Breaking the ice on the booster fan
 

dilemma in US underground coal mines
 

by A.L. Martikainen and C.D. Taylor 

A.L. Martikainen is a research 

engineer and C.D. Taylor is an 

industrial hygienist at the National 

Institute for Occupational Safety 

and Health, Pittsburgh Research 

Laboratory, Pittsburgh, PA. Paper 

number TP-09-030. Original 

manuscript submitted June 2009. 

Revised manuscript accepted for 

publication May 2010. Discussion 

of this peer-reviewed and approved 

paper is invited and must be 

submitted to SME Publications by 

Jan. 31, 2011. 

Abstract booster fans increase air pressure to overcome resistance, the objective being 

to force adequate amounts of air through distant workings. they are used in areas that are 

difficult or uneconomic to ventilate with main fans alone. Booster fans are currently permitted 

in underground coal mines in some countries; the United Kingdom, South Africa, Australia and 

Canada have been defined as major users. Booster fans are not allowed in the US bituminous 

and lignite coal mining operations at the present time due to safety concerns. This paper 

presents the history of booster fan use in coal mines of the United States during the last 90 

years. Changes in regulations, as well as advantages and disadvantages of booster fan use, 

are discussed. Research and petitions for booster fan use are highlighted in order to bring the 

debate into focus. 

Introduction 

In the United States, booster fans 

are permitted in metal and nonmetal 

(M/NM) mining, as well as in anthracite 

coal mines. Legislation promulgated 

in 1992 specifically prohibits their use 

in underground bituminous and lignite 

coal mines (Federal Register, 1992). 

Currently, the National Institute 

for Occupational Safety and Health 

(NIOSH) is beginning a new research 

program that will include an investigation of booster fan use as an alternative to using the belt entry to supply 

ventilation airflow to production faces. 

The aim of this paper is to present a historical review of past experience with 

booster fans and discuss the safety concerns and issues that may affect their 

use in the future. 

First, it is important to understand 

what a booster fan is and what it is used 

for. The most often-mentioned attributes that define a booster fan are: 

•	 Installed underground. 

•	 Installed in the main airstream 

or a split of the main airstream. 

•	 Operates in combination with 

the main fan(s), even if physically separated. 

•	 Used to balance pressure 

drops, decrease leakage and/or 

increase pressure to overcome 

resistance. 

•	 Handles airflow of either one 

or several districts of the mine. 

•	 Not used as a face fan to ventilate blind headings. 

Some definitions include installation in a permanent stopping or a bulkhead. 

Booster fans are used in other 

countries, as well as in M/NM mines 

of the U.S., to ventilate distant workings. Installing booster fans is the only 

alternative to building more surface 

connections when the usual ways to increase ventilation, such as adding intake 

and return entries, larger main fans or 

widening shafts, are considered impractical or uneconomical. A booster fan is 

typically installed to overcome mine 

environmental conditions in which the 

surface fan is physically incapable of 

meeting the airflow requirements or 

when these requirements can only be 

fulfilled at extremely high pressures, 

which can cause excessive air leakage 

(Calizaya et al., 1988). 

Regulation for the last 90 years 

Early 1900s. Discussions concerning the safety of booster fans in underground coal mines resulted in initial 

regulations in the 1920s and were influenced by several accidents, fires and explosions related to their use. Research 

was performed to study booster and 

auxiliary fans for the purpose of formulating recommendations (Horsley, 

1926; Smith, 1927). In December 1928, 

the Mine Safety Board recommended 

that auxiliary fans or blowers should 

not be used in coal mines as a substitute 

for methods of regular and continuous 

coursing of the air to every face (Mine 

Safety Board, 1928). 

In 1937, booster fans were addressed directly for the first time (Mine 

Safety Board, 1937). Their use was suggested only where it is not practical to 

put down a new shaft and when the air 

pressure required would be so high as 

to prevent proper operation of underground ventilating doors. The reason 

for this recommendation was that re­
 

circulation of mine air was found in most investigated installations. 

The use of booster fans was regulated a year later (Federal Register, 1938). 

These regulations stated, in part, that “Booster and auxiliary fans may be used underground only with the written 

permission of the district mining supervisor under specified 

conditions. With a booster fan, these conditions include protection against fire, and automatic starting and timing device 

to prevent a fan from starting after it has been stopped long 

enough to permit an accumulation of gas, and a recording 

device to show continuity of fan operation. Also, a booster 

fan shall not be operated where more than 10% of the air is 

recirculated by the fan.” 

These guidelines were added to several state laws. In 

some coal mining states, utilization of booster fans was fur

ther restricted by additional safety requirements. 

Figure 1
	

Ventilation system of the North Goonyella Mine prior to booster fan installation (Marlborough, 2003). 

Late 1900s and early 2000s. The Federal Coal Mine 

Health and Safety Act of 1969 (Coal Act) did not specifically 

prohibit the use of booster fans in underground coal mines. 

The requirement of main fans on the surface, however, acted 

effectively against the use of booster fans underground (Ramani, 1993). 

In 1989, when the U.S. Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) published a new proposal for coal mine 

ventilation rules, it provided an opportunity for revising and 

updating the ventilation regulations issued almost two de

cades prior, although the final rule in 1992 still does not per

mit the use of booster fans in underground bituminous and 

lignite coal mines. Reasons cited by MSHA include existing 

approval criteria, established industry practice and several 

safety concerns associated with such issues as recirculation, 

fires, fan control, noise and dust. About coal mine fans, sec­

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tion 30 CFR § 75.302 states: “Each coal mine shall be ventilated by one or more main mine fans. Booster fans shall not 

be installed underground to assist main mine fans except in 

anthracite mines.” 

Several members of academia presented their opinions in 

the late 1980s and early 1990s. Hartman (1987) said: “Why 

are gassy mines restricted from using booster fans? The rationale is that main fans cannot be safely operated and ad

equately controlled when located underground in flammable 

atmospheres. While such a claim might have been valid 40 

years ago, it has no bearing today, and within 15 years, will 

be totally discounted. I predict that booster fans in U.S. coal 

mines will be legalized in the near future. Arguments in their 

favor are compelling. Further, no new technology is needed 

— computerized, remote, automated control systems of high 

reliability are now available and in operation in other countries.The exclusion of main fans underground compels venti

lation engineers to overregulate mines in an effort to balance 

disparate ventilation circuits — resulting in excessive energy 

waste, air leakage, insufficient air delivery to some working 

faces and generally less efficient and effective air distribution 

throughout our mines.” 

McPherson (1991) continued: “At the present time, at

tempts to install booster fans in U.S. coal mines are effective

ly blocked by MSHA and proposals have been promulgated 

to render booster fans illegal. If this prohibition becomes 

law, then our underground coal mining industry would be de

nied a powerful and efficient means of improving the health 

and safety of mine workers — a means that has long been 

employed successfully in other coal mining countries. Where 

incidents have occurred historically, they have arisen from 

misuse or mismanagement of equipment.” 

Ramani (1993) concluded: “The restriction on booster 

fan use reduces flexibility in mine system design and op

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eration. As depths to coal seams increase, as panels become 

larger and wider and as rates of productivity inch higher, the 

difficulty of designing coal mine ventilation systems with fans 

located only on the surface must surely increase. Without 

approval of booster fans in underground mines on an experi

mental basis, data and experience in U.S. coal mines will not 

be developed.” 

Figure 2
	

Ventilation system of the North Goonyella Mine after booster fan installation (Marlborough, 2003). 

Legislation in countries permitting the use of booster fans 

in underground coal mines. In the United Kingdom, where 

booster fans are commonly used in underground coal mines, 

the law requires booster fan installations to be examined 

every 30 minutes and to have basic monitoring information 

recorded every two hours. The Office of Health and Safety 

Executive (HSE) can issue exemptions from the require

ments and, in return, it may impose conditions (Leeming, 

2008). 

In South Africa, the regulation concerning main fans applies also to booster fans. Monitoring and early warning of 

defective operation are required. Every booster fan has to 

be examined for effective operation at intervals not exceeding three months. Power supply has to be provided from two 

different sources. Booster fans have to be installed, oper

ated and maintained in accordance with a written procedure 

prepared and implemented for that purpose (van Zyl, 2008). 

In Australia, the states have independent mine safety regulations.The large underground coal operations with possible 

interest in booster fans are located mainly in Queensland and 

New South Wales. In Queensland (Queensland Consolidated 

Regulations, 2001), at least one methane monitor must be lo

cated near the fan to warn workers if concentrations exceed 

1.25% and to shut the fan down if concentrations exceed 

2.0%. Standard procedures for each fan include procedures 

to be followed when the fan activates an alarm. In addition 

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to monitoring the fan’s static pressure, mine operators must 

be sure to continuously monitor other fan operating condi

tions. Only specifically designated persons are permitted to 

start, stop or alter the fan. As an example, the ventilation 

system of the North Goonyella coal mine is presented in Figs. 

1 and 2 (before and after booster fan installation). 

The legislation of New South Wales (New South Wales 

government, 2006) states that the operator of an underground 

mine must ensure that any auxiliary ventilation fan used in 

the underground parts of a mine is located and operated in 

such a manner as to prevent recirculation of air through the 

fan. Also, installation of a booster fan is considered a highrisk activity and requires a three-month waiting period prior 

to use. Information that is required to be submitted includes 

the fan location and a ventilation plan that summarizes the 

risks and controls to be put into place to operate the fan. 

Federal regulations in Canada are no longer in effect. 

Instead, individual Canadian provinces have regulations con

cerning booster fans. Current and potential underground coal 

mining operations are located in British Columbia, Alberta 

and Nova Scotia (Bonnell, 2008). 

In British Columbia, a pressure quantity survey is re

quired to determine the necessity for a booster fan, the ex

pected performance range, an adequate location and the 

fan’s effect on the rest of the ventilation survey. Also, an 

employer must ensure that a booster fan is located in such 

a manner that, if it stops, the free passage of ventilating air 

to or from a main fan will be restricted as little as reason

ably practicable. These requirements are stated also in Nova 

Scotia’s regulations (Nova Scotia Regulations, 2009). In ad

dition to these regulations, booster fan controls have to be 

protected and sufficiently remote from the fan locations. 

Main fan, booster fan and associated equipment have to be 

inspected at least once a week. Main and booster fans with 

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a capacity of 37 kW (50 hp) or more have to be inspected 

for overheating of bearings or fan failure at least every 30 

minutes if the fans are not continuously monitored for these 

issues and at least every eight hours if they are continuously 

monitored. The competent person who inspects the fans and 

equipment must prepare a report of the inspection. 

It is required by Alberta regulations that the free passage 

of air delivered by a main fan is not restricted if the booster 

fan stops. If the main fan stops, the booster fan must also stop. 

The International Labour Office (ILO, 2009) presents 

several recommendations concerning the safe use of booster 

fans in underground coal mines: 

•	 Fans must be installed and operated without detri

ment to the safety and health of employees. 

•	 A ventilation survey by a qualified person is required 

prior to installation. 

•	 The fan must conform to standards for inspection, 

monitoring, maintenance and use. 

•	 The fan should be equipped with safety and opera

tional efficiency monitoring devices with alerts for 

reduced ventilation, air reversal, dangerous gases, 

fires or electrical disruptions. 

•	 Fans must be approved by a competent authority. 

In addition to these guidelines, it is suggested that the 

manager of the mine formulate booster fan rules, add them 

to the ventilation plan and post them at a conspicuous place 

at the mine. This step is recommended where national laws, 

regulations and standards do not provide, or provide ineffec

tive or outdated, guidance on ventilation. 

Advantages and disadvantages of booster fans 

Advantages of booster fans. There are several ways of 

gaining advantage from the use of a booster fan. Even if 

booster fans are not suitable for every situation, they are 

capable of providing improvements in various underground 

environments when properly sized and located (Calizaya et 

al., 1988; Calizaya et al., 1990; McPherson, 2009). Booster 

fans can be used to: 

•	 Improve the airflow distribution in the mine, espe

cially in difficult-to-ventilate areas. 

•	 Increase flow rates in high-resistance circuits. 

•	 Provide air to areas with difficult surface conditions 

(such as mining sections under water). 

•	 Reduce air pressure differentials between intake and 

return airways. 

•	 Reduce leakage between intake and return airways. 

•	 Reduce overall power costs. 

•	 Reduce development costs. 

•	 Decrease main fan pressure requirements. 

•	 During mine fires, prevent smoke from entering in

take airways. 

As an underground coal mine becomes older or larger, a 

significant portion of the fresh air is short-circuited through 

leakage paths. In large mines, high pressure differentials 

required to move air to faces can result in considerable air 

flow losses through stoppings. However, air leakage in a mine 

can be controlled by the addition of pressure sources in the 

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form of underground booster fans (Moll and Lowndes, 1994). 

There are several ways to enhance the safety of booster 

fans. They can be equipped with electrical interlocks wired 

directly to the surface fan power circuit to avoid inadver

tent recirculation caused by the stoppage of main surface 

fans while the underground fans are still operating. Modern 

monitoring systems can be used to collect data and to exer

cise booster fan control. The parameters monitored at or 

near a booster fan may include methane, carbon monoxide, 

air velocity and pressure, fan speed, vibration, motor and impeller bearing temperatures and electric power (Calizaya et 

al., 1990). It is also possible to separate the fan and the motor 

from each other to reduce fire and explosion risks. 

The usual guidelines followed in the mines to avert incidents associated with booster fans are based on Kumar and 

Sastry (1997): 

•	 An effective mine communication system. 

•	 Well-planned emergency/ evacuation plans. 

•	 Continuous monitoring of mine environment. 

•	 Use of fireproof materials with the booster fans. 

•	 Simulation studies to assess the effects of stoppage 

of fans in the mine and/or closure of airways due to 

roof falls. 

•	 Proper selection and location of booster fans. 

Disadvantages of booster fans. Section 75.302 of the 1992 

regulations requires all main mine fans to be installed on the 

surface. According to an MSHA proposed decision and or

der (PDO) regarding a petition to allow the use of a booster 

fan in an underground bituminous coal mine, this regulation 

serves to protect main mine fans from fires and damage, so 

that in the event of an underground explosion ventilation can 

be maintained (Langton, 2003). Several other safety concerns 

are also listed in the mine-specific PDO regarding the pro

posed use of a booster fan: 

•	 Booster fans reduce the ability to control recircula

tion of air underground. 

•	 If an underground main mine fan is damaged, booster fans limit opportunities to restore ventilation to 

specific areas. 

•	 If it is necessary to remove electricity from an area, 

ventilation can be interrupted. 

•	 A fire or explosion can make it impossible to control 

the booster fan in order to adjust ventilation in specific areas of the mine. 

•	 Booster fans can also increase noise, respirable dust 

and float coal mine dust levels. 

Other possible disadvantages, described by Calizaya et al. 

(1990) and Brake and Nixon (2006) include: 

•	 Problems in case of main fan/booster fan stoppage. 

•	 Complexity of the ventilation system and its man

agement. 

•	 Inappropriate use of a booster fan that may result in 

increased operating costs and/or increased leakage. 

Unplanned, uncontrolled recirculation is the most promi

nent potential drawback of booster fan utilization. When 

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booster fans are not designed, installed, located or operated 

correctly, the possibility of uncontrolled recirculation exists. 

If the supply of fresh air is not maintained at a minimum 

level, then uncontrolled recirculation may cause an increase 

of contaminant concentrations to unacceptable levels. 

Another issue often mentioned is the question: What 

happens if the booster fan/main fan stops? The effect of these 

stoppages should be studied and taken into account in planning. Minimum required airflows have to be maintained at 

all times. The consequences of either the main fan or the 

booster fan going into stall should also be studied during the 

initial design of a booster fan setup. Regulation concerning 

booster fans in M/NM mines in the U.S. requires interlocking, 

so stalling does not present a problem.A similar requirement 

for booster fans could be implemented in coal mines. 

The overall capital costs of a combined surface-booster 

fan system may be greater than that of a larger surface fan 

alternative, due to the need for additional underground ex

cavation and a monitoring system. Also, a badly positioned 

booster fan can exacerbate leakage problems. 

Research in the US 

Research programs. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and 

State University studied the optimization of multiple fan 

systems that included booster fans. A critical path-crashing 

technique to optimize multiple fan ventilation systems with 

booster fans was introduced first (Bhamidipati and Topuz, 

1983). Further research by Wu and Topuz (1987, 1989) de

scribes other techniques, like linear programming, the out

of-kilter method and the network simplex method. Based on 

these studies, the optimal methodology is developed and examples presented by Wu et al. (1991). The authors reported 

that computer software based on the methodology would be 

developed, but no further studies were forthcoming. This 

may be due to the change in regulations that occurred in 

1992. 

The largest single effort to study booster fans in the U.S. 

was performed as a contract under a grant from the U.S. Bureau of Mines in 1985.The research started with an extensive 

survey on the use of booster fans. The study showed that 318 

booster fan installations were located in underground coal 

mines worldwide, with the United Kingdom being the major 

user, followed by South Africa and Canada (McPherson et 

al., 1985). Also, a study concerning the attitudes toward the 

use of booster fans in the coal mining industry of the U.S. 

was conducted. It was found that out of the represented coal 

mines, 42% were interested in installing booster fans. Out of 

the uninterested operations, 52% considered the risk of re

circulation to be the primary reason for not taking an interest 

in using booster fans and only 6% pointed out other primary 

reasons (McPherson et al., 1985). 

The study was expanded in the late 1980s to include 

booster fans and regulators at fixed locations and to minimize 

the overall power consumption. The problem was studied 

by Calizaya et al. (1987) using the commercially available 

ventilation simulator VNETPC. A computer program called 

MFSELECT was developed to determine the fans and regulators that would fulfill the airflow requirements of a mine 

and minimize the total power consumption. The application 

of the program was illustrated by a detailed solution of a 

sample problem based on the Jim Walter Resources’ No. 

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7 Mine. This solution described the basic requirements for 

the design and operation of booster fans and showed their 

potential benefits (Calizaya et al., 1987; Calizaya et al., 1988; 

Calizaya and Mousset-Jones, 1989; Calizaya et al., 1990). 

Figure 3
	

Longwall mine production in the U.S. in years 1983, 1993 

and 2003 (1000 short tons). 

Effect of longwall mining on booster fan research. What 

suddenly initiated this research in the 1980s after so many 

quiet decades? It can be speculated that the resurgence resulted from increasing longwall productivity in the U.S. in 

the 1980s and the increasing airflow requirements needed 

to control the resultant dusts and gases. The limited number 

of airways in longwall mining requires high ventilation pressures to overcome the resistance. 

Nationally, longwall mines produced 126 Mt (139 million 

st) of coal in 1993, or 75% more than in 1983. In contrast, 

total underground coal production increased by only 17% 

throughout the same period. By 1993, longwall mines ac

counted for 40% of underground coal production (Fig. 3), 

up from 27% in 1983 (Energy Information Administration, 

1995). In 2003, already more than half of the total under

ground coal production occurred in longwall mines (National 

Mining Association, 2008). 

Petitions from industry 

Petition process. Under section 101 of the Federal Mine 

Safety and Health Act of 1977, a mine operator may petition 

and the Secretary of Labor may modify the application of a 

mandatory safety standard, such as § 75.302, to a mine if the 

secretary determines that: 

1.	 An alternative method exists that will guarantee no 

less protection for the miners affected than that provided by the standard; or 

2.	 that the application of the standard will result in a 

diminution of safety to the affected miners. 

MSHA bases the final decision on the petitioner’s statements, any comments and information submitted by inter

ested persons and a field investigation of the conditions at 

the mine. In some instances, MSHA may approve a petition 

for modification on the condition that the mine operator 

complies with other requirements noted in the decision. 

To date, there have been two petitions filed by mine operators to use booster fans in underground bituminous mines. 

In both cases, MSHA determined the proposals did not provide at least the same level of protection as the standard. 

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No. 7 Mine, AL. In 1985, Jim Walter Resources Inc. 

(JWR) noticed that additional ventilation capacity was re

quired to mine a remote block of its No. 7 Mine in Alabama. 

Its personnel studied the situation and the review process 

indicated that either a 7-m (23-ft) intake airshaft or a 746

kW (1,000-hp) underground booster fan installed in the east 

main intake would satisfy the predicted airflow requirement. 

A petition for modification to operate an underground 

booster fan was submitted to MSHA on June 11, 1986. It 

included safety features, such as electrical interlocking, in

dependent power supply and remote atmospheric monitor

ing and was based on references obtained from the UK and 

Australia. The potential for recirculation of air through the 

fan was given as a primary reason for denial of the plan after 

evaluation by MSHA. 

JWR developed an improved plan. Various booster fan 

locations were simulated in search of a more suitable fan 

site. This defined a new location, in which a fan equipped 

with a 298-kW (400-hp) motor would fulfill the ventilation 

requirements. The simulations indicated that under normal 

operating conditions the pressure differentials would be from 

intake to return at all locations, so recirculation conditions 

would not exist. Events of booster fan failure and shutdown 

were also simulated with favorable results. The new plan was 

proposed to MSHA on June 2, 1987. Safety considerations, 

like fireproof housing of the motor, transformer and starter, 

and a fire-sensing system with dry powder extinguishers, were 

included in the plan. Also, the booster fan would have been 

attached to a separate power circuit from the surface through 

a borehole. It was also noted that the booster fan would be 

located in a main return, away from the working face and, 

thus, dust and noise were not considered to be a problem 

(Sartain and Stevenson, 1988). 

The new plan was inspected by MSHA. Ventilation engi

neers from the MSHA Technical Support Center performed 

a detailed ventilation survey of the mine in November 1988. 

However, the plan failed to convince MSHA and the booster 

fan petition was later denied again (McNider, 2008). 

Loveridge No. 22 Mine, WV. On Sept. 15, 2003, Consolidation Coal Co. filed a petition for modification of 30 CFR 

75.302 at the Loveridge No. 22 Mine in West Virginia. The 

petition described an alternate method that would allow use 

of an auxiliary fan to prevent the freezing of the slope dur

ing the winter months. Safety considerations in the petition 

included fireproof housing, an automatic fire suppression 

system, CO, temperature and vibration monitors and daily 

inspection. 

MSHA pointed out after the investigation that the auxiliary slope fan would be used to improve or augment ventilation in a segment of the mine. Consequently, the auxiliary 

slope fan was in reality a booster fan. Simulations demon

strated that major ventilation changes occurred when the 

auxiliary slope fan stopped. Slope ventilation reversed and 

the intake at one of the shafts decreased by 53,000 cfm. 

In addition, MSHA determined several safety issues that 

were not addressed by the plan, such as vulnerability to dam

age from a major mine fire, lack of an independent power cir

cuit and no means to start or stop the fan remotely from the 

surface. Also, MSHA pointed out a mine fire accident that 

had happened in early 2003, in which a similar fan installation 

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had hampered firefighting efforts. For the reasons described 

above, MSHA concluded that the alternative method would 

not at all times guarantee no less than the same measure of 

protection afforded the miners under 30 CFR 75.302, so the 

petition was denied (Langton, 2003). 

Conclusions 

It can be seen that the interest in booster fan use in un

derground coal mines of the U.S. has fluctuated during the 

last 90 years. Booster fan research essentially stopped in 

1992, following the final coal mine ventilation rule that outlawed booster fans. The booster fan issue was reopened in 

the search for alternatives to belt air during the Technical 

Study Panel meetings in 2007 (Anon, 2007). Use of booster 

fans was presented as one of the three recommended re

search topics in the Final Report of the Technical Study Panel 

on Utilization of Belt Air and the Composition and Fire Retardant Properties of Belt Materials in Underground Coal 

Mining (Mutmansky et al., 2007). The MSHA response to 

the report (Federal Register, 2008), released in June 2008, did 

not address the research recommendations. However, in the 

text MSHA noted the need to maintain the pressure differ

ential from the primary escapeway to the belt air course to 

prevent the leakage of contaminants to the escapeway in the 

event of a fire. This pressure differential could theoretically 

be achieved by using a booster fan. 

Since the passage of the regulation in 1992, several safety 

improvements have become available. Use of separate power circuits, AMS improvements and wireless communication 

technology can make a difference in the safety of booster 

fan use. Also, the research, experiences and regulations of 

other countries can present important comparisons for the 

potential application of booster fan use in the U.S. 

However, under current regulations, booster fan research 

in the U.S. will be challenging, due to nonexistent options for 

field studies in coal mines. Computer simulations, labora

tory studies and comparisons to M/NM mine practices are 

expected to be the main research tools to evaluate booster 

fans’ possible safety advantages. These studies will include 

ventilation network simulations of underground operations 

to evaluate their ability to assist in defining the safest and 

most feasible locations for booster fans. Safety concerns will 

be addressed by comparing and evaluating current practices 

and fan monitoring systems. Finally, the impacts of existing 

domestic and international booster fan safety regulations will 

be reviewed for relevance to U.S. mining conditions.

Acknowledgments 

All companies and individuals who have provided infor

mation are greatly appreciated. The authors especially wish 

to thank Mr. Tom McNider for valuable comments and Dr. 

Gerrit Goodman, Dr. Jürgen Brune and Mr. Chris Pritchard 

for providing feedback. 

Disclosure 

The findings and conclusions in this report are those of 

the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of 

the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. 

Mention of any company or product does not constitute endorsement by NIOSH. 

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