1MAC is a subsidiary of Corporate Brand Foods America, Inc.

(“CBFA”), which was formed for the purpose of being the entity to

acquire Jac Pac.

UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT FOR THE 

DISTRICT OF NEW HAMPSHIRE

Irwin and Margery Muskat

v. Civil No. 06-cv-30-JD

Opinion No. 2008 DNH 073

United States of America

DECISION

Irwin and Margery Muskat brought suit seeking a refund of

income taxes they paid in 1998. The Muskats contend that they

mistakenly characterized a $1,000,000 payment they received from

Manchester Acquisition Corporation ("MAC") as part of the sale of

the Muskats' business, Jac Pac Foods, Ltd., as ordinary income

when it was a payment for Irwin's personal goodwill and should

have been taxed at the long term capital gain rate.1 They

contend that as a result of the mistake, they overpaid their

income taxes in 1998 by $203,434 and seek a refund pursuant to 26

U.S.C. § 7422. The United States asserts that the payment was

properly taxed as ordinary income.

A bench trial was held on January 23 and 24, 2008. In his

opening statement at trial, the Muskats’ counsel raised a new

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2

claim that the Muskats were entitled to a refund of $26,792 from

their 1998 taxes, which was assessed as a self employment tax.

The United States objected that the variance doctrine precluded

the Muskats’ new claim. The court directed the parties to file

memoranda on that issue. After the trial concluded, the Muskats

filed a brief on their claim for a refund of the self employment

tax and moved for leave to amend their complaint to add the new

claim. The United States also filed a brief on the new claim and

filed an objection to the motion for leave to amend.

I. New Claim for a Refund of Self Employment Tax

In their complaint, the Muskats pled a claim for a tax

refund of $203,434 of the taxes they paid in 1998 on the theory

that the $1,000,000 paid by MAC to Irwin Muskat, under the

provisions of his noncompetition agreement, was actually a

payment for the sale of Irwin’s personal goodwill. As a payment

for goodwill, the Muskats alleged, the $1,000,000 should have

been taxed as a long term capital gain. Although not explained

in the complaint, the $203,434 amount sought as a refund was

comprised of $176,652 paid as ordinary income tax, allegedly in

excess of the amount that would have been owed for long term

capital gain tax, and $26,782 in self employment tax, paid

Case 1:06-cv-00030-JD Document 59 Filed 04/02/08 Page 2 of 22
2The Muskats originally sought a refund of $26,782 for the

self employment tax paid, but now agree with the government that

the amount they claim should be $21,479.

3

because the $1,000,000 was treated as ordinary income subject to

self employment tax.

The Muskats’ new claim is that they are entitled to a refund

of $21,479 of the self employment tax paid in 1998 because

compliance with a noncompetition agreement is not carrying on a

trade or business as is required for self employment.2 See 26

U.S.C. §§ 1401 & 1402. As a result, they contend, they should

not have paid self employment tax on the $1,000,000 even if that

payment is assessed as ordinary income. 

Although the Muskats sought a refund of the 1998 self

employment tax in their complaint, they did not assert the new

theory that a payment made under a noncompetition agreement is

not subject to self employment tax. The United States contends

that the Muskats are barred under the “variance doctrine” from

bringing the new claim because they did not raise it in their

administrative refund claim or in the complaint filed here. The

Muskats seek leave to amend their complaint, after trial, to

include their new claim, and the government objects.

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A. Variance Doctrine

By statute, a taxpayer is prohibited from bringing suit to

recover a tax refund or a credit “until a claim for refund or

credit has been duly filed with the Secretary, according to the

provision of law in that regard, and the regulations of the

Secretary established in pursuance thereof.” 26 U.S.C. §

7422(a). That provision requires administrative exhaustion,

which limits the jurisdiction of the district courts over civil

tax suits, as provided in 28 U.S.C. § 1346(a)(1). United States

v. Williams, 514 U.S. 527, 533 (1995); United States v. Dalm, 494

U.S. 596, 601 (1990). Exhaustion, in this context, is defined by

the variance doctrine that prohibits a taxpayer from raising

claims in a suit for a tax refund that were not presented to the

IRS in the administrative proceeding. IA 80 Group, Inc. &

Subsidiaries v. United States, 347 F.3d 1067, 1074 (8th Cir.

2004); accord Western Co. of N. Am. v. United States, 323 F.3d

1024, 1034 (Fed. Cir. 2003); Appollo Fuel Oil v. United States,

195 F.3d 74, 77 (2d Cir. 1999); McDonnell v. United States, 180

F.3d 721, 722 (6th Cir. 1999).

 A prohibited variance occurs when the taxpayer raises “a

ground for refund neither specifically raised by, nor included

within the general language of, a timely claim for refund.” IA

80 Group, 347 F.3d at 1074. The taxpayer cannot “substantially

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5

vary the legal theories and factual bases set forth in the tax

refund claim presented to the IRS.” Lockheed Martin Corp. v.

United States, 210 F.3d 1366, 1371 (Fed. Cir. 2000). An IRS

“claim is sufficiently specific if the basic issue is evident

from the record, and the IRS is aware of the nature of the

claim.” IA 80 Group, 347 F.3d at 1074.

In this case, the Muskats filed an amended 1998 return,

which served as their refund claim to the IRS. The Muskats

explained the changes in their 1998 return as follows: 

“Taxpayers are amending their tax return to properly record the

allocation between the sale of goodwill and a covenant not to

compete. This change results in the reclassification of income

erroneously reported as fully ordinary income to the correct

allocation between ordinary income and capital gain.” Doc. 56,

Ex. 1. The Muskats did not raise the new theory that the

$1,000,000, as payment under a noncompetition agreement, was not

subject to self employment tax in their IRS refund claim or in

their complaint filed in this court.

The Muskats argue that the variance doctrine does not bar

their new claim because they sought a refund of the self

employment tax in the claim presented to the IRS, albeit under a

different theory. They contend that the IRS had notice of their

new self employment tax theory because they raised that theory in

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6

their IRS claims for taxes paid in 2001 and 2002 and in a refund

claim for 1999 to 2001. They also contend that the United States

has conceded in their other proceedings for tax refunds that

payments under the noncompetition agreement are not subject to

self employment tax. 

The Muskats did not raise the new self employment tax theory

in their 1998 tax refund claim before the IRS, which divests the

court of jurisdiction to hear the claim. Even if the IRS were

deemed to have had sufficient notice of the new theory based on

the Muskats’ claims for refunds for other years, which is

unlikely, that claim was not pled in the Muskats’ complaint in

this case. To remedy that omission, the Muskats alternatively

move to amend their complaint to add the claim.

B. Motion for Leave to Amend the Complaint

The Muskats seek leave to amend their complaint under

Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 15(b), contending that an

amendment to add the new theory to support their refund claim for

the self employment tax paid in 1998 is necessary to conform the

pleadings to the evidence and the issues at trial. The United

States objects to the motion.

“Rule 15(b) permits post-trial amendments to conform the

pleadings to the evidence ‘[w]hen issues not raised by the

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pleadings are tried by express or implied consent of the

parties.’” Kenda Corp. v. Pot O’Gold Money Leagues, Inc., 329

F.3d 216, 232 (1st Cir. 2003) (quoting Fed. R. Civ. P. 15(b)). 

When the opposing party does not expressly consent to trial of an

issue, “[c]onsent to the trial of an issue may be implied if,

during the trial, a party acquiesces in the introduction of

evidence which is relevant only to that issue.” Id. (internal

quotation marks omitted). An amendment under Rule 15(b) may be

allowed only when the opposing party will not be prejudiced. 

United States v. Davis, 261 F.3d 1, 59 (1st Cir. 2001).

The United States did not expressly consent to trial of the

self employment tax issue. The Muskats ignore the showing

required to show that the United States impliedly consented to

trial of the new self employment tax issue. Instead, the Muskats

focus exclusively on showing that the United States would not be

prejudiced by introducing the new claim at this late date. 

Absent at least implied consent, however, Rule 15(b) does

not apply. The United States objected to the new issue at trial. 

No evidence was introduced that was relevant only to that issue. 

Therefore, the United States did not consent to trial of the

issue by implication. The motion for leave to amend is denied.

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II. Decision

The Muskats sought a refund of income tax they paid for 1998

on the $1,000,000 payment under the Noncompetition Agreement,

arguing that the payment was for Irwin Muskat’s personal goodwill

and should have been taxed as a long term capital gain rather

than ordinary income. The government opposed the refund. The

court denied the government’s motion for summary judgment based

on 26 U.S.C. § 1060 and, before trial, ruled that the applicable

legal standard, as established by First Circuit precedent, was

the “strong proof” rule. See Order, July 25, 2007 (denying

summary judgment); Order, Jan. 10, 2008 (deciding applicable

standard). 

During the bench trial held on January 23 and 24, 2008,

Irwin Muskat, George Gillett, and Leslie Charm testified as

witnesses. The deposition of Benjamin Warren was submitted, with

certain testimony stricken based on the parties’ objections. At

the conclusion of the trial, the court gave the parties an

opportunity to file trial briefs on or before March 20.

A. Findings of Fact

Jac Pac Foods, Ltd. was founded in 1933, as Granite State

Packing Company, by Irwin Muskat’s grandfather. Irwin Muskat

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worked in all aspects of the family business, beginning when he

was a teenager. Granite State, based in Manchester, New

Hampshire, bought another meat company, Jac Pac, based in

Watertown, Massachusetts, in the 1960s, and their business grew

significantly. Muskat cultivated personal relationships with Jac

Pac’s customers and suppliers. 

In 1987, when his uncle died, Muskat took over operational

control of the company, becoming the president, CEO, and a 37%

shareholder. Muskat continued his “hands on” management style,

maintaining his involvement in key accounts and his personal

relationships with customers and suppliers. After a fire at the

Granite State site, the Jac Pac operation was moved from

Watertown to a new facility in Manchester. By 1998, Jac Pac had

annual revenues of approximately $130,000,000.

During the late 1990s, Muskat earned $535,000 in salary and

bonuses at Jac Pac. He also had life insurance worth $4 million,

partially paid for by Jac Pac. In addition, Muskat had a

deferred compensation plan that would provide him $200,000 per

year for ten years, which would be paid to his heirs in the event

of his death. 

Irwin Muskat turned sixty in 1997 and began to consider

whether he wanted to continue working the long hours that he had

committed to Jac Pac. During that time, a large hamburger

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10

producing company was driven into bankruptcy by the effects of an

e. coli outbreak caused by its products. That event was the

turning point in Muskat’s decision to sell Jac Pac.

George Gillett, the chairman and majority stockholder of

CBFA, contacted Muskat about purchasing Jac Pac. CBFA was in the

process of acquiring the assets of meat production and

distribution companies to build a larger company with the

intention of becoming an attractive acquisition for another

enterprise or to take the company public. Gillett and CBFA

valued Muskat’s relationships with customers, such as Wendy’s,

Burger King, Sisco, and Subway, and his relationships with

suppliers and distributors, all of which had contributed to Jac

Pac’s success. Gillett considered Muskat’s relationships with

his customers and suppliers to be extraordinary and would not

have acquired Jac Pac without Muskat’s continued participation in

the business.

During the process that led to the sale of Jac Pac to

MAC/CBFA, Jac Pac and Muskat were represented by Leslie Charm, a

member of Jac Pac’s board of advisors; Peter Leberman, an

attorney; David Linton, an investment banker; and Muskat. CBFA

was represented by Gillett; Benjamin Warren, CBFA’s president,

CEO, and a minority shareholder; Jeffery Joyce; Jim McCoy, and

Case 1:06-cv-00030-JD Document 59 Filed 04/02/08 Page 10 of 22
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the law firm of Winston & Strawn, LLP. Negotiations about the

sale went on during the summer and fall of 1997. 

In early November of 1997, Muskat, Jac Pac’s

representatives, and MAC/CBFA’s representatives met in Chicago to

negotiate the terms of the transaction. They discussed the

purchase price, the structure of the sale, Jac Pac’s payment of

dividends, an incentive stock option plan, the consideration to

be paid to Irwin Muskat, and Muskat’s role in the business after

it was sold. Muskat wanted to receive more compensation in the

transaction than his share of stock in Jac Pac would provide. 

Muskat’s personal goodwill was not raised at the meeting. The

Chicago meeting concluded without an agreement, and the parties

continued to negotiate the terms of the transaction. Following

the meeting, letters indicated that the transaction would be

accomplished through a sale of assets with a purchase price of

$34 million.

Gillett and MAC/CBFA offered Muskat, personally, $2,500,000

to be paid in three equal installments, with the allocation to be

worked out in a manner that was advantageous to Muskat for tax

purposes. In late December of 1997, Gillett and MAC/CBFA sent a

draft letter of intent that allocated the payments to a

noncompetition agreement and structured the payments in different

installments. Muskat responded with changed language, adding,

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among other things, a provision that the payments would survive

Muskat’s death or disability. On January 8, 1998, CBFA and

Muskat agreed to a letter of intent that included the

noncompetition agreement, with a survivability provision, and

also required Muskat to make an investment in CBFA and to enter a

three-year employment agreement with CBFA.

Gillett testified that in his business transactions he

preferred to operate in partnership with the owners of the

acquired businesses and to provide incentives of stock options,

bonuses, and deferred compensation to keep the executives in the

business. He also testified that the negative incentive of a

noncompetition agreement was necessary to protect against

problems that might arise later if the relationships and positive

incentives did not work out. Jac Pac’s advisor, Leslie Charm,

remembered that Gillett and Warren required a noncompetition

agreement.

During January and February of 1998, the parties and their

representatives worked on drafts of the documents for the

transaction, which included the asset purchase agreement, the

noncompetition agreement, the employment agreement, and the

subscription agreement that required Muskat to invest in CBFA. 

The noncompetition agreement was an essential element of the

transaction package.

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Muskat became concerned that the nature of the transaction

had changed so that he would not receive the compensation that he

had been promised, and the deal nearly collapsed. Muskat

understood that he would receive a compensation package that had

the same value as the compensation he was receiving from Jac Pac

prior to the transaction with MAC/CBFA. The parties agreed to

allocate the purchase price differently so that Muskat would

receive more from the transaction. Warren and Gillett from

MAC/CBFA felt that it was important to have Muskat continue in

his role as CEO at Jac Pac and to use his relationships and

contacts for the benefit of the combined companies. 

New draft documents were prepared. Muskat was offered an

additional $2,000,000 in compensation under the noncompetition

agreement. The next draft of the agreements reduced the

compensation under the noncompetition agreement, to reflect

reduced payments in the years 1999, 2000, and 2001. A subsequent

draft reduced the compensation again by a small amount.

The asset purchase agreement was signed on March 31, 1998. 

That agreement allocated the asset purchase price to include

$15,908,511 for Jac Pac’s goodwill. The agreement required

Muskat and MAC/CBFA to execute a mutually satisfactory

noncompetition agreement, employment agreement, and subscription

agreement. The noncompetition agreement and other agreements

Case 1:06-cv-00030-JD Document 59 Filed 04/02/08 Page 13 of 22
14

were signed on May 7, 1998, as part of the Jac Pac transaction. 

Under the subscription agreement, Muskat agreed to invest

$2,000,000 in CBFA. Under the employment agreement, Muskat was

entitled to salary and also to bonuses that were tied to certain

sales targets. 

The noncompetition agreement provides that Muskat

shall not . . . participate or engage in directly or

indirectly (as an owner (other than as a passive

investor), partner, employee, officer, director,

independent contractor, consultant, advisor or in any

other capacity calling for the rendition of services,

advice, or acts of management, operation or control),

any business that, during the Term, is competitive with

the Business Conducted (as defined below) by the

Company or any firm or corporation owned or controlled

by CBFA (a “Related Entity”) within any geographic area

in which the Company or any Related Entity does

business.

The “Term” of the agreement, which was defined in relation to

Muskat’s employment agreement, extended for thirteen years. The

agreement prohibited Muskat from soliciting employees to leave

the company and affiliate with a competitor and from diverting

business from the company. In consideration for the agreement,

Muskat would be paid a total of $3,955,599 in separate

installments, beginning with a $1,000,000 payment on the date of

the agreement. The agreement also provided that the obligation

of MAC/CBFA “to make the payments provided for herein shall

survive Muskat’s death or disability.” 

Case 1:06-cv-00030-JD Document 59 Filed 04/02/08 Page 14 of 22
15

Muskat has received the payments promised under the

noncompetition agreement. He also worked for CBFA as provided in

the employment agreement and invested in the company as the

subscription agreement required. When CBFA was purchased by

another company in 2000, Muskat continued his employment with the

new company and worked until 2004.

On their 1998 federal tax return, Irwin and Margery Muskat

identified the $1,000,000 dollar payment Irwin received under the

noncompetition agreement as ordinary income and paid income tax

and self employment tax on that amount. The Muskats filed an

amended tax return in 2002, characterizing the $1,000,000 payment

in 1998 as proceeds from the sale of Irwin Muskat’s personal

goodwill in Jac Pac. They claimed an overpayment of taxes for

1998 in the amount of $203,434. The IRS denied their request for

a refund.

B. Discussion and Rulings of Law

The Muskats argue that despite the provisions of the

noncompetition agreement, the payments under that agreement were

intended by the parties to purchase Irwin Muskat’s personal

goodwill. The Muskats claim that they are entitled to a tax

refund because as compensation for goodwill, the payment should

Case 1:06-cv-00030-JD Document 59 Filed 04/02/08 Page 15 of 22
16

have been taxed as a capital gain. The government contends that

the Muskats are bound by the terms of the noncompetition

agreement and cannot now reconfigure the purpose of the agreement

for tax purposes. The government asserts that no tax refund is

due because the payment was ordinary income and because even if

the payment related to Irwin Muskat’s personal goodwill, he was

required to provide services to MAC/CBFA in connection with his

personal goodwill, making the payments ordinary income.

The parties disputed the applicable standard for deciding

whether the $1,000,000 payment under the noncompetition agreement

was for the purposes expressed in the agreement or was instead a

payment for Irwin’s personal goodwill. The Muskats argued that

the “economic reality test” applied. The government contended

that the First Circuit required “strong proof” to overcome the

parties’ expressed intent. The court ruled, based on older but

still extant First Circuit precedent, that the “strong proof”

standard applied. See Order, Jan. 10, 2008 (doc. no. 38).

1. Noncompetition Agreement or Sale of Personal Goodwill

The noncompetition agreement provides that the consideration

paid is for Muskat’s promises made under the agreement. To

prevail on their personal goodwill claim, the Muskats must show

by "strong proof" that, despite the express terms of the

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17

agreement, Irwin Muskat and MAC/CBFA intended the $1,000,000

payment to be compensation for Irwin's personal goodwill and not

for the promises made in the noncompetition agreement. Harvey

Radio Labs., Inc. v. Comm’r of Internal Revenue, 470 F.2d 118,

119-20 (1st Cir. 1972). The Harvey Radio standard requires

strong proof of the parties’ intentions when they entered into

the noncompetition agreement. Id. at 120. 

The negotiation process that culminated in the sale of Jac

Pac to MAC/CBFA did not include a discussion of Irwin Muskat’s

personal goodwill, as such. Neither the noncompetition agreement

nor any other agreement in the transaction mentions Irwin

Muskat’s personal goodwill. Indeed, the concept of personal

goodwill as an asset, separate from business goodwill and from

the obligations imposed by the noncompetition agreement, in the

context of the sale of a business like Jac Pac is unclear. See,

e.g., Matter of Prince, 85 F.3d 314, 320-23 (7th Cir. 1996)

(discussing value of orthodontist’s goodwill in his practice for

purposes of bankruptcy valuation and attributing orthodontist’s

goodwill, his relationships with patients, as an asset of his

practice); Bruss Co. v. K & S Brokerage, Inc., 1992 WL 25375 at

*10 (N.D. Ill. 1992) (discussing personal goodwill of former

sales contractor for purposes of determining whether

nonsolicitation covenant was enforceable); In re Cooley, 87 B.R.

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432, 443 (S.D. Tex. 1988) (goodwill of medical practice not

separate from personal goodwill of physician and could not be

sold separate from his services); Martin Ice Cream Co. v. C.I.R.,

110 T.C. 189, 206-07 (1998) (where family member operated as

principal of family business without an employment agreement or 

noncompetition agreement, his oral agreement with customer and

personal relationships were his own asset and not an asset of the

business).

During the negotiation process, the parties were well-aware

of Jac Pac’s business goodwill, to which more than $15,000,000 of

the purchase price was allocated. Warren testified that he was

not aware of any goodwill in the transaction other than Jac Pac’s

goodwill. The noncompetition agreement defines “Goodwill” as an

asset of Jac Pac “including its goodwill and business as a going

concern.” The purpose of the noncompetition agreement was to

protect Jac Pac’s “Goodwill” in the transaction. Muskat

acknowledged in the agreement that the noncompetition provisions

were “necessary to preserve and protect the proprietary rights

and the goodwill of [MAC] (including [Jac Pac’s goodwill]) and

the Related Entities as going concerns.” The consideration paid

under the agreement was expressly for the covenants not to

compete, with no mention of personal goodwill.

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Muskat contends that the provisions of the noncompetition

agreement, including the long term of the agreement and the

survivability provision, were unusual and show that the agreement

was really a sale of his personal goodwill. He also contends

that given his age, his lack of interest in competing with

MAC/CBFA, his employment and investment in the company, and the

insurmountable difficulties that would be encountered in starting

a competing business, there was no need for a noncompetition

agreement. Because a noncompetition agreement was not necessary,

Muskat contends the compensation under the agreement was instead

paid for his personal goodwill. 

The evidence shows that Gillett of MAC/CBFA included

noncompetition agreements in nearly all of his business

transactions because he believed that the protection such

agreements provide is important. He testified that he was

pleased to have the noncompetition agreement with Muskat to

protect his family’s interests in the business, although the

agreement was not the central focus of the transaction with

Muskat and Jac Pac. Although Gillett was not particularly

concerned that Muskat would leave CBFA to start a competing

business, he nevertheless intended that the noncompetition

agreement with Muskat would protect CBFA shareholders and protect

Gillett’s family partnerships.

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Gillett and Warren valued Muskat’s key relationships with

Jac Pac’s customers, suppliers, and distributors and his keen

business acumen. They knew that Muskat wanted to be paid more

than his stockholder share of the purchase price and that he

wanted his package from MAC/CBFA to include the same value as his

compensation package with Jac Pac. They felt that retaining

Muskat in the business was essential for the transaction, and

they agreed to the increased amounts because it was necessary to

have Muskat recommend the transaction to Jac Pac’s board and the

other shareholders. Although the agreement accommodated Muskat’s

demand for additional compensation, MAC/CBFA did not pay more in

the transaction but instead merely reallocated the purchase

price.

The Muskats have persuasively shown that MAC/CBFA agreed to

allocate additional compensation to Irwin through the

noncompetition agreement. They have not provided strong proof

that MAC/CBFA and Muskat intended the payments under the

noncompetition agreement to buy Muskat’s personal goodwill. 

Therefore, the Muskats did not carry their burden of proof on

their claim that the $1,000,000 payment made in 1998 under the

noncompetition agreement was for the sale of Irwin Muskat’s

personal goodwill.

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2. Sale of Asset or Payment for Personal Services

The government also argues that if the payments under the

noncompetition agreement were found to be something other than

compensation for the covenants in that agreement, those payments

were for personal services and not for the sale of an asset. The

Muskats’ claim was that the compensation agreed to in the

noncompetition agreement was for the sale of an asset, Irwin’s

personal goodwill. The court has concluded that the Muskats did

not carry their burden of proof on that claim. As that resolves

the only claim raised in the complaint, no further analysis is

necessary.

Conclusion

For the foregoing reasons, the plaintiffs’ motion for leave

to amend their complaint (document no. 48) is denied. 

The court finds in favor of the government on the

plaintiffs’ only claim in this case that the $1,000,000 paid in

1998 under the noncompetition agreement was a payment for the

sale of Irwin Muskat’s personal goodwill.

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22

The clerk of court shall enter judgment in favor of the

government and close the case. 

SO ORDERED.

____________________________

Joseph A. DiClerico, Jr.

United States District Judge

April 2, 2008

cc: Nathaniel J. Dorfman, Esquire

James E. Higgins, Esquire

Robert J. Kovacev, Esquire

Edward J. Murphy, Esquire

T. David Plourde, Esquire

John-Mark Turner, Esquire

Karen Wozniak, Esquire

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