In th e S u p re m e Co u rt o f Ge o rg ia

De c id e d: Ju ly 5 , 2 0 1 6

S 1 6 A0 3 2 3 . S COTT v . THE S T ATE.

HUNS T EIN, Ju stic e

.

Th is in te rlo c u to ry a p p e a l p re se n ts a fa c ia l c o n stitu tio n a l c ha lle n g e to

su b se c tio n (e ) of th e Co m p u te r o r Ele c tro n ic P o r n o g r a p h y a n d Ch ild

Ex p lo ita tio n Pre v e n tio n Ac t, OCGA § 1 6

- 1 2

- 1 0 0 .2

, wh ic h c rim in a liz e s th e

o ffe n se o f “ o b sc e n e In te rn e t c o n ta c t with a c h ild .” Ap pe lla n t Ja c k S c o tt wa s

in d ic te d in J a n u a r y 2 0 1 5 o n two c ou nts o f th a t o ffe n se , a risin g fro m a lle g e d

se x u a lly e x p lic it o n lin e c o m m u n ic a tio n s in wh ic h h e to o k p a rt in la te 2 01 3 with

a m in o r u n d e r th e a g e of 1 6

. S c o tt th e re a fte r file d a g e n e ra l d e m u rre r,

c o n te n d in g th a t OCGA § 1 6 -1 2

- 1 0 0 .2 (e ) is u n c o n stitu tio n a lly o v e rb ro a d in

v io la tio n o f th e rig h t to fre e sp e e c h g u a ra n te e d u nd e r th e F i r s t Am e n d m e n t to

th e U n ite d S ta te s Co n stitu tio n. 1 Th e tria l c o u rt d e nie d th e d e m u rre r b u t g ra n te d

S c o tt a c e rtific a te o f im m e d ia te re v ie w. S c o t t file d a n a p p lic a tio n fo r

1 S c o t t ’s g en eral d em

u rrer al s o ci t ed t h e Geo rg i a Co n s ti t ut i o n ’ s free s p eec h

cl au s e, s ee Ga. Co n st

. o f 1 98 3

, Art

. 1

, S e c

. 1

, Par. 5

, an d rai s ed an ad d i t i o n al

ch al l en g e u n d er t h e s o -cal l ed “ Do rm an t Co m m erce Cl au s e.”in te rlo c u to ry a p p e a l, a n d we g ra n te d th e a p p lic a tio n on ly to re v ie w th e me rits

o f h is F irst Am e n d m e n t o v e r b r e a d th c h a lle n ge

. We n o w ho ld th a t, wh e n

p ro p e rly c o n stru e d

, su b se c tio n (e ) d oe s n o t e ffe c t a re a l a n d su b sta n tia l

c o n stra in t u p o n c o n stitu tio n a lly p ro te c te d e x p re ssio n

. S u bse c tio n (e ) th e re fo re

d o e s n o t o n its fa c e vio la te th e F irst Am e n d m e n t, a n d th e tria l c o u rt p ro p e r l y

d e n ie d S c ott’s d e m

urre r. Ac c o rd in g ly , we a ffirm

.

1

. In g e ne ra l, “ [t] h e F irst Am e n dm e n t m e a n s th a t g o v e rn m e n t h a s n o

p o we r to re stric t e x p re ssio n b e c a u se o f its m e ssa g e , its id e a s, its su b je c t m a tte r,

o r its c o n te n t.” Ash c ro ft v

. Am e ric a n Civ il Lib e rtie s U n io n , 53 5 U .S

. 5 6 4

, 5 7 3

(1 2 2 S C t 1 7 0 0

, 1 52 LE2 d 7 7 1 ) (2 00 2 ); a c c o rd F in a l Ex it Ne two rk

, In c

. v

. S ta te

o f Ge o rg ia

, 2 9 0 G a

. 50 8 (1 ) (7 22 SE2 d 7 2 2 ) (2 0 1 2 ). Th o u gh Am e ric a n

ju risp ru d e n c e h a s re c o gn iz e d a fe w n a rro wly d e fin e d fo rm s o f e x p re ssio n th a t

a re c a te g o ric a lly e x c lu d e d fro m F irst Am e n d m e nt p ro te c tio n , se e Un ite d S ta te s

v

. Alv a re z , 1 32 S

. Ct. S C t 2 5 3 7

, 2 5 44 (1 8 3 LE2 d 57 4) (2 0 1 2 ) (e nu m e ra tin g

c a te g or i e s o f h i s t o r i c a l l y u n p ro te c te d sp e e c h

, su c h a s de fa m a tio n , o b sc e n ity

, a n d

fra u d ), la ws p u rp o rtin g to p ro h ib it o r re g u la te sp e e c h fa llin g o u tsid e th ose

n a rro w b o u n d s o n th e b a sis o f its c o n te n t a re su b je c t to “ e x a c tin g sc ru tin y .” Id

.

a t 2 5 4 8

. To b e v a lid

, su c h la ws “ m ust b e n a rro wly d r a w n a n d re p re se n t a

2c o n sid e re d le g isla tiv e ju d g m e n t th a t a p a rtic u la r m o d e of e x p re ssio n h a s to g iv e

wa y to o th e r c o m

p e llin g n e e d s o f so c i e t y .” Bro a d ric k v

. Ok la h om a , 4 1 3 U.S

.

6 0 1

, 6 1 1 (9 3 S Ct 2 9 0 8

, 3 7 LE2 d 8 3 0 ) (1 97 3). Ac c ord S ta te v

. F ie ld e n, 2 8 0 Ga

.

4 4 4

, 44 5 (6 2 9 SE2 d 2 5 2 ) (2 0 0 6 ) (“ ‘(b )e c a u se F irst Am e n d m e n t fre e d o m s n e e d

b re a th in g sp a c e to su rv iv e , g o v e rn m e n t m a y re g u la te in th e a re a o n ly with

n a rro w sp e c ific ity .’” ).

T o m a i n t a i n t

h e re q u isite “ b re a th in g sp a c e ” a n d a v o i d d e t e r r i n g e x p r e s s i o n

th a t m a y te n d to w a rd s th e o u te r b o u nd a rie s o f w h a t i s p r o te c te d

, th e F irst

Am e n dm e n t o v e rb re a d th d o c trin e p e rm its c o u rt s t o in v a lid a te la ws b u rd e n in g

p ro te c te d e x pre ssio n o n th e ir fa c e , with o u t re g a rd to wh e th e r th e ir a p p lic a tio n

m ig h t b e c o n stitu tio n a l in a p a rtic u la r c a se

. S e e Un ite d S ta te s v

. Willia m s, 5 5 3

U.S

. 2 8 5

, 2 9 2 (1 28 S Ct 1 8 3 0

, 1 7 0 LE2 d 6 5 0 ) (2 0 0 8 ); Ne w Yo rk v

. F e rb e r, 4 5 8

U.S . 7 4 7, 7 6 8 -7 6 9 (1 0 2 S Ct 3 3 4 8 , 7 3 LE2 d 1 11 3) (1 9 8 2 ). Th is d o c trin e

se e k s to strik e a b a l a n c e b e twe e n c o m p e tin g so c ia l c o sts. O n th e

o n e h a n d

, t h e th re a t o f e n fo rc e m e n t of a n o v e rb ro a d la w d e te rs

p e o p le fro m e ng a g in g in c o n stitu tio na lly p ro te c te d sp e e c h

, in h ib itin g t h e fre e e x c h a n g e o f id e a s. On th e o th e r h a n d

, in v a lid a tin g a l a w th a t in so m e o f its a p p lic a tio n s is pe rfe c tly

c o n stitu tio n a l—p a rtic u la rly a la w d ire c te d a t c o n d u c t so a n tiso c ia l

th a t it h a s b e e n m a d e c rim in a l—h a s o b v io u s h arm fu l e ffe c ts.

(Cita tio n s o m itte d .) W illia m s, 5 5 3 U.S

. a t 2 9 2 ; se e a lso F e rb e r, 4 5 8 U.S

. 7 4 7

,

37 6 8 -7 6 9

. Th u s, th e o v e rb re a d th d o c trin e , w h ile a llo win g fa c ia l o v e rb re a d th

c h a lle ng e s with o u t re g a rd to wh e th e r th e la w in q u e stio n m ig h t b e c o n stitu tio n a l

if a p p lie d to th e li t i g a n t a t h a n d

, a lso e re c ts a h ig h b ar fo r e sta blish in g fa c ia l

o v e rb re a d th , re qu irin g a fin d in g th a t th e la w’s o ve rb re a dth is “ su b sta n tia l, n o t

o n ly in a n a

bs o lu te se n se , bu t a lso re la tiv e to [its] pla in ly le g itim a te swe e p .”

Willia m s, 5 5 3 U.S

. a t 2 9 2. Ac c o rd Ash c ro ft v

. F re e S pe e c h Co a litio n , 53 5 U.S

.

2 5 7 (1 2 2 S Ct 1 38 9

, 1 52 L E2 d 4 0 3 ) (2 00 2) (o v e rb re a d th d o c trin e “ p ro hib its th e

G o ve rn m e n t fro m b a nn in g u n pro te c te d sp e e c h if a su b sta n tia l a m o u n t o f

p ro te c te d sp e e c h is p ro h ib ite d o r c h ille d in th e p ro c e ss.” ); F in a l E x it Ne two rk

,

2 9 0 Ga

. a t 5 11 (d e te rre n t e ffe c t o n p ro te c t e d ex p re ssio n m u st be “ re a l a n d

su b sta n tia l” b e fo re sta tu te is in v a lid a te d a s o v e rb ro a d); S ta te v

. Mille r, 2 6 0 Ga

.

6 6 9

, 6 7 3 (2 ) (3 9 8 S E2 d 5 4 7 ) (1 9 9 0 ) (sa m e ).

To a sse ss th e e x te nt o f a sta tu te ’s e ffe c t o n p ro te c te d e x pre ssio n , a c o urt

m u st d e te rm in e wh a t th e sta tu te a c tu a lly c o v e rs. Ac c o rd in g ly , th e first ste p in

a n y o v e rb re a d th a n a ly sis is to c o n stru e th e sta tu te in qu e stio n

. W illia m s, 5 5 3

U.S

. a t 2 9 3 ; a c c o rd Un ite d S ta te s v

. S te v e n s, 5 5 9 U .S

. 4 6 0

, 47 4 (1 3 0 S Ct 1 5 7 7

,

1 7 6 LE2 d 4 3 5 ) (2 0 1 0 ). We n o w u nd e rta k e th a t ste p , re v ie win g th e tria l c o u rt’s

o rd e r de n o v o

. Atla n ta Oc ulo p la stic S u rg e ry , P .C. v

. Ne stle h u tt, 2 86 Ga

. 7 3 1

4(2 ) (6 9 1 S E2 d 2 1 8 ) (2 0 1 0 ).

2 . OCGA § 1 6 -1 2-1 0 0 .2 (e ) (1 ) p ro v id e s th a t a n in div id u a l

c o m m its th e o ffe n se o f o b sc e n e In te rn e t c on ta c t with a c h i l d if h e

o r sh e ha s c on ta c t with so m e on e h e o r sh e kn ows t o b e a c h i l d o r with so m e o ne h e o r sh e b e lie v e s to b e a c h i l d v ia a c o m p ute r wire le ss se rv ic e or In te r n e t se rv ic e , in c lu d in g b u t no t lim ite d to

, a lo c a l b u l l e tin b oa rd se rv ic e , In te rn e t c h a t ro o m , e -m a il, o r in sta n t

m e ssa g in g se rv ic e , a n d th e c o n ta c t in v olv e s a n y m a tte r c o n ta in in g

e x p lic it ve rb a l d e sc rip tio n s or n a rra tiv e a c c o u n ts o f se x u a lly

e x p l i c i t n u d i t y , s e x u a l c o n d u c t

, s e x u a l e x c i t e me n t

, o r

sa d o m a so c h istic a

b u se th a t is in te n d e d to a r o u se o r sa tisfy th e

se x u a l d e sire o f e i t h e r t h e c h ild o r th e p e rso n , p ro vid e d th a t n o

c o n v ic tio n sh a ll b e h a d fo r a v io la t i o n o f th is su b se c tio n o n th e

u n su p po rte d te stim o n y o f a c hild

.

OCGA § 1 6 -1 2 -1 0 0 .2 (e ) (1 ). Th e c rim e so de fin e d is a fe lo n y , e x c e p t wh e re

th e v ic tim is a t le a st 1 4 y e a rs o ld a n d th e a c c u se d wa s 1 8 o r y o u n g e r a t th e tim e

o f th e c rim e , in wh ic h c a se it is a m isd e m e a n o r. Id . a t (e ) (2 ).

Un d e r o u r we ll-e sta b lish e d ru le s o f sta tu to ry c o n stru c tio n , we

p re su m e th a t th e G e n e ra l Asse m b ly m e a n t wh a t it sa id a n d sa id

wh a t it m e a n t. To th a t e n d

, w e mu s t a f fo rd th e sta tu to ry te x t its

p la in a n d ord in a ry m e a n in g , we m u st vie w th e sta tu to ry te xt in th e

c o n te xt in wh ic h it a

p p e a rs, a n d we m

u st re a d th e sta tu to ry te x t in

its m o st n a tu ra l a n d re a so n a b le wa y , a s an ord in ary sp e a ke r o f th e En g lish la n g u a g e wo uld

.

(Cita tio n s a n d p u n c tu a t i o n o mi tte d.) De a l v

. Co le m a n , 2 9 4 Ga

. 1 7 0

, 17 2 -1 7 3

(7 5 1 S E2 d 3 37 ) (2 0 1 3 ). In ou r in te rp re ta tio n of sta tu te s, we th u s lo o k to th e te x t

5o f th e p ro visio n in q u e stio n , a n d its c o nte x t with in th e la rg e r le g a l fra m e wo rk

,

to d isc e rn th e in te n t o f th e le g isla tu re in e n a c tin g it. S e e id

. ; OCGA § 1 -3 -1 (a ),

(b ).

De c o n stru c tin g th e m u ltifa c e te d su b sta n tiv e p ro v isio ns o f su b se c tio n (e )

(1 ), it is a p p a re n t th a t th e a c tu s re u s o f th e o ffe n se a t issu e is th e e sta blish in g o f

“ c o n ta c t.” 2 Th e te x t o f t h e sta tu te is c le a r th a t, to c o n stitu te a c rim e , su c h

c o n ta c t m u st b e m a de w ith a p e rso n k n own o r b e lie ve d to b e a “ c h ild ,” a te rm

d e fin e d in th e sta tu te a s “ a n y p e rso n u n d e r th e a ge o f 1 6 y e a rs.” OCGA § 1 6

-

1 2 -1 0 0 .2 (b ) (1 ). In a dd itio n , th e c o nta c t m u st b e a c co mp l i s he d by wa y o f a

c o m p u te r wir e le ss se rv ic e o r In te rn e t se rv ic e , an d it m u st in v o lv e “ e x p lic it

v e rb a l de sc rip tio ns o r n a rra tiv e a c c o u nts” o f su b je c ts fa llin g w ith in an y o f fo u r

c a te g orie s o f o ffe nd in g c o n te n t: “ se xu a lly e x p lic it n ud ity ,” “se xu a l c o n d u c t,”

“ se x ua l e x c ite m e n t,” o r “ sa d o ma so c h istic a b u se .” Th e se te rm s a re d e fin e d

e lse wh e re in th e Ge o rg iaCo d e , se e id

. a t (b ) (4 ) - (7 ), a s fo llo ws:

• “ S e x u a lly e x p lic it n u d ity ” is d e fin e d a s “ a sta te o f u n d re ss so a s to e x p ose th e h u m a n m a le o r fe m a le g e nita ls, p u b ic a re a , or bu tto c ks w ith le ss th a n

2 “ Co n t act ” i s n o t defi ned i n t h e st at ut e, s o we lo o k t o i ts ord i n ary m ean i n g : “ an

o ccu rr e n c e i n wh i ch p eo pl e co m m u n i cat e wi th each o t h er.” M erri am -W eb s t er’ s O nline D i c tiona

r y , http://w w w

. m e r r ia m

- w e bste r

. c om

/dic t iona r y /c ontact (web s ite la st

v i ewed J un e 2 3 , 2 0 1 6 ).

6a fu ll o p a q ue c o v e rin g, o r th e sh o win g o f th e fe m a le b re a st with le ss th a n

a fu lly o p a q u e c o v e rin g o f an y p o rtio n th e re o f b e lo w th e to p of th e n ip p le

,

o r t h e d e pic tio n o f c ov e re d o r u n c o v e re d m a le g e nita ls in a d isc e r n i b l y

tu rg id sta te .” OCGA § 1 6 -1 2-1 0 2 (7 ).

• “ S e x u a l c o nd u c t” is d e fin e d a s “ h um a n m a stu rb a tio n , se x u a l in te rc o u rse ,

o r a n y to uc h in g o f th e g e nita ls, p ub ic a re a s, o r b u t t o c k s o f th e h u m a n

m a le o r fe m a le o r th e b re a s t s o f th e fe m a le

, wh e th e r a lo n e or b e twe e n

m e m b e rs o f th e sa m e o r o p p o site se x o r b e twe e n h u m a n s a nd a n im a ls in

a n a c t o f a

pp a re n t se x u a l stimu l a t i o n o r g ra tific a tio n .” OCGA § 1 6 -1 2

- 1 0 0 .1 (a ) (7 ).

• “ S e x u a l e x c ite m e n t” is d e fin e d a s “ th e c o n d itio n of h u m a n m a le o r fe m a le

g e n ita ls o r th e b re a sts o f th e fe m a le wh e n in a sta te of se x u a l stim u la tio n .” OCGA § 1 6 -1 2 -1 00 .1 (a ) (8 ).

• “ S a d o m a so c h istic a b u se ” is d e fin e d a s “ fla g e lla tio n o r to rtu re b y o r u p o n

a p e rso n wh o is n u d e o r c la d in u n d e rg a rm e n ts o r in re v e a lin g or b iz a rre

c o stu m e o r th e c o n d itio n o f b e in g fe tte re d

, bo un d

, o r oth e rwise p h y sic a lly

re stra in e d o n th e p a rt o f o n e so c lo th e d

. ” OCGA § 1 6-1 2 -1 0 0 .1 (a ) (6 ).

F o llo win g th is list o f o ffe n d in g c o nte nt c a te g o rie s is th e p hra se , “ th a t is

in te nd e d to a ro u se o r sa tisfy th e se x u a l d e sire o f e ith e r th e c h ild o r th e pe rso n .”

Th e p iv o ta l q u e stio n is wh a t te rm o r p hra se with in su bse c tio n (e ) th is q u a lify in g

p h ra se is in te n d e d to m o d ify

. Do e s th e p h ra se m od ify o n ly th e te rm

“ sa d om a so c h istic a

b u se ” th a t im m e d ia te ly p re c e d e s it? Or th e e n tire se rie s o f

o ffe n d in g “ v e rb a l d e sc rip tio n s o r n a rra tiv e a c c o u n ts” p re v io usly se t fo rth ? Or

th e “ c o n ta c t” itse lf? T h e an s w e r to th is qu e stio n is c ritic a l n o t o n ly to

7d e te rm in in g th e sc o pe of c o n d u c t w ith in th e sta tu te ’s re a c h b u t a lso to a sse ssin g

wh e th e r th e sc o p e of pro sc rib e d c on d u c t is to o bro a d to pa ss c o n stitu tio n a l

m u ste r.

Un d e r th e c a no n o f sta tu to ry c o n stru c tio n k n own a s th e “ ru le of th e la st

a n te c e d e n t,” a q u a lify in g p h ra se “ ‘sh o u ld ord in arily b e re a d a s m o d ify in g o n ly

th e no u n o r p h ra se th a t it im m e d ia te ly fo llo ws.’” L o c k h a rt v

. Un ite d S ta te s, 1 3 6

S .Ct. S Ct 9 5 8

, 9 6 2 (1 9 4 LE2 d 4 8 ) (2 0 1 6 ); a c c o rd C o le m a n , 2 9 4 G a

. a t 1 7 4

.

Ho we ve r, th is ru le is n o t a b so lu te

, a n d th e in fe re n c e it r a ise s m a y b e re b u tte d

wh e re “ th e stru c tu re a n d in te rn a l lo gic o f th e sta t u t o r y s c h e m e ” so m ilita te

.

Lo c k ha rt, 1 3 6 S Ct a t 9 6 2 -9 63

, 9 6 5 ; se e a lso P a ro lin e v

. Un ite d S ta te s, 1 3 4 S .Ct.

S Ct 17 1 0

, 1 7 2 1 (1 8 8 LE2 d 7 1 4 ) (2 0 1 4 ) (re c o gn iz in g th a t th is in fe re nc e c a n b e

o v e rc o m e b y “ ‘o th e r in d ic ia o f m e a n in g ’” ); Co le m an , 29 4 Ga

. a t 1 7 4

(re c o gn iz in g th a t t h i s c a n o n a p p lie s o n ly “ ‘wh e re n o c o n tra ry in te n tio n

a p p e a rs.’” ). Un d e r th e a lte rn a tiv e “ se rie s-q u a lifie r p rin c ip le ,” a qu a l i fy in g

p h ra se a pp e a rin g a t th e e n d o f a se rie s sh o u ld b e re a d to a p p ly to a ll ite m s in th e

se rie s “ wh e n su c h a n a

p p lic a tio n w o u l d re p re se n t a n a tu ra l c o n stru c tio n .”

Lo c k ha rt, 1 3 6 S.Ct. S C t a t 9 6 5

. Wh ile th e se m a x im s c a n b e h e lp fu l in

d isc e rn in g th e m e a n in g of a q u a lify in g ph ra se , th e y sh o u ld n ot b e a p p lie d

8m e c h a n ic a lly

, a n d

, in th e e nd

, we m ust g le an t h e i mp o rt o f su c h a p h ra se b y

e x a m in in g it s s i t u a t io n w ith in a n d re la tio n sh ip to th e e n tire sta tu to ry te x t, a s

we ll a s th e in te nd e d p u rp o se of th e sta tu to ry pro v isio n. S e e id

. a t 9 64 (se le c tin g

c o n stru c tio n o f q u a lify in g p h ra se th a t wo u ld y ie ld th e le a st re d u n d a nc y a m o n g

te rm s with in th e sta tu te a n d wo u ld m o st c lo se ly fo llo w th e stru c tu re of a re la te d

sta tu te u p on w h i c h t h e p ro v isio n wa s p a tte rn e d ); P a ro lin e , 1 3 4 S .Ct. S Ct a t

1 7 2 1; Co le m a n , 2 9 4 Ga . a t 1 7 3 -1 7 4

.

He re , a sp e c ts o f th e stru c tu re o f su b se c t i o n (e ) (1 ) a n d th e p a rtic u la r

v e rb ia g e o f th e q u a lify in g p h ra se le a d u s to re je c t b o t h t h e ru le o f th e la st

a n te c e d e n t a n d th e se rie s-m o d ifie r p rin c ip le

, in fa vo r o f a c on s t r u c t i on u n d e r

wh ic h th e q u a lify in g p h ra se m o d ifie s th e p ro h i b i t ed “ c o n ta c t” itse lf: in o th e r

wo rd s, it is th e c o n ta c t “ th a t is in te n d e d to a ro u se o r sa tisfy th e se x u a l d e sire o f

e ith e r th e c h ild o r th e p e r s o n

. ” In re a c hin g th is c o nc lu sio n , we n ote th a t th e

q u a lify in g p h ra se a

p p e a rs a fte r th e list of fo u r e n u m e ra te d o ffe n d in g c o n te n t

c a te g orie s. We re w e to a

p p ly th e ru le o f th e la st a n te c e d e n t, w e wo u ld re a d th e

q u a lify in g p h ra se a s m o d ify in g o n ly “ sa d o m a so c h istic a b u se .” C o m

p a re d to th e

o th e r c a te g o rie s in th is list

– “ se x u a lly e x p lic it n u d ity ,” “ se x u a l c o n d u c t,” a n d

“ se x ua l e x c ite m e n t”

– th is la st c a te go r y i s a r g u a b ly th e m o st e g re g io u s

–

9in v o lv in g “ to rtu re ” o r “fla g e lla tio n ”
– an d c e rta in ly th e m o st na rro wly de fin e d

.

It th u s se e m s u nlik e ly th a t th e le gisla tu re in te n d e d to e n u m e ra te

, o n pa r with

th re e re la tiv e ly b ro a d c a te g orie s o f o ffe n d in g c o n te nt, th e v e ry n a rro w c o n te n t

c a te g o ry o f “ sa d o m a so c h istic a b u se th a t is in te n d e d to aro u se o r sa tisfy t h e

se x u a l d e sire o f e ith e r th e c h ild o r th e p e rso n .” S e e , e

. g ., P a r o l i n e , 1 34 S .Ct.

S Ct a t 17 2 1 (c o n s t r u in g q u a lify in g c la u se in a m a nn e r b e st a c c o rd in g with

“ c o m m on se n se ” ); Un ite d S ta te s v

. Ba ss, 4 0 4 U.S

. 3 3 6, 3 4 1 (9 2 SCt 5 1 5

, 3 0

LE2 d 48 8 ) (1 9 7 1 ) (d e c lin in g to a pp ly ru le o f la st a n te c e d e n t wh e re its

a p p lic a tio n wo u ld b e in c o n siste n t “ with a n y d isc e rn ib le p u rp o se o f th e sta tu te ” ).

F o r th is re a so n, we fin d th e ru le o f th e la st a n te c e d e nt to b e in a p p o site

.

In c o n sid e rin g wh e th e r th e q u a lify in g ph ra se m ig h t

, u n d e r th e se rie sm o d ifie r p rin c ip le

, b e in te n d e d to m o d i f y a l l fo u r c a te g orie s o f o ffe n d in g

c o n te n t, we no te th a t th e p h ra se m a ke s re fe re n c e to th e se xu a l d e sire “ o f e ith e r

th e c h ild o r th e p e r s o n

. ” I n ma k in g sp e c ific re fe re n c e b a c k to e ith e r th e c h ild

v ic tim o r th e a c c u se d

, th is p ro visio n re q u ire s a sp e c i fic in te n t to “ a ro u se o r

sa tisfy ” o n e o f th e two p a rtie s to th e a lle g e d ly c rim in a l c o n ta c t. It i s t h u s th e

“ c o n ta c t” to wh ic h t h e sp e c ific in te n t is lin ke d

, ra th e r th a n a n y o r a ll o f th e

c a te g orie s o f o ffe n d in g c on te n t d e sc rib e d in th e sta tu te

. By sp e c ify in g th a t th e

10v ic tim o r th e p e rso n m a k in g th e c o n ta c t b e th e o b je c t o f th e in te n t to a ro u se , th e

sta tu to ry te x t p re c lu de s a c o n stru c tio n th a t lin k s t h e i n te n t to a ro u se to th e

c re a to r o f th e offe n d in g c o n te n t, ra th e r th a n to th e in itia to r o f th e o n lin e c o n ta c t.

Th o ug h th is c o n stru c tio n d o e s n o t n e c e ssa rily flo w n a tu ra lly f ro m th e

g r amma t i c a l stru c tu re o f su b se c tio n (e ) (1 ), we b e lie v e it is th e o n ly te n a b l e

re a d in g th a t g i v e s me a n in g to th e a rtic le “ th e ” th a t pre c e d e s “ c h ild ” a n d

“ p e rso n ” in th e q u a lify in g p h ra se

. S e e Ke n n e d y v

. Ca rlto n , 2 9 4 Ga

. 5 7 6 (2 )

(7 5 7 S E2 d 4 6 ) (2 0 1 4 ) (sta tu te s m u st b e c o n stru e d to g iv e m e a n in g to a ll te rm s

th e re in ). S u c h a c o n stru c tio n , m o re o v e r, sig n ific a ntly n a rro ws th e sc o p e o f th e

sta tu te a n d th us e ffe c tu a te s o u r o b l i g a tio n , in th e in te rp re ta tio n o f sta tu te s, to

a d o p t a re a d i l y a v a ila

b le lim itin g c o n stru c tio n wh e re n e c e ssa ry to a v o id

c o n stitu t i o n a l in firm ity

. S e e Mille r, 26 0 Ga

. a t 6 73 -6 7 4 (re a d in g a sp e c ific

in te nt re q u ire m e nt in to An ti-Ma sk Ac t to a v o id o v e rb re a d th p ro b le m s); a c c o rd

Wa tso n v

. S ta te

, 2 9 3 Ga

. 8 17

, 8 20 (1 ) (7 5 0 S E 2 d 1 4 3 ) (2 01 3 ) (“ e v e n sta tu te s

th a t im p o se c on te n t-b a se d re stric tio n s o n fre e sp e e c h will no t b e d e e m e d fa c ia lly

in v a lid if th e y a re re a d ily su bje c t to a lim itin g c o n stru c tio n ” ).

In su m m a ry , we re a d OCGA § 1 6-1 2 -1 0 0.2 ( e ) (1 ) to p ro h ib it on ly th a t

o n lin e c o n ta c t in vo lv in g v e rb a l d e sc rip tio n s o r n a rra tiv e a c c o un ts o f a n y o f th e

11fo u r d e fin e d c a te g o rie s o f o ffe n d in g c o n te n t a n d m a d e with th e sp e c ific in te n t

to a ro use o r s a t i sfy th e se xu a l d e sire s o f th e a c c u se d o r th e c h ild vic tim

. Th e

c rim e o f o bsc e n e In te rn e t c o n ta c t with a c h ild is th u s c o m p rise d o f (1 ) th e a c tu s

re u s

– th e c o n ta c t, p e rfo rm e d u n d e r p artic u la r c irc u m sta n c e s (with o n e k n o wn

o r b e lie v e d to b e a g e 1 5 o r y o u n g e r; via sp e c ifie d o n l i n e m e a n s; in v o lv in g

v e rb a l d e sc rip tio n s or n a rra tiv e a c c o u n ts o f c o nte n t fa llin g in to a n y o f th e fo u r

d e fin e d c a te g o rie s) a n d (2 ) th e m e n s re a

– th e sp e c ific in te n t o n th e p a rt o f th e

a c c u se d th a t h is c o n ta c t will a ro u se o r sa tisfy th e se xu a l d e sire o f th e c h ild o r th e

a c c u se d. Ha v in g th u s c o n stru e d th e sta tu te

, we n o w tu rn to th e q u e sti o n o f

wh e th e r th e sta tu te

, so c o n stru e d

, c an o n i t s f a c e su rv iv e F irst Am e n d m e n t

o v e rb re a d th sc ru tin y

.

3

. OCGA § 1 6 -1 2 -1 00 .2 (e ) is on e a m o n g se v e ra l su b sta n tiv e p ro v isio n s

o f a la rg e r sta tu to ry e n a c tm e nt wh o se v e ry title m a k e s c le a r th a t its p u rp o se is

p re v e n tin g th e e x p lo ita tio n of c h ild re n v ia e le c tro n ic m e a n s

. I t is “ e v id e n t

b e y o n d th e n e e d fo r e la

b o ra tio n ” th a t g o v e rn m e n t h a s a c o m p e llin g in te re st in

p ro te c tin g th e p h y sic a l a n d p s y c h o lo g ic a l we ll-b e in g o f c h ild re n

. Osb o rn e v

.

Oh io

, 4 9 5 U.S

. 10 3

, 1 0 9 (1 10 S Ct 1 6 9 1

, 1 0 9 LE2 d 9 8 ) (1 9 9 0 ). W e n o n e th e le ss

h a v e t h e o b lig a tio n to e nsu re th a t, in its z e a l to p ro m o te th is wo rth y a im

, o u r

12le g isla tu re h a s n o t u n wittin g ly c u rta ile d le g itim a te m o d e s o f e x pre ssio n in a re a l

a n d su b sta n tia l wa y

. S e e F in a l Ex it Ne two rk , 2 9 0 Ga . a t 5 1 1 ; Mille r, 2 6 0 Ga

.

a t 6 7 3

.

In u n d e rta k i n g t

h i s a s s e s s m e n t, w e m

u st d e te rm in e wh e th e r “ ‘a su b sta n tia l

n u m be r o f [th e sta tu te ’s] a

p p lic a tio ns a re u nc o n stitu tio n a l, ju dg e d in re la tio n to

[its] p la in ly le g itim a te swe e p .’” S te v e n s, 5 5 9 U.S

. a t 4 7 3

. With in th e “ p la in ly

le g i t im a te swe e p ” o f sta tu to ry p ro hib itio n s a re two u n p ro te c te d c a te g o rie s o f

sp e e c h re le v a n t to th is c a se , o b sc e n ity an d c h ild p o rn o g ra p h y

. S ee Willia m s,

5 5 3 U.S

. a t 2 8 8 -2 8 9

. Ob sc e n ity is m a te ria l “ wh ic h, ta k e n a s a wh o le

, a p p e a l[s]

to th e p ru rie n t in te re st in se x , . . . p o rtra y [s] se x u a l c o n d u c t i n a p a t e n tly

o ffe n siv e wa y , a nd

. . . ta k e n a s a w h o le

, d o [e s] n o t ha v e se rio u s lite ra ry , a rtistic

,

p o litic a l, o r sc ie n tific v a lu e .” M ille r v

. Ca lif o r n i a , 4 1 3 U.S

. 15

, 2 4 (9 3 S Ct

2 6 0 7, 3 7 LE2 d 4 19 ) (1 9 7 3 ); se e a lso Gin sb e rg v

. N e w Yo rk

, 3 90 U.S

. 6 2 9

, 6 3 3

(8 8 S Ct 1 2 7 4

, 2 0 LE2 d 19 5 (1 9 6 8 ) ( sa n c tio n in g c a te g o ric a l p ro h ib itio n o n

m a te ria l th a t, wh ile n o t ob sc e n e in re la tio n to a d u lt se n sib ilitie s, is fo u n d to b e

o b sc e n e a s to m in o rs). Ch ild p o rn o g ra p h y e n c o m

p a sse s visu a l de p ic tio n s o f

se x u a l c o n d u c t in v o lv in g c h ild re n y o u ng e r th a n a sp e c ifie d a g e

. S e e Ne w Yo rk

v

. F e rb e r, 4 5 8 U.S

. 74 7 (1 0 2 S Ct 3 3 48

, 7 3 LE2 d 11 13 ) ( 1 9 82 ). Th o u g h th e

13sta tu te h e re c e rta in ly re a c h e s so m e sp e e c h th e c o n te n t o f wh ic h fa lls in to o n e o f

th e se two c a te g o r ic a lly un p ro te c te d fo rm s o f e x p re ssio n , th e fo ur e n u m e ra te d

c a te g orie s o f o ffe n d in g c o n te n t in d isp u ta bly sp a n e x p re ssio n th a t fa lls o u tsid e

t h i s na rro w swa th o f u n pro te c te d sp e e c h a n d th u s in to th e re a lm o f p ro te c t e d

e x p re ssio n

. Th e q u e stio n is w h e th e r th e m is ma t c h i s t o o g re a t to p a ss

c o n stitu tio n a l m

u ste r.

In e x a m in in g th e p e rm issib le b re a d th of a sta tu te se e k in g to c u rta il v a rio u s

a v e n u e s o f c h ild e x p lo ita tio n in th e d ig ita l a g e , w e are , fo rtu n a te ly

, n o t writin g

o n a b la n k sla te

. S e e , e .g ., Un ite d S ta te s v

. Willia m s, su pra (o v e rb r e a d t h

c h a lle ng e to fe d e ra l la w c rim in a liz in g p an d e rin g a n d so lic ita tio n o f c h ild

p o rn o g ra p h y ); Ash c ro ft v. F re e S p e e c h Co a litio n , su p ra (o v e rb re a d th c h a lle n g e

to fe d e ra l la w cr im in a liz in g v a rio u s fo rm s o f a c tu a l a n d “ v irtu a l” c h ild

p o rn o g ra p h y ); R e no v

. Am e ric a n Civ il Lib e rtie s Un io n, 5 2 1 U.S

. 8 44 (1 1 7 S Ct

2 3 2 9, 1 3 8 LE2 d 87 4 ) (1 99 7 ) (o ve rb re a dth c h a l l e n g e to fe d e ra l sta tu te

p ro h ib itin g o n lin e tra n sm issio n o f “ o bsc e n e or in d e c e n t” m e ssa g e s to re c ip ie n ts

u n d e r th e a g e of 1 8 ). In Re n o , th e Co u rt in v a lid a te d two pro v isio ns o f th e

fe d e ra l Co m m

u n ic a tio n s D e c e n c y Ac t, wh ic h so u g h t to p ro te c t mi n o rs fro m

“ in de c e n t” a n d “ p a te n tly o ffe n siv e ” c o m mu n i c a tio ns o n th e In te rn e t b y

14p ro h ib itin g th e “ k n o win g tra n sm issio n o f

. . . in d e c e n t m e ssa g e s to a n y re c ip ie n t

u n d e r 1 8 y e a rs o f a g e ” a n d th e “ k n o win g se n d in g o r d isp la y in g o f p a te n tly

o ffe n siv e m e ssa ge s in a m a n n e r th a t is a v a ilab le to a p e rso n u n d e r 1 8 y e a rs o f

a g e .” 5 2 1 U.S

. a t 8 4 9

, 8 5 9

. Th e Co u rt fo u n d th e sc o p e o f th e se p ro v isio n s to o

b ro a d in th a t th e y “e ffe c tiv e ly su p p re ss[] a l a r g e a mo un t o f sp e e c h th a t a d u lts

h a v e a c on stitu tio n a l rig h t to re c e iv e a n d a d d re ss to o n e a n o th e r.” I d

. a t 8 7 4

.

Wh ile re c o g n iz in g th e g o v e rn m e n t’s c o m p e llin g in te re st in p ro te c tin g c h ild re n

f r o m h a rm fu l c o n te n t, th e Co u rt c o n c lu d e d th a t th e p ro v isio n s a t issu e we re

b ro a de r th a n wa s n e c e ssa ry to a c h ie v e th is g o a l. I d

. a t 8 7 5 -8 7 9

. Th e Co urt

n o te d th a t th e te rm s “ in d e c e n t” a n d “ p a te n tly o ffe n siv e ” we re un de fin e d in th e

sta tu te a n d h a d th e p o te n tia l to e n c o m p a ss “ la rg e a m o u n ts o f n on po rn o g ra p h ic

m a te ria l with se rio u s e d u c a tio n a l o r o th e r v a lu e .” Id

. a t 8 7 7 . In a d ditio n , th e

Co u rt ob se rv e d th a t th e se p ro v isio n s c o u ld c o ve r a ra n g e o f a d ult-to -a d u lt o n lin e

c o m m u nic a tio n s in fo ra su c h a s c h at ro o m s, wh e re th e p re se n c e o f a sin g le

m in o r c o u ld re n d e r c rim in a l wh a t wo u ld o th e rwise be p ro te c te d sp e e c h a m o n g

a d u lts. Id

. a t 8 8 0

. Th e se c o n sid e ra tio n s le d th e Co u rt to c o n c lu de th a t th e

sta tu te ’s re a c h wa s to o b ro a d to with sta n d F irst Am e n d m e n t sc ru tin y

.

In F re e Sp e e c h C o a litio n , th e Co u rt c on sid e re d th e c o n stitu tio n a lity o f th e

15fe d e ra l C hild P o rn o g ra p h y P re v e n tio n Ac t, wh ic h e x p an d e d th e fe d e ra l

p ro h ib itio n o n c h ild p o rn o g ra p h y to re a c h “ v irtu a l c h ild po rn o g ra p h y ,” in wh ic h

te c h n o lo g y o r y o u th fu l-lo o k in g a d u lts a re u se d to d e p ic t wh a t a p p e a rs to b e , b u t

is n o t a c tu a lly

, c h ild re n e n g a g e d in se x u a lly e x p lic it c o n d u c t. 5 3 5 U.S

. a t 2 3 9

-

2 4 0

. T h e sta tu te a lso p ro h ib i t e d th e p ro d uc tio n a n d d istrib u tio n o f m a te ria l

“ p a n d e re d ” a s c h ild p o rn o g ra p h y , re g ard le ss o f wh e th e r it a c tu a lly wa s. Id . a t

2 4 1

. As in Re n o , th e Co u rt in v a lid a te d th e sta tu te a s o v e rb ro a d

, fin d in g th a t its

re a c h wa s to o fa r b e y o n d th e u n p ro te c te d c a te g o r ie s o f o b sc e n ity a n d c h ild

p o rn o g ra p h y a n d th a t i t t h u s im

p ro pe rly “ a

b rid g e [d ] th e fre e d o m

to e n g a g e in

a su b sta ntia l a m o u n t o f la wfu l sp e e c h .” Id

. a t 2 5 6. With re g a rd to v irtu a l c h ild

p o rn o g ra p h y , th e Co u rt fo un d n o ju stific a tio n fo r a b a n o n su c h sp e e c h

, b e c a use

its d e fin itio n d id n o t ne c e ssa rily e x c lu d e wo rk s c on ta in in g se rio u s lite ra ry ,

a rtistic

, e d u c a tio n a l, or o th e r v a lu e , a n d b e c a u se , u n lik e w ith re a l c h ild

p o rn o g ra p h y , a c tu a l c h ild re n a re n o t use d a s su b je c ts in

– a n d th e re b y v ic tim s

o f

– th e p ro d u c tio n p ro c e ss. Id

. a t 2 4 6

- 2 5 0

. With re g a rd to th e p a n d e rin g

p ro v isio n, th e Co u rt h e ld th a t it wa s o v e r b ro a d b e c a u se it a p plie d to m a te ria ls

with ou t re g a rd to th e ir a c tu a l c o n te n t a n d a pp lie d to th o se in p o sse ssio n o f su c h

m a te ria ls re g a rd le ss o f h o w fa r re m o v e d in th e d istrib u tio n c h a in th e y we re fro m

16th e a c tu a l p a n d e re r. Id . a t 2 5 7 -2 5 8

.

By c o ntra st, in Willia m s, th e Co urt u p h e ld a c hild p o rn o gra ph y p a n d e rin g

a n d so lic ita tio n p ro v isio n th a t wa s e na c te d fo llo win g th e i n v a l id a tio n o f its

p re d e c e sso r in F re e S p e e c h Co a litio n

. 5 5 3 U.S

. a t 2 8 9

. A s th e Co urt d e sc rib e d

it, “ [r] a th e r th a n ta rg e tin g th e u n d e rly in g m a te ria l, th e sta tu te b a n s th e c o lla te ra l

sp e e c h th a t in tro d uc e s su c h m a te ria l in to th e c h ild

- p o rn o g ra p h y d istrib u tio n

n e two rk .” Id

. a t 2 9 3. In a d d itio n , th e Co u rt n o te d th a t th e sta tu te ’s d e fin itio n

o f c h ild p o rn o g ra

ph y “ p re c ise ly tra c k s th e m a te ria l h e ld p ro sc rib a ble in F e rb e r

a n d Mille r.” Id

. O th e r fe a tu re s of th e sta tu te we re a lso sig n ific a n t in

m a in ta in in g its v a lid ity

, in c lu d in g i t s sc ie n te r e le m e n ts, wh ic h re q u ire b o th

“ k n owin g ” p a n d e rin g a

n d e ith e r th e d e fe n d a n t’s be lie f th a t th e m a te ria l is c h ild

p o rn o g ra p h y or th e in te n t to m a k e a n o th e r b e lie v e th is is so

. Id

. a t 2 9 4 -2 9 6

. S e e

a lso Osb o rn e , 4 9 5 U.S

. a t 11 5 (sc ie n te r re q uire m e n t o n e fa c t o r in c o n c lu sio n

th a t sta tu te b a n n in g p o sse ssio n o f c h ild p orn o g ra p h y wa s va lid ); Mille r, 2 6 0 Ga

.

a t 6 7 4 (sp e c ific in te n t re q u ire m e n t c ite d a s s i g n i f i c a n t in lim itin g sc o p e o f

sta tu te in q u e stio n a n d

, th u s, sa v in g it fro m o v e rb re a d th ). Cf. Sta te v

. Fie ld e n ,

2 8 0 Ga

. 4 4 4

, 4 4 7 (6 29 S E2 d 2 5 2 ) (2 0 0 6) (a b se nc e o f sp e c ific in te nt re q uire m e n t

c ite d a s fa c to r in in va lid a tin g sta tu te in q u e stio n ).

17Asse ssin g th e sta tu te h e re a g a in st th is b a c kd ro p , we c o n c lu d e th a t, u n d e r

th e n a rro w c o n stru c tio n we h a v e a d o p te d a b o v e , OCGA § 1 6 -1 2 -1 0 0 .2 (e ) (1 )

d o e s n o t p ro h ib it a re a l a n d su b sta n tia l a m o u n t o f c o n stit u t io na lly p ro te c te d

e x p re ssio n

. Th e k e y to th is c o n c lu sio n is th e sta tu te ’s m e n s re a e le m e n t, wh ic h

re q u ire s th e a c c u se d

, with th e k n o wle d g e o r b el i e f t h a t t h e v ic tim is in fa c t a

c h ild y o u n g e r th a n 1 6

, to m a k e c o n ta c t with th a t v ic tim with th e sp e c ific in te n t

to a r o u se o r sa tisfy h is o wn o r th e v ic tim ’s se x ua l d e sire

. Th is sp e c ific in te n t

re q u ire m e n t d ra m a tic a lly re d u c e s th e ra n g e o f e x p re ssio n th a t is su b je c t to th e

sta tu to ry p ro h ib itio n

. It is a lso

, t o s o me de g re e , a pro x y fo r e le m e n ts o f th e

Mille r v

. Ca li fo rn ia o b sc e n ity sta n d a rd

, n a m e ly

, th a t th e m a te ria l a p p e a ls to a

“ p ru rie n t in te re st in se x ” a n d t h a t it “ la c k s a n y lite ra ry , a rtistic

, p o litic a l, o r

sc ie n tific va lu e ,” se e 4 1 3 U.S

. a t 2 4 : it is d iffic u lt to e n v isio n a sc en a r i o i n

wh ic h a n a d u lt’s se x u a lly e x p lic it o n lin e c o m m u n ic a tio n with a

c h ild y o u n g e r

th a n 16

, m a d e with t h e in te n t to a ro u se o r sa tisfy e ith e r p a rty ’s se x u a l d e sire

,

wo u ld e v e r b e fo un d to h a v e re d e e mi n g s o c i a l v a lu e

. T h e sp e c ific in te n t

re q u ire m e n t a lso e lim in a te s th e p o ssib ility th a t in n o c u o u s c o m m un ic a tio n s

– fo r

e x a m p le

, a m o th e r’s e m a il to h e r 15 -y e a r-o ld so n a d m o n ish in g h im n o t to re a d

Pe n th ou se or a te a c h e r’s o n lin e le c tu r e d e sc rib in g M ic he la ng e lo ’s Da v id

–

18m ig h t fa ll w ith in th e sta tu te ’s p ro sc rip tio n s. S e e Osb o rn e , 4 9 5 U .S

. a t 11 3 -1 1 4

(u p h o ld in g sta tu te wh e re na rro w c o n stru c tio n a v o id s p u n ish in g in n o c u o u s

c o n d u c t). In a d d itio n , th is re q u i r e m e n t a vo id s th e p ro b le m id e n tifie d in Re n o

o f p ote n tia l o v e rre a c h in to th e re a lm o f a d u lt-to -a d u lt c o m m u n ic a tio n s to wh ic h

c h ild re n m ig h t in c id e n ta lly b e e x po se d

, a g a in fo re c lo sin g u n in te n tio n a l

e n c ro a c h m e n t in to p ro te c te d sp e e c h

.

“ In v a lid a tio n fo r o v e rb re a d th is stro n g m e d ic in e th a t is n o t to b e c a su a lly

e mp l o y e d .” (In te rn a l q u o ta tio n m a rk s o m itte d .) Willia m s, 5 5 3 U .S

. a t 2 9 3

.

Th o u g h c re a tiv e a tto rn e y s m a y d re a m up “ fa n c ifu l h y p o th e tic a ls” u n d e r wh ic h

th e sta tu te h e re re a c h e s p ro te c te d e x p re ssio n , id

. a t 30 1, we a re n ot c o n v in c e d

th a t th e se sc e na rio s a re su ffic ie n tly n u m e ro u s o r lik e ly to wa rra n t th e sta tu te ’s

wh o le sa le in v a lid a tio n

. S e e id

. a t 3 03 (“ [t] he ‘m e re fa c t th a t o ne c a n c o n c e iv e

o f so m e imp e r mi s s ib le a p p lic a tio n s o f a sta tu te is n ot su ffic ie n t to re n d e r it

su sc ep tib le to a n o v e rb re a d th c h a lle n g e .’” ). We th e re fo re a gre e w ith th e tria l

c o u rt th a t OCGA § 1 6 -1 2 -1 0 0 .2 (e ) (1 ) is n o t u n c o n stitu tio n a lly ov e rb ro a d

u n d e r th e F irst Am e n d m e n t. Ac c o rd in gly , we a ffirm

.

Ju d g m e n t a ffirm e d . All th e Ju stic e s c o nc u r.

19