# U ni te d S ta te s Co ur t of A pp ea ls

For the Eig hth Circu it

__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ _

No. 1 3- 12 29

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28 1 C are C om m it te e; Ro n S to ffel ; Ci ti zen s fo r Qua li ty E du cat io n; Jo el Bru de

ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll l Pla in ti

ff s - Ap pe ll an ts

v.

Ro ss Arne so n, i n h is off

ic ia l ca pa ci ty as Co un ty A tt or ne y for Blu e Eart h C ou nt y , Mi nn es ot a, or hi s s uc ces so r; M ik e Fre em an , in hi s o ffi ci al cap aci ty as Co un ty

Att or ne y for Henn ep in Co un ty, Mi nn es ot a, or hi s s uc ces so r; Lo ri S wan so n, i n h er of fic ia l ca pa ci ty as th e Mi nn es ot a Att or ne y Gene ral or h er s uc ces so r

ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll l Defe nd

an ts - App el le es

__ __ __ __ __ __

App eal fro m

Uni te d S ta te s Di st ric t Co ur t
fo r th e Dis tri ct of M in ne so ta - Mi nn eap ol is

__ __ __ __ __ __

Su bm it te d: Feb ru ary 13 , 20 14

Fil ed : Se pt em

be r 2, 2 01 4

__ __ __ __ __ __

Befo re SM ITH, BEAM, an d B ENTON, Ci rcu it Ju dg es

.

__ __ __ __ __ __

BEAM, Ci rcu it Ju dg e.On ap pe al fo r th e se co nd ti m e, App el la nt s ch al le ng e th e di st ric t co ur t's de ni al 1

of th ei r m ot io n fo r su m

m ary jud gm en t, it s co rres po nd in g gr an t of su m m ary jud gm en t

in fav or of App el le es , an d th e co ur t's di sm is sa l of al l c l a i ms in th e co m pl ai nt wit h

p r e jud ic e. Fo r th e reas on s st at ed he rei n, we rev ers e an d rem an d fo r fu rth e r

pr oc eed in gs co ns is te nt wit h t hi s o pi ni on

.

I. BACKGRO UND

App el la nt s in th is ac t i on are two Mi nn es ot a-b as ed

, gr as sr oo ts ad vo cacy

or g a n i z a t io ns al on g wit h th ei r co rres po nd in g le ad ers

. Each or ga ni zat io n was 2

fo un de d to op po se sc ho ol -fu nd in g ba ll ot in it ia ti ve s, whi ch Mi nn es ot a la w au th or iz es

i n d iv id ua l sc ho ol bo ard s to pr op os e. App el la nt s cl ai m th at a pr ov is io n of t h e

Mi nn es ot a Fai r Cam

pa ig n Prac ti ces Act (FCP A) in hi bi ts App el la nt s' ab il it y to sp eak

free ly a g a in st th es e ba ll ot in it ia ti ve s an d, th ereb y , vi ol at es th ei r Fi rs t Am en dm en t
rig ht s. Mi nn

. St at

. §§ 21 1B .01 et se q

. App el le es are two Mi nn es ot a co un ty at to rn ey s

an d th e Mi nn es ot a Att or ne y Gen eral

, al l su ed in th ei r of fic ia l cap aci ti es ("Ap pe ll ees "

or "t he co un ty atto rn ey s" ). 3

In 28 1 Care Co m

m it te e v. Arn es on , 63 8 F.3 d 62 1 (8 th Ci r. 20 11 ), cert

. de ni ed

, 1

13 3 S. Ct

. 61 (2 01 2) (2 81 Care Co m m it te e I), th is co ur t rev ers ed th e di st ric t co ur t's

dism is sa l of Pl ai nt iff

s' co m pl ai nt

, va cat ed th e de ni al of Pl ai nt iff s' m otion fo r sum

m ar y jud gm en t, an d rem an de d to th e di st ric t co ur t fo r fu rth er pr oc eed in gs , whi ch

pr oc eed in gs we no w rev ie w.

A th ird or ga ni zat io n an d pl ai nt iff

, W .I.S.E. Ci ti zen Co m

m it te e, ha s be en 2

di sm is se d fro m th e la wsu it fo ll owi ng th e de at h of it s fo rm er ch ai r man , P l ai nt iff

Vict or Nis ka

.

Two co un ty at to rn ey s ha ve li ke wis e b e e n d is m is se d fro m th e la wsu it 3

fo ll owi ng th is co ur t's in it ia l re m an d.

-2

-In rel ev an t p art , th e ch al le ng ed pro vi si on of t he FCPA p ro vi de s:

A pe rs on is gu il ty of a gr os s m is de m ean or who in te nt io na ll y pa rti ci pa te s in th e pr e p a rat io n, di ss em in at io n, or br oa dc as t of pa id po li ti cal

ad ve rti si ng or cam

pa ig n m at eri al

. . . wit h res pe ct to th e effe ct of a ba ll ot

qu es ti on , th at is de si gn ed or te nd s to

. . . pr om ot e or de feat a ba ll ot

qu es ti on , th at is fa l s e , an d th at th e pe rs on kn ows is fal se or

co m m un ic at e s t o ot he rs wit h reck le ss di sr eg ard of whe th er it is fal se

.

Mi nn

. St at

. § 2 1 1 B

. 0 6

, s u b d

. 1. Oth er th an a so ur ce pr ot ect ed by th e FCPA

ex em pt io n fo r "n ews it em s or ed it or ia l co mm e n t s b y th e ne ws m ed ia ," an y on e can

lo dg e a cl ai m un de r § 21 1B .06 wit h th e Mi nn es ot a Offi ce of Adm in is tra ti ve Heari ng s (OAH) wit hi n on e y ear aft er th e al le ge d oc cu rren ce of th e act th at is th e su bjec t of th e

co m pl ai nt

. Mi nn

. St at

. §§ 21 1B .01

, su bd

. 2; 21 1B .32

, su bd

. 2. The OAH

im m ed ia te ly as si gn s an ad m in is tra ti ve la w jud ge (ALJ) to th e m at te r, who th en

de te rm in es if th ere is a pr im a faci e vi ol at io n an d, if so , pr ob ab le cau se su pp or ti ng th e

co m pl ai nt

. Mi nn

. St at

. § 21 1B .33

, su bd

. 1, 2. If th e co m pl ai nt al le gi ng a § 21 1B .06

vi ol at io n is fil ed "wi th in 60 da y s be fo re th e pr im ary or sp eci al el ect io n or wit hi n 90

da y s be fo re th e ge ne ral el ect io n to whi ch th e co m pl ai nt rel at es , th e ALJ m

us t co nd uc t

an ex pe di te d pr ob ab le cau se he ari ng ." Mi nn

. St at

. § 21 1B .33

, su bd

. 2. If a co m pl ai nt

su rv iv es a pr ob ab le cau se as se ss m en t, th e ch ie f ALJ as si gn s th e co m pl ai nt to a th reejud ge pa ne l fo r an ev id en ti ary he a r i n g, whi ch co ul d real is ti cal ly ne ces si ta te th e

em pl oym en t of le ga l co un se l by th e accu se d. Mi nn

. St at

. § 21 1B .35

, su bd

. 1. A fin al

de ci si on an d/ or ci vi l pe na lt y (u p to $5 ,00 0) im po se d by an ALJ pa ne l is s u b je ct to
jud ic ia l revi ew. Mi nn

. St at

. §§ 21 1B .35

, su b.d 2( d) ; 21 1B .36

, su bd

. 5. Onl y whe n

a co m pl ai nt is fin al ly di sp os ed of by th e OAH, is it su bjec t to fu rth er pr os ecu ti on by

th e co un ty at to rn ey

. Mi nn

. St at

. § 21 1B .32

, su bd

. 1. One po ss ib le res ol ut io n by th e

ALJ pa ne l is to refe r th e co m pl ai nt to th e ap pr op ria te co un ty a t t o rn ey wit ho ut

ren de rin g it s own op in io n on th e m at te r, or in ad di ti on to it s own res ol ut io n. Mi nn

. St at . § 2 11 B.3 5, s ub d. 2 (e).

-3

-As n ot ed in 28 1 C are C om m it te e I:

Mi nn es ot a ha s a lo ng hi st or y of reg ul at in g kn owi ng ly fal se sp eech ab ou t

po li ti cal can di da te s; it ha s cri m in al iz ed de fam at or y cam pa ig n sp eech

si nc e 18 93

. Howev er, th e FCPA's reg ul at io n of i s s u e-re la te d po li ti cal

sp eech is a co m

pa rat iv el y

rece nt in no va ti on

. Mi nn es ot a di d no t be gi n

reg ul at in g kn owi ng ly fal se sp eech ab ou t ba l l ot in it ia ti ve s un ti l 19 88

. Bet ween 19 88 an d 20 04

, th e FCPA's reg ul at io n of sp eech reg ard in g ba ll ot in it ia ti v e s al lo wed fo r on ly on e en fo rcem en t m ech an is m :

m an da to ry crim ina l pr ose cu tio n of alleg ed vi ol at or s by co un ty at to rn ey s.
In 20 04

, th e Mi nn es ot a le gi sl at ur e am en d e d t h e FCPA to pr ov id e th at alleged vi ol at io ns of se ct io n 21 1B .06 in it ia ll y be de al t wit h th ro ug h ci vi l

co m pl ai nt s fi le d wi th th e [OAH].

63 8 F .3d 62 1, 6 25 (8t h C ir. 2 01 1)

.

U p on rem an d fro m 28 1 Care Co m m it te e I, th e di st ric t co ur t face d va rio us

is su es : (1 ) a ren ewed ch al le ng e by App el le es to App el la nt s' st an di ng on th e ba si s of

a fai lu re of pro of

, (2 ) a de ci si on reg ard in g th e le ve l of scru ti ny to ap pl y to th is Fi rs t

Am en dm en t act io n, an d (3 ) whe th er th e M i n n e s o ta st at ut e su rv iv ed un de r su ch an

an al y si s. As to th e fir st is su e, th e co un ty at to rn ey s ar g ue d th at ev en if App el la nt s

su ffi ci en tl y al le ge d st an di ng at th e m ot io n to di sm is s st ag e, th e y f ai le d to pr ov e

st an di ng su ffi ci en t to su rv iv e su m m ary jud gm en t be ca u s e t h e y fai le d to id en ti fy a

sp eci fic ba ll ot in it ia ti ve th ey in te nd ed to op po se , no r ha d th ey , arg ue d App el le es ,

pr ov id ed ex am

pl es of st at em en ts th ey in te nd ed to us e (i.e

., fai lu re of pr oo f). The

di st ric t co ur t he ld th at th is ci rcu it 's pr io r co nc lu si on –t ha t A p p e ll an ts ha d st an di ng

be cau se a cred ib le th reat of pr os ecu ti on ex is te d by vi rtu e of th e rece nt en act m en t of

§ 21 1B .06 –p ers is te d at th e su m m ary jud gm en t st ag e, an d th us th e co ur t reject ed

App el le es ' arg um en t as to th e fi rs t i ss ue

.

-4

-Reg ard in g th e ap pr op ria te le ve l of sc ru ti ny to ap pl y in th is act io n, ev en th ou gh

th is co ur t in 28 1 Care Co m m it te e I di rect ed th e di st ric t cou rt to ap pl y st ric t sc ru ti ny

up on rem an d, 63 8 F.3 d at 63 6, th e di st ric t co ur t de t e rm in ed th at th e in te rv en in g

Su pr em e Co ur t op in io n, Uni te d St at es v. Alv arez , 13 2 S. Ct

. 25 37 (2 01 2)

, al te red th e

la nd sc ap e. Dis cu ss in g Alv arez , th e di st ric t co ur t no te d th at th e fo ur -J us ti ce pl ur al it y , le d by Ju st ic e Ken ne dy, ap pl ie d st ric t sc ru ti ny an d fo un d t h e S to le n Valo r Act

un co ns ti tu ti on al

. The di st ric t co ur t ac c u r a t e l y no te d th at Ju st ic e Breyer wro te a

co nc ur rin g op in io n in Alv arez , joi ne d by Ju st ic e Kag an , in whi ch he ag reed th at th e

St ol en Valo r A c t was un co ns ti tu ti on al bu t arri ve d at th at ho ld in g ap pl y in g

i nt erm ed ia te

, no t st ric t, sc ru ti ny. See Alv arez , 13 2 S. Ct

. at 25 51 -5 6 (Bre ye r , J

. ,

co nc ur rin g)

. App el le es arg ue d to th e di st ric t co ur t th at Ju st ic e Breyer's co nc ur ren ce

co nt ro ll ed in Alv arez be cau se whe n "a frag m en te d Co ur t de ci de s a cas e an d no si ng le

rat io na l e e x p l ai ni ng th e res ul t en joy s th e as se nt of fiv e Ju st ic es , th e ho ld in g of th e

Co ur t m ay be vi ewed as th at po si ti on ta ke n by th os e Mem be rs who co nc ur red in th e jud gm en ts on th e na rro wes t gr ou nd s." Mar ks v. Uni te d St at es , 43 0 U.S. 1 88

, 19 3

(1 97 7) (in te rn al qu ot at io n om it te d)

. Acco rd in gl y , ap ply ing th e Mar ks ru le

, App el le es

arg ue d th at th e ap pr op ria te le ve l of sc ru ti ny to ap pl y in th is c as e is in te rm ed ia te

sc ru ti ny. The di s t r i c t c o ur t ag reed th at in te rm ed ia te sc ru ti ny ap pl ie d acco rd in g to

Alv arez , bu t co nd uc te d it s de te rm in at iv e an al y si s ap pl y in g st ric t sc ru ti ny be cau se th e

co ur t he ld th at no m at te r th e le ve l of sc ru ti ny, Mi nn es ot a St at ut e § 21 1B .06 su rv iv es

ev en th e m os t s tri ng en t.

App lying a st ric t sc ru ti ny an al y si s to th e in st an t fact s, th e di st ric t co ur t he ld §

21 1B .06 se rv es a "co m

pe ll in g in te res t" (i.e

., pr es erv in g fai r an d ho ne st el ect io ns an d

pr ev en ti ng a frau d up on th e el ect or at e th ro ug h t he de li be rat e sp read in g o f m at eri al

, fal se in fo rm at io n) an d th at

, on ba la nc e, th at in te res t was im po rta nt en ou gh to jus ti fy

th e sp eech § 21 1B .06 ha s res tri ct ed in pu rs ui t of th at in te res t. Thi s ap pe al fo ll owe d.

-5

-II

. DISCUSS IO N

A. Sta nda rd o f Rev ie w

"Th is co ur t rev ie ws de no vo a gr an t of su m m ary jud gm en t." Io wa Ri gh t to Life

Co m m ., In c. v. Too ke r, 71 7 F.3 d 57 6, 5 8 3 ( 8 t h Ci r. 20 13 ), cert

. de ni ed

, 13 4 S. Ct

. 17 87 (2 01 4)

. "Th is co ur t affi rm s whe re th ere are no ge nu in e is su es of m at eri al fact

,

an d jud gm en t is ap pr op ria te as a m at te r of la w." Mi nn

. Ci ti zen s Co nc ern ed fo r Life

, In c. v. Kel le y , 42 7 F .3d 11 06 , 11 09 (8t h C ir. 2 00 5)

.

B. Sta ndi ng

W e fir st d i s p o s e o f th e co un ty at to rn ey s' cl ai m th at th e di st ric t co ur t erre d in

i t s co nc lu si on th at App el la nt s ha d st an di ng to pu rs ue th ei r cl ai m s at su m m a r y jud gm en t. In 28 1 Care Co m m it te e I, th is co ur t he ld th at App el la nt s ha d st an di ng , in

pa rt, be cau se a cred ib le th reat of pr os ecu ti on ex is te d by vi rtu e of th e rece nt en act m en t

of § 21 1B .06

. 63 8 F.3 d at 62 7- 31

. Upo n rem an d, th e co un ty at to rn ey s rev is it ed th at

cl ai m

. Befo re the di st ric t co ur t, t he co un ty atto rn ey s ar gu ed th at App el la nt s lack ed

st an di ng du e to a fai lu re of pr oo f on th at is su e– th at App el la nt s fai le d to of fer sp eci fic

fact s to su pp or t st an di ng at s u mm ary jud gm en t. Fo r ex am pl e, th e co un ty at to rn ey s

cl ai m e d A p pe ll an ts fai le d to id en ti fy a sp eci fic ba ll ot in it ia ti ve th ey in te nd ed to

op po se no r di d t he y

pro vi de ex am

pl es of s pe ci fic st at em en ts th ey in te nd ed to us e.

Des pi te th e fact th at App el la nt s fil ed de cl arat io ns de sc rib in g th ei r op po si ti on

to pa rti cu la r ba ll ot in it ia ti ve s, th e co un ty at to rn ey s m ai nt a i n t h a t th e po si te d

st at em en ts "ar e be y on d th e reac h of th e st at ut e" an d ap pe ar to be ex ag ge rat io ns ,

co njec tu re, or il lo gi cal in fere nc es th at

, acco rd in g t o t h e co un ty at to rn ey s, are no t

wit hi n th e sc o p e o f th e st at ut e. Thu s, th e co un ty at to rn ey s arg ue , no th reat of

pr os ecu ti on act ua ll y ex is ts

, n o r d oe s § 21 1B .06 crea te an y ob jecti ve ly reas on ab le

ch il l on App el la nt s' sp eech

. And

, to th e ex te nt th at th e pr op os ed st at em en ts co nt ai n

-6

-ve rif

ia bl e fact s, th e co un ty at to rn ey s fu rth er cl ai m th at App el la n t s wou ld no t face

li ab il it y un de r § 21 1B .06 un le ss (1 ) th e st at em en ts are fal se , (2 ) th e s p e a ke r m ad e

su ch st at em en ts in pa id po li ti cal ad ve rti si ng or cam pa ig n m at eri al

, an d (3 ) th e sp eak er

ha d kn owl ed ge of th e i r f al si ty, or m ad e th e st at em en ts wit h reck le ss di sr eg ard fo r

th ei r tru th or fal si ty. Unt il al l th ree oc cu r, arg ue th e co un ty at to rn ey s, th ere ex is ts no

ob jecti ve ly reaso na bl e ch il l o n p ro te ct ed po li ti cal sp eech

.

The co un ty at to rn ey s ad di ti on al ly rev is it a pr ev io us cl ai m th at App el la nt s are

no t pu rs ui ng cl ai m s ag ai ns t th ei r po li t i c a l op po ne nt s who m ig ht fil e a co m pl ai nt

un de r § 21 1B .06 wit h th e OAH, bu t rat he r ag ai ns t th e co un ty at to rn ey s ch arg ed wit h

cri m in al pr os ecu ti o n in th e un li ke ly ev en t th e OAH refe rs a m at te r fo r cri m in al

in ve st ig at io n. The y cl ai m th at by li m it in g th e su it ag ai ns t th os e who m ay a t s o me

u n l ik el y po in t se ek pr os ecu ti on , th e cl ai m s are to o farf et ch ed to reas on ab ly ch il l

App el la nt s' sp eech

. Ove ral l, th e co un ty at to rn ey s cl ai m App el la nt s ha ve no t of fere d

su ffi ci en t ev id en ce of an in jury-in -fac t cau se d by § 21 1B .06

. Face d wit h th e ren ewed

st an di ng ch al le ng e at su m m ary jud gm en t, th e di st ric t co ur t he ld th at th e reas on in g of

28 1 C are C om m it te e I pr ev ai le d a nd was u nc ha ng ed by the cas e's pro gr es si on . W e

ag ree.

Bri efl y , st an di ng is al way s a "t hr es ho ld qu es ti on " in de te rmin in g whe th er a

fed eral co ur t m ay he ar a cas e. Eck le s v. Ci ty of Co ry do n, 34 1 F.3 d 76 2, 76 7 (8 th Ci r.

20 03 ) (q uo ta ti on om it te d)

. To as se rt a rig ht in fed eral co ur t a pa rty in vo ki ng fed eral

juri sd ic ti on m

us t es ta bl is h "(1 ) th at he su ffer ed co nc ret e, pa rti cu la riz ed in jury in fact

, (2 ) th at th is in

jury is fa irl y

tra ceab le to th e ch al le ng ed act io n of d efen da nt s, an d (3 )

th at it is li ke ly tha t t hi s i nju ry wil l be red res se d b y a fav or ab le de ci si on ." 2 81 Care

Co m m it te e I, 63 8 F.3 d at 62 7. To es ta bl is h in jury in fact fo r a F i r s t A mend m en t

ch al le ng e to a st at e st at ut e, "t he pl ai nt iff ne ed s on ly to es ta bl is h th at he wou ld li ke to

en ga ge i n a r gu ab ly pr ot ect ed sp eech

, bu t th at he is ch il le d fro m do in g so by th e

-7

-ex is te nc e of th e st at ut e. Sel f-ce ns or sh ip can it se lf co ns ti tu te in jury in fact ." Id

. "Th e

rel ev a n t in qu iry is whe th er a pa rty's de ci si on to ch il l hi s sp eech in li gh t of th e

ch al le ng ed s t a t u te was 'ob jecti ve ly reas on ab le .'" Id

. (q uo ti ng Zan de rs v. Swan so n,

57 3 F.3 d 59 1, 59 4 (8 th Ci r. 20 09 )). "Re as on ab le ch il l ex is ts whe n a pl ai nt iff sh ows

'an in te nt io n to en ga ge in a co ur se of co nd uc t arg ua bl y affe ct ed wit h a co ns ti tu ti on al

in te r e s t

, b u t p ro sc rib ed by [th e] st at ut e, an d th ere ex is ts a cred ib le th reat of

pr os ecu ti on .'" Id . ( al te rat io n in or ig in al ) (q uo ti ng Bab bi tt v. Uni t e d F a r m W or ke rs

Nat'l Uni on , 44 2 U.S. 2 89 , 29 8 (1 97 9) ).

W e rel y al m os t ex cl us iv el y on ou r di sp os it i o n i n 2 8 1 Care Co m m it te e I to

res ol ve th is rev is it ed cl ai m an d of fer li tt le ad di ti on al reas on in g at th is st ag e in su pp or t

o f ou r reject io n of th e co un ty at to rn ey s' ch al le ng e to st an di ng

. Id

. at 2 7

- 3 1

(d et erm in in g th at § 21 1B .06 pr es en ts a cred ib le th reat of pr os ecu ti on su ffi ci en t to

su pp or t a cl ai m of ob

jecti ve ly reas on ab le ch il l an d th at th e pl ai nt iff s ha ve reas on ab le

cau se to fear th e co ns eq ue nc es of § 21 1B .06

, as th ey al le ge d th at th ey wis h to en ga ge

in co n d u c t t ha t co ul d reas on ab ly be in te rp ret ed as m ak in g fal se st at em en ts wit h

reck le ss di sr eg ard fo r th e tru th of th os e st at em en ts ). To th at en d, we rei te rat e ev en

no w at th e su m

m ary jud gm en t st ag e, th at th e rel ev an t fact s ha ve no t ch an ge d an d

App el la nt s' de ci si on to ch il l th ei r sp eech was ob jecti ve ly reas on ab le gi ve n a cred ib le

th reat of pr os ecu ti on an d th at th e co nd uc t al le ge d by App el la nt s in whi ch th ey wis h

to en ga ge co ul d fal l wit hi n th e p ro hi bi ti on of § 21 1B .06 . See 2 81 Care Co m m it te e
I, 63 8 F .3d at 6 27 -2 9. 4

W e al so de ny th e co un ty at to rn ey s' req ue st to co nd uc t ad di ti on al di sc ov ery 4

pu rs ua nt to Fed eral Ru le of Ci vi l Pro ced ur e 56 (d ), as we ha ve no w rei te rat ed th at
th ere is no ne ed fo r ad di ti on al in qu iri es on th is is su e. Lest th ere be an y n e e d fo r fu rth er cl ari fic at io n on th e m at te r, th e Su pr em e Co ur t's di sc us si o n i n Su sa n B.

Ant ho ny Lis t v. Drie ha us , sh ou ld se tt le it p o i n t e d l y. Su sa n B. Ant ho ny Lis t v. Drie ha us , 13 4 S . Ct. 2 33 4 (2 01 4) (SBA Lis t).

-8

-The Co ur t's rece nt pr on ou nc em en t in SBA Lis t so li di fie s ou r in st an t an d pr io r

ru li ng s o n t he co un ty at to rn ey s' st an di ng ch al le ng e an d a ct ua ll y rep res en ts a ti m el y

di sc us si on di rect ly r el ev an t to ou r ap pr oa ch he rei n to Mi nn es ot a's § 21 1B .06

. 13 4

S. Ct . 2 33 4 (2 01 4 )

. In SBA Lis t, th e Co ur t ad dr es se d a so rt of "s is te r st at ut e," pa rt

of th e Ohi o st at ut or y sc he m e, th at is qu it e si m il ar to § 21 1B .06

, an d is al so tra ve li ng 5

a si m il ar pa th in li ti ga ti on

. The po st ur e in SBA Lis t is si m il ar to th at whi ch we face d 6

in 28 1 Care Co m

m it te e I. In SBA Lis t, th e Co ur t face d a ch al le ng e to a pa rty's Arti cl e

III st an di ng

. The pe ti ti on ers in SBA Lis t were ad vo cacy o rg an iz at io ns th at m ad e a

pr een fo rcem en t ch al le ng e on co ns ti tu ti on al gr ou nd s ag ai ns t th e Ohi o la w th at

pr oh ib it s cert ai n fal se st at em en ts du rin g th e co ur se of an y cam pa ig n fo r no m in at io n

In fact th e OAH pr oc ed ur e in Mi nn es ot a un de r it s Fai r Cam pa ig n Prac ti ces "i s 5

m od el ed on on e cre at ed by O hi o i n 1 99 5." App el le e App . 14

.

Ohi o Rev is ed Co de Ann ot at ed § 35 17 .21 (B), pa rt of th e Ohi o Elec ti on Co de

, 6

pr ov id es in rel ev an t p art :

No pe rs on , du rin g th e co ur se of an y cam pa ig n fo r no m in at io n or el ect io n

to pu bl ic of

fic e or of fic e of a po li ti cal pa rty, b y m ean s of cam pa ig n

mat e r ia ls

, in cl ud in g sa m pl e ba ll ot s, an ad ve rti se m en t on rad io or

te le vi si on or in a ne wsp ap er or pe rio di cal

, a pu bl ic sp eech

, pr es s rel eas e,

or ot he rwis e, sh al l kn owi ng ly an d wit h in te n t t o a f f ect th e ou tc om e of

su ch cam pa ig n do an y of th e fo ll owi ng : . . . (9) M ak e a fals e st at em en t

co nc ern in g th e vo ti ng reco rd of a can di da te or pu bl ic of fic ia l; (1 0) Po st

, pu bl is h, ci rcu la te

, di st rib ut e, or ot he rwis e di ss em in at e a fal se st at em en t

co nc e r n i n g a can di da te

, ei th er kn owi ng th e sa m e to be fal se or wit h

reck le ss di sr eg ard of whe th er i t w a s f a ls e or no t, if th e st at em en t is

de si gn ed to pr om ot e th e el ect io n, no m in at io n, or de feat of th e can di da te

.

-9

-or el ect io n to pu bl ic of fic e or to an of

fic e of a p ol it ic al pa rty. SBA Lis t, 13 4 S. Ct

.

at 23 38

. The Si xt h Ci rcu it affi rm ed th e di sm is sa l of th e act io n, bu t a un an im ou s

Su pr em e Co ur t re ve rs ed . Id. at 23 47

.

The Co ur t in SBA Lis t he ld th at de sp it e th e pr io r co ur ts ' de te rm in at io ns th at th e

cas e was no t rip e be cau se th e pe ti ti on ers ha d no t al le ge d a c r e d i b l e th reat of

en fo rcem en t, su ch a th reat in de ed ex is te d. Id

. at 23 43 -4 5. Lik e § 21 1B .06

, th e Ohi o

fal se st at em en ts la w swe ep s br oa dl y an d co ve red th e in te nd ed sp eech of th e SBA Lis t

pe ti ti on ers , ev en th ou gh th ey fu ll y in te nd ed to sp eak tru th fu ll y , jus t as th e App el la nt s

as se rt her e. Id

. Des pi te th e or ga ni zat io ns ' in te nt io ns , th e Co ur t hel d, th e rev ie win g

ad m in is tra ti ve bo dy whe re co m pl ai nt s co ul d be lo dg ed as pa rt of th e st at ut or y sc he m e

co ul d st il l fin d pro ba bl e cau se to be li ev e th e la w was vi ol at ed

. Id

. at 23 44 -4 5. The

real in jury was th e fil in g of a co m pl ai nt it se lf, th e Co ur t real iz ed

, an d th at th reat was

on ly ex acer ba t e d b y t h e pr oc ed ur e in pl ace in Ohi o whe re "an y pe rs on " co ul d fil e

su ch a co m

pl ai nt

. Id

. at 23 45

. The Co ur t reco gn iz ed th at in su ch a sc he m e, th e fil in g

of th e co m

pl ai nt it se lf can be us ed to ta ct ic al ly di ffu se an or ga ni zat io n's su pp or t

du rin g, sa y , th e he a t of a cam pa ig n an d th at th reat

, co up le d wit h bu rd en so m e

Co m m is si on pr oc eed in gs an d an ad di ti on al th reat of cri m in al pr os ecu ti on m or e th an

su ffi ce t o c reat e an in

jury for s ta nd in g p ur

po se s. Id . at 2 34 5- 47

.

The in st an t m at te r, to o, is jus ti ci ab le

, an d as to th is s pe ci fic st at ut e, th ere is

su ffi ci en t fa ct ua l su pp or t to fin d an Arti cl e III in jury in fa ct . App el la nt s cl ai m th ey pl an to co nt in ue to en ga ge in el ect or al sp eech co nc ern in g op po si ti on to sc ho ol

fu nd in g ba ll ot i n i t i a t i ve s. As in SBA Lis t, App el la nt s' ch al le ng e to th e Mi nn es ot a

f al se st at em en ts st at ut e pr es en ts a pu rel y le ga l is su e fu ll y su pp or te d by th e fact s a t

ha nd

, an d de nyin g th is jud ic ia l rev ie w wou l d i mp o s e a su bs ta nt ia l ha rd sh ip on App el la nt s, "fo rci ng th em to ch oo se be twee n refr ai ni ng fro m co re po li ti cal sp eech on

th e on e ha nd

, or en ga gi ng in th at sp eech an d ris ki ng co st ly [OAH] pr oc eed in gs an d

-1 0-cri m in al pr os ecu ti on on th e ot he r." Id . a t 23 47

. A c c o r d in gl y , we reject th e co un ty

at to rn ey s' re ne wed ch al le ng e to st an di ng

.

C. Scru tin y

"As a ge ne ral m at te r, th e Fi rs t Am en dm en t m ean s th at go ve rn m en t ha s no

po wer to res tri ct ex pr es si on be cau se of it s m es sa ge , it s id eas , it s su bjec t m at te r, or it s

co nt en t." Alv arez , 13 2 S. Ct

. at 25 43 (p lu ral it y ) (q uo ta ti on om it te d)

. To e v a lu at e

whe th er a st at ut e vi ol at es th e Fi rs t Am en dm en t, th e fir st st ep is to art ic ul at e th e le ve l

o f s c r ut in y to ap pl y in th is co ur t's an al y si s– i.e., th e st an da rd on whi ch th is c o u r t

ex am in es th e fit be twee n t h e s t a t u t o r y en ds an d m ean s. Id

. at 25 51 (Bre y er, J.,

co nc ur rin g) ; se e al so W ers al v. Sex to n, 67 4 F.3 d 10 10

, 10 19 -2 0 (8 th Ci r. 20 12 ). The

pa rti es ho tl y di sp ut e th e le ve l of sc ru ti ny to ap pl y he re, in cl ud in g a vi br an t di sc us si on

as to whe th er, an d ho w, Al v arez ap pl ie s. The di st ric t co ur t an d no w App el le es

ad vo cat e th at Alv arez is th e gu id ep os t fo r ou r an al y si s reg ard in g th e co ns ti tu ti on al it y

of § 21 1B .06

, an d in st ru ct s t h at we ap pl y in te rm ed ia te sc ru ti ny in th is cas e.

Howev er, w hi le Alv arez de al t with a co nt en t-b as ed res tri ct io n o n pro te ct ed sp eech

, th e res tri ct io n a t i ss ue in Alv arez di d no t reg ul at e po li ti cal sp eech

, th e ke y fact or in

t h e in st an t an al y si s. Alv arez , 13 2 S. Ct

. at 25 43

, 25 48 (p lu ral it y ). Acco r d i n g l y,

Alv arez is no t d is po si ti ve

.

In Alv arez , t he Su pr em e Co ur t an al y zed a Fi rs t Am en dm en t ch al le ng e to th e

St ol en Valo r Act, w h ic h cri m in al iz ed fal se cl ai m s ab ou t th e rece ip t of m il it ary

d e c o r a t i o ns or m ed al s. Id

. at 25 42 -4 3 (p lu ral it y ). Sp eci fic al ly, th e de fen da n t

, Alv arez , l ie d in an no un ci ng he he ld th e Co ng res si on al Med al of Hon or an d he was

in di ct ed un de r th e St ol en Valo r Act fo r do in g so

. Id

. at 25 42 (p lu ral it y ). In arri vi ng

at th e co nc lu si on th at th e St ol en Valo r Act as writ te n vi ol at ed th e Fi rs t Am en dm en t,

f o ur Ju st ic es ap pl ie d st ric t sc ru ti ny an d th e two co nc ur rin g Ju st ic es ap pl ie d

-1 1-in te rm ed ia te sc ru ti ny. Des pi te th e di sa gr eem en t ov er th e le ve l of sc ru ti ny to ap pl y , 7

ho wev er, al l si x Ju st ic es in Alv arez ag reed th at fal s e s t a te m en ts do no t rep res en t a

cat eg or y of sp eech al to ge th er ex em pt fro m Fi rs t Am en dm en t pr ot ect io n. Id

. at 25 44

-
45

, 25 53 (p lu ral it y an d Breyer, J., co nc ur rin g)

. Si m pl y st at ed

, fal se st at em en ts

, as a

ge ne ral pr op os it io n, are no t be y on d co n s t i tu ti on al pr ot ect io n. Id

. Lik e th e St ol en 8

Valo r A c t

, § 21 1B .06 ta rg et s fal si ty, as op po se d to th e le ga ll y co gn iz ab le ha rm s

The Alv arez pl ur al it y ut il iz ed th e t e r m "t he m os t ex act in g sc ru ti ny" in it s 7

an al y si s. 13 2 S. Ct

. at 25 48 (p lu ral it y ) (q uo ta ti on om it te d)

. To be su re, th e Su pr em e Co ur t ha s us ed th e te rm "ex act in g sc ru ti ny" in m an y co nt ex ts

, so m e of whi ch in di cat e th e ap pl ic at io n of a le ss -th an -s tri ct sc ru ti ny ap pr oa ch

. See, e.g ., Mi nn

. Ci ti zen s Co nc ern ed fo r Life

, In c. v. Swans on , 69 2 F.3d 86 4, 87 6 (8t h Cir. 20 12 ) (d is cu ss in g

va rio us cas es ut il iz in g th e "ex act in g scru ti ny" st an da rd an d ho w it was ap pl ie d)

. In

Alv arez , th ou gh

, no m at te r th e cl ou di ne ss of it s us ag e in pr io r cas e la w, th e pl ur al it y 's

ap pl ic at io n of "t he m os t ex act in g sc ru ti ny" i s i n t e rch an ge ab le wit h st ric t sc ru ti ny. 13 2 S. Ct

. at 25 51 (Bre y er, J., co nc ur rin g) (ap pl y in g th e le ss vi go ro us , in te rm ed ia te

sc ru ti ny, ap pr oa ch in th e an al y si s, in di st in ct co nt ras t to th e pl ur al it y 's st ric t sc ru ti ny

ap pr oa ch ).

In th is sa m e ve in

, Alv arez li ke wis e fo recl os es App el la nt s' arg um en t (m ad e in 8

rel ia nc e up on la ng ua ge fo un d in New Yor k Tim es Co

. v. Su ll iv an , 37 6 U.S. 25 4, 29 1 (1 96 4) ) th at be cau se § 21 1B .06 "i m po se s cri m in al an d ci vi l li ab il it y on ci ti zen s ba se d

so le ly on st at em en ts cri ti ci zi ng th e g o v e r nm en t's la ws or pr op os ed la ws, it is

cat eg or ic al ly un co ns ti tu ti on al ." Ju st as we pr ev io us ly il lu m in at ed why de fam at io nla w pr in ci pl es ad va nc e th e imp o rta nc e of pr iv at e in te res ts bu t do no t se tt le th e

qu es ti o n reg ard in g a cat eg or ic al ex em pt io n fo r kn owi ng ly fal se sp eech

, 28 1 Care

Co m m it te e I, 63 8 F.3 d at 63 4, Su ll iv an 's di sc us si on of li ab il it y fo r th e de fam at io n of

a pu bl ic of

fic ia l li ke wis e do es no t se tt le th e m at te r he re. See Su l l i v a n , 37 6 U.S. at

27 1- 72

, 27 9- 80

. Su ll iv an cert ai nl y fu rth ers th e di sc us si on co nc ern in g th e im po rta nc e of en fo rci ng th e Fi rs t Am en dm en t to ad va nc e fre e de ba te an d ro bu st pu bl ic di sc us si on of is su es , bu t th e Co ur t's di sc us si on in Su ll iv an do es no t su pp or t th e pr op os it io n th at § 2 11 B.0 6 i s ca te go ric al ly unc on st it ut io na l. Id . at 2 70 -7 2.

-1 2-as so ci at ed wit h a fal se st at em en t. In th is aren a, th e Co ur t m ak es cl ear th at th ere is no

free pa ss aro un d t he Fir st Am en dm en t. Id . at 2 54 5 (p lu ral it y ). 9

The ke y to da y , ho wev er, i s th at al th ou gh Alv arez de al t wit h a reg ul at io n

pr os cri bi ng fal se sp eech

, it di d no t de a l wit h le gi sl at io n reg ul at in g fal se po li ti ca l

sp eech

. Id

. at 25 43 (p lu ral it y ). Thi s di st in ct io n m ak es al l th e d i ffer en ce an d is

e n t i r el y th e reas on why Alv arez is no t th e gr ou nd up on whi ch we tre ad

. Ju s t i c e

B reyer in hi s co nc ur rin g op in io n in Alv arez reco gn iz ed th e si gn ifi can t di ffer e n c e

be twee n t he fal se sp eech reg ul at ed by t he St ol en Valo r Act an d ot he r area s o f fal se

sp eech

, in cl ud in g fal se po li ti cal sp eech

, ac k n o w l ed gi ng th at st ric t sc ru ti ny is of te n

th e te st to ap pl y , and no ti ng th at al m os t no am ou nt of fin e ta il or in g c ou ld ach ie ve a

si m il ar g ov ern m en t i nt eres t i n a po li ti cal co nt ex t:

I reco gn iz e th at in so m e co nt ex ts

, pa rti cu la rly po li ti cal co nt ex ts

, su ch a

n a r r owi ng wil l no t al way s be eas y to ach ie ve

. In th e po li ti cal a r e n a a fal se st at em en t is m or e li ke ly t o m ak e a be ha vi or al di ffer en c e ( s ay , b y le ad in g th e li st en ers t o v ot e fo r th e sp eak er) bu t at th e sa m e ti m e cri m in al pr os ecu ti on is pa r t ic ul arl y da ng ero us (s ay , by rad ic al ly

ch an gi ng a po te nt ia l el ect io n re su lt ) an d c on se qu en tl y can m or e eas il y

res ul t i n c en so rs hi p o f sp eak ers an d t he ir i de as

.

The Co ur t's ru li ng on t hi s is su e affi rm s th e pr on ou nc em en t in 28 1 Care 9

Co m m it te e I th at kn owi ng ly fal se sp eech do es no t fal l ou ts id e th e pr ot ect io ns of th e Fi rs t Am en dm en t. 63 8 F.3 d at 63 5. The di st ric t co ur t se em s to ha ve read th is

pr on ou nc em en t as th e su m to ta l of ou r ru li ng on t h e i s s u e o f sc ru ti ny on rem an d

be cau se th e co ur t de du ced it was "t hu s di rect ed " to ap pl y st ric t sc ru ti ny on ly be cau se th e st at ut e was a co nt en t-b as ed res tri ct io n on kn owi ng ly fal se sp eech

. Howev er, 28 1

Care Co m

m it te e I m ak es cl ear t ha t it s di sc us si on fo cu se s on fal se st at em en ts in th e

po li ti cal co nt ex t, sp eci fic al ly "i n th e co nt ex t of po li ti cal cam pa ig ns on a ba ll ot is su e."

Id . at 6 36 . It was for th at reas on , we hel d s tri ct scr ut in y ap pl ie d. Id . at 6 35 -3 6.

-1 3-Id

. at 25 56 (Bre y er, J., co nc ur rin g )

. A l v a r ez, of co ur se , gu id es ou r an al y si s to th e

ex te nt it di sc us se s th e reg ul at io n of fal se sp eech in li gh t of ge ne ral Fi rs t Am en dm en t

pr ot ect io ns , bu t th e Co ur t's pr on ou nc em en ts in th e m y ria d ot he r cas es di sc us si ng th e

reg ul at io n of po l i t i cal sp eech di ct at e th e le ve l of sc ru ti ny to ap pl y to ou r an al y si s.

McC ut ch eo n v. FEC, 13 4 S. Ct

. 14 34 (2 01 4) ; Ci ti zen s Uni te d v. FEC, 55 8 U.S. 31 0,

34 0 (2 01 0) ; Rep ub li can Part y of Mi nn

. v. W hi te

, 53 6 U.S. 76 5, 77 4 (2 00 2) (Whit e I); McI nt y

re v. Ohi o Elec ti on s Co m m 'n, 51 4 U.S. 33 4, 34 7 (1 99 5) ; Mi ll s v. Ala., 38 4

U.S. 21 4, 2 18 -1 9 (1 96 6)

.

So

, ag ai n, it is key th at th e reg ul at or y sc he m e at pl ay in Alv arez de al t en ti rel y ,

a n d o n ly, wit h fal se sp eech

. Alv arez , 13 2 S. Ct

. at 25 45 (p lu ral it y ) ("[ T] he St o l e n

Valo r Act

. . . ta rg et s fal si ty an d no th in g m or e."). In fact

, it was la rg el y (if no t so le ly)

b ecau se th e reg ul at io n at is su e in Alv arez co nc ern ed fal se st at em en ts ab ou t eas il y

ve rif ia bl e fac ts tha t did not co nc ern su bjec ts of te n warra nt in g gr eat er pr ot ect io n un de r

th e Fi rs t Am en dm en t, th at th e co nc ur rin g Ju st ic es ap pl ie d in te rm ed ia te sc ru ti ny. Id

.

at 25 52 -5 3 (Bre y er, J., co nc ur rin g)

. Here, be cau se th e sp eech at i ss ue oc cu pi es th e

co re of th e pr ot ect io n affo rd ed by t he Fi rs t Am en dm en t, we ap p l y s t r ic t sc ru ti ny t o

le gi sl at io n at te m

pt in g to reg ul at e it

. Io wa Ri gh t to Life Co m m ., 71 7 F.3 d at 58 9.

Acco rd in gl y , be cau se Alv arez do es no t al te r th e la nd sc ap e on th is is su e, th e sc ru ti ny

di rect ed in 28 1 C are C om m it te e I en du res

.

D. Reg ul at io n o f Pol iti ca l Sp eech

The Fi rs t Am en dm en t of th e Uni te d St at es Co ns ti tu ti on st at es : "Co ng res s sh al l

m ak e no la w

. . . ab rid gi ng th e free do m of sp e e c h

. " U

. S

. Co ns t. am en d. I. The

reg ul at io n of po li ti cal sp eech or ex pr es si on is

, an d al way s ha s be en , at th e co re of th e

pr ot ect io n affo rd ed by th e Fi rs t Am en dm en t. McI nt y re, 514 U.S. at 34 6. "Po li ti cal

sp eech is th e pr ima ry ob

ject of Fi rs t Am en dm en t pr ot ect io n an d th e li feb lo od of a

-1 4-se lf- go ve rn in g pe op le ." McC ut ch eo n, 13 4 S. Ct

. at 14 62 (Tho m as , J

. co nc ur rin g)

(in te rn al qu ot at io ns om it te d)

. It is

, pa rti cu la rly, at th e he art of th e pr ot ect io ns of th e

Fi rs t Am en dm en t, 2 81 Care Co m m it te e I, 63 8 F.3d at 63 5, and is

, "o f co ur se , . . . at

th e co re of wha t th e F i r s t A mend m en t is de si gn ed to pr ot ect ." Mo rs e v. Fred eri ck

, 55 1 U.S. 39 3, 40 3 ( 2 0 0 7 ) ( in te rn al qu ot at io n om it te d)

. "Al th ou gh no t be y on d

res tra in t, st ric t sc ru ti ny is ap pl ie d to an y reg ul at io n th at wou ld cu rta il it ." Rep ub li can

Part y of Mi nn

. v. W hi te

, 41 6 F.3 d 73 8, 74 9 (8 th Ci r. 20 05 ) (en ba nc ) (Whit e II); se e

al so McIn tyre, 51 4 U.S. at 34 7.

Mu c h l e g a l di sc ou rs e ha s ta ke n pl ace reg ard in g th e sp eci al pl ace he ld fo r

po li ti cal di sc us si on in ou r syste m of go ve rn m en t, an d th e ap pl ic at io n of th es e

pr in ci pl es , us ua ll y di sc us se d in th e co nt ex t of sp eech su rro un di ng can di da te s fo r

of fic e, "ex te nd [s ] eq ua ll y to is su e-b as ed el ect io ns su ch as [p ol it ic al cam pa ig ns on a

ba ll ot is su e]." McIn tyre, 51 4 U.S. at 34 7. So

,

[d ]iscu ss io n of pu bl ic is su es an d de ba te on th e qu al ifi cat io ns of

can di da te s are in te gr al to t h e o p erat io n of th e syste m of go ve rn m en t

es ta bl is he d by ou r Co ns ti tu ti o n

. Th e Fi rs t Am en dm en t affo rd s th e br oa de st pr ot ect io n to su ch po li ti cal ex pr e s s io n in or de r to as su re th e

un fet te red in te rch an ge of id eas fo r t h e b r in gi ng ab ou t of po li ti cal an d

so ci al ch a n g e s de si red by th e pe op le

. Alt ho ug h Fi rs t Am en dm en t

p ro te ct io ns are no t co nf in ed to th e ex po si ti on of id eas , t h e r e i s

pr act ic al ly un iv ers al ag reem en t th at a m ajor pu rp os e of th at Am en dm en t

was to pr ot ect th e free di s c u s si on of go ve rn m en ta l affa irs

, of co ur se in cl ud in g di sc us si on s of [p ol it ic al cam pa ig ns on a ba ll ot is su e]. Thi s no

m or e th an refl ect s ou r pr of ou nd na ti o n a l co m

m it m en t to th e pr in ci pl e th at de ba te on pu bl ic is s u e s s ho ul d be un in hi bi te d, ro bu st

, an d wid eop en

.

-1 5-Id

. at 34 6 (q uo ta ti on an d in te rn al qu ot at io ns om it te d) ; se e al so M i l l s , 38 4 U.S. at

21 8- 19

. App lying st ric t sc ru ti ny, th e bu rd en on App el le es i n t h i s matt er is to

de m on st rat e th at th e in te res t ad va nc ed in su pp or t of th e § 21 1B .06 is na rro wly

ta il or ed to m eet a co m

pe ll in g go ve rn m en t in te res t. 28 1 Care Co m m it te e I, 63 8 F.3 d

at 63 6.

E. Sta tuto ry Ends an d Mea ns

The co un ty at to rn ey s are un ab le to m eet th ei r bu rd en in th is cas e. Eve n if we

were to as su m e th at th e as se rte d co m pe ll in g in te res ts di sc us se d he rei n pa ss m us te r fo r

pu rp os es of th is co ns ti tu ti on al an al y si s, no am ou nt of na rro w ta i l o r in g su ccee ds

be cau se § 21 1B .06 is no t ne ces sa ry , is si m ul ta ne ou sl y ov erb ro ad an d un de rin cl us iv e,

an d i s n ot th e le as t re st ric ti ve m ean s o f ach ie vi ng an y st at ed go al . W e ex pl ai n.

1. Compell in g I nter es t

"Pr eci se ly wha t co ns ti tu te s a 'co m pe ll in g in te res t' is no t e a s i ly de fin ed

. Att em pt s at de fin it io n ge ne ral ly us e al te rn at iv e, eq ua ll y su pe rla ti ve la ng ua ge :

'in te res t[] of th e hi gh es t or d er,' 'ov erri di ng st at e in te res t,' 'un us ua ll y im po rta nt

in te res t.'" W hi te II, 41 6 F.3 d at 74 9 (q uo ti ng W is co ns in v. Yod er, 40 6 U.S. 20 5, 21 5

(1 97 2) ; McI nt yr e , 5 1 4 U .S. at 34 7; Gol dm an v. W ei nb erg er, 47 5 U.S. 50 3, 53 0

(1 98 6) (O'Co nn or , J., di ss en ti ng )). Too

, th e di sc us si on reg ard in g whe th er a st at e

in te res t is co m

pe ll in g or no t bo tt om s on o t h e r c on si de rat io ns in th e st ric t sc ru ti ny

an al y si s, s uc h a s t he im

pa ct of t he reg ul at io n i ts el f.

The in qu iry of whe th er th e in te res t (th e en d) is 'im po rta nt en ou gh '–t ha t
is

, su ffi ci en tl y co m

pe ll in g to ab rid ge co re co n s t i t ut io na l rig ht s– is

in fo rm ed by an ex am in at io n of th e reg ul at io n (th e mea ns ) pu rp or te dl y

-1 6-ad dr es si ng th at en d. A cl ear in di cat or of th e de gr ee to whi ch an in te res t

is 'co m pe ll in g' is th e ti gh tn es s of the fit be twee n th e reg ul at io n and th e

pu rp or te d in te res t: whe re th e reg ul at io n [is un de rin cl us iv e an d] fai ls to
ad dr es s si gn ifi can t i nf

lu en ces th at im

pa ct th e pu rp or te d in te res t, it

us ua ll y flu sh es ou t th e fact th at th e in te res t do es no t ris e to th e le ve l of

be in g 'co m

pe ll in g

. ' If an in te res t is co mpe ll in g en ou gh to jus ti fy

ab rid gi ng co re co ns ti tu t i o n a l rig ht s, a st at e wil l en act reg ul at io ns th at

su bs ta nt ia ll y pr ot ect th at in te res t fr om si m il arl y si gn ifi can t t hr eat s. . .

. A la w can no t be reg ard ed as pr ot ect in g an in te res t of th e hi gh es t or de r,

an d th us as jus ti fy in g a res tri ct io n up on

. . . s p e e ch

, whe n it le av es

ap pr eci ab le da m ag e to th at su pp os ed ly vit al in te res t u np ro hi bi te d.

W hi te II, 41 6 F. 3d at 75 0 (in te rn al qu ot at io n om it te d) (s eco nd an d fo ur th al te rat io ns

in or ig in al ). Tha t sa id

, an d lo ok in g at al l of t h e se rel at ed fact or s, we an al y ze th e

co m pe ll in g s ta te in te res t ad va nc ed in th is cas e.

The di st ric t co ur t co nc lu de d th a t t h e maj o r pu rp os e of § 21 1B .06 is to 1 0

App el le es do no t es po us e jus t on e art ic ul at io n of th e st at e in te res t ad va nc ed 1 0 by § 21 1B .0 6

. In st ead th ey art ic ul at e m an y ve rs io ns of a si m il ar th em e. In th ei r br ie fin g on ap pe al

, th e co un ty at to rn ey s in ti m at e th at th e in te res ts ad va nc ed in ot he r

c as es su ffi ce to art ic ul at e th e st at e's in te res t be hi nd § 21 1B .06 he re, qu o t i n g

pr ev iou sly dis cu ss ed in te res ts in "p rev en ti ng frau d an d li be l," "p ro te ct in g th e po li ti ca l

pr oc es s fro m di st or ti on s cau se d by un tru e an d in accu rat e sp eech ," "t he ev il of m ak in g fal se st at em en ts of fact reg ard in g an el ect io n," a n d

, f i n al ly, th at § 21 1B .06 "i s de si gn e d t o pr ev en t co rru pt cam pa ig n pr act ic es th at wou ld m is le ad th e pu bl ic an d

pe rm it cl os e el ect io ns to be won by frau d." See ge ne ral ly McI nt y re, 51 4 U.S. at 34 9;

Bro wn v. Hart la ge , 45 6 U.S. 45

, 61 (1 98 2) ; Ken ne dy v. Vos s, 30 4 N.W .2d 29 9, 30 0 (Mi nn

. 19 81 ); an d In re Co nt es t of Gen

. Elec ti on , 26 4 N.W .2d 40 1, 40 6 (Mi nn

. 19 78 ) (Oti s, J., di ss en ti ng ). In th e in te res t of un ifo rm it y , be cau se t h e t h e me r em ai ns th e

sa m e, an d th e pa rti cu la r art ic ul at io n of th e st at e in te res t ad va nc ed is no t de te rm in at iv e i n th e an al y si s, we refe r in ou r an al y si s to th e di st ric t co ur t's art ic ul at io n of t h e

-1 7-pr es erv e fai r an d ho ne st el ect io ns an d pr ev en t a frau d on th e el ect or at e. The di st ric t

co ur t ad di ti on al ly art ic ul at ed th at th e pu rp os e of § 21 1B .0 6 is to "i m pl em en t[]

m in im al

, na rro wly ta il or ed sa feg ua rd s ag ai ns t cam pa ig ns of m is in fo rm at io n," an d to
"[l ]im it [] th e di ss em in at io n of kn owi ng ly or reck le ss ly fal se st at em en ts ab ou t th e

effe ct s of ba ll ot in it ia ti ve s," be cau se "[d ]elib erat e or r e ck le ss effo rts to m is le ad th e

pu bl ic an d ch an ge th e ou tc om e of a ba ll ot m eas ur e no t on ly ha ve an ad ve rs e im pa ct

on th e is su e be in g de ci de d, [th ey ] un de rm in e th e pr em is es of de m oc rat ic go ve rn m en t,

in cl ud in g t he ne ces si ty of free bu t fa ir d eb at es ."

Des pi te th e st ro ng pr ot ect io n fo r po li ti cal sp eech un de r th e Fi rs t Am en dm en t,

th e Su pr em e Co ur t ha s ack no wled ge d th at a st at e in te res t in pr ev en ti ng frau d "ca rri es

sp eci al weig ht du rin g el ect io n cam pa ig ns whe n fa lse sta

te m en ts, if cred it ed

, m ay ha ve

se rio us ad ve rs e co ns eq ue nc es fo r th e pu bl ic at la rg e." McI nt y re, 51 4 U.S. at 34 9. It

is tru e th at "[a ] St at e in di sp ut ab ly ha s a co m pe ll in g in te res t in pr es erv in g th e in te gr it y

of it s el ect io n pr oc es s. " Eu v. San Fran ci sc o Cn ty. Dem oc rat ic Cen t. Co m m ., 48 9

U.S. 21 4, 23 1- 32 (1 98 9) (d is cu ss in g se ve ral la ws th e Co ur t ha s he ld fu rth ered a

st at e's in te res t in pr es erv in g th e in te gr it y of it s el ect io n pr oc es s , al l of whi ch ex ert ed

an in fri ng em en t on th e as so ci at io na l rig ht s of th e ci ti zen ry as an in di rect co ns eq ue nc e

of la ws ne ces sa ry to th e su cces sf ul co m pl et io n of a p a r ty's ex te rn al res po ns ib il it ie s

in en su rin g th e or de r an d fai rn es s of el ect io ns ). And

, in te res ts in pr ot ect in g el ect io ns

co nd uc te d wit h in te gr it y an d rel ia bi li ty "o bv io us l y a r e c om pe ll in g." Bu rs on v.

Free m an , 50 4 U.S. 19 1, 19 9 (1 99 2) (rei te rat in g th e Co ur t's vi ew t h a t a st at e ha s a

co m pe ll in g in te res t in en su rin g th at an in di vi du al 's rig ht to vo te is no t un de rm in ed by

frau d in th e el ect io n pr oc es s, an d reco nc il i n g t h e acco m m od at io n of th e rig ht to

en ga ge in po li ti cal di sc ou rs e wit h th e r i g h t t o v ot e). Yet, whe n th es e pr es erv at io n

go al s are ach ie ve d at th e ex pe ns e of pu bl ic di sc ou rs e, th ey be co m e pr ob le m at ic

. "[A]

in te res t ad va nc ed by § 21 1B .06

.

-1 8-St at e's cl ai m th at it is en ha nc in g th e ab il it y of it s ci ti zen ry to m ak e wis e de ci si on s by

res tri ct in g th e flo w of i nf or m at io n to th em m

us t be vi ewed wit h so m e sk ep ti ci sm ."

Eu, 48 9 F.3 d at 22 8 (q uo ta ti on om it te d)

. W e are th us ev er-c og ni zan t in th is an al y si s

of th e si gn ifi can t Fi rs t Am en dm en t co st s fo r in di vi du al cit iz en s.

Dire ct ly reg ul at in g wha t is sa id or di st rib ut ed du rin g an el ect io n, as § 21 1B .06

do es , g oe s b e yo n d an at te m pt to co nt ro l th e pr oc es s to en ha nc e th e fai rn es s ov eral l

so as to care fu ll y pr ot ect th e rig ht to vo te

. W e co nc ed e th at reg ul at in g fal si ty in th e

po li ti cal real m de fin it el y ex em pl ifi es a st ro ng er st at e in te res t th an , sa y , reg ul at in g th e

di ss e mi n a t i o n an d co nt en t of in fo rm at io n ge ne ral ly, gi ve n th e im po rta nc e of th e

e le ct or al pr oc es s in th e Uni te d St at es

. McI nt y re, 51 4 U.S. at 34 8- 49

. Eve n in t h a t

co nt ex t, ho wev er, th e st at e do es no t ha ve cart e bl an ch e to reg ul at e th e di ss em in at io n

of fal se st at em en ts du rin g po li ti cal cam pa ig n s a n d t he Su pr em e Co ur t ha s y et to

sp eci fic al ly weig h in on th e b al an ci ng of i nt eres ts whe n it do es

. Id

. at 34 9- 50 n.1 2.

Tod ay we ne ed n o t de te rm in e whe th er, on th es e fact s, pr es erv in g fai r an d

ho ne st el ect io ns an d pre ve nt in g frau d on th e el ect or at e co m pr is e a co m

pe ll in g st at e

in te res t be cau se th e na rro w ta il or in g th at m us t jux ta po se th at in te res t is ab se nt he re. Aga in

, "[a ] la w can no t be reg ard ed as pr ot ect in g an in te res t of th e hi gh es t or de r, an d

th us as jus ti fy in g a res tri ct io n up on sp eech

, whe n it le av es ap pr eci ab le da m ag e to th at

su pp os ed ly vi ta l in te res t un pr oh ib it ed ." W hi te II, 41 6 F.3 d at 75 0 (s eco nd al te rat io n

in or ig in al ) (q uo ta ti on om it te d)

. Acco rd in gl y , we tu rn to th e "n arro w ta il or in g"

ex am in at io n o f § 2 11 B.0 6.

2. Nar ro w ly Ta il or ed

-1 9-Eve n if we co nc lu de th at Mi nn es ot a ha s a co m pe ll in g st at e in te res t in

pr es erv in g "fai r an d ho ne st " el ect io ns an d p rev en ti ng a "fr au d up on th e el ect or at e,"

§ 21 1B .06 fai ls un d e r st ric t sc ru ti ny. Und er su ch in qu iry, th e req ui si te ta il or in g is

de te rm in at iv e as to th e st at ut e's co ns ti tu ti on al it y be cau se th os e m ak in g th e la ws m ay

pu rs ue st at ed in te res ts "o nl y so lo ng as [th ey do ] no t un ne ces sa ril y in fri n g e an

in di vi du al 's rig ht to free do m of sp eech ." McC ut ch eo n, 13 4 S. Ct

. at 14 50 (p lu ral it y ).

A n arro wly ta il or ed reg ul at io n is on e th at act ua ll y ad va nc e s th e st at e's

in te res t (is ne ces sa ry ), do es no t swe ep to o br oa dl y (is no t ov eri nc lu si ve ),

do es no t le av e si gn ifi can t in flu en ces be ari ng on th e in te res t un reg ul at ed (is no t un de rin cl us iv e), an d co ul d be rep la ced by no ot he r reg ul at io n th at

co ul d ad va nc e th e i n t eres t as well wit h le ss in fri ng em en t of sp eech (is

th e le as t-r es tri ct iv e al te rn at iv e).

W hi te II, 41 6 F .3d at 7 51

.

Keep in g Mi nn es ot a's al le ge d in te res ts in m in d, th e Fi rs t Am en dm en t req ui res

th at th e ch os en res tri ct io n o n t he sp eech at is su e be "ac tu al ly n eces sa ry " to ach ie ve

th em

. Bro wn v. Ent m 't Mer ch an ts Ass 'n, 13 1 S. Ct

. 27 29

, 27 38 (2 01 1)

. "Th ere m us t

be a di rect cau sa l li nk be twee n th e res tri ct io n im po se d an d t h e in

jury to be

pr ev e n t e d

. " A lv arez , 13 2 S. Ct

. at 25 49 (p lu ral it y ). So

, to su rv iv e st ric t sc ru ti ny, App el le es m

us t do m or e th an as se rt a co m pe lli ng st at e in te res t– th ey m us t de m on st rat e

th at § 2 11 B.0 6 i s n arro wly ta il or ed

.

The co un ty at to rn ey s cl ai m th at § 21 1B .06 is in de ed "ac tu al ly ne ces sa ry" to

pr es erv e fai r an d ho ne st el ect io ns in Mi nn es ot a. The y do so , ho wev er, wit ho ut

co nf irming th at th ere is an act ua l, se rio us th reat of in di v i d u a l s di ss em in at in g

kn owi ng ly fal se st at em en ts co nc ern in g ba ll ot in it ia ti ve s. The co un ty a t t o rn ey s

in st ead cl ai m th a t e mp i ric al ev id en ce is no t req ui red to su pp or t th is le gi sl at iv e

-2 0-jud gm en t. Rat he r, th ey as se rt th at co m m on se ns e di ct at es "t ha t po li ti cal ad ve rti si ng

ai m ed at vo te rs an d in te nt io na ll y de si gn ed to in du ce a pa rti cu la r vo te th ro ug h th e us e

of fal se fact s im

pa ct s vo te rs ' un de rs ta nd in g an d pe rcep ti on s; can in flu en ce th ei r vo te ;

an d ul ti m at el y ch an ge an el ect io n." Bec au se Am eri ca n e l e c t i on s em pl oy se cret

ba ll ot s, App el le es co nt in ue (ad op ti ng t h e d i st ric t co ur t's reas on in g)

, th e effe ct s of

kn owi ng ly fal se st at em en ts do no t l en d th em se lv es eas il y to em pi ric al ev id en ce.

Acco rd in gl y , th e y arg ue , th e st at ut e is jus ti fie d, reas on ab ly, by it s pu rp os e in

p r e v en ti ng frau d on th e el ect or at e th ro ug h m in im al reg ul at io ns on kn owi ng ly f a l s e

st at em en ts of f

act

.

Co nt in ui ng in th ei r d e f

en se of § 21 1B .06

, th e co un ty at to rn ey s arg ue th at §

21 1B .06 is al so no t ov erb ro ad be cau se it is na rro wly ta il or ed th ro ug h it s men s rea

req ui rem en t of act ua l m al ic e, ach ie ve d th ro u g h t h e "k no win gl y fal se or reck le ss

di sr eg ard of fal si ty" li m it at io n. Thi s m en s rea req ui rem en t, th ey cl ai m wit h refe ren ce

to th e di st ric t co ur t's an al y si s of Garri so n v. La., 37 9 U.S. 64

, 75 (1 96 4)

, pr ov id es th e

"b reat hi ng sp ace" ne ces sa ry to pr ot e c t f ree sp eech

, whi le na rro wly ta il or in g th e

pr oh ib it io n to fu rth er th e st at e's in te res t. In th at sa m e ve in

, th e co un ty at to rn ey s

ad di ti on al ly cl ai m th at § 21 1B .06 is no t un de rin cl us iv e b e c a us e it ex em pt s "n ews

it em s or ed it or ia l co m

m en ts by th e ne ws m ed ia ," Mi nn

. St at

. § 21 1B .01 su bd

. 2, an d

is li m it ed to "p ai d po li ti cal ad ve rti si ng or cam pa ig n m at eri al ," Mi nn

. St at

. § 21 1B .06

,

su bd

. 1. Aga in

, as di d th e d i s t r i c t co ur t, th e co un ty at to rn ey s de du ce th at su ch an

ex em pt io n is no t on ly v ie wpo in t ne ut ral bu t reco gn iz es th e co un te rv ai li ng in te res ts

in a free pr es s an d ke ep s th e go ve r n men t ou t of th e ed it or ia l ro om s whi le

si m ul ta ne ou sl y ta rg et in g th e pr ob le m –b al lo t-q ue st io n ad vo cat es an d op po ne nt s who

po se a gr eat er th reat th an th e n e w s m ed ia of di ss em in at in g in te nt io na ll y fal se

st at em en t s r e ga rd in g th e effe ct of a ba ll ot qu es ti on

. Thi s, to o, acco rd in g to th e

di st ric t co ur t, al lo ws fo r or al st at em en ts m ad e in de ba te s or "o n th e st reet co rn er so ap

bo x , " m ad e sp on ta ne ou sl y or in th e he at of th e m om en t, su ch th at th es e sp eak ers

-2 1-"n eed ne ve r cu rb th ei r un sc rip te d or al st at em en ts to av oi d vi ol at in g § 21 1B .06 ." And

,

fin al ly, th e co un ty at to rn ey s (as di d th e di st ric t co ur t) co nc lu de th at § 21 1B .06 is th e

le as t res tri ct iv e al te rn at iv e be cau se ev en th ou gh co un te rs pe ech co ul d be us ed

, it is no t

as effe ct iv e in ach ie vi ng th e le gi ti m at e pu rp os e § 21 1B .06 was e n a ct ed to se rv e,

es pe ci al ly aft er a n el ect io n is ov er or to ward s th e en d of a cam pa ig n, whe n,

ap pa ren tl y , th e co un ty atto rn ey s b el ie ve § 2 11 B.0 6 b es t s erv es th e st at e's in te res t.

Each of th es e arg um en ts fai l un de r th e req ui red sc ru ti ny. Prev io us ly st at ed

, §

21 1B .06 is no t na rro wly ta il or ed

. Fi rs t, be cau se § 21 1B .06 pe rp et ua te s frau d, as

di sc us se d be lo w, it is no t act ua ll y ne ces sa ry

. It is al so si m ul ta ne ou sl y ov erb ro ad an d

un de rin cl us iv e. And

, fin al ly, it is no t th e l e a s t res tri ct iv e m ean s of ach ie vi ng th e

st at ed go al s i t al le ge dl y

ad va nc es . W e ad dr es s al l o f th e are as

.

Rel y in g in pa rt up on McI nt y re, th e di st ric t co ur t he ld th at § 21 1B .06 is act ua ll y

ne ces sa ry an d "d ire ct ly li nk ed " to th e ha rm so ug ht to be pr ev en te d in Mi nn es ot a. In

McI nt y re, th e Co ur t e v a l u a te d th e co ns ti tu ti on al it y of an Ohi o st at ut e pr oh ib it in g

an on y m ou s le afl et ti ng , an ot he r Ohi o st at ut e, a l s o p a r t of th e Ohi o Elec ti on Co de

rece nt ly di sc us se d in SBA Lis t. McI nt y re, 51 4 U.S. at 33 8- 39

. The Co ur t fo un d th e

an on y m ou s le afl et ti ng st at ut e un co ns ti tu ti on al an d in do in g so , po in te d to two Ohi o

fal se st at em en ts st at ut es , si m il ar in ki nd to § 21 1B .0 6

, a s ex am pl es of st at ut es th at

mo r e di rect ly de al t wit h Ohi o's pr of es se d in te res t in pr ev en ti ng frau d an d li be l i n

el ect io n cam

pa ig ns

. Id

. at 3 4 9- 50

. Bec au se th e ch al le ng ed le afl et ti ng st at ut e at

1 1

The Co ur t sp eci fic al ly po in te d to Ohi o Rev is ed C od e Ann ot at ed §§ 1 1

35 99 .09 .1(B ) an d 3 5 9 9

. 0 9.2 (B) in Ohi o's Elec ti on Co de as st at ut es th at in cl ud e de ta il ed an d sp eci fic pr oh ib it io ns ag ai ns t m ak in g or di ss em in at in g fa ls e st at em en ts
du rin g po li ti cal cam

pa ig ns , ap pl y in g bo th to can di da te el ect io ns an d to is su e-d riv en ba ll ot m eas ur es

. McI nt y re, 51 4 U.S. at 34 9- 50 n.1 2. Tod ay , th es e pr ov is io ns can be

fo un d at Ohi o Rev is ed Co de Ann ot at ed

. §§ 35 17 .21 an d 3 5 1 7.2 2. Sect io n

-2 2-i s s u e i n McI nt y re was no t th e pr in ci pa l weap on ag ai ns t frau d, it s "ex tre m el y br o a d

pr oh ib it io n" fai le d t o s at is fy st ric t s cru ti ny. Id . at 3 51

.

The di st ric t co ur t an d th e co un ty at to rn ey s rel y up on McI nt y re to es ta bl is h th at

§ 21 1B .06 is act ua ll y ne ce s s a r y a n d a "d ire ct m ean s" to co un te r th e frau d of vo te r

m an ip ul at io n, bu t th is ta ke s McI nt y re t o o f a r

. The McI nt y

re Co ur t ex pr es sl y

refr ai ne d fro m an al y zi ng th e co ns ti tu ti on a l i t y of th e Ohi o fal se st at em en ts st at ut es

. Id

. at 34 9- 50 n.1 2 ("We ne ed no t, of co ur se , ev al ua te th e co ns ti tu ti on a l i t y of th es e

pr ov is io ns

. W e qu ot e th em m erel y to em ph as iz e th at Ohi o ha s ad dr es se d di rect ly th e

p ro bl em of el ect io n frau d." ). The Co ur t on ly no te d th e fal se st at em en ts st at u t e s t o

il lu m in at e th e fact th at Ohi o ha d i n e x i st en ce ot he r le gi sl at io n th at m or e di rect ly

ad dr es se d th e p ro fes se d i nt eres t i n p rev en ti ng frau d, s im pl y as a m ean s to es ta bl is h

th at th e le afl et ti ng st at ut e at is su e was no t "n eces sa ry " in th e en de av or

. Id

. at 34 9- 53

. To ho ld th at McI nt y re affi rm at iv el y es ta bl is he s a st at ut e li ke § 21 1B .06 is act ua ll y

ne ces sa ry to pre ve nt vo te r de cep ti on gre at ly ove rs ta te s M cIn tyre's h ol di ng

.

H owe ve r, th e Co ur t's di sc us si on of pa rti cu la r st at ut es in th e Ohi o Elec t i o n

Co de in McI nt y re an d SBA Lis t pr ov i d e s u s i n s i g ht in to th is di sp ut e. Neit he r cas e

co nt ro ls th e co ns id e r a ti on be fo re us , as McI nt y re ex pr es sl y refr ai ne d fro m an y

de ci si on reg ard in g th e co ns ti tu ti on al it y of Ohi o's fal se st at em en ts st at ut es si m il ar in

k i n d to § 21 1B .06

, an d SBA Lis t si m pl y pr es en te d th e Co ur t wit h a st a n d i n g

ch al le ng e, m im ic ki ng t he po st ur e of th is cas e in 28 1 Care Co m m it te e I. 28 1 Care

Co m m it te e I, 63 8 F.3 d at 62 7- 31

. Bu t, each cas e in it s own way de lv es in to th e real m

of pr ot ect ed po li ti cal sp eech an d th e way s st at es at te m pt to reg ul at e in th at aren a.

The y are, t he refo re, u se fu l t o u s.

35 17 .21 (B) i s t he st at ut e ch al le ng ed in SBA Lis t. SBA Li st , 13 4 S . Ct. at 23 38

.

-2 3-St at ed m os t si m pl y , § 21 1B .06 do es no t su rv iv e st ric t sc ru ti ny be cau se it te nd s

to pe rp et ua te th e ve ry frau d it is al le ge dl y de si gn ed to pr oh ib it

. Fo r th is reas on ,

am on g ot he rs , th e r e st ric ti on is ne it he r na rro wly ta il or ed no r ne ces sa ry

. In fact

, it

il lu st rat es th at th e as se rte d co m pe ll in g in te res t fal ls sh or t. If § 21 1B .06 is tru ly

in te nd ed

, in pa rt, to en su r e " c a mp a ig ns of de cen cy " an d "el ect io n of can di da te s to

of fic e[s ] of ho no r an d tru st ," as th e co un ty at to rn ey s cl ai m (in rel ia nc e up on

Mi nn es ot a cas e la w), th e st at ut e who ll y m is se s th e m ark

. Ban k v. Ega n, 60 N.W .2d

25 7, 26 2 (Mi nn

. 19 53 ). In fact

, lo ok in g to th e si m il ar st at ut or y sc he m e in Ohi o, th e

Su pr em e Co ur t in SBA Lis t il lu m in at ed th e m an y ab us es th at em an at e fro m su ch an

en de av or

. SBA Lis t, 13 4 S. Ct

. at 23 44 -4 6. Ju st ha vi ng a st at ut e li ke § 21 1B .06 on

th e b oo ks crea te s an en vi ro nm en t fr au gh t wi th pro bl em s.

In SBA Lis t, th e Ohi o Att or ne y Gen eral hi m se lf (Oh i o A G ), th ou gh ch arg ed

si m ul ta ne ou sl y wit h th e zeal ou s rep res en ta ti on of th e Ohi o Elec ti on s Co m m is si on in

th e sa m e act io n, to ok th e un iq ue an d rare st ep of f i l i ng an am ic us br ie f as a "fr ie nd

of th e Co ur t an d th e le ga l pr oc es s" an d as Ohi o's "ch ie f la w of fic er" to en li gh te n th e

Co ur t as to th e "ac tu al wor ki ng s an d effe ct of th e Ohi o fal se s t a t e men t s st at ut e in

p r a c t i c e ." Bri ef of Am ic us Cu ria e Ohi o Att or ne y Gen eral Mi ch ael DeWine i n

Su pp or t of Neit he r Part y at 1, 22

, SBA Lis t, 13 4 S. Ct

. 23 34 (No

. 13 -1 93 ), 20 14 W L

88 09 38 (Oh io AG Bri ef). Man y of th e co nc ern s ex pr es se d by t h e O h i o AG m ad e

he ad way wit h t he Co ur t an d re so na te he re as well . S BA Lis t 13 4 S. Ct . a t 23 45 -4 6

(rel y in g up on th e su bm is si on by th e Ohi o AG as to th e pr act ic al e f f e c t of th e Ohi o

fal se st at em en ts sch em e).

Fi rs t, as a pr act ic al m at te r, it is im m en se ly pr ob le m at ic th at an yo ne m ay lo dg e

a co m pl ai nt wit h th e OAH al le gi ng a vi ol at io n of § 21 1B .06

. The re is no pr om is e or

req ui rem en t th at th e po wer to fil e a co m pl ai nt wil l be us ed pr ud en tl y

. "Be cau se th e

un i v e r s e of po te nt ia l co m pl ai na nt s is no t res tri ct ed to st at e of fic ia ls who are

-2 4-c o n s t rai ne d by ex pl ic it gu id el in es or et hi cal ob li ga ti on s, th ere is a real ris k o f

co m pl ai nt s fro m , fo r ex am

pl e, po li ti cal op po ne nt s." Id

. at 23 45

. Co m pl ai nt s can be

fil ed at a ta ct ic al ly cal cu la te d ti m e so as to di ve rt th e at te nt io n of an en ti re cam pa ig n

fro m t h e mer i to rio us ta sk at ha nd of su pp or ti ng or de feat in g a ba ll ot qu es ti on ,

po ss ib ly di ffu sin g pu bl ic se nt im en t an d req ui rin g th e sp eak er to de fen d a cl ai m be fo re

th e OAH, th us in fli ct in g po li ti cal da m ag e. Ju st as th e Co ur t ex pl ai ne d in th e co nt ex t 1 2

of th e Ohi o fal se st at em en ts st at ut e, se ct io n § 21 1B .06 m ak es an y on e s p e a k i ng ou t

ab ou t a b al lo t q ue st io n " eas y tar ge ts ." Id . at 2 34 5.

As pr ev io us ly no te d, th e co un ty at to rn ey s cl ai m th at em pi ric al ev id en ce is no t

ne ed ed to es ta bl is h th at § 21 1B .06 is act ua ll y ne ces sa ry

. Howev er, th ei r rel ia nc e

up on "co m

m on se ns e" to es ta bl is h t ha t th e us e of fal se st at em en ts im pa ct s vo te rs '

u n d ers ta nd in g, in flu en ces vo te s an d ul ti m at el y ch an ge s el ect io ns , i s no t en ou gh on

The Ohi o AG d es cri be s t he in he ren t p ro bl em s as well : 1 2

It is no t u n d u l y cy ni cal to su gg es t

. . . th at in at le as t so m e Elec ti on s Co m m is si on m at te rs , co m

pl ai na nt s m ay ti m e th ei r su bm is si on s to
ach ie ve m ax im

um di sr up ti on of th ei r p o l i t i cal op po ne nt s whi le

cal cu la ti ng th at an ul ti m at e de ci si on on th e m eri ts wil l be de ferr ed un ti l

aft er th e rel ev an t el ect io n.

. . . Eve n whe re th e Co m m is si on do es no t fin d

pr ob ab le cau se , th e da m ag e is of te n do ne

. The sp eak er is fo rced to us e ti m e an d res ou rces res po nd in g to th e co m p l a i n t, typic al ly at th e ex act

m om en t th at th e cam

pa ig n is pe ak in g an d hi s ti m e an d res ou rces are be st

us ed el se whe re. In ot he r wor ds

, th e St at e ha s co ns tru ct ed a pr oc es s th at
al lo w s it s en fo rcem en t m ech an is m s to be us ed to ex tra ct a co st fro m th os e se ek in g to sp eak ou t on el ect io ns , rig ht at th e m os t cru ci al ti m e fo r th at pa rti cu la r type of sp e e c h

. And if th e al le ga ti on s tu rn ou t to be

un fo un de d, t he re i s n o p os si bi li ty of ti m el y rem ed y

.

Ohi o AG Bri ef at 14 -1 5.

-2 5-th es e fact s to es ta bl is h a di rect cau sa l li nk be twee n § 21 1B .06 an d an in te res t in

pr es e r v i n g f

a i r an d ho ne st el ect io ns

. Eve n th ou gh th e effe ct of el ect io n frau d or

de te ct in g th e frau d it se lf, arg ua bl y , is a bi t m or e am or ph ou s an d di ffi cu lt to de te ct

,

on ly rel y in g up on co m

m on se ns ib il it ie s to pr ov e it is ta ki ng pl ace st il l fal ls sh or t. In

Alv arez , th e Co ur t to ok th e go ve rn m en t to ta sk fo r rel y in g up on "co m m on se ns e" to

es ta bl is h th at it s st at ed in te res t was at ris k. 13 2 S. Ct

. at 25 49 (p lu ral it y ). Cert ai nl y , it m us t be ack no wled ge d th at al lo win g an in di vi du al to d i s s e m in at e po li ti cal

ad ve rti si ng th at co nt ai ns kn owi ng fal se ho od s do es no t ad va n c e a fai r an d ho ne st

el ect io n. Yet m erel y rel y in g up on co m m on se ns e do es no t sat is fy th e he av y bu rd en

whe n pr ot ect ed sp eech is reg ul at ed

. Id

. W e "h av e ne ve r acce pt ed m ere co njec tu re

as ad eq ua te to carr y

a Fi rs t Am en dm en t b ur de n." Nix on v. Sh rin k M o. Go v't PAC,

52 8 U.S. 37 7, 39 2 (2 00 0)

. App el le es d e f e n d th e st at ut e's ab il it y to di ss ua de frau d

wit h com m on se ns e, bu t is t he re s uc h a pr ob le m th at th is in fri ng em en t on pr ot ect ed

sp eech m us t oc cu r in th e fir st in st an ce? The y arg u e t h a t th e la w it se lf ha s be en

co ns tru ed by Mi nn es ot a co ur ts co un tl es s ti m es bu t ho w of te n, in pr act ic e, is it pu t to

us e? Su ch co njec tu re a b o u t t he effe ct s an d da ng ers of fal se st at em en ts eq ua te s to

im pl au si bi li ty as far as th is an al y si s go es , be cau s e , whe n th e st at ut e in fri ng es co re

po li ti cal sp eech , we ten d t o n ot tak e ch an ces

.

The Ohi o AG ad dr es se d th e real it y of th e pr ob le m he ad on an d ex pl ai ne d th at

b y i t s n at ur e, th e "s ta tu to ry sc he m e pu ll s wit hi n it s am bi t m uc h pr ot ect ed sp eech

. "

Ohi o AG Bri ef at 18

.

Few res po nd en ts co nt es t an ad ve rs e C om m is si on fin di ng in co ur t
be cau se th e el ect io n wil l be ov er, won or lo st , b y th e ti m e an y jud ic ia l

he ari ng ta ke s pl ace, and so th e rem ed y is la rg el y m ean in gl es s. Eve n if

th e sp eak er is ul ti m at el y vi ct or io us , th at sp eak er ge ts li tt le or no th in g fo r hi s or he r effo rts b u t a dd it io na l le ga l bi ll s. Nev ert he le ss , th e few

ch al le ng es th at do tak e p la ce d em on st rat e th at th e St at e ad m in is tra ti ve

-2 6-ap pa rat us affe ct s a go od de al of sp eech th at is well wit hi n th e am bi t of

co ns ti tu ti on al ly pr ot ect ed sp eech

, an d th at th e rem ed y is rare ly, if ev er, a ti m el y on e.

Id

. at 18

. Bet ween 20 01 an d 20 10 in Ohi o, fo r ex am pl e, th ei r Co m

m is si on (th e bo dy

in Ohi o ch arg ed wit h si m il ar du ti es as Mi nn es ot a's OAH to rev ie w th es e co m pl ai nt s)

fo un d vi ol at io ns of th ei r res pe ct iv e fal se st at em en ts st at ut e in 90 cas es

. Add it io na ll y ,

th e Co m m is si on di sm is se d an ot he r fo rty-eig ht cas es aft er a he ari ng , an d

11 2 were di sm is se d be cau se th e co m pl ai na nt wit hd rew th e co m pl ai nt or fai le d to pr os ecu te (typi cal ly aft er th e el ect io n– a fu rth er in di cat io n th at
th e go al m ay of

te n be le ss an ul ti m at e fin di ng of a vi ol a t i o n th an a

pr ob ab le -cau se fin di ng be fo re th e el ect io n)

. Two hu nd red si xt y were di sm is se d wi th fin di ng s o f 'n o p ro ba bl e cau se .'

Ohi o AG Bri ef at 20

. The Ohi o AG in cl ud ed su ch fig ur es to il lu m in at e th at in real it y

"n um ero us s p e a k ers who ha ve no t m ad e a fal se st at em en t ev en un de r th e m od es t

bu rd en of pr oo f fo r 'pr ob ab le cau se ,' are fo rced to de vo te ti m e, res ou rces , an d en erg y

de fen di ng th em se lv es be fo re th e Elec ti on s Co m m is si o n , typic al ly i n th e la te st ag es

of a cam pa ig n." Id.

W e do no t ci te t o th e Ohi o AG st at is ti cal of feri ng s to im

pl y th at jus t su ch

em pi ric al ev id en ce is req ui red to es ta bl is h th e cau sa l li nk be twee n § 21 1B .06 an d th e

in te res ts it is in pl ace t o p ro te ct . No r do we ci te th e Ohi o AG's ex pl an at io n of ho w

th at st at e's fal se st at em en ts st at ut es are wor ki ng in pr act ic e to im pl y th at

, in fact

, th e

ex act sa m e real it y m

us t ex is t in Mi nn es ot a. The Ohi o AG's ex pl an at i o n , h o w e v er,

cl earl y ex em

pl ifi es th e po te nt ia l fo r ab us e an d an ab se nc e of na rro w ta il or in g of th e

Mi nn es ot a la w–a nd th us , a lac k o f ne ces si ty.

-2 7-An affi da vi t su bm it te d by th e co un ty at to rn ey s in th is m at te r av ers th at th e

Hen ne pi n Co un ty At t o rn ey 's Offi ce ha s no t co m m en ced an y cri m in al pr os ecu ti on s

un de r § 21 1B .06 fo r fal se po li ti cal an d cam pa ig n m at eri al

. The co un ty at to rn ey s ha ve

li ke wis e fil ed co pi es of OAH d e c i s i o ns th at ha ve fo ll owe d ev id en ti ary he ari ng s

co nc ern in g § 21 1B .06 co m pl ai nt s, wit h va ry in g fin di ng s co nc ern in g th e ch al le ng ed

st at em en ts –s om e su cces sf ul

, so m e no t. The se ex hi bi ts , ho wev er, d o no t pro vi de us

wit h th e bi gg er pi ct ur e an d th us we are at a lo ss to de du ce an y si gn ifi can ce fro m th ei r

in cl us io n in th e reco rd ex cep t to es ta bl is h th at th e OAH rece iv es so m e co m pl a i n t s

un de r § 21 1B .06

, so m e of whi ch are m er i t o r i o u s an d ot he rs no t. If an y th in g, th e

sa m pl in g o f or de rs ex em

pl ify t ha t pr ot ect ed sp eech is be in g swe pt in by § 21 1B .06

un ne ces sa ril y , fu rth er es ta bl is hi ng th e ch il li ng na tu re of th i s st at ut e, as well as it s

ov erb read th , whi ch we tu rn to ne xt

.

Fo r al l p ract ic al pu rp os es , th e real po te nt ia l da m ag e is do ne at th e ti m e a

co m pl ai n t i s f i l e d

, no m at te r th e po ss ib il it y of cri m in al pr os ecu ti on do wn th e li ne

. The bu rd en s of th e OAH pr oc eed in gs th em se lv es gr eat ly im pa ct el ect or al sp eech an d

are cau se fo r co nc ern

. Eve n be fo re a pr ob ab le cau se he ari ng , t h e a l l e g a ti on of th e

fal si ty its el f li ke ly m ak es th e ne ws ci rcu it an d c reat es a st ir i n t he on go in g p ol it ic al

di sc ou rs e. Prac ti cal ly, sh ou ld pr ob ab l e cau se be fo un d by th e ALJ whe n th e

co m pl ai nt is fil ed cl os e to an el ect io n, no jud ic ia l rev ie w can ta ke pl ace to effe ct an y

rel ie f pr io r to th e im

pe nd i n g e l e c t i on

. So

, th e da m ag e is in fli ct ed at th e po in t of

fil i n g , ev en if th e co m

pl ai na nt is ul ti m at el y un ab le to pr ov e up th e al le ga ti on s of

fal si ty un de r th e cl ear and co nvin ci ng st an da rd req ui red du rin g a res ul ti ng ev id en ti ary

he ari ng th at w ou ld oc cu r aft er a fin di ng of pr ob ab le cau se

. Mi nn . S ta t. § 21 1B .32

,

s u bd . 4

. Ess en ti al ly, th en , t hi s da m ag e (o r in jury) o ccu rs qu it e eas il y , a t th e w h i m

of "an y on e" wi ll in g t o fi le a co m pl ai nt un de r oa th . Min n. St at . § 2 11 B.3 2, s ub d. 3

. N o t on ly do es th is in

jury oc cu r up on fil in g, it on ly de ep en s up on th e fin di n g o f

pr ob ab le cau se

. A t b o t t om , th en , th is co re po li ti cal sp eech is pe na li zed us in g a

-2 8-bu rd en of p ro of ev en lo wer t ha n a pre po nd eran ce of th e ev id en ce, wit h few, if an y ,

sa feg u a r d s to pr ot ect th is "ze ni th " of Fi rs t Am en dm en t-p ro te ct ed po li ti cal sp eech

. See M ey er v . Gran t, 4 86 U.S. 41 4, 4 25 (19 88 ).

The co un ty at to rn ey s se em to pr es um e wit ho ut qu es ti on th at "ex ag ge rat i o n s ,

co njec tu re, or il lo gi cal in fere nc es ," whi ch th ey cl aim is al l App el la nt s wis h to co nv ey ,

are no t wit hi n th e sc op e of § 21 1B .06 an d are th us no t at ris k. Bu t

, t h ey can no t

su pp or t su ch a cl ai m

. Any on e can fil e a co m pl ai nt un de r § 21 1B .06 an d it is on ly at

th at ti m e th at th e OAH be gi ns to de ci de whe th er a vi ol at io n ha s oc cu rred

. At th at

po in t, ho wev er, da m ag e is do ne , th e ex te nt whi ch rem ai ns un se en

. Sect io n 21 1B .06

is th us ov erb ro ad be cau se al th ou gh it m ay se em ax io m at ic th at pa rti cu la r sp eech do es

no t fal l wit hi n it s sc op e, th ere is no th in g to pr oh ib it th e fil in g of a co m pl ai nt ag ai ns t

sp eech th at m ay la te r be fo un d who ll y pr ot ec t e d

. W e ha ve ex am pl es of jus t su ch

pr ot ect ed sp eech in th e reco rd su bm it te d by bo th si de s, fo un d wit hi n th e OAH or de rs , bo th fro m pr im a faci e de te rm in at io ns an d fo ll owi ng ev id en ti ary he ari ng s by a th reejud ge pa ne l. 1 3

Fo r ex am pl e, th e co un ty at to rn ey s fil ed OAH or de rs is su ed by th ree- jud g e 1 3

ad m ini strati ve pa ne ls to de m on st rat e, in pa rt, th at no cri m in al pr os ecu ti on s ha ve ta ke n pl ace un de r § 21 1B .06 si nc e th e OAH pr oc es s was pu t in pl ace in 20 04

. The se fil in gs de m on st rat e ci vi l ch al le ng es un de r § 21 1B .06 ag ai ns t fal se st at em en ts di ss em in at ed

"wi th res pe ct to th e pe rs on al or po li ti cal ch arac te r or act s of a can di da te ," whi ch are al so act io na bl e un de r § 21 1B .06 bu t are no t at is su e in th is cas e. All of t h e o r d e r s , ho wev er, se rv e as ex am

pl es of st at em en ts th a t ge t ch al le ng ed no ne th el es s, ev en th ou gh th ey are ei th er tru e or do no t fal l wit hi n th e am bi t of § 21 1B .06

. One or de r fil ed by th e co un ty at to rn ey s ad dr es se s a co m pl ai nt fil ed by a ci ti zen s' gr o u p th at

su pp or te d pa ss in g a sc ho ol bo nd refe ren du m th at ch al le ng ed se ve nt een st at e ment s

m ad e in cam

pa ig n m at eri al di ss em in at ed t o u r g e vo te rs to vo te ag ai ns t th e refe ren du m

. The co m

pl ai nt was fil ed un de r § 21 1B .06 an d th e st at em en ts were m ad e in th e co nt ex t of a ba ll ot in it ia ti ve as ki n g v o t ers to vo te on a $2 5.6 m il li on bo nd

-2 9-Not wit hs ta nd in g it s ov erb read th

, th e la ck of a cau s a l l i n k be twee n th e

a dv an ced in te res ts an d § 21 1B .06 is no t th e on ly way in whi ch § 21 1B .06 is no t

act ua ll y ne c e s s a r y to ach ie ve th e st at ed in te res ts

. A se co nd co ns id erat io n in ou r

an al y si s as to whe th er § 21 1B .06 is na rro wly ta il or ed to ach ie ve Mi nn es ot a's as se rte d

co m pe ll in g in te res t in pr es erv in g fai r an d ho ne st el ect io ns an d pr ev en ti ng a frau d on

th e el ect or at e, is th at th e co un ty at to rn ey s ha ve no t of fere d pe r s u a s i ve ev id en ce to

di sp el th e ge ne ra lly ac ce pt ed pr op os it io n th at co un te rs pe ech m ay be a lo gi cal so lu ti on

to th e in te res t ad va nc ed in th is cas e. "[W] he n th e Gov ern m en t se ek s to reg ul at e

pr ot ect ed sp eech

, th e res tri ct io n m us t be th e le as t res tri ct iv e m ean s am on g av ai la bl e,

effe ct iv e al te rn at iv es ." Alv arez , 13 2 S. Ct

. at 25 51 (p lu ral it y ) (in te rn al qu o t a t i on

om it te d)

. The re is no reas on to pr es um e th at co un te rs pe ech w o u l d n ot su ffi ce to

ach ie ve th e in te res ts ad va nc ed an d is a le ss res tri ct iv e m ean s, cert ai nl y , to ach ie ve th e

sa m e en d g oa l.

refe ren du m to fin an ce a ne w sc ho ol bu il di ng

. Fo ur te en of th e al le ge d vi ol at io ns were di sm is se d at th e ou ts et by an ALJ m ak in g th e in it ia l in qu i r y a n d t h r e e su rv iv ed th e in it ia l pr im a faci e in qu iry. Fo ll owi ng th e ev id en ti ary he ar i n g o n th os e th ree

st at em en ts

, th e OAH di sm is se d th e en ti re co m pl ai nt

. Exa m

pl es of c h a l l e n ge d

st at em en ts in co nn ect io n wit h th e refe ren du m were: (1 ) "Li ke m os t Mi nn es ot an s,
HLW W ta xp ay ers sa w th ei r ta x su pp or t of sc ho ol s sh ift fro m pr op ert y ta xe s to st at e in co m e ta xe s a few y ears ag o," (2 ) a st at em en t th at th e p a r t i c ul ar de li ve ry m et ho d

c h o se n by th e sc ho ol di st ric t wil l "t ak e th e Dis tri ct ou t of th e m ajor it y o f t h e

co ns tru ct io n de ta il s, de ci si on s an d qu al it y co nt ro l" an d (3 ) a st at em en t by th e

res po nd en t th at "I ha ve pe rs on al ly be en o f f e red a br ib e by SGN Arch it ect 's

– free

ti ck et s to th e Twin s ga m e du rin g th e W or ld Seri es ." Fo ll o w i ng th e m on th -lo ng h e ari ng pr oc es s, th e OAH pa ne l ul ti m at el y he ld th at each of th es e st at eme n t s w e r e ei th er tru e, or m erel y st at em en ts of op in io n th at were no t f a l s e , or were no t m ad e "wi th res pe ct to th e eff

ect of a ba ll ot qu es ti on " as § 2 11 B.0 6 re qu ire s.

-3 0-The rem ed y fo r s p e e c h t h at is fal se is sp eech th at is tru e. Thi s is th e

or di na ry co ur se in a free so ci et y

. The res po ns e to th e un reas on ed is th e

rat io na l; to th e un ifo rm ed

, th e en li gh te ne d; to th e st rai gh t

- o u t li e, th e si m pl e tru th

. . . . The Fi rs t Am en dm en t it se lf en su res th e rig ht to res po nd

to sp eech we do no t lik e, an d for go od reas on

. Free do m of sp eech an d

th ou gh t flo ws no t fro m th e be ne fic en ce of th e st at e bu t fro m th e in al ie na bl e rig ht s o f t h e p ers on

. And su pp res si on of sp eech by th e

go ve rn m en t can m ak e ex po su re of fal si ty m or e di ffi cu l t

, n o t l es s so

. So ci et y ha s th e rig ht an d ci vi c du ty to en ga ge in op en , dynam ic

, rat io na l

di sc ou rs e. Thes e en ds are no t well se rv ed whe n th e g ov ern m en t s eek s

to orc he st rat e p ub li c d is cu ss io n t hr ou gh co nt en t-b as ed m an da te s.

Id . at 2 55 0 (p lu ral it y ).

Possi bly ther e is no gr eat er aren a whe rei n co un te rs pe ech is at it s m os t effe ct iv e.

It is th e m os t i mm e d ia te rem ed y to an al le ga ti on of fal si ty. "Th e th eo ry of ou r

Co ns ti tu ti on is th at th e be st te st of tru th is th e p o w e r o f th e th ou gh t to ge t it se lf

acce pt ed in th e co m

pe ti ti on of th e m ark et ." Id

. (in te rn al qu ot at io n om it te d)

. It is th e

ci ti zen ry th at can di sc ern fo r th em se lv es wha t th e tru th is

, no t an ALJ be hi nd do or s.

"Th e pr efer red Fi rs t Am en dm en t rem ed y of m or e sp eech

, no t en fo rced si le nc e

. . . ha s

sp eci al fo rce." Bro wn v

. H a rtl ag e, 45 6 U.S. 45

, 61 (1 98 2) (in te rn al qu ot at io n

om it te d)

. Esp eci al ly as to po li ti cal sp eech

, co un te rs pe ech is th e tri ed an d tru e bu ffer

an d el ix ir. Pu tt in g in pl ace po te nt ia l cri m in al sa nc ti on s an d/ or th e po ss ib il it y of be in g

ti ed up in li ti ga ti on b e f

o r e t he OAH, or bo th

, at th e m ere whi m an d m en ti on fro m

an y o n e w ho m ig ht op po se y ou r vi ew on a ba ll ot qu es ti on is who ll y ov erb ro ad an d

ov erb ur de ns om e an d ch ill s oth er w ise pr ote ct ed spe ec h. T ha t co un te rs pe ech co nf ro nt s

th es e as se rte d co m

pe ll in g in te res ts an d is a le ss res tri ct iv e mea ns of co un te rin g th e

co nc ern le ad s us ag ai n to de du ce th at th e in te res ts are le ss co m pe ll in g th an to ut ed an d

th e st at ut e is no t n arro wly ta il or ed to ach ie ve th e g oa l.

-3 1-Out si de of co un te rs pe ech it is di ffi cu lt at th is po in t to en vi s i o n o th er, le ss

res tri ct iv e m ean s t o a b a te th e al le ge d in te res t. No m at te r, ho wev er, be cau se

co un te rs pe ech

, al on e, es ta bl is he s a vi ab le le ss res tri ct iv e m ean s of ad dr es si ng th e

pr es erv at io n of fai r an d ho ne st el ect io ns in Mi nn es ot a an d pr ev en ti ng frau d on th e

el ect or at e. The co un ty at to rn ey s cl ai m th at co un te rs pe ech is no t go od en o ug h to

ad eq ua te ly ad dr es s th e co nc ern be cau se it can no t ch an ge th e ou tc om e of an el ect io n,

no r can it effe ct iv el y co un te r ta rg et ed c o mm u ni cat io ns wit h vo te rs at th e en d of a

cam pa ig n. The di st ric t co ur t ad de d th at co un te r s p e e c h may no t be effe ct iv e in th e

"Dav id an d Gol ia th " sc en ari o whe n on e gr ou p m ay so gr eat ly ou tm at ch a p o l i ti cal

op po ne nt th at th e m es sa ge , or c or rect io n, o ffer ed in res po ns e g oe s l arg el y un he ard

. Bu t th es e cl ai m s do no t su ffi ci en tl y res po nd to th e us e of co un te rs pe ech on th es e

fact s. The co un ty at to rn ey s si mp ly do no t ack no wled ge th at if co un te rs pe ech do es

n o t su ffi ce, § 21 1B .06 do es no t ei th er. W e ha ve al read y po in te d ou t th e pr act ic al

pr ob le m s in he r e n t w i t h § 21 1B .06 an d th e real it y reg ard in g ho w it co ul d act ua ll y

pe rp et ua te frau d in an el ect io n. Su ch real it ie s can n o t b e ig no red

. If th e ge nu in e

co nc ern is to pr es erv e fai r an d ho ne st el ect io ns an d pr ev en t a frau d on th e el ect or at e,

th en it wou ld se em th at th ey , to o, co ul d n ot co nt in ue to ke ep § 2 11 B.0 6 a s p art of a

le gi s l at iv e sc he m e whe n th e real it ie s of it s po ss ib le ab us e are ex po se d. Sect io n

21 1B .06 th us pl ai nl y fai ls th e te st of be in g th e le as t res tri ct iv e m ean s to se rv e th e

st at e's in te res t.

Ano th e r b as is ad va nc ed by th e co un ty at to rn ey s to de m on st rat e th e na rro w

ta il or in g of § 21 1B .06 fal ls sh or t. The m en s rea requ ire m en t in § 21 1B .06 do es no t

effe ct iv el y na rro w th e st at ut e to l i mi t i t s r each as in te nd ed

. The ris k of ch il li ng

ot he rwis e pr ot ect ed sp eech is no t el im in at ed or le ss en ed by th e m en s rea req ui rem en t

be cau se , as we ha ve al read y no te d, a sp eak er m ig ht st il l be co nc ern ed th at so m eo ne

wil l fil e a co m

pl ai nt wit h th e OAH, or th at th ey m ig ht ev en ul ti m at el y be pr os ecu te d,

fo r a care le ss fal se st at em en t or po ss ib ly a tru th fu l s ta te m en t s om eo ne de em s fal se ,

-3 2-no m at te r th e sp eak er's ve raci ty. Or, m os t cy ni cal ly, m an y m ig ht l e g it im at el y fear

th at no m at te r wha t th ey sa y , an o pp on en t wi ll ut il iz e § 21 1B .06 to si m pl y ti e th em

up in li ti ga ti on an d sm ear th ei r na m e or po si ti on on a pa rti cu la r m at te r, ev en if th e

sp eak er ne ve r ha d th e in te nt req ui red to ren de r hi m li ab le

. S e e A l v a rez, 13 2 S. Ct

.

at 25 55 (Bre y er, J., co nc ur rin g) (d is cu ss in g th e si m il ar ch il l in he ren t in th e St ol en

Valo r Act, ren de red un co ns ti tu ti on al by th e Co ur t). The m en s rea req ui rem en t in th is

co nt ex t do es no t sa feg ua rd th e st at ut e's co ns ti tu ti on al it y no r de te r so m eo ne fro m

fil in g a co m

plai nt ch al le ng in g st at em en ts in vo lv in g ex ag ge rat io n, rh et or ic

, fig ur at iv e

la ng ua ge , an d un fav or ab le

, m is le ad in g or il lo gi cal st at em en ts or op in io ns

. The re is

n o t h i ng in pl ace to real is ti cal ly st op th e po te nt ia l fo r ab us e of § 21 1B .06 's

m ech an is m s.

Fi na ll y , th e ex em

pt io n fo r "n ews it em s or ed it or ia l c o mm e n t s by th e ne ws

m ed ia ," fro m th e FCPA, § 21 1B .01 su bd

. 2, as well as § 21 1B .06 's li m it at io n to "p ai d

po li ti cal ad ve rti si ng or cam pa ig n m at eri al ," act ua ll y ex em p l i f y th at § 21 1B .06 is

un de rin cl us iv e. The fo rm er, th e co un ty at to rn ey s arg ue , pr ot ect s th e co un te rv ai li ng

in te res ts in a free pr es s, an d th e la tt er , t h e di st ric t co ur t po in ts ou t, al lo ws fo r or al

st at em en ts in de ba te s an d on t e l e v i si on , al on g wit h sp on ta ne ou s so ap bo x

pr on ou nc em en ts an d ot he r su ch sp eech th at in cl ud es "u ns cri pt ed or al s t a t e m en ts ,"

wit ho ut fear of rep ris al

. Fi rs t, to cl ai m th at a st at em en t m ad e du rin g a de b a t e i s

sp on ta ne ou s an d un sc rip te d, an d th us sh ou ld rece iv e gr eat er le eway, is di si ng en uo us

at be st

, in a da y whe n m an y po li ti cal sp eak ers ta ke th e gr eat es t pa in s to be po li ti cal ly

co rrec t at al l tim es , caref

ul ly crafti ng , in ad va nc e, ev ery st at em en t t he y m ak e in th e

po li ti cal aren a. App lying th ei r lo gi c reg ard in g th e effe ct of su ch sp eech

, to al lo w th e

"d is se m in at io n" (al be it or al ly) of th es e st at em en ts ou ts id e th e co nf in es of § 21 1B .06

le av es eq ua ll y in

juri ou s s pe ech un to uc he d, al th ou gh it is cap ab le of in fli ct in g th e

sa m e ha rm , sa y , as th at in cl ud ed in a pu bl is he d cam pa ig n pa m

ph le t. A p p e l la nt s'

ex am pl e of th e hypo cri sy th at can oc cu r un de r th is sc he m e pe rh ap s be st il lu st rat es th e

-3 3-pr ob le m , a lt ho ug h we al te r th ei r ex am pl e sl ig ht ly. Over la y in g t he pre ss ex em pt io n

wit h th e st at ut or y res tri ct io ns , we en vi si on a ne wsp ap er op in io n se ct io n whi ch

, on th e

sa m e da y , pr in ts th e ve ry sa m e "fa ls e" in fo rm at io n reg ar d i ng th e effe ct s of a ba ll ot

qu es ti on twi ce– on ce a s a n e d it or ia l an d ag ai n in a pa id ad ve rti se m en t fro m a lo cal

gr ou p op po si ng th e in it ia ti ve

. One is ex em pt fro m pr os ecu ti on an d th e ot he r is no t.

Su ch a re s u l t d o e s no t ad va nc e a st at ed in te res t in pr ev en ti ng a frau d on th e

el ect or at e.

It is in th e po li ti cal aren a whe re ro bu st di sc ou rs e mu s t ta ke pl ace. And

al th ou gh th ere ar e cert ai n ou tri gh t fal si ti e s o ne co ul d en vi si on in th e di sc us si on of

a pr op os ed ba ll ot qu es ti on , es pe ci al ly whe n co ns id eri ng th ere are ho tl y de ba te d si de s

to ev ery i s s u e , i t se em s th at to o of te n in th at si tu at io n, th e "fa ls it y " de em ed by on e

pe rs on act io na bl e un de r § 21 1B .06 wil l be a st at em en t of co njec tu re ab ou t th e fu tu re

st at e of affa irs sh ou ld th e ba ll ot qu es ti on pa s s or fai l. Des pi te th e cert ai nt y of

co nj e c t u r e , ho wev er, th e st at e m ay no t pr ev en t ot he rs fro m "re so rt[ in g] to

ex ag ge rat io n, to vi li f

ic at io n of m en who ha ve be en , or are, pr om in en t in ch ur ch or

st at e, an d ev en to fal se st a t e men t

. " C an twel l v. Co nn ., 31 0 U.S. 29 6, 31 0 (1 94 0)

. Su ch "b ack an d fo rth " is th e way of th e wor ld in el ect io n di sc ou rs e. "[S ]om e fal se

st at em en ts are i ne vi ta bl e if th ere i s to be an op en an d v ig or ou s ex pr es si on of v ie ws

in pu bl ic an d pr iv at e co nv ers at io n

. . . ." Alv arez , 13 2 S. Ct

. at 25 44 (p lu ral it y ). W e

th eref or e le av e ro om fo r th e ro ug h an d tu m bl e of po li ti cal di sc ou rs e fo r th e

farf et ch ed

. "[P ]oli ti cal sp eech by it s na tu re wil l so m et im es ha v e u n p a l at ab le

co ns eq ue nc es , an d, in ge ne ral

, ou r so ci et y acco rd s gr eat er weig ht to th e va lu e of free

sp eech th an to th e d an ge rs of i ts m is us e." Mc In tyre, 51 4 U.S. at 35 7.

The co un ty at to rn ey s cl ai m th at § 2 1 1 B

. 0 6 a c tu al ly se rv es it s pu rp os e m os t

ferv en tl y at th e en d of a cam pa ig n or ev en a f

t e r a n e l e ct io n is ov er. Thi s cl ai m is

who ll y wit ho ut m eri t. Giv en th e in fo rm at io n ex po se d by th e Ohi o AG an d ou r own

-3 4-an al y si s of § 21 1B .06

, it is po ss ib le th at it is a t t h a t p o in t th at § 21 1B .06 can be

ut il iz ed to in du ce th e m os t da m ag e to th e st at e in te res t it is de si gn ed to se rv e. As

as se rte d by th e O h i o A G

, w ho is ch arg ed wit h th e ta sk of en fo rci ng th e si m il ar

s t a t u t o r y sc he m e, th es e la ws "al lo w[] th e St at e's le ga l m ach in ery to be us e d

ex te ns iv el y by pr iv at e act or s to ga in po li ti cal ad va nt ag e in ci rcu m st an ces whe re

m al ic io us fal si ty cann ot ul ti m at el y be est ab li sh ed ." Ohi o AG Bri ef at 7.

Giv en th es e real it ie s, th e co un ty at to rn ey s ha ve fai le d to de m on st rat e th at §

21 1B .06 is ei th er na rro wly ta il or ed or ne ces sa ry to pr es erv e fai r an d ho ne st el ect io ns

an d pr ev en t a frau d on th e e l e c t o r a t e

. The m en s rea req ui rem en t es ta bl is he d in th e

st at ut e, an d an y ot he r al le ge d na rro win g sa feg ua rd s th at App el le es cl ai m ren de r th is

st at ut e co ns ti tu ti on al

, ha ve li tt le effe ct in ab at in g th e ad va nc ed co nc ern of th e st at e.

Ci ti ng Mi nn es ot a la w, th e co un ty at to rn eys c l a i m t ha t th e le gi sl at iv e in te nt of §

21 1B .06 is to pr ev en t co rru pt cam pa ig n pr act ic es th at wou ld "m is le ad th e pu bl ic an d

pe rm it cl os e el ect io ns

. . . to be won by fraud ." In re Co nt es t of Gen . El ect io n, 26 4

N.W

. 2d 40 1, 40 6 (Mi nn

. 19 78 ) (Oti s, J., di ss en ti ng ). Bu t as we ha ve di sc us se d, th e

pr act ic al ap pl ic at io n of § 2 1 1 B

. 0 6 o nl y op en s th e do or to m or e frau d. The st at ut e

it se lf a ct ua ll y

op en s a P an do ra's bo x t o d is in ge nu ou s p ol it ic ki ng it se lf.

W hi le we wou ld li ke to ag ree wit h th e di st ric t co ur t th at b e c a u s e § 2 1 1B .06

em pl oys "t he fo rce an d im

pa rti al it y of la w," it "s erv es t o c h e c k t h e un fai r us e of

di sp arat e ad va nt ag e du rin g a cam pa ig n," we do no t ha ve th e lu xu ry of in du lg in g th at

sc en ari o gi ve n th e ab rid ge m en t of co re po li ti cal sp eech at ris k. W it h su ch

ab rid ge m en t le ft un reg ul at ed

, no t on ly is § 21 1B .06 no t na rro wly ta il or ed bu t li ke ly

do es no t ris e to th e le ve l of ex pl ic at in g a "co m pe ll in g" in te res t. The ci ti zen ry , no t th e

go ve rn m en t, sh ou ld be th e m on it or of fal s e ne ss in th e po li ti cal aren a. Ci ti zen s can

di ge st an d qu es ti on writ in gs or br oa dc as ts in fav or or ag ai ns t ba ll ot in it ia ti ve s jus t as

th e y are eq ua ll y po is ed to weig h co un te rp oi nt s. McI nt y re, 51 4 U.S. at 34 8 n.1 1

-3 5-("P eo pl e are in te ll ig en t en ou gh to ev al ua te th e so ur ce of an an on y m ou s writ in g. The y

can se e it is an on y m ou s. The y kn ow it is an on y m ou s. Th e y c an ev al ua te it s

an on y m it y al on g wit h it s m es sa ge , as lo ng as th ey are pe rm it te d, as th ey m us t be, to

read th at m es sa ge

. And th en , o nc e th ey ha ve do ne so , i t is fo r th em to de ci de w h at

is res po ns ib le , what is va lu ab le , and what is tru th .") (q uo ta ti on om it te d)

.

F. El ev enth Am endment I m m uni ty

The at to rn ey ge ne ral rev is it s th e is su e of Elev en th Am en dm en t im m un it y

. In

28 1 Care Co m

m it te e I, we he ld th at th e at to r ne y ge ne ral was a pr op er de fen da nt

un de r th e Ex pa rte You ng , 20 9 U.S. 12 3 (1 90 8)

, ex cep ti on to Elev en th Am en dm en t

im m un it y

. 63 8 F.3 d at 63 2. W e de te rm in ed th at th e at to rn ey ge ne ral 's co nn ect io n to

th e e n f or cem en t of § 21 1B .06 was th ree- fo ld : (1 ) th e at to rn ey ge ne ral "m ay , up on

req ue st of th e c o u n ty at to rn ey as si gn ed to a cas e, be co m e in vo lv ed in a cri m in al

pr os ecu ti on o f s e ct io n 21 1B .06 ," (2 ) "t he at to rn ey ge ne ral is res po ns ib le fo r

de fen di ng th e de ci si on s of th e OAH–i nc lu di ng de ci si on s pu rs ua nt to se ct io n

21 1B .06 –i f th ey are ch al le ng ed in ci vi l co ur t," an d (3 ) "t he at to rn ey ge ne ral ap pe ars

to ha ve th e ab il it y to fil e a ci vi l co m pl ai nt un de r se ct io n 2 1 1 B

. 0 6

. " Id

. Thi s

co nn ect io n, we he l d

, w a s s uf fic ie nt to m ak e th e at to rn ey ge ne ral am en ab le to su it

un de r th e Ex part e You ng ex cep ti on to Elev en th Am en dm en t im m un it y

. Id

. at 63 3.

The di st ric t co ur t di d no t di rect ly ad dr es s th is im m un it y is su e whe n it g r an te d

su m m ary jud gm en t in fav or of th e co un ty at to rn ey s up on rem an d be cau se it di sm is se d

th e cl ai m s. The di st ric t co ur t di d in ti m at e, ho wev er, tha t th is co ur t's or ig in al de ni al

of im m un it y "ap pe ars to ha ve th e sa m e fo rce of reas on at th e su m m ary jud gm en t st ag e

as at t he m ot io n t o d is m is s s ta ge ."

On ap pe al

, th e at to rn ey ge ne ral rei te rat es th at sh e m ay in it ia te a pr os ecu ti on fo r

vi ol at io n of § 21 1B .06 on ly "[ u]po n r e q u e st of th e co un ty at to rn ey " an d on ly i f th e

-3 6-a t t o r n e y ge ne ral th en "d eem s [it ] pr op er." Mi nn

. St at

. § 8.0 1. Vio la ti on s of t h e

st at ut e are pr os ecu te d by co un ty at to rn ey s, no t th e a t t o r n e y ge ne ral

. Mi nn

. St at

. §

21 1 B

. 1 6

, su bd

. 3. In su pp or t of th e m ot io n fo r su m m ary jud gm en t th e Dep ut y

Mi nn es ot a Att or ne y Gen eral fil ed an affi da vi t te st ifyin g th at (1 ) th e at to rn ey ge ne ral 's

of fic e ha s ne ve r in it ia te d a pr os ecu ti on al le gi ng a vi ol at io n of § 21 1B .06 an d he was

no t aware of an y co un ty at to rn ey ev er req ue st in g th e of fic e to do so , (2 ) th e at to rn ey

ge ne ral 's of

fic e wou ld de cl in e an y req ue st to pr os ecu te an y of th e act iv it ie s de sc rib ed

in th e am en de d co m

pl ai nt as a vi ol at io n of § 21 1B .06

, an d (3 ) th e at to rn ey ge ne ral 's

of fic e ne ve r ha s fil ed

, an d ha s no in te nt io n of ev er fil in g, a co m pl ai nt wit h th e OAH

al le gi ng a vi ol at io n of § 21 1B .06

, es pe ci al ly ba se d up on an y of th e act iv it ie s in whi ch

th e pa rti es wis h to en ga ge , as st at ed in th e fir st am en de d co m pl ai nt

. Acco rd in gl y , th e

at to rn ey ge ne ral arg ue s t ha t t he reco rd no w est ab li sh es th at th ere i s n o t hr eat of he r

en fo rci ng th e ch al le ng ed cri m in al st at ut e ag ai ns t Ap pe ll an ts

.

The Ex pa rte You ng ex cep ti on on ly ap pl ie s ag ai ns t of fic ia ls "wh o th reat en an d

are ab ou t to co m

m en ce pr oc eed in gs , ei th er of a ci vi l or c r im in al na tu re, to en fo rce

ag ai ns t p art ie s af

fect ed an un co ns ti tu ti on al act

, vi ol at in g t he Fed eral Co ns ti tu ti on ."

Ex pa rte You ng , 20 9 U.S. at 15 6. It is th e at to rn ey ge ne ral 's no w- e s t a b l i s he d (v ia

affi da vi t), no t sp ecu la ti ve , un wil li ng ne ss to ex erci se he r ab il it y to pr o s ecu te a §

21 1B .06 cl ai m ag ai ns t App el la nt s th at carr ie s th e da y at th is st ag e in th e pr oc eed in gs

. Kit ch en v. Herb ert

, 75 5 F.3 d 11 93

, 12 01 (1 0t h Ci r. 20 14 ) ("An of fic er ne ed no t ha ve

a sp eci al co nn ect io n to th e a l l e g e d ly un co ns ti tu ti on al st at ut e; rat he r, he ne ed on ly

ha ve a pa rti cu la r du ty to en fo rce th e st at ut e in qu es ti o n a n d a de m on st rat ed

wil li ng ne ss to ex e r c i s e t ha t du ty.") (q uo ta ti on om it te d)

. "Th e Ex pa rte You ng

do ct rin e do es no t a p p l y whe n th e de fen da nt of fic ia l ha s ne it he r en fo rced no r

th reat en ed to en fo rce th e st at ut e ch al le ng ed as un co ns ti tu ti on al ." McNe il us Truc k &

Mfg

., In c. v. Ohi o ex rel

. Mo nt go m ery, 22 6 F.3 d 42 9, 43 8 (6 th Ci r. 20 00 ); Okp al ob i

v. Fo st er, 24 4 F.3 d 40 5, 41 7 (5 th Ci r. 20 01 ) ("[ A] ny pr ob e in to th e ex is te nc e of a

-3 7-You ng ex cep ti on sh ou ld ga ug e (1 ) th e ab il it y of th e of fic ia l to en fo rce th e st at ut e at

is su e un de r hi s st at ut or y or co ns ti tu t i o n al po wers , an d (2 ) th e de m on st rat ed

wil li ng ne ss of th e of

fic ia l to en fo rce th e st at ut e."). "Ab se nt a real li ke li ho od th at th e

st at e of fic ia l wil l em

pl oy hi s su pe rv is or y po wers ag ai ns t pl ai nt iff s' in te res ts

, th e

Elev en th Am en dm en t ba rs fed eral co ur t juri sd ic ti on ." Lon g v. Van de Kam p, 96 1

F.2 d 1 51 , 15 2 (9 th Cir . 19 92 ) (p er cu ria m ).

At th is st ag e in th e pr oc eed in gs we are no lo ng er co nc ern ed wit h w h o is "a

po te nt ia ll y pr op er pa rty fo r in

jun ct iv e rel ie f" bu t rat he r who in fact is th e rig ht pa rty.

Rep ro d. Heal th Serv s. of Pl an ne d Pare nt ho od of th e St

. Lou is Reg io n, In c. v. Nix on , 42 8 F.3 d 11 39 , 1 14 6 (8 th Ci r. 20 05 ) (al te rat io n in or ig in al ). Now th at th e at to r n ey

ge ne ral ha s te st ifi ed wit h as su ran ces th at th e of fic e wil l no t ta ke up it s di sc ret io na ry

ab il it y to as si st in th e pr os ecu ti on of § 2 1 1 B .06

, App el la nt s are no t su bjec t to or

th reat en ed wit h an y en fo rcem en t pr oc eed in g by th e at to rn ey ge ne ral

. Thu s, we fin d

th e at to rn ey ge ne ral im m un e fro m s u it un de r th e Elev en th Am en dm en t, an d,

acco rd in gl y , di sm is s t he act io n a s ag ai ns t t he att or ne y ge ne ral

.

II I. CONCLUSI ON

Fo r th e reas on s st at ed he rei n, we di sm is s Lori Swan so n, in he r of fic ia l cap aci ty

as th e Mi nn es ot a Att or ne y Gen eral

, an d rev ers e an d rem an d fo r fu rth er pr oc eed in gs

co ns is te nt wit h t hi s o pi ni on

.

__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __

-3 8-