CFD modelling of sampling locations for early 

detection of spontaneous combustion in long-wall 

gob areas

Liming Yuan* 

*Corresponding author 

and Alex C. Smith

Offi ce of Mine Safety and Health Research,

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH),

P.O. Box 18070, 626 Cochrans Mill Road, 

Pittsburgh, PA 15236, USA

E-mail: Lcy6@cdc.gov

E-mail: Aos6@cdc.gov

Abstract: In this study, computational fl uid dynamics (CFD) modeling 

was conducted to optimize gas sampling locations for the early detection of 

spontaneous heating in longwall gob areas. Initial simulations were carried out 

to predict carbon monoxide (CO) concentrations at various regulators in the 

gob using a bleeder ventilation system. Measured CO concentration values at 

these regulators were then used to calibrate the CFD model. The calibrated 

CFD model was used to simulate CO concentrations at eight sampling locations 

in the gob using a bleederless ventilation system to determine the optimal 

sampling locations for early detection of spontaneous combustion.
1 Introduction

Spontaneous combustion is a serious fi re hazard for US underground coal mines, especially 

for western mines where the coal is generally of lower rank. Although there were no reported 

fatalities directly attributed to spontaneous combustion in US coal mines in last decade, the 

potential for a spontaneous combustion event leading to an explosion still exists, especially 

in mines with substantial amounts of methane. Although the spontaneous combustion 

tendencies of coals in the western US have been well characterised, spontaneous heatings 

still occur because of complicated interactions between ventilation airfl ow, geological 

conditions and mining practices. In the US, most underground coal mines utilise bleeder 

ventilation systems to prevent methane buildup in gob areas. For mines with a demonstrated 

history of spontaneous combustion, bleederless ventilation systems that can serve to control 

spontaneous combustion are often approved by the US Mine Safety and Health Administration 

(MSHA). Regardless of the ventilation scheme employed, the early detection of spontaneous 

heating is critical in the prevention and control of fi res caused by spontaneous combustion 

in underground coal mines.

The primary method used for the detection of spontaneous combustion in underground 

coal mines is the early detection of low levels of gaseous products of coal oxidation 

most often through the use of in-mine continuous gas analysers using a tube bundle gas 

sampling system although gas samples can also be obtained for laboratory analysis by 

gas chromatography. The gaseous products of low-temperature coal oxidation occurring 

at the very early stages of a self-heating are carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide 

(CO2) and water (H2O). Methane (CH4), hydrogen (H2) and other low–molecular weight 

hydrocarbons are released as the coal temperature rises. Chamberlain and Hall (1973) 

found that CO is the most sensitive indicator of the early stages of coal oxidation and the 

continuous monitoring of this gas provides the earliest detection of self-heating. Other 

gases have also been investigated, such as CO2, CH4, H2 and higher hydrocarbons. CO2

production increases with increasing temperature and is useful in determining the state 

of a fi re. However, several sources of CO2 may be present in mines, making its use 

unreliable. CH4 is usually present in large background quantities and, as with H2 and other 

hydrocarbons, is not produced until much higher coal temperatures are reached. Cliff 

et al. (2000) conducted large-scale tests to evaluate detection and monitoring methods 

of spontaneous combustion of coal. They found that the best indicators of spontaneous 

combustion are those that are independent of airfl ow, such as the amount of CO released 

and Graham’s ratio, but that even these indicators have some limitations. Chakravorty 

and Woolf (1979) found that the absolute level of CO in the mine air, whether high or 

low (within reasonable bounds), is not of great signifi cance but that an increasing trend 

is indicative of heating. In the US, monitoring the trend of CO concentration in the mine 

atmosphere is the most widely used method for detecting the occurrence of spontaneous 

combustion (Mitchell, 1996).

Long-wall gobs can be of vast extent and the effectiveness of early detection of 

spontaneous heating in these gob areas can be greatly improved by the careful selection of 

locations for gas sampling. Selecting optimum gas sampling locations would enable the mine 

operator to detect heatings early and to determine the most probable location of the heatings. 

If locations of gob heatings could be pinpointed accurately, more effective prevention and 

control measures, such as nitrogen injection, could be employed.
In this paper, the gas data collected from a western coal mine long-wall panel 

with a bleeder ventilation system during a spontaneous heating event were utilised to 

calibrate and validate the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model developed for 

the simulation of spontaneous heating in long-wall gob area (Yuan and Smith, 2007; 

Smith and Yuan, 2008). The CFD model was then used to investigate optimum location 

strategies for the early detection of spontaneous heating in long-wall gob areas with a 

bleederless ventilation system. This paper presents the results of these measurements and 

subsequent analyses.

2 Long-wall panel layout and ventilation system

Figure 1 shows the layout of the long-wall panel and the bleeder system confi guration, 

including ventilation quantities. 

Figure 1 Layout of original long-wall panel with bleeder ventilation system (see online version 

for colours)

The gob area is 300 m (1000 ft) long, 375 m (1250 ft) wide 

and 10 m (33 ft) high starting from the bottom of the coal seam. The ventilation airways are 

3 m (10 ft) high and 6 m (20 ft) wide. There are four regulators, designated as R1, R2, R3 

and R4, respectively, on the tailgate side and four regulators, designated as R5, R6, R7 and 

R8, respectively, on the back end of the panel.

As the long-wall face progressed, a spontaneous heating occurred somewhere in the 

long-wall gob area, indicated by rising CO levels measured daily at the regulators. At that 

point, the ventilation scheme was changed over to a bleederless system in an attempt to 

control the heating event. Figure 2 shows the layout of the panel in the bleederless ventilation 

system confi guration. Gob isolation seals were installed at crosscuts between the fi rst and the 

second entries on the head-gate side. On the tailgate side, mainline seals were installed just 

in by the active long-wall face in the second entry to seal off the gob. The gob area is 1950 m 

(6500 ft) long, 375 m (1250 ft) wide and 10 m (33 ft) high. On the head-gate side, only the 
fi rst entry was considered and it was assumed to contain partially crushed coal pillars. On 

the tailgate side, the fi rst and second entries were considered. The fi rst entry was assumed to 

contain crushed coal pillars, whereas the second entry was assumed to be fully open.

Figure 2 Layout of long-wall panel with bleederless ventilation system (see online version 

for colours)

3 Modelling of spontaneous heating of coal

The chemical reaction between coal and oxygen at low temperatures is complex and still 

not completely understood. The following physical and chemical processes are believed to 

be involved: oxygen is transported to the surface of coal particles and into the coal pores. 

This results in a chemical interaction between coal and O2 resulting in the release of heat and 

emission of gaseous products (Wang et al., 2003). The general chemical reaction between 

coal and O2 can be expressed as

Coal + O2 → CO + CO2 + H2O + other hydrocarbons + heat.

In this study, only CO and CO2 are considered gaseous oxidation products and the chemical 

reaction between coal and oxygen is simplifi ed as

Coal + O2 → aCO2 + bCO + heat.

where a and b are the stoichiometric coeffi cient for CO2 and CO, respectively. Based on 

laboratory-scale experiments conducted to determine the stoichiometric coeffi cients of the 

coal oxidation for coal from the mine in this study, the approximate values for ‘a’ and ‘b’ are 

0.15 and 0.03, respectively. The rate of oxidation is dependent on temperature and oxygen 

concentration and is expressed in the form

Rate = A[O2]

n

 exp(–E/RT)

where the chemical reaction rate is defi ned as the rate of change in the concentrations 

of the reactants and products, A is the pre-exponential factor (K/s), E is the apparent 

activation energy (kJ/mol), R is the gas constant, n is the apparent order of reaction, T is 

the absolute temperature (°K) and [O2] is the oxygen concentration (kmol/m3

). The value 

of the apparent order of the reaction, n, in low-temperature oxidation studies of coal and 

other carbonaceous materials has been shown to vary from ~0.5 to 1.0 (Carras and Young, 

1994) and is about 0.61 for US coals (Schmidt and Elder, 1940). The activation energy 

and pre-exponential factor for the coal were measured in laboratory-scale experiments as 

described elsewhere (Yuan and Smith, 2011). The activation energy, pre-exponential factor 

and other kinetic and physical properties for the coal are listed in Table 1. Coal oxidation 

is an exothermic reaction and the heat generated from the oxidation in the gob area is 
dissipated by conduction and convection, whereas the oxygen and the oxidation products 

are transported by convection and diffusion.

Table 1 The physical and kinetic properties of the coal layer

Coal density 1300 kg/m3

Coal specifi c heat 1003.2 J/kg-K

Coal conductivity 0.1998 W/m-K

Heat of reaction 300 kJ/mol-O2

Activation energy 39.7 kJ/mol

Pre-exponential factor 5.9 × 104 K/s

Initial coal temperature 300 (27) °K (°C)

To simulate the spontaneous heating of coal in long-wall gob area, the source of coal needs 

to be defi ned. The coal source can be coal left from the roof and from the mined coal seam 

or other overlying or underlying coal seams. An overlying rider coal seam may cave into 

the gob after the main coal seam is mined out while underlying rider coal seam may be 

exposed to the gob ventilation after fl oor heaves. Crushed coal pillars along the perimeter 

of the gob are also considered a coal source for spontaneous heating. The oxidation of coal 

can occur on any available coal surface including both external and internal pore surfaces. 

The available surface area for oxidation depends on the particle size distribution of the coal 

in the gob. It is diffi cult to defi ne a coal particle size distribution in the coal layer in the gob 

area or crushed coal pillars because of the complexity of the gob. In these simulations, the 

available coal surface area is estimated by matching the predicted CO concentrations at three 

regulators with the measured CO data.

4 Numerical modelling

A commercially available CFD software program, FLUENT1 from Ansys, Inc., was used 

in this study to simulate the gas fl ow and spontaneous heating in the long-wall gob area. 

The gas fl ow in the long-wall gob area was treated as laminar fl ow in a porous media 

using Darcy’s law, whereas the gas fl ow in the ventilation airways was simulated as fully 

developed turbulent fl ow. The airfl ow rates for the bleeder ventilation system, shown in 

Figure 1, are used as boundary conditions for the simulations. For the bleederless ventilation 

system, mine ventilation data was also used as boundary conditions in the simulations. The 

pressure was –0.747 kPa (–3.0 inches water gauge) at the intake inlet, –0.872 kPa (–3.5 

inches water gauge) at the return outlet. The intake airfl ow rate was 30 m3/s (64,000 cfm). 

The long-wall face is assumed stationary during the simulations for both bleeder and 

bleederless ventilation systems.

The permeability and porosity distributions of the gob are also used as the boundary 

conditions for the simulations. For a fully compacted gob, the permeability and porosity 

distributions of the gob can be estimated based on geotechnical modelling of long-wall 

mining and the associated stress–strain changes using Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua 

(FLAC) code (Esterhuizen and Karacan, 2007). For a typical fully compacted long-wall 

panel, the permeability values in the gob area are estimated to vary from 3.0 × 104 to 

8.5 × 105 MilliDarcies (MD), whereas the porosity value varies from 0.17 to 0.41 based on 

the modelling result from FLAC. Around the perimeter of the gob and immediately behind 
the face shields, the permeability and porosity values are the largest, whereas near the centre 

of the gob, these values are the smallest due to compaction. The porosity profi le in the gob 

is similar to the permeability profi le. It is assumed that these permeability and porosity fi les 

do not change with the gob height.

5 Simulation results and discussion

5.1 Bleeder ventilation system

Simulations were fi rst conducted for the long-wall panel using the bleeder ventilation 

system as shown in Figure 1. Because of the short length of the panel, the gob would not 

be fully compacted. It can be seen from the ventilation data that 29.5 m3/s (62,610 cfm) 

air entered the face entry, only 7 m3/s (14,950 cfm) air exited the face into the return 

airway. Because there is no methane emission in this mine, methane dilution is not an 

issue. The remainder entered the gob and exited through the regulators. This indicates 

a higher gob permeability compared with fully compacted gob simulations. In the 

simulation, four measured intake airfl ow rates were used as the inlet boundary conditions. 

Different gob permeability values were simulated for the gob and the crushed coal pillars 

along the perimeter of the gob until the calculated outlet airfl ow rates converged to the 

measured values. After the two outlet airfl ow rates were matched with the measured 

values, simulation of coal oxidation was conducted. There is no overlying rider coal seam 

above this panel and the seam is mined fl oor to roof. The mine company reported that no 

coal was left on the roof and the fl oor. The only possible coal sources for spontaneous 

heating are crushed coal pillars at the back end and on the tailgate and head-gate sides of 

the panel. The broken coal from crushed pillars is normally in large size. However, for 

a reactive coal containing an easily fractured vertical cleat, which creates a multitude of 

airfl ow paths through it, it is likely for a potential self-heating to occur inside the largesize coal, as reported by Timko and Derick (1995). Normally, a thin layer (about 1 inch) 

can be left on the fl oor and likely stay in the gob. However, it is not likely for the coal 

to have a self-heating because the heat from the coal oxidation will be lost very quickly 

to the surroundings due to the small thickness of the coal layer, about 1 inch. The coal 

surface area available for coal oxidation in the crushed coal pillars is not known. In the 

next simulations, different coal surface area values were introduced to vary the degree 

of pillar crushing along the gob boundary until the calculated CO values converged to 

the measured values at regulators R3, R4 and R5. The CO concentrations at these three 

regulators were obtained daily and produced the largest measured CO concentrations. 

The solution indicated that the coal surface area on the head-gate side was about fi ve 

times less than the surface area on the tailgate side and the back end, indicating a much 

smaller degree of coal pillar crushing on the head-gate side.

Figure 3 shows the comparison between the predicted CO values and measured CO 

values at those three regulators over a three-day period. At R3 and R4, the predicted CO 

values match very well with the measured values. At R5, the model shows slightly higher 

predicted CO values than the measured values. Overall, the model shows very good 

agreement with the measured values. Figure 4 shows the predicted CO values at all eight 

regulators and in the return. It is evident that for CO detection under these conditions, 

regulators 3 and 4 would give the earliest and the most reliable indication of a gob selfheating.
Figure 3 Comparison between calculated and measured CO values at three regulators (see online 

version for colours)

Figure 4 Calculated CO values for eight regulators and return (see online version for colours)

5.2 Bleederless ventilation system

Based on the validation of the CFD model and the calculation of the CO generation rates 

of the spontaneous heating process, simulations were then conducted for the long-wall panel 

using the bleederless ventilation system as shown in Figure 2 to determine optimum sampling 

locations for early detection of spontaneous combustion. The length of the panel is 1950 m 

(6500 ft); therefore, the gob would be considered fully compacted. The gob permeability and 

porosity distributions discussed in Section 3 are used in the simulations. Possible coal sources 

for oxidation in the gob are the crushed coal pillars at the back end of the panel and at the headgate and tailgate sides. Also, in this simulation, a possible overlying rider coal seam caving 

into the gob is included in the model. The coal surface area determined in the simulation with 

the bleeder ventilation system was also used in these simulations. Based on the different coal 

sources, simulations were conducted for fi ve coal source scenarios as shown in Table 2.
Table 2 Simulation coal source scenarios

Case Coal source scenario

Case 1 crushed coal pillars on headgate, tailgate and backend

Case 2 crushed coal pillars on tailgate and backend

Case 3 caved rider coal seam, crushed coal pillars on headgate, tailgate and backend

Case 4 caved rider coal seam, crushed coal pillars on tailgate and backend

Case 5 caved rider coal seam

To evaluate the optimum location strategies for the early CO detection in the bleederless 

system, eight sampling points from a tube bundle system are considered in the simulations. 

Figure 5 shows the locations of these sampling points, designated as Line 1–8. 

Figure 5 Locations of sampling points in bleederless ventilation system (see online version 

for colours)

The detailed 

positions of these points are given in Table 3. 

Table 3 Locations of sampling positions

Sampling position Location

Line 1 immediately inby behind the mainline seal

Line 2 return

Line 3 original regulator 4 in bleeder system

Line 4 677 m from longwall face at tailgate side

Line 5 3 m from return corner and behind shields 

Line 6 90 m from return corner and behind shields

Line 7 447 m from longwall face at headgate side

Line 8 1000 m from longwall face at headgate side

Lines 1, 3 and 4 are located in the second entry 

on the tailgate side. Lines 5 and 6 are behind the shields and lines 7 and 8 are located in the 

fi rst entry on the head-gate side.

Figure 6 shows CO concentrations at the eight sampling locations for case 1, where the coal 

sources are crushed coal pillars along the head gate, tail gate and back end of the panel. 

The CO concentrations at lines 7 and 8, located along the head gate in the gob, continually 

increased and reached 1000 ppm in 5 days, whereas CO concentration increased to 180 ppm 

at line 4 and to 110 ppm at line 1 on the tailgate side. Figure 7 shows the CO concentration 

distribution in the gob area based on the model. Because the coal source was available only 

from the crushed pillars surrounding the gob and because of the lower permeability of the 

caved gob, the produced CO was found close to these pillars and was not transported deeper 

into the gob. The maximum predicted CO concentration in the gob was over 2000 ppm 

and occurred near the back end of the panel. However, these higher CO concentration 

values could not be detected at lines 3 and 4, probably because of weak gas fl ow in the gob. 
The simulation results indicate that if the only coal source is the pillars surrounding the gob, 

the optimum sampling locations for the early detection are on the head-gate side.

Figure 6 CO concentrations at eight sampling positions for case 1 (see online version for colours)

Figure 7 CO concentration distribution in the gob area for case 1 (see online version for colours)

Figure 8 shows CO concentrations at eight sampling positions for case 2, where the coal sources 

are crushed coal pillars along the tail gate and back end of the panel. Because there are no 

crushed coal pillars on the head-gate side, no CO was found on the head-gate side. At the tailgate 

side, CO concentrations were much lower compared with the CO values at the head-gate side 

for case 1. The CO concentrations after 5 days at lines 4, 1 and 3, located in the tail gate, were 

185, 110 and 60 ppm, respectively. The CO concentration distribution in the gob based on the 

model, shown in Figure 9, shows that the maximum CO concentration value in the gob was 

actually nearly the same as in Figure 7, near the pillars in the back end and back tailgate areas of 

the gob. However, lines 1 and 4 showed much lower CO values compared with the maximum 

value, 2010 ppm, probably because the sampling positions are in the second entry on the tailgate 

side, whereas the maximum values were in the caved fi rst entry. The simulation results indicate 

that the optimum locations for early detection when a coal source is only available at the back 

and on the tailgate side are the sampling positions on the tailgate side, lines 4 and 1.
Figure 8 CO concentrations at eight sampling positions for case 2 (see online version for colours)

Figure 9 CO concentration distribution in the gob for case 2 (see online version for colours)

Figure 10 shows the CO concentrations at the eight sampling positions for case 3, where in 

addition to the pillars surrounding the gob, a caved rider seam also provides a coal source. The 

CO concentrations at lines 7 and 8 in the head gate continually increased to over 1200 ppm in 

5 days, whereas the CO concentration increased to about 1000 ppm at line 6 just behind the 

shields and 800 ppm at line 1 just in by the face. Figure 11 shows the simulated CO concentration 

distribution in the gob area. The highest CO concentration, 2910 ppm, was at the centre of the 

gob because the CO generated from oxidation of rider seam coal was not transported easily out 

due to the lowest permeability there. The simulation results indicate that the optimum locations 

for early detection are the sampling positions on the head gate side and on the face when the 

coal source includes a caved rider and the crushed coal pillars along the perimeter of the gob.

Figure 12 shows CO concentrations at the eight sampling positions for case 4, where 

coal is present along the back and tail gate, as well as in a caved rider seam. The CO 

concentration at line 6 behind the shields increased to about 990 ppm in 5 days. The CO at 

the tailgate location increased to over 800 ppm at line 1, 312 ppm at line 4 and 245 ppm at 

line 3. On the head-gate side sampling locations at lines 7 and 8, the CO increased to 245 and 

265 ppm, respectively. Figure 13 shows the simulated CO concentration distribution in the 

gob. Although the maximum CO concentration was nearly the same as in Figure 11, lines 7 

and 8 showed much lower CO values because there was no coal available on the head-gate 
Figure 10 CO concentrations at eight sampling positions for case 3 (see online version for colours)

Figure 11 CO concentration distribution in the gob area for case 3 (see online version for colours)

Figure 12 CO concentrations at eight sampling positions for case 4 (see online version for colours)

side. The simulation results indicate that the optimum locations for early detection in this 

scenario are the sampling positions on the face and on the tailgate side close to the face.
Figure 13 CO concentration distribution in the gob for case 4 (see online version for colours)

In the last simulation, the coal source was only a caved rider seam in the gob. Figure 14 

shows CO concentrations at the eight sampling positions.

Figure 14 CO concentrations at eight sampling positions for case 5 (see online version for colours)

 The CO concentration at line 6, 

behind the shields, increased to about 990 ppm in 5 days. The CO at line 1 in the tail gate 

increased to 700 ppm, whereas lines 7 and 8 on the head-gate side increased to 240 and 

260 ppm, respectively. It can be seen that CO concentration at line 6 is the same as for cases 

3 to 5, indicating that it is from the oxidation of rider seam coal only. Results indicate that 

the optimum locations for early detection when only a rider seam is present are the sampling 

positions on the face and on the tailgate side close to the face.

6 Conclusion

CFD simulations were conducted to investigate the optimum sampling locations when 

utilising a tube bundle system for early detection of spontaneous heating in a long-wall 

gob area. For the long-wall gob under bleeder ventilation conditions, simulation results 

demonstrate the optimum locations are the regulators on the tailgate side and close to the 

back end. The return is the least effective sampling location.
For the long-wall gob with a bleederless ventilation system, the optimum locations 

depend on the possible coal source location. When coal is available on the perimeter of the 

gob from the crushed coal pillars, sampling positions on the head-gate side are the optimum 

locations. If there is rider coal seam caving into the gob, sampling positions behind the 

shields are the optimum locations.

If crushed coal is available on the back end and tailgate perimeter of the gob but not on 

the head-gate side and there is no rider coal seam caving into the gob, the sampling positions 

on the tailgate side and close to the return are the optimum locations.

As with the bleeder ventilation system, the sampling location at the return is the 

least-effective sampling location for early detection of spontaneous heating under all coal 

source scenarios considered in the study.

Disclaimer: The fi ndings and conclusions in this report are those of the authors and do not 

necessarily represent the views of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.

References

Carras, J.N. and Young, B.C. (1994) ‘Self-heating of coal and related materials: models, application 

and test methods’, Progress in Energy and Combustion Sciences, Vol. 20, pp.1–15.

Chakravorty, R.N. and Woolf, R.L. (1979) ‘Evaluation of systems for early detection of spontaneous 

combustion in coal mines’, Proceedings of the 2nd Mine Ventilation Congress, Reno, Nevada, pp.1–5.

Chamberlain, E.A. and Hall, D.A. (1973) ‘Practical early detection of spontaneous combustion’, 

Colliery Guardian, Vol. 221, pp.190–194.

Cliff, D., Clarkson, F., Davis, R. and Bennett, T. (2000) ‘The implications of large scale tests for the 

detection and monitoring of spontaneous combustion in underground coal’, 2000 Queensland 

Mining Industry Health and Safety Conference, Queensland, Australia, pp.27–30. 

Esterhuizen, G.S. and Karacan, C.Ö. (2007) ‘A methodology for determining gob permeability 

distributions and its application to reservoir modeling of coal mine longwalls’, SME 2007 Annual 

Meeting, Denver, CO. Preprint 07-078.

Mitchell, D.W. (1996) Mine Fires Prevention, Detection, Fighting, Intertec Publishing, Chicago, IL.

Schmidt, L.D. and Elder, J.L. (1940) ‘Atmospheric oxidation of coal at moderate temperatures’, 

Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 32, pp.249–256.

Smith, A.C. and Yuan, L. (2008) ‘Simulation of spontaneous heating in longwall gob area with 

a bleederless ventilation system’, Mining Engineering, Vol. 60, No. 8, pp.61–66.

Timko, R.J. and Derick, L.R. (1995) ‘Predicting spontaneous heating in coal mine pillars’, Proceedings 

of the 7th US Mine Ventilation Symposium. Lexington, Kentucky, pp.173-178.

Wang, H., Dlugogorski, B.Z. and Kennedy, E.M. (2003) ‘Coal oxidation at low temperatures: oxygen 

consumption, oxidation products, reaction mechanism and kinetic modeling’, Progress in Energy 

and Combustion Science, Vol. 29, pp.487–513.

Yuan, L. and Smith, A.C. (2007) ‘Computational fl uid dynamics modeling of spontaneous heating in 

longwall gob areas’, Transactions of Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Explorations, Vol. 322, 

pp.37–44.

Yuan, L. and Smith, A.C. (2011) ‘The effect of ventilation on spontaneous heating of coal’, Journal of 

Loss Prevention in Process Industries, Vol. 25, pp.131–137.

Note

1 Reference to a specifi c product is for informational purposes and does not imply endorsement 

by NIOSH.