1608 SPRING HILL ROAD, SUITE 400 • VIENNA, VIRGINIA • 22182 • 703.893.6600 • FAX 703.821.8236 

April 11, 2008 

Mr. David Staudt 

Center for Disease Control and Prevention 

Acquisition and Assistance Field Branch 

Post Office Box 18070 

626 Cochrans Mill Road – B-140 

Pittsburgh, PA 15236-0295 

 Re: Contract No. 200-2004-03805, Task Order 5: Draft Review of the NIOSH 

 Evaluation Report for the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 

 Special Exposure Cohort: In Vivo Counting Time Period Issue 

Dear Mr. Staudt: 

S. Cohen & Associates (SC&A) is pleased to submit our draft review of the NIOSH Evaluation 

Report for the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Special Exposure Cohort: In Vivo 

Counting Time Period Issue. This issue-specific review of the LLNL evaluation report was 

requested by the Advisory Board on Radiation and Worker Health at its January 8–10, 2008, 

meeting. 

SC&A’s conclusion from this review is that the NIOSH statement in the LLNL SEC evaluation 

report that bioassay data prior to 1974 was not sufficient for accurate coworker fission and 

activation product intake models is valid and can be substantiated. This conclusion is based on 

the known and reviewed history of the development of in vivo body counting at that time, an 

in-depth review of the historical LLNL whole-body counter logbooks, key logbooks, and 

information gained from SC&A interviews with staff familiar with the history of the body 

counter systems. 

Notwithstanding this conclusion and based on our review of whole-body counting logbooks and 

other records, SC&A is concerned (1) whether specific job titles, occupation, or job locations 

were adequately known after December 31, 1973, to enable LLNL to identify for routine 

monitoring all those potentially exposed to these fission and activation product radionuclides; 

and (2) whether NIOSH can, likewise, identify these individuals for applying an appropriate 

coworker dose. Comments by the interviewed individuals and Table 5-1 in the SEC Petition 

Evaluation Report (Petition SEC-00092) lead SC&A to this concern. In addition, based on the 

number of individuals monitored, the small number of analysis results, and the indeterminate 

locations for workers noted in Table 5-1, as well as substantiation of these concerns through 

interviews, SC&A believes that although the capability for appropriate monitoring was in place, 

identifying the workers that should have been monitored will be difficult. While we believe 

these issues fall outside of the specific question posed by the Board for evaluation, SC&A 

believes it should bring it to the Board’s attention, due to its relevance to the broader issue of the 

LLNL SEC. 
Mr. David Staudt 

April 11, 2008 

Page 2 

We would be pleased to brief the Advisory Board and NIOSH on these results at your 

convenience. If you have any comments or questions, please contact me at 732-530-0104. 

Sincerely, 

John Mauro, PhD, CHP 

Project Manager 

cc: P. Ziemer, PhD, Board Chairperson D. Sundin, NIOSH 

Advisory Board Members A. Makhijani, PhD, SC&A 

L. Wade, PhD, NIOSH H. Behling, PhD, MHP, SC&A 

C. Branche, NIOSH M. Thorne, SC&A 

L. Elliott, NIOSH H. Chmelynski, SC&A 

J. Neton, PhD, NIOSH J. Fitzgerald, Saliant 

S. Hinnefeld, NIOSH J. Lipsztein, SC&A 

L. Homoki-Titus, NIOSH K. Robertson-DeMers, CHP, Saliant 

A. Brand, NIOSH S. Ostrow, PhD, SC&A 

J. Broehm, NIOSH K. Behling, SC&A 

C. Ellison, NIOSH T. Bell, Saliant 

L. Shields, NIOSH Project File (ANIOS/005/62) 

 

1608 SPRING HILL ROAD, SUITE 400 • VIENNA, VIRGINIA • 22182 • 703.893.6600 • FAX 703.821.8236 
Working Draft 

SC&A REVIEW OF THE EVALUATION REPORT FOR THE 

LAWRENCE LIVERMORE NATIONAL LABORATORY (LLNL) 

SPECIAL EXPOSURE COHORT: 

IN-VIVO COUNTING TIME PERIOD ISSUE

Prepared by 

S. Cohen & Associates 

1608 Spring Hill Road 

Suite 400 

Vienna, Virginia 22182 

April 11, 2008 

Disclaimer 

This document is made available in accordance with the unanimous desire of the Advisory Board on 

Radiation and Worker Health (ABRWH) to maintain all possible openness in its deliberations. However, 

the ABRWH and its contractor, SC&A, caution the reader that at the time of its release, this report is predecisional and has not been reviewed by the Board for factual accuracy or applicability within the 

requirements of 42 CFR 82. This implies that once reviewed by the ABRWH, the Board’s position may 

differ from the report’s conclusions. Thus, the reader should be cautioned that this report is for 

information only and that premature interpretations regarding its conclusions are unwarranted. 
Draft – In-Vivo Counting Time Period Issue 2 SC&A – April 11, 2008 

NOTICE: This report has been reviewed for Privacy Act information and has been cleared for distribution. 

However, this report is pre-decisional and has not been reviewed by the Advisory Board on Radiation and Worker Health for 

factual accuracy or applicability within the requirements of 42 CFR 82.

INTRODUCTION/ISSUE 

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has issued a Special 

Exposure Cohort (SEC) Petition Evaluation Report for Petition SEC-00092, Revision 0. The 

proposed class definition for this petition is as follows: 

All employees of the Department of Energy (DOE), its predecessor agencies, and 

DOE contractors or subcontractors who were monitored, or should have been 

monitored, for internal exposure to mixed fission and/or activation product 

radionuclides while working at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory for 

a number of work days aggregating at least 250 work days from January 1, 1950 

through December 31, 1973, or in combination with work days within the 

parameters established for one or more other classes of employees in the SEC. 

(Petition SEC-00092) 

The Advisory Board on Radiation and Worker Health (Advisory Board) has requested that 

SC&A research this class definition to determine if the cut-off date of December 31, 1973, is 

appropriate, based on the following NIOSH Evaluation Report (ER) statement: 

NIOSH has access to only limited fission product bioassay data for the period 

prior to 1974, consisting of data available in NOCTS for less than 30 claimants, 

325 gross beta results from MAPPER, and zinc-65 in vivo data for 1965 and 1966 

for sixteen cyclotron workers. NIOSH has been unable to obtain additional in 

vivo counting results adequate for dose reconstruction for the period prior to 

1974. The in vivo logbooks examined by NIOSH further indicate that LLNL staff 

members were routinely modifying the design of the in vivo facility during this 

timeframe, often operating it from a test scheme rather than from a programmatic 

bioassay scheme. For reasons stated in Section 5.1 above, NIOSH finds these 

limited pre-1974 bioassay data insufficient for development of sufficiently 

accurate co-worker fission product intake models. (NIOSH 2007) 

The ER further states: 

...the proposed class cannot be restricted to a specific job title or occupation. 

Further, NIOSH does not have workplace monitoring documentation to 

demonstrate that fission and activation product were not used or stored in other 

areas of LLNL involved in radiological activities. 

Accordingly, NIOSH states that, “the NIOSH proposed class definition includes all known 

LLNL locations that handled or stored radioactive material.” 
Draft – In-Vivo Counting Time Period Issue 3 SC&A – April 11, 2008 

NOTICE: This report has been reviewed for Privacy Act information and has been cleared for distribution. 

However, this report is pre-decisional and has not been reviewed by the Advisory Board on Radiation and Worker Health for 

factual accuracy or applicability within the requirements of 42 CFR 82.

CHARGE OF THE BOARD 

The Board requested that SC&A determine whether the NIOSH assessment of the in-vivo 

counting facility is appropriate for restricting the class definition to the time period of January 1, 

1950, to December 31, 1973. 

SC&A APPROACH 

SC&A reviewed the NIOSH SEC ER (NIOSH 2007), the in-vivo counting system logbooks 

(Anderson 1964 and 1966, and LLNL 1964 through 1981), the Year By Year History of LLNL 

document (LLNL 2002), and the draft site profile internal dosimetry technical basis 

documentation for LLNL (ORAUT 2007). The review of the in-vivo counting system logbooks 

was especially beneficial in determining the status of the whole-body counter system, its level of 

confidence and stability, and staff expertise. It is important in providing context to the 

assessment of the LLNL in-vivo whole-body counting system to review the history of wholebody counting and its development around the country. 

The use of in-vivo body counters was in its early stage of development and application for 

routine use in the early 1960s. Development began with the prototype counter by Robley Evans 

using G-M tubes for radium measurements in living persons in 1937 (Stannard 1988), followed 

by Wright Langham in 1958 with his 4π liquid scintillation systems, HUMCO I in 1955 and 

HUMCO II at Los Alamos (ORAUT 2004 and Stannard 1988), and Martinelli’s group at 

Argonne using a single large NaI(Tl) crystal system in 1961 (Stannard 1988). Other groups were 

experimenting with whole-body counting systems optimizing sensitivity, resolution, and 

calibration for various radionuclides, including the following: 

• Purdue University, with a 2π system that they converted to a 4π system in 1961 (Kessler 

et al. 1968) 

• Ken Swinth at Pacific Northwest Laboratory, who made progress in plutonium wholebody counting (Swinth 1966) 

• Earl Palmer and Bill Roesch’s shadow-shield whole-body counter at Hanford (Stannard 

1988) 

• The Rocky Flats whole-body counter in 1964 (Johnson 1965), with a method for 

predicting subject background for in-vivo plutonium measurements by Bistline at Rocky 

Flats (Bistline 1968) 

• Plutonium-239 detection in vivo with a germanium-lithium array by Tyree and Bistline at 

Rocky Flats (Tyree and Bistline 1970) 

• John Rundo at Harwell and Argonne and B.T. Taylor at Harwell in 1962 on measurement 

of plutonium in vivo (Rundo et al. 1968) Taylor and Rundo 1962, and Taylor 1969) 
Draft – In-Vivo Counting Time Period Issue 4 SC&A – April 11, 2008 

NOTICE: This report has been reviewed for Privacy Act information and has been cleared for distribution. 

However, this report is pre-decisional and has not been reviewed by the Advisory Board on Radiation and Worker Health for 

factual accuracy or applicability within the requirements of 42 CFR 82.

• D. Ramsden and R.G. Speight in England, AEEW-R 494, 1967, on the measurement of 

plutonium-239 in vivo (Ramsden and Speight 1967) 

The LLNL health physics staff’s work on their in-vivo monitoring capability took place during 

this backdrop of rapid advancement of the state-of-the-art in such monitoring technology. The 

logbooks by Anderson and his LLNL whole-body counter staff were reviewed by SC&A. These 

logbooks included Anderson 1964 (SRDB 35019), Anderson 1966 (SRDB 14074), and the 

LLNL whole-body counter logbooks from 1964 through 1981 (SRDB 35017, SRDB 35018, 

SRDB 35020 through SRDB 35031). 

 

During the month of February, SC&A conducted telephone interviews with five individuals who 

either currently work at LLNL or are former LLNL employees. These individuals are 

knowledgeable of the history of the in-vivo counting systems, and the fission and activation 

product radionuclides generated and handled at LLNL. The first individual interviewed was a 

Health Physicist at LLNL working with the in-vivo counting systems during the early days of 

their development. The second individual interviewed is a Health Physicist currently working in 

the LLNL in-vivo system. He is very familiar with the history of the systems and is a custodian 

of most of the historical documentation on the in-vivo systems, including the logbooks of the 

individual who did much of the original research and calibration work with the systems. The 

third individual interviewed worked at LLNL as a Radiochemist and then as a Health Physicist 

from the early 1950s until retirement a few years ago, and as such, spent considerable time 

working in areas where fission and activation product radionuclides were handled at LLNL. The 

fourth individual interviewed is employed in the Radiation Safety Section in the Hazards Control 

Department at LLNL, and the fifth individual interviewed is a retired employee from LLNL with 

considerable historical knowledge of the handling of fission and activation product radionuclides 

at the laboratory. Two of the these interviewees were most directly involved and familiar with 

the history of the whole-body counters over the years. 

ANALYSIS

The development of this new evolving technology, i.e., body counters at the various DOE sites, 

and the invention of new advanced detector systems (sodium iodide detectors, Phoswich 

detectors, silicon and germanium lithium drifted detectors, hyper-pure germanium detectors, 

solid state electronics, and computer advancements) out of necessity led to constant changes over 

the 1960s and early 1970s to keep pace with the improving state-of-the-art. The body-counter 

and his staff kept detailed logbooks of these changes and problems with sensitivity, resolution, 

amplifier and pre-amp drifting, calibration, evolution of detectors, etc., that occurred with the 

LLNL systems. SC&A’s review of the body-counter logbooks and discussions with staff 

verified that evolving changes were being made as new detectors, new electronics, and new 

calibration phantoms were being developed, and when the new underground system was built, 

resulting in the normal stability problems that had to be overcome from 1964 through the early 

1970s. These problems, likewise, existed at other sites during this same time period, examples 

of which are referenced in the preceding section, e.g., at Los Alamos, Argonne, Hanford, Rocky 

Flats, and overseas in some English facilities. 
Draft – In-Vivo Counting Time Period Issue 5 SC&A – April 11, 2008 

NOTICE: This report has been reviewed for Privacy Act information and has been cleared for distribution. 

However, this report is pre-decisional and has not been reviewed by the Advisory Board on Radiation and Worker Health for 

factual accuracy or applicability within the requirements of 42 CFR 82.

The LLNL logbooks (i.e., LLNL SRDB 35017, 35018, and 35019 [Anderson 1964]) specifically 

reference calibration and multiple counting of special groups of persons, such as ones exposed at 

the 90” cyclotron. Radionuclides that were addressed in these logbooks include Zn-65, Na-22, 

Co-57, Cs-137, Cf-252, Am-241, I-125, I-131, Cm-244, Pu-239, Tc-99m, Te-132, and I-132. In 

1966, several termination body counts were performed and interpreted as “normal” or 

“abnormal.” If they were “abnormal,” there were attempts to positively identify the 

radioisotopes and at least make an estimate of the quantity, based on the spectra and a 

calibration; albeit, these are not explained or documented, and could be considered somewhat 

crude by today’s standards. The use of phantoms is noted in the logbooks of the late 1960s and 

early 1970s with a “resussie annie,” and in 1969, a REMAB, reportedly used for calibration. In 

1968, it is noted that they started using thin crystal, 2” to 5” × 1/16” Be detectors. Prior to this, 

most of the counting appeared to be done with 5 × 4 and 3 × 3 detectors. 

In December of 1967, a program of counting some new employees was started, but it is not clear 

how routine this was or what the criteria for selection of the subjects may have been (i.e., 

whether these were select groups of new employees or encompassed all employees). By 1969, it 

appears that many of the repeat counts performed on some of the special individuals counted 

from specific groups, such as the cyclotron group, involved use of both the 5 × 4 detector and the 

2” to 5” × 1/16” Be detectors. In April of 1969, a group of persons involved in a spill in 

Building 151 were counted for potential exposure to Cm-244/246, Cf-252, and Am-241/240. 

The LLNL logbook (LLNL SRDB 35020, 1967–1969) discusses the work stabilizing and 

calibrating the new underground whole-body counter system. The remaining logbooks (LLNL 

SRDB 35021 through SRDB 35031) address the use of the system to count other radionuclides, 

use of SiLi (silicon lithium drifted) detectors (SRDB-35029 1975–1976), counting wounds, 

counting females, and the use of the new LLNL phantom for calibration. Based upon a review 

of the increased use of the whole-body counter for counting suspected uptakes in workers in the 

1972 through 1973 timeframe (LLNL SRDB 35024 through SRDB 35026), and increased invitro bioassay analysis in 1974 for mixed fission products (noted in Table 5-1 of the ER report), 

it is apparent that by late 1973 or early 1974, LLNL now had better knowledge of the location of 

these various radionuclides and those workers at risk of exposure, which led to expanding the 

number of workers monitored and the frequency of sampling. 

As noted by NIOSH in the ER, there were numerous counts made on individuals, some of which 

were for testing the background and stability of the system, and others for testing potential 

uptakes in workers involved in special projects. SC&A would hesitate to call these special 

whole-body counts as “testing” for uptakes in the experimental or developmental sense, but they 

also cannot be called “routine” or programmatic. Likewise, it cannot be determined from the 

logbooks if they monitored all individuals working around the fission and activation product 

radionuclides on a routine basis. The special counts of groups or individual workers appear to 

have been done more as a “yes or no” verification of uptakes. Accurate quantification and 

calibration data are not provided to be able to verify the values noted in the notebooks. It does 

appear that by 1974, the in-vivo counting systems were stabilized and calibrated with industryrecognized standard phantoms for in-vivo measurement of many of the different radionuclides 

they were monitoring for, and the monitoring of workers was becoming more routine and 

programmatic. 
Draft – In-Vivo Counting Time Period Issue 6 SC&A – April 11, 2008 

NOTICE: This report has been reviewed for Privacy Act information and has been cleared for distribution. 

However, this report is pre-decisional and has not been reviewed by the Advisory Board on Radiation and Worker Health for 

factual accuracy or applicability within the requirements of 42 CFR 82.

In the telephone interviews conducted with two of the interviewees, they stated that the counters 

were undergoing the normal changes that occurred at all the other sites during this time of 

advancing detector systems and electronics, but Anderson and his staff were monitoring workers 

frequently for suspected exposures while making improvements to the systems. They did admit 

that maybe not everyone who had the potential for exposure was necessarily being monitored 

routinely in those early years of the late 1960s and early 1970s, but that workers having 

suspected uptakes were monitored to confirm or deny uptakes had occurred. It was suggested 

that SC&A talk with an individual who had worked as a Radiochemist and a Health Physicist in 

many of those areas where fission and activation products were known to exist onsite. In 

locating this individual, discussions were held with two of the other interviewees (one who 

likewise had a long history at the national laboratories) that had handled fission and activation 

product radionuclides. These two individuals stated that fission and activation products were 

located at various locations around the site and not necessarily in specific locations, such as the 

radiochemistry and cyclotron areas, although one individual did note several specific designated 

buildings. They recalled fission and activation products existing in some of the following 

buildings: Buildings 231, 151, 251, and 101 (which later became 222 and 212). 

It should be noted that in discussions with the individuals SC&A interviewed, concern was 

expressed over the fact that even after 1974, fission and activation product radionuclides were 

not necessarily used or stored in specific designated or segregated locations, and persons coming 

in contact with these radionuclides for monitoring purposes may not have been identifiable by 

job title, occupation, or their primary assigned job location in areas where these radionuclides 

might have been located. 

FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS 

It is SC&A’s conclusion that the NIOSH statement in the LLNL SEC ER that bioassay 

data prior to 1974 were not sufficient for accurate coworker fission and activation product 

intake models is valid and can be substantiated. This conclusion is based on the known and 

reviewed history of the development of in-vivo body-counting at that time, an in-depth review of 

the historical LLNL whole-body counter logbooks, the Anderson logbooks, and information 

gained from SC&A interviews with staff familiar with the history of the body-counter systems. 

SC&A finds that based on these stated facts, the in-vivo counting systems were sufficiently 

developed, calibrated, and stabilized by 1974 for routine monitoring use. SC&A further finds 

that the calculations performed for determining resolution, the use of state-of-the-art calibration 

phantoms, the calibrations for various radionuclides, the apparent stability of subject background 

counts, and system background counts recorded in the LLNL whole-body counter logbooks 

serve to verify that the system was capable of routine monitoring by 1974. Based on the 

information provided in the logbooks, SC&As believes that the expertise of the staff was 

adequate, and the sensitivity and resolution gave the systems sufficient capability and stability to 

be used for special case-by-case individual counts and for screening small groups for verification 

of uptakes from exposure incidents involving certain specific radionuclides in the late 1960s. 
Draft – In-Vivo Counting Time Period Issue 7 SC&A – April 11, 2008 

NOTICE: This report has been reviewed for Privacy Act information and has been cleared for distribution. 

However, this report is pre-decisional and has not been reviewed by the Advisory Board on Radiation and Worker Health for 

factual accuracy or applicability within the requirements of 42 CFR 82.

References: 

Anderson, A.L. 1964. Arthur L. Anderson Logbook, September 24, 1964, SRDB: 35019. 

Anderson, A.L. 1966. Personal Logbook; SRDB Ref ID: 14074. 

Bistline, R.W., 1968. A Method For Predicting Subject Background For in vivo Plutonium 

Measurements, RFP-893, Rocky Flats Division, The Dow Chemical Company (1968). 

Johnson, V.P., 1965. The Rocky Flats Whole Body Counter, RFP-604l, Rocky Flats Division, 

The Dow Chemical Company (1965). 

Kessler, W.V., Ziemer, P.L., Christian, J.E., and Shawl, S.M., 1968. A 4π Liquid-Scintillation 

Whole-Body Counter – I, Design, Operating Characteristics, and Calibration, Applied Radiation 

and Isotopes, Vol. 19, pp. 287-292. 

LLNL 1964–1966. Whole-Body Counter Logbook#1, September 18,1964 to December 14, 1966; 

SRDB Ref ID: 35017. 

LLNL 1966–1971. Whole-Body Counter Logbook #2, December 16, 1966 to August 23, 1971; 

SRDB Ref ID: 35018. 

LLNL 1967–1969. Whole-Body Counter #2 Logbook #1, September 18, 1967 to July 29, 1969; 

SRDB Ref ID: 35020. 

LLNL 1969–1970. Whole-Body Counter #2 Logbook #2, July 30, 1969 to September 9, 1970; 

SRDB Ref ID: 35021. 

LLNL 1970–1971. Whole-Body Counter #2 Logbook #3, September 10, 1970 to January 19, 

1971; SRDB Ref ID: 35022. 

LLNL 1971. Whole-Body Counter #2 Logbook #4, January 10, 1971 to September 1, 1971; 

SRDB Ref ID: 35023. 

LLNL 1971–1972. Whole-Body Counter #2 Logbook #5, September 2, 1971 to April 6, 1972; 

SRDB Ref ID: 35024. 

LLNL 1972. Whole-Body Counter #2 Logbook #6, April 7, 1972 to October 31, 1972; SRDB 

Ref ID: 35025. 

LLNL 1972–1973. Whole-Body Counter #2 Logbook #7, October 31, 1972 to November 15, 

1973; SRDB Ref ID: 35026. 

LLNL 1973–1974. Whole-Body Counter #2 Logbook #8, November 19, 1973 – December 14, 

1974; SRDB Ref ID: 35027. 
Draft – In-Vivo Counting Time Period Issue 8 SC&A – April 11, 2008 

NOTICE: This report has been reviewed for Privacy Act information and has been cleared for distribution. 

However, this report is pre-decisional and has not been reviewed by the Advisory Board on Radiation and Worker Health for 

factual accuracy or applicability within the requirements of 42 CFR 82.

LLNL 1974–1975. Whole-Body Counter #2 Logbook #9, December 14, 1974 to December 3, 

1975; SRDB Ref ID: 35028. 

LLNL 1975–1976. Whole-Body Counter #2 Logbook #10, December 9, 1975 to October 5, 

1976; SRDB Ref ID: 35029. 

LLNL 1976–1979. Whole-Body Counter #2 Logbook #11, October 6, 1976 to December 12, 

1979; SRDB Ref ID: 35030. 

LLNL 1980–1981. Whole-Body Counter #2 Logbook #12, January 14, 1980 to February 3, 

1981; SRDB Ref ID: 35031.

LLNL 2002. Year by Year History of LLNL, 1952 – 2002 Lawrence Livermore National 

Laboratory Years of Accomplishments, UCRL – AR- 148833, 2002, SRDB – 23405. 

NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health) 2007. SEC Petition Evaluation 

Report, Petition SEC-00092, December 3, 2007. 

ORAUT 2004. Technical Basis Document for the Los Alamos National Laboratory – 

Occupational Internal Dose, Revision No: 00, ORAUT-TKBS-0010-5. 

ORAUT 2007. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory – Occupational Internal Dose, 

Revision 00. DRAFT ORAUT-TKBS-0035-5. July 9, 2007. 

Ramsden, D. and R.G. Speight, 1967. The Measurement of Plutonium 239 In Vivo, Report 

AEEW-R-494, United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority, Atomic Energy Establishment, 

Winfrith, Dorset, England, 1967. 

Rundo, J., B.T. Taylor, D.V. Boecker, D. Newton, and D. Scargill, 1968. Attenuation in the 

Chest Wall of 20 KeV X-Rays from an Inhaled Radioactive Aerosol, Nature, 217. 

Stannard, J.N., 1988. Radioactivity and Health – A History, Published by DOE Office of 

Science and Education. 

Swinth, K.L., 1966. Progress in Plutonium Whole Body Counting, BNWL-235-2, Radiological 

Science, Vol. 2, Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Washington. 

Taylor, B.T., 1969. A Proportional Counter For Low-Level Measurements of Plutonium-239 in 

Lungs, Health Physics, Vol. 17, pp. 59-69, July 1969. 

Taylor, B.T. and J. Rundo, 1962. UKAEA Rep. AERE-R 4155 (1962); in Meneely, G.R., ed. 

1961, Radioactivity in Man, Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1962. 

Tyree, W.H. and R.W. Bistline, 1970. Plutonium-239 Detection In Vivo with a GermaniumLithium Array, Rocky Flats Division, The Dow Chemical Company, 1970.