# U ni te d S ta te s Co ur t of A pp ea ls

For the Eig hth Circu it

__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ _

No. 1 6- 33 77

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Jo se ph in e Hav la k P ho to gr ap he r, In c.; J os ep hi ne Havl ak

ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll l Pla in ti

ff s - Ap pe ll an ts

W il li am Jo se ph Hil l; Mary Kath eri ne Hil l

ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll l Pla in ti

ff s

v.

Vil la ge of Twi n Oak s; Kath y Ru ng e, Vil la ge of Twi n Oak s C le rk /C on tro ll er i n h er of fic ia l ca pa ci ty onl y

ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll l Defe nd

an ts - App el le es

Jo hn Bel m ar, St . Lou is Co un ty Poli ce Ch ie f in hi s o ffi ci al cap aci ty onl y

ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll l Defe nd

an t

----- ----- ----- ----- ----- -----

In te rn at ion al Mun ic ipa l L aw y er s A sso ci at ion ; Mi nne ap o l i s P a r k a n d Re cr ea tio n Bo ar d

ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll ll l

Amici on Beha lf

of App el le e(s

)

__ __ __ __ __ __

App eal fro m

Uni te d S ta te s Di st ric t Co ur t
fo r th e Eas te rn Dis tri ct of M is so ur i - St . Lou is

__ __ __ __ __ __Su bm it te d: Apri l 5 , 20 17

Fil ed : J ul y

26 , 20 17

__ __ __ __ __ __

Befo re SM ITH, Chi ef J ud ge , ARNOLD and SHEPHERD, Circ ui t J ud ge s.

__ __ __ __ __ __

SMI TH, Chi ef J ud ge

.

The Vil la ge of Twin Oa k s ( “Th e Vil la ge ”) pa ss ed a m un ic ip al or di na nc e

pr oh ib it in g al l c o mm e rci al act iv it y in it s ne ig hb or ho od pa rk wit ho ut a pe rm it

. A

co m m erci al ph ot og rap he r , J o s e ph in e Hav la k, su ed th e Vil la ge fo r in jun ct iv e an d

de cl arat or y rel ie f on be ha lf of he rs el f an d he r b u s in es s, Jo se ph in e Hav la k

Ph ot og rap he r, In c. Hav la k al le ge d th at th e or di na nc e vi ol at es he r Free Sp eech rig ht s

gu aran te ed by th e F irs t Am en dm en t of th e Uni te d St at es Co ns ti tu ti on

. The di st ric t

co ur t 1 de ni ed he r cl ai m s, an d we a ffi rm

.

I. Bac kg ro un d

The Vil l a g e i s a co m

m un it y of ap pr ox im at el y 40 0 res id en ts in Sai nt Lou is

Co un ty, Mi ss ou ri. It ha s a fiv e-m em be r Bo a r d of Trus te es (“ th e Bo ard ”), whi ch

ad m in is te rs th e le gi sl at iv e an d po li cy m ak in g fu nc ti on s of th e co m m un it y

. Too sm al l

to op erat e it s own po li ce de pa rtment, th e Vil la ge co nt ract s wit h Sai nt Lou is Co un ty
(“ Co un ty”) to pr ov id e po li ce se rv ic es

. The Co un ty reg ul arl y as si gn s Offi cer Mi ke

M a x w el l to th e Vil la ge fo r 40 ho ur s pe r week

. Offi cer Max well res po nd s to cal l s , writ es sp eed in g ti ck et s, an d pr ov id es ot he r m un ic ip al po li ci ng se rv ic es

. W he n it

ne ed s ad di ti on al po li ce su pp or t, th e Vil la ge co nt ract s di rect ly wit h Offi cer Max well

an d o th er o ffi cers at a n h ou rly rate.

1 The Hon or ab le Aud rey G

. F l e i ss ig

, Uni te d St at es Dis tri ct Ju dg e fo r th e
East ern Dis tri ct of M is so ur i.

-2

-In 19 94

, th e Vil la ge de di cat ed an 11 -acr e pu bl ic pa r k i n th e m id dl e of th e

c o mm u n i ty; th e pa rk in cl ud es a walk in g tra il

, la ke

, wate rfal l, ga zeb o, br id g e , pl ay gr ou nd

, an d sp or ti ng am en it ie s. To pr ot ect th is ne w res ou rce, th e Bo ard en act ed

a co m pr eh en si ve or di na nc e pr oh ib it in g, am on g ot he r th in gs , m ot or iz ed ve hi cl es , hu nt in g, al l co m

m e r c i a l a c t iv it y , an d th e ob st ru ct io n of walk way s. In 20 11

, th e

Vil la ge up gr ad ed th e pa rk ’s pl ay gr ou n d e q u i pm en t, an d th e pa rk ex pe rie nc ed a

dr am at ic in crea se in vi s i t or s— in cl ud in g a la rg e nu m be r of co m

m erci al

ph ot og rap he rs

. Bec au se of th e ga zeb o, wate rfal l, br id ge , an d ot he r ga rd en st ru ct ur es ,

on e ph ot og rap he r refe rred to th e pa rk as pr es en ti ng “ a lo t of go od ph ot o op po rtu ni ti es

in a sm al l ar ea.”

Co m m erci al ph ot og rap he r s (as m an y as ei gh t at a ti m e) an d th ei r su bjec ts

be ga n co m

pe ti ng fo r sh oo ti ng lo cat io ns wit hi n th e p a r k. W ed di ng pa rti es wou ld

co ng reg at e fo r ph ot os on th e pa rk br id ge

. Ph ot o su bjec ts wou ld oc cu py th e pa rk

res tro om faci li ti es , us in g t he m as dr es si ng ro om s. So m e p ho to gr ap he rs wou ld ev en

se t up ou td oo r st ud io s in th e pa rk fo r sh oo ti ng m ul ti pl e su bjec ts in an as se m bl y -li ne

fas hi on

. In reac ti on to th is in crea se d tra ffi c an d in res po ns e to th e Vil la ge res id en ts ’

co m pl ai nt s, th e Bo ard erec te d s i g n s n ot ifyin g ph ot og rap he rs of th e lo ng st an di ng

or di na nc e pr oh ib it in g co m m erci al act iv it y wit hi n th e pa rk

. Hav la k fil ed th is la wsu it

to en joi n en fo rcem en t of th e or di na nc e an d to de cl are th e or di na nc e a vi ol at io n of he r rig ht of f ree s pe ech

.

Hav la k is a pr of

es si on al ph ot og rap h e r ba se d in Sai nt Lou is

, Mi ss ou ri. Sh e

de sc rib es he r wor k as co nv ey in g an ex pr es s i v e mes s a ge in a m an ne r si m il ar to th e

wor k of Am eri can po rtr ai t pa in te r Jo hn Si ng er Sarg en t. Hav la k m ai nt ai ns th e

co pyrig h t t o a l l he r ph ot og rap hs an d li cen se s th em to he r cl ie nt s fo r pe rs on al us e

on ly. Eve ry y ea r , s he ph ot og rap hs hu nd red s of se ni or cl as s po rtr ai ts an d m or e th an

a do zen wed di ng s. Her ph ot o sh oo ts us ua ll y la st fo r le ss th an an ho ur an d feat ur e on ly

a ha nd fu l of pe op le

. Des pi te kn owi ng ab ou t th e pa rk fo r m or e th an te n y ears , sh e ha d

ne ve r us ed it fo r ph ot og rap hy be fo re fil in g th is su i t

. H a v l a k te st ifi ed th at sh e ha d

-3

-ta ke n ph ot og rap hs in th e pa rk on two oc cas io ns

. Bo th ti m es , sh e sa w at le as t th r e e

ot he r ph ot og rap he rs an d th ei r su bjec ts in th e pa rk

. Dur in g on e of th es e sh oo ts

, Hav la k

in st ru ct ed he r cl ie nt to ch an ge cl ot he s in a woo de d a rea an d to po se ou ts id e th e

rai li ng on th e pa rk br id ge ; it is un d i s p u t e d t h a t “ a fal l fro m th e br id ge co ul d cau se

se rio us in jury.”

In res po ns e to th is la wsu i t

, t h e Bo ard am en de d it s pa rk or di na nc e to crea te a

pe rm it pr oc es s fo r th e co m mer c i a l us e of pa rk faci li ti es (Ord in an ce § 22 0.0 20 ). 2

2 The rel ev an t po rti on of t h e o r d i n an ce fo ll ows , as co di fie d at th e ti m e of th e in jun ct io n h eari ng :

Reg ul at io n o

f S ol ic it at io ns an d C

ommer ci al

Acti vi ti es

.

1. So li ci ta ti on of an y b u s in es s or se rv ic e is pr oh ib it ed

. No pe rs on , fir m , or co rp or at io n is pe rm it te d to of fer or ad ve rti se m erch an di se

or ot he r go od s fo r sa le or hi re. Exc ep ti ng Vil la ge -s po ns or ed

ev en ts an d act iv it ie s, th e m ai nt ai ni ng of a co nc es si on o r t he us e of an y pa rk faci li ty, bu il di ng , tra il

, ro ad

, br id ge , b e n c h

, ta bl e or

ot he r pa rk pr op ert y fo r co m m erci al pu rp os es is pr oh ib it ed un le ss

a pe rm it is is s u e d b y th e Bo ard of Trus te es or it s de si gn at ed

rep res en ta ti ve (s ). Su ch pe rm it sh a l l b e cl earl y di sp la y ed by th e

pe rs on (s ) se ek in g to co nd uc t co m m erci al act iv i ti es wit hi n th e

pa rk

. The pe rm it ti ng pro ces s wi ll he lp to en su re t ha t th e Vil la ge is aware of th e act iv i t y t a ki ng pl ace wit hi n th e pa rk

, th at th e

pr op os ed da te /t im e/ lo cat io n do es no t co nf li ct wit h sc he du le d

act iv it ie s/ ev en ts /o pe rat io ns , an d th at no ha r m i s d on e to th e la nd sc ap e of th e pa rk

. In it s rev ie w of th e pe rm it req u e s t

, th e
Bo ard of Trus te es or it s de si gn at ed rep res en ta ti ve (s ) s h o u ld

co ns id er:

a. Th e r i s k o f d a mag e a nd in jury as se t fo rt h i n S e c t i o n
22 0.0 20 (B) t hr ou gh (E);

b. The di sr up t i o n o f o r c o n f l i c t wit h th e pu bl ic ’s us e an d

-4

-en joy m en t o f th e p ark ;

c. W he th er th e is su an ce of su ch pe rm it m ay res ul t in cro wde d

o r co ng es te d co nd it io ns du e to th e an ti ci pa te d nu m b e r o f

at te nd ees for a pl an ne d e ve nt

.

d. Th e n a t u r e o f t h e r eq ue st ed act iv it y , in cl ud in g whet h e r

su ch act iv it y

in vo lv es :

(1 ) The sa le of pr od uc ts or i t e ms , w h i c h is pro hi bi te d

un le ss it is a Fi rs t-Am en dm en t-p ro te ct ed act iv it y ;

(2 ) The us e of fu rn it ur e, te nt s [as th at te rm is de fin ed in

Sect io n 22 0.0 40 (D)] or la rg e “ pr op ” am en it ie s, whi ch is pro hi bi te d; or

(3 ) The us e o f m od el s o r eq ui pm en t.

e. Th e t i m e an d du rat io n req ue s t e d f o r s u c h c o mm e r c i a l

pu rp os es , in cl ud in g:

(1 ) W he th er t he act iv it y wil l ex ceed on e (1 ) ho ur ;

(2 ) W he th er th e nu m

be r of pe op le in vo lv ed ex ceed s te n (1 0) ; o r

(3 ) W h e t h e r th e ti m e req ue st ed co nf li ct s wit h a pe rio d

of pe ak vi si ta ti on to th e pa rk or ot he r sc he du le d

ev en ts , act iv it ie s, o r op erat io ns

.

2. Any pe rm it req ue st in vo lv in g le ss th an te n (1 0) pe op le

, la st in g for

le ss th an on e (1 ) ho ur , an d co m pl y in g wit h t he ab ov e, wil l be

gr an te d by th e Vil la ge Cl erk /C on tro ll er or a de si gn ee. All pe rm it

req ue st s m

us t be sub m it te d at leas t fort y -ei gh t (48 ) ho ur s befo re th e pr op os ed act iv it ie s. Any pe rm it req ue st in vo lv in g te n (1 0) or

m or e pe op le

, la st in g m or e th an on e (1 ) h o u r , or ot he rwis e

-5

-The pe rm it pr oc es s req ui res th e Bo ard to co ns id er th e ris k of da m ag e to th e pa rk

, an y

di sr up ti ve effe ct s on typic al pa rk us e, th e po te nt ia l co ng es ti on cau se d by th e act iv it y ,

an d th e na tu re of the act iv it y it se lf. The o rd in an ce al lo ws fo r au to m at ic ap pr ov al of

ev en ts las ti ng les s th an on e ho ur , h av in g fewer th an te n pe op le , a nd wit h 4 8 h ou rs ’

ad va nc e no ti ce. The pe rm it fee is $1 00

. As far as th e reco rd di sc lo se s, th e Vil la ge ha s

ap pr ov ed all pe rm it ap pl ic at io ns

. 3

Two Bo ard m em

be rs , Li s a Ei s e nh au er an d Ch ai rm an Ray Sl am a, te st ifi ed at

th e in jun ct io n h eari ng reg ard in g t he le gi sl at iv e in te nt be hi nd th e pe rm it pr oc es s. In

Eis en ha ue r’s word s,

W e do en

joy th e ph ot og rap he rs co m in g to s e e t he pa rk an d ta ki ng pi ct ur es an d us in g th e pa rk

, bu t we ha d to ba la nc e th e in t e r e s t o f th e

ot he r pa rk us ers an d th at ’s why we wen t to th e pe rm it ti ng pr oc es s so th at
th e ph ot og rap he r rece iv es th e ex cl us i v e u s e o f cert ai n area s in whi ch

th ey w i s h t o do th ei r sh oo t so th at th ey can pe rfo rm th ei r sh oo t
effi ci en tl y

.

co nf li ct in g wit h an y of th e ab ov e fact or s m us t b e su bm it te d at
le as t fo ur te en (1 4) da y s in ad va nc e of th e pr op os ed act iv it ie s so th at th e Bo ar d of Trus te es m ay rev ie w th e req ue st

, an d th e

pe rm it te d au th or it y m ay be li m it ed to cert ai n de si gn at ed a r e a s

. Each pe rm it is su ed by th e Vil la ge sh al l on l y b e effe ct iv e on th e da te an d ti m e sp eci fie d on t h e pe rm it . S pe ci fic pe rm it fees sh al l

b e s e t b y th e Bo ard of Trus te es fro m ti m e to ti m e an d sh al l b e

po st ed on th e Vil la ge ’s webs it e.

Vil la ge of Twin Oak s, Mo

., Rev

. Ord in an ces ch

. 22 0, § 2 20 .02 0( P) (2 01 6) (al te rat io n in ori gi na l).

3 Hav la k am en de d he r co m pl ai nt in res po ns e to th e Vil la ge ’s up da te d p e r mi t

pr oc es s.

-6

-The pe rm it fee pa y s fo r a po li ce of fic er to m a n a g e th e co m m erci al ev en t, en su re

ex cl us iv e us e of cert ai n pa rk area s, pr ot ect ag ai ns t in te rfer en ce wit h ot he r pa rk us ers ,

an d e ns ur e th at pa rk rul es are fo ll owe d. Ch ai rm an Sl am a te st ifi ed : “ W e ha ve fou nd

th at ou r co m

m erci al ph ot og rap he rs ge ne ral ly ha ve is su es ob ey in g t h o s e r ul es .” He

em ph as iz ed th at th e Bo ard en de av or ed t o dr aw t he res tri ct io ns as na rro wly as po ss ib le

wit h th e ex pr es s in te nt io n to “ al lo w[] th e co m m erci al ph ot og rap he r[s ] to co m e in an d

ta ke th ei r sh oo t.” Bo th Bo ard m em be rs te st ifi ed to a di rect co rrel at io n be twee n th e

pe rm it fee an d th e ad m in is tra ti on of th e p erm it , sp eci fic al ly not in g t he co st th at th e

Vil la ge in cu rs fo r th e ad di ti on al po li ce su pp or t. Per Eis en ha ue r: “ W e as k fo r a pe rm it

be cau se if we do n’t ha ve a way to reg ul at e no t h a v i n g f iv e or si x wed di ng gr ou ps

do wn th ere at th e sa m e ti m e, th en we ha ve co ng es ti on in ou r pa rk whi ch we ha ve

fo un d t o c au se pro bl em s.” Ha vl ak ha s n ev er ap pl ie d fo r a co m m erci al pe rm it

.

The di st ric t co ur t de n i e d H a vl ak ’s req ue st fo r in jun ct iv e rel ie f an d en te red a

de cl arat or y

jud gm en t i n fa vo r of

th e Vil la ge

.

II. Dis cu ss io n

A. Faci al vs. As -App li ed

Ch al le ng e

Hav la k ch al le ng es th e Vil la ge ord in an ce as ov erl y bro ad bo th faci al ly an d as

a pp li ed to he r. “ Ord in ari ly, a pa rty m ay no t faci al ly ch al le ng e a la w on th e g r o u n d

t h a t i t wou ld be un co ns ti tu ti on al if ap pl ie d to so m eo ne el se .” SOB, In c. v. Ct y. o f

Ben to n , 31 7 F.3 d 8 5 6

, 8 64 (8 th Ci r. 20 03 ). The Fi rs t Am en dm en t ov erb read th

do ct rin e, ho wev er, pr ov id es an av en ue “ w h e r eb y a la w m ay be in va li da te d as

ov erb ro ad if ‘a su bs ta nt ia l nu m be r of it s ap pl ic at io ns are un co ns ti tu ti on al

, jud ge d in

rel at io n to th e st at ut e’s pl ai nl y le gi ti m at e swe ep .’ ” Uni te d St at es v. St even s , 55 9 U.S.

46 0, 47 3 (2 01 0) (q uo ti ng W as h. St at e Gra ng e v. W

as h. St at e Rep ub li ca n Par ty

, 55 2

U.S. 44 2, 44 9 n

. 6 ( 20 08 )). “ [T]he faci al ov erb read th do ct rin e ‘is a de pa rtu re fro m

tra di ti on al ru le s of s t a n d i n g,’ s uc h th at a pa rty wh os e own ex pr es si ve co nd uc t m ay

be un pr ot ect ed is al lo wed to ass ert th e Fi rs t Am en dm en t ri gh ts of o th ers no t b efo re

th e co ur t

. . . .” Rep ub li ca n Par ty of Min n. v. Kl ob uc ha r , 38 1 F.3 d 78 5, 79 2 (8 th Ci r.

-7

-20 04 ) (ci ta ti on om it te d) (q uo ti ng Alex an de r v. Uni te d St at es , 50 9 U.S. 54 4, 55 5

(1 99 3) ).

F o r a fed eral co ur t to en te rta in a faci al ch al le ng e pu rs ua nt to th e Fi r s t

Am en dm en t ov erb read th do ct rin e, “ [t]he re m us t be a real is ti c da ng er th at th e st at ut e

it se lf wil l si gn ifi can tl y co m pr om is e reco gn iz ed Fi rs t Am en d m en t pr ot ect io ns of

pa rti es no t be fo re th e [c]ou rt.” Ja co bs e n v

. H o w ar d , 1 09 F.3 d 12 68 , 1 27 4 (8 th Ci r.

19 97 ) (q uo ti ng Bd. of

Air po rt Co mm’rs of

L.A. v. Jew s fo r Jes us

, In c. , 48 2 U.S. 56 9,

57 4 (1 98 7) ). “ ‘T o be faci al ly i nv al id at ed un de r th is do ct rin e, th e ov erb r e a d t h o f an

or di na nc e affe ct in g bo th co nd uc t an d pu r e s pe ech m us t be bo th “ real ” an d

“ su bs ta nt ia l” in rel at io n to it s “ pl ai nl y le gi ti m at e swe ep

. ” ’” M i n n

. Maj or it

y v.

Man sk y , 70 8 F.3 d 10 51

, 10 56 (8 t h Ci r. 20 13 ) (q uo ti ng Exca li bu r Grp

., In c. v. Ci ty
of Min ne ap ol is

, 11 6 F.3 d 12 16

, 12 24 (8 th Ci r. 19 97 ) ). “ ‘Facia l ch al le ng es are

di sf av or ed ’ be cau se th ey ‘ofte n res t on sp ecu la ti o n

. . . [ a n d] rai se th e ris k of

pr em at ur e in te rp ret at io n of st at ut es on th e ba si s o f fact ua ll y ba reb on es reco rd s.’”

Phe lp s– Rop er v. Ci ty of

Man ch es te r , 69 7 F.3 d 67 8, 68 5 (8 th Ci r. 20 12 ) (al te rat io n in

or ig in al ) (in te rn al qu ot at io n m ark s om it te d) (q uo ti ng W as h. St at e Gra ng e , 55 2 U.S.

at 45 0)

.

Hav la k be ars th e bu rd en to de m on st rat e th at sh e ha s st an di ng to br in g a faci al

ov erb read th cl ai m

. Se e Kl ob uc ha r , 38 1 F.3d at 79 1. For su ch ch al le ng es , “ th e pa rty

be fo re th e co ur t m

us t id en ti fy a si gn ifi can t di ffer en ce be twee n h i s c la im th at th e

s t a t u t e i s [ faci al ly] in va li d on ov erb read th gr ou nd s, an d hi s cl ai m th at it is

un co ns ti tu ti on al as ap pl ie d to hi s part ic ul ar acti vi ty.” Van Berg en v. Min n. , 59 F.3 d

15 41

, 15 49 (8 th Ci r. 19 95 ). “ W e ge ne ral ly do no t ap pl y th e ‘stro ng m ed ic in e’ of

ov erb read th an al y si s whe re th e pa rti es fai l to de sc rib e th e in st an ces of arg u ab le

ov erb read th of th e co nt es te d la w.” W as h. St at e Gra ng e , 55 2 U.S. at 44 9 n.6 (in te rn al

qu ot at io n m ark s om it te d) (q uo ti ng N.Y

. St at e Cl ub Ass ’n v. Ci ty of N.Y

. , 48 7 U.S. 1,

14 (1 98 8) ). It is in ap pr op ria te to en te rta in a fa c i a l o v e r br ead th ch al le ng e whe n th e pl ai nt iff fai ls to ad du ce an y ev id en ce th at th ird pa rti es wil l be affe ct ed in an y m an ne r

-8

-di ffer en tl y fro m he rs el f. Se e Memb er s of Ci ty Co un ci l of L.A. v

. T a x p a y e rs fo r

Vin cen t

, 46 6 U.S. 78 9, 80 2 (1 98 4) ; se e al so Ash cr of

t v. Am. Ci vi l Li be rt ie s Uni on , 53 5 U.S. 5 64 , 5 84 –8 5 (2 00 2) (d is m is si ng a faci al ov erb read th ch al le ng e fo r fai lu re

to m eet bu rd en rel at in g to ot he r pa rti es ); Sn id er v. Ci ty of Ca pe Gir ar de au , 75 2 F.3 d

11 49

, 11 57 (8 th C i r

. 2 0 1 4 ) (“ [T]he fact on e can co nc ei ve of an im pe rm is si bl e

ap pl ic at io n of a st at ut e is no t su ffi ci e n t to ren de r it su sc ep ti bl e to an ov erb read th

ch al le ng e.”). Hav la k pr es en ts no al le ge dl y un co ns ti tu ti on al sc en ari os affe ct ed by th e

Vil la ge or di na nc e be y on d he r own co m m erci al ph ot og rap hy, so we wil l li m it ou r

an al y si s t o t he ord in an ce’s ap pl ic at io n t o Hav la k.

B. Ti me, Pla ce, a nd

Man ne r Reg ul at io n

W e rev ie w t he di st ric t co ur t’s de ni al of in jun ct iv e rel ie f fo r an ab us e of

d i s c r e t io n, an d we wil l rev ers e on ly if th e di st ric t co ur t m ad e “ cl earl y erro ne ou s

fact ua l fin di ng s or erro ne ou s le ga l co nc lu si on s.” Tr ad it io na li st Am. Kn ig ht s of th e Ku

Kl ux Kl an v. C i ty of Des lo ge , 77 5 F.3 d 96 9, 97 4 (8 th Ci r. 20 14 ) (q uo ti ng S.J .W . e x

re l. W il so n v. Lee’

s S u m m i t R–7 Sc h. Dis t.

, 69 6 F.3 d 77 1, 77 6 (8 th Ci r. 20 12 )). In

Fi rs t Am en dm en t cas es , we rev ie w th e co ns ti tu ti on al cl ai m s de no vo , se e Jo hn so n v.

Min n e a p o l i s Par k & Recr ea ti on Bd.

, 72 9 F.3 d 10 94

, 10 98 (8 th Ci r. 20 13 ), an d we

in de pe nd en tl y ex am in e th e reco rd to en su re t ha t t he re is no “ fo rb id de n in tru si on on

th e fie ld of free ex pr es si on ,” Fami li es Achi evi ng Ind ep . & Resp ect v. Neb . De p’ t of

So c. Se rv s. , 11 1 F.3d 14 08

, 14 11 (8 th Ci r. 19 97 ) (en ba nc ) (q uo ti ng N.Y

. Ti mes Co

. v. Su ll iv an , 37 6 U.S. 2 54 , 28 5 (1 96 4) ).

As in co rp or at ed th ro ug h th e Fo ur te en th Am en dm en t, se e Su rv i v or s Net wo rk

of Th os e Abu se d by Pri es ts

, In c. v. Jo yce , 77 9 F.3 d 78 5, 78 9 (8 th Ci r. 20 15 ), th e Fi rs t

Am en dm en t’s pr oh ib it io n ag ai ns t “ ab rid gi ng th e f r eed om of sp eech ,” U.S. Co ns t.

am en d. I, ap pl ie s to or di na nc es en act ed by th e Vil la ge

. Nev ert he le ss , th e Vil la ge m ay

“ reg ul at e co m

pe ti ng us es ” of a tra di ti on al pu bl ic fo ru m , li ke a pa rk

, by “ im po s[ in g]

a pe rm it req u i r e men t

. ” For sy th Ct y. v. Na ti on al is t Mov emen t

, 50 5 U.S. 12 3, 13 0

(1 99 2) ; se e al

so Pac ki ng ha m v

. N

o rt h Ca ro li na , 13 7 S. Ct

. 17 30

, 17 35 (2 01 7) (“ A

-9

-ba si c ru le

. . . is th at a st reet or a pa rk is a qu in te ss en ti al f o r u m f o r th e ex erci se of

Fi rs t Am en dm en t rig ht s.”)

. Alt ho ug h we ap pl y a “ he av y pr es um pt io n” ag ai ns t t h e

va li di ty of o r d i na nc es th at crea te pr io r res tra in ts on sp eech

, we wil l up ho ld su ch

or di na nc es if th ey m eet th e co ns ti tu ti on al st an da rd s fo r ti m e, p l a c e, an d m an ne r

r e gu la ti on s. Se e For

sy th Ct y. , 50 5 U.S. at 13 0 (q uo ti ng Ban ta m Boo ks

, I n c

. v

. Su ll iv an , 37 2 U.S. 5 8, 7 0 (1 96 3) ).

“ [A]ny pe rm it sc he m e co nt ro ll in g th e ti m e, pl ace, an d m an ne r of sp eech m us t

no t be ba se d on th e co nt en t of th e m e s s a g e , mu s t be na rro wly ta il or ed to se rv e a

s ig ni fic an t go ve rn m en ta l in te res t, an d m us t le av e op en am

pl e al te rn at iv es fo r

co m m un ic at io n.” Id

. Add it io na ll y , “ [s ]uch reg ul at io ns

. . . m us t no t ‘del eg at e ov erl y

br oa d li cen si ng di sc ret io n to a go ve rn m en t o ffi ci al ,’ an d c on ta in na rro w, ob jecti ve ,

an d de fin it e st an da rd s to gu id e li cen si ng au th or it ie s.” Dou gl as v. Bro wn el l

, 88 F.3 d

15 11

, 15 21 (8 th Ci r. 19 96 ) (q uo ti ng For sy th Ct y. , 50 5 U.S. at 13 0)

. W e wil l an al y ze

th e o rd in an ce b y

th es e el em en ts

. 4

1. Co nt en t Ne ut ra li ty

“ Co nt en t-b as ed la ws— th os e t h at ta rg et sp eech ba se d on it s co m m un ic at iv e

co nt en t— are pr es um

pt iv el y un co ns ti tu t i o n a l an d m ay be jus ti fie d on ly if th e

go ve rn m en t pr ov es th at th ey are na rro wly ta il or ed to se rv e c o mp e l l i ng st at e

in te res ts .” Reed v. To wn of Gil b e r t

, 13 5 S. Ct

. 22 18

, 22 26 (2 01 5)

. “ [C]ou rts wil l

4 Lik e th e di st ric t co ur t, we as s um e wit ho ut de ci di ng th at Hav la k’s ph ot og rap hy

co ns ti tu te s ex pr es si ve co nd uc t en ti tl ed to Fi rs t Am en dm en t pr ot e c t i on s. Se e
Jo se ph in e Hav la k Ph ot og ra

ph er

, In c. v. Vil l. of Twi n Oak s , 19 5 F. Su pp

. 3d 10 65

, 10 75 (E.D. Mo

. 20 16 ). Bec au se Hav la k’s con st it ut io na l clai m fai ls un de r th e “ m os t

ex act in g te st ” of Fi rs t Am e nd m en t ex pr es si on , we ne ed no t de ci de whe th er he r ph ot og r ap hy qua lif

i es as ex pr es si ve co nd uc t or an al y ze th e or di na nc e un de r th e ru br ic

of co m m erci al sp eech

. Se e Ka ah uma nu v. Haw ai i

, 68 2 F.3 d 78 9, 80 0 (9 th Ci r. 20 12 );

se e al so So rr el l v. IMS Hea lt h In c. , 56 4 U.S. 55 2, 57 1 (2 01 1) (“ [T]he ou tc om e is th e

sa m e whe th er a sp eci al co m m erci al sp e ech in qu iry or a st ric te r fo rm of jud ic ia l

sc ru ti ny is ap pl ie d.” ).

-1 0-a p p l y a st ric t sc ru ti ny an al y si s whe n th e reg ul at io n di sc riminat es on th e ba si s o f

co nt en t, an d a m or e le ni en t an al y si s t o co nt en t-n eu tra l reg ul at io ns .” Bery v. Ci ty of

N.Y

. , 97 F.3 d 68 9, 69 6 (2 d Ci r. 19 96 ). “ The pr in ci pa l in qu iry in de te rm in in g co nt en t

ne ut ral it y

. . . is whe th er th e go ve rn m en t ha s ad op te d a reg ul at io n of sp eech be cau se

of di sa gr eem en t wit h th e m es sa ge it co nv ey s

. ” W ar d v. Roc k Aga in st Rac is m , 49 1

U.S. 78 1, 79 1 (1 98 9)

. “ A reg ul at io n th at se rv es pu rp os es un rel at ed to th e co nt en t of

ex pr es si on is de em ed ne ut ral

, ev en if it ha s an in ci de nt al effe ct on so m e sp eak ers or

m es sa ge s b ut no t o th ers .” Id

.

Hav la k arg ue s th at two rece nt Su pr em e Co ur t cas es

— Reed

, 13 5 S . Ct. 22 18

,

an d So rr el l

, 56 4 U.S. 55 2— “ ha ve m ov ed th e go al po st s fo r le gi sl at or s se ek in g to

r e g u la te sp eech ba se d on th e id en ti ty of th e sp eak er an d th e type of m es sa g e

. ” S h e

a r gu es th at th e Vil la ge or di na nc e was in te nt io na ll y crea te d to bu rd en th e sp eech

rig ht s of co m

m erci al ph ot og rap he rs

. Se e Reed

, 13 5 S. Ct

. at 22 30 (“ Bec au se ‘[s]peec h

res tri ct io ns ba se d on th e id en ti ty of th e sp eak e r a r e a l l to o of te n si m pl y a m ean s to

co nt ro l co nt en t,’ we ha ve in si st ed t h a t ‘laws fav or in g so m e sp eak ers ov er ot he rs

de m an d st ric t sc ru ti ny whe n th e le gi sl at ur e’s sp eak er pr efer e n c e refl ect s a co nt en t

pr efer en ce.’” (fir st qu ot in g Ci ti ze ns Uni te d v. FEC , 55 8 U.S. 3 10 , 34 0 (2 01 0) ; t he n

qu ot in g Tu rn er Bro ad

. Sy s., In c. v. FCC

, 51 2 U.S. 62 2, 65 8 (1 99 4) )). Thi s le gi sl at iv e

in te nt

, sh e arg ue s, re q u i r e s us to ap pl y st ric t sc ru ti ny in st ead of th e in te rm ed ia te

sc ru ti ny tra di ti on al ly ap pl ie d to co nt en t-n eu tra l “ ti m e, pl ace, a nd m an ne r” re str ic t io ns

of a tr ad it io na l p ub li c fo ru m

.

Bec au se st ric t sc ru ti ny ap pl ie s ei th er whe n a la w is co nt en t ba se d on it s face or whe n th e pu rp os e an d jus ti fic at io n fo r th e la w are co nt en t ba se d,

a co ur t m us t ev al ua te each qu es ti on be fo re it co nc lu de s th at th e l a w i s

co nt en t n eu tra l an d t hu s s ub ject t o a lo wer l ev el of s cru ti ny.

Id

. at 22 28

. In th i s c as e, th e Vil la ge or di na nc e is faci al ly co nt en t ne ut ral an d no

ev id en ce s ho ws a c on te nt -b as ed pu rp os e o r jus ti fic at io n.

-1 1-Ord in an ce § 2 20 .02 0 is faci al ly ne ut ral

, un li ke th e res tri ct io ns in bo th Reed an d

So rr el l whi ch di rect ly bu rd en ed sp eech co nt en t. Se e, e.g

. , Reed

, 13 5 S

. C t

. at 22 27

(“ The Town ’s Si gn Co de is co nt en t ba se d on it s face

. ”); So rr el l

, 56 4 U.S. at 56 4

(“ The la w on it s face bu rd en s di sf av or ed sp eech by di sf

av or ed sp eak ers .”). The

V i l la ge ’s or di na nc e do es no t refe ren ce an y sp eci fic co m m erci al en te rp ris e o r a n y

sp eci fic m es sa ge

. It app li es eq ua ll y , fo r ex am pl e, to co m

m erci al ph ot og rap he rs an d

to ho t do g ve nd or s. The “ co m m on se ns e m ean i n g of th e ph ras e ‘con te nt ba se d’

req ui res a co ur t to co ns id er whe th er a reg ul at io n of sp ee c h ‘o n it s face ’ dr aws

di st in ct io ns ba se d on th e mes s a g e a s pe ak er co nv ey s.” Reed

, 13 5 S. Ct

. at 22 27

(q uo ti ng So rr el l

, 56 4 U.S. at 56 5– 66 ). Lack in g an y refe ren ce to an y sp eci fic m es sa ge

or m es se ng er, th e or di na nc e faci al ly av oi ds Hav la k’s co nt en t-b as ed ch arac te riz at io n.

The reco rd al so sh ows th e la ck of a co nt en t-b as ed pu rp os e be hi nd Ord in an ce
§ 2 20 .02 0. “ The pr in ci pa l in qu iry in de te rm in in g co nt en t ne ut ral it y , in sp eech cas es

ge ne ral ly an d in ti m e, pl ace, or m an ne r cas es in pa rti cu la r, is whe th er th e go ve rn m en t

ha s ad op te d a reg ul at io n of sp eech be cau se of di sa gr e e m e n t w i t h th e m es sa ge it

co nv ey s.” W

ar d

, 49 1 U.S. at 79 1 (em ph as is ad d e d )

. S i n c e th e pa rk ’s de di cat io n in

19 94

, th e Vil la ge ha s ba nn ed al l co m m erci al act iv it y in th e pa rk

. The Vil la ge up da te d

it s or di na nc e in 20 15 to al lo w pe rm it ti ng fo r co m m erci al act iv it y

. In la rg e m eas ur e,

th e Bo ard en act ed th e pe rm it pr oc es s no t to fu rt h e r r e s t r i ct sp eech bu t to al lo w a

la wf u l a v e n u e fo r ex pr es si on

. The Bo ard m em be rs te st ifi ed of “ en

joy in g” th e ph ot og rap he rs an d wan ti ng to giv e the m “ th e be ne fit ” of pa rk res ou rces

. The ev id en ce

sh ows th at th e reg ul at or y in te nt was no t to bu rd en a m es sa ge bu t to al lo cat e res ou rces

an d ad dr es s le gi ti m at e co nc ern s fo r sa fet y

. Se e, e.g

. , Uni te d St at es v. Nen ni ng er , 35 1

F.3 d 3 40 , 34 5– 46 (8t h C ir. 2 00 3)

.

Hav la k arg ue s th at be cau se th is or di na nc e bu rd en s co m m erci al ph ot og rap he rs

a n d n o t n o n- co m

m erci al on es , th e Vil la ge bu rd en s he r m es sa ge of “ fam il y , pe ace,

tra nq ui li ty an d lo ve .” The re is no ev id en ce th at th e Vil la ge sh ows an ti pa th y fo r th es e

va lu es , an d th e or di na nc e d o e s n o t res tri ct ei th er co m m erci al or no n- co m

m erci al

-1 2-ph ot og rap he rs fro m ex pr es si ng th es e id eal s. “ A reg ul at io n th a t s e r v e s pu rp os es

un rel at ed to th e co nt en t of exp res si on is de em ed ne ut ral

, ev en if it ha s an in ci de nt al

e f f e ct on so m e sp eak ers or m es sa ge s bu t no t ot he rs .” W ar d

, 49 1 U.S. at 7 9 1 ; c

f

. Ka ah uma nu , 68 2 F.3 d at 8 1 0 –1 1 (d en y in g an eq ua l-p ro te ct io n cl ai m ag ai ns t an

or di na nc e th at bu rd en e d c o m m erci al wed di ng s bu t no t no n- co m m erci al on es ).

“ Ch ara ct er i zi ng a di st in ct io n as sp eak er ba se d is on ly th e be gi nn in g— no t th e en d— of

th e in qu iry.” Reed , 13 5 S . Ct. at 22 30 –3 1. When a faci al ly-neu tra l res tri ct io n i s n ot

ba se d on “ di sa gr eem en t wit h th e m es sa ge ” an d is “ jus ti fie d wit ho ut refe ren ce to th e

co nt en t of th e reg ul at ed sp eech ,” we wil l ap pl y in te rm ed ia te sc ru ti ny. Cf

. id

. at 22 27

(in te rn al qu ot at io n m ark s o m it te d) (qu ot in g W ar d , 49 1 U.S. at 79 1)

.

W e fin d t h e Vil la ge or di na nc e co nt en t ne ut ral be cau se it do es no t faci al ly

di s c r i m in at e on th e ba si s of co nt en t an d th e reco rd do es no t in di cat e an y

go ve rn m en ta l pu rp os e to bu rd en an y pa rti cu la r m es sa ge

. Se e Recyc le fo r Cha ng e v.

Ci ty of Oak la nd

, 85 6 F.3 d 66 6, 67 4 (9 th Ci r. 20 17 ) (“ Bec au se th e Ord i n a n c e do es

no t, b y i ts te rm s, di sc riminat e on th e ba si s of co nt en t, an d th ere is no ev id en ce th at

Oak la nd en act ed th e Ord in an ce wit h an in te nt to bu rd en RFC’s m es sa ge of ch ari ta bl e

so li ci ta ti on or ou t of an y di sa gr eem en t wit h th at m es sa ge , t he Ord i n a n c e is co nt en t

ne ut ral .”); Pat ri ot ic Vete ra ns

, In c. v. Zo el le r , 84 5 F.3 d 30 3, 30 6 (7 th Ci r. 20 17 ), cer t.

de ni ed su b no m. Pat ri ot ic Vete ra ns

, I n c

. v

. Hil l

, No. 16 -1 19 8, 20 17 W L 27 22 43 7

(U.S. Ju ne 26

, 20 17 ) (“ Bec au se In di an a do es no t di sc riminat e by co nt en t— th e st at ut e

de te rm in es who m ay be cal le d, no t wha t m es sa ge m ay be co nv ey ed —t he se de ci si on s

ha ve no t b een cal le d i nt o q ue st io n b y Reed .”).

2. Na rr ow Ta il or in g

Hav la k co nc ed es th at th e or di na nc e was ad op te d t o s e r v e th e si gn ifi can t

go ve rn m en t in te res ts of red uc in g co ng es ti on an d m ai nt ai ni ng pa rk sa fet y

. Heff ro n v.

In t’l So c’y fo r Kr is hn a Co ns ci ou sn es s, In c. , 45 2 U.S. 64 0, 65 0 (1 98 1) (“ As a ge ne ral

m at te r, it is cl ear th at a St at e’s in te res t in pr ot ect in g th e ‘safet y an d co nv en ie nc e’ of

pe rs on s us in g a pu bl ic fo ru m is a va li d go ve rn m en ta l ob jecti ve .”). Und er th e te st fo r

-1 3-ti m e, pl ace, an d m an ne r res tri ct io ns , t he qu es ti on rem ai ns whe th e r t h e or di na nc e is

na rro wly ta il or ed to m eet th os e in te res ts

. “ [T]he re q u i r em en t of na rro w ta il or in g is

sa ti sf ie d ‘so lo ng as th e

. . . reg ul at io n pr om ot es a su bs ta nt ia l go ve rn m en t in te res t th at

wou ld be ach ie ve d le ss effe ct iv el y ab se n t th e reg ul at io n.’” W ar d

, 49 1 U.S. at 79 9

(q uo ti ng Uni te d St at es v. Alb er ti ni

, 47 2 U.S. 67 5, 68 9 (1 98 5) ). “ [T]he go ve rn m en t’s

ch oi c e am on g th e m ean s to acco m pl is h it s en d is en ti tl ed to de fere nc e.” Ass ’n of

Cmty

. Org

s. fo r Re f o r m No w v. St

. Lo ui s Ct

y. , 93 0 F.2 d 59 1, 59 5 (8 th Ci r. 19 91 ).

Accep ta bl e le gi s l a ti ve pu rp os es fo r pe rm it s in cl ud e “ to co or di na te m ul ti pl e us es of

li m it ed sp a c e, to as su re pr es erv at io n of th e pa rk faci li ti es , to pr ev en t us es th at are

da ng ero us , un la wfu l, or im pe rm is si bl e un de r th e Park Dis tri ct ’s ru le s, and to as su re

fin an ci al acco un ta bi li ty fo r da m ag e cau se d by th e ev en t.” Th oma s v. Ch i. Par k Dis t.

, 53 4 U.S. 3 16 , 32 2 (2 00 2)

.

Fi rs t, Hav la k co nt en ds t h a t th e or di na nc e’s ap pl ic at io n to gr ou ps of al l si zes

ren de rs it ov erl y br oa d. Bec au se gr ou ps sm al le r th an te n do no t po se th e sa m e ha zard s

to th e u se an d s afet y of th e pa rk th at lar ge r gr ou ps wou ld , sh e arg ue s t ha t re qu iri ng

a pe rm it fo r th es e sm al le r gr ou ps sh ows a la ck of na rro w ta il or in g. Sh e rel i e s on

Dou gl as , 88 F.3 d at 15 24

, in whi ch we su gg es te d th at a pe r mi t req ui rem en t fo r

pa rad es co nt ai ni ng te n or fewer pe op le m ig h t n o t b e n arro wly ta il or ed

. Se e al so

Am.–Ara b An ti -Dis cr imi na ti on Co mm. v. Cit y of Dea rb or n , 41 8 F.3d 60 0, 6 08 (6t h

Ci r. 20 05 ) (“ The Ord in an ce is ov erl y br oa d be cau se un de r th e Ord in an ce as writ te n,

an y pr oc es si on of pe op le wit h a co m m on pu rp os e or go al

, whe th er it be a sm al l gr ou p

of pr ot es to rs or a gr ou p of se ni or ci ti zen s walk in g to ge th er to rel ig io us se rv ic es , are

co nc ei va bl y req ui red to ob ta in a pe rm it

. . . .”). Unl ik e Dou gl as , in whi ch th e pe rm it

pr oc es s qu el le d po te nt ia l sp on ta ne ou s sp eech by an un l i mi t e d nu m be r of di ffer en t

sm al l gr ou ps , Ord in an ce § 2 02 .02 0 ap pl ie s sp eci fic al ly to co m m erci al act iv it y an d is

di st in gu is ha bl e be cau se it do es no t pr ev en t sm al l-s cal e ex pr es si ve act iv it y un rel at ed

to co m m erci al en te rp ris es

. The Nin th Ci rcu it reject ed a si m il ar arg um en t in

Ka ah uma nu , in w h i ch pl ai nt iff s arg ue d th at a pe rm it req ui rem en t fo r co m m erci al

wed di ng s “ as sm al l as th ree in di vi du al s” on pu bl ic be ach es was no t na rro wly ta il or ed

.

-1 4-68 2 F.3 d at 80 4. Eve n th ou gh Hawai i co nt ai ns m or e th an 20 0 pu bl ic be ach es fo r th is

act iv it y , th e co ur t up he ld th e pe rm it req ui rem en t be cau se it was reas on ab ly “ de si gn ed

to m in im iz e co nf

li ct in g us es of li m it ed be ach area an d to co ns erv e th e ph y si cal

res ou rce o f th e b each es .” Id

. at 8 03 . The s am e rea so ni ng ap pl ie s h ere.

Hav la k al so po in ts to Th oma s , bu t sh e arg ue s th at th e Su pr em e Co ur t al lo wed

th e pe rm it req ui rem en t th ere be cau se th e pe rti ne nt reg ul at io n ap pl ie d on ly to gr ou ps

of 50 or m or e. 53 4 U.S. at 32 2. In Th oma s , ho wev er, th e Co ur t di d n ot su gg es t t ha t

req ui rin g a pe rm it fo r fewer th an 50 pe op le wou ld be un co ns ti tu ti on al , bu t i t rat he r

su gg es te d th at pe rm it or di na nc es sh ou ld be fas hi on ed fo r th e e ffi ci en t us e of pa rk

res ou rces

. Se e id

. (“ [T]o al lo w un reg ul at ed acce ss to al l co m ers co ul d eas il y red uc e

rat he r th an en la rg e th e pa rk ’s ut il it y as a fo ru m fo r sp eech .” (q uo ti ng Th oma s v. Ch i.

Pa r k D i s t

. , 22 7 F.3 d 92 1, 92 4 (7 th Ci r. 20 00 ))). Hav la k ig no res th e pr ob le m of th e

ag gr eg at io n of sm al l-g ro up co m m erci al act iv it y wit hi n th e Vil la ge pa rk

. The reco rd

rev eal s an oc cas io n whe n as m an y as ei gh t sm al l gr ou ps of co m m erci al ph ot og rap he rs

an d th ei r cl ie nt s si m

ul ta ne ou sl y at te m

pt ed to us e th e pa rk ’s am en it ie s. Hav la k

te st ifi ed th at on bo th oc cas io ns in whi ch sh e at te m pt ed to ph ot og rap h su bjec ts in th e

pa rk th ere were no le ss th an th ree ot he r gr ou ps sh oo ti ng ph ot og rap hy, to o. Giv en th e

hi gh de m an d, th e hi st or y of co ng es ti on , an d th e li m it ed faci li ti es of th e pa rk

, th e

or di na nc e’s la ck of a pe rm it ex cep ti on fo r gr ou p s s mal l e r th an te n pe op le do es no t

crea te a co ns ti tu ti on al in fir m it y

.

Seco nd

, Hav la k arg ue s th at th e or di na nc e is ov erl y br oa d be cau se th e p erm it

is no t res tri ct ed to cert ai n co ng es ti on po in ts kn own to at tra c t c o m m erci al

ph ot og rap he rs , bu t rat he r co ve rs th e en ti re 1 1- acre pa rk . Thi s ar gu m en t i gn or es th e

fact th at th e or di na nc e is de si gn ed t o r e g u la te al l co m m erci al act iv it y

—fr om

co m m erci al y og a cl as se s to ba sk et ba ll to ur na m en ts —n ot al l of whi ch wou ld at te m pt

t o us e th e sa m e sm al l area s pr efer red by co m m erci al ph ot og rap he rs

. The pe r mi t

al lo ws th e Vil la g e to gl ob al ly p ro m ot e m ax im um us e of pa rk res ou rces an d pr ot ect

-1 5-ag ai ns t da m ag e to al l pa rk faci li ti es , no t jus t th os e m os t us ed by ph ot og rap he rs

. Se e

Ka ah uma nu , 68 2 F .3d at 8 03

.

Thi rd

, Hav la k arg ue s th at th e two -d ay ap pl ic at io n pe rio d (fo r ev en ts of fewer

th an ten pe op le ) an d t he 14 -d ay pe rio d (for lar ge r gr ou ps ) are no t n arro wly ta il or ed

be cau se th ey se rv e to ch il l art is ti c ex p r e ss io n. Se e, e.g

. , Ch ur ch of th e Am. Kn ig ht s of th e Ku Kl ux Kl an v. Ci ty of Gar y , 33 4 F.3 d 67 6, 68 2– 83 (7 th Ci r. 20 03 ) (rejec ti ng

45 -d ay ad va nc e pe rm it no ti fic at io ns ); Dou gl as , 88 F.3 d at 15 24 (“ The fiv e-d ay no ti ce

req ui rem en t re st ric ts a su bs ta nt ia l am ou nt of sp eech th at do es no t in te rfer e wit h t he

ci ty’ s as se rte d go al s of pr ot ect in g pe de st ria n an d ve hi cl e t r a f f i c , an d m in im iz in g

in co nv en ie nc e to th e pu bl ic .”). The cas es pr es en te d by H a v l a k

, ho wev er, de al

ex cl usi ve ly w ith or din an ces th at in hi bi t sp on ta ne ou s sp eech

. Mu ch li ke wed di ng s, s e e

Ka ah uma nu , 68 2 F.3 d at 80 5, co m m erci al p hot ogr ap hy shoo ts ar e ra re ly sp on ta ne ou s.

Hav la k te st ifi ed th at sh e di sc us se s po te nt ia l l o c a t i o ns wit h cl ie nt s be fo re sh oo ti ng

. Fo r wed di ng ph ot og rap hy, th es e di sc us si on s ha pp en up to a y ear in ad va nc e. Hav la k

co nt en ds th at un pr ed ic ta bl e li gh t an d weat he r co nd it io ns req ui re sp on ta ne it y

. Mu ch

l i k e co m m erci al wed di ng s, ho wev er, co m m erci al ph ot og rap hy on ly req ui r e s

sp on ta ne it y if un fav or ab le weat he r co nd it io ns ari se

. P l a n n i n g fo r th e ev en t it se lf is

rare ly sp on ta ne ou s. As ap pl ie d to he r, th es e ti m e pe rio ds su ffi ci en tl y en ab le Hav la k

to reas on ab ly obt ai n p erm it s fo r he r co m m erci al sh oo ts

.

Add it io na ll y , Bo a r d memb ers te st ifi ed th at th e two -d ay pe rio d was de si gn ed

to gi ve th ei r cl erk (o ne of two fu ll -ti m e Vil la ge e mp l o ye e s) th e ti m e req ui red to

pr oc es s pe rm it ap pl ic at io ns

. The 14 -d ay pe rio d en ab le s th e B o a r d i ts el f to rev ie w

p e r mi t s f o r la rg er co m

m erci al ev en ts

, be cau se th e Bo ard “ m eet s th e fir st an d th ird

W ed ne sd ay [s ] of each m on th .” The se ti m e pe rio d s fal l sq ua rel y in li ne wit h th e

pr oc es si ng ti m es of si m il ar co ns ti tu ti on al pe rm it or di na nc es

. Se e, e.g

. , Sa nt a Mon ic a

Foo d No t Bomb s v. Ci ty of Sa nt a Mon ic a , 45 0 F.3 d 10 22

, 10 45 (9 th Ci r. 20 06 ) (“ The

two -d ay pe rio d . . . a cco rd s wit h S an ta Mo ni ca’s s ig ni fic an t g ov ern m en ta l i nt eres ts
by

. . . pr ov id in g a co or di na te d p r o c e ss fo r m an ag in g co m m un it y ev en ts in he av il y

-1 6-bu rd en ed an d l i mi t e d pu bl ic sp ace

. . . .”); Th oma s , 53 4 U.S. at 32 4 (ap pr ov in g a

pe rm it ap pl ic at io n pr oc es s fo r la rg e gr ou ps of 28 da y s)

. W e co nc lu de th at th e pe rm it

pr oc es si ng ti m es in cl ud ed in th e or di na nc e are na rro wly ta il or ed to th e si g n i f ic an t

in te res ts of t he Vil la ge ’s effi ci en t ad m in is tra ti on of i ts go ve rn m en ta l d ut ie s.

Fo ur th

, Hav la k co nt en ds th at th e or di na nc e is no t na rro wly ta il or ed be cau se th e

ad m in is tra ti v e f

e e i s to o hi gh

. It is well es ta bl is he d, ho wev er, th at “ fees th at co ve r

on ly th e ad m in is tra ti ve co st s of th e li cen se are pe rm is si bl e.” Ja co bs en v. Cr iv ar o , 85 1

F.2 d 10 67

, 10 71 (8 th Ci r. 19 88 ). Hav la k arg ue s th at th e $1 0 0 fee is ex ces si ve

co ns id eri ng th e co st th at t he Vil la ge in cu rs to ad m in is te r th e pe rm it pr oc es s. Yet,

Bo ard m em

be rs te st ifi ed th at th ere was a “ di rect co rrel at io n” be twee n th e fee an d th e

co st th at th e Vil la ge in cu rs , an d th e r e c o r d su pp or ts th is as se rti on

. Bo ard m em be rs

te st ifi ed th at an y

co m m erci al act iv it y

wou ld req ui re a po li ce of fic er for at l eas t t wo

ho ur s. By co nt ract

, th e Vil la ge is ch arg ed $3 8.7 0 pe r ho ur fo r of fic er pa tro ls

, an d th is

do es no t in cl ud e th e ad di ti on al fees th at th e Vil la ge m us t pa y fo r pa tro l-v eh ic le

m ai nt en an ce an d m il eag e. The reco rd de m on st rat es an ov eral l co st of em pl oyin g an

of fic er fo r two ho ur s am ou nt s to m or e th an $9 3. Mo reo ve r, th is nu m b e r d o e s no t

in cl ud e th e ad m in is tra ti ve co st s fo r th e Vil la ge cl erk to ha nd le th e pe rm it pr oc es s. Se e

Ka ah uma nu , 68 2 F.3 d at 79 4, 80 9 (ap pr ov in g a $2 0 ap pl ic at io n fee, pl us a $0 .10 fee

pe r sq ua re foo t, and an in su ran ce requ ire m en t of app ro xi m at el y $2 50 pe r y ear)

. W e

ho ld th at th e fee am ou nt is na rro wly ta il or ed to th e ac t u a l c os ts th at th e Vil la ge

in cu rs

.

The Vil la ge m ay no t br oa dl y pr oh ib it free ex pr es si on whe n sa ti s f a c t o ry

al te rn at iv es ex is t. Se e Ass ’n of Cmty

. Org s. fo r Refo rm No w v. Ci ty of Fro nt en ac , 71 4

F.2 d 81 3, 81 9 (8 th Ci r. 19 83 ). Bu t, th e Vil la ge or di na nc e “ ne ed n o t b e t h e le as t

res tri ct iv e or le as t in tru si ve m ean s” of reg ul at in g pu bl ic sp ace. W ar d

, 49 1 U.S. at 79 8.

“ So lo ng as th e m ean s ch os en are no t su bs ta nt ia ll y br oa de r th an ne ces sa ry to ach ie ve

th e go ve rn m en t’s in te res t

. . . th e reg ul at io n wil l no t be in va li d si m pl y be cau se a co ur t

co nc lu de s th at th e go ve rn m en t’s in te res t co u l d b e ad eq ua te ly se rv ed by so m e

-1 7-le ss -s pe ech -res tri ct iv e al te rn at iv e.” Id

. at 80 0. As ap pl ie d to Hav la k, we fin d th e

or di na nc e m eet s t he na rro wly-tai lo red req ui rem en t. 5

3. Ampl e Alt er na ti ves

Hav la k al so arg ue s t h a t th e “ un iq ue ” na tu re of th e pa rk m ak es it a on e-o f-aki nd pl ace, whi ch no al te rn at iv e co ul d rep la ce— an d th us , th e Vil l a g e can no t

de m on st rat e th at su ffi ci en t al te rn at iv es ex is t. Cf

. Gal vi n v. Hay

, 3 74 F.3 d 73 9, 75 6

(9 th Ci r. 20 04 ) (“ [T]he qu es ti on m us t be whe th er th e reg ul at io n pr ev en ts th e sp eak ers

fro m ex pr es si ng th ei r vi ews , wher e th at ex pr es si on de pe nd s i n wh ol e o r pa rt o n th e

ch os en lo cat io n.” ). The reco rd de m on st rat es , ho wev er, t ha t t he na tu ral at tri bu te s of

th e pa rk ex is t in m

ul ti pl e lo ca t i o n s a cro ss th e Sai nt Lou is area

. In fact

, al th ou gh

H av la k do es hu nd red s of ph ot o sh oo ts pe r y ear, sh e ha d no t us ed th e Vi l l a g e p a r k

un ti l l earn in g ab ou t th e or di na nc e; an d si nc e th at ti m e, sh e te st ifi ed to us in g i t o nl y

twi ce. Sh e freq ue nt ly us es ot he r ci ty lo cat io ns to vo ic e th e sa m e m es sa ge s sh e se ek s

to ex pr es s at th e Vil la ge pa rk

. “ [T]he Fi rs t Am en dm en t do es no t gu aran te e th e rig ht

to c o mm u n i c a t e on e’s vi ews at al l ti m es an d pl aces or in an y m an ne r th at m ay be

de si red .” Heff

ro n , 45 2 U.S. at 64 7; se e al so Mas tr ov in cen zo v. Ci ty of N.Y

. , 43 5 F.3 d

78

, 10 1 (2 d Ci r. 20 06 ) (“ The req ui rem en t th at ‘am pl e al te rn at iv e ch an ne ls ’ ex is t do es

no t im pl y th at al te rn at iv e ch an ne ls m us t b e pe rfec t su bs ti tu te s fo r th os e ch an ne ls

d e n i ed to pl ai nt iff

s by th e reg ul at io n at ha nd ; in de ed

, were we to in te rp ret t h e

req ui rem en t in th is way , no al te rn at iv e ch an ne ls co ul d ev er be de em ed ‘am pl e.’”).

The Fi rs t Am en dm en t do es no t req ui re th at art is ts ge t un res tri ct ed acce ss to “ an id eal

ve nu e,” bu t rat he r th at “ al te rn a t i v e a ve nu es ” of co m m un ic at in g th ei r m es sa ge are

5 Hav la k al so arg ue s th at th e or di na nc e is ov erl y bro ad be cau se it ta rg et s on ly

co m m erci al ph ot og rap he rs in st ead of un pa id ph ot og rap he rs , bu t th is is si m pl y a rei te rat io n o f he r cl ai m th at th e or di na nc e is co nt en t ba se d, an d it fai ls for th e sa m e

reas on s as he r co nt en t-d is cri m in at io n a rg um en t.

-1 8-av ai la bl e. Mas tr ov in cen zo , 43 5 F.3 d at 10 2. The reco rd de m on st rat es th at Hav la k ha s

am pl e al te rn at iv e ch an ne ls for co m m un ic at in g h er m es sa ge

. 6

4. Li cen si ng

Dis cr et io n

“ [A] ci ty m ay en act li cen si ng pr oc ed ur es fo r co nd u c t co m m on ly as so ci at ed

wit h ex pr es si on , so lo ng as th e ci ty ‘esta bl is h[ es ] ne ut ral cri te ria to [e]ns ur e th at th e

li cen si ng de ci si on is no t ba se d on th e co nt e n t o r v i e wpo in t of th e sp eech be in g

co ns id ered .’ ” Cr iv ar o , 85 1 F.2 d at 10 70 (s eco nd al te rat io n in or ig in al ) (q uo ti ng Ci ty
of La kew oo d v. Pla in Dea le r Pub l’g Co

. , 48 6 U.S. 75 0, 76 0 (1 98 8) ). “ A go ve rn m en t

reg ul at io n th at al lo ws arb it rary ap pl ic at io n i s ‘i nh eren tl y in co ns is te nt wit h a va li d

ti m e, pl ace, an d m an ne r reg ul at io n be cau se su ch di sc ret io n h as th e po te nt ia l fo r

be co m in g a m ean s of su pp res si ng a pa rti cu la r po in t of vi ew.’” For sy th Ct y. , 50 5 U.S.

at 13 0 (q uo ti ng Heff

ro n , 45 2 U.S. at 64 9)

. “ ‘[A] la w su bjec ti ng th e ex erci se of Fi rs t

Am en dm en t free do m s to th e pr io r res tra in t of a li cen se ’ m us t co nt ai n ‘narro w,

ob jecti ve , an d de fin it e st an da rd s to gu id e th e li cen si ng au th or it y .’ ” Id

. at 13 1 (q uo ti ng

Sh ut tl es wo rt h v . Cit

y o f Bi rmi ng ha m , 39 4 U.S. 1 47 , 15 0– 51 (19 69 )).

Hav la k arg ue s th a t t he or di na nc e is “ im pe rm is si bl y va gu e” an d pr ov id es

un br id le d di sc ret io n to th e Vil la ge to ap pr ov e or de ny pe rm it s. The or di na nc e,

ho wev er, pr ov id es “ art ic ul at ed st an da rd s” an d “ ob jecti ve fact or s” th at th e cl erk an d

th e Bo ard are to co ns id er whe n gr an ti ng pe rm it s. S e e id

. at 13 3. The or di na nc e

req ui res th e Vil la ge li cen si ng of fic ia ls to lo ok at th e na tu re of the act iv it y , po te nt ia l

co nf li ct s wit h ot he r sc he du le d e v en ts , t he nu m be r of pa rti ci pa nt s, an d ot he r fact or s

rel ev an t to res ou rce al lo cat io n. Se e Th oma s , 5 34 U.S. at 32 3 (ap pr ov in g a “ ti m e,

6 At th e he art of

Havl ak ’s arg um en t t ha t al te rn at iv e o pt io ns do no t exi st is th e fear th at th is or di na nc e es ta bl is he s in cen ti ve s fo r “ ev ery sm al l to wn to crea te id en ti cal

pe rm it sc he m es .” W e d o n o t a d d r es s th is si tu at io n be cau se it is no t be fo re us

. Cf

. Th oma s , 53 4 U.S. at 32 5 (“ [T]his ab us e m us t b e d eal t wi th if a nd when a pa tt ern of

un la wfu l fav or it is m ap pe ars , rat he r th an by in si st in g up on a de gr ee of rig id it y th at is

fo un d i n fe w leg al arra ng em en ts .”).

-1 9-pl ace, an d m an ne r reg ul at io n co nt ai n[ in g] ad eq ua te st an da rd s to gu id e th e of fic ia l’s

de ci si on ”). Non e of th e fact or s li st ed in th e or di na nc e de al wit h th e co nt en t of sp eech

,

an d B oa rd m em

be rs tes ti fie d t ha t t he y

ha ve ne ve r de ni ed a pe rm it ap pl ic at io n.

The pl ai n la ng ua ge of t h e or di na nc e gu aran te es pe rm it ap pr ov al fo r ev en ts

co ns is ti ng of le ss th an te n pe op le

, fo r le ss th an an ho ur , an d s u b mi t t e d 4 8 h ou rs in

ad va nc e. Fo r la rg er ev en ts

, th e Bo ard m ay lo ok on ly at le gi ti m at e fact or s rel at in g to

pa rk us e an d sa fet y whe n an al y zi ng a pe rm it ap pl ic at io n. “ W hi le th es e st an da rd s are

un do ub te dl y fle xi bl e, an d th e of fic ia ls im pl em en ti ng th em wil l ex erci se co ns id erab le

di sc ret io n, p e r f

e c t cl ari ty an d pr eci se gu id an ce ha ve ne ve r be en req ui red ev en of

reg ul at io ns th at res tri ct ex pr es si ve act iv it y .” W ar d

, 49 1 U.S. at 79 4; se e al so Th oma s , 53 4 U.S. at 32 4 (n ot in g “ th e Park Dis tri ct m ay de ny a pe rm it on ly fo r on e or m or e of

t h e r e as on s se t fo rth in th e or di na nc e”). Thu s, we co nc lu de th e or di na nc e do es no t

gr an t un br id le d di sc ret io n to th e Vi l l a g e , an d it s li cen si ng fact or s su rv iv e

co ns ti tu ti on al scr ut in y

.

Bec au se th e Vil la g e or di na nc e is co nt en t ne ut ral

, ha s be en na rro wly ta il or ed

to se rv e th e Vil la ge ’s si gn ifi can t go ve rn m en ta l in te res ts

, le av es am pl e al te rn at ive s fo r

Hav la k to co m

m un ic at e he r m es sa ge , an d do es no t pr ov id e th e Vil la ge wit h un br id le d

di sc ret io n, we fin d th e pe rm it pr oc es s su rv iv es Hav la k’s ch al le ng e. Se e For sy th Ct y. , 50 5 U.S. at 13 0.

III. Co nc lu si on

W e co nc lu de th at th e Vil la ge or di na nc e m eet s co ns ti tu ti on a l s cru ti ny as

ap pl ie d t o Hav la k. We, th eref or e, affi rm

th e jud gm en t o f th e d is tri ct co ur t.

__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __

-2 0-