# Patent

## Title
Nucleic acid biosensors

## Abstract

Sensors comprising aptazymes capable of detecting the presence and concentration of effectors, as well as methods of using such sensors, are disclosed.

## Background
FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT
The subject matter of this application may in part have been funded by the Department of Energy (DEFG02-01ER63179) and the National Science Foundation (DMR-0117792). The government may have certain rights in this invention


BACKGROUND
Long considered strictly genetic material, DNA was shown in 1994 to be able to act as an enzyme (Breaker and Joyce 1994). Like RNAzymes, DNAzymes can catalyze nucleic acid and phosphoramidate bond cleavage, ligation, phopshorylation, and porphyrin metallation (Lu 2002). Because of their stability and catalytic capabilities, DNAzymes promise to be important in a large array of applications (Lu 2002).
Aptamers are nucleic acids (such as DNA or RNA) that recognize targets with high affinity and specificity (Ellington and Szostak 1990, Jayasena 1999). Aptazymes (also called allosteric DNA/RNAzymes or allosteric (deoxy)ribozymes) are DNA/RNAzymes regulated by an effector (the target molecule). They typically contain an aptamer domain that recognizes an effector and a catalytic domain (Hesselberth et al. 2000, Soukup and Breaker 2000, Tang and Breaker 1997). The effector can either decrease or increase the catalytic activity of the aptazyme through specific interactions between the aptamer domain and the catalytic domain. Therefore, the activity of the aptazyme can be used to monitor the presence and quantity of the effector. This strategy has been used to select and design aptazyme sensors for diagnostic and sensing purposes (Breaker 2002, Robertson and Ellington 1999, Seetharaman et al. 2001). DNA aptazymes are the most attractive candidate for sensor development because DNA is much less expensive to synthesize and more stable than RNA. In addition, general strategies to design DNA aptazymes, by introducing aptamer motifs close to the catalytic core of DNAzymes, are available (Wang et al. 2002). High cleavage activity requires the presence of effector molecules that upon binding to the aptamer motif, can allosterically modulate the activity of the catalytic core part of the aptazyme.
In vitro selection methods can be used to obtain aptamers for a wide range of target molecules with exceptionally high affinity, having dissociation constants as high as in the picomolar range (Brody and Gold 2000, Jayasena 1999, Wilson and Szostak 1999). For example, aptamers have been developed to recognize metal ions such as Zn(II) (Ciesiolka et al. 1995) and Ni(II) (Hofmann et al. 1997); nucleotides such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) (Huizenga and Szostak 1995); and guanine(Kiga et al. 1998); co-factors such as NAD (Kiga et al. 1998) and flavin (Lauhon and Szostak 1995); antibiotics such as viomycin (Wallis et al. 1997) and streptomycin (Wallace and Schroeder 1998); proteins such as HIV reverse transcriptase (Chaloin et al. 2002) and hepatitis C virus RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (Biroccio et al. 2002); toxins such as cholera whole toxin and staphylococcal enterotoxin B (Bruno and Kiel 2002) and bacterial spores such as the anthrax (Bruno and Kiel 1999). Compared to antibodies, DNA/RNA based aptamers are easier to obtain and less expensive to produce because they are obtained in vitro in short time periods (days vs. months) and with limited cost. In addition, DNA/RNA aptamers can be denatured and renatured many times without losing their biorecognition ability. These unique properties make aptamers an idea platform for designing highly sensitive and selective biosensors (Hesselberth et al. 2000).
Radioisotope and fluorescence signals are often used to detect aptamer and aptazyme activity. Radioisotope-labeling has the advantage of minimal perturbation for the binding ability of aptamers and aptazymes (Rusconi et al. 2002, Seetharaman et al. 2001); however, safety and disposal concerns prevent this method from broad use. Fluorescence provides significant signal amplification and enables real-time monitoring of concentration fluctuations. However, determining effective parameters for using fluorophores is inefficient, requiring trial and error. If too close to the binding site, fluorophores may prevent the effector from binding; if too remote, no signal will be detected. To overcome this difficulty when using aptamers, fluorophores are incorporated into nucleotides during aptamer selection (Jhaveri et al. 2000). Many fluorophores are easily photo-bleached.
A powerful alternative to fluorophore and radio-isotope detection is colorimetry (Cao et al. 2001, Rakow and Suslick 2000, Smith et al. 1999). Colorimetric detection minimizes detection costs and safety concerns, and is well suited for on-site and real-time detection. In a colorimetric cocaine sensor based on aptamers, cocaine displaces a dye in the binding site of a cocaine aptamer (Stojanovic and Landry 2002). Because the dye has different absorption properties when bound to the aptamer, the presence of cocaine is indicated by a color change. However, finding an appropriate dye for a particular aptamer requires screening a large number of dyes. Moreover, the extinction coefficient for organic dyes seldom exceeds 106 L·mole−1·cm−1, necessitating high dye concentration for simple visual observation.
Metallic particles have extinction coefficients three orders of magnitude higher than those of organic dyes (Link et al. 1999). For effective detection, they may be used in low concentrations (nanomolar) for use as detection agents with aptamers.
SUMMARY
In a first aspect, the invention is drawn to a sensor system for detecting an effector, having a nucleic acid enzyme (comprising an aptamer comprising a binding site for the effector), a substrate for the nucleic acid enzyme and particles having a second polynucleotide that is at least partially complementary to the substrate. The enzyme may be DNA, the effector may activate or inhibit the enzyme, the particles may be gold particles or other metal colloids or polystyrene latex particles. The effector may be adenosine, anthrax, an anthrax-derived molecule, small pox, a small pox-derived molecule, HIV, an HIV-derived molecule, an antiobiotic or cocaine. The nucleic acid enzyme may be both SEQ ID NOS:5 and 6, both SEQ ID NOS:8 and 9 or SEQ ID NO:1; the substrate may be SEQ ID NOS:4, 7 or 2. The sensor system may be mixed with a sample to detect an effector. Mg(II) and Pb(II) may also be added to the sample. When detecting an effector, a step of heating the sensor system to disrupt pairing between the polynucleotides may also be included. The presence of an effector is indicated by a color change in the sample, or of aggregated particles, which may precipitate in the sample.
In a second aspect, the invention is drawn to a sensor system for detecting an effector, having a nucleic acid enzyme of DNA (comprising an aptamer comprising a binding site for the effector), a substrate for the nucleic acid enzyme, gold particles having a second polynucleotide that is at least partially complementary to the substrate, and Mg(II). The sensor system may further comprise Pb(II). This sensor system may be used to detect an effector by mixing it with a sample.
In a third aspect, the invention is drawn to methods of detecting an effector, where the ingredients of a sample, a nucleic acid enzyme (having an aptamer comprising a binding site for the effector), a substrate for the nucleic acid enzyme, and particles having a polynucleotide that is at least partially complementary to the substrate. The ingredients may be mixed in different sequences. The nucleic acid enzyme may be both SEQ ID NOS:5 and 6, both SEQ ID NOS:8 and 9 or SEQ ID NO:1; the substrate may be SEQ ID NOS:4, 7 or 2.
In a fourth aspect, the invention is drawn to kits for detecting an effector, a sensor system for detecting an effector, having a nucleic acid enzyme (comprising an aptamer comprising a binding site for the effector), a substrate for the nucleic acid enzyme and particles having a second polynucleotide that is at least partially complementary to the substrate. The particles may be gold particles or other metal colloids or polystyrene latex particles. The effector may be adenosine, anthrax, an anthrax-derived molecule, small pox, a small pox-derived molecule, HIV, an HIV-derived molecule, an antiobiotic or cocaine. The nucleic acid enzyme may be both SEQ ID NOS:5 and 6, both SEQ ID NOS:8 and 9 or SEQ ID NO:1; the substrate may be SEQ ID NOS:4, 7 or 2. The sensor system may be mixed with a sample to detect an effector. Mg(II) and Pb(II) may also be added to the sample. The presence of an effector is indicated by a color change in the sample, or of aggregated particles, which may precipitate in the sample.
The kit may be supplied such that the substrate, particles and nucleic acid enzyme are supplied in separate containers or the substrate, particles and nucleic acid enzyme are supplied in a single container. Furthermore, the kit may be supplied such that the substrate, particles and nucleic acid enzyme are supplied as an aggregate. The kit may further include control solutions, such as a solution having a known concentration of an effector. A color chart, wherein the colors indicate a concentration of the effector, may also be included to facilitate quantification.



DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES
FIG. 1 shows an example of a nucleic acid enzyme and its substrate.
FIG. 2 shows an adenosine aptazyme (SEQ ID NOS: 8 and 9); a substrate (SEQ ID NO:7), where rA indicates a single adenosine ribonucleotide; a polynucleotide having complementarity to the 3′-portion of the substrate and conjugated to a particle (SEQ ID NO:10); and a polynucleotide having complementarity to the 5′-portion of the substrate and conjugated to a particle (SEQ ID NO:11).
FIG. 3 shows a schematic representation of the colorimetric detection of adenosine. The aptazyme system can act as linker for DNA attached gold particles to form aggregations, which have a blue color (reaction A). In the presence of adenosine and metal ions, the substrate can be cleaved (reaction B). The cleaved substrate can no longer act as linker for particles and the color remains red (reaction C). The polynucleotide containing the substrate (SEQ ID NO:7), the polynucleotide containing the enzyme (SEQ ID NO:5), the polynucleotide containing the regulator (SEQ ID NO:6), the polynucleotide having complementarity to the 3′-portion of the substrate and conjugated to a particle (SEQ ID NO:10) and the polynucleotide having complementarity to the 5′-portion of the substrate and conjugated to a particle (SEQ ID NO:11) are illustrated.
FIG. 4 shows the extinction spectra of separated 13 nm diameter gold particles (solid line) and gold particles aggregation linked by aptazymes (dashed line) in the visible region. Aggregation induced by DNA linkers shifts the peak of the surface plasmon band from 522 nm to 540 nm.
FIG. 5 shows the melting curve of the aptazyme assembled gold particles in 25 mM Tris-acetate buffer, pH 7.2, 300 mM NaCl.
FIG. 6 shows the relationship between the substrate quantity and the degree of aggregation of gold particles. The vertical axis is the ratio of the extinction between 522 nm and 700 nm. The arrow indicates 6 pmol of substrate.
FIG. 7 shows the kinetics of color change of the aptazyme-gold particle sensor.
FIG. 8 shows the quantification of adenosine concentration using UV-vis spectroscopy.



DETAILED DESCRIPTION
The present invention makes use of the discovery that the cleavage of a nucleic acid substrate by an aptazyme upon binding of an effector can be detected calorimetrically. In the presence of the effector, the substrate is cleaved and particles attached to polynucleotides that can hybridize to the substrate strand are dispersed, resulting in a color change. This system combines the benefit of elements that can recognize any molecule of choice with high sensitivity and ease-of-use provided by colorimetric detection.
The system comprises at least three parts:
(1) a nucleic acid-based enzyme having an effector-binding site (such as in aptamers) and a co-factor such as metal ions that catalyze substrate cleavage;
(2) a nucleic acid substrate for the nucleic acid-based enzyme, wherein interior portions of the substrate sequence is complementary to portions of the enzyme sequence; and
(3) particles attached to polynucleotides that are complementary to the 3′- and 5′-termini of the substrate.
To detect the target effector, the complementary portions of the polynucleotides (the polynucleotides attached to the particles complementary to the 3′- and 5′-termini of the substrate strand, and the 5′- and 3′-termini of the nucleic acid-based enzyme complementary to interior substrate strand sequences) are annealed in the presence of a sample suspected of containing the targeted effector. If the effector is absent, the aptazyme is either inactive or shows substantially reduced activity, resulting in no or little substrate cleavage and thus aggregation of the particles. If the effector is present, the enzyme is active and cleaves the substrate, preventing aggregate formation because the link between the particles is broken by the enzymatic cleavage step. In the case of gold particles, the aggregated state displays a blue color, while the dispersed state (or the non-aggregate state) is red in color. The presence of the target analyte as an effector can be detected based on the appearance of the color of the sensor system. More importantly, the concentration or the amount of the target analyte as an effector can be quantified by the degree of color deviation from blue or red. For example, a low concentration of the effector will result in a small percentage of substrate cleavage, small percentage of particles in the non-aggregate state, small deviation from the blue color and thus purple color can be observed. On the other hand, a high concentration of the effector will result in a large percentage of substrate cleavage, large percentage of particles in the non-aggregate state, large deviation from the blue color and thus pink/red can be observed. For a more quantitative analysis, spectrometry such as the extinction ratio between 522 nm and 700 nm can be used. The analyte as an effector may also decrease or inhibit the aptazyme activity instead of increase the aptazyme activity. In that case, the effect and color changes are the opposite to what described above. The effect may also be detected by other methods, such as aggregate precipitation. If the effector is absent, no cleavage will occur.
By replacing the aptamer domain with aptamers recognizing pre-selected effectors, calorimetric sensors for any desired effector can be easily made and used.
Definitions
An “effector” is a molecule that, when bound to an enzyme having an effector binding site, can enhance or inhibit enzyme catalysis. An “effector binding site” may be “specific,” that is, binding only one effector molecule in the presence of other effector molecules. An example of effector binding site specificity is when only Zn(II) ions bind in the presence of many other ions, such as Mn(II), Mg(II) or Pb(II). Alternatively, an effector binding site may be “partially” specific (binding only a class of molecules), or “non-specific” (having molecular promiscuity). Examples of effectors include metal ions, anthrax, anthrax-derived molecules, small pox or small pox-derived molecules, pollutants (such as nitrogen fertilizers, toxic molecules, etc.), cocaine, human immuno-deficiency virus (HIV) and HIV-derived molecules.
A “nucleic acid-based enzyme” is an enzyme that principally contains nucleic acids, such as ribozymes (RNAzymes), deoxyribozymes (DNAzymes), and aptazymes. Nucleic acids may be natural, unnatural or modified nucleic acids. Peptide nucleic acids (PNAS) are also included. A nucleic acid-based enzyme requires a metal “co-factor” for efficient substrate cleavage and/or specific effector binding. Common co-factors include Mg(II) and Pb(II).
“Polynucleotide” refers to a nucleic acid sequence having at least two or more nucleotides. Polynucleotides may contain naturally-occurring nucleotides and modified nucleotides. PNA molecules are also embraced by this term.
“Sensitivity” refers to the limits of detection of a analytical device. In the context of the aptazyme-based sensors of the invention, sensitivity refers to the least concentration and highest concentration of an effector that the sensor can detect.
“Base-pairing” refers to the ability of a polynucleotide to form at least one hydrogen bond with a nucleotide under low stringency conditions. The nucleotide may be in a second polynucleotide or to a nucleotide found within the first polynucleotide. A polynucleotide is partially complementary to a second polynucleotide when the first polynucleotide is capable of forming at least one hydrogen bond with the second polynucleotide. To be partially complementary, a polynucleotide may have regions wherein base pairs may not form surrounded by those regions that do, form loops, stem-loops, and other secondary structures.
A Nucleic Acid-based Enzyme Having an Effector (or Effectors) Binding Site
A number of nucleic acid enzymes have been discovered or developed, having diverse catalytic activities (Tables 1 and 2). For catalytic function, the enzymes usually depend on one or more ion co-factors. In vitro selection may be used to “enhance” selectivity and sensitivity for a particular ion. Nucleic acid enzymes that catalyze molecular association (ligation, phosphorylation, and amide bond formation) or dissociation (cleavage or transfer) are particularly useful for the methods and compositions of the invention.
A nucleic acid enzyme that catalyzes the cleavage of a nucleic acid in the presence of an effector is used. The nucleic acid enzyme may be RNA (ribozyme), DNA (deoxyribozyme), a DNA/RNA hybrid enzyme, or a peptide nucleic acid (PNA) enzyme. PNAs comprise a polyamide backbone and naturally-occurring nucleoside bases (available from, e.g., Biosearch, Inc. (Bedford, Mass.)). Ribozymes that may be used include group I and group II introns, the RNA component of the bacterial ribonuclease P, hammerhead, hairpin, hepatitis delta virus and Neurospora VS ribozymes. Also included are in vitro selected ribozymes, such as those previously isolated (Tang and Breaker 2000). Ribozymes tend to be less stable than deoxyribozymes; thus deoxyribozyme are preferred. Deoxyribozymes with extended chemical functionality are also desirable (Santoro et al., 2000).







TABLE 1







Reactions catalyzed by ribozymes that were isolated from in vitro


selection experiments.











Reaction
kcat (min1)
Km (μM)
kcat/kuncata
Reference














Phosphoester centers






Cleavage
0.1
0.03
105
(Vaish et al. 1998)


Transfer
0.3
0.02
 1013
(Tsang and Joyce 1996)


Ligation
100
9
109
(Ekland et al. 1995)


Phosphorylation
0.3
40
>105  
(Lorsch and Szostak 1994)


Mononucleotide polymerization
0.3
5000
>107  
(Ekland and Bartel 1996)


Carbon centers


Aminoacylation
1
9000
106
(Illangasekare and Yarus 1997)


Aminoacyl ester hydrolysis
0.02
0.5
10 
(Piccirilli et al. 1992)


Aminoacyl transfer
0.2
0.05
103
(Lohse and Szostak 1996)


N-alkylation
0.6
1000
107
(Wilson and Szostak 1995)


S-alkylation
4 × 103
370
103
(Wecker et al. 1996)


Amide bond cleavage
1 × 105

102
(Dai et al. 1995)


Amide bond formation
0.04
2
105
(Wiegand et al. 1997)


Peptide bond formation
0.05
200
106
(Zhang and Cech 1997)


Diels-Alder cycloaddition
>0.1
>500
103
(Tarasow et al. 1997)


Others


Biphenyl isomerization
3 × 105
500
102
(Prudent et al. 1994)


Porphyrin metallation
0.9
10
103
(Conn et al. 1996)





aReactions catalyzed by ribozymes that were isolated from in vitro selection experiments. kcat/kuncat is the rate enhancement over uncatalyzed reaction.













TABLE 2







Deoxyribozymes isolated through in vitro selection.











Reaction
Cofactor
kmax(min1)b
kcat/kuncat
Reference














RNA transesterification
Pb2+
1
105
(Breaker and Joyce 1994)



Mg2+
0.01
105
(Breaker et al. 1995)



Ca2+
0.08
105
(Faulhammer and Famulok






1997)



Mg2+
10
>105  
(Santoro and Joyce 1997)



None
0.01
108
(Geyer and Sen 1997)



L-histidine
0.2
106
(Roth and Breaker 1998)



Zn2+
~40
>105  
(Li et al. 2000)


DNA cleavage
Cu2+
0.2
>106  
(Carmi et al. 1996)


DNA ligation
Cu2+ or Zn2+
0.07
105
(Cuenoud and Szostak






1995)


DNA phosphorylation
Ca2+
0.01
109
(Li and Breaker 1999)


5′,5′-pyrophophate formation
Cu2+
5 × 10□
 >1010  
(Li et al. 2000)


Porphyrin metalation
None
1.3
103
(Li and Sen 1996)





bkmax is the maximal rate constant obtained under optimized conditions.






Methods of producing ribozymes and deoxyribozymes include chemical oligonucleotide synthesis, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), DNA cloning and replication, or any other methods in the art. Preferably the nucleic acid enzymes are DNA/RNA hybrids and PNAs. Nucleotides containing modified bases, phosphates, or sugars may also be used; in some instances, these modified nucleotides may be advantageous for stability or confer effector specificity. Examples of modified bases include inosine, nebularine, 2-aminopurine riboside, N7-deazaadenosine, and O6-methylguanosine (Earnshaw and Gait 1998). Modified sugars and phosphates include 2′-deoxynucleoside, abasic, propyl, phosphorothioate, and 2′-O-allyl nucleoside (Earnshaw and Gait 1998).
A nucleic acid enzyme that cleaves a nucleic acid strand separate from the strand comprising the enzyme is a trans-acting enzyme. Using trans-acting enzymes allows for multiple rounds of substrate cleavages, since the enzymatic product is removed. An example of such a nucleic acid enzyme is 17E (SEQ ID NO:1); the corresponding substrate is 17DS (SEQ ID NO:2; r denotes a single ribonucleotide); both are presented in Table 3A and illustrated in FIG. 1. Other examples are also given in Table 3B.








TABLE 3A







DNA enzymes and substrates



 











SEQ ID

# of










Molecule
NO:
Sequencec
nucleotides





 











Enzyme (17E)
1
catctcttct ccgagccggt cgaaatagtg agt
33



 


Substrate for 17E (17DS)
2
actcactatr ggaagagatg
21


 


Enzyme: JLYL1 “8–17” half
5
tctcttctcc gagccggtcg aaatattgga ggaagctc
38


 


ATP half
6
gagctggagg aaaaagtgag tc
22


 


Sustrate for JLYL1
4
gactcactat rggaagaga
19


 


Enzyme: JLYL2 “8–17” half
8
tctcttct ccgagccggt cgaaatattg
38




gaggaagctc




gagctggagg aaaaagtgag tc


 


ATP half
9

22


 


Substrate for JLYL2
7
actcatctgt gagactcact atrggaagag atgtcaactc gtg
43





c“r” denotes a single ribonucleotide, such as adenosine ribonucleotide













TABLE 3B







RNA/DNA based aptamers and RNA/DNAzymes








RNA/DNA based aptamers and their targets1–4
RNA/DNAzymes5,6–10












Organic dyes11,12
Xanthene59
 8–17 DNAzyme13–15


Theophyllin16
Kanamycin A60
10–23 DNAzymes13,17


Dopamine18
Lividomycin60
Hammerhead19,20


Hoechst 3325821
Tobramycin61
Hairpin19,22


Sulforhodamine B23,24
Neomycin B62,63
Leadzyme25


Cellobiose26
Viomycin64
Hepatitis Delta Virus27,28


D-tryptophan29
Chloramphenicol65
Group I Intron30,31


L-arginine32–37
Streptomycin66
Spliceosome38


L-citrullin32,36
HIV-1 Rev peptide67,68
Ribosome39


L-argininamide40
Vasopressin69
DNA nuclease activity41


L-valine42
Spectinomycin70
Ligase activity43


L-isoleucine44
L-tyrosinamide71
Kinase activity45


AMP/ATP46–50
HIV-1 RNase H72
Phosphoramidate bond cleavage51


Guanosine52
Chitin73
Porphyrin metallation53


FMN47,54
Human Thrombin74
Peroxidase activity55


NAD54
cAMP75


Vitamin B1256
Cholic acid76


8-oxo-dG57
Hematoporphyrin77


5′-cap58
HIV-1 Tat/Zn2+78



Anthrax spores79









Directed mutagenesis can be used to change one or more properties of a nucleic acid enzyme or its substrate. Using 17E and 17DS as an example, one may wish to alter the avidity of the two arms of the hybridized enzyme and substrate. The “arms” are those areas displaying Watson-Crick base-pairing in FIG. 1. To alter avidity, the length of the arms is changed. Increasing the length of the arms increases the number of Watson-Crick bonds, thus increasing avidity; decreasing the length decreases avidity. Decreasing the avidity of the arms facilitates the removal of substrate from the enzyme, thus allowing for faster enzymatic turnover.
Another method of decreasing avidity includes creating mismatches between the enzyme and the substrate. Alternatively, the G-C content of the arms may be altered. The effect of any directed change should be monitored to ensure that the enzyme retains the desired activity, including ion sensitivity and selectivity. For example, to ensure that the mutated enzyme maintains sensitivity and selectivity for adenosine, one would test to determine if the mutated enzyme remained reactive in the presence of adenosine (sensitivity) and maintained its lower level of activity in the presence of other effectors (selectivity).
In vitro Selection of Aptamers
Aptamers and aptazymes that bind a desired effector can be isolated by in vitro selection. In vitro selection is a technique in which RNA or DNA molecules with certain functions are isolated from a large number of sequence variants through multiple cycles of selection and amplification (Chapman and Szostak 1994, Joyce 1994). DNAzymes and RNAzymes with maximized activities or novel catalytic abilities, as well as aptamers can be obtained using, for example, the technique of systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX) (Tuerk and Gold 1990).
In vitro selection is typically initiated with a large collection (pool) of randomized sequences, usually containing 1013-1015 sequence variants. Chemical synthesis of a set of degenerated polynucleotides using standard phosphoramidite chemistry can be used to generate such randomized pools. The 3′-phosphoramidite compounds of the four nucleosides (adenosine, cytosine, guanine, thymidine) are premixed and used to synthesize the polynucleotides; randomness is generated by controlling the ratio of the four phosphoroamidites. Biases can also be achieved, as well as holding a phosphoramidite constant at a specific position. Other strategies for creating randomized DNA libraries include mutagenic polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and template-directed mutagenesis (Cadwell and Joyce 1992, Cadwell and Joyce 1994, Tsang and Joyce 1996). If in vitro selection of RNA molecules is desired, randomized DNA libraries are first converted to an RNA library by in vitro transcription.
The randomized libraries are then screened for molecules possessing a desired function, such as binding the targeted effector, and are isolated. Separation may be achieved using affinity column chromatography (using, e.g., the targeted effector), gel electrophoresis, or selective amplification of a tagged reaction intermediate. The selected molecules are amplified, using, for example, PCR for DNA, or isothermal amplification reaction for RNA. These selected, amplified molecules are then mutated (reintroducing diversity) using, for example, mutagenic PCR to attempt to select for molecules with yet higher activity. These three steps, selection, amplification and mutation, are repeated, often with increasing selection stringency, until sequences with the desired activity dominate the pool.
Novel nucleic acid enzymes isolated from random sequences in vitro have extended the catalytic repertoire of RNA and DNA (Table 1). Deoxyribozymes catalyze fewer types of reactions compared to ribozymes (Table 2). The catalytic rate (kcat) of most deoxyribozymes is comparable to that of ribozymes catalyzing the same reaction. In certain cases, the catalytic efficiency (kcat/Km) of nucleic acid enzymes even exceeds protein enzyme catalytic efficiency.
In vitro selection can be used to change the ion specificity or binding affinity of existing nucleic acid enzymes, or to obtain nucleic acid enzymes specific for desired substrates. For example, the Mg2+ concentration required for optimal hammerhead ribozyme activity has been lowered using in vitro selection to improve the enzyme performance under physiological conditions (Conaty et al. 1999, Zillmann et al. 1997).
Often nucleic acid enzymes developed for a specific effector by in vitro selection will have activity in the presence of other molecules. For example, 17E deoxyribozyme was developed by in vitro selection for activity in the presence of Zn2+. However, the enzyme showed greater activity in the presence of Pb2+ than Zn2+. Although produced in a process looking for Zn2+-related activity, 17E may be used as a sensitive and selective sensor for Pb2+. To produce nucleic acid enzymes with greater selectivity, a negative selection step may be introduced.
Other polynucleotide sequences are useful, including those described in U.S patent application Ser. No. 09/605,558, filed Jun. 27, 2000, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,706,474, issued Mar. 16, 2004, the contents of which are incorporated by reference (Lu and Liu).
Aptazyme Structure
The aptazyme (FIG. 2) consists of a sequence complementary to a region 3′ of the cleavage site of the substrate, a DNAzyme catalytic core that is conserved, a variable region that is attached to the 3′ terminus of the core (tatt (SEQ ID NO:3, indicated by “*” in FIG. 2), the effector binding site (FIG. 2, “aptamer motif”), and a 3′ sequence that is complementary to a region 5′ of the substrate cleavage site. The variable region may be 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 or more nucleotides longer; preferably 3-6 nucleotides long. By varying the length of the variable region, enzymatic activity and/or effector binding (selectivity and/or avidity) may be improved.
The aptazyme shown in FIG. 2 is specific for adenosine. The nucleotide sequence for the DNAzyme is SEQ ID NO:8, the sequence for the polynucleotide containing that aptamer is SEQ ID NO:9, and the nucleotide sequence for the substrate strand is SEQ ID NO:7.
Particles Tagged with Polynucleotides Complementary to the 3′ and 5′ Termini of the Nucleic Acid Enzyme Substrate
For the sensor to register the enzymatic activity, a detectable change must occur upon a change in aggregation of the particles to which the polynucleotides are attached. In addition, the composition of the particles must be such that they do not interfere with substrate cleavage. Particles may be made of metal, semiconductor and magnetic colloids; ZnS, ZnO, TiO2, AgI, AgBr, HgI2, PbS, PbSe, ZnTe, CdTe, In2S3, In2Se3, Cd3 P2, Cd3 As2, InAs, and GaAs (e.g., (Mirkin et al. 2002)); and gold particles (commercially available; e.g., Amersham Biosciences; Piscataway, N.J. and Nanoprobes, Inc; Yaphank, N.Y.). Non-metal particles may also be used, such as polystyrene latex particles or latex particles containing dye.
Gold colloidal particles are preferred. Gold colloidal particles have high extinction coefficients for the bands that give rise to their intense colors. These colors vary with particle size, concentration, inter-particle distance, extent of aggregation and shape of the aggregates. For instance, hybridization of polynucleotides attached to gold particles results in an immediate color change visible to the naked eye (see, e.g., (Mirkin et al. 2002)).
Gold particles, polynucleotides or both are derivatized for the attachment of polynucleotides. For instance, polynucleotides derivatized with alkanethiols at their 3′- or 5′-termini readily attach to gold particles (Whitesides 1995). A method of attaching 3′ thiol DNA to flat gold surfaces can also be used to attach polynucleotides to particles (Mucic et al. 1996). Alkanethiol-derivatized particles can be used to attach polynucleotides. Other functional groups for attaching polynucleotides to solid surfaces include phosphorothioates to attach polynucleotides to gold surfaces (Beebe and Rabke-Clemmer 1995), substituted alkylsiloxanes for binding polynucleotides to silica and glass surfaces and aminoalkylsiloxanes and mercaptoaklylsiloxanes (Grabar et al. 1995). Polynucleotides terminating in a 5′-thionucleoside or a 3′-thionucleoside may also be used for attaching polynucleotides to solid surfaces. Some methods of attaching polynucleotides are presented in Table 4.







TABLE 4







Systems for attaching polynucleotides to particles








System
Reference





biotin-streptavidin
(Shaiu et al. 1993)


carboxylic acids on aluminum
(Allara and Nuzzo 1985)


disulfides on gold
(Nuzzo et al. 1987)


carboxylic acids on silica
(Iler 1979, Tompkins and Allara



1974)


carboxylic acids on platinum
(Timmons and Zisman 1965)


aromatic ring compounds on platinum
(Soriaga and Hubbard 1982)


silanes on silica
(Maoz and Sagiv 1987)









Preferably, the substrate is modified, for example, by extension of the 3′- and 5′-ends by a number of bases which act as “sticky ends” for facilitating annealing to the complementary polynucleotide strand attached to the particles. Substrate modification allows complexes comprising substrate-linked particles to be formed without inhibiting the nucleic acid enzyme/substrate interaction. However, where the substrate contains regions not critical for interaction with the nucleic acid enzyme, modification may not be necessary.
To detect the target effector, the nucleic acid enzyme, substrate, and labeled particles are combined in the presence of a sample suspected of containing a target effector, such as adenosine, to which the enzyme is sensitive (FIG. 3). In the presence of the effector, the enzyme cleaves the substrate, preventing aggregate formation. In some instances, heating the sensor system to above the melting point of the complex may be necessary. In this case, the presence of the effector allows the enzyme to cleave the substrate, preventing aggregation of the complex.
Different aggregation states of the particles results in a different color. For example, a large degree of particle aggregation display colors close to blue while a small degree of particle aggregation display colors close to red. Furthermore, the amount of substrate cleavage and thus the degree of aggregation depends on the concentration of the effector. A low effector concentration results in only partial substrate cleavage that produces a mixture of single particles and aggregates, allowing for semi-quantitatively or qualitative assays. The color difference can be amplified to improve sensitivity. For a quantitative measurement, the optical spectra of the assay mixture are determined. In addition to color change, the formation of aggregates of the particles, or precipitation of aggregated particles may also be monitored. Color changes can be observed with the naked eye or spectroscopically. The formation of aggregates can be observed by electron microscopy or by nephelometry; and precipitation of aggregated particles can be observed with the naked eye or microscopically.
To facilitate the observation of a color change, the color is observed on a background of a contrasting color. When gold particles are used, the observation of a color change is facilitated by spotting a sample of the hybridization solution on a solid white surface (such as silica or alumina TLC plates, filter paper, cellulose nitrate membranes, and nylon membranes) and allowing the spot to dry. Initially, the spot retains the color of the hybridization solution (which ranges from pink/red, in the absence of aggregation, to purplish-red/purple, if there has been aggregation of gold particles). On drying, a blue spot develops if aggregation is present prior to spotting; a pink spot develops if dispersion occurred. The blue and the pink spots are stable and do not change on subsequent cooling or heating or over time. They provide a convenient permanent record of the test. No other steps are necessary to observe the color change.
Alternatively, assay results may be visualized by spotting a sample onto a glass fiber filter (e.g., Borosilicate Microfiber Filter, 0.7 μm pore size, grade FG75) for use with 13 nm gold particles. After rinsing with water, a spot comprising the aggregates is observed. Additional methods are also available for visualizing assay results (Mirkin et al. 2002).
The targeted effector can be detected in a variety or samples, including bodily fluids. Standards containing known amounts of the effector may be assayed along side the unknown sample, and the color changes compared. Alternatively, standard color charts, similar to those used with pH papers, may be provided.
Kits
The invention also provides kits for detecting analytes as effectors. In one embodiment, the kit comprises at least one container, the container holding at least one type of particle having polynucleotides attached thereto; a substrate; and a nucleic acid enzyme. The polynucleotides attached to the particles have a sequence complementary to the sequence of at least a first and a second portion of the substrate. The first and second portions of the substrate are separated by a third portion of the substrate that is cleaved by the nucleic acid enzyme in the presence of the analyte.
A kit may also comprise at least two types of particles having polynucleotides attached thereto. A first type of particle has attached polynucleotides which have a sequence complementary to the sequence of a first portion of the substrate. A second type of particle has polynucleotides attached that have a sequence complementary to the sequence of a second portion of the substrate. The first and second portions of the substrate are separated by a third portion of the substrate that is cleaved by the nucleic acid enzyme in the presence of the effector.
When a kit is supplied, the different components of the composition may be packaged in separate containers and admixed immediately before use. Such packaging of the components separately may permit long-term storage of the active components. For example, one of more of the particles having polynucleotides attached thereto; the substrate; and the nucleic acid enzyme are supplied in separate containers.
The reagents included in the kits can be supplied in containers of any sort such that the life of the different components are preserved and are not adsorbed or altered by the materials of the container. For example, sealed glass ampules may contain one of more of the reagents, or buffers that have been packaged under a neutral, non-reacting gas, such as nitrogen. Ampules may consist of any suitable material, such as glass, organic polymers, such as polycarbonate, polystyrene, etc.; ceramic, metal or any other material typically employed to hold similar reagents. Other examples of suitable containers include simple bottles that may be fabricated from similar substances as ampules, and envelopes, that may comprise foil-lined interiors, such as aluminum or an alloy. Other containers include test tubes, vials, flasks, bottles, syringes, or the like. Containers may have a sterile access port, such as a bottle having a stopper that can be pierced by a hypodermic injection needle. Other containers may have two compartments that are separated by a readily removable membrane that upon removal permits the components to be mixed. Removable membranes may be glass, plastic, rubber, etc.
The kits may also contain other reagents and items useful for detecting the targeted effector. The reagents may include standard solutions containing known quantities of the effector, dilution and other buffers, pretreatment reagents, etc. Other items which may be provided as part include a backing (for visualizing aggregate break down), such as a TLC silica plate; microporous materials, syringes, pipettes, cuvettes and containers. Standard charts indicating the appearance of the particles in various aggregation states, corresponding to the presence of different amounts of the effector under test, may be provided.
Kits may also be supplied with instructional materials. Instructions may be printed on paper or other substrate, and/or may be supplied as an electronic-readable medium, such as a floppy disc, CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, Zip disc, videotape, audiotape, etc. Detailed instructions may not be physically associated with the kit; instead, a user may be directed to an internet web site specified by the manufacturer or distributor of the kit, or supplied as electronic mail.
EXAMPLES
The following examples are provided to illustrate the invention. Those skilled in the art can readily make insignificant variations in the compositions and methods of this invention. The examples are not meant to limit the invention in any way.
An aptazyme designed for the directed assembly of gold particles for colorimetric detection and quantification of adenosine is herein used as a paradigm. By replacing the aptamer domain that recognizes adenosine in the exemplary adenosine biosensor with other aptamer domains recognizing pre-selected effectors, calorimetric sensors for any desired effector can be easily made and used. Furthermore, by replacing the catalytic core (the 8-17 motif in this case) with other catalytic cores, similar aptazymes may be engineered.
Example 1
Colorimetric Adenosine Biosensor
Polynucleotides and Reagents
All polynucleotides were purchased from the Integrated DNA Technology Inc. (Coralville, Iowa). Adenosine and other nucleosides were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, Mo.). Thirteen nm diameter gold particles were prepared and 3′- and 5′-thiol-modified 12-mer DNA were attached (Storhoff et al. 1998).
Cleavage Reaction
Thirty-eight μl of solution containing 3 μM substrate, 6 μM enzyme and 9 μM regulator strands in 300 mM NaCl, 50 mM Tris-actate, pH 7.2 buffer (300 mM NTA). 2 μl metal ion stock solution (5 mM Pb(II) and 200 mM Mg(II)) were added to initiate the cleavage reaction. The final metal ion concentration was 0.25 mM Pb(II) and 10 mM Mg(II). At different times, 2 μl aliquots were transferred to tube containing of 50 μl gold particles with 10 μM EDTA; the EDTA specifically chelated Pb(II) (5 μM) in solution, even in the presence of 0.4 mM Mg(II), because the formation constant of EDTA for Pb(II) is approximately 10 orders of magnitude higher than that for Mg(II) (Sillén 1964). In the presence of 0.4 mM Mg(II) only, the cleavage rate for the aptazyme is negligible. Thus, the reaction can be considered quenched upon transferring to the gold particle solution. The 2 μl aliquot contained 6 pmol substrate if no cleavage occurs. The cleavage can decrease the amount of substrate and that can be reflected by the degree of aggregation of the particles.
Gold Particle Aggregation
The particle solution mixed with a 2 μl aliquot was heated to  ̃70° C. for 3 minutes and then was allowed to cool to room temperature. The solution was assayed for the extinction property using UV-vis extinction spectroscopy or spotted onto a TLC plate.
FIG. 2 shows the primary and proposed secondary structure of the three nucleic acid strands that comprise the adenosine aptazyme and two DNA-attached gold particles hybridized with the substrate strand. The two particles are designed to be positioned at the two ends of the substrate, so that two different thio-modified DNA molecules are used to attach to gold particles. One sequence has a thiol group at the 3′ end of the DNA (3′-DNAAu) and the other has a thiol at the 5′ end (5′-DNAAu). The substrate strand is a DNA/RNA chimera with a single RNA linkage that serves as the cleavage site. The strand is flanked with two 12-mer overhang that are used to hybridize with 3′-DNAAu and 5′-DNAAu. The catalytic core of the aptazyme is adapted from the “8-17” DNAzyme (Faulhammer and Famulok 1997, Li et al. 2000, Santoro and Joyce 1997) and has been optimized for high activity in the presence of Pb(II) (Brown et al., Li et al. 2000). The 3′ end of the DNAzyme is hybridized with the third component of the aptazyme to form an adenosine aptamer motif, obtained using SELEX process (Huizenga and Szostak 1995) and was adapted into an aptazyme (Wang et al. 2002). The presence of adenosine promotes formation of the active tertiary DNAzyme structure. This complex then promotes cleavage of the substrate strand at the single ribo-adenosine position. Without adenosine, even though the three components may interact via Watson-Crick base-paring, the catalytic activity is much less than that in the presence of adenosine (Wang et al. 2002).
FIG. 3 shows a schematic of the colorimetric detection of adenosine based on aptazyme-directed assembly of gold particles. In the absence of adenosine, the substrate strand in this aptazyme can be used as a linker to bring DNA modified gold particles together through hybridization to the DNA-tagged particles (reaction A). Since the color of the gold particles changes from red for separated particles to blue for aggregated particles (Mirkin et al. 1996), upon hybridization, a blue color is observed. However, the presence of adenosine can switch on the aptazyme activity for cleaving the substrate strand (reaction B). The cleaved substrate can no longer support the gold particle aggregates. Thus the red color of separated particles is observed (reaction C). Because the rate of substrate cleavage can be modulated by the concentration of adenosine that binds to the aptamer motif, the fraction of cleavage at a set time should be dependent on the concentration of adenosine. Different ratios of the cleaved to non-cleaved substrates results in different colors, from red to blue, which reflect the adenosine concentration and can be quantified.
Example 2
Demonstration of Aptazyme-directed Assembly of Gold Particles
FIG. 4 shows the extinction spectra of gold particles in the absence (solid line) and in the presence (dash line) of the substrate strand. The shift of the extinction peak from 522 nm to 540 nm and the significant increase in extinction in the long wavelength region indicate that the presence of the substrate strand converts separated gold particles (red) to aggregated particles (blue). The melting temperature of the aggregate was determined to be 50° C. in 300 mM NaCl (FIG. 5). The sharp melting transition demonstrates the formation of DNA linked gold particle assembly.
Determining the optimal ratio between the substrate strand and particles, such that any decrease in the quantity of substrate induced by cleavage can be reflected in the optical properties of the particle aggregations, increases sensitivity of the assay. If the substrate is in excess, a small fraction of cleavage will be undetected. To a mixture of equal volumes (25 μl) of 5′-DNAAu and 3′-DNAAu, each with extinction of 2.2 at 522 nm, 1 to 9 pmol of substrate was added in the presence of excess amount of the enzyme and the regulator strands. After annealing, the extinction properties of the resulting solutions were determined by UV-vis spectroscopy. The extinction ratio between 522 nm and 700 nm was used to assay the degree of aggregation. These two wavelengths were chosen to represent the quantity of separated and aggregated particles, respectively (FIG. 6). A lower ratio indicates a higher degree of aggregation. This ratio is also a measure of the color changes from red to blue. A high ratio is indicated by red and a low ratio is indicated by blue. The ratio decreases exponentially with increasing quantity of the substrate strand, showing that the addition of substrate increases particle aggregations. When the substrate is more than 6 pmol, the degree of aggregation is no longer sensitive to a further increase in the substrate quantity. Therefore, 6 pmol of substrate are used as a starting point for forming aggregation. Any cleavage of the substrate disturbs the formation of aggregates and increases the extinction ratio.
Example 3
The Kinetics of Color Changes of the Aptazyme-gold Particle Sensor
In the presence of only Mg(II), the rate constant of the aptazyme was 3.5×10−3 min−1 with 5 mM adenosine (Wang et al. 2002), thus requiring 200 minutes for 50% substrate cleavage. The “8-17” DNAzyme is at least 3000-fold more active in the presence of Pb(II) than Mg(II) under the same conditions (Brown et al., Li and Lu 2000, Li et al. 2000). Pb(II) was used in the system, in addition to Mg(II), to decrease detection time. FIG. 7 shows the kinetics of the color changes of the aptazyme-gold particle sensor monitored by the extinction ratio between 522 nm and 700 nm in the presence of 5 mM adenosine. The kinetics data can be fit to a sigmoidal curve, thus showing that the reaction progresses to a substantial extent in 30 minutes and is complete at 60 minutes. Small errors in timing (e.g., less than 1 minute) in the sensing operation would not result in large errors in observed particle aggregations and thus color changes.
Example 4
Sensitivity and Selectivity of the Sensor
Thirty minutes was chosen for the assay time to determine the sensitivity and selectivity of the sensor, this time was chosen to balance both the speed and the sensitivity of the sensor. FIG. 8 shows adenosine-dependent color changes; the spectra were obtained using a Hewlett-Packard 8453 spectrophotometer. Under these condition used, the sensitivity of the adenosine biosensor is 100 μM to 1 mM. Because the assay is kinetically-based, the detection range can be shifted by using different assay times.
To determine selectivity of the aptazyme-gold particle sensor, 5 mM uridine, cytosine or guanosine were used in the assay. Under these circumstances, only background signal was observed. The color difference can be conveniently monitored by spotting the resulting particles onto TLC plates. In this experiment, color progression was from blue to purple to red, corresponding to increasing adenosine concentrations. However, assays using 5 mM of gaunosine, cytidine or uridine show only blue color, the same as assays without any nucleosides added.
REFERENCES
(References for Table 3B are Found Below)


    Allara D, Nuzzo R. (1985) Spontaneously organized molecular assemblies. 1. Formation, dynamics and physical properties of n-alkanoic acids adsorbed from solution on an oxidized aluminum surface. Langmuir 1: 45-52.
    Beebe T, Rabke-Clemmer C, (1995) Thiol labeling of DNA for attachment to gold surfaces. U.S. Pat. No. 5,472,881 USA.
    Biroccio A, Hamm J, Incitti I, De Francesco R, Tomei L. (2002) Selection of RNA aptamers that are specific and high-affinity ligands of the hepatitis C virus RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. J Virol 76: 3688-3696.
    Breaker R R, Joyce G F, Breaker R R, Joyce G F. (1995) A DNA enzyme with Mg(2+)-dependent RNA phosphoesterase activity.; A DNA enzyme that cleaves RNA. Chem Biol; Chem Biol 2; 1: 223-229.
    Breaker R R, Joyce G F. (1994) A DNA enzyme that cleaves RNA. Chem Biol 1: 223-229.
    Breaker R R. (2002) Engineered allosteric ribozymes as biosensor components. Curr Opin Biotechnol 13: 31-39.
    Brody E N, Gold L. (2000) Aptamers as therapeutic and diagnostic agents. J Biotechnol 74: 5-13.
    Brown A, Pavot C, Li J, Lu Y. A lead-dependent DNAzyme with a two-step mechanism. submitted.
    Bruno J G, Kiel J L. (1999) In vitro selection of DNA aptamers to anthrax spores with electrochemiluminescence detection. Biosens Bioelectron 14: 457-464.
    Bruno J G, Kiel J L. (2002) Use of magnetic beads in selection and detection of biotoxin aptamers by electrochemiluminescence and enzymatic methods. Biotechniques 32: 178-80, 182-3.
    Cadwell R C, Joyce G F. (1992) Randomization of genes by PCR mutagenesis. PCR Methods Appl 2: 28-33.
    Cadwell R C, Joyce G F. (1994) Mutagenic PCR. PCR Methods Appl 3: S136-40.
    Cao Y, Jin R, Mirkin C A. (2001) DNA-modified core-shell Ag/Au particles. J Am Chem Soc 123: 7961-7962.
    Carmi N, Shultz L A, Breaker R R. (1996) In vitro selection of self-cleaving DNAs. Chem Biol 3: 1039-1046.
    Chaloin L, Lehmann M J, Sczakiel G, Restle T. (2002) Endogenous expression of a high-affinity pseudoknot RNA aptamer suppresses replication of HIV-1. Nucleic Acids Res 30: 4001-4008.
    Chapman K B, Szostak J W. (1994) In vitro selection of catalytic RNAs. Curr Opin Struct Biol 4: 618-622.
    Ciesiolka J, Gorski J, Yarus M. (1995) Selection of an RNA domain that binds Zn2+. RNA 1: 538-550.
    Conaty J, Hendry P, Lockett T. (1999) Selected classes of minimised hammerhead ribozyme have very high cleavage rates at low Mg2+ concentration. Nucleic Acids Res 27: 2400-2407.
    Conn M, Prudent J, Schultz P. (1996) Porphyrin Metallation Catalyzed by a Small RNA Molecule. J Am Chem Soc 118: 7012-7013.
    Cuenoud B, Szostak J W. (1995) A DNA metalloenzyme with DNA ligase activity. Nature 375: 611-614.
    Dai X, De Mesmaeker A, Joyce G F. (1995) Cleavage of an amide bond by a ribozyme. Science 267: 237-240.
    Earnshaw, Gait. (1998) Modified oligoribonucleotides as site-specific probes of RNA structure and function. Biopolymers 48: 39-55.
    Ekland E H, Bartel D P. (1996) RNA-catalysed RNA polymerization using nucleoside triphosphates. Nature 382: 373-376.
    Ekland E H, Szostak J W, Bartel D P. (1995) Structurally complex and highly active RNA ligases derived from random RNA sequences. Science 269: 364-370.
    Ellington A D, Szostak J W. (1990) In vitro selection of RNA molecules that bind specific ligands. Nature 346: 818-822.
    Faulhammer D, Famulok M. (1997) Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 35: 2837-2841.
    Geyer C R, Sen D. (1997) Evidence for the metal-cofactor independence of an RNA phosphodiester-cleaving DNA enzyme. Chem Biol 4: 579-593.
    Grabar K, Freeman R, Hommer M, Natan M. (1995) Preparation and characterization of Au colloid Monolayers. Anal. Chem. 67: 735-743.
    Hesselberth J, Robertson M P, Jhaveri S, Ellington A D. (2000) In vitro selection of nucleic acids for diagnostic applications. J Biotechnol 74: 15-25.
    Hofmann H P, Limmer S, Hornung V, Sprinzl M. (1997) Ni2+-binding RNA motifs with an asymmetric purine-rich internal loop and a G-A base pair. RNA 3: 1289-1300.
    Huizenga D E, Szostak J W. (1995) A DNA aptamer that binds adenosine and ATP. Biochemistry 34: 656-665.
    Iler R. (1979) Chapter 6. In: anonymous (eds) The chemistry of silica. Wiley, N.Y.
    Illangasekare M, Yarus M. (1997) Small-molecule-substrate interactions with a self-aminoacylating ribozyme. J Mol Biol 268: 631-639.
    Jayasena S D. (1999) Aptamers: an emerging class of molecules that rival antibodies in diagnostics. Clin Chem 45: 1628-1650.
    Jhaveri S, Kirby R, Conrad R, Maglott E, Bowser M, Kennedy R, Glick G, Ellington A. (2000) Designed signaling aptamers that transduce molecular recognition to changes in fluorescence intensity. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 122: 2469-2473.
    Jhaveri S, Rajendran M, Ellington A D. (2000) In vitro selection of signaling aptamers. Nat Biotechnol 18: 1293-1297.
    Joyce G F. (1994) In vitro evolution of nucleic acids. Curr Opin Struct Biol 4: 331-336.
    Kiga D, Futamura Y, Sakamoto K, Yokoyama S. (1998) An RNA aptamer to the xanthine/guanine base with a distinctive mode of purine recognition. Nucleic Acids Res 26: 1755-1760.
    Lauhon C T, Szostak J W. (1995) RNA aptamers that bind flavin and nicotinamide redox cofactors. J Am Chem Soc 117: 1246-1257.
    Li J, Lu Y. (2000) A highly sensitive and selective catalytic DNA biosensor for lead ions. J Am Chem Soc 122: 10466-10467.
    Li J, Zheng W, Kwon A H, Lu Y. (2000) In vitro selection and characterization of a highly efficient Zn(II)-dependent RNA-cleaving deoxyribozyme. Nucleic Acids Res 28: 481-488.
    Li Y, Breaker R R. (1999) Phosphorylating DNA with DNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96: 2746-2751.
    Li Y, Sen D. (1996) A catalytic DNA for porphyrin metallation. Nat Struct Biol 3: 743-7.
    Link S, Wang Z, El-Sayed M. (1999) Alloy formation of gold-silver particles and the dependence of the plasmon absorption on their compositions. J Phys Chem B 103: 3529-3533.
    Lohse P A, Szostak J W. (1996) Ribozyme-catalysed amino-acid transfer reactions. Nature 381: 442-444.
    Lorsch J R, Szostak J W. (1994) In vitro evolution of new ribozymes with polynucleotide kinase activity. Nature 371: 31-36.
    Lu Y, Liu J, SIMPLE CATALYTIC DNA BIOSENSORS FOR IONS BASED ON COLOR CHANGES, application Ser. No. 09/605,558, USA.
    Lu Y. (2002) New transition-metal-dependent DNAzymes as efficient endonucleases and as selective metal biosensors. Chemistry 8: 4589-4596
    Maoz R, Sagiv J. (1987) Penetration-controlled reactions in organized monolayer assemblies. 1. Aqueous permanganate interaction with monolayer and multilayer films of long-chain surfactants. Langmuir 3: 1034-1044.
    Mirkin C A, Letsinger R L, Mucic R C, Storhoff J J. (1996) A DNA-based method for rationally assembling particles into macroscopic materials. Nature 382: 607-609.
    Mirkin, C. A., Letsinger, L. R, Mucic, C. R, Storhoff, J. J, Elghanian R, (2002) Particles having polynucleotides attached thereto and uses therefor. U.S. Pat. No. 6,361,944 USA.
    Mucic R, Herrlein M, Mirkin, C. A., Letsinger R. (1996) Synthesis and characterization of DNA with ferrocenyl groups attached to their 5′-termini: Electrochemical characterization of a redox-active nucleotide monolayer. Chem. Commun. 555.
    Nuzzo R, Fusco F, Allara D. (1987) Spontaneously organized molecular assemblies, 3. Preparation and properties of solution adsorbed monolayers of organic disulfides on gold surfaces. J Am Chem Soc 109: 2358.
    Piccirilli J A, McConnell T S, Zaug A J, Noller H F, Cech T R. (1992) Aminoacyl esterase activity of the Tetrahymena ribozyme. Science 256: 1420-1424.
    Prudent J R, Uno T, Schultz P G. (1994) Expanding the scope of RNA catalysis. Science 264: 1924-1927.
    Rakow N A, Suslick K S. (2000) A colorimetric sensor array for odour visualization. Nature 406: 710-713.
    Robertson M P, Ellington A D. (1999) In vitro selection of an allosteric ribozyme that transduces analytes to amplicons. Nat Biotechnol 17: 62-66.
    Roth A, Breaker R R. (1998) An amino acid as a cofactor for a catalytic polynucleotide. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95: 6027-6031.
    Rusconi C P, Scardino E, Layzer J, Pitoc G A, Ortel T L, Monroe D, Sullenger B A. (2002) RNA aptamers as reversible antagonists of coagulation factor IXa. Nature 419: 90-94.
    Santoro S W, Joyce G F. (1997) A general purpose RNA-cleaving DNA enzyme. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94: 4262-4266.
    Seetharaman S, Zivarts M, Sudarsan N, Breaker R R. (2001) Immobilized RNA switches for the analysis of complex chemical and biological mixtures. Nat Biotechnol 19: 336-341.
    Shaiu W L, Larson D D, Vesenka J, Henderson E. (1993) Atomic force microscopy of oriented linear DNA molecules labeled with 5 nm gold spheres. Nucleic Acids Res 21: 99-103.
    Sillén L G, (1964) Stability constants of metal-ion complexes. Edition: 2d ed.
    Smith J, Olson D, Armitage B. (1999) Molecular recognition of PNA-containing hybrids: Spontaneous assembly of helical cyanine dye aggregates on PNA templates. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 121: 2686-2695.
    Soriaga M, Hubbard A. (1982) Determination of the orientation of aromatic molecules adsorbed on platinum electrodes: The influence of solute concentration. J Am Chem Soc 104.
    Soukup G A, Breaker R R. (2000) Allosteric nucleic acid catalysts. Curr Opin Struct Biol 10: 318-325.
    Stojanovic M N, Landry D W. (2002) Aptamer-based calorimetric probe for cocaine. J Am Chem Soc 124: 9678-9679.
    Storhoff J, Elghanian R, Mucic R, Mirkin C, Letsinger R L. (1998) One-pot colorimetric differentiation of polynucleotides with single base imperfections using gold particle probes. J Am Chem Soc 120: 1959-1964.
    Tang J, Breaker R R. (1997) Rational design of allosteric ribozymes. Chem Biol 4: 453-459.
    Tang J, Breaker R R. (2000) Structural diversity of self-cleaving ribozymes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97: 5784-5789.
    Tarasow T M, Tarasow S L, Eaton B E. (1997) RNA-catalysed carbon-carbon bond formation. Nature 389: 54-57.
    Timmons, Zisman. (1965) J. Phys. Chem. 69: 984-990.
    Tompkins H, Allara D. (1974) The study of the gas-solid interaction of acetic acid with a cuprous oxide surface using reflection-absorption spectroscopy. J. Colloid and Interface Sci. 49410.
    Tsang J, Joyce G F. (1996) In vitro evolution of randomized ribozymes. Methods Enzymol 267: 410-426.
    Tuerk C, Gold L. (1990) Systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment: RNA ligands to bacteriophage T4 DNA polymerase. Science 249: 505-510.
    Vaish N K, Heaton P A, Fedorova O, Eckstein F. (1998) In vitro selection of a purine nucleotide-specific hammerheadlike ribozyme. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95: 2158-2162.
    Wallace S T, Schroeder R. (1998) In vitro selection and characterization of streptomycin-binding RNAs: recognition discrimination between antibiotics. RNA 4: 112-123.
    Wallis M G, Streicher B, Wank H, von Ahsen U, Clodi E, Wallace S T, Famulok M, Schroeder R. (1997) In vitro selection of a viomycin-binding RNA pseudoknot. Chem Biol 4: 357-366.
    Wang D Y, Lai B H, Sen D. (2002) A general strategy for effector-mediated control of RNA-cleaving ribozymes and DNA enzymes. J Mol Biol 318: 33-43.
    Wecker M, Smith D, Gold L. (1996) In vitro selection of a novel catalytic RNA: characterization of a sulfur alkylation reaction and interaction with a small peptide. RNA 2: 982-994.
    Whitesides, (1995) Proceedings of the Robert A. Welch Foundation 39th Conference On Chemical Research Nanophase Chemistry., Houston, Tex.
    Wiegand T W, Janssen R C, Eaton B E. (1997) Selection of RNA amide synthases. Chem Biol 4: 675-683.
    Wilson C, Szostak J W. (1995) In vitro evolution of a self-alkylating ribozyme. Nature 374: 777-782.
    Wilson D S, Szostak J W. (1999) In vitro selection of functional nucleic acids. Annu Rev Biochem 68: 611-647.
    Zhang B, Cech T R. (1997) Peptide bond formation by in vitro selected ribozymes. Nature 390: 96-100.
    Zillmann M, Limauro S E, Goodchild J. (1997) In vitro optimization of truncated stem-loop II variants of the hammerhead ribozyme for cleavage in low concentrations of magnesium under non-turnover conditions. RNA 3: 734-747.


REFERENCES for Table 3B


    1. Ellington, A. D. & Conrad, R. (1995). Aptamers as potential nucleic acid pharmaceuticals. Biotechnol. Annu. Rev. 1: 185-214.
    2. Jayasena, S. D. (1999). Aptamers: an emerging class of molecules that rival antibodies in diagnostics. Clin. Chem. (Washington, D.C.) 45: 1628-50.
    3. Sun, L. Q., Cairns, M. J., Saravolac, E. G., Baker, A. & Gerlach, W. L. (2000). Catalytic nucleic acids: From lab to applications. Pharmacol. Rev. 52: 325-47.
    4. Hesselberth, J., Robertson, M. P., Jhaveri, S. & Ellington, A. D. (2000). In vitro selection of nucleic acids for diagnostic applications. Rev. Mol. Biotechnol. 74: 15-25.
    5. Joyce, G. F. (1999). Reactions Catalyzed by RNA and DNA Enzymes. In The RNA World, vol. 37 (Gesteland, R. F., Cech, T. R. & Atkins, J. F., ed.), pp. 687-9, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.
    6. Breaker, R. R. (1997). DNA enzymes. Nat. Biotechnol. 15: 427-31.
    7. Sen, D. & Geyer, C. R. (1998). DNA enzymes. Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol. 2: 680-7.
    8. Breaker, R. R. (1999). Catalytic DNA: in training and seeking employment. Nat. Biotechnol. 17: 422-3.
    9. Breaker, R. R. (2000). Making catalytic DNAs. Science (Washington, D.C.) 290: 2095-6.
    10. Derose, V. J. (2002). Two Decades of RNA Catalysis. Chemistry & Biology 9: 961-9.
    11. Ellington, A. D. & Szostak, J. W. (1990). In vitro selection of RNA molecules that bind specific ligands. Nature (London) 346: 818-22.
    12. Ellington, A. D. & Szostak, J. W. (1992). Selection in vitro of single-stranded DNA molecules that fold into specific ligand-binding structures. Nature (London) 355: 850-2.
    13. Santoro, S. W. & Joyce, G. F. (1997). A general purpose RNA-cleaving DNA enzyme. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 94: 4262-6.
    14. Faulhammer, D. & Famulok, M. (1996). The Ca2+ ion as a cofactor for a novel RNA-cleaving deoxyribozyme. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 35: 2837-41.
    15. Li, J., Zheng, W., Kwon, A. H. & Lu, Y. (2000). In vitro selection and characterization of a highly efficient Zn(II)-dependent RNA-cleaving deoxyribozyme. Nucleic Acids Res. 28: 481-8.
    16. Jenison, R. D., Gill, S. C., Pardi, A. & Polisky, B. (1994). High-resolution molecular discrimination by RNA. Science (Washington, DC, United States) 263: 1425-9.
    17. Santoro, S. W. & Joyce, G. F. (1998). Mechanism and utility of an RNA-cleaving DNA enzyme. Biochemistry 37: 13330-42.
    18. Mannironi, C., Di Nardo, A., Fruscoloni, P. & Tocchini-Valentini, G. P. (1997). In vitro selection of dopamine RNA ligands. Biochemistry 36: 9726-34.
    19. Sigurdsson, S. T., Thomson, J. B. & Eckstein, F. (1998). Small ribozymes. Cold Spring Harbor Monogr. Ser. 35: 339-76.
    20. Stage-Zimmermann, T. K. & Uhlenbeck, O. C. (1998). Hammerhead ribozyme kinetics. RNA 4: 875-89.
    21. Werstuck, G. & Green, M. R. (1998). Controlling gene expression in living cells through small molecule-RNA interactions. Science (Washington, D. C.) 282: 296-8.
    22. Walter, N. G. & Burke, J. M. (1998). The hairpin ribozyme: structure, assembly and catalysis. Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol. 2: 24-30.
    23. Holeman, L. A., Robinson, S. L., Szostak, J. W. & Wilson, C. (1998). Isolation and characterization of fluorophore-binding RNA aptamers. Folding Des. 3: 423-31.
    24. Wilson, C. & Szostak, J. W. (1998). Isolation of a fluorophore-specific DNA aptamer with weak redox activity. Chem. Biol. 5: 609-17.
    25. Pan, T. & Uhlenbeck, O. C. (1992). A small metalloribozyme with a two-step mechanism. Nature 358: 560-3.
    26. Yang, Q., Goldstein, I. J., Mei, H.-Y. & Engelke, D. R. (1998). DNA ligands that bind tightly and selectively to cellobiose. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 95: 5462-7.
    27. Been, M. D. & Wickham, G. S. (1997). Self-cleaving ribozymes of hepatitis delta virus RNA. Eur. J. Biochem. 247: 741-53.
    28. Tanner, N. K. (1998). Biochemistry of hepatitis delta virus catalytic RNAs. Ribozymes Gene Ther. Cancer: 23-38.
    29. Famulok, M. & Szostak, J. W. (1992). Stereospecific recognition of tryptophan agarose by in vitro selected RNA. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 114: 3990-1.
    30. Cech, T. R. (1993). Structure and mechanism of the large catalytic RNAs: group I and group II introns and ribonuclease P. In The RNA World (Gesteland, R. F. & Atkins, J. F., ed.), pp. 239-70, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.
    31. Cech, T. R. & Herschlag, D. (1996). Group I ribozymes: substrate recognition, catalytic strategies, and comparative mechanistic analysis. Nucleic Acids Mol. Biol. 10: 1-17.
    32. Famulok, M. (1994). Molecular Recognition of Amino Acids by RNA-Aptamers: An L-Citrulline Binding RNA Motif and Its Evolution into an L-Arginine Binder. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 116:1698-706.
    33. Geiger, A., Burgstaller, P., Von Der Eltz, H., Roeder, A. & Famulok, M. (1996). RNA aptamers that bind L-arginine with sub-micromolar dissociation constants and high enantioselectivity. Nucleic Acids Res. 24: 1029-36.
    34. Tao, J. & Frankel, A. D. (1996). Arginine-Binding RNAs Resembling TAR Identified by in Vitro Selection. Biochemistry 35: 2229-38.
    35. Connell, G. J., Illangesekare, M. & Yarus, M. (1993). Three small ribooligonucleotides with specific arginine sites. Biochemistry 32: 5497-502.
    36. Burgstaller, P., Kochoyan, M. & Famulok, M. (1995). Structural probing and damage selection of citrulline- and arginine-specific RNA aptamers identify base positions required for binding. Nucleic Acids Res. 23: 4769-76.
    37. Nolte, A., Klussmann, S., Bald, R., Erdmann, V. A. & Fuerste, J. P. (1996). Mirror-design of L-oligonucleotide ligands binding to L-arginine. Nature Biotechnology 14: 1116-9.
    38. Valadkhan, S. & Manley, J. L. (2001). Splicing-related catalysis by protein-free snRNAs. Nature (London, United Kingdom) 413: 701-7.
    39. Nissen, P., Hansen, J., Ban, N., Moore, P. B. & Steitz, T. A. (2000). The structural basis of ribosome activity in peptide bond synthesis. Science (Washington, D.C.) 289: 920-30.
    40. Harada, K. & Frankel, A. D. (1995). Identification of two novel arginine binding DNAs. EMBO J. 14: 5798-811.
    41. Carmi, N., Balkhi, H. R. & Breaker, R. R. (1998). Cleaving DNA with DNA. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 95: 2233-7.
    42. Majerfeld, I. & Yarus, M. (1994). An RNA pocket for an aliphatic hydrophobe. Nat. Struct. Biol. 1: 287-92.
    43. Cuenoud, B. & Szostak, J. W. (1995). A DNA metalloenzyme with DNA ligase activity. Nature 375: 611-4.
    44. Majerfeld, I. & Yarus, M. (1998). Isoleucine:RNA sites with associated coding sequences. Rna 4: 471-8.
    45. Li, Y. & Breaker, R. R. (1999). Phosphorylating DNA with DNA. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 96: 2746-51.
    46. Sassanfar, M. & Szostak, J. W. (1993). An RNA motif that binds ATP. Nature (London) 364: 550-3.
    47. Burgstaller, P. & Famulok, M. (1994). Isolation of RNA aptamers for biological cofactors by in vitro selection. Angew. Chem. 106: 1163-6 (See also Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl., 994, 33(10), 084-7).
    48. Burke, D. H. & Gold, L. (1997). RNA aptamers to the adenosine moiety of S-adenosyl methionine: structural inferences from variations on a theme and the reproducibility of SELEX. Nucleic Acids Res. 25: 2020-4.
    49. Huizenga, D. E. & Szostak, J. W. (1995). A DNA Aptamer That Binds Adenosine and ATP. Biochemistry 34: 656-65.
    50. Klussmann, S., Nolte, A., Bald, R., Erdmann, V. A. & Fuerste, J. P. (1996). Mirror-image RNA that binds D-adenosine. Nat. Biotechnol. 14: 1112-5.
    51. Burmeister, J., Von Kiedrowski, G. & Ellington, A. D. (1997). Cofactor-assisted self-cleavage in DNA libraries with a 3′-′5′-phosphoramidate bond. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl. 36: 1321-4.
    52. Connell, G. J. & Yarus, M. (1994). RNAs with dual specificity and dual RNAs with similar specificity. Science (Washington, D.C.) 264: 1137-41.
    53. Li, Y. & Sen, D. (1996). A catalytic DNA for porphyrin metallation. Nat. Struct. Biol. 3: 743-7.
    54. Lauhon, C. T. & Szostak, J. W. (1995). RNA aptamers that bind flavin and nicotinamide redox cofactors. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 117: 1246-57.
    55. Travascio, P., Bennet, A. J., Wang, D. Y. & Sen, D. (1999). A ribozyme and a catalytic DNA with peroxidase activity: active sites versus cofactor-binding sites. Chemistry & Biology 6: 779-87.
    56. Lorsch, J. R. & Szostak, J. W. (1994). In vitro selection of RNA aptamers specific for cyanocobalamin. Biochemistry 33: 973-82.
    57. Rink, S. M., Shen, J.-C. & Loeb, L. A. (1998). Creation of RNA molecules that recognize the oxidative lesion 7,8-dihydro-8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine (8-oxodG) in DNA. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 95: 11619-24.
    58. Haller, A. A. & Samow, P. (1997). In vitro selection of a 7-methyl-guanosine binding RNA that inhibits translation of capped mRNA molecules. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 94: 8521-6.
    59. Kiga, D., Futamura, Y., Sakamoto, K. & Yokoyama, S. (1998). An RNA aptamer to the xanthine/guanine base with a distinctive mode of purine recognition. Nucleic Acids Res. 26: 1755-60.
    60. Lato, S. M., Boles, A. R. & Ellington, A. D. (1995). In vitro selection of RNA lectins: Using combinatorial chemistry to interpret ribozyme evolution. Chem. Biol. 2: 291-303.
    61. Wang, Y., Killian, J., Hamasaki, K. & Rando, R. R. (1996). RNA Molecules That Specifically and Stoichiometrically Bind Aminoglycoside Antibiotics with High Affinities. Biochemistry 35: 12338-46.
    62. Wallis, M. G., Von Ahsen, U., Schroeder, R. & Famulok, M. (1995). A novel RNA motif for neomycin recognition. Chem. Biol. 2: 543-52.
    63. Famulok, M. & Huettenhofer, A. (1996). In Vitro Selection Analysis of Neomycin Binding RNAs with a Mutagenized Pool of Variants of the 16S rRNA Decoding Region. Biochemistry 35: 4265-70.
    64. Wallis, M. G., Streicher, B., Wank, H., Von Ahsen, U., Clodi, E., Wallace, S. T., Famulok, M. & Schroeder, R. (1997). In vitro selection of a viomycin-binding RNA pseudoknot. Chem. Biol. 4: 357-66.
    65. Burke, D. H., Hoffman, D. C., Brown, A., Hansen, M., Pardi, A. & Gold, L. (1997). RNA aptamers to the peptidyl transferase inhibitor chloramphenicol. Chem. Biol. 4: 833-43.
    66. Wallace, S. T. & Schroeder, R. (1998). In vitro selection and characterization of streptomycin-binding RNAs: recognition discrimination between antibiotics. Rna 4: 112-23.
    67. Giver, L., Bartel, D. P., Zapp, M. L., Green, M. R. & Ellington, A. D. (1993). Selection and design of high-affinity RNA ligands for HIV-1 Rev. Gene 137: 19-24.
    68. Giver, L., Bartel, D., Zapp, M., Pawul, A., Green, M. & Ellington, A. D. (1993). Selective optimization of the Rev-binding element of HIV-1. Nucleic Acids Res. 21: 5509-16.
    69. Williams, K. P., Liu, X.-H., Schumacher, T. N. M., Lin, H. Y., Ausiello, D. A., Kim, P. S. & Bartel, D. P. (1997). Bioactive and nuclease-resistant L-DNA ligand of vasopressin. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 94: 11285-90.
    70. Zimmerman, J. M. & Maher, L. J., Iii (2002). In vivo selection of spectinomycin-binding RNAs. Nucleic Acids Res. 30: 5425-35.
    71. Vianini, E., Palumbo, M. & Gatto, B. (2001). In vitro selection of DNA aptamers that bind L-tyrosinamide. Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry 9: 2543-8.
    72. Andreola, M.-L., Pileur, F., Calmels, C., Ventura, M., Tarrago-Litvak, L., Toulme, J.-J. & Litvak, S. (2001). DNA aptamers selected against the HIV-1 RNase H display in vitro antiviral activity. Biochemistry 40: 10087-94.
    73. Fukusaki, E.-I., Kato, T., Maeda, H., Kawazoe, N., Ito, Y., Okazawa, A., Kajiyama, S.-I. & Kobayashi, A. (2000). DNA aptamers that bind to chitin. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 10: 423-5.
    74. Bock, L. C., Griffin, L. C., Latham, J. A., Verrnaas, E. H. & Toole, J. J. (1992). Selection of single-stranded DNA molecules that bind and inhibit human thrombin. Nature (London) 355: 564-6.
    75. Koizumi, M. & Breaker, R. R. (2000). Molecular Recognition of cAMP by an RNA Aptamer. Biochemistry 39: 8983-92.
    76. Kato, T., Takemura, T., Yano, K., Ikebukuro, K. & Karube, I. (2000). In vitro selection of DNA aptamers which bind to cholic acid. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1493: 12-8.
    77. Okazawa, A., Maeda, H., Fukusaki, E., Katakura, Y. & Kobayashi, A. (2000). In vitro selection of hematoporphyrin binding DNA aptamers. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 10: 2653-6.
    78. Kawakami, J., Imanaka, H., Yokota, Y. & Sugimoto, N. (2000). In vitro selection of aptamers that act with Zn2+. J. Inorg. Biochem. 82: 197-206.
    79. Bruno, J. G. & Kiel, J. L. (1999). In vitro selection of DNA aptamers to anthrax spores with electrochemiluminescence detection. Biosensors & Bioelectronics 14: 457-64.

## Claims

1. A sensor system for detecting an effector, comprising:
(i) an aggregate, wherein the aggregate comprises a plurality of complexes wherein each complex comprises:
(I) an aptazyme, comprising an aptamer comprising a binding site for the effector,
(II) a substrate for the aptazyme, hybridized to the aptazyme,
(III) particles,
(IV) polynucleotides attached to the particles at the 5′ terminus or 3′ terminus and hybridized to the substrate,

wherein the aptazyme cleaves the substrate when the aptamer binds the effector and cleavage of the substrate results in deaggregation of the aggregate.

2. A sensor system for detecting an effector, comprising:
(i) an aggregate, wherein the aggregate comprises a plurality of complexes wherein each complex comprises:
(I) an aptazyme, comprising an aptamer comprising a binding site for the effector,
(II) a substrate for the aptazyme, hybridized to the aptazyme,
(III) gold particles,
(IV) polynucleotides attached to the particles at the 5′-terminus or 3′-terminus, and hybridized to the substrate, and

(ii) Mg(II),
wherein the aptazyme comprises DNA,
the aptazyme cleaves the substrate when the aptamer binds the effector and cleavage of the substrate results in deaggregation of the aggregate.

3. A sensor system for detecting an effector, comprising:
(i) an aggregate, wherein the aggregate comprises a plurality of complexes wherein each complex comprises:
(I) an aptazyme, comprising an aptamer comprising a binding site for the effector,
(II) a substrate for the aptazyme, hybridized to the aptazyme,
(III) first particles,
(IV) first polynucleotides attached to the first particles at the 5′-terminus or 3′-terminus and hybridized to the substrate;
(V) second particles,
(VI) second polynucleotides attached to the second particles at the 5′-terminus or 3′-terminus and hybridized to the substrate,

wherein the aptazyme cleaves the substrate when the aptamer binds the effector and cleavage of the substrate results in deaggregation of the aggregate.

4. The sensor system of claim 1, wherein the aptazyme comprises DNA.

5. The sensor system of claim 1, wherein the effector is adenosine.

6. The sensor system of claim 1, wherein the particles comprise gold particles.

7. The sensor system of claim 1, wherein the particles comprise a material selected from the group consisting of metal colloids, semiconductor colloids and polystyrene latex particles.

8. The sensor system of claim 2, further comprising Pb(II).

9. The sensor system of claim 3, wherein the aptazyme comprises DNA.

10. The sensor system of claim 3, wherein the effector is adenosine.

11. The sensor system of claim 3, wherein the first and second particles comprise gold particles.

12. The sensor system of claim 3, wherein the first and second particles comprise a material selected from the group consisting of metal colloids, semiconductor colloids and polystyrene latex particles.

13. The sensor system of claim 3, wherein the first and second polynucleotides have identical sequences.

14. The sensor system of claim 3, wherein the first and second polynucleotides have different sequences.

15. The sensor system of claim 1, wherein the effector activates the aptazyme.

16. The sensor system of claim 1, wherein the effector inhibits the aptazyme.

17. The sensor system of claim 2, wherein the effector activates the aptazyme.

18. The sensor system of claim 2, wherein the effector inhibits the aptazyme.

19. The sensor system of claim 3, wherein the effector activates the aptazyme.

20. The sensor system of claim 3, wherein the effector inhibits the aptazyme.