# Post Employment Lobbying Restrictions (2015)

**

----

| Section 103 of HLOGA requires the Secretary of the Senate to notify Members and certain employees separating from the                             Senate about their post-employment lobbying contacts with the Senate and to post information contained in the notice on the Internet. |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
|                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |
| The table below reflects the names of those individuals who have separated from the Senate, the office in which they were employed,                             the beginning date of restriction, and the end date of restriction.                                                     |
|                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |
| Updated twice a month (every pay period).                                                XML                                                                                                                                                                                  |
|                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |
|    NAME   OFFICE   RESTRICTION PERIODStart DateEnd DateAbou-El-Seoud, Hanna AGRICULTURE,NUTR&FOR03/07/201503/06/2016Adamo, Christopher JAGRICULTURE,NUTR&FOR07/06/201507/05/2016Adamson, Daniel MENERGY&NAT RESOURCES04/20/201504/19/2016Aden-Wansbury, Casey SENATOR FRANKEN07/10/201507/09/2016Ahlberg, Brian RSENATOR HARKIN01/03/201501/02/2016Albee, Luke SSENATOR WARNER (M)03/01/201502/28/2016Ashbrook, John AMAJORITY LEADER02/14/201502/13/2016Ashdown, Neil HSENATOR LEE03/20/201503/19/2016Bacak, Brooke JSENATOR CRUZ08/01/201507/31/2016Barinbaum, Rachel SENATOR BEGICH03/03/201503/02/2016Baumann, Rose MSENATOR KLOBUCHAR05/04/201505/03/2016Bayer, Mark DSENATOR MARKEY07/02/201507/01/2016Bean, Elise JHS & GA 03/10/201503/09/2016Beckner, Andrew JSENATOR ROCKEFELLER (WV)01/03/201501/02/2016Begich, Mark PSENATOR BEGICH01/03/201501/02/2017Bennett, Michael EugeneSENATOR SCOTT04/01/201503/31/2016Bentzel, Suzanne MSENATOR ROCKEFELLER (WV)01/03/201501/02/2016Boes, Eldon CSENATOR HARKIN01/03/201501/02/2016Bombach, Brent JHS & GA11/01/201510/31/2016Bonsell, John ASENATOR INHOFE07/06/201507/05/2016Boysen, Sharon SSENATOR JOHNSON01/03/201501/02/2016Bremberg, Andrew MAJORITY LEADER05/23/201505/22/2016Britton, Joseph RSENATOR UDALL (CO)03/03/201503/02/2016Brosseau, Alex JCOMM ON THE BUDGET01/02/201501/01/2016Brunner, Mark RSENATOR WARNER (M)04/16/201504/15/2016Burita, Jennifer SSPECIAL COMM ON AGING REP11/01/201510/31/2016Burks, Jonathan WMAJORITY LEADER CONSULTANTS(R)12/04/201512/03/2016Burnham-Snyder, Eben WSENATOR MARKEY05/09/201505/08/2016Burrell, Janet LHS & GA GEN INV07/01/201506/30/2016Caravelli, Margaret EENVIRONMENT&PUBLIC WKS03/10/201503/09/2016Carpenter, Cherri JSENATOR JOHANNS01/03/201501/02/2016Carson, April RJUDICIARY05/01/201504/30/2016Cernojevich, Susannah LouiseSENATOR HARKIN01/03/201501/02/2016Cewe, John DARMED SERVICES05/07/201505/06/2016Chambliss, Saxby SENATOR CHAMBLISS01/03/201501/02/2017Clark, Samuel JSENATOR KLOBUCHAR04/13/201504/12/2016Coburn, Tom ASENATOR COBURN (OK)01/03/201501/02/2017Cockrell, Roger KCOMMITTEE ON APPROPRIATIONS03/09/201503/08/2016Coker, Seth MSENATOR CHAMBLISS01/03/201501/02/2016Coleman, Russell MSENATOR MCCONNELL02/14/201502/13/2016Compton, Caryn ESENATOR SANDERS12/12/201512/11/2016Conklin, Meghan MENERGY&NAT RESOURCES01/03/201501/02/2016Connolly, Harold JFOREIGN RELATIONS06/20/201506/19/2016Cordone, Jonathan JAGRICULTURE,NUTR&FOR10/04/201510/03/2016Craddock, Elizabeth LENERGY&NAT RESOURCES04/03/201504/02/2016Craig, Thomas LCOMMITTEE ON APPROPRIATIONS01/31/201501/30/2016Cravins, Donald RSENATOR LANDRIEU01/05/201501/04/2016Dale, Elizabeth ASENATOR PERDUE05/16/201505/15/2016Danielson, Jack HSENATOR LEVIN01/03/201501/02/2016Darling, Brian HSENATOR PAUL02/21/201502/20/2016Davidson, Kathryn MSENATOR HAGAN03/03/201503/02/2016Dean, Gregory JCOMM ON THE BUDGET06/16/201506/15/2016Derr, Sallie ENERGY&NAT RESOURCES04/03/201504/02/2016Disanto, Diane MSENATOR BEGICH03/03/201503/02/2016Ditraglia, Elena CSENATOR CASEY08/03/201508/02/2016Dockham, Andrew CHS & GA GEN INV01/03/201501/02/2016Doehl, Robert ASENATOR BEGICH03/03/201503/02/2016Drogin, John NSENATOR CRUZ04/16/201504/15/2016Dwyer, Sheila MSENATOR KLOBUCHAR08/25/201508/24/2016Edelman, Kathryn MARMED SERVICES07/13/201507/12/2016Eden, Ashley RHELP-CHILD&FAMILY 81D04/27/201504/26/2016Edwards, Amy BCOMM ON THE BUDGET02/23/201502/22/2016Erickson, Agatha ISENATOR BEGICH03/03/201503/02/2016Ervin, Teresa MSENATOR CHAMBLISS01/03/201501/02/2016Feather, Paul ESENATOR SULLIVAN11/04/201511/03/2016Felling, Matthew TSENATOR MURKOWSKI (L)10/10/201510/09/2016Fieldhouse, Richard ARMED SERVICES05/01/201504/30/2016Fiermonte, Frank PSENATOR SANDERS05/16/201505/15/2016Fitzpatrick, Sean RSENATOR ROBERTS03/27/201503/26/2016Fleet, James PSENATOR CANTWELL07/02/201507/01/2016Fossum, John DSENATOR UDALL (CO)03/03/201503/02/2016Gallagher, Michael JFOREIGN RELATIONS03/02/201503/01/2016Gesser, Herman JENERGY&NAT RESOURCES05/01/201504/30/2016Gillespie, Veronica MRULES & ADMINISTRATION 81D01/01/201512/31/2015Glaser, Ahaviah DianeSENATOR ROCKEFELLER (WV)01/03/201501/02/2016Goco, Lorenzo VSEL COMM ON INTELL01/31/201501/30/2016Goodwin, Rochelle ASENATOR ROCKEFELLER (WV)01/03/201501/02/2016Gray, John WSENATOR PAUL03/24/201503/23/2016Green, Susanne LynnSENATOR BEGICH03/03/201503/02/2016Hagan, Kay RSENATOR HAGAN01/03/201501/02/2017Hallett, Adrienne ACOMMITTEE ON APPROPRIATIONS05/04/201505/03/2016Halverson, Mark BSENATOR HARKIN01/03/201501/02/2016Hammer, Daniel LSENATOR BOXER03/05/201503/04/2016Harkin, Tom SENATOR HARKIN (IA)01/03/201501/02/2017Harney, John MSENATOR HAGAN01/05/201501/04/2016Haro, Steven MSENATOR HEINRICH08/10/201508/09/2016Hawks, Thomas AllenAGRICULTURE,NUTR&FOR02/07/201502/06/2016Hiestand, Robyn DCOMM ON THE BUDGET07/25/201507/24/2016Hock, Ambrose RARMED SERVICES03/30/201503/29/2016Holcomb, Eric JSENATOR COATS03/25/201503/24/2016Holden, Wesley WSENATOR ROCKEFELLER (WV)01/03/201501/02/2016Holland, Caroline NJUDIC01/07/201501/06/2016Hoover, Sonja RSENATOR HARKIN01/03/201501/02/2016Hybl, Michael GSENATOR FISCHER01/10/201501/09/2016Jaffer, Jamil NFOREIGN RELATIONS06/16/201506/15/2016James, Virginia ACOMMITTEE ON APPROPRIATIONS01/16/201501/15/2016Johanns, Michael OSENATOR JOHANNS01/03/201501/02/2017Johnson, Tim SENATOR JOHNSON (SD)01/03/201501/02/2017Johnson, Jennifer JoSENATOR HAGAN03/03/201503/02/2016Johnson, Michael FSENATOR BEGICH03/03/201503/02/2016Jones, Eric WSENATOR HARKIN01/03/201501/02/2016Jones, Daniel JSEL COMM ON INTELL12/05/201512/04/2016Katz, David HHS & GA 01/05/201501/04/2016Keefe, Maura LSENATOR SHAHEEN11/02/201511/01/2016Keith, T BradleySENATOR LANDRIEU03/03/201503/02/2016Kelley, Elizabeth MSENATOR WALSH01/03/201501/02/2016Kerner, Henry JHS & GA01/06/201501/05/2016Kieffer, Charles ECOMMITTEE ON APPROPRIATIONS03/29/201503/28/2016Kim, Oliver JSPECIAL COMM ON AGING DEM03/10/201503/09/2016King, Robert WSENATOR BEGICH03/03/201503/02/2016King, Andrew NSENATOR GRAHAM (SC)04/21/201504/20/2016Kinnan, Amanda BSENATOR CRUZ07/06/201507/05/2016Knowles, Camila McleanSENATOR CHAMBLISS01/03/201501/02/2016Koch, Cathleen MMINORITY LEADER CONSULTANTS(D)02/27/201502/26/2016Kreps, Michael PHEALTH,EDUCATN,LBR&PEN D05/22/201505/21/2016Krishnamoorthy, Jenelle SHEALTH,EDUCATN,LBR&PEN D01/02/201501/01/2016Krone, David BMINORITY LEADER CONSULTANTS(D)06/19/201506/18/2016Lally, Patrick JSENATOR MARKEY06/18/201506/17/2016Landrieu, Mary LSENATOR LANDRIEU (LA)01/03/201501/02/2017Lawrynowicz, Malgorzata JSENATOR HAGAN03/03/201503/02/2016Lee, Jane KCOMMITTEE ON APPROPRIATIONS01/06/201501/05/2016Lee, Michael TBANKING,HOUSING&URB AFFS01/26/201501/25/2016Lee, Wonman SENATOR MENENDEZ03/03/201503/02/2016Lehman, Robert DSENATOR PORTMAN01/29/201501/28/2016Lehmann, Lucie M.F.SENATOR MIKULSKI11/04/201511/03/2016Levin, Carl SENATOR LEVIN (MI)01/03/201501/02/2017Levine, Peter KARMED SERVICES05/01/201504/30/2016Lips, Daniel PHS & GA GEN INV01/21/201501/20/2016Lipsey, John CFOREIGN RELATIONS08/17/201508/16/2016Losick, Eric PSEL COMM ON INTELL02/08/201502/07/2016Lyons, Derek SHS & GA05/09/201505/08/2016Madison, Kirsten DFOREIGN RELATIONS10/05/201510/04/2016Maroney, Jay ARMED SERVICES05/01/201504/30/2016Martinez, Larissa MSENATOR FISCHER02/24/201502/23/2016McBride, Bill BAGRICULTURE,NUTR&FOR04/04/201504/03/2016McBride, Ryan PSENATOR HELLER05/09/201505/08/2016McLaughlin, Daniel ESENATOR NELSON (FL)12/31/201512/30/2016Mellody, April KSENATOR CASEY06/15/201506/14/2016Mendelson, Joseph ENVIRONMENT&PUBLIC WKS07/18/201507/17/2016Mersinger, Summer KCOMMERCE,SCIENCE&TRAN01/01/201512/31/2015Midgett, Melissa LSENATOR HAGAN03/03/201503/02/2016Mitchell, Megan McginnSENATOR CORNYN06/08/201506/07/2016Mitchell, Peter JSENATOR NELSON (FL)11/03/201511/02/2016Moore, Terri MarieSENATOR JOHANNS01/03/201501/02/2016Moore, Kristina MENVIRONMENT&PUBLIC WKS03/10/201503/09/2016Moore, Jocelyn MCOMM ON FINANCE 08/31/201508/30/2016Morris, Dena SSENATOR DURBIN09/20/201509/19/2016Morris, Vincent COMM ON THE BUDGET09/17/201509/16/2016Moyer, Thomas ESENATOR BEGICH03/03/201503/02/2016Munson, Lester EFOREIGN RELATIONS11/16/201511/15/2016Murphy, Travis JVETERANS AFFAIRS D06/22/201506/21/2016Murray, Jeffrey RSENATOR CRUZ12/03/201512/02/2016Myrick, Dorkina CSPECIAL COMM ON AGING DEM03/10/201503/09/2016Nelms, Lesley ESENATOR COTTON10/01/201509/30/2016Novey, Lawrence BHS & GA GEN INV05/07/201505/06/2016Orr, Asley LSENATOR MANCHIN01/12/201501/11/2016Otero, Mildred HEALTH,EDUCATN,LBR&PEN D04/15/201504/14/2016Pagan, Fred WSENATOR COCHRAN05/16/201505/15/2016Palmer, Mark MSENATOR DURBIN12/07/201512/06/2016Park, Jason ACOMM ON FINANCE 02/09/201502/08/2016Parker, Jacqueline BSENATOR LEVIN01/03/201501/02/2016Pavel, Mary JINDIAN AFFAIRS DEM02/02/201502/01/2016Payne-Funk, Matthew TSENATOR BAYH03/03/201503/02/2016Pearson, Cindy ARMED SERVICES05/07/201505/06/2016Perselay, Lee AHEALTH,EDUCATN,LBR&PEN D02/23/201502/22/2016Phillips, Brian SENATOR LEE03/12/201503/11/2016Phillips, Roy FARMED SERVICES03/30/201503/29/2016Pryor, Mark LSENATOR PRYOR01/03/201501/02/2017Pryor, Rachel CeliaSPECIAL COMM ON AGING DEM02/12/201502/11/2016Quinter, Neil FJUDICIARY - FEINSTEIN 05/01/201504/30/2016Ramseur, David SSENATOR BEGICH03/03/201503/02/2016Ranalli, Betsy DSENATOR CORKER03/21/201503/20/2016Reardon, Judy ESENATOR SHAHEEN02/28/201502/27/2016Reid, James MSENATOR ROCKEFELLER (WV)01/03/201501/02/2016Ridle, Leslie DSENATOR BEGICH02/04/201502/03/2016Rockefeller, John DSENATOR ROCKEFELLER (WV)01/03/201501/02/2017Rogers, Hayden ASENATOR MANCHIN06/02/201506/01/2016Rogers, Brian JSENATOR MCCAIN12/02/201512/01/2016Rokala, Jennifer KSENATOR UDALL (CO)03/03/201503/02/2016Rosenberg, Jenny TCOMMERCE,SCIENCE&TRAN03/09/201503/08/2016Ruckert, Kyle DavidSENATOR VITTER05/16/201505/15/2016Saccone, Michael SamuelSENATOR UDALL (CO)03/03/201503/02/2016Salomon, Matthew AJOINT ECONOMIC COMMITTEE06/04/201506/03/2016Samuelson, Alfred DreyfusSENATOR JOHNSON01/03/201501/02/2016Sawyer, Jared CBANKING,HOUSING&URB AFFS01/19/201501/18/2016Scandling, Bruce WSENATOR BEGICH03/03/201503/02/2016Schechter-Steinberg, Zachary HEALTH,EDUCATN,LBR&PEN D01/06/201501/05/2016Schillinger, Emily LMAJORITY POLICY COMMITTEE07/11/201507/10/2016Scholl, Brian MCOMM ON THE BUDGET05/07/201505/06/2016Schwietert, David DCOMMERCE,SCIENCE&TRAN12/30/201512/29/2016Sharp, Kristin TSENATOR PRYOR03/03/201503/02/2016Smaczniak, Kim NENVIRONMENT&PUBLIC WKS05/07/201505/06/2016Somers, Catherine ASENATOR LEVIN01/03/201501/02/2016Sozan, Michael LSENATOR UDALL (CO)02/11/201502/10/2016Spiegelman, Richard DSENATOR CASEY01/02/201501/01/2016Starr, Joel ESENATOR INHOFE05/09/201505/08/2016Stembridge, Willard SENATOR CHAMBLISS01/03/201501/02/2016Strong, Ashlee CONFERENCE OF THE MAJORITY03/07/201503/06/2016Stubbendieck, Todd JSENATOR JOHNSON01/03/201501/02/2016Sullivan, Barbara Ellen NedrSENATOR ROCKEFELLER (WV)01/03/201501/02/2016Sutey, William KARMED SERVICES05/30/201505/29/2016Swenson, Nancy KaySENATOR JOHNSON01/03/201501/02/2016Teague, James MSENATOR PRYOR03/03/201503/02/2016Teitelbaum, Lorne SEL COMM ON INTEL 10/01/201509/30/2016Terrell, Louisa MSENATOR BOOKER01/16/201501/15/2016Thoma, Schawna MSENATOR BEGICH03/03/201503/02/2016Thomasson, Russell JMAJORITY WHIP08/10/201508/09/2016Treat, Brian ESENATOR LANKFORD06/07/201506/06/2016Trowbridge, Gordon ARMED SERVICES01/09/201501/08/2016Tucker, Brooks DSENATOR BURR11/21/201511/20/2016Turner, Cory LSENATOR BAUCUS03/02/201503/01/2016Udall, Mark ESENATOR UDALL (M)01/03/201501/02/2017Vickers, Kate OvidaSENATOR CHAMBLISS01/03/201501/02/2016Voeller, Steven JSENATOR FLAKE08/24/201508/23/2016Walsh, John ESENATOR WALSH01/03/201501/02/2017Warner, Alison ASENATOR LEVIN01/03/201501/02/2016Weigel, Lucinda MSENATOR JOHNSON01/03/201501/02/2016Weiss, Elizabeth RHEALTH,EDUCATN,LBR&PEN D01/05/201501/04/2016Welsh, Kristin LCOMM ON FINANCE 08/08/201508/07/2016Whitlock, Rodney LCOMM ON FINANCE 12/19/201512/18/2016Whittington, Amber MFOREIGN RELATIONS05/07/201505/06/2016Williams, Edward CSENATOR CASEY03/01/201502/28/2016Winfree, Paul LCOMM ON THE BUDGET03/07/201503/06/2016Wink, Sue MSENATOR HAGAN03/03/201503/02/2016Wissel, Marie GVETERANS AFFAIRS R04/21/201504/20/2016Yeung, Felix SSENATOR FEINSTEIN05/09/201505/08/2016Yi, Charles CBANKING,HOUSING&URB AFFS01/19/201501/18/2016York, Andrew JSENATOR PRYOR03/03/201503/02/2016Zumwalt, Bryan DSMALL BUSINESS REP03/16/201503/15/2016 |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|

-  2014 Separation Archive 
-  2013 Separation Archive 
-  2012 Separation Archive 
-  2011 Separation Archive 
-  2010 Separation Archive 
-  2009 Separation Archive 
-  2008 Separation Archive 

 

                        The Public Disclosure index provides information about filing and researching lobby records.                     

 

        -  Bills, Acts, & Laws 
        -  Nominations 
        -  Treaties 
        -  Votes 
        -  Floor Proceedings 
        -  Rules & Procedure 
        -  Landmark Legislation 
        -  Sessions of Congress 
        -  Senate Archives 
        -  Public Disclosure