Joseph Henry and Weather Map in Castle Great Hall,

painting by Louise R. Hoover, 1933, Smithsonian 

Institution Archives

SMITHSONIAN COLLABORATIONS

Throughout its history, the Smithsonian Institution has furthered its programs and 

activities through a wide array of collaborations with a broad range of organizations 

with shared interests. These working relationships sought to help all partners 

achieve their goal by sharing resources, expertise, and collections. These 

collaborations are characterized by various degrees of formality and operate under 

several different types of agreements, such as memorandum of agreement or 

understanding, grants, contracts, legislation, and treaties. 

THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT 

In his first years as Secretary, Joseph Henry was reluctant to mix the Smithsonian’s affairs with 

that of the Federal government because he believed it would lead to political interference in 

Smithsonian activities. However, the realities of scarce resources soon led him to accept 

limited Federal assistance.

METEOROLOGICAL PROJECT

One of the first collaborations was actually 

more of a tit-for-tat agreement. In 1848, 

Secretary Joseph Henry established the 

Meteorological Project to record and analyze 

weather data for North America. One of 

Henry’s signature programs, the project 

included a wide network of volunteer 

weather data recorders who soon amassed 

more records than Henry alone could 

analyze. He turned to the U.S. Patent Office, 

which had funding for such research projects. 

The Patent Commissioner agreed to provide 

funding for data analysis, if—and it was a 

very big “IF”—Henry would agree to take the 

National Institute collections in the Patent 

 FROM THE ARCHIVES
2

Office Building for the Smithsonian’s exhibit halls. Henry’s reluctance to have the Smithsonian 

become a national museum was outweighed by his desire to analyze the data. The deal was 

struck, a major step towards making the Smithsonian the United States National Museum. By 

the 1870s, the Meteorological Project had left the Smithsonian and morphed into the National 

Weather Service.

UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

In the second half of the 19th century, several Federal agencies began to amass national 

collections: the Department of the Interior, the U.S. Fish Commission, the U.S. Department of 

Agriculture (USDA), and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), among others. The U.S. Army even 

had a physical anthropology collection. The Congress was concerned about providing funding 

for redundant collections. In supporting the Smithsonian as the National Museum from 1858 

onward, Congress encouraged the Smithsonian to establish collaborative relationships with 

other Federal agencies that would allow the agencies easy access to the national collections at 

the Smithsonian. The 1879 statute creating the USGS reinforced this concern by making the 

Smithsonian the repository for all Federal collections. Thus, researchers from USDA, USGS, and 

In 1925, entomological workers at the U.S. National Museum consisted of more curators paid by the U.S. 

Department of Agriculture than those paid by the museum, photographer unknown, Smithsonian Institution 

Archives
3

the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, among others, were named honorary 

Smithsonian curators. In a tradition that continues to this day, outside researchers can often 

spend their entire careers working in a Smithsonian facility. One of the most extensive and 

long-lasting type of collaborations has been between National Museum of Natural History 

(NMNH) entomologists and researchers from other government agencies. While NMNH 

maintains the entire collection of specimens, research conducted on these collections is divided 

between other agencies’ studies of insects with economic or medical significance (such as those 

that attack food, carry disease, or destroy clothing) and the scientific research undertaken by 

Smithsonian entomologists.

In other cases, the Smithsonian has provided unique expertise for government agencies and 

received contract money to carry out these functions. A good example was the Smithsonian 

Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) Satellite Tracking Program. In October of 1957, the Soviet 

Union launched the first satellite, Sputnik. The U.S. government was not prepared for the 

Soviets to lead the race into space and had no mechanism in place to track the small orb. 

However, SAO Director Fred L. Whipple believed the Soviets would successfully launch the first 

satellite into orbit and so was prepared. He had created a network of specialized Baker-Nunn 

cameras that could observe and record the position of any satellite above and, even before 

these cameras could be deployed, 

activated Operation Moonwatch, a 

global volunteer program where teams 

used small handheld (and often 

homemade) telescopes to track satellites. 

SAO located and began to track Sputnik

within a few hours of its launch. 

Unprepared to assume this responsibility, 

NASA awarded contract funding to SAO to 

monitor all satellite activity until 1983. The 

Satellite Tracking Program provided 

support for both basic research data 

collection and strategic monitoring of these 

new sky objects, a symbiotic relationship 

that lasted some 25 years.

CLASSIFIED RESEARCH

Some government collaborations have proved problematic. In 1962, the NMNH Division of 

Birds initiated the Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Program. With large grants from the 

Department of Defense (DOD), NMNH ornithologists and contract staff surveyed vast tracts of 

the Pacific Ocean to track bird migration patterns. It was an unprecedented collecting 

opportunity for museum ornithologists, despite some questions raised by colleagues about the 

generous funding from DOD. In 1969, a television expose aired on CBS 60 Minutes. Reporters 

noted an unusually close relationship between the project and the biological and chemical 

warfare unit at Fort Dietrich, Maryland, and demonstrated that the scientists were collecting 

avian blood samples and sending them to Fort Dietrich. They also noted the unusual and large 

number of vaccinations some of the field staff were given prior to departure. The curator in 

Filipino Boy Scouts volunteering for Operation 

Moonwatch in 1958, photographer unknown, 

Smithsonian Institution Archives
4

charge defended the program, saying the NMNH staff were simply conducting basic research. 

He soon, however, left for a university museum and the program was shut down. While it does 

not appear that NMNH staff were doing biological warfare experiments themselves, the blood 

sampling was apparently used to track germs carried by avian species that had been inoculated 

by Fort Dietrich staff. Some reports sent to Fort Dietrich were classified and senior project staff 

had security clearances. Serious discussions were subsequently held about the role of classified 

research at the Smithsonian. Although the Smithsonian traditionally had not participated in 

classified research, there had been some involvement during and after World War II. Following 

the airing of the 60 Minutes expose, Smithsonian management and staff renewed their 

commitment to the principle that, to carry out James Smithson’s open mandate for the increase 

and diffusion of knowledge, Smithsonian staff could not and would not engage in classified 

research. 

ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Other government collaborations 

have been far happier and more 

productive. From 1970 to 1978, for 

example, the Smithsonian contracted 

with the Peace Corps to assist in 

establishing the Smithsonian Peace 

Corps Environmental Program, an 

international environmental program 

to develop conservation, biological, 

and ecological projects in natural 

resource fields. Recruits were placed 

through the Smithsonian Office of 

Environmental Sciences, and often 

were trained by and worked with a 

Smithsonian curator. Typical 

projects included studies such as 

“Comoé National Park (Ivory Coast): 

An Investigation of the Ecology of 

the Northwest Region and 

Recommendations for its Future 

Development,” a report written by a Peace Corps volunteer. Today Comoé is one of the 

largest protected areas in West Africa, characterized by its great plant diversity in the Comoé 

river basin. 

ACADEMIES, ASSOCIATIONS, AND SOCIETIES

From the outset, the Smithsonian has collaborated with non-governmental societies, 

academies, and associations. For example, the first meetings of the National Academy of 

Sciences were held at the Smithsonian, with Secretary Joseph Henry serving as president. In 

January 1889, the American Historical Association (AHA) was incorporated by the U.S. Congress 

and ordered to report annually to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. AHA collections, 

A Peace Corps Environmental Program volunteer and a local 

man discuss a new pipeline designed to provide drainage for an 

agricultural project in South America, 1973, photographer 

unknown, Smithsonian Institution Archives
5

manuscripts, books, pamphlets, and other material for history were to be deposited in the 

Smithsonian Institution or United States National Museum. The first AHA report was 

transmitted to Congress in the spring of 1899. The Daughters of the American Revolution had a 

similar relationship with the Smithsonian for many years. During the early years of many 

professional societies, such as the AHA and the American Association of Museums (AAM), the 

Smithsonian provided a home and volunteer staff to support the organizations. AAM, for 

example, was housed in the Castle for several decades after its founding in 1906, and the AAM 

archives are still located in the Smithsonian Institution Archives. These collaborations provided 

support to many emerging professional organizations.

A close collaboration endures between the Smithsonian and the National Geographic Society 

(NGS) in a relationship that has been characterized as an interlocking directorate. On January 

27, 1888, the NGS was founded in Washington, D.C., for “the increase and diffusion of 

geographical knowledge”—clearly borrowing from James Smithson’s will—by a group of 

amateurs and wealthy patrons interested in exploration. The first NGS president was Gardiner 

Greene Hubbard, father-in-law of Smithsonian Regent Alexander Graham Bell. Bell, who 

eventually succeeded Hubbard in 1897, had close ties with the Smithsonian because Secretary 

Joseph Henry had served as an important mentor to him. Bell personally brought James

Smithson’s remains from Italy to the Smithsonian and provided a seed grant for the 

Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, among many other contributions and donations. The 

NGS has funded many Smithsonian expeditions and often published its field work. Smithsonian 

staff have provided expertise and served on NGS boards and review committees. Secretaries 

Alexander Wetmore and Leonard Carmichael retired to the National Geographic, as did several 

heads of Smithsonian Press and many scientists. This relationship has been long and close, 

perhaps less so today than traditionally, but the connections persist.

Some collaborations consist of several organizations, each bringing a different resource to the 

table. The Joseph Henry Papers Project was a collaboration between the Smithsonian, the 

National Academy of Sciences (NAS), the American Philosophical Society (APS), the National 

Historical Records and Publications Commission (NHPRC) of the National Archives, and the 

Richard H. Lounsbery Foundation. Since many important documents had been lost in the Castle 

fire of 1865, The Papers of Joseph Henry was initiated to compile a definitive set of documents 

relating to Joseph Henry, the first years of the Smithsonian and the National Science 

Foundation (NSF), and the role of the APS in American science. The Smithsonian provided a 

home for the project, with expertise from the APS and financial support from NAS, NHPRC, and 

the Lounsbery Foundation. A governing board consisted of representatives from the 

Smithsonian, NSF, and APS to guide the project to completion. 

CIRCUSES AND ZOOS

Other collaborations have been a bit more unusual. When the National Zoological Park opened 

in April of 1891, its collection of animals was small. The Zoo director worked out agreements

with several circuses, especially the Adams Forepaugh Circus, whereby the circuses would 

winter their animals at the Zoo, when the circus was not on the road. Elderly animals were 

retired to the Zoo, including Dunk and Gold Dust, the Zoo’s first elephants. This symbiotic 
6

Dunk and Gold Dust out for a walk at the National Zoo, 1891, photographer unknown, Smithsonian Institution 

Archives

relationship increased the number and variety of exotic animals at the Zoo, and obviated the 

need for cash-strapped circuses to house and feed animals in the winter.

The modern zoo world, with its focus on preserving endangered species, requires collaborations

between all zoos. Species Survival Plans (SSP) have been established for many species, such as 

the cheetah, black-footed ferret, and clouded leopard. Zoos with excellent facilities for a 

species are given primary responsibility for maintaining those SSPs. The National Zoo, for 

example, is responsible for the clouded leopard. Formal plans are drafted for breeding animals 

to ensure maximum genetic diversity for critically endangered species, such as the cheetah. 

Zoos acquire animals on long-term loans, such as the giant pandas from China, rather than 

purchased ownership, and collaborate to ensure the long-term health and survival of 

endangered animals under their care. 

MEDIA BROADCASTS

In media collaborations, each partner brings a different skill set to the project. In June of 1936, 

the Smithsonian, the National Broadcasting Corporation (NBC), the Federal Arts Project (FAP), 

and the U.S. Office of Education launched the Smithsonian’s first radio program, The World Is 

Yours. This very popular radio program used scripts developed by Smithsonian staff on topics 

of Smithsonian expertise, such as astronomy, anthropology, and the history of invention, with 

advice from the Office of Education. The programs were produced and distributed by NBC and 

used unemployed FAP actors as characters, including “Old Timer,” the show’s emcee. The 

program continued through 1942, when the demands of World War II and a recovering 

economy reordered priorities. However, for its six years of existence, the program established 

a Smithsonian presence every Sunday evening in homes across the nation, creating a visibility 

the Institution had not had before.
7

Smithsonian Affiliations Conference in the Smithsonian 

Castle, 2011, photographer unknown, Smithsonian 

Affiliations

MUSEUMS

Not surprisingly, the Smithsonian has had formal and informal collaborations with other 

museums throughout its history. From the outset, the U.S. National Museum established loan 

and exchange agreements with museums across the globe. The National Museum also 

supported numerous joint collecting expeditions with other museums, such as the 1910–1912 

Biological Survey of the Panama Canal Zone, which occurred prior to construction of the 

Panama Canal and included the American Museum of Natural History and The Field Museum, 

among others. In such collaborations, agreements are usually reached to share specimens and 

distribute duplicate specimens. Each museum can contribute unique expertise to the collecting 

venture, with all museum collections profiting by sharing expenses, knowledge, and specimens.

A long-standing relationship between 

the Smithsonian and other museums was 

formalized in 1996 with the creation of 

the Smithsonian Affiliations program, 

which today has 180 Smithsonian 

Affiliates in more than 40 states, Puerto 

Rico, and Panama. Affiliates represent 

the diversity of America's museums in 

size, location, and subject areas, and 

serve all audiences. More than 8,000 

Smithsonian artifacts have been 

displayed at Affiliate locations.

Some relationships between the

Smithsonian and outside museums are very specific. In 1980, an agreement was reached 

whereby the Smithsonian Institution and the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, jointly purchased 

the portraits of George and Martha Washington painted by Gilbert Stuart. The agreement 

stated that the portraits would be displayed in each museum alternately for three-year periods. 

The portraits were first hung in the National Portrait Gallery from 1980 through 1983. The 

Smithsonian had sought sole ownership of the paintings but faced opposition from many in 

Boston who did not want the works to leave the city permanently.

EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

Throughout its history, the Smithsonian has collaborated with traditional academic institutions. 

Advanced students come to the Smithsonian to complete their major research projects, 

specimens and artifacts are exchanged, facilities are shared, and student “citizen science” 

programs flourish. Today, the Smithsonian has several formal and informal collaborations with 

schools. In Panama, the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI) has agreements with 

the University of Panama to allow the school’s students to use STRI library facilities and work 

with STRI researchers.

In New York City, the Parsons School of Design and Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design

Museum have collaborated on a degree program in the decorative arts. George Mason
8

Smithsonian-Mason School of Conservation, c. 2013, photographer unknown

University currently has two major collaborative programs with the Smithsonian: the 

Smithsonian-Mason School of Conservation located at the Smithsonian Conservation Biology 

Institute in Front Royal, Virginia, and, in partnership with The Smithsonian Associates, a Master 

of Arts degree program in the history of decorative arts. 

One of the closest collaborations is the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, a 

partnership between Harvard University’s Harvard College Observatory and the Smithsonian 

Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) that was established in the mid-1950s. Many SAO staff are in 

residence at Harvard, some have joint appointments, and the SAO director supervises both 

staffs. This collaboration has allowed the two groups of astronomers and astrophysicists to 

share equipment such as telescopes and large data-processing facilities. There have been 

several signed formal agreements between the two institutions.

FOREIGN NATIONS

The Smithsonian has a long history of 

collaborative relations with foreign 

nations. Under extensive agreements with 

the nation of Panama, STRI has managed 

wildlife preserves, provided environmental 

education in exchange for access to the 

San Blas Islands and other facilities, and 

conducted environmental education in 

sensitive areas of the country. The 

Smithsonian also has worked with 

organizations from nations in limited 

contact with the U.S. State Department, 

such as the Cuban Academy of Sciences 

and the Chinese Academy of Sciences. On 

December 11, 1980, the Academy of 

Chinese Vice President Qian Sanqiang signing an

agreement on scientific cooperation between the 

Smithsonian and the Chinese government, opening the 

way for the exchange of scientific personnel and 

information, 1980, photograph by Dane A. Penland, 

Smithsonian Institution Archives
9

Sciences of the People’s Republic of China (Academia Sinica) and the Smithsonian signed an 

agreement to foster joint research and other exchanges. Secretary S. Dillon Ripley and 

Academy Vice President Qian Sanqiang signed the agreement, which was written in both 

Chinese and English, after negotiations during a Smithsonian staff trip to China in 1979. And, of 

course, the National Zoo has collaborated with Chinese specialists on the care of giant pandas 

since the arrival of Ling-Ling and Hsing-Hsing in 1972.

COMMERCIAL AGREEMENTS

Although somewhat different in scope, commercial agreements have been forged between 

Smithsonian Enterprises (SE) and a variety of corporations. These are probably the most formal 

contractual relationships in which the Smithsonian participates. Smithsonian Networks, a joint 

venture between Showtime Networks Inc. and the Smithsonian Institution, resulted in the 

launch of Smithsonian Channel, the expanded the reach of the Institution, and the generation 

of income. For 35 years, the Smithsonian has had a partnership with IMAX to show their largeformat films in three museums. Programming includes Smithsonian-related productions like To 

Fly or the 3D IMAX film Air Racers, as well as popular movies in IMAX format. The theaters 

bring in new visitors and generate income. The Office of Product Development and Licensing 

oversees agreements to reproduce objects from the museums’ collections for retail sale. 

Royalties support Smithsonian programs and the business partner is able to produce interesting 

new products. SE launched a licensing agreement in 2012 with Segway to provide Smithsonianapproved tours of the Smithsonian and the National Mall, and numerous digital apps are being 

developed with the private sector that improve access to the Smithsonian and generate new 

income. 

 

 The Smithsonian has been a collaborative organization since its founding. Under the 

guidance of the Board of Regents, the Smithsonian’s collaborations embody the mandate

to support the “increase and diffusion of knowledge” by extending the reach of the 

Institution. Some collaborations are fairly informal but most are sealed with a written 

agreement, such as a contract, memorandum of understanding, grant, or commission. In 

the best of these, the goals of the collaboration and the role of each party are clearly 

articulated. Some collaborations are long-standing, such as the Institution’s role as the 

National Museum repository for all government collections. Others are for the life of a 

project, such as the Joseph Henry Papers Project. Before proceeding forward or making 

Institutional commitments that can’t be met, each proposed collaboration must be 

examined carefully for possible resource, staffing, financial, liability, and legal 

repercussions. Some small collaborations blossom into larger, more complex ones, such 

as the Smithsonian-Mason School of Conservation, which began modestly and has 

expanded dramatically in size and scope. Collaborations have allowed the Smithsonian to

share its expertise, collections, research sites, specialized equipment, and other resources,
10

 to the benefit of each of the parties and to the American public at large, to accomplish 

work none of the parties could complete on their own, and to touch far broader audiences 

than any one organization could reach. 

Pamela M. Henson, Historian n

Institutional History Division, Smithsonian Institution Archives s

January 2014 n

4