Recent Developments in Coal Mining Safety in the United States
 

R.G. Giirtunca & l.A. Breslin 

Pittsburgh Research Laboratory, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 

Pittsburgh, PA, USA 

This paper briefly describes the progress in mine safety in the United States, with emphasis on 

recent events that have followed since the explosion at the Sago Mine in January 2006. 

Legislation following the mine accidents last year and areas of work carried out by the 

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NlOSH) related to the accidents are 

discussed. 

American coal production in 2006 was 1,150 million short tons. Most of this coal is 

consumed domestically, with annual exports of coal about 50 million tons. One third of annual 

production is produced at surface mines and the rest from underground. This coal is produced 

by about 82,000 miners working at 1,400 coal mines. Major improvements in coal mine safety 

have been made in the US since the Federal Mine Safety and Health Act of 1977. The fatal 

injury rate in underground coal mines between 1977 and 2004 was reduced by 47.8% to 

0.036. The annual nwnber of fatalities dropped from 112 to 14 during that period. Likewise, 

the non-fatal days-lost injury rate was reduced by 42.6% from 10.87 to 6.24. 

The improvements in mine safety during this period can be seen in the graph of 

underground coal mine explosion fatalities and injuries from 1980 to present, which is shown 

in Figure 1. Between 1984 and 1993 (9 year period) there were 5 explosions and one major 

mine fire, for a total of 55 fatalities. Over the seven year period from 1993 to 1999 there were 

no fatalities from coal mine fires and explosions. However, in the six years since 2000 there 

have been 5 explosions and one fire, which have caused 37 fatalities. 

Underground Coal Mine Explosion Fatalities &
 

Injuries 1980 - present
 40,---------------------:----:----------, 

30 

1D 

I i' .. ! I § J" ! I I 

Year 

Figure 1. Underground Coal Mine Explosion Fatalities and Injuries, 1980 to Present. 
The most recent mine incidents began last year with an explosion on January 2 at the Sago 

mine in West Virginia which killed 12 miners. A fire at the Aracoma Alma No.1 Mine in 

West Virginia on January 19 caused 2 fatalities. On May 20 there was an explosion at the 

Darby No. 1 Mine in Kentucky which resulted in 5 more deaths. These major mine accidents 

caused great public concern and led the US Congress to pass the Mine Improvement and New 

Emergency Response Act of 2006 (MINER Act) on May 24, 2006. The Congress also passed 

an Emergency Supplemental Appropriation (ESA), which was signed in June. The ESA 

included funding of an additional $10 million to NIOSH to develop critical disaster response 

technologies in areas of oxygen supply, refuge chambers, and communications and tracking. 

MINER ACT 

The coal mining disasters in early 2006 and the MINER Act have had very significant effects 

on the coal mining industry in US. Some of the major provisions of the MINER Act include: 

• Requires each covered mine to develop and continuously update a written emergency 

response plan; 

• Requires wireless two-way communications and	 an electronic tracking system within 

three years, permitting those on the surface to locate persons trapped underground; 

• Requires each mine to have available two experienced rescue teams capable of a one hour 

response time; 

• Requires mine operators to make notification of all incidents or accidents which pose a 

reasonable risk of death within 15 minutes; 

• Requires new safety standards relating to the sealing of abandoned areas in underground 

coal mines, increasing the requirements for strength of the seals; 

•	 Establishes a competitive grant program for new mine safety technology to be 

administered by NIOSH; 

•	 Establishes an interagency working group to provide a formal means of sharing 

Government-developed technology that would have applicability to mine safety; 

• Establishes	 a Technical Study Panel for Belt Air to investigate the use of air from 

conveyer belt mine entries to ventilate the mine face; 

• Raising the financial penalties for safety violations; 

• Establishes a permanent Office of Mine Safety & Health in NIOSH, which helps ensure a 

viable and long-term focus on mining safety and health. 

The Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) has responsibility in the U.S. for 

promulgation and enforcement of Federal mine safety regulations. NIOSH is responsible for 

research to improve occupational safety and health for all workers including miners. NlOSH 

assumed the sole Federal responsibility for research on mine safety after the closure of the US 

Bureau of Mines in 1996. NIOSH inherited from the Bureau of Mines the mining research 

laboratories in Pittsburgh, PA and Spokane, WA. The NIOSH mining program currently has 

about 256 employees and a budget for 2007 of $31 million. 

NIOSH does research in mining aimed toward seven major strategic goals. These are: 

1. Reduce respiratory diseases in miners by reducing health hazards in the workplace
 

associated with coal worker pneumoconiosis, silicosis, and diesel emissions.
 

2. Reduce noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) in the mining industry. 

3. Reduce repetitive/cumulative musculoskeletal injuries in mine workers. 

4. Reduce traumatic injuries in the mining workplace. 

5. Reduce the risk of mine disasters (fires, explosions, and inundations); and minimize the 

risk to, and enhance the safety and effectiveness of, emergency responders. 

6. Reduce ground failure fatalities and injuries in the mining industry. 

7. Determine the impact of changing mining conditions, new and emerging technologies, 

training, and the changing patterns of work on worker health and safety. 
ON-GOING INTRAMURAL RESEARCH 

The intramural research done by NIOSH related to prevention and response to mine fires and 

explosions is directed toward strategic goal number 5 above. This research is done primarily 

at the NIOSH Pittsburgh Research Laboratory (PRL). The NIOSH strategy in this area is in 

order of priority: prevention, escape, and rescue. Our research is aimed first a preventing 

explosions or fires that could endanger the lives of miners, second at technology to allow 

miners to escape if a serious incident occurs, and third at technology that would facilitate the 

rescue of miners who might be trapped underground. 

Several of the current research projects at PRL have direct relevance to preventing the types 

of mining accidents which occurred last year. These include: 

Mine explosion prevention: This project studies explosion propagation and explosion 

combustion mechanisms through full-scale tests at the Lake Lynn Experimental Mine (LLEM) 

and through laboratory tests. The LLEM research includes flame propagation in large volumes 

of non-uniformly mixed methane, the effects of non-uniform zones of coal and rock dust 

along an entry, and the effects of coal dust on the ribs/roof compared to floor dust. 

Researchers also study the amount of rock dust necessary to inert typical mine size dust for 

both high and low volatile coals. Basic research on the explosion mechanisms and flame 

propagation attempts to reach a more fundamental understanding of mine explosions. 

NIOSH and MSHA conducted joint research to evaluate explosion blast effects on mine 

ventilation stoppings at the LLEM. After mine explosion accidents, MSHA conducts 

investigations to determine the causes as a means to mitigate or eliminate future occurrences. 

As part of these post-explosion investigations, the condition of underground stoppings, 

including the debris from damaged stoppings, is documented as evidence of the strength and 

direction of the explosion forces (Figure 2). These results assist investigators in determining 

the explosion forces that destroy or damage stoppings during actual coal mine explosions. 

(Weiss et ai, 2006) 

Figure 2. Ventilation stopping partially destroyed by explosion pressure. 
Improving methane control practices in coal mines: The project goal is to identify and 

model methane emissions on longwall faces and continuous miner sections. This should 

improve the effectiveness of methane control technology, and reduce the explosion hazard for 

underground miners. The effectiveness of methane drainage on longwall and room and pillar 

face emission rates is assessed through underground methane emissions monitoring, borehole 

production evaluations and methane content measurements. Analytical, non-site specific 

algorithms are produced to predict face methane emission rates. Methane prediction 

methodologies are packaged for technology transfer to the mining industry. Methane drainage 

practices for continuous miner room and pillar operations are reviewed to evaluate potential 

application to abandoned or sealed workings. A surface borehole monitoring experiment is in 

progress for a Pennsylvania longwall panel. Figure 3 shows a surface borehole monitoring 

station. The adaptation of commercially available reservoir modeling software has 

successfully simulated gas flows for various borehole configurations and longwall mining 

scenarios. Two empirical methods for predicting longwall face emissions for increased face 

lengths have been developed and published. (Krog et aI, 2006; Schatzel et aI, 2006). 

Figure 3. Instrumenting gob vent boreholes for monitoring. 

Rescue Training and Technology: In cooperation with state mining agencies and mining 

companies, realistic training exercises for mine rescue teams have been developed, conducted, 

and evaluated at the LLEM. These training simulations require teams to make strategic 

decisions while they explore smoke filled entries, rescue injured miners, navigate around 

obstacles such as bad roof and water, conduct equipment checks, and reestablish ventilation 

controls. Mine rescue teams have evaluated a variety of rescue technologies during realistic 

training exercises at the LLEM. Technologies that have been evaluated with more than 50 

different rescue teams include a lighted team linkline, lifeline pulleys, various communication 
systems, thermal imaging cameras, retractable stretchers, high-intensity LED lights, chemical 

light sticks, and handheld lasers. (Conti, 200 l) Some of these technologies, such as lifeline 

pulleys and chemical light sticks, have already been adopted by many of the rescue teams. 

Further work is planned to make the lighting technologies and lasers intrinsically safe for use 

in mine rescue applications. Efforts are also continuing to find a licensee for the NIOSH 

patent on the lighted rescue linkline. (Conti and Chasko, U.S. Patent #6,742,909) 

RECENT OOUTPUTS FROM INTRAMURAL RESEARCH
 

Some of the on-going research which was being done prior to the accidents in early 2006 have
 

already produced relevant results which are ready for transfer to the coal mining industry.
 

These include:
 

Coal Dust Explosibility Meter: The Coal Dust Explosibility Meter (CDEM), shown in 

Figure 4, is the first device that provides an immediate capability for determining if coal dust 

concentrations in active areas of underground coal mines have been sufficiently mixed with 

rock dust to prevent risk of explosion. This meter will quickly determine the explosibility and 

the incombustible content of coal and rock dust mixtures in coal mines, thereby improving 

sample analysis and rock dusting practices. The CDEM measures the explosibility of a coal 

and rock dust mixture by an optical reflectance method. Since rock dust is white and coal dust 

is black, the intensity of the reflected light depends on the concentration of rock dust in the 

mixture. The CDEM, when calibrated with actual mine dust mixtures, can be used to 

determine the approximate percentage of rock dust in the coal and rock dust mixture. PRL 

developed the theory and technology behind the device, and a prototype was developed in 

collaboration with the Geneva College Center for Technology Development. NIOSH and 

partners recently received the prestigious R&D 100 Award for the PRL-developed meter. 

Figure 4. Coal Dust Explosibility Meter (CDEM). 
Fine Coal Dust: NIOSH research has examined the adequacy of the 65% rock dust 

requirement for mine intakes. NIOSH and MSHA recently conducted a joint survey to 

determine the range of coal particle sizes found in dust samples collected from intake airways 

of U.S. coal mines. The last comprehensive survey of this type was performed in the 1920s. 

The size of the coal dust is relevant to the amount of rock dust required to inert the coal dust, 

with more rock dust needed to inert finer sizes of coal dust. Dust samples were collected by 

MSHA inspectors from underground coal mines throughout the U.S. Samples were normally 

collected in several intakes at each mine. The laboratory analysis procedures included acid 

leaching of the sample to remove the limestone rock dust, sonic sieving to determine the dust 

size, and low temperature ashing of the sieved fractions to correct for any remaining 

incombustible matter. The results indicate that particle sizes of mine coal dust in intake 

airways are finer than those measured in the 1920s. (Sapko, 2006) 

Explosion Pressure Design Criteria for New Seals in U.S. Coal Mines: A new project was 

begun last year to study mine seals. Mine seals are structures built in underground coal mines 

to isolate abandoned mining panels or groups of panels from the active workings. Figure 5 

shows a mine seal under construction. Recent explosions in the U.S. underground coal mining 

industry suggest that currently accepted seal construction and design methodologies are 

inadequate. Historically, mining regulations required seals to withstand a 140 kPa (20 psi) 

explosion pressure; however, the 2006 MINER Act requires MSHA to increase this design 

standard by the end of 2007. NIOSH has produced a new report that provides a sound 

scientific and engineering justification to recommend a three-tiered explosion pressure design 

criteria for seals in coal mines in response to the MINER Act. 

Figure 5. Construction of a mine seal. 
NIOSH engineers considered various kinds of explosive atmospheres that can accumulate 

within sealed areas and used simple gas explosion models to estimate worst case explosion 

pressures that could impact seals. Three design pressure pulses were developed for the 

dynamic structural analysis of new seals under the three conditions in which those seals may 

be used. For the first condition, an unmonitored seal where there is a possibility of methaneair detonation behind the seal, the recommended design pulse rises to 4.4 MPa (640 psi) and 

then falls to the 800 kPa (120 psi) constant volume explosion overpressure. For unmonitored 

seals without the possibility of detonation, a less severe design pulse that simply rises to the 

800 kPa (120 psi) constant volume explosion overpressure, but without the initial spike, may 

be employed. For monitored seals, engineers can use a 345 kPa (50 psi) design pulse if 

monitoring can assure that the maximum length of explosive mix behind a seal does not 

exceed 5 m (15 ft) and also that the volume of explosive mix does not exceed 40% of the total 

sealed volume. Use of this 345 kPa (50 psi) design pulse requires monitoring and active 

management ofthe sealed area atmosphere. 

NIOSH used these design pressure pulses along with the Wall Analysis Code from the U.S. 

Anny Corps of Engineers and a simple plug analysis to develop design charts for the 

minimum required seal thickness to withstand each of these explosion pressure pulses. These 

design charts consider a range of practical construction materials used in the mining industry 

and specify a minimum seal thickness given a certain seal height. These analyses show that 

resistance to even the maximum 4.4 MPa (640 psi) design pulse can be achieved using 

common seal construction materials at reasonable thickness. 

NIOSH will continue research to improve underground coal mine sealing strategies and 

prevent explosions in sealed areas of coal mines. In collaboration with the U.S. National 

Laboratories, NIOSH researchers will further examine the dynamics of methane and coal dust 

explosions in mines and the dynamic response of seals to these explosion loads. This should 

lead to better understanding of the detonation phenomena and simple techniques to protect 

seals from transient pressures. Additional work will include field measurements of the 

atmosphere within sealed areas. This work will improve the monitoring of gob atmospheres to 

reduce the likelihood that an explosive methane/air gas mixture accumulates behind the seal 

line. 

Methane Control Handbook: This is a summary handbook published last year that compiles 

in one document the results of several decades of research by the US Bureau of Mines and 

NIOSH on methods to control methane in underground coal mines. This handbook describes 

effective methods for the control of methane gas in mines and tunnels. It describes methane 

control methods primarily for U.S. coal mines, but also for metal and nonmetal mines and 

tunnels. (Kissell 2006) 

NEW INTRAMURAL PROJECTS 

NIOSH has initiated a pilot project to evaluate the potential for risk assessment and 

management in the US for disaster prevention. Recent mine disasters focused attention on the 

need to improve the operation and management of mine emergency response, from 

communications to rescue operations. Experience in other countries indicates that mine safety 

can be dramatically improved by implementing risk management methods, including hazard 

identification, risk assessment, implementation of controls, emergency response plans and a 

system to manage the process. The project time frame is approximately 15 months to conduct 

a series of case studies across mining sectors, with interim reports and evaluations to assess 

the need to continue or expand the effort. The case studies will lead mine personnel through a 

formal risk assessment of mine site hazards with the potential for multiple fatalities. The 

process will evaluate prevention, initial response, communications, escape, refuge and 
emergency response capacities and identify gaps in protection. The purpose is to build interest 

in and validation for the wider use of the risk assessment and management process and to 

identify any obstacles to its success in the US mining industry. To date, nine major hazard risk 

assessment case studies have been completed. A NIOSH report will soon be written detailing 

the strengths and weaknesses of this approach. 

A Mine Emergency Communications Partnership was organized by NIOSH to facilitate the 

development, evaluation, and implementation of communication system technology that 

would allow workers in mines to communicate with personnel on the surface after an accident. 

Included is post-accident worker tracking teclmology. The primary goals of the Mine 

Emergency Communications Partnership are to: establish general performance expectations 

for mine emergency communications systems; establish uniform and fair criteria for testing 

and evaluating systems; conduct in-mine tests on systems under consistent conditions; and 

report the findings. A secondary goal is to identify gap areas that should be addressed through 

research. The Mine Emergency Communications Partnership includes representatives from 

state and national mining associations, labor unions, state and federal regulatory agencies, 

manufacturers, and university and government researchers. 

PROGRESS ON THE EMERGENCY SUPPLEMENAL APPROPRIATION (ESA) 

The Emergency Supplemental Appropriation (ESA) made available an additional $10 million 

to NIOSH with the goal to facilitate the adaptation and movement of oxygen supply, 

communications, tracking, and refuge chamber teclmologies from other industries or from 

prototype stage to commercialization, and into the mines as rapidly as possible. The intent of 

Congress was to overcome the small market barrier, by providing some government funding 

to solve unique application issues associated with in-mine use. The relatively small mining 

market in the US provides little incentive for expensive research and development of new 

safety teclmology for mining without some assistance from the government. 

The ESA funds target teclmologies that could be available for mine use within 36 months. 

The focus is on moving demonstrated prototypes to commercialization, or adapting 

technologies from other military or civilian sectors into mining. While longer term R&D 

activities are important to develop new concepts and conduct experimental investigations of 

possible innovations, they aren't the focus of the ESA. 

To address needs in a timely and cost-effective manner, the primary focus of the ESA has 

been on competitive contracts. The appropriated funds became available in September 2006. 

However, preliminary work had already begun. NIOSH scientists and engineers have been 

studying promising technologies that could meet the urgent needs of mineworkers. They 

continue to meet with manufacturers, inventors and innovators, trade and labor organizations, 

academia, and industry to discuss options, alternatives, and needs. They are examining 

installations in underground mines, and meeting with constituents and experts in the U.S. and 

other mining countries. Communications and tracking technologies are being tested in the lab 

and underground to evaluate the efficacy of systems purported to work in underground mines. 

A number of opportunities were identified that have a reasonable likelihood of being 

commercialized and available for in-mine use within 36 months. However, it's unlikely that all 

of these are doable for $10 million. Therefore, a competitive process is being used to prioritize 

the most promising technologies based on significant positive impact on mine worker safety, 

and also on reasonable chance of commercial availability within 36 months. 

Five new contracts are planned in the communications and tracking area. These include: 

- Development of a "hardened" leaky-feeder-type system 

- Development of a node or mesh-based system 

- Study of communications standards for compatibility 
- Agreement with Department of Defense to adapt military technology to mmmg 

communication systems 

- Development of a general communication and/or tracking system. 

Refuge chambers are one option for safety protection in the event of explosions or fires. In the 

United States, the use of refuge chambers in coal mines has generated debate. While refuge 

chambers can save lives, it is also argued that they may cause miners to seek refuge rather 

than attempt to escape their hazardous situation. There are a number of considerations 

involved with this approach, including the capabilities of stations, the type and Location of 

structures, design criteria, and maintenance and training issues. Recent discussions have 

generated some consensus among stakeholder groups on refuge concepts as part of an escape 

strategy. Specifically, the merits of at least two concepts have emerged: inflatable, portable 

devices for use at the face, and "refuge rooms" for use outby the face. The refuge rooms could 

serve as "way stations" or "safe havens" as escaping miners make their way out of the mine. 

Being somewhat more permanent in nature, these rooms could in some cases be connected to 

the surface with a borehole, which would offer many other benefits. NIOSH plans to address 

the engineering issues associated with the construction and application of the various refuge 

alternatives through contract research. The knowledge developed through this contract will be 

used to develop recommended practices documents and other practical guidelines for mines, 

and to establish potential criteria for a possible approval and certification process for refuge 

chambers. 

Researchers at NIOSH's National Personal Protective Technology Laboratory (NPPTL) will 

facilitate the development and commercialization of the next generation of selfcontained selfrescuers (SCSRs) through competitive contracts. The new SCSRs will provide more reliable 

oxygen supplies to miners in escape situations. The new and improved SCSRs could be 

developed, tested, and submitted for certification within the next 24 months. 

Five contracts are pLanned for oxygen supplies and refuge chambers, including: 

- A Hybrid SCSR 

- A Dockable SCSR 

- Development of overall escape strategies utilizing refuge chambers 

- Survey and document refuge products, standards, and usage worldwide. 

- Development of recommended practices for refuge rooms. 

Some of these contracts have already been awarded and the last of these is expected to be 

awarded by June of this year. 

SUMMARY 

In conclusion, the provisions of the MINER Act and the funding provided by the ESA give us 

the best opportunity for "revolutionary" improvements to mining safety in nearly three 

decades. They can lead to potentially significant improvements for all of mining, not just coal. 

We are engaged in a mix of intramural and extramural activities to help realize the 

opportunities. 

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from Smoke-Filled Passageways. In: Proceedings of Northwest Mining Association 107th Annual 

Meeting, Exposition and Short Courses (December 3-7, 200 I; Spokane, WA); :14 pp 

Conti-RS; Chasko-LL. Lighted Line. U.S. Patent #6,742,909 

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Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for 

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