ORAU Team

NIOSH Dose Reconstruction Project

Technical Basis Document for the Hanford Site

– Occupational External Dosimetry

Document Number:

ORAUT-TKBS-0006-6 

Effective Date: 10/21/2003 

Revision No.: 00 

Controlled Copy No.: ________

Page 1 of 68

Subject Expert: Jack Fix

Document Owner

Approval: Signature on File________________ Date: 10/20/2003

Edward D. Scalsky, TBD Team Leader

Approval: Signature on File________________ Date: 10/20/2003

Judson L. Kenoyer, Task 3 Manager

Concurrence: Signature on File_____________Date: 10/20/2003

Richard E. Toohey, Project Director

Approval: Signature on File________________ Date: 10/21/2003

James W. Neton, OCAS Health Science Administrator

Supersedes:

None

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section

Record of Issue/Revisions ...................................................................................................................

Page

5

Acronyms and Abbreviations ...............................................................................................................6

6.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................. 8

6.2 Basis of Comparison...................................................................................................................8

6.3 Dose Reconstruction Parameters ...............................................................................................9

6.3.1 Hanford Historical Administrative Practices ................................................................... 10

6.3.2 Hanford Dosimetry Technology ..................................................................................... 12

6.3.2.1 Beta/Photon Dosimeters ................................................................................. 13

6.3.2.2 Neutron Dosimeters ........................................................................................ 15

6.3.3 Calibration .....................................................................................................................16

6.3.3.1 Hanford Beta/Photon Dosimeters.................................................................... 16

6.3.3.2 Hanford Neutron Dosimeters........................................................................... 19

6.3.4 Workplace Radiation Fields........................................................................................... 20

6.3.4.1 Hanford Beta/Photon Dosimeter Response Testing ........................................ 20

6.3.4.2 Hanford Workplace Beta/Photon Dosimeter Response................................... 24

6.3.4.3 Uncertainty in Beta/Photon Recorded Dose.................................................... 26

6.3.4.4 Hanford Neutron Dosimeter Response Testing............................................... 31

6.3.4.5 Hanford Workplace Neutron Dosimeter Response.......................................... 34

6.3.4.6 Neutron Dose Fraction (RESERVED) ............................................................. 39

6.3.4.7 Uncertainty In Neutron Dose (RESERVED) .................................................... 39

6.4 Adjustments to Recorded Neutron Dose (RESERVED) ............................................................ 39

6.4.1 Neutron Dose Adjustments (RESERVED)..................................................................... 39

6.4.2 Neutron Weighting Factor (RESERVED)....................................................................... 39

6.4.3 Neutron Correction Factor (RESERVED) ...................................................................... 39
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6.4.4 Neutron-to-Photon Dose Factors (RESERVED) ............................................................ 39

6.5 Missed Dose .............................................................................................................................39

6.5.1 Photon Missed Dose ..................................................................................................... 40

6.5.1.1 Year................................................................................................................40

6.5.1.2 Facility/Location .............................................................................................. 40

6.5.1.3 Dosimeter Type............................................................................................... 41

6.5.1.4 Energy Range................................................................................................. 41

6.5.2 Neutron Missed Dose (RESERVED) ............................................................................. 41

6.5.2.1 Year (RESERVED) ......................................................................................... 41

6.5.2.2 Facility/Location (RESERVED) ....................................................................... 41

6.5.2.3 Dosimeter Type (RESERVED)........................................................................ 41

6.5.2.4 Energy Range (RESERVED) .......................................................................... 41

6.6 Uncertainty................................................................................................................................41

6.6.1 Missed Dose .................................................................................................................41

6.6.2 Positive Recorded Photon Dose.................................................................................... 43

6.6.3 Neutron Dose (RESERVED) ......................................................................................... 44

6.6.4 Organ Dose...................................................................................................................44

References ........................................................................................................................................45

Glossary ............................................................................................................................................50

Attachment E Occupational External Dose for Monitored Workers
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LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

Table 6.3.2-1. Hanford historical dosimetry events ...................................................................... 12

Table 6.3.3.1-1. Laboratory sources of uncertainty for beta/photon dosimeter calibration parameters.

.............................................................................................................................17

Table 6.3.3.1-2. Analysis of Two-Element film dosimeter dose....................................................... 18

Table 6.3.3.2-1. Laboratory sources of uncertainty for neutron dosimeter calibration parameters... 19

Table 6.3.4.1-1. IARC testing results for U.S. beta/photon dosimeters. .......................................... 21

Table 6.3.4.1-2. Testing results for Hanford two-element and multielement film dosimeters for 

energy and angular response. .............................................................................. 21

Table 6.3.4.1-3. Workplace measured nonpenetrating and penetrating collective doses. ............... 22

Table 6.3.4.1-4. Analysis of Multielement film dosimeter dose......................................................... 24

Table 6.3.4.2-1. Hanford workplace photon spectra measurements. .............................................. 25

Table 6.3.4.3-1. Hanford workplace photon dosimeter Hp(10) performance. .................................... 27

Table 6.3.4.3-2. Uncertainty in beta/photon Hp(10) in Hanford facilities.......................................... 28

Table 6.3.4.3-3. Overall bias and uncertainty due to variation and uncertainties regarding energy 

levels and geometry in recorded dose as an estimate of deep dose. .................... 29

Table 6.3.4.3-4. Selection of beta and photon radiation energies and percentages for Hanford 

facilities................................................................................................................. 29

Table 6.3.4.4-1. Parallel workplace measured NTA and HMPD neutron dose. ............................... 31

Table 6.3.4.4-2. Recording periods for selected Hanford plutonium workers. ................................. 33

Table 6.3.4.4-3. Ratio of recorded Hanford dose components. ........................................................ 33

Table 6.3.4.4-4. Hanford plutonium facility neutron-to-photon ratios. .............................................. 33

Table 6.3.4.5-1. Hanford workplace neutron spectra measurements. ............................................. 35

Table 6.3.4.5-2. Workplace measurement comparisons with HMPD. ............................................. 38

Table 6.5.1.2-1. Hanford photon dosimeter period of use, type, MDL, exchange frequency, and 

potential annual missed dose................................................................................ 40

Table 6.6.2-1. Overall estimates of uncertainty for photon dose in Hanford non-plutonium facilities.

.............................................................................................................................43

Table 6.6.2-2. Overall estimates of uncertainty for photon dose in Hanford plutonium facilities. .. 44

Table 6.6.4-1. Default exposure geometries to calculate organ dose........................................... 44
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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page
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RECORD OF ISSUE/REVISIONS

ISSUE 

AUTHORIZATION 

DATE

EFFECTIVE 

DATE

REV. 

NO. DESCRIPTION

10/10/2003 10/21/2003 00 New document to establish TBD for occupational 

external dose – section 6. Initiated by Edward D. 

Scalsky. 

Not to be used for neutron dose calculations.
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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

AEC U.S. Atomic Energy Commission

ANL Argonne National Laboratory

DE dose equivalent

DL detection limit

DOE U.S. Department of Energy

DOELAP DOE Laboratory Accreditation Program

FFTF Fast Flux Test Facility

HEW Hanford Engineering Works

HMPD Hanford Multipurpose TLD

Hp(d) Personal Dose Equivalent at depth d in tissue

IARC International Agency for Research on Cancer

ICRP International Committee for Radiological Protection

ICRU International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements

IREP Interactive RadioEpidemiological Program

ISO International Standards Organization

LANL Los Alamos National Laboratory

MED Manhattan Engineering District

MDL Minimum Detection Level

mm millimeter

NBS National Bureau of Standards (predecessor to NIST)

NCRP National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements

NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology 

NPEN (Hanford) designation of nonpenetrating dose

NTA Eastman-Kodak Nuclear Track, Type A emulsion

ORNL Oak Ridge National Laboratory

OW (Hanford) designation of open window (i.e., no filter) nonpenetrating dose

PC Probability of Causation

PEN (Hanford) designation of penetrating dose

PFP Plutonium Finishing Plant

PFPP Plutonium Fuels Pilot Plant 

PIC Pocket Ionization Chamber (i.e., “Pencil” dosimeter)

PNNL Pacific Northwest National Laboratory

PRTR Plutonium Recycle Test Reactor Facility

PUREX Plutonium-Uranium Extraction Plant

R Roentgen

RBE Relative Biological Effectiveness

REDOX Reduction Oxidation Plant

rem radiation equivalent man
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rep radiation equivalent physical

RMA remote mechanical A (line) series of glove boxes

RMC remotely operated series of glove boxes

S (Hanford) designation of penetrating dose behind 1 mm thick silver filter

SRS Savannah River Site

TED track-etch dosimetry 

TEPC Tissue Equivalent Proportional Counter

TLD thermoluminescent dosimeter

WB whole-body
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6.1 INTRODUCTION

Hanford operations involved several processes of the nuclear weapons development cycle (DOE 

2002, 1997, 1996) and played a significant role in the U.S. nuclear weapons program. These 

processes include nuclear fuel fabrication; nuclear reactor operations; radiochemical separations; 

refining, finishing and storing plutonium; and handling the associated radioactive waste. 

Hanford workers, especially those employed during the peak production decades of the 1950s and 

1960s, have been exposed to radiation types and energies associated with the respective nuclear 

weapon development processes. Hanford utilized facility and individual worker monitoring methods to 

measure and control radiation exposures. Many Hanford records concern facility monitoring, safety 

evaluations, investigations, etc. However, it is time-consuming to locate and evaluate these records 

for Hanford facilities and processes that began in 1944. Evaluations are difficult because of the 

extensive scope of facility, process, and worker information relevant to an individual worker’s potential 

dose many years or even decades after employment. Records of radiation doses to individual 

workers from personnel dosimeters worn by the worker and coworkers are available for Hanford 

operations beginning in 1944. Doses from these dosimeters were recorded at the time of 

measurement and routinely reviewed by Hanford operations and radiation safety staff for compliance 

with radiation control limits. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) 

External Dosimetry Implementation Guide (NIOSH 2002) has identified these records to represent the 

highest quality records for retrospective dose assessments. The information in this section pertains to 

analyzing these records and does not address parameters regarding skin, testicular, or breast 

radiation dose that could result from acute beta (electron) radiation exposure in short-term accidental 

or incident nonroutine workplace exposure profiles. Nonpenetrating radiation during routine 

operations is also not addressed in this section.

Radiation dosimetry practices were initially based on experience gained during several decades of 

radium and X-ray medical diagnostic and therapy applications. These methods were generally well 

advanced at the start of the Manhattan Engineering District (MED) program to develop nuclear 

weapons, about 1940. The primary new challenges encountered by MED, and later Atomic Energy 

Commission (AEC), operations to measure worker dose to external radiation involved:

• Comparatively large quantities of high-level radioactivity. 

• Mixed radiation fields involving beta, photon (gamma and X-ray), and neutron radiation with 

low, intermediate, and high energies.

• Neutron radiation.

6.2 BASIS OF COMPARISON 

Historically, since the start of the MED program in the early 1940s, various radiation dose concepts

and quantities have been used to measure and record occupational dose. A basis of comparison for 

dose reconstruction, as described in “External Dose Reconstruction Implementation Guideline” 

(NIOSH 2002), is the Personal Dose Equivalent, Hp(d), where d identifies the depth (in millimeters) 

and represents the point of reference for dose in tissue. For weakly penetrating radiation of 

significance to skin dose, d = 0.07 mm and is noted as Hp(0.07). For penetrating radiation of 

significance to “whole-body” dose, d = 10 mm and is noted as Hp(10). Both Hp(0.07) and Hp(10) are 

the radiation quantities recommended for use as the operational quantity to be recorded for 

radiological protection purposes by the International Commission on Radiological Units and 

Measurements (ICRU 1993). In addition, Hp(0.07) and Hp(10) are the radiation quantities used in the 
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U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Laboratory Accreditation Program (DOELAP), which has been 

used to accredit DOE personnel dosimetry systems since the 1980s (DOE 1986). The International 

Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) Three Country Combined Study (Fix et al 1997) and IARC 

Collaborative Study (Thierry-Chef et al 2002) selected Hp(10) as the quantity to use for assessing 

error in recorded whole-body doses for workers in IARC nuclear worker epidemiologic studies. 

The basis for comparison for neutron radiation is more complicated because historically the calibration 

of dosimeters to measure neutron dose was based on different dose quantities such as First Collision 

Dose, Multiple Collision Dose, Dose Equivalent Index, etc. The numerical significance in using these 

dose quantities compared to the Hp(10) dose used in current DOELAP performance testing 

represents an additional uncertainty in retrospective dose analyses. The relative value of the dose 

conversion factors for the respective neutron dose quantities used at Hanford has not been compared 

because, as noted in later sections, the response characteristics of the Hanford Eastman Kodak 

Nuclear Track Film Type A (NTA) was not adequate in Hanford workplace radiation fields. 

6.3 DOSE RECONSTRUCTION PARAMETERS

Examinations of the beta, photon (X-ray, gamma ray), and neutron radiation type, energy, and 

geometry of exposure in the workplace, and the characteristics of the respective Hanford dosimeter 

response are crucial to the assessment of bias and uncertainty of the original recorded dose in 

relation to the radiation quantity Hp(10). The bias and uncertainty for current Hanford dosimetry 

systems is well documented for Hp(10) (Rathbone 2002). The performance of current dosimeters can 

often be compared with performance characteristics of historical dosimetry systems in the same, or 

highly similar, facilities or workplaces. In addition, current performance testing techniques can be 

applied to earlier dosimetry systems to achieve a consistent evaluation of historical dosimetry 

systems. Dosimeter response characteristics for radiation types and energies in the workplace are 

crucial to the overall analysis of error in recorded dose.

Overall, accuracy and precision of the original recorded individual worker doses and their 

comparability to be considered in using NIOSH (2002) guidelines depend on (Fix et al 1997):

• Administrative practices adopted by facilities to calculate and record personnel dose based 

on technical, administrative, and statutory compliance considerations.

• Dosimetry technology, which includes the physical capabilities of the dosimetry system, such 

as the response to different types and energies of radiation, in particular in mixed radiation 

fields.

• Calibration of the respective monitoring systems and similarity of the methods of calibration to 

sources of exposure in the workplace.

• Workplace radiation fields that might include mixed types of radiation, variations in exposure 

geometries, and environmental conditions.

An evaluation of the original recorded doses based on these parameters is expected to provide the 

best estimate of Hp(10) and, as necessary, Hp(0.07) for individual workers with the least relative 

overall uncertainty. 
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6.3.1

Historically, Hanford had an extensive radiation safety monitoring program to measure exposure in 

the workplace using portable radiation instruments, contamination surveys, zone controls, and 

personnel dosimeters (Howell et al 1989). This was done directly or under the guidance of a specially 

trained group of radiation monitors (i.e., radiation protection technologists). The results from the 

personnel dosimeters were used to measure and record dose from external radiation exposure to 

Hanford workers throughout the history of Hanford operations (Wilson 1987). These dosimeters 

include one or more of the following:

Hanford Historical Administrative Practices

• Personnel whole-body (WB) beta/photon dosimeters. 

• Pocket Ionization Chamber (PIC) dosimeters. 

• Personnel extremity dosimeters. 

• Personnel whole-body neutron dosimeters. 

Hanford began operations in 1944 using in-house dosimeter and processing technical support. 

Hanford based its beta/photon film dosimetry methods on the dosimeter design developed at the 

Metallurgical Laboratory by Pardue, Goldstein, and Wollan (1944) that was implemented at several of 

the MED sites. Hanford implemented its individual worker neutron dosimetry methods beginning in 

1944 using PICs with a 10B-enriched lining. In 1950, it implemented the Eastman-Kodak Nuclear 

Track, Type A (NTA) emulsion film dosimeter capability. 

Parameters concerning Hanford administrative practices significant to dose reconstruction include: 

• Policies to assign dosimeters to workers. 

• Policies to exchange dosimeters. 

• Policies to record notional dose (i.e., some identified value for lower dosed workers often 

based on a small fraction of the regulatory limit). 

• Policies to estimate dose for missing or damaged dosimeters. 

• Policies to replace destroyed or missing records. 

• Policies to evaluate and record dose for incidents. 

• Policies to obtain and record occupational dose to workers for other employer exposure. 

Hanford policies appear to have been in place for all of these parameters. Routine Hanford practices 

appear to have required assigning dosimeters to all workers who entered a controlled radiation area 

(Hart 1967). Dosimeters were exchanged on a routine schedule. All dosimeters were processed, and 

the measured results were recorded and used to estimate dose. There appears to be no use of 

recorded notional doses, although there are issues of “missed” recorded dose for low-dosed 

dosimeters (see section on “missed dose”) as well as recorded doses for individual dosimeters at 

levels less than the statistical Minimum Detection Level (MDL). 

Early Hanford dosimetry procedures (HEW 1946) describe several aspects of the routine 

dosimetry program. Hanford workers entering operating areas were assigned dosimeters 

beginning in 1944. The trend in the number of monitored workers and the collective dose for 

these workers is shown in Figure 6.3.1-1. Figure 6.3.1-2 illustrates the trend in the number of 
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workers with positive recorded dose from photon and neutron radiation, respectively, along 

with the number of monitored workers. The trends in the respective Figures do not show any 

abrupt changes that may be indicative of significant changes in photon dosimetry or 

assignment of dosimeters (Buschbom and Gilbert 1993). Figure 6.3.1-2 does illustrate abrupt 

changes in the number of workers with neutron dose greater than zero. This is discussed later 

in this section. 

1.E+03

1.E+04

1.E+05

1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

Year

No. of Monitored Workers

Collective Dose (person-rem) for All Workers

Figure 6.3.1-1. Trend in the collective dose for Hanford workers and the number 

of monitored Hanford workers, 1944-89.

1.E+01

1.E+02

1.E+03

1.E+04

1.E+05

1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

Year

No. of Monitored Workers

No. of workers, Recorded Annual Dose > 0

No. of workers, Recorded Neutron Dose > 0

Figure 6.3.1-2. Trend in the number of Hanford monitored workers, the number 

of workers with recorded photon > 0, the number of workers with recorded neutron 

dose > 0, and the total collective dose, 1944-89
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Administrative practices are generally described in Wilson (1987), a description of the content 

of the historical recorded dose values for each year by Fix, Carbaugh and MacLellan (2001), 

and detailed information for each worker is in the NIOSH claim documentation. The claim 

documentation provides specific information to be evaluated regarding the recorded dose of 

record. There does not appear to be any significant administrative practice that would 

jeopardize the integrity of the recorded dose of record. Gilbert (1990) found agreement 

between the original paper records and computerized dose records. In addition, evaluations 

of Hanford film dosimeter results were examined in the 1960s at the University of Pittsburgh 

as part of the AEC Health and Mortality Study of Hanford workers (AEC 1966). The evaluation 

by the University of Pittsburgh researchers was that the recorded dose data showed that 

“good quality control was exercised over the film badge calibration and processing procedures 

at Hanford over the years (i.e., 1944-61).”

6.3.2

Hanford external dosimetry practices are essentially the same as practices adopted at the MED 

Metallurgical and Clinton laboratories in the early to mid-1940s. Parker (1945) described results of 

intercomparisons of dosimeter processing and exposure calculations between these three 

laboratories prior to declaring the Hanford system capable of routine dosimeter processing. 

Comparisons of dose interpretation among these MED/AEC sites, and other sites, were done through 

the years (Wilson et al 1990). All of these sites followed a similar evolution in dosimetry technology 

using PICs in addition to a two-element film dosimeter in the 1940s and early 1950s, leading to 

multielement film dosimeters in the later 1950s followed by TLDs in the 1960s and 1970s. The 

adequacy of the respective dosimetry methods to measure radiation dose accurately is determined 

from the radiation type, energy, exposure geometry, etc., as described in later sections. The 

dosimeter exchange frequency was gradually lengthened, generally corresponding to the period of the 

regulatory dose controls (GE 1954). At the beginning of Hanford operations, a dose control of 1 mSv 

per day (100 millirem/day) was in effect. This was changed to a dose control of 3 mSv per week (300 

millirem/week) and later to a limit of 50 mSv per year (5,000 millirem) in the later 1950s. Table 6.3.2-1 

summarizes major events in the Hanford personnel dosimetry program. 

Hanford Dosimetry Technology

Table 6.3.2-1. Hanford historical dosimetry events. (Wilson 1987, Wilson et al 1990)

Date Description

1/1944 PICs used for a few months to measure recorded dose for each worker prior to film dosimeter 

availability. Thereafter, PICs used in addition to film dosimeters. 

10/1944 Two-element (i.e., open window and 1-mm silver filter) beta/photon film dosimeter issued to 

personnel. Film response under the silver filter was converted to personnel dose by comparing 

film optical response with calibrated film response from 226Ra. Minimum detectable dose 

based on laboratory irradiations was 0.3 mSv (30 millirem) (Wilson 1960).

Routine dosimeter exchange period was weekly. 

1/1948 Beta/photon dosimeter exchange changed to biweekly.

1/1950 NTA was used to measure neutron radiation. Film exchange was weekly.

Uranium used to calibrate open window beta response.

Extremity film dosimeter use and processing began.

1952 Identified penetrating dose calculation as OW/5 + S, likely only in plutonium facilities, but actual 

practice not verified. As such, in this TBD, it is assumed that this was not done.

4/1957 Multielement film dosimeter use was implemented. This design permitted analysis of beta, 

gamma, and X-ray exposure to personnel. 

5/1957 Monthly beta/photon film dosimeter exchange implemented.

7/1957 New dosimeter holder implemented exclusively for NTA film

1958 Automated densitometer and computer analysis capability introduced to replace manually 

operated densitometer. 
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Date Description

7/1958 NTA exchange changed to biweekly.

1962 Second multielement film dosimeter design implemented; replaced design used since 1957. 

This dosimeter incorporated nuclear accident capabilities in addition to routine personnel 

dosimetry. 

1963 Quarterly film dosimeter exchange for nonradiological workers implemented .

3/1964 Tritium dose included in annual whole-body dose. 

1966 Accumulated dose from 1944-1961 was rounded up to nearest multiple of 10 millirem (i.e., 

2,487 to 2,490). Thereafter, all doses shown to nearest multiple of 10 millirem.

late 1960s Parallel field testing of new TLDs and film dosimeter conducted. Selected Hanford workers 

wore both dosimeters. 

1/1971 Basic (one-chip) TLD implemented.

1/1972 Five-chip HMPD implemented.

7/1978 Four-chip HMPD implemented.

1/1984 Five-chip HMPD reinstated.

Mid-1980s On-phantom calibration of dosimeters implemented to conform to preliminary DOELAP 

performance testing criteria. Laboratory testing showed 8% and 4% increase, respectively, in 

dosimeter response for on-phantom exposure using 226Ra or 137Cs exposures. 

1/1/1987 Routine photon calibration changed to 137Cs from 226Ra source. Overall change in recorded 

dose, described in Fix et al (1982), was a 7% decrease from previous methods because of the 

decrease resulting from on-phantom calibration (-10%) and increase in recorded dose from the 

dose conversion factor (+3%).

1989 Hanford TLD is DOELAP-accredited for performance testing. Lower limit of detection, based 

on DOELAP protocol for laboratory irradiations, was about 0.2 mSv (20 millirem) for deep dose 

components. 

1/1/1995 Commercial dosimetry system replaced site-specific TLD. Routine dosimeter exchange is 

quarterly for Panasonic beta/photon dosimeter and monthly for Panasonic TLND.

6.3.2.1 Beta/Photon Dosimeters

The following paragraphs describe the Hanford beta/photon dosimeters and period of routine use to 

provide the recorded dose of record.

Pocket Ionization Chamber, 1944. During January 1944, before the Hanford film dosimetry system 

was operational, pocket ionization chambers (PICs) were used for a few months to provide the dose 

of record (Wilson 1987). PICs were issued to employees in duplicate (i.e., two to each worker) and 

exposures were recorded daily. PICs typically over-estimate the exposure from routine handling and 

environmental effects (Watson 1957) because of “false-positive” dose from routine handling and 

environmental effects and, as such, the lower of the two readings for each day was used to calculate 

the dose for comparison with the daily dose limits at that time. Following use as the earliest

dosimeters, PICs have been used throughout the history of Hanford operations to provide 

administrative control of worker dose until the dosimeter being worn was processed and the dose 

calculated. It has been routine practice since at least the early 1950s to compare the doses 

measured with PICs and dosimeters and, for significant differences, to document the reason(s) for the 

discrepancy.

Two-Element Film Dosimeter, October 1944 to March 1957. Hanford implemented a two-element 

beta/photon dosimeter in 1944 based on the design developed by Pardue, Goldstein, and Wollan 

(1944) at the Metallurgical Laboratories. This dosimeter had essentially the same design as that used 

at the Clinton Laboratory (now ORNL) and later by other MED/AEC/DOE laboratories. The Hanford 

design consisted of an open window and a 1-mm silver shield. Records of dosimeter film processing 

identify the regions of the dosimeter film as “OW” for open window and “S” for silver. A calibration 
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factor for each batch of film was used to convert the optical density to dose. The optical density and 

the interpreted dose are on the original Hanford dosimetry forms. In 1952, 20% of the OW dose was 

added to the S dose to calculate the penetrating dose in plutonium facilities (Fix, Wilson, and 

Baumgartner 1997). 

Another feature of the Hanford beta/photon film dosimeter was the use of 502-type film with a 

sensitive (lower radiation dose response) and an insensitive (typically accident-level dose response) 

side to each film packet. Normally, only the sensitive side of the film was useful for personnel dose 

assessment. However, Hanford individual worker personnel dose forms included space to record the 

insensitive film response. Prior to 1957, the processing data were recorded manually. Worker 

personnel dose forms were updated each year to enable staff to record dosimeter results directly for 

each dosimeter exchange period and each operating area. These forms were organized to enable 

manual entry of dosimeter results and to record the total annual and cumulative dose for each worker. 

In 1958 approximately, annual dose data were transferred to the newly implemented Hanford 

radiological computer database. During entry of the older records, a dose recorded prior to 1958 as a 

multiple of 5 millirem (i.e., 0, 5, 10,15,...) was rounded up to the first multiple of 10 millirem (i.e., 15 

millirem became 20, etc.). This provided consistency with the new (computer based) practice of 

recording dose only to the first multiple of 10 millirem (10, 20, 30, etc.). This practice is still in use.

Multielement Film Dosimeters, April 1957 to December 1971. Hanford used multielement film 

dosimeters to measure beta, X-ray, and gamma radiation dose components in one of two designs 

during the periods of, respectively, 1958 to 1961 and 1962 to 1971. These “beta/photon” film 

dosimeters consisted of four shielded areas and provided a substantially improved capability to 

measure Hp(0.07) and Hp(10). Processing results (i.e., optical density) were recorded for the film 

response behind each filter and an algorithm was used to calculate the respective dose components. 

Thirty-five percent of the X-ray dose was assigned to the whole-body dose of record based on depth 

dose measurements in water at Hanford for 16 keV k-fluorescent x-ray (Wilson et al 1990). Water 

closely simulates the radiation response of tissue. The whole-body dose also included the assigned 

neutron dose, as described in this chapter, and, beginning in March 1964, the assigned tritium dose 

based on methods described in Chapter 5 along with other nuclide intake into the body. The tritium 

dose was recorded separately after 1987. The skin dose of record was calculated as the sum of the 

whole-body (i.e., penetrating, 35% of X-ray, neutron, and tritium) and nonpenetrating doses. 

Thermoluminescent Dosimeter, January 1972 to December 1994. Hanford has used 

thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs) in a few configurations. A “Basic” TLD (Kathren 1970) with 

limited capability for beta and photon (X- and gamma ray) radiation was used from January 1, 1971, 

through about 1988. This dosimeter, which had one chip, was assigned to personnel with little or no 

potential to receive dose (Wilson 1987). Hanford Multipurpose TLDs (HMPDs) were used from 

January 1, 1972 through December 31, 1994, to measure beta, photon, and neutron radiation. 

HMPDs originally had a five-chip design, which was changed to a four-chip design in July 1977 

(Glenn 1977) to enable use of a commercial reader system, and then returned to a five-chip design in 

January 1983 (Fleischman 1982) until the system was replaced on January 1, 1995, with a 

commercial system. The same filtration was used in the HMPD through all the years of use. These 

dosimeters were assigned to personnel likely to work in radiation fields. The HMPD was first 

accredited for performance testing in 1989 by the DOELAP in beta and photon radiation categories. 

The system has been reaccredited during later (typically 2-year) accreditation cycles. 

Commercial TLD System, January 1995–Present. Hanford implemented a commercial Harshaw 

TLD system on January 1, 1995. This system includes a four-chip beta/photon dosimeter and a 
Effective Date: 10/21/2003 Revision No. 00 Procedure No. ORAUT-TKBS-0006-6 Page 15 of 68

separate neutron dosimeter. Technical characteristics are described in the Hanford External 

Dosimetry Technical Basis Manual (Rathbone 2002).

6.3.2.2 Neutron Dosimeters 

Hanford has used three general types of neutron dosimeters, which differ dramatically in their 

response to neutron radiation (Brackenbush et al. 1980). 

• Pocket Ionization Chamber. Prior to 1950, Hanford relied on PICs with enriched 10B liners to 

detect slow neutron exposure (Wilson 1987).

• Neutron Track Emulsion. The Hanford NTA neutron dosimeter was implemented on January 

1, 1950, and used through December 31, 1971. 

• Thermoluminescent Dosimeter. The HMPD for beta, photon, and neutron radiation was 

implemented on January 1, 1972. The HMPD was implemented as a 5-chip design with an 

automated reader system (Kocher et al 1971). Hanford implemented a commercial Harshaw 

TLD system on January 1, 1995. 

The following paragraphs describe the Hanford personnel neutron dosimeters and their periods of use 

(Fix, Wilson, and Baumgartner 1997). 

Pocket Ionization Chamber, Prior to 1950. Enriched 10B liners were used in PICs to detect slow 

neutron exposure (Wilson 1987). This method is generally acceptable to detect the presence of slow 

neutrons but not for dose measurement. There is no recorded neutron dose for any Hanford worker 

prior to 1950 (Buschbom and Gilbert 1993). 

NTA Film, January 1950 to December 1971. Hanford NTA film, which was introduced on January 1, 

1950, was processed independently from the beta/photon film even though the NTA film was typically 

exchanged along with the beta/photon film. Prior to 1957, NTA film was housed in the two-element

beta/photon dosimeter holder along with the beta/photon film. Beginning in 1958, the NTA film was 

housed in an NTA-specific holder assigned to personnel. There was space in the yearly forms, 

manually prepared before 1957, to record the neutron dose. The Hanford policy to process NTA film 

varied historically but basically involved the practice to read all NTA film for the 200 West plutonium 

facilities and, for other Hanford facilities, to process the NTA only if the photon dose was at least 100 

mrem. This was based on the observation (Watson 1959) that neutron dose was always 

accompanied by photon dose. For the other facilities, potential neutron dose is relatively small 

compared to the photon dose. A neutron dose is recorded for all Hanford workers assigned a NTA 

film. If it was not processed a zero neutron dose is recorded. The earliest recorded neutron dose for 

Hanford workers occurred in 1950 (Buschbom and Gilbert 1993). 

Five-Chip HMPD, January 1972 to June 1977. The five-chip HMPD incorporated a neutron dose 

capability that involved three of the five chips (i.e., 3, 4, and 5). The combination of these chips 

provided capabilities to estimate thermal (i.e., slow) and fast neutron components with the capability 

(chip 5) for an accurate beta/photon response correction (i.e., neutron-sensitive chips also respond to 

photon and high-energy beta radiation) (Kocher et al 1971). Effective July 1, 1977, the dose algorithm 

was changed to use data for only four of the chips (i.e., not chip 5) to utilize the four-chip cards that 

were being implemented (Wilson et al 1990). 

Four-Chip HMPD, July 1977 to December 1983. The HMPD dosimeter was modified to a four-chip 

design to accommodate introduction of a commercial reader system in the later 1970s that required 
Effective Date: 10/21/2003 Revision No. 00 Procedure No. ORAUT-TKBS-0006-6 Page 16 of 68

the dosimeter cards to pivot around the center where chip 5 was located. Tens of thousands of 

HMPD cards were made with chip 5 removed. These modified cards were used in the original fivechip holders. 

Five-Chip HMPD, January 1984 to December 1994. Routine dose evaluation with the five-chip 

HMPD was returned to service effective on January 1, 1984. Several refinements were made to this 

system (Wilson et al 1990) to prepare for DOELAP performance testing. The HMPD was first 

accredited by DOELAP for performance testing in neutron categories in 1989 and reaccredited every 

subsequent (typically 2-year) accreditation cycle thereafter. 

Commercial TLD System, January 1995 to Present. Hanford implemented a commercial Harshaw 

TLD system beginning on January 1, 1995. The neutron dosimeter system was originally a 

combination TLD and track-etch dosimetry (TED) system but essentially the TLD capability was used 

for all routine dose evaluations. Routine use of the TED capability has been discontinued since it did 

not accurately measure worker dose in the workplace (Scherpelz et al 2000). 

6.3.3

Potential error in recorded dose is dependent on the dosimetry technology response characteristics to 

each radiation type, energy, and geometry; the methodology used to calibrate the dosimetry system; 

and the similarity between the radiation fields used for calibration and that in the workplace. The 

potential error is much greater for dosimeters with significant variations in response, such as the film 

dosimeters to low-energy photon radiation and the NTA and HMPD response to neutron radiation. 

Calibration

6.3.3.1 Hanford Beta/Photon Dosimeters

Hanford dosimeters were originally calibrated using 226Ra gamma, uranium beta, and 80 keV X-rays 

(HEW 1946). Routine irradiation in air (i.e., no phantom) of calibration film was done for each batch of 

film. This included 10 exposure levels from 100 to 30,000 mR to 226Ra gamma radiation, seven 

exposure levels from 100 to 5,000 mrads to uranium beta radiation, and 100 to 1,000 mR from 80 keV 

X-ray radiation (HEW 1946). Calibration films were processed with all personnel dosimeters. In the 

early 1950s, Hanford k-fluorescent X-ray capabilities were used to develop dosimeter response 

characteristics for the lower energy photon fields in plutonium facilities (Wilson 1987; Fix, Gilbert, and 

Baumgartner 1994; Wilson et al 1990). Studies by Fix et al (1982, 1981) describe technical 

characteristics of Hanford recorded dose compared to the Hp(10) dose based on work performed for 

Hanford’s participation in the DOELAP performance testing that was formally required in the latter 

1980s (DOE 1986). At that time, it was concluded that a 10% decrease in the recorded dose would 

result from on-phantom calibration irradiations. This effect is partially compensated by the 3% 

increase in recorded dose resulting from use of the 137Cs dose to exposure conversion factor (Fix et al 

1982: Study 2).

No change in the recorded dose is proposed to account for the approximate 7% over-estimate in the 

recorded dose prior to the implementation of on-phantom calibration or other similar comparatively 

small changes because of the overall uncertainty of changes made over the years. Table C.2 of 

Wilson et al. (1990) lists a chronology of changes to the Hanford TLD system. Common sources of 

laboratory bias are listed in Table 6.3.3.1-1 for personnel beta/photon dosimeter calibration based on 

comparison of the recorded dose with Hp(10). Wilson (1960) measured a standard deviation of ±25% 

(one-sigma) based on laboratory irradiations performed to estimate the dosimetry detection level (i.e., 

about 30 mrem). 
Effective Date: 10/21/2003 Revision No. 00 Procedure No. ORAUT-TKBS-0006-6 Page 17 of 68

Table 6.3.3.1-1. Laboratory sources of uncertainty for beta/photon dosimeter calibration 

parameters.

Parameter Historical description Uncertaintya Comment

In-air 

calibration

In the 1980s, Hanford began 

exposing calibration dosimeters 

on phantoms (used to simulate 

worker body). Previous 

calibrations do not include 

response from radiation 

backscatter response.

+10% Recorded dose of record too high. 

Backscatter radiation from worker body 

is highly dependent on dosimeter 

design. Fix et al. (1982, Study 2) 

measured a bias of about 10% for 137Cs 

gamma radiation with HMPD.

Radiation 

quantity

Before 1980s, Hanford 

dosimeter systems were 

typically calibrated to a photon 

beam measured as exposure.

-5% For higher energy 226Ra and 137Cs 

gamma radiation used to calibrate 

dosimeters, this caused a slight (about 

3%) under-response in recorded dose. 

Tissue depth of 

dose

Historically, Hanford used an 

unspecified depth to estimate 

the deep dose. 

±5% The numerical effect of this for photon 

radiation is comparatively low. Hanford 

dosimeter designs had filtration density 

thickness of about 1,000 mg/cm2 that 

would relate closely to the 1-cm depth in 

tissue. 

Angular 

response

Hanford dosimeter system is 

calibrated using anteriorposterior (A-P) laboratory 

irradiations.

> 300 keV, 

~20%

Recorded dose of record likely too low 

since the dosimeter response is usually 

lower at non-A-P angles. Effect is highly 

dependent on radiation type and energy. 

Environmental 

stability

Hanford film dosimeter and TLD 

systems are subject to signal 

fade with time, heat, humidity, 

light, etc.

±10% Recorded dose of record depends 

strongly on dosimetry parameters such 

as when calibration dosimeters were 

irradiated and processed. Mid-cycle 

calibration minimizes effects. a. Uncertainty estimate in recorded dose compared to Hp(10) based on judgment from Hanford dosimeter laboratory studies. 

Figure 6.3.3.1-1 shows the laboratory measured A-P photon energy response of the respective 

Hanford dosimeter systems. As noted in this figure, the film dosimeter OW response shows a 

significant over-response to lower energy photon radiation. Operationally, the over-response was so 

significant that some option was necessary to interpret the dosimeter response based on the 

anticipated radiation fields in the work environment. The ratio of the OW to the filtered film response 

was routinely used in dose evaluation (Larson and Roesch 1954), and there is reference to using a 

fraction (0.2) of the OW response to add to the penetrating dose in facilities with low-energy photons 

and no beta radiation (i.e., plutonium facilities) (Fix, Wilson, and Baumgartner 1997). However, it has 

not been validated that this was actually done. An analysis of the bias in the nonpenetrating and 

penetrating dose is presented in Table 6.3.3.1-2. The Hanford recorded skin dose is calculated as the 

sum of the open window (OW) and silver (S) filtered film response. The recorded Hanford whole body 

(WB) dose is calculated using 20% of the OW film response in addition to the measured S film 

response using the historical Hanford dosimeter testing data in Appendix A of Wilson et al (1990). As 

noted in this table, the calculated WB dose for the lower energy photons, characteristic of Hanford 

plutonium facilities, is conservatively estimated using this practice in comparison with Hp(10). The 

practice is applicable only to workers in Hanford plutonium facilities. Application of this practice to 

Hanford reactor and radiochemical facilities with primarily mixed beta and photon fields would result in 

a significant

overestimate of Hp(10) as noted in Table 6.3.3.1-2 for uranium and 90Sr/90Y exposures. As such, a 

claimant favorable recommendation, for plutonium workers only, is to apply the calculation of the WB 
Effective Date: 10/21/2003 Revision No. 00 Procedure No. ORAUT-TKBS-0006-6 Page 18 of 68

dose using 20% of the OW dose in addition to the measured S dose pending confirmation that the 

historical Hanford WB dose does indeed include the 20% of the OW dose. 

0.1

1

10

100

0.01 0.1 1 10

R

e

l

a

t

i

v

e

R

e

s

p

o

n

s

e

Energy, MeV

Hp(10)

Film OW

Silver Shield

Multi-Element Dosimeter Dose

TLD Dose

137Cs

Figure 6.3.3.1-1. Measured Hanford dosimeter photon response characteristics.

(Wilson et al 1990)

Table 6.3.3.1-2. Analysis of Two-Element film dosimeter dose.

(a)

Source Exposure

(mR)(b)

Delivered dose, 

mrem(c)

Dosimeter 

Dose

Recorded Dose(d)

Hp(0.07) Hp(10) OW S Skin WB

16 keV 40 43 15 353 7 360 78

80 86 30 710 7 717 149

160 173 61 2213 3 2216 446

59 keV 30 44 46 653 17 670 148

50 74 77 1237 23 1260 270

80 118 123 2553 27 2580 538

137Cs 50 52 52 7 50 57 51

240 247 247 10 247 257 249

750 773 773 24 750 774 755

1000 1030 1030 47 1000 1047 1009

Uranium 50 50 0 50 0 50 10

240 240 0 250 0 250 50

750 750 0 756 20 776 171

1000 1000 0 1000 23 1023 223

90Sr/90Y(e) 50 50 0 103 3 106 24

240 240 0 353 3 356 74

750 750 0 1370 13 1383 287

1000 1000 0 2070 6 2076 420

a. PNL=7447, Appendix A, dosimeter data, average value shown in table.

b. Photon dose in mR and beta dose in mrad.

c. Exposure to dose conversion factors from DOELAP Standard (DOE 1986).

d. Skin Dose = OW + S, Whole body (WB) dose = S + 0.2 * OW.

e. Table shows factor of about 2 over-response to 90Sr/90Y based on uranium calibration.
Effective Date: 10/21/2003 Revision No. 00 Procedure No. ORAUT-TKBS-0006-6 Page 19 of 68

6.3.3.2 Hanford Neutron Dosimeters

Historical aspects of the calibration of Hanford NTA and HMPDs are described by Fix, Wilson, and 

Baumgartner (1997). Table 6.3.3.2-1 lists common sources of laboratory bias for personnel neutron 

dosimeter calibration based on the expected comparison of the recorded dose with Hp(10). 

Brackenbush et al (1980) describes the energy response characteristics of NTA and TLD dosimeters, 

and these are characteristic of Hanford neutron dosimeters. Fundamentally, the NTA dosimeter is 

capable of an accurate dose estimate for higher energy neutron radiation greater than about 1 MeV 

because the NTA has a lower energy threshold of about 700 keV. 

Table 6.3.3.2-1. Laboratory sources of uncertainty for neutron dosimeter calibration parameters.

Parameter Historical description Uncertaintya Comment

Source energy 

spectra

Hanford has used many sources to 

calibrate dosimeters (Fix, Wilson, and 

Baumgartner 1997) and perhaps in

calibration geometries to degrade the 

spectra such as with the PuF4 source. 

±100% The delivered dose used in 

calibrating neutron dosimeters, 

particularly the NTA, is uncertain

as noted in Fix, Wilson, and 

Baumgartner (1997) (see 

workplace radiation fields).

Radiation 

quantity

Neutron dose quantities used to 

calibrate neutron dosimeter systems 

have varied historically; these 

quantities primarily include first and 

multiple collision dose, and neutron 

dose equivalent index factors.

±50% This represents a significant and 

complicated issue, particularly for 

early neutron sources. 

Angular 

response

Hanford dosimeters calibrated using 

A-P laboratory irradiations.

-50% Recorded dose of record likely too 

low because dosimeter response 

is often lower at angles other than 

A-P. Effect is highly dependent on 

energy. 

Environmental 

stability

NTA film dosimeter and TLD systems 

are subject to signal fade with time, 

heat, humidity, light, etc.

±50% Recorded dose of record likely too 

low because of fading; however, 

this effect depends strongly on 

such routine dosimetry practices 

as when calibration dosimeters 

were irradiated. 

a. Uncertainty in recorded dose compared to Hp(10) based on laboratory studies.

The Hanford TLD (Kocher et al 1971) has a comparatively high response to thermal neutrons and is 

generally used to measure neutron radiation scattered from the workers body (i.e., the Albedo effect). 

The NTA and TLD neutron dosimeters must be calibrated to neutron spectra similar to that present in 

the workplace for accurate dose results. There are many Hanford reports on technical aspects of 

neutron source calibration (Fix et al 1997). Several address the controversy concerning whether a 

first-collision or multiple-collision neutron dose factor should be used. A significant change based on 

Hanford studies (Budd 1963) showed no significant statistical difference in response between NTA 

dosimeters exposed to PuBe and PuF4 neutron source irradiations in-air and on-phantom. Based on 

this, the identified action was to change to the multiple-collision RBE dose from a single collision RBE 

dose, effective with the 2-week period ending July 12, 1963. The difference in recorded dose 

between the two calibration references was an increase in recorded neutron dose of about 35%. 
Effective Date: 10/21/2003 Revision No. 00 Procedure No. ORAUT-TKBS-0006-6 Page 20 of 68

6.3.4

Hanford operations are characterized by significant complex beta, photon, and neutron radiation fields 

in Hanford reactor, irradiated fuel processing, plutonium handling, and radioactive waste facilities. 

Workplace Radiation Fields

6.3.4.1 Hanford Beta/Photon Dosimeter Response Testing

In 1944, when the Hanford two-element dosimeter was being implemented, an intercomparison test 

was performed with the Metallurgical and Clinton laboratories to evaluate the respective dosimetry 

systems, which were essentially identical (Parker 1945). This testing led to the following conclusions: 

• The badge systems at all three sites were satisfactory for adequate determination of gamma 

radiation exposure of personnel.

• The calibrations of all three laboratories were in agreement.

• More frequent calibrations at high exposures should be made.

• Greater attention to photometer reproducibility is desirable.

The evaluation also concluded that greater attention to beta and low-energy X-rays was needed at 

Hanford and that neutron films (i.e., NTA) are useful only for higher neutron exposures than will 

normally occur at Hanford. These statements were made in 1945 prior to operation of many of the 

Hanford facilities. Later, it became evident that mixed beta/photon radiation fields and neutron

radiation presented a significant technical challenge, which led to ongoing research and development 

in Hanford dosimetry technology.

Several studies of Hanford film dosimeter performance, stability of latent image, etc., were performed 

during the 1950s (Wilson 1957, 1960). As described in Wilson et al. (1990), many intercomparison 

and performance studies were done at Hanford and between Hanford and other MED/AEC/DOE 

facilities. These studies generally confirmed the acceptability of Hanford assessment of

nonpenetrating and penetrating dose as defined at that time. Several studies of the HMPD were 

performed (Fix et al. 1981, 1982) in preparing for the DOELAP performance testing that included 

explicit identification of dose quantities (ANSI 1983, DOE 1986) as measured in comparison to what is 

now referred to as the Personal Dose Equivalent, Hp(d), were d refers to a 0.07- or 10-mm depth in 

tissue. In general, only small changes (± 10%) were necessary to improve comparison in laboratory 

studies with Hp(10), although additional changes were necessary to improve overall precision (Fix et 

al 1982). 

In recent years, further studies of early dosimeter performance compared to Hp(10) have been made 

because of its use in worker health effect studies. The International Agency for Research on Cancer 

conducted a dosimeter intercomparison study to higher energy (i.e., >100 keV) photons of 10 

commonly used dosimetry systems used throughout the world (Thierry-Chef et al 2002). Two of the 

film dosimeter designs were from Hanford – the two-element dosimeter design (identified as US-2) 

and the multielement film dosimeter design (identified as US-8). The IARC Study considered that 

exposure to dosimeters worn by workers could be characterized as anterior-posterior(A-P), rotational 

and isotropic irradiation geometries, or a combination thereof. Dosimeter response to selected photon 

energies was measured using two phantoms, which were used to simulate the effect of the worker’s 

body on the measured dosimeter response. The first phantom was the International Standards 

Organization (ISO) water-filled slab phantom, which is used for dosimeter calibration and performance 

testing. The second was an anthropomorphic Alderson Rando Phantom, which is constructed from a 
Effective Date: 10/21/2003 Revision No. 00 Procedure No. ORAUT-TKBS-0006-6 Page 21 of 68

natural human skeleton cast inside material that has a tissue equivalent response. The results of 

IARC testing, for U.S. dosimeters only, are listed in Table 6.3.4.1-1. This table includes results for the 

DOE Savannah River Site (SRS) commercial TLD (US-22), which is expected to be representative of 

the Hanford TLD system.

Table 6.3.4.1-1. IARC testing results for U.S. beta/photon dosimeters.

Geometry Phantom

118 keV 208 keV 662 keV

Meana SD/Mean Meana SD/Mean Meana SD/ Mean

US-2 (Hanford two-element film dosimeter)

A-P Slab 3.0 2.1 1.3 1 1.0 0.8

A-P Anthropomorphic 3.0 4.2 1.2 1.9 1.0 1.8

Rotational Anthropomorphic 2.2 2 1.4 3 1.2 3.2

Isotropic Anthropomorphic 1.5 4.4 1.1 1.6 1.0 2.7

US-8 (Hanford multielement film dosimeter)

A-P Slab 1.0 1.5 1.0 0.8 0.8 1.7

A-P Anthropomorphic 0.8 9.5 0.9 6 0.8 1.8

Rotational Anthropomorphic 1.2 1.9 1.2 17 1.1 1.8

Isotropic Anthropomorphic 1.0 3 1.2 9 1.0 2.3

US-22 (SRS multi-element thermoluminescent dosimeter)

A-P Slab 0.9 4.4 0.9 3.9 0.9 3.5

A-P Anthropomorphic 0.8 3.1 0.9 2.1 0.9 3.9

Rotational Anthropomorphic 1.1 3.1 1.2 1.5 1.0 4.1

Isotropic Anthropomorphic 0.9 0.3 1.0 2.5 0.9 1.6

a. Ratio of recorded dose to Hp(10). 

Hanford conducted intercomparison testing of all its historical film dosimeter designs using A-P 

(Wilson et al 1990) and angular (Fix et al 1994) irradiations on an Alderson Rando phantom 

essentially identical to the phantom used in the IARC studies. These studies included lower-energy 

(i.e., < 100 keV) photons that are significant in Hanford plutonium facilities. Data from Wilson et al 

(1990) are summarized in Table 6.3.4.1-2. The dosimeter results for energies greater than 100 keV 

are consistent with the IARC results, showing an over-estimate of Hp(10) for the two-element 

dosimeter. For energies less than 100 keV, the two-element dosimeter will underestimate the photon 

dose without using some method of adjustment such as a fraction of the dosimeter open window or 

silver shielded response. This potential under-response is evident in the original University of 

Chicago two-element dosimeter energy response curve (Pardue, Goldstein, and Wollan 1944). 

Table 6.3.4.1-2. Testing results for Hanford two-element and multielement film dosimeters for 

energy and angular response.

a,b

Beam

(energy, 

keV)

AP exposure Rotational exposure

Film dosimeters Film dosimeters

Twoelement

1944–56

Multielement

1957–71

TLD

1972–present

Twoelement 

1944–56

Multielement

1957–71

TLD

1972–93

16b 0.1 0.9

59b 0.5 1.1

M150(70) 0.7 0.70 0.95 1.31 1.31 1.77

H150(120) 1.6 0.64 0.87 3.00 1.20 1.64

137Cs(662) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.46 1.46 1.46

a. Divide recorded dose by table value to estimate Hp(10). 

b. Based on Wilson et al (1990).
Effective Date: 10/21/2003 Revision No. 00 Procedure No. ORAUT-TKBS-0006-6 Page 22 of 68

Another source of data to evaluate relative performance response is presented in Nichols et al. 

(1972), in which data were collected from parallel field testing in 1970 and 1971 of the Hanford 

multielement film dosimeter dose in comparison with the dose from the HMPD implemented on 

January 1, 1972. Measurements were performed, some involving dosimeters placed on water-filled 

carboys, at 49 work locations in the Plutonium-Uranium Extraction Facility (PUREX), B-Plant, 

Plutonium Finishing Plant (PFP), 105-KE Building (reactor operating), 100-N (reactor not operating), 

and the 325-B, 325, and 327 Buildings. Table 6.3.4.1-3 lists the collective nonpenetrating and 

penetrating dose measured with the Hanford film dosimeter and HMPD and, when available, the open 

window (nonpenetrating) and closed window (penetrating) ionization chamber “Cutie Pie (CP)” 

measurements. This table includes measurements with selected calibration sources. The information 

in Table 6.3.4.1-3 generally shows acceptable agreement considering the variability in the field 

measurements are similar to those of the calibration sources. The nonpenetrating response of the 

film dosimeter was routinely calibrated with a uranium slab source, whereas a 90Sr/90Y source was 

routinely used to calibrate the HMPD nonpenetrating response. There is an approximate factor of 2 

difference in dosimeter response between these two sources and this is shown in this table(i.e., for 

90Sr/90Y source irradiation, 690 mrem for film versus 315 mrem for TLD). 

Table 6.3.4.1-3. Workplace measured nonpenetrating and penetrating collective doses. (Nichols 

et al 1972)

Facility

Nonpenetrating, mrad Penetrating, millirem

Film TLD CP Film TLD CP

Purex 4,260 3,790 3,640 3,480 3,570 2,806

B-Plant 10,550 9,510 13,850 2,250 4,560 4,920

PFP 4,060 4,220 (np) 3,920 4,090 5,410

105—KEa 9,390 9,150 10,324 9,390 9,100 10,104

105-Nb 12,070 13,440 7,880 12,030 13,050 7,350

325-B 1,100 1,250 (np) 1,100 1,250 1,760

325 3,690 5,710 5,100 2,640 2,850 3,220

327 870 1,090 (np) 870 1,090 2,260

Calibration sources

Ra-226 260 310 (np) 260 310 300

PuF4 60 100 (np) 60 100 (np)

90Sr/90Yc 690 315 (np) 0 100 275

252Cf 135 180 (np) 135 180 (np)

np – not provided in Nichols et al (1972).

a. Plant operating.

b. Plant not operating

c. Film calibrated with uranium slab. TLD is calculated with 90Sr/90Y. There is about a factor of 2 difference; 

results in this table illustrate this.

The report by Nichols et al (1972) described another aspect of these field studies that involved 150 

personnel wearing beta/photon film dosimeters and HMPDs simultaneously during November 1970 

and January 1971. Figures 63.4.1-1 and 6.3.4.1-2 present the comparison of the penetrating and 

nonpenetrating dose, respectively, for Hanford workers from several facilities including the PFP, which 

is the most likely workplace environment of potential problems. The photon spectrum at PFP does 

have a significant lower-energy component that is comparatively more difficult to measure and is likely 

to have varied historically. Significant fission product contamination of the plutonium is likely to have 

occurred in the beginning of Hanford operations. During later years there is significant ingrowth of 

241Am, and its 60-keV gamma radiation is often dominant (Roberson, Cummings, and Fix 1985; Fix 

1988). It is apparent from Figure 6.3.4.1-1 that the penetrating dose compares reasonably well 

between the Hanford multielement film and the HMPD for all facilities although there appears from this 

data a potential bias in multi-element film. Analysis of the potential bias in multi-element film 
Effective Date: 10/21/2003 Revision No. 00 Procedure No. ORAUT-TKBS-0006-6 Page 23 of 68

dosimeter results relative to the TLD results in the field test by Nichols et al (1972) is difficult because 

of the many uncertainties concerning workers’ practices to wear and position the dosimeters. 

Dosimeter nonpenetrating and penetrating response characteristics depend upon many parameters 

including the radiation type, energy and directional parameters as well as the worker orientation in the 

workplace. 

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

TLD, rem

Film, rem

Figure 6.3.4.1-1. Comparison of Hanford film and TLD penetrating dose results. 

(Nichols et al 1972) 

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5

TLD, rad

Film, rad

Figure 6.3.4.1-2. Comparison of Hanford film and TLD nonpenetrating dose 

results. (Nichols et al 1972)

The collective dose for each of the facilities in which workers wore multi-element film dosimeters and 

TLDs is presented in Table 6.3.4.1-3. The variability in workplace measurements in Table 6.3.4.1-3 is 

similar to the variability in the calibration source measurements using the three methods of 

measurement, each of which has different radiation type, energy and geometry response 
Effective Date: 10/21/2003 Revision No. 00 Procedure No. ORAUT-TKBS-0006-6 Page 24 of 68

characteristics. A wide range of mixed beta and photon radiation and energies is characteristic of 

these facilities. The most significant difference in penetrating dose occurred at the B-Plant. This is 

likely associated with the relatively high nonpenetrating radiation dose indicative of beta and lowerenergy photons, and the penetrating dose response of the HMPD to higher energy beta radiation as 

noted in Fix et al (1982) and Wilson et al (1990). The HMPD records a penetrating dose for higher 

energy beta radiation such as 90Sr/90Y, when there should be none, because there is only 380 mg/cm2 

density thickness in the aluminum filter over the HMPD chip used to calculate the deep dose.

The performance of the multi-element film dosimeter compared to Hp(0.07) and Hp(10) was analyzed 

using the multi-element dosimeter results in Appendix A of PNL-7447. The results are presented in 

Table 63.4.1-1. This information provides good evidence that the multielement film dosimeter 

reasonably estimates Hp(10) and Hp(0.07).

Table 6.3.4.1-4. Analysis of Multielement film dosimeter dose.

(a)

Source Exposure

(mR)(b)

Delivered dose, 

mrem(c) Dosimeter Dose Recorded Dose

Hp(0.07) Hp(10) Beta X-ray Gamm

a

Skin WB

16 keV 40 43 15 0 40 0 40 14

80 86 30 16 78 7 101 34

160 173 61 106 160 0 266 56

59 keV 30 44 46 0 64 24 88 46

50 74 77 0 126 37 163 81

80 118 123 0 216 50 266 126

137Cs 50 52 52 0 0 50 50 50

240 247 247 0 0 240 240 240

750 773 773 0 0 726 726 726

1000 1030 1030 0 0 993 993 993

90Sr/90Y 50 50 0 74 0 0 74 0

240 240 0 302 4 0 306 1

750 750 0 1000 16 0 1016 6

1000 1000 0 1340 18 0 1358 6

a. PNL-7447, Appendix A, dosimeter data, average value shown in table.

b. Photon dose in mR and beta dose in mrad.

c. Exposure to dose conversion factors from DOELAP Standard (DOE 1986).

d. Skin dose = Beta + X-ray + Gamma. Whole Body (WB) = gamma + 0.35 * beta

A report by Fix, Gilbert and Baumgartner (1994) describes laboratory measurements of Hanford film 

and thermoluminescent dosimeter angular response characteristics used to estimate the bias and 

uncertainty in recorded Hanford Dose using methods developed by the National Research Council 

(1989) based on considerations of bias and uncertainty in radiological, environmental and radiation 

field parameters. The report identifies biases and uncertainties in personnel dosimeter results for 

photon energies greater than 100 keV. Bias factors were found to primarily depend upon the photon 

radiation energy, the geometry and the dosimetry system. Bias factors presented in this report are 

consistent with the IARC and Wilson et al (1990) results presented in Tables 6.3.4.1-1 and 6.3.4.1-2, 

respectively. Additional discussion of results in this report is described under uncertainty in workplace 

beta/photon dose. 

6.3.4.2 Hanford Workplace Beta/Photon Dosimeter Response

Field measurements of photon radiation spectra and dose have been performed on many occasions. 

Table 6.3.4.2-1 is a summary of several of those measurements that included the photon spectra. It 

is evident in these measurements that the vast majority of photon dose is higher energy photons with 
Effective Date: 10/21/2003 Revision No. 00 Procedure No. ORAUT-TKBS-0006-6 Page 25 of 68

the exception of the plutonium facilities (308, 234-5) where 17 keV x-rays from plutonium and 60 keV 

photons from 241Am are significant. 

Table 6.3.4.2-1. Hanford workplace photon spectra measurements.a

Facility Description Measurements Resultsb Reference

308 Bldg. Room Background Gamma 241Am (100%) Fix et al 1981

Grinder Hood Bottom Gamma 241Am (100%)

Pellet Pressing Station Gamma 241Am (100%)

327 Bldg. Background A-Cell Gamma 60Co (85%), 137Cs 

(8%), 54Mn (8%)

Background G-Cell Gamma 60Co (79%), 137Cs 

(9%), 54Mn (12%)

200W,2425 Evaporator Building, NE 

Corner

Gamma 137Cs (100%)

200W, Diversion Boxes 241-TX-302-C Catch Tank Gamma 137Cs (100%)

K2U Gamma 137Cs (100%)

Rigging Crew TLD (Beta, 

gamma)

High energy, 

indicative of photon 

radiation

B-Plant (225 Bldg) A-Cell Gamma 137Cs (100%)

Between B-C Cells Gamma 137Cs (100%)

Between D-E Cells Gamma 137Cs (100%)

F-Cell Gamma 137Cs (100%)

Room Background Gamma 137Cs (100%)

271B Pipe Gallery –Cell 9 TLD (Beta, 

gamma)

Indicative of 90Sr/90Y 

324 Bldg. A-Cell Gallery Gamma 137Cs (100%) Fix et al 1982

C-Cell Gallery Gamma 137Cs (100%)

Truck Dock Gamma 137Cs (100%)

331 Bldg. Office Gamma 208Tl (90%), 137Cs(10%) 

Change Room (SE) Gamma 208Tl (8%), 137Cs(92%)

Change Room (Toilet) 208Tl (64%), 137Cs(36%)

Janitor’s closet 208Tl (46%), 137Cs(54%)

340 Bldg. 340-A Outside Gamma 137Cs (100%)

Control Room Gamma 137Cs (100%)

Decon Area Gamma 137Cs (100%)

Operations Office Gamma 137Cs (100%)

3730 Bldg Irradiation Room Gamma 60Co (100%)

Hallway Gamma 60Co (100%)

234-5 Fluorinator Hood Gamma <200 keV (99+%)

17 keV (~50%)

Roberson and 

Cummings 

1985

Photon Energy, keV

< 200 200-2000 >2000 

234-5, Vault 4 Vault 4 Entrance Gamma 13% 55% 33% Roberson et 

234-5, Vault 1 Phantom Gamma 42% 55% 3% al 1986

floor Gamma 50% 48% 2%

Entrance Gamma 17% 61% 22%

234-5, MT Room At hoods near entrance Gamma 0% 83% 17%

234-5, C-Line, Room B 

 

Toward neutron source Gamma 92% 7% 1%

Toward room A Gamma 0% 98% 2%

Near Entrance Gamma 58% 28% 14%

a. Only measurements that included photon spectra are listed.

b Measured non-natural radionuclide significant to occupational exposure. 
Effective Date: 10/21/2003 Revision No. 00 Procedure No. ORAUT-TKBS-0006-6 Page 26 of 68

The extensive field validations of the Hanford film and HMPD in the late 1960s documented by 

Nichols et al (1972) provide significant information on penetrating (PEN) and nonpenetrating (NPEN) 

dosimeter performance in several Hanford facilities and workplace conditions. The ratio of the 

positive (i.e., non-zero) HMPD and film nonpenetrating to penetrating response is shown in Figure 

6.3.4.2-1. This figure implies generally higher ratios for the film in comparison to the HMPD. One 

reason for this is the routine use of uranium to calibrate the film as opposed to the use of 90Sr/90Y for 

the HMPD. As noted in Table 6.3.4.2-1, this results in TLD measurements higher than film 

measurements by a factor of two. As such, the respective film ratios in this figure should be divided 

by 2 for a direct comparison.

0

5

10

15

20

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

HMPD, NPEN/PEN

Film, NPEN/PEN

TLD: NPEN/PEN => 1.0

Film: NPEN/PEN => 1.0

1:1

Figure 6.3.4.2-1. Ratio of nonpenetrating (NPEN) to penetrating (PEN) dose for 

HMPD and film parallel workplace measurements.

In addition, this figure shows that in all film dosimeter and TLD results the reported nonpenetrating 

(NPEN) dose was equal to or greater than the penetrating (PEN) dose (i.e., NPEN ≥ PEN).

6.3.4.3 Uncertainty in Beta/Photon Recorded Dose

Table 6.3.4.3-1 summarizes estimates of Hanford beta/photon personnel dosimeter parameters 

important to Hp(10) performance in the workplace. Based on the respective field and laboratory 

measurements, Hanford dosimeters reasonably measure the Hp(10) dose under most workplace 

radiation fields. The only process of concern is the potential under-response of the original twoelement film dosimeter in plutonium facilities. However, it appears that the Hanford dosimetry staff 

was well aware of this issue. An 80-keV X-ray calibration was used at least as early as 1946 (HEW 

1946). Later, the penetrating dose was calculated as the sum of 20% of the open window response 

plus the 1-mm silver response 

(Fix, Wilson, and Baumgartner 1997). Hanford and IARC studies of the two-element dosimeter have 

shown an over-response of the actual Hp(10) dose by a factor of about 2 to photons greater than 100 
Effective Date: 10/21/2003 Revision No. 00 Procedure No. ORAUT-TKBS-0006-6 Page 27 of 68

keV. A claimant-favorable approach is proposed to ignore this over-response because of the 

complexity of workplace photon energies and exposure geometries that tend to result in an underestimate of the Hp(10) dose. Minimal effect is expected from higher energy beta radiation contribution 

to the Hanford dosimeter penetrating dose response. The respective Hanford dosimeters have 

filtration of approximately 1,000 mg/cm2 (nearly equivalent to 1-cm depth in tissue) for those regions 

of the dosimeter used to measure the whole-body dose. 

Table 6.3.4.3-1. Hanford workplace photon dosimeter Hp(10) performance. 

Parameter Description Biasa Workplace Response

Exposure 

geometry

Hanford dosimeter 

system calibrated 

using A-P laboratory 

irradiations. 

Workplace exposure 

geometries are 

highly variable.

> 100 keV: 

Two–element film 

Dosimeter, ~ +200%

Others, ±25%

< 100 keV: Likely too 

low.

Potential bias in recorded dose is 

variable since it is expected that most 

workers change position in the radiation 

field. It is expected that the highest 

doses are associated with A-P geometry 

where the work is being performed close 

to the radiation source. Effect is highly 

dependent on radiation energy. 

Energy 

response

Response of 

dosimeter compared 

to tissue

Response for all 

dosimeters ±25% with 

the exception for the 

two-element dosimeter 

that is too high around 

100keV and too low 

around 17 keV

Hanford practice to include 1/5 of the 

shallow dose based on a 16-keV 

calibration to the deep dose for Hanford 

plutonium facilities workers probably 

resolves this source of potential underresponse. Reasonable estimate of 

Hp(10) dose is expected.

Mixed fields

Dosimeters respond 

to beta and photon 

radiation.

Reasonable estimate of 

Hp(10) dose is 

expected.

Filtration of about 1,000 mg/cm2 over 

dosimeter component used to calculate 

deep dose minimizes dosimeter 

response to beta radiation. 

Missed dose

Doses less than 

MDL recorded as 

zero dose.

Recorded dose of record 

likely too low.

Hanford recorded doses < MDL for all 

years. The issue is significant, primarily 

in earlier years with frequent dosimeter 

exchange and film dosimeters with 

higher MDLs. 

Environmental 

effects

Workplace heat, 

humidity, etc., fades 

dosimeter signal. 

Recorded dose of record 

likely too low.

Hanford prepared calibration and 

personnel film at the same time, and 

irradiated calibration dosimeters for use 

in processing which would tend to 

maximize time for fading for calibration 

dosimeters but these dosimeters were 

not subject to the workplace 

environment. 

a. Bias represented as percent or as the recorded dose compared to Hp(10) based on judgment from laboratory and field 

measurements

Wilson, Fix, Baumgartner and Nichols (1990) identified bias factors for the respective Hanford 

facilities using each of the Hanford dosimetry systems. They defined the bias factor to be a ratio of 

the Hp(10) dose to the recorded dose. These factors are presented in Table 6.3.4.3-2. 
Effective Date: 10/21/2003 Revision No. 00 Procedure No. ORAUT-TKBS-0006-6 Page 28 of 68

Table 6.3.4.3-2. Uncertainty in beta/photon Hp(10) in Hanford facilities. (Wilson et al 1990)

Facility Type

Beta/Photon 

Field 

Description Dosimeter Type

Bias Factor 

Rangea

Min. Max. Comments

Fuel 

Fabrication

Uranium beta 

and gamma 

radiation

Two-Element Film 0.5 1.6 Recorded whole body dose 

approximates Hp(10) 

response results noted in this 

TBD. 

Multiple-Element 0.7 1.3

TLD 0.8 1.2

Reactor High Energy 

beta and photon 

radiation.

Two-Element Film 0.5 1.7 Recorded whole body dose 

approximates Hp(10) 

response results noted in this 

TBD since predominant 

photon energy > 100 keV. 

Multiple-Element 

Film

0.7 1.4

TLD 0.8 1.2

Fuel 

Reprocessing

Generally mixed 

beta and photon 

radiation

Two-Element Film 0.5 1.6 Recorded whole body dose 

approximates Hp(10) 

response results noted in this 

TBD since predominant 

photon energy > 100 keV.

Multiple-Element 

Film

0.7 1.3

TLD 0.7 1.3

Plutonium 

Finishing

Predominant 

photon energy < 

100 keV.

Two-Element Film (b) (b) Significant uncertainty is 

associated with dose 

estimates in low-energy 

photon fields with the twoelement dosimeter.

Multiple-Element 

Film

1.0 2.0

TLD 0.6 1.4

Waste and 

Laboratory

Generally mixed 

beta and photon 

radiation

Two-Element Film 0.5 1.6 Recorded whole body dose 

closely approximates Hp(10) 

response results noted in this 

TBD since predominant 

photon energy > 100 keV.

Multiple-Element 

Film

0.7 1.3

TLD 0.8 1.2

a. Bias factor defined as ratio of Hp(10) to recorded whole body photon dose.

b. No estimate provided by the authors.

Fix, Gilbert, and Baumgartner (1994) conducted an evaluation of the historical Hanford dosimeter 

performance for photon energies > 100 keV, which is generally applicable to all Hanford workplaces 

with the exception of plutonium facilities. The approach used in this report can be considered an 

elaboration of the approach used to quantify the bias and uncertainty in estimated doses for personnel 

exposed to radiation as a result of atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons between 1945 and 1962 

(NRC/NAS 1989). The approach was developed by the NRC Committee on Film Badge Dosimetry in 

Atmospheric Tests (hereafter referred to as "the NRC committee." It involved quantifying both bias 

and uncertainty from four sources and then combining them to obtain an overall assessment using 

methods used in the evaluation of bias and uncertainty for persons exposed to radiation from an 

atmospheric nuclear detonation (NRC 1989). In this approach, uncertainty is evaluated from 

laboratory uncertainty (i.e., calibration, processing), radiological uncertainty (i.e., spectrum, wearing, 

and backscatter), environmental uncertainty (i.e., consequences of light, moisture, and high 

temperatures) and uncertainty resulting from converting recorded measurements of exposure to 

estimates of deep dose. The assessment at Hanford was based on the assumption that uncertainties 

from individual sources followed independent lognormal distributions. For each uncertainty source, a 

factor is assigned reflecting bias (B) and a 95% uncertainty factor (K); the uncertainty factor was 

determined so that the interval obtained by dividing and multiplying by this factor would include 95% 

of all observations. Assessment of these factors was based on careful evaluation of the available 

evidence, but because evidence was not adequate for rigorous statistical treatment of most uncer-
Effective Date: 10/21/2003 Revision No. 00 Procedure No. ORAUT-TKBS-0006-6 Page 29 of 68

tainties, subjective judgments were also required. Once the individual sources were evaluated, an 

overall bias factor was obtained by multiplication and an overall uncertainty factor obtained through 

lognormal propagation of errors. The results of this analysis for Hanford workers, for facilities other 

than plutonium facilities, are presented in Table 6.3.4.3-3.

Table 6.3.4.3-3. Overall bias and uncertainty due to variation and uncertainties regarding energy 

levels and geometry in recorded dose as an estimate of deep dose.

Hanford 

Dosimetry System

Bias Magnitude and Range Uncertainty Factors

Overall Biasa Range in Biasb Systematicc Randomd

Two-element Film 

(1944-56)

1.27 1.13-1.60 1.2 1.8

Multi-element Film 

(1957-71) 1.02 0.86-1.12 1.1 1.4

Multi-element 

Thermoluminescent 

(1972-83)

1.12 1.04-1.16 1.05 1.2

Multi-element 

Thermoluminescent 

(1984-93)

1.01 0.95-1.05 1.05 1.2

a. Based on the distribution of energy levels and geometry judged most likely. Divide recorded dose by the table's bias 

value to calculate deep dose.

b. Range of overall bias factors based on alternative distributions of energy levels and geometry.

c. Systematic uncertainty resulting from lack of knowledge regarding actual distributions of energy levels and geometry.

d. Random uncertainty resulting from variation among workers in energy levels and geometry.

Essentially all Hanford radiological work areas involved beta/photon radiation covering a wide range 

of energies characteristic of the radionuclides being handled in the respective facilities and processes. 

Radiation beta/photon fields characteristic of Hanford facilities can be generally classified according to 

the IREP code input radiation types and energy ranges based on Hanford field measurements, the 

types of radionuclides and processes in the respective Hanford facilities. This is presented in Table 

6.3.4.3-4. 

Table 6.3.4.3-4. Selection of beta and photon radiation energies and percentages for Hanford 

facilities. 

Process/

Buildings Description

Operations

Radiatio

n type

Energy 

selection, 

keV

Percenta

Begin End ge

Fuel 

fabrication

Produced reactor fuel and target assemblies from 

uranium.

Beta

Photon

> 15 

30 – 250 

100%

100%

313, 306, 333 1945 1972

Reactors

During Operation: Highly dispersed fields of higherenergy photon radiation fields from fission process, 

activation and fission product nuclides. Potentially narrow 

beams of higher energy neutron radiation from test ports, 

etc., into reactor core. Potential for significant airborne 

nuclides and there may be significant higher-energy beta 

radiation. 

Beta

photon

> 15 

30 – 250 

> 250 

100%

25%

75%

Not in Operation: Highly dispersed fields of higher 
Effective Date: 10/21/2003 Revision No. 00 Procedure No. ORAUT-TKBS-0006-6 Page 30 of 68

Process/

Buildings Description

Operations

Radiatio

n type

Energy 

selection, 

keV

Percenta

Begin End ge

energy photon radiation fields from activation and fission 

product nuclides. No significant neutron radiation. There 

may be significant higher energy beta radiation during 

maintenance work resulting from fission products.

B-Reactor 9/26/44 1946

1948 2/12/68

D-Reactor 12/17/4

4

6/26/67

F-Reactor 2/23//4

5

6/25/65

H-Reactor 10/29/4

9 

4/21/65

DR-Reactor 10/50 12/31/6

4

C-Reactor 11/18/5

2

4/25/69

KW-Reactor 12/54 2/1/70

KE-Reactor 2/55 1/28/71

N-Reactor 12/63

B-Reactor 9/44 2/68

D-Reactor 12/44 6/6/67

FFTF 2/9/80

Processing 

plants

Radiochemical Operations: Highly dispersed fields of 

higher energy photon radiation fields from activation and 

fission product nuclides dominant to most exposure 

profiles. Potential for higher energy beta radiation during 

sampling and maintenance work from fission products. 

Beta

photon

> 15 

30 – 250 

> 250 

100%

25%

75%

T Plant 12/26/4

4

3/56

B Plant 4/13/45 1956

S Plant (Redox) 1/51 12/67

C Plant 7/52 7/67

A Plant (Purex) 1/56 6/72

1983 1988

U Plant 3/52 1/58

UO3 Plant 56

Plutonium 

production 

Plutonium Component Production: Plutonium is 

machined into weapon components using glove-box 

assembly process with predominant close anterior 

exposure to workers. Radiation characteristics in this 

area involve significant lower energy photons and neutron 

radiation. Photon < 30

30 – 250 

25%

Plutonium Storage: Radiation characteristics in this 75%

area generally involve dispersed lower energy neutron 

radiation and scattered photons, including 60-keV Am241 gamma ray.

231-Z 1/16/45

Plutonium Finishing Plant (234-5Z) 1949 1980

Calibration

s 

Hanford site calibration of 

instruments and dosimeters Beta

photon

> 15 

30 – 250 

> 250 

100%

25%

3745-A, 318 1945 75%
Effective Date: 10/21/2003 Revision No. 00 Procedure No. ORAUT-TKBS-0006-6 Page 31 of 68

Process/

Buildings Description

Operations

Radiatio

n type

Energy 

selection, 

keV

Percenta

Begin End ge

Waste 

handling

Radiation characteristics highly dependent on source of 

waste, but typically fission product nuclides (Sr/Y-90, Cs137) are dominant. 

Beta

photon

> 15

30 – 250 

> 250 

100%

50%

50% 200 East and West 1953

Hanford documentation (Roberson, Cummings, and Fix 1985; Roberson and Cummings 1986; Rathbun 1989).

6.3.4.4 Hanford Neutron Dosimeter Response Testing

The HMPD was implemented on January 1, 1972. Hanford dosimetrists had conducted detailed field 

measurements in the early 1970s to base the calibration of the TLD on the neutron energy spectra in 

the work environment. Studies reported by Nichols et al. (1972) involved the simultaneous placement 

of NTA dosimeters and TLDs on 2-gallon polyethylene jugs filled with water and placed at selected 

workplace locations. A tissue equivalent proportional counter (TEPC) was used to measure the dose 

from fast neutrons. Data from Nichols et al (1972), which are summarized in Table 6.3.4.4-1, indicate 

wide variability between the results for the different measurement techniques. However, the data 

illustrate the general under-response of the NTA film dosimeter results compared with the TEPC and 

TLD results. 

Table 6.3.4.4-1. Parallel workplace measured NTA and HMPD 

neutron dose. 

Fast neutron dose, millirem

Location Snoopy TEPC NTA TLD

105-KE

X-1 60 270 0 530

Top #23 1,400 1,700 470 4,100

Mon 0 0 0 60

Front face 50 900 0 250

308 Bldg.

Rm 208 2,000 2,700 270 3,700

Corr #7 4,200 14,100 1,270 11,100

Vent rm 30 30 0 0

Rm C 700 730 70 870

234-5Z Bldg.

17 DC 340 NMa 0 100

HC-11 280 NM 0 180

9B top stairs 410 NM 100 440

9B under stairs 280 NM 60 450

Rm 221 410 790 170 460

Rm 192 510 620 950 490

Rm 192-C 150 230 310 240

Rm 193 380 500 770 600

2731-Z 200 NM 60 50

NM = not measured

A second type of workplace measurement reported by Nichols et al. (1972) involved personnel 

wearing TLDs and film dosimeters simultaneously. Figure 6.3.4.4-1 shows the comparison of the fast 

neutron dose component from both dosimeter types. It is apparent in this figure that there is a 

significant lower neutron dose for the NTA dosimeter compared to the TLD neutron doses for TLD 

neutron doses greater than about 50 mrem. 
Effective Date: 10/21/2003 Revision No. 00 Procedure No. ORAUT-TKBS-0006-6 Page 32 of 68

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

TLD, mrem

NTA, mrem

Figure 6.3.4.4-1. Comparison of Hanford PFP workplace NTA and HMPD neutron 

dose. (Nichols et al 1972) 

Figure 6.3.4.4-2 shows the ratio of collective Hanford neutron dose to plutonium production. There 

was a slight increase in recorded neutron dose in 1950 with the implementation of the NTA dosimeter. 

There is a significant increase in recorded neutron dose in the latter 1950s due to (1) an increase in 

plutonium production, (2) the use of the PuF4 calibration source, and (3) implementation of the new 

multi-element NTA dosimeter holder. The significant peak in recorded neutron dose in 1972 is 

attributable to the large increase in recorded neutron dose with the HMPD. The HMPD responds to 

the thermal and intermediate neutron spectra that are not detected by the NTA film dosimeter. 

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

Year

Neutron Dose/Plutonium Production

PIC, NTA TLD 10B

Figure 6.3.4.4-2. Ratio of annual Hanford collective neutron dose to plutonium 

production. 

The AEC held a series of Personnel Neutron Dosimetry Workshops to address problems experienced 

by its sites concerning accurate measurement of neutron dose. The first workshop was held 
Effective Date: 10/21/2003 Revision No. 00 Procedure No. ORAUT-TKBS-0006-6 Page 33 of 68

September 23–24, 1969 (Vallario et al 1969) with the stated concern: “... for intermediate energy (i.e., 

> 0.4 ev to < 700 keV) ... neutron sources, NTA personnel neutron dosimeters cannot be effectively 

used. This leaves a gap in the personnel dosimetry program which at many installations may be quite 

serious.” The workshops were generally limited to representatives from sites with active personnel 

neutron dosimetry programs and continued for a number of years. The 11th Workshop was held in 

1991 (Rabovsky, Jones, and Pettengill 1991). The significance of the underestimated neutron dose 

became evident with studies being conducted to implement TLDs. 

After the implementation of the HMPD on January 1, 1972, the AEC headquarters staff conducted a 

detailed review of recorded neutron dose for Hanford personnel using a committee of technical 

experts from Hanford, SRS, and other AEC facilities (Biles 1972). Central to this investigation was the 

selection of 18 long-term Hanford workers for detailed evaluation. Fix, Wilson, and Baumgartner 

(1997) analyzed this information using dosimetry data recorded through 1995. Table 6.3.4.4-2 lists 

three distinct periods of dose recording from 1950 through 1995 corresponding to the Hanford twoelement, multielement, and thermoluminescent dosimeters. 

Table 6.3.4.4-2. Recording periods for selected Hanford plutonium workers. 

Period Description

1950–56 Involved use of original Hanford two-element dosimeter for nonpenetrating (shallow) and 

penetrating (deep) dose components and NTA film for neutron radiation. 

1957–71 Involved use of Hanford multielement film dosimeter for nonpenetrating, X-ray, and penetrating 

dose components, and NTA film for neutron radiation. 

1972–95 Involved use of Hanford TLD for beta, photon, and neutron dose components.

The18 workers had the Hanford PFP as their primary work area at least during the 1970s. It is 

interesting to examine trends in this data. For example, Table 6.3.4.4-3 shows the ratios of shallow to 

deep doses and neutron to deep doses. The comparatively high shallow to deep ratio during the 1950-

1956 period is likely to result from the significant over-response of this dosimeter to the low-energy 

photons prevalent in the PFP (Wilson et al. 1990). The data show increasing levels of recorded 

neutron dose, relative to the deep dose, for each succeeding dosimeter design. Moreover, it is 

possible to observe changes in relative dose components during (1) the 1957 period when the 

multielement film dosimeter was introduced along with the PuF4 neutron source calibration that 

provided a calibration spectrum similar to the Hanford plutonium workplace, and (2) during the 1972 

period when the HMPD was introduced. Nine of the 18 workers examined by Fix, Wilson, and 

Baumgartner (1997) had dose histories that extended from 1950 or earlier through 1980 or later. 

Table 6.3.4.4-3. Ratio of recorded Hanford dose components. 

Ratio (range)

Recording period Shallow/deep Neutron/deep

1950–56 1.6 (1.1–3.7) 0.003 (0–0.06)

1957–71 1.2 (1.1–1.7) 0.4 (0.1–0.7)

1972–95 1.3 (1.1–1.5) 0.6 (0.1–1.6)

The AEC technical review (Corlew 1972) of the Hanford personnel neutron dosimetry capability in 

1972 following implementation of the HMPD with improved neutron dose capabilities. At that time, 

three periods of operation of the Hanford PFP were identified, as listed in Table 6.3.4.4-4. 

Table 6.3.4.4-4. Hanford plutonium facility neutron-to-photon ratios.

Workers 1948-55 1956-60 1961-71

Plutonium 1.2 1.4 2.0

Maintenance 1.0 0.9 1.6

Default values 1.2 1.4 2.0
Effective Date: 10/21/2003 Revision No. 00 Procedure No. ORAUT-TKBS-0006-6 Page 34 of 68

These periods correspond to modifications in the shielding in the plutonium facility as follows:

1948–

1955:

The neutron to photon dose ratios for the 1961-71 period are 

decreased by approximately 60% because there was essentially no 

shielding other than the plastic hood windows to attenuate the photon 

dose. As such the photon dose was comparatively higher.

1956–

1960:

The neutron to photon dose ratios for the 1961-71 period are 

decreased by approximately 70% because of the use of lighter weight 

(compared to 1961-71) shielding. The shielding used in 1961-71 

substantially reduced the lower-energy photons. 

1961–

1971:

These ratios are based on the January–June 1972 HMPD 

measurements and are reasonably representative of the production 

conditions since introduction of heavy shielding material (i.e., lead, 

lead glass, steel plate) 

6.3.4.5 Hanford Workplace Neutron Dosimeter Response

Work areas at Hanford where there is a potential for neutron exposure include: 

• 100 Area

– 105-B, 105-C, 105-D, 105-DR, 105-F, 105-H, 105-KE, 105-KW, 105-N reactors

• 200 Area 

– 224 facility to concentrate plutonium solutions

– 231-Z plutonium isolation facility

– 232-Z incinerator and leach facility

– 234-5Z primary plutonium handling facility

– 236-Z Recuplex/Plutonium Reclamation Facility

– 242-Z americium recovery facility

– 2736-Z plutonium vaults

• 300 Area 

– 308 Plutonium Fuels Pilot Plant (PFPP)

– 309 Plutonium Test Recycle Reactor (PRTR)

– 324 Chemical and Materials Engineering Laboratory 

– 3745A Calibrations Laboratory

– 3745B Accelerator Facility

• 400 Area

– Fast Flux Test Facility (FFTF)

The circumstances of neutron exposure at these facilities are different. Neutron spectra (Fix et al 

1981, 1982; Roberson, Cummings, and Fix 1985; Brackenbush, Baumgartner, and Fix 1991; Endres 

et al. 1996) and dose (Fix et al 1981, 1982; Roberson, Cummings, and Fix 1985; Brackenbush, 

Baumgartner, and Fix 1991; Endres et al. 1996; Scherpelz, Fix, and Rathbone 2000) measurements 

have been performed at selected Hanford facilities on many occasions. These measurements used 

several methods at different times to measure neutron dose, including TEPCs, which are considered 

to provide an accurate measurement of neutron dose (Brackenbush et al 1991, Scherpelz et al 

2000), as well as portable neutron survey instruments (i.e., Snoopy), HMPDs, commercial TLDs, and 

TEDs. Energy spectrum measurements used multisphere (Bonner) sphere spectrometers, which are 

the primary system used, as well as 3

He spectrometers, and NE-213 liquid scintillation spectrometers. 
Effective Date: 10/21/2003 Revision No. 00 Procedure No. ORAUT-TKBS-0006-6 Page 35 of 68

Table 6.3.4.5-1 summarizes studies that measured the neutron spectrum. The following paragraphs 

discuss the potential for significant neutron dose and capabilities to measure the dose. 

Table 6.3.4.5-1. Hanford workplace neutron spectra measurements.a

Facility Description Measurements(a)(b) Reference

308 Bldg. Fuel Storage Pit Area MS, TEPC, Rascal, HMPD Fix et al 1981

Plutonium Storage Vault MS, TEPC, Rascal

Fuel Pin Storage Box Area MS, TEPC, Rascal

Bare Fuel Assembly MS, TEPC, Rascal, HMPD

234-5Z Glovebox H-9A MS, TEPC, Snoopy, HMPD

Glovebox HC-9B MS, TEPC, Snoopy, HMPD

2736-Z Six locations in Bldg. MS, TEPC, Snoopy, HMPD

324 Bldg Pu Storage Vault MS, 3He, TEPC, HMPD Fix et al 1982

FFTF Operating Deck MS, 3He, TEPC, HMPD, Snoopy

234-5Z Hood HA-23 Area

2736-Z Storage Vault, Room 1 MS, TEPC, HMPD Roberson et al 

Storage Vault, Room 4 1985

236-ZZ Gloveboxes 5-6

234-5Z Process Line C, room B

234-5Z Pu metal, PuF4 and PuO2 with selected 

thicknesses of acrylic shielding

MS, TEPC, HMPD Brackenbush 

et al 1991

234-5Z Frontside - Storeroom MS, TEPC, TLD, TED Endres et al 

Frontside -Near Shops 1996

Backside – glovebox

Backside – glovebox

Pu metal, PuF4 and PuO2 with selected 

thicknesses of acrylic shielding

a. Only measurements that included neutron spectra are listed.

b. MS = multi-sphere, TEPC = Tissue Equivalent Proportional Counter.

Figure 6.3.4.5-1 shows measurements by Brackenbush, Baumgartner, and Fix (1991) of a PuF4

source with no shielding, 2.54 cm of acrylic plastic and 5.08 cm of acrylic plastic shielding between 

the source and the detector system to illustrate the effect on the plutonium spectrum of increasing 

thicknesses of the acrylic in the glovebox sides. A PuF4 source was used to calibrate Hanford 

personnel dosimeters beginning in 1958 (Fix, Wilson, and Baumgartner 1997). This figure shows 

that, although different neutron spectra were measured, similarities were observed in the general 

shape of the degraded PuF4 spectrum. The energy of the dose equivalent peak is centered at 

approximately 1 MeV. Similar plutonium source and acrylic shielding measurements were reported in 

Endres et al (1996) in association with field evaluations of the Harshaw commercial TLD and TED 

system implemented on January 1, 1995. The results of these measurements led to the eventual 

elimination of the TED component in routine personnel monitoring because the TED substantially 

underestimated the neutron dose. This occurred because the TED did not respond to the substantial 

lower energy neutron spectrum from stored plutonium in the current Hanford PFP operation. There 

are many similarities between NTA film and TED characteristics, including physical size, direct 

neutron responding device, angular response, and a lower energy neutron response threshold. The 

TED has a significantly better energy threshold of about 100 keV compared to the NTA film threshold 

of about 700 keV, but showed unacceptable capabilities to measure neutron dose. 
Effective Date: 10/21/2003 Revision No. 00 Procedure No. ORAUT-TKBS-0006-6 Page 36 of 68

PuF4 Spectra Degradiation

1.00E-07

1.00E-06

1.00E-05

1.00E-04

1.00E-03

1.00E-02

1.00E-01

1.00E+00

1.E-07 1.E-06 1.E-05 1.E-04 1.E-03 1.E-02 1.E-01 1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02

Energy, MeV

Dose Equivalent, rem

Bare PuF4

2.54 cm Acrylic Shielding

5.08 cm Acrylic Shielding

Figure 6.3.4.5-1. Degradation in neutron energy spectra for bare, 2.54 cm and 5.08 cm of 

acrylic plastic shielding with neutron energy groups overlay.

100 Area Reactor Facilities

There is a potential for workers to be exposed in the Hanford reactors. These facilities have extensive 

shielding to reduce worker photon and neutron radiation exposure. Neutron radiation is significant 

only while a reactor is in operation and typically only in areas of a reactor that are typically closed to 

worker access. Neutron exposure of workers would be accompanied by a relatively high photon dose 

that is readily measured with Hanford film and thermoluminescent dosimeters. The HMPD used at 

100-N, after closure of the other Hanford reactors, detected very little neutron dose. There is a 

potential for worker exposure to neutron/photon energy beams associated with instrument and test 

penetrations. The field testing of HMPD and NTA film by Nichols et al (1972) included the 105-KE 

reactor; positive neutron dose was measured with the TLD that was generally not recorded by the 

NTA film. 

200 Area Plutonium Facilities 

Plutonium production at Hanford began January 16, 1945 (Freer and Conway 1997), in what is often 

called Z-Plant or the Plutonium Finishing Plant (PFP) 231-Z Plutonium Isolation Facility. At that time, 

Hanford-produced plutonium nitrate was shipped to the Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) for 

use in producing nuclear weapons. On July 5, 1949, the PFP 234-5Z provided the capability for 

Hanford to convert plutonium nitrate to metallic plutonium. The initial 234-5Z plutonium finishing 

equipment was termed the “Rubber Glove (RG)” line because it depended on personnel working with 

a series of 28 stainless-steel gloveboxes, 55 meters long, to move the plutonium mixtures manually 

through the finishing process (Fix, Wilson, and Baumgartner 1997). 

On March 18, 1952, a Remote Mechanical A (RMA) Line began operation. The RMA Line performed 

all the process steps in Pu metal production and fabrication except Task 1 (feed make-up and 

purification), which continued in the 231-Z facility. The RMA Line was in six rooms at 234-5Z. In mid-
Effective Date: 10/21/2003 Revision No. 00 Procedure No. ORAUT-TKBS-0006-6 Page 37 of 68

1957, the RMA Line was modified for a continuous calcination and hydrofluorination process that 

essentially handled the Task 1 activities previously done at 231Z (i.e., all processing tasks). Many 

projects were undertaken at PFP 234-5Z from 1957 to 1961 to accommodate the significant increase 

in throughput. The most significant of these were the construction of the RMC Button Line and the 

RMC Fabrication Line. Both of these began operation in the mid-1960s. The RMC Line (button and 

fabrication components) consisted of a completely self-contained, remotely operated series of glove 

boxes similar to the RMA Line areas. 

Neutron dose is associated with the overall Hanford plutonium production process in which plutonium 

from the respective processing facilities was brought into PFP as a liquid nitrate solution. At the PFP, 

plutonium was precipitated as an oxalate, converted to a fluoride, and reacted at high temperature 

with metallic calcium, forming the metal (Ballinger and Hall 1991). Neutron radiation was particularly 

enhanced during the fluorination step in the process because of plutonium fluoride (α,n) reactions. 

Neutron Energy Spectra

Figure 6.3.4.5-2 shows neutron radiation spectra as measured by Fix et al (1981, Study 4) and by 

Roberson, Cummings, and Fix (1985) at the PFP 234-5Z Building “C” Line, Room B, selected 

gloveboxes, and the 2736-Z plutonium vault. The 234-5Z locations are where plutonium nitrate was 

converted to plutonium fluoride, with the associated high neutron flux rates. This location provided the 

highest neutron flux rates at Hanford. The original data were depicted as dose equivalent rates; 

however, for simplicity of calculation, a 1-hour exposure was assumed to use dose equivalent. 

1.E-07

1.E-06

1.E-05

1.E-04

1.E-03

1.E-02

1.E-01

1.E+00

1.E+01

1.E+02

1.E+03

1.E-07 1.E-06 1.E-05 1.E-04 1.E-03 1.E-02 1.E-01 1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02

Energy, MeV

Dose Equivalent, rem

234-5 Glove Box H-9A

234-5 Glove Box HC-9B

2736-Z Pu Vault

234-5, "C" Line

Figure 6.3.4.5-2. Neutron energy spectra recorded at Hanford PFP 234-5Z “C” 

line, glovebox and plutonium storage vault.

As noted in Roberson, Cummings, and Fix (1985), the HMPD was originally calibrated in neutron 

fields encountered in 234-5Z, and this calibration has been maintained over the years. As such, the 

estimate of personnel neutron dose equivalent has remained tied to the original measurements 

regardless of the neutron source used to calibrate the dosimeter. Table 6.3.4.5-2 lists the ratio 

between the HMPD measured dose and those measured with a Snoopy, TEPC, multisphere, and 
Effective Date: 10/21/2003 Revision No. 00 Procedure No. ORAUT-TKBS-0006-6 Page 38 of 68

PNR-4 (i.e., common portable neutron instruments used to measure neutron dose based on 9-inch to 

3-inch sphere ratio) as reported in Roberson, Cummings, and Fix (1985). In these measurements, 

the most significant observation is the generally close agreement in estimated dose between the 

HMPD and the respective instruments. In all of these measurements the similarity in energy spectra 

with PuF4 in Figure 6.3.4.5-1 is evident.

Table 6.3.4.5-2. Workplace measurement comparisons with HMPD. (Roberson et al 1985)

Location

Ratio of HMPD dose to instrument dosea

Snoopy PNR-4b TEPC Multi-sphere

2736-Z, Storage Vault, Room 1 0.98 (0.37) 0.84 (0.18) 1.02 (0.18) 1.28 (0.24)

2736-Z, Storage Vault, Room 4 0.92 (0.14) 0.87 (0.56) 0.84 (0.10) 0.95 (0.13)

236-Z,Gloveboxes 5-6 0.85 (0.18) 0.95 (0.43) 1.03 (0.41) 1.13 (0.41)

234-5Z, Process Line C, room B 0.88 (0.28) 0.88 (0.21) 1.17 (0.26) 1.17 (0.25)

Average 0.90 (0.10) 0.87 (0.13) 0.92 (0.08) 1.05 (0.10)

a. Numbers in parentheses represent one-standard deviation

b. Portable neutron REM instrument based on 9” to 3” sphere measurements.

Hanford 300 and 400 Areas. Neutron spectra measurements have been conducted at the 324 

Plutonium Storage Vault and 308 Building, and at the FFTF. 

Neutron Spectrum

Neutron spectrum measurements were made in the early 1980s at research and development 

laboratories in the 300 Area and at the FFTF in the 400 Area (Fix et al 1982). Figure 6.3.4.5-3 shows 

measurements at selected locations in the 308 and 324 Buildings. These included plutonium storage 

vaults in the 308 and 324 Buildings.

1.E-08

1.E-07

1.E-06

1.E-05

1.E-04

1.E-03

1.E-02

1.E-07 1.E-06 1.E-05 1.E-04 1.E-03 1.E-02 1.E-01 1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02

Energy, MeV

Dose Equivalent, rem

Bare Fuel Subassembly

Above Fuel Storage Pit

Pu Storage Vault

324 Pu Vault

Figure 6.3.4.5-3. Neutron spectra for Hanford 308 and 324 facilities. (Fix et al 

1982)
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Figure 6.3.4.5-4 shows measurements at FFTF. These might not be indicative of routine operations. 

At that time, a stainless-steel research thimble in one of the bundle tubes allowed neutrons to stream 

from the core to the head compartment. These measurements were performed at two locations and 

the results are shown in Figure 6.3.4.5-4. The neutron spectrum was highly scattered, resulting in 

significantly lower neutron energies. The HMPD used in these measurements showed an overresponse of about a factor of 6 compared to the multisphere measurements because of the highly 

degraded neutron spectrum. 

1.E-07

1.E-06

1.E-05

1.E-04

1.E-03

1.E-02

1.E-01

1.E+00

1.E+01

1.E+02

1.E-07 1.E-06 1.E-05 1.E-04 1.E-03 1.E-02 1.E-01 1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02

Energy, meV

Dose Equivalent, rem

FFTF #1

FFTF #2

Figure 6.3.4.5-4. Neutron spectra for Hanford 400 Area FFTF. 

6.3.4.6 Neutron Dose Fraction (RESERVED)

6.3.4.7 Uncertainty In Neutron Dose (RESERVED)

6.4 ADJUSTMENTS TO RECORDED NEUTRON DOSE (RESERVED)

6.4.1

6.4.2

Neutron Dose Adjustments (RESERVED)

6.4.3

Neutron Weighting Factor (RESERVED)

6.4.4

Neutron Correction Factor (RESERVED)

6.5 MISSED DOSE

Neutron-to-Photon Dose Factors (RESERVED)

There is undoubtedly missed recorded dose for Hanford workers. The analysis has been separated 

according to photon and neutron missed dose. 
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6.5.1

Missed photon dose for Hanford workers would occur where (1) there is no recorded dose because 

workers were not monitored or the dose is otherwise unavailable, and (2) a zero dose is recorded for 

the dosimeter systems for any response less than the MDL or the site dose recording threshold. 

Methods to be considered if there is no recorded dose for a period during a working career have been 

examined by Watson et al. (1994). In general, estimates of the missed dose can use dose results for 

coworkers or the recorded dose before and after the period of missed dose. However, these 

situations require careful examination. The missed dose for dosimeter results less than the MDL is 

particularly important for earlier years when Mills were higher and dosimeter exchange was more 

frequent. 

Photon Missed Dose

NIOSH (2002) describes options to calculate the missed dose. One option is to estimate a claimantfavorable maximum potential missed dose where MDL/2 is multiplied by the number of zero dose 

results. The following sections describe potential missed photon dose adjustments according to year, 

facility/location, dosimeter type, and energy range.

6.5.1.1 Year

Analysis of the missed photon dose according to year (actually by period according to dosimeter type 

and exchange) is needed to evaluate the claim information, particularly if only annual dose data are 

available. The Mills for the Hanford beta and photon dosimeters normally cited are based on 

laboratory irradiations. Actual Mills are higher because of additional uncertainty in actual field use and 

the use of dose recording thresholds. Table 6-28 summarizes the potential missed dose. 

Reasonable Mills are listed in this table for most applications for film dosimeters based on Wilson 

(1960, 1987), NIOSH (1993), NRC (1989), and Wilson et al (1990), and for TLDs from Fix et al. (1982) 

and Rathbone (2002). 

6.5.1.2 Facility/Location

Table 6.5.1.2-1 lists the potential missed photon dose for the laboratory-determined MDL and 

exchange frequency using NIOSH (2002). 

Table 6.5.1.2-1. Hanford photon dosimeter period of use, type, MDL, exchange frequency, and 

potential annual missed dose.

Period of usea Dosimeter MDLb (rem)

Exchange 

frequency

Max. annual 

missed dose 

(rem)c

Hanford Beta/Photon Dosimeters

Prior to 10/1/1944 PIC 0.005 Daily(d) (n=250) 0.525

10/1/1944 through December 

31, 1950

Hanford TwoElement Film0.04 Weekly (n=52) 1.04

January 1, 1951 through March 

1957

0.04 Biweekly (n=26) 0.52

April 1, 1957 through May 1957 Hanford MultiElement Film0.04 Biweekly (n=26) 0.52

May 1957 through December 

31, 1971

0.04 Monthly (n=12) 0.24

January 1, 1972 through 

December 31, 1994

Hanford TLD 0.02 Monthly (n=12) 0.12

0.02 Quarterly (n=4) 0.04

January 1, 1995 to 2003 

(ongoing)

Harshaw TLD 0.01 Monthly (n=12) 0.06

0.01 Quarterly (n=4) 0.02

a. For many years, Hanford workers had a dosimeter assigned to each operating area where they worked.
Effective Date: 10/21/2003 Revision No. 00 Procedure No. ORAUT-TKBS-0006-6 Page 41 of 68

b. Estimated MDLs for each dosimeter technology in the workplace. Dose values were recorded at levels 

less-than the MDL

c. Maximum annual missed dose calculated using MDL/2 from OCAS-IG-001 (NIOSH 2000).

d. Not routinely exchanged.

6.5.1.3 Dosimeter Type

Table 6.5.1.2-1 lists the potential missed dose for the respective Hanford dosimeter types. 

6.5.1.4 Energy Range

An estimate of the missed photon dose by energy range is possible based on the type of facility and 

predominant radionuclides such as intermediate (>100 keV) energies for all facilities handling 

activation and fission product nuclides, primarily lower (<100 keV) energy photons for plutonium 

facilities and for uranium fuel fabrication facilities. The recorded dose from the dosimeter response 

does not typically provide sufficient information to estimate discrete energy ranges. It is possible to 

examine the energy response characteristics of the respective multielement dosimeters, but this 

analysis does not recognize the substantial uncertainties present in the workplace associated with 

shielding, radiation scattering, and mixed radiation fields.

6.5.2

6.5.2.1 Year (RESERVED)

Neutron Missed Dose (RESERVED)

6.5.2.2 Facility/Location (RESERVED)

6.5.2.3 Dosimeter Type (RESERVED)

6.5.2.4 Energy Range (RESERVED)

6.6 UNCERTAINTY

There is significant uncertainty in evaluating dose recorded decades into the past. Primary issues 

concern the missed dose for zero recorded doses and the uncertainty in the positive doses as 

described in the following sections.

6.6.1

Some considerations to evaluate dose to workers with low occupational exposure are examined in 

Wilson et al (1990). The analysis of missed dose is typically based on the penetrating dosimeter 

response to a high energy calibration source such as 226Ra or 137Cs. For these energies the nonpenetrating and penetrating dosimeter response is the same. In routine practice, the non-penetrating 

dose response is typically higher because of its response to low energy photon and beta radiation. 

Hanford work areas have mixed fields of radiation particularly involving scattered photon radiation of 

high and low energies, and in some areas, beta radiation. As such, the non-penetrating dose 

recorded for workers provides a more sensitive means to determine if significant exposure has 

occurred. Also, the dosimeter response to low-energy photon radiation is significantly greater than for 

the high energy gamma radiation. There is concern for work performed close to sources of radiation 

such as repairing contaminated equipment, but typically workers would be assigned extremity 

dosimeters in addition to the whole-body dosimeters. The combination of the dose results measured 

by the extremity and whole-body dosimeter tend to lower the actual detection level in Hanford 

workplaces compared to an evaluation of the penetrating dose component only as described in the 

Missed Dose
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following paragraph. Figure 6.6.1-1 presents an illustration the respective Hanford dose results for a 

single worker from 1948 through 1976. The tracking of the respective dose components is evident.

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

5000

5500

6000

6500

7000

7500

8000

1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980

Year

Dose, mrem

 NonPenetrating Dose

Penetrating Dose

 Neutron Dose

Extremity Dose

X-ray Dose

Two-Element Film Multi-Element Film TLD

Figure 6.6.1-1. Annual dose components for a single Hanford worker, 1948-1976.

Wilson (1960) conducted a detailed examination of the MDL for the Hanford dosimetry system used in 

1960. The Hanford multi-element film dosimeter implemented in 1957 included the OW and 1 mm Ag 

filtered regions of the two-element film dosimeter used at Hanford from 1944 to 1957 so studies of this 

dosimeter can be extrapolated to earlier results. Wilson described three changes in 1960 that led to a 

lower detection level of about 15 mrem at the 90% confidence level involving: 1) elimination of nonisotropic effect of calibration source, 2) automated film processing and 3) change to the more 

sensitive 508 film. He notes in this report a detection level of 40 mrem at the 95% confidence level for 

the Hanford system (502 film) prior to these changes. An important consideration in this analysis 

concerned the level of potential missed dose. Wilson describes the analysis of 49 batches of Hanford 

routine calibration results that indicated a 25% standard deviation at the 30 mrem calibration level 

based on the optical density readings. Based on an analysis of the capabilities of the densitometer 

used to process the film, he estimated a likelihood of 0.33 (1/3) that a dose of 15 mrem would not be 

detected. The likelihood that this would occur for each successive monthly exchange for an entire 

year would be (0.33)12 or about one in a million. Based on the 13 exchanges during the year at that 

time, he estimated a maximum potential missed dose of 195 mrem (i.e., 15 * 13). Conversely, Wilson 

estimated that about 8% of the time, a positive dose would be recorded for dosimeters that received 

no exposure. A similar analysis could be performed for the dosimeter used prior to 1960 with an 

estimate of that about 30 mrem would be detected 1/3 of the time. 

Claimant favorable assumptions have been incorporated in the assessment of missed dose for zero 

recorded penetrating dose for the respective dosimeter exchange periods in this TBD. Hanford did 

use a practice of locating dosimeters at the badge control building for each operating area for each 

person expected to routinely enter. As such, some Hanford workers had dosimeters simultaneously 

located at several different Hanford areas. Dosimeters from each of these areas were processed and 
Effective Date: 10/21/2003 Revision No. 00 Procedure No. ORAUT-TKBS-0006-6 Page 43 of 68

a dose assigned to the worker. In many cases, a zero dose was recorded for all the dosimeters. 

Assuming a worker had dosimeters at 7 Hanford work areas and using the 40 mrem MDL as noted in 

the respective tables of this TBD, it is possible to calculate a maximum potential missed dose of 140 

mrem (i.e., 7 * 40/2) using OCAS-IG-001 for each exchange period, or, if this occurs throughout the 

year, a maximum potential missed dose of 1,680, 3,360 and 6,720 mrem, respectively, for monthly, 

biweekly and weekly exchange periods. Often, the dose for a person with zero recorded dose will 

exceed the dose for workers with recorded positive dose. It is recommended in this TBD that the 

guidance of OCAS-IG-001 be applied to the recorded dose for each exchange period regardless of 

the number of dosimeters assigned to a worker for each operating area. Using the analysis of Wilson 

(1990), the likelihood of all dosimeters reading zero for an exchange period when there is positive 

dose can be calculated as (0.33)y

 where y is the number of areas. 

6.6.2

Uncertainty in the positive recorded photon dose for Hanford workers has been assessed in Wilson et 

al (1990) and, for photon radiation > 100 keV, by Fix, Gilbert and Baumgartner (1994). Results of 

these evaluations are noted in Tables 6.3.4.3-2 and 6.3.4.3-3. For the >100 keV photon radiation 

characteristic of all Hanford work areas with the exception of the plutonium handling facilities, the 

estimates of bias and uncertainty are primarily associated with the respective dosimeter systems. 

These estimates are summarized in Table 6.6.2-1. 

Positive Recorded Photon Dose

Table 6.6.2-1. Overall estimates of uncertainty for photon dose in Hanford non-plutonium facilities. 

Dosimeter

Period of 

Use

Bias Magnitude and Range Uncertainty Factors

Overall Biasa Range in Biasb Systematicc Randomd

Non-plutonium facilities

Two-element film 1944–57 1.27 1.23-1.60 1.2 1.8

Multielement film 1958–71 1.02 0.86-1.12 1.1 1.4

Hanford TLD 1972–83 1.12 1.04-1.16 1.05 1.2

Hanford TLD 1984-94 1.01 0.95-1.05 1.05 1.2

Commercial TLDe 1995–2003 1.00 0.95-1.05 1.05 1.2

a. Based on the distribution of energy levels and geometry judged most likely. Divide recorded dose by the table's bias 

value to calculate Hp(10) dose.

b. Range of overall bias factors based on alternative distributions of energy levels and geometry.

c. Systematic uncertainty resulting from lack of knowledge regarding actual distributions of energy levels and geometry.

d. Random uncertainty resulting from variation among workers in energy levels and geometry.

e. Performance equal to or better than previous Hanford dosimeter.

Uncertainty in the positive recorded photon dose for Hanford workers in the low-energy photon fields 

characteristic of plutonium facilities is certainly larger than the values shown in Table 6.6.2-1. An 

estimate of the uncertainty was not provided by Wilson et al (1990) or by Fix, Gilbert and Baumgartner 

(1994). The Hanford film and thermoluminescent dosimeters easily respond to the predominant 17 

keV (plutonium x-rays) and 60 keV (241Am) photon radiation particularly if the non-penetrating and 

penetrating whole body and extremity dose components are analyzed (i.e., as shown in Figure 

6.3.4.5-4) as was routine practice at Hanford. The ratio of the non-penetrating and penetrating dose 

was routinely used in the analysis of dose (Larson and Roesch 1954). However, the variation in the 

recorded dose is highly effected by shielding, the worker’s orientation in the field, etc. Evaluations of 

the dosimetry for Hanford plutonium workers has received more examination historically than any 

other area as shown by the letters, references and bibliography noted in Wilson et al (1990). In the 

early years, contamination of the plutonium by fission and activation problems undoubtedly occurred 

which likely increased the energy of the radiation. DOELAP testing formally began in 1986 (DOE 

1986) and included a 17 keV (k-fluorescent x-ray characteristic of plutonium) and 60 keV (241Am) 

beams. The only option, since there is evidence of significant efforts to accurately measure the 
Effective Date: 10/21/2003 Revision No. 00 Procedure No. ORAUT-TKBS-0006-6 Page 44 of 68

photon dose in Hanford plutonium facilities compared to portable instruments and PICs is to increase 

the range in bias for the two-element dosimeter by a factor of 2. This is shown in Table 6.6.2-2. 

Table 6.6.2-2. Overall estimates of uncertainty for photon dose in 

Hanford plutonium facilities.

Dosimeter

Period of 

Use

Bias Magnitude and Range

Overall Biasa Range in Biasb

Beta/photon Dosimeters – Plutonium facilitiesc

Two-element film 1944–57 ~1 0.25 - 2

Multielement film 1957–71 ~1 0.5-1

Hanford TLD 1972–83 ~1 0.7-1.7

Hanford TLD 1984-94 ~1 0.7-1.7

Commercial TLD 1995–2003 ~1 0.7-1.7

a. Divide recorded dose by the table's bias value to calculate Hp(10) dose (However 

no adjustment in recorded penetrating dose recommended) 

b. Range of overall bias factors based on alternative distributions of energy levels and 

geometry.

c. Estimated range in bias assuming factor of 2 increase in uncertainty.

6.6.3

6.6.4

Neutron Dose (RESERVED)

The process to calculate the probability of causation requires an estimate of the organ dose, since the 

claim is normally specific to disease within an organ. This is estimated from uncertainty distributions 

of the various parameters regarding the dosimeter response, radiation type, energy and worker 

orientation in the field. OCAS-IG-001(NIOSH 2002), Appendix A contains a detailed discussion of the 

conversion of measured doses to organ dose equivalent, and Appendix B contains the appropriate 

dose conversion factors (DCFs) for each organ, radiation type, and energy range based on the type of 

monitoring performed. The selection of the worker orientation is important to the calculation of the 

organ dose. Examples of common exposure orientations are provided in NIOSH (2002), Table 4.2. 

Unfortunately, there is no definitive process to determine the exposure geometry for each Hanford 

worker. Table 6.6.4-1 lists proposed default options based on judgments of claimant-favorable 

exposure geometries for long-term Hanford workers. 

Organ Dose

Table 6.6.4-1. Default exposure geometries to calculate organ 

dose. 

Claim Status

Job 

category

Exposure 

geometry Percentage

Likely noncompensable All AP 100%

Compensable–Workers All AP 50%

ROT 50%

Compensable–

Supervisors

All AP 50%

ISO 50%
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REFERENCES

AEC (U.S. Atomic Energy Commission), 1966, Feasibility Study of the Correlation of Lifetime Health 

and Mortality Experience of AEC and AEC Contractor Employees with Occupational Radiation 

Exposure. Progress Report No. 2 under AEC Contract No. AT(30-1)-3394, April 3, 1965 - May 

31, 1966, Department of Occupational Health, Graduate School of Public Health, University of 

Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

ANSI (American National Standards Institute), 1983, American National Standard, Criteria for Testing 

Personnel Dosimetry Performance, ANSI N13.11, New York.

Ballinger, M. Y. and R. B. Hall, 1991, A History of Major Hanford Facilities and Processes Involving 

Radioactive Material, PNL-6964, Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Washington.

Biles, M. B., 1972, Letter to T. A. Nemzak (Ad Hoc Technical Committee Finds), Pacific Northwest 

National Laboratory, Richland, Washington, 23 November.

Brackenbush, L. W., W. V. Baumgartner, and J. J. Fix, 1991, Response of TLD Albedo and Nuclear 

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Brackenbush, L. W., G. W. R. Endres, J. M. Selby, and E. J. Vallario, 1980, Personnel Neutron 

Dosimetry at Department of Energy Facilities, PNL-3213, Pacific Northwest Laboratory, 

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Budd, R. O., 1963, Letter to File, July 2. 

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Hanford Workers 1944-1989, PNL-8909, Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Washington.

Corlew, R. P. (Atlantic Richland Hanford Company), 1972, letter to O. J. Elgert (U.S. Atomic Energy 

Commission, Richland Operations Office), November 2.

DOE (U.S. Department of Energy), 1986, Department of Energy Standard for the Performance 

Testing of Personnel Dosimetry Systems, DOE/EH-0027, Washington, D.C.

DOE (U.S. Department of Energy), 1996, Plutonium: The First 50 Years United States Plutonium 

Production, Acquisition, and Utilization from 1944-1994, DOE/DP-0137, Washington, D.C.

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Management, Washington, D.C.

DOE (U.S. Department of Energy), 2002, History of the Plutonium Production Facilities at the Hanford 

Site Historic District, 1943-1990, DOE/RL-97-1047, Washington, D.C.

Endres, A. W., L. W. Brackenbush, W. V. Baumgartner, J. J. Fix, and B. A. Rathbone, 1996, 

Response of the Hanford Combination Neutron Dosimeter in Plutonium Environments, PNL10561, Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Washington.

Fix, J. J., 1988, “Photon Measurements at Purex,” letter to Bill Decker, August 1.
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Fix, J.J., E. H. Carbaugh, and J. A. MacLellan, 2001, Historical Hanford Radiological Record 

Description, unpublished report. Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Washington.

Fix, J. J., L. Salmon, G. Cowper, and E. Cardis, 1997a, “A Retrospective Evaluation of the Dosimetry 

Employed in an International Combined Epidemiologic Study,” Radia. Prot. Dosi. 74, 39-53.

Fix, J. J., R. H. Wilson, and W. V. Baumgartner, 1997b, Retrospective Assessment of Personnel 

Neutron Dosimetry for Workers at the Hanford Site, PNNL-11196, Pacific Northwest National 

Laboratory, Richland, Washington.

Fix, J. J, E. S. Gilbert, and W. V. Baumgartner, 1994, An Assessment of Bias and Uncertainty in 

Recorded Dose from External Sources of Radiation for Workers at the Hanford Site, PNL10066, Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Washington.

Fix, J. J., J. M. Hobbs, P. L. Roberson, D. C. Haggard, K. L. Holbrook, M. R. Thorson, and F. M. 

Cummings, 1982, Hanford Personnel Dosimeter Supporting Studies FY-1981, PNL-3736, 

Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Washington.

Fix, J. J., G. W. R. Endres, F. M. Cummings, J. M. Aldrich, M. R. Thorson, and R. L. Kathren, 1981, 

Hanford Personnel Dosimeter Supporting Studies FY-1980, PNL-3536, Pacific Northwest 

Laboratory, Richland, Washington.

Fleischman, T. M., 1982, letter dated Mural B. Gavini, December 9.

Freer, B. J., and C. A. Conway, 1997, History of the Plutonium Production Facilities at the Hanford 

Site Historic District, 1943-1990, Chapter 2, Section 4, “Chemical Separations,” DOE/RL-97-

1047, U.S. Department of Energy, Richland, Washington.

GE (General Electric Corporation), 1954, Radiation Protection Standards, HW-25457, Hanford Atomic 

Products Operation, Richland, Washington, December 15. 

Gilbert, E. S., 1990, A Study of Detailed Dosimetry Records for a Selected Group of Workers Included 

in the Hanford Mortality Study, PNL-7439, Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, 

Washington.

Glenn, R. D., 1977, letter to Neil Hembree, May 10.

Hart, J. C. 1967. Derivation of Dose Data from Hanford-DuPont Personnel Meter Exposure Records 

Applicable to the Mancuso Study. 67-3-10, Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), Oak 

Ridge, Tennessee.

HEW (Hanford Engineering Works), 1946, Manual of Standard Procedures: Personnel Meters, Part 

16. Film Calibration and Batch Assignments, Medical Department, Health Instrument Section, 

May 1.

Hine, G.J. and G.L. Brownell. 1989. Radiation Dosimetry. Academic Press, New York.

Howell, W. P., J. L. Kenoyer, M. L. Kress, K. L. Swinth, C. E. Corbit, L. V. Zuerner, D. M. Fleming, and 

H. W. Dehaven, 1989, A Historical Review of Portable Health Physics Instruments and Their 

Use in Radiation Protection Programs at Hanford, 1944 Through 1988, PNL-6980, Pacific 

Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Washington.
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ICRP (International Commission on Radiological Protection, 1990, Recommendations of the 

International Commission on Radiological Protection, ICRP Publication 60, Annals of the 

ICRP, Vol.21, Pergamon Press, Oxford, England

ICRU (International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements), 1993, Quantities and Units 

in Radiation Protection Dosimetry, ICRU Report No. 51, Bethesda, Maryland.

Kathren, R. L., 1970, Evaluation of Hanford Basic Thermoluminescent Dosimeter, BNWL-CC-2633, 

Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Washington.

Kathren, R. L., C. T. Prevo, and S. Block, 1964, Angular Dependence of Eastman Type A (NTA) 

Personnel Monitoring Film, UCRL-12199, Earnest O. Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, 

University of California, Livermore, California.

Keene, A.R., 1957, “Exposure Problem 234-5 Building,” to G.E. Bachman, February 12.

Kocher, D.C., Apostoaei A.I., Hoffman, F.O. 2002. Proposed Radiation Effectiveness Factors for Use 

in Calculating Probability of Causation of Cancers. Final Internal Report. SENES Oak Ridge, 

Center for Risk Analysis, Oak Ridge, TN

Kocher, L. F., G.W.R. Endres, L.L. Nichols, D.B. Shipler, and A.J. Haverfield. 1971, The Hanford 

Thermoluminescent Multipurpose Dosimeter, BNWL-SA-3955, Pacific Northwest Laboratory, 

Richland, Washington.

Larson, H. V., and W. C. Roesch, 1954, Gamma Dose Measurement with Hanford Film Badges, HW32526, General Electric, Hanford Atomic Products Operation, Richland, Washington.

National Bureau of Standards (NBS). 1961. Measurement of Absorbed Dose of Neutrons, and of 

Mixtures of Neutrons and Gamma Rays. NBS Handbook 75, U.S. Department of Commerce, 

Washington, D.C.

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Electron Volts. NBS Handbook 63, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C.

National Research Council (NRC). 1989. Film Badge Dosimetry in Atomospheric Nuclear Tests. 

National Academy Press, Washington, D.C..

NCRP (National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements), 1971, Protection Against 

Neutron Radiation, NCRP Report 38, Bethesda, Maryland.

Nichols, L. L., G. W. R. Endres, D. B. Shipler, E. E. Oscarson, and L. L. Crass, 1972, Hanford 

Multipurpose TL Dosimeter Field Tests and Evaluation, BNWL-B-127, Pacific Northwest 

National Laboratory, Richland, Washington.

NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health), 1993, Epidemiologic Use of 

Nondetectable Values in Radiation Exposure Measurements, NIOSH Research Issues 

Workshop, Cincinnati, Ohio, September 9-10.

NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health), 2002, External Dose Reconstruction 

Implementation Guidelines, Rev 1, OCAS-IG-001, Office of Compensation Analysis and 

Support, Cincinnati, Ohio.
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Pardue, L. A., N. Goldstein, and E. O. Wollan, 1944, Photographic Film as a Pocket Radiation 

Dosimeter, CH-1553-A-2223, Metallurgical Laboratory, Chicago, Illinois. 

Parker, H. M, 1945, Comparison of Badge Film Readings at the Metallurgical Laboratories, Clinton 

Laboratories and the Hanford Engineering Works, 7-3090, Hanford Atomic Products 

Operation, Richland, Washington.

Rabovsky, J. L., C. R. Jones and H. J. Pettengill, 1991, Eleventh DOE Workshop on Personnel 

Neutron Dosimetry, CONF-9106235, U. S. Department of Energy, Washington, D.C., June 3-

7.

Rathbone, B. A., 2002, Hanford External Dosimetry Technical Basis Manual, PNL-MA-842, Pacific 

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Rathbun, L. A., 1989, The Determination of the Penetrating Radiation Dose at Hanford, PNL-7124, 

Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Washington.

Roberson, P. L., and F. M. Cummings, 1986, Gamma Field Measurements at the 234-5 Facility, 

internal report, Hanford External Dosimetry Project Files, Pacific Northwest National 

Laboratory, Richland, Washington, October 13.

Roberson, P. L., F. M. Cummings, and J. J. Fix, 1985, Neutron and Gamma Field Measurements at 

the 234-5Z Facility, internal report, Hanford External Dosimetry Project Files, Pacific Northwest 

National Laboratory, Richland, Washington, September.

Scherpelz, R. I., J. J. Fix, and B. A. Rathbone, 2000, Validation of Hanford Personnel and Extremity 

Dosimeters in Plutonium Environments, PNNL-13136, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 

Richland, Washington, January.

Schwartz, R. B., and C. M. Eisenhauer. 1982. Procedures for Calibrating Neutron Personnel 

Dosimeters. NBS Special Publication No. 633, U.S. National Bureau of Standards, 

Washington, D.C.

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Geometry of Exposure,” Radiat Prot Dos, 102(2): 101-113.

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Dosimeter, BNWL-1340, Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Washington.

Vallario, E. J., D. E. Hankins, and C. M. Unruh, 1971, Second AEC Workshop on Personnel Neutron 

Dosimetry, BNWL-1616, Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Washington.

Watson, E. C., 1959, A Review of the NTA (Fast Neutron) Film Program, HW-61008, Hanford Atomic 

Products Operation, Richland, Washington.

Watson, E.C., 1957. Weekly Processing of Pocket Ionization Chambers, HW-48751, Hanford Atomic 

Products Operation, Richland, Washington.
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Doses for Workers without Monitoring data for Retrospective Epidemiologic Studies,” Health 

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Electric, Hanford Atomic Products Operation, Richland, Washington.

Wilson, R. H., 1960, Detection Level of the Film Badge System, HW-67697, General Electric, Hanford 

Atomic Products Operation, Richland, Washington.

Wilson, R. H., 1987, Historical Review of Personnel Dosimetry Development and its Use in Radiation 

Protection Programs at Hanford: 1944 Through 1989, PNL-6125, Pacific Northwest 

Laboratory, Richland, Washington. 

Wilson, R. H., J. J. Fix, W. V. Baumgartner, and L. L. Nichols, 1990, Description and Evaluation of the 

Hanford Personnel Dosimeter Program From 1944 Through 1989, PNL-7447, Pacific 

Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Washington.
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GLOSSARY

absorbed dose, D 

Amount of energy imparted by radiation to unit mass of absorbing material (100 ergs per 

gram), including tissue. The unit used prior to the use of the International System of metric 

units (SI) is the rad; the SI unit is the gray.

accreditation 

Recognition that a dosimeter system has passed the performance criteria of the DOE 

Laboratory Accreditation Program (DOELAP) standard (DOE 1986) in specified irradiation 

categories.

accuracy 

If a series of measurements has small systematic errors, they are said to have high accuracy. 

The accuracy is represented by the bias.

albedo dosimeter 

A TLD device that measures the thermal, intermediate and fast neutrons that are scattered 

and moderated by the body from an incident fast neutron flux.

algorithm 

A computational procedure.

Atomic Energy Commission

Original agency established for nuclear weapons and power production; a successor to the 

Manhattan Engineering District (MED) and a predecessor to the U.S. Department of Energy 

(DOE).

BF3 chamber or counter: 

Proportional counter using gaseous BF3 compound to detect slow neutrons through their 

interaction with boron.

backscatter 

Deflection of radiation by scattering processes through angles greater than 90 degrees, with 

respect to the original direction of motion.

beta particle 

A charged particle of very small mass emitted spontaneously from the nuclei of certain 

radioactive elements. Most (if not all) of the direct fission products emit (negative) beta 

particles. Physically, the beta particle is identical with an electron moving at high velocity.

Bonner Sphere

See Multi-Sphere neutron Spectrometer

bremsstrahlung 

Secondary photon or x-ray radiation produced by deceleration of charged particles passing 

through matter.

buildup 

Increase in flux or dose due to scattering in the medium.
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calibration blank

A dosimeter that has not been exposed to a radiation source. The results from this dosimeter 

establish the dosimetry system base line or zero dose value.

claimant favorable

This term refers to the process of estimation based on technical considerations of the 

parameters significant to dose such that the estimated dose is not underestimated.

collective dose equivalent

The sum of the dose equivalents of all individuals in an exposed population. Collective dose is 

expressed in units of person-rem (person-sievert).

control dosimeter

A dosimeter used to establish the dosimetry system response to radiation dose. The 

dosimeter is exposed to a known amount of radiation dose.

curie

A special unit of activity. One curie exactly equals 3.7 x 1010 nuclear transitions per second.

Cutie Pie (CP)

A portable ion chamber survey meter with a pistol grip and a large cylindrical ionization 

chamber.

deep absorbed dose (Dd)

The absorbed dose at the depth of 1.0 cm in a material of specified geometry and 

composition.

deep dose equivalent (Hd)

The dose equivalent at the respective depth of 1.0 cm in tissue.

Densitometer

Instrument that has a photocell to determine the degree of darkening of developed 

photographic film.

density reading

See optical density.

dose equivalent (H)

The product of the absorbed dose (D), the quality factor (Q), and any other modifying factors. 

The special unit is the rem. When D is expressed in Gy, H is in Sieverts (Sv). 

(1 Sv = 100 rem.)

DOELAP

The DOE Laboratory Accreditation Program (DOELAP) accredits DOE site dosimetry 

programs based on performance testing and onsite reviews performed on a two year cycle.

dose equivalent index

For many years the dose equivalent used to calibrate neutron sources that were used to 

calibrate neutron dosimeters a concept of summing the maximum dose equivalent delivered in 

the ICRU sphere at any depth for the respective neutron energies even though the maximum 

dose occurred at different depths.
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dosimeter

A device used to measure the quantity of radiation received. A holder with radiation-absorbing 

elements (filters) and an insert with radiation-sensitive elements packaged to provide a record 

of absorbed dose or dose equivalent received by an individual. (See albedo dosimeter, film 

dosimeter, neutron film dosimeter, thermoluminescent dosimeter.)

dosimetry system

A system used to assess dose equivalent from external radiation to the whole body, skin, 

and/or extremities. This includes the fabrication, assignment, and processing of the 

dosimeters as well as interpretation and documentation of the results.

DuPont 552

A film packet containing two pieces of film: a 502 sensitive film and a 510 insensitive film.

DuPont 558

A film packet containing a 508 film with one side having a sensitive emulsion and the other 

side insensitive emulsion.

Eastman Kodak Nuclear Track Emulsion, Type A (NTA)

A film that is sensitive to fast neutrons. The developed image has tracks caused by neutrons 

that can be seen by using oil immersion and 1000X power microscope.

error

A term used to express the difference between the estimated and "true" value. Error may also 

be used to refer to the estimated uncertainty.

exchange period (frequency)

Time period (weekly, biweekly, monthly, quarterly, etc.) for routine exchange of dosimeters.

exposure

As used in the technical sense, exposure refers to a measure expressed in roentgens of the 

ionization produced by gamma (or x) rays in air. 

exposure-to-dose-equivalent conversion factor for photons (Cx)

The ratio of exposure in air to the dose equivalent at a specified depth in a material of 

specified geometry and composition. The Cx factors are a function of photon energy, material 

geometry (e.g., sphere, slab, or torso), and material composition (e.g., tissue-equivalent 

plastic, soft tissue ignoring trace elements, or soft tissue including trace elements).

extremity

That portion of the arm extending from and including the elbow through the fingertips, and that 

portion of the leg extending from and including the knee and patella through the tips of the 

toes.

fast Neutron

Neutron of energy between 10 keV and 10 MeV (NBS 1957).

field calibration

Dosimeter calibration based on radiation types, intensity and energies present in the work 

environment.
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film

Generally means a "film packet" that contains one or more pieces of film in a light-tight 

wrapping. The film when developed has an image caused by radiation that can be measured 

using an optical densitometer. (See Dupont 552, Dupont 558, Eastman Kodak, Nuclear 

Emulsions.)

film density

See optical density.

film dosimeter

A small packet of film within a holder that attaches to a worker.

filter

Material used to adjust radiation response of a dosimeter to provide an improved tissue 

equivalent or dose response.

First Collision Dose

The “first collision dose” can be determined for either photons or neutrons. For neutron 

radiation, perhaps the simplest calculation that can be made is one relating dose to flux 

through a thin layer of tissue. The resulting graph, sometimes referred to as the first-collision 

curve, is derived from the assumption that the probability of two or more interactions per 

neutron is negligible (Hine and Brownell 1956). Because of the short range of the charged 

secondary radiation from fast neutrons, the first collision dose in irradiated material is 

practically the same as the absorbed dose (NBS 1961).

free-field dose equivalent

The dose equivalent assigned for neutron irradiation as if it were performed in free space with 

no background from air and room scattering and no source asymmetry (Schwartz and 

Eisenhauer 1982).

gamma rays

Electromagnetic radiation (photons) originating in atomic nuclei and accompanying many 

nuclear reactions (e.g., fission, radioactive decay, and neutron capture). Physically, gamma 

rays are identical to x-rays of high energy, the only essential difference being that x-rays do 

not originate in the nucleus. 

gamma ray interactions

Interaction of gamma rays with matter occurs through three primary processes as follows:

Photoelectric absorption - The process whereby a gamma-ray (or x-ray) photon, with energy 

somewhat greater than that of the binding energy of an electron in an atom, transfers all its 

energy to the electron, which is consequently removed from the atom.

Compton scattering - An attenuation process observed for x-ray or gamma radiation in which 

an incident photon interacts with an orbital electron of an atom to produce a recoil electron and 

a scattered photon of energy less that the incident photon.

Pair production - An absorption process for x-ray and gamma radiation in which the incident 

photon is annihilated in the vicinity of the nucleus of the absorbing atom, with subsequent 

production of an electron and positron pair. This reaction only occurs for incident photon 

energies that exceed 1.02 MeV.
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Geiger-Mueller (GM) counter 

A radiation measuring device used to detect beta and gamma radiation.

glove box

A device used in handling of quantities of radioactive isotopes to provide containment of the 

radioactivity and to avoid contamination of the hands.

gray (Gy)

The SI unit of absorbed dose (1 Gy = 100 rad).

3He Spectrometer

An instrument used to measure neutron energy spectra based on neutron interactions with 

3

He atoms to produce a triton and a proton that are detected in a proportional counter.

induced radioactivity

Radioactivity produced in certain materials as a result of nuclear reactions particularly the 

capture of neutrons.

Intermediate Energy Neutron

Neutron of energy between 0.5 ev (assumed to be 0.4 ev because of cadmium cutoff in 

neutron response) and 10 keV (NBS 1957).

ionizing radiation

Electromagnetic radiation (consisting of photons) or particulate radiation (consisting of 

electrons, neutrons, protons, etc.) capable of producing charged particles through interactions 

with matter.

isotopes

Forms of the same element having identical chemical properties but differing in their atomic 

masses. Isotopes of a given element all have the same number or protons in the nucleus but 

different numbers of neutrons. Some isotopes of an element may be radioactive.

kilo-electron volt (keV)

An amount of energy equal to 1,000 electron volts.

Linear Energy Transfer (LET)

Radiation transfersing matter loses energy at a rate which depends upon on both the nature of 

the radiation and its energy. The lineal rate of local energy absorption is known as the “linear 

energy transfer” (LET). (NBS 1961).

luminescence

The emission of light from a material as a result of some excitation.

Manhattan Engineering District (MED)

US agency designated to develop nuclear weapons and a predecessor to the U.S. 

Department of Energy (DOE).

Minimum Detection Level, MDL

The term minimum detection level is often confused because the statistical parameters 

necessary to its calculation are not explicitly defined. Nonetheless, it is often assumed to be 
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the level at which a dose is detected at the two-sigma level (i.e., 95% of the time). The MDL 

should not be confused with the minimum recorded dose. 

minimum recorded dose

Based on a policy decision, the minimum dose level that is routinely recorded. A closely 

related concept is the dose recording interval. Hanford has generally recorded minimum 

doses of 10 mrem and at intervals of 10 mrem (i.e., 10, 20, 30, etc.).

million-electron volt (MeV)

An amount of energy equal to 1,000,000 electron volts.

Multiple-Collision Neutron Dose

The “multiple collision dose” for neutron radiation relates the dose to flux through tissue based 

on the assumption that two or more interactions per neutron occurs resulting in greater energy 

deposition. 

Multi-Sphere Neutron Spectrometer

The multi-sphere neutron spectrometer consists of a series of neutron moderating spheres of 

tissue equivalent material with a neutron detector positioned at the middle of the respective 

spheres. Algorithms are used to unfold the data to calculate the neutron spectra.

nuclear emulsion

Generally refers to NTA film.

neutron

A basic particle that is electrically neutral weighing nearly the same as the hydrogen atom.

neutron, fast

Neutrons with energy equal or greater than 10 keV.

neutron, intermediate

Neutrons with energy between 0.4 eV and 10 keV.

neutron, thermal

Strictly, neutrons in thermal equilibrium with surroundings. Generally, neutrons with energy 

less than the cadmium cutoff at about 0.4 eV.

neutron–to-photon dose ratio 

In this TBD, this term refers to a neutron to photon dose ratio that is used with the photon 

fraction to estimate the unmeasured neutron dose.

neutron film dosimeter

A film dosimeter that contains an Eastman-Kodak Neutron Track Emulsion, type A, film 

packet.

nonpenetrating dose

Designation (i.e., NP or NPen) on Hanford film dosimeter reports that implies a radiation dose, 

typically to the skin of whole body, from beta and lower energy photon radiation.
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open window (OW)

Designation on Hanford film dosimeter reports for nonpenetrating dose based on film 

response in this region with little (i.e., no metallic filter, only security credential) shielding. 

operating area

Designation of Hanford major operational work areas among the respective fuel fabrication 

(e.g., 300), reactor operations (e.g., 100B, 100C, 100D, 100DR, 100F, 100H, 100KE, 100KW, 

100N), chemical separations (e.g., U-Plant, T-Plant, B-Plant, UO3 Plant, REDOX Plant and 

PUREX Plant) ), plutonium finishing (Z-plant), research and development (e.g. 300, 3000), and 

transportation, communication and general site support (e.g., 600, 700, 1100).

optical density

The quantitative measurement of photographic blackening the density defined as D = Log10

(Io/I).

pencil dosimeters

A type of ionization chamber used by personnel to measure radiation dose. These results 

may be labeled as “Pen” dose. Other names: pencil, pocket dosimeter, pocket pencil, pocket 

ionization chamber (PIC).

penetrating dose

Designation (i.e., P or Pen) on Hanford film dosimeter reports that implies a radiation dose, 

typically to the whole body, from higher energy photon radiation.

PuF4 source

A neutron source with plutonium tetrafluoride activating material. The source was used to 

duplicate the neutron energies in Hanford's plutonium facilities generally referred to as the 200 

Area Z-Plant or plutonium finishing plant.

Personal Dose Equivalent, Hp(d)

Radiation quantity recommended for use as the operational quantity to be recorded for 

radiological protection purposes by the International Commission on Radiological Units and 

Measurements (ICRU 1993). The Personal Dose Equivalent is represented by Hp(d), where d 

identifies the depth (in mm) and represents the point of reference for dose in tissue. For 

weakly penetrating radiation of significance to skin dose, d = 0.07 mm and is noted as 

Hp(0.07). For penetrating radiation of significance to “whole-body” dose, d = 10 mm and is 

noted as Hp(10). 

photon

A unit or "particle" of electromagnetic radiation consisting of x- and/or gamma rays. 

photon dose fraction

In this TBD, this term has been used to identify the fraction of the measured photon dose used 

to estimate the unmeasured neutron dose by multiply this fraction times the neutron to photon 

dose ratio.

precision

If a series of measurements has small random errors, the measurements are said to have high 

precision. The precision is represented by the standard deviation.
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quality factor, Q

A modifying factor used to derive dose equivalent from absorbed dose.

rad

A unit of absorbed dose equal to the absorption of 100 ergs per gram of absorbing material, 

such as body tissue.

radiation

One or more of beta, neutron, and photon radiation. 

radiation monitoring

Routine measurements and the estimation of the dose equivalent for the purpose of 

determining and controlling the dose received by workers.

radioactivity

The spontaneous emission of radiation, generally alpha or beta particles, gamma rays, and 

neutrons from unstable nuclei

random errors

When a given measurement is repeated the resulting values, in general, do not agree exactly. 

The causes of the disagreement between the individual values must also be causes of their 

differing from the "true" value. Errors resulting from these causes are called random errors.

RBE

A ratio of the absorbed dose of a reference radiation to the absorbed dose of a test radiation 

producing the same biological effects, other conditions being equal.

rem

The rem is a unit of dose equivalent, which is equal to the product of the number of rads 

absorbed and the "quality factor."

rep

Historically the rep (roentgen-equivalent-physical) has been used extensively for the 

specification of permissible doses of ionizing radiations other than X-rays or gamma rays. 

Several definitions have appeared in the literature but in the sense most widely adopted, it is a 

unit of absorbed dose with a magnitude of 93 ergs/g (NBS 1954). 

Roentgen

A unit of exposure to gamma (or x-ray) radiation. It is defined precisely as the quantity of 

gamma (or x) rays that will produce a total charge of 2.58 x 10-4 coulomb in 1 kg of dry air. An 

exposure of 1 R is approximately equivalent to an absorbed dose of 1 rad in soft tissue.

scattering

The diversion of radiation from its original path as a result of interactions with atoms between 

the source of the radiations and a point at some distance away. Scattered radiations are 

typically changed in direction and of lower energy than the original radiation.

shallow absorbed dose (Ds)

The absorbed dose at a depth of 0.07 mm in a material of specified geometry and

composition.
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shallow dose equivalent (Hs)

Dose equivalent at a depth of 0.07 mm in tissue.

shielding

Any material or obstruction that absorbs (or attenuates) radiation and thus tends to protect 

personnel or materials from radiation.

Sievert (Sv)

The SI unit for dose equivalent. (1 Sv = 100 rem.)

sigma pile

A device used to obtain thermal neutrons for calibration purposes.

silver shield(s)

The 1-mm- and 0.13-μm-thick shields covering the film packet in the early Hanford personnel 

film dosimeters.

skin dose

Absorbed dose at a tissue depth of 7 mg/cm2.

Snoopy

A portable neutron monitoring instrument with a moderated BF3 detector.

systematic errors

When a given measurement is repeated and the resulting values all differ from the "true" value 

by the same amount, the errors are called systematic.

thermal neutron

Strictly, neutrons in thermal equilibrium with surroundings. Generally, refers to neutrons of 

energy less-than the cadmium cutoff of about 0.4 ev.

tissue equivalent

This term is used to imply that the radiation response characteristics of the material being 

irradiated are equivalent to tissue. Achieving a tissue equivalent response is typically an 

important consideration in the design and fabrication of radiation measuring instruments and 

dosimeters.

Tissue Equivalent Proportional Counter (TEPC)

This device is used to measure the absorbed dose from neutron radiation in near tissue 

equivalent materials and, through analysis of the counter data, determination of the effective 

quality factor and the dose equivalent.

TLD chip

A small block or crystal made of LiF used in the TLD.

TLD-600 - A TLD chip made from Li-6 (>95%) used to detect neutrons.

TLD-700 - A TLD chip made from Li-7 (>99.9%) used to detect photon and beta radiation.

thermoluminescent

Property of a material that causes it to emit light as a result of being excited by heat.
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thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD)

A holder containing solid chips of material that when heated will release the stored energy as 

light. The measurement of this light provides a measurement of absorbed dose. The solid 

chips are sometimes called crystals.

whole body dose

Commonly defined as the absorbed dose at a tissue depth of 1.0 cm (1000 mg/cm2); 

however, this term is also used to refer to the dose recorded.

x-ray

Ionizing electromagnetic radiation of extranuclear origin.

Z-Plant

A Hanford facility, composed of several buildings, where plutonium is processed (also known 

as 234-5-Z Building). 
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ATTACHMENT E

OCCUPATIONAL EXTERNAL DOSE FOR MONITORED WORKERS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section

E.1 Distribution Parameters.............................................................................................................

Page

62

E.2 Years of Exposure .................................................................................................................... 62

E.3 Rate..........................................................................................................................................62

E.4 Radiation Type..........................................................................................................................62

E.4.1 Beta/Photon ..................................................................................................................63

E.4.2 Neutron (RESERVED)................................................................................................... 64

E.5 Distribution Parameters............................................................................................................. 64

E.5.1 Type ..............................................................................................................................64

E.5.2 Parameter 1 ..................................................................................................................64

E.5.2.1 Resolution of Recorded Dose Components .................................................... 64

E.5.2.2 Adjustments to Recorded Nonpenetrating Dose.............................................. 65

E.5.2.3 Adjustments to Recorded Penetrating Dose.................................................... 65

E.5.2.4 Adjustments to Recorded Neutron Dose (RESERVED) .................................. 66

E.5.2.5 Unmonitored Photon Dose.............................................................................. 66

E.5.2.6 Missed Photon Dose....................................................................................... 66

E.5.2.7 Missed Neutron Dose (RESERVED)............................................................... 67

E.5.2.8 Organ Dose .................................................................................................... 67

E.5.3 Parameter 2 ..................................................................................................................68

E.5.3.1 Hanford Workplace Recorded Dose Uncertainty ............................................. 68
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LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

Table E.1-1. IREP dose parameter input screen............................................................................. 62

Table E.4.1-1. Selection of beta and photon radiation energies and percentages........................... 63

Table E.5.2.1-1. Historical Hanford Recorded Dose Practices. ....................................................... 65

Table E.5.2.6-1. Missed photon dose adjustments to recorded deep dose. .................................... 67

Table E.5.2.8-1. Default exposure geometries to calculate organ dose........................................... 68
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E.1 DISTRIBUTION PARAMETERS

Several technical parameters of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)-provided dose of record 

information are considered in the evaluation of individual claims. The focus of this attachment is to 

ensure a claimant-favorable analysis that considers the uncertainty in historically recorded dose. 

These doses are often based on less capable technology than currently available. A basis of 

comparison for evaluation of dose, as described in External Dose Reconstruction Implementation 

Guideline (NIOSH 2002) is the Personal Dose Equivalent, Hp(d), where d identifies the depth (in mm) 

and represents the point of reference for dose in tissue. For weakly penetrating radiation of 

significance to skin dose, d = 0.07 mm and is noted as Hp(0.07). For penetrating radiation of 

significance to “whole-body” dose, d = 10 mm and is noted as Hp(10). Hp(0.07) and Hp(10) are the 

radiation quantities recommended for use as the operational quantity to be recorded for radiological 

protection purposes by the International Commission on Radiological Units and Measurements 

(ICRU). These are the dose quantities used to accredit DOE dosimetry programs since the mid1980s. 

The primary Interactive RadioEpidemiological Program (IREP) screen used to input dose parameters 

is in Table E.1-1. Input to these fields is obtained from the Hanford dose of record. The claim 

provides the primary organ of interest and other worker information needed to run IREP. Guidance 

for the selection of the parameters in Table E.1-1 by the dose reconstruction analyst is presented in 

the following sections.

Table E.1-1. IREP dose parameter input screen. 

Exposure

Radiation type

Distribution 

parameters

# Year Rate 1 2 3

1 1960 Acute Photon, 30-250 keV Normal 2 2 0

2 1961 Acute

E.2 YEARS OF EXPOSURE

The years of exposure should be identified from the claim information and from the DOE radiation 

dose reports. For years with no recorded radiation dose, a missed dose as described later in this 

section is calculated for all zero or missing records. Hanford policies required monitoring of all 

workers who entered a radiological control area and radiological monitoring staff were present in all 

primary facilities with the responsibility to ensure radiation protection guidelines were followed. Valid 

reasons are expected for years in which there is no recorded dose (i.e., a blank entry). 

E.3 RATE 

Acute is selected for all types of external beta and photon dose. Chronic is selected for neutron dose.

E.4 RADIATION TYPE

The evaluation is separated into beta/photon and neutron dose, as described in the following sections.
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E.4.1

Claimant-favorable assumptions should be made using guidance in Table E.4.1-1 for beta and photon 

radiation. The values presented in this table are intended to provide a claimant-favorable estimate of 

parameters to be used to calculate the organ dose for long-term Hanford workers in the respective 

facilities.

Beta/Photon

Table E.4.1-1. Selection of beta and photon radiation energies and percentages. Process/

buildings Description

Operations Radiation 

type

Energy 

Begin End selection, keV Percentage

Fuel 

fabrication

Produced reactor fuel and target assemblies from uranium. Beta

photon

> 15 

30–250 

100%

313, 306, 333 1945 1972 100%

Reactors

During operation: Highly dispersed fields of higher energy photon 

radiation fields from fission process, activation and fission product 

nuclides. Potentially narrow beams of higher energy neutron radiation 

from test ports, etc., into reactor core. Potential for significant airborne 

nuclides, and there might be significant higher energy beta radiation. 

Beta

photon

> 15 

30–250 

> 250 

100%

25%

75%

Not in operation: Highly dispersed fields of higher energy photon 

radiation fields from activation and fission product nuclides. No 

significant neutron radiation. There might be significant higher energy 

beta radiation during maintenance work resulting from fission products.

B-Reactor 9/26/44 1946

1948 2/12/68

D-Reactor 12/17/44 6/26/67

F-Reactor 2/23//45 6/25/65

H-Reactor 10/29/49 4/21/65

DR-Reactor 10/50 12/31/64

C-Reactor 11/18/52 4/25/69

KW-Reactor 12/54 2/1/70

KE-Reactor 2/55 1/28/71

N-Reactor 12/63

B-Reactor 9/44 2/68

D-Reactor 12/44 6/6/67

FFTF 2/9/80

Processing 

plants 

Radiochemical operations: Highly dispersed fields of higher energy 

photon radiation fields from activation and fission product nuclides 

dominant to most exposure profiles. Potential for higher-energy beta 

radiation during sampling and maintenance work resulting from fission 

products. 

Beta 

photon

> 15 

30–250 

> 250

100%

25%

75%

T Plant 12/26/44 3/56

B Plant 4/13/45 1956

S Plant (Redox) 1/51 12/67

C Plant 7/52 7/67

A Plant (Purex) 1/56 6/72

1983 1988

U Plant 3/52 1/58

UO3 Plant 56

Plutonium 

production 

Plutonium component production: Plutonium is machined into 

weapon components using a glovebox assembly process with 

predominant close anterior exposure to workers. Radiation 

characteristics in this area involve significant lower energy photons and 

neutron radiation. Photon < 30

30–250

25%

Plutonium storage: Radiation characteristics in these areas generally 75%

involve dispersed lower energy scattered photons, including- 60 keV 241Am- gamma ray and neutron radiation.

200 Area PFP, Z-Plant, 234-5Z, 231-Z, etc. 1945 2003

300 Area Plutonium Laboratories 308/309, 324 2003

Calibrations

Hanford site calibration of instruments and 

dosimeters Beta

photon

> 15 

30 – 250 

> 250

100%

25%

3745-A, 318 1945 2003 75%

Waste 

handling

Radiation characteristics are highly dependent on source of waste, but 

typically fission product nuclides (Sr/Y-90, Cs-137) are dominant. Beta

photon

> 15

30–250 

> 250

100%

50%

200East and West 1953 2003 50%
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E.4.2

E.5 DISTRIBUTION PARAMETERS

Neutron (RESERVED)

The selection of the distribution parameters in Table E.1-1 is discussed in the following sections. 

E.5.1

The selection of a normal distribution for the type determines the definition of Parameters 1 and 2. 

For a normal distribution, Parameter 3 is not used.

Type

E.5.2

For a normal distribution, parameter 1 is the mean of the distribution of recorded dose for each year of 

monitoring. Before calculating this, it might be necessary to adjust the recorded dose to provide a 

claimant-favorable estimate of Hp(10) in accordance with information in the following sections.

Parameter 1

E.5.2.1 Resolution of Recorded Dose Components

There are three major changes in the format of Hanford dosimeter processing results corresponding 

to the major changes in dosimeter types. This is clarified as follows: 

• Before 1957 – This period is characterized by use of the two-element dosimeter with doses 

reported for the film response behind the open window (OW) and 1-mm silver filtration (S). 

The nonpenetrating dose is typically referred to OW on the processing forms, but it might be 

identified as beta. The penetrating dose is typically referred to as S (i.e., silver) on the 

processing forms but it might be identified as gamma. During this period, Hanford processing 

data were manually recorded. As such, these forms were updated each year to allow staff to 

directly record dosimeter results for each dosimeter exchange period and for each operating 

area. These forms were organized to allow the dosimeter results to be totaled to manually 

calculate and record the annual dose for each worker. In the latter 1950s, the annual dose 

data were transferred to the newly implemented Hanford radiological computer system. 

• 1957 through 1971 – This period is characterized by the use of multielement film dosimeters 

that included an X-ray component in addition to the beta and gamma identified doses. To 

calculate the whole-body dose, 35% of the X-ray dose was added to the gamma dose (plus 

any neutron dose). To calculate the skin dose, the X-ray dose was added to the gamma dose 

(plus any neutron dose). The tritium dose was added to the whole-body and skin dose 

components beginning in about 1964. During this period the dose results were computerized 

providing easy to read summaries.

• 1972 to present – This period is characterized by the use of TLDs that measured the beta, 

photon, and neutron dose. For the Hanford Multipurpose Dosimeter (HMPD), the doses were 

typically referred to as nonpenetrating, penetrating, slow neutron, and fast neutron. Later, the 

Hp(d) dose quantities were used in DOELAP performance testing. The whole-body dose was 

calculated as the sum of the penetrating [later Hp(10)], slow neutron and fast neutron doses. 

The skin dose was calculated as the sum of the nonpenetrating [later Hp(0.07)] plus the 

whole-body dose. Until about 1987, the tritium dose was also included in the whole-body and 

skin doses. 
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A summary of the respective Hanford recorded dosimeter recorded quantities and the compliance 

skin and whole body dose quantities based on the foregoing are shown in Table E.5.2.1-1. 

Table E.5.2.1-1. Historical Hanford Recorded Dose Practices.

Year Dosimeter Measured Quantities Compliance Dose Quantities

Two-Element Beta/Photon Film Dosimeter(a)

1944-47 O W = Open Window, mrep

S = “Silver filter” dosimeter response, mR

Skin = OW + S

WB = S

1948-50 beta = Open Window, mrep

gamma = “Silver filter” dosimeter response, mR

Skin = beta + WB

WB = Gamma 

Two-Element Beta/Photon Film Dosimeter + NTA Neutron Dosimeter

1950-57 beta = Open Window, mrep

gamma = “Silver filter” dosimeter response, mR

Skin = beta + WB

WB = Gamma + Neutron 

Multi-element Beta/Photon Dosimeter + NTA Neutron Dosimeter

1957-58 Beta

Gamma

X-ray

Neutron

Skin = 

Beta + Gamma + 65% X-ray + 

Neutron

WB = 

Gamma + 0.35% X-ray + Neutron

1959-71 Beta (-B-) 

Gamma (-G-) 

X-ray (-X-) 

Fast neutron (F-N)

Slow neutron (S-N)

Derma (skin) = Beta + WB + 65% 

x-ray

WB (Penetrating) = Gamma + 

neutron + 35% X-ray)

Thermoluminescent Dosimeter

1972-94 Nonpenetrating (NPEN)

Penetrating (PEN)

Slow Neutron (SN)

Fast Neutron (FN)

Skin = NPEN + WB

WB= PEN + SN + FN

1995-

2003

Shallow (Sh

Deep (Dp)

Neutron (Nt)

Skin = Sh + Dp + Nt

WB = Dp + Nt

a. From 1948-56, when dosimeter quantities for each period were noted as beta or gamma, the cumulative 

dosimeter dose quantities continued to be labeled as O.W. and S. 

E.5.2.2 Adjustments to Recorded Nonpenetrating Dose

No adjustment in recorded nonpenetrating or skin dose is recommended for long-term Hanford 

workers. Non-routine worker exposure to significant beta or photon radiation would typically be 

addressed in Hanford incident reports. The assessed doses in the respective incident reports, based 

on investigations conducted at the time of the incident, probably provide the best estimate of dose 

received. The dosimeter recorded whole body skin dose should also include any contribution from an 

incident that involved the whole body. However, many incidents involving beta or low-energy photon 

exposure are restricted to small areas of the whole body and would not be included in the whole body 

skin dose. 

E.5.2.3 Adjustments to Recorded Penetrating Dose

No adjustment in the recorded photon dose is recommended for multi-element or thermoluminescent 

dosimeter recorded penetrating or gamma dose with the exception of the penetrating dose (i.e., 

identified as S dose in the early years) recorded for the two-element film dosimeter used prior to April 

1957. For this dosimeter, the adjusted penetrating dose is calculated as follows:
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 Adjusted penetrating dose = penetrating dose (i.e., S) + (0.2 * nonpenetrating dose (i.e.,OW) 

The adjustment is to be applied only

E.5.2.4 Adjustments to Recorded Neutron Dose (RESERVED)

to workers in Hanford plutonium facilities only. Significant errors 

will occur if this adjustment is applied to nonplutonium facility exposure.

E.5.2.5 Unmonitored Photon Dose

Adjustments to the recorded annual dose can be made using dose results for coworkers or the 

recorded dose before and after the period of missed dose. These situations require careful 

examination since Hanford policy was to monitor all workers who entered a radiation area. 

E.5.2.6 Missed Photon Dose

Missed photon dose for Hanford workers can occur where (1) there is no recorded dose because 

workers were not monitored or the dose is otherwise unavailable, and (2) a zero dose is recorded for 

the dosimeter systems for any dosimeter response less than the MDL. Estimates of the missed dose 

can be made using dose results for coworkers or using the recorded dose before and after the period 

of missed dose. However, these situations require careful examination. The missed dose for 

dosimeter results less than the MDL is particularly important for earlier years, when MDLs were higher 

and dosimeter exchange was more frequent. NIOSH (2002) describes options to calculate the 

missed dose. One option is to estimate a claimant-favorable maximum potential missed dose where 

the MDL/2 is multiplied by the number of zero dose results. Table E.5.2.6-1 summarizes the potential 

missed photon dose adjustments according to year, facility/location, dosimeter type, and energy 

range.

Year. Table E.5.2.6-1 summarizes the potential maximum missed photon dose according to year 

using the default year shown in column 1. 

Facility/Location. The potential missed photon dose for the respective Hanford facilities is similar 

and, as such, Table E.5.2.6-1 can be used based on the year. 

Dosimeter Type. The potential missed photon dose for the respective periods of use, dosimeter 

types, MDL, and the exchange frequency is included in Table E.5.2.6-1. 
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Table E.5.2.6-1. Missed photon dose adjustments to recorded deep dose.

Time Period

Dosimeter

MDLb

(rem)

Exchange 

frequency

Max. 

annual 

missed 

dose (rem)c Default Year Period of usea

1944 Prior to 10/1/1944 PIC 0.005 Daily 

(n=250)

1.25

1945-50 10/1/1944 through December 

31, 1950

Hanford TwoElement Film0.04 Weekly 

(n=52)

2.08

1951-57 January 1, 1951 through March 

1957

0.04 Biweekly 

(n=26)

1.04

1957 April 1, 1957 through May 1957 Hanford MultiElement Film0.04 Biweekly 

(n=26)

1.04

1958-71 May 1957 through December 

31, 1971

0.04 Monthly 

(n=12)

0.48

1972-94 January 1, 1972 through 

December 31, 1994

Hanford TLD 0.02 Monthly 

(n=12)

0.24

0.02 Quarterly 

(n=4)

0.08

1995-2003 January 1, 1995 to 2003 

(ongoing)

Harshaw TLD 0.01 Monthly 

(n=12)

0.12

0.01 Quarterly 

(n=4)

0.03

a. For many years, Hanford workers had a dosimeter assigned to each operating area where they worked.

b. Estimated MDLs for each dosimeter technology in the workplace.

c. Maximum annual missed dose calculated from OCAS-IG-001 (NIOSH 2000).

Energy Range. An estimate of the missed photon dose by energy range is possible based on the 

type of facility and predominant radionuclides such as intermediate (>100 keV) energies for all 

facilities handling activation and fission product nuclides, primarily lower energy (<100 keV) photons 

for plutonium facilities and for uranium fuel fabrication facilities. The recorded dose from the 

dosimeter response does not typically provide sufficient information to estimate discrete energy 

ranges. It is possible to examine the energy response characteristics of the respective multielement 

dosimeters, but this analysis does not recognize the substantial uncertainties present in the workplace 

associated with shielding, radiation scattering, and mixed radiation fields

E.5.2.7 Missed Neutron Dose (RESERVED)

E.5.2.8 Organ Dose 

Once the adjusted photon and neutron doses have been calculated for each year, the values are used 

to calculate the organ dose distribution for the primary organ of interest identified in the claim. Table 

E.5.2.8-1 summarizes default workplace geometries. These can be used in case more applicable 

values (NIOSH 2002) cannot be determined. A range of reasonable estimates can be evaluated to 

arrive at a claimant-favorable selection.
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Table E.5.2.8-1. Default exposure geometries to calculate organ dose. 

Claim statusa Job categoryb Exposure geometry Percentagec

Noncompensable All AP 100%

Compensable–workers All AP 50%

ROT 50%

Compensable–supervisors All AP 50%

ISO 50%

a. Specific timespans for the various Hanford facility operations.

b. More than one job category may be needed for longer-term employed workers. 

c. Apply this percentage to the dose conversion factor (NIOSH 2002, Appendix B) 

to arrive at the total organ dose equivalent from the adjusted recorded dose. 

E.5.3

Parameter 2 is the standard deviation of the normal distribution for the organ dose. The individual 

dose result for each dosimeter exchange period will be available to calculate the mean and standard 

deviation for each year. If it is not available, the adjusted organ dose can be used for each year and a 

default standard deviation value used for parameter 2.

Parameter 2

E.5.3.1 Hanford Workplace Recorded Dose Uncertainty

Uncertainty in the recorded dose is an important consideration in claimant-favorable analyses. The 

overall uncertainty depends on (1) administrative practices, (2) dosimetry technology, (3) calibration, 

and (4) workplace radiation fields. The potential effect of each of these parameters on the recorded 

dose is described in the proceeding sections.