferably at least 20 bp, more preferably at least 30 bp, more preferably at least 40 bp, more preferably at least 50 bp, more preferably at least 60 bp, more preferably at least 70 bp, more preferably at least 80 bp, more preferably at least 90 bp, more preferably at least 100 bp length, and most preferably at least 200 bp, in length. Such fragments are useful, inter alia, as diagnostic probes and primers. Larger DNA fragments, up to, for example, 500 bp in length, are also useful as probes according to the present invention. A fragment of at least 20 bp in length, for example, is intended to mean fragments which include 20 or more contiguous bases from the nucleotide sequence of the deposited cDNA or the nucleotide sequence of the ORF, i.e. coding region, as shown in FIG. 1. As indicated, such fragments are useful diagnostically inter alia as a probe according to conventional DNA hybridization techniques or as primers for amplification of a target sequence by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
In a preferred embodiment, polynucleotide fragments of the invention comprise at least 15 contiguous nucleotides of the Bridge-1 coding sequence shown in FIG. 1, but do not comprise all or a portion of any Bridge-1 intron. In another embodiment, the nucleic acid comprising Bridge-1 coding sequence does not contain coding sequences of a genomic flanking gene (i.e., 5N or 3N to the Bridge-1 gene in the genome.)
Many polynucleotide sequences, such as EST sequences, are publicly available and accessible through sequence databases. The EST sequences referred to below were identified in a BLAST search of the EST database. These sequences are believed to be partial sequences of the cDNA insert identified in the recited GenBank accession numbers.
For example, the following sequences are related to the coding region of Bridge-1, GenBank Accession Nos: AW140997 (SEQ ID NO:29); AI410372 (SEQ ID NO:30); AI710949 (SEQ ID NO:31); AI410370 (SEQ ID NO: 32); AI175576 (SEQ ID NO:33); A1410377 (SEQ ID NO:34); AI176737 (SEQ ID NO:35); AI059501 (SEQ ID NO:36); AI577670 (SEQ ID NO:37); AI030624 (SEQ ID NO:38); W97405 (SEQ ID NO:39); W59260 (SEQ ID NO:40); AA990371 (SEQ ID NO:41); AV085226 (SEQ ID NO:42); AA458312 (SEQ ID NO:43); AA244824 (SEQ ID NO:44); W41287 (SEQ ID NO:45); AA764187 (SEQ ID NO:46); AA530067 (SEQ ID NO:47); AA760338 (SEQ ID NO:48); AV239440 (SEQ ID NO:49); AA230657 (SEQ ID NO:50); AA832760 (SEQ ID NO:51); AV018936 (SEQ ID NO:52); AA033111 (SEQ ID NO:53); W41542 (SEQ ID NO:54); AI426803 (SEQ ID NO:55); AV117212 (SEQ ID NO:56); A1853315 (SEQ ID NO:57); W61442 (SEQ ID NO:58); AV043811 (SEQ ID NO:59); A1194159 (SEQ ID NO:60); AA958415 (SEQ ID NO:61); W77431 (SEQ ID NO:62); AA940225 (SEQ ID NO:63); AW495918 (SEQ ID NO:64); AV019366 (SEQ ID NO:65); AW124782 (SEQ ID NO:66); AW496344 (SEQ ID NO:67); W83144 (SEQ ID NO:68); AA110868 (SEQ ID NO:69); AV204705 (SEQ ID NO:70); AV117489 (SEQ ID NO:71); AV204580 (SEQ ID NO:72); AV149555 (SEQ ID NO:73); AV217918 (SEQ ID NO:74); AV144222 (SEQ ID NO:75); AV363935 (SEQ ID NO:76); AV367917 (SEQ ID NO:77); AV131095 (SEQ ID NO:78); AA038844 (SEQ ID NO:79); AV000269 (SEQ ID NO:80); AV215700 (SEQ ID NO:81); AA574257 (SEQ ID NO:82); A1580764 (SEQ ID NO:83); AI421341 (SEQ ID NO:84); A1624271 (SEQ ID NO:85); AI673018 (SEQ ID NO:86); A1826486 (SEQ ID NO:87); AW025889 (SEQ ID NO:88); A1690995 (SEQ ID NO:89); AI934145 (SEQ ID NO:90); AI 805491 (SEQ ID NO:91); AI318424 (SEQ ID NO:92); AI694835 (SEQ ID NO:93); AI915915 (SEQ ID NO:94); AI347155 (SEQ ID NO:95); H79248 (SEQ ID NO:96); H79154 (SEQ ID NO:97); AA883244 (SEQ ID NO:98); AI925943 (SEQ ID NO:99); AI027566 (SEQ ID NO:100); AI422908 (SEQ ID NO:101); H12345 (SEQ ID NO:102); H12296 (SEQ ID NO:103); AA147029 (SEQ ID NO:104); AA147030 (SEQ ID NO:105); R21923 (SEQ ID NO:106); R22572 (SEQ ID NO:107); AI264294 (SEQ ID NO:108); AI439891 (SEQ ID NO:109); W88749 (SEQ ID NO:110); AI698667 (SEQ ID NO:111); AI439894 (SEQ ID NO:112); AI421551 (SEQ ID NO:113); H63468 (SEQ ID NO:114); AI082760 (SEQ ID NO:115); W73843 (SEQ ID NO:116); W73699 (SEQ ID NO:117); AA535984 (SEQ ID NO:118); AW000865 (SEQ ID NO:119); R25346 (SEQ ID NO:120); R26538 (SEQ ID NO:121); AA936901 (SEQ ID NO:122); A1350558 (SEQ ID NO:123); AW296973 (SEQ ID NO:124); A1003420 (SEQ ID NO:125); AI880806 (SEQ ID NO:126); R60563 (SEQ ID NO:127); AA356988 (SEQ ID NO:128); AL037250 (SEQ ID NO:129); AW389915 (SEQ ID NO:130); AI439880 (SEQ ID NO:131); N30591 (SEQ ID NO:132); AW242490 (SEQ ID NO:133); AI950686 (SEQ ID NO:134); AW389884 (SEQ ID NO:135); AA374147 (SEQ ID NO:136); AW368137 (SEQ ID NO:137); AW389910 (SEQ ID NO:138); AA640616 (SEQ ID NO:139); AW079701 (SEQ ID NO:140); AI202368 (SEQ ID NO:141); N51558 (SEQ ID NO:142); AA401853 (SEQ ID NO:143); AW410681 (SEQ ID NO:144); N40375 (SEQ ID NO:145); AW385667 (SEQ ID NO:146); N27557 (SEQ ID NO:147); AW368222 (SEQ ID NO:148); AW368132 (SEQ ID NO:149); R60619 (SEQ ID NO:150); D20400 (SEQ ID NO:151); AW517221 (SEQ ID NO:152); AA403126 (SEQ ID NO:153).
Thus, in one embodiment the present invention is directed to polynucleotides comprising the polynucleotide fragments and full-length polynucleotide (e.g. the coding region) described herein exclusive of one or more of the above recited ESTs.
Since the plasmid containing the cDNA clone has been deposited and the nucleotide sequence shown in FIG. 1 is provided, generating such DNA fragments would be routine to the skilled worker in the relevant art. Restriction endonuclease cleavage or shearing by sonication, for example, may easily be used to generate fragments of various sizes. Alternatively, the DNA fragments of the present invention can be generated synthetically according to the methods and techniques known and available to those skilled in the art.
The present invention further relates to variants of the nucleic acid molecules of the present invention, which encode for fragments, analogs or derivatives of the Bridge-1 protein, e.g., polypeptides having biological activity substantially similar to the Bridge-1 protein. Variants may occur naturally, such as isoforms and allelic variants. Non-naturally occurring variants may be produced using any of the mutagenesis techniques known and available to those skilled in the art.
Such variants include those produced by nucleotide substitutions, deletions or additions. The substitutions, deletions or additions may involve one or more nucleotides. The variants may be altered in coding or non-coding regions or both. Alterations in the coding regions may produce conservative or non-conservative amino acid substitutions, deletions or additions. Especially preferred among these are silent substitutions, additions and deletions, which do not alter the properties and activities of the Bridge-1 protein or fragment thereof. Also especially preferred in this regard are substitution of nucleotides that encode a conservative amino acid substitution. In a preferred embodiment, such variants contain no more than five total substitutions, deletions, and/or additions.
Further embodiments of the invention include isolated nucleic acid molecules comprising a polynucleotide having a nucleotide sequence at least 80% identical, more preferably at least 85% identical, more preferably at least 90% identical, and most preferably at least 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% identical to: (a) the nucleotide sequence of the cDNA clone in the plasmid pcDNA3-Bridge-1 deposited with the American Type Tissue Culture (“ATCC”) and assigned accession number 203947; (b) the nucleotide sequence shown in FIG. 16; (c) the nucleotide sequence of the cDNA clone in the plasmid pcDNA3-Bridge-1 deposited with the American Type Tissue Culture (“ATCC”) and assigned accession number 203947, which encodes the full-length Bridge-1 protein; (d) the nucleotide sequence of the ORF, i.e. coding region, shown in FIG. 16, which encodes the full-length Bridge-1 protein; (e) a nucleotide sequence complimentary to any of (a)-(d).
Whether any two nucleic acid molecules have nucleotide sequences that are at least 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% “identical” can be determined conventionally using known computer algorithms. A preferred method for determining the best overall match between a query sequence (a sequence of the present invention) and a subject sequence, also referred to as a global sequence alignment, can be determined using the FASTDB computer program based on the algorithm of Brutlag et al., Comp. App. Biosci. 6:237-245 (1990). In a sequence alignment the query and subject substances are both DNA sequences. An RNA sequence can be compared by converting U's to T's. The result of the global sequence alignment is in percent identity. Preferred parameters used in a FASTDB alignment of DNA sequences to calculate percent identity are: Matrix=Unitary, k-tuple=4, Mismatch Penalty=1, Joining Penalty=30, Randomization Group Length=0, Cutoff Score=1, Gap Penalty=5, Gap Size Penalty 0.05, Window Size=500 or the length of the subject nucleotide sequence, whichever is shorter. The present application is directed to such nucleic acid molecules having a nucleotide sequence at least 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, identical to the nucleotide sequence of the above-recited nucleic acid molecules irrespective of whether they encode a polypeptide having Bridge-1 activity. This is because, even where a particular nucleic acid molecule encodes a polypeptide that does not have Bridge-1 activity, one of skill in the art would still know how to use the nucleic acid molecule as a probe. In at least one embodiment, the percent identity is measured by comparing the obtained DNA sequence to that of nucleotides 495-1162 (i.e., the ORF or coding region) of the nucleotide sequence in FIG. 16. Uses of the nucleic acid molecules of the present invention that do not encode a polypeptide having Bridge-1 activity include, inter alia, (1) isolating the Bridge-1 gene or allelic variants thereof in a cDNA library; (2) in situ hybridization (FISH) to metaphase chromosomal spreads to provide precise chromosomal location of the Bridge-1 gene as described in Verma et al., Human Chromosomes: a Manual of Basic Techniques, Pergamon Press, New York (1988); and Northern Blot analysis for detecting Bridge-1 mRNA expression in specific tissues, such as placenta tissue.
As used herein, “Bridge-1 activity” is intended to mean one or more of the following: protein-protein binding activity, transcription coactivation activity, or transcription activation activity. By “transcription activation activity” is meant increased or decreased regulation of gene expression consisting of an increase or decrease in the level of transcription and/or translation resulting from interaction with core cellular transcriptional or translational machinery. By “transcription coactivation activity” is meant increased or decreased regulation of gene expression consisting of an increase or decrease in the level of transcription and/or translation resulting from interaction with other proteins with transcription activation activity. The term “Bridge-1 activity” also encompasses increases and decreases in expression of Bridge-1 itself or in expression of a Bridge-1 target gene.
As used herein, “Bridge-1 target gene” is intended to mean a gene, the expression and/or function of which is modulated by Bridge-1 activity as defined herein.
As used herein, “Bridge-1 mediated disorder” is intended to mean a disease or disorder that is caused at least in part by abnormal levels of Bridge-1 activity.
Preferred, however, are nucleic acid molecules having a nucleotide sequence at least 80%, and preferably at least 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% identical to the nucleotide sequence of the above-described nucleic acid molecules which do, in fact, encode a polypeptide having Bridge-1 activity. As used herein, “a polypeptide having a Bridge-1 activity” is intended to mean polypeptides exhibiting similar, but not necessarily identical, activity as to the Bridge-1 activity as measured in a particular biological assay. For example, the Bridge-1 protein of the present invention interacts directly with known transcription factors such as PDX-1, E12, E47 and P300. Moreover, when recombinantly expressed in mammalian cells, the Bridge-1 protein of the present invention enhances transcription genes modulated by these transcription factors. Thus, “a polypeptide having a Bridge-1 protein activity” includes polypeptides that interact with, or otherwise enhance or inhibit, PDX-1, E12, E47, P300 and other transcription factors or otherwise enhance PDX-1, P300 or E2A protein dependent transcriptional activation or PDX-1, P300 or E2A independent transcription activation.
Due to the degeneracy of the genetic code, one of ordinary skill in the art will immediately recognize that a large number of the nucleic acid molecules having a nucleotide sequence at least 90%, preferably at least 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% identical to the nucleotide sequence of the above-described nucleic acid molecules will encode “a polypeptide having Bridge-1 activity.” In fact, since degenerate variants all encode the same polypeptide, this will be clear to the skilled artisan. It will be further recognized by those skilled in the art that, for such nucleic acid molecules that are not degenerate variants, a reasonable number will also encode a polypeptide having Bridge-1 activity. This is because the skilled artisan is fully aware of possible amino acid substitutions that are either less likely or not likely to significantly affect protein function (e.g., replacing one aliphatic amino acid with a second aliphatic amino acid).
Guidance concerning how to make phenotypically silent amino acid substitutions is provided, for example, in J. U. Bowie et al., “Deciphering the Message in Protein Sequences: Tolerance to Amino Acid Substitutions,” Science 247:1306-1310 (1990), the entire contents of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein, wherein the authors indicate that there are two main approaches for studying the tolerance of an amino acid sequence to change. The first method relies on the process of evolution, in which mutations are either accepted or rejected by natural selection. The second approach uses genetic engineering to introduce amino acid changes at specific positions of a cloned gene and selections or screens to identify sequences that maintain functionality. As the authors state, these studies have revealed that proteins are surprisingly tolerant of amino acid substitutions. The authors further indicate which amino acid changes are likely to be permissive at a certain position of the protein. For example, most buried amino acid residues require nonpolar side chains, whereas few features of surface side chains are generally conserved. Other such phenotypically silent substitutions are described in Bowie et al., supra, and the references cited therein.
Vectors and Host Cells
Vectors and host cells useful in practicing the methods of the present invention are described in U.S. application Ser. No. 09/959,123, the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference. Thus, the methods of the present invention may utilize vectors which include the isolated DNA molecules of the present invention, host cells which are genetically engineered with the recombinant vectors, and the production of Bridge-1 or Bridge-1 fragments. As used herein, “Bridge-1 fragment” means a shortened sequence of an amino acid sequence that retains some or all of the Bridge-1 activity of the full-length sequence, such as a fragment comprising the Bridge-1 PDZ-like domain (amino acids 138-178 of the amino acid sequence shown in FIG. 16, the Bridge-1 carboxyl terminus domain (amino acids 186-222 of the amino acid sequence shown in FIG. 16), or the Bridge-1 PDZ-like domain and the Bridge-1 carboxyl terminus domain (amino acids 138-222 of the amino acid sequence shown in FIG. 16). The term “Bridge-1 fragment” is also intended to refer to splice-variants and proteolytic fragments of the full-length Bridge-1 amino acid sequence shown in FIG. 1, including the “small form” Bridge-1 which migrates at approximately 18 kD in SDS-PAGE Western Blots, is detected with rabbit polyclonal Bridge-1 antisera, and is differentially expressed in cell lines derived from different tissues with preferential expression in pancreatic beta cells. Recombinant constructs may be introduced into host cells using well known techniques such as infection, transduction, transfection, transvection, electroporation and transformation. The vector may be, for example, a phage, plasmid, viral or retroviral vector. Retroviral vectors may be replication competent or replication defective. In the latter case, viral propagation generally will occur only in complementing host cells.
The polynucleotides may be joined to a vector containing a selectable marker for propagation in a host. Generally, a plasmid vector is introduced in a precipitate, such as a calcium phosphate precipitate, or in a complex with a charged lipid. If the vector is a virus, it may be packaged in vitro using an appropriate packaging cell line and then transduced into host cells.
Preferred are vectors comprising cis-acting control regions to the polynucleotide of interest. Appropriate trans-acting factors may be supplied by the host, supplied by a complementing vector or supplied by the vector itself upon introduction into the host.
In certain preferred embodiments in this regard, the vectors provide for specific expression, which may be inducible and/or cell type-specific. Particularly preferred among such vectors are those inducible by environmental factors that are easy to manipulate, such as temperature and nutrient additives.
Expression vectors useful in the present invention include chromosomal-, episomal- and virus-derived vectors, e.g., vectors derived from bacterial plasmids, bacteriophage, yeast episomes, yeast chromosomal elements, viruses such as baculoviruses, papova viruses, vaccinia viruses, adenoviruses, fowl pox viruses, pseudorabies viruses and retroviruses, and vectors derived from combinations thereof, such as cosmids and phagemids.
The DNA insert should be operatively linked to an appropriate promoter, such as the phage lambda PL promoter, the E. coli lac, trp and tac promoters, the SV40 early and late promoters, CMV promoters, promoters of retroviral LTRs, and inducible promoters such as tetracycline and IPTG inducible promoters as well as promoters inducible with heavy metals to name a few. Other suitable promoters will be known to the skilled artisan. The expression constructs will further contain sites for transcription initiation, termination and, in the transcribed region, a ribosome binding site for translation. The coding portion of the mature transcripts expressed by the constructs will preferably include a translation initiating AUG at the beginning and a termination codon (UAA, UGA or UAG) appropriately positioned at the end of the polypeptide to be translated. As indicated, the expression vectors will preferably include at least one selectable marker. Such markers include dihydrofolate reductase or neomycin resistance for eukaryotic cell culture and tetracycline or ampicillin resistance genes for culturing in E. coli and other bacteria. Representative examples of appropriate hosts include, but are not limited to, bacterial cells, such as E. coli, Streptomyces and Salmonella typhimurium cells; fungal cells, such as yeast cells; insect cells such as Drosophila S2 and Spodoptera Sf9 cells; animal cells such as CHO, Cos and Bowes melanoma cells; and plant cells. Appropriate culture mediums and conditions for the above-described host cells are known in the art.
Illustrative examples of vectors preferred for use in bacteria include, but are not limited to, pA2, pQE70, pQE60 and pQE-9, available from Qiagen; pBS vectors, Phagescript vectors, Bluescript vectors, pNH8A, pNH16a, pNH18A, pNH46A, available from Stratagene; and ptrc99a, pKK223-3, pKK233-3, pDR540, pRIT5 available from Pharmacia. Preferred eukaryotic vectors include, but are not limited to, pcDNA-3 (Invitrogen), pM, pVP16 (Clonetech), pWLNEO, pSV2CAT, pOG44, pXT1 and pSG available from Stratagene; and pSVK3, pBPV, pMSG and pSVL available from Pharmacia. Other suitable vectors will be readily apparent to the skilled artisan.
Among known bacterial promoters suitable for use in the present invention include the E. coli lacI and lacZ promoters, the T3 and T7 promoters, the gpt promoter, the lambda PR and PL promoters and the trp promoter. Suitable eukaryotic promoters include the CMV immediate early promoter, the HSV thymidine kinase promoter, the early and late SV40 promoters, the promoters of retroviral LTRs, such as those of the Rous sarcoma virus (“RSV”), and metallothionein promoters, such as the mouse metallothionein-I promoter. Introduction of the construct into the host cell can be effected by calcium phosphate transfection, DEAE-dextran mediated transfection, cationic lipid-mediated transfection, electroporation, transduction, infection or other methods. Such methods are described in many standard laboratory manuals, such as Davis et al., BASIC METHODS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY (1986) and Ausubel, F. M. et al., CURRENT PROTOCOLS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY, (John Wiley and Sons, Inc.) 1994-1997.
Transcription of the DNA encoding the polypeptides of the present invention by higher eukaryotes may be increased by inserting an enhancer sequence into the vector. Enhancers are cis-acting elements of DNA, generally about 10 to 300 bp in size, that act to increase transcriptional activity of a promoter in a given host cell-type. Illustrative examples of enhancers include, but are not limited to, the SV40 enhancer, which is located on the late side of the replication origin at bp 100 to 270, the cytomegalovirus early promoter enhancer, the polyoma enhancer on the late side of the replication origin, and adenovirus enhancers.
For secretion of the translated protein into the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum, into the periplasmic space or into the extracellular environment, appropriate secretion signals may be incorporated into the expressed polypeptide. The signals may be endogenous to the polypeptide or they may be heterologous signals.
The polypeptide may be expressed in a modified form, such as a fusion protein, and may include not only secretion signals, but also additional heterologous functional regions. Thus, for instance, a region of additional amino acids, particularly charged amino acids, may be added to the N-terminus of the polypeptide to improve stability and persistence in the host cell, during purification, or during subsequent handling and storage. Also, peptide moieties may be added to the polypeptide to facilitate purification.
The Bridge-1 protein or fraction thereof can be recovered and purified from recombinant cell cultures by well-known methods including ammonium sulfate or ethanol precipitation, acid extraction, anion or cation exchange chromatography, phosphocellulose chromatography, hydrophobic interaction chromatography, affinity chromatography, hydroxylapatite chromatography and lectin chromatography. Most preferably, high performance liquid chromatography (“HPLC”) is employed for purification.
Polypeptides of the present invention include, but are not limited to, naturally purified products, products of chemical synthetic procedures, and products produced by recombinant techniques from a prokaryotic or eukaryotic host, including, for example, bacterial, yeast, higher plant, insect and mammalian cells. Depending upon the host employed in a recombinant production procedure, the polypeptides of the present invention may be post translationally modified (e.g., glycosylated, phosphorylated, farnesylated, etc.). In addition, polypeptides of the invention may also include an initial modified methionine residue, in some cases as a result of host-mediated processes.
Bridge-1 Polypeptides and Fragments
Bridge-1 polypeptides and fragments thereof useful in practicing the methods of the present invention are described in U.S. application Ser. No. 09/959,123, the entire contents of which is incorporated herein by reference. Thus, the methods of the present invention may utilize an isolated mammalian Bridge-1 polypeptide having the amino acid sequence encoded by the deposited cDNA, or the amino acid sequence as shown in FIG. 16, or a fragment thereof. Preferred Bridge-1 fragments will have Bridge-1 activity. Preferred Bridge-1 fragments should at least include amino acid residues 138 to 178 as shown in FIG. 116 and/or amino acid residues 186-222 as shown in FIG. 16, or amino acid substitutions, additions or deletions thereof that are not significantly detrimental to Bridge-1 activity.
Bridge-1 polypeptide fragments may be “free-standing” or comprised within a larger polypeptide of which the fragment forms a part or region, most preferably as a single continuous region. Polypeptide fragments may comprise 9, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, or 100 or more amino acids in length.
As used herein, an “isolated” polypeptide or protein is intended to mean a polypeptide or protein removed from its native environment, such as recombinantly produced polypeptides and proteins expressed in host cells and native or recombinant polypeptides which have been substantially purified by any suitable technique (e.g., the single-step purification method disclosed in Smith and Johnson, Gene 67:31-40 (1988), which is incorporated by reference herein). Isolated polypeptides or proteins according to the present invention further include such compounds produced synthetically.
The full-length rat Bridge-1 protein is about 222 amino acid residue protein with a deduced molecular weight of about 24.8 kD and a pI of 6.70. It will be recognized by those skilled in the art that some of the amino acid sequence of the Bridge-1 protein can be varied without significant effect on the structure or function of the protein. If such differences in sequence are contemplated, it should be remembered that there will be critical areas on the protein which determine activity, such as the PDZ-like domain and the carboxyl terminus domain described above which have been determined by the inventors as being critical to Bridge-1 activity. In general, it is often possible to replace residues which form the tertiary structure, provided that residues performing a similar function are used. In other instances, the type of residue may be completely unimportant if the alteration occurs at a non-critical region of the protein.
Thus, the present invention further includes variations of the Bridge-1 polypeptide which show substantial Bridge-1 polypeptide activity or which include regions of Bridge-1 protein. Such mutants include deletions, insertions, inversions, repeats, and type substitutions (for example, substituting one hydrophilic residue for another, but not strongly hydrophilic for strongly hydrophobic as a rule). Small changes or such “neutral” amino acid substitutions will generally have little effect on activity.
Typically seen as conservative substitutions are the replacements, one for another, among the aliphatic amino acids Ala, Val, Leu and Ile; interchange of the hydroxyl residues Ser and Thr, exchange of the acidic residues Asp and Glu, substitution between the amide residues Asn and Gln, exchange of the basic residues Lys and Arg and replacements among the aromatic residues Phe and Tyr.
As indicated in detail above, further guidance concerning which amino acid changes are likely to be phenotypically silent (i.e., not likely to have a significant deleterious effect on a function) can be found in Bowie et al., “Deciphering the Message in Protein Sequences: Tolerance to Amino Acid Substitutions,” Science 247:1306-1310 (1990), the entire contents of which is hereby expressly incorporated herein by reference.
The polypeptides useful in the methods of the present invention include polypeptides having an amino acid sequence as encoded by the deposited cDNA, an amino acid sequence as shown in FIG. 16, as well as an amino acid sequence at least 80% identical, more preferably at least 85% identical, more preferably at least 90% identical, and most preferably at least 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% identical, to the amino acid sequence encoded by the deposited cDNA, to the amino acid sequence as shown in FIG. 16, or to the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide fragment described above. Whether two polypeptides have an amino acid sequence that is at least 80%, 90% or 95% identical can be determined using a computer algorithm as described above.
As described in detail below, the nucleic acid molecules and polypeptides of the present invention are useful in screening assays for identifying proteins and protein fragments that bind to Bridge-1 or a Bridge-1 fragment, including proteins, protein fragments, biological and chemical compounds and other small molecules that enhance or inhibit Bridge-1 activity. Accordingly, the nucleic acid molecules and polypeptides of the present invention are useful in assays for identifying drugs capable of enhancing or inhibiting Bridge-1 activity.
Pharmaceutical Compositions
The Bridge-1 polynucleotides, Bridge-1 polypeptides, Bridge-1 modulators, and anti-Bridge-1 antibodies (also referred to herein as “active compounds”) useful in the methods of the present invention can be incorporated into pharmaceutical compositions suitable for administration to a subject, e.g., a human. Such compositions typically comprise the nucleic acid molecule, protein, modulator, or antibody and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. As used herein the language “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” is intended to include any and all solvents, dispersion media, coatings, antibacterial and antifungal agents. isotonic and absorption delaying agents, and the like, compatible with pharmaceutical administration. The use of such media and agents for pharmaceutically active substances is well known in the art. Except insofar as any conventional media or agent is incompatible with the active compound, such media can be used in the compositions of the invention. Supplementary active compounds can also be incorporated into the compositions.
A pharmaceutical composition of the invention is formulated to be compatible with its intended route of administration. Examples of routes of administration include parenteral, e.g., intravenous, intradermal, subcutaneous, oral (e.g., inhalation), transdermal (topical), transmucosal, and rectal administration. Solutions or suspensions used for parenteral, intradermal, or subcutaneous application can include the following components: a sterile diluent such as water for injection, saline solution, fixed oils, polyethylene glycols, glycerine, propylene glycol or other synthetic solvents; antibacterial agents such as benzyl alcohol or methyl parabens; antioxidants such as ascorbic acid or sodium bisulfite; chelating agents such as ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid; buffers such as acetates, citrates or phosphates and agents for the adjustment of tonicity such as sodium chloride or dextrose. pH can be adjusted with acids or bases, such as hydrochloric acid or sodium hydroxide. The parenteral preparation can be enclosed in ampoules, disposable syringes or multiple dose vials made of glass or plastic.
Pharmaceutical compositions suitable for injectable use include sterile aqueous solutions (where water soluble) or dispersions and sterile powders for the extemporaneous preparation of sterile injectable solutions or dispersion. For intravenous administration, suitable carriers include physiological saline, bacteriostatic water, Cremophor ELTM (BASF, Parsippany, N.J.) or phosphate buffered saline (PBS). In all cases, the composition must be sterile and should be fluid to the extent that easy syringeability exists. It must be stable under the conditions of manufacture and storage and must be preserved against the contaminating action of microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. The carrier can be a solvent or dispersion medium containing, for example, water, ethanol, polyol (for example, glycerol, propylene glycol, and liquid polyetheylene glycol, and the like), and suitable mixtures thereof. The proper fluidity can be maintained, for example, by the use of a coating such as lecithin, by the maintenance of the required particle size in the case of dispersion and by the use of surfactants. Prevention of the action of microorganisms can be achieved by various antibacterial and antifungal agents, for example, parabens, chlorobutanol, phenol, ascorbic acid, thimerosal, and the like. In many cases, it will be preferable to include isotonic agents, for example, sugars, polyalcohols such as mannitol, sorbitol, sodium chloride in the composition. Prolonged absorption of the injectable compositions can be brought about by including in the composition an agent which delays absorption, for example, aluminum monostearate and gelatin.
Sterile injectable solutions can be prepared by incorporating the active compound (e.g., a BRIDGE-1 protein or anti-BRIDGE-1 antibody) in the required amount in an appropriate solvent with one or a combination of ingredients enumerated above, as required, followed by filtered sterilization. Generally, dispersions are prepared by incorporating the active compound into a sterile vehicle which contains a basic dispersion medium and the required other ingredients from those enumerated above. In the case of sterile powders for the preparation of sterile injectable solutions, the preferred methods of preparation are vacuum drying and freeze-drying which yields a powder of the active ingredient plus any additional desired ingredient from a previously sterile-filtered solution thereof.
Oral compositions generally include an inert diluent or an edible carrier. They can be enclosed in gelatin capsules or compressed into tablets. For the purpose of oral therapeutic administration, the active compound can be incorporated with excipients and used in the form of tablets, troches, or capsules. Oral compositions can also be prepared using a fluid carrier for use as a mouthwash, wherein the compound in the fluid carrier is applied orally and swished and expectorated or swallowed. Pharmaceutically compatible binding agents, and/or adjuvant materials can be included as part of the composition. The tablets, pills, capsules, troches and the like can contain any of the following ingredients, or compounds of a similar nature: a binder such as microcrystalline cellulose, gum tragacanth or gelatin; an excipient such as starch or lactose, a disintegrating agent such as alginic acid, Primogel, or corn starch; a lubricant such as magnesium stearate or Sterotes; a glidant such as colloidal silicon dioxide; a sweetening agent such as sucrose or saccharin; or a flavoring agent such as peppermint, methyl salicylate, or orange flavoring.
For administration by inhalation, the compounds are delivered in the form of an aerosol spray from pressured container or dispenser which contains a suitable propellant, e.g., a gas such as carbon dioxide, or a nebulizer.
Systemic administration can also be by transmucosal or transdermal means. For transmucosal or transdermal administration, penetrants appropriate to the barrier to be permeated are used in the formulation. Such penetrants are generally known in the art, and include, for example, for transmucosal administration, detergents, bile salts, and fusidic acid derivatives. Transmucosal administration can be accomplished through the use of nasal sprays or suppositories. For transdermal administration, the active compounds are formulated into ointments, salves, gels, or creams as generally known in the art.
The compounds can also be prepared in the form of suppositories (e.g., with conventional suppository bases such as cocoa butter and other glycerides) or retention enemas for rectal delivery.
In one embodiment, the active compounds are prepared with carriers that will protect the compound against rapid elimination from the body, such as a controlled release formulation, including implants and microencapsulated delivery systems. Biodegradable, biocompatible polymers can be used, such as ethylene vinyl acetate, polyarhydrides, polyglycolic acid, collagen, polyorthoesters, and polylactic acid. Methods for preparation of such formulations will be apparent to those skilled in the art. The materials can also be obtained commercially from Alza Corporation and Nova Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Liposomal suspensions (including liposomes targeted to infected cells with monoclonal antibodies to viral antigens) can also be used as pharmaceutically acceptable carriers. These can be prepared according to methods known to those skilled in the art, for example, as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,522,811.
It is especially advantageous to formulate oral or parenteral compositions in dosage unit form for ease of administration and uniformity of dosage. Dosage unit form as used herein refers to physically discrete units suited as unitary dosages for the subject to be treated; each unit containing a predetermined quantity of active compound calculated to produce the desired therapeutic effect in association with the required pharmaceutical carrier. The specification for the dosage unit forms of the invention are dictated by and directly dependent on the unique characteristics of the active compound and the particular therapeutic effect to be achieved, and the limitations inherent in the art of compounding such an active compound for the treatment of individuals.
The nucleic acid molecules of the invention can be inserted into vectors and used as gene therapy vectors. Gene therapy vectors can be delivered to a subject by, for example, intravenous injection, local administration (see U.S. Pat. No. 5,328,470) or by stereotactic injection (see e.g., Chen et al. (1994) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91:3054-3057). The pharmaceutical preparation of the gene therapy vector can include the gene therapy vector in an acceptable diluent, or can comprise a slow release matrix in which the gene delivery vehicle is imbedded. Alternatively, where the complete gene delivery vector can be produced intact from recombinant cells, e.g. retroviral vectors, the pharmaceutical preparation can include one or more cells which produce the gene delivery system.
Viral vectors include, for example, recombinant retroviruses, adenovirus, adeno-associated virus, and herpes simplex virus-1. Retrovirus vectors and adeno-associated virus vectors are generally understood to be the recombinant gene delivery system of choice for the transfer of exogenous genes in vivo. particularly into humans. In particular, adenovirus is particularly preferred in the instant invention because it preferentially targets the liver (e.g. the major site of gluconeogenesis) when administered systemically (greater than 90+%; (Antinozzi et al. (1999) Annu. Rev. Nutr. 19:511-544) for reasons that may have to do with the expression of viral receptors or the lack of vascular barriers in the liver. Alternatively they can be used for introducing exogenous genes ex vivo into liver cells in culture. These vectors provide efficient delivery of genes into liver cells, and the transferred nucleic acids are stably integrated into the chromosomal DNA of the host cell.
A major prerequisite for the use of viruses is to ensure the safety of their use, particularly with regard to the possibility of the spread of wild-type virus in the cell population. The development of specialized cell lines (termed “packaging cells”) which produce only replication-defective retrovinises has increased the utility of retroviruses for gene therapy, and defective retroviruses are well characterized for use in gene transfer for gene therapy purposes (for a review see Miller, A. D. (1990) Blood 76:271). Thus, recombinant retrovirus can be constructed in which part of the retroviral coding sequence (gag, pol, env) is replaced by a gene of interest rendering the retrovirus replication defective. The replication defective retrovirus is then packaged into virions which can be used to infect a target cell through the use of a helper virus by standard techniques. Protocols for producing recombinant retroviruses and for infecting cells in vitro or in vivo with such viruses can be found in Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, Ausubel, F. M. et al. (eds.) Greene Publishing Associates, (1989), Sections 9.10-9.14 and other standard laboratory manuals. Examples of suitable retroviruses include pLJ, pZIP, pWE and pEM which are well known to those skilled in the art. Examples of suitable packaging virus lines for preparing both ecotropic and amphotropic retroviral systems include .psi.Crip, .psi.Cre, .psi.2 and .psi.Am.
Furthermore, it has been shown that it is possible to limit the infection spectrum of retroviruses and consequently of retroviral-based vectors, by modifying the viral packaging proteins on the surface of the viral particle (see, for example PCT publications WO93/25234 and WO94/06920). For instance, strategies for the modification of the infection spectrum of retroviral vectors include: coupling antibodies specific for cell surface antigens to the viral env protein (Roux et al. (1989) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:9079-9083; Julan et al. (1992) J. Gen. Virol. 73:3251-3255; and Goud et al. (1983) Virology 163:251-254); or coupling cell surface receptor ligands to the viral env proteins (Neda et al. (1991) J. Biol. Chem. 266:14143-14146). Coupling can be in the form of the chemical cross-1 inking with a protein or other variety (e g. lactose to convert the env protein to an asialoglycoproicin), as well as by generating fusion proteins (e.g. single-chain antibody/env fusion proteins). Thus, in a specific embodiment of the invention, viral particles containing a nucleic acid molecule containing a gene of interest operably linked to appropriate regulatory elements, are modified for example according to the methods described above, such that they can specifically target subsets of liver cells. For example, the viral particle can be coated with antibodies to surface molecule that are specific to certain types of liver cells. This method is particularly useful when only specific subsets of liver cells are desired to be transfected.
Another viral gene delivery system useful in the present invention utilizes adenovirus-derived vectors. The genome of an adenovirus can be manipulated such that it encodes and expresses a gene product of interest but is inactivated in terms of its ability to replicate in a normal lytic viral life cycle. See for example Berkner et al. (1988) Biotechniques 6:616; Rosenfeld et al. (1991) Science 252:431-434; and Rosenfeld et al. (1992) Cell 68:143-155. Suitable adenoviral vectors derived from the adenovirus strain Ad type 5 d1324 or other strains of adenovirus (e.g., Ad2, Ad3, Ad7 etc.) are well known to those skilled in the art. Recombinant adenoviruses can be advantageous in certain circumstances in that they are not capable of infecting nondividing cells. Furthermore, the virus particle is relatively stable and amenable to purification and concentration, and as above, can be modified so as to affect the spectrum of infectivity. Additionally, introduced adenoviral DNA (and foreign DNA contained therein) is not integrated into the genome of a host cell but remains episomal, thereby avoiding potential problems that can occur as a result of insertional mutagenesis in situations where introduced DNA becomes integrated into the host genome (e.g., retroviral DNA). Moreover, the carrying capacity of the adenoviral genome for foreign DNA is large (up to 8 kilobases) relative to other gene delivery vectors (Berlcner et al. cited supra; Haj-Ahmand and Graham (1986) J. Virol. 57:267). Most replication-defective adenoviral vectors currently in use and therefore favored by the present invention are deleted for all or parts of the viral E1 and E3 genes but retain as much as 80% of the adenoviral genetic material (see, e.g., Jones et al. (1979) Cell 16:683; Berkner et al., supra; and Graham et al. in Methods in Molecular Biology, E. J. Murray, Ed. (Humana, Clifton, N.J., 1991) vol. 7. pp. 109-127). Expression of the gene of interest comprised in the nucleic acid molecule can be under control of, for example, the E1A promoter, the major late promoter (MLP) and associated leader sequences, the E3 promoter, or exogenously added promoter sequences.
Yet another viral vector system useful for delivery of a nucleic acid molecule comprising a gene of interest is the adeno-associated virus (AAV). Adeno-associated virus is a naturally occurring defective virus that requires another virus, such as an adenovirus or a herpes virus, as a helper virus for efficient replication and a productive life cycle. (For a review see Muzyczka et al. Curr. Topics Microbiol. Immunol. (1992) 158:97-129). Adeno-associated viruses exhibit a high frequency of stable integration (see for example Flotte et al. (1992) Am. J. Respir. Cell. Mol. Biol. 7:349-356; Samulski et al. (1989) J. Virol. 63:3822-3828; and McLaughlin et al. (1989) J. Virol 62:1963-1973). Vectors containing as few as 300 base pairs of AAV can be packaged and can integrate. Space for exogenous DNA is limited to about 4.5 kb. An AAV vector such as that described in Tratschin et al. (1985) Mol. Cell. Biol. 5:3251-3260 can be used to introduce DNA into T cells. A variety of nucleic acids have been introduced into different cell types using AAV vectors (see for example Hermonat et al. (1984) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 81:6466-6470; Tratschin et al. (1985) Mol. Cell. Biol. 4:2072-2081; Wondisford et al. (1988) Mol. Endocrinol. 2:32-39; Tratschin et al. (1984) J. Virol. 51:611-619; and Flotte et al. (1993) J. Biol. Chem. 268:3781-3790). Other viral vector systems that may have application in gene therapy have been derived from herpes virus, vaccinia virus, and several RNA viruses.
Other methods relating to the use of viral vectors in gene therapy can be found in, e.g., Kay, M. A. (1997) Chest 111(6 Supp.):138S-142S; Ferry, N. and Heard, J. M. (1998) Hum. Gene Ther. 9:1975-81; Shiratory, Y. et al. (1999) Liver 19:265-74; Oka, K. et al. (2000) Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 11:179-86; Thule, P. M. and Liu, J. M. (2000) Gene Ther. 7:1744-52; Yang, N. S. (1992) Crit. Rev. Biotechnol. 12:335-56; Alt, M. (1995) J. Hepatol. 23:746-58; Brody, S. L. and Crystal, R. G. (1994) Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 716:90-101; Strayer, D. S. (1999) Expert Opin. Invetig. Drugs 8:2159-2172; Smith-Arica, J. R. and Bartlett, J. S. (2001) Curr. Cardiol. Rep. 3:43-49; and Lee, H. C. et al. (2000) Nature 408:483-8.
The pharmaceutical compositions can be included in a container, pack, or dispenser together with instructions for administration.
Screening Assays
The invention provides a method (also referred to herein as a “screening assay”) for identifying modulators, i.e., candidate or test compounds or agents (e.g., peptides, peptidomimetics, small molecules or other drugs) which bind to Bridge-1 polypeptides, have a stimulatory or inhibitory effect on, for example, Bridge-1 expression or Bridge-1 activity, or have a stimulatory or inhibitory effect on, for example, the expression or activity of a Bridge-1 target gene.
In one embodiment, the invention provides assays for screening candidate or test compounds which are target molecules of a Bridge-1 protein or polypeptide or biologically active portion thereof. In another embodiment, the invention provides assays for screening candidate or test compounds which bind to or modulate the activity of a Bridge-1 protein or polypeptide or biologically active portion thereof. The test compounds of the present invention can be obtained using any of the numerous approaches in combinatorial library methods known in the art, including: biological libraries; spatially addressable parallel solid phase or solution phase libraries; synthetic library methods requiring deconvolution; the ‘one-bead one-compound’ library method; and synthetic library methods using affinity chromatography selection. The biological library approach is limited to peptide libraries, while the other four approaches are applicable to peptide, non-peptide oligomer or small molecule libraries of compounds (Lam, K. S. (1997) Anticancer Drug Des. 12:45).
Examples of methods for the synthesis of molecular libraries can be found in the art, for example, in: DeWitt et al. (1993) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90:6909; Erb et al. (1994) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91:11422; Zuckermann et al. (1994). J. Med. Chem. 37:2678; Cho et al. (1993) Science 261:1303; Carrell et al. (1994) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 33:2059; Carell et al. (1994) Angew. Chem. Int Ed. Engl. 33:2061; and Gallop et al. (1994) J. Med. Chem. 37:1233.
Libraries of compounds may be presented in solution (e.g., Houghten (1992) Biotechniques 13:412-421), or on beads (Lam (1991) Nature 354:82-84), chips (Fodor (1993) Nature 364:555-556), bacteria (Ladner U.S. Pat. No. 5,223,409), spores (Ladner U.S. Pat. No. '409), plasmids (Cull et al. (1992) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:1865-1869) or on phage (Scott and Smith (1990) Science 249:386-390); (Devlin (1990) Science 249:404-406); (Cwirla et al. (1990) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87:6378-6382); (Felici (1991) J. Mol. Biol. 222:301-310); (Ladner supra.).
In one embodiment, an assay is a cell-based assay in which a cell which expresses a Bridge-1 protein or biologically active portion thereof is contacted with a test compound and the ability of the test compound to modulate Bridge-1 activity is determined. The cell, for example, can be of mammalian origin.
The ability of the test compound to modulate Bridge-1 binding to a target molecule can also be determined. Determining the ability of the test compound to modulate Bridge-1 binding to a target molecule can be accomplished, for example, by coupling the Bridge-1 target molecule with a radioisotope or enzymatic label such that binding of the Bridge-1 target molecule to Bridge-1 can be determined by detecting the labeled Bridge-1 target molecule in a complex. Alternatively, Bridge-1 could be coupled with a radioisotope or enzymatic label to monitor the ability of a test compound to modulate Bridge-1 binding to a Bridge-1 target molecule in a complex. Determining the ability of the test compound to bind Bridge-1 can be accomplished, for example, by coupling the compound with a radioisotope or enzymatic label such that binding of the compound to Bridge-1 can be determined by detecting the labeled Bridge-1 compound in a complex. For example, compounds (e.g., Bridge-1 target molecules) can be labeled either directly or indirectly, and the radioisotope detected by direct counting of radioemmission or by scintillation counting. Alternatively, compounds can be enzymatically labeled with, for example, horseradish peroxidase, alkaline phosphatase, or luciferase, and the enzymatic label detected by determination of conversion of an appropriate substrate to product.
In another embodiment, an assay is a cell-based assay comprising contacting a cell expressing Bridge-1 with a test compound and determining the ability of the test compound to modulate (e.g. stimulate or inhibit) the expression of Bridge-1 or a Bridge-1 target gene. Determining the ability of the test compound to modulate the activity of a Bridge-1 target gene can be accomplished, for example, by determining the ability of a Bridge-1 protein to bind to or interact with the Bridge-1 target molecule, or by determining the ability of a Bridge-1 protein to induce expression of the Bridge-1 target gene.
Determining the ability of the Bridge-1 protein, or a biologically active fragment thereof, to bind to or interact with a Bridge-1 target molecule, for example PDX-1 or E12, can be accomplished by one of the methods described above for determining direct binding. In a preferred embodiment, determining the ability of the Bridge-1 protein to bind to or interact with a Bridge-1 target molecule can be accomplished by determining the activity of the target molecule. For example, the activity of the target molecule can be determined by detecting induction of a cellular response, detecting catalytic/enzymatic activity of the target molecule upon an appropriate substrate, detecting the induction of a reporter gene (comprising a target-responsive regulatory element operatively linked to a nucleic acid encoding a detectable marker, e.g., luciferase), or detecting a target-regulated cellular response (i.e., glucose output).
In yet another embodiment, an assay of the present invention is a cell-free assay in which a Bridge-1 protein or biologically active portion thereof is contacted with a test compound and the ability of the test compound to bind to the Bridge-1 protein or biologically active portion thereof is determined. Binding of the test compound to the Bridge-1 protein can be determined either directly or indirectly as described above. In a preferred embodiment, the assay includes contacting the Bridge-1 protein or biologically active portion thereof with a known compound which binds Bridge-1 to form an assay mixture, contacting the assay mixture with a test compound, and determining the ability of the test compound to interact with a Bridge-1 protein, wherein determining the ability of the test compound to interact with a Bridge-1 protein comprises determining the ability of the test compound to preferentially bind to Bridge-1 or biologically active portion thereof as compared to the known compound.
In another embodiment, the assay is a cell-free assay in which a Bridge-1 protein or biologically active portion thereof is contacted with a test compound and the ability of the test compound to modulate (eg., stimulate or inhibit) the activity of the Bridge-1 protein or biologically active portion thereof is determined. Determining the ability of the test compound to modulate the activity of a Bridge-1 protein can be accomplished. for example, by determining the ability of the Bridge-1 protein to bind to a Bridge-1 target molecule by one of the methods described above for determining direct binding.
In an alternative embodiment, determining the ability of the test compound to modulate the activity of a Bridge-1 protein can be accomplished by determining the ability of the Bridge-1 protein to further modulate the activity of a downstream effector of a Bridge-1 target molecule. For example, the activity of the effector molecule on an appropriate target can be determined or the binding of the effector to an appropriate target can be determined as previously described.
In yet another embodiment, the cell-free assay involves contacting a Bridge-1 protein or biologically active portion thereof with a known compound which binds the Bridge-1 protein to form an assay mixture, contacting the assay mixture with a test compound, and determining the ability of the test compound to interact with the Bridge-1 protein, wherein determining the ability of the test compound to interact with the Bridge-1 protein comprises determining the ability of the Bridge-1 protein to preferentially bind to or modulate the activity of a Bridge-1 target molecule.
In more than one embodiment of the above assay methods of the present invention, it may be desirable to immobilize either Bridge-1 or its target molecule to facilitate separation of complexed from uncomplexed forms of one or both of the proteins, as well as to accommodate automation of the assay. Binding of a test compound to a Bridge-1 protein, or interaction of a Bridge-1 protein with a target molecule in the presence and absence of a candidate compound, can be accomplished in any vessel suitable for containing the reactants. Examples of such vessels include microtiter plates, test tubes, and micro-centrifuge tubes. In one embodiment, a fusion protein can be provided which adds a domain that allows one or both of the proteins to be bound to a matrix. For example, glutathione-S-transferase/BRIDGE-1 fusion proteins or glutathione-S-transferase/target fusion proteins can be adsorbed onto glutathione sepharose beads (Sigma Chemical, St. Louis, Mo.) or glutathione derivatized micrometer plates, which are then combined with the test compound or the test compound and either the non-adsorbed target protein or Bridge-1 protein, and the mixture incubated under conditions conducive to complex formation (e.g., at physiological conditions for salt and pH). Following incubation, the beads or microtiter plate wells are washed to remove any unbound components, the matrix immobilized in the case of beads, complex determined either directly or indirectly, for example, as described above. Alternatively, the complexes can be dissociated from the matrix, and the level of Bridge-1 binding or activity determined using standard techniques.
Other techniques for immobilizing proteins on matrices can also be used in the screening assays of the invention. For example, either a Bridge-1 protein or a Bridge-1 target molecule can be immobilized utilizing conjugation of biotin and streptavidin. Biotinylated Bridge-1 protein or target molecules can be prepared from biotin-NHS (N-hydroxy-succinimide) using techniques known in the art (e.g., biotinylation kit, Pierce Chemicals, Rockford, Ill.), and immobilized in the wells of streptavidin-coated 96 well plates (Pierce Chemical). Alternatively, antibodies reactive with Bridge-1 protein or target molecules but which do not interfere with binding of the Bridge-1 protein to its target molecule can be derivatized to the wells of the plate, and unbound target or Bridge-1 protein trapped in the wells by antibody conjugation. Methods for detecting such complexes, in addition to those described above for the GST-immobilized complexes, include immunodetection of complexes using antibodies reactive with the Bridge-1 protein or target molecule, as well as enzyme-linked assays which rely on detecting an enzymatic activity associated with the Bridge-1 protein or target molecule.
In another embodiment, modulators of Bridge-1 expression are identified in a method wherein a cell is contacted with a candidate compound and the expression of Bridge-1 mRNA or protein in the cell is determined. The level of expression of Bridge-1 mRNA or protein in the presence of the candidate compound is compared to the level of expression of Bridge-1 mRNA or protein in the absence of the candidate compound. The candidate compound can then be identified as a modulator of Bridge-1 expression based on this comparison. For example, when expression of Bridge-1 mRNA or protein is greater (statistically significantly greater) in the presence of the candidate compound than in its absence, the candidate compound is identified as a stimulator of Bridge-1 mRNA or protein expression. Alternatively, when expression of Bridge-1 mRNA or protein is less (statistically significantly less) in the presence of the candidate compound than in its absence, the candidate compound is identified as an inhibitor of Bridge-1 mRNA or protein expression. The level of Bridge-1 mRNA or protein expression in the cells can be determined by methods described herein for detecting Bridge-1 mRNA or protein.
In yet another aspect of the invention, the Bridge-1 proteins can be used as “bait proteins” in a two-hybrid assay or three-hybrid assay (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,283,317; Zervos et al, (1993) Cell 72:223-232; Madura et al. (1993) J. Biol. Chem. 268:12046-12054; Bartel et al. (1993) Biotechniques 14:920-924; Iwabuchi et al. (1993) Oncogene 8:1693-1696; and Brent WO94/10300) to identify other proteins which bind to or interact with Bridge-1 and are involved in Bridge-1 activity. Such Bridge-1-binding proteins are also likely to be involved in the propagation of signals by the Bridge-1 proteins or Bridge-1 targets as, for example, downstream elements of a Bridge-1-mediated signaling pathway. Alternatively, such Bridge-1-binding proteins may be Bridge-1 inhibitors.
In another aspect, the invention pertains to a combination of two or more of the assays described herein. For example, a modulating agent can be identified using a cell-based or a cell-free assay, and the ability of the agent to modulate the activity of a Bridge-1 protein can be confirmed in vivo, e.g, in an animal such as an animal model for diabetes. Such an animal can be produced, for example, by treating a mouse or a rat with streptozotocin, as described in the examples section.
This invention further pertains to novel modulators identified by the above-described screening assays. Accordingly, it is within the scope of this invention to further use an agent identified as described herein in an appropriate animal model. For example, an agent identified as described herein (e.g., a Bridge-1 modulating agent, an antisense Bridge-1 nucleic acid molecule, a Bridge-1-specific antibody, or a Bridge-1 binding partner) can be used in an animal model to determine the efficacy, toxicity or side effects of treatment with such an agent. Alternatively, an modulator identified as described herein can be used in an animal model to determine the mechanism of action of such an agent. Furthermore, this invention pertains to uses of novel agents identified by the above-described screening assays for treatments as described herein.
In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a method for identifying a compound (e.g., a screening assay) capable of use in the treatment of a disorder characterized by (or associated with) aberrant or abnormal Bridge-1 nucleic acid expression or Bridge-1 polypeptide activity. This method typically includes the step of assaying the ability of the compound or agent to modulate the expression of the Bridge-1 nucleic acid or the activity of the Bridge-1 protein thereby identifying a compound for treating a disorder characterized by aberrant or abnormal Bridge-1 nucleic acid expression or Bridge-1 polypeptide activity. Disorders characterized by aberrant or abnormal Bridge-1 nucleic acid expression or Bridge-1 protein activity are described herein. Methods for assaying the ability of the compound or agent to modulate the expression of the Bridge-1 nucleic acid or activity of the Bridge-1 protein are typically cell-based assays. For example, cells which are sensitive to ligands which transduce signals via a pathway involving Bridge-1 can be induced to overexpress a Bridge-1 protein in the presence and absence of a candidate compound. Candidate compounds which produce a statistically significant change in Bridge-1-dependent responses (either stimulation or inhibition) can be identified. In one embodiment, expression of the Bridge-1 nucleic acid or activity of a Bridge-1 protein is modulated in cells and the effects of candidate compounds on the readout of interest (such as rate of cell proliferation or differentiation) are measured. For example, the expression of genes which are up- or down-regulated in response to a Bridge-1 protein-dependent signal cascade can be assayed. In preferred embodiments, the regulatory regions of such genes, e.g., the 5′ flanking promoter and enhancer regions, are operably linked to a detectable marker (such as luciferase) which encodes a gene product that can be readily detected. Phosphorylation of Bridge-1 or Bridge-1 target molecules can also be measured, for example, by immunoblotting.
Alternatively, modulators of Bridge-1 nucleic acid expression (e.g., compounds which can be used to treat a disorder characterized by aberrant or abnormal Bridge-1 nucleic acid expression or Bridge-1 protein activity) can be identified in a method wherein a cell is contacted with a candidate compound and the expression of Bridge-1 mRNA or protein in the cell is determined. The level of expression of Bridge-1 mRNA or protein in the presence of the candidate compound is compared to the level of expression of Bridge-1 mRNA or protein in the absence of the candidate compound. The candidate compound can then be identified as a modulator of Bridge-1 nucleic acid expression based on this comparison and be used to treat a disorder characterized by aberrant Bridge-1 nucleic acid expression. For example, when expression of Bridge-1 mRNA or polypeptide is greater (statistically significantly greater) in the presence of the candidate compound than in its absence, the candidate compound is identified as a stimulator of Bridge-1 nucleic acid expression. Alternatively, when Bridge-1 nucleic acid expression is less (statistically significantly less) in the presence of the candidate compound than in its absence, the candidate compound is identified as an inhibitor of Bridge-1 nucleic acid expression. The level of Bridge-1 nucleic acid expression in the cells can be determined by methods described herein for detecting Bridge-1 mRNA or protein.
Modulators of Bridge-1 protein activity and/or Bridge-1 nucleic acid expression identified according to these drug screening assays can be used to treat, for example, glucose homeostasis disorders such as diabetes (e.g., type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes, and maturity onset diabetes of the young (MODY)) and hepatic enzyme abnormalities that lead to hypoglycemia. Modulators of Bridge-1 protein activity and/or Bridge-1 nucleic acid expression may also be used to treat disorders related to other functions of Bridge-1 unrelated to insulin production, such as weight disorders, e.g. obesity, or cancer. These methods of treatment include the steps of administering the modulators of Bridge-1 protein activity and/or nucleic acid expression, e.g., in a pharmaceutical composition as described herein, to a subject in need of such treatment, e.g., a subject with a disorder described herein.
Therapeutic Methods
In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method for modulating apoptosis in a cell or cells comprising modulating Bridge-1 activity in the cell or cells. Bridge-1 activity may either be increased or decreased. In one embodiment, the modulator increases or, alternatively, decreases expression of Bridge-1 in the cell. In a preferred embodiment, apoptosis is increased and the cells are tumor cells. Modulation of apoptosis may also be the result of modulation of a Bridge-1 target gene. Particularly preferred are methods for modulating apoptosis in a cell or cells comprising treating the cells with a Bridge-1 polypeptide, a polynucleotide encoding Bridge-1, or a compound that activates or inhibits expression of a Bridge-1 gene. Suitable polynucleotides include naked DNA or vectors encoding Bridge-1. Preferably, the apoptosis is modulated in pancreatic β cells.
The invention is further directed to method for modulating islet cell apoptosis in a mammal, such as a human, comprising administering to the mammal a Bridge-1 polypeptide, a polynucleotide encoding Bridge-1, or a compound that activates or inhibits expression of a Bridge-1 gene.
In another aspect, the invention is directed to a method for modulating cellular replication in a cell or cells comprising modulating Bridge-1 activity in the cell or cells. Bridge-1 activity may be increased or, alternatively, decreased as a result of the modulation. Likewise, replication may either be increased or decreased. In one embodiment, the Bridge-1 activity is expression of Bridge-1. In another embodiment, the Bridge-1 activity is expression of a Bridge-1 target gene. In a preferred embodiment, the invention is directed to a method for modulating replication in a cell or cells comprising treating the cells with a Bridge-1 polypeptide, a polynucleotide encoding Bridge-1, or a compound that activates or inhibits expression of a Bridge-1 gene. Preferably, the polynucleotides are DNA or vectors encoding Bridge-1. In preferred embodiments, the cells are pancreatic βcells. The invention is also directed to a method for modulating replication of pancreatic β cells in a mammal, such as a human, comprising administering to the mammal a Bridge-1 polypeptide, a polynucleotide encoding Bridge-1, or a compound that activates or inhibits expression of a Bridge-1 gene.
In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method for modulating the mass of a cell or cells comprising modulating Bridge-1 activity in the cell or cells. In such methods, Bridge-1 activity may be increased or, alternatively, decreased. Likewise, cell mass may be either increased or decreased. In one embodiment, the Bridge-1 activity is expression of Bridge-1. In another embodiment, the Bridge-1 activity is expression of a Bridge-1 target gene. In a preferred embodiment, the invention is directed to a method for modulating the mass of a cell or cells comprising treating the cells with a Bridge-1 polypeptide, a polynucleotide encoding Bridge-1, or a compound that activates or inhibits expression of a Bridge-1 gene. In these methods, the polynucleotide may be DNA, such as a vector, encoding Bridge-1. Preferably, the cells are are pancreatic β cells. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the invention is directed to a method for modulating pancreatic β cell mass in a mammal comprising administering to the mammal a Bridge-1 polypeptide, a polynucleotide encoding Bridge-1, or a compound that activates or inhibits expression of a Bridge-1 gene.
In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method for modulating insulin production in a cell or cells comprising modulating Bridge-1 activity in the cell or cells. In such methods, Bridge-1 activity may either be increased or decreased. Likewise, insulin production may be increased or decreased as a result of the modulation. In one embodiment, the Bridge-1 activity is expression of Bridge-1. In another embodiment, the Bridge-1 activity is expression of a Bridge-1 target gene. A preferred embodiment of the invention is directed to a method for modulating insulin production in a cell or cell comprising treating the cells with a Bridge-1 polypeptide, a polynucleotide encoding Bridge-1, or a compound that activates or inhibits expression of a Bridge-1 gene. Such polynucleotide can be DNA, such as a vector, encoding Bridge-1. Preferably, the cells are pancreatic β cells. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the present invention is directed to a method for modulating insulin production in a mammal, such as a human, comprising administering to the mammal a Bridge-1 polypeptide, a polynucleotide encoding Bridge-1, or a compound that activates or inhibits expression of a Bridge-1 gene.
In another aspect, the invention is directed to a method for modulating blood glucose levels in a mammal, such as a human, comprising administering to the mammal a Bridge-1 polypeptide, a polynucleotide encoding Bridge-1, or a compound that activates or inhibits expression of a Bridge-1 gene.
In yet another aspect, the invention is directed to a method for treating a Bridge-1 mediated disorder in a mammal, such as a human, comprising administering to the mammal a Bridge-1 polypeptide, a polynucleotide encoding Bridge-1, or a compound that activates or inhibits expression of a Bridge-1 gene in the mammal. In a preferred embodiment, the mammal is a human. In another embodiment, the disorder is caused by a mutation in the endogenous Bridge-1 gene. In a preferred embodiment, the disorder is diabetes, such as Type II diabetes mellitus.
EXAMPLE 1
Materials and Methods for Examples 2-10
Generation of transgenic mice. The 6 kb Bridge-1 transgene was constructed by cloning the full length rat Bridge-1 cDNA coding sequence (Thomas, M. K., et al., Mol Cell Biol 19:8492-8404 (1999)) (nucleotides 492-1392) downstream of a previously characterized −4.6 kb segment of the mouse pdx-1 promoter (Stoffers, D. A., et al., Endocrinology 140:5374-5381 (1999); Gannon, M., et al., Dev Biol 238:185-201 (2001)) and upstream of rabbit β-globin poly A tail sequences. Bridge-1 overexpression mice were generated in the FVB strain at the Beth Israel Hospital Transgenic Facility using standard procedures (Hogan, B., et al., “Manipulating the mouse embryo: a laboratory manual,” Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Plainview, N.Y., United States, pp. 487 (1994)). Transgenic mice were compared with age-, gender-, and strain-matched control mice for all analyses. Animal studies were approved by and conducted according to the policies of the Massachusetts General Hospital Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.
Southern blots. Transgenic mice were identified by the amplification of a 400 bp fragment of transgenic genomic DNA that extends from nucleotide −92 in the mouse pdx-1 promoter to nucleotide 744 within rat Bridge-1 cDNA. Transgene incorporation was confirmed by Southern blots of genomic DNA according to published methods (Ausubel, F. M., et al., “Current protocols in molecular biology,” John Wiley and Sons, New York, N.Y., United States (1994)) with a radiolabeled 223 bp fragment of the transgene that spans the junction of the pdx-1 promoter and rat Bridge-1 cDNA.
Western blots. Total pancreatic and liver protein extracts were prepared and Western blots were conducted using enhanced chemiluminescence as described (Andreassen, O. A., et al, Neurobiol Dis 11:410-424 (2002)). Protein concentrations were determined by a Micro BCA assay (Pierce, Rockford, Ill.) for sample normalization. Antisera used included rabbit polyclonal anti-Bridge-1, rabbit polyclonal anti-Stat-3 (K-15) (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Santa Cruz, Calif.) and human anti-cleaved caspase-3 that reacts with both the inactive 32 kD and the active cleaved 17 kD forms of caspase-3 (Biocarta, San Diego, Calif.). Densitometric scanning of Western blots was conducted with an Image Station 440CF and Image Analysis software (Eastman Kodak, Rochester, N.Y.).
RNA expression analyses. Total pancreatic RNA isolation, rt-PCR, and Northern blots for insulin and actin were conducted with previously reported methods (Andreassen, O. A., et al., Neurobiol Dis 11:410-424 (2002); Thomas, M. K., et al., Diabetes 49:2039-2047 (2000)). Quantitative real-time PCR was conducted for each sample in triplicate on an ABI Prism 7900HT sequence detection system using the manufacturer's reagents and methods (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, Calif.). We designed primer and MGB probe sets for Brain-4, Bridge-1, cyclophilin, elastase, glucagon, glucokinase, glucose transporter-2, hypoxanthine phosphoribosyltransferase, insulin Nkx6.1, PDX-I, and somatostatin. Sequences of primers and probes are available upon request.
Histologic analyses. Mouse pancreas samples were fixed in 10% saline-buffered formalin, embedded in paraffin and sectioned at 4-micron intervals. Immunostaining was conducted according to standard methods (Thomas, M. K., et al., Mol Cell Biol 19:8492-8404 (1999); Harlow, E., and Lane, D., “Using antibodies: a laboratory manual,” Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. Plainview, N.Y., United States. 495 pp. (1999)). Sections were incubated for one hour with primary antiserum including rabbit polyclonal β-catenin (Chemicon International, Temecula, Calif.), rabbit polyclonal anti-Bridge-1, mouse monoclonal anti-glucagon (K79bB 10, Sigma, St. Louis, Mo.), guinea pig anti-human insulin (IgG fraction, Linco Research, St. Charles, Mo.), rabbit polyclonal anti-GST-Nkx 6.1 (gift from P. Serup and R. Heller), rabbit polyclonal anti-PDX-1 (gift from J. Habener), or rabbit polyclonal anti-human somatostatin (A0566, Dako Corporation, Carpinteria, California) as indicated. Biotinylated species-specific secondary antiserum and avidin-biotinylated horseradish peroxidase complexes (Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, Calif.) were used for peroxidase-based staining. Hematoxylin and/or eosin counterstaining was conducted as indicated. Alternatively Cy-3 or FITC-conjugated species-specific anti-IgG secondary antiserum (Jackson Immunoresearch Laboratories, West Grove, Pa.) was employed for indirect immunofluorescence studies as described (Thomas, M. K., et al., Mol Cell Biol 19:8492-8404 (1999)). TUNEL assays were conducted with peroxidase-based In Situ Cell Death Detection kits (Roche Diagnostics Corporation, Indianapolis, Ind.) according to the manufacturer's instructions with modifications including the addition of a 20-minute incubation in a blocking solution consisting of 3% bovine serum albumin in phosphate-buffered saline prior to peroxidase treatment and of signal conversion in a 0.5 X converter-POD solution diluted in phosphate-buffered saline. Digital images were acquired with a SPOT-RT Slider color camera (Diagnostic Instruments, Sterling Heights, Mich.) and a Nikon epifluorescence microscope interfaced with a Macintosh G4 computer and processed with Adobe Photoshop software (Adobe Systems Incorporated, San Jose, Calif.).
Metabolic studies. Metabolic studies were conducted with transgenic and age-, gender-, and strain-matched control mice. Glucose levels were determined with a YSI 2300 STAT glucose analyzer (Yellow Springs Instrument Co., Yellow Springs, Ohio). Serum insulin levels were measured in duplicate by a rat insulin ELISA kit with mouse insulin standards (Crystal Chem, Chicago, Ill.). Glucose tolerance tests were conducted with intraperitoneal injection of 1.5 g glucose per kg body weight following an 8-hour fast as previously reported (Thomas, M. K., et al., J Clin Invest 108:319-329 (2001)). Serum triglycerides were measured with an Infinity Triglyceride assay according to the manufacturer's instructions (Sigma). Urine ketone and glucose levels were detected by Chemstrip uGK (Roche, Basel, Switzerland).
Cell culture and transfection studies. HeLa cells were cultured in Dulbecco's Modified Eagle Medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum, 100 U of penicillin G, and 100 μg of streptomycin sulfate per mL. Transfections and chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) reporter assays were conducted as described (Thomas, M. K., et al., Mol Cell Biol 19:8492-8404 (1999)). The pcDNA3-Bridge-1 expression vector encoding full-length rat Bridge-1 cDNA was constructed as reported (Thomas, M. K., et al., Mol Cell Biol 19:8492-8404 (1999)), and the multimerized FarFlat enhancer-CAT reporter plasmid (5FF1 CAT) was a gift from L. G. Moss.
EXAMPLE 2
Generation of Bridge-1 Transgenic Mice
To disrupt the assembly and composition of supramolecular protein complexes regulated by Bridge-1 signaling in the endocrine pancreas, we developed a transgenic mouse model of pancreatic Bridge-1 overexpression. We used a −4.6 kb segment of the mouse pdx-1 promoter that is known to confer expression in the developing pancreas and adult pancreatic β cells (Stoffers, D. A., et al., Endocrinology 140:5374-5381 (1999); Gannon, M., et al., Dev Biol 238:185-201 (2001)) to express rat Bridge-1 cDNA in transgenic mice (FIG. 1a). We identified multiple independent founder lines by Southern blots of genomic DNA (FIG. 1b). We observed pancreatic Bridge-1 mRNA overexpression by rt-PCR of total pancreatic RNA derived from transgenic as compared to control mice (FIG. 1c). The pancreatic overexpression of the Bridge-1 protein in transgenic mice was confirmed by Western blots of total pancreatic extracts with anti-Bridge-1 antiserum in the setting of unchanged expression patterns for control proteins such as Stat-3 (data not shown). No differences in Bridge-1 protein expression levels in liver extracts from transgenic or control mice were seen on Western blots. Bridge-1 protein expression in the transgenic mice was heterogeneous with overexpression observed by immunostaining in the endocrine, exocrine, and ductal compartments of the pancreas (FIG. 1d). This protein expression pattern was consistent with that expected from the in vivo regulatory properties of the pdx-1 promoter. In mouse models in which the −4.6 kb pdx-1 promoter directed a β-galactosidase reporter, the expression of β-galactosidase was seen primarily in pancreatic islets and, at lower levels, in the pancreatic ducts and exocrine pancreas (Stoffers, D. A., et al., Endocrinology 140:5374-5381 (1999); Gannon, M., et al., Dev Biol 238:185-201 (2001)).
EXAMPLE 3
Overexpression of Bridge-1 Disrupts Pancreatic Architecture
We observed a spectrum of phenotypes of altered pancreatic architecture on hematoxylin- and eosin-stained sections derived from the Bridge-1 transgenic mice. A phenotype of pancreatic duct enlargement occurred with variable penetrance in male transgenic (FIG. 2b) in comparison to age- and strain-matched control mice (FIG. 2e). We did not observe any evidence of ductal metaplasia or loss of epithelial cell polarity in association with the enlarged ducts. We also observed scattered areas of disorganization of exocrine cells with marked variability in the size of cells and nuclei in the acinar compartment of the Bridge-1 transgenic mice (FIG. 2c) as compared to the more orderly arrangement of the exocrine pancreas in control mice (FIG. 2f).
We noted the most striking morphologic changes in the arrangement and distribution of pancreatic endocrine cells. In male Bridge-1 transgenic mice the pancreatic islet morphology ranged from nearly normal to streak-like nests of cells. In contrast to wild-type pancreatic islets in which endocrine cells were assembled in well-organized spherical structures (FIG. 2d), in the pancreas of transgenic mice strands of endocrine cells were interwoven among exocrine cells in disordered patterns (FIGS. 2a, 3a) with loss of the normal tissue boundaries between the endocrine and exocrine compartments. These wandering strands of cells were identified as endocrine cell clusters by their expression of the hormones insulin (FIG. 3b) or glucagon (FIG. 3c) and correlated with observed patterns of Bridge-1 overexpression (FIG. 3d). The endocrine cells of the transgenic mice had marked heterogeneity of nuclear size and shape. The loss of both intracellular and extracellular organization was illustrated by marked changes in expression patterns for β-catenin in endocrine cell clusters derived from Bridge-1 transgenic (FIG. 3e) relative to control mice (FIG. 3f).
EXAMPLE 4
Endocrine Cell Distribution is Altered in Bridge-1 Transgenic Mice
When we examined pancreatic endocrine hormone expression patterns of severely affected male Bridge-1 transgenic mice, we observed a reduction in the extent and intensity of insulin expression in transgenic (TG, FIG. 4a) as compared to wild-type control (WT, FIG. 4d) mice. In contrast we found a relative increase in glucagon expression within transgenic (FIG. 4b) as compared to control (FIG. 4e) endocrine cell clusters. Only a small fraction of endocrine cells expressed somatostatin in transgenic (FIG. 4c) or control (FIG. 4f) mice.
The spatial organization of the glucagon-expressing cells relative to the insulin-expressing cells also was disrupted in the pancreatic endocrine cell clusters of the Bridge-1 transgenic mice. In pancreatic islets of control mice we observed the typical endocrine cell arrangement of glucagon-expressing β cells in an outer rim (FIG. 4k) surrounding a central core of insulin-expressing β cells (FIGS. 4j and l). However in transgenic endocrine cell clusters, a disorganized pattern of insulin-expressing β cells (FIG. 4g) with a relative increased complement of glucagon-expressing a cells (FIG. 4h) was seen in the context of poorly-defined endocrine and exocrine compartment boundaries. No coexpression of insulin and glucagon was observed (FIG. 4i) to suggest a population of multipotential endocrine cells.
Next we examined the expression patterns of the transcription factors PDX-1 and Nkx 6.1 as markers of pancreatic β cells (Sander, M., et al., Development 127:5533-5540 (2000); Thomas, M. K., and Habener, J R., “IDX-1: Pancreatic Agenesis And Type 2 Diabetes,” In Molecular Basis Of Inborn Errors Of Development, P. Erikson, et al., editors. Oxford Univ. Press. Oxford, United Kingdom. 552-556 (2004)). In contrast to the well-organized protein expression patterns in β cells within the central core of control islets (FIGS. 5e and f), the expression levels of both transcription factors were reduced in disorganized patterns within endocrine cell clusters from male Bridge-1 transgenic mice (FIGS. 5a-d). These β-cell marker protein expression patterns resembled that of insulin, consistent with a reduction in the functioning mass of pancreatic β cells. We did not observe coexpression of glucagon with PDX-1 (FIG. 5c) or Nkx 6.1 (FIG. 5d) that would support a model of β-cell transdifferentiation to an intermediate α-cell phenotype. The nuclear expression patterns of both PDX-1 and Nkx 6.1 illustrated the heterogeneous range of nuclear sizes observed in the transgenic β cells.
To complement the protein expression patterns of the β-cell-specific transcription factors, we isolated total pancreatic RNA from male Bridge-1 transgenic and age- and strain-matched control mice for quantitative real-time rt-PCR analysis of differences in gene expression. In concordance with the observed protein expression patterns, we observed substantial and significant reductions in PDX-1 (64% reduction) and Nkx 6.1 (72% reduction) pancreatic mRNA expression levels in the transgenic relative to control mice (FIG. 5i). In the same series of experiments we found an 85% increase in the pancreatic mRNA expression levels of the α-cell-specific transcription factor Brain-4 (Hussain, M. A., et al., Mol Cell Biol 17:7186-7194 (1997)) in the transgenic relative to control mice. We did not observe any significant differences in pancreatic mRNA expression of the ubiquitously expressed hypoxanthine phosphoribosyltransferasegene between transgenic and control mice.
In analyzing Bridge-1 transgenic mice with diabetes and strain-, age-, and gender-matched control mice for the mRNA expression patterns of transcription factors known to be of importance in endocrine cell development, we identified some surprising differences. Notably, both neurogenin-3 and NeuroD1/Beta-2 pancreatic mRNA expression levels were upregulated 2- to 3-fold in adult Bridge-1 transgenic mice with diabetes (FIG. 29B). This finding was surprising, as neurogenin-3 expression is known to be upregulated in endocrine progenitor cells early in embryonic pancreas development and downregulated later with the progression of endocrine cell differentiation. These results were in marked contrast to the 64% to 72% reductions in the pancreatic mRNA expression levels of PDX-1 and Nkx 6.1 observed in the same mice. Although we did not observe convincing evidence of neurogenin-3 protein in the adult control pancreas sections, we found occasional scattered neurogenin-3-expressing cells in pancreas sections derived from adult Bridge-1 transgenic mice with diabetes (FIG. 29C). Neurogenin-3 protein expression was found in isolated cells near ducts but not within endocrine cell clusters. As part of the program of embryonic endocrine cell differentiation, neurogenin-3 activates the expression of NeuroD1/Beta-2 in embryonic progenitor cells in the early stages of commitment to the insulin- or glucagon-producing lineages (FIG. 29A). The combination of the upregulation of both neurogenin-3 and NeuroD1/Beta-2 expression in the adult pancreas of Bridge-1 mice with diabetes suggests that a transcriptional program for new endocrine cell development has been activated in the adult pancreas in this mouse model. This evidence of the reactivation of an embryonic pancreatic endocrine cell differentiation program in the adult pancreas is of particular importance when considered in the context of recent studies emphasizing the predominant importance of pancreatic β-cell replication in replenishing insulin-producing cells of the adult mouse endocrine pancreas (Dor et al., Nature 429:41-46 (2004)).
EXAMPLE 5
Pancreatic β-cell Mass is Reduced and α-cell Mass is Increased in Bridge-1 Transgenic Mice
To determine whether the observed altered patterns of insulin and glucagon expression were indicative of differences in cell numbers, we estimated the relative numbers of pancreatic α and β cells in control and transgenic mouse pancreas by counting stained and unstained endocrine cells in paraffin-embedded pancreatic sections stained for insulin (FIGS. 6a-c) or for glucagon (FIGS. 6d-f). Pancreatic sections derived from male Bridge-1 transgenic mice (TG) had an average of 12 insulin-expressing cells per endocrine cell cluster as compared to an average of 54 insulin-expressing cells in those derived from male control (WT) mice (FIG. 6a). On average only 25% of the cells in an endocrine cell cluster expressed insulin in transgenic mice while 80% expressed insulin in control islets (FIG. 6b). These data suggest that β-cell mass in severely affected Bridge-1 transgenic mice is reduced by approximately 70%. The reduction in the estimated number of pancreatic β cells was notably similar in magnitude to the decrements in pancreatic mRNA expression levels observed for the β-cell-specific transcription factors PDX-1 and Nkx 6.1.
Both increased numbers and relative proportions of pancreatic a cells were seen in endocrine cell clusters in Bridge-1 transgenic mice (FIGS. 6d-f). On average 12 glucagon-expressing cells per islet were found in control (WT) mouse pancreas sections while 23 glucagon-expressing cells per endocrine cell cluster were seen in transgenic (TG) mouse pancreas sections (FIG. 6d). Similarly the average proportion of glucagon-expressing cells per islet or endocrine cell cluster was higher at 52% for transgenic mice than the 20% observed for control mice (FIG. 6e). These counts estimate at least a 2-fold increase in α-cell number in Bridge-1 transgenic as compared to control mice, similar to the increase predicted by the pancreatic mRNA expression levels of the α-cell-specific transcription factor Brain-4.
EXAMPLE 6
Pancreatic Apoptosis is Increased in Bridge-1 Transgenic Mice
To identify potential mechanisms by which pancreatic β-cell mass is reduced in Bridge-1 transgenic mice, we performed TUNEL assays to determine the extent of apoptosis in pancreatic sections derived from transgenic and age-, strain-, and gender-matched control mice. In control (WT) mice, we rarely observed TUNEL-positive cells (in brown) within pancreatic islets (FIG. 6g, left panel). However, in Bridge-1 transgenic (TG) mice TUNEL-positive cells were frequently found within endocrine cell clusters (FIG. 6g, middle panel) and in wandering strands of cells interspersed between acinar cells of the exocrine pancreas (FIG. 6g, right panel). The TUNEL-positive cells often had morphologic features of nuclear fragmentation or condensation. To confirm this finding we measured the relative protein levels of the activated, cleaved form of the protease caspase-3 that is central to the apoptotic protease cascade. By Western blot analysis of total pancreatic protein extracts we observed an increase of greater than 3-fold in the levels of the 17 kD cleaved form of caspase-3 in contrast to unchanged levels of pancreatic Stat-3 protein expression in Bridge-1 transgenic as compared to control mice (FIG. 6h). These data indicate that increased pancreatic apoptosis occurs in Bridge-1 transgenic mice.
EXAMPLE 7
Overexpression of Bridge-1 Results in Insulin Deficiency and Hyperglycemia
The metabolic phenotypes in Bridge-1 transgenic mice ranged from mild hyperglycemia to severe diabetes. Female Bridge-1 transgenic mice had modest fasting hyperglycemia and insulin deficiency demonstrated by intraperitoneal glucose tolerance testing (FIG. 7a). Fasting insulin levels were reduced and serum insulin levels rose minimally in response to a glucose challenge in the female transgenic mice.
In male transgenic mice with marked abnormalities in pancreatic histology we observed the most severe diabetes. We detected glycosuria by urine dipstick analysis of male transgenic mice as early as three weeks of age at the time of weaning. Male transgenic mice with diabetes had fasting blood glucose levels as high as 438 mg/dL and random fed plasma glucose levels as high as 855 mg/dL associated with nearly undetectable fasting serum insulin levels (FIG. 7b). Elevated random-fed triglyceride levels accompanied the hyperglycemia with an average triglyceride level of 620 mg/dL (n=6) in Bridge-1 transgenic mice with severe diabetes as compared to 158 mg/dL (n=4) in nontransgenic control mice. The severity of the observed metabolic phenotypes partially correlated with transgene copy number by Southern blot or realtime quantitative PCR analyses.
Insulin deficiency in hyperglycemic Bridge-1 transgenic mice was associated with markedly reduced levels of pancreatic preproinsulin mRNA that was scarcely detectable by Northern blot analyses (FIG. 7c). Insulin mRNA levels could be detected by real-time quantitative rt-PCR of total pancreatic RNA in another series of Bridge-1 transgenic and control mice. In this cohort insulin mRNAlevels were reduced by 76% in Bridge-1 transgenic (TG) relative to control (WT) mice (FIG. 7d). The most severe insulin deficiency that we observed in a Bridge-1 transgenic mouse was accompanied by ketonuria as detected by urine dipstick testing, a clinical finding most commonly associated with Type 1 diabetes and an absolute insulin deficit.
Pancreatic glucagon mRNA levels were increased by 28% and somatostatin mRNA levels were decreased by 53% in Bridge-1 transgenic mice, but elastase mRNA levels were not significantly different in the same experimental series (FIG. 7d). The relative increase of glucagon mRNA expression in the transgenic mouse pancreas was modest in comparison to the observed increases in α-cell complement or Brain-4 mRNA expression. Pancreatic mRNA expression levels of the β-cell-specific glucose sensors glucokinase and glucose transporter-2 (Glut-2) were not significantly different between Bridge-1 transgenic and control mice. These findings were somewhat surprising in the setting of the substantial reductions in β-cell mass in the transgenic mice and may reflect adaptive changes in the surviving transgenic p cells to augment glucose-sensing.
EXAMPLE 8
Bridge-1 Regulation of the Insulin Promoter is Biphasic
We previously proposed that the endogenous coactivator Bridge-1 functions to augment insulin promoter activity (Thomas, M. K., et al., Mol Cell Biol 19:8492-8404 (1999)), but in this experimental model we found a reduction in insulin mRNA levels in the setting of increased pancreatic Bridge-1 expression. The overexpression of other insulin gene activators, including PDX-1 and E47, results in the suppression of the transcriptional activation of the insulin promoter (Ohneda, K., et al., Mol Cell Biol 20:900-911 (2000); German. M. S., and Wang, J., Mol Cell Biol 14:4067-4075 (1994); Marshak, S., et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93:15057-15062 (1996); Seijffers, R., et al., Endocrinology 140:3311-3317 (1999)). Therefore, we wondered whether varying the levels of Bridge-1 expression also might result in a dose-dependent, biphasic pattern of insulin promoter activation, first by promoting and then disrupting the assembly of supramolecular transcriptional regulatory complexes. In transient transfections in HeLa cells, we observed that increasing the amounts of exogenous Bridge-1 expression resulted in a shift from activation of a rat insulin I enhancer-reporter construct to repression in a pattern reminiscent of those observed for other transcriptional activators of insulin gene expression (Ohneda, K., et al., Mol Cell Biol 20:900-911 (2000); German. M. S., and Wang, J., Mol Cell Biol 14:4067-4075 (1994); Marshak, S., et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93:15057-15062 (1996); Seijffers, R., et al., Endocrinology 140:3311-3317 (1999)) (FIG. 7e). These data support a model of Bridge-1 function in which increases of Bridge-1 expression within a distinct range augment the transcriptional activation of the insulin gene. Beyond this range larger increases in Bridge-1 may disrupt or modify transcriptional activation complexes to limit insulin production.
EXAMPLE 9
Expression of Bridge-1 Mutant (1-184) Increases Pancreatic β Cell Mass and Replication
In a series of targeted mutagenesis studies, we previously identified a mutation in Bridge-1 that substantially reduces its transcriptional activation potential in vitro. Specifically, a point mutation was introduced into the Bridge-1 coding region to produce a premature in-frame stop codon that resulted in a truncated expression product comprising only amino acids 1-184. In mammalian two-hybrid studies in HeLa cells, the Bridge-1 (1-184) mutant was found to interact well with E12; however, a Gal4 DNA-binding domain-Bridge-1 (1-184) fusion construct did not activate the Gal4CAT reporter in BHK cells (FIG. 10). Western blot showing expression of Gal4 DNA-binding domain-Bridge-1(1-222) and Gal4 DNA-binding domain-Bridge-1(1-184) fusion proteins from representative extracts of transfected BHK cells is shown in FIG. 11. Schematic models of the pIDX-1-Bridge-1(1-222) and pIDX-1-Bridge-1 (1-184) transgenes is shown in FIG. 12. PDX-1 is designated IDX-1 in this figure.
Here, we developed a transgenic mouse model in which the pancreas-specific pdx-1 (MODY4) promoter regulates expression of the mutant Bridge-1 (1-184) protein. The mutant Bridge-1(1-184) transgenic mice had marked changes in the endocrine compartment of the pancreas with altered pancreatic islet architecture. Although we observed no differences in islet numbers, pancreatic islets from mutant Bridge-1(1-184) transgenic mice (Tg) contained approximately 80% more cells than those from nontransgenic littermate control (WT) mice (n=6 Tg, 6 WT; p=0.02). We found a 75% increase in the average number of insulin-expressing pancreatic beta cells per islet within the mutant Bridge-1(1-184) transgenic as compared to control mice (n=6 Tg, 6 WT; p=0.006). No substantial differences were observed in the average numbers of somatostatin- and glucagon-expressing cells per islet from mutant Bridge-1(1-184) transgenic versus control mice. In the mutant Bridge-1(1-184) transgenic mice with the most striking phenotypes, enlarged pancreatic islets were distributed in close proximity to one another along the longitudinal axis of the pancreas. (FIG. 8). Pancreatic islet cells from mutant Bridge-1(1-184) transgenic mice also exhibited increased replication rates (FIG. 9).
Among the mutant Bridge-1(1-184) transgenic mice analyzed, there was a tendency for the most prominent pancreatic islet phenotypes to be associated with lower fasting blood glucose levels. In conclusion we have identified an important function for signaling by the coactivator Bridge-1 in the regulation of pancreatic beta-cell mass. Signals transduced through this coactivator are likely to modulate pancreatic beta-cell neogenesis, replication, and/or apoptosis. Understanding Bridge-1 signaling in pancreatic beta cells should facilitate efforts to restore pancreatic beta-cell mass and insulin production in the treatment of diabetes.
EXAMPLE 10
Inhibitors and Activators of Bridge-1 Transactivation Function
Various compounds were assayed for their ability to activate or inhibit Bridge-1 transactivation function. In these experiments, the transactivation assay previously described (Thomas, M. K. et al., Mol. Cell. Biol. 19(12):8492-8504 (1999)) incorporated herein by reference) was used with the modification that the plasmid reporter was a Gal4 luciferase reporter with luciferase activity measured rather than the Gal4CAT reporter used in 1999. BHK cells were plated at 30-40 percent confluency and transiently transfected with 5 or 10 microliters of Lipofectamine (Life Technologies/Invitrogen) and 5 micrograms total DNA consisting of 250 ng Gal4-luciferase reporter plasmid, 1.5 micrograms pM(Gal4 DBD) or pM-Bridge-1 (Gal4 DBD-Bridge-1) and 3.25 micrograms of bluescript plasmid incubated for 6 hours in the transfection cocktail. After 6 hours, the transfection cocktail was replaced with fresh culture medium (DMEM, 10% fetal bovine serum, 1% antibiotic/antimycotic (Life Technologies). Agonists or inhibitors were added (+) or the corresponding vehicle solution (−) and cells were incubated at 37° C. in a CO2 incubator for 24 hours prior to harvest. Luciferase assays were conducted as previously referenced (Thomas, M. K. et al., Mol. Cell. Biol. 19(12):8492-8504 (1999)). Agonists and their final concentration in the assay are shown in FIGS. 13-15. Experiments shown were conducted three times (n=3, each at least in duplicate) for Activin A (2.34 fold activation) and Trichostatin A (2.7 fold activation) and five times (n=5, each at least in duplicate) for Progesterone (a 22 percent inhibition).
Discussion
In the Bridge-1 overexpression transgenic mouse model the pancreatic overexpression of the coactivator Bridge-1 results in insulin deficiency and diabetes. Our initial description of Bridge-1 as a coactivator of insulin gene expression in vitro emphasized the capacity of Bridge-1 to augment the transcriptional activation of glucose-responsive enhancers within the rat insulin I promoter via PDZ-domain mediated protein-protein interactions with the basic helix-loop-helix transcription factors E12 and E47 (Thomas, M. K., et al., Mol Cell Biol 19:8492-8404 (1999)). We overexpressed Bridge-1 to disrupt supramolecular protein complexes in PDZ-based scaffolds that regulate Bridge-1 target genes in the pancreas. We provide herein evidence for additional functions for Bridge-1 signaling in the regulation of glucose homeostasis and of pancreatic β-cell survival based on these in vivo studies.
The marked reduction in the number of insulin-expressing cells observed in the transgenic mice was unexpected. Bridge-1 transgenic mice had only one-third of the normal number of insulin-producing pancreatic β cells as assessed by the expression levels of insulin or of pancreatic β-cell-specific transcription factors Nkx 6.1 and PDX-1. This reduction in pancreatic β-cell mass is accompanied by an increase in pancreatic apoptosis, particularly within the endocrine cell compartment. A similar phenotype of increased pancreatic β-cell apoptosis and decreased β-cell mass is found in humans with Type 2 diabetes (Butler, A. E., et al., Diabetes 52:102-110 (2003)).
Multiple potential mechanisms exist for the induction of apoptosis by Bridge-1 overexpression. Bridge-1 may directly regulate the expression of anti- or pro-apoptotic genes to promote programmed cell death. In addition, insulin deficiency resulting from the repression of insulin gene expression may accelerate β-cell apoptosis. Decreased intrapancreatic insulin signaling is known to negatively impact pancreatic β-cell mass. The targeted disruption of the insulin signaling protein IRS-2 or the β-cell specific deletion of the insulin receptor reduce the mass of insulin-producing cells in genetically-modified mouse models (Withers, D. J., et al., Nature 391:900-904 (1998); Kubota, N., et al., Diabetes 49:1880-1889 (2000); Otani., K., et al., Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 286:E41-49 (2004)). Insulin regulates pancreatic β-cell mass through protein kinase B (AKT) (Tuttle, R. L., et al., Nat Med 7:1133-1137 (2001); Bemal-Mizirachi, E., et al., J Clin Invest 108:1631-1638 (2001)) and by regulating PDX-1 expression levels in a Foxol-dependent manner (Kushner, J. A., et al., J Clin Invest 109:1193-1201 (2002); Kitamura, T., et al., Clin Invest 110:1839-1847 (2002)). Furthermore, sustained hyperglycemia may be an independent stimulus of pancreatic β-cell apoptosis in vivo (Donath, M. Y., and Halban, P. A., Diabetologia (February 2004) [Epub ahead of print]).
Metabolic dysfunction was apparent as early as three weeks of age in this model and ranged from mild to severe hyperglycemia. In many mouse models of Type 2 diabetes hyperglycemia is more prominent in males than females (Thomas, M. K., et al., J Clin Invest 108:319-329 (2001); Bruning, J. C., et al, Cell 88:561-572 (1997)) as we noted in Bridge-1 transgenic mice. It is possible that gender-specific differences in steroid hormone levels attenuated the insulin deficiency in the female transgenic mice. Although the female transgenic mice demonstrated a mild hyperglycemic phenotype, they were unable to appropriately augment insulin production in response to a glucose challenge. We observed severe diabetes that was accompanied by extremely low serum insulin levels and insulin-to-glucose ratios in the male transgenic mice. In this respect the phenotype in Bridge-1 transgenic mice resembles those of defective insulin production in humans with MODY and of minimal residual β-cell function in humans with early Type 1 diabetes.
We consider the hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia in Bridge-1 transgenic mice to be the result of insulin deficiency. However, in the setting of an increased proportion of glucagon-expressing a cells relative to β cells, it is possible that abnormal regulation of glucagon production exacerbates hyperglycemia. The smaller increases that we found in pancreatic glucagon mRNA expression levels relative to the greater increases in the number of a cells estimated both by cell counting and by the mRNA expression levels of the α-cell-specific transcription factor Brain-4 suggest that the a cells in the transgenic mice were able to downregulate glucagon gene expression in the context of elevated glucose levels. An increased proportion of a cells relative to β cells is found in pancreatic islets from many other mouse models of β-cell dysfunction and diabetes as well as in islets from humans with type 2 diabetes (Yoon, K. H., et al., J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88:2300-2308 (2003)). This shift in islet composition to a relative excess of glucagon-expressing cells is of unclear pathophysiologic significance. The reduction of somatostatin mRNA expression in Bridge-1 transgenic mice likely is a result of increased Bridge-1 expression from the transgene because the pdx-1 promoter is known to be active in selected somatostatin-expressing δ cells (Thomas, M. K., and Habener, J. F., “IDX-1: Pancreatic Agenesis And Type 2 Diabetes,” In Molecular Basis Of Inborn Errors Of Development, P. Erikson, et al., editors, Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, United Kingdom, 552-556 (2004)).
We were surprised to find no significant reductions in the pancreatic expression levels of glucokinase or Glut-2 in the setting of marked reductions in the numbers of pancreatic β cells. These two proteins constitute rate-limiting steps in glucose sensing with pancreatic expression restricted primarily to the β cell. Our data suggest that the remaining pancreatic β cells in Bridge-1 transgenic mice with diabetes upregulated the expression of these glucose sensors either directly in response to increased levels of Bridge-1 expression or as an adaptive response to the reduction in β-cell mass. It is interesting to note that both glucokinase and Glut-2 expression levels are decreased in pancreatic islets in response to the adenoviral overexpression of the coactivator PGC-1 (Yoon, J. C., et al., Dev Cell 5:73-83 (2003)). In mice in which PDX-1 expression is deleted in adult pancreatic β cells, Glut-2 expression levels decline in parallel with reductions in PDX-1 expression levels (Ahlgren, U., et al., Genes Dev 12:1763-1768 (1998)). The observed robust levels of expression of the Bridge-1 transgene indicate that the pdx-1 promoter is active in Bridge-1 transgenic mice despite reductions in PDX-1 protein and mRNA expression, diminished β-cell mass, and systemic hyperglycemia and hypoinsulinemia.
The overexpression of Bridge-1 disrupts several aspects of pancreatic architecture. The loss of spatial organization of the pancreatic endocrine cells in Bridge-1 transgenic mice is a striking phenotype. The usual distinct boundaries between endocrine and exocrine cells are not respected in this model with the appearance of wandering endocrine cells intermingled among acinar tissue. The endocrine cells in Bridge-1 transgenic mice have the apparent capacity to move beyond or to extend normal tissue compartments with a histologic appearance that resembles metastatic tumor cells more than pancreatic islets. The rearrangement of cells in this model can be viewed either as a gain of endocrine cell motility or the loss of the capacity for endocrine cells to aggregate and organize islet structures. The spatial relationships of glucagon-expressing a cells and insulin-expressing β cells also are altered. The disorganization of both the endocrine and exocrine compartments of the pancreas implies that signals transduced through Bridge-1 regulate intercellular communication. The signals that maintain the normal boundaries between pancreatic islets and adjacent exocrine tissue are unknown but are likely to be of clinical significance. A failure to maintain distinct endocrine and exocrine cellular compartments is seen in a small number of pancreatic diseases in humans, including nesidioblastosis and selected pancreatic cancers. Although we observed a phenotype of ductal enlargement, we did not identify metaplastic features in the transgenic ductal epithelium.
Considerable heterogeneity in pancreatic nuclear and cellular sizes also was apparent in Bridge-1 transgenic mice. This variability may reflect local differences in insulin signaling that are capable of altering cell size in Drosophila and in mice (Tuttle, R. L., et al., Nat Med 7:1133-1137 (2001); Edgar, B. A., Nat Cell Biol 1:E191-E193 (1999)). In this context it is interesting to note that the targeted disruption of the mouse coactivator gene tif2 reduces the size of adipocytes (Picard, F., et al., Cell 111:931-941 (2002)). Future studies will be needed to identify the components of the intracellular pathways that regulate signals through Bridge-1.
The pdx-1 promoter is active both in embryonic pancreas development and in the adult pancreas, so it is possible that some of the observed changes in pancreatic architecture in Bridge-1 transgenic mice were a result of the embryonic overexpression of Bridge-1. The endogenous Bridge-1 protein is expressed in the early developing pancreas (M. Thomas, unpublished results) and may regulate the function of a subgroup of transcriptional regulators of pancreas development. However, by gross inspection the pancreata in Bridge-1 transgenic mice were of normal size, location, and appearance. Because all three cellular compartments of the pancreas, i.e., ductal, exocrine, and endocrine, were formed in the Bridge-1 transgenic mice it is unlikely that the overexpression of Bridge-1 substantively interfered with the early stages of embryonic pancreas development. Because we observed hyperglycemia as early as three weeks of age in Bridge-1 transgenic mice, it is possible that the pancreatic overexpression of Bridge-1 influenced late prenatal or early postnatal pancreas development when substantial remodeling of pancreatic β-cell mass occurs.
The structural changes in the pancreas in response to the overexpression of Bridge-1 predict a broad range of targets for Bridge-1 signaling. The characterization of the human Bridge-1 homologue, PSMD9, as a proteasomal modulator expands the potential scope of Bridge-1 functions. PSMD9 was isolated in a complex with the proteasomal subunit TBP-1/Rpt5 (Watanabe, T. K., et al., Genomics 50:241-250 (1998); DeMartino, G. N., et al., Biol Chem 271:3112-3118 (1996)) that is implicated in transcriptional regulation in yeast and mammals (Ohana, B., et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90:138-142 (1993); Goizales. F., et al., Science 296:548-550 (2002)). The processes of transcriptional activation and protein degradation often are closely coupled (Salghetti. S. E., et al., Science 293:1651-1653 (2001); Ottosen. S., et al., Science 296:479-481 (2002); Conaway, R. C., et al., Science 296:1254-1258 (2002); Grossman, S. R., et al., Science 300:342-344 (2003)). A dual capacity of Bridge-1 to regulate gene expression and to modulate proteasomal function would be similar to dual functions ascribed to a small group of proteasomal subunits, coactivators, and ubiquitin ligases.
The precise stoichiometric assembly of transcription factors and coactivators is essential for appropriately regulated gene expression. We identified Bridge-1 as a coactivator of insulin gene transcription, but Bridge-1 overexpression decreased insulin gene expression in Bridge-1 transgenic mice. The deficit in insulin gene expression correlated both with the reduced pancreatic β-cell mass and with diminished levels of insulin protein expression in the surviving β cells. The pancreatic overexpression of the PDZ-scaffold protein Bridge-1 may disrupt and misdirect the protein-protein interactions within the transcriptional regulatory complexes of Bridge-1 target genes in vivo, effectively interrupting normal Bridge-1 signaling and suppressing insulin gene expression. Increased levels of Bridge-1 also may promote the formation of nonproductive complexes of transcription factors or alternatively recruit corepressors. This mechanism for insulin gene regulation is consistent with reports that the overexpression of the insulin gene activators PDX-1 or E47 results in the repression of insulin promoter activity (Ohleda, K., et al., Mol Cell Biol 20:900-911 (2000); German. M. S., and Wang, J., Mol Cell Biol 14:4067-4075 (1994); Marshak, S., et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93:15057-15062 (1996); Seijffers, R., et al., Endocrinology 140:3311-3317 (1999)). Increasing concentrations of E47 first promote and then interfere with the synergistic activation of glucose-responsive enhancers of the insulin promoter in conjunction with PDX-1 (Ohneda, K., et al., Mol Cell Biol 20:900-911 (2000)). Dose-dependent expression of PDX-1 is essential to maintain normal glucose homeostasis, and relatively small changes in PDX-1 expression levels result in metabolic dysfunction (Thomas, M. K., et al., J Clin Invest 108:319-329 (2001)). Our data indicate that changes in the levels of Bridge-1 expression have a similar capacity to augment or impair insulin gene expression. Inactivation of endogenous Bridge-1 in insulin-producing cells reduces the transcriptional activation of the insulin promoter (Thomas, M. K., et al., Mol Cell Biol 19:8492-8504 (1999)), and increasing Bridge-1 expression levels result in a dose-dependent, biphasic activation of insulin gene enhancers. Thus we propose that the coactivator Bridge-1 can serve as a rheostat to receive intracellular signals and translate them into graded levels of insulin gene expression. Bridge-1 may have a similar modulatory function to regulate pancreatic β-cell mass via additional target genes
Coactivator dysfunction is implicated in the pathogenesis of many diseases, including malignancies, neurodegenerative disorders, and mental retardation (Giles, R. M., et al., Trends in Genetics 14:178-182 (1998)). Accumulating evidence indicates that coactivators regulate insulin action and nutrient metabolism in extrapancreatic tissues. CBP alters insulin sensitivity (Yamauchi, T., et al., Nat Genet. 30:221-226 (2002)), and SRC1 and TIF2 adjust rates of energy expenditure (Picard, F., et al., Cell 111:931-941 (2002)). PGC-1α regulates glucose uptake and gluconeogenesis (Puigserver, P., and Spiegelman, B. M., Endo Rev 24:78-90 (2003)) and its overexpression inhibits glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (Yoon, J. C., et al., Dev Cell 5:73-83 (2003)). Genetic variations in the pgc-1 gene may increase susceptibility to insulin resistance and diabetes in humans (Hara, K., et al., Diabetologia 45:740-743 (2002)). Furthermore, mutations in the MODY genes hnf-4α, neuroD1, and ipf-1 (pdx-1) that are associated with heritable forms of diabetes in humans also alter their interactions with the coactivators CBP or p300 (Stanojevic, V., et al., Endocrinology p. 300 (March 2004) [Epub ahead of print]; Malecki, M. T., et al., Nat Genet. 23:323-328 (1999); Eeckhoute, J., et al., Mol Endocrinol 15:1200-1210 (2001)).
Coactivator dysfunction in pancreatic p cells may limit insulin production and contribute to the pathogenesis of diabetes in humans. The locus of the human Bridge-1 gene, chr 12q24.31-32 (Watanabe, T. K., et al., Genomics 50:241-250 (1998)), lies within a region identified by multiple genome-wide scans for candidate type 2 or MODY diabetes genes that is distinct from the adjacent MODY3 locus (Mahtani, M. M., et al., Nat Genet. 14:90-94 (1996); Shaw. J. T., et al., Diabetes 47:173-1796 (1998); Ehm, M. G., et al., Am J Hum Genet. 66:1871-1881 (2000); Lindgren, C. M., et al, Am J Hum Genet. 70:509-516 (2002); Frayling, T. M., et al., Diabetes 52:872-881 (2003); Wiltshire, S., et al., Diabetes 53:855-860 (2004)). Mutations or polymorphisms in the Bridge-1 gene may contribute to metabolic dysfunction by decreasing insulin production and reducing pancreatic β-cell mass. Thus, we conclude that Bridge-1 represents a diabetes gene.
The therapeutic effectiveness of selective estrogen receptor modulators demonstrates the feasibility of targeting distinct tissue-specific and promoter-specific recruitment of coactivators in the treatment of disease (Shang, Y., and Brown, M., Science 295:2465-2468 (2002)). We expect that the regulation of pancreatic β-cell function by coactivators like Bridge-1 will provide new therapeutic opportunities to restore insulin production in individuals with diabetes.
EXAMPLE 11
Materials and Methods for Examples 12-17
Examples 12-17 demonstrate that the PDZ domain of Bridge-1 is required for transcriptional activation, and p300 is identified as a Bridge-1 interaction partner that augments transcriptional activation by Bridge-1 in a PDZ-domain dependent manner.
Cell culture and transfections. BHK-21 (C-13) cells were obtained from American Type Culture Collection (Manassas, Va.) and cultured in Dulbecco's modified Eagle medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum, 100 U/mL Penicillin G, and 100 ug/mL streptomycin sulfate (Invitrogen Life Technologies, Carlsbad, Calif.). Transfections were conducted with Lipofectamine or Lipofectamine 2000 (Invitrogen Life Technologies) according to published methods (Thomas, M. K., et al., Molec. Cell. Biol. 19:8492-8504 (1999). Yeast transcriptional activation assays were conducted as previously reported (Thomas, M. K., et al., supra; Golemis, E. A., et al., Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, Ausubel, F. M., et al., eds., John Wiley and Sons, pp. 13.14.1-13.14.17 (1994)) with quantitative LexA-operator responsive beta-galactosidase reporter assays as outlined by the manufacturer (BD Biosciences Clontech, Palo Alto, Calif.).
Plasmids and mutagenesis. The Gal4 DNA-binding domain Bridge-1 fusion protein expression vectors Gal4-Bridge-1, Gal4-Bridge-1(1-72) and Gal4-Bridge-1(1-133) were generated in the pM vector (BD Biosciences Clontech, Palo Alto, Calif.) as described (Thomas, M. K., et al., supra). Additional mutant Gal4 Bridge-1 fusion protein expression vectors were generated by site-directed mutagenesis of the pM-Bridge-1 plasmid. Site-directed mutagenesis was performed with the QuikChange site-directed mutagenesis kit (Stratagene, La Jolla, Calif.) according to the manufacturer's instructions by using the following oligonucleotides and their respective reverse complements: Gal4-Bridge-1 (V159P): 5′-TGGATGATGAAATTCCG GAGTTCGGCTCTGT-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 156); Gal4-Bridge-1(V164P): 5′-TGGAGTTCGGCTCTCCGAACACCCAAAACTT-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 157); Gal4-Bridge-1 (V175P): 5′-AGTCTCTGCAGAACCCGGGCACTGTGG TGCA-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 158); Gal4-Bridge-1(D156P): 5′-CCTGCAAGTGGATCCTGAAATTGTGGAGTT-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 159); and Gal4-Bridge-1 (G151P): 5′-AGCCAGTATTGCGCCCCTGCAAGTGGA TGAT-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 160). Mutant constructs were verified by automated sequencing. The glutathione-S-transferase (GST)-Bridge-1 vector was cloned by excising rat Bridge-1 cDNA from the pM-Bridge-1 vector with BamH I and EcoR I digestion and subcloning into the multiple cloning site of the pGEX-5X-1 GST fusion protein expression vector (Amersham Biosciences, Piscataway, N.J.). Mutant GST-Bridge-1 expression vectors were generated by site-directed mutagenesis of the pGEX-5X-1-Bridge-1 vector by using the following oligonucleotides and their respective reverse complements: GST-Bridge-1 (1-72): 5′-GGATTTGTATCAGGTCTGAACAGCAAGGCAC-3′ (SEQ ID NO; 161); GST-Bridge-1(1-133): 5′-CAGTCCCGCCCTACCC TAGGCCTTTGCCA GAG-3′ (SEQ ID NO; 162); and GST-Bridge-1(D156P): 5′-CCTGCAAGTGGATCCTGAAATTGTGGAGTT-3′ (SEQ ID NO; 163). Mutant constructs were verified by automated sequencing. Yeast expression vectors for LexA-Bridge-1, LexA-Bridge-1(1-72), and LexA-Bridge-1(1-132) fusion protein constructs were previously described (Thomas, M. K., et al., supra). The pCMVβ-p300 plasmid was obtained from Upstate Biotechnology (Lake Placid, N.Y.). The Gal4-chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT, pG5-CAT) reporter plasmid was purchased from BD Biosciences Clontech and the Gal4-luciferase reporter plasmid (pFR-luc) was obtained from Stratagene. The pCMV-E1A wild-type and mutant E1A(Δ2-36) plasmids were gifts from R. Stein (Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tenn.), and the GST-p300 expression plasmids were obtained from H. Lu (Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oreg.) and D. Livingston (Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Mass.).
GST pull-down protein interaction assays. GST pull-down protein interaction assays were conducted as previously described (Stanojevic, V., et al., supra). Recombinant GST fusion protein input was determined and normalized by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) of fusion proteins that were synthesized in bacteria. Radiolabeled in vitro translated proteins were generated in rabbit reticulocyte lysate kits purchased from Promega (Madison, Wis.) with [35S]-methionine according to the manufacturer's protocol. Protein interaction assays were conducted with glutathione Sepharose 4B beads (Amersham Biosciences, Piscataway, N.J.) as described (Stanojevic, V., et al., supra).
Western blots. Western blots were conducted by SDS-PAGE fractionation of whole cell extracts prepared from transfected cells in 1× Reporter Lysis Buffer (Promega, Madison, Wis.) and electroblotting onto Inmobilon-P membranes (Millipore, Bedford, Mass.) (Thomas, M. K., et al., supra). Blots were incubated with primary rabbit polyclonal anti-Gal4 DBD:antiserum (1:1000 dilution) (sc-577 from Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc., Santa Cruz, Calif.) and secondary horseradish peroxidase-conjugated goat anti-rabbit antiserum (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Richmond, Calif.). Proteins were visualized by chemiluminescence with ECL Western blotting detection reagents (Amersham Life Sciences, Arlington Heights, Ill.).
EXAMPLE 12
Histone Deacetylase Inhibition Increases Transcriptional Activation by Bridge-1
We previously identified an assay for studies of transcriptional activation by the coactivator Bridge-1 in mammalian cells. In this transfection assay, a Gal4 DNA binding domain-Bridge-1 fusion protein (Gal4-Bridge-1) activated a Gal4-reporter construct by as much as 30-fold as compared to the control Gal4 DNA-binding domain construct (Gal4) alone (Thomas, M. K., et al., supra). Using this transcriptional activation assay, we found that incubation with the histone deacetylase inhibitor trichostatin A increased the transcriptional activation by Bridge-1 in a dose-dependent manner (FIG. 17A), suggesting that the regulation of transcriptional activation by Bridge-1 is governed by the activity of histone-modifying enzymes within transcriptional regulatory complexes.
EXAMPLE 13
Bridge-1 Interacts with the Histone Acetyltransferase p300
Because the histone acetyltransferase and nuclear receptor coactivator p300 is one of the principal coactivators implicated in the regulation of gene transcription in the endocrine pancreas, we conducted a series of studies to determine whether interactions between Bridge-1 and p300 could contribute to the regulation of transcriptional activation by Bridge-1. First, we demonstrated that transcriptional activation of the Gal4-reporter construct by Gal4-Bridge-1 was augmented by the addition of exogenous p300 in vivo. In a dose-dependent manner, the addition of p300 to Gal4-Bridge-1 increased activation of the reporter by over 70-fold, an effect in marked excess of that observed for p300-mediated activation of the basal activity of the control Gal4 expression vector (FIG. 17B). These data suggest that p300 cooperates with Bridge-1 to augment transcriptional activation.
To determine whether Bridge-1 could directly interact with p300, we conducted a series of GST pull-down protein interaction assays. In these assays we observed Bridge-1 interactions with p300 by combining GST-Bridge-1 fusion proteins with [35S]-radiolabeled in vitro translated full-length p300. Radiolabeled p300 strongly interacted with GST-Bridge-1 but not with the GST control protein (FIG. 17C). The coactivator p300 is a large modular protein with multiple interaction domains, including cysteine-histidine rich regions known as C/H domains (Chakravarti, D., et al., supra) (FIG. 17D, upper panel). To identify the regions within p300 that interacted with Bridge-1, we combined [35S]-radiolabeled in vitro translated Bridge-1 with GST-p300 fusion proteins that spanned the three C/H protein interaction domains within p300. We identified strong interactions between Bridge-1 and GST-p300 fusion protein segments encompassing p300 amino acids 1-595 and 744-1571 but not with the GST-p300 fusion protein encompassing amino acids 1572-2370 (FIG. 17D, lower panel). These results indicated that Bridge-1 can interact with multiple regions within p300, including those encompassing the C/H1 and C/H2 protein interaction domains. The histone acetyltransferase domain of p300 is included within amino acids 744-1571 (Chan, H. M., et al., supra). We noted that Bridge-1 did not directly interact with the carboxy-terminal segment of p300 that is implicated in interactions with the insulin gene regulators PDX-1 and NeuroD1 (Qiu, Y., et al., Molec. Cell. Biol. 18:2957-2964 (1998); Qiu, Y., et al., Molec. Cell. Biol. 22:412-420 (2002); Stanojevic, V., et al., Endocrinol. 145:2918-2928 (2004)).
EXAMPLE 14
Sequestration of p300 by E1A Impairs Transcriptional Activation by Bridge-1
To determine whether endogenous p300 might regulate the extent of transcriptional activation by Bridge-1, we overexpressed the exogenous adenoviral protein E1A to sequester p300 (Qiu, Y., et al., Molec. Cell. Biol. 18:2957-2964 (1998); Stein, R. W., et al., J. Virol. 64:4421-4427 (1990)). The expression of increasing amounts of E1A decreased the transcriptional activation of a Gal4-CAT reporter construct by Gal4-Bridge-1 (FIG. 18A) while preserving the expression of the transfected Gal4-Bridge-1 fusion proteins on Western blots (data not shown). Although exogenous E1A reduced transcriptional activation by Bridge-1, a mutant E1A protein (E1AΔ2-36) that is unable to bind and sequester p300 (Stein, R. W., et al., J. Virol. 64:4421-4427 (1990)) did not interfere with transcriptional activation (FIG. 18B). Collectively these data suggest that transcriptional activation by Bridge-1 depends, in part, on the availability of p300.
EXAMPLE 15
PDZ and Carboxy-Terminal Domains within Bridge-1 are Required for Transcriptional Activation
To identify domains within Bridge-1 that are required for transcriptional activation, we generated Bridge-1 deletion mutants and assessed their function in both yeast and mammalian cells. Bridge-1 segments containing amino acids 1-72 or 1-132 that lack carboxy-terminal portions of the protein that encompass the PDZ domain had markedly impaired transcriptional activation in yeast cells, ranging between 4 and 11 percent of the wild-type Bridge-1 activity (FIG. 19A). Similarly in mammalian cells, the levels of activation of the Gal4-reporter construct by Gal4-Bridge-1 mutant proteins encoding amino acids 1-72 or 1-133 were nearly undetectable (FIG. 19B), despite comparable protein expression of transfected wild-type and mutant Bridge-1 fusion proteins as determined by Western blots (FIG. 19C). Therefore the carboxy-terminal segment of Bridge-1 that includes the PDZ domain is required for transcriptional activation.
To determine the importance of the PDZ domain within Bridge-1 for transcriptional activation, we introduced proline substitution point mutations within several conserved amino acids of the PDZ domain of Bridge-1. As compared to the wild-type Gal4-Bridge-1 fusion protein, the mutant Gal4-Bridge-1 fusion proteins V159P, V164P, V175P, D156P, and G151P all demonstrated severe impairment in the activation of the Gal4-reporter construct (FIG. 20A), despite evidence of sufficient protein expression levels (FIG. 20B). We noted the most severe impairment in transcriptional activation in the Gal4-Bridge-1 fusion protein D156P. The level of transcriptional activation of the Gal4-reporter construct by Gal4-Bridge-1 (D156P) was only about 10 percent of that observed with expression of the wild-type Gal4-Bridge-1 fusion protein (FIG. 20C).
EXAMPLE 17
Deletion or Mutagenesis of the Bridge-1 PDZ Domain Disrupts Interactions with p300
Because our transfection data suggested that transcriptional activation by Bridge-1 partially depends on the availability of p300, we wondered whether mutations that reduce transcriptional activation by Bridge-1 might also disrupt the interactions of Bridge-1 with p300. In GST pull-down protein interaction assays, the deletion of carboxy-terminal segments of Bridge-1 that include the PDZ domain to generate GST-Bridge-1 fusion proteins encoding Bridge-1 amino acids 1-72 and 1-133 interfered with interactions with [35S]-radiolabeled in vitro translated p300 (FIG. 20D). Similarly, the mutant GST-Bridge-1 fusion protein D156P did not interact with radiolabeled wild-type p300 in contrast to the wild-type GST-Bridge-1 fusion protein (FIG. 20E). Thus mutations of Bridge-1 that disrupted transcriptional activation also interfered with interactions with p300.
Discussion
As discussed above, we have identified the PDZ-domain coactivator of insulin gene expression Bridge-1 as an interaction partner for the nuclear receptor coactivator p300. The coactivator Bridge-1 is believed to regulate target gene transcription by participating in multiple protein interactions to enhance transcriptional activation. Although our previous studies of Bridge-1-regulated transcriptional activation focused on the insulin promoter (Thomas, M. K., et al., supra), the broad distribution of the expression patterns for both p300 and Bridge-1 suggest that these two coregulators regulate a variety of target genes in cellular contexts beyond the endocrine pancreas. The appropriate assembly of multiprotein complexes is essential for the precise regulation of transcriptional activation of complex promoters. In these studies we demonstrate that transcriptional activation by Bridge-1 depends not only on the availability of endogenous p300 but also on structural features of the Bridge-1 PDZ domain that are required for interactions with p300. We propose that Bridge-1 participates in target gene regulation by contributing to multiprotein complexes to couple interactions with p300 and interactions with other transcriptional regulatory proteins (FIG. 21). The observed capacity of Bridge-1 to interact with multiple domains of p300 provides opportunities for multifocal and combinatorial protein interactions with increased complexity and flexibility for the regulation of target genes by Bridge-1.
Rat Bridge-1 is homologous to the human protein PSMD9 (FIG. 27.) that was isolated in a complex with a proteasomal subunit known as TBP-1/Rpt5 known to have transcriptional regulatory properties (Thomas, M. K., et al., supra; Watanabe, T. K., et al., Genomics 50:241-250 (1998); DeMartino, G. N., et al., J. Biol. Chem. 271:3112-3118 (1996); Ohana, B., et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90:138-142 (1993); Gonzales, F., et al., Sci. 296:548-550 (2002)). It is interesting to note that p300 can participate in similar protein regulatory complexes, as p300 protein expression levels are known to be regulated by the 26S proteasome under certain experimental conditions, including treatment with doxorubicin, sodium butyrate, or inhibitors of PI3 kinase (Poizat, C., et al., Molec. Cell. Biol. 20:8643-8654 (2000); Li, Q., et al., Molec. Endocrinol. 16:2819-2827 (2002); Chen, J., et al., Cell. Molec. Life Sci. 61:1675-1683 (2004)). As a potential modulator of the function of the 26S proteasome, Bridge-1 interactions with p300 could conceivably facilitate the coupling of the intrinsic ubiquitin ligase activity of p300 (Grossman, S. R., et al., Sci. 300:342-344 (2003) with proteasomal degradation machinery in the regulation of the expression levels of p300-interacting proteins (Grossman, S. R., et al., Molec. Cell 2:405-415 (1998)).
Although multiple interacting proteins for p300 have been identified, we note increasing evidence that the specific composition of coregulator transcriptional complexes is of physiologic and therapeutic relevance. For example, differing biological actions of ligands for nuclear hormone receptors may be mediated by their alteration of the composition of associated coregulatory proteins on target gene promoters (Savkur, R. S., et al., Vitamins and Hormones 68:145-183 (2004)). In particular, the therapeutic utility of selective estrogen receptor modulators in directing biological effects to distinct cell types may be directly regulated to differences in coregulator recruitment (Shang, Y. and Brown M., Sci. 295:2465-2468 (2002)). Our studies suggest that the regulation of the transcriptional activation of target gene expression by the coactivator Bridge-1 is depends significantly on the availability of p300.
EXAMPLE 18
Materials and Methods for Examples 19 to 22
Yeast interaction trap assays. Semiquantitative yeast two-hybrid interaction trap assays were conducted as previously reported (Golemis et al., 1994; Thomas et al., 1999). A LexA-rat PDX-1 bait fusion protein construct consisting of PDX-1 amino acids 160-283 cloned in the vector pEG202 and an acidic domain-rat Bridge-1 fusion protein construct cloned in the vector pJG4-5 were independently tested for activation of LexA operator-responsive LEU2 or β-galactosidase (lacZ) reporters in yeast. Interactions of E12 with rat Twist and rat inhibitor of differentiation-3 (Id3) proteins were used as positive controls and interactions of Bridge-1 with the human interleukin-1 receptor or D. melanogaster bicoid proteins were used as negative controls for the assays (Thomas et al., 1999). Fusion protein interactions were measured independently by growth on leucine dropout plates as a measure of LEU reporter activation or by blue color intensity with growth for 72 hours at 30° C. on X-Gal (5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indoyl-β-D-galactopyranoside) plates as a measure of lacZ reporter activation.
GST protein interaction assays. The glutathione-S-transferase (GST)-Bridge-1 vector was generated by excision of full-length rat Bridge-1 cDNA from the previously reported Gal4-Bridge-1 (pM-Bridge-1) vector (Thomas et al., 1999) with BamHI and EcoRI restriction enzyme digestion and directional cloning into the GST fusion protein expression vector pGEX-5X-1 (Amersham Pharmacia). The GST-PDX-1 expression vector (pGEX-KG-IDX-1) has been described (Miller et al., 1994). GST-PDX-1(1-38) and GST-PDX-1 (1-206) vectors were generated by insertion of premature stop codons in the GST-PDX-1 vector with QuikChange site-directed mutagenesis (Stratagene, La Jolla, Calif.) (Stanojevic et al., 2004). [35S]-radiolabeled in vitro translated proteins were synthesized from pET-16B-PDX-1 (rat) and pcDNA3-PDX-1 (human) wild-type and mutant protein expression vectors (Stanojevic et al., 2004) and from the pcDNA3-Bridge-1 protein expression vector (Thomas et al., 1999) with rabbit reticulocyte lysate kits (Promega, Madison, Wis.) according to the manufacturer's protocol. Radiolabeled protein input was normalized by analysis on SDS-polyacrylamide gels and autoradiography. Recombinant GST fusion proteins were generated and GST pull-down protein interaction assays were conducted with glutathione Sepharose 4B beads (Amersham Biosciences, Piscataway, N.J.) as previously reported (Stanojevic et al., 2004). GST fusion protein input was normalized by assessment of recombinant protein yields in serial dilutions by sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis.
Cell culture and transfections. BHK and HeLa cells were cultured and transfected with lipofectamine (Invitrogen Life Technologies, Carlsbad, Calif.) (Thomas et al., 1999). Chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) assays were conducted with fluorescent substrate FAST CAT (Molecular Probes, Eugene, Oreg.) and thin-layer chromatography on silica gel plates (Thomas et al., 1999). Gal4 fusion protein expression vectors (Gal4-Bridge-1 and Gal4-PDX-1), protein expression vectors (pCMV-PDX-1, pcDNA3-E12, and pcDNA3-E47), and promoter enhancer-reporter vectors ((Gal4)5-CAT, (SMS-TAAT1)5-65SMSCAT, and (FarFlat)5-CAT) have been previously described (Miller et al., 1994; Stanojevic et al., 2004; Thomas et al., 1999; Thomas et al., 2001).
EXAMPLE 19
Bridge-1 Interacts with PDX-1
We assessed whether Bridge-1 interacts with PDX-1 in a yeast two-hybrid interaction trap system. A bait construct encoding amino acids 160-283 of rat PDX-1 did not interact with either of the control proteins Twist or Id3. However, the PDX-1 bait consistently interacted with rat Bridge-1 in semi-quantitative yeast two-hybrid interaction trap assays as demonstrated by reporter activation both by growth on leucine dropout plates and by intense blue colonies on X-gal plates (Table 1). In contrast rat Bridge-1 did not interact with either of the negative control bait proteins human interleukin-1 receptor or D. melanogaster bicoid in these assays (Thomas et al., 1999). Thus the rat Bridge-1 protein interacts with a carboxy-terminal PDX-1 protein fragment in yeast cells.







TABLE 1







Bridge-1 Interacts with PDX-1 in Interaction Trap Assay.









Interaction with PDX-1 Bait














Twist
−



Id3
−



Bridge-1
++







The symbol “++” indicates growth on leucine dropout plates and intense blue colonies on X-gal plates. The symbol “−” indicates no growh on leucine dropout plates and white colonies on X-gal plates.






As a more direct method to observe the interaction between Bridge-1 and PDX-1, we conducted a series of GST-pull down protein interaction assays with GST-Bridge-1 fusion proteins and [35S]-radiolabeled in vitro translated rat PDX-1. In these interaction assays, radiolabeled PDX-1 associated with GST-Bridge-1 preferentially as compared to the GST negative control protein (FIG. 22), independently confirming Bridge-1 and PDX-1 interactions.
EXAMPLE 20
Bridge-1 Directly Interacts with the Amino-Terminal Transcriptional Activation Domain of PDX-1
We used the GST-pull down assays to define regions within PDX-1 that are required for interaction with Bridge-1. When GST-Bridge-1 was combined with [35S]-radiolabeled in vitro translated rat PDX-1 proteins, strong interactions were observed with full-length PDX-1. Amino-terminal PDX-1 protein fragments encoding amino acids 1-143 and 1-206 had stronger interactions with GST-Bridge-1 than did the full-length PDX-1 protein (FIGS. 23A and B). In contrast, GST-Bridge-1 did not interact with the carboxy-terminal [35S]-radiolabeled in vitro translated rat PDX-1 protein fragment encoding amino acids 143-283, despite the interaction observed in yeast between fusion proteins encoding Bridge-1 and rat PDX-1 amino acids 160-283. These data suggest that the amino-terminal domain of PDX-1 extending from amino acids 1-143, known to contain the PDX-1 transcriptional activation domain (Lu et al., 1996; Peers et al., 1994), is both necessary and sufficient for direct Bridge-1 interactions with PDX-1. We found similar results in an independent series of studies in which we combined GST-PDX-1 proteins with [35S]-radiolabeled in vitro translated rat Bridge-1 (FIG. 23C). Full-length GST-PDX-1 strongly interacted with radiolabeled Bridge-1, as did the GST-PDX-1 fragment encoding amino acids 1-206. In contrast the GST-PDX-1 (1-38) construct that contains only the penultimate amino-terminal portion of the PDX-1 transactivation domain did not support a strong interaction with radiolabeled Bridge-1.
EXAMPLE 21
Bridge-1 Interacts with Human PDX-1 Proteins
We examined whether the protein interactions that we observed between Bridge-1 and rat PDX-1 also were relevant to the human PDX-1 protein. For these studies we generated a series of [35S]-radiolabeled in vitro translated human PDX-1 proteins consisting of wild-type and mutant PDX-1 proteins implicated in conferring susceptibility to the development of diabetes in selected human populations (Hani et al., 1999; Hansen et al., 2000; Macfarlane et al., 1999; Stoffers et al., 1997b; Waeber et al., 2000). The GST-Bridge-1 protein interacted with both wild-type and mutant PDX-1 proteins (FIG. 24). In particular, we observed at least a 2-fold stronger interaction of GST-Bridge-1 with the PDX-1 amino-terminal protein derived from the P63fsdelC mutation associated with MODY4 (Stoffers et al., 1997b) as compared to the wild-type PDX-1 protein, even in the setting of a relatively low amount of protein input in the assay. Because the P63fsdelC mutation introduces a translational frame shift that subsequently results in a premature stop codon, this amino-terminal mutant protein contains amino acids 1-62 of the transcriptional activation domain of native PDX-1, followed by 59 additional frame-shifted amino acids (Stoffers et al., 1998).
EXAMPLE 22
Bridge-1 Augments the Transcriptional Activation of PDX-1
To determine whether the combination of Bridge-1 and PDX-1 alters the transcriptional activation of PDX-1, we conducted cell transfections using multiple approaches. First we transfected constructs encoding Gal4-PDX-1 and Gal4-Bridge-1 fusion proteins to BHK cells and assessed their ability to activate a Gal4-CAT reporter separately and in combination. In this context Gal4-PDX-1 alone activated the transcriptional reporter by 28-fold and Gal4-Bridge-1 alone activated the reporter 9-fold greater than did the empty control Gal4 vector (FIG. 25A). Notably the combination of Gal4-PDX-1 and Gal4-Bridge-1 resulted in a synergistic activation of the Gal4 reporter construct by approximately 76-fold. These data suggest that the combination of Bridge-1 and PDX-1 interacting in close proximity on the same DNA regulatory elements substantially augments transcriptional activation by PDX-1.
Next we assessed the effect of the dose-dependent addition of Bridge-1 in the context of PDX-1 activation of a multimerized TAAT1 enhancer-CAT reporter construct derived from the rat somatostatin promoter (Miller et al., 1994). On this transcriptional reporter vector, the addition of PDX-1 augmented transcriptional activation (FIG. 25B). The addition of increasing amounts of Bridge-1 expression vector to PDX-1 further increased the reporter activity (FIG. 25B), without changing the level of PDX-1 protein expression as assessed by Western blots (data not shown). Expression of Bridge-1 alone did not activate the somatostatin TAAT1 reporter. Thus in this context, the additional expression of Bridge-1 augmented PDX-1 activation of the target gene regulatory site.
Robust activation of conserved glucose-responsive enhancers in the rat insulin I promoter occurs with the synergistic effect of combining basic helix-loop-helix transcription factors, such as E12 and E47, with homeodomain transcription factors, such as PDX-1 (German et al., 1992; Peers et al., 1994). We assessed the effect of the addition of Bridge-1 on the activation of multimerized rat insulin I promoter FarFlat enhancers in the context of this synergistic activation assay in transfected HeLa cells. Under these experimental conditions, in the absence of the E2A proteins E12 and E47 neither Bridge-1 or PDX-1 alone or in combination substantially activated the FarFlat enhancer. Although no evidence for direct binding of Bridge-1 to FarFlat sequences was found in DNA-binding assays (Thomas et al., 1999), the activation of FarFlat by the combination of PDX-1, E12, and E47 was significantly enhanced by approximately 30 percent with the addition of the Bridge-1 expression vector as compared to the empty vector alone (FIG. 25C).
Discussion
We discovered that the transcriptional coactivator Bridge-1 serves as a protein interaction partner to modify the transcriptional activation functions of the pancreatic homeoprotein PDX-1. We demonstrated a direct interaction between Bridge-1 and an amino-terminal domain within PDX-1. Mapping studies suggest that Bridge-1 interactions occur between amino acids 38 and 143 of PDX-1, within a region known to confer transcriptional activation function to PDX-1 in part via interactions with other coactivators including p300 and CBP (Asahara et al., 1999; Lu et al., 1996; Peers et al., 1994; Qiu et al., 2002; Stanojevic et al., 2004). This finding is supported by the strong interactions we observed between Bridge-1 and the amino-terminal mutant P63fsdelC human PDX-1 protein (FIG. 24). We were surprised that the PDX-1 fragment encoding amino acids 143-283 did not interact directly with Bridge-1 in GST protein interaction assays. This observation suggests that the interactions between Bridge-1 and the carboxy-terminal PDX-1 protein fragment in yeast interaction trap assays may be indirect, reflecting an interaction of unidentified yeast protein complexes with both Bridge-1 and carboxy-terminal domains of PDX-1. Alternatively, post-translational modification of Bridge-1 and/or PDX-1 proteins in yeast cells may differ from those of rabbit reticulocyte lysates from which in vitro translated Bridge-1 and PDX-1 proteins were derived, thereby promoting direct Bridge-1 interactions with a second cryptic protein interaction domain within the carboxy-terminal domain of PDX-1. Regardless of the underlying explanation for the interaction observed in yeast, our data suggest that Bridge-1 participates in multimolecular transcriptional regulatory complexes with PDX-1 via multiple mechanisms.
Of note, we frequently generated doublet forms of in vitro translated PDX-1 proteins in rabbit reticulocyte lysates that may represent distinct conformations of PDX-1 proteins as a result of post-translational modifications by phosphorylation, glycosylation, or other processes (FIGS. 22 and 23B). In GST protein interaction assays, GST-Bridge-1 appeared to preferentially interact with the larger of the doublet forms of PDX-1 (FIG. 23B), indicating that direct interactions between Bridge-1 and PDX-1 are likely to be regulated by the protein conformation of PDX-1.
We demonstrated that the combination of Bridge-1 and PDX-1 increased transcriptional activation in three independent systems. In a fusion protein system designed to enhance heterodimeric interactions, related to an approach used in studies of PBX and PDX-1 interactions (Asahara et al., 1999), we found that Bridge-1 and PDX-1 fusion proteins synergistically increased the transcriptional activation of a multimerized reporter construct (FIG. 25A). In assessments of PDX-1 function in the transcriptional activation of key enhancers derived from the well-characterized PDX-1 target genes somatostatin and insulin, we found that the addition of exogenous Bridge-1 increased the activation by PDX-1.
We previously demonstrated that reduced expression of endogenous Bridge-1 substantially decreased the transcriptional activation of the insulin promoter in insulin-expressing cells and that Bridge-1 interactions with E2A proteins, such as E12 or E47, enhanced insulin promoter activation (Thomas et al., 1999). Our additional studies demonstrate that on important glucose-responsive enhancers within the rat insulin I promoter, Bridge-1 is capable of enhancing transcriptional activation via multiple protein-protein interactions, including interactions with PDX-1 (FIG. 26). The cytoplasmic sequestration of the coactivator Bridge-1 by strong interactions with the amino-terminal mutant P63fsdelC human PDX-1 protein may conceivably contribute to the severity of the diabetes phenotype in humans with MODY4 by disrupting insulin gene transcription, in a manner analogous to that proposed for mutant human PDX-1 protein interactions with p300 (Stanojevic et al., 2004).
In summary, we identified an additional coactivator in Bridge-1 that interacts with PDX-1 to modulate its regulation of target gene expression.
EXAMPLE 23
Endogenous Bridge-1 Expression Regulates Insulin Promoter Activation
To determine whether endogenous Bridge-1 contributes to the activation of the insulin promoter in insulin-producing cells, we used the INS-1 clonal β-cell line in a series of transient transfection studies. Bridge-1 antisense cDNA constructs substantially reduced rat insulin I promoter activation in insulin-producing cells in vitro. (FIG. 28A). As an independent method to reduce endogenous Bridge-1 expression, we designed a small interfering duplex RNA (siRNA) complementary to mouse and rat Bridge-1 sequences for use in INS-1 cells transiently transfected with the  ̃410 rat insulin I promoter. The administration of anti-Bridge-1 siRNA reduced insulin promoter activation by 50% (FIG. 28B), a reduction comparable to that observed by transfection of antisense Bridge-1 cDNA (FIG. 28A). Collectively these data indicate that a substantial component of the transcriptional activation of the insulin promoter in insulin-producing cells is regulated by endogenous levels of Bridge-1. Furthermore they provide us with a second tool in addition to the antisense cDNA construct for the disruption of endogenous Bridge-1 function.
All patents and publications referred to above are hereby entirely and expressly incorporated herein by reference. Various modifications and variations of the described invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention. Although the invention has been described in connection with specific preferred embodiments, it should be understood that the inventions as claimed should not be unduly limited to such specific embodiments. Indeed, various modifications of the described modes for carrying out the invention that are obvious to those skilled in the pertinent art are intended to be within the scope of the claims.

## Claims

1. A method for modulating the mass of pancreatic cells in a subject in need thereof, comprising treating said cells with a compound that activates or inhibits the expression of Bridge-1 protein or activates or inhibits the expression of a Bridge-1 target gene, wherein the treatment of said pancreatic cells results in the modulation of the mass of said pancreatic cells when compared to untreated pancreatic cells.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein said method modulates the mass of pancreatic β-cells or pancreatic α-cells.

3. The method of claim 1, wherein said treating activates the expression of Bridge-1 protein or activates the expression of a Bridge-1 target gene.

4. The method of claim 3, wherein said treating reduces the mass of pancreatic β-cells.

5. The method of claim 3, wherein said treating increases the mass of pancreatic α-cells.

6. The method of claim 3, wherein said compound is Activin A or Trichostatin A.

7. The method of claim 1, wherein said treating inhibits the expression of Bridge-1 protein or inhibits the expression of a Bridge-1 target gene.

8. The method of claim 7, wherein said treating increases the mass of pancreatic β-cells.

9. The method of claim 7, wherein said compound is progesterone.