ORAU TEAM

Dose Reconstruction

Project for NIOSH

Oak Ridge Associated Universities I Dade Moeller I MJW Technical Services

Page 1 of 109

DOE Review Release 05/19/2010

Document Title:

Site Profile for the Lawrence Berkeley National 

Laboratory

Document Number: ORAUT-TKBS-0049

Revision: 02

Effective Date: 05/10/2010

Type of Document: TBD

Supersedes: Revision 01

Subject Expert(s): Stephen Spanos, John J. Fix, Elyse M. Thomas, Paul A. Szalinski, Baynard Turpin, 

James E. Turner, James East, Elizabeth A. Langille, and Bill R. Thomas

Site Expert(s): N/A

Approval: Signature on File Approval Date: 05/06/2010

Ralph W. Kenning, Document Owner

Concurrence: Signature on File Concurrence Date: 05/06/2010

John M. Byrne, Objective 1 Manager

Concurrence: Keith A. McCartney Signature on File for Concurrence Date: 05/06/2010

Edward F. Maher, Objective 3 Manager

Concurrence: Signature on File Concurrence Date: 05/06/2010

Kate Kimpan, Project Director

Approval: Signature on File Approval Date: 05/10/2010

James W. Neton, Associate Director for Science

New Total Rewrite Revision Page Change

FOR DOCUMENTS MARKED AS A TOTAL REWRITE, REVISION, OR PAGE CHANGE, REPLACE THE PRIOR 

REVISION AND DISCARD / DESTROY ALL COPIES OF THE PRIOR REVISION.
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 2 of 109

PUBLICATION RECORD

EFFECTIVE 

DATE

REVISION 

NUMBER DESCRIPTION

08/07/2006 00 New site profile for the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. First 

approved issue. Training required: As determined by the Task 

Manager. Initiated by Paul A. Szalinski.

04/02/2007 01 Approved Revision 01 initiated to include Task 5 and PID review 

comments which were omitted from Rev 00. Constitutes a total 

rewrite of document. Incorporates internal formal review comments 

and additional NIOSH formal review comments. Attributions and 

Annotations added. Incorporates internal formal review comments 

regarding the Attributions and Annotation section only. This revision 

results in an increase in assigned dose and a PER is required. 

Training required: As determined by the Task Manager. Initiated by 

Paul A. Szalinski.

05/10/2010 02 Revision initiated to incorporate SEC-00160 into Section 1.2. 

Updated boilerplate language. Incorporates guidance on the 

assignment of recycled uranium contaminants for intakes based on 

uranium bioassay results. Incorporates guidance on the assignment 

of plutonium mixtures for intakes based on plutonium bioassay 

results. Incorporates additional tritium guidance on the assignment of 

internal dose from stable metal tritides, and organically bound tritium. 

Incorporated information from historical documents captured since 

the last revision about X-ray equipment and exams before 1975, the 

addition of the LAT chest projection to the X-ray exam protocol in the 

1970s, and the addition of the oblique(s) chest projection(s) to the Xray exam protocol in the 1980s. Added Table 3-1, “Frequency of 

occupational chest X-ray screening”. Added all the organs to Table 

3-2, the table of organ doses for all time periods, and added the 

organ doses from the LAT and OBL chest projections. Organ doses 

after 1975 are based on X-ray equipment measurements at LBNL, 

and decreased slightly from the previous revision as a result of using 

site specific entrance air kerma in air measurements. Added Table 

3-3, “Skin dose guidance for various chest projections and periods”, 

and Table 3-4, “Skin dose (rem) from various chest projections, 1942 

to present”. Incorporates formal internal and NIOSH review 

comments. Constitutes a total rewrite of the document. Training 

required: As determined by the Objective Manager. Initiated by 

Ralph W. Kenning.
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 3 of 109

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SECTION TITLE

Acronyms and Abbreviations ...............................................................................................................

PAGE

6

1.0 Introduction ..............................................................................................................................8

1.1 Purpose........................................................................................................................9

1.2 Special Exposure Cohort Petition Information for LBNL................................................9

1.3 Scope.........................................................................................................................10

2.0 Site Description......................................................................................................................10

3.0 Occupational Medical Dose.................................................................................................... 21

4.0 Occupational Environmental Dose ......................................................................................... 30

5.0 Occupational Internal Dose.................................................................................................... 34

5.1 Plutonium ...................................................................................................................47

5.2 Uranium......................................................................................................................47

5.3 Tritium ........................................................................................................................48

5.3.1 Metal Tritides .................................................................................................. 48

5.3.2 Organically Bound Tritium............................................................................... 48

6.0 Occupational External Dose................................................................................................... 49

6.1 Dose Reconstruction Parameters ...............................................................................49

6.1.1 Historical Administrative Practices .................................................................. 49

6.1.2 LBNL Personnel Dosimetry Technology.......................................................... 51

6.1.2.1 Beta/Photon Radiation Personnel Dosimeters .................................. 51

6.1.2.2 Neutron Radiation Personnel Dosimeters......................................... 52

6.1.3 Calibration and Dosimeter Response Characteristics...................................... 52

6.1.3.1 Beta-Photon Dosimeters................................................................... 53

6.1.3.2 Neutron Dosimeters.......................................................................... 53

6.1.4 Workplace Radiation Fields............................................................................. 53

6.1.4.1 Beta/Photon Radiation...................................................................... 53

6.1.4.2 Neutron Radiation............................................................................. 54

6.2 Monitored LBNL Workers – Measured Dose...............................................................54

6.2.1 Photon Dose Adjustments............................................................................... 54

6.2.2 Photon Organ Dose Conversion Factors......................................................... 54

6.2.3 Neutron Dose Adjustments ............................................................................. 55

6.2.4 Neutron Weighting Factor ............................................................................... 55

6.3 Monitored LBNL Workers – Missed Dose ...................................................................56

6.4 Unmonitored LBNL Workers.......................................................................................57

6.4.1 Ambient Neutron Dose.................................................................................... 57

6.4.2 Ambient Photon Dose ..................................................................................... 57

6.4.3 Neutron to Photon Dose Ratio ........................................................................ 57

6.4.3.1 NP Ratio Application......................................................................... 58

6.4.3.2 Construction Workers ....................................................................... 59

6.5 Uncertainty .................................................................................................................59

6.6 Shallow Dose .............................................................................................................60

6.6.1 Assigned Shallow Dose .................................................................................. 60

6.6.2 Assigned Extremity Skin Dose ........................................................................ 61
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7.0 Attributions and Annotations .................................................................................................. 61

References ........................................................................................................................................68

Glossary ............................................................................................................................................80

ATTACHMENT A, HISTORICAL TIMELINE OF RADIATION EXPOSURE ASSOCIATED 

 EVENTS AT LBNL ...............................................................................................88

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE TITLE

2-1 Area information and parameters...........................................................................................

PAGE

11

2-2 Magnitude of activities by area............................................................................................... 13

3-1 Frequency of occupational chest X-ray screening .................................................................. 23

3-2 Organ doses for chest projections for all periods.................................................................... 24

3-3 Skin dose guidance for various chest projections and periods ............................................... 25

3-4 Skin dose from various chest projections, 1942 to present..................................................... 26

4-1 External gamma and neutron radiation................................................................................... 31

4-2 Maximum site-wide annual median intakes via inhalation....................................................... 33

5-1 Internal dose control program (in vitro)................................................................................... 35

5-2 Sample type (in vitro) ............................................................................................................. 36

5-3 Internal dose control program (in vivo) ................................................................................... 36

5-4 In vitro detection limits............................................................................................................ 38

5-5 In vivo detection limits ............................................................................................................ 40

5-6 Method codes and description of units ................................................................................... 40

5-7 Radionuclides and fraction activity by facility.......................................................................... 41

5-8 Isotopic information for aging of weapons-grade plutonium.................................................... 47

5-9 Recycled uranium contaminant ratios for uranium.................................................................. 48

6-1 Recorded dose practices........................................................................................................ 50

6-2 Interpretation of reported data................................................................................................ 51

6-3 LBNL beta/photon dosimeter type, period of use, exchange frequency, 

MDL, and potential annual missed dose................................................................................. 52

6-4 LBNL neutron dosimeter type of use, exchange frequency, LOD, and 

potential annual missed dose................................................................................................. 52

6-5 Selection of beta and photon radiation energies and dose fraction......................................... 53

6-6 Selection of neutron radiation energies and dose fraction ...................................................... 54

6-7 Photon dose adjustment ........................................................................................................ 55

6-8 Neutron dose adjustment ....................................................................................................... 55

6-9 Conversion from NCRP Report 38 neutron quality factors to ICRP 

Publication 60 weighting factors............................................................................................. 56

6-10 LBNL NP ratio from personnel dose measurements............................................................... 56

6-11 Uncertainty estimates............................................................................................................. 60
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 5 of 109

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE TITLE

6-1 Trend in LBNL NP ratios ........................................................................................................

PAGE

58

6-2 LBNL paired personnel neutron and photon doses ≥10 mrem 

measurements .......................................................................................................................59

6-3 Lognormal probability plot of LBNL NP ratios ......................................................................... 60
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 6 of 109

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ALARA as low as reasonably achievable

AMAD activity median aerodynamic diameter

ANL-E Argonne National Laboratory-East

Bq becquerel

Ci curie

cm centimeter

cpm counts per minute

d day

DOE U.S. Department of Energy

dpm disintegrations per minute

EEOICPA Energy Employees Occupational Illness Compensation Program Act of 2000

ESE entrance skin exposure

F fast (solubility rate)

FDA Food and Drug Administration

ft foot

g gram

HEU highly enriched uranium

HILAC heavy-ion linear accelerator

hr hour

HVL half-value layer

ICRP International Commission on Radiological Protection

IMBA Integrated Modules for Bioassay Analysis (computer program)

in. inch

keV kiloelectron-volt, 1,000 electron-volts

kg kilogram

kV kilovolt

kVp peak kilovoltage

L liter

LANL Los Alamos National Laboratory

LAT lateral

LBNL Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

LLNL Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory

LPO left posterior oblique

LRL Lawrence Radiation Laboratory

LRL-B Lawrence Radiation Laboratory Berkeley

m meter

M moderate (solubility rate)

mA milliampere

MDA minimum detectable activity

MDL minimum detection limit
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 7 of 109

MeV megaelectron-volt, 1 million electron-volts

MFP mixed fission products

min minute

mL milliliter

mm millimeter

mo month

MPC Maximum Permissible Concentration

mR milliroentgen

mrad millirad

mrem millirem

nCi nanocurie

NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

NOCTS NIOSH-Office of Compensation Analysis and Support Claims Tracking System 

NTA nuclear track emulsion, type A

NTLF National Tritium Labeling Facility

ORAU Oak Ridge Associated Universities

PA posterior-anterior

pCi picocurie

PHA pulse height analysis

POC probability of causation

RPO right posterior oblique

S slow (solubility rate)

s second

SRDB Ref ID Site Research Database Reference Identification Number

SSD source-to-skin distance

TLD thermoluminescent dosimeter

U.S.C. United States Code

WB whole-body

WBC whole-body count

wk week

yr year

μg microgram

μm micrometer

μCi microcurie

§ section or sections
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 8 of 109

1.0

Technical basis documents (TBDs) and site profile documents are not official determinations made by 

the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) but are rather general working 

documents that provide historic background information and guidance to assist in the preparation of 

dose reconstructions at particular sites or categories of sites. They will be revised in the event 

additional relevant information is obtained about the affected site(s). These documents may be used 

to assist NIOSH staff in the completion of the individual work required for each dose reconstruction.

INTRODUCTION

In this document the word “facility” is used as a general term for an area, building, or group of 

buildings that served a specific purpose at a site. It does not necessarily connote an “atomic weapons 

employer facility” or a “Department of Energy [DOE] facility” as defined in the Energy Employees 

Occupational Illness Compensation Program Act [EEOICPA; 42 U.S.C. § 7384l(5) and (12)]. 

EEOICPA defines a DOE facility as “any building, structure, or premise, including the grounds upon 

which such building, structure, or premise is located ... in which operations are, or have been, 

conducted by, or on behalf of, the Department of Energy (except for buildings, structures, premises, 

grounds, or operations ... pertaining to the Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program)” [42 U.S.C. §

7384l(12)]. Accordingly, except for the exclusion for the Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program noted 

above, any facility that performs or performed DOE operations of any nature whatsoever is a DOE 

facility encompassed by EEOICPA.

For employees of DOE or its contractors with cancer, the DOE facility definition only determines 

eligibility for a dose reconstruction, which is a prerequisite to a compensation decision (except for 

members of the Special Exposure Cohort). The compensation decision for cancer claimants is based 

on a section of the statute entitled “Exposure in the Performance of Duty.” That provision [42 U.S.C. § 

7384n(b)] says that an individual with cancer “shall be determined to have sustained that cancer in the 

performance of duty for purposes of the compensation program if, and only if, the cancer ... was at 

least as likely as not related to employment at the facility [where the employee worked], as 

determined in accordance with the POC [probability of causation1

The statute also includes a definition of a DOE facility that excludes “buildings, structures, premises, 

grounds, or operations covered by Executive Order No. 12344, dated February 1, 1982 (42 U.S.C. 

7158 note), pertaining to the Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program” [42 U.S.C. § 7384l(12)]. While this 

definition excludes Naval Nuclear Propulsion Facilities from being covered under the Act, the section 

of EEOICPA that deals with the compensation decision for covered employees with cancer [i.e., 42 

U.S.C. § 7384n(b), entitled “Exposure in the Performance of Duty”] does not contain such an 

exclusion. Therefore, the statute requires NIOSH to include all occupationally-derived radiation 

exposures at covered facilities in its dose reconstructions for employees at DOE facilities, including 

radiation exposures related to the Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program. As a result, all internal and 

external occupational radiation exposures are considered valid for inclusion in a dose reconstruction. 

No efforts are made to determine the eligibility of any fraction of total measured exposure for inclusion 

in dose reconstruction. NIOSH, however, does not consider the following exposures to be 

occupationally derived (NIOSH 2007a):

] guidelines established under 

subsection (c) ...” [42 U.S.C. § 7384n(b)]. Neither the statute nor the probability of causation 

guidelines (nor the dose reconstruction regulation, 42 C.F.R. Pt. 82) define “performance of duty” for 

DOE employees with a covered cancer or restrict the “duty” to nuclear weapons work (NIOSH 2007a).

• Background radiation, including radiation from naturally occurring radon present in 

conventional structures 

• Radiation from X-rays received in the diagnosis of injuries or illnesses or for therapeutic 

reasons

 1 The U.S. Department of Labor (DOL) is ultimately responsible under the EEOICPA for determining the POC.
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 9 of 109

1.1 PURPOSE

This site profile provides technical basis information to be used to evaluate the total occupational 

radiation dose that can reasonably be associated with a worker’s radiation exposure at Lawrence 

Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL). This dose results from exposure to external and internal 

radiation sources in LBNL facilities, to X-ray examinations performed for medical screening, and to 

onsite environmental releases. This site profile includes methods for estimating doses that could 

have occurred while an employee was not monitored or was inadequately monitored as well as doses 

that were missed due to analytical detection limits or incomplete or missing monitoring records (i.e., 

missed dose). 

This site profile can be a tool when performing dose reconstructions for LBNL workers. The 

Integrated Modules for Bioassay Analysis (IMBA) computer program is a tool useful for internal dose 

calculations. Information on measurement uncertainties is an integral component of the NIOSH 

approach. This document describes how to evaluate uncertainty associated with LBNL exposure and 

dosimetry records.

1.2 SPECIAL EXPOSURE COHORT PETITION INFORMATION FOR LBNL

Prior to 1948 for LBNL, external dosimetry data are unavailable to NIOSH. Consequently, NIOSH 

finds that it is not likely feasible to estimate with sufficient accuracy, or to bound, the total external 

doses to members of the proposed class prior to 1948. Beginning in 1948, external dosimetry data 

are available for some workers. Prior to 1962, internal dose monitoring data available to NIOSH are 

insufficient for purposes of dose reconstruction or for bounding internal doses. Consequently, NIOSH 

finds that it is not feasible to estimate with sufficient accuracy or to bound, internal doses to members 

of the proposed class before 1962. By 1962, the internal dosimetry program at LBNL was fully 

operational and has remained so through the present day. Beginning in 1962, internal dosimetry data 

are available and sufficient to bound intakes. 

For this reason, the following class of LBNL employees has been recommended by NIOSH for 

inclusion in the Special Exposure Cohort (SEC) (NIOSH 2010). 

Class Recommended by NIOSH for addition to the SEC

• All employees of the Department of Energy, its predecessor agencies, and their contractors 

and subcontractors who worked at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in Berkeley, 

California, from August 13, 1942 through December 31, 1961, for a number of work days 

aggregating at least 250 work days, occurring either solely under this employment or in 

combination with work days within the parameters established for one or more other classes of 

employees included in the Special Exposure Cohort (NIOSH 2010).

Dose reconstruction guidance in this document for periods prior to January 1, 1962 is presented to 

provide a technical basis for partial dose reconstructions for claims not qualifying for inclusion in the 

SEC class through December 31, 1961. Although NIOSH finds that it is not possible to completely 

reconstruct radiation doses for the proposed class, NIOSH intends to use any internal and external 

monitoring data that may become available (and that can be interpreted using existing NIOSH dose 

reconstruction processes or procedures) for an individual claim. Therefore, dose reconstructions for 

individuals employed at LBNL during the period from August 13, 1942 through December 31, 1961, 

but who do not qualify for inclusion in the SEC, may be performed using these data as appropriate.
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 10 of 109

1.3 SCOPE

NIOSH has recommended a class of LBNL employees for inclusion in the SEC as described in the 

section above. The NIOSH recommendation limits the scope of potential external and internal dose 

reconstructions at LBNL to the following.

• External dose from 1948 to the present. Beginning in 1948, external dosimetry data are 

available for some workers;

• Internal dose from 1962 to the present. Beginning in 1962, internal dosimetry data are 

available and sufficient to bound intakes;

The internal dose can be extended for employment prior to the years listed above based on a 

worker’s later years bioassay results and work history. 

This site profile consists of a site description (Section 2.0) and discussions of occupational medical 

dose, occupational environmental dose, occupational internal dose, and occupational external dose 

(Sections 3.0 to 6.0).

Attributions and annotations, indicated by bracketed callouts and used to identify the source, 

justification, or clarification of the associated information, are presented in Section 7.0.

2.0

This section describes major LBNL facilities and operations. LBNL was founded in 1931 on the 

University of California, Berkeley campus. It was originally known as the University of California 

Radiation Laboratory. In July 1945, LBNL moved from the Berkeley campus to a 134-acre site in the 

hills to the east [1]. LBNL began defense work in 1941 when the National Defense Research 

Committee appointed Ernest O. Lawrence to study the potential military uses of 235U (Maroncelli and 

Karpin 2002). Assignment of dose should begin in 1942 when the Manhattan Engineer District was 

founded.

SITE DESCRIPTION

LBNL is alternatively referred to in reference documents as Berkeley Lab, Lawrence Radiation 

Laboratory (LRL), and Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley (LRL-B). This document uses LBNL 

for consistency.

Table 2-1 provides a general description of LBNL buildings and lists the radionuclides of concern [2]. 

From the 1950s to the present, the laboratory has maintained its status as a major international center 

for physics research and has diversified its research program into almost every realm of scientific 

investigation. Along with its historical specialty of accelerator research and nuclear physics, the 

laboratory currently maintains divisions that investigate astrophysics, nuclear fusion, earth sciences, 

genomics, health physics, computer science, materials science, environmental science, and other 

areas [3]. In addition, the laboratory is the site of a number of National User Facilities, including the 

Advanced Light Source, the National Center for Electron Microscopy, the National Energy Research 

Scientific Computing Center, the Energy Sciences Network, and the future Molecular Foundry [4]. 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 11 of 109

Table 2-1. Area information and parameters.

a

Building(s) Description Period Radionuclidesb

1 (on campus) Donner Laboratory 1931 H-3, C-14, P-32, P-33, Sr-90, I-125, Th-232, U-238

2 (on campus) Advanced Materials 

Laboratory and Center 

for X-ray Optics 

(formerly the Crocker 

Laboratory)

1931 N-13, O-15

3 Laboratory of Chemical 

Biodynamics (Calvin 

Laboratory)

H-3, C-14, P-32, S-35, P-33

4 and 5 Magnetic Fusion 

Energy

H-3, C-14, P-32, S-35

6, 9, 10, and 

80

Advanced Light Source 

(formerly the 184-in. 

cyclotron complex)

1940 to 

present

Be-7, Co-57, Co-58, Co-60, Ni-63, Fe-55, Fe-59, 

Mn-54, Na-2,2 Zn-65, Am-241, Am-243, Cm-246, 

Cm-248, Np-237, Pu-238, Pu-239, Pu-240, U-235, 

Tc-99, Pu-242, Pu-241, N-13, O-15, Na-24, Ar-41, 

Ni-57, Th-232

8 (on campus) Hearst Laboratory Am-241, U

10 Cell & Molecular 

Biology Research & 

Photography

1986 H-3, C-14, P-32, S-35, Cr-51

14 Accelerator and Fusion 

Research and Earth 

Sciences

H-3

16 Magnetic Fusion 

Energy Laboratory

U-234, U-235, U-238

On Campus Gilman Hall Cs-137, enriched uranium, U-233, Pu-239, Am-241

19 (on 

campus)

LeConte Hall Fe-55, Fe-59, Co-60, Au-198, Au-199, Hg-203, Ga-67, 

In-112, Ba-127, Cs-127, Ba-131, Cs-131, Cs-137, Sr-90

22 (on 

campus)

Latimer Hall C-14

26/76 Medical Services and 

Bioassay, Radiation 

and Analytical 

Measurements 

Laboratory

I-125, I-129, I-131, U-238, C-11, C-14, Be-7, F-18, 

P-32, S-35, U-232, Sr-90 Ac-228, Ag-108, Ba-133, Ce144, Cm-243, Am-241, Am-243, Br-76, Br-77, Cm-244, 

Bk-249, Cf-249, Cf-250, Cm-245, Cm-246

31 (on 

campus)

Hesse Court Depleted U

36 (on 

campus)

2232 Piedmont Sr-90, Am-241, Na-24, Cl-36, K-42

38 (on 

campus)

Lewis Hall Co-57, Fe-59, Co-60, Sn-119, Gd-153

50B Physics Ag-106m, Au-194, Co-56, Co-57, Co-58, Co-60, Mn-52, 

Mn-54, Na-22, Ni-57, Re-184m, Sc-48, Se-75, Ta-182, 

V-48, Zn-65m Be-7, Ag-105

51 Contains the Bevatron 

and Bevalac

Be-7, Co-57, Co-58, Co-60, Fe-55, Fe-59, Mn-54, 

Na-22, Ni-63, Zn-65, Na-24, Ni-57, Ni-57, Cf-252, U, 

Am-241, Am-243, Ra-226, Bk-249

52 Magnetic Fusion 

Energy Laboratory

H-3, C-14, P-32, S-35, Am-241, Cf-250, Cm-243, 

Cm-248, Np-237, Pu-239, Pu-244, Th-229, Th-230, 

Th-232, U-232, U-235, U-236, U-238, Pu-242

53 SuperHILAC 

Development
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Building(s) Description Period Radionuclidesb

55/56 Research 

Medicine/Radiation 

Biophysics, Biomedical 

Isotope Facility

1964 H-3, C-14, F-18, P-32, I-131, Sr-90, Xe-127, Nb-95, 

Ru-103, Gd-153, Tl-201, I-123, I-125, Sn-113, Tc-99m, 

Co-57, Cr-51, Nb-95, O-15, Cu-64, Ce-141, N-13, 

Sr-85, Sc-46, C-11, Co-55,

56 Biomedical Isotope 

Facility

C-11, Co-55, Co-57, F-18, N-13, O-15, O-14, F-17 

57 (on 

campus)

Donner Pavilion P-32, Sr-82, Sr-85, Sr-90, I-125, I-131, In-111

58 and 58A Accelerator Research 

and Development

60 High Bay Laboratory

62 Materials and Chemical 

Sciences

U-238

63 and 64 Accelerator and Fusion 

Research

P-32

70 and 70A Nuclear, Materials, 

Chemical, Life, and 

Earth Sciences

H-3, C-14, P-32, Fe-59, I-125, Sr-90, Th-232, Tc-99, 

Ce-141, Ce-144, Pa-233, Sm-153, Te-153m, Yb-169, 

Zn-65, Sc-46, Na-22, Na-24, S-35, Ca-45, Ca-49, Mn54, Fe-59, Y-90, Rh-101, Ru-106, Sb-124, Ce-141, Tm170, Cs-134, Eu-152, Am-243, Bi-207, Sc-49, Co-60, 

Zr-88, Rb-86, Zr-95, Sb-122, Ta-182, Tl-204, Th-229, 

Yb-175, Ho-166m, Hf-175, Ac-227, Pa-233, Am-241, 

Cm-244, U-233, U-234, U-235, U-238, Pu-238, Pu-239, 

Ra-226, Np-237, Cf-249, Cf-252, Tb-161, Cm-248

71 HILAC 1957 to 

December 

23, 1992

Sc-46, Sc-49, Sr-90, Zr-88, Y-90, Zr-95, Tc-99, Sb-124, 

Tb-161, Tm-170, Yb-175, Ta-182, Tl-204, Th-229, 

Th-232, U-233, U-234, U-235, U-238

72 Health Physics 1961 P-32, Na-24, Ti-44, Cr-51 Mn-54, Co-58, Fe-59, Co-60, 

Cu-64, Zn-65, Br-82, Nb-95, Zr-95, Zr-97, Cd-113, 

Sb-122, Sb-124, Ba-133, Xe-133, Eu-152, Ta-182, 

Hg-194, Au-198, Bi-207, Ac-227, Th-228, Th-229, 

Pa-231, Th-232, U-238

73 Atmospheric Aerosol 

Research

H-3

74 Research 

Medicine/Radiation 

Biophysics, Cell and 

Molecular Biology

H-3, C-11, N-13, C-14, O-15, F-18, P-32, S-35, Sc-46, 

Fe-59, Cu-64, Sr-85, Nb-95, Tc-99m, Ru-103, I-123, 

I-125, I-131, Tl-201, Pb-210, Th-232, U-233, U234/235, U-238, Pu-238, Am-241

75 Radioisotope Service a 

National Tritium Facility 

H-3, Sr-90, Th-232, Act. Products, C-11, C-14, F-18, I125, I-129, I-131, P-32, S-35, Sr-90, U-232, Kr-81, 

Kr-85

75A Compact, Processing 

and Storage Facility

Th-232, Sr-90

76 Construction, 

Maintenance, and Craft 

Shops

C-11, C-14, F-18, I-125, I-129, I-131, P-32, S-35, Sr-90, 

U-232, Am-241

84 H-3, C-14, P-32, S-35

85 Hazardous Waste 

Handling Facility

H-3, C-14, Sr-90, I-125, Th-232
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Building(s) Description Period Radionuclidesb

88 88-in. Cyclotron Be-7, C-11, N-13, C-14, O-14, O-15, F-17, F-18, Na-21, 

Na-22, Na-24, P-32, S-35, Sc-46, Cr-51, Mn-54, Fe-55, 

Co-56, Co-57, Ni-57, Co-58, Fe-59, Co-60, Cu-60, Zn62, Zn-63, Ni-63, Zn-65, Ge-71, Se-75, Br-76, Br-77, 

Kr-76, Kr-77, Kr-79, Y-88, Sr-90, Zr-95, Zr-97, U-238, 

Sc-93, Ac-227, Am-241, Au-198, Cs-134, Cs-137, Gd148, Eu-152, Eu-154, Pb-212, Np-237, Np-239, Th-229, 

Th-232, Pa-233, Pu-238, Pu-239, Sb-124, Pa-231, Cf249, Cf-252

934 Molecular and Cell 

Biology

H-3, P-32, S-35, C-14, I-125

977 Life Sciences and 

Physical Biosciences

H-3, P-32, P-33, S-35, C-14, Cd-109

a. Blank values indicate not applicable or data not available.

b. Particle size assumed as the default value of 5-μm activity median aerodynamic diameter (AMAD) because no sitespecific data have been found.

Table 2-2 lists the quantities of the radionuclides that workers could have encountered by area [5]. 

This list is not intended as a complete radiological history, but rather as a discussion to familiarize 

dose reconstructors with the variety of radionuclides that have been present at LBNL.

Table 2-2. Magnitude of activities by area.

Building Radionuclides Activity (Ci)a

1, Room 159 K-42 0.001

F2-65 0.001

Zn-65 0.001

Sr-85 0.001

I-131 0.001

1, Room 212 Fe-59 0.001

1, Room 213 C-14 Trace

1, Room 216 C-14 0.005

P-32 0.03

Cr-51 0.01

Fe-55 0.01

Fe-59 0.01

Sr-90 0.02

Y-90 0.1

I-131 0.02

Hg-203 0.01

1, Room 227 P-32 0.05

I-131 0.25

1, Room 230 Ca-47 0.001

Zn-65 0.001

I-131 0.001

1, Room 261 P-32 0.5

I-131 0.001

1, Room 264 F-18 0.01

Fe-52 0.1

Ge-68 0.001

As-71 0.1

I-123 0.001

1, Room 271 Na-24 0.001

P-32 0.5

1, Room 308 C-14 0.005

1, Room 322 P-32 (b)
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Building Radionuclides Activity (Ci)a

1, Room 326 P-32, P-33 (b)

1, Room 330 H-3 Tracers

1, Room 361 P-32 (b)

1, Room 364 F-18 1E-6

Fe-52 1E-6

Fe-59 1E-6

Ga-68 1E-6

As-71 1E-6

I-131 1E-6

Hg-203 1E-6

1, Room 366 P-32, P-33 (b)

1, Room 373 H-3, C-14, P-32, P33, S-35, I-125 (b)

1, Room 471 P-32 0.005

2, Rooms 101 

and 101A

Ca-45 Tracers

Sr-85 Tracers

Sr-90 Tracers

Am-241 Tracers

2, Room 102 Na-22 0.005

Ca-45 0.001

Sr-85 0.001

Sr-90 0.002

Eu-152/Eu-154 0.0015

Ac-227 0.003

Am-241 0.00015

2, Room 103 Ca-45 Tracers

2, Room 104 Sr-85 Tracers

2, Room 108 Sr-90 Tracers

2, Room 116 Am-241 Tracers

3, Room 120 C-14 0.01

3, 2nd floor lab H-3 5E-6

C-14 5E-6

P-32 5E-6

3, Room 214 H-3 30

C-14 0.05

Varied Isotope storage

3, Room 250 C-14, P-32, P-33, S-35 (a)

3, 3rd floor lab H-3 5E-6

C-14 5E-6

P-32 5E-6

3, Room 318 H-3 Varied

C-14 0.03

P-32 Varied

3, Room 322 Varied Calibration standards

3, Room 326 C-14 30

4 Cs-137 0.2 (July 1963)c

5 Co-60 3,100 (1955)c

6 Am-241, Am-243, Cm-248, Eu-152, Eu-154, Np-237, Pu-239, 

Sr-90, Th-232, U-233, U(natural), U-235, U-238, Pu-241, Pu242, Tc-99 

(b)

8, Room 360 Am-241 0.0066

U 1 kg, various compounds

10 Cs-137 1,050 (1968)c

16, Room 101 U-234, U-235, U-238 (b)

19 (LeConte 

Hall)

Co-60 0.02
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Building Radionuclides Activity (Ci)a

19, Room 79 Varied 0.01, experiment 

residues

Pb-197/Pb-209 1.5 (cyclotron target)

19, Room 81 Varied 0.01, experiment 

residues

19, Room 86 Fe-55/Fe-59 1 (reactor capsule)

Ga-67 1.5 (cyclotron target)

In-112 2 (cyclotron target)

Ba-127/Cs-127 1.5 (cyclotron target)

Ba-131/Cs-131 24 (reactor capsule)

Au-198 1.5 (cyclotron target)

Au-199 1.5 (cyclotron target)

Hg-203 0.03

19, Room 405 Sr-90 0.001

Cs-137 0.001

22, Latimer Hall 

Room 710

C-14 Tracers

26, Rooms 6, 24, 

30, 31, and 32

Alpha, Am-241, beta-gamma, C-11, C-14, F-18, H-3, I-125, I129, I-131, P-32, S-35, U-232, Sr-90(b)

Gilman Hall Cs-137, enriched uranium, U-233, Pu-239, Am-241 (b)

31, Hesse Court Depleted U 7 kg (gaseous 

conversion of UCl4 to 

UCl6)

36, 2232 

Piedmont

basement

Sr-90

Am-241

0.001

0.001

36, 2232 

Piedmont

kitchen

Na-24

Cl-36

K-42

0.001

0.001

0.001

38, Lewis Hall Co-57/Co-60 0.02

Fe-59 0.025

Sn-119 0.0005

Gd-153 0.001

50 Ag-106m, Au-194, Co-56, Co-57, Co-58, Co-60, Mn-52, Mn-54, 

Na-22, Ni-57, Re-184m, Sc-48, Se-75, Ta-182, v-48, Zn-65m 

Be-7, Ag-105

(b)

50B, Room 6209 Ag-106m, Au-194, Co-56, Co-57, Co-58, Co-60, Mn-52, Mn-54, 

Na-22, Ni-57, Re-184m, Sc-48, Se-75, Ta-182, V-48, Zn-65, Be7, Sc-46, Ag-105

(b)

51 Be-7, Co-57, Co-58, Co-60, Fe-55, Fe-59, Mn-54, Na-22, Ni-63, 

Zn-65, Na-24, Ni-57, Ni-57, Cf-252, U, Am-241, Am-243, 

Ra-226, Bk-249

(b)

52, Rooms 109 

and 111

Act Products, Am-241, Cf-250, Cm-243, Cm-248, Np-237, Pu239, Pu-244, Th-229, Th-230, Th-232, U-232, U-235, U-236, U238, Pu-242(b)

55 Sr-90 30 (spill - 1964)c

55, Room 116 H-3, C-14, Co-57, Cr-51, F-18, Gd-153, H-3, I-125, I-131, Nb95, Ru-103, Sn-113, Tc-99m, Tl-201 (b)

55, Room 118 C-14, Co-57, Cr-51, F-18, Gd-153, H-3, I-125, I-131, Nb-95, Ru103, Sn-113, Tc-99m, Tl-201 (b)

55, Room 120 H-3, C-11, C-14, Co-55, Co-57, Ce-141, Cu-64, F-18, I-123, I125, I-131, N-13, Nb-95, O-15, Ru-103, Sr-85, Tc-99m, Gd-153, 

Tl-201, Sc-46 

(b)

55, Room 122 H-3, C-11, C-14, F-18, Ce-141, Cu-64, F-18, I-123, I-125, I-131, 

N-13, Nb-95, O-15, Ru-103, Sr-85, Tc-99m, Tl-201, Sc-46

(b)
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Building Radionuclides Activity (Ci)a

55, Room 126 H-3, C-11, C-14, F-18, Ce-141, Cu-64, F-18, I-123, I-125, I-131, 

N-13, Nb-95, O-15, Ru-103, Sr-85, Tc-99m, Tl-201, Sc-46

(b)

55, Room 128 H-3, C-11, C-14, F-18, Ce-141, Cu-64, I-123, I-125, I-131, N-13, 

Nb-95, O-15, Ru-103, Sr-85, Tc-99m, Tl-201, Sc-46, Co-55, Co57, I-123, I-125, I-131, Tc-99m, I-125, Gd-153, Sn-113

(b)

55, Room 134 C-11, C-14, Co-55, Co-57, F-18, H-3, I-123, I-125, I-131, 

Tc-99m, N-13, O-15, O-14, F-17, Ce-141, Cu-64, Nb-95, 

Ru-103, Sr-85, Tl-201, Sc-46, Cr-51, Gd-153, H-3, Sn-113, Tl201

(b)

55, Room 136 C-14, F-18, H-3, I-125 (b)

55, Room 139 C-11, C-14, Cr-51, Co-55, Co-57, F-18, H-3, I-123, I-125, I-131, 

Tc-99m, Ce-141, Cu-64, N-13, Nb-95, O-15, Ru-103, Sr-85, Tl201, Sc-46

(b)

55, Room 139A C-11, C-14, Co-55, Co-57, F-18, H-3, I-123, I-125, I-131, 

Tc-99m, Ce-141, Cu-64, N-13, Nb-95, O-15, Ru-103, Sr-85, Tl201, Sc-46

(b)

55, Room 151 C-11, C-14, Co-55, Co-57, F-18, H-3, I-123, I-125, I-131, 

Tc-99m, N-13, O-15, O-14, F-17, Ce-141, Cu-64, Nb-95, 

Ru-103, Sr-85, Tl-201, Sc-46, Cr-51, Gd-153, H-3, Sn-113, Tl201

(b)

55, Room 200 C-11, Ce-141, Cu-64, F-18, I-123, I-125, I-131, N-13, Nb-95, O15, Ru-103, Sr-85, Tc-99m, Tl-201, Sc-46(b)

56, Room 100 C-11, Co-55, Co-57, F-18, N-13, O-15, O-14, F-17 (b)

56, Room 101 C-11, Co-55, Co-57, F-18, N-13, O-15, O-14, F-17 (b)

57, Cowell 

Hospital, 3rd 

floor

Y-90 1

57, Cowell 

Hospital, 4th floor

I-125 0.01

57, Cowell 

Hospital, 4th floor

I-131 0.001

62, Rooms 114 

and 145

U-238 (b)

64, Room 234 P-32 (b)

69, Room 150 Various activation products (b)

70 Cm-242/Pu-238

70, Room 103 Ce-141, Ce-144, Fe-59, H-3, P-32, Pa-233, Sm-153, Te-125m, 

Yb-169, Zn-65, Sc-46

(b)

70, Room 108C Ce-141, Ce-144, Fe-59, H-3, P-32, Pa-233, Sm-153, Te-125m, 

Yb-169, Zn-65, Sc-46

(b)

70, Room 114 U-238 (b)

70, Room 114A U-238 (b)

70, Room 133 Ce-141, Ce-144, Fe-59, H-3, P-32, Pa-233, Sm-153, Te-125m, 

Yb-169, Zn-65, Sc-46

(b)

70, Room 147 Am-241, Cf-250, Cm-243, Cm-248, Np-237, Pu-239, Pu-244, 

Th-229, Th-230, Th-232, U-232, U-235, U-236, U-238, Pu-242

(b)

70, Room 147A Am-241, Am-243, Cf-249, Cm-243, Cm-245, Cm-246, Cm-248, 

Co-60, Eu-152, Eu-154, Eu-155, Ni-65, Np-237, Np-239, Pa233, Pu-238, Pu-239, Pu-240, Pu-244, Ra-226, Ru-106, Th-229, 

Th-230, Th-232, U-232, U-232, U-233, U-235, U-238, Tc-99, Pa231, Pu-242, Cm-244, Cs-137, Ni-63, Pu-241, Sr-90, U-236, Bk249, Cf-250, U-234, Es-254, P-32, Na-21, Na-22, Co-57, Cu-60, 

Na-22, Ni-57, Sc-93, Zn-62, Zn-63, Ac-227, Au-198, C-11, Cf249, Cf-252, Co-56, Co-57, Co-58, Cr-51, Cs-134, Cs-137, 

Fe-55, Fe-59, Mn-54, Sb-124, Se-75, Zn-65, Be-7, Sc-46, Pa231

(b)
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Building Radionuclides Activity (Ci)a

70, Room 203 Am-241, Am-243, Bi-207, Cf-249, Cf-252, Cm-248, Er-165, Er169, Er-171, Es-253, Eu-152, Fm-257, Hf-172, Hf-175, Hf-181, 

Ho-166, Ho-166m, Na-22, Nb-95, Np-237, Pu-238, Pu-239, Ra226, Rh-101, Rh-102, Ta-182, Tb-160, Th-229, Tm-170, U-233, 

U-235, U-238, Y-90, Zr-88, Zr-95, Cm-244, Mn-54, Sr-90, 

Tl-204, Bk-249, Es-254

(b)

70, Room 209 Am-241, Am-243, Bi-207, Cf-249, Cf-252, Cm-248, Er-165, Er169, Er-171, Es-253, Eu-152, Fm-257, Hf-172, Hf-175, Hf-181, 

Ho-166, Ho-166m, Na-22, Nb-95, Np-237, Pu-238, Pu-239, Ra226, Rh-101, Rh-102, Ta-182, Tb-160, Th-229, Tm-170, U-233, 

U-235, U-238, Y-90, Zr-88, Zr-95, Cm-244, Mn-54, Sr-90, 

Tl-204, Bk-249, Es-254

(b)

70, Room 210 Am-241, Am-243, Bi-207, Cf-249, Cf-252, Cm-248, Er-165, Er169, Er-171, Es-253, Eu-152, Fm-257, Hf-172, Hf-175, Hf-181, 

Ho-166, Ho-166m, Na-22, Nb-95, Np-237, Pu-238, Pu-239, Ra226, Rh-101, Rh-102, Ta-182, Tb-160, Th-229, Tm-170, U-233, 

U-235, U-238, Y-90, Zr-88, Zr-95, Cm-244, Mn-54, Sr-90, 

Tl-204, Bk-249, Es-254

(b)

70A Co-60 9,800 (July 1965)c

70A, Room 1103 C-11, C-14, H-3, P-32 (b)

70A, Room 1115 C-11, C-14, P-32, P-33 (b)

70A, Room 117A C-11, H-3 (b)

70A, Room 

1121A

C-11, H-3 (b)

70A, Room 

1121B

C-11, H-3 (b)

70A, Room 1129 Co-60, Ni-63, Ni-65, Sr-90, Tc-99, Cs-137, Eu-152, Eu-154, Eu155, Am-241, Am-243, Bk-249, Cf-249, Cm-243, Cm-244, Cm245, Cm-246, Cm-248, Cf-249, Cf-250, f-252, Es-254, Np-237, 

Np-239, Pa-231, Pa-233, Pu-238, Pu-239, Pu-240, Pu-241, 

Pu-242, Pu-244, Ra-226, Ru-106, Th-229, Th-230, Th-232, U232, U-233, U-234, U-235, U-236, U-238

(b)

70A, Room 1145 Co-60, Ni-63, Ni-65, Sr-90, Tc-99, Cs-137, Eu-152, Eu-154, Eu155, Am-241, Am-243, Bk-249, Cf-249, Cf-250, Cf-252, Cm243, Cm-244, Cm-245, Cm-246, Cm-248, Cf-249, Es-254, 

Np-237, Np-239, Pa-231, Pa-233, Pu-238, Pu-239, Pu-240, Pu241, Pu-242, Pu-244, Ra-226, Ru-106, Th-229, Th-230, Th-232, 

U-232, U-233, U-234, U-235, U-236, U-238, U(natural)

(b)

70A, Room 

1145A

Am-241, Am-243, Cf-249, Cm-243, Cm-245, Cm-246, Cm-248, 

Co-60, Eu-152, Eu-154, Eu-155, Ni-65, Np-237, Np-239, Pa233, Pu-238, Pu-239, Pu-240, Pu-241, Pu-244, Ra-226, Ru-106, 

Th-229, Th-230, Th-232, U-232, U-232, U-233, U-235, U-236, 

U-238, Tc-99, Pa-231, Pu-242, Cm-244, Cs-137, Ni-63, Pu-241, 

Sr-90, Bk-249, Cf-250, U-234, Es-254

(b)

70A, Room 

1145B

Am-241, Am-243, Cf-249, Cm-243, Cm-245, Cm-246, Cm-248, 

Co-60, Eu-152, Eu-154, Eu-155, Ni-65, Np-237, Np-239, Pa233, Pu-238, Pu-239, Pu-240, Pu-241, Pu-244, Ra-226, Ru-106, 

Th-229, Th-230, Th-232, U-232, U-232, U-233, U-235, U-236, 

U-238, Tc-99, Pa-231, Pu-242, Cm-244, Cs-137, Ni-63, Pu-241, 

Sr-90, Bk-249, Cf-250, U-234, Es-254

(b)

70A, Room 1149 Am-241, Am-243, Cf-249, Cm-243, Cm-245, Cm-246, Cm-248, 

Co-60, Eu-152, Eu-154, Eu-155, Ni-65, Np-237, Np-239, Pa233, Pu-238, Pu-239, Pu-240, Pu-241, Pu-244, Ra-226, Ru-106, 

Th-229, Th-230, Th-232, U-232, U-232, U-233, U-235, U-236, 

U-238, Tc-99, Pa-231, Pu-242, Cm-244, Cs-137, Ni-63, Pu-241, 

Sr-90, Bk-249, Cf-250, U-234, Es-254

(b)
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Building Radionuclides Activity (Ci)a

70A, Room 1151 Am-241, Am-243, Cf-249, Cm-243, Cm-245, Cm-246, Cm-248, 

Co-60, Eu-152, Eu-154, Eu-155, Ni-65, Np-237, Np-239, Pa233, Pu-238, Pu-239, Pu-240, Pu-241, Pu-244, Ra-226, Ru-106, 

Th-229, Th-230, Th-232, U-232, U-232, U-233, U-235, U-236, 

U-238, Tc-99, Pa-231, Pu-242, Cm-244, Cs-137, Ni-63, Pu-241, 

Sr-90, Bk-249, Cf-250, U-234, Es-254

(b)

70A, Room 

1159A

Am-241, Am-243, Cf-249, Cm-243, Cm-245, Cm-246, Cm-248, 

Co-60, Eu-152, Eu-154, Eu-155, Ni-65, Np-237, Np-239, Pa233, Pu-238, Pu-239, Pu-240, Pu-241, Pu-244, Ra-226, Ru-106, 

Th-229, Th-230, Th-232, U-232, U-232, U-233, U-235, U-236, 

U-238, Tc-99, Pa-231, Pu-242, Cm-244, Cs-137, Ni-63, Pu-241, 

Sr-90, Bk-249, Cf-250, U-234, Es-254

(b)

70A, Room 

1159B

Am-241, Am-243, Cf-249, Cm-243, Cm-245, Cm-246, Cm-248, 

Co-60, Eu-152, Eu-154, Eu-155, Ni-65, Np-237, Np-239, Pa233, Pu-238, Pu-239, Pu-240, Pu-241, Pu-244, Ra-226, Ru-106, 

Th-229, Th-230, Th-232, U-232, U-232, U-233, U-235, U-236, 

U-238, Tc-99, Pa-231, Pu-242, Cm-244, Cs-137, Ni-63, Pu-241, 

Sr-90, Bk-249, Cf-250, U-234, Es-254

(b)

70A, Room 1165 Am-241, Am-243, Cf-249, Cm-243, Cm-245, Cm-246, Cm-248, 

Co-60, Eu-152, Eu-154, Eu-155, Ni-65, Np-237, Np-239, Pa233, Pu-238, Pu-239, Pu-240, Pu-241, Pu-244, Ra-226, Ru-106, 

Th-229, Th-230, Th-232, U-232, U-232, U-233, U-235, U-236, 

U-238, Tc-99, Pa-231, Pu-242, Cm-244, Cs-137, Ni-63, Pu-241, 

Sr-90, Bk-249, Cf-250, U-234, Es-254

(b)

70A, Room 

1165A

Am-241, Am-243, Cf-249, Cm-243, Cm-245, Cm-246, Cm-248, 

Co-60, Eu-152, Eu-154, Eu-155, Ni-65, Np-237, Np-239, Pa233, Pu-238, Pu-239, Pu-240, Pu-241, Pu-244, Ra-226, Ru-106, 

Th-229, Th-230, Th-232, U-232, U-232, U-233, U-235, U-236, 

U-238, Tc-99, Pa-231, Pu-242, Cm-244, Cs-137, Ni-63, Pu-241, 

Sr-90, Bk-249, Cf-250, U-234, Es-254

(b)

70A, Room 2211 Am-241, Am-243, Cf-249, Cm-243, Cm-245, Cm-246, Cm-248, 

Co-60, Eu-152, Eu-154, Eu-155, Ni-65, Np-237, Np-239, Pa233, Pu-238, Pu-239, Pu-240, Pu-241, Pu-244, Ra-226, Ru-106, 

Th-229, Th-230, Th-232, U-232, U-232, U-233, U-235, U-236, 

U-238, Tc-99, Pa-231, Pu-242, Cm-244, Cs-137, Ni-63, Pu-241, 

Sr-90, Bk-249, Cf-250, U-234, Es-254

(b)

70A, Room 2215 Am-241, Am-243, Cf-249, Cm-243, Cm-245, Cm-246, Cm-248, 

Co-60, Eu-152, Eu-154, Eu-155, Ni-65, Np-237, Np-239, Pa233, Pu-238, Pu-239, Pu-240, Pu-241, Pu-244, Ra-226, Ru-106, 

Th-229, Th-230, Th-232, U-232, U-232, U-233, U-235, U-236, 

U-238, Tc-99, Pa-231, Pu-242, Cm-244, Cs-137, Ni-63, Pu-241, 

Sr-90, Bk-249, Cf-250, U-234, Es-254

(b)

70A, Room 2217 Am-241, Am-243, Cf-249, Cm-243, Cm-245, Cm-246, Cm-248, 

Co-60, Eu-152, Eu-154, Eu-155, Ni-65, Np-237, Np-239, Pa233, Pu-238, Pu-239, Pu-240, Pu-241, Pu-244, Ra-226, Ru-106, 

Th-229, Th-230, Th-232, U-232, U-232, U-233, U-235, U-236, 

U-238, Tc-99, Pa-231, Pu-242, Cm-244, Cs-137, Ni-63, Pu-241, 

Sr-90, Bk-249, Cf-250, U-234, Es-254

(b)

70A, Room 

2217B

Am-241, Am-243, Cf-249, Cm-243, Cm-245, Cm-246, Cm-248, 

Co-60, Eu-152, Eu-154, Eu-155, Ni-65, Np-237, Np-239, Pa233, Pu-238, Pu-239, Pu-240, Pu-241, Pu-244, Ra-226, Ru-106, 

Th-229, Th-230, Th-232, U-232, U-232, U-233, U-235, U-236, 

U-238, Tc-99, Pa-231, Pu-242, Cm-244, Cs-137, Ni-63, Pu-241, 

Sr-90, Bk-249, Cf-250, U-234, Es-254

(b)

70A, Room 

2229A

Am-241, C-14, Fe-59, Np-237, Pb-210, Pu-238, Th-232, U-233, 

U-238, U-234/235

(b)
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 19 of 109

Building Radionuclides Activity (Ci)a

70A, Room 

2229B

Am-241, C-14, Fe-59, Np-237, Pb-210, Pu-238, Th-232, U-233,

U-238, U-234/235

(b)

70A, Room 4419 Kr-81, Kr-85 (b)

70A, Room 4429 Pb-205, Th-229, Th-232, U-233, U-238 (b)

70A, Room 

4429A

Pb-205, Th-229, Th-232, U-233, U-238 (b)

70A, Room 

4429C

Pb-205, Th-229, Th-232, U-233, U-238 (b)

70A, Room 4459 Th-228, Th-230, U(natural), U-234, U-235, U-238, Tc-99 (b)

70A, Room 4463 Th-228, Th-230, U(natural), U-234, U-235, U-238, Tc-99 (b)

71, Cave B (b) (b)

71, Cave N (b) (b)

72, Room 102 U-238 (b)

72, Room 112A U-238 (b)

72, Room 128 P-32, Na-21, Na-22, P-32, Co-57, Cu-60, Na-22, Ni-57, P-32, 

Sc-93, Zn-62, Zn-63, Ac-227, Am-241, Au-198, C-11, Cf-249, 

Cf-252, Co-56, Co-57, Co-58, Co-60, Cr-51, Cs-134, Cs-137, 

Eu-152, Eu-154, Fe-55, Fe-59, Mn-54, Na-22, Np-237, Np-239, 

P-32, Pa-233, Pu-238, Pu-239, Sb-124, Se-75, Zn-65, Be-7, Sc46, Pa-231

(b)

72, Room 137 P-32, Na-21, Na-22, P-32, Co-57, Cu-60, Na-22, Ni-57, P-32, 

Sc-93, Zn-62, Zn-63, Ac-227, Am-241, Au-198, C-11, Cf-249, 

Cf-252, Co-56, Co-57, Co-58, Co-60, Cr-51, Cs-134, Cs-137, 

Eu-152, Eu-154, Fe-55, Fe-59, Mn-54, Na-22, Np-237, Np-239, 

P-32, Pa-233, Pu-238, Pu-239, Sb-124, Se-75, Zn-65, Be-7, Sc46, Pa-231

(b)

72C, Rooms 155, 

163, 169, 171, 

and 173

U-238 (b)

73, Room 109 H-3 (b)

74 Co-60/P-32/Cs-137 1,500 (1962 and 1968)c

74, Room 144A Th-232, U(natural), U-238, Tc-99 (b)

74, Room 2011 Am-241, C-14, Fe-59, Np-237, Pb-210, Pu-238, Th-232, U-233, 

U-238, U-234/235

(b)

74, Room 238C H-3, O-32, P35 (b)

74, Rooms 265 

and 265A

P-32 (b)

74, Room 285 C-11, Ce-141, Cu-64, F-18, I-123, I-125, I-131, N-13, Nb-95, O15, Ru-103, Sr-85, Tc-99m, Tl-201, Sc-46(b)

74, Room 312 C-11, C-14, H-3, P-32 (b)

74, Room 330 C-11, C-14, H-3, P-32 (b)

74, Room 330A C-11, C-14, H-3, P-32 (b)

74, Room 344 C-11, C-14, H-3, P-32 (b)

74, Room 350 C-11, C-14, H-3, P-32 (b)

74D, Room 1 C-11, Ce-141, Cu-64, F-18, I-123, I-125, I-131, N-13, Nb-95, O15, Ru-103, Sr-85, Tc-99m, Tl-201, Sc-46(b)

75 Cs-137 30 (March 1967)c

75, Room 103, 

107 and Storage 

Locker

H-3 (b)

75, Room 109 H-3, activation products (b)

75, Room 113 H-3, activation products (b)

75, Room 127 Alpha, Am-241, beta-gamma, C-11, C-14, F-18, H-3, I-125, I129, I-131, P-32, S-35, U-232, Sr-90(b)

75D, Room 101B Activation Products, Various, Kr-81, Kr-85 (b)
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 20 of 109

Building Radionuclides Activity (Ci)a

76, Room 135 

and Storage 

Locker

Am-241, C-11, C-14, F-18, H-3, I-125, I-129, I-131, P-32, S-35, 

U-232, Sr-90

(b)

84, Room 101 P-32 (b)

84, Room 153 C-14, H-3, P-32 (b)

84, Room 155 H-3, P-32, S-35 (b)

84, Room 157 H-3, P-32, S-35 (b)

84, Room 161 H-3, P-32, S-35 (b)

84, Room 175 H-3, P-32, S-35 (b)

84, Room 201 P-32 (b)

84, Room 220 P-32 (b)

84, Room 263 P-32, C-14, H-3 (b)

85, Room MW1 Alpha, beta-gamma, C-14, H-3 (b)

85, Room MW2 Alpha, beta-gamma, C-14, H-3 (b)

85, Room MW3 Alpha, beta-gamma, C-14, H-3 (b)

85, Room MW4 Alpha, beta-gamma, C-14, H-3 (b)

85, Room MW5 Alpha, beta-gamma, C-14, H-3 (b)

85, Room MW6 Alpha, beta-gamma, C-14, H-3 (b)

85, Room MW7 Alpha, beta-gamma, C-14, H-3 (b)

85, Room MW8 Alpha, beta-gamma, C-14, H-3 (b)

85, Room RW1 Alpha, beta-gamma, C-14, H-3 (b)

85, Room RW2 Alpha, beta-gamma, C-14, H-3 (b)

85, Room 

Scintillation Vial 

Room

Alpha, beta-gamma, C-14, H-3 (b)

85, Room 

Staging Area

Alpha, beta-gamma, C-14, H-3 (b)

88, Room 134 Ac-227, activation products, Am-241, Cf-249, Cf-252, Gd-148, 

Pb-212, Th-228, Th-229, Th-232, U(natural), MFPs, various, 

actinide tracers, gamma tracers

(b)

88, Room 135 H-3, C-11, N-13, Na-22, Be-7, O-14, Ne-19, Ne-18, Br-76, Br77, Kr-76, Kr-77, Kr-79, P-32, Na-21, Na-22, P-32, Co-57, 

Cu-60, Na-22, Ni-57, P-32, Sc-93, Zn-62, Zn-63, Ac-227, Am241, Au-198, C-11, Cf-249, Cf-252, Co-56, Co-57, Co-58, Co60, Cr-51, Cs-134, Cs-137, Eu-152, Eu-154, Fe-55, Fe-59, Mn54, Na-22, Np-237, Np-239, P-32, Pa-233, Pu-238, Pu-239, Sb124, Se-75, Zn-65, Be-7, Sc-46, Pa-231

(b)

88, Cave 0 Be-7, C-11, C-14, F-17, F-18, N-13, Na-22, O-14, O-15, Br-76, 

Br-77, Kr-76, Kr-77, Kr-79, Ne-19, Ne-18 

(b)

88, Cave 1 C-11, N-13, Na-22, Be-7, O-14, Ne-19, Ne-18, Ac-227, 

activation products, Am-241, Cf-249, Cf-252, Gd-148, Pb-212, 

Th-228, Th-229, Th-232, U(natural), MFPs, various, actinide 

tracers, gamma tracers

(b)

88, Cave 2 Ac-227, activation products, Am-241, Cf-249, Cf-252, Gd-148, 

Pb-212, Th-228, Th-229, Th-232, U(natural), MFPs, various, 

actinide tracers, gamma tracers

(b)

88, Cave 3 H-3, C-11, C-14, P-32, P-33 (b)

88, Cave 4 H-3, C-11, C-14, P-32, P-33 (b)

88, Cave 4C Activation products, Be-7, C-11, C-14, F-17, F-18, N-13, Na-22, 

O-14, O-15

(b)

88, Cave 4C roof Ac-227, activation products, Am-241, Cf-249, Cf-252, Gd-148, 

Pb-212, Th-228, Th-229, Th-232, U(natural), MFPs, various, 

actinide tracers, gamma tracers

(b)

88, Cave Roofs Act Products, Be-7, C-11, C-14, F-17, F-18, N-13, Na-22, O-14, 

O-15, Ne-19, Ne-18

(b)
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 21 of 109

Building Radionuclides Activity (Ci)a

88, East Alley Br-76, Br-77, Kr-76, Kr-77, Kr-79 (b)

88, East alley 

mezzanine

Br-76, Br-77, Kr-76, Kr-77, Kr-79, Ac-227, activation products, 

Am-241, Cf-249, Cf-252, Gd-148, Pb-212, Th-228, Th-229, Th232, U(natural), MFPs, various, actinide tracers, gamma tracers

(b)

88, East alley 

niche

C-11, N-13, Na-22, Be-7, O-14, Ne-19, Ne-18, Ac-227, 

activation products, Am-241, Cf-249, Cf-252, Gd-148, Pb-212, 

Th-228, Th-229, Th-232, U(natural), MFPs, various, actinide 

tracers, gamma tracers

(b)

88, Entire Vault 

roof

Activation products, Be-7, C-11, C-14, F-17, F-18, N-13, Na-22, 

O-14, O-15, Br-76, Br-77, Kr-76, Kr-77, Kr-79

(b)

977, Room 205 H-3, P-32, P-33, S-35 (b)

977, Room 240 H-3, P-32, S-35 (b)

977, Room 285 C-14, Cd-109, H-3, P-32, S-35 (b)

a. Maximum quantity present in the building in curies unless otherwise noted.

b. No quantity and/or isotope information available.

c. Date used where indicated in the historical documents.

3.0

In the early years before about 1964, workers had their physical exams (including X-rays) in their 

private physicians’ offices (Parker 1963). Little is known about the specific X-ray equipment used to 

radiograph workers before 1975. The earliest document found dates from 1963, and contains results 

from surveys made on a Picker machine that was in the first aid area (Stephens 1963, pp. 294-295). 

The measurements of the radiation output indicate that the exposure at 72 in. (implying use for chest 

X-rays) was about 4 mR. For the posterior-anterior (PA) chest projection, if one assumes a chest 

thickness of 26 cm and allows 5 cm for the thickness of the cassette, the implied source-to-skin 

distance (SSD) is 183 cm – 31 cm = 152 cm [7]. It follows from the measurement that the entrance air 

kerma in air is (4 mR)(183/152)2 = 6 mrad. However, because of the sparse information before 1975, 

the assigned doses during this early period are the default values in ORAUT (2005a). There is a 

statement from the site that only PA chests were used in these early years (Author unknown 2007), 

and no evidence of photofluorography at LBNL has been found to date. 

OCCUPATIONAL MEDICAL DOSE

Calculated doses for 1975 and later are based on measurements on the LBNL X-ray equipment. A 

document from this period (de Castro and Thomas 1975) reports results from a survey of the Picker 

radiographic X-ray unit on March 19, 1975. The report states, “At a typical chest technique of 86 kV, 

200 mA, large spot, 1/30 sec, 72 inches [= 183 cm], the direct beam exposure was 7 mR.” 

Collimation is described as ”satisfactory”. A survey in 1977 for the same Picker unit (de Castro 

1977b) provides the measured half-value layer (HVL) as 2.8 mm Al eq. at 70 kVp. This equates to an 

HVL of 3.0 mm Al eq. at 86 kVp, the technique used for PA chests, and is used for the determination 

of organ doses for this machine. For the PA projection, the entrance air kerma in air at the SSD is 

(7 mR)(183/152)2 = 10 mrad. These data are consistent with subsequent survey results for this X-ray 

machine (de Castro 1977a). It appears that lateral (LAT) chest projections were added to the PA 

projection in the 1970s (author unknown 2007). This same document provides technique factors for 

several common procedures, and these are assumed to be the PA chest projection and the LAT chest 

projection [6]. LAT chest doses are based on this reported technique. In the 1980s, oblique chest 

radiographs were performed on asbestos workers (Author unknown 2007). This X-ray unit was in use 

until its replacement by a new machine about September 28, 1987 (Bradfield 1987) [8]. 

The change was made to a Picker model BGX 625R stationary, general-purpose system, 

manufactured in 1987 (Thomas 1991; Bradfield-Montoya 1994). Under an interagency agreement, 

this Picker system was given a thorough inspection by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) on 

February 23, 1989 (Goldstein 1989). All components were found to operate within applicable Federal 

or manufacturer’s specifications. The measured exposure for a PA chest X-ray of a 23-cm chest 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 22 of 109

phantom was 11.2 mR with the technique of 300 mA at 84 kVp in the automatic exposure control 

mode. No significant problems were found by FDA in the operations. While no specific HVL 

measurement results are provided, the HVL was in compliance with the FDA standards. For the 

purpose of dose reconstruction, an HVL of 3.0 will be assumed for this period. 

In 1991, FDA again inspected the Picker machine. This time the measured exposure at the skin 

entrance was 33 mR (Thomas 1991). Again, no HVL information is provided by the FDA inspector, 

but the machine (including the minimum HVL) was in compliance with existing standards. For the 

purpose of dose reconstruction, an HVL of 3.0 will be assumed for this period. This machine was still 

in use in 1994 (Bradfield-Montoya 1994), but was retired in 1995 (Grondona 2010). In the 1990s, 

LBNL began taking X-rays only on workers who were subject to inhalation hazards like asbestos 

(Author unknown 2007). Doses for 1991 to 1995 are for the Picker machine, and for 1996 to the 

present are from ORAUT-OTIB-0006 (ORAUT 2005a), since employees have been sent off-site for Xrays since that time (Grondona 2010).

Table 3-1 summarizes the frequency information for chest X-rays at LBNL. Dose reconstructors 

should use this information and any information in the individual X-ray records in the claim file when 

assessing the dose from occupational medical X-rays. 

Table 3-2 lists the organ doses for PA, LAT, and both right and left anterior oblique (RAO and LAO, 

respectively) chest projections at different times at LBNL. Organ doses (except for skin) for the 

oblique chest are the same as those for the LAT chest, and should be included in dose reconstruction 

for asbestos workers in the 1980s. If only one oblique projection is recorded in the records, dose 

reconstructors should assign dose from the RAO. If the records do not specify this degree of detail, 

dose from both the RAO and LAO should be assigned for the asbestos workers. Table 3-3 contains 

the skin dose guidance for all projections over all periods, and Table 3-4 contains skin doses for all 

areas of skin.

ORAUT-OTIB-0006 (ORAUT 2005a) lists the major sources of uncertainty in X-ray output intensity 

and subsequent dose to the worker. The five sources of uncertainty are (1) X-ray beam measurement 

error (±2%); (2) variation in peak kilovoltage (±9%); (3) variation in X-ray beam current (±5%); (4) 

variation in exposure time (±25%); and (5) variation in SSD as a result of worker size (±10%). The 

10% uncertainty in output intensity as a result of worker size was based on an inverse square 

correction of output intensity changes resulting from differences of standard chest thickness of ±7.5 

cm. 

Information on worker thickness is rarely available, even in the medical literature. However, at the 

Savannah River Site entrance skin dose measurements were made on nine workers of varying chest 

thicknesses (builds) (Cooley 1967). While Cooley did not report the measured chest thicknesses for

these nine workers, the entrance skin doses were reported and reflect the increases in exposure 

needed to radiograph thicker body parts, in this case chests. Cooley reports the mean of the 

measured entrance skin doses as 27 mrem. The standard uncertainty of the range of measurements 

is 5.6, resulting in an uncertainty of 21% from this source. 

Substituting this value into the calculation for combined uncertainty described in ORAUT-OTIB-0006 

(ORAUT 2005a) rather than the 10% value used in that document, the resultant standard uncertainty 

is 34% from these five sources. Rounding this up to 35% would seem to provide an adequate and 

suitably conservative indication of uncertainty. 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 23 of 109

Table 3-1. Frequency of occupational chest X-ray screeninga

.

Period Frequency Comment Chest projections

1942 to 

1969

Preemployment All employees PA

Termination All employees PA

Annually Employees > 45 years old PA

Biennially Employees < 45 years old PA

1970–

1979

Preemployment All employees PA and LAT

Termination All employees PA and LAT

Annually Employees > 45 years old PA and LAT

Biennially Employees < 45 years old PA and LAT

1980–

1990

Preemployment All employees PA and LAT

Termination All employees PA and LAT

Annually Employees > 45 years old

Asbestos workers

PA and LAT

PA ,LAT, and one or both obliques (RAO or LAO)

Biennially Employees < 45 years old

Asbestos workers

PA and LAT

PA ,LAT and one or both obliques (RAO or LAO)

1991 to 

present

Physician’s 

discretion

All employees subject to 

inhalation exposure

PA and LAT

a. Author unknown (2007).
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 

05/10/2010 Page 24 of 109

Table 3-2. Organ doses (rem) for chest projections for all periods.a,b

Organ Projection 1942–1969 1970–1974 1975–1987 1988–1990 1991–1995 1996-presentc

Thyroid PA 3.48E-02 3.20E-03 4.60E-04 5.06E-04 1.52E-03 3.90E-03

LAT/oblique -- 2.88E-02 3.19E-03 3.66E-03 1.10E-02 2.13E-02

Eye/brain PA 6.40E-03 3.20E-03 4.60E-04 5.06E-04 1.52E-03 3.90E-03

LAT/oblique -- 2.88E-02 3.19E-03 3.66E-03 1.10E-02 2.13E-02

Ovaries PA 2.50E-02 1.00E-04 1.80E-05 1.98E-05 5.94E-05 2.60E-04

LAT/oblique -- 1.50E-04 2.16E-05 2.48E-05 7.43E-05 3.25E-04

Urinary/bladder PA 2.50E-02 1.00E-04 1.80E-05 1.98E-05 5.94E-05 2.60E-04

LAT/oblique -- 1.50E-04 2.16E-05 2.48E-05 7.43E-05 3.25E-04

Colon/rectum PA 2.50E-02 1.00E-04 1.80E-05 1.98E-05 5.94E-05 2.60E-04

LAT/oblique -- 1.50E-04 2.16E-05 2.48E-05 7.43E-05 3.25E-04

Testes PA 5.00E-03 1.00E-06 1.00E-07 1.10E-07 3.30E-07 5.00E-07

LAT/oblique -- 2.50E-05 2.40E-06 2.75E-06 8.25E-06 1.30E-05

Lungs (male) PA 8.38E-02 4.19E-02 4.96E-03 5.46E-03 1.64E-02 3.14E-02

LAT/oblique -- 4.83E-02 5.66E-03 6.49E-03 1.95E-02 4.07E-02

Lungs (female) PA 9.02E-02 4.51E-02 5.35E-03 5.89E-03 1.77E-02 3.37E-02

LAT/oblique -- 5.50E-02 6.41E-03 7.34E-03 2.20E-02 4.56E-02

Thymus PA 9.02E-02 4.51E-02 5.35E-03 5.89E-03 1.77E-02 3.37E-02

LAT/oblique -- 5.50E-02 6.41E-03 7.34E-03 2.20E-02 4.56E-02

Esophagus PA 9.02E-02 4.51E-02 5.35E-03 5.89E-03 1.77E-02 3.37E-02

LAT/oblique -- 5.50E-02 6.41E-03 7.34E-03 2.20E-02 4.56E-02

Stomach PA 9.02E-02 4.51E-02 5.35E-03 5.89E-03 1.77E-02 3.37E-02

LAT/oblique -- 5.50E-02 6.41E-03 7.34E-03 2.20E-02 4.56E-02

Bone surface PA 9.02E-02 4.51E-02 5.35E-03 5.89E-03 1.77E-02 3.37E-02

LAT/oblique -- 5.50E-02 6.41E-03 7.34E-03 2.20E-02 4.56E-02

Liver/gall bladder/spleen PA 9.02E-02 4.51E-02 5.35E-03 5.89E-03 1.77E-02 3.37E-02

LAT/oblique -- 5.50E-02 6.41E-03 7.34E-03 2.20E-02 4.56E-02

Remainder organs PA 9.02E-02 4.51E-02 5.35E-03 5.89E-03 1.77E-02 3.37E-02

LAT/oblique -- 5.50E-02 6.41E-03 7.34E-03 2.20E-02 4.56E-02

Breast PA 9.80E-03 4.90E-03 6.90E-04 7.59E-04 2.28E-03 5.80E-03

LAT/oblique -- 6.38E-02 6.89E-03 7.89E-03 2.37E-02 4.46E-02

Uterusa PA 2.50E-02 1.30E-04 2.30E-05 2.53E-05 7.59E-05 2.60E-04

LAT/oblique -- 1.50E-04 2.16E-05 2.48E-05 7.43E-05 2.73E-04

Bone marrow (male) PA 1.84E-02 9.20E-03 1.17E-03 1.29E-03 3.86E-03 8.90E-03

LAT/oblique 9.25E-03 1.15E-03 1.32E-03 3.96E-03 9.88E-03

Bone marrow (female) PA 1.72E-02 8.60E-03 1.12E-03 1.23E-03 3.70E-03 8.60E-03

LAT/oblique -- 7.25E-03 9.12E-04 1.05E-03 3.14E-03 7.67E-03

Entrance skind PA 2.70E-01 1.35E-01 1.40E-02 1.54E-02 4.62E-02 7.00E-02

LAT/oblique -- 3.38E-01 3.36E-02 3.85E-02 1.16E-01 1.82E-01

a. Doses before 1975 are based on values in ORAUT-OTIB-0006 (2005a).

b. The LAT doses from this table can be used to determine the dose from oblique projections when claim file records show obliques were performed on asbestos 

workers.

c. Doses from 1996 to present are from ORAUT-OTIB-0006 (ORAUT 2005a), since X-rays are taken off-site for this time period.

d. Entrance skin dose is determined by multiplying the entrance air kerma in air by the backscatter factors of 1.35 and 1.40 for HVL of 2.5 mm Al and 3.0 mm Al, 

respectively, from NCRP Report 102 (NRCP 1989, Table B-8). Skin doses for all areas of skin are provided in Tables 3-3 and 3-4. 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 

05/10/2010 Page 25 of 109

Table 3-3. Skin dose guidance for various chest projections and periods.

Area of skin

PA 

before 1970

LAT 

before 1970

PA 

after 1970

LAT 

after 1970 RAO after 1970 LAO after 1970

Right front shoulder EXSD ENSD EXSD ENSD EXSD EXSD

Right back shoulder ENSD ENSD ENSD ENSD ENSD ENSD

Left front shoulder EXSD EXSD EXSD EXSD EXSD EXSD

Left back shoulder ENSD EXSD ENSD EXSD ENSD ENSD

Right upper arm to elbow ENSD ENSD 10% ENSD ENSD 10% ENSD 10% ENSD

Left upper arm to elbow ENSD EXSD 10% ENSD EXSD 10% ENSD 10% ENSD

Left hand ENSD 10% ENSD 10% ENSD 10% ENSD 10% ENSD 10% ENSD

Right hand ENSD 10% ENSD 10% ENSD 10% ENSD 10% ENSD 10% ENSD

Left elbow, forearm, wrist ENSD 10% ENSD 10% ENSD 10% ENSD 10% ENSD 10% ENSD

Right elbow, forearm, wrist ENSD 10% ENSD 10% ENSD 10% ENSD 10% ENSD 10% ENSD

Right side of head (including ear and 

temple)

10% ENSD Eye/brain 10% ENSD 10% ENSD 10% EXSD 10% ENSD

Left side of head (including ear and 

temple)

10% ENSD Eye/brain 10% ENSD 10% ENSD 10% ENSD 10% EXSD

Front left thigh RSD (0.52 M) RSD (0.52 M) RSD (0.52 M) RSD (0.52 M) RSD (0.52 M) RSD (0.52 M)

Back left thigh RSD (0.52 M) RSD (0.52 M) RSD (0.52 M) RSD (0.52 M) RSD (0.52 M) RSD (0.52 M)

Front right thigh RSD (0.52 M) RSD (0.52 M) RSD (0.52 M) RSD (0.52 M) RSD (0.52 M) RSD (0.52 M)

Back right thigh RSD (0.52 M) RSD (0.52 M) RSD (0.52 M) RSD (0.52 M) RSD (0.52 M) RSD (0.52 M)

Left knee and below RSD (0.86 M) RSD (0.86 M) RSD (0.86 M) RSD (0.86 M) RSD (0.86 M) RSD (0.86 M)

Right knee and below RSD (0.86 M) RSD (0.86 M) RSD (0.86 M) RSD (0.86 M) RSD (0.86 M) RSD (0.86 M)

Left side of face Eye/brain Eye/brain Eye/brain 10% ENSD 10% ENSD 10% EXSD

Right side of face Eye/brain Eye/brain Eye/brain 10% ENSD 10% EXSD 10% ENSD

Left side of neck ENSD Eye/brain 10% ENSD 10% ENSD 10% ENSD 10% EXSD

Right side of neck ENSD Eye/brain 10% ENSD 10% ENSD 10% EXSD 10% ENSD

Back of head 10% ENSD Eye/brain 10% ENSD 10% ENSD 10% ENSD 10% ENSD

Front of neck Eye/brain Eye/brain Thyroid 10% ENSD Thyroid Thyroid

Back of neck ENSD Eye/brain 10% ENSD 10% ENSD 10% ENSD 10% ENSD

Front torso: base of neck to end of 

sternum

EXSD Lung EXSD Lung EXSD EXSD

Front torso: end of sternum to lowest rib EXSD Lung EXSD Lung EXSD EXSD

Front torso: lowest rib to iliac crest EXSD Lung 10% EXSD 10% Lung 10% EXSD 10% EXSD

Front torso: iliac crest to pubis 10% EXSD 10% Lung 10% EXSD 10% Lung 10% EXSD 10% EXSD

Back torso: base of neck to mid-back ENSD Lung ENSD Lung ENSD ENSD

Back torso: mid-back to lowest rib ENSD Lung ENSD Lung ENSD ENSD

Back torso: lowest rib to iliac crest ENSD Lung 10% ENSD 10% Lung 10% ENSD 10% ENSD

Back torso: buttocks (Iliac crest and 

below)

10% ENSD 10% Lung 10% ENSD 10% Lung 10% ENSD 10% ENSD

Right torso: base of neck to end of ENSD ENSD ENSD ENSD EXSD ENSD
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 

05/10/2010 Page 26 of 109

Area of skin

PA 

before 1970

LAT 

before 1970

PA 

after 1970

LAT 

after 1970 RAO after 1970 LAO after 1970

sternum

Right torso: end of sternum to lowest rib ENSD ENSD ENSD ENSD EXSD ENSD

Right torso: lowest rib to iliac crest ENSD ENSD 10% ENSD 10% ENSD 10% EXSD 10% ENSD

Right torso: iliac crest to pubis (right hip) 10% ENSD 10% ENSD 10% ENSD 10% ENSD 10% EXSD 10% ENSD

Left torso: base of neck to end of 

sternum

ENSD EXSD ENSD EXSD ENSD EXSD

Left torso: end of sternum to lowest rib ENSD EXSD ENSD EXSD ENSD EXSD

Left torso: lowest rib to iliac crest ENSD EXSD 10% ENSD 10% EXSD 10% ENSD 10% EXSD

Left torso: iliac crest to pubis (left hip) 10% ENSD 10% EXSD 10% ENSD 10% EXSD 10% ENSD 10% EXSD

Table 3-4. Skin dose (rem) from various chest projections, 1942 to present.

a

Area of skin

PA 

1942–

1969

PA 

1970–

1974

LAT 

1970–

1974

PA 

1975–

1987

LAT 

1975–

1987

RAOb

1975–

1987

LAOb

1975–

1987

PA 

1988–

1990

LAT 

1988–

1990

RAOb

1988–

1990

LAOb

1988–

1990

PA 

1991

–1995

LAT 

1991–

1995

RAOb

1991–

1995

LAOb

1991–

1995

Right front 

shoulder

5.9E-03 2.9E-03 3.38E-01 4.E-04 3.36E-02 2.E-04 2.E-04 4.E-04 3.85E-02 2.E-04 2.E-04 1.2E-03 1.16E-01 6.E-04 6.E-04

Right back 

shoulder

2.70E-01 1.35E-01 3.38E-01 1.40E-02 3.36E-02 3.36E-02 3.36E-02 1.54E-02 3.85E-02 3.85E-02 3.85E-02 4.62E-02 1.16E-01 1.16E-01 1.16E-01

Left front 

shoulder

5.9E-03 2.9E-03 1.5E-03 4.E-04 2.E-04 2.E-04 2.E-04 4.E-04 2.E-04 2.E-04 2.E-04 1.2E-03 6.E-04 6.E-04 6.E-04

Left back 

shoulder

2.70E-01 1.35E-01 1.5E-03 1.40E-02 2.E-04 3.36E-02 3.36E-02 1.54E-02 2.E-04 3.85E-02 3.85E-02 4.62E-02 6.E-04 1.16E-01 1.16E-01

Right upper arm 

to elbow

2.70E-01 1.35E-02 3.38E-01 1.40E-03 3.36E-02 3.4E-03 3.4E-03 1.5E-03 3.85E-02 3.9E-03 3.9E-03 4.6E-03 1.16E-01 1.16E-02 1.16E-02

Left upper arm 

to elbow

2.70E-01 1.35E-02 1.5E-03 1.40E-03 2.E-04 3.4E-03 3.4E-03 1.5E-03 2.E-04 3.9E-03 3.9E-03 4.6E-03 6.E-04 1.16E-02 1.16E-02

Left hand 2.70E-01 1.35E-02 3.38E-02 1.40E-03 3.4E-03 3.4E-03 3.4E-03 1.5E-03 3.9E-03 3.9E-03 3.9E-03 4.6E-03 1.16E-02 1.16E-02 1.16E-02

Right hand 2.70E-01 1.35E-02 3.38E-02 1.40E-03 3.4E-03 3.4E-03 3.4E-03 1.5E-03 3.9E-03 3.9E-03 3.9E-03 4.6E-03 1.16E-02 1.16E-02 1.16E-02

Left elbow, 

forearm, wrist

2.70E-01 1.35E-02 3.38E-02 1.40E-03 3.4E-03 3.4E-03 3.4E-03 1.5E-03 3.9E-03 3.9E-03 3.9E-03 4.6E-03 1.16E-02 1.16E-02 1.16E-02

Right elbow, 

forearm, wrist

2.70E-01 1.35E-02 3.38E-02 1.40E-03 3.4E-03 3.4E-03 3.4E-03 1.5E-03 3.9E-03 3.9E-03 3.9E-03 4.6E-03 1.16E-02 1.16E-02 1.16E-02

Right side of 

head including 

ear and temple

2.70E-02 1.35E-02 3.38E-02 1.40E-03 3.4E-03 2.E-05 3.4E-03 1.5E-03 3.9E-03 2.E-05 3.9E-03 4.6E-03 1.16E-02 6.E-05 1.16E-02

Left side of head 

including ear

and temple

2.70E-02 1.35E-02 3.38E-02 1.40E-03 3.4E-03 3.4E-03 2.E-05 1.5E-03 3.9E-03 3.9E-03 2.E-05 4.6E-03 1.16E-02 1.16E-02 6.E-05

Front left thigh 8.E-05 4.E-05 5.E-05 5.E-06 6.E-06 6.E-06 6.E-06 5.E-06 7.E-06 7.E-06 7.E-06 2.E-05 2.E-05 2.E-05 2.E-05

Back left thigh 8.E-05 4.E-05 5.E-05 5.E-06 6.E-06 6.E-06 6.E-06 5.E-06 7.E-06 7.E-06 7.E-06 2.E-05 2.E-05 2.E-05 2.E-05

Front right thigh 8.E-05 4.E-05 5.E-05 5.E-06 6.E-06 6.E-06 6.E-06 5.E-06 7.E-06 7.E-06 7.E-06 2.E-05 2.E-05 2.E-05 2.E-05

Back right thigh 8.E-05 4.E-05 5.E-05 5.E-06 6.E-06 6.E-06 6.E-06 5.E-06 7.E-06 7.E-06 7.E-06 2.E-05 2.E-05 2.E-05 2.E-05

Left knee and 

below

3.E-05 1.E-05 2.E-05 2.E-06 2.E-06 2.E-06 2.E-06 2.E-06 2.E-06 2.E-06 2.E-06 5.E-06 7.E-06 7.E-06 7.E-06

Right knee and 

below

3.E-05 1.E-05 2.E-05 2.E-06 2.E-06 2.E-06 2.E-06 2.E-06 2.E-06 2.E-06 2.E-06 5.E-06 7.E-06 7.E-06 7.E-06

Left side of face 6.4E-03 3.2E-03 3.38E-02 5.E-04 3.4E-03 3.4E-03 2.E-05 5.E-04 3.9E-03 3.9E-03 2.E-05 1.5E-03 1.16E-02 1.16E-02 6.E-05

Right side of 

face

6.4E-03 3.2E-03 3.38E-02 5.E-04 3.4E-03 2.E-05 3.4E-03 5.E-04 3.9E-03 2.E-05 3.9E-03 1.5E-03 1.16E-02 6.E-05 1.16E-02
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 27 of 109

Area of skin

PA 

1942–

1969

PA 

1970–

1974

LAT 

1970–

1974

PA 

1975–

1987

LAT 

1975–

1987

RAO

b

1975–

1987

LAO

b

1975–

1987

PA 

1988–

1990

LAT 

1988–

1990

RAO

b

1988–

1990

LAO

b

1988–

1990

PA 

1991 –1995

LAT 

1991–

1995

RAO

b

1991–

1995

LAO

b

1991–

1995

Left side of neck 2.70E-01 1.35E-02 3.38E-02 1.40E-03 3.4E-03 3.4E-03 2.E-05 1.5E-03 3.9E-03 3.9E-03 2.E-05 4.6E-03 1.16E-02 1.16E-02 6.E-05

Right side of 

neck

2.70E-01 1.35E-02 3.38E-02 1.40E-03 3.4E-03 2.E-05 3.4E-03 1.5E-03 3.9E-03 2.E-05 3.9E-03 4.6E-03 1.16E-02 6.E-05 1.16E-02

Back of head 2.70E-02 1.35E-02 3.38E-02 1.40E-03 3.4E-03 3.4E-03 3.4E-03 1.5E-03 3.9E-03 3.9E-03 3.9E-03 4.6E-03 1.16E-02 1.16E-02 1.16E-02

Front of neck 6.4E-03 3.2E-03 3.38E-02 5.E-04 3.4E-03 3.2E-03 3.2E-03 5.E-04 3.9E-03 3.7E-03 3.7E-03 1.5E-03 1.16E-02 1.10E-02 1.10E-02

Back of neck 2.70E-01 1.35E-02 3.38E-02 1.40E-03 3.4E-03 3.4E-03 3.4E-03 1.5E-03 3.9E-03 3.9E-03 3.9E-03 4.6E-03 1.16E-02 1.16E-02 1.16E-02

Front torso: 

base of neck to 

end of sternum

5.9E-03 2.9E-03 5.50E-02 4.E-04 6.4E-03 2.E-04 2.E-04 4.E-04 7.3E-03 2.E-04 2.E-04 1.2E-03 2.20E-02 6.E-04 6.E-04

Front torso: end 

of sternum to 

lowest rib

5.9E-03 2.9E-03 5.50E-02 4.E-04 6.4E-03 2.E-04 2.E-04 4.E-04 7.3E-03 2.E-04 2.E-04 1.2E-03 2.20E-02 6.E-04 6.E-04

Front torso: 

lowest rib to iliac 

crest

5.9E-03 3.E-04 5.5E-03 4.E-05 6.E-04 2.E-05 2.E-05 4.E-05 7.E-04 2.E-05 2.E-05 1.2E-04 2.2E-03 6.E-05 6.E-05

Front torso: iliac 

crest to pubis

6.E-04 3.E-04 5.5E-03 4.E-05 6.E-04 2.E-05 2.E-05 4.E-05 7.E-04 2.E-05 2.E-05 1.2E-04 2.2E-03 6.E-05 6.E-05

Back torso: 

base of neck to 

mid-back

2.70E-01 1.35E-01 5.50E-02 1.40E-02 6.4E-03 3.36E-02 3.36E-02 1.54E-02 7.3E-03 3.85E-02 3.85E-02 4.62E-02 2.20E-02 1.16E-01 1.16E-01

Back torso: mid-

back to lowest 

rib

2.70E-01 1.35E-01 5.50E-02 1.40E-02 6.4E-03 3.36E-02 3.36E-02 1.54E-02 7.3E-03 3.85E-02 3.85E-02 4.62E-02 2.20E-02 1.16E-01 1.16E-01

Back torso: 

lowest rib to iliac 

crest

2.70E-01 1.35E-02 5.5E-03 1.40E-03 6.E-04 3.4E-03 3.4E-03 1.5E-03 7.E-04 3.9E-03 3.9E-03 4.6E-03 2.2E-03 1.16E-02 1.16E-02

Back torso: 

buttocks (Iliac 

crest and below)

2.70E-02 1.35E-02 5.5E-03 1.40E-03 6.E-04 3.4E-03 3.4E-03 1.5E-03 7.E-04 3.9E-03 3.9E-03 4.6E-03 2.2E-03 1.16E-02 1.16E-02

Right torso: 

base of neck to 

end of sternum

2.70E-01 1.35E-01 3.38E-01 1.40E-02 3.36E-02 2.E-04 3.36E-02 1.54E-02 3.85E-02 2.E-04 3.85E-02 4.62E-02 1.16E-01 6.E-04 1.16E-01

Right torso: end 

of sternum to 

lowest rib

2.70E-01 1.35E-01 3.38E-01 1.40E-02 3.36E-02 2.E-04 3.36E-02 1.54E-02 3.85E-02 2.E-04 3.85E-02 4.62E-02 1.16E-01 6.E-04 1.16E-01

Right torso: 

lowest rib to iliac 

crest

2.70E-01 1.35E-02 3.38E-02 1.40E-03 3.4E-03 2.E-05 3.4E-03 1.5E-03 3.9E-03 2.E-05 3.9E-03 4.6E-03 1.16E-02 6.E-05 1.16E-02

Right torso: iliac 

crest to pubis 

(right hip)

2.70E-02 1.35E-02 3.38E-02 1.40E-03 3.4E-03 2.E-05 3.4E-03 1.5E-03 3.9E-03 2.E-05 3.9E-03 4.6E-03 1.16E-02 6.E-05 1.16E-02
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Area of skin

PA 

1942–

1969

PA 

1970–

1974

LAT 

1970–

1974

PA 

1975–

1987

LAT 

1975–

1987

RAOb

1975–

1987

LAOb

1975–

1987

PA 

1988–

1990

LAT 

1988–

1990

RAOb

1988–

1990

LAOb

1988–

1990

PA 

1991

–1995

LAT 

1991–

1995

RAOb

1991–

1995

LAOb

1991–

1995

Left torso: base 

of neck to end of 

sternum

2.70E-01 1.35E-01 1.5E-03 1.40E-02 2.E-04 3.36E-02 2.E-04 1.54E-02 2.E-04 3.85E-02 2.E-04 4.62E-02 6.E-04 1.16E-01 6.E-04

Left torso: end 

of sternum to 

lowest rib

2.70E-01 1.35E-01 1.5E-03 1.40E-02 2.E-04 3.36E-02 2.E-04 1.54E-02 2.E-04 3.85E-02 2.E-04 4.62E-02 6.E-04 1.16E-01 6.E-04

Left torso: 

lowest rib to iliac 

crest

2.70E-01 1.35E-02 1.E-04 1.40E-03 2.E-05 3.4E-03 2.E-05 1.5E-03 2.E-05 3.9E-03 2.E-05 4.6E-03 6.E-05 1.16E-02 6.E-05

Left torso: iliac 

crest to pubis 

(Left hip)

2.70E-02 1.35E-02 1.E-04 1.40E-03 2.E-05 3.4E-03 2.E-05 1.5E-03 2.E-05 3.9E-03 2.E-05 4.6E-03 6.E-05 1.16E-02 6.E-05

Table 3-4. Skin dose (rem) from various chest projections, 1942 to present.

a (cont'd)

Area of skin

PA 

1996

–present

LAT 

1996–

present

RAOb

1996–

present

LAOb

1996–

present

Right front shoulder 2.4E-03 1.82E-01 1.4E-03 1.4E-03

Right back shoulder 7.00E-02 1.82E-01 1.82E-01 1.82E-01

Left front shoulder 2.4E-03 1.4E-03 1.4E-03 1.4E-03

Left back shoulder 7.00E-02 1.4E-03 1.82E-01 1.82E-01

Right upper arm to elbow 7.0E-03 1.82E-01 1.82E-02 1.82E-02

Left upper arm to elbow 7.0E-03 1.4E-03 1.82E-02 1.82E-02

Left hand 7.0E-03 1.82E-02 1.82E-02 1.82E-02

Right hand 7.0E-03 1.82E-02 1.82E-02 1.82E-02

Left elbow, forearm, wrist 7.0E-03 1.82E-02 1.82E-02 1.82E-02

Right elbow, forearm, wrist 7.0E-03 1.82E-02 1.82E-02 1.82E-02

Right side of head including ear and temple 7.0E-03 1.82E-02 1.E-04 1.82E-02

Left side of head including ear and temple 7.0E-03 1.82E-02 1.82E-02 1.E-04

Front left thigh 3.E-05 4.E-05 4.E-05 4.E-05

Back left thigh 3.E-05 4.E-05 4.E-05 4.E-05

Front right thigh 3.E-05 4.E-05 4.E-05 4.E-05

Back right thigh 3.E-05 4.E-05 4.E-05 4.E-05

Left knee and below 1.E-05 1.E-05 1.E-05 1.E-05

Right knee and below 1.E-05 1.E-05 1.E-05 1.E-05

Left side of face 3.9E-03 1.82E-02 1.82E-02 1.E-04

Right side of face 3.9E-03 1.82E-02 1.E-04 1.82E-02

Left side of neck 7.0E-03 1.82E-02 1.82E-02 1.E-04

Right side of neck 7.0E-03 1.82E-02 1.E-04 1.82E-02

Back of head 7.0E-03 1.82E-02 1.82E-02 1.82E-02

Front of neck 3.9E-03 1.82E-02 2.13E-02 2.13E-02

Back of neck 7.0E-03 1.82E-02 1.82E-02 1.82E-02

Front torso: base of neck to end of sternum 2.4E-03 4.56E-02 1.4E-03 1.4E-03

Front torso: end of sternum to lowest rib 2.4E-03 4.56E-02 1.4E-03 1.4E-03

Front torso: lowest rib to iliac crest 2.E-04 4.6E-03 1.E-04 1.E-04

Front torso: iliac crest to pubis 2.E-04 4.6E-03 1.E-04 1.E-04

Back torso: base of neck to mid-back 7.00E-02 4.56E-02 1.82E-01 1.82E-01

Back torso: mid-back to lowest rib 7.00E-02 4.56E-02 1.82E-01 1.82E-01

Back torso: lowest rib to iliac crest 7.0E-03 4.6E-03 1.82E-02 1.82E-02
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 

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Area of skin

PA 

1996

–present

LAT 

1996–

present

RAOb

1996–

present

LAOb

1996–

present

Back torso: buttocks (Iliac crest and below) 7.0E-03 4.6E-03 1.82E-02 1.82E-02

Right torso: base of neck to end of sternum 7.00E-02 1.82E-01 1.4E-03 1.82E-01

Right torso: end of sternum to lowest rib 7.00E-02 1.82E-01 1.4E-03 1.82E-01

Right torso: lowest rib to iliac crest 7.0E-03 1.82E-02 1.E-04 1.82E-02

Right torso: iliac crest to pubis (right hip) 7.0E-03 1.82E-02 1.E-04 1.82E-02

Left torso: base of neck to end of sternum 7.00E-02 1.4E-03 1.82E-01 1.4E-03

Left torso: end of sternum to lowest rib 7.00E-02 1.4E-03 1.82E-01 1.4E-03

Left torso: lowest rib to iliac crest 7.0E-03 1.E-04 1.82E-02 1.E-04

Left torso: iliac crest to pubis (Left hip) 7.0E-03 1.E-04 1.82E-02 1.E-04

a. Values less than 1 mrem shown to one significant digit. 

 If only one oblique chest X-ray is recorded, dose from the right anterior oblique (RAO) should be used, otherwise, dose reconstructors should assign dose from both.

b. Note that dose from the oblique chest(s) should only be included for asbestos workers.
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 30 of 109

4.0

Occupational environmental dose results from releases or direct radiation due to facility operations. 

Inhalation of environmental radionuclides results in internal dose to the whole body or body organs. 

The site profile analysis determined the internal dose for workers outside the facilities from air 

concentrations from releases from stacks and individual buildings. 

OCCUPATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL DOSE

The site profile preparers reviewed site environmental reports for data that would be useful in 

reconstructing ambient radiation levels. Ambient radiation dose rates include natural background 

radiation and sources at the facility. 

The laboratory used and created small amounts of radioactive material, created localized radiation 

areas with machines (X-ray machines and accelerators), and produced tritiated materials for wide 

distribution to other research facilities. Nuclear reactions were studied in the accelerators, which 

started on the site in the early 1930s as small devices (bench top) and progressed to specially built 

large buildings with controls and shielding. Workers and technicians who had access to the 

accelerators and experimental rooms had the highest risk and were, therefore, monitored for radiation 

exposure.

LBNL was involved in much of the discovery of the radiological properties of materials, and 

awareness of the hazards grew with each step in size and power of accelerator. The LBNL hillside 

site is small. The distance from the accelerators to the maximum exposed member of the public was 

less than 1,500 m. Documentation of the site boundary impact began in 1959 and continues today

(Stephens 1974).

Tritium was used in large quantities in the National Tritium Labeling Facility (NTLF), which began 

operation in the early 1980s. The NTLF ceased labeling operations in December 2001. The first 

phase of closure activities for the NTLF was completed in April 2002, and the second phase was 

completed in October 2002. Releases and doses to the personnel and public were well documented 

over the course of operations, and those practices continue today after shutdown. By the end of 

2002, emissions from the former NTLF were due primarily to low-level contamination in the building 

exhaust components that had yet not been removed. Potable water has always been supplied from 

off the site by the local utility.

Methods of measuring deposition and air concentrations have varied over the years in terms of 

technique and locations. A cursory review shows long-term interest in fallout. Fallout and naturally 

occurring radioactive materials dominate any deposition from onsite releases and resuspension. 

Radionuclides were either created on the site or purchased, and the large variety created an 

extensively diverse source term. However, except for tritium and accelerator-induced byproducts, 

these nuclides were present only in small quantities needed for research. Laboratories at LBNL were 

some of the first to use hoods and airflow to control exposure to hazardous material [11] (Thaxter 

1950a).

Interviews with the dosimetry staff indicated that every monitored worker has a dosimetry file that is 

accessible today. Those who were not monitored would have been exposed to external radiation 

from outside the well-designed shield walls and from releases through ventilation systems. In 

addition, these facilities were always being improved and were operated on an intermittent schedule. 

Concepts of long-term steady-state exposure are not consistent with the nature of this facility.

Table 4-1 lists the maximum external gamma and neutron radiation measurements in millirem per 

year. There is not sufficient data available to provide measured uncertainty. The values listed in the 

table are those documented in the annual LBNL environmental reports. Early interest was the 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 31 of 109

maximum possible dose from surveys (usually during accelerator runs) and analysis. In later years 

with better monitoring, improved shielding, and the development of as-low-as-reasonably-achievable 

(ALARA) policy, the reported doses fell dramatically [12]. The annual average measurements, as 

opposed to the maximum values, were at 50% of maximum or less [13]. It is reasonable to use 75% 

of the maximum as the likely value, and 25% of the maximum as the likely uncertainty as an estimate 

of unmonitored dose [14]. The on-site ambient external radiation doses should be assigned as a 

normal distribution with a standard deviation of 30 percent. 

The following is a description of how the estimates of external exposure were generated for the period 

before 1959 and for two recent years (2002 and 2004) for which measurements of "not detected" 

were reported.

The 2002 and 2004 estimates were based on averages of the 5 preceding years rounded to two 

significant digits.

As the number and power of accelerators grew on the site, exposures to unmonitored workers and the 

environment grew (Goldhaber 1981). Many of the earlier reports would not meet the expectations of 

today and often included values based on crude measurements and calculations with only enough 

precision to demonstrate that limits were not exceeded. The use of the first reported doses beginning 

in 1959 probably produces projected doses much greater than actual doses. These reported values 

form a basis for the dose estimates for the preceding years as described in the next three paragraphs 

[17]. 

An assumption of linear growth from 1942 to 1959 would indicate under-reported doses in the late 

1950s, which would be expected to be closer to the doses in the 1960s [18]. An assumption of the 

average dose reported from 1959 to 2004 would overestimate the doses in the 1940s [19]. This 

Table 4-1. External gamma and neutron radiation.

a,b,c, d

Year

Dose 

(mrem/yr) Reference Year

Dose 

(mrem/yr) Reference

1942 140 -- 1974 28.3 Stephens and Cantelow (1975)

1943 150 -- 1975 95.87 Cantelow (1976)

1944 170 -- 1976 5.35 Stephens (1977)

1945 190 -- 1977 5.3 Stephens (1978)

1946 210 -- 1978 7.29 Schleimer (1979)

1947 230 -- 1979 10.1 Schleimer (1980)

1948 250 -- 1980 4 Schleimer (1981)

1949 280 -- 1981 15.1 Schleimer (1982)

1950 310 -- 1982 24.5 Schleimer (1983)

1951 350 -- 1983 5.8 Schleimer (1984)

1952 390 -- 1984 5.4 Schleimer (1985)

1953 430 -- 1985 1.8 Schleimer (1986)

1954 480 -- 1986 3.5 Schleimer (1987)

1955 530 -- 1987 3.5 Schleimer (1988)

1956 590 -- 1988 1.9 Schleimer (1989)

1957 660 -- 1989 2.6 Schleimer and Pauer (1990)

1958 730 -- 1990 7 Schleimer and Pauer (1991)

1959 810 Patterson (1962) 1991 2 Pauer, Schleimer, and Javendal (1992)

1960 650 Patterson (1962) 1992 2.3 Balgobin et al. (1993)

1961 450 Patterson (1962) 1993 2.96 University of California (1994)

1962 312 LRL (1963) 1994 1.53 LBNL (1995a)

1963 173 Lichliter (1964) 1995 2.1 LBNL (1996)

1964 113 Patterson (1965) 1996 3.3 LBNL (1997)

1965 74.6 Patterson (1966) 1997 2 LBNL (1998)

1966 124 LRL (1967) 1998 5 LBNL (1999)

1967 76 LRL (1968) 1999 4 LBNL (2000)

1968 132 LRL (1969) 2000 4 LBNL (2001)
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 32 of 109

Year

Dose 

(mrem/yr) Reference Year

Dose 

(mrem/yr) Reference

1969 291 Kelly (1970) 2001 0.65 LBNL (2002)

1970 173 LRL (1971) 2002 3.2 LBNL (2003)

1971 283 Kelly (1972) 2003 0.2 LBNL (2004)

1972 57 Cantelow (1973) 2004 0.28 LBNL (2005a)

1973 28 Thomas (1974)

a. No values were reported from 1942 to 1958; the values provided are projections.

b. Highest of perimeter or onsite data was used. In general, due to the terrain of the facility, the perimeter readings are higher than the 

local onsite readings. This is due to the small size of the site, elevation differences, and skyshine with more shielding in the walls than 

roofs of the accelerator buildings. The dose values reflect a 365-d 24-hr measurement less background [15].

c. Energies are 30 to 250 keV for photons and 0.1 to 2 MeV for neutrons. Neutron component of dose is typically ≥70% of total [16].

d. The on-site ambient external radiation doses for 2004 can be extended out to later years.

analysis estimated the doses based on a compromise using a parabolic curve that begins near 

background in 1942 and peaks with the reported value in 1959 [20]. 

The parabolic curve estimates provide sufficient dose for the workers in the 1950s and more 

reasonable doses in the first years. The average value in these estimates (0.348 rem/yr) is four times 

the average reported (0.087 rem/yr) from 1959 to 2003. This provides an ample margin to ensure that 

the dose is not underestimated [21]. 

In Thomas et al. (2000) it was determined that 1959 had the highest annual dose of any year at LBNL. 

In this report doses were revised based on modern knowledge of both the energy spectrum of 

accelerator produced neutrons and the appropriate coefficient functions for different irradiation 

geometries. For the years 1959 through 1975 the revised values were approximately one-half the 

values shown in Table 4-1. Values were also estimated back through calculation to 1954 when the 

Bevatron became operational. These estimated values are consistently lower than those shown in 

Table 4-1. Using the higher values shown in Table 4-1 is favorable to claimants without being 

excessively conservative, i.e. a factor of about two times. The on-site ambient external radiation 

doses for 2004 can be extended out to later years.

Table 4-2 lists the maximum site-wide annual median intakes in becquerels per year via inhalation. 

The data were derived from the LBNL annual environmental reports; the maximum reported values 

were used. Water supplies are from East Bay Municipal Utility District off the site, and no indication of 

soil contamination exceeding a background level has been found, so there would have been no doses 

from intakes from soil and drinking water. LBNL attributes gross alpha results to 232Th and gross beta 

results to 90Sr for the purposes of dose calculation; these assumptions should be made. Thorium is 

representative of naturally occurring alpha emitters, and strontium is representative of the beta 

component of fallout. By using these nuclides in the calculations, the resulting doses would not 

underestimate the actual doses [22]. Missing data are filled in with the estimates as explained below 

and are based on the available maximum observed values in the annual environmental reports.

• Alpha: Reported alpha concentrations appear to be independent of operational effects of the 

Laboratory and relatively constant over time. Therefore, a good representation of the alpha 

concentrations and intake is the average of all the measurements, which results in an intake of 

0.43 Bq/yr [23].

• Beta: The principal contributor to gross beta concentrations is fallout from atmospheric 

nuclear weapons testing. The later years of missing data were assigned a value of 10 Bq/yr 

for gross beta intake [24]. This represents a modest overestimate of the intake. The intakes 

in the early years before 1961 were estimated to be reduced at a rate that would bring the 

intake in 1942 to values close to the most recent observations. This would account for the 

gradual rise in beta concentrations due to weapons testing and the effects (if any) of increased 

nuclide inventory on the site and increased power levels of the accelerators [25].
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 33 of 109

• Tritium: Tritium releases, concentrations, and subsequent intakes are related to accelerator 

and NTLF operations. Annual data are available from 1974 to 2003. The value for 2004 

(2,500 Bq/yr) was chosen to conform with the trend in previous years and average ratio to 14C 

(see 14C discussion below) [26]. The years before 1974 were trended downward back to 1942 

to values consistent with recent measurements, which are the lowest values observed. The 

assumption is that the site tritium concentration before operations began was no higher than 

the lowest observed concentrations. This is consistent with the trend of accelerator 

development and the operation of the NTLF [27]. 

• Carbon-14: Carbon-14 releases, concentrations, and intakes are related to accelerator 

operations. The average ratio of 14C to tritium in the years during which both were reported is 

0.155 [28]. When one data point is missing, this value is used to estimate missing data in later 

years. For the years before 1974, a trend identical to the tritium estimates was employed.

The doses from maximum site-wide annual median intakes should be assigned as a constant 

distribution. Due to their close proximity, the LBNL maximum site-wide annual median intakes can 

also be assigned for the buildings listed as being on the Berkeley campus. The maximum site-wide 

annual median intakes for 2004 can be extended out to later years.

Table 4-2. Maximum site-wide annual median intakes (Bq/yr) via inhalation.

a,b,c,d,e

Year

Respiration rate: 2,400 m3/yr (2,000 hrs/yr)

Year

Respiration rate: 2,400 m3/yr (2,000 hrs/yr)

Gross

alpha

Gross

beta Tritium C-14

Gross

alpha

Gross

beta Tritium C-14

1942 0.43 12 4,900 760 1974 0.444 32.856 888,000 17,760

1943 0.43 15 5,800 890 1975 0.6216 26.4 213,120 30,240

1944 0.43 17 6,800 1,100 1976 0.5328 71.04 328,800 239,760

1945 0.43 20 8,000 1,200 1977 0.3552 46.08 710,400 79,920

1946 0.43 24 9,400 1,500 1978 0.444 24.96 2,222,400 40,080

1947 0.43 28 11,000 1,700 1979 0.6216 20.424 1,687,200 32,856

1948 0.43 33 13,000 2,000 1980 0.5328 21.312 62,160 31,080

1949 0.43 39 15,000 2,400 1981 0.444 41.76 97,680 17,760

1950 0.43 46 18,000 2,800 1982 0.3552 12.432 266,400 26,640

1951 0.43 54 21,000 3,300 1983 0.1776 9.768 355,200 26,640

1952 0.43 63 25,000 3,900 1984 0.2664 12.432 8,880,000 2,664,000

1953 0.43 75 29,000 4,500 1985 0.3552 12.432 3,720,000 97,680

1954 0.43 88 34,000 5,300 1986 0.07104 4.44 1,065,600 35,520

1955 0.43 100 40,000 6,300 1987 0.444 17.76 444,000 35,520

1956 0.43 120 48,000 7,400 1988 0.444 14.208 266,400 17,760

1957 0.43 140 56,000 8,700 1989 0.7992 11.544 976,800 26,640

1958 0.43 170 66,000 10,000 1990 0.5328 12.432 266,400 35,520

1959 0.43 200 78,000 12,000 1991 0.444 1.5984 444,000 17,760

1960 0.43 230 91,000 14,000 1992 0.5328 15.096 631,200 17,760

1961 0.3432 273.6 110,000 17,000 1993 0.444 14.208 427,200 31,200

1962 0.0888 511.2 130,000 20,000 1994 3.6408 6.216 213,120 142,080

1963 0.0888 849.6 150,000 23,000 1995 0.43 10 184,800 8,160

1964 0.0888 198.96 170,000 27,000 1996 0.43 10 13,200 2100

1965 0.0888 35.52 210,000 32,000 1997 0.43 10 26,640 4100

1966 0.0888 12.432 240,000 38,000 1998 0.43 10 21,384 3300

1967 0.0888 29.28 280,000 44,000 1999 0.552 3.12 2,592 2,592

1968 0.0888 28.32 330,000 52,000 2000 0.43 10 12,168 1900

1969 0.0888 17.76 390,000 61,000 2001 0.43 10 11,208 1700

1970 0.444 44.4 460,000 72,000 2002 0.43 10 2,952 500

1971 0.444 23.088 550,000 85,000 2003 0.43 10 528 100

1972 0.0888 7.104 640,000 100,000 2004 0.48 3.6 2500 384

1973 0.07104 1.8648 750,000 120,000

a. The site is so small that the environmental samples are representative of the site as a whole.
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 34 of 109

b. Highest of perimeter or onsite data was used. In general, due to the terrain of the facility, the perimeter readings are higher 

than the local onsite readings due to the small size of the site, elevation differences, and the height of the stack release points. 

Since 1964, the maximum reported value for the year was used except for 1986 because of the inordinate contribution from 

Chernobyl. Earlier years showed significant fluctuation due to fallout; because of its location on the west coast, LBNL routinely 

transmitted data on fallout to the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.

c. Estimated values in italics

d. Data from environmental reports listed in Table 4-2 for the appropriate year. The references are included in the References 

section of this document and are available from the Site Research Database or at www.lbl.gov.

e. The maximum site-wide annual median intakes for 2004 can be extended out to later years.

5.0

The LBNL bioassay records show that the selection of personnel for bioassay and the radionuclides 

for analysis have been based on the work performed by the individual. Selection of employees to be 

included in the bioassay program was typically made by the Laboratory’s Safety Services Department 

through its staff of monitors. The monitors were directly aware of the radionuclides used throughout 

the Laboratory and were therefore best qualified to select employees at risk for potential internal 

exposure. In the absence of specific information in the claim records, unmonitored workers who did 

not work with uncontained radioactive materials should be assigned environmental data. Job 

categories for which it is more likely that justification exists for assigning environmental internal doses 

because of the absence of a likelihood of exposure to airborne radionuclides from sources in the 

workplace can be found in ORAUT-OTIB-0014, Assignment of Environmental Internal Doses for

Employees Not Exposed to Airborne Radionuclides in the Workplace (ORAUT 2004a). For the SEC 

period, environmental intakes should be assigned if the worker was not monitored. The 

environmental internal dose assigned during the SEC is considered to be a partial dose estimate.

OCCUPATIONAL INTERNAL DOSE

Bioassay measurement results were noted in data captured site records as early as 1946. The 

earliest bioassay results are in vitro measurements. In vitro samples were primarily routine urine 

samples but even the earliest records showed measurement results for feces and sputum. Methods 

used to analyze the samples varied but relied primarily on standard methods (McClelland 1958) in use 

at other laboratories such as Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL). Bioassay monitoring programs 

were in place beginning in 1947. However, in the early years monitoring was performed on an asneeded basis and was not covered by a formal documented program (LRL undated). From 1952 

through 1956 bioassay analyses were performed by Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory for LBNL. In 

1956, arrangements were made for LBNL bioassay to be done at the Lawrence Livermore National 

Laboratory. This arrangement continued until 1959 (LRL undated). LBNL started its own bioassay 

program in 1960. The extent of the program at the outset is unclear. Routine bioassay monitoring of 

employees was initiated about 1961 (Howe 1961a). By 1962, the internal dosimetry program at LBNL 

was fully operational and has remained so through the present day. LBNL began sequentially 

numbering all of their bioassay results in 1960 and continued this practice through at least 1991. Hard 

copies of apparently all bioassay results were captured, beginning with sample number 1, which was 

collected in January 1960. This data has been computerized, and along with any bioassay 

information provided in the claimant records, is available to the dose reconstructor for dose 

reconstruction. Beginning in 1996, the bioassay program changed such that personnel were selected 

for operational bioassay based on the radionuclide authorization program and reviews of work 

performed. The program currently uses these operational bioassays to evaluate worker exposure or, 

most often, to verify the absence of internal exposures. This program was started because so few 

worker groups were expected to exceed the 100 mrem/yr of internal exposure required to put them 

into a routine monitoring program [29].

Table 5-1 lists the in vitro types of bioassay, the periods, and the frequencies of monitoring. Table 5-2 

lists the in vitro sample types and the analysis codes found in the records. 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 35 of 109

Table 5-1. Internal dose control program (in vitro).

Monitoring type Routine/special Period Frequency

Urine, feces, and sputum from 1 employee assayed for 

alpha countsa

Special 1946 (b)

Urine, feces, and blood from a few employees were sent to 

ANL-E for analysisa

Unknown, 

probably special

1947 (b)

All employees included in medical program that included 

chest X-ray, hematology, and urinalysisa

Routine 1947 Periodic

Began developing a bioassay program through LANLa Unknown 1950 (b)

Samples were sent to LLNL for analysisa Unknown 1956–1959 (b)

Bioassay laboratory was started and presumably routine 

urine samples were analyzeda Routine 1960 (b)

Nasal smears appeared to be obtained as a matter of 

routine following spills or after hood filter changesc Special 1957–1960 (b)

Urine 24-hr, employees working with transuranic elements, 

Sr-90, and radiumd

Routine 1961 Quarterly

Urine 24-hr, employees working with activity but not defined 

by the quarterly frequencyd

Routine 1961 Annual

Urine 24-hr, employees with less potential for exposured Routine 1961 Every 5 yr

Urine 24-hr, radiochemists and Health Chemistry personnel 

more highly exposed to alpha emitterse

Routine 1962 Semiannual

Urine 24-hr, radiochemists and Health Chemistry 

personnel, selected members of building trades frequently 

assigned work in active areas, and selected administrative 

personnel whose exposure is essentially zero and who 

should be considered controlse

Routine 1962 Annual

Urine 24-hr, Sr-90f Special 1962 Weekly

Semiweekly

Feces [32] Special 1962 Special

Blood [33] Special 1962 Special

Urine 24-hrg Routine 1974 Annualc

Urine, feces, sputumg Special 1974 Specialc

Urineh Routine 1975 Annual

Fecesh Special 1975 Special

Breath, radioactive carbonh 1975 Special

Urine spot, H-3 [34] 1983 (b)

Urine spot, C-14 1993 (b)

Urine, 24-hr [35] Routinei 1995–present (b)

Feces [36] Speciali 1995–present (b)

Urine, spot [37] 1995–present (b)

a. LRL (undated).

b. Frequency not applicable or not available.

c. Nasal smear alpha and beta counts were documented following numerous spills in Building 70 between 1957 and 1961. 

The radionuclides involved in the spill were sometimes documented: Pu, Am, Pu-240, Pu-239, Am-241, Cm-244, Ru106, Ac-227, and Tb-161 (Kaufman 1957; Alloway 1957; LRL 1958a,b,c,d, 1959a,b, 1960, 1961). 

d. Howe (1961a) identifies that LBNL should establish a “full-fledged bioassay program.” An attachment to the 

memorandum, “Bioassay Program Features,” identified routine scheduling. It is not clear if the quarterly frequency was 

implemented. Review of an electronic file of historical samples shows a number of employees provided routine urine 

samples more frequently than annually but it might have been at the discretion of the laboratory staff based on type of 

work rather than a scheduled frequency. 

e. Soule (1962).

f. Selected individuals performing Sr-90 work were followed at weekly or semiweekly intervals from March 1962 through 

the end of 1962 (Low-Beer 1963). It is not clear that this was the practice throughout the history of the Laboratory. 

g. Hartsough (1974) indicates that the frequency for bioassay can be increased for employees who show a consistent 

history of positive bioassay results. Special monitoring was performed at the request of the employee or Safety 

Services of Health Physics. Examples of cause for special bioassay included fire involving radioactive materials, rupture 

of containment devices, air sample results at or above the maximum permissible concentration (MPC), high surfaceswipe activity, and skin cuts or punctures while working with radioactive material. 

h. Pickler (1975).
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 36 of 109

i. Routine measurements are required only when the relative hazard of an operation shows a likelihood of incurring an 

intake that would result in a committed effective dose equivalent greater than 100 mrem. LBNL uses routine monitoring 

but relies mainly on “supplementary” bioassay programs. Routine programs are implemented when the committed 

effective dose equivalent is expected to be above 100 mrem. LBNL uses the quantity thresholds published in NUREG1400 for relatively heavy elements (Hickey et al. 1993), and the quantity thresholds in the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory 

Commission Regulatory Guide Series for H-3 and radioiodines, to establish the need for routine bioassays. 

Supplementary bioassays are implemented at thresholds below the 100-mrem guideline. Threshold values used at 

LBNL are provided in AlMahamid (2005).

Table 5-2. Sample type (in vitro).

a

Routine 

monitoring type Sample type Period Frequency

Urine 24-hr RU = Routine urine 1960–1997 Annual

Urine SU = Special urine 1960–1997 (b)

Blood SB =Special blood 1965–1988 (b)

Fecal SF = Special fecal 1960–1980 (b)

Nasal SN = Special nasal 1957–1960 

1969–1989

(b)

Sputum SS = Special sputum 1967–1974 (b)

Urine TU = Tritium urine 1968–1995 (b)

a. SB, SN, SS, and TU sample types should be verified. These codes are 

seen throughout the history of the records. In some cases the code is a 

best guess based on Szalinski (2006) and review of sample analysis. Two 

other codes (SH and SL) were noted in the files only once each and are 

therefore not in the table. The periods are generally taken from the 

historical database of records. 

b. Frequency not applicable or not available.

In vivo monitoring consisted primarily of whole-body counts (WBCs) performed at LBNL from 1960 to 

1996. The WB counter used throughout this period was at the Donner laboratory. It was designed, 

built, and operated by Dr. Thornton Sargent, III, who modeled it after the counter at Argonne National 

Laboratory–East (ANL-E). The WBC was in an 8- by 9- by 6-ft room, shielded by walls of 6-in. “preatomic age” steel lined with 0.125 in. of lead. The main detector was a 9.375- by 4-in. NaI(Tl) crystal 

positionable in any geometry over a 1-m arc bed or an Argonne chair. The large crystal was used for 

counting energies above 50 keV. The WBC was equipped with a probe that could be mounted with 2-

in. diameter crystals either 0.125 or 0.25 in. thick for counting low-energy gamma-emitting isotopes 

such as 125I. The 1960 calibration of the counter was performed by “performing studies in which 

patients were injected with known amounts of various radioactive isotopes, and then immediately 

counted...” (Vargha 1996a).

After 1996, LBNL no longer performed WBCs but rather relied on Lawrence Livermore National 

Laboratory (LLNL) for occasional monitoring. Table 5-3 lists the in vivo monitoring and data storage 

from 1960 to the present.

Table 5-3. Internal dose control program (in vivo).

Monitoring type and storage Period Frequency

WBCa

Records storage media:b

1. Alphabetically by individual, spectrum printouts are 

on paper tape

2. Electronic magnetic tape cassettes

Routine 1960–1983 Annual

Accident 1960–1983 (c)

Outside referral 1960–1983 (c)

Health chemistry 1960–1983 Annual

WBCa

Records storage media:b

1. Alphabetically by individual

2. Electronic 8-in. diskettes

Routine 1983–1996 Annual

Accident 1983–1996 (c)

Outside referral 1983–1996 (c)

Special studies 1983–1996 (c)

WBC at LLNLd Special 1996–present (c)

a. WBCs were performed at LBNL from 1960 to 1996. 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 37 of 109

b. Vargha (1996b).

c. Frequency not applicable or not available. 

d. AlMahamid (2005, Appendix 2). LBNL employee Jim Floyd indicated that after 1996 WBCs were no longer performed at 

LBNL and that LBNL relied on LLNL (Szalinski 2006). The Laboratory also moved away from routine annual monitoring 

around 1996 and relied on the authorization process for use of radionuclides and knowledge of the work to specify 

bioassay requirements and follow-up or periodic bioassays to verify the absence of internal exposures (Szalinski 2006). 

Table 5-4 summarizes the detection limits found in available documents for in vitro bioassays. The 

minimum detectable activities (MDAs) in Table 5-4 were taken from the analysis results. In some 

cases, the analysis method was not available and the detection limit was not specified. Some of the 

records reviewed showed results for any positive measurement, some simply noted "neg." The 

original bioassay cards do include values for negative results in many, though not all, instances. 

Table 5-6 lists the method codes used to identify analysis methods for bioassay samples. These 

codes were obtained from a computer listing of the analysis results [30].

Table 5-5 summarizes the detection limits found for in vivo bioassays. Because the WB counter was 

the same system for most of the history for LBNL, there is not much variation. Count times were 

typically 15 min but individual counts might have been increased to obtain lower detection limits [31]. 

The count time is noted in the individual records.

Copies of results from all individual bioassays were distributed to the employee, the medical files 

(Medical Services) and Safety Services. Vargha (1996b) contains information on the records for the 

WBCs between 1960 and 1996 and notes that the electronic files from 1960 to 1996 were available. 

Since 1946 air sampling was performed routinely using the “filter queen approach” (Thaxter 1950b), 

gloveboxes to contain contamination were in routine use (Browne 1950; Thaxter 1950b, 1953, 1958), 

and air samples showed activity levels that were low compared to the permissible levels (Thaxter 

1958). This 1958 document noted that between 1948 and 1958 breathing zone air samplers were 

assessed daily in all operating laboratories and only an average of 3 months of approximately 2,000 

monthly air samples showed air concentrations near the maximum permissible concentration (MPC) 

for occupational exposure found in NCRP Report No. 52 (NCRP 1953). Also noted was that between 

1948 and 1958 no air samples had significant airborne concentrations of long-lived alpha emitters 

approaching ten percent of the amount indicated as contributing a 1-wk dose to man (300 mrem/wk). 

The Laboratory’s work was devoted to fundamental research on new elements, new isotopes, or 

properties of already known isotopes (Thaxter 1958). An important consideration at LBNL was that 

contamination could invalidate weeks of expensive research work and nuisance contamination was 

several orders of magnitude lower than the MPCs (Thaxter 1953). Air sample filter paper analysis 

results were compared to published tolerance levels for the radionuclide of concern (Thaxter 1950b). 

Tolerance levels were the 1949 Chalk River Tolerances (MPCs for radionuclides in air) (Saunders 

1950). 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 

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Table 5-4. In vitro detection limits.

a

Radionuclide Period

Sample 

typea Method/description MDA

Gross alpha 1957–1961 N Wet ashed (HNO3 + H2SO4) 60-min count time.b Method use of 3N HCl is also noted 

in 1957 records (Alloway 1957).

1 dpm

Gross alpha 

Isotopes of thorium, 

plutonium, curium, 

actinium, and

neptunium

1960–1969 U Livermore method without modification.c,d Coprecipitation of the activity with BiPO4.

Sometime later the method was changed to lanthanum fluoride coprecipitation and the 

MDA improved to 0.2 dpm/24-hr urine.e

Method descriptions note that uranium, radium, and polonium are not detected by this 

method (Author unknown, no date). (Method Code 10)

0.3 dpm/24-hr urine 

(0.15 pCi/24-hr urine)

Gamma emitters

Gross alpha (assumed 

to include isotopes of 

thorium, plutonium, 

curium, actinium, and 

neptunium)

Gross beta (assumed to 

include Sr/Y-90, Sr-89, 

Ba/La-140, Ce/Pr-144, 

and fission products) 

1969–present U or F Analysis of 24-hr urine sample.f Preparation of the sample by alkaline phosphate 

precipitation to eliminate monovalent cations. The ash from the alkaline phosphate 

precipitation is suspended in 10 mL of 2N HNO3. The whole sample is counted by 

gamma spectroscopy using a 4-in. NaI crystal and a 400-channel PHA (gamma: 

Method Code 04). One-fifth of the sample is then plated on aluminum for counting 

gross beta activity in a Nuclear-Chicago gas-flow proportional counter (gross beta: 

method code 50). The remaining four-fifths of the sample is processed by bismuth 

phosphate and lanthanum fluoride coprecipitation and counted for gross activity in the 

Nuclear-Chicago gas-flow proportional counter (gross alpha: Method Code 10).

Gamma 10 nCi

Alpha 0.1 pCi

Beta 1 pCi

Gross beta 1957–1961 N Wet ashed (HNO3 + H2SO4) 60-min count time.b Method use of 3N HCl is also noted 

in 1957 records (Alloway 1957).

30 dpm

Gross beta, Sr/Y-90, 

Sr-89, Ba/La-140, 

Ce/Pr-144, and fission 

products

1960–1969 U LANL method without modification. Phosphate precipitation. The method in 

McClelland (1958) describes that radionuclides include Sr/Y-90, Sr-89, Ba/La-140, 

Ce/Pr-144, and fission products. Another reference (Author unknown, no date) notes 

that protactinium is not detected by this method. (Method Code 50)c,d

5.1 dpm/24 hr urine 

(1968)

2 dpm/24 hr urine (1969)

Am-241, Pu-239 1962 Column chromatography, electroprecipitation, and PHAg 1962 was the only reference 

to this method.

Not specified

Am-241, Am-243 1995–present U Alpha spectrometry 0.02 pCi

1995–present F Alpha spectrometry 0.02 pCi

Bk-249 1995–present U Gross beta or alpha spectrometry 0.02 pCi

C-14 1968–1993 U Sample is decolorized using activated charcoal and counted on a liquid scintillation 

counter. (Method Code 02)

5.0 nCi/L (1974)

1993–present U C-14 was listed in LBNL (1995b) but the method was not specified. 2.0 nCi/L (1993)

Cm-243, Cm-244, 

Cm-246, Cm-248, 

2005–present U or F Method not specified. 0.02 pCi/sample

Cf-252 1965–1995 U or F Gross alpha using LLNL method: Coprecipitation of the activity with BiPO4. 0.3 dpm/24-hr urine 

Cf-252, Cm-244 1968 Alpha PHA was used to indicate the relative ratio of Cf-252:Cm-244. Not specified

Cf-249, Cf-252 1995–present U or F Method not specified. 0.02 pCi

Fe-55, Fe-59 1995–present Method not specified. Not specified

H-3 1968–1982 U Liquid scintillation counting (Method Code 03) 0.02 μCi/L

1982–1995 U 0.01 μCi/L

1995–present U 4.5 pCi/sample

I-125 1980–1984 U Gamma spectroscopy (Method Code 05) 0.02 nCi/L

Na-22, Na-24 1995–present Method not specified. Not specified

Np-237, NP-239 1995–2005 U Method not specified. 0.05 pCi of Np-237
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 

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Radionuclide Period

Sample 

typea Method/description MDA

2005–present U or F Method not specified. 0.02 pCi/sample

P-32, P-33 1963–1995 U Ammonium phosphomolybdate precipitation (Method Code 71) 20 pCi/L

1995–present U or F Method not specified. 1.5 pCi

Protactinium 1960 Method not specified (1960 only year noted for protactinium). Not specified

2005–present 

(Pa-231)

U or F Method not specified. 0.02 pCi/sample

Pu-238, Pu-239 1995–present U or F Method not specified. 0.02 pCi

Pu-241 2005–present U or F Method not specified. 0.02 pCi/sample

Rare earths (primarily 

Pm-147)

1961 U Method not specified (1961 only year noted). 3 dpm/24-hr urine

Ra-226 1995–present U Method not specified. 0.1 pCi/L not listed in 

LBNL 1995b but assumed

h

Sulfur

S-35

1962–1992 U or F Urine analysis and fecal analysis. (Method Code 52) 0.2 nCi/L (1982)

1992–present U Barium sulfate precipitation 0.1 nCi/L (1992)

Strontium

Sr-90, Sr-89

1961–1995 Oak Ridge method of ion exchange chromatography (Sunderman and Townley 1960). 

(Method Code 51)

Not specified

Thorium 1995–2005 U Method not specified. Not listed in LBNL 1995b 

assume 0.1 pCi/Lh

2005–present U or F Method not specified. 0.02 pCi/sample

Uranium 1961–1988 U LANL method of solvent extraction with dibutyl phosphate (McClelland 1958). 

(Method Code 11)

0.15 dpm/24-hr urine

1988–1995 U Anion exchange chromatography 0.15 dpm/24 hr urine

1995–2005 U Method not specified. Not listed in LBNL 

(1995b); use previous 

MDA 0.15 dpm/24-hr 

urine.

1995–2005 F Method not specified. Not listed; use 

1 pCi/sampleh

2005–present U or F Method not specified. 0.02 pCi/sample

a. Blanks in this table indicate not applicable or no data available. Sample types: N= nasal smears, U=urine, F=Fecal.

b. LRL (1958b).

c. Low-Beer (1962) and McClelland (1958).

d. Howe (1961b).

e. Author unknown (no date).

f. Patterson, Low-Beer, and Sargent (1969). Although this 1969 reference specifies a 10-nCi detection limit for gamma emitters, numerous bioassay records on the NIOSH-Office of 

Compensation Analysis and Support Claims Tracking System (NOCTS) showed a gamma detection limit of 30 dpm/specimen (13 pCi/specimen). Personnel performing dose 

reconstruction should use the MDA specified with the results.

g. Low-Beer (1963).

h. When an MDA was not specified for the radionuclides listed in the LBNL TBD for internal dosimetry (LBNL 1995b), the value from ANSI HPS N13.30, Table C.4 was used and assumed 

to be conservative. 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 40 of 109

Table 5-5. In vivo detection limits.

a

Radionuclide Method/description Period MDA

Gamma-emitting 

radionuclides 

50 keV–2 MeV

(including thyroid 

counts for I-131, 

I-123)

Be-7, Na-22,24, 

Mn-54, Ni-57,63, Fe55,59, Co-57,58,60, 

Zn-65

WBC.b The Donner WB counter was an ANL-E type, with 

a 6-in. steel shield. The individual sits in an inclined chair 

and is counted by a 9- by-4- in. by 9.375-in. NaI(Tl) 

crystal. The gamma pulses were analyzed by a 400-

channel PHA, calibrated at 5 keV/PHA, for a 0–2.0 MeV 

spectrum range. Between 1960 and 1983, data were 

recorded on printed paper tape, which was then 

keypunched for computer analysis. Calibration of the 

area under the photopeaks to yield microcuries of body 

burden was obtained from the spectra of medical patients 

injected with known quantities of short-lived radionuclides 

with various gamma-ray energies. Count time was 

routinely 15 min, but later references showed longer 

count times when lower MDAs or better counting 

statistics were needed and tolerated by the subject.

1960–1996 1–10 nCi for 

the nuclides 

listed.

Assume 1 

nCi for I-123 

and I-125.

Assume 10 

nCi for other 

listed 

nuclides.

Gamma-emitting 

radionuclides <50 keV 

(e.g., I-125)

WBC when count was performed using smaller (2-in.-

diameter by 0.25-in.-thick)b detector.

WBCs were also noted to identify the presence of highenergy beta emitters such as P-32 and Y-90, presumably 

through increases in the Compton continuum due to 

bremsstrahlung.c

1960–1996 10 nCi for I125d

Am-241, Am-243 Lung count for Np-239 [38] 1995–1996 50 pCi

F-18 WBC [39] 1995–1996 640 pCi

P-32 WBC (only one count for P-32 found in NOCTS) [40] 1971–1996 1E5 pCi

a. Blanks in this table indicate not applicable or no data available.

b. Patterson, Low-Beer, and Sargent (1969). 

c. Vargha (1996a).

d. A specific MDA for I-125 was not found. Vargha (1996b) specifies that the recommended count times produced MDAs 

for most isotopes in the range of 1 nCi. Based on the energy and photon yield for I-125, 10 nCi was assumed here.

Table 5-6. Method codes and description of units [41].

Method code Description of units

Radionuclides 

reported with results

1 dpm/sample None listed

2 nCi/L 

dpm/g C (only one sample result observed was reported in dpm/g C)

C-14

3 μCi/L

nCi/L (only a few samples were reported in nCi/L

H-3

4 nCi/L I-125 (gamma 

emitters)

5 nCi/L I-125, Sr-85, Cr-51

pCi/L Cs-137

6 nCi/L I-125

10 dpm/d Gross alpha

dpm/L (one sample) Gross alpha

μCi/L (one sample) H-3

11 dpm/d U-238

14 Dpm None listed

15 dpm/d None listed

16 (a)

17 (a)

18 (a)

19 (a)

50 dpm/d, dpm/L Gross beta

51 dpm/d Sr-90
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 41 of 109

Method code Description of units

Radionuclides 

reported with results

52 nCi/L S-35

54 (a)

55 nCi/L Ca-45

71 nCi/L P-32

a. Codes 16, 17, 18, 19, and 54 were observed in a computer listing of assays but there were no results or radionuclides 

reported with these codes. 

Additional table notes:

1. These Method Codes are seen throughout the bioassay records from 1960 to 1996, LRL (1965-1990).

Similar documentation of the low airborne concentration levels can be found in a 1953 document that 

refers to the previous 6 yr of air sample data (back to 1947) (Thaxter 1953). This document noted 

that daily breathing zone air samples outside the gloveboxes between 1947 and 1953 showed all 

samples to be below 5 × 10-11 μCi/cm3 beta/gamma. This document also noted the vigorous attempts 

to achieve no detectable airborne contamination (~2 dpm/ft3

) for long-lived transuranic alpha emitters.

Table 5-7 lists radionuclides used in each facility. Information on the compounds was very limited and 

therefore not included in the table. A few WBC records contained some information about the 

compound, but most were noted with “unknown” under the compound heading. 

Table 5-7. Radionuclidesa,b and fraction activitya by facility.

Current 

building no. Building activity and compounds Radionuclide Fraction

1 Donner Laboratory (1961–present) C-14 4.28E-01

H-3 2.29E-01

I-125 2.31E-01

P-32 2.57E-02

S-35 8.55E-02

Alpha 1.41E-04

Beta 8.44E-04

3 Calvin Laboratory C-14 4.40E-03

H-3 5.37E-02

P-32 8.59E-02

P-33 1.77E-01

S-35 6.79E-01

4 (Nuclides obtained from 1977, 1979 worker bioassay lists) C-14

H-3

P-32

S-35

6, 16, 52 6: 184-in. Cyclotron (1957)

Advanced Light Source (present)

16: Sherwood Laboratory (1961)

Accelerator and Fusion Research (present)

52: General research (1961)

Accelerator and Fusion Research (present)

Radionuclides listed without a radionuclide fraction specified were 

obtained from a list of potential sources produced by accelerators 

(Building 6) identified in Patterson, Low-Beer, and Sargent (1969)c

U-238 2.90E-04

N-13 9.93E-01

O-15 5.19E-03

Ar-41 1.38E-03

Be-7

Co-57

Co-58

Co-60

Fe-55

Fe-59

Mn-54

Na-22

Na-24

Ni-57

Ni-63
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 42 of 109

Current 

building no. Building activity and compounds Radionuclide Fraction

Zn-65

10 Biomedical research (1986)

(nuclides obtained from 1977, 1979, 1982, 1983, 1986 worker 

bioassay lists)

C-14

Cr-51

H-3

P-32

S-35

Beta-gamma

15 (Nuclides obtained from 1977 worker bioassay lists) H-3

25 Mechanical Technology

(nuclides obtained from 1977, 1979, 1982, 1983, 1986 worker 

bioassay lists)

Th

U-238

U

26, 76 Radioanalytical Laboratories (present) Ac-228 1.51E-08

Ag-108 2.65E-11

Am-241 4.15E-03

Am-243 2.56E-06

Ba-133 2.27E-04

Be-7 5.07E-10

Bk-249 9.91E-04

Br-76 6.94E-09

Br-77 3.78E-10

C-14 1.54E-02

Ce-144 5.72E-07

Cf-249 4.30E-04

Cf-250 7.57E-08

Cm-243 2.59E-07

Cm-244 2.12E-08

Cm-245 1.44E-10

Cm-246 1.13E-09

Cm-248 4.54E-10

Co-56 9.83E-10

Co-57 7.00E-06

Co-58 5.29E-10

Co-60 1.64E-04

Cr-51 1.25E-10

Cs-134 9.63E-06

Cs-137 2.17E-03

Eu-152 3.93E-11

Fe-55 1.95E-05

H-3 1.77E-01

Hg-194 9.08E-09

I-125 3.80E-01

I-129 4.20E-05

I-131 3.81E-01

K-40 1.89E-09

Kr-76 1.51E-10

Mn-54 7.69E-06

Na-22 1.63E-08

Nb-95 1.63E-09

Ni-63 1.01E-05

Np-237 3.69E-06

Np-239 5.33E-08

Os-185 1.44E-09

P-32 3.78E-03

Pa-231 9.72E-08
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 43 of 109

Current 

building no. Building activity and compounds Radionuclide Fraction

Po-210 1.51E-08

Pu-238 5.46E-04

Pu-239 1.59E-03

Pu-241 3.40E-03

Pu-242 1.66E-08

Ra-226 2.27E-06

Ra-228 1.69E-04

Ru-106 2.27E-11

S-35 2.42E-02

Sb-125 8.81E-10

Sr-89 6.65E-07

Sr-90 1.38E-04

Tc-99 1.10E-06

Th-229 9.08E-08

Th-230 5.19E-06

Th-232 1.76E-05

U-232 3.79E-05

U-233 3.78E-03

U-235 4.17E-05

U-238 5.06E-04

Zn-65 1.20E-05

29 (Nuclides obtained from 1979 worker bioassay lists) Alpha

51 Bevatron

[Uranium and beta-gamma nuclides obtained from 1982, 1983, 

1986 worker bioassay lists; Am-241, Am-243, Bk-249, Cf-252, and 

Ra-226 obtained from LBNL (1995b); the remainder of the 

radionuclides were obtained from a list of potential sources 

produced by accelerators that were identified in Patterson, LowBeer, and Sargent (1969).c

] Building is currently undergoing 

decontamination and decommissioning.

U

Beta gamma

Am-241

Am-243

Bk-249

Cf-252

Ra-226

Be-7

Co-57

Co-58

Co-60

Fe-55

Fe-59

Mn-54

Na-22

Na-24

Ni-57

Ni-63

Zn-65

55, 56, 64 55: Animal house (1961)

Center for functional imaging and life sciences research (present)

56: Biomedical isotope facility (present)

64: Accelerator design (1961)

Life sciences research (present)

C-14 2.67E-08

Co-57 7.63E-08

Gd-153 2.29E-08

H-3 1.12E-05

I-123 4.40E-05

I-125 1.09E-04

I-131 6.02E-06

Nb-95 1.14E-07

P-32 4.58E-07

Ru-103 1.53E-07

Sn-113 7.63E-08

Tc-99m 3.16E-05

Tl-201 9.91E-07
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 44 of 109

Current 

building no. Building activity and compounds Radionuclide Fraction

F-18 1.00E+00

Alpha 3.71E-09

Beta 5.92E-08

57 (Nuclides obtained from 1982 worker bioassay lists) I-125

I-131

In-111

P-32

Sr-82

Sr-85

Sr-90

62 Materials and Molecular Research

(nuclides obtained from 1982, 1983, 1986 worker bioassay lists)

Th-228

70, 70A 70/70A: Nuclear Chemistry (1961)

70: Environmental energy technology, nuclear science, and earth 

sciences research (present)

70A: Nuclear, chemical, and life sciences research (present)

Ac-227d

Am-241 7.60E-06

Am-243 1.52E-04

Bi-207 7.60E-06

C-14 5.51E-01

Ca-45 1.20E-05

Ca-49 2.38E-08

Ce-141 2.59E-06

Cf-249 7.60E-07

Cf-252 7.60E-09

Cm-244 2.13E-08

Cm-248 1.08E-07

Co-60 3.61E-06

Cs-134 1.46E-06

Eu-152 1.07E-05

Fe-59 6.88E-03

H-3 2.76E-01

Hf-175 8.58E-06

Ho-166m 6.08E-06

I-125 2.25E-04

Mn-54 1.52E-07

Na-22 1.52E-06

Na-24 2.65E-05

Np-237 1.70E-03

P-32 4.13E-02

Pa-233 3.60E-06

Pu-238 4.35E-05

Pu-239 6.99E-06

Ra-226 1.52E-06

Rb-86 1.93E-04

Rh-101 7.60E-08

Ru-106c

S-35 1.06E-02

Sb-122 1.90E-07

Sb-124 1.10E-06

Sc-46 1.34E-03

Sc-49 1.19E-08

Sr-90 6.08E-06

Ta-182 1.52E-06

Tb-161c

Tc-99 8.04E-02

Th-229 2.17E-05
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 45 of 109

Current 

building no. Building activity and compounds Radionuclide Fraction

Th-232 9.44E-04

Tl-204 1.52E-06

Tm-170 1.52E-05

U-233 2.61E-04

U-234 1.08E-04

U-235 1.08E-04

U-238 3.81E-04

Y-90 1.22E-05

Yb-175 1.96E-06

Zr-88 4.56E-07

Zr-95 7.60E-04

Alpha 4.04E-03

Beta 2.38E-02

F-18 1.20E-08

71 HILAC (1961)

Accelerator and fusion research (present)

Radionuclides listed without a radionuclide fraction specified were 

obtained from a list of potential sources produced by accelerators 

that were identified in Patterson, Low-Beer, and Sargent (1969)c

H-3 1.00E+00

Be-7

Co-57

Co-58

Co-60

Fe-55

Fe-59

Mn-54

Na-22

Na-24

Ni-57

Ni-63

Zn-65

Ac-227 8.33E-08

72 Health Physics (1961)

Low-background facility (present)

Au-198 2.83E-06

Ba-133 2.99E-09

Bi-207 3.01E-08

Br-82 2.48E-07

Cd-113 6.40E-09

Co-58 9.23E-01

Co-60 1.20E-03

Cr-51 1.51E-06

Cu-64 4.96E-04

Eu-152 4.96E-04

Fe-59 2.95E-02

Hg-194 4.68E-08

Mn-54 2.68E-06

Na-24 9.92E-04

Nb-95 1.34E-09

P-32 9.50E-06

Pa-231 4.94E-08

Sb-122 2.97E-11

Sb-124 9.92E-04

Ta-182 5.28E-08

Th-228 5.23E-12

Th-229 2.62E-05

Th-232 4.96E-08

Ti-44 1.35E-07

Xe-133 3.97E-10

Zn-65 3.47E-11
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 46 of 109

Current 

building no. Building activity and compounds Radionuclide Fraction

Zr-95 4.10E-02

Zr-97 1.82E-03

C-14 4.92E-03

74, 83, 84 74: Animal bioradiological laboratory (1961)

74, 83, 84: Life sciences research (present)

H-3 5.05E-01

P-32 3.46E-02

S-35 4.56E-01

H-3 1.00E+00

75 Radioisotope services (1961)

Former waste handling facility, operations ceased in 1997

Former National Tritium Labeling Facility operations ceased in 

2001

Alpha (Th-232) 1.69E-09

Beta (Sr-90) 5.72E-09

C-14 1.44E-01

85 Hazardous waste handling facility (present) H-3 8.56E-01

I-125 9.97E-06

Alpha (Th-232) 1.17E-06

Beta (Sr-90) 2.79E-06

U-238 1.40E-10

88 88-in cyclotron (1961 – present)

Radionuclides listed without a radionuclide fraction specified were 

obtained from a list of potential sources produced by accelerators 

that were identified in Patterson, Low-Beer, and Sargent (1969)c

C-11 9.94E-01

Cr-51 1.95E-12

Fe-55 8.19E-13

Fe-59 2.03E-12

Ge-71 6.37E-03

Zr-95 1.56E-12

Zr-97 2.34E-12

Y-88 3.12E-12

Alpha 4.72E-07

Beta 1.63E-06

Be-7

Co-57

Co-58

Co-60

Mn-54

Na-22

Na-24

Ni-57

Ni-63

Zn-65

C-14

934 Previously Leased Building use of biomedical radionuclides for 

DNA Labeling (nuclides obtained from 1982, 1983, 1986 worker 

bioassay lists)

H-3

I-125

P-32

S-35

H-3

Gilman Hall Research and teaching facilities for faculty and students 

specializing in physical, inorganic, and nuclear

chemistry

Cs-137

Enriched 

uranium

U-233

Pu-239

Am-241

977 P-32

P-33

S-35

C-14

Cd-109
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 47 of 109

a. Blank values in this table indicate not applicable or data not available. Unless otherwise noted, this table was derived 

from data reported for calendar years 2001 to 2004 as part of the National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air 

Pollutants (DOE 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005). Where stack emissions were not measured, LBNL derived a “receipts 

releasable” inventory of radionuclides available for release. While the emissions identified during this limited period are 

probably not fully representative of the source term in each building, they do provide an estimate of the types of 

radionuclides to which employees might have been exposed. Activity fractions were obtained by dividing the activity 

total by the total activity for all radionuclides in a specific building/buildings over the 4 yr.

b. Buildings and radionuclides were added based on historical lists (e.g. bioassay lists, LBNL 2005a,b; Patterson, LowBeer, and Sargent 1969). Radionuclide fractions were not determined for these.

c. Although Patterson, Low-Beer, and Sargent (1969) identified these radionuclides as potential exposure sources, the 

article concluded that “normal habits of cleanliness and occasionally the use of protective clothing ... are adequate to 

insure that the ordinary accelerator worker at LRL-Berkeley will not receive radiation exposure of any consequence from 

internal sources.”

d. Ac-227, Ru-106, and Tb-161 were added to the list of radionuclides for Building 70 because there were documented 

spills in Building 70 between 1957 and 1960 where these radionuclides were listed; no attempt to determine a 

radionuclide fraction has been made.

5.1 PLUTONIUM

If a monitoring result refers to plutonium, dose reconstructors can use the isotopic mix listed in Table 

5-8 for material aging times. These values are based on those used for Lawrence Livermore National 

Laboratory (LLNL) for weapons grade plutonium (Mansfield 2000). These LLNL values are likely 

representative of any weapons grade plutonium used at LBNL, since there is ongoing collaboration 

between these two laboratories. For assessing Super S solubility, refer to Estimating Doses for 

Plutonium Strongly Retained in the Lung (ORAUT 2008).

Table 5-8. Isotopic information for aging of weapons-grade 

plutonium (Mansfield 2000).

Mixture designation Fresh 5-yr 10-yr 20-yr

Years of aging 0 5 10 20

Specific activity in mixture (Ci/g)

Pu-238 6.85E-03 6.59E-03 6.33E-03 5.85E-03

Pu-239 5.81E-02 5.81E-02 5.80E-02 5.80E-02

Pu-240 1.37E-02 1.37E-02 1.37E-02 1.37E-02

Pu-241 5.98E-01 4.70E-01 3.69E-01 2.28E-01

Pu-242 1.57E-06 1.57E-06 1.57E-06 1.57E-06

Am-241 0.00E+00 4.24E-03 7.54E-03 1.21E-02

Pu-239+240 7.18E-02 7.18E-02 7.17E-02 7.17E-02

Pu-alpha 7.87E-02 7.84E-02 7.80E-02 7.76E-02

Activity ratios

Pu-239+240:Am-241 N/A 1.69E+01 9.51E+00 5.93E+00

Pu-239+240:Pu-238 1.05E+01 1.09E+01 1.13E+01 1.23E+01

Pu alpha:Pu-239+240 1.10E+00 1.09E+00 1.09E+00 1.08E+00

Pu alpha:Pu-238 1.15E+01 1.19E+01 1.23E+01 1.33E+01

Pu-241:Pu alpha 7.60E+00 6.00E+00 4.73E+00 2.94E+00

5.2 URANIUM

LBNL received its uranium from other DOE sites. Starting in 1952, recycled uranium produced by 

DOE sites contained transuranic, fission and activation contaminants in trace quantities. If a 

monitoring result refers to uranium, dose reconstructors can use Table 5-9 which provides the list of 

recycled uranium ratios to be applied for uranium. These values are from Fernald (ORAUT 2004), 

and reflect upper bound values based on a review of other DOE sites. The recycled uranium ratios 

are listed in Table 5-9.
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 48 of 109

Table 5-9. Recycled uranium contaminant ratios for 

uranium (ORAUT 2004).

Contaminant

Default value

Activity per Activity total U

Plutonium 0.00921

Np-237 0.00366

Tc-99 0.22599

5.3 TRITIUM

Tritium was encountered in several forms: tritium oxide as water or gas (HTO), elemental tritium or 

tritiated gas (HT), organically bound tritium (OBT), and metal tritides (MTs). Each form has unique 

characteristics. Tritium handling at LBNL was performed in the Tritium Labeling Facility (Building 75). 

Stable MTs were handled in Building 75 (LRL 1979), Building 5, and the accelerators in Buildings 6, 

51, 71, and 88. Outside these buildings, in cases where exposure to OBT or MTs are not implied by 

case-specific information, assume HTO. Tritium gas work was done in processing hoods. 

Compounds of tritium, namely MTs, were usually worked in gloveboxes. Guidance for estimating 

doses for OBT and MTs is available in ORAUT-OTIB-0066, Calculation of Dose from Intakes of 

Special Tritium Compounds (ORAUT 2007a).

Site locations for potential exposure to tritium are in listed in Tables 2-1 and 2-2. Bioassay results for 

tritium are usually available in the dosimetry records. It was LBNL policy that all persons who work in 

areas where tritium is used must submit urine samples for bioassay (LRL 1970).

5.3.1

Tritium exposures in the form of MT aerosols were primarily titanium tritide targets for the accelerator 

beams. The personnel who would have had the potential of exposure to the MT targets would be 

chemists, researchers, health physics technicians, and accelerator operators and mechanical 

technicians who performed work on the accelerators. Titanium tritides were also handled in Building 5 

where electrical leads were spot welded to a small rod containing a coating of titanium tritide. The rod 

was placed in an assembly in a vacuum system, where the system was later evacuated (Garden 

1956). 

Metal Tritides

Solubility type M should be assumed for assigning internal dose from titanium tritides. Based on 

available information, there is no indication that MT solubility type S was a possibility at LBNL. 

ORAUT-OTIB-0066 (ORAUT 2007a) provides guidance on the evaluation of MT intakes. MTs are 

referred to as tritium particulates. In addition to potential exposure in the facilities listed above, the 

claimant telephone interview can provide indications that a person was exposed to MTs.

5.3.2

Tritium exposures in the form of OBT are primarily found in pump oils associated with fume hoods. 

Exposure to OBT would occur during maintenance if contact with the skin was made. If claimant 

information indicates the need for assigning tritium dose based on OBT, guidance on the calculation 

of doses from OBT is given in ORAUT-OTIB-0066 (ORAUT 2007a).

Organically Bound Tritium
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 49 of 109

6.0

This section describes the program for measuring Whole Body (WB) penetrating and skin, and hand 

extremity doses to workers from sources of radiation external to the body. Workers at LBNL were 

exposed to radiation from a variety of radioactive materials and radiation-producing machines 

(Patterson and Thomas, 1973, 1994; Coulson et al 1989; Casey et al 1988). 

OCCUPATIONAL EXTERNAL DOSE

6.1 DOSE RECONSTRUCTION PARAMETERS

Examinations of the beta, photon (X-ray and gamma ray), and neutron radiation type, energy, and 

geometry of exposure in the workplace, and the characteristics of the LBNL dosimeter responses are 

important to the assessment of the original recorded dose in relation to the radiation dose equivalent 

quantity Hp(d), where d = 10 mm or d = 0.07 mm for WB deep and shallow dose, respectively. Dose 

reconstructors can compare earlier dosimetry systems to current systems to evaluate their 

performance based on the premise that current systems have more stringent criteria, as indicated in 

DOELAP dosimeter performance testing.

Accuracy and precision of the recorded individual worker doses depend on (Fix et al. 1997):

• Administrative practices

•

that facilities adopted to calculate and record personnel dose based 

on technical, administrative, and statutory compliance considerations.

Dosimetry technology

•

, which includes the physical capabilities of the dosimetry system, such 

as the response to different types and energies of radiation, in particular in mixed radiation 

fields.

Calibration and dosimeter response characteristics

•

of the respective monitoring systems and 

similarity of the methods of calibration to sources of exposure in the workplace.

Workplace radiation fields

An evaluation of the original recorded doses, as available, combined with detailed examinations of 

workplace radiation fields and dosimeter responses to those fields is the recommended option to 

provide the best estimate of Hp(d) for individual workers.

, which can include mixed types of radiation, variations in exposure 

geometries, and environmental conditions.

6.1.1

As noted in Attachment A, which contains selected references of historical LBNL radiation associated 

events, LBNL used radiation detection instruments (Norton 1947; UCRL 1948; 1949; 1951; 1952a,b; 

1955a,b; 1956) to routinely evaluate workplace radiation fields and personnel dosimeters to measure 

and record doses from external radiation to workers throughout the history of its operations (Garden 

1950, Patterson and Thomas 1994). Certainly measurements using fixed and portable radiation 

instrumentation were of primary importance to minimizing exposures. Personnel dosimeter records 

are generally available for all periods at LBNL for workers who had any potential for occupational 

radiation exposure. The earliest observed film badge results are for 1946 (UCRL 1946). While some 

site external dosimetry records are available prior to 1948 from site data capture efforts, they are not 

complete. External dose records prior to 1948 are unavailable in individual claimant files. The 

operations and radiation safety staffs routinely reviewed dosimeter results for compliance with 

radiation control limits and investigated doses that exceeded administrative limits (Patterson 1965, 

Patterson and Thomas 1994). LBNL used portable radiation instrumentation (Norton 1947) and 

personnel dosimeters to measure, control and record doses from external radiation to designated 

Historical Administrative Practices
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 50 of 109

workers throughout the history of its operations. These dosimeters included one or more of the 

following:

• Personnel WB beta/photon dosimeters 

• Pocket ionization chamber dosimeters (electrometers/electroscopes, etc.) (PICs)

• Personnel extremity dosimeters

• Personnel neutron dosimeters

Early exposure records include pocket ionization or electroscope (or at times, electrometer or E was 

used) results. Dose reconstructors should use the electroscope results cautiously to assign exposure 

because no data were found on the calibration or energy response of these devices; they should use 

preferentially the film or TLD results to estimate the actual exposure. The electroscope results include 

daily readings in tables captioned "dosimeter," "slow neutron," and "electroscope." The three 

readings, which occurred on the same dates, were evidently used to measure exposure at the end of 

work shifts [42]. There are data in worker records that show a comparison of the film dosimeter to 

electroscope records for the same interval; the data are similar and correlate, but they are not 

identical. This is probably due to a combination of differences in energy dependence, calibration 

techniques, where the dosimeters were worn in relation to each other, exposure geometry, etc.

In the earliest years LBL recorded doses in units of “daily doses," which corresponds to a percentage 

of 100 mrem (Heinzelman 2003). However, it is understood (Patterson and Thomas, 1994) that all 

recorded doses were converted to units of roentgen in the early 1950s. 

Explicit beta or nonpenetrating doses are generally not included in the earlier years even though there 

were instrument (Norton 1947) and dosimeter (open window) beta response capabilities. This is 

presumed to be because the radiation protection staff at the time felt that penetrating radiation was 

the primary hazard and by controlling this hazard to meet regulatory limits any nonpenetrating 

component would be adequately controlled (i.e., that the shallow dose could not exceed the deep 

dose by a high enough amount to come close to the higher regulatory limit). The radiation protection 

staff (LRL 1958e) was aware of the need to monitor for nonpenetrating radiation and the earliest film 

dosimeter in use had open window and shielded film capabilities. Inasmuch as the limit for WB (deep) 

dose was 5 rem/yr and for skin (shallow) dose was 15 rem/yr, it is reasonable to assume that the 

shallow dose could not exceed the deep dose by more than a factor of 3 [43]. For cases where the 

shallow dose is important to reconstruction and is not reported, dose reconstructors should apply a 

factor of 3 to the WB dose to estimate the shallow dose. Table 6-1 summarizes recorded dose 

practices, and Table 6-2 summarizes the interpretation of the reported data.

Table 6-1. Recorded dose practices [44].

Period

Dosimeter measured 

quantities Compliance dose quantities

Photon/electron film dosimeter + NTA neutron dosimeter

1948–1994 Gamma (G)

Neutron (N)

WB = gamma + neutron

Skin = shallow + photon + neutron

Hand = skin + extremity 

Photon/electron/neutron–LuxelOSL + CR-39 neutron dosimeter

1995–present Skin

Photon 

Neutron 

Skin = shallow + photon + neutron

WB = photon + neutron
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 51 of 109

Table 6-2. Interpretation of reported data [45].

Period

Reported 

quantity Description

Interpretation 

of zeroes

Interpretation 

of blanks 

(no data)

Rollup of 

individual and 

annual data

Monitored/ 

unmonitored

1948–

1981

rem Reported WB 

doses include 

gamma. Neutron 

doses were 

designated with 

“N.” Claimant 

records indicate 

that some 

recorded results 

are expressed as 

a fraction of the 

daily dose limit of 

100 mrem.

Interpret 

reported zero 

as meaning 

less than MDL.

No data or 

blanks should 

be interpreted 

as individual 

was monitored 

with zero 

result.

Photon WB dose

Neutron WB dose

Total deep WB dose

From review of 

LBNL 

documents, it is 

not clear if all 

employees were 

continuously 

monitored. 

However, the 

monitoring 

records appear 

to be complete. 

It can be 

assumed if no 

monitoring 

records are 

included in an 

employee's file 

that the 

individual was 

not monitored. 

1982–

1985

rem Reported WB 

doses qualified as 

either photon or 

neutron.

Interpret 

reported zero 

as meaning 

less than MDL.

No data or 

blanks should 

be interpreted 

as individual 

was monitored 

with zero 

result.

Photon WB dose

Neutron WB dose

Shallow skin dose

Total deep WB dose

1986–

present

rem Photon deep, 

neutron deep, 

and skin dose 

reported.

Interpret 

reported zero 

as meaning 

less than MDL.

No data or 

blanks should 

be interpreted 

as individual 

was monitored 

with zero 

result.

Photon WB dose

Neutron WB dose

Shallow skin dose

Total deep WB dose

6.1.2

LBNL developed beta/photon and neutron personnel dosimetry technologies in the 1940s. 

LBNL Personnel Dosimetry Technology

6.1.2.1 Beta/Photon Radiation Personnel Dosimeters

LBNL based its beta/photon film dosimetry methods on the dosimeter design developed at the 

Metallurgical Laboratory by Pardue, Goldstein, and Wollan (1944) beginning in 1946 (Patterson and 

Thomas, 1994). Essentially LBNL implemented the identical film dosimetry system used at ORNL 

and Hanford. Table 6-3 lists beta/photon dosimeter types, periods of use, exchange frequencies, 

limits of detection (LODs), and potential annual missed doses for LBNL. The LBNL dosimetry 

methods evolved during the years as improved technology was developed and the complex radiation 

fields encountered in the workplace were better understood. The adequacy of the respective 

dosimetry methods to measure radiation dose accurately depends on radiation type, energy, and 

exposure geometry. Based on inspection of some career dose records, the exchange frequency of 

the dosimeters was weekly until January 1959 when a monthly exchange was implemented (LBNL 

2007) (Attachment A). The dosimeter designs accommodated the numerous beta/photon radiation 

field types that workers might encounter throughout the LBNL complex. Film dosimeters were used 

for beta and photon radiation though 1994 (Dinnel 1994) when a commercial optical stimulated 

luminescence beta/photon dosimetry capability was implemented with CR-39 used for neutron 

radiation. 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 52 of 109

Table 6-3. LBNL beta/photon dosimeter type, period of use, exchange frequency, MDL, and potential 

annual missed dose.

Period of 

use Dosimeter

LODa

(rem)

Exchange

frequencyb

Annual missed 

dosec (rem)

LBNL film dosimeters

1946–1968 Beta/Photon–DuPont film

0.030

Weekly 0.75

Biweekly 0.38

Monthly 0.18

1969–1994 Beta/Photon– film 0.020 Monthly 0.12

Quarterly 0.04

Semiannual 0.02

LBNL luminescent dosimeters

1995–

present

Beta/Photon–OSL System

0.010

Monthly 0.06

Quarterly 0.02

Semiannual 0.01

a. Estimated LODs for each dosimeter technology in the workplace. LBNL radiological records include dose values 

recorded at levels less than the LOD.

b. Exchange frequencies were dependent on work assignment. If the exchange frequency is not evident based on trends 

in an individual’s personnel records, assume a monthly exchange frequency.

c. Annual missed dose calculated using the LOD/2 method from NIOSH (2007b).

6.1.2.2 Neutron Radiation Personnel Dosimeters

LBNL implemented its individual worker neutron dosimetry methods beginning in the mid-1940s using 

PICs with a 10B-enriched lining, portable instruments (Norton 1947) and sometime prior to 1952 the 

Eastman-Kodak Nuclear Track, Type A (NTA) emulsion (UCRL 1952a, Patterson and Thomas, 1994). 

NTA was used through 1994 (Dinnel 1994) when a DOELAP accredited Optical Stimulated 

Luminescent (OSL) beta/photon dosimeter was implemented with CR-39 to measure the neutron 

dose. Table 6-4 lists neutron dosimeter types, periods of use, exchange frequencies, LODs, and 

potential annual missed doses for LBNL.

Table 6-4. LBNL neutron dosimeter type, period of use, exchange frequency, LOD, and potential 

annual missed dose.

Period of 

use Dosimeter

LODa

(rem)

Exchange

frequencyb

Annual missed 

dosec (rem)

1946–1968 Pocket Chamber – thermal neutrons

0.005

Daily 0.65

Weekly 0.13

1949–1994 NTA film emulsion 0.020 Monthly 0.12

Quarterly 0.04

Semiannual 0.02

1995–

present

CR-39

0.010

Monthly 0.06

Quarterly 0.02

Semiannual 0.01

a. Estimated LODs for each dosimeter technology in the workplace. LBNL radiological records include dose values 

recorded at levels less than the LOD.

b. Exchange frequencies were dependent on work assignment. If the exchange frequency is not evident based on trends 

in an individual’s personnel records, assume a monthly exchange frequency.

c. Annual missed dose calculated using the LOD/2 method from NIOSH (2007b).

6.1.3

Potential error in measured radiation dose is dependent on the dosimetry technology response 

characteristics to each radiation type, energy, and geometry; the methodology used to calibrate the 

dosimetry system; and the similarity between the radiation fields used for calibration and in the 

workplace.

Calibration and Dosimeter Response Characteristics
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 53 of 109

6.1.3.1 Beta-Photon Dosimeters

Dosimeters were calibrated using film response to radium, various X-ray spectra, 32P, 90Sr, and 

uranium metal (Patterson and Thomas 1994). LBNL dosimetrists appear to have been well aware of 

technical considerations to match calibration and workplace spectra, as noted in Attachment A, and 

processing quality assurance to achieve accurate measured doses. 

6.1.3.2 Neutron Dosimeters

Neutron dosimeters were calibrated using selected neutron sources such as polonium-beryllium or 

plutonium-beryllium sources (Mather 1952). LBNL staff members conducted substantial 

measurements of neutron flux and spectra, which are of particular importance to instrument and 

dosimeter determinations of dose, at various LBNL workplaces (Mather 1952, Stephens 1957). NTA 

response was found in a study by Kathren, Prevo, and Block (1965) to be a function of the angle of 

incidence of a neutron with the plane of the film and the energy. A factor of 1.3 was recommended to 

correct the recorded dose from NTA film for the effects of angular dependence and fast-neutron 

energy. A documented communication (Fix 2010) with a dosimetry subject expert recommended that 

the factor of 1.3 also be used to correct the measured neutron dose from TLDs. 

6.1.4

The radiation fields at LBNL are highly variable (Patterson and Thomas, 1973, 1994, Casey et al 

1988, Coulson et al 1989). They include radiation from a variety of radiation-producing machines 

such as electron accelerators, X-ray machines, cyclotrons, synchrotron, neutron generators, linear 

accelerators, Van de Graaff Generator, etc (UCRL 1948). Many different radioactive materials have 

been handled at LBNL. As noted in Attachment A, measurements of potential workplace radiation 

hazards in LBNL facilities were done in preparation for operation of various accelerators in the 

conduct of research. 

Workplace Radiation Fields

6.1.4.1 Beta/Photon Radiation

Evaluations of potential beta and photon (gamma and X-ray) radiation hazards in LBNL workplaces 

have been done on numerous occasions as noted in Attachment A. Table 6-5 lists several of the 

beta/photon radiation sources potentially encountered at LBNL over the years, the approximate 

energy category, and the associated dose fraction. All workplace beta radiation energies of potential 

external radiation exposure significance to workers are greater than 15 keV. If more than one energy 

range and percentage combination is provided, dose reconstructors should use the combination that 

is most favorable to claimants.

Table 6-5. Selection of beta and photon radiation energies and dose fraction [46].

Buildings Functional category

Radiation 

type

Energy 

selection (MeV)

Dose 

fraction

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5A, 7, 8, 

9, 10, 11, 14, 16, 18, 

19, 20, 22, 24, 25, 

29, 38, 39, 55, 71

Chemistry: radioactive materials 

including Co-60, Sr-90, fission 

products, enriched uranium, depleted 

uranium, natural uranium, and others

Beta >15 100

Photon 30–250 

> 250

25

75

6, 26, 70, 70A, 88 Chemistry Heavy Elements Facility: 

Cf-252, Cm-244, Am-241, U-233, 

Pu-239, and others

Beta >15 100

Photon <30

30–250 

> 250

25

50

25

75 Waste Storage Yard: fission 

products, enriched uranium, natural 

uranium and others

Beta >15 100

Photon 30–250 

> 250

25

75
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 54 of 109

Buildings Functional category

Radiation 

type

Energy 

selection (MeV)

Dose 

fraction

72, 74, 75 Irradiators Beta >15 100

Photon 30–250 

> 250

25

75

51, 71 Cyclotrons and Accelerators Beta >15 100

Photon <30 0

30-250 10

>250 90

6.1.4.2 Neutron Radiation

Evaluations of potential neutron radiation hazards in LBNL workplaces have also been done on 

numerous occasions, as noted in Attachment A. Table 6-6 lists neutron radiation sources potentially 

encountered at LBNL over the years, the approximate energy category, and the associated dose 

fraction. Workplace neutron radiation energies of potential external radiation exposure significance to 

workers are between 10 keV and 20 MeV. The default neutron energy selection of 0.1 – 2.0 MeV in 

Table 6-6 was chosen because according to Moyer (1960) this energy interval contributed neutrons 

with the greatest dose. This energy range also typically has the highest organ dose conversion factor 

(DCF; see NIOSH 2007b, Appendix C) that is favorable to claimants.

Table 6-6. Selection of neutron radiation energies and dose fraction [47].

Buildings Description

Radiation 

type

Energy 

selection 

(MeV)

Dose 

fraction

ICRP 60 

correction 

factor

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5A, 7, 8, 

9, 10, 11, 14, 16, 18, 

19, 20, 22, 24, 25, 

29, 38, 39, 55, 71

Chemistry: radioactive materials including 

Co-60, Sr-90, fission products, enriched 

uranium, depleted uranium, natural uranium, 

and others

Neutron 0.1–2.0 100 1.91

6, 26, 70, 70A, 88 Chemistry Heavy Elements Facility: Cf252 Cm-244, Am-241, U-233, Pu-239, and 

others

Neutron 0.1–2.0

2.0-20

90

10

1.71

0.13

75 Waste Storage Yard: fission products, 

enriched uranium, natural uranium, and 

others

Neutron 0.1–2.0

2.0-20

90

10

1.71

0.13

72, 74, 75 Irradiators Neutron 0.1–2.0 100 1.91

51, 71 Cyclotrons and Accelerators Neutron 0.1–2.0

2.0-20

50

50

0.95

0.65

6.2 MONITORED LBNL WORKERS – MEASURED DOSE

6.2.1

No adjustment to recorded photon doses is recommended. LBNL film and luminescent dosimeters 

provided reasonably accurate measurement of photon radiation exposure in the facilities and for all 

years of operation. In the early years, the ratio of the open window (OW) and shielded film dosimeter 

response was undoubtedly used to evaluate the energy of the incident photon radiation and to 

distinguish if significant beta radiation was present. Multielement film dosimeters were used later 

consistent with practices at other DOE sites. PIC and radiation detection instruments were also used, 

which provided another source of reference for the measured photon exposure.

Photon Dose Adjustments

6.2.2

The measured photon dose is used with the DCFs to calculate organ doses of interest using the

external dose reconstruction implementation guidelines (NIOSH 2007b). For LBNL measured photon 

Photon Organ Dose Conversion Factors
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 55 of 109

dose before 1995 (film badge), the DCFs from exposure to organ dose should be used [48]. After 

1994, the DCFs from deep dose equivalent to organ dose should be used. This is summarized in 

Table 6-7. It is recommended that the 100% anterior-posterior (i.e., front-to-back) geometry should be 

assumed for the irradiation geometry and for conversion to organ dose [49]. 

Table 6-7. Photon dose adjustment.

Period Dosimeter Facility Adjustment to reported dose

Prior to 1995 Photon dosimeters All facilities Use roentgen-to-organ dose conversion factors.

After 1994a Photon dosimeters All facilities Use Hp(10)-to-organ dose conversion factors.

a. Based on accreditation (Dinnel 1994) of LBL dosimetry system to DOELAP (1986).

6.2.3

Significant neutron radiation in LBNL facilities would be detected using NTA film and later CR-39 

dosimeters because of the general high-energy fields for the neutron radiation energies predominant 

in dose to people. It is recommended however that a correction for the angular response of the 

measured neutron dose be applied as noted in Table 6-8.

Neutron Dose Adjustments 

Table 6-8. Neutron dose adjustment.

Period Dosimeter Facility Adjustment to reported dose

All years Neutron dosimeters All facilities Multiply by an angular correction factor of 1.3

Based on measurements by Moyer (1960), the neutron energy predominant in dose to people is 0.1 to 

2 MeV. Considering that NTA has a lower energy response limit of about 0.5 MeV, it is likely that 

neutron doses were under-estimated in general workplace areas with highly scattered neutron fields 

and accurately measured in less scattered neutron fields with higher energy neutrons. As such, 

consideration can be given to estimating the neutron dose using a neutron-to-photon dose (NP) ratio 

which is described in Section 6.4.3.

6.2.4

The neutron dose must be adjusted to account for the change in neutron quality factors between 

historical and current scientific guidance as described in NIOSH (2007b). LBNL neutron calibration 

factors were determined historically from National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) 

calibrated sources. The quality factor is incorporated in the NIST calibration methodology, which used 

flux-to-dose-rate conversion factors for varying neutron energies for each calibration source. Flux-todose-rate conversion factors were typically based on NCRP Report 38 (NCRP 1971). The NCRP 

report lists both flux-to-dose-rate conversion factors and associated quality factors. Table 6-9

summarizes historical changes in the quality factors, the average NCRP Report 38 quality factor for 

the neutron energy groups used as input to the Interactive RadioEpidemiological Program (IREP), the 

associated International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) Publication 60 (ICRP 1991) 

weighting factor, and the ratio to convert from NCRP Report 38 to ICRP Publication 60 (see ORAUTOTIB-0055, ORAUT 2006b).

Neutron Weighting Factor

DOE is in the process of incorporating ICRP Publication 60 (ICRP 1991) neutron weighting factors 

into the routine determination of the recorded neutron dose. For LBNL, the date this is scheduled to 

begin needs to be determined. Once this change is made, no adjustment in the recorded neutron 

dose will be necessary thereafter [50]. 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 56 of 109

Table 6-9. Conversion from NCRP Report 38 (NCRP 1971) neutron quality factors to ICRP 

Publication 60 (ICRP 1991) weighting factors.

Neutron energy

Historical dosimetry 

guidelinesa NCRP Report 38 group averaged quality factor

ICRP Publication 60 

neutron weighting factor Ratiob

Thermal 3 2.35 5 2.13

0.5 eV–10 keV 10

10 keV–100 keV 5.38 10 1.86

100 keV–2 MeV 10.49 20 1.91

2 MeV–20 MeV 7.56 10 1.32

20 MeV–60 MeV 6.96c 5 1.00d

a. First Tripartite Conference at Chalk River in 1949 (Warren et al. 1949); National Bureau of Standards Handbook 59 

(NBS 1954; also known as NCRP Report 17); and Taylor (1971).

b. Ratio of the ICRP Publication 60 weighting factor to the group averaged NCRP 38 quality factor each neutron energy 

group (ICRP 1991; NCRP 1971). 

c. “Not applicable” is usually inserted here rather than the NCRP group averaged value of 6.96, which is larger than the 

ICRP Publication 60 weighting factor of 5 for 20-to-60-MeV neutrons and results in a non-favorable-to-claimant 

reduction in the corrected dose for this neutron energy group (ICRP 1991; NCRP 1971).

d. Ratio for adjusting neutron dose from NCRP Report 38 quality factor to ICRP Publication 60 weighting factor is arbitrarily 

set equal to unity to avoid a non-favorable-to-claimant reduction in the corrected dose for this neutron energy group

(ICRP 1991; NCRP 1971).

6.3 MONITORED LBNL WORKERS – MISSED DOSE

Missed doses to LBNL workers are assigned for monitored workers (NIOSH 2007b). The potential for 

missed dose exists when workers are exposed to radiation at levels below the detection limit of their 

personnel dosimeters or if dosimeters were not worn for all work involving radiation exposure. LBNL

practice ( Garden 1950, Nielsen 1954, LBL 1978) was to monitor any significant radiation exposure. 

Generally in the early years of radiation monitoring, when relatively high detection limits were 

combined with short monitoring durations, missed doses could be significant. Watson et al. (1994) 

describes a method to reconstruct doses for any exchange period without a recorded dose. The 

assignment of a missed dose is based on a determination of (1) the number of dosimeter results with 

a recorded dose less than the LOD divided by 2, and (2) multiplication of the LOD/2 value by the 

number of dosimeter results < LOD/2 to include potential unrecorded dose according to the scheduled 

dosimeter exchange period (NIOSH 2007b). Rich (1969) stated that often no positive neutron dose 

was measured with NTA film in workplaces with known neutron dose. As such, assigning the missed 

neutron dose from recorded neutron doses prior to 1995 when CR-39 was implemented (Dinnel 1994) 

may under-estimate the actual missed neutron dose. To assure a favorable to the claimant 

evaluation, the missed neutron dose should be determined by multiplying the missed photon dose by 

an NP ratio. The missed neutron dose measured with the CR-39 beginning in 1995 is based on a 

determination of (1) the number of CR-39 dosimeter results with a recorded neutron dose less than 

the LOD divided by 2, and (2) multiplication of the LOD/2 value times the number of dosimeter results 

< LOD/2 to include potential unrecorded neutron dose according to the scheduled dosimeter 

exchange period (NIOSH 2007b). A lognormal probability plot of the data in Figure 6-2 is presented in 

Figure 6-3. The data are best represented by a lognormal distribution with a geometric mean (GM) 

equal to 0.77, and a geometric standard deviation (GSD = 3.99). This is summarized in Table 6-10.

 Table 6-10. LBNL NP ratio from personnel dose measurements.

Description Values GM GSD 95th percentile

Personnel dose data 876 0.77 3.99 7.54
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6.4 UNMONITORED LBNL WORKERS

6.4.1

There does appear to be a potential for ambient neutron radiation exposure associated with LBNL 

Accelerator operations beginning in the 1940s extending over a period of many years. As noted in 

Attachment A, elevated neutron exposures near the accelerator facilities were measured on many 

occasions; however measurement of an elevated neutron dose rate, in comparison to normal cosmic 

background rates, at the fence-line was very difficult. The dose reconstructor can apply an estimate 

of the ambient neutron dose to an unmonitored worker using guidance in Section 4. Ambient external 

neutron dose assigned during the SEC is considered to be a partial dose estimate.

Ambient Neutron Dose

6.4.2

As described in the preceding sections regarding LBNL practices to assign dosimeters for any 

significant exposure, there generally should be no significantly exposed unmonitored LBNL workers.

The dose reconstructor can apply an estimate of the ambient photon dose to an unmonitored worker 

using guidance in Section 4. Ambient external photon dose assigned during the SEC is considered to 

be a partial dose estimate.

Ambient Photon Dose

6.4.3

The inability of the NTA film dosimeter to measure the entire neutron spectrum can be considered an 

example of an unmonitored exposure. The photon dose was reliably measured with LBNL 

beta/photon dosimeters, and essentially any significant neutron dose in the workplace would be 

accompanied by significant photon dose. A study was done of recorded dose data for claimants as of 

March 1, 2010. This data provided paired neutron and photon dose measurements, particularly for 

annual recorded doses, for which the neutron-to-photon dose ratio was calculated. A total of 1,464 

LLNL personnel dose measurements were obtained with measured photon and neutron doses. A box 

plot of this data is shown in Figure 6-1 which extends from 1947 to 1987.

Neutron to Photon Dose Ratio

The data in Figure 6-1 were refined to a total of 876 records for which the recorded photon and 

neutron doses were equal to or greater than 10 mrem, respectively, to minimize effects in the analysis 

of measured doses near the LOD. The development of the NP ratio enables the use of the recorded 

photon radiation dose from an individual’s personnel dosimeter to be used to estimate the 

unmonitored neutron dose. Figure 6-2 illustrates a scatter plot of the measured neutron and photon 

dose. It is evident that the measured neutron and photon doses are well correlated with a Pearson 

Correlation of 0.09. 

A lognormal probability plot of the data in Figure 6-2 is presented in Figure 6-3.
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 58 of 109

Year

1946 1951 1956 1961 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986

10-5

10-4

10-3

10-2

10-1

100

101

102

Figure 6-1. Trend in LBNL NP ratios. 

6.4.3.1 NP Ratio Application 

The combination of the 876 personnel dose data during the period from 1947 through 1987 provide a 

reasonable sample to evaluate statistical parameters of the NP ratio in LBNL facilities. The

recommended lognormal distribution parameters for use in dose reconstruction are summarized in 

Table 6-10. The lognormal distribution parameters in Table 6-10 may be combined with measured 

and missed dose distributions using Monte Carlo methods described in ORAUT-OTIB-0012, Monte 

Carlo Methods for Dose Uncertainty Calculations (ORAUT 2005). The resulting total neutron dose 

should be partitioned for input to IREP using dose fraction by energy category in Table 6-6 or the 

default assumption that 100% is from neutrons from 0.1 to 2 MeV [51].
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 59 of 109

 Figure 6-2. LBNL paired personnel neutron and photon doses ≥10 mrem measurements. 

6.4.3.2 Construction Workers

If a construction worker received a dosimeter and worked in a facility with significant neutron 

exposure, this will be detected. In general, the dose reconstructor should assume ambient neutron 

exposure occurred as described under Section 4 unless there is other information indicating the 

construction work was conducted only in areas with little or no neutron radiation. As noted in 

Stephens et al (1974) the “actual fence post dose from operation of most accelerators is a small 

fraction of the annual dose to the public limit” which at that time was 500 mrem per year. A reference 

by LBL (1969) provides annual measured doses by facility for 1963 and 1969. The total dose only is 

provided for 1963 but the respective photon and neutron doses are provided for 1969. The average 

doses are very much less than 100 mrem but this may provide an alternative to assign a reasonable 

dose if necessary. 

6.5 UNCERTAINTY

A number of factors contribute to uncertainty in measured doses (NCRP 2007). Systematic errors 

can occur from calibration and processing as well as from extraneous conditions such as moisture, 

heat, and fading. Random errors arise from variations among workers, the workplace energy spectra, 

and geometries of their exposures. NIOSH data collections of LBNL documentation have identified 

studies of uncertainty assessments for LBNL dosimeter systems. Many of these are illustrated in the 

historical timeline in Attachment A. The LBNL systems have much in common with dosimetry 

systems used at other DOE accelerator facilities (Casey et al 1988). Reference information to use in 

an analytical assessment of uncertainty has not been found. As such, in the judgment of the authors 

[52] of this document, the values in Table 6-11 are reasonable.
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 60 of 109

Percentile

1 2 5 10 20 30 50 70 80 90 95 98 99

0.01

0.1

1

10

Lognormal Distribution

GM = 0.773

GSD = 3.99

95th% = 7.54

Figure 6-3. Lognormal probability plot of LBNL NP ratios. 

Table 6-11. Uncertainty estimates.

Dosimeter

Uncertainty 

factora

Film dosimeter (1941–59) 1.4

Film dosimeter (1960–94) 1.3

Luminescent (1995–present) 1.2

NTA film (1940s–50s) 1.5

NTA film (1960s–94) 1.3

CR-39 (1995-present) 1.2

a. Estimated variability of measured dose based on 

dosimeter technology as used in site radiation fields for 

long term workers.

6.6 SHALLOW DOSE

6.6.1

LBNL dosimeters measured nonpenetrating and penetrating beta/photon radiation exposure. The 

assignment of shallow dose according to beta, photon, or neutron radiation components can be 

complex because of mixed radiation fields and site-specific practices used to calculate the WB 

penetrating, WB skin, and extremity skin dose quantities. LBNL historical records are typically 

identified as beta, gamma, or neutron doses. The dose reconstructor can validate the 

reasonableness of the assigned shallow photon dose to the skin of the whole body because it should 

be equal to or greater than the assigned photon deep dose in essentially all cases. If it is not, the 

shallow photon dose component should be calculated as equal to the sum of the shallow and deep 

Assigned Shallow Dose
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 61 of 109

photon doses. In cases of assigning a shallow dose to the extremities, such as the hand, which was 

often evaluated at LBNL, the assigned shallow dose to the extremities should be equal to or greater 

than the WB shallow photon dose in essentially all cases. 

6.6.2

There is uncertainty with respect to reconstructed extremity skin dose because of geometry, shielding, 

and dosimeter response parameters. A standard monitoring practice is to establish a factor between 

WB and extremity exposures to determine when the extremity dose would be limiting and, thus, 

extremity dosimeters should be assigned. The factor is typically based on radiation guidelines for the 

extremity, skin, and whole body, which have varied over the years as described in Attachment A, 

Table A-1. As noted in Morgan (1949) dose limits were identified for discussion during the meeting in 

Chalk River, Canada, among U.S., United Kingdom, and Canadian nuclear weapon development 

organizations, as follows:

Assigned Extremity Skin Dose

Whole body–0.3 rem/wk;

Skin–0.5 rem/wk; and 

Extremity–1.5 R/wk.

Based on comparison of the dose limits, it would not be necessary to monitor the extremity dose 

unless it was greater than a factor of 3 multiplied by the WB skin dose; otherwise, the WB dose would 

be limiting. Therefore, it is recommended that the measured WB photon dose be increased by a 

factor of 3 to assign a dose to the extremities based on the premise that extremity dosimeters would 

have been assigned and the dose reported for higher exposures [10]. The extremity dose is always 

equal to or greater than the measured WB skin dose (i.e., an estimated extremity dose is equal to the 

sum of the WB gamma, neutron, and beta doses). Unless it is clear that the extremity dosimeter is 

always worn, the measured extremity dose should also be included in the total assigned dose. The 

dose reconstructor can use guidance in ORAUT-OTIB-0017, Interpretation of Dosimetry Data for 

Assignment of Shallow Dose (ORAUT 2005b). 

7.0

Where appropriate in this document, bracketed callouts have been inserted to indicate information, 

conclusions, and recommendations provided to assist in the process of worker dose reconstruction. 

These callouts are listed here in the Attributions and Annotations section, with information to identify 

the source and justification for each associated item. Conventional References, which are provided in 

the next section of this document, link data, quotations, and other information to documents available 

for review on the Project’s Site Research Database.

ATTRIBUTIONS AND ANNOTATIONS

[1] Turpin, Baynard. ORAU Team, Task 3. May, 2006. “About Berkeley Lab” on the Lawrence 

Berkeley National Laboratory home page found at: http://www.lbl.gov/LBL-PID/LBLOverview.html.

[2] Turpin, Baynard. ORAU Team, Task 3. May, 2006. Table 2-1 information was obtained from 

a document titled: RadMap, Legacy and Current Radioactive Material Locations, by Michael R. 

Dupray of LBNL.

[3] Turpin, Baynard. ORAU Team, Task 3. May, 2006. 1995 LBNL Site Environmental Report, 

Introduction and Purpose, found at: 

http://www.lbl.gov/ehs/esg/95ser/95serchap1.htm#Introduction%20and%20Purpose
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 62 of 109

[4] Turpin, Baynard. ORAU Team, Task 3. May, 2006. “About Berkeley Lab” on the Lawrence 

Berkeley National Laboratory home page found at: http://www.lbl.gov/LBL-PID/LBLOverview.html

[5] Turpin, Baynard. ORAU Team, Task 3. May, 2006, Table 2-2 information was obtained from 

the same source as item 2-2 and Project Document number 030007011, “Radioisotope 

Inventory, LRL-Berkeley “Appendix B Spaces,” March 17, 1964. [SRDB Ref ID: 20693]

[6] Thomas, Elyse. ORAU Team. Principal Medical Dosimetrist. March 2010.

The basis for this assumption is that the reported technique factors for the PA chest projection 

are the same as those reported in deCastro (1975) and called out as such, and the other 

technique consists of an exposure time double that of the PA chest projection, which is 

consistent with the guidance in ORAUT-OTIB-0006 (ORAUT 2005a) for determining the 

exposure from a LAT chest projection when the exposure for the PA chest projection is known.

[7] Thomas, Elyse. ORAU Team. Principal Medical Dosimetrist. March 2010. 

ORAUT-OTIB-0006, Dose Reconstruction from Occupationally Related Diagnostic X-Ray 

Procedures. Distances selected for computations are consistent with this document.

[8] Bradfield, N. E., LBNL, X-Ray System Supervisor, 1987. This document has numerous 

handwritten notes, ending on last page with “Changes made 9/28/87 Installation of New 

Picker”, signed by Nancy E. Bradfield, RN. Document establishes date of replacement for Xray equipment.

[10] Fix, John J. ORAU Team. Principal External Dosimetrist. March 2010. 

Mr. Fix recommended in the absence of other data, that a ratio be used to assign an extremity 

dose if not measured equal to 3 times the recorded deep dose based on historical radiation 

protection monitoring guidelines.

[11] East, James. ORAU Team, Task 3. May, 2006. Various papers and memoranda in the early 

50’s were presented on the subject regarding the design and effectiveness. Cited 1950 

memorandum on hood design for radiochemistry specifying many features still in use today. 

Background information.

[12] East, James. ORAU Team, Task 3. May, 2006. Summary of the environmental monitoring 

data, from the beginning of observations in 1959 show a significant drop in ambient dose 

rates. This is perceived as a result of a combination of factors, reduction in the weapons 

testing fallout, improved instrumentation and monitoring program, and implementation of the 

ALARA concept. Programs evolved from portable instrument spot checks to use of continuous 

monitoring with film badges and later TLDs.

[13] East, James. ORAU Team, Task 3. May, 2006. Many years only reported maximum 

observed values. Later, average values were also reported. For consistency, and to be 

favorable to claimants, the maximum value was chosen for all years.

[14] East, James. ORAU Team, Task 3. May, 2006. No one worker received the maximum value 

every year, and the requirements of the computer code for inputs of average and maximum 

uncertainty lead to the estimates provided and remain favorable to claimants.

[15] East, James. ORAU Team, Task 3. May, 2006. Summary statement based on facts reported 

in the Environmental Reports over the years. The portable instrument readings were 

converted from hourly rates to annual for consistency.
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 63 of 109

[16] East, James. ORAU Team, Task 3. May, 2006. This statement is drawn from notations in 

many of the Environmental Reports and represents the capabilities of the monitoring at the 

time observations were made.

[17] East, James. ORAU Team, Task 3. May, 2006. Based on data presented in available 

environmental reports listed in the Reference section. Background information to support the 

estimates provided in the next paragraph.

[18] East, James. ORAU Team, Task 3. May, 2006. The growth in the power of the accelerators 

is viewed to be almost exponential. The back side of the curve (1959 on) shows a sharp drop 

in reported doses. A linear estimate of these years would overestimate observed doses. 

These two observations provide logical basis for the statement.

[19] East, James. ORAU Team, Task 3. May, 2006. Statement of the obvious effects of applying 

average dose observed over the early years, overestimating earliest years, and 

underestimating the later.

[20] East, James. ORAU Team, Task 3. May, 2006. The parabolic curve best parallels the growth 

in accelerator power, and mirrors the decline in observed doses in the following years.

[21] East, James. ORAU Team, Task 3. May, 2006. The previous paragraphs provide the reason 

for selecting the parabolic curve, and this paragraph summarizes the effects of doing so.

[22] East, James. ORAU Team, Task 3. May, 2006. The internal dose calculated in the record by 

LBNL are from releases and based on Th for alpha and Sr for beta because these were 

predominant and/or have the highest dose per activity factors and are favorable to the 

claimant.

[23] East, James. ORAU Team, Task 3. May, 2006. As stated, the average value for the 

observed years provides a good estimate of the other years. There appears to be little or no 

impact from LBNL operations, nor should there be from accelerator operations.

[24] East, James. ORAU Team, Task 3. May, 2006. Some of the recent environmental reports 

did not include beta activity in air, necessitating the estimates for the missing years. These 

estimates were based on recent years that were reported, and a round number above this 

trend was selected to be favorable to the claimant.

[25] East, James. ORAU Team, Task 3. May, 2006. Justification for the estimates is provided in 

the text for the years where observations are not available. Multiple effects are being 

addressed, the rise in airborne concentrations from atmospheric weapons testing and the 

increasing accelerator power and resulting generation of beta airborne concentrations, most of 

which are short lived and/or have low dose to activity conversion factors.

[26] East, James. ORAU Team, Task 3. May, 2006. The measurement for H-3 in 2004 was not 

reported. An estimate of H-3 was based on a H-3 to C-14 ratio. The ratio chosen is 

representative (average) of the data and favorable to claimant. Further discussion of similar 

technique is provided in the paragraph on C-14.

[27] East, James. ORAU Team, Task 3. May, 2006. Measurements were not available prior to 

1974. It is well established that H-3 and C-14 are common byproducts of accelerator 

operation. It is reasonable to assume that the rise in airborne concentrations is proportional to 

accelerator power and operation time. The linear estimate from the peak downwards towards 

initial operations provides for concentrations favorable to the claimant. This upward rise was 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 64 of 109

controlled in the later years with aggressive shielding design with steps in power level, see 

environmental reports for summaries of the shielding efforts for the new and modified 

accelerator projects.

[28] East, James. ORAU Team, Task 3. May, 2006. The ratio of C-14 to H-3 was calculated for 

each of the years where both values were reported (1974-1995). The average of the twentytwo observations was 0.155, the maximum was 0.73 and minimum of 0.02. This factor was 

applied to C-14 from 1996 to 2003 (except for 1999 when a value of 2592 was reported. As 

discussed above, the only year this was applied to H-3 in reverse was 2004, the only year that 

C-14 was reported and H-3 was not reported.

[29] Langille, Elizabeth A. ORAU Team, Task 3. May, 2006. Information on the decision to 

eliminate routine bioassays and use operational bioassays (based on scheduled work) was 

obtained during a telephone conversation between Elizabeth Langille and James Floyd (LBL 

Group Leader EH&S), May 6,2006 [SRDB Ref. ID 23402]. 

Documentation for the approach is also found in:

AIMahamid, I., 2005, Technical Basis Document for Internal Dosimetry, EH&S Procedure 301, 

Rev.4, University of California, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California, 

May 12. [SRDB Ref. ID: 21162] 

[30] Langille, Elizabeth A. ORAU Team, Task 3. May, 2006. “LBNL Electronic Record of Results 

1960 – 1996,” ORAU Team 2006. [SRDB Ref. ID: 23841] 

The electronic record of results was obtained from J. Floyd, LBNL Group Leader EH&S and 

includes a listing of method codes for the bioassay sample analysis results table. Where 

specific analyses were found in NOCTS records or in other SRDB records and could be 

compared to the electronic records, the method codes were verified to match those in the 

electronic records. 

[31] Sargent, Thornton III, 1991, LBNL, Whole Body Counter Facility Operations Manual, January 

22. [SRDB Ref. ID: 20900]

The operator aid specifies that a 15 minute count time is used but then provides a step to 

“assess the need for other counts in other geometries, as per detailed instructions.” These 

instructions implied that special instructions might include an increased count time to achieve 

a desired detection limit.

[32] Low-Beer, A. DeG., 1963, “Report of Bioassay Program for 1962,” memorandum to Dr. H. G. 

Parker, University of California, Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, California, January 

31. [SRDB Ref. ID: 21252]

The analysis of special fecal samples was noted in this document for 1962. Earlier special 

fecal samples are also noted in the electronic record of results found in SRDB Ref. ID 23481.

[33] Low-Beer, A. DeG., 1963, “Report of Bioassay Program for 1962,” memorandum to Dr. H. G. 

Parker, University of California, Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, California, January 

31. [SRDB Ref. ID: 21252]

The analysis of special blood samples was noted in this document for 1962. Earlier special 

blood (SB) samples are also noted in the electronic record of results found in SRDB Ref. ID 

23481.
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 65 of 109

[34] LBNL, 1983, Radiochemical Assay Report, July 12. [SRDB Ref. ID: 20880]

The record showed that spot urine collection was used for H-3 analysis during this time period. 

Spot urine collection may also have been used for H-3 earlier than 1983 at LBNL but of the 

records reviewed, this was the earliest date noted.

[35] LBNL (Earnest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory), 1995, Technical Basis 

Document for Internal Dosimetry, University of California, Berkeley, California, May 12. [SRDB 

Ref. ID: 20926]

This internal dosimetry program document provides information that routine 24 hour urine 

bioassay samples were obtained and analyzed for certain workers. 

[36] LBNL (Earnest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory), 1995, Technical Basis 

Document for Internal Dosimetry, University of California, Berkeley, California, May 12. [SRDB 

Ref. ID: 20926]

This internal dosimetry program document provides information that fecal bioassay samples 

were obtained and analyzed as special bioassays when determined necessary.

[37] LBNL (Earnest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory), 1995, Technical Basis 

Document for Internal Dosimetry, University of California, Berkeley, California, May 12. [SRDB 

Ref. ID: 20926]

This internal dosimetry program document provides information that spot urine bioassay 

samples were obtained and analyzed as determined necessary by EH&S.

[38] LBNL (Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory), 1995, Technical Basis 

Document for Internal Dosimetry, University of California, Berkeley, California, May 12. 

[SRDB Ref. ID: 20926]

The in vivo method and detection limits found in the table were taken from this technical basis 

document.

[39] LBNL (Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory), 1995, Technical Basis 

Document for Internal Dosimetry, University of California, Berkeley, California, May 12. 

[SRDB Ref. ID: 20926]

The in vivo method and detection limits found in the table were taken from this technical basis 

document.

[40] Langille, Elizabeth A. ORAU Team, Task 3. May 31, 2006. A review of the bioassay records 

in approximately 100 claims on NOCTS showed a file in 1971 (Claim Number Redacted) 

where the individual was counted on a WBC and an analysis for P-32 was performed. This file 

was used to establish the beginning time for this method as 1971. Using WBC to analyze for 

P-32 was also noted in 1995 LBNL Technical Basis document for internal dosimetry and so 

the method was assumed to be available until LBNL stopped performing WBC in 1996.
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 66 of 109

LBNL (Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory), 1995, Technical Basis Document for 

Internal Dosimetry, University of California, Berkeley, California, May 12. [SRDB Ref. ID: 

20926]

The in vivo method and detection limits found in the table were taken from this technical basis 

document.

[41] Langille, Elizabeth A. ORAU Team, Task 3. May, 2006. “LBNL Electronic Record of Results 

1960 – 1996,” ORAU Team 2006. [SRDB Ref. ID: 23841] 

The electronic record of results was obtained from J. Floyd, LBNL Group Leader EH&S and 

includes a listing of method codes for the bioassay sample analysis results table. Where 

specific analyses were found in NOCTS records or in other SRDB records and could be 

compared to the electronic records, the method codes were verified to match those in the 

electronic records. 

[42] Guido, Joseph, ORAU Team, Task 5. June 5, 2006. Mr. Guido reviewed the original data 

from multiple claims and made the observation that the readings represented the end of work 

shifts. 

[43] Thomas, Bill R. ORAU Team, Task 3. June 5, 2006. Mr. Thomas reviewed the manual for 

radiation safety practices published in 1958 (LRL, 1958e). It appeared that the RADCON staff 

implemented a procedure that limited the deep dose and adequately limited the shallow dose. 

In the absence of other data, a ratio was established for shallow exposure to deep exposure of 

3:1.

[44] Thomas, Bill R. ORAU Team, Task 3. May 1, 2006. Mr. Thomas reviewed the original data 

from multiple claims in the NOCTS database and made the observation that codes assigned to 

external dosimetry were updated over time. The types of dosimeters were described in the 

documentation provided with the exposure data.

[45] Thomas, Bill R. ORAU Team, Task 3. May 1, 2006. Mr. Thomas reviewed the original data 

from multiple claims in the NOCTS database and made the observation that codes assigned to 

external dosimetry were updated over time. The types of dosimeters were described in the 

documentation provided with the exposure data.

[46] Thomas, Bill R. ORAU Team, Task 3. May 1, 2006. Mr. Thomas reviewed the types of 

activities described in Chapter 2 of the LBNL TBD. Given the type of operations, the energies 

and beta/photon dose fractions were selected in a manner similar to the LLNL and LANL 

facilities.

[47] Thomas, Bill R. ORAU Team, Task 3. May 1, 2006. Mr. Thomas reviewed the types of 

activities described in Chapter 2 of the LBNL TBD. Given the type of operations, the energies 

and neutron dose fractions were selected in a manner similar to the LLNL and LANL facilities.

[48] Fix, John J. ORAU Team. Principal External Dosimetrist. March 2010. 

Mr. Fix recommended the respective organ dose conversion factors based on the methods to 

measure dose historically.

[49] Fix, John J. ORAU Team. Principal External Dosimetrist. March 2010. 

Mr. Fix recommended the anterior-posterior geometry be used to select the respective organ 

dose conversion factors based on guidance in IG-0001.
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 67 of 109

[50] Fix, John J. ORAU Team. Principal External Dosimetrist. March 2010. 

Mr. Fix identified the need to obtain from LBNL information concerning when ICRP neutron 

dose weighting factors are used at LBNL to assign personnel neutron dose in accordance with 

10 CFR 835 requirements. 

[51] Fix, John J. ORAU Team. Principal External Dosimetrist. March 2010. 

Mr. Fix identified the selection of the default neutron category of 0.1 to 2 MeV based on 

measurements reported by Moyer (1960) and also this category provides a favorable to the 

claimant selection.

[52] Fix, John J. ORAU Team. Principal External Dosimetrist. March 2010. 

Mr. Fix recommended the uncertainty estimates for LBNL be based on values for similar 

systems since information from LBNL specific site studies was not available. 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0049 Revision No. 02 Effective Date: 05/10/2010 Page 68 of 109

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GLOSSARY

absorbed dose

Amount of energy in rads or grays deposited in a substance by ionizing radiation per unit mass 

of the substance. See dose.

absorption type 

Categories for materials according to their speed of absorption in the body, which replaced the 

earlier inhalation clearance classes. Defined by the International Commission on Radiological 

Protection, the absorption types are F for fast absorption (formerly inhalation class D), M for 

moderate absorption (formerly inhalation class W), and S for slow absorption (formerly 

inhalation class Y). Also called solubility type.

activity median aerodynamic diameter (AMAD)

Diameter of a unit density sphere with the same terminal settling velocity in air as that of the 

aerosol particle whose activity is the median for the entire aerosol. In relation to health 

physics, normally assumed to be 5 micrometers. Also called aerodynamic equivalent 

diameter.

acute exposure

Radiation exposure to the body delivered in a short period. See chronic exposure.

alpha radiation

Positively charged particle emitted from the nuclei of some radioactive elements. An alpha 

particle consists of two neutrons and two protons (a helium nucleus) and has an electrostatic 

charge of +2. Alpha particles have low penetrating power and a short range (a few 

centimeters in air). Outside the body, the most energetic alpha particle generally fails to 

penetrate the dead layers of cells covering the skin or a sheet of paper. Alpha particles 

emitted by radionuclides inside the body are a more significant health risk. 

background radiation

Radiation from cosmic sources, naturally occurring radioactive materials including naturally 

occurring radon, and global fallout from the testing of nuclear explosives. Background 

radiation does not include radiation from source, byproduct, or Special Nuclear Materials 

regulated by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. The average individual exposure from 

background radiation is about 360 millirem per year.

becquerel (Bq) 

International System unit of radioactivity equal to 1 disintegration per second; 1 curie equals 

37 billion (3.7 × 1010) becquerels. 

beta radiation

Charged particle emitted from some radioactive elements with a mass equal to 1/1,837 that of 

a proton. A negatively charged beta particle is identical to an electron. A positively charged 

beta particle is a positron. Most of the direct fission products are (negative) beta emitters. 

Exposure to large amounts of beta radiation from external sources can cause skin burns 

(erythema), and beta emitters can be harmful inside the body. Thin sheets of metal or plastic 

can stop beta particles.

bioassay

Determination of kinds, quantities, or concentrations, and in some cases locations of 

radioactive material in a living body, whether by direct measurement (in vivo measurement) or 
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by analysis and evaluation of materials excreted or removed from the body (in vitro

measurement). Also called radiobioassay.

body burden

Amount of radioactive material in an individual's body at a particular point in time.

chronic exposure 

Radiation dose to the body delivered in small amounts over a long period (e.g., days or years). 

For the purposes of input to the Interactive RadioEpidemiological Program, chronic exposure 

is selected under exposure rate for beta and neutron dose. See acute exposure.

curie (Ci) 

Traditional unit of radioactivity equal to 37 billion (3.7 x 1010) becquerels, which is 

approximately equal to the activity of 1 gram of pure 226Ra.

dose 

In general, the effects of ionizing radiation in terms of the specific amount of energy absorbed 

per unit of mass. Effective and equivalent doses are in units of rem or sievert; other types of 

dose are in units of roentgens, rads, reps, or grays. Various terms narrow the type of dose, 

and some are additive: 

• Absorbed dose is the amount of energy deposited in a substance by ionizing radiation.

• Collective dose is the sum of the doses to a specific population.

• Committed dose is the dose over time (usually 50 years for workers) to a specific organ or 

tissue from an intake of radioactive material.

• Cumulative dose is the sum of all doses to the same portion of the body or to the whole 

body over time.

• Deep dose is the dose at a 1-centimeter depth in tissue (1,000 milligrams per square 

centimeter).

• Effective dose is the sum of the equivalent doses in the principal tissues and organs of the 

body, each weighted by a tissue weighting factor that accounts for the probabilities of fatal 

and nonfatal cancers according to severity and the average length of life lost due to an 

induced cancer. It indicates the biological effect of the radiation exposure in that tissue. 

• Equivalent dose or dose equivalent is the absorbed dose in a tissue or organ multiplied by 

a weighting factor for the particular type of radiation. 

• Organ dose is the dose to a specific organ.

• Penetrating dose is that from higher energy photon (gamma and X-ray) radiation and 

neutron radiation that penetrates the outer layers of the skin. Nonpenetrating dose is that 

from beta and lower energy photon radiation. 

• Personal dose equivalent is the dose equivalent in soft tissue below a specified point on 

the body at a specified depth. 

• Shallow dose is the dose at a 0.07-millimeter depth in tissue (7 milligrams per square 

centimeter).
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• Skin dose is the dose to the skin.

• Whole-body dose is the dose to the entire body excluding the contents of the 

gastrointestinal tract, urinary bladder, and gall bladder.

deep dose equivalent (DDE, Hd, Hp(10)) 

Dose equivalent in units of rem or sievert for a 1-centimeter depth in tissue (1,000 milligrams 

per square centimeter). See dose.

depleted uranium (DU)

Uranium with a percentage of 235U lower than the 0.7% found in natural uranium. As 

examples, spent (used) fuel elements, byproduct tails, residues from uranium isotope 

separation, and some weapons materials contain DU. DU can be blended with highly 

enriched uranium to make reactor fuel or used as a raw material to produce plutonium.

dose equivalent (H, DE) 

Product of absorbed dose in units of rem or sievert in tissue multiplied by a weighting factor 

and sometimes by other modifying factors to account for the potential for a biological effect 

from the absorbed dose. See dose.

dosimeter

Device that measures the quantity of received radiation, usually a holder with radiationabsorbing filters and radiation-sensitive inserts packaged to provide a record of absorbed dose 

received by an individual. See film dosimeter, neutron film dosimeter, and thermoluminescent 

dosimeter.

dosimetry

Measurement and calculation of internal and external radiation doses.

dosimetry system

System for assessment of received radiation dose. This includes the fabrication, assignment, 

and processing of external dosimeters, and/or the collection and analysis of bioassay samples, 

and the interpretation and documentation of the results.

enriched uranium (EU)

Uranium in which processing has increased the proportion of 235U to 238U to above the natural 

level of 0.7%. Reactor-grade uranium is usually about 3.5% 235U; weapons-grade uranium 

contains greater than 90% 235U.

exposure

In general, the act of being exposed to ionizing radiation. See acute exposure and chronic

exposure. In this document, exposure does not refer to the radiological physics concept of 

charge liberated per unit mass of air.

film 

Radiation-sensitive photographic film in a light-tight wrapping. See film dosimeter.

film dosimeter

Package of film for measurement of ionizing radiation exposure for personnel monitoring 

purposes. A film dosimeter can contain two or three films of different sensitivities, and it can 

contain one or more filters that shield parts of the film from certain types of radiation. When 

developed, the film has an image caused by radiation measurable with an optical 

densitometer. Also called film badge.
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fission products

(1) Radionuclides produced by fission or by the subsequent radioactive decay of 

radionuclides. (2) Fragments other than neutrons that result from the splitting of an atomic 

nucleus. 

gamma radiation 

Electromagnetic radiation (photons) of short wavelength and high energy (10 kiloelectron-volts 

to 9 megaelectron-volts) that originates in atomic nuclei and accompanies many nuclear 

reactions (e.g., fission, radioactive decay, and neutron capture). Gamma rays are very 

penetrating, but dense materials such as lead or uranium or thick structures can stop them. 

Gamma photons are identical to X-ray photons of high energy; the difference is that X-rays do 

not originate in the nucleus. 

gray (Gy) 

International System unit of absorbed radiation dose, which is the amount of energy from any 

type of ionizing radiation deposited in any medium; 1 Gy equals 1 joule per kilogram or 

100 rads.

ionizing radiation

Radiation of high enough energy to remove an electron from a struck atom and leave behind a 

positively charged ion. High enough doses of ionizing radiation can cause cellular damage. 

Ionizing particles include alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, X-rays, neutrons, 

high-speed electrons, high-speed protons, photoelectrons, Compton electrons, 

positron/negatron pairs from photon radiation, and scattered nuclei from fast neutrons.

intake

Radioactive material taken into the body by inhalation, absorption through the skin, injection, 

ingestion, or through wounds. Depending on the radionuclide involved, intakes are in units of 

mass, activity, or potential alpha energy.

internal dose or exposure

Dose received from radioactive material in the body.

internal dose assessment

Estimation of an intake of radioactive material and the consequent internal radiation dose 

based on measurements in the work environment and/or bioassay. 

in vitro

Of or relating to a process that takes place under artificial conditions or outside a living 

organism (e.g., in the laboratory). From Latin meaning in glass.

in vivo

Of or relating to a process that takes place in a living organism. From Latin meaning in life.

lung solubility type

See absorption type.

minimum detectable activity or amount (MDA)

Lowest amount of radioactive activity or substance amount detectable by a specific instrument 

or process. Smallest amount or activity of a radionuclide in a sample or organ that yields a 

result above the detection level with a specific probability of a Type II (false negative) error 

while accepting an specific probability of a Type I (false positive) error.
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minimum detection level (MDL)

Lowest amount (mass or activity) of a substance detectable by a specific instrument or 

process. Often assumed to be the level at which a dose is detected at the 2-sigma level (i.e., 

95% of the time). Also called minimum detectable limit and minimum detection limit or level.

missed dose

Dose to monitored workers that was not measured or recorded due to such factors as a 

missing or damaged dosimeter or a result below the detection limits of the dosimeter. Missed 

dose is especially important in the early years of radiation monitoring, when relatively high 

detection limits were combined with short exchange periods. 

monitoring

Periodic or continuous determination of the presence or amount of ionizing radiation or 

radioactive contamination in air, surface water, ground water, soil, sediment, equipment 

surfaces, or personnel (for example, bioassay or alpha scans). In relation to personnel, 

monitoring includes internal and external dosimetry including interpretation of the 

measurements.

natural uranium (U, U-nat, NU) 

Uranium as found in nature, approximately 99.27% 238U, 0.72% 235U, and 0.0054% 234U by 

weight. The specific activity of this mixture is 2.6 × 107 becquerels per kilogram 

(0.7 picocuries per gram). See uranium.

neutron

Basic nucleic particle that is electrically neutral with mass slightly greater than that of a proton. 

There are neutrons in the nuclei of every atom heavier than normal hydrogen.

neutron film dosimeter

Film dosimeter with a nuclear track emulsion, type A, film packet.

nuclear track emulsion, Type A (NTA)

Film sensitive to fast neutrons made by Eastman Kodak. The developed image has tracks 

caused by neutrons that are visible under oil immersion with about 1,000-power magnification.

occupational dose

Internal and external ionizing radiation dose from exposure during employment. Occupational 

dose does not include that from background radiation or medical diagnostics, research, or 

treatment.

occupational exposure

Exposure to radiation and/or to radioactive material from sources of radiation, whether in the 

possession of the DOE site contractor or other person, in a restricted area or in the course of 

employment in which the individual's assigned duties. Occupational exposure does not 

include exposure to background radiation, as a patient from medical practices, from voluntary 

participation in medical research programs, or as a member of the public.

occupational medical exposure

Exposure to radiation from medical X-ray screening procedures during physical examinations 

that are required as a condition of employment. For dose reconstruction, occupational medical 

exposure is a component of occupational exposure.
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personal dose equivalent [Hp(d)] 

Dose equivalent in units of rem or sievert in soft tissue below a specified point on the body at 

an appropriate depth d. The depths selected for personal dosimetry are 0.07 millimeters 

(7 milligrams per square centimeter) and 10 millimeters (1,000 milligrams per square 

centimeter), respectively, for the skin (shallow) and whole-body (deep) doses. These are 

noted as Hp(0.07) and Hp(10), respectively. The International Commission on Radiological 

Measurement and Units recommended Hp(d) in 1993 as dose quantity for radiological 

protection.

photon

Basic unit of electromagnetic radiation. Photons are massless “packages” of light energy that 

range from low-energy microwave photons to high-energy gamma rays. Photons have 

energies between 10 and 100 kiloelectron-volts. See photon radiation.

photon radiation

Electromagnetic radiation of light energy (photons) from microwaves to gamma rays. Gamma 

rays and X-rays are examples of ionizing photon radiation, which have enough energy to 

penetrate matter, including the body, and deposit energy in that matter.

probability of causation (POC)

For dose reconstruction under the Energy Employees Occupational Illness Compensation 

Program Act, the percent likelihood that a worker incurred a particular cancer from 

occupational exposure to radiation.

rad

Traditional unit for expressing absorbed radiation dose, which is the amount of energy from 

any type of ionizing radiation deposited in any medium. A dose of 1 rad is equivalent to the 

absorption of 100 ergs per gram (0.01 joule per kilogram) of absorbing tissue. The rad has 

been replaced by the gray in the International System of Units (100 rads = 1 gray). The word 

derives from radiation absorbed dose. 

radiation

Subatomic particles and electromagnetic rays (photons) that travel from one point to another, 

some of which can pass through or partly through solid materials including the human body. 

See ionizing radiation.

radioactivity

Disintegration of certain elements (e.g., radium, actinium, uranium, and thorium) accompanied 

by the emission of alpha, beta, gamma, and/or neutron radiation from unstable nuclei.

radiograph

Image produced on film by gamma rays or X-rays. Some of the rays (photons) can pass 

through parts of an item, while more opaque parts partially or completely absorb them and 

thus cast a shadow on the film.

rem

Traditional unit of radiation dose equivalent that indicates the biological damage caused by 

radiation equivalent to that caused by 1 rad of high-penetration X-rays multiplied by a quality 

factor. The average American receives 360 millirem a year from background radiation. The 

sievert is the International System unit; 1 rem equals 0.01 sievert. The word derives from 

roentgen equivalent in man; rem is also the plural.
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roentgen (R)

Unit of photon (gamma or X-ray) exposure for which the resultant ionization liberates a positive 

or negative charge equal to 2.58 × 10-4 coulomb per kilogram (or 1 electrostatic unit of 

electricity per cubic centimeter) of dry air at 0°C and standard atmospheric pressure. An 

exposure of 1 R is approximately equivalent to an absorbed dose of 1 rad in soft tissue for 

higher energy photons (generally greater than 100 kiloelectron-volts).

routine monitoring

Monitoring carried out at regular intervals during normal operations. See special monitoring.

shallow absorbed dose (Ds)

Absorbed dose at a depth of 0.07 centimeters (7 milligrams per square centimeter) in a 

material of specified geometry and composition.

shallow dose equivalent [SDE, Hs, Hp(0.07)] 

Dose equivalent in units of rem or sievert at a depth of 0.07 millimeters (7 milligrams per 

square centimeter) in tissue equal to the sum of the penetrating and nonpenetrating doses.

sievert (Sv) 

International System unit for dose equivalent, which indicates the biological damage caused 

by radiation. The unit is the radiation value in gray (equal to 1 joule per kilogram) multiplied by 

a weighting factor for the type of radiation and a weighting factor for the tissue; 1 Sv equals 

100 rem.

special monitoring

Monitoring in addition to the routine monitoring program carried out for special purposes such 

as estimating the amount of radionuclide deposited in a person after a known or suspected 

accidental intake or after a known or suspected environmental release. See routine 

monitoring.

spot sample

In relation to bioassay, usually a single void of urine.

thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD)

Device for measuring radiation dose that consists of a holder containing solid chips of material 

that, when heated by radiation, release the stored energy as light. The measurement of this 

light provides a measurement of absorbed dose. 

transuranic (TRU) elements 

Elements with atomic numbers above 92 (uranium). Examples include plutonium and 

americium. All isotopes of the transuranic elements are radioactive, they are naturally either 

rare or nonexistent on Earth, and most are known only as a result of research using nuclear 

reactors and particle accelerators because of extremely short half-lives.

unmonitored dose

Potential unrecorded dose that could have resulted because a worker was not monitored. See 

missed dose.

uranium (U)

Heavy, metallic, and radioactive element with atomic number 92. Most natural uranium as 

found in ores is 238U with trace levels of other isotopes. Uranium-235 (0.7% of natural 

uranium) is fissile by itself and used in nuclear weapons as well as reactors. Uranium-238 

(99.3% of natural uranium) is fissionable by fast neutrons and used in nuclear reactors. 
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Natural uranium contains a minute amount of 234U. See depleted uranium, enriched uranium, 

and natural uranium.

whole-body (WB) dose 

Dose to the entire body excluding the contents of the gastrointestinal tract, urinary bladder, 

and gall bladder and commonly defined as the absorbed dose at a tissue depth of 

10 millimeters (1,000 milligrams per square centimeter). Also called penetrating dose. 

See dose.

X-ray 

(1) See X-ray radiation. (2) See radiograph.

X-ray radiation

Penetrating electromagnetic radiation (photons) of short wavelength (0.001 to 10 nanometers) 

and energy less than 250 kiloelectron-volts. X-rays usually come from excitation of the 

electron field around certain nuclei. Once formed, there is no difference between X-rays and 

gamma rays, but gamma photons originate inside the nucleus of an atom.
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Because of the number of relevant references, this section contains a timeline of historical radiationassociated events at LBNL. This was prepared as an aid in examining the various issues and 

practices. As feasible, pertinent information has been transcribed from the references in the NIOSH 

Project SRDB. The reference listing and SRDB reference identification (SRDB Ref ID) number are 

also provided. These references do not necessarily appear in the main reference list for this 

document. 

1940s

Patterson, H. W., 1994, Early Years at the Rad Lab, Chapter 2 in Patterson, H. W., and R. H. 

Thomas, editors, 1994, The History of Accelerator Radiological Protection, Personal and 

Professional Memoirs, Nuclear Technology Publishing. [SRDB Ref ID: 33209]

Chapter 2, “Early Days at the Rad Lab” describes radiation protection challenges and practices at 

LBNL at Berkeley from the earliest days to about 1952 when it is stated that a separate Health

Physics Program was begun at Livermore. The beginning of the Radiation Laboratory personnel film 

dosimetry program is described. The original dosimeter is stated to be holders designed at Oak 

Ridge (i.e., the two-element dosimeter design adopted at ORNL, Hanford, and many other sites) using 

DuPont film.

1946

University of California Radiation Laboratory (RL), 1946, Film Badge Report. [SRDB Ref ID: 32415]

This reference is a listing entitled “Film Badge Report” of what appears to be weekly film badge 

results for respective individuals during the period of April through October 1946. The listing is 

categorized into work areas such as Bldg #1, ORL-37”, CAL-60,” Bldg. 10, and Gilman.

1947

Norton, J. S., Memorandum dated June 27, 1947 entitled “Radiation Protection Equipment,” [SRDB 

Ref ID: 21132]

This letter describes the status of various radiation protection equipment activities particularly 

concerning radiation instrumentation. The list of activities covers many tasks including 

instrumentation such as hand counter, alpha survey meters, foot counters, etc., being developed at 

the Radiation Laboratory as well as procurements of instrumentation such as Victoreen portable GM 

survey meters, Landsverk-Wollan alpha/beta/gamma meters Model L-100, electrometers, etc. The 

letter states that 48 Landsverk-Wollan pocket electrometers, 6 boron lined pocket electroscopes (slow 

neutron) , 3 pocket electroscopes (self-charging type), and 12 integrating pocket chambers (neutron) 

are in use. Sixty-two other boron lined pocket chambers were also received. 

1948

University of California Radiation Laboratory (RL), 1948, Medical and Health Physics Quarterly 

Report, January, February, March, 1948, UCRL-98, University of California, Radiation 

Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, May 1948. [SRDB Ref ID: 55802]

This document beginning on page 50 under Health Chemistry and page 51 Health Physics describes 

the development of equipment and techniques with the purpose to accomplish the goal of absolute 

control and trapping of radioactive substances. Monitoring of areas and personnel is underway. A 

problem was noted regarding the variation of sensitivity among various lots of film used in personnel 

film badges. It was found necessary to provide each lot of film with a separate calibration curve for 

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HISTORICAL TIMELINE OF RADIATION EXPOSURE ASSOCIATED EVENTS AT LBNL

Page 1 of 22
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the photometer to convert densities into readings of dosage. Data are being accumulated on the 

radiation fields of the linear accelerator, and of the cyclotron as its shielding is being augmented. 

University of California Radiation Laboratory (RL), 1948, Monthly Progress Report No. 61 for May 

1948, UCRL-115, University of California, Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, May 1948, 

[SRDB Ref ID: 71798]

This document provides a status report on the respective accelerators including 1) 184-inch 

Cyclotron, 2) 60-inch Cyclotron, 3) Synchrotron, and 4) Linear Accelerators divided into discussion of 

the Van de Graaff Generator and Linear Accelerators. There is also discussion of the development of 

the JA Calutron to be used for isotope separation. Health Physics and Chemistry are described on 

page 11 stating that slow neutron flux densities had been measured by foils placed at various depths 

in the concrete shielding of the 184-inch cyclotron at particular locations. Air scattering of the 

neutrons was noted with the flux less than 100 neutrons-cm-2

-sec-1 under the strongest beam 

conditions. The fast neutron flux was measured to be much below tolerance.

University of California Radiation Laboratory (RL), 1948, Monthly Progress Report No. 63 for May 

1948, UCRL-153, University of California, Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, July 15, [SRDB 

Ref ID: 71799]

This document provides a status report on the respective accelerators including 1) 184-inch 

Cyclotron, 2) 60-inch Cyclotron, 3) Synchrotron, and 4) Linear Accelerators divided into discussion of 

the Van de Graaff Generator and Linear Accelerators. Health Physics and Chemistry are described 

on pages 11-12 describing the status of efforts to support various research projects such as a 

specially built box for processing yttrium and strontium with minimum of exposure. Calibration of slow 

neutron pencils was underway.

1949

Morgan, K. Z., letter dated October 11, 1949 regarding “The meeting of the Radiation Protection 

Committees of the United States, Great Britain and Canada, in Chalk River, Canada, 

September 29 and 30, 1949.” [SRDB Ref ID: 72103].

This is apparently input to the planned deliberations of the TriPartite meeting in 1949. Proposed 

maximum permissible tissue dose limits were noted in the following table. 

Based on experience in lack of damage from 200 keV x-rays

Maximum Permissible Tissue Dose Limits in “Reps” per Week

Type of radiation

At any point 

within the body RBEa

In the basal layer of the epidermis

Exposure of entire body Exposure of hands only

x-rays and gamma rays 0.3 1 0.5 1.5

Beta rays 0.3 1 0.5 1.5

Protons 0.03 10 0.05 0.15

Alpha rays 0.015 20 0.025 0.075

Fast neutrons 0.03 10 0.05 0.15

Thermal neutrons 0.06 5 0.1 0.3

a. RBE = relative biological effectiveness.

For purposes of health monitoring, whole body exposure should be assumed when radiation is 

received to any portion of the body other than hands or forearms. In the light of present knowledge no 

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manifest permanent injury is to be expected from a single exposure of persons to 25r or less, with the 

possible exception of pregnant women.

University of California Radiation Laboratory (RL), 1949, Medical and Health Physics Quarterly 

Report, July, August, September, 1949, UCRL-480, University of California, Radiation 

Laboratory, Berkeley, CA February 27, [SRDB Ref ID: 55796]

This document beginning on page 66 under Health Chemistry and page 67 Health Physics describes 

improvements to remote handling equipment and extensive surveys of the fast and slow neutron flux 

densities of a Linear Accelerator. The slow neutron component was stated to be everywhere 

sufficiently low, extending as high as 1500 neutrons-cm-2

sec-1 in the worst areas with a beam current 

of nearly 1/10 microampere. The energy flux density of fast neutrons, in the region of 0.5 to 15 MeV, 

measured in Mev-cm-2

sec-1, was measured repeatedly. The document provides a list of survey 

instruments maintained and also a summary of personnel dosimeter use as follows:

Description Quantity

Total people covered with film badges 1,250

Total man-days coverage with pocket chambers 1,594

Total man-days coverage with pocket dosimeters 3,383

Total man-days coverage with pocket chambers (SN) 2,190

A summary of weekly exposures greater than 0.3R as follows:

Exposure 

above 184” area 60” area Linear acc. Synchrotron Chemistry Total

0.3R 5 1 9 0 33 48

0.5R 1 0 5 0 16 22

1.0R 1 0 0 0 4 5

1.5R 1(5.0R)

a 0 0 0 0 1

a. This exposure was received while undergoing a fluoroscopic examination that was in no way connected 

with the project.

1950

Chew, G. F., and B. J. Moyer, 1950, High Energy Accelerators at the University of California Radiation 

Laboratory, American Journal of Physics, Vol. 18, No. 3, 125-126, March [SRDB Ref ID:

21681]

This is a published paper that describes the operation of the Radiation Laboratory accelerators at that 

time.

Barrett, R. J., Letter to W. W. Meinke, dated October 25, 1950 regarding description of physical 

examinations, [SRDB Ref ID: 21067]

Letter contains a description of medical practices at Berkeley involving: 1) a medical examination of 

the individual, including physical examination, chest x-ray, complete blood count, and urinalysis at the 

time of employment; 2) periodic blood counts, indicated special studies, and repeated medical 

examinations every eighteen months; 3) examination at the time the individual terminates employment 

at the laboratory; 4) maintenance of first aid facilities where job-incurred injuries are initially handled 

and where limited nursing care and professional medical advice is available for non-job incurred 

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injuries and illness; and (5) the development of examination methods of special value in regard to 

radiation injury and other special laboratory hazards. 

N. B. Garden, Letter to Health Chemistry Monitors, dated July 27, 1950 entitled “Recent Revisions in 

Maximum Permissible Radiation Exposure Levels,” [SRDB Ref ID: 21093] 

This letter describes a review of changes in exposure limits contained in General Industry Safety 

Orders, Division of Industrial Safety, State of California. Section 3803 states that no employee shall 

be exposed to a daily dose of ionizing radiation greater than 0.05 roentgen equivalent man, and a 

total weekly dose of not more than 0.3 roentgen equivalent man. The summation of all types of 

ionizing radiations shall be used in determining the daily or weekly dose. These values replace the 

former values stated in the AEC Standard Safety Regulations of 0.1 r/day, from which we obtained the 

12.5 mr/hr level for the 8-hour day. 

N. B. Garden, 1950, Letter to E. H. Covey, Control Officer, Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory, 

dated August 23, 1950 regarding log sheets for persons entering radioactively hazardous 

areas [SRDB Ref ID: 21091]

Letter describes routine Radiation Laboratory radiation protection practices. Log sheets for personnel 

entering radioactively hazardous areas are not used except during the times of operation of 

accelerators. Areas have not been set aside as radioactively hazardous. Hazards due to penetrating 

radiation, or radioactive ingestion, and contamination are evaluated in advance of the run or 

operation. Then steps are taken to circumvent them. The gloved box technique, secondary 

containers and a rule of “No Exposure – No Contamination” have served to minimize the time spent in 

record-keeping and frequent monitoring for contamination. All personnel on the project are issued 

and required to wear film badges. These are exchanged and read weekly. Badges which show 

greater than 0.3 roentgen are given special investigation. 

University of California Radiation Laboratory (RL), 1951, Medical and Health Physics Quarterly 

Report, October, November, December, 1950, UCRL-1143, University of California, Radiation 

Laboratory, Berkeley, CA February 27, [SRDB Ref ID: 44679]

This document beginning on page 60 under Health Physics describes implementation of a fast 

neutron counter with ranges covering a neutron flux of 5 to 10,000 neutrons/cm2

/sec (~0.1 to 40 

MeV). Gamma radiation intensities of one r/hr can be discriminated against. The document provides 

a list of survey instruments maintained and also a summary of personnel dosimeter use as follows:

Description Quantity

Total people covered with film badges 1,800

Total man-days coverage with pocket chambers 2,177

Total man-days coverage with pocket dosimeters 4,334

Total man-days coverage with pocket chambers (SN) 3,609

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A summary of weekly exposures greater than 0.3R as follows:

Exposure 

above 184” area 60” area Linear acc. Synchrotron Chemistry Total

0.3R 18 18 0 0 11 47

0.5R 3 6 0 0 4 13

1.0R 0 2 0 0 2 4

1.5R 0 2 0 0 1 3

5.0Ra 0 2* 0 0 0 2

a. In the past three months there have been two exposures exceeding 5 R, one of which was 

received while undergoing chest fluoroscopy. The other received while undergoing a dental 

examination. These exposures were in no way project connected.

1951

Ball, RH, Chief, Research Service Branch, Atomic Energy Commission, Berkeley Area Office, to W. B. 

Reynolds, Radiation Laboratory, University of California, dated March 13, 1951, entitled 

“Permissible Levels of Radiation and Concentrations of Radioactive Isotopes, Attachments to 

GM Bulletin No. 133,” [SRDB Ref ID: 72103].

This document describes Attachment A entitled “Permissible Levels of External Radiation,” and refers 

to human exposures to beta, gamma and X-rays and Attachment B entitled “List of Permissible 

Radioisotopes Concentrations for the Guidance of AEC and AEC-Installation personnel, based on 

Harwell and Chalk River Conferences.” The document includes the following:

The maximal permissible level for chronic exposure of the total body to penetrating 

radiation (beta, gamma, X-rays) shall be at the rate of 0.3 rep per week at an effective 

depth in soft tissue of 5 centimeters, assumed to be the depth of the blood forming 

organs. A measured dose not exceeding the rate of 0.3 rep per week in air will be 

assumed to meet these requirements. For soft components of radiation (including beta 

rays with energy less than 2 MeV), an additional rate of 0.2 rep per week, as measured 

in air, is permissible. The maximal permissible level for chronic exposure to the basal 

layer of the skin, at a depth corresponding to 7 milligrams per square centimeter, may 

thus be at the rate of 0.5 rep per week – but with the restriction that the dose at the 

depth of the blood-forming organs shall not exceed 0.3 rep per week. In the case of 

exposures limited to the hands and forearms, the maximal permissible dose shall be 

1.5 rep per week, measured in air or at the basal layer of the skin. Weekly (or 

biweekly) exposure records shall be kept of all personnel who are subject to such 

exposure. For administration purposes, however, exposure levels may be considered 

in terms of the average taken over a longer period of time not to exceed three months. 

A single week’s exposure need not be considered excessive if it is not over twice the 

permissible level of 0.3 rep per week (or twice the level of 0.5 rep per week under the 

appropriate conditions), provided the average weekly exposure over three months 

does not exceed the maximal permissible limit.

PERMISSIBLE LEVELS OF EXTERNAL RADIATION
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Page 6 of 22

Bowen, J. E., Letter to N. B. Garden, dated October 8, 1951 entitled, “Status of Health Chemistry 

Instrumentation,” [SRDB Ref ID: 21141] 

Letter concerns an itemized report of the progress of instrumentation projects under development for 

Health Chemistry. Several types of instrumentation are noted including air filter monitoring, 

scintillation, beta hand counter, alpha, beta gamma pencil probe, etc.

Brown, H., Letter to Mail Room, Bldg. 30 dated December 12, 1950, regarding list of Health Chemistry 

personnel according to building, [SRDB Ref ID: 21061]

This document describes work assignment of personnel according to Building 5 (room 116), Building 

50 (room 326) and Building 3. It is likely to be associated with procedures to provide for the 

assignment and exchange of dosimeters with personnel. 

Nielsen, E., Letter to N. B. Garden, dated September 20, 1951 entitled “Radiation from Uranium 

Block,” [SRDB Ref ID: 21143]

Letter concerns results of film measurements on selected uranium blocks as noted in the following 

table. Film G-1 to G-8 are film exposures made on a piece of uranium in Garden’s office, G-9 is the 

control, and G-10 is the exposure made from the nickel plated uranium piece used in the 24Na 

shipping container. Except for G-9 and G-10, each film had two thicknesses of 0.041” aluminum as a 

beta shield over half of the film.

Film Distance( in) Exposure (hr)

Film readings

Total (mr) mr/hr

B + G Gamma B + G Gamma

G-1 Contact 1 100 - 100 -

G-2 3 1 - - - -

G-3 12 1 - - - -

G-4 36 1 - - - -

G-5 Contact 48.5 3,550 750 73 15

G-6 3 48.5 1,230 268 25 5

G-7 12 95.5 300 66 3 1

G-8 36 95.5 - - - -

G-9 Control – n/a n/a - - - -

G-10 Contact 24 2,500 - 104 -

Comparison between G-1. G-5 and G-10 would indicate that the plating was not thick enough to 

significantly affect the beta radiation. The number of secondary photons due to stopping of the beta 

particles in the plating should be less than 1% of the number of beta particles stopped.

Radiation Laboratory (RL), 1951, “Health Chemistry Accident Reports,” University of California, 

[SRDB Ref ID: 30028]

This reference is a collection of Health Chemistry accident reports. The instructions state that this 

report is to be completed by the monitor and submitted whenever an accident has occurred in his 

building. The accidents include fire, explosion, spills of radioactive materials, large spills of corrosive 

or inflammable materials and injury to personnel requiring first aid.
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Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL), 2007, ”Individual Exposure Records (1948-1972),” 

LBNL, University of California, Berkeley, CA, May 21, [SRDB Ref ID: 32338]

This reference is one of several examples of a career radiation dose report prepared in this case in 

2007 by LBNL. There are individual film dosimeter dose results for nearly every exchange period 

during the period from 1948 until 1972. Monthly exchange of the film dosimeter occurred effective 

January 1959 with weekly monitoring prior to this date beginning with the period of 1/12/1948 through 

1/14/1948. Slow neutron monitoring results likely from pocket ionization chambers (i.e., boron lined) 

are also provided from 1/10/1949 through 3/28/1949 for likely each day of use. Electroscope results 

are provided for identified buildings (i.e., Bldg 6 and 80) during 1949 through 1951 for what appears to 

be the day the device was used. 

University of California Radiation Laboratory (RL), 1952, “Medical and Health Physics Quarterly 

Report, October, November, December, 1951,” UCRL-1694, University of California, Radiation 

Laboratory, Berkeley, CA February 28, [SRDB Ref ID: 72124]

This document beginning on page 88 under Health Physics describes completion of a portable 

neutron scintillation counter consisting of a large hollow polyethylene sphere coated on the inside with 

ZnS:Ag. The document provides a list of the types and quantities of survey instruments maintained 

and also a summary of personnel dosimeter use as follows:

Description Quantity

Total people covered with film badges 1,900

Total man-days coverage with pocket chambers 1,101

Total man-days coverage with pocket dosimeters 3,251

Total man-days coverage with pocket chambers (SN) 2,116

A summary of weekly exposures greater than 0.3r as follows:

Exposure 

above 184” area 60” area Linear acc. Chemistry Other Total

0.3r 8 17 3 5 21 54

0.5r 6 1 6 13

1.0r 0 0 0 0 0 0

This report includes a section entitled “Survey Methods for Neutron Fields.” The basic methods of 

neutron interaction with materials and definitions of fast (>~ 15 MeV) and thermal (interaction with 

nitrogen and protons primary mechanism) are provided along with a discussion of methods of 

measurement. Monitoring within the permissible dose range using Nuclear Track Film typically

involves about one track per two or three microscopic fields of view (i.e. for a one week tolerance 

exposure of 0.03 rep of fast neutrons). Thus the measurement of typical personnel exposures is 

tedious and fraught with large statistical errors. There are also important problems of control of the 

water content of the emulsion, or processing, and of the effects of fading of the latent image. 

1952

Moyer, B. J., 1952, Survey Methods for Neutron Fields, UCRL-1635, Radiation Laboratory, University 

of California, January 11, [SRDB Ref ID: 21678]

This is a technical report concerning methods to survey neutron radiation fields. The difficulty to 

perform a survey depends accordingly on the stated objectives. For example the measurements may 

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have three types of objectives such as, 1) only information of the presence of “slow” or “fast” neutrons;

2) a measure of flux densities within known energy intervals; or 3) a direct estimate of the specific rate 

of energy absorption due to neutron-produced effects in a given medium. Several types of neutron 

survey instruments are described.

Mather, R., Radiation Laboratory, 1952, documented surveys from 1947 through 1952 of fast neutron 

energy flux in MeV/cm2

-sec for the 184-inch Cyclotron Area. [SRDB Ref ID: 21537]

This reference is a collection of neutron flux measurements for selected buildings generally 

associated with the 184-inch cyclotron operation. The details of each survey require review but 

instrumentation included an argon proportional counter lined with polyethylene from which fast 

neutrons eject recoil protons. The counter was biased to reject radium gamma ray pulses and to 

detect pulses from Po-Be and Ra-Be sources.

N. B. Garden to R. L. Dobson, dated July 17, 1952 entitled “Project Personnel Working with Alpha 

Emitters,” [SRDB Ref ID: 21262, 21722]

This letter concerns an effort to develop a complete list of Radiation Laboratory personnel working 

with alpha emitters. Alpha emitters were identified as Pu, Am, Cm, Ra, and U, and were listed for 

each of the respective individuals.

University of California Radiation Laboratory (RL), 1952, “Medical and Health Physics Quarterly 

Report, July, August, September 1952,” UCRL-2001, University of California, Radiation 

Laboratory, Berkeley, CA November 19, [SRDB Ref ID: 72125]

This document beginning on page 129 and 133, respectively, for Health Chemistry (NB Garden) and 

Health Physics (Moyer) describes monitoring for the increasing number of sources at the University of 

California and the use of a new gamma survey meter (a Jordan meter) whose range is 20 mr/hr to 

500 r/hr for which addition units were ordered. The document provides a list of the types and 

quantities of survey instruments maintained and also a summary of personnel dosimeter use as 

follows:

Description Quantity

Total people covered with film badges 1,920

Total man-days coverage with pocket chambers 3,364

Total man-days coverage with pocket dosimeters 3,388

Total man-days coverage with pocket chambers (SN) 2,920

A summary of weekly exposures greater than 0.3R as follows:

Exposure 

above 184” area 60” area Linear acc. Chemistry Other Total

0.3R 1 15 14 58 12 110

0.5R 0 10 5 19 3 37

1.0R 0 1 0 07 0 8

1.5R 0 0 0 3 0 3

2.0R 0 0 0 2 0 2

2.5R 0 0 0 0 0 0

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Nolan, W. E., and H. W. Patterson, 1952, Radiation Hazards from the Use of Dental X-ray Units, 

UCRL-1882 Rev., Radiation Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, CA, November 26, 

[SRDB Ref ID: 71807]

This is a technical report describing the operation of dental X-ray units and summarizes 

measurements performed at six dentist facilities in the San Francisco area. Measurements were 

made using DuPont 552 and 558 type personnel monitoring film as well as a portable ionization 

chamber.

1953

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL), 2007, ”Individual Exposure Records (1952-1956),” 

LBNL, University of California, Berkeley, CA [SRDB Ref ID: 32989]

This reference appears to be a dose report from Livermore with processing results for each dosimeter 

processed during the period of what appears to be the employment start date (OSD) on 11-17-1952 

with dosimeter assignments beginning March 11, 1953 through approximately the date of termination 

of May 9, 1956.

Thompson, B. W., 1953, “Fast-Neutron Scintillation Survey Meter,” UCRL-2357, Radiation Laboratory, 

University of California, Berkeley, CA, October 28, [SRDB Ref ID: 21670]

This technical report describes development of a scintillation survey meter to measure neutron energy 

flux density. To estimate dose, it requires that the neutron distribution be known approximately. The 

instrument provides significant response at low flux levels, possesses good gamma discrimination, 

and is non-directional. No field measurements are provided in the report.

N. B. Garden, Health Chemistry, Letter to B. J. Moyer, Health Physics, dated November 11, 1953, 

entitled “Neutron Monitoring at Livermore, Bldg. 106,” [SRDB Ref ID: 21342]

This letter states that work being conducted in building 106, Livermore, was surveyed for neutrons at 

the time of introduction of the material into the cave. The level indicated at that time that workers 

might exceed an allowable exposure to neutrons if they worked in certain areas for the several weeks 

during which the run is expected to continue. Furthermore there is the possibility of materially 

increasing the neutron flux due to an alpha-n reaction if certain elements are introduced, deliberately 

or inadvertently. For this reason, it would seem advisable to make a daily check of the neutron flux in 

front of the cave and we (Health Chemistry) would like a written daily memorandum of this level, so 

the proper entry can be made in the log of operations. 

Radiation Laboratory, personnel annual radiation dose surveys for 1953 through 1958 for the 60-inch 

Cyclotron Area. [SRDB Ref ID: 21754]

This reference is a collection of personnel doses for selected workers associated with the 60-inch 

cyclotron operation.

Schneider, R. L., Letter to N. B. Garden, date November 12, 1953, entitled “Inventory of Survey 

Instruments,” [SRDB Ref ID: 21340]

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A physical inventory of Health Chemistry survey instruments was completed on October 5, 1953 by 

location and type of instrument. The survey included buildings 55, 50, 9A, 5, 5A, 14S, 3, 2, 1, Pay 

Dirt, Lewis Hall and Livermore. The results were:

Instrument

Number of instruments at the respective buildings

4 5 5A

Pay

dirt 9A 50 55 ORL Donner Crocker Lewis Livermore

Off 

project Total

Nuclear 2610 3 3 1 1 1 5 - 2 - 1 - 8 - 25

IDL 2610 2 1 1 - - 1 1 1 - 1\- - 1 - 8

Jordan AG-15 2 2 - 1 - 3 - - - 1 - 4 3 16

PeeWee 2111 3 4 1 1 - 3 - 4 - - - 7 1 24

Zeus (black) - 2 - - - - - 2 - - - - - 4

Zeus (red) 2 1 1 - - 1 - 1 1 - - - - 7

Victoreen 1 - 1 - - 1 - 3 - - - 1 - 7

ABG portable - - 1 - - - - - - 1 1 - - 3

Hand & foot, 

UCRL

1 1 - - - 1 - - - - - 3 - 6

Foot, UCRL 1 1 1 - - - 1 - - - - 1 - 5

Austin 1 1 - - - - - - - - - - - 2

Tritium monitor - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - 1

Bennett, J., Letter to W. Nolan, dated December 2, 1953, entitled “Film Badge Testing Program,” 

[SRDB Ref ID: 21337]

This letter describes a test performed on November 23, 1953 using standard personnel film badges, 

standard film finger rings, and dosimeters (i.e., likely the pocket ionization chamber dosimeters 

commonly used and listed in the routine reports). To each dosimeter, the standard personnel film and 

finger ring film were attached using tape and placed equidistant from the gamma source. The results 

are shown as follows: 

Specimen Finger film Film badge Dosimeter Time

A 1.00 0.800–0.530 Off scale 37 min.

B 1.37 0.465–0.355 0.161 37 min.

C 1.75 0.590–0.440 0.177 37 min.

The letter was concluded with the remark that “one or more of the exposure measuring devices is not 

too reliable.” 

1954

Nielsen, E., Letter to D. B. Macfarlane and CL Neadors, dated May 11, 1954, regarding approval for 

the transfer of the LRL WBNS reactor to UCRL, [SRDB Ref ID: 21371]

This reference reads as an early license transfer of a reactor from LRL to UCRL. Requirements for 

routine radiological monitoring are specified per the following:

1. Personnel Monitoring

All persons who enter the Reactor Building will be supplied with:

a. One film badge with beta gamma and nuclear emulsion films.

b. Two beta gamma sensitive pocket chambers, one of which will be self-reading.

c. One slow neutron pocket chamber

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The pocket chambers will be read daily; the films weekly. Permanent records of exposure will 

be kept.

2. Building Monitoring

The Building will be resurveyed and the results checked against LRL-99 using different 

instrumentation. Facilities such as the thermal column which have not been reported will be 

surveyed. Atmospheric and surface contamination will be checked daily, and all activated 

material will be monitored as it leaves the reactor. Access of other than technical personnel 

will be controlled by a Health Physics Work Permit.

RCC Letter to J. E. Bowen, dated November 3, 1954, entitled “Meter Performance,” [SRDB Ref ID: 

21385] 

This letter describes discussions concerning reliability of personnel instruments to measure exposure 

rates. A carton, in the pit-room, containing two capsules of 170Tm had to be opened. Readings were 

taken with three meters per the following results

#1. Abacus (Yellow) 60 mr

#2. Abacus (Green) 40 mr

#3. Jordan 500 mr (reading with 300 mr standard)

Readings taken through ice-cream carton containing both sources (10 mc, 50 mc) or a total of 60 mc 

of 170Tm.

Meter

Distance in inches

24 18 12 Surface

#1 0 0 60 mr 12R

#2 25 mr 50 mr 190 mr 11R

#3 0 0 0 700 mr

Using 50 mc capsule only

#1 0 0 0 1R

#2 10 mr 20 mr 70 mr 3R

#3 0 0 0 200 mr

Seidel, W. A., Letter to N. B. Garden, dated November 30, 1954, entitled “Location of Health 

Chemistry Gloved Boxes,” [SRDB Ref ID: 21380]

This letter concerns an inventory of Health Chemistry gloved boxes on November 16th and 17th in 

Berkeley and November 22nd in Livermore. The total number of gloved boxes found was 323 of which 

67 were located at Livermore.

Casalina, S. L., Letter to C. L. Linderken, dated November 30, 1954 entitled “Health Chemistry 

Operations at NPG,” [SRDB Ref ID: 21381].

Health Chemistry standards at NPG carried out by Operations and other divisions included assigning 

personnel handling assemblies, their components, or other active objects with finger rings, 

Precautions were also specified to keep drinking utensils covered.

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1955

University of California Radiation Laboratory (RL), 1955, “Medical and Health Physics Quarterly 

Report, October, November, December 1954,” UCRL-2881, University of California, Radiation 

Laboratory, Berkeley, CA February 28, [SRDB Ref ID: 31451]

This document beginning on pages 43 and 46, respectively, for Health Chemistry (NB Garden) and 

Health Physics (Moyer) describes a large-scale operation in Building 106, Livermore, with processing 

material that contained multicurie quantities of fission products and multicurie quantities of alphaemitting substances. The document provides a list of the types and quantities of survey instruments 

maintained and also a summary of personnel dosimeter use as follows:

Description Quantity

Total people covered with film badges 3,256

Total man-days coverage with pocket chambers 8,331

Total man-days coverage with pocket dosimeters 8,331

Total man-days coverage with pocket chambers (SN) 8,168

A summary of weekly exposures greater than 0.3R as follows:

Exposure 

above 184” area 60” area Linear acc. Chemistry Other Total

0.3R 0 19 0 17 7 43

0.5R 0 6 0 6 3 15

1.0R 0 0 0 2 0 2

1.5R 0 0 0 1 0 1

2.0R 0 0 0 1 0 1

2.5R 0 0 0 1 0 1

3.0R 0 0 0 0 0 0

Bowen, J. E., Letter to H. J. Browne, dated March 17, 1955, entitled “Lower detection limits of Health 

Chemistry Instruments,” [SRDB Ref ID: 21401]

The following detection levels were noted:

Instrument name Radiation detected Lower limit

PeeWee Alpha 50 c/m

Nuclear 2610 GM Beta-gamma Cosmic background ~ 0.05 mr/hr

Juno Beta-gamma 5 mr/hr

Alpha planchet counter Alpha Back ~ 10 c/m

Beta-gamma planchet counter (GM) Beta Back ~ 10 c/m

Beta-gamma planchet counter 

(scintillation)

Beta Back ~ 100 c/m

Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), 1955, “AEC Standards for Protection Against Radiation,” Notice of 

Proposed Rule Making, July 11 [SRDB Ref ID: 21669]

AEC proposed legislation with dose limits as noted in the following:

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Conditions of exposure Dose in critical organs (mrem per week)

Part of body Radiation

Skin, at basal 

layer of 

epidermis

Blood 

forming 

organs Gonads

Lens 

of 

eye

Whole body Any radiation with half-value-layer 

greater-than 1 mm of soft tissue

600a 300a 300a 300a

Whole body Any radiation with half-value-layer 

LESS-than 1 mm of soft tissue

1500 300 300 300

Hands and forearms or feet 

and angles or head and neck

Any radiation 1500b

a. For exposures of the whole body to X or gamma rays up to 3 MeV, this condition may be assumed to be met if the “air 

dose” does not exceed 300 mr, provided the dose to the gonads does not exceed 300 mrem. “Air dose” means that the 

dose is measured by an appropriate instrument in air in the region of highest dosage rate to be occupied by an 

individual, without the presence of the human body or other absorbing and scattering material.

b. Exposure to these limited portions of the body under these conditions does not alter the total weekly dose of 300 mrem 

permitted to the blood forming organs in the main portion of the body, to the gonads, or to the lens of the eye.

Personnel monitoring whenever there is a potential to exceed 25% of the above stated limits.

University of California Radiation Laboratory (RL), 1955, “Medical and Health Physics Quarterly 

Report, July, August, September 1955,” UCRL-3208, University of California, Radiation 

Laboratory, Berkeley, CA February 28, [SRDB Ref ID: 31455]

This document is a subset of the entire report beginning on pages 28 and 30, respectively, for Health 

Chemistry (NB Garden) and Health Physics (Moyer). Health Chemistry monitors supported the 

dismantling of the 184-inch cyclotron which is to be reconstructed. The document provides a list of 

the types and quantities of survey instruments maintained and also a summary of personnel 

dosimeter use as follows:

Description Quantity

Total people covered with film badges 3,716

Total man-days coverage with pocket chambers 8,112

Total man-days coverage with pocket dosimeters 8,112

Total man-days coverage with pocket chambers (SN) 7,947

A summary of weekly exposures greater than 0.3r as follows:

Exposure 

above 184” area 60” area Linear acc. Chemistry Other Total

0.3r 0 10 4 19 2 35

0.5r 0 2 2 8 1 13

1.0r 0 0 0 5 0 5

1.5r 0 0 0 3 0 3

2.0r 0 0 0 3 0 3

2.5r 0 0 0 3 0 3

3.0r 0 0 0 3 0 3

4.0r 0 0 0 3 0 3

6.0r 0 0 0 1 0 1

6.5r 0 0 0 0 0 0

The report contains substantial discussion of the Health Physics Program for the Bevatron stating that 

the initial phase of radiation survey work performed was to determine the maximum radiation levels to 

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be expected at various locations. The technique of measurement included separate detection of 

ionizing radiation, slow neutrons and fast neutrons, and then evaluation of this information with 

respect to maximum operating capabilities of the machine. Building 51 has been rather completely 

surveyed in this manner. Interlocked safety gates, radiation warning lights, and radiation danger signs 

have been installed at appropriate locations as determined from these surveys. 

University of California Radiation Laboratory (RL), 1955, “The Construction of Concentrated Steel 

Shielding for Radiation Protection from the 184-inch Cyclotron Accelerator,” University of 

California, Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, CA February 28, [SRDB Ref ID: 21535]

This reference is a job number 7900-22 that describes construction of the 184-inch cyclotron meson 

cave shielding beginning June 1955.

Patterson, W. H., 1955, “Radiation levels Around UCRL Accelerators,” University of California, 

Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, CA March 28, [SRDB Ref ID: 72339]

Radiation levels around the accelerating machines at UCRL vary widely and are dependent on 

conditions determined by experimental requirements. The exposure levels below should be 

interpreted as being the highest levels to which people are exposed in the ordinary course of their 

work. For brief periods, of the order of minutes, unusual jobs may require people to be exposed to 

higher rates. The radiation level averaged over a forty-hour work week is of the order of 0.1 times 

these maximum levels, and the person with the highest average exposure at the laboratory has less 

than the maximum of 300 mrep per week as determined by the AEC.

Accelerator

Measuring device

Ion chamber

BF3

proportional counter

Polyethylene lined 

proportional counter

Bevatron 0.3-0.7 mr/hr 10–100 cm-2 sec-1 10 MeV cm-2 sec-1

184-inch Cyclotron 0.2–0.4 mr/hr 25–50 cm-2 sec-1 18 MeV cm-2 sec-1

32 MeV Linear 5–10 mr/hr 25–50 cm-2 sec-1 20 MeV cm-2 sec-1

320 MeV Synchrotron See UCRL-1916 and 1917 revised for gamma-neutron cross 

sections for various elements up to 320 MeV. In general, the 

radiation levels in inhabited areas around the synchrotron are 

hardly measurable above normal background.

1956

University of California Radiation Laboratory (RL), 1956, “Medical and Health Physics Quarterly 

Report, July, August, September 1956,” UCRL-3573, University of California, Radiation 

Laboratory, Berkeley, CA February 28, [SRDB Ref ID: 31460]

This document beginning on page 17 Health Chemistry (N. B. Garden) and page 20 Health Physics 

(B. J. Moyer) describes renovations for a 2500-curie 60Co source. The document provides a list of the 

types and quantities of survey instruments maintained and also a summary of personnel dosimeter 

use as follows:

Description Quantity

Total people covered with film badges (Berkeley and Livermore) 4,434

Total man-days coverage with electroscopes (Berkeley only) 4,475

Total man-days coverage with dosimeters (Berkeley only) 2,675

Bevatron:

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Electroscopes, man-days 1,800

Bldgs. 10 and 53

Slow Neutron Chambers, man-days 1,325

Dosimeters, man-days 1,325

Electroscopes, man-days 1,325

Crocker

Slow Neutron Chambers, man-days 900

Dosimeters, man-days 900

Electroscopes, man-days 900

Bldg. 70

Slow Neutron Chambers, man-days 450

Dosimeters, man-days 450

Electroscopes, man-days 450

A summary of weekly exposures greater than 0.3r as follows:

Exposure 

above 184” area 60” area Linear acc. Chemistry Other Totala

0.3r 0 15 17 7 3 42

0.5r 0 5 1 2 2 10

1.0r 0 1 0 0 0 1

1.5r 0 0 0 0 0 0

2.0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2.5 0 0 0 0 0 0

3.0 0 0 0 0 0 0

4.0r 0 0 0 0 0 0

6.0r 0 0 0 0 0 0

6.5r 0 0 0 0 0 0

a. Excluding Livermore

Eastman Kodak Company, 1956, “Availability of Personnel Dosimetry Film,” Rochester, NY, 

December 14, [SRDB Ref ID 21706].

This reference documentation includes an advertisement from Eastman Kodak regarding their 

beta/photon and neutron radiation personnel dosimeter film choices. The reference also includes 

response data apparently from the Radiation Laboratory concerning DuPont 558 film. 

1957

Stephens, L. D., 1957, Fast Neutron Survey Linear Accelerator Building 10, University of California, 

Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, October 15, [SRDB Ref ID: 21942]

This reference describes measurements performed at several times and for different accelerator 

operations. The first survey in the reference concerns a measurement on October 15, 1957 after roof 

shielding timbers were in place which duplicate earlier measurements performed on June 10, 1957. 

Operating conditions were duplicated as nearly as possible. A moderated BF3 counter with an outer 

cadmium shield as a neutron detector was used to perform both sets of measurements. A facility 

schematic was used to record results of both sets of measurements. A series of similar 

measurements is included in the reference with typically neutron flux measurements recorded on a 

facility schematic.

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Bevatron Neutron Survey, 1957, University of California, Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 

December 5, [SRDB Ref ID: 21549]

Fast and slow neutron levels were measured on 12/4/1957 in the area Bay 9 – Bay 14 inclusive to 

compare results of new shielding placed in this area with previous measurements conducted on 

11/15/1957. A paper is also included in the reference by B. J. Moyer, entitled “Shielding at Berkeley 

Bevatron,” for delivery at High-Energy Accelerator Shielding Conference during April 11-13, 1957 in 

New York. The reference also includes results of a cloud chamber neutron survey. 

1958

Majitani, T., Letter to N. B. Garden, dated November 20, 1958 entitled “Personnel Exposures and 60” 

Cyclotron Operations,” University of California, Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, [SRDB 

Ref ID: 21389]

This letter describes an evaluation of exposures to work crews from selected operations as noted in 

the weekly film badge readings. During the year 1957, the average exposure received by a crew 

member was 101 mr per week. The high man average was 132 mr/wk. The average received in 

1957 was lower than the previous years starting from 1953. Radiation was noted as originating from 

two sources as follows;

• Cyclotron – the machine itself-which increased the environmental radiation in specific areas 

where work was conducted.

• Target

Based on this evaluation, recommendations were noted regarding a use of a remote viewing system 

for operators, adequate instruments for operational monitoring, target handling, and design 

consideration.

1960

Moyer, B. J., 1960, “Radiation Fields of high-Energy Accelerators,” Presented at the Thirteenth 

International Congress on Occupational Health during July 25-29, 1960, [SRDB Ref ID: 

13990]

This reference authored by the person who managed the Radiation Laboratory Health Physics 

program from about 1946 to 1952 and subsequently the Livermore Health Physics program beginning 

in 1952. This reference describes experiences during the past 15 years of operations of high-energy 

accelerators throughout the world. Operations at the Bevatron in Berkeley are often described. A 

characteristic of the Bevatron was the acceleration of protons to collide with selected target materials. 

The protons collide with atomic nuclei and disrupt them, knocking out many neutrons and protons, so 

that the energy of the primary beam is converted into the release and motion of a large number of 

secondary particles, the majority of which are neutrons. Neutrons without an electrical charge can 

diffuse through many materials and as such the accelerator becomes a diffuse emitter of neutrons 

degraded in energy over a large extent of its structure. An interesting feature of the Bevatron is the 

operation, similar to other accelerators of this type in the world, without a complete enclosure. These 

types of accelerators were constructed at a time when anticipated beam levels and the contemporary 

understanding of shielding did not seem to demand enclosure over the top of the device but only an 

outside-wall shield. At Berkeley, a complete enclosure system was installed prior to increases in the 

beam level. Radiation measurements, pertaining to a configuration with a side-wall shield 16 feet 

high, and 5 to 10 feet thick, with no roof shield; 2/3 to 3/4 of the dose is attributable to neutrons, 

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primarily fast neutrons of a few tenths MeV energy. The gamma radiation content of the field is 

primarily from neutron capture (largely in hydrogen in concrete) in materials close to the location of 

the measurement. Measurements have been made of neutron flux densities, and mean neutron 

energies, at mean body height, as a function of radial distance from the external face of the shield into 

the experimental areas. The mean neutron energy contributing the major biological damage is 0.1 to 

0.2 MeV. Experimenters are allowed to work in these areas. No continuing activities of a long-term 

nature are located in the regions near the accelerator where the radiation level is more than 2.5 

mrem/hr (which corresponds to a neutron flux density of 30/cm2

-sec for 0.5 MeV neutrons, or 80/cm2-

sec for 0.1 MeV neutrons). There is evidence that the fast neutron radiation is primarily due to 

downward scattering by air and the building roof, and a large yield of low-energy neutrons which 

diffuse upward from the whole machine. 

1962

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL), 2007,”Tabulated Individual Exposure in 60” Cyclotron 

(1947-1962),” LBNL, University of California, Berkeley, CA [SRDB Ref ID: 14003]

This reference provides a tabulation of quarterly doses for selected individuals at the 60” cyclotron. 

For one worker, the tabulation extends from the 3rd quarter 1947 through the 2nd quarter 1962.

1965

Patterson, H. W., 1965, “Accelerator Radiation Monitoring and Shielding,” UCRL-16445 Rev, 

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, CA, Academic Press, New 

York, [SRDB Ref ID: 21691]

This reference provides an overview stating that since the late 1940s the Health Physics Department 

has been responsible for accelerator radiation monitoring and shielding at the Lawrence Radiation 

Laboratory in Berkeley. During this time, radiation measurements and shielding studies have been 

made on the 60-inch cyclotron, the 184-inch cyclotron, the electron synchrotron, the electron linear 

accelerator, the Bevatron, the heavy-ion linear accelerator, the proton linear accelerator, and the 88-

inch cyclotron. The measurements have mostly been made with the purpose of identifying the various 

components of the radiation field and determining their energy distributions. A general rule that has 

emerged from these studies is that fast neutrons (0.1 to 10 MeV) dominate the biological hazard of 

the radiation field existing near a well-shielded particle accelerator by contributing more than half of 

the rem dose. Gamma rays and low-energy neutrons contribute 10 to 20%, and high-energy neutrons 

make up the balance. The development and use of neutron detectors that allow an estimation of the

neutron spectrum have been emphasized in order to determine the rem dose. The document 

describes the various instruments and applications. For area dosimetry, representative locations are 

near each of the accelerators and at four stations near the boundary of the laboratory. The rate of 

exposure and integrated amount are recorded. For personnel monitoring, nearly every employee of 

the Laboratory is issued a beta-gamma film badge; in addition, about 900 employees have Eastman 

Type A neutron films. The films are developed and interpreted monthly. The beta-gamma film is 

calibrated with radium while the NTA is calibrated with neutrons of various energies. Each person’s 

neutron exposure is recorded in terms of proton recoil tracks per microscope field of view, and this is 

translated into neutrons/cm2 and rem, based on knowledge of the neutron spectrum. Whenever a 

personnel film indicates an exposure above 400 mrem in any one month, an investigation is made, 

the exposure is re-evaluated if necessary, and the results are given to the individual and his 

supervisor and also recorded. Pocket ionization chambers are worn by some individuals, and by 

everyone in certain areas. At present, no Laboratory employee has exceeded the maximum 

permissible exposure given by (age – 18) 5 rem formula. 

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1966

McCaslin, J. B., H. W. Patterson, A. R. Smith and L. D. Stephens, 1966, “Some Recent Developments 

for Monitoring High-Energy Accelerator Radiation,” UCRL-16769, Lawrence Berkeley 

Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, CA, Academic Press, New York, [SRDB 71899]

This reference describes methods to interpret separate components in the radiation field and to 

determine their energy spectrum. This is important to an accurate evaluation of exposures received 

by individuals working near high-energy accelerators. No single instrument or detector can do this 

alone so a variety of different detectors and instruments must be used. Three recent methods for 

monitoring particulate radiation above 20 MeV include: 1) nuclear emulsion, 2) elemental mercury, 

and 3) 7

Be production in light elements; below 20 MeV, the use of moderated foils of In, Au, and Co 

has been extended to include Ta.

1969

Stephens, L. D., and A. J. Miller, 1969, “Radiation Studies at a Medium Energy Accelerator,” UCRL19386, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, CA, October [SRDB

Ref ID: 72354]

The 88-inch Cyclotron is one of the new generation of sector-focused cyclotrons which has been built 

since 1960. These third generation machines combine the advantages of high beam intensities of 1st

generation cyclotrons with the high energies of 2nd generation synchrocyclotrons to produce beams of 

excellent quality and stability. Monitoring of the radiation outside the shield as well as inside the vault 

areas was done concurrently with the beam developments. Effective attenuation lengths were 

measured through the shielding walls at several angles from a target. Attenuation of neutrons was 

measured for walls composed entirely of concrete, as well as of concrete and iron, or of concrete, 

iron, and sand. Variations in shielding efficiency were determined. Neutron flux measurements have 

been made along an extended beam line in an effort to improve beam transport and reduce personnel 

irradiation. This has included a nearly complete picture of the external radiation field produced by the 

accelerator. The document includes a description of measured fields under a variety of 

circumstances. 

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, 1969, “Individual Worker Annual Doses,” University of California, 

Berkeley, CA, October [SRDB Ref ID: 21470]

This reference contains 1966 and for comparison 1969 annual gamma and neutron dose summaries 

for several classes of workers.

Facility

Dose, mrem

No. of 

persons

1966 1969

Total Gamma Neutron Total

184-inch Synchrotron 14.4 15.2 7.5 22.7 25

Bevatron 58.2 35.4 16.5 51.9 43

88-inch Cyclotron 19.0 16.6 0.091 16.691 24

Hilac 8.7 12.2 0.25 12.45 30

The reference also contains 1969 annual neutron and photon doses for each individual according to 

identified buildings. This data was selected for analysis of neutron to photon dose ratios. 

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1971

Miller, A. J., and M. W. Patterson, 1971, “Measurement of Induced Activity to Estimate Personnel 

Exposures Received from Accelerator Beams,” UCRL-20262, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, 

University of California, Berkeley, CA, June [SRDB Ref ID: 71915, 21694].

This reference describes a method developed at Lawrence Radiation Laboratory to estimate the dose 

received by an individual accidentally exposed to an accelerator particle beam. The dose estimate is 

based on measurement of the gross induced activities, primarily 11C, resulting from nuclear 

interactions of the particle beam with the body tissues of the exposed individual. Experimental work 

has been done by exposing two tissue-equivalent phantoms, one simulating an arm and the other a 

torso, to particle beams (protons, mesons and neutrons) of various energies. Under favorable 

conditions the lower limit of sensitivity in the estimated dose is less than one rem.

1973

Patterson, H. W., and R. H. Thomas, 1973, Accelerator Health Physics, Lawrence Berkeley 

Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, CA, Academic Press, New York, [SRDB Ref ID: 

79828]

This textbook is a classic reference in accelerator health physics describing fundamental principles, 

methods of measurement and personnel dosimetry associated with the LBNL accelerators. 

1974

Stephens, L. D., R. H. Thomas, and S. B. Thomas, 1974, “Population Exposure from High-Energy 

Accelerators,” LBL-3310, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, 

CA, July [SRDB Ref ID: 71786]

This paper describes the transport of neutrons from high-energy electron and proton accelerators as 

representing the dominant source of radiation exposure to the population. The stated limit of 

permissible dose in the environment is 500 mrem/year. The actual fence post dose from operation of 

most accelerators is a small fraction of this limit. The neutron dose rates in the environment are so 

low that it is very difficult to accurately measure the dose rate.

1977

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, 1977, “Accidental Accelerator Beam Exposure Dosimetry Procedure,” 

UCID-3905, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, CA, April 

[SRDB Ref ID: 21550]

This document appears to be the first issue of a document that describes the potential serious 

consequences of an accidental exposure, the significance of particle accelerators as a source of 

accidental exposures within DOE, and steps to follow if an accidental exposure is suspected.

1978

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Film Badge Office, Letter to Supervisors, dated March 1978 entitled 

“Update of Persons Requiring Neutron Films for Personnel Dosimetry,” Lawrence Berkeley

Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, CA, [SRDB Ref ID: 21713]

This correspondence requests an update to the list of employees to be routinely assigned a neutron 

film dosimeter. The criteria of persons requiring a neutron film badge are described as follows:

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• Person works inside any shielded area of any accelerator, such as experimenters or 

technicians.

• Person is permanently assigned to an accelerator area.

• For persons who work at accelerators only occasionally, the duration at the site should be 

about 20% (i.e., 4-5 days per month or greater).

• Any questionable cases should be badged.

1981

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, 1981, “Accidental Accelerator Beam Exposure Dosimetry Procedure,” 

LBID-493, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, CA [SRDB Ref

ID: 21584]

This document describes the potential serious consequences of an accidental exposure, the 

significance of particle accelerators as a source of accidental exposures within DOE, and steps to 

follow if an accidental exposure is suspected.

1984

Taylor, C. A., DOE, “Functional Appraisal of the Personnel Dosimetry Program at Lawrence Berkeley 

Laboratory November 1983 – January 1984,” dated March 21, 1984, [SRDB Ref ID: 21727]

This is a transcript of a DOE quality assurance evaluation involving many individuals. Basically the 

report states that many of the observed problems are attributable to a lack of senior line management 

attention and support for the personnel dosimetry program. 

Hyde E. K., Director, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Letter to D. E. Neely, Director, DOE/SAN-LBL, 

DOE, dated April 26, 1984, entitled “LBL Personnel Dosimetry Program,” [SRDB Ref ID: 

21446]

This reference is the LBL response to the foregoing assessment.

1987

Greenhouse, N. A., T.M. de Castro, J.B. McCaslin, A.R. Smith, R.K. Sun and D.E. Hankins, 1987, An 

Evaluation of NTA Film in an Accelerator Environment and Comparisons with CR-39, 

Radiation Protection Dosimetry (1987) 20 (3): 143-147.

The Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory (LBL) has enjoyed decades of successful experience with NTA 

film because of the relatively energetic neutron spectra in the workplace and a cool, low humidity 

environment. The recognized existence of softer neutron spectra at some locations at LBL, and the 

availability of CR-39 as a possible alternative dosemeter prompted this study to determine neutron 

dosemeter adequacy in these areas. CR-39 offers several advantages over NTA film, including lack of 

latent track fading, the potential for automated readout, and improved response to lower energy 

neutrons. The CR-39 detection threshold of 0.1 MeV or less made it a particularly attractive possible 

alternative for neutron dosimetry at LBL's lower energy accelerators. A dosimetry study was 

conducted at one location at the SuperHILAC where the average neutron energy was about 0.5 MeV 

and the maximum was about 20 MeV. Neutron fluence, energy spectrum and dose equivalent 

measurements were made with a variety of active instruments at this accelerator during exposure of a 

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rotating phantom, upon which NTA film and CR-39 dosemeters were attached. The results indicated 

that with standard calibration techniques both dosemeter types responded adequately to at least half 

of the total measured dose equivalent.

1988

Casey, W. R. (BNL), A. J. Miller (LANL), J. B. McCaslin (LBL) and L . V. Coulson (FNAL), 1988, 

“Health Physics Manual of Good Practices at Accelerator Facilities,” SLAC-327, US 

Department of Energy, Washington, DC., April [SRDB Ref ID: 21525]

This document presents guidance to be used to develop and conduct radiation protection programs at 

DOE accelerator facilities. It is noted that the diversity of accelerator types, their size, design, and 

beam properties require varying strategies for radiation safety. Section 6.5 describes personnel 

dosimetry (p 41) considerations. Beta and photon dosimetry are generally similar to other types of 

DOE facilities. Neutron dosimetry however is more complicated because of a greater range in energy 

from thermal to several GeV. 

1989

Coulson, L. V., A. J. Elwyn, and W. S. Freeman, 1989, “Accelerator Health Physics at DOE 

Laboratories: A Characterization,” Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, Batavia, IL, April 12, 

[SRDB Ref ID: 22527]

This document describes the role of the Fermilab as being designated during January 1986 as the 

DOE lead laboratory for Accelerator Health Physics Research with the primary purpose to advise 

DOE of those areas of accelerator health physics research which should be pursued, and to help in 

prioritization. Section V, “Personnel Dosimetry,” provides an overview of the status of personnel 

dosimetry methods used by the respective DOE accelerator sites. At the time this document was 

prepared, film and thermoluminescent personnel dosimetry methods were generally used. The 

description in this document of LBL personnel dosimetry is the current use of film, exchanged 

monthly, and processed in-house, for both beta-gamma and neutron dosimetry. There are about 

1200 gamma (Kodak Type II) and 600 neutron (NTA) films used each month. There were plans to 

switch to a Panasonic TLD system, but using NTA, or CR-39, for actual neutron dosimetry (i.e., 

Panasonic system used to “flag” persons with potential neutron exposure for processing of NTA or 

CR-39). Dosimeter intercomparison studies were being done in neutron fields associated with heavy 

ion accelerators. All DOELAP performance tests have been passed.

1991

Sun, Rai-Ko S., 1991, “Review of Measurement at Accelerators and Application to Dosimeter 

Calibration,” LBL-30883, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, 

CA [SRDB Ref ID: 20875]

The reference describes multisphere spectrometer measurements at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory 

accelerator facilities (the SuperHILAC, the BEVALAC, and the 88-inch Cyclotron). The multisphere 

spectrometer has a broad energy response from 0.025 ev to several GeV. From the measured 

response, the neutron spectrum, neutron average energy, absorbed dose, dose equivalent and 

fluence can be calculated. There is also some information regarding comparison of the calculated 

doses with those determined with personnel dosimeters such as CR-39. 
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1994

Dinnel, K, 1994, “Article in LBL Currents dated February 25, 1994,” Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, 

University of California, Berkeley, CA [SRDB Ref ID: 80033]

LBL's thermoluminescent dosimetry (TLD) program has been accredited by the U.S. Department of 

Energy, reported Kathleen Dinnel, the Dosimetry Unit leader. DOE accreditation makes it possible for 

the Laboratory to phase out film badges and, over the next six months, replace them with TLDs. Up 

until now, LBL has issued TLDs only on a limited basis. The dosimeter is processed in a reader in 

Bldg. 90. Dinnel said the TLDs are able to provide remarkable detail about the nature of any given 

dose. They allow LBL's health physicists to discriminate between shallow and deep penetrating doses 

and between gamma, x-ray, beta, and slow neutron exposures. "In the next six months," Dinnel said, 

"virtually everybody with a dosimeter here--other than people working in neutron fields--will be issued 

a TLD. We'll be seeking accreditation on another TLD for use in high-energy neutron fields, and at 

that stage, we'll phase over these workers to TLDs as well."

Patterson, H. W., and R. H. Thomas, editors, 1994, The History of Accelerator Radiological 

Protection, Personal and Professional Memoirs, Nuclear Technology Publishing, [SRDB Ref 

ID: 33209]

This textbook is a collection of articles covering a wide range of topics at accelerators throughout the 

US and the world. Since the editors were associated with LBNL for many years and considering their 

earlier textbook “Accelerator Health Physics” published in 1973, there is substantial information 

concerning radiation protection challenges and practices at LBNL. Chapter 2, “Early Days at the Rad 

Lab” authored by H. W. Patterson describes activities at Berkeley from the earliest days to about 1952 

when it is stated that a separate Health Physics Program was begun at Livermore. The beginning of 

the Radiation Laboratory personnel film dosimetry program is described. The original dosimeter is 

stated to be a holder designed at Oak Ridge (i.e., the two-element dosimeter design adopted at 

ORNL, Hanford, and many other sites) using DuPont film. The process of calibrating the film 

response using a National Bureau of Standards calibrated radium source is described. A similar 

process was used to calibrate film response to various X-ray spectra, 32P, 90Sr, and uranium metal. 

The earliest doses were apparently noted as “daily doses”, or 0.10 roentgen. In 1950 when the 

maximum permissible dose limit was lowered to 0.3 r per week the records were converted from “daily 

doses” to roentgen. The 60-inch cyclotron is stated to be the largest source of radiation and many 

dosimeters were located at this facility. Preparations for the startup of the 184-inch cyclotron in 1946 

are described in terms of making sure everyone had a film dosimeter and that there were sufficient 

radiation survey meters. The text also describes the formation of the Health Chemistry and Health 

Physics radiation protection organizations. Patterson states in his text (p 39) that he personally 

exchanged all of the film dosimeters. He and Bill Nolan conducted all of the routine healthy physics 

duties at the Radiation Laboratory including radiation surveys in three dimensions around the 

accelerators with ion chambers and various neutron counters.