# U ni te d S ta te s Co ur t of A pp ea ls

For the Eig hth Circu it

__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ _

No. 1 5- 30 02

__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ _

Uni te d S ta te s o f Am eri ca

ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll l Pla in ti

ff - App el le e

v.

Eric Ch ris to ph er Vi res

ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll l Defe nd

an t - Ap pe ll an t

__ __ __ __ __ __
App eal fro m

Uni te d S ta te s Di st ric t Co ur t fo r th e Eas te rn Dis tri ct of Ark an sa s - Li tt le Ro ck

__ __ __ __ __ __

Su bm it te d: Ju ne 15 , 20 16
Fil ed : Au gu st 1, 2 01 6 [Un pu bl is he d]

__ __ __ __ __ __

Befo re SM ITH and GRUENDER, Circu it Ju dg es , and KETCHMARK, Dis tri ct 1

Ju dg e.

__ __ __ __ __ __

PER CURI AM.

The Hon or ab le Ro se an n A. Ketc hm ark

, Uni te d St at es Dis tri ct Ju dg e fo r th e 1

W es te rn Dis tri ct of M is so ur i, s it ti ng by des ig na ti on

.Eric Ch ris to ph er Vi res co nd it io na ll y pl ead ed gu il ty to po ss es si on wit h i nt en t

to di st rib ut e m et ha m

ph et am in e, in vi ol at io n of 21 U.S.C. § 84 1( a)(1 ) an d (b )(1 )(A).

H e ap pe al s fro m th e di st ric t co ur t's de ni al of hi s m ot io n to su pp res s e v i d e n c e 2

ob ta in ed as a res ul t of a tra ffi c st op an d ve hi cl e se arch th at he co nt en ds were il le ga l.

W e aff irm.

I. Bac kg ro un d

At th e he ari ng on Vire s's m ot io n to su pp res s, th e go ve rn m en t pr es e n t ed th e

te st im on y of Offi cer Je rem ia h Co vi ng to n, an of fic er wit h th e Nor th Lit tl e Ro ck Po li ce Dep art m en t (NLRPD). Offi cer Co vi ng to n, an ei gh t-year m em be r of th e NLRPD, ha s

wor ke d in th e pa tro l di vi si on , in ve st ig at io ns di vi si on , an d na rco ti cs di vi si on

. Offi cer

Co vi ng to n was work in g i n t he na rco ti cs di vi si on on Ju ly 10, 2 01 2.

On th at da y , th e NLRPD an d th e Dru g Enfo rcem en t Adm in is tra ti on were

co nd uc ti ng a na rco ti cs in ve st ig at io n i nv ol vi ng Lesi a So ut he rla nd

, Vire s's wife

, an d

o t he rs

. Offi cer Co vi ng to n an d ot he r NLRPD of fic ers pe rfo rm ed su rv ei ll an ce a t

So ut he rla nd 's pl ace of em pl oym en t in Nor th Lit tl e Ro ck

, Ark an sa s. O ff ic ers ob se rv ed

So ut he rla nd le av in g th e bu si ne ss in a car th at Vire s was dr iv in g. Offi cer Co vi ng to n,

in un ifo rm , was se le ct ed to en te r a m ark ed pa tro l un it "t o po ss ib ly st op a car th at we

were do in g su rv ei ll an ce on in refe ren ce to a cas e." In de sc rib in g th e NLRPD's us e of

su rv ei ll an ce an d a m ark ed p a t ro l un it

, Offi cer Co vi ng to n te st ifi ed th at "[t ]y pi cal ly

th ere's an y whe re fro m fiv e to te n un m ark ed un it s th at wil l

. . . ci rcl e aro un d th e area , try to id en ti fy th e pe op le th at we're lo ok in g at to see if th ey are in th e ve hi cl es pr io r

to do in g a st op ." Acco rd in g to Offi cer Co vi ng to n, he ge ne ral ly "p ark [s ] of f th e

ro ad way so m ewh ere and ba si cal ly wait [s ] on th e cal l from th e su rv ei ll an ce t eam on
whe th er o r no t t o m ak e a s to p."

The Hon or ab le Kris ti ne G. Bak er, Uni te d St at es Dis tri ct Ju dg e fo r th e East ern 2

Dis tri ct of Ark an sa s.

-2

-The pa tro l car th at Offi cer Co vi ng to n was dr iv in g was a "p oo l car" —" an ol de r

ve hi cl e th at 's [ex tra an d] un as si gn ed ." The po ol car th at O f f i c e r Co vi ng to n was
dr iv in g ha d "a [v id eo ] cam era in th e car, bu t it was n't op erat io na l." W hi le he ad m it te d

t h a t " [ i ]t pr ob ab ly wou ld ha ve " "h el pe d in th is in ve st ig at io n if [h is ] vi de o came r a

wou ld ha ve be en work in g," he ex pl ai ne d th at th e vi de o cam era was no t wor ki ng in

th e po ol car be cau se "t he m ai nt en an ce on [p oo l cars ] is ba r e m in im um ." Offi cer

Co vi ng to n ack no wled ge d th at a po ol car was us ed de sp it e th e in ve st ig at io n be in g "a

pr et ty big na rco ti cs in ve st ig at io n."

Offi cer Co vi ng to n, in th e m ark ed pa tr o l c a r, fo ll owe d th e ve hi cl e th at Vire s

was dr iv in g to a ga s st at io n no rth of In te rs ta te 40 ("I -4 0" ) an d th en on to I-4 0 tra ve li ng

wes t. Offi cer Co vi ng to n te st ifi ed th at whi le he was fo ll owi ng th e ve hi cl e, th ere were
fiv e un m ark ed ve hi cl es "s cat te red al l ov er" an d th at he st ay ed "wi th in ey es ho t" of th e

ve hi cl e " un ti l th ey m ad e th e cal l to act ua ll y in it ia te th e st op ." Acco rd in g to Offi cer

Co vi ng to n, at ap pr ox im at el y 6: 30 p.m ., h e reac he d th e in te rs ect io n of I-4 0 an d

In te rs ta te 30 ("I -3 0" ) in Nor th Lit tl e Ro ck wher e th e v eh ic le th at Vire s was dri vi ng

co nt in ue d wes t on I-3 0. At th is ti m e, Vire s ' s v e h i c l e was in fro nt of Offi cer

Co vi ng to n's car in th e far le fth an d l an e of a th ree- la ne hi gh way

. At ap pr ox im at el y

15 th St reet in Nor th Lit tl e Ro ck —p rio r to cro ss in g ov er th e Ark an sa s Ri ve r in to Lit tl e

Ro ck

, Ark an sa s— Offi cer Co vi ng to n ob s erv ed Vire s's ve hi cl e go "l eft of cen te r."

Offi cer Co v in gt on ex pl ai ne d th at he di d no t act iv at e hi s bl ue li gh ts im m ed ia te ly

be cau se th ere was no sh ou ld er on th e br id ge or an y whe re on th at s e c t i o n o f t h e

in te rs ta te to in it ia te a sa fe st op , as Vire s was tra ve li n g i n t h e le fth an d la ne

. Offi cer

Co vi ng to n was un ab le to sa y whe th er he act i v a t e d h is bl ue li gh ts be fo re or aft er

cro ss in g th e Ark an sa s Ri ve r bu t sa id th at he was pr ob ab ly on th e br i d ge , ov er th e

Ark an sa s Riv er, w he n he di d so

. Offi cer Cov in gt on th en in it ia te d a tra ffi c st op ne ar

9t h St reet in Lit tl e Ro ck

. Bet ween So ut he rla nd 's pl ace of em pl oym en t an d 9t h St reet

in Lit tl e Ro ck

, Offi cer Co vi ng to n fo ll owe d th e ve hi cl e th at Vire s was dr iv in g fo r

ap pr ox im at el y

7.8 m il es

.

-3

-On fu rth er ex am in at io n by de fen se co un se l, Offi cer Co vi ng to n te st ifi ed th at no

on e ha d to te ll hi m to co nd uc t th e tra ffi c st op be cau se he is "a swo rn o ffi cer" who

"ca n m ak e a st op at an y ti m e." Bu t he ad m it te d th at "t he jud gm en t [to m ak e th e st op ]

w as who ev er th e cas e of fic er or th ei r de si gn ee was ." He th en ag reed wit h th e

go ve rn m en t th at "[w]het he r or no t th e tra ffi c st op was go in g to be m ad e," h e d i d

ob se rv e a tra ffi c vi ol at io n, an d "wh et he r or no t fo r th e in ve st ig at io na l pu rp os es [h e]

ha d th e au th or it y to m ak e th e st op ," he ot he r w i s e po ss es se d th e au th or it y as an

NLRPD of

fic er t o m ak e th e tr affi c st op

.

Offi cer Co vi ng to n ag reed th at

, at th e ti m e of th e tra ffi c vi ol at io n, he kn ew th at

th e ve hi cl e th at Vire s was dr iv in g ev en tu al ly wou ld tra ve l ou ts id e of hi s juri sd ic ti on

u p o n cro ss in g ov er th e br id ge in to Lit tl e Ro ck

. Bu t he te st ifi ed th at he ha d al read y
wit ne ss ed th e vi ol at io n in hi s juri sd ic ti on an d th at no th in g req ui res hi m to m ak e th e

st op in hi s ju ris di ct io n.

Afte r in it ia ti ng th e tra ffi c st op , Offi cer Co vi ng to n sp ok e to Vire s, th e ve hi cl e's

dr iv er. Vire s id en ti fie d hi m se lf as "Sc ot t Lan g," an in di vi du al who ha d a su sp en de d

dr iv er's li cen se

. Pu rs ua nt to NLRPD po li cy , an y ti m e th at a n o f f i c e r en co un te rs a
dr iv er wit h a s us pe nd ed li cen se , th e ve hi cl e m us t be im po un de d. Afte r ru nn in g th e

li cen se on "Sc ot t Lang ," O ffi cer Cov in gt on as ke d Vires an d Sou th erl an d t o exi t th e

ve hi cl e. Offi cer Co vi ng to n sp ok e to Vire s an d So ut he rla nd s e p arat el y , an d

So ut he rla nd id en ti fie d Vi res as " Sco tt Sch um ach er."

Offi cer Cov in gt on te st ifi ed th at he th en co nd uc te d an in ve nt or y se arch of th e

ve hi cl e pr io r to to win g an d di sc ov ered a fir earm , na rco ti cs , an d dr ug pa rap he rn al ia

. He di d no t rem em

be r if he ran So ut he rla nd 's li cen se be cau se , as th e su bjec t of th e

in ve st ig at io n, th e of

fic ers kn ew he r hi st or y an d st at us

. Offi cer Co vi ng to n ag reed th at

,
at t h e t i me of th e tra ffi c st op an d whi le he was di sc us si ng th e ve hi cl e se arch

, So ut he rla nd sa id th at th e car was he rs

. Offi cer Co vi ng to n st at ed th at NLRPD po li cy
do es no t pr ov id e th at

, if so m eo ne is dr iv in g wit h a su sp en de d li cen se , an ot he r dr iv er

-4

-wit h a va li d l ic en se m ay en te r th e car an d l eav e. Offi cer C ov in gt on tes ti fie d t ha t h e

fo ll ows wha t th e po li cy di ct at es —t owi ng th e ve hi cl e if th e dr iv er ha s a su sp en de d

li cen se

. Afte r co nd uc ti ng th e in ve nt or y se arch

, th e ve hi cl e was to wed

, an d Vire s an d

So ut he rla nd were tr an sported to th e de te ct iv e di vi si on fo r qu es ti on in g. At so m e po in t,

Vire s t ol d t he de te ct iv es hi s t ru e id en ti ty.

Offi cer Co vi ng to n's rep or t st at es th at he "was tra ve li ng on I-3 0 W es t at th e

15 th St reet ex it in th e far le ft la ne whe n [h e] ob se rv ed a ve hi cl e in fro nt of [h im ] ve er

ou ts id e th e le ft la ne of tra ffi c." Offi cer Co vi ng to n co nc ed ed th at hi s rep or t fai ls to

m en ti on th e na rco ti cs in ve st ig at io n or th at he fo ll owe d th e v e h i cl e th at Vire s was
dr iv in g fo r ov er se ve n m il es

. He fu rth er ad m it te d th at hi s rep or t fai ls to m en ti on th e

un m ark ed un it s. Non e of th e of fic ers in th e un m ark ed un it s were pr es en t to te st ify at

th e he ar i ng

. Offi cer Co vi ng to n of fere d hi s rep or t as a ge ne ral rep or t m ean t to

m em or ia l i z e t h e tra ffi c vi ol at io n an d st op ; it was no t in te nd ed to in co rp or at e th e

in ve st ig at io n's de ta il s.

O f f i c e r Co vi ng to n al so ad m it te d th at hi s rep or t do es no t sa y an y th in g a b o u t

Vire s c r o s s i n g a cen te r or y el lo w li ne

. W hi le Offi cer Co vi ng to n refe rred to Vire s

go in g " le ft o f cen te r" o n d ire ct ex am in at io n, h e st at ed on cro ss -ex am in at io n t ha t h e

"n ev er sai d cen te r li ne " in th e rep or t; in st ead

, he wro te in th e rep or t th at th e ve hi cl e

"v eere d ou ts id e of th e le ft si de of th e tra ffi c la ne ." He ex pl ai ne d o n r e d i r ect

ex ami n a t i o n t h at "[n ]orm al ly it wou ld be le ft of cen te r. Bu t, ob vi ou sl y , th ere's no

c en te r l[i ]ne

. . . th ere. And th e rig ht si de is co ns id ered a fo g li ne , so it wou ld b e

cro ss in g l eft of t he tra ffi c la ne , cro ss in g t he y el lo w li ne ."

Offi cer C ov in gt on ag reed th at pe op le te nd to be co m e ne rv ou s or in ti m id at ed

whe n a m ark ed pa tro l car is fo ll owi ng th em , bu t he di d no t ag ree th at se ei ng a po li ce

car in th e rear vi ew m irr or li ke ly cau se s a tra ffi c vi ol at io n, su ch as swe rv in g ou t of th e

tra ffi c la ne

. His vi ew is th at p e o pl e ge ne ral ly dr iv e be tt er in su ch ci rcu m st an ces
be cau se th ey kn ow th at a po li c e o f f i c er is fo ll owi ng th em

. He di sa gr eed th at th e

-5

-in ve st ig at io n's pu rp os e was to ob ta i n a tra ffi c st op fo r th e pu rp os e of se arch in g fo r

d r u g s

. He cl ai m ed th at th e pu rp os e of co nd uc ti ng a tra ffi c st op du rin g th e

in ve st ig at io n was to id en ti fy th e ve hi cl e's oc cu pa nt s ot he r th an So ut he rla nd

, who was

al read y un de r in ve s t i g at io n. Bu t he di d st at e th at "i f so m et hi ng le ad s to whe re we

in ve nt or y th e v eh ic le or h av e a rea so n t o s earc h i t, o bv io us ly w e ta ke th at rou te ."

In ad di ti on to Offi cer Co vi ng to n, th e go ve rn m en t al so pr es en te d So ut he rla nd 's

te st im on y

. So ut he rla nd st at ed th at sh e fir st no ti ced th e po li ce car fo ll owi ng th e

ve hi cl e whe n sh e sa w bl ue li gh ts in th e rear vi ew m irr or whi le cro ss in g o v e r th e

Ark an sa s Ri ve r br id ge

. So ut he rla nd sa id th at sh e was no t pa y in g at te nt io n to ho w
Vire s was dr iv in g. S o u t he rla nd te st ifi ed th at

, du rin g th e tra ffi c st op , Offi cer

Co vi ng to n as ke d Vire s fo r co ns en t to se arch th e ve hi cl e. Sh e sa id th at th ey "wen t

back an d forth " ab ou t se arch in g th e car. Acco rd in g to So ut he rla nd

, Offi cer Co vi ng to n

th en a s k e d f

o r h e r co ns en t to se arch th e ve hi cl e, an d sh e res po nd ed

, "I do n't care ."

So ut he rla nd cl ai m ed th at th e ve hi cl e th at Vire s was dr iv in g be lo ng ed to he r, bu t Vire s
di sp ut ed th at cla im

.

Vire s te st ifi ed t h a t h e s a w Offi cer Co vi ng to n in a pa tro l car whe n he fir st

pu ll ed in to So ut he rla nd 's pl ace of em pl oym e n t o n J u ly 1 0, 20 12 . Vi res sa id th at he

kn ew a pa tro l un it was fo ll owi ng hi m th e en ti re ti m e an d " k n e w s o m et hi ng was n't
rig ht ." He te st ifi ed th at Offi cer Co vi ng to n fo ll owe d m or e cl os el y as th ey dr ov e fro m

I-4 0 to I-3 0 un ti l Offi cer Co v i ng to n tu rn ed on hi s bl ue li gh ts th ree- qu art ers of th e

way ov er t he Arka ns as Riv er b rid ge

.

Vire s de ni ed co m

m i t t in g an y tra ffi c vi ol at io n on Ju ly 10

, 20 12

. He te st ifi ed

ad am an tl y th at he di d no t cro ss th e tra ff i c l i n e

. H e st at ed

, "I'm a cri m in al

. I kn ow
wha t he was do in g.

. . . [H]e was tryin g to ge t m e to do so m et hi ng ." Acco rd in g to

Vire s, du rin g th e tra ffi c st op , Offi cer Co vi ng to n as ke d fo r co ns en t to se arch an d to ld

Vire s an d So ut he rla nd th at , i f he di d n o t f i n d an y th in g du rin g th e se arch , h e wou ld

pe rm it So ut he rla nd to dr iv e th e car ho m e. Vire s te st ifi ed th at So ut he rla nd to ld Offi cer

-6

-Co vi ng to n th at th e car was he r s a n d t h a t he co ul d se arch th e car. Vire s di sp ut ed

whe th er th e car be lo ng ed to So ut he rla nd be cau se , acco rd in g t o Vi res , th e car is no t

in he r na m e.

Vire s te st ifi ed th at he ha d no sh oe s on du ri ng th e tra ffi c st op be cau se he ha d

us ed hi s sh oe s to co ve r up th e fir earm in th e car. Afte r Offi cer Co vi ng to n di sc ov ered

th e fir earm , he as ke d Vire s if ha d a co nc eal ed weap on s pe rm it or whe th er th e fir earm

was st ol en

. Acco rd in g to Vi res , he th en ad m it te d th at he was a fel on

. Vire s al so
ad m it te d to lying ab ou t hi s id en ti ty in cl ai m in g to be "Sc ot t Lan g" an d ack no wled ge d

in st ru ct in g So ut he rla nd to li e ab ou t hi s id en ti ty, to o. Vire s st at ed th at

, fo ll owi ng hi s

arre st

, he ad m it te d to de te ct iv es th at he li ed an d th en to ld th e de te ct iv es th at he was

"Eri c Vir es ."

Fo ll owi ng th e su pp res si on he ari ng , th e di st ric t co ur t de ni ed Vire s's m ot io n to

su pp res s th e ev id en ce ob ta in ed as a res ul t of th e t r a f f i c st op an d se arch

. Fi rs t, th e
di st ric t co ur t fo un d th at th e in it ia l tra ffi c st op was reas on ab le ba se d on Offi cer

Co vi ng to n's ob se rv at io n of a tra ffi c vi ol at io n. W hi le th e di st ric t co ur t fo un d "[s ]om e

fact s of th is cas e [to be ] tro ub li ng ," it cred it ed Offi cer Co vi ng to n's te st im on y , no ti ng

th at he "t es ti fie d c l e a r l y an d un eq ui vo cal ly reg ard in g th e al le ge d tra ffi c vi ol at io n [th at ] he ob se rv ed

, an d t h e [c]ou rt fin ds th at te st im on y cred ib le ." By co nt ras t, th e

co ur t fou nd "Vi res 's cred ib il it y [was ] in do ub t

. . . aft er he adm it te d ly in g to Offi cer

Co vi ng to n reg ard in g hi s id en tit y , as ki ng Ms

. So ut he rla nd to li e ab ou t hi s id en ti ty, an d

rem ov in g hi s sh oe s to hi de fro m vi ew a gu n [th at ] he was tra ns po rti ng ." Seco nd

, th e

co ur t fo un d th at Offi cer Co vi ng to n co nd uc te d a la wfu l in vento ry se arch of th e ve hi cl e

pu rs ua nt to NLRPD po li cy

. Bec au se th e co ur t fo un d th e se arch jus ti fie d on th e ba si s

of an in ve nt or y se arch

, it de cl in ed to ad dr es s Vire s's arg um en t th at So ut he rla nd co ul d

no t g iv e co ns en t t o s earc h t he ve hi cl e b ecau se sh e d id no t o wn t he ve hi cl e.

-7

-Afte r th e di st ric t c ou rt de ni ed Vire s's m ot io n to su pp res s, he co nd it io na ll y

pl ead ed gu il ty to po ss es si on wit h in te nt to di st rib ut e m et ha m ph et am in e, in vi ol at io n

of 21 U.S.C. § 8 41 (a)( 1) an d (b )(1 )(A).

II. Dis cu ss io n

On ap pe al

, Vire s arg ue s th at he di d no t co m m it a tra ffi c vi ol at io n an d th at

Offi cer Co vi ng to n was go in g to in it ia te a st op of th e ve hi cl e reg ard le ss of an y tra ffi c
vi ol at io n; th eref

or e, no pr ob ab le cau se jus ti fie s th e tra ffi c st op

. Add i t i o n a l l y , he

arg ue s th at ev en if a va li d tra ffi c st op oc cu rred

, he di d no t gi ve hi s co ns en t to se arch

th e ve hi cl e an d So ut he rla nd di d no t own th e ve hi cl e an d th eref or e co ul d no t gi ve he r

co ns en t t o s earc h i t.

"Th e di st ric t co ur t's or de r de nyin g th e m ot io n to su pp res s i s re vi ewed un de r

two st an da rd s: fact ua l fin di ng s are ex am in ed fo r cl ear erro r an d le ga l co nc lu si on s de

no vo ." Uni te d St at es v. W ri gh t

, 51 2 F.3 d 46 6, 46 9 (8 th Ci r. 20 08 ) (ci ta ti on om it te d)

.

A. Tr af fi c S to p
Vire s arg ue s th at th e tra ffi c st op was pr et ex tu al be cau se , acco rd in g to hi m , no

tra ffi c vi ol at io n oc cu rred an d Offi cer Co vi ng to n m ad e th e st op so le ly on th e ba si s of

an ot he r na rco ti cs off

ic er ad vi si ng hi m

to do so

.

A tra ffi c st op co ns ti tu te s a se iz ur e un de r th e Fo ur th Am en dm en t; th eref or e, "i t

m us t be r e as on ab le to pa ss co ns ti tu ti on al m us te r." Id

. at 47 1 (ci ta ti on om it te d)

. A

po li ce of fic er's "'d eci si on to st op an au to mo bi le is reas on ab le whe re th e po li ce [ o f f i c er] ha [s ] pr ob ab le cau se to be li ev e th at a tra ffi c vi ol at io n ha s oc cu rred .'" I d

. (q uo ti ng W

hr en v. Uni te d St at es , 51 7 U.S. 80 6, 81 0 (1 99 6) ). "'An y tra ffi c vi ol at io n,
ho wev er m in or , pr ov id es pr ob ab le cau se fo r a tra ffi c st op .'" Id

. (q uo ti ng Uni te d St at es

v. Blo omf ie ld

, 40 F.3 d 91 0, 91 5 (8 th Ci r. 19 94 ) (en ba nc )). W e ha ve reco gn iz ed th at

" [ a]n ot he rwis e co ns ti tu ti on al tra ffi c st op is no t in va li da te d by th e fact th a t i t w a s

'm ere pr et ex t fo r a na rco ti cs se arch .'" Id

. (q uo ti ng Uni te d St at es v. W il li ams , 42 9 F.3 d

-8

-76 7, 7 7 1 (8 th Ci r. 20 05 )). In fact , a po li ce of fic er's "[s ]ubjec ti ve in te nt io ns pl ay no

ro le in or di na ry , pr ob ab le -cau se Fo ur th Am en dm en t an al y si s. " W hr en , 51 7 U.S. at

81 3. Thus

, po li ce of

fic ers po ss es si ng an ob

jecti ve ly reas on ab le ba si s to be li ev e th at

a dr iv er is co m

m it ti ng a tra ffi c vi ol at io n ha ve "p ro ba bl e c au se to co nd uc t a tra ffi c

st op [,] an d

. . . th e of

fic ers ' su bjec ti ve in te nt io ns in m ak in g th e st op d[ o] no t affe ct th e

st op 's va li di ty fo r pu rp os es of th e Fo ur th Am en dm en t." Uni te d St at es v. Sa ll is , 5 07

F.3 d 6 46 , 64 9 (8 th Cir . 20 07 ) (ci ta ti on s o m it te d)

.

In W rig ht

, the de fe nda

nt ar gu ed th at in su ffi ci en t ev id en ce su pp or te d th e di st ric t

co ur t's fin di ng th at pr ob ab le cau se jus ti fie d th e tra ffi c st op

. 51 2 F.3 d at 4 71

. The

de fen da nt cl ai m ed to ha ve "p ro du ced ev id en ce to ne ga te an y ev id en ce of a vi ol at io n."

Id

. Sp eci fic al ly, he "ar gu e[d ] th at hi s wit ne ss

. . . un de r mi n e d t h e cred ib il it y of th e

tro op ers , as di d

. . . th e fai lu re to ta pe th e tra ffi c vi ol at io n or to reco rd th e su bs eq ue nt

co nv ers at io ns." Id

. W e re j ec te d the de fe nd an t's arg um en t, affi rm in g th e di st ric t co ur t's

fin di ng of a tra ffi c vi ol at io n su pp or te d by pr ob ab le cau se

. Id

. at 47 2. W e fir st

reco gn iz ed th at "[t ]here were two ve rs io ns of th e fact s, an d th e di st ric t co ur t ch os e to

be li ev e th e tr oo pe rs ' tes ti m on y ; t he co ur t's cred ib il it y de te rm in at io ns req ui re a hi gh

de gr ee of de fere nc e." Id

. at 47 1. Th e r eaft er, we ex pl ai ne d th at "[t ]he lo wer co ur t

m ad e cred ib il it y jud gm en ts ba se d on th e te st im on y an d pr es en ta ti on of th e wit ne ss es ,

an d it be li ev ed t h e t r oo pe rs ' te st im on y whi ch su pp or te d th e fin di ng th at [th e
de fen da nt ] di d no t st op at th e st op si gn

. W e g[ a]ve gr ea t d e f e r e n c e to [th e] lo wer

co ur t's cred ib il it y de te rm in at io ns be cau se th e 'as se ss m en t of a wit ne ss 's cred ib il it y is

t h e pr ov in ce of th e tri al co ur t.'" Id . a t 47 2 (q uo ti ng Uni te d St at es v. Hea th , 5 8 F. 3 d

12 71

, 12 75 (8 th Ci r. 19 95 )). As a res ul t, we fo un d th at su ffi ci en t ev id en ce su pp or te d

th e di st ric t co ur t's fin di ng th at th e de fen da nt co m m it te d a tra ffi c vi ol at io n, th e r e by
gi vi ng th e o ffi cers pro ba bl e cau se to in it ia te th e tr affi c st op

. Id

.

Thi s cas e is s u b s t a n t i al ly s im il ar to W ri gh t . As in th at cas e, th e di st ric t co ur t

fo un d Offi cer Co vi ng to n's te st i mo ny ab ou t th e tra ffi c vi ol at io n cred ib le an d fo un d

Vire s's te st im on y no t cred ib le

. Alt ho ug h th e d i s t r i c t co ur t fo un d it tro ub li ng th at

-9

-Offi cer Co vi ng to n was di rect ed to m ak e a tra ffi c st op by an ot he r na rco ti cs of fic er an d

th at th e pa tro l un it vi de o cam era di d no t fu nc ti on , th e di st ric t co ur t fo un d th at Offi cer

Co vi ng to n te st ifi ed "cl earl y an d un eq ui vo cal ly" reg ard in g th e tra ffi c vi ol a t i o n ; by

co nt ras t, th e co ur t no te d th at Vire s ha d li ed rep eat ed ly du rin g th e tra ffi c st op , su ch

as gi vi ng a fal se n a me, a n d a l s o as ke d So ut he rla nd to li e fo r hi m

. Giv in g gr eat

de fere nc e to th e d is tri ct co ur t's cred ib il it y de te rm in at io ns , see id ., we co nc lu de th at

su ffi ci en t ev id en ce ex is ts to su pp or t th e di st ric t co ur t's fin di ng th at Vire s di d co m m it

a tra ffi c vi ol at io n. Offi cer Co vi ng to n th eref or e ha d pr ob ab le cau se fo r th e tra ffi c st op ,
reg ard le ss of h is su bjec ti ve in te nt

.

B. Se ar ch of

Vehi cl e
Vire s al so arg ue s th at ev en if a va li d tra ffi c st op oc cu rred

, So ut he rla nd la ck ed

st an di ng to co ns en t to th e se arch be cau se t he car's ti tl e was no t in he r na m e. In

res po ns e, th e go ve rn m en t as se rts th at th e se arc h of th e ve hi cl e was no t a res ul t of

co ns en t fro m So ut he rla nd b u t in st ead an in ve nt or y se arch of th e ve hi cl e pr io r to

to win g p ur su an t t o NLRP D po li cy

.

The di st ric t co ur t fo un d th at th e se a r c h w a s v a li d as a reas on ab le in ve nt or y

se arch

, no t a co ns en t se arch

. Se e Uni te d S t a t e s v

. Smi th

, 71 5 F.3 d 11 10

, 11 17 (8 th

C i r

. 20 13 ) ("I nv en to ry se arch es are on e ex cep ti on to th e ge ne ral ru le th at se a r c h e s

co nd uc te d wi th ou t a war ran t ar e u nr eas on ab le ." (ci ta ti on om it te d) ).

On ap pe al

, Vire s of

fers no arg um en t ch al le ng in g the dis tri ct co ur t's fin di ng th at

th e se arch was a reas on ab le i n v e n t o r y se arch

. He do es no t ch al le ng e th e NLRPD's

po li cy to to w a ve hi cl e dr iv en by so m eo ne w i t h a su sp en de d li cen se , no r do es he

ch al le ng e Offi cer Co vi ng to n's te st im on y on th is is su e. Se e id

. ("Th e reas on ab le ne ss

req ui rem en t is m et whe n an in ve nt or y se arch is co nd uc te d acco rd in g to st an da rd iz ed

po li ce pr oc ed u r e s, whi ch ge ne ral ly rem ov e th e in fere nc e th at th e po li ce ha ve us ed

in ve nt or y se arch es as a p u r p o s efu l an d ge ne ral m ean s of di sc ov eri ng ev id en ce of a
cri m e." (q uo ta ti on an d c it at io n o m it te d) ). He al so do es no t ch al le ng e th e m an ne r or

-1 0-sc op e of th e in ve nt or y se arch

. Se e id

. ("An in ve nt or y se arch m us t be reas on ab le un de r

th e to ta li ty of th e ci rcu m st an ces

. . . an d m ay no t be a ru se fo r ge ne ral ru m m ag in g in

or de r to di sc ov er in cri m in at in g ev id en ce." (al te rat io n in or ig in al ) (q uo ta ti on an d

ci ta ti on om it te d) ). Bec au se Vire s do es no t ch al le ng e th is ho ld in g on ap pe al

, he th us

ha s waiv ed rev ie w of th e in ve nt or y -s earc h is su e. Se e Jes er it z v. Pot te r , 28 2 F.3 d 54 2,

54 8 (8 th Ci r. 20 02 ) (ci ta ti on om it te d) ; se e al so Uni te d St at es v. Alva re z- Man zo , 57 0

F.3 d 10 70

, 10 76 (8 th Ci r. 20 09 ) ("Th e di st ric t co ur t de te rm in ed th at la w en fo rcem en t

la ck ed reas on ab le su sp ic io n to jus ti fy th e se iz ur e of th e ba g. The go ve rn m en t do es no t

ch al le ng e th e di st ric t co ur t's co nc lu si on in th is ap pe a l

. By fai li ng to do so , th e

go ve rn m en t ha s waiv ed rev ie w of th e reas on ab le su sp ic io n is su e

. " (ci ti ng Jes er it z , 28 2 F.3 d at 54 8) ); Free man v. Ferg us on , 91 1 F.2 d 52

, 56 (8 th Ci r. 19 90 ) ("I t is well

se tt le d in th is ci rcu it if an is su e is no t rai se d on ap pe al it wil l be de em ed ab an do ne d."
(q uo ta ti on an d ci ta ti on om it te d) ). As a res ul t, we affi rm th e di st ric t co ur t's fin di ng th at

th e in ve nt or y

sea rch was re as on ab le an d l awfu l.

III. Co nc lu si on

Acco rd in gl y , we affi rm

th e jud gm en t o f th e d is tri ct co ur t.

__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __

-1 1-