ORAU Team

Dose Reconstruction

Project for NIOSH

Oak Ridge Associated Universities I Dade Moeller & Associates I MJW Corporation

Page 1 of 76

Document Title:

Los Alamos National Laboratory – 

Occupational External Dose

Document Number: ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 

Revision: 01

Effective Date: 05/30/2007

Type of Document: TBD

Supersedes: Revision 00

Subject Expert(s): Thomas E. Widner

Site Expert(s): N/A

Approval: Signature on File Approval Date: 05/07/2007

Jack E. Buddenbaum, Document Owner

Concurrence: Signature on File Concurrence Date: 05/07/2007

John M. Byrne, Task 3 Manager

Concurrence: Signature on File Concurrence Date: 05/07/2007

Edward F. Maher, Task 5 Manager

Concurrence: Signature on File Concurrence Date: 05/17/2007

Kate Kimpan, Project Director

Approval: Brant A. Ulsh Signature on File for Approval Date: 05/30/2007

James W. Neton, Associate Director for Science

 New Total Rewrite Revision Page Change

FOR DOCUMENTS MARKED AS A TOTAL REWRITE, REVISION, OR PAGE CHANGE, REPLACE THE PRIOR 

REVISION AND DISCARD / DESTROY ALL COPIES OF THE PRIOR REVISION.
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 2 of 76

PUBLICATION RECORD

EFFECTIVE 

DATE

REVISION 

NUMBER DESCRIPTION

05/10/2005 00 New Technical Basis Document for the Los Alamos National 

Laboratory – Occupational External Dose. First approved issue. No 

training required. Initiated by Jack E. Buddenbaum.

05/30/2007 01 Approved revision to update document. Adds Purpose and Scope 

sections. Constitutes a total rewrite of document. Adds Attributions 

and Annotations section. Incorporates formal internal and NIOSH 

review comments. This revision results in an increase in assigned 

dose and a PER is required due to the addition of median photon 

adjustment values in Tables 6-22 and A-8; otherwise, the maximum 

values were replaced with lower 95th percentiles, and therefore 

would lower doses. An exception to the lower 95th-percentile values 

is the value for Other Operations, which is higher than the previously 

reported maximum value of annual geometric means. This change 

will result in a higher dose. Changes in Table A-7 will increase 

skin/shallow dose for LAMPF/LANSCE workers. Training required: 

As determined by the Task Manager. Initiated by Jack E. 

Buddenbaum.
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 3 of 76

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SECTION TITLE

Acronyms and Abbreviations ...............................................................................................................

PAGE

7

6.1 Introduction ..............................................................................................................................9

6.1.1 Purpose......................................................................................................................10

6.1.2 Scope.........................................................................................................................12

6.2 Dose Reconstruction Parameters........................................................................................... 12

6.2.1 Administrative Practices .............................................................................................13

6.2.1.1 Assignment of Dosimeters to Workers ......................................................... 13

6.2.1.2 Dosimeter Exchange Frequencies ............................................................... 16

6.2.1.3 Use of Control Dosimeters ........................................................................... 17

6.2.1.4 Reporting Conventions................................................................................. 18

6.2.1.5 Recordkeeping............................................................................................. 21

6.2.1.6 Quality of External Dosimetry Data .............................................................. 22

6.2.2 Dosimetry Technology................................................................................................23

6.2.2.1 Beta/Photon Dosimeters .............................................................................. 24

6.2.2.2 Neutron Dosimeters ..................................................................................... 26

6.2.3 Calibration ..................................................................................................................29

6.2.3.1 Beta/Photon Dosimeters .............................................................................. 30

6.2.3.2 Neutron Dosimeters ..................................................................................... 33

6.2.3.3 Workplace Radiation Fields.......................................................................... 36

6.2.3.4 Workplace Beta/Photon Dosimeter Response.............................................. 36

6.2.3.5 Uncertainty in Beta/Photon Recorded Dose ................................................. 38

6.2.3.6 Workplace Neutron Dosimeter Response .................................................... 39

6.2.3.6.1 Plutonium Processing Areas (TA-1, TA-21, TA-55)..................... 40

6.2.3.6.1.1 Neutron Energy Spectrum ...................................... 40

6.2.3.6.1.2 Neutron-to-Photon Dose Ratio................................ 41

6.2.3.6.2 LAMPF (TA-53)........................................................................... 42

6.2.3.6.3 Critical Assembly Testing (TA-18)............................................... 43

6.2.3.6.3.1 Neutron Energy Spectrum ...................................... 43

6.2.3.6.3.2 Gamma-to-Neutron Dose Ratio .............................. 44

6.2.3.6.4 Reactor Areas (TA-2).................................................................. 44

6.2.3.6.5 CMR Building (TA-3)................................................................... 45

6.2.3.7 Neutron Dose Fraction ................................................................................. 45

6.2.3.8 Uncertainty in Neutron Dose ........................................................................ 46

6.3 Adjustments to Recorded Photon Dose.................................................................................. 46

6.4 Adjustments to Recorded Neutron Dose ................................................................................ 47

6.4.1 Neutron Dose Adjustments.........................................................................................47

6.4.2 Neutron Weighting Factor...........................................................................................47

6.4.3 Neutron Correction Factor ..........................................................................................47

6.4.4 Neutron-to-Gamma Dose Factors...............................................................................49

6.5 Missed Dose ..........................................................................................................................50

6.5.1 Photon Missed Dose ..................................................................................................51

6.5.2 Neutron Missed Dose ................................................................................................. 52
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6.6 Organ Dose............................................................................................................................52

6.7 Attributions and Annotations .................................................................................................. 52

References ........................................................................................................................................54

Glossary ............................................................................................................................................59

ATTACHMENT A, GUIDANCE FOR DOSE RECONSTRUCTORS: OCCUPATIONAL

 EXTERNAL DOSE FOR MONITORED WORKERS............................................. 67

A.1 Recorded Dose Practices and Interpretation of Reported Doses............................................ 68

A.2 Unmonitored Photon Dose..................................................................................................... 69

A.3 Adjustments to Reported Photon Doses................................................................................. 69

A.4 Missed Beta/Photon Dose...................................................................................................... 72

A.5 Assignment of Beta/Photon Doses to Energy Categories....................................................... 73

A.6 Unmonitored Neutron Dose.................................................................................................... 73

A.7 Missed Neutron Dose............................................................................................................. 75

A.8 Assignment of Neutron Doses to Energy Categories.............................................................. 75

A.9 Recommended Dose Conversion Factors.............................................................................. 76
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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE TITLE

6-1 Volumes of Photodosimetry Evaluation Book.........................................................................

PAGE

11

6-2 Annual external radiation doses, 1944 to 2003....................................................................... 15

6-3 Typical exchange frequencies for dosimeters in use during different 

periods...................................................................................................................................16

6-4 Quantities recorded in exposure records over time ................................................................ 20

6-5 External dosimetry events...................................................................................................... 23

6-6 Photon and beta dosimeters used over time .......................................................................... 27

6-7 Neutron dosimeters used over time at LANL.......................................................................... 29

6-8 TLD and film badge energy response to beta radiation, about 1977....................................... 32

6-9 DOELAP irradiation techniques and effective energies .......................................................... 33

6-10 General energy distribution of photons in 1962 at DP West Site ............................................ 36

6-11 Estimated photon spectra for several plutonium sources in DP West Site.............................. 36

6-12 Calculated errors from use of the Cycolac badge with low-energy photons 

and a correction factor of 0.07................................................................................................ 37

6-13 Results of a 6-mo comparison of film badges, NTA film, and TLDs at DP 

Site ........................................................................................................................................37

6-14 Selection of beta and photon radiation energies and percentages ......................................... 38

6-15 Approximate NCFs and dose fractions for neutron sources.................................................... 40

6-16 Results of 6-mo comparison of film badges, NTA film, and TLDs at DP 

Site ........................................................................................................................................42

6-17 Percent of total kerma by energy interval from critical assemblies during 

experiments ...........................................................................................................................44

6-18 Gamma-to-neutron ratios measured with TLDs on the front of plastic man 

manikins at various distances from the Hydro critical assembly ............................................. 44

6-19 Laboratory-measured dose fractions from PuF4 ..................................................................... 46

6-20 Neutron quality or weighting factors ....................................................................................... 48

6-21 Facility dose fractions and associated ICRP Publication 60 correction 

factors....................................................................................................................................50

6-22 Recommended distributions for neutron-to-gamma ratio........................................................ 51

6-23 Photon dosimeter period of use, type, MDL, exchange frequency, and 

potential annual missed dose................................................................................................. 51

6-24 Neutron dosimeter period of use, type, MDL, exchange frequency, and 

potential annual missed dose................................................................................................. 52

A-1 Recorded dose practices over time ........................................................................................ 68

A-2 Worker gamma dose statistics ............................................................................................... 70

A-3 Recommended adjustments to reported photon doses .......................................................... 71

A-4 Recommended uncertainty factors for reported doses ........................................................... 72

A-5 Beta/photon dosimeter period of use, type, MDL, exchange frequency, 

and potential annual missed doses ........................................................................................ 72

A-6 Recommended beta and photon radiation energies and percentages for 

plutonium facilities..................................................................................................................73

A-7 Recommended beta and photon radiation energies and percentages for 

facilities other than plutonium facilities ................................................................................... 74

A-8 Recommended distributions for neutron-to-photon ratio......................................................... 75

A-9 Neutron dosimeter period of use, type, MDL, exchange frequency, and 

potential annual missed dose................................................................................................. 75
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A-10 Recommended dose fractions and ICRP Publication 60 correction factors 

for neutron sources ................................................................................................................76

A-11 Recommended DCFs for dose assessments ......................................................................... 76

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE TITLE

6-1 Number of workers monitored as a function of time................................................................

PAGE

15

6-2 Comparison of Hp(10) for neutrons with energy responses of NTA film 

and neutron albedo dosimeter containing a thermoluminescent neutron 

dosimeter chip of 6

LiF and shielded by cadmium.................................................................... 30

6-3 Geometric mean of neutron-to-photon ratios for records with both deep 

dose and neutron dose of 50 mrem or greater, 1979 to 2004................................................. 35

6-4 Energy dependence of Eastman Kodak Type K film for exposure of 0.1 R ............................. 36

6-5 Neutron spectrum of hydrofluorination of 239PuO2 at Plutonium Facility .................................. 41

6-6 Neutron spectrum of 238Pu ball milling process at Plutonium Facility ...................................... 41

6-7 Neutron spectrum near door K in SNM Vault at Plutonium Facility ......................................... 41

6-8 Neutron spectrum in ER-1 Area of LAMPF with proton beam stopped in 

the carbon beam block, as determined from unfolding codes................................................. 42

6-9 Neutron spectrum at Station 6 near TA-18 ............................................................................. 43
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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ABS acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, a plastic used in some dosimeter badges

AEC U.S. Atomic Energy Commission

CHP Certified Health Physicist

Ci curie

CIH Certified Industrial Hygienist

cm centimeter

CMR Chemistry and Metallurgy Research (Building or Division)

CMR-12 early radiochemistry group

d day

DCF dose conversion factor

DE dose equivalent

DOE U.S. Department of Energy

DOELAP DOE Laboratory Accreditation Program

DP DP Site1

EEOICPA Energy Employees Occupational Illness Compensation Program Act of 2000

, or TA-21. The site of plutonium processing at LANL from 1945 until 1978. 

Also housed polonium processing.

ERDA U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration

eV electron-volt

GSD geometric standard deviation

GMX-1 early radiography group

H Division Health Division

Hp(d) personal dose equivalent at depth d in tissue

HT Heat Treatment (building)

HYPO Water Boiler Reactor in high-power configuration

ICRP International Commission on Radiological Protection

in. inch

keV kiloelectron-volt, 1,000 electron-volts

kVp applied kilovoltage

LAMPF Los Alamos Meson Physics Facility

LAMPRE Los Alamos Molten Plutonium Reactor Experiment

LANL Los Alamos National Laboratory

LAPRE I First Los Alamos Power Reactor Experiment

LAPRE II Second Los Alamos Power Reactor Experiment

LOPO Water Boiler Reactor in low-power configuration

m meter

MDL minimum detection level 

MED Manhattan Engineer District

MeV megaelectron-volt, 1 million electron-volts

mg milligram

min minute

mm millimeter

 

1 Although undocumented, there are several theories about the origin of the “DP Site” name for TA-21. The most logical are 

that it stands for D-Prime, since it replaced D Building, or that it stands for “D Plant,” “Displaced Persons,” “D-Plutonium,” or 

“D-Production” (Martin 1998).
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mo month

mR or mr milliroentgen

mrad millirad

mrem millirem

mSv millisievert

n, or n unit an early unit of neutron dose used with pocket ionization chambers; the quantity of 

neutron radiation producing the same ionization in a 100-R PIC as 1 R of gamma.

NADE neutron ambient dose equivalent

NBS National Bureau of Standards

NCF neutron correction factor

NCRP National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements

NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology 

NRD neutron rem detector

NTA nuclear track emulsion, type A

NTP nuclear track plate

ORNL Oak Ridge National Laboratory

PIC pocket ionization chamber (i.e., pencil dosimeter)

PN3 LANL track-etch neutron dosimeter

PNNL Pacific Northwest National Laboratory

PNL Pacific Northwest Laboratory

POC probability of causation

PTB Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt

PVC polyvinylchloride

R or r roentgen, an early unit of radiation exposure

Site Y code name for Los Alamos Laboratory from April 1943 to December 1946

SNM Special Nuclear Material

SUPO Water Boiler Reactor in highest (Super) power configuration

TA Technical Area

TBD technical basis document

TED track-etch dosimetry or dosimeter

TLD thermoluminescent dosimeter

UHTREX Ultra High-Temperature Reactor Experiment

U.S.C. United States Code

WB whole-body

wk week

yr year

μm micrometer

§ section or sections
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6.1 INTRODUCTION

Technical basis documents and site profile documents are not official determinations made by the 

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) but are rather general working 

documents that provide historic background information and guidance to assist in the preparation of 

dose reconstructions for particular sites or categories of sites. They will be revised in the event 

additional relevant information is obtained about the affected site(s). These documents may be used 

to assist NIOSH staff in the completion of the individual work required for each dose reconstruction.

In this document the word “facility” is used as a general term for an area, building, or group of 

buildings that served a specific purpose at a site. It does not necessarily connote an “atomic weapons 

employer facility” or a “Department of Energy [DOE] facility” as defined in the Energy Employees 

Occupational Illness Compensation Program Act [EEOICPA; 42 U.S.C. § 7384l(5) and (12)]. 

EEOICPA defines a DOE facility as “any building, structure, or premise, including the grounds upon 

which such building, structure, or premise is located ... in which operations are, or have been, 

conducted by, or on behalf of, the Department of Energy (except for buildings, structures, premises, 

grounds, or operations ... pertaining to the Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program)” [42 U.S.C. § 

7384l(12)]. Accordingly, except for the exclusion for the Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program noted 

above, any facility that performs or performed DOE operations of any nature whatsoever is a DOE 

facility encompassed by EEOICPA.

For employees of DOE or its contractors with cancer, the DOE facility definition only determines 

eligibility for a dose reconstruction, which is a prerequisite to a compensation decision (except for 

members of the Special Exposure Cohort). The compensation decision for cancer claimants is based 

on a section of the statute entitled “Exposure in the Performance of Duty.” That provision [42 U.S.C. § 

7384n(b)] says that an individual with cancer “shall be determined to have sustained that cancer in the 

performance of duty for purposes of the compensation program if, and only if, the cancer ... was at 

least as likely as not related to employment at the facility [where the employee worked], as 

determined in accordance with the POC [probability of causation2

As noted above, the statute includes a definition of a DOE facility that excludes “buildings, structures, 

premises, grounds, or operations covered by Executive Order No. 12344, dated February 1, 1982 

(42 U.S.C. 7158 note), pertaining to the Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program” [42 U.S.C. § 7384l(12)]. 

While this definition contains an exclusion with respect to the Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program, the 

section of EEOICPA that deals with the compensation decision for covered employees with cancer 

[i.e., 42 U.S.C. § 7384n(b), entitled “Exposure in the Performance of Duty”] does not contain such an 

exclusion. Therefore, the statute requires NIOSH to include all occupationally derived radiation 

exposures at the covered facilities in its dose reconstructions for employees at DOE facilities, 

including radiation exposures related to the Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program. As a result, all 

internal and external dosimetry monitoring results are considered valid for use in dose reconstruction. 

No efforts are made to determine the eligibility of any fraction of total measured exposure for inclusion 

in dose reconstruction. NIOSH, however, does not consider the following exposures to be 

occupationally derived:

] guidelines established under 

subsection (c) ...” [42 U.S.C. § 7384n(b)]. Neither the statute nor the probability of causation 

guidelines (nor the dose reconstruction regulation) define “performance of duty” for DOE employees 

with a covered cancer or restrict the “duty” to nuclear weapons work.

• Radiation from naturally occurring radon present in conventional structures

• Radiation from diagnostic X-rays received in the treatment of work-related injuries

 

2 The U.S. Department of Labor is ultimately responsible under the EEOICPA for determining the POC. 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 10 of 76

6.1.1

When Los Alamos became operational in 1943, it had a single mission – the design and manufacture 

of the first nuclear weapons (Hoddeson et al. 1993). In 1947, Los Alamos Laboratory (Project Y) 

became Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, which in 1981 became Los Alamos National Laboratory 

(LANL; University of California 2001); for simplicity, except in reference citations, this TBD uses LANL 

for all periods. LANL assignments in the early 1940s included:

Purpose

• Performing the final purification of plutonium received at LANL

• Reducing plutonium to its metallic state

• Determining the relevant physical and metallurgical properties of plutonium

• Developing weapon component fabrication technologies (Hammel 1998)

Processes undertaken included nuclear fuel fabrication; nuclear criticality experimentation; nuclear 

reactor operations; radiochemical separations; refining, finishing, and storing plutonium and various 

enrichments of uranium; processing large quantities of other nuclear materials such as tritium, 

polonium, and lanthanum; testing nuclear device components and the devices themselves; and 

handling the associated radioactive waste (Widner et al. 2004). After World War II, LANL scientists 

and engineers were involved in development and testing of nuclear devices that were more and more 

powerful, compact, reliable, and dependably deployable in the field, and that were contained in a 

variety of delivery vehicles suited to various combat objectives. 

LANL was the lead site for U.S. nuclear component fabrication until 1949, when the Hanford 

Plutonium Finishing Plant in Washington began making pits, the central cores of the primary stages of 

nuclear devices (DOE 1997). Plutonium processing at LANL took place in D Building in 1944 and 

1945, then relocated to DP Site, which housed a variety of plutonium research, design, and fabrication 

activities for more than 30 yr until Technical Area (TA)-55 became operational in 1978 (Widner et al. 

2004). After 1949, LANL was a backup production facility that designed, developed, and fabricated 

nuclear components for test devices. From time to time, LANL performed special functions in its 

backup role. For example, due to a 1984 accident at Hanford, plutonium oxide was sent to LANL for 

conversion to metal (DOE 1997). 

Operations, facilities, and capabilities that were needed to support development and production of the 

various types of nuclear devices expanded in many cases to support other missions after World War II 

(Widner et al. 2004). Programs in chemistry, metallurgy, and low-temperature physics expanded into 

nonmilitary development and fundamental research. The Health Division (H Division) grew 

significantly and expanded into many areas of health physics, industrial hygiene, medicine, safety, 

and biomedical research related to people and radiation. Early reactors built to confirm critical 

masses for fissionable materials and to study properties of fission and the behavior of the resulting 

neutrons were the forerunners of a variety of reactors designed and in some cases built and operated 

at LANL. While some of these reactors served as sources of neutrons for nuclear research or 

materials testing, other designs were pursued for potential applications in power generation and 

propulsion of nuclear rockets into deep space. During World War II, accelerators were used to 

determine the critical masses for each proposed nuclear weapon design. After the war, other 

accelerators were used, including one of the world’s largest at the Los Alamos Meson Physics Facility 

(LAMPF). Some of the first significant steps toward controlled nuclear fusion as a power source 

occurred at LANL, and the plasma thermocouple program explored methods for direct conversion of 

fission energy to electricity for potential application in propulsion of spacecraft.

In more recent decades, LANL has been a large multi-discipline research institution that utilizes a 

wide variety of radioisotopic sources, radiation-producing machines, and critical assemblies (Hoffman 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 11 of 76

and Mallett 1999a). Employees could have received occupational radiation exposure from beta, 

photon, and neutron radiation. Most occupational external radiation exposure at LANL (at least during 

the 1980s and 1990s) has been due to neutron radiation, which has accounted for about 60% of the 

external collective dose equivalent (DE) (Hoffman and Mallett 1999a). Neutron radiation exposures at 

LANL originate from radioisotope sources, nuclear materials handling, critical assemblies, and 

accelerators. Although they are a smaller part of the total, beta and photon radiation exposures occur 

from a larger variety of source types. In addition to those for neutron radiation, these sources include 

radiation-producing machines, medical isotopes for research and production, and others. 

LANL has used facility and individual worker monitoring methods to measure and control radiation 

exposures. Records of radiation doses to individual workers from personnel dosimeters worn by the 

worker and coworkers are available for LANL operations beginning in 1943. Doses from these 

dosimeters were recorded at the time of measurement and routinely reviewed by operations and 

radiation safety personnel for compliance with radiation control limits. The NIOSH External Dose 

Reconstruction Implementation Guidelines (NIOSH 2006) has identified these as the highest quality 

records for retrospective dose assessments. The information in this TBD pertains to analysis of these 

records. 

Radiation dosimetry practices were initially based on experience gained during several decades of 

radium and X-ray medical diagnostic and therapy applications. These methods were generally well 

advanced at the start of the Manhattan Engineer District (MED) program to develop nuclear weapons 

in about 1940. The primary challenges encountered by MED, and later U.S. Atomic Energy 

Commission (AEC, MED’s successor agency), operations to measure worker dose to external 

radiation involved:

• Comparatively large quantities of high-level radioactivity

• Mixed radiation fields involving beta, photon (gamma and X-ray), and neutron radiation with 

low, intermediate, and high energies

• Neutron radiation

Many details about policies, procedures, practices, and issues dealing with external radiation 

monitoring at LANL are documented in a compilation of correspondence and reports called the 

Photodosimetry Evaluation Book. Informally, this compilation, which has eight volumes, has been 

referred to as “the Bible” of external radiation dosimetry at LANL. It was first assembled in 1956, and 

was expanded until around 1970 (Widner 2004). Table 6-1 lists the volumes that currently compose 

this resource.

Table 6-1. Volumes of Photodosimetry Evaluation Book. 

Volume Approximate date range Reference

I 01/19/44–07/28/58 LASL 1959

II 01/02/60–12/23/69 LASL 1969

III 02/18/70–07/26/77 LASL 1977

IV 01/27/78–10/21/86 LANL 1986

V 06/05/45–02/08/79 Misc. docs. LASL 1979

VI 04/08/85–12/15/89 LANL 1989

VII 02/02/90–02/15/96 LANL 1996

VIII 02/08/96–12/05/01 LANL 2001

IX (active) 02/14/02–05/28/03 LANL 2003
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 12 of 76

6.1.2

Section 6.2 discusses the program for measuring skin and whole-body (WB) doses to the workers. 

The methods for evaluating external doses to workers have evolved over the years as new techniques 

and equipment have been developed. Concepts in radiation protection have also changed. The dose 

reconstruction parameters, LANL practices and policies, and dosimeter types and technology for 

measuring the dose from the different types of radiation are discussed. Attention is given to the 

evaluation of doses measured from exposure to beta, gamma, and neutron radiation. Test results are 

tabulated for various dosimeters exposed at different geometries and radiation energies.

Scope

For photon and neutron dose, Sections 6.3 and 6.4, respectively, discuss the sources of bias, 

workplace radiation field characteristics, responses of the different beta/gamma and neutron 

dosimeters in the workplace fields, and the adjustments to the recorded dose measured by these 

dosimeters during specific years.

Section 6.5 presents sources of potential dose that could be missed because of the limitations of 

dosimetry systems and the methods of reporting low doses. This missed dose is discussed as a 

function of facility location, dosimeter type, year, and energy range. Section 6.6 and Attachment A 

describe the use of the external dosimetry technical basis parameters to facilitate the efforts of the 

dose reconstructors.

Attributions and annotations, indicated by bracketed callouts and used to identify the source, 

justification, or clarification of the associated information, are presented in Section 6.7. 

6.2 DOSE RECONSTRUCTION PARAMETERS

Examinations of the beta, photon (X-ray, gamma ray), and neutron radiation type, energy, and 

geometry of exposure in the workplace, and the characteristics of the respective LANL dosimeter 

response are crucial to the assessment of bias and uncertainty of the original recorded dose in 

relation to the radiation quantity Hp(10). The bias and uncertainty for current LANL dosimetry 

systems are well documented for Hp(10) (Hoffman and Mallett 1999a,b; LANL 1989, 1996, 2001, 

2003). The performance of current dosimeters can often be compared with performance 

characteristics of historical dosimetry systems in the same, or highly similar, facilities or workplaces. 

In addition, current performance testing techniques can be applied to earlier dosimetry systems to 

achieve a consistent evaluation of historical dosimetry systems. Dosimeter response characteristics 

for radiation types and energies in the workplace are crucial to the overall analysis of error in recorded 

dose.

Accuracy and precision of recorded worker doses and the comparability of the recorded dose types 

depend on the following considerations (Fix et al. 1997; Fix, Wilson, and Baumgartner 1997):

• Administrative practices adopted by facilities to calculate and record personnel dose based on 

technical, administrative, and statutory compliance considerations

• Dosimetry technology, which includes physical capabilities of the dosimetry system such as 

the response to different types and energies of radiation, in particular in mixed radiation fields

• Calibration of the monitoring systems and similarity of the methods of calibration to sources of 

exposure in the workplace

• Workplace radiation fields that might include mixed types of radiation, variations in exposure 

geometries, and environmental conditions
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 13 of 76

An evaluation of the original recorded doses based on these parameters is likely to provide the best 

estimate of Hp(10) and, as needed, Hp(0.07) for individual workers with the least overall uncertainty. 

6.2.1

Historically, LANL had an extensive radiation safety monitoring program using portable radiation 

instruments, contamination surveys, zone controls, and personnel dosimeters to measure dose in the 

workplace (LASL 1959, 1969, 1977, 1979; LANL 1986, 1989, 1996, 2001, 2003). This program was 

conducted directly by or under the guidance of a specially trained group of radiation monitors or 

radiation protection technologists. Results from the dosimeters were used to evaluate and record 

doses from external radiation exposure to workers throughout the history of LANL operations. 

Dosimeters that have been used fall into the following categories:

Administrative Practices

• Personnel WB beta/photon 

• Pocket ionization chamber (PIC) 

• Personnel extremity

• Personnel WB neutron

Shortly after operations began in 1943, some workers were monitored with PICs alone. In 1943, the 

phase-in of photon film dosimetry methods began at LANL. More and more groups started using film 

badges for photon dosimetry, and in 1949 a new badge was introduced to support evaluation of beta 

exposures. Beta/gamma film badge designs changed several times through the 1950s, 1960s, and 

1970s as filters of various types were used to address the energy-dependent response of film. LANL 

officially switched to the use of thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs) in 1980 and is currently using 

its second generation of TLD badge. 

Before 1949, the Laboratory implemented neutron dosimetry for selected workers beginning with the 

use of PICs that incorporated Bakelite chambers and graphite coatings. In 1949, nuclear track plates 

(NTPs) were first used, and badges incorporating Eastman Kodak nuclear track emulsion, type A 

(NTA) film were first used in 1951. While TLD badges were used for neutron dosimetry beginning in 

1980, NTA film continued to be used in a “piggyback” fashion with TLD badges for some workers. 

Track-etch dosimeters (TEDs) have been used for evaluation of fast neutron doses since 1995. 

LANL administrative practices significant to dose reconstruction include policies to:

• Assign dosimeters to workers

• Exchange dosimeters

• Use control dosimeters

• Estimate dose for missing or damaged dosimeters

• Replace destroyed or missing records

• Evaluate and record dose for incidents

• Obtain and record occupational dose to workers for other employer exposure

6.2.1.1 Assignment of Dosimeters to Workers

When monitoring for external radiation exposures started in 1943, PICs were assigned to “a few 

persons thought to have the highest potential for receiving exposures at or above the ‘tolerance’ limit” 

[LANL 1986 (10/6/81 questionnaire)]. At that time, the tolerance limit was 0.1 R/day based on a 

National Bureau of Standards Recommendation [LASL 1959 (3/21/44 industrial hygiene survey and 

2/26/48 LASL memorandum)]. By 1945, when film badges were in use by a number of LANL groups, 

only workers with the “higher exposure potentials” were issued dosimeter badges [LANL 1986 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 14 of 76

(10/6/81 questionnaire)]. At the time of the earliest criticality experiments and accidents at LANL, 

workers who received the highest exposures had not yet been issued film badges. Their exposures 

were calculated from activation measurements and area film badges [LANL 1986 (10/6/81 

questionnaire)]. 

In some cases, considerable evaluation went into the determination of whether groups of workers 

should wear dosimeters. In June 1948, it was reported that workers in DP East were not wearing film 

badges [LASL 1959 (June 7 and 8 memoranda)]. After a trial period of 3 mo showed no exposure, 

workers stopped wearing film badges in the spring of 1947. An assessment concluded that the 

gamma-ray intensity from polonium sources at DP East was very low in comparison to their alpha 

activity, and that film badges would only be needed for those who worked in and around the storage 

vault if it were to contain about 2,000 Ci or more [LASL 1959 (June 8 memorandum)]. For “urchin”-

type initiators [1], gamma exposure to the fingers determined allowable exposure times. Wrist badges 

would record perhaps 1% of the dose to the fingertips, and total-body dose would be negligible. 

Because of this, tolerance times were specified as 100 Ci-min at 1 cm, and it was recommended that 

studies involving use of impressions of the ridges on the fingertips as indicators of radiation exposure 

be continued [LASL 1959 (June 7 and 8 memoranda)]. For preparation of polonium-beryllium (PoBe) 

neutron sources, fast neutron exposure was limiting. Around October 1948, the need for film 

monitoring at the DP West plutonium facilities was recognized because of low-level gamma exposure 

from spontaneous fission in plutonium and the possibility of a criticality accident. It was emphasized 

at the time that AEC Safety Regulation 3 required that film badges be worn in any area where 

radioactive materials were handled.

As of April 1960, the brass-cadmium film badge was being worn by about half of University of 

California employees, all of the Security Force, and 75% of Zia employees (LASL 1969). At most 

sites, film badges were reportedly issued "only to personnel who need them" (LASL 1969). At that 

time, the plan was to combine the film badge with the site security badge to increase compliance with 

the requirement to wear dosimeter badges, and it was proposed that badges be issued to all LANL 

and AEC personnel on a regular basis.

In October 1962, the new multi-element Cycolac film badge was issued to about 100 persons who 

had “histories of appreciable or out of ordinary radiation exposures” [LASL 1969 (3/5/63 

memorandum)]. The Cycolac badge was used for all film dosimetry from about 1963 to about 1977, 

when the use of some TLD badges began (Widner 2003). Between 1943 and late 1981, the number 

of persons monitored for external exposures increased from less than 100/yr to more than 5,000/yr, 

but personnel monitoring for external radiation still had not been extended to all workers at LANL. 

During the time film badges were in use, about 15,000 gamma and neutron films were developed 

each month. By June 1981, fewer than 40 NTA films were developed each month. By December 

1990, approximately 7,800 TLD badges were processed each month, plus about 200 NTA film badges 

per month that were issued to workers at LAMPF for high-energy dosimetry during accelerator 

operations (about 7 mo/yr) (LANL 1996). 

Table 6-2 lists the reported numbers of workers monitored by LANL from 1944 to 2003 along with total 

and average doses calculated from those data (LANL 2004). Estimates of the total number of 

workers employed at LANL each year are also presented [2]. “Average total dose” for each year is 

calculated as the total dose (person-rem) divided by the number of workers monitored (that is, in 

Table 6-2, column 2 divided by column 3). Figure 6-1 shows the number of workers monitored each 

year over the same period (LANL 2004). The data on which Table 6-2 and Figure 6-1 are based have 

not been corrected for potential missed doses.
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 15 of 76

Table 6-2. Annual external radiation doses, 1944 to 2003 (LANL 2004).

Year

Total dose 

(person-rem)

No. of workers Average total 

Monitored Total dose (rem)

1944 7.89 9 1,235 0.88

1945 2,153.37 812 1,235 2.65a

1946 3,819.95 508 2,750 7.52a

1947 464.62 1,237 2,750 0.38

1948 343.05 2,080 1,570 0.16

1949 466.42 3,177 1,940 0.15

1950 552.49 3,895 2,420 0.14

1951 2,503.80 4,257 2,700 0.59

1952 812.72 2,366 2,790 0.34

1953 717.16 1,878 2,900 0.38

1954 920.18 2,068 2,970 0.44

1955 763.25 1,984 3,040 0.38

1956 1,280.80 2,287 3,000 0.56

1957 585.75 2,539 3,150 0.23

1958 5,704.65 3,032 3,223 1.88a

1959 447.09 2,930 3,214 0.15

1960 541.02 3,622 3,300 0.15

1961 299.22 3,973 3,450 0.08

1962 386.62 4,119 3,632 0.09

1963 251.83 4,176 3,428 0.06

1964 250.63 4,103 3,740 0.06

1965 364.67 4,222 3,800 0.09

1966 241.24 4,446 3,930 0.05

1967 268.31 4,072 4,050 0.07

1968 285.12 3,861 4,250 0.07

1969 388.69 3,980 4,350 0.10

1970 408.92 4,031 4,100 0.10

1971 341.21 3,775 4,100 0.09

1972 338.66 3,877 4,300 0.09

1973 436.00 3,866 4,450 0.11

Year

Total dose 

(person-rem)

No. of workers Average total 

Monitored Total dose (rem)

1974 409.64 4,337 4,860 0.09

1975 452.67 4,716 5,757 0.10

1976 393.26 5,254 6,224 0.07

1977 432.81 5,624 6,519 0.08

1978 364.53 7,045 7,162 0.05

1979 320.88 7,549 7,398 0.04

1980 375.54 7,638 5,317 0.05

1981 588.55 7,966 8,028 0.07

1982 672.83 7,997 7,639 0.08

1983 673.33 8,144 7,912 0.08

1984 798.77 8,622 8,467 0.09

1985 715.19 9,487 9,025 0.08

1986 531.67 9,612 9,265 0.06

1987 400.48 9,202 9,075 0.04

1988 391.98 9,469 9,128 0.04

1989 326.93 10,605 9,665 0.03

1990 228.85 10,796 10,806 0.02

1991 163.25 11,284 11,037 0.01

1992 132.49 11,560 11,377 0.01

1993 141.81 11,772 11,371 0.01

1994 178.44 11,783 11,386 0.02

1995 234.93 12,448 11,382 0.02

1996 188.70 10,958 11,603 0.02

1997 182.02 10,860 12,146 0.02

1998 158.21 11,167 12,829 0.01

1999 128.89 11,212 13,294 0.01

2000 87.45 10,456 12,987 0.01

2001 114.28 10,443 13,284 0.01

2002 160.06 10,871 14,332 0.01

2003 218.83 10,660 10,015 0.02

a. A criticality accident during this year delivered large doses to a small number of people, driving the average total dose up significantly.

1

10

100

1,000

10,000

100,000

19441947195019531956195919621965196819711974197719801983198619891992199519982001

Figure 6-1. Number of workers monitored as a function of time

(LANL 2004).
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 16 of 76

6.2.1.2 Dosimeter Exchange Frequencies

Dosimeters were exchanged on routine schedules. In the earliest operations, daily measurements 

with PICs were performed, but results are generally not available in employee records. After film 

badges came into use in 1943, daily PIC measurements continued, but film measurements provided a 

check of the daily measurements and formed a permanent record of worker exposures. Film packets 

were exchanged and processed monthly for most workers, but were exchanged more frequently (as 

often as daily) for certain operations with high exposure potential. In February 1948, it was reported 

that brass film badges (film placed directly in a brass container, with no window of any sort or filters of 

any other metal) had been issued to all Sigma and HT (Heat Treatment) Building personnel in 

October 1947 to monitor beta and gamma exposures and had been exchanged and reissued every 

2 wk since that time [LASL 1959 (2/26/48 memorandum)]. Health Group personnel were then 

considering the exchange of badges more often than every 2 wk for personnel who were handling 

“abnormally large amounts” of 235U during certain periods at these facilities [LASL 1959 (2/26/48 

memorandum)].

In October 1956, beta/gamma dosimeters were exchanged at 1- or 2-wk intervals, with 2-wk intervals 

predominating [LASL 1959 (10/4/56 memorandum)]. NTPs were exchanged at 4-wk intervals. There 

was a desire to use 2-wk intervals for NTPs and read all plates, but the H-1 monitoring group was 

unable to support this due to labor considerations. At that time, only half the issued plates were read 

[LASL 1959 (10/4/56 memorandum)]. In September 1988, LANL evaluated changing from monthly to 

monthly/quarterly badge issue (LANL 1989). The HSE-1 section leader recommended against 

changing to monthly/quarterly issuance, stating that problems with fading supported continuation of 

monthly exchange. Monthly exchange continued to be the most common.

In February 1992, LANL temporarily switched to quarterly badge exchange due to installation startup 

problems with a new data management system, with the exception of 22 employees who were 

involved in a special project that required weekly exchange. Monthly exchange was reinstated in April 

1992. LANL began phasing in a quarterly dosimeter exchange frequency for personnel who received 

low occupational radiation exposure beginning in April 1996 (LANL 2001). The cutoff was a less-than10-mrem collective dose for a work group (mailstop) based on 1995 exposure records. Beginning in 

July 1996, mailstops with collective doses of 50 mrem or less for 1995 were placed on quarterly 

exchange. As of February 2002, quarterly periods were used for about 40% of dosimeter issues 

(LANL 2003).

Exchange frequencies for LANL dosimeters are summarized in Table 6-3 and later in the discussion 

of methods for estimation of missed dose.

Table 6-3. Typical exchange frequencies for dosimeters in use during 

different periods.

Dosimeter type Date range Exchange frequency

PIC Before 1945 Daily

Film badge 1943–1979 Monthly for most, biweekly for some, 

up to daily for some operations such 

as radioactive lanthanum processing

TLD 1980–1995 Monthly

TLD 1996–present Monthly for most, quarterly for some

NTP 1949–approx. 1951 4-wk interval

NTA film 1951–1995 4-wk interval

TED 1995–present Quarterly
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 17 of 76

6.2.1.3 Use of Control Dosimeters

A review of the documents in the Photodosimetry Evaluation Book from 1944 to the present yielded 

little information on how control dosimeters were used over time at LANL. The information that was 

found is as follows:

• An October 1944 report (in LASL 1959) received at LANL from the MED about the use of lead 

cross dental film packets to monitor gamma, X-ray, and beta exposure mentioned that "each 

group of test films is developed with a calibration film. One unexposed test film is included in 

the group as a check. After processing, if the unexposed film shows evidence of radiation fog, 

as indicated by an image or shadow of the lead cross, the evaluation of exposures received by 

films carried by personnel is questionable, if not useless."

• A November 2, 1944, report (in LASL 1959) about film monitoring conducted at an unidentified 

MED warehouse said that "[c]ontrol badges (or, in this case, films) are to be mailed from, and

returned to, Rochester with the others but are not to be issued to any worker. Indeed, they are 

to be kept in a place which is known to be free of radiation. Such a control badge will then 

reveal whether anything goes wrong with the films (badges) during shipment or at any other 

time except while they are actually being worn."

The existence of the two documents cited above indicates that the use of control badges was a 

concept that LANL personnel were familiar with from the early years of operations.

• A Los Alamos "Nuclear Track Plate Evaluation Procedure" dated February 27, 1956 (in LASL 

1979), stated that: "It has been found that NTPs which are not worn, but are processed and 

'read,' will indicate some exposure. This exposure varies somewhat with the seasons, etc., 

and is attributed to cosmic radiation. Therefore, whenever a group of NTPs are packaged for 

issue, a ’blank‘ NTP is also packaged and immediately sent to P-10 for processing and 

reading. Then the blank's exposure will be subtracted from the personnel's neutron exposure 

during the process of evaluating the NTPs."

• A November 1974 sheet of potential values for the Remarks Code used in dosimetry records 

(in LASL 1974) had a Code 025 that signified "Used as Blank," and an August 1976 revision 

had a Code 247 that signified "Control film inadvertently issued to a visitor- D. P. 4/7/76." 

• A July 23, 1991, memorandum from to the Dosimetry Evaluation Book (in LANL 1996) 

indicated that, in response to a finding from a DOE Laboratory Accreditation Program 

(DOELAP) onsite audit, "several 'unirradiated dosimeters' have been added to the blind audit 

program since January, 1991."

• An April 29, 2003, memorandum (in LANL 2003) from Jeffrey Hoffman to Michael 

McNaughton, both LANL employees, discussed two environmental dosimeters that had been 

labeled "vault dosimeters" in error.

• LA-UR-03-1037, "LANL 8823 Neutron Blind Audits at TA-36" (in LANL 2003), indicated that 

the blind-testing protocol at that time included 19 WB TLDs, 13 extremity TLDs, and 13 TEDs 

each quarter, of which four, three, and three, respectively, were "non-irradiated controls."

Based on the above excerpts and information from a former worker in the LANL dosimetry group 

(Widner 2003), a set of calibration films was developed when a batch of personnel films was 

developed. A control that had been kept in the dosimetry offices along with the calibration films 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 18 of 76

(apparently in a vault in later years), and other controls that had been kept in the film badge racks with 

the personnel films, were photographically developed at the same time. These badge racks, which 

were for storage of dosimeter badges when the badges were not being worn by the persons to whom 

they were issued (e.g., overnight or over weekends), were in areas where only background radiation 

was expected under normal circumstances; control badges were also kept in these racks for the 

normal film badge issue periods. The developed “calibration film control” was used to zero the 

densitometer before the densities of the calibration film were read. The density readings of the 

calibration film were plotted against the exposure given to the calibration film to permit the evaluation 

of the personnel film. The control accompanying the personnel film was used to zero the 

densitometer before the densities of the personnel films were read. On rare occasions when the 

personnel control film showed some exposure due to fallout from Nevada Test Site operations, the 

control film was evaluated and its exposure was subtracted from all personnel film for the period. 

On rare instances, the personnel control films were “lost” or removed from the film badge racks by 

persons unknown. On such occasions, a personnel film badge that had been issued to a person who 

never

6.2.1.4 Reporting Conventions

entered the radiation work areas during the film badge issue period was used as the control for 

zeroing the densitometer before the other personnel films were read (Widner 2003). In those cases, 

Remark Code 25 would be attached to the zero dose reading recorded for the person whose badge 

was used as the blank. Remark Code 247 was appended to the evaluated exposure of the person 

(probably a visitor) to whom the control film had been inappropriately given.

Monitoring for external radiation exposures at LANL began in 1943 with the use of PICs. Gamma 

exposures were recorded in units of roentgen. Before 1949, some Laboratory personnel who worked 

with the cyclotron and other neutron sources wore Victoreen pencil PICs for determination of their 

neutron dose [LASL 1969 (11/12/68 memorandum)]. The results were recorded in n units, which 

were defined as “the quantity of neutron radiation that will produce the same ionization in a 100-R 

Victoreen chamber (red Bakelite) as 1 R of gamma radiation.” While n-unit data were recorded in 

medical records of some individuals, they were apparently never converted to the computerized 

database of exposure records and will probably not be available with information provided for 

claimants (Widner 2004). See Section 6.2.2.2 for more details about the n unit. 

When brass film badges (film placed directly in a brass container, with no window of any sort or filters 

of any other metal) came into use by more and more LANL groups between 1943 and 1945, only 

gamma exposure in roentgens was evaluated.

Starting in January 1949, the following values were recorded on personnel exposure sheets: 

• PIC readings (R)

• Gamma exposure (R)

• Beta exposure (rep)

Beta exposure was reported only when “it forms a significant part of the total exposure” [LASL 1959 

(1/10/49 memorandum)]. No entry in the beta exposure column indicated that a negligible amount of 

beta exposure was present. For DP Site personnel working with plutonium and for soft X-ray 

evaluations, special calibration curves were used, and gamma roentgen exposures were multiplied by 

0.6 to convert to gamma rem [LASL 1959 (7/1/56 document)]. [The comparable DOELAP roentgento-rem dose conversion value is 0.38 for 16-keV photons (DOE 1986)]. 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 19 of 76

Starting in 1949, NTPs came into use. As of February 1956, NTPs were evaluated by assuming all 

10- to 100-μm tracks represented 3.75-MeV neutrons and all longer tracks represented the maximum 

average energy of the higher energy neutrons in the workplace. NTA film came into use in the brasscadmium badge in 1951. While tolerances for neutrons were stated in terms of neutrons per square 

centimeter per second in the early years, neutron doses were reported in terms of rem in 1953 and 

possibly earlier [LASL 1959 (Jan. 1953 document)].

Before April 1957, exposures for HT shop and Sigma areas (where uranium was handled) were 

recorded as pure beta exposures, but some gamma exposures should have been recorded for 

workers at those facilities [LASL 1959 (4/3/57 document)]. Based on film badge data from early 1953, 

a factor of 0.1 was used in the conversion of radiation exposure records for IBM entry to calculate 

retrospectively the gamma exposure from the gamma-plus-beta exposure measured by the 

dosimeter. The theoretical ratio of gamma to beta plus gamma was reported to be about 1:17 for 

normal uranium [LASL 1959 (4/3/1957 document)]. 

The roentgen-to-rem dose conversion factor (DCF) was changed to 0.5 from July 1957 to March 1963 

for body badges exposed to low-energy X-rays and plutonium; the use of this factor was discontinued 

around March 20, 1963 [LASL 1969 (3/20/63 memorandum)].

As of 1960, the following external radiation dose data were recorded (Littlejohn 1961):

• Gamma dose (rem)

• Beta dose (rad)

• Thermal neutron dose (from cadmium optical density minus brass optical density, rem) 

• Fast neutron dose (from NTA film, rem)

On January 1, 1972, the Laboratory evaluated assignment of neutron dose equal to TLD-measured 

gamma dose for workers who handled 238Pu [LASL 1974 (12/3/71 memorandum)]. This appears to 

have been a special study for a relatively small group of workers, possibly using hand-fabricated 

badges with loose chips, because TLDs were in relatively short supply at that time (Widner 2003).

Starting in early 1980 with the conversion to the Model 7776 TLD badge, the following external 

radiation dose data were recorded [LASL 1980 (3/21/80 memorandum)]:

• "Non-penetrating Rad" represented the total skin dose from external ionizing radiation; it was 

equal to old beta-rad plus gamma-rem or old gamma-R. 

• "Penetrating-rem" represented the total WB dose from external ionizing radiation; it was equal 

to old gamma-rem dose. Evaluated based on the copper-filtered TLD chip.

• "Neutron-rem" was typically equal to the albedo (body-scattered) neutron dose from the TLD 

badge; when piggyback NTA film was used, the fast neutron dose from NTA film was added to 

the albedo neutron dose, and "NTA" was entered in the Remarks field. 

• "Total-rem" was equal to penetrating-rem plus neutron-rem plus tritium-rem (where tritium-rem 

was calculated from tritium urine assays).

Since the implementation of the Model 8823 TLD badge in 1998, the following dose quantities have 

been evaluated and recorded (Hoffman and Mallett 1999a,b): 

• Beta shallow DE (mrem) 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 20 of 76

• Beta eye DE (mrem) 

• Gamma shallow DE (mrem) 

• Gamma deep DE (mrem) 

• Gamma eye DE (mrem) 

• Neutron deep DE (mrem) 

• Total shallow DE (mrem) 

• Total deep DE (mrem) 

• Total eye DE (mrem) 

• Total deep neutron DE (mrem) 

Shallow doses, which are reported to a tissue depth of 7 mg/cm2

, correspond to the old 

nonpenetrating doses. Doses to the lens of the eye are reported to a tissue depth of 300 mg/cm2

. 

Deep doses, which are reported to a tissue depth of 1,000 mg/cm2

, correspond to the old penetrating 

doses. Neutron DE values correspond to albedo neutron DE (rem).

Table 6-4 summarizes quantities that have been recorded in LANL worker exposure records over 

time.

Table 6-4. Quantities recorded in exposure records over 

time (LASL 1959, 1969, 1977, 1979; LANL 1986, 1989, 

1996, 2001, 2003).

Period

Values recorded in 

personnel exposure records

1943–1948 PIC reading (R)

Gamma exposure (R)

1949–1950 PIC reading (R)

Gamma exposure (R)

Beta exposure (rep)

1951–1959 PIC reading (R)

Gamma exposure (R)

Beta exposure (rep)

Fast neutron dose (rem)

1960–1979 Gamma dose (rem)

Beta dose (rad)

Thermal neutron dose (rem)

Fast neutron dose (rem)

1980–1997 "Non-penetrating Rad" 

"Penetrating-rem" 

"Neutron-rem" 

"Total-rem" 

1998–present Beta shallow DE (mrem) 

Beta eye DE (mrem) 

Gamma shallow DE (mrem) 

Gamma deep DE (mrem) 

Gamma eye DE (mrem) 

Neutron deep DE (mrem) 

Total shallow DE (mrem) 

Total deep DE (mrem) 

Total eye DE (mrem) 

Total deep neutron DE (mrem)

In the reporting of doses for LANL workers to NIOSH for the Dose Reconstruction Project, LANL 

personnel have used the following conventions (Widner 2005):
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 21 of 76

• Blank entries or “----” entries in tables of doses indicate a “null value” (i.e., no monitoring was 

performed for the subject individual for that period).

• Dose entries that are all zeros (0.00 or 0.000) indicate that monitoring was performed for the 

subject individual during that period, but that results were below the minimum detectable dose.

• The SKIN doses reported are derived by LANL as shallow dose plus neutron dose plus tritium 

dose.

• When, for a given month, the dose report form identifies “Badge Type” as “Monthly,” but there 

are up to five lines of data (see example below), that indicates that multiple badges were worn 

during the month. The doses for the individual badges should be added to obtain the dose 

totals for the month. 

External 

dose (rem)

Skin Deep Neutron Tritium

June Monthly 0.000 0.000

June Monthly 0.000 0.000

June Monthly 0.010 0.010

June Monthly 0.000 0.000

June Monthly 0.040 0.020

• When the dose reported is as follows, it reflects that the badge in use had two elements – 

dental X-ray film and NTA film. In the case below, the first line of data is from the NTA film 

and the second is from the dental X-ray film. In these cases, the neutron dose entry on the 

second line for the month is essentially a placeholder, and should not be corrected for missed 

dose.

External 

dose (rem)

Skin Deep Neutron Tritium

April Monthly 0.010 0.010

April Monthly 0.060 0.010 0.000

6.2.1.5 Recordkeeping

From 1943 through 1952, external radiation evaluation results were recorded in standard “LA 

notebooks” that eventually found their way to the document room for permanent filing [LASL 1959 

(1/20/51 document)]. December 9, 1946, was the first date for which a record of visitor badge 

issuance was found in LA notebooks, and the use of the notebooks for visitor badge data ended in 

January 1951 [LANL 1986 (10/30/79 memorandum)].

In August 1950, H Division started supplying PICs and film badges for use by the GMX-1 group in 

“extraordinary work” [LASL 1959 (February 1956 memorandum)]. Before that, dosimetry for the 

GMX-1 group was reportedly handled by GMX-1 personnel at GT Site, and apparently no long-term 

records of these early measurements were retained.

In January 1953, a Cardex system for filing exposure data on paper cards was put into use [LASL 

1959 (2/16/56 memorandum)]. In January 1956, LANL started noting all NTPs issued on Personnel 

Exposure Cardex records. Before that, only plates that were read were recorded [LASL 1959 

(2/27/56 document)].
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 22 of 76

In 1957, a computerized system was first employed at LANL to record personnel exposures to 

radiation [LASL 1959 (4/3/57 memorandum)]. In 1959, IBM equipment was first used to evaluate film 

exposures (Littlejohn 1961). This recordkeeping has been computerized since that time. 

In September 1978, it was reported that for the previous 10 yr no entry was made for a visitor’s film 

badge in the computerized records system for film badge exposures less than 0.04 rem [LANL 1986 

(9/28/78 document)]. For purposes of reporting to the primary employer of visitors, nonzero 

exposures recorded by the LANL Cycolac film badge were defined to be total exposures of 0.04 rem 

or more. (For regularly issued film badges, all measured values from 0.00 rem upward were recorded 

and attributed to the worker in the H-1 dosimetry records system.) This procedure for visitor film 

badges was used so reporting of doses less than 0.04 rem was not required, which would have been 

an enormous undertaking due to the need to find each visitor to obtain employer name and address 

for reporting purposes. On January 1, 1976, LANL had to start reporting zero exposures for all U.S. 

Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) visitors because ERDA had just 

established a radiation exposure record system for all its employees [LANL 1986 (10/30/79 

memorandum)].

As of October 1989, the policy for NTA film dose entries was as follows: For workers who wore 

piggyback NTA dosimeters with their TLDs, NTA doses were summed with TLD neutron doses for 

monthly and annual reports. Before implementation of the new external dosimetry data management 

system, entry of NTA neutron doses used the same guidelines as those for TLD neutron doses: 

doses less than or equal to 

Between 1981 and September 1990, shallow, deep, or neutron exposures less than 10 mrem were 

reduced to 0 mrem [LANL 1996 (9/14/90 document)]. LANL decided to change associated 

procedures such that shallow doses, deep doses, and neutron doses less than 5 mrem were rounded 

to 0 mrem, and doses between 5 and 10 mrem were rounded to 10 mrem effective with September 

1990 TLD evaluations. These changes were not fully implemented until 1991 [LANL 1996 (2/5/91 and 

4/19/91 memoranda)]. 

4 mrem were entered as 0 rem, 5 to 14 mrem were entered as 0.01 rem, 

15 to 24 mrem were entered as 0.02 rem, 25 to 34 mrem were entered as 0.03 rem, 35 to 44 mrem 

were entered as 0.04 rem, and so on (LANL 1989; Widner 2004). 

In early 1992, LANL installed and started a new data management system called the External 

Dosimetry Badge System. 

6.2.1.6 Quality of External Dosimetry Data

At LANL, dosimeters were selected, issued to workers, and processed; the resulting measurements 

were recorded and used to estimate doses. There appears to be no use of recorded notional doses, 

although there are issues of missed dose for low-dosed dosimeters (see Section 6.5) and recorded 

doses for individual dosimeters at levels less than the statistical minimum detection level (MDL). 

LANL dosimetry capabilities during the early years were in line with the stage of development of 

associated technologies at the time. Radiation dosimetry technology developed considerably during 

the period of LANL operations, and LANL kept up with technological developments as they became 

accepted. Administrative practices are described in the Photodosimetry Evaluation Book (LASL 1959, 

1969, 1977, 1979; LANL 1986, 1989, 1996, 2001, 2003) and LANL technical reports, and detailed 

information for each worker is in the NIOSH claim documentation. The claim documentation provides 

specific information to be evaluated on the recorded dose of record. There do not appear to have 

been significant administrative practices that jeopardized the integrity of the dose of record. 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 23 of 76

6.2.2

LANL health physicists learned from experiences at other MED sites that followed the general 

evolution in dosimeter technology using PICs in addition to one- or two-element dosimeters in the 

1940s and early 1950s, multi-element film dosimeters in the later 1950s, and TLDs from the 1970s to 

the present. LANL dosimeter designs differed somewhat from the designs at the MED Metallurgical 

and Clinton Laboratories in the early to mid-1940s, but capabilities to measure doses were similar.

Dosimetry Technology

The adequacy of the dosimetry methods to measure radiation dose accurately is determined from the 

radiation type, energy, exposure geometry, etc., as described in later sections. The dosimeter 

exchange frequency was gradually lengthened, and generally corresponded to the period of 

regulatory dose controls (LASL 1959, 1969, 1977, 1979; LANL 1986, 1989, 1996, 2001, 2003). At the 

beginning of Laboratory operations, a dose control of 1 mSv/d (100 mrem/d) was in effect. This was 

changed to 3 mSv/wk (300 mrem/wk) and later to 50 mSv/yr (5,000 mrem/yr) in the late 1950s. 

These changes were in accord with AEC regulations at the time and with the appropriate National 

Bureau of Standards (NBS) handbooks (Widner 2003). Table 6-5 summarizes major events in the 

LANL personnel dosimetry program. 

Table 6-5. External dosimetry events (LASL 1959, 1969, 1977, 1979; LANL 1986, 1989, 1996, 2001, 

2003).

Period Event

1943 Monitoring for external radiation exposures began, using PICs.

1943 Film badges first used at LANL by the GMX-1 Radiography Group. These badges apparently used 

Lead Cross Type K dental film in a brass holder. 

Early 1944 LANL H Division health physicists gathered information about film monitoring practices from other MED 

sites.

May 1944 Film badges, made at LANL, distributed to some workers by H Division on a trial basis.

Feb 1945 System of monitoring exposure of personnel with photographic film was established by the H Division, 

with badges exchanged monthly. Continued to use PICs.

Late 1945 After Omega Site criticality accident, "catastrophe badges" were developed and assigned to workers 

who could be involved in criticality accident.

Aug 1947 “Brass Film Badge” in use included three types of film in a brass container with no windows or filters of 

other metals. 

Sep 48–Mar 49 New badge phased in. Brass clip provided only partial shielding of film surface.

29 Aug 1949 First NTPs issued for evaluation of fast neutrons. 

20 Apr 1950 Started changeover to new badge that used brass and lead filters plus unfiltered area. 

7 Mar 1951 Studied ring badges and wrist badges and variability of ratios between them. 

24 Mar 1951 New finger film badge developed. Used Eastman Kodak Type K or DuPont sensitive Type 552, brass 

and cadmium filters.

Apr 1951 Change to brass and cadmium badge. Brass and cadmium filters, plus open window. Used DuPont 

502 dental film and Eastman Kodak Type B packet that contained NTA fast film and Fine Grain 

Positive.

1954 Thermal neutron measurements started. 

1955 Routine measurement of thermal neutrons was discontinued.

1956 Routine evaluation of thermal neutron exposures restarted.

Oct 1962 Multi-element Cycolac film badge put into use. It included multi-element filter, another multi-element 

filter with Li-6, and unfiltered area. Two film packets: DuPont 543 (with DuPont 502 film), Kodak Type 

B (with NTA fast film and Fine Grain Positive).

31 Jan 1963 Practice of using wrist-to-finger ratios greater than 1 discontinued. 

Mar 1963 Comparison of Cycolac and brass-cadmium badges conducted.

Aug 1968 LANL tried to duplicate Battelle PNL badge performance study of 1966, in which it did not participate.

Sep 1970 Started issuing film badges with TLD-ribbon containing plastic insert to selected individuals at DP Site. 

Purpose of these badges with TLD-600 and TLD-700 ribbons was to evaluate individual exposures 

between film development and evaluation. 

1971–1972 Prototype albedo-neutron TLD badge studied at DP West, compared to Cycolac film badge data.

Jul–Dec 1972 Performance of film badges, NTA film, and prototype albedo-neutron-TLDs compared at DP West 

plutonium facilities over a 6-mo period.
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 24 of 76

Period Event

May 1978 Began issuing Model 7776 TLD badges to visitors. Certain LANL groups got them starting in 

September. Additional LANL groups changed from film to TLD throughout 1978–1979, as TLD cards 

and badges were acquired. 

1978–1979 LANL participated in National Research Council/University of Michigan pilot dosimeter testing program.

1980 At LAMPF, TLD badge was supplemented by Kodak NTA film placed in a Cycolac piggyback holder 

attached to TLD badge. 

1 Jan 1980 Dosimetry section completed changeover from film dosimetry badges to TLD badges as dosimeter of 

record. Model 7776 badge had cadmium and non-cadmium versions. Cadmium version was initially 

used at LAMPF.

Late 1980 Changed to use of non-cadmium badge at LAMPF to gain sensitivity.

Jun 1981 Concurrent monitoring with NTA film and TLDs was conducted.

Jun 1981 Discontinued routine issue of NTA film for LAMPF personnel. 

Dec 1984 LANL applied to participate in pilot testing of DOELAP.

16 Jan 1985 LANL selected for participation in pilot testing of DOELAP.

Jul 1987 TLD plus NTA badges used with other detectors during special neutron spectral measurements at 

LAMPF.

May 1988 Neutron measurements made at seven locations in TA-55 Room 209 using ESP-2 neutron instrument 

and TLD badges on Lucite phantom.

Jun 1991 LANL expressed interest in participating in some categories of DOELAP testing of extremity dosimeters 

(not the categories with low-energy beta emitters or neutrons).

Aug 1992 Comparison conducted of bubble dosimeters with Model 7776 TLDs.

1993 LANL purchased automated reader for use with chemically etched CR-39 detectors.

1995 LANL introduced TED as replacement for NTA film as high-energy neutron dosimeter at LAMPF.

22 Feb 1996 Moved up deployment of new eight-element TLD (worn with 7776 TLD badge) for use in dynamically 

determining employee-specific NCFs. 

Apr 1996 Began to phase in quarterly dosimeter exchange frequency for personnel who received "low" 

occupational radiation exposure.

1996 LANL submitted track-etch neutron dosimeters for irradiation at PSI in Europe.

Feb 1998 Review of Model 8823 TLD as neutron dosimeter issued.

1 Apr 1998 Model 8823 became dosimeter of record. Eight-element TLD (called Model 8823 by manufacturer 

Harshaw/Bicron) uses Model 7774 TLD cards. 

Oct 1998 Began using wrist dosimeter for routine monitoring. 

1999 LANL TED passed DOELAP performance testing for neutrons.

1999 LANL participated in 4th Intercomparison of Personal Dosimeters Used in U.S. DOE Accelerator 

Facilities. 

2000 LANL submitted TLDs and track-etch badges for irradiation by monoenergetic, accelerator-produced 

neutrons from 0.144 MeV to 19 MeV at PTB in Germany.

6.2.2.1 Beta/Photon Dosimeters

The following paragraphs describe LANL dosimeters and periods of routine use to provide the 

recorded dose of record.

Pocket Ionization Chambers. Monitoring for external radiation exposures at LANL began in 1943 

when PICs were issued to a few persons thought to have the highest potential for receiving exposures 

at or above the "tolerance" limit [LANL 1986 (10/6/81 document)]. As of January 19, 1944, Victoreen 

PICs were in use. In August 1950, H Division furnished Keleket Pocket Chambers along with film 

badges for use by GMX-1 in “extraordinary work.” 

Brass Film Badge, 1943 to 1948. Before 1951, external dosimetry was provided by three different 

organizations at LANL – H Division, the CMR-12 Radiochemistry Group, and the GMX-1 Radiography 

Group (CMR indicates Chemistry and Metallurgical Research, and also refers to a building). The first 

use of film badges at LANL was apparently in 1943 by the GMX-1 Radiography Group (Widner 2004). 

On January 19, 1944, H Division personnel inquired with Colonel Stafford Warren of MED at Oak 

Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) about using strips of film to check exposures to radiation. They 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 25 of 76

requested film and instructions for use in checking their Victoreen PICs. By May 18, 1944, LANL had 

started to distribute film monitors to various people [LASL 1959 (5/18/44 memorandum)]. On June 14, 

1944, Colonel Warren gave authorization to order Lead Cross Type K Dental Film from Eastman 

Kodak Company. In February 1945, H Division instituted a system to monitor exposure of workers 

with photographic film [LASL 1959 (2/17/45 memorandum)]. The badges apparently used Eastman 

Kodak Lead Cross Type K Dental Film in a brass holder. Film packets of that type were ordered with 

a 0.5-mm-thick lead cross over one face (covering about 60% of that face), with the edges of the 

cross folded over to cover a small portion of the opposite side of the packet [LASL 1959 (6/13/44

drawing attached to 10/27/44 memorandum)]. In the MED method for use of this film, penetrating 

photon doses were estimated from the areas on the edge of the film packets where the ends of the 

lead cross folded over the edge of the packet; the combined thickness of the lead and the 0.033-in.-

thick brass holder absorbed beta rays [LASL 1959 (report attached to 10/27/44 memorandum)].

In the film badge in use in August 1947, film was placed directly in a 0.4- to 0.5-mm-thick brass 

container with no window or filters of other metal [LASL 1959 (8/4/47 memorandum)]. These badges, 

which were intended to measure only gamma radiation, were made at LANL. Three types of film were 

initially used together: Eastman Kodak Industrial Type K X-Ray Safety Film (0.01 to 6.0 R), DuPont 

D-2 Special Type X-Ray Film (two films, together covering 0.13 to 30 R, and DuPont Adlux Film (65 to 

1,500 R). Beginning around July 1947, only Eastman Kodak Type K film was used routinely, but all 

films continued to be used “in cases where an operation is considered at all hazardous” [LASL 1959 

(8/4/47 memorandum)]. 

There is some uncertainty about the point in time when LANL switched from the film badge that used 

the lead cross film to the version in use in August 1947 that used films with no windows or filters of 

any type. 

Early LANL film packets were collected and read once a month, and new films were supplied. Film 

badges did not replace the daily measurements of the PICs; they provided a check of daily 

measurements and formed a permanent record of exposure. About 1 wk after the August 8, 1945, 

fatal criticality accident at TA-2, “catastrophe badges” that could measure up to 3,000 R with film, red 

phosphorous capsules for measuring fast neutron flux, and brass in the badge itself for measuring 

slow neutron flux were assigned to “anyone who could be involved in a criticality accident” [LASL 

1959 (6/14/45 document)].

Brass Clip Badge, 1949 to 1950. About January 1949, there were changes in the type of film badge 

used at the Laboratory. The new badge had a DuPont film packet inserted in a brass clip that 

provided only partial shielding of the film surface. The brass absorbed almost all beta radiation while 

having negligible effect on gamma radiation. By comparing the optical densities under brass with 

those not under brass, a separate evaluation of beta exposure could be made. 

Brass-Lead Film Badge, 1950 to 1951. On April 20, 1950, the Laboratory started changeover to a 

new film badge. It used brass and lead filters plus an unfiltered area. The two-filter system was used 

to support energy determination for beta and gamma radiation so appropriate correction factors could 

be applied. This badge was used until April 1951.

Brass-Cadmium Film Badge, 1951 to 1962. In April 1951, the Laboratory initiated changeover to a 

brass and cadmium film badge. This badge incorporated brass and cadmium filters and an open 

window. It used two film packets: a DuPont 543 packet that contained DuPont 502 dental film and an 

Eastman Kodak Type B packet that contained NTA fast neutron film and Fine Grain Positive film.
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 26 of 76

Cycolac Film Badge, 1962 to 1978. In October 1962, a new multi-element Cycolac film badge was 

issued to about 100 persons who had histories of appreciable or out-of-ordinary radiation exposures. 

More widespread use followed. Named after the brand of plastic used in its holder, the Cycolac 

badge used a multi-element filter, a second multi-element filter with 6

Li, and an unfiltered area. It used 

two film packets: a DuPont 543 packet that contained DuPont 502 dental film and an Eastman Kodak 

Type B packet that contained NTA fast neutron film and Fine Grain Positive film. In addition, it 

contained indium, gold, and sulfur foils for accident dosimetry. The Cycolac badge was seen to have 

the advantages of relative gamma and X-ray energy independence (within 30%) from about 30 keV to 

1,400 keV, the ability to evaluate thermal neutrons in the presence of X- and gamma radiations below 

400 keV, and improved directional independence. 

Model 7776 Thermoluminescent Dosimeter Badge, 1978 to 1998. A prototype albedo-neutron 

TLD was studied at DP West in the last half of 1972. The Laboratory began issuing TLD badges to 

visitors in May 1978. Certain Laboratory groups began to receive them in September because it took 

several months for complete conversion. The Model 7776 TLD badge had cadmium and noncadmium versions. It incorporated copper, Cycolac plastic, and cadmium filters, and used three TLD700 chips (one covered with copper, one with thin Cycolac plastic, and the third with thicker plastic) 

and one TLD-600 chip (enriched in 6

Li). In the cadmium badge, the third TLD-700 chip and the TLD600 chip were shielded by cadmium pockets, as opposed to plastic covers in the noncadmium badge. 

The Dosimetry section completed the changeover from film dosimetry badges to TLD badges as the 

dosimeter of record on January 1, 1980. The Model 7776 dosimeter was not designed to perform 

low-penetrating beta dosimetry and was not accredited by DOELAP for low-energy beta particles or 

beta and low-energy photon mixtures (Hoffman and Mallett 1999a). 

Model 8823 Eight-Element Thermoluminescent Dosimeter, 1998 to Present. The Model 8823 

TLD is a custom LANL design that contains two Harshaw/Bicron-NE TLD cards (Hoffman and Mallett 

1999a,b). The Model 8823 cardholder is made of black acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) plastic 

to prevent the exposure of light-sensitive TLD elements. The holder contains a 21-mil-thick cadmium 

box that is painted red in which the neutron TLD card is placed. The cadmium box has an open 

window under positions 7 and 8 (next to the body of the wearer) and over positions 5 and 6 (toward 

the incident radiation) to facilitate the combined albedo and anti-albedo design. The technical 

advantage of the moderating box is that it reduces the dependence of TLD neutron response on the 

distance of the dosimeter from the worker’s body. The holder is designed to provide 600 mg/cm2 ABS 

plastic filtration over positions 1 and 4, mainly to determine photon deep dose. Positions 2 and 3 are 

beta windows that are covered with one and two layers of aluminized Mylar, respectively. The 

aluminized Mylar is coated with black paint on the back to maximize light attenuation.

The photon and beta dosimeters used over time at Los Alamos are summarized in Table 6-6.

6.2.2.2 Neutron Dosimeters 

LANL has used five general types of neutron dosimeters that differ dramatically in their response to 

neutron radiation. The following paragraphs describe the personnel neutron dosimeters used at LANL 

and their periods of use. 

Pocket Ionization Chamber, Before 1949. Before 1949, some personnel who worked with the 

cyclotron and other neutron sources wore the Victoreen pencil PIC to determine their neutron doses 

[LASL 1969 (11/12/68 memorandum)]. The chamber consisted of a Bakelite cylinder with a clear 

Lucite top and an aluminum cap and ring on the bottom. The chambers were 5 in. long and 0.5 in. in 

diameter and had a pocket clip. The chambers were not self-reading. An internal electrode and the 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 27 of 76

Table 6-6. Photon and beta dosimeters used over time (LASL 1959, 1969, 1977, 1979; LANL 1986, 

1989, 1996, 2001, 2003; Widner 2003, 2004).

Period Type badge Film or media used

1943–1944 PIC Quartz fiber

1943–June 

1946

Brass film badge Eastman Kodak Lead Cross Type K Dental Film packet

July 1946–

1948

Brass film badge–no windows or filters Eastman Kodak Industrial Type K X-Ray Safety Film, DuPont 

D-2 Special Type X-Ray Film, and DuPont Adlux Film. After 

June 1947, only Eastman Kodak Type K was used routinely. 

1949–1950 Brass "clip" badge–provided only partial 

shielding of film surface

Eastman Kodak Type K X-Ray Safety Film

1950–1951 Brass film badge–brass and lead filters

plus unfiltered portion

Eastman Kodak Type K X-Ray Safety Film

1951–1962 Brass-cadmium badge–brass and 

cadmium filters plus open window

Two film packets: DuPont 543 (contained DuPont 502 dental 

film), Eastman Kodak Type B (contained NTA fast neutron 

film and Fine Grain Positive)

1962–1978 Cycolac plastic badge–multi-element filter, 

a second multi-element filter with 6Li, and 

an unfiltered area

Two film packets: DuPont 543 (contained DuPont 502 dental 

film), Eastman Kodak Type B (contained NTA fast neutron 

film and Fine Grain Positive)

1978–March 

1998

Model 7776 TLD badge (cadmium and 

non-cadmium versions)–copper, Cycolac 

plastic, and cadmium filters

Three TLD-700 chips (one covered with copper, one with 

plastic) and one TLD-600 chip (enriched in Li-6). In the 

cadmium badge the third TLD-700 chip and the TLD-600 chip 

were shielded by cadmium pockets; they were covered by 

plastic in the non-cadmium badge.

April 1998–

present

Model 8823 TLD badge Two TLD cards hold eight TLD elements. One card has three 

TLD-700 elements and one TLD-400. Two elements are 

filtered with ABS plastic. Two have minimal filtration. The 

second card is in a cadmium box; two elements form a 

classic albedo detector with a TLD-600/-700 pair surrounded 

by cadmium except for an opening toward the body. Two 

positions are an incident thermal neutron detector (“an AntiAlbedo detector”) with a TLD-600/-700 pair surrounded by 

cadmium except for an opening away from the body. 

inner wall of the Bakelite chamber were coated with graphite. Doses received were recorded in 

n units. An n unit was defined as “the quantity of neutron radiation that will produce the same 

ionization in a 100-r Victoreen chamber (red Bakelite) as 1 R of gamma radiation.” A 1968 study of 

the response of the Bakelite dosimeters indicated that 1 n unit corresponded to about 5.9 rad of 

neutron exposure (+25%) or 59 rem if a quality factor of 10 is applied [LASL 1969 (11/12/68 

memorandum)]. A conclusion of that study was that the Bakelite dosimeters lacked adequate neutron 

sensitivity to be useful for the evaluation of neutron exposures. Dale Hankins of H-1 stated that “large 

errors can be made if the gamma-ray contribution to the response of the dosimeter was assumed to 

be neutron dose or that the neutron contribution to the dosimeter readings was assumed to be 

gamma-ray dose” [LASL 1969 (11/12/68 memorandum)].

Nuclear Track Plates. In late August 1949, the first NTPs were issued for the evaluation of fast 

neutrons. The first written report of fast neutron exposure was in May 1950. From 1943 to 1949, no 

monitoring for fast neutron doses was performed with the exception of activation analyses performed 

for several criticality accidents. As of October 4, 1956, NTPs with 1,000-μm emulsion on glass 

backing supplied by Ilford were used for fast neutron dose evaluation. They were thought to have 

been accurate to within a factor of 2 [3].

Nuclear Track Emulsion. In April 1951, changeover to a brass and cadmium film badge began. 

This badge incorporated an Eastman Kodak Type B packet that contained NTA fast neutron film and 

Fine Grain Positive film. In October 1962, the new multi-element Cycolac film badge was first issued 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 28 of 76

at the Laboratory. The Cycolac badge included an Eastman Kodak Type B packet that contained 

NTA fast neutron film and Fine Grain Positive film. It also contained indium, gold, and sulfur foils for 

accident neutron dosimetry. The main concerns with NTA film were that latent-image tracks faded 

rapidly when humidity was high and that the lowest energy neutrons detectable in routine evaluations 

were about 0.8 to 1 MeV (Hankins 1973). NTA film did provide useful information about doses from 

neutrons with energies above this threshold, particularly when used in conjunction with TLDs from 

about 1980 until 1995. After some study of fading issues at LANL, NTA film was sealed in plastic with 

a desiccant to minimize fading due to high humidity [LANL 1989 (6/22/89 memorandum)].

Thermoluminescent Dosimeters. LANL began issuing TLD badges to visitors in May 1978, and 

certain groups began to receive them in September. The Model 7776 TLD badge had cadmium and 

non-cadmium versions. It incorporated copper, Cycolac plastic, and cadmium filters, and used three 

TLD-700 chips (one covered with copper, one with thin Cycolac plastic, and the third with thicker 

plastic) and one TLD-600 chip (enriched in 6

Li). In the cadmium badge, the third TLD-700 chip and 

the TLD-600 chip were shielded by cadmium pockets, as opposed to plastic covers in the noncadmium badge. TLD badges were used by a number of groups in 1978; the LANL Dosimetry section 

completed the changeover from film dosimetry badges to TLD badges on January 1, 1980. 

The Model 7776 dosimeter relied heavily on the use of site- and operation-specific neutron correction 

factors (NCFs) for neutron dosimetry. The technique used an essentially bare TLD-600 and TLD-700 

pair in a quasi-albedo arrangement (i.e., without a cadmium or other neutron-absorbing shield anterior 

to the TLD elements). The albedo dosimeters were sensitive to the intermediate and lower energy 

fast neutrons that other dosimetry methods could not detect, but their net neutron signal was highly 

energy-dependent and required the use of site-specific NCFs to convert the response to dose. NCFs 

could vary by more than an order of magnitude. As a consequence, they were assigned at very 

conservative values such that neutron doses were typically overestimated by a factor of 2 to 3 

(Blackstock et al. 1978).

A detachable holder for NTA film was included in the Model 7776 TLD badge design to facilitate fast 

neutron measurement. This configuration was unacceptable, however, because it would invalidate 

the calibration of the badge and its DOELAP accreditation and it did not address fading problems 

(Mallett et al. 1990).

The Model 8823 TLD is a custom LANL design that contains two Harshaw/Bicron-NE TLD cards 

(Hoffman and Mallett 1999a,b). The holder also contains a 21-mil-thick cadmium box that holds the 

neutron TLD card. The cadmium box has an open window under positions 7 and 8 (next to the body 

of the wearer) and over positions 5 and 6 (toward the incident radiation) to facilitate the combined 

albedo and anti-albedo design. 

In early 1996, LANL decided to issue the Model 8823 badge in conjunction with the LANL Model 7776 

WB TLD before the acceptance of the Model 8823 as the dosimeter of record. During this interim 

period, the dedicated neutron portion of the Model 8823 was used to calculate employee-specific 

NCFs to be applied to the Model 7776 WB TLD net neutron reading [LANL 2001 (2/22/96 document)]. 

The Model 8823 dosimeter received its first DOELAP accreditation after it successfully passed 

performance testing in the spring of 1997 (Hoffman and Mallett 1999a,b). The Model 8823 became 

the dosimeter of record for LANL on April 1, 1998.

The LANL Model 8823 dosimeter is DOELAP-accredited in all applicable categories (no exceptions 

are required). The general beta category (VA), which includes 90Sr/90Y and 204Tl, is selected over the 

special contact geometry uranium category (VB) and special beta category (VC), which include only 

90Sr/90Y or 204Tl. 
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Track-Etch Dosimeter. The LANL TED (or PN3) contains three dosimetry-grade CR-39 track-etch 

plastic foils (Hoffman and Mallett 1999a). The foils are placed in a hemispherically shaped ABS 

plastic case on the sides of a triangular polystyrene pyramid to minimize angular dependence of the 

TED. The LANL TED, which is sensitive only to neutron radiation, is used for special field conditions. 

When issued to personnel, it is used in combination with the Model 8823 dosimeter (Hoffman and 

Mallett 1999a). The LANL TED is entered in the DOELAP pure 252Cf and moderated field category 

(Category VI). 

These five general types of neutron dosimeters that have been most widely used at LANL, which are 

summarized in Table 6-7, differed significantly in their response to neutrons of different energies, as 

shown for NTA film and albedo TLD dosimeters in Figure 6-2 (IAEA 1990). While it should be noted 

that calibration factors were used to adjust the response curves for 6

LiF and NTA film upward to better 

align with Hp(10), this did not remove the fundamental energy dependence of the two types of 

dosimeters.

Table 6-7. Neutron dosimeters used over time at LANL (LASL 1959, 1969, 1977, 1979; LANL 1986, 

1989, 1996, 2001, 2003; Widner 2003, 2004).

Period Type badge Film or media used

1943–1949 No monitoring of fast neutron exposure None

1943–1953 No monitoring of thermal neutron 

exposure

None

1949–1951 Nuclear track plates NTPs with 1,000-μm emulsion on glass backing 

supplied by Ilford 

1951–1962 Brass-cadmium badge – brass and 

cadmium filters plus open window. 

(Thermal neutron monitoring stopped in 

1955, restarted in 1956)

Two film packets: DuPont 543 (contained DuPont 

502 dental film), Eastman Kodak Type B (contained 

NTA fast neutron film and Fine Grain Positive)

1962–1979 Cycolac plastic badge – multi-element 

filter, a second multi-element filter with 

6

Li, and an unfiltered area.

Two film packets: DuPont 543 (contained DuPont 

502 dental film), Eastman Kodak Type B (contained 

NTA fast neutron film and Fine Grain Positive)

1980–1998 Model 7776 TLD badge (cadmium and 

non-cadmium versions) – used with 

NTA film in a piggyback holder for some 

(<40) workers 1981 – 1995 (measured 

thermal, intermediate, and fast neutrons, 

with no separation of fast neutrons)

Essentially bare TLD-600 and TLD-700 pair in a 

quasi-albedo arrangement (i.e., without a cadmium 

or other neutron-absorbing shield anterior to the 

TLD elements)

1995–present Track-etch dosimeter Plastic hemispherical case encompassing a 

polystyrene pyramidal detector holder. The holder 

supports three CR-39 detectors at 35° angles. 

1998–present Model 8823 TLD badge (used with the 

TED by those with potential high-energy 

neutron exposure) (measures thermal, 

intermediate, and fast neutrons, with no 

separation of fast neutrons)

Two elements form a classic albedo detector with a 

TLD-600/-700 pair in cadmium except for an 

opening toward the body. Two positions are an 

incident thermal neutron detector with a TLD600/-700 pair in cadmium except for an opening 

away from the body. 

6.2.3

Potential error in recorded dose is dependent on the characteristics of the dosimetry technology 

response to each radiation type, energy, and geometry; the methodology used to calibrate the 

dosimetry system; and the similarity between the radiation fields used for calibration and that in the 

workplace. The potential error is much greater for dosimeters with significant variations in response, 

such as film dosimeters with low-energy photons and NTA or Model 7776 TLDs with neutrons. 

Calibration
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 30 of 76

10|-7 10|-6 10|-5 10|-4 10|-3 10|-2 10|-1 10|0 10|1

Neutron Energy (MeV)

10|0

10|1

10|2

10|3

10|4

Relative Response

Hp(10)

NTA Film

6

LiF with Cd Shield

Figure 6-2. Comparison of Hp(10) for neutrons 

with energy responses of NTA film and neutron 

albedo dosimeter containing a thermoluminescent 

neutron dosimeter chip of 6

LiF and shielded by 

cadmium (IAEA 1990).

6.2.3.1 Beta/Photon Dosimeters

Brass Film Badge: Film badges used at LANL were initially calibrated with a radium source [LASL 

1959 (8/4/47 memorandum)].

Brass-Cadmium Film Badge: In accordance with a 1956 procedure [LASL 1959 (2/16/1956 

document)], calibrations were done with radium for gamma radiation and a sheet of depleted uranium 

for beta radiation. The optical density of the filtered area was subtracted from the optical density of 

the unfiltered area, a radium calibration curve was applied, and a factor of 5/3 was used to estimate 

beta exposure in rep [LASL 1959 (2/16/1956 document)]. For non-penetrating dose in plutonium 

facilities, a 78-kVp X-ray calibration was used instead of the depleted uranium slab. 

The standard method of film calibration as of April 1955 used a 195-mg radium source that was 

calibrated by the NBS. Overall error in the radium exposures delivered reportedly did not exceed 2%, 

including uncertainties in source strength, distance, and exposure time (Kalil 1955).

By 1960, film badges were calibrated to gamma radiation with a 60Co source (Littlejohn 1961). The 

dose rate from the calibration source was measured with a Victoreen r-chamber calibrated by NBS. 

Calibrations were performed on a circular Masonite table in a relatively scatter-free room. Badges 

were calibrated with the front area of the badges toward the source, and workers were instructed to 

wear the badges in the same orientation. 

Periodic calibrations were made to nickel-coated and uncoated plutonium. The uncoated plutonium 

was encased in 0.02-in. polyvinylchloride (PVC). Surface dose rates for both sources were 

determined by extrapolation chamber measurements. Films were calibrated in direct contact with the 

source and with various filtering materials between the source and the film to simulate dry-box 

conditions. Because the plutonium calibration curves were parallel to the 60Co curve, open-window 

densities from plutonium exposures were evaluated from the 60Co curve and then corrected by 

applying factors of 0.11 for coated plutonium and 0.065 for uncoated plutonium (Littlejohn 1961).
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 31 of 76

As of 1960, a 4-in.-square plate of depleted uranium was used to calibrate the film to beta radiation 

(Littlejohn 1961). The surface dose rate of the depleted uranium plate was measured with an 

extrapolation chamber. Films were normally placed in direct contact with the source or, when 

required, various filtering materials such as the PVC used in the wrist badge were inserted between 

the source and film. 

An August 24, 1962, memorandum (LASL 1969) refers to the use of 60Co calibration curves for 

evaluation of beta, gamma, and thermal neutron exposures. The 60Co calibration curve was used to 

evaluate beta exposures with a relative sensitivity factor of 1/3 based on calibration with depleted 

uranium of a known surface dose rate. In addition, plutonium source calibrations were done to 

measure the response to the unfiltered area of the film. The use of nickel-coated plutonium as a 

calibration source was discontinued in January 1963 [LASL 1969 (3/20/63 memorandum)].

The brass-cadmium badges worn in plutonium areas at DP West were calibrated by placing the 

badge in contact with a 100-g piece of uncoated plutonium metal encased in PVC [LASL 1969 (3/5/63 

memorandum)]. The surface dose rate from the encased metal was measured with an extrapolation 

ionization chamber. Exposures were evaluated by reading the net optical density from the unfiltered 

area of the film, reading the exposure from a 60Co calibration curve, applying a correction factor of 

0.08 to correct for unfiltered film sensitivity to the mixture, and dividing the result in roentgen by 2 to 

get rem, based on the assumption that only 50% of the X-ray dose penetrated to the depth of the 

gonads or 1 cm of tissue [LASL 1969 (3/5/63 memorandum)]. Beginning in January 1963, the factor 

of 2 for plutonium and soft X-ray evaluations was abandoned based on a 1962 study that indicated 

that results from the brass-cadmium badge underestimated expected (calculated) doses in DP West 

plutonium areas by a factor of 2 for fields unfiltered by glass or steel and by 3 for fields that were 

filtered by these materials [LASL 1969 (3/5/63 memorandum)]. 

Cycolac Film Badge: The Cycolac badge was calibrated to the 100-g piece of uncoated plutonium 

metal encased in PVC and to a fluorescent X-ray source that emitted 71% 20-keV, 22% 60-keV, 5% 

100-keV, and 2% greater-than-200-keV X-rays, which simulated the radiations from plutonium at DP 

West [LASL 1969 (3/5/63 memorandum)]. 

For mixtures of higher and lower energy photons, the net optical density under a multi-element filter 

was used with a 60Co calibration curve to estimate penetrating photon dose. The non-penetrating 

dose was calculated from the measured net optical density under the unfiltered window based on the 

60Co response, the penetrating dose was subtracted, and the remainder was multiplied by 0.07. This 

factor includes a correction for unfiltered film sensitivity (0.2) and conversion from roentgen to rem 

(0.35). The factor of 0.35 [which corresponded to the 1 rem = 0.5 R factor used with the brasscadmium badge before January 1963 but was based on “better data” published by Watson (1959)] 

accounted for the fraction penetrating to the gonads based on Hanford Site research per a November 

27, 1963, memorandum (LASL 1969). The DOELAP DCF for 17-keV photons is 0.38 rem/R (DOE 

1986).

Around July 9, 1971, LANL started issuing film badges to selected individuals at DP Site that included 

an insert containing TLD ribbons [LASL 1977 (7/9/71 memorandum)]. The TLDs were calibrated on 

the P-6 gamma range [4] as an and with a plutonium fluoride neutron source. The purpose of these 

badges with TLD-600 and TLD-700 ribbons was to evaluate individual exposures between film 

development and evaluation. 

Cycolac Film Badges and TLDs: As of 1977, LANL photon dosimeters were calibrated with three 

types of sources: (1) K fluorescent X-rays from 10 to 100 keV, (2) heavily filtered X-ray beams from 

100 to 250 keV, and (3) gamma rays from isotopes above 250 to 1,000 keV (Storm, Cortez, and 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 32 of 76

Littlejohn 1977). The K fluorescent X-rays were produced using a 300-kV constant potential X-ray 

unit to produce 10- to 100-keV X-rays emitted from the primary tungsten target that caused K-shell 

X-rays to be emitted from secondary targets that varied in atomic number from 29 to 92. The heavily 

filtered X-ray beams were obtained with the primary X-ray beam by varying the potential applied to the 

tube and using large amounts of tin filtration to obtain relatively narrow-spectrum X-rays. The gamma 

rays were primarily the 412-keV, 662-keV, and 1,170- and 1,330-keV photons from 198Au, 137Cs, and 

60Co, respectively. 

For beta dose, personnel dosimeters were calibrated by exposure either in air to a high-dose-rate 

90Sr(90Y) source or in contact with a low-dose-rate uranium source. Both emit beta rays with 

maximum energies of about 2.3 MeV. A comparison of dosimeter response with the two sources was 

conducted. In both cases, TLDs were given a total exposure of 100 mrad based on the dose rate 

from the strontium-yttrium source as measured by the ion chamber and the dose rate from the 

uranium measured by the extrapolation chamber. The TLDs were calibrated to gamma rays from a 

60Co source. TLDs mounted in Cycolac plastic yielded readings of 64 mrad when exposed in air to 

strontium-yttrium and 51 mrad in contact with uranium. 

By 1977, calibrations were performed with dosimeters in air, on a phantom, and in a phantom (Storm, 

Cortez, and Littlejohn 1977). A free-air ionization chamber was the primary standard used in the 

measurement of photon radiation. Thimble-sized ionization chambers calibrated to the free-air 

chamber served as secondary standards. Electron radiation was measured with an end-window 

ionization chamber with a 7 mg/cm2 Kodapak wall. The dosimeters were calibrated to determine 

penetrating doses by placement of the secondary chamber 1 cm deep in a phantom and the 

personnel dosimeter on the surface, with a filter over the TLD to simulate 1-cm depth (Storm, Cortez, 

and Littlejohn 1977). Nonpenetrating dose calibrations were measured by placement of the chamber 

and a “lightly filtered” dosimeter on the surface of the phantom. 

Around 1977, the energy response of dosimeters to electrons was measured with beta-emitting 

isotopes that varied in maximum energy from 770 to 2,300 keV – 204Tl, 32P, and 90Sr(90Y) (Storm, 

Cortez, and Littlejohn 1977). The responses of the various dosimeters are listed in Table 6-8. 

Table 6-8. TLD and film badge energy response to beta radiation, about 1977.

Dosimeter type

Maximum beta energy

0.77 MeV 1.16 MeV 2.27 MeV

Unfiltered TLD 0.43 0.53 0.64

TLD badge in 60 mg/cm2 Cycolac plastic 0.07 0.14 0.42

Film badge (unfiltered) 0.06 0.18 0.59

In December 1984, LANL applied to participate in the DOELAP pilot program. LANL did not seek 

accreditation for category VB (beta, uranium) or for the low-energy component of category VA (beta). 

While local testing indicated that routine procedures would adequately evaluate beta doses from 

contact with a sheet of uranium, LANL believed that the calibration method was not consistent with 

the geometry under which most beta doses were received. “At Los Alamos we are aware of no 

persons working with and receiving beta exposures from 204Tl” [LANL 1986 (12/14/84 memorandum)].

The LANL Model 7776 TLD badges in the pilot DOELAP test exhibited a positive bias, reportedly due 

to the results of backscatter from the Lucite calibration phantoms used in the DOELAP irradiations 

[LANL 1989 (2/14/86 memorandum)]. The phantom used by DOELAP personnel was reportedly 

much thicker than the one Storm used in developing the TLD calibration procedure, and the X-ray 

spectra used by DOELAP and Storm reportedly differed, even though both spectra had the same 

average energies (Widner 2003). The interplay of these two factors probably accounts for the 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 33 of 76

"positive bias" in the LANL TLD badge response. LANL and all other participants in the pilot DOELAP 

test used the test results to modify their dose evaluation procedures to become compliant with 

DOELAP testing procedures (Widner 2003). Backscatter increases the badge response by about 

10% for 137Cs gammas and more than 10% in the photon energy range from 40 to 150 keV. Thus, for 

TLD badges calibrated in free air, the exposure evaluation for badges exposed on a Lucite phantom 

(i.e., according to DOELAP procedures) is high by at least 10%. Because LANL lacked the time and 

personnel resources to reevaluate the response of the LANL TLD badge over the full range of photon 

and beta energies and the total fading response, the interim correction in 1986 was to remove the 

10% fading correction for photons and beta dose evaluations because the two effects compensate 

[LANL 1989 (2/14/86 memorandum)]. The 10% fading correction was retained for neutron exposure 

evaluation because the neutron calibration factors were established using a Lucite phantom. These 

changes were reportedly made operational for the January 1986 TLD badges.

Model 8823 TLD Badge: The general algorithm adopted for the Model 8823 was designed to 

determine the responses for each of the eight elements in the Model 8823 dosimeter through the use 

of a full set of DOELAP irradiation categories. At least 10 dosimeters were irradiated to each of the 

DOELAP techniques listed in Table 6-9 at Battelle, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) in 

late 1996. These irradiations included photons with effective energies ranging from 17 to 662 keV, 

betas with maximum energies of 760 and 2.27 MeV, and bare and moderated fission neutron sources. 

Table 6-9. DOELAP irradiation techniques 

and effective energies.

Photons Energy

K17 17 keV

M30 20 keV

S60 36 keV

K59 59 keV

Am-241 59 keV

M150 70 keV

H150 120 keV

Cs-137 662 keV

Betas

Tl-204 760 keV

Sr/Y-90 2.27 MeV

The Model 8823 dosimeter is DOELAP-accredited in all applicable categories. The general beta 

category (VA), which includes both 90Sr/90Y and 204Tl, is selected over the special contact geometry 

uranium category (VB) and special beta category (VC), which use only 90Sr/90Y or 204Tl. 

6.2.3.2 Neutron Dosimeters

Historical aspects of the calibration of LANL film, NTA, and TLD dosimeters are described in the 

Photodosimetry Evaluation Book (LASL 1959, 1969, 1977, 1979; LANL 1986, 1989, 1996, 2001, 

2003), technical basis documents, and LANL technical reports. 

Film Badges: Thermal-neutron calibration data were obtained from film badges exposed in the south 

thermal column of the LANL homogeneous reactor (Kalil 1955; Littlejohn 1961). Thermal neutron 

fluxes for a given reactor level were known to within ±10%, and relative values were known even 

better (Kalil 1955). Gold foils were used to measure the thermal neutron flux, and a nomogram was 

employed in the evaluation of film exposed to thermal neutrons (Littlejohn 1961). The nomogram 

indicated thermal neutron exposure (rem) as a function of normalized cadmium minus brass film 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 34 of 76

optical density. It also indicated gamma exposure and “open-window equivalent gamma exposure 

contributed by thermal neutrons and gamma rays,” a parameter that was used in the evaluation of 

beta exposures (the difference between this parameter and the open-window radium-equivalent 

gamma exposure was taken as an estimate of the beta exposure in rad) (Littlejohn 1961). 

Nuclear Track Emulsion: The Kodak Type B film used for measuring fast neutron exposures as of 

August 1960 (Littlejohn 1961) was developed by J. S. Cheka of ORNL (Cheka 1954). LANL 

calibrated this film to neutron energies of 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 1, 1.5, 2.5, 4, 5, 8, 14, 17, and 20 MeV 

(Littlejohn 1961). The 2.5- and 14-MeV neutrons were obtained from a Cockcroft-Walton accelerator, 

and the others were from two Van de Graaff accelerators that the Laboratory had at the time. Data 

from these calibrations indicated that between the energies of 1 and 20 MeV, the film was energydependent within +100% or –50% of the stated exposure, and each proton recoil track that appeared 

in a 1 mm2 portion of the cadmium-filtered area was assigned an average value of 0.008 rem 

(Littlejohn 1961). Fundamentally, the NTA dosimeter is capable of an accurate dose estimate only for 

neutron radiation greater than about 1 MeV because it has a lower energy threshold of about 

700 keV.

As of October 16, 1987, NTA badges were calibrated with a 238PuBe neutron dose of 500 mrem. A 

procedure was written for the processing of Kodak NTA film. Because TLDs are relatively insensitive 

to neutrons above about 3 MeV, the capability to process NTA films was retained. TLD badges with 

NTA film in piggyback holders were issued to Group HSE-11 at LAMPF. The combination badges 

were used with other detectors during neutron spectrum measurements in the ER-1 at LAMPF on 

July 22, 1987. 

A 1990 report stated that NTA film was frequently calibrated at LANL using a 238PuBe source or a 

bare 252Cf source with an average neutron energy of 4.5 MeV or 2.3 MeV, respectively (Mallett et al. 

1990). The film was irradiated in the Cycolac plastic holders through the use of an NBS slab phantom 

backing (40 by 40 by 15 cm methylmethacrylate slab). Based on neutron energy spectrum 

measurements performed at LAMPF in 1987 and the sensitive energy range of NTA film, it was 

concluded that the NTA dosimeter primarily measured exposure to neutrons in this facility from 

approximately 10 to 60 MeV; a response factor of 4 mrem/track/mm2 was conservatively chosen 

(Mallett et al. 1990). 

Earliest TLD Neutron Measurements: Around July 9, 1971, when LANL started issuing film badges 

at DP Site that contained TLD inserts, the TLDs were calibrated on the P-6 gamma range and with a 

PuF4 neutron source [LASL 1977 (7/9/1971 memorandum)].

Model 7776 TLD Badge: A method for calibrating the albedo-neutron dosimeter was developed that 

did not require a detailed knowledge of the neutron energy spectrum (Hankins 1973). A BF3 

proportional counter, centered in separate measurements in 3-in. and 9-in. polyethylene spheres 

containing thin shells of cadmium, was used to measure neutrons from a variety of sources. The ratio 

of the 9- to 3-in. sphere counting rates was plotted against sensitivity (the ratio of the TLD-600 

response less the TLD-700 response in units of 60Co milliroentgen to the neutron millirem as 

measured on the 9-in. sphere). This yielded a linear relationship on a log-log plot. Under this 

method, the ratio of 9- to 3-in. sphere count rates was measured in each potential neutron exposure 

area. A neutron calibration factor (the inverse of the sensitivity factor) was obtained from a plot of the 

9- to 3-in. count ratio to sensitivity generated for the albedo-neutron badge. The use of the 9- to 3-in. 

ratio technique allowed determination of an “average” neutron energy for a neutron source and an 

appropriate neutron calibration factor. In addition to using 9- to 3-in. sphere ratios for determination of 

NCFs, LANL compared responses of TLDs mounted on a phantom to responses from an adjacent 9-
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 35 of 76

in., NRD-moderated, BF3 tube-based neutron survey instrument (NRD indicates neutron rem 

detector). 

Model 8823 TLD Badge: The general algorithm technique adopted for the Model 8823 was designed 

to determine the responses for each of the eight elements in the Model 8823 dosimeter through the 

use of a full set of DOELAP irradiation categories. A minimum of 10 dosimeters was irradiated to 

each DOELAP category at PNNL in late 1996. These irradiations included bare and D2O-moderated 

252Cf fission neutron sources 1997 (Hoffman and Mallett 1999a,b). 

Model 8823 and Track-Etch Dosimeter: A March 9, 2000, report (LANL 2001) described the results 

of irradiation of LANL TLD and TED badges to monoenergetic, accelerator-produced neutrons from 

0.144 to 19 MeV at Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB), the national institute of natural and 

engineering sciences and technical authority for metrology and physical safety engineering of the 

Federal Republic of Germany. Neither the TLD nor the TED individually performed satisfactorily over 

the entire range of monoenergetic neutron energies. The TLD significantly under-responded to 

neutrons of 1.2 MeV and above; the monoenergetic PTB neutron fields were substantially different 

from bare and moderated fission sources for which the dosimeter algorithm was calibrated. The 

LANL TED (sometimes called the PN3) significantly under-responded below 1.2 MeV. By summing 

the results of the two dosimeter types, which was the practice at the time, these limitations are 

minimized. The combination results were within 40% of the delivered dose at 565 keV and above. 

As of early 1998, LANL TEDs were calibrated with a bare fission source [LANL 2001 (3/30/98 

memorandum)], apparently a 242Cf fission source with no scattering material between the source and 

the dosimeter (Widner 2004).

Figure 6-3 shows a plot of the geometric mean of the neutron-to-photon ratio for each year from 1979 

to 2004 (partial year) based on LANL records that contain both deep dose and neutron dose of 50

mrem or greater. This is the period after the use of NTA film was phased out at LANL. Along the top 

of the graph, the dosimeters in use over time are identified.

0.1

0.6

1.1

1.6

2.1

2.6

1979 1984 1989 1994 1999 2004

Neutron/Photon Ratio

Figure 6-3. Geometric mean of neutron-to-photon ratios for records with 

both deep dose and neutron dose of 50 mrem or greater, 1979 to 2004

(LANL 2004). 

Model 7776 TLD Model 8823 TLD
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 36 of 76

6.2.3.3 Workplace Radiation Fields

LANL operations have been characterized by significant complex beta, photon, and neutron radiation 

fields in reactor operations; criticality experimentation; handling of radioactive materials including 

plutonium, uranium, tritium, polonium, and barium/lanthanum; irradiated fuel processing; accelerator 

operations; X-ray facilities; and radioactive waste facilities. 

6.2.3.4 Workplace Beta/Photon Dosimeter Response

The energy response of Eastman Kodak Type K film for an exposure of 0.1 R is shown in Figure 6-4.

Figure 6-4. Energy dependence of Eastman Kodak 

Type K film for exposure of 0.1 R (Storm 1951). 

In a March 5, 1963, memorandum, the primary radiation fields “in general” at DP West were described 

as listed in Table 6-10 (LASL 1969). More detailed photon energy breakdowns from the same report 

are listed in Table 6-11.

Table 6-10. General energy distribution of photons in 

1962 at DP West Site. 

Percentage of dose Photon energy

65 to 70 L X-rays (~17 keV and 26 keV)

10 to 20 60 keV

1 to 10 100 keV

0 to 7 Greater than 200 keV

Table 6-11. Estimated photon spectra for several plutonium sources in DP West Site. 

Energy 

(keV)

Pu in 

glovebox

Pu with 

20% Pu-240 

in glovebox

Pu with 

20% Pu-240, 

through glass

Pu with 

20% Pu-240, 

through steel

Pu/Am electrorefining 

residues in milk 

carton and plastic

20 72 68 8.9 0 75

60 22 13 35 9.3 24

100 4.6 13 38 52 1.1

>200 2.1 6.4 19 38 0
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 37 of 76

Based on film badge data from uranium processing areas from early 1953, a factor of 0.1 was 

selected to determine gamma exposure from measurements of gamma-plus-beta exposure in 

preparing exposure records for computer entry [LASL 1959 (4/3/57 memorandum)]. The theoretical 

value for normal uranium was said to be about 1/17 gamma to beta-plus-gamma. The factor of 0.1 

indicated that beta doses were about 9 times gamma doses in those uranium processing areas.

That 1963 memorandum described a study in which the brass-cadmium badge and the Cycolac 

badge were simultaneously exposed to three different plutonium sources at DP West that had known 

or calculable spectra (LASL 1969). With knowledge of the spectra and film sensitivities, expected 

results from each badge were calculated. The brass-cadmium badge underestimated the dose at DP 

West by a factor of 2 when the radiation field was not filtered by glass or steel and a factor of 3 in the 

filtered cases. The Cycolac badge measured the dose within ±10% when the source was unfiltered. 

When the source was filtered by glass or steel, the hard component was measured correctly by the 

Cycolac badge but the soft component was overestimated, which caused the total dose to be in error 

(high) by as much as 60%.

Errors that were expected with the use of the Cycolac badge with low-energy photons (<45 keV) when 

a correction factor of 0.07 was used were as listed in Table 6-12, based on the 1962 study at DP 

West [LASL 1969 (3/5/63 memorandum)]. Guidance in that memorandum was that “when significant 

exposures to soft radiation (<45 keV) are measured or anticipated, a special evaluation will be made.”

Table 6-12. Calculated errors from use of the Cycolac badge with lowenergy photons and a correction factor of 0.07. 

Energy 

(keV)

Dose (R) from lower 

energy photons

Reported 

dose (rem)

True dose 

(calculated)

Percent 

difference

10 0.3 0.02 0.01 50% high

20 2 0.14 0.50 360% low

30 10 0.7 0.75 7% low

A 1972 study at DP Site compared results from film badges and TLDs over a 6-mo period [LANL 1996 

(2/15/96 memorandum); Hankins 2007]. The study used data from 38 plutonium workers in these 

areas: 239Pu recovery, 239Pu areas only, 238Pu areas, and the PuF4 area. While the lowest dose was 

294 mrem, most were around 1,000 mrem. Relevant results of the study, averaged over 6 mo, are 

listed in Table 6-13. The film badge readings were about a factor of 3 higher than the TLDs. In his 

1996 memorandum discussing the 1973 study [LANL 1996 (2/15/96 memorandum)], Hankins said 

that the method used to calibrate for plutonium did not consider the effect of the glovebox or buildup 

of 241Am in the gloveboxes. 

Table 6-13. Results of a 6-mo comparison of 

film badges, NTA film, and TLDs at DP Site. 

Area of DP site

Ratio of film dose to 

TLD gamma dose

Pu-239 recovery area 3.4 (range 2.4 to 4.2)

Pu-239 areas 1.9 (range 0.45 to 2.7)

PuF4 areas 3.0 (range 2.7 to 3.4)

Pu-238 areas 1.5 (range 10 to 2.2)

In a study documented in 1975, D.E. Hankins showed that LiF TLDs exposed on a phantom (or a 

person) had an over response to gamma ray energies around the 60 keV characteristic of Am-241 

(Hankins, 1975) as shown in Figure 6-5. 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 38 of 76

6.2.3.5 Uncertainty in Beta/Photon Recorded Dose

Table 6-14 lists LANL beta and photon energies and percentages.

Table 6-14. Selection of beta and photon radiation energies and percentages

Process/

Buildings Description

Operations

Radiation

type

Energy 

selection 

Begin End (keV) Percentage

Reactors 

and reactor 

fuels

During operation: Dispersed fields of higher energy photons from fission, 

activation, and fission products. Narrow beams of higher energy neutrons 

from test ports, etc., into reactor core. Potential for significant airborne 

nuclides and significant higher energy beta radiation. 

Betaa

Photon

>15

30–250

>250

100

25

75

Not in operation: Dispersed fields of higher energy photon radiation fields 

from activation and fission products. Insignificant neutrons. Possible higher 

energy beta radiation during maintenance work due to fission products.

LOPO Water Boiler (TA-2) May 1944 Nov 1944

HYPO Water Boiler (TA-2) Dec 1944 Feb 1951

SUPO Water Boiler (TA-2) Mar 1951 Jun 1974

Plutonium Fast Reactor (Clementine, TA-2) Dec 1946 Dec 1950

Omega West Reactor (TA-2) Jul 1956 Dec 1992

LAPRE I (TA-35) Feb 1956 Oct 1956

LAPRE II (TA-35) Feb 1959 May 59

LAMPRE I (TA-35) Early 1961 Mid-1963

UHTREX (TA-52) Dec 1956 Feb 1970

Irradiated fuel work (including TA-21, TA-35, TA-48 in the 1960s and CMR 

Wing 9 in the 1960s through about 1986).

Uranium 

production

Processing and machining: Depleted and enriched uranium. Betaa

Photon

>15

30–250

100

100 TA-1 (Sigma, HT Buildings) 1943 1953

TA-3 (Sigma Complex, CMR Building) 1953 Present

Plutonium 

processing

Radiochemical operations: Plutonium processed at LANL had largely 

been separated from fission products. Radiochemical operations were 

largely for recovery of fissionable material. Betaa

Photon

>15

<30

30–250

100

65b

35b

TA-1, D Building 1943 1945

TA-21, DP West Site Nov 1945 1978

TA-55, Plutonium Facility 1978 Present

TA-3 (including CMR Building) 1953 Present

Plutonium 

production 

Plutonium component production: Pu is machined into components using 

glovebox assembly process with mostly close anterior exposures. Radiation 

fields involve significant lower energy photons and neutron radiation.

Photon <30

30–250

65b

35b

TA-1 (D Building), TA-21 (DP Site), TA-55 (PF Site)

Plutonium storage: Radiation characteristics in this area generally involve 

dispersed lower energy neutron radiation and scattered photons, including 

60-keV Am-241 gamma ray.

TA-1, D-5 Sigma Vault 1943 1945

TA-21, Building 21 Nov 1945 1978

TA-55 Vault 1978 Present

Accelerator 

operations

LAMPF operations at TA-53: Primarily from residual 

activity induced in targets, accelerator structures and 

components, grease, oils, and soil.

1972 Present Betaa

Photon

>15

<30

30–50

>250

100c

1c

9 

90

Calibrations

LANL site calibration of instruments and dosimeters 1943 Present Betaa

Photon

>15

30–250

>250

100

25

75

Waste 

handling

Radiation characteristics highly dependent on source of waste. Betaa

Photon

>15

30–250

>250

100

50

50

Liquid waste: TA-45 and TA-50;

Solid waste: Areas A, B, C, D, E, G, T, U, V 

Various, 

1944 on

Radioactive 

lanthanum 

operations

Preparation and use of radioactive lanthanum sources: Beta 

Photon

>15

30–250

>250

100

10

90

TA-10 (Bayo Canyon) 1944 1950

TA-35, “Ten Site” 1951 1963

Information sources: LASL 1959, 1969, 1977, 1979; LANL 1986, 1989, 1996, 2001, 2003.

a. Nonpenetrating dose was not measured by early LANL film badges that had no unfiltered areas. See Attachment A, Section A.5 for 

guidance on how to correct for that shortcoming by estimating nonpenetrating dose and attributing it to the beta radiation category. 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 39 of 76

b. Low-energy photons were not measured by early LANL film badges that had no unfiltered areas. See Attachment A, Section A.5 for 

guidance on how to correct for that shortcoming by estimating nonpenetrating dose and attributing it to the low-energy photon (<30 

keV) category. 

c. See Attachment A, Section A.5 for guidance on attribution of nonpenetrating doses at LAMPF/LANSCE to beta radiation and low 

energy photons.

6.2.3.6 Workplace Neutron Dosimeter Response

The AEC held a series of Personnel Neutron Dosimetry Workshops to address problems experienced 

by its sites concerning accurate measurement of neutron dose. The first workshop was held 

September 23 and 24, 1969 (Vallario, Hankins, and Unruh 1969) with the stated concern: “... for 

intermediate energy (i.e., > 0.4 eV to < 700 keV) ... neutron sources, NTA personnel neutron 

dosimeters cannot be effectively used. This leaves a gap in the personnel dosimetry program which 

at many installations may be quite serious.” The significance of the underestimated neutron dose 

became evident with studies being conducted to implement TLDs. At LANL, studies of that type were 

conducted in the early 1970s [LANL 1996 (2/25/96 memorandum)].

In 1994, the neutron component of the collective person-rem for LANL was 75% of the total [LANL 

2001 (2/22/96 memorandum)].

The main work areas at LANL where there has been a potential for neutron exposure include: 

• D Building (TA-1)

• DP West (TA-21)

• DP East (TA-21)

• Current Plutonium Facility (TA-55)

• Omega Site (TA-2)

• LAMPF (TA-53)

• Criticality Lab (TA-2, TA-18)

• CMR Building (TA-3)

In 1989, the majority of workers who received neutron exposures worked at LAMPF (TA-53) and the 

Plutonium Facility (TA-55) [LANL 1996 (4/18/90 memorandum)].

Based on measurements with the Model 8823 dosimeter reported in a January 23, 2003, 

memorandum (LANL 2003):

• The vast majority (greater than 90%) of LANL employees, including those at TA-55, received 

WB neutron doses from “well moderated fields, akin to ~2.5-4” (or greater) polymoderated 

252Cf (fission spectrum),” and 

• Less than 2% of LANL’s positive neutron exposures were “in fields similar to bare Cf-252.” 

Based on neutron spectrum measurements performed by LANL personnel (Harvey and Hajnal 1993) 

and information from the Photodosimetry Evaluation Book [LANL 1996 (1/17/95 memorandum)], 

Table 6-15 lists the approximate correspondence between NCFs used by LANL and the dose fraction 

for the four bins of neutron energy used by NIOSH (2006). The breakdowns by energy category are 

estimated based on the “H(%)” columns from the Harvey and Hajnal (1993) report. A lower NCF 

value indicates that the distribution of neutron energies has shifted to lower values; that is, it has 

moderated. As neutrons moderate, the dosimeter responds more per neutron, but the DE per neutron 

is lower.
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 40 of 76

As described above, irradiation of LANL TLD and TED badges to monoenergetic, acceleratorproduced neutrons from 0.144 to 19 MeV at PTB in Germany (LANL 2001) showed that the TLD 

significantly under-responded to neutrons of 1.2 MeV and above, the TED significantly underresponded below 1.2 MeV and, when results were combined (as was the practice at LANL), results 

were within 40% of the delivered dose at 565 keV and above. 

Table 6-15. Approximate NCFs and dose fractions for neutron sources.

Type of source NCF

Dose fraction by energy category

<10 keV 10–100 keV 0.1–2 MeV 2–20 MeV

Bare Pu-239 ~1.0

Bare Pu-Be ~1.5 1 1 33 65

Bare Cf-252 ~1.3 0 0 42 58

Cf-252 through 10.2-cm Lucite ~0.15 5 1 33 61

6.2.3.6.1 Plutonium Processing Areas (TA-1, TA-21, TA-55)

6.2.3.6.1.1 Neutron Energy Spectrum

In a study released in 1978, 9-in. to 3-in. sphere ratio measurements at 13 locations at the TA-55 

Plutonium Facility yielded ratios that indicated an average neutron energy of approximately 200 keV 

(Blackstock et al. 1978). The mean value of the ratio was 0.57, with a standard deviation of 35%. 

This result was thought to possibly explain why few neutron exposures had been observed using NTA 

film at this facility, because NTA film cannot detect neutrons with energies less than about 700 keV.

Multisphere neutron spectroscopy methods were applied to measure representative working fields in 

the LANL Plutonium Facility in 1993 (Harvey and Hajnal 1993). Work in this facility has involved 239Pu 

and 238Pu. Figure 6-5 shows the neutron spectrum measured during the hydrofluorination of 239PuO2, 

Figure 6-6 shows the spectrum of the ball milling process with 238Pu, and Figure 6-7 shows the 

spectrum of the Special Nuclear Material (SNM) storage vault. 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 41 of 76

Figure 6-5. Neutron spectrum of 

hydrofluorination of 239PuO2 at Plutonium Facility

(Harvey and Hajnal 1993).

Figure 6-6. Neutron spectrum of 238Pu ball 

milling process at Plutonium Facility (Harvey 

and Hajnal 1993).

Figure 6-7. Neutron spectrum near door K in 

SNM Vault at Plutonium Facility (Harvey and 

Hajnal 1993).

6.2.3.6.1.2 Neutron-to-Photon Dose Ratio

The following data on neutron-to-photon ratios for LANL plutonium workers are available [LASL 1977 

(11/9/72 memorandum)]:

• For 239Pu workers not in fluoride areas, observed neutron-to-photon ratios ranged from 0.3 to 

1.7 with an average of 0.7.

• For 239Pu-fluoride areas, a neutron-to-photon ratio of 2.8 was reported for a health physics 

technician, not a chemical operator.

• For 238Pu workers, observed neutron-to-photon ratios ranged from 2.7 to 5.5 with an average 

of 3.9 (238Pu exposures began in 1969).

• For health physics technicians in 238Pu areas, observed neutron-to-photon ratios ranged from 

1.9 to 4.6 with an average of 3.3.

The measured average quotient of neutron to gamma- and X-ray DE for the Plutonium Facility in 1993 

was 2.5 (Harvey and Hajnal 1993).
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 42 of 76

The 1972 study at DP Site mentioned above [LANL 1996 (2/15/96 memorandum); Hankins 2007.] 

compared neutron dose results from NTA and TLDs and yielded neutron-to-photon ratios that varied 

from 1.33 to 2.30 for 239Pu areas and averaged 3.98 for 238Pu areas, as listed in Table 6-16.

Table 6-16. Results of 6-mo comparison of film badges, NTA film, and TLDs at DP Site. 

Area

Neutron component 

of total dose

Gamma-toneutron ratioCorresponding neutronto-gamma ratioRatio of NTA dose to 

albedo TLD dose

Pu-239 recovery 39% to 80% (avg. 58%) 0.75 1.33 0.12

Pu-239 areas 50% to 84% (avg. 66%) 0.60 1.66 0.22

PuF4 areas 60% to 78% (avg. 71%) 4.34 2.30 0.19

Pu-238 areas 69% to 90% (avg. 80%) 0.25 3.98 0.48

6.2.3.6.2 LAMPF (TA-53)

In 1987, neutron energy spectrum measurements were made at a potentially high neutron energy 

area at LAMPF (Mundis and Howe 1987). The resulting neutron spectrum is shown in Figure 6-8; 

associated data have been interpreted as follows in the Mundis and Howe memorandum and in a 

1990 report on dosimetry at LAMPF (Mallett et al. 1990). When unfolding codes were applied to the 

measurement data, they revealed that more than 90% of the neutron DE was due to neutrons of 

energy greater than 1 MeV, and 70% was due to neutrons of energy greater than 10 MeV. The 1987 

measurements showed that the LANL Model 7776 TLD badge under-responded by a factor of 5 to 7 

for this particular neutron spectrum (Mallet et al. 1990) because the sensitivity of the albedo-type 

dosimeter falls off severely for neutrons with energies above a few MeV (Mundis and Howe 1987). 

NTA film also under-responded, but only by about 20%. The sum of the two dosimeters was reported 

to be in good agreement with the spectrum unfolding results.

Figure 6-8. Neutron spectrum in ER-1 Area of LAMPF with proton beam 

stopped in the carbon beam block, as determined from unfolding codes

(Mundis and Howe 1987).

In another study, however, 9-in. to 3-in. sphere ratio measurements at 18 locations at LAMPF (not just 

an area of potentially high neutron energy) yielded ratios that indicated an average neutron energy of 

<100 keV at LAMPF (Blackstock et al. 1978). The mean value of the ratio was 0.17, with a standard 

deviation of 30%. This result was thought to possibly explain why few neutron exposures had been 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 43 of 76

observed with the use of NTA film at this facility, because NTA film cannot detect neutrons with 

energies less than about 700 keV.

6.2.3.6.3 Critical Assembly Testing (TA-18)

6.2.3.6.3.1 Neutron Energy Spectrum

Neutron spectral measurements were made in three areas at TA-18 in 1998 and 1999 to determine 

what NCFs should be used in conjunction with exposures from critical assembly testing [LANL 2001 

(3/17/98 and 6/24/99 memoranda)]. As a result of this work, an NCF of 0.07 was recommended for 

areas surrounding TA-18. A plot of neutron spectra from several sources, including environmental 

monitoring TLD Station 6 in the parking lot for TA-18, is shown in Figure 6-9 [LANL 2001 (6/24/99 

memorandum)]. 

Figure 6-9. Neutron spectrum at Station 6 near TA-18 (white line).

A 1967 study of selected criticality dosimetry methods yielded neutron energy distributions for the key 

LANL critical assemblies (Hankins 1968). Table 6-17 lists the breakdown of total kerma by energy 

interval at a distance of 3 m (or 5.9 m for Hydro) from five critical assemblies when they were active. 

Spectral data taken at these distances will generally not be useful in the assessment of external 

doses to workers who were involved with criticality experimentation other than in the special cases of 

accidental exposures. Workers are normally at remote locations while the criticality experiments are 

in progress. 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 44 of 76

6.2.3.6.3.2 Gamma-to-Neutron Dose Ratio

The 1967 study of criticality dosimetry methods yielded estimates of gamma-to-neutron ratios for five 

critical assemblies at LANL based on measurements with TLDs and film badges placed in air, on the 

front of “plastic man” manikins filled with sodium solution, and on the back of plastic men (Hankins 

1968). Table 6-18 lists the gamma-to-neutron and corresponding neutron-to-gamma ratios for the 

Hydro critical assembly based on measurements with TLDs on the front of plastic men at distances 

Table 6-17. Percent of total kerma by energy interval from critical assemblies during experiments

(Hankins 1968).

Critical assembly

Distance from 

assembly (m)

Neutron energy

0.4–750 keV 0.75–1.5 MeV 1.5–2.9 MeV >2.9 MeV

Jezebel (outside kiva) 3.0 14 23 21 42

Jezebel (inside kiva) 3.0 9 31 22 39

Hydro 5.9 27 36 3.4 34

Flattop 3.0 41 43 11 11

Parka 3.0 45 22 23 23

Godiva IV (burst mode) 3.0 18 37 24 24

Godiva IV (extended mode) 3.0 13 41 25 25

from 5.9 to 100 m. Hankins (1968) presents data for six distances from 5.9 to 19.8 m. A line was fit 

to these data for extrapolation of the ratios to greater distances.

Table 6-18. Gamma-to-neutron ratios measured with TLDs on the 

front of plastic man manikins at various distances from the Hydro 

critical assembly (Hankins 1968).

Distance from 

assembly (m)

Gamma-to-neutron 

ratioa Corresponding neutron-to-gamma ratioa

5.9 1.5 0.67

6.0 1.0 1.0

8.7 1.2 0.83

12.3 1.1 0.91

16.2 1.1 0.91

19.8 0.84 1.2

25 0.83 1.2

35 0.71 1.4

50 0.58 1.7

70 0.46 2.2

90 0.39 2.6

100 0.36 2.8

a. Values beyond 20 meters are linearly extrapolated from data in Hankins (1968).

6.2.3.6.4 Reactor Areas (TA-2)

A March 4, 1982, document (in LANL 1986) describes a review of the NCFs in use for Omega West 

Reactor (CNC-5) personnel. Neutron measurements were made with a 9-in.-diameter polyethylene 

sphere, an RM-16 rate meter, and an Ortec scaler. TLD badges mounted on a 1.5-in. polyethylene 

slab were exposed beside the sphere. Measurements were made near the north face of the reactor, 

where significant personnel exposures were most likely to occur. Results indicated that a correction 

factor of 0.1 should be applied to the neutron dose rather than the 0.5 in current use. It is 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 45 of 76

recommended that this change be made in the evaluation procedures. Data sheets attached to that 

March 4, 1982, document give penetrating radiation and neutron millirem values for five TLDs for 

each of the two runs.

Because neutron spectra have not been obtained for the LANL reactors, an assumption of 100% 

fission spectrum neutrons (0.1 to 1 MeV) is used.

6.2.3.6.5 CMR Building (TA-3)

Activities that involve plutonium at the CMR Building (also known as South Mesa Building 29, or 

SM-29) have included laboratory work on small quantities of uranium and plutonium (Widner et al. 

2004). In addition, Wing 9 of that building contains hot cells that have handled irradiated uranium and 

sometimes plutonium. 

Stack FE-19 of the CMR Building serves the glovebox processes and rooms on the south side of 

Wing 3. Since early 1974, FE-19 has been a major source of plutonium at LANL, up to 99% of the 

total released in 1980. Alpha-emitting radioactivity in liquids flowing into the TA-50 waste treatment 

plant rose sharply around 1973 because of increased use of 238Pu in the CMR Building (Widner et al. 

2004).

The neutron spectrum at the CMR Building is assumed to be similar to that of plutonium processing 

areas but with a slight increase in the fraction in the 2-to-20-MeV category due to the possibility that 

research activities involved sources that emitted more higher energy neutrons (such as PuBe or 

252Cf). The dose fraction in the 2-to-20-MeV category was raised from 33% to 40%, and dose 

fractions for the other categories evenly reduced accordingly.

6.2.3.7 Neutron Dose Fraction

The fraction of the total dose in each neutron energy group can be determined by dividing the neutron 

spectra into the four lower neutron energy groups discussed in NIOSH (2006). The highest neutron 

energy group (>20 MeV) was not used because operations at LANL, other than in a particularly highenergy neutron area of LAMPF where worker exposures were probably uncommon, did not produce a 

significant component of neutrons of this energy. The dose for each neutron energy group was 

calculated by multiplying the neutron flux Ø (Roberson, Cummings, and Fix 1985; Brackenbush, 

Baumgartner, and Fix 1991) by the corresponding flux to DCFs in National Council on Radiation 

Protection and Measurements (NCRP) Report 38 (NCRP 1971). The neutron doses in each NCRP 

Report 38 energy interval are summed to develop the four neutron group doses. The dose fraction Df

for each neutron energy group n was calculated by dividing the neutron group dose by the total dose 

DT: 

T

i

ii

nf D

E DCF

ED

∑

=

)(

)(

φ

(6-1)

where:

Ø(Ei) = neutron flux of the i-th energy bin

DCFi = NCRP Report 38 flux to dose-rate conversion factor for the i-th energy bin

DT = total dose
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 46 of 76

Table 6-19 lists the neutron dose fractions by energy group using data measured by Roberson, 

Cummings, and Fix (1985). 

6.2.3.8 Uncertainty in Neutron Dose

Measurement of neutron dose in the workplace is difficult (Brackenbush, Baumgartner, and Fix 1991). 

A significant under-response in recorded dose with NTA dosimeters became evident in the late 1960s 

at several sites that were preparing to implement the TLD neutron dosimeters. 

Table 6-19. Laboratory-measured dose fractions from PuF4. 

Neutron 

energy group

Shielding of PuF4 sourcea

0 cm (bare) 2.54 cm 5.08 cm

<10 keV 0.00 0.00 0.01

10–100 keV 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.1–2 MeV 0.06 0.85 0.89

2–20 MeV 0.94 0.15 0.10

Default dose fractions

0.1–2 MeV 0.1 0.9 0.9

2–20 MeV 0.9 0.1 0.1

a. Thickness of acrylic shielding between source and detector.

6.3 ADJUSTMENTS TO RECORDED PHOTON DOSE

The following are instances for which corrections to recorded photon doses might be warranted:

• In a 1972 study with prototype albedo TLDs used alongside film badges in DP West plutonium 

areas, film badge readings were about a factor of 4 higher than TLD results for 239Pu recovery 

areas and a factor of 2 higher in other DP West plutonium areas [LASL 1977 (1/23/74 

memorandum)]. 

• In a 1963 study with the brass-cadmium film badge used alongside the Cycolac multi-element 

film badge, the brass-cadmium badge underestimated dose at DP West by a factor of 2 when 

the radiation was not filtered by glass or steel and a factor of 3 when photons were filtered 

[LASL 1969 (3/5/63 memorandum); average factor of 2.5].

• From September 1961 to October 1964, a software problem resulted in treatment of 

exposures to photons greater than 200 keV in energy from the brass-cadmium badge as soft 

gamma exposures, which caused doses higher than 100 mrem to be reported low by as much 

as a factor of 4 [LASL 1969 (10/13/64 memorandum)]. 

• The Cycolac film badge used from 1962 to 1978 over-responded to photons with energies 

below 100 keV, which resulted in overestimates of the dose by as much as a factor of 2 in the 

Plutonium Facility (Storm et al. 1981). This finding did not agree with the results of Hankins’ 

six-month study from 1973, which showed a larger over response by film dosimeters 

compared to the over response by TLDs (Hankins, 2007). 

• From March 1963 to March 1973, penetrating photon doses (rem) from plutonium exposures 

were set equal to delivered exposures (roentgen) in error, which caused penetrating gamma 

doses to be reported high by about a factor of 2.9 [LASL 1977 (5/2/73 and 1/23/74 

memoranda; the factor of 2.9 corrects for inappropriate reduction in the nonpenetrating 

component to 35% of actual in calibration)]. 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 47 of 76

The information above has influenced recommendation of a series of non-overlapping correction 

factors, given in Attachment A, Section A.3, for recommended application to photon doses reported by 

LANL. In several cases in which there is evidence that might support modification of reported doses, 

correction factors are not recommended because of the lack of incontrovertible evidence sufficient to 

justify adjustment of reported doses in manners that might not be favorable to claimants. The first, 

second, fourth, and fifth bullets above describe information that has not led to the recommendation of 

specific correction factors in Table A-3. 

6.4 ADJUSTMENTS TO RECORDED NEUTRON DOSE

Adjustments to LANL recorded neutron doses are necessary to estimate doses because of the 

uncertainty associated with the recorded dose in the complex workplace radiation fields and the 

variability in exposure circumstances. 

6.4.1

LANL incorporated the energy variation of the DE in its calibration methodology. As a result, the 

recorded DE (DER) is a combination of all neutron energies. To calculate the probability of causation, 

the recorded neutron dose must be separated into neutron energy groups and later converted to 

International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) Publication 60 methodology (ICRP 

1991). 

Neutron Dose Adjustments

6.4.2

Adjustment to the neutron dose is necessary to account for the change in neutron quality factors 

between historical and current scientific guidance, as described in NIOSH (2006). LANL neutron 

calibration factors determined from National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)-calibrated 

sources are used directly without modification for field conditions. The quality factor is incorporated in 

the NIST calibration methodology, which used flux-to-dose-rate conversion factors for varying neutron 

energies for each calibration source. Flux-to-dose-rate conversion factors were based on NCRP 

Report 38 (NCRP 1971), which lists flux-to-dose-rate conversion factors and associated quality 

factors that vary from 2 at energies less than 1 keV to 11 at 1 MeV. To convert from NCRP Report 38 

quality factors to ICRP Publication 60 radiation weighting factors (ICRP 1991), a curve was fit that 

described the neutron quality factors as a function of neutron energy. The average quality factor for 

each neutron energy group was developed by integrating the area under the curve and dividing by the 

neutron energy range as shown in Equation 6-2: 

Neutron Weighting Factor

)1.00.2(

)(

)(

0.2

1.0

0.21.0, − =

∫ − Range

EQ dE

EQ

f

n MeV

(6-2)

Table 6-20 summarizes changes in the quality factors and the average NCRP Report 38 quality factor 

for the neutron energy groups used in dose reconstruction (NCRP 1971). 

6.4.3

Table 6-21 lists the average quality factor for the four neutron energy groups that encompass LANL 

neutron exposures. The neutron DE correction factor can be calculated by dividing the dose fractions 

for each neutron energy group Df(En) by the corresponding energy-specific average NCRP Report 38 

Neutron Correction Factor
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 48 of 76

quality factor Q(En) and then multiplying by the ICRP Publication 60 radiation weighting factor (wR), as 

shown in Equation 6-3 (NCRP 1971; ICRP 1991). 

R

n

nf

nf w

EQ

ED EC ×=

)(

)( )( (6-3)

Table 6-21 summarizes default neutron dose fractions by energy for LANL work areas where field 

measurements of neutron spectra were performed through the use of the associated ICRP Publication 

60 correction factors (ICRP 1991). For years after 1978, the neutron DE is calculated by multiplying 

Table 6-20. Neutron quality or weighting factors

Neutron energy 

(MeV)

Historical 

dosimetry 

guidelinea

NCRP 38

quality factorsb

Average 

quality factor 

used at LANL

ICRP 60 neutron 

weighting factor 

(wr)

c

2.5E-8 3 2

2.35 5 

1E-7

10

2

1E-6 2

1E-5 2

1E-4 2

1E-3 2

1E-2 2.5 5.38 10

1E-1 7.5

5E-1 11 10.49 20

1 11

2 10

7.56 10

2.5 9

5 8

7 7

10 6.5

14 7.5

20 8

40 7 Not applicable 5 

60 5.5

a. Trilateral meeting in 1949 radiation protection guidelines (Fix, Wilson, and Baumgartner 1997). 

b. Recommendations of NCRP Report 38 (NCRP 1971).

c. ICRP Publication 60 (ICRP 1991).

the recorded neutron dose by the area-specific correction factors. For example, consider a 

1,000-mrem recorded neutron dose to a worker at DP West; the corrected neutron dose is calculated 

as follows:

• 1,000 × 0.44 = 440 mrem from neutrons of 2 to 20 MeV estimated to represent 33% of the 

dose fraction 

• 1,000 × 1.1 = 1,100 mrem from neutrons of 0.1 to 2 MeV estimated to represent 56% of the 

dose fraction 

• 1,000 × 0.23 = 230 mrem from neutrons of <10 keV to 100 keV estimated to represent 11% of 

the dose fraction 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 49 of 76

Thus, the corrected neutron dose is a total of 1,770 mrem. These adjustments should be applied to 

measured dose, missed dose, and dose determined based on a neutron-to-photon ratio. For years 

before 1980 at LANL, multiply the annual photon dose (adjusted for any missed dose) by the neutronto-photon dose factor from Section 6.4.4 and by the area-specific ICRP Publication 60 correction 

factor shown above to estimate neutron dose (ICRP 1991).

6.4.4

Essentially all LANL radiological work areas with significant neutron radiation also had significant 

photon radiation. For periods and workplace settings for which neutron dosimetry methods are 

thought to have been particularly unreliable or uncertain (for example, NTA film dosimetry for 

intermediate-energy neutron sources), it is sometimes possible and advisable to estimate neutron 

doses based on measured gamma doses through application of neutron-to-photon ratios. This is 

because of the documented under-estimating of doses by NTA dosimeters due to fading and 

Neutron-to-Gamma Dose Factors
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 50 of 76

Table 6-21. Facility dose fractions and associated ICRP Publication 60 correction factors (ICRP, 

1991; LASL 1959, 1969, 1977, 1979; LANL 1986, 1989, 1996, 2001, 2003) 

Process Description/buildings

Operations

Neutron 

energy

Default dose 

fraction (%)

ICRP 60 

correction 

Begin End factor

Plutonium 

production

Neutron dose was associated with overall LANL plutonium production process in which plutonium was 

purified, formed, machined, and recovered. Work was primarily conducted in gloveboxes with 

predominant close anterior exposure to workers. 

Plutonium facilities

(D Building at TA-1, DP 

West Site at TA-21, 

Plutonium Facility at TA55)

1943 Present <10–100 keV

0.1–2 MeV

2–20 MeV

11%

56%

33%

0.23

1.1

0.44

LAMPF 

Neutrons of varying energies from high-energy proton linear accelerator studies.

LAMPF at TA-53 1972 Present <10 keV

10–100 keV

0.1–-2 MeV

2–20 MeV

30%

30%

20%

20%

0.64

0.56

0.38

0.26

Reactor 

operations

Neutrons of varying energies from reactor operations.

Omega Site (TA-2) 

TA-35 

TA-52 

1944

1955

1969

1992

1963

1970

0.1–2 MeV 100% 1.9

Criticality 

experiments

Neutrons of varying energies from criticality testing and experimentation (in normally occupied areas, not 

including accidental exposures, which must be considered as special cases).

Omega Site (TA-2) 

TA-18 

1943

Apr. 1946

Apr. 1946

present

<10–100 keV

0.1–2 MeV

2–20 MeV

3.2%

59%

38%

0.060

1.1

0.50

Chemistry & 

metallurgy 

research

Neutrons of varying energies from actinide chemistry and metallurgy research.

TA-1 

TA-3 

1943

1952

1952

present

<10–100 keV

0.1–2 MeV

2–20 MeV

10%

50%

40%

0.21

0.95

0.53

significant effects of the NTA energy threshold in typical workplace neutron spectra. DOE personnel 

neutron dosimetry workshops stated strong concerns for the performance of the NTA dosimeters in 

typical plutonium facility neutron fields. A recent NRPB analysis of MCNP calculations of NTA 

response in workplace neutron fields (NRPB, 2001) reached the conclusion that there are few if any 

realistic parameters (such as calibration to a lower energy neutron spectra than the workplace 

spectra) that would result in an overestimate of the neutron dose using NTA dosimeters whereas 

there are numerous parameters that would result in a potential significant under-response

Section 6.2.3.6.1.2 contains reported neutron-to-photon ratios for LANL plutonium workers. Reported 

neutron-to-gamma ratios range from 0.3 to 5.5. Section 6.2.3.6.3.2 contains reported neutron-tophoton ratios for LANL critical assembly areas. Reported neutron-to-gamma ratios for the Hydro 

assembly range from 1.7 to 2.8 for working distances thought to be representative of normal testing 

procedures (50 to 100 m from the assembly). Based on these site-specific data, estimated median 

and 95th-percentile values of neutron-to-gamma ratio are recommended for plutonium facilities and 

criticality experiments in the first through third rows of data in Table 6-22. Values for other operations, 

based on analysis of annual deep and neutron doses reported by LANL for 1979 to 2004, are listed in 

the fourth row of data in Table 6-22. These values are based on post-NTA results in which the deep 

and neutron doses were 50 mrem or greater (LANL, 2004; Widner, 2007). 

6.5 MISSED DOSE

There are undoubtedly missed recorded doses for LANL workers. The analysis has been separated 

according to photon and neutron missed dose. 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 51 of 76

Table 6-22. Recommended distributions for neutron-to-gamma ratio. 

Neutron source type

Neutron-to-photon dose ratio

Median 95th percentile

Plutonium facilities (predominantly Pu-239) 0.7 2.8

Plutonium facilities (documented involvement with 

Pu-238 operations; applies only to 1969 or later; most 

likely at TA-21, TA-3-29 [CMR Building], or TA-55)

3.9 5.5

Criticality experiments (>50 m distant) 2.3 2.5

Other operations 1.6 6.4

6.5.1

Missed photon dose for LANL workers would have occurred if doses received were below the limits of 

detection for the dosimeters provided and if they were based only on a recorded or assumed zero 

dosimeter result. Methods to be considered if there was a recorded or assumed zero dosimeter result 

for a period during a working career were examined by Watson et al. (1994). In general, estimates of 

missed dose can use dose results for coworkers or the recorded dose before and after the period of 

missed dose. However, these situations require careful examination. Missed dose for dosimeter 

results less than the MDL is particularly important for earlier years when MDLs were higher and 

dosimeter exchange was more frequent. 

Photon Missed Dose

NIOSH (2006) describes options to calculate missed dose. One option is to estimate a mean missed 

dose where MDL/2 is multiplied by the number of zero dose results. 

Analysis of missed photon dose by period according to dosimeter type and exchange frequency is 

needed to evaluate claim information, particularly if only annual dose data are available. The normally 

cited MDLs for beta and photon dosimeters are based on laboratory irradiations. Actual MDLs are 

higher because of additional uncertainty in actual field use and the use of dose recording thresholds. 

Table 6-23 summarizes potential missed photon dose. Reasonable MDLs are listed in this table for 

most applications for film dosimeters based on LANL documentation and reports from other DOE 

facilities (Wilson 1960, 1987; NIOSH 1993; NRC 1989; Wilson et al. 1990) and for TLDs (Fix et al. 

1982; Mallett, Hoffman, and Vasilik 1994; Hoffman and Mallett 1999a). 

Table 6-23. Photon dosimeter period of use, type, MDL, exchange frequency, and potential annual 

missed dose.

Period of usea Dosimeter

MDLa

(mrem)

Exchange 

frequency

Mean annual missed 

doseb (mrem)

Before February 1945 PIC 5 Daily (n = 250) 625

February 1945–

September 1962

Brass, brass clip, or 

brass-cadmium film

40 Monthly (n = 12) 240

Biweekly (n =25) 500

Weekly (n = 50) 1,000

Daily (n = 250) 5,000

October 1962–December 

1979

Cycolac multi-element film 40 Monthly (n = 12) 240

Biweekly (n =25) 500

Weekly (n = 50) 1,000

Daily (n = 250) 5,000

January 1, 1980–March 

1998

Model 7776 TLD 10 Monthly (n = 12) 60

10 Quarterly (n = 4) 20

April 1, 1998–2003 

(ongoing)

Model 8823 TLD 10 Monthly (n = 12) 60

10 Quarterly (n = 4) 20

a. Estimated MDLs for each dosimeter technology in the workplace. Dose values were recorded at levels less than 

the MDL.

b. Mean annual missed dose calculated using MDL/2 from NIOSH (2006).
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 52 of 76

6.5.2

Neutron radiation was present around nine reactors at TA-2, -35, and -52; in the plutonium processing 

facilities at TA-1, -21, and -55; around LAMPF at TA-53; and at several other facilities. The approach 

recommended to calculate neutron missed dose can be divided into two periods. The first period is 

1951 to 1978, when NTA film was primarily used; the second period is 1979 and after, when TLDs 

were primarily used. Table 6-24 summarizes the reported limits of detection or dose recording 

thresholds. Estimates of missing neutron doses before 1979 are based on reported photon doses, 

adjusted in accordance with Table A-3 in Attachment A, and use of the applicable neutron-to-photon 

ratio.

Neutron Missed Dose

Table 6-24. Neutron dosimeter period of use, type, MDL, exchange frequency, and potential annual 

missed dose. 

Period of use Dosimeter

MDL 

(mrem)

Exchange 

frequency

Mean annual 

missed dose

(mrem)a

1951–1962 Brass-cadmium badge <50 Monthly (n = 12) <300b

April 1951–1978

(limited use with TLDs to 1995)

NTA film Biweekly (n = 25) <625b

Weekly (n = 50) <1,250b

1962–1978 Cycolac multi-element 

badge

Daily (n = 250) <6,250b

1979–1998

(some quarterly exchange 

beginning in 1996)

Model 7776 TLD badge 10 Monthly (n = 12) 60

Quarterly (n = 4) 20

1995–present Track-etch dosimeter 20 Quarterly (n = 4) 40

1998–present

(40% were exchanged quarterly 

by February 2002)

Model 8823 TLD badge 10 Monthly (n = 12) 60

Quarterly (n = 4) 20

a. Mean annual missed neutron dose calculated using MDL/2 from NIOSH (2006).

b. Neutron-to-photon ratio should be used to estimate missed doses during these periods.

6.6 ORGAN DOSE

Calculation of the POC requires an estimate of the organ dose because the claim is normally specific 

to disease in an organ. This is estimated from uncertainty distributions of various parameters related 

to dosimeter response, radiation type, energy, and worker orientation in the field. 

Appendix A of NIOSH (2006) discusses conversion of measured doses to organ DE, and Appendix B 

contains appropriate DCFs for each organ, radiation type, and energy range based on the type of 

monitoring performed. The selection of worker orientation is important to the calculation of organ 

dose. Examples of common exposure orientations are listed in NIOSH (2006, Table 4.2). 

Unfortunately, there is no definitive process to determine the exposure geometry for each LANL 

worker. Discussions with Task 5 personnel indicate that a simple 100% AP geometry should be 

assumed for all workers, including likely compensable workers. 

6.7 ATTRIBUTIONS AND ANNOTATIONS

Where appropriate in this document, bracketed callouts have been inserted to indicate information, 

conclusions, and recommendations provided to assist in the process of worker dose reconstruction. 

These callouts are listed here in the Attributions and Annotations section, with information to identify 

the source and justification for each associated item. Conventional References, which are provided in 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 53 of 76

the next section of this document, link data, quotations, and other information to documents available 

for review on the Project’s Site Research Database.

[1] Widner, Thomas E., CHP, CIH. ChemRisk. Health Physicist. 2004. 

The urchin initiator was a sphere that consisted of a hollow beryllium shell, with a solid 

spherical beryllium pellet nested inside. During implosion, violent turbulence quickly mixed the 

polonium and beryllium together and caused the emission of neutrons.

[2] Widner, Thomas E., CHP, CIH. ChemRisk. Health Physicist. 2007. 

The numbers of workers at LANL each year were obtained from a number of LANL sources, 

and these values are quite uncertain for some years. For some years, the numbers of total 

workers supplied by LANL is smaller than the number of people who received dosimeters. 

Sources of workforce data for Table 6-2 included John Pantano of LANL Human Resources – 

Workforce Data & Analysis and Los Alamos publication LASL-77-25 (LASL 1978). The major 

source of uncertainty appears to stem from variability in the worker types included in the 

worker count each year. Worker categories include full-time regular, part-time, limited-term, 

students, subcontractors, and visitors. More recent data have worker type information 

recorded, but historical data might not. For example, early military workers on the site were 

categorized as "visitors." 

[3] Widner, Thomas E., CHP, CIH. ChemRisk. Health Physicist. 2005. 

With NTA films used at LANL, the estimated standard error was probably larger than that for 

film badge measurement of photon doses, and varied significantly with the energy of the 

neutrons. Given the lack of specific technical information obtained in relation to dosimetry

systems for early LANL history, measurement uncertainties have been estimated based on 

reported values for contemporary systems in use at other facilities. Based on the technical 

basis document for the Hanford Site (ORAUT 2004) and additional values for NTA film 

adapted from ORAUT (2006a), an overall bias factor for NTA film is estimated at 1.5 (range in 

bias 0.5 to 1.5) with a systematic uncertainty actor of 1.5.

[4] Widner, Thomas E., CHP, CIH. ChemRisk. Health Physicist. 2004. 

The P-6 gamma range was in the Physics Building. It was normally used to calibrate

instruments rather than dosimeter badges, with 60Co and 137Cs sources of different magnitudes 

and possibly a 226Ra source for low-range calibrations. The sources were positioned in a 

concrete well and moved up and down to obtain different dose rates to the instruments at the 

surface. Dose rates were measured with Victoreen R-chambers because scattering 

contributed significantly to the radiations emerging from the well (Widner 2004).
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 54 of 76

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GLOSSARY

absorbed dose, D 

Amount of energy imparted by radiation to unit mass of absorbing material (100 ergs per 

gram), including tissue. The unit used prior to the use of the International System of metric 

units (SI) is the rad; the SI unit is the gray.

accreditation

Recognition that a dosimeter system has passed the performance criteria of the DOE 

Laboratory Accreditation Program (DOELAP) standard in specified irradiation categories.

accuracy

If a series of measurements has small systematic errors, they are said to have high accuracy. 

The accuracy is represented by the bias.

albedo dosimeter

A TLD device that measures the thermal, intermediate, and fast neutrons that are scattered 

and moderated by the body from an incident fast neutron flux.

algorithm

A computational procedure.

BF3 chamber or counter

Proportional counter using a gaseous BF3 compound to detect slow neutrons through their 

interaction with boron.

backscatter

Deflection of radiation by scattering processes through angles greater than 90 degrees with 

respect to the original direction of motion.

beta particle

A charged particle of very small mass emitted spontaneously from the nuclei of certain 

radioactive elements. Most (if not all) direct fission products emit beta particles. Physically, 

the beta particle is identical with an electron moving at high velocity.

buildup

Increase in flux or dose due to scattering in the medium.

calibration blank

A dosimeter that has not been exposed to a radiation source. The results from this dosimeter 

establish the dosimetry system baseline or zero dose value.

collective dose equivalent

The sum of the dose equivalents of all individuals in an exposed population. Collective dose is 

expressed in units of person-rem (person-sievert).

control dosimeter

A dosimeter used to establish the dosimetry system response to radiation dose. The 

dosimeter is exposed to a known amount of radiation dose.
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curie (Ci)

A special unit of activity. One curie exactly equals 3.7 × 1010 nuclear transitions per second.

Cycolac

The commercial name for a plastic that was used in some LANL dosimeters, which informally 

took on that name. It contained styrene, butadiene, and acrylonitrile.

deep absorbed dose (Dd) 

The absorbed dose at the depth of 1.0 cm in a material of specified geometry and 

composition.

deep dose equivalent (Hd) 

The dose equivalent at the respective depth of 1.0 cm in tissue.

densitometer

Instrument that has a photocell to determine the degree of darkening of developed 

photographic film.

density reading

See optical density. 

dose equivalent (DE or H) 

The product of the absorbed dose (D), the quality factor (Q), and any other modifying factors. 

The special unit is the rem. When D is expressed in Gy, H is in sieverts (Sv). 

(1 Sv = 100 rem.)

DOE Laboratory Accreditation Program (DOELAP)

Accredits DOE site dosimetry programs based on performance testing and onsite reviews 

performed on a 2-year cycle.

dose equivalent index

For many years the dose equivalent index was used to calibrate neutron sources that were 

used to calibrate neutron dosimeters. The index is based on summing the maximum dose 

equivalent delivered in the International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements 

sphere at any depth for the respective neutron energies even though the maximum dose 

occurred at different depths.

dosimeter

A device used to measure the quantity of radiation received. A holder with radiation-absorbing 

elements (filters) and an insert with radiation-sensitive elements packaged to provide a record 

of absorbed dose or dose equivalent received by an individual. (See albedo dosimeter, film 

dosimeter, neutron film dosimeter, thermoluminescent dosimeter.)

dosimetry system

A system used to assess dose equivalent from external radiation to the whole body, skin, and/ 

or extremities. This includes the fabrication, assignment, and processing of dosimeters as well 

as interpretation and documentation of the results.

DuPont 552

A film packet containing two pieces of film: A 502 sensitive film and a 510 insensitive film.
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DuPont 558

A film packet containing a 508 film with one side having a sensitive emulsion and the other 

side an insensitive emulsion.

error

A term used to express the difference between the estimated and "true" value. Error can also 

be used to refer to the estimated uncertainty.

exchange period (frequency)

Period (weekly, biweekly, monthly, quarterly, etc.) for routine exchange of dosimeters.

exposure

As used in the technical sense, a measure expressed in roentgens of the ionization produced 

by gamma (or X-) rays in air. 

exposure-to-dose-equivalent conversion factor for photons (Cx) 

The ratio of exposure in air to the dose equivalent at a specified depth in a material of 

specified geometry and composition. The Cx factors are a function of photon energy, material 

geometry (e.g., sphere, slab, or torso), and material composition (e.g., tissue-equivalent 

plastic, soft tissue ignoring trace elements, or soft tissue including trace elements).

extremity

That portion of the arm extending from and including the elbow through the fingertips, and that 

portion of the leg extending from and including the knee and patella through the tips of the 

toes.

fast neutron

Neutron of energy between 10 keV and 10 MeV.

film

Generally means a "film packet" that contains one or more pieces of film in a light-tight 

wrapping. The film when developed has an image caused by radiation that can be measured 

using an optical densitometer. (See DuPont 552, DuPont 558, nuclear track emulsion, 

type A.)

film density

See optical density.

film dosimeter

A small packet of film in a holder that attaches to a worker.

filter

Material used to adjust radiation response of a dosimeter to provide an improved tissue 

equivalent or dose response.

gamma rays

Electromagnetic radiation (photons) originating in atomic nuclei and accompanying many 

nuclear reactions (e.g., fission, radioactive decay, and neutron capture). Physically, gamma 

rays are identical to X-rays of high energy; the only essential difference is that X-rays do not 

originate in the nucleus. 
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glovebox

A device used in handling quantities of radioactive isotopes to provide containment of the 

radioactivity and to avoid contamination of the hands.

gray (Gy)

The International System unit of absorbed dose (1 Gy = 100 rad).

intermediate-energy neutron

Neutron of energy between 0.5 eV (assumed to be 0.4 eV because of cadmium cutoff in 

neutron response) and 10 keV.

ionizing radiation

Electromagnetic radiation (consisting of photons) or particulate radiation (consisting of 

electrons, neutrons, protons, etc.) capable of producing charged particles through interactions 

with matter.

isotopes

Forms of the same element having identical chemical properties but differing in their atomic 

masses. Isotopes of a given element all have the same number or protons in the nucleus but 

different numbers of neutrons. Some isotopes of an element might be radioactive.

kerma

The sum of the initial kinetic energies of all charged particles liberated by indirectly ionizing 

particles in a volume, divided by the mass of matter in that volume. Indirectly ionizing particles 

include X-rays and fast neutrons. Primary ionizing particles include photoelectrons, Compton 

electrons, and positron/negatron pairs from photon radiation, and scattered nuclei from fast 

neutrons. The units are joules per kilogram (gray) or rad.

kiloelectron-volt (keV)

An amount of energy equal to 1,000 electron-volts.

kiva

A name given to the buildings used to house critical assemblies at LANL. From the Hopi word 

kiva for an underground or partly underground chamber in a Pueblo village, used by the men 

especially for ceremonies or councils.

luminescence

The emission of light from a material as a result of some excitation.

Manhattan Engineer District (MED)

U.S. agency designated to develop nuclear weapons; a predecessor to the U.S. Department of 

Energy.

minimum detection level (MDL)

Often confused because statistical parameters necessary to its calculation are not explicitly 

defined. Nonetheless, it is often assumed to be the level at which a dose is detected at the 

two-sigma level (i.e., 95% of the time). The MDL should not be confused with the minimum 

recorded dose. 

megaelectron-volt (MeV)

An amount of energy equal to 1 million electron-volts.
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multiple-collision neutron dose

Dose to flux through tissue based on the assumption that two or more interactions per neutron 

occur resulting in greater energy deposition. 

nuclear emulsion

Generally refers to NTA film.

nuclear track emulsion, type A (NTA)

A film that is sensitive to fast neutrons. The developed image has tracks caused by neutrons 

that can be seen by using oil immersion and a 1,000-power microscope.

neutron

A basic particle that is electrically neutral weighing nearly the same as the hydrogen atom.

neutron, fast

Neutrons with energy equal to or greater than 10 keV.

neutron, intermediate

Neutrons with energy between 0.4 eV and 10 keV.

neutron, thermal

Strictly, neutrons in thermal equilibrium with surroundings. In general, neutrons with energy 

less than the cadmium cutoff at about 0.4 eV.

neutron film dosimeter

A film dosimeter that contains a neutron track emulsion, type A film packet.

nonpenetrating dose

Designation (i.e., NP or NPen) on film dosimeter reports that implies a radiation dose, typically 

to the skin or whole body, from beta and lower energy photon radiation.

notional dose

An identified dose value assigned for lower dosed workers (at some facilities but not at LANL), 

often based on a small fraction of the regulatory limit.

open window

Common designation on film dosimeter reports that implies the use of little (i.e., only security 

credential) shielding. It commonly is used to label the film response corresponding to the 

open-window area. 

optical density

The quantitative measurement of photographic blackening the density defined as D = log10

(Io/I).

pencil dosimeters

A type of ionization chamber used by personnel to measure radiation dose. These results can 

be labeled as “pen” dose. Other names: pencil, pocket dosimeter, pocket pencil, pocket 

ionization chamber (PIC).
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penetrating dose

Designation (i.e., P or Pen) on film dosimeter reports that implies a radiation dose, typically to 

the whole body, from higher energy photon radiation.

PuF4 source

A neutron source with plutonium tetrafluoride activating material. The source was used to 

duplicate the neutron energies in plutonium facilities.

photon

A unit or particle of electromagnetic radiation consisting of X- and/or gamma rays. 

precision

If a series of measurements has small random errors, the measurements are said to have high 

precision. The precision is represented by the standard deviation.

quality factor (Q) 

A modifying factor used to derive dose equivalent from absorbed dose.

rad

A unit of absorbed dose equal to the absorption of 100 ergs per gram of absorbing material, 

such as body tissue.

radiation

One or more of beta, neutron, and photon radiation. 

radiation monitoring

Routine measurements and the estimation of the dose equivalent to determine and control the 

dose received by workers.

radioactivity

The spontaneous emission of radiation, generally alpha or beta particles, gamma rays, and 

neutrons from unstable nuclei.

random errors

When a given measurement is repeated the resulting values, in general, do not agree exactly. 

The causes of the disagreement between the individual values must also be causes of their 

differing from the true value. Errors resulting from these causes are called random errors.

rem

A unit of dose equivalent, which is equal to the product of the number of rads absorbed and 

the quality factor.

rep

Historically the rep (roentgen-equivalent-physical) has been used extensively for the 

specification of permissible doses of ionizing radiations other than X-rays or gamma rays. 

Several definitions have appeared in the literature but in the sense most widely adopted, it is a 

unit of absorbed dose with a magnitude of 93 ergs per gram. 

Roentgen (R or r)

A unit of exposure to gamma (or X-ray) radiation. It is defined precisely as the quantity of 

gamma (or X-) rays that will produce a total charge of 2.58 × 10-4 coulomb in 1 kilogram of dry 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 65 of 76

air. An exposure of 1 roentgen is approximately equivalent to an absorbed dose of 1 rad in 

soft tissue.

scattering

The diversion of radiation from its original path as a result of interactions with atoms between 

the source of the radiation and a point at some distance away. Scattered radiations are 

typically changed in direction and of lower energy than the original radiation.

shallow absorbed dose (Ds)

The absorbed dose at a depth of 0.07 mm in a material of specified geometry and 

composition.

shallow dose equivalent (Hs)

Dose equivalent at a depth of 0.07 mm in tissue.

shielding

Any material or obstruction that absorbs (or attenuates) radiation and thus tends to protect 

personnel or materials from radiation.

sievert (Sv)

The SI unit for dose equivalent. (1 Sv = 100 rem.)

sigma pile

A device used to obtain thermal neutrons for calibration purposes.

skin dose

Absorbed dose at a tissue depth of 7 milligrams per square centimeter.

systematic errors

When a given measurement is repeated and the resulting values all differ from the true value 

by the same amount, the errors are called systematic.

thermal neutron

Strictly, neutrons in thermal equilibrium with surroundings. In general, neutrons of energy less 

than the cadmium cutoff of about 0.4 eV.

tissue equivalent

Used to imply that radiation response characteristics of the material being irradiated are 

equivalent to tissue. Achieving a tissue-equivalent response is an important consideration in 

the design and fabrication of radiation measuring instruments and dosimeters.

TLD chip

As used in this TBD, a small block or crystal made of LiF used in the TLD.

TLD-600 - A TLD chip made from 6

Li (greater than 95%) used to detect neutrons.

TLD-700 - A TLD chip made from 7

Li (greater than 99.9%) used to detect photon and beta 

radiation.

thermoluminescence

Property of a material that causes it to emit light as a result of being excited by heat.
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 66 of 76

thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD)

A holder containing solid chips of material that when heated will release the stored energy as 

light. The measurement of this light provides a measurement of absorbed dose. The solid 

chips are sometimes called crystals.

U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC)

Original agency established for nuclear weapons and power production; a successor to the 

Manhattan Engineer District (MED) and a predecessor to the U.S. Department of Energy 

(DOE).

whole-body dose

Absorbed dose at a tissue depth of 1.0 centimeter (1,000 milligrams per square centimeter); 

also used to refer to the dose recorded.

X-ray

Ionizing electromagnetic radiation of extranuclear origin.

Zia

Refers to the Zia Company, a private firm that was created as the housekeeping contractor for 

LANL and its support community, facilities, and utilities. 
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 67 of 76

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SECTION TITLE

A.1 Recorded Dose Practices and Interpretation of Reported Doses............................................

PAGE

68

A.2 Unmonitored Photon Dose..................................................................................................... 69

A.3 Adjustments to Reported Photon Doses................................................................................. 69

A.4 Missed Beta/Photon Dose...................................................................................................... 72

A.5 Assignment of Beta/Photon Doses to Energy Categories....................................................... 73

A.6 Unmonitored Neutron Dose.................................................................................................... 73

A.7 Missed Neutron Dose............................................................................................................. 75

A.8 Assignment of Neutron Doses to Energy Categories.............................................................. 75

A.9 Recommended Dose Conversion Factors.............................................................................. 76

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE TITLE

A-1 Recorded dose practices over time ........................................................................................

PAGE

68

A-2 Worker gamma dose statistics ............................................................................................... 70

A-3 Recommended adjustments to reported photon doses .......................................................... 71

A-4 Recommended uncertainty factors for reported doses ........................................................... 72

A-5 Beta/photon dosimeter period of use, type, MDL, exchange frequency, 

and potential annual missed doses ........................................................................................ 72

A-6 Recommended beta and photon radiation energies and percentages for 

plutonium facilities..................................................................................................................73

A-7 Recommended beta and photon radiation energies and percentages for 

facilities other than plutonium facilities ................................................................................... 74

A-8 Recommended distributions for neutron-to-photon ratio......................................................... 75

A-9 Neutron dosimeter period of use, type, MDL, exchange frequency, and 

potential annual missed dose................................................................................................. 75

A-10 Recommended dose fractions and ICRP Publication 60 correction factors 

for neutron sources ................................................................................................................76

A-11 Recommended DCFs for dose assessments ......................................................................... 76

ATTACHMENT A

GUIDANCE FOR DOSE RECONSTRUCTORS:

OCCUPATIONAL EXTERNAL DOSE FOR MONITORED WORKERS

Page 1 of 10
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 68 of 76

A.1 RECORDED DOSE PRACTICES AND INTERPRETATION OF REPORTED DOSES

Table A-1 summarizes LANL dose recording practices over the years.

Table A-1. Recorded dose practices over time (LASL 1959, 1969, 1977, 1979; LANL 1986, 1989, 

1996, 2001, 2003).a

Period

Values recorded in 

personnel exposure records

Compliance dose 

quantities EEOICPA dose quantities

1943–

1948

PIC reading

Gamma exposure

Shallow DE = not measured

Deep DE = gamma exposure

Electron dose = not 

measured

Photon exposure = gamma 

exposure

NADE = not measured

1949–

1950

PIC reading

Gamma exposure

Beta exposure

Shallow DE = beta exposure 

+ gamma exposure

Deep DE = gamma exposure

Electron dose = beta 

exposure

Photon exposure = gamma 

exposure

NADE = not measured

1951–

1959

PIC reading

Gamma exposure

Beta exposure

Fast neutron dose 

Shallow DE = beta exposure 

+ gamma exposure + fast 

neutron dose

Deep DE = gamma exposure 

+ fast neutron dose

Electron dose = beta 

exposure

Photon exposure = gamma 

exposure

NADE = fast neutron dose

1960–

1979

Gamma dose 

Beta dose

Thermal neutron dose

Fast neutron dose

Shallow DE = beta dose + 

gamma exposure + nth dose 

+ nf dose

Deep DE = gamma exposure 

+ nth dose + nf dose

Electron dose = beta dose

Photon exposure = gamma 

dose

NADE = nth + nf doses

1980–

1997

"Non-penetrating Rad" 

"Penetrating-rem" 

"Neutron-rem" 

"Total-rem" 

Shallow DE = nonpen + pen 

+ neutron

Deep DE = pen + neutron

Electron dose = nonpen

Photon deep dose = pen

NADE = neutron

1998–

present

Beta shallow DE 

Beta eye DE

Gamma shallow DE

Gamma deep DE 

Gamma eye DE 

Neutron deep DE 

Total shallow DE 

Total deep DE

Total eye DE

Total deep neutron DE

Shallow DE = total shallow 

DE

Deep DE = total deep dose 

DE 

Electron dose = beta shallow 

DE

Photon deep dose = gamma 

deep DE

NADE = neutron deep DE

a. DE = dose equivalent; NADE = neutron ambient dose equivalent; nonpen = nonpenetrating; pen = penetrating.

In reporting doses for LANL workers to NIOSH for the Dose Reconstruction Project, LANL personnel 

have used the following conventions (Widner 2005):

• Blank entries or “----” entries in tables of doses indicate a “null value” (i.e., no monitoring was 

performed for the individual for that period).

ATTACHMENT A

GUIDANCE FOR DOSE RECONSTRUCTORS:

OCCUPATIONAL EXTERNAL DOSE FOR MONITORED WORKERS

Page 2 of 10
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 69 of 76

• Dose entries that are all zeros (0.00 or 0.000) indicate that monitoring was performed for the 

individual during that period, but results were below the minimum detectable dose.

• The “SKIN” doses reported are derived as shallow dose plus neutron dose plus tritium dose. 

To ensure that dose is appropriately attributed to the low-energy photon or electron categories 

for NIOSH dose reconstructions, nonpenetrating dose will be estimated as skin dose – (deep 

dose + neutron dose + tritium dose).

• When, for a given month, the dose report form identifies “Badge Type” as “Monthly,” but there 

are up to five lines of data (see example below), multiple badges were worn during the month. 

The doses for the individual badges should be added to obtain the dose totals for the month. 

External dose 

(rem)

Skin Deep Neutron Tritium

June Monthly 0.000 0.000

June Monthly 0.000 0.000

June Monthly 0.010 0.010

June Monthly 0.000 0.000

June Monthly 0.040 0.020

• Doses reported as follows reflect that the badge in use had two elements – dental X-ray film 

and NTA film. In the case below, the first line of data is from the NTA film and the second from 

the X-ray film. In these cases, the neutron dose entry on the second line is essentially a 

placeholder. This placeholder and the missing value for deep dose on the first line (which 

might be “----” in some reports) should not be corrected for unmonitored dose or missed dose.

External dose 

(rem)

Skin Deep Neutron Tritium

April Monthly 0.010 0.010

April Monthly 0.060 0.010 0.000

A.2 UNMONITORED PHOTON DOSE

Table A-2 summarizes the lognormal probability statistical parameters for LANL dosimeter results that 

are equal to or exceed 50 mrem for all years of record. These data can be used to estimate 

unmonitored doses. They can also be used to estimate unrecorded doses for which no records exist. 

It should be noted that the reported doses that are the basis of this table have not been corrected for 

potential missed doses. 

It is recommended that dose reconstructors assign the median (that is, geometric mean) gamma dose 

from Table A-2 to an unmonitored worker for each year of employment.

A.3 ADJUSTMENTS TO REPORTED PHOTON DOSES

Table A-3 lists adjustments to reported LANL photon doses.

ATTACHMENT A

GUIDANCE FOR DOSE RECONSTRUCTORS:

OCCUPATIONAL EXTERNAL DOSE FOR MONITORED WORKERS

Page 3 of 10
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Table A-2. Worker gamma dose statistics. 

Year

LANL recorded gamma dose dataa Lognormal fit

No. of workers reported 

gamma dose > 50 mrem

Dose (mrem) Dose (mrem)

Mean Maximum Median 95% GSD

1944 6 1.31E+03 5.21E+03 6.36E+02 4.86E+03 3.44

1945 407 4.21E+03 1.32E+05 9.65E+02 1.19E+04 4.61

1946 245 3.52E+03 1.18E+05 5.07E+02 9.18E+03 5.82

1947 656 6.96E+02 1.65E+04 2.52E+02 1.85E+03 3.36

1948 683 4.82E+02 1.34E+04 1.99E+02 1.29E+03 3.13

1949 1,091 3.85E+02 1.07E+04 1.56E+02 8.82E+02 2.87

1950 1,364 3.17E+02 2.02E+04 1.40E+02 6.68E+02 2.58

1951 2,182 1.08E+03 1.36E+04 4.82E+02 4.46E+03 3.87

1955 823 8.81E+02 8.82E+03 3.98E+02 3.01E+03 3.43

1956 1,068 1.15E+03 1.86E+04 4.92E+02 4.47E+03 3.82

1957 780 6.46E+02 1.35E+04 2.88E+02 2.08E+03 3.33

1958 1,071 4.38E+03 3.50E+06 4.67E+02 4.26E+03 3.83

1959 740 5.11E+02 5.51E+03 2.37E+02 1.63E+03 3.23

1960 1,059 4.59E+02 5.00E+03 2.05E+02 1.33E+03 3.12

1961 749 3.82E+02 4.69E+03 1.94E+02 1.13E+03 2.92

1962 937 3.82E+02 5.65E+03 2.15E+02 1.14E+03 2.75

1963 640 3.24E+02 3.28E+03 1.84E+02 9.25E+02 2.67

1964 606 3.65E+02 4.10E+03 1.98E+02 1.09E+03 2.82

1965 635 5.13E+02 9.69E+03 2.38E+02 1.62E+03 3.20

1966 568 3.69E+02 4.67E+03 2.03E+02 1.09E+03 2.79

1967 551 4.06E+02 6.24E+03 2.08E+02 1.21E+03 2.92

1968 609 3.23E+02 4.03E+03 1.66E+02 9.30E+02 2.85

1969 798 3.58E+02 4.95E+03 1.55E+02 9.99E+02 3.11

1970 590 5.79E+02 4.78E+03 2.51E+02 1.95E+03 3.48

1971 531 5.52E+02 5.00E+03 2.44E+02 1.85E+03 3.43

1972 554 4.95E+02 5.73E+03 2.27E+02 1.52E+03 3.17

1973 553 5.84E+02 4.63E+03 3.11E+02 2.00E+03 3.10

1974 685 4.01E+02 2.77E+03 2.24E+02 1.28E+03 2.88

1975 944 3.82E+02 3.17E+03 2.04E+02 1.19E+03 2.91

1976 952 3.58E+02 3.29E+03 1.90E+02 1.11E+03 2.92

1977 921 4.22E+02 4.46E+03 2.01E+02 1.31E+03 3.13

1978 938 3.33E+02 3.68E+03 1.79E+02 9.83E+02 2.82

1979 779 2.70E+02 1.87E+03 1.69E+02 7.90E+02 2.56

1980 666 2.69E+02 1.85E+03 1.73E+02 7.82E+02 2.50

1981 832 2.71E+02 2.40E+03 1.67E+02 7.87E+02 2.57

1982 821 3.25E+02 2.27E+03 1.84E+02 1.01E+03 2.82

1983 1,017 2.96E+02 2.16E+03 1.72E+02 8.68E+02 2.67

1984 1,513 2.32E+02 2.47E+03 1.37E+02 6.39E+02 2.55

1985 733 3.54E+02 1.88E+03 2.10E+02 1.12E+03 2.77

1986 527 3.21E+02 1.71E+03 2.03E+02 1.00E+03 2.64

1987 420 3.14E+02 2.74E+03 2.08E+02 9.26E+02 2.48

1988 428 2.97E+02 1.71E+03 1.96E+02 9.04E+02 2.54

1989 436 2.56E+02 1.47E+03 1.75E+02 7.34E+02 2.39

ATTACHMENT A

GUIDANCE FOR DOSE RECONSTRUCTORS:

OCCUPATIONAL EXTERNAL DOSE FOR MONITORED WORKERS

Page 4 of 10
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Year

LANL recorded gamma dose dataa Lognormal fit

No. of workers reported 

gamma dose > 50 mrem

Dose (mrem) Dose (mrem)

Mean Maximum Median 95% GSD

1990 340 2.41E+02 2.28E+03 1.62E+02 6.60E+02 2.35

1991 298 1.87E+02 1.86E+03 1.37E+02 4.63E+02 2.10

1992 221 1.38E+02 5.65E+02 1.15E+02 2.99E+02 1.79

1993 224 1.40E+02 9.46E+02 1.14E+02 3.11E+02 1.85

1994 215 1.47E+02 6.89E+02 1.20E+02 3.31E+02 1.86

1995 193 1.26E+02 2.85E+02 1.11E+02 2.55E+02 1.66

1996 267 1.74E+02 6.00E+02 1.40E+02 4.14E+02 1.93

1997 327 2.00E+02 1.21E+03 1.52E+02 4.93E+02 2.04

1998 313 1.92E+02 1.09E+03 1.41E+02 4.76E+02 2.09

1999 253 1.58E+02 6.41E+02 1.26E+02 3.67E+02 1.91

2000 215 1.20E+02 5.96E+02 1.01E+02 2.54E+02 1.75

2001 281 1.69E+02 2.13E+03 1.29E+02 3.93E+02 1.97

2002 380 1.86E+02 1.37E+03 1.42E+02 4.61E+02 2.05

2003 453 2.50E+02 2.35E+03 1.70E+02 6.39E+02 2.24

2004 (partial) 209 1.38E+02 6.38E+02 1.11E+02 3.02E+02 1.84

a. Individual dosimeter records analyzed only if gamma dose was equal to or greater than 50 mrem.

Table A-3. Recommended adjustments to reported photon doses. 

Period Dosimeter Facilities/operations

Adjustment to 

reported dose References

1949 Brass clip film 

badge

Plutonium areasa Multiply reported photon 

doses by 1.3.b Traub, Sherpelz, and Taulbee 2005

Sep 1961–

Oct 1964

Brasscadmium 

badge 

Photon exposures >200 keV 

(reactors, uranium production, 

accelerators, calibrations, 

waste handling, radioactive 

lanthanum, etc.) 

Multiply reported photon 

doses that exceed 100 

mrem by 4.

LASL 1969 (10/13/64 

memorandum)

a. Plutonium areas have included TA-1, TA-21, TA-55, and some areas of TA-3. 

b. Based on calculated dose rate due to 30- to 250-keV photons, based on measured dose, (P2/C7) for a generic 6-kg pit 

(5 yr), from Table A.3 of Traub, Sherpelz, and Taulbee (2005). 

Based on site-specific documentation (LASL 1959, 1969, 1977, 1979; LANL 1986, 1989, 1996, 2001, 

2003) and characterizations of similar dosimeters used at other sites, the standard error in recorded 

film badge doses from photons of any energy is estimated to have been ±30%. The estimated 

standard error for recorded doses from beta radiation was probably the same, but for unknown 

mixtures of beta and photon radiations the standard error was likely somewhat larger than 30%. 

The standard error for neutron dose readings of approximately 100 mrem from NTA film is estimated 

to have been ±50%. 

Based on these estimates and analysis of DOELAP testing result summaries for the LANL Model 

7776 and Model 8823 dosimeters (Test Sessions 22 and 36, respectively), Table A-4 identifies 

recommended uncertainty factors to be applied to worker doses reported by LANL.

ATTACHMENT A

GUIDANCE FOR DOSE RECONSTRUCTORS:

OCCUPATIONAL EXTERNAL DOSE FOR MONITORED WORKERS

Page 5 of 10
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 72 of 76

Table A-4. Recommended uncertainty factors for reported doses. 

Radiation Film badges NTA film

Model 7776 

dosimeter

Model 8823 

dosimeter

Photon (deep) ±30% Not applicable ±14% ±19%

Beta (shallow) ±30% Not applicable ±16% ±14%

Neutrons (deep) Not applicable ±50% ±8% ±8%

A.4 MISSED BETA/PHOTON DOSE

Missed dose is the dose that might not have been accounted for on an individual’s records because 

the records might have indicated zero dose due to the detection limitations of the film or TLD. 

Several exchange frequencies were in use at any one time, so the dose reconstructor needs to 

determine the exchange frequency that applies to a specific worker from individual records. The 

values in the last two columns of Table A-5 can be considered maximum annual missed doses for the 

purpose of dose reconstruction. Beginning with 1979, badge exchange frequencies should be 

assumed to be monthly if specific information to the contrary for the claimant is not available (ORAUT 

2006b).

Table A-5. Beta/photon dosimeter period of use, type, MDL, exchange frequency, and potential 

annual missed doses. 

Period of use Dosimeter

Deep 

MDLa

 

(mrem)

Nonpenetrating 

MDLa

(mrad)

Exchange 

frequency

Geometric mean 

annual missed doseb,c

Deep dose

(mrem)

Nonpenetrating 

dose (mrad)

1943–1944 PIC 5 Nonpenetrating 

dose was not 

measured

Daily (n = 250) 625 Unmonitored

1943–June 1946 Brass badge with leadcross film40 Nonpenetrating 

dose was not 

measured

Monthly (n = 12) 240 Unmonitored

July 1946–1948 Brass film badge Biweekly (n = 25) 500 Unmonitored

Weekly (n = 50) 1,000 Unmonitored

Daily (n = 250) 5,000 Unmonitored

1949–September 

1962

Brass clip, brass-lead, 

brass-cadmium film 

badges

40 40 Monthly (n = 12) 240 240

Biweekly (n = 25) 500 500

October 1962–

December 1979

Cycolac multi-element 

film badge

Weekly (n = 50) 1,000 1,000

Daily (n = 250) 5,000 5,000

January 1, 1980–

March 1998

Model 7776 TLD 10 30 Monthly (n = 12) 60 180

Quarterly (n = 4) 20 60

April 1, 1998–2003 

(ongoing)

Model 8823 TLD 10 30 Monthly (n = 12) 60 180

Quarterly (n = 4) 20 60

a. Estimated MDLs for each dosimeter technology in the workplace. 

b. See Table A-7 footnotes for guidance on calculation of unmonitored nonpenetrating dose. 

c. Mean annual missed dose calculated using MDL/2 from NIOSH (2006).

Missed beta/photon dose is entered into the Interactive RadioEpidemiological Program as a 

lognormal distribution with a geometric mean consistent with Table A-5 and a geometric 

standard deviation (GSD) of 1.52.

ATTACHMENT A

GUIDANCE FOR DOSE RECONSTRUCTORS:

OCCUPATIONAL EXTERNAL DOSE FOR MONITORED WORKERS

Page 6 of 10
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A.5 ASSIGNMENT OF BETA/PHOTON DOSES TO ENERGY CATEGORIES

Tables A-6 and A-7 present the energy ranges for beta and photon exposures at LANL. LANL has 

possessed separated plutonium and sources of low-energy X-rays, so non-penetrating doses could 

have resulted from exposures to low-energy photons as well as beta particles.

Table A-6. Recommended beta and photon radiation energies and percentages for plutonium 

facilities. 

Process/

buildings Description

Operations

Radiation 

type

Energy 

selection 

Begin End (keV) Percentage

Plutonium 

Processing

Radiochemical Operations: Plutonium processed at LANL had 

largely been separated from fission products. Radiochemical 

operations were largely for recovery of fissionable material. Beta 

Photon

>15

<30

30–250

100%

65%a

35%a

TA-1, D Building 1943 1945

TA-21, DP West Site Nov 1945 1978

TA-55, Plutonium Facility 1978 Present

TA-3 (including CMR Building) 1953 Present

Plutonium 

production 

Plutonium Component Production: Plutonium is machined into 

weapon components using glovebox assembly process with 

predominant close anterior exposure to workers. Radiation 

characteristics in this area involve significant lower energy 

photons and neutron radiation.

Photon <30

30–250 

65%a

35%a

TA-1 (D Building), TA-21 (DP Site), TA-55 (PF Site)

Plutonium Storage: Radiation characteristics in this area 

generally involve dispersed lower energy neutron radiation and 

scattered photons, including 60-keV Am-241 gamma ray.

TA-1, D-5 Sigma Vault 1943 1945

TA-21, Building 21 Nov 1945 1978

TA-55 Vault 1978 Present

Information sources: LASL 1959, 1969, 1977, 1979; LANL 1986, 1989, 1996, 2001, 2003.

a. Low-energy photons were not measured by early LANL film badges that had no unfiltered areas. Photon exposure should be assessed 

as follows:

Before 1949: 100% of the measured photon dose should be attributed to the 30- to 250-keV category. An additional dose of 1.86 

times the measured dose should be attributed to low-energy photon (<30-keV category).

1949 and after

Nonpenetrating dose = skin dose – (deep dose + neutron dose + tritium dose).

: Nonpenetrating dose should be estimated and attributed to the <30-keV category. 

A.6 UNMONITORED NEUTRON DOSE

There should not, typically, be significant neutron exposure of unmonitored workers. However, if 

there is an estimation of neutron dose, the recommended option is to apply the neutron-to-photon 

distribution data from Table A-8 to measured or estimated missed or unmonitored photon doses. This 

process of calculation of a neutron dose is based on the expectation that the neutron dose to 

unmonitored workers is equivalent to the median neutron dose measured for monitored workers. 

The application of the data from Table A-8 to measured or estimated photon doses can be 

accomplished through Monte Carlo simulation. As an alternative, to obtain an overestimate of 

unmonitored neutron dose, the appropriate maximum value from Table A-8 can be applied to the 

measured or estimated photon dose for each period of interest. 

ATTACHMENT A

GUIDANCE FOR DOSE RECONSTRUCTORS:

OCCUPATIONAL EXTERNAL DOSE FOR MONITORED WORKERS

Page 7 of 10
Document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0010-6 Revision No. 01 Effective Date: 05/30/2007 Page 74 of 76

Table A-7. Recommended beta and photon radiation energies and percentages for facilities other 

than plutonium facilities. 

Process/

buildings Description

Operations

Radiation 

type

Energy 

selection, 

Begin End keV Percentage

Reactors

(and 

criticality 

experiments)

During operation: Highly dispersed fields of higher energy photon 

radiation fields from fission process, activation, and fission product 

nuclides. Potentially narrow beams of higher energy neutron radiation 

from test ports, etc., into reactor core. Potential for significant airborne 

nuclides and significant higher energy beta radiation. 

Betaa 

Photonb

>15

30–250

>250

100

25

75

Not in operation: Highly dispersed fields of higher energy photon 

radiation fields from activation and fission product nuclides. No 

significant neutron radiation. There could be significant higher energy 

beta radiation during maintenance work resulting from fission products.

LOPO Water Boiler (TA-2) May 1944 Nov 1944

HYPO Water Boiler (TA-2) Dec 1944 Feb 1951

SUPO Water Boiler (TA-2) Mar 1951 Jun 1974

Plutonium Fast Reactor (Clementine, TA-2) Dec 1946 Dec 1950

Omega West Reactor (TA-2) Jul 1956 Dec 1992

LAPRE I (TA-35) Feb 1956 Oct 1956

LAPRE II (TA-35) Feb 1959 May 1959

LAMPRE I (TA-35) Early 1961 Mid-1963

UHTREX (TA-52) Dec 1956 Feb 1970

Uranium 

production

Processing and machining: Depleted and enriched uranium. Betaa

Photonb >15

30–250

100

100 TA-1 (Sigma, HT Buildings) 1943 1953

TA-3 (Sigma Complex) 1953 Present

Accelerator 

operations

LAMPF operations at TA-53: Primarily from 

residual activity induced within targets, 

accelerator structures and components, grease, 

oils, and soil.

1972 Present 

Beta 

Photon

>15 

<30

30–250 

>250 

100c

1c

9d 

90d

Calibrations 

LANL site calibration of instruments and 

dosimeters 1943 Present 

Betaa

Photonb >1530–250 

>250 

100

25

75

Waste 

handling

Radiation characteristics highly dependent on source of waste. Betaa

Photonb >15

30–250 

>250 

100

50

50

Liquid waste: TA-45 and TA-50

Solid waste: Areas A, B, C, D, E, G, T, U, V 

Various, 

1944 on

Radioactive 

lanthanum 

operations

Preparation and use of radioactive lanthanum sources: Betaa

Photonb >15

30–250

>250

100

10

90

TA-10 (Bayo Canyon) 1944 1950

TA-35, Ten Site 1951 1963

Information sources: LASL 1959, 1969, 1977, 1979; LANL 1986, 1989, 1996, 2001, 2003.

a. For these operations 1949 to present: Nonpenetrating dose should be estimated and attributed to the beta radiation category. 

Nonpenetrating dose = skin dose – (deep dose + neutron dose + tritium dose).

For these operations before 1949

b. The reported deep dose should be assigned to the photon dose categories in accordance with the fractions in this table.

: A dose equal to 1.008 times the reported deep dose should be attributed to the beta radiation 

category. This factor is based on the median shallow-to-deep-dose ratio calculated from median annual shallow and deep doses to 

LANL workers over a 10-yr period from 1949 through 1958 (LANL 2004). Only dose records for individuals with ≥50-mrem gamma 

dose were included in this analysis. 

c. Nonpenetrating dose to LAMPF/LANSCE workers should be estimated and attributed to beta radiation >15 keV (50%) and photon 

radiation <30 keV (50%). Nonpenetrating dose = skin dose – (deep dose + neutron dose + tritium dose).

d. The reported deep dose to LAMPF/LANSCE workers should be attributed to 30- to 250-keV (9%) and >250-keV photons (91%). 

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Table A-8. Recommended distributions for neutron-to-photon ratio. 

Neutron source type

Neutron-to-photon dose ratio

Median 95th percentile

Plutonium facilities (predominantly Pu-239) 0.7 2.8

Plutonium facilities (documented involvement with Pu-238 operations; applies only to 

1969 or later; most likely at TA-21, TA-3-29 [CMR Building], TA-55)

3.9 5.5

Criticality experiments (>50 m distant) 2.3 2.5

Other operations 1.6 6.4

A.7 MISSED NEUTRON DOSE

Neutron radiation was present at LANL at D Building (TA-1), DP West (TA-21), DP East (TA-21), the 

current Plutonium Facility (TA-55), Omega Site (TA-2), LAMPF (TA-53), criticality laboratories (TA-2 

and TA-18), and CMR Building (TA-3). For other locations, missed neutron dose is very unlikely 

because of the very low potential for neutron exposure. To calculate the missed neutron dose, the 

dose reconstructor must first determine if the person worked near neutrons and the category of 

neutrons. This can best be determined by examining the work location records and whether a worker 

or others in the badge reporting group were assigned any neutron DE. If no neutron dose was 

assigned to the worker or coworkers for several months, the dose reconstructor should assume that 

the person was not exposed to neutrons. Table A-9 lists the neutron missed dose for those exposed 

to neutrons.

Table A-9. Neutron dosimeter period of use, type, MDL, exchange frequency, and potential annual 

missed dose. 

Period of use Dosimeter

MDL 

(mrem)

Exchange 

frequency

Mean annual 

missed dose

(mrem)a

1951–1962 Brass-cadmium badge <50 Monthly (n = 12) <300b

Apr 1951–1978

(limited use with TLDs to 1995)

NTA film Biweekly (n = 25) <625b

Weekly (n = 50) <1,250b

1962–1978 Cycolac multi-element badge Daily (n = 250) <6,250b

1978–1998

(some quarterly exchange beginning in 1996)

Model 7776 TLD badge 10 Monthly (n = 12) 60

Quarterly (n = 4) 20

1995–present Track-etch dosimeter 20 Quarterly (n = 4) 40

1998–present

(40% were exchanged quarterly by Feb 2002)

Model 8823 TLD badge 10 Monthly (n = 12) 60

Quarterly (n = 4) 20

a. Mean annual missed neutron dose calculated using MDL/2 from NIOSH (2006).

b. Neutron-to-photon ratio should be used to estimate missed doses during these periods.

A.8 ASSIGNMENT OF NEUTRON DOSES TO ENERGY CATEGORIES

Table A-10 lists default neutron dose fractions by energy categories for LANL work areas where field 

measurements of neutron spectra have been performed along with the associated ICRP Publication 

60 correction factors (ICRP 1991). The neutron DE is calculated by multiplying the recorded neutron 

dose by the area-specific correction factors. 

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Table A-10. Recommended dose fractions and ICRP Publication 60 correction factors for neutron 

sources. 

Process Description/buildings

Operations

Neutron energy

Default dose 

fraction (%)

ICRP 60 

Begin End correction factor

Plutonium 

production/

processing

Neutron dose was associated with overall LANL plutonium production process in which plutonium was purified, formed, 

machined, and recovered. Work was primarily conducted in gloveboxes with predominant close anterior exposure to 

workers. 

Plutonium facilities (D Building 

at TA-1, DP West Site at TA-21, 

Plutonium Facility at TA-55)

1943 Present <10–100 keV

0.1–2 MeV

2–20 MeV

11

56

33

0.23

1.1

0.44

LAMPF

Neutrons of varying energies from high-energy proton linear accelerator studies.

LAMPF at TA-53 1972 Present <10 keV

10–100 keV

0.1–2 MeV

2–20 MeV

30

30

20

20

0.64

0.56

0.38

0.26

Reactor 

operations

Neutrons of varying energies from reactor operations.

Omega Site (TA-2) 

TA-35 

TA-52 

1944

1955

1969

1992

1963

1970

0.1–2 MeV 100 1.9

Criticality 

experiments

Neutrons of varying energies from criticality testing and experimentation (in normally occupied areas, not including 

accidental exposures, which must be considered special cases).

Omega Site (TA-2) 

TA-18

1943

Apr 46

Apr 46

Present

<10–100 keV

0.1–2 MeV

2–20 MeV

3.2

59

38

0.06

1.1

0.5

Chemistry & 

metallurgy 

research

Neutrons of varying energies from actinide chemistry and metallurgy research.

TA-1

TA-3 

1943

1952

1952

Present

<10–100 keV

0.1–2 MeV

2–20 MeV

10

50

40

0.21

0.95

0.53

A.9 RECOMMENDED DOSE CONVERSION FACTORS

DCFs should be selected from NIOSH (2006) for the dose quantities specified in Table A-11 for the 

periods of interest.

Table A-11. Recommended DCFs for dose assessments. 

Period Recommended photon DCFs Recommended neutron DCFs

1943–1984 Exposure (R) to organ DE (HT) Deep DE [Hp,slab(10)]

1985–present Deep DE [Hp(10)] to organ DE (HT) to organ DE (HT)

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