MINE RESCUE TRAINING SIMULATIONS 

AND TECHNOLOGY

Ronald S. Conti

Supervisory General Engineer

Linda L. Chasko

Physical Science Technician

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

Pittsburgh Research Laboratory

P.O. Box 18070

Pittsburgh, PA 15236-0070 USA

rkc4@cdc.gov, ljc6@cdc.gov

and

Larry D. Stowinsky

Bituminous Mine Rescue and First Aid Instructor

Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection

Bureau of Deep Mine Safety

Fayette County Health Center

100 New Salem Road, Room 167

Uniontown, PA 15401 USA

Stowinsky.Lawrence@a1.dep.state.pa.us

Keywords: Mine rescue teams, emergency response, training simulations, technology, equipment, underground

mines, firefighting

Abstract

Mine operators often rely on mine rescue teams to save lives during an underground emergency such as an

underground fire, explosion or roof fall. It is extremely important that team members are provided with adequate

exploration equipment and that training simulations are conducted in a realistic manner. A series of mine rescue

training exercises was developed, conducted and evaluated by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and

Health (NIOSH) in cooperation with the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection, Bureau of Deep

Mine Safety. The exercises were conducted at NIOSH’s Lake Lynn Laboratory during 1995 to 1998 and resulted

in improved technology and training for mine rescue teams. For example, existing technologies were identified

to help rescue teams during exploration. These included chemical lightsticks to identify team members and mark

crosscuts and mine materials, strobe lights for mapping out escapeways, and a helmet mounted thermal imaging

system to see through smoke. A hands-free communication system showed potential for enhanced

communications between team members and the fresh air base. A new high-visibility team lifeline that allows

for flexibility of movement between team members was developed. A positive-pressure inflatable escape device

(IED) was used to isolate the “hazardous” environment from fresh air and allow rescue team members to traverse

through. An inflatable feed-tube partition that can rapidly block large openings such as underground

passageways and simultaneously provide a feed-tube for high-expansion foam generators was also deployed for

several simulations. 

During the simulations, mine rescue team members donned self-contained breathing apparatuses (SCBA)

and traversed more than 305-m of mine passageways filled with nontoxic smoke. Visibility ranged from 0.3 to

0.9-m. In one area of the mine, a kerosene heater was used to simulate a fire and reduce the oxygen concentration.

In another area, a 1.5 pct methane zone was established. The team members searched for "victims,” mapped the
passageways, built temporary stoppings and ventilated the smoke-filled entries. The teams indicated that the

simulations were challenging and very informative.

Background

A recent survey conducted by the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) indicated that there are

281 state and company mine rescue teams in the United States; 157 metal & nonmetal mine teams and 124 coal

mine teams. This dedicated group of miners often put their lives in jeopardy to save others. It is important that

team members are provided with the latest personal protective equipment, be well trained, physically fit, and fully

understand the hazards that may await them during rescue, exploration and recovery operations. Very often,

rescue teams receive hands-on training during actual emergencies, or in simulated mine environments with

placards to identify objects and hazards. This paper deals with improved training simulations and new technology

for mine rescue teams.

Mine rescue training began in the United States in 1910, the year the U.S. Bureau of Mines was created.

Joseph A. Holmes, the Bureau's first director, sought a training vehicle (railroad cars) that would give the mining

industry a cadre of mine rescue specialists who would be prepared to respond to mine disasters. The training

efforts evolved into local and regional competitions and, a year later on October 30, 1911, the first national

mine-safety demonstration was held at Forbes Field, in Pittsburgh. The demonstration was planned and managed

by engineers of the Bureau, with the aid of miners and coal operators of the Pittsburgh district. It embraced

exhibits that showed the character of nearly every branch of the Bureau’s investigative work in relation to mine

accidents. The demonstration included first aid and mine rescue work, and special coal-dust explosions at the

Bureau’s experimental mine at Bruceton, PA. Approximately 15,000 persons attended the demonstration. The

field exhibits were witnessed by President William H. Taft who presented Red Cross medals and first aid

packages to rescue team captains, and many National and State government officials. Teams of miners trained

in first aid and rescue work from every coal-mining State took part in this stimulating demonstration.

Mine rescue contests are still conducted on a regular basis to sharpen skills and test the knowledge of miners

who may one day be called upon to respond to a real mine emergency. The contests require teams of six members

each to solve a hypothetical rescue problem while being timed and observed by judges according to precise rules.

The simulated problem involves trapped miners who have to be found and rescued. State and Federal mine safety

experts evaluate each team as they work through their rescue problem in a simulated mine environment. Teams

are rated on adherence to safety procedures and how quickly they complete their task.

Federal regulations, as spelled out in 30 CFR Part 49, Mine Rescue Teams, require that every operator of

an underground mine will assure the availability of mine rescue capability for the purposes of emergency rescue

and recovery. Part 49.8 discusses training for mine rescue teams. In particular, underground sessions will be

conducted every six months and include the wearing and use of breathing apparatus; use, care, capabilities, and

limitations of auxiliary equipment; advanced mine rescue training and procedures; mine map training and

ventilation procedures, etc.

Over the past several years, NIOSH’s Pittsburgh Research Laboratory has conducted mine rescue simulations

at its Lake Lynn Laboratory near Fairchance, PA. Working agreements were established between NIOSH and

the Pennsylvania Bureau of Deep Mine Safety and several mining companies to increase the operational

effectiveness of their coal mine rescue teams and evaluate new and emerging technology. These efforts have

resulted in improved disaster recovery training drills and the development of new technology such as a highvisibility team lifeline, an inflatable partition for high-expansion foam generators, and a positive-pressure
Figure 1 - Plan view of Lake Lynn Laboratory’s

underground mine, including a diagram of the

wireless electromagnetic signaling and warning

system.

inflatable escape device. Existing technologies, such

as the use of chemical lightsticks for identifying team

members and thermal imaging equipment, were

evaluated. Current rescue protocols and strategies

were also assessed. 

Lake Lynn Laboratory (LLL)

The NIOSH Pittsburgh Research Laboratory’s

LLL, formerly a limestone mine, is now a

multipurpose research facility used to conduct

mining health and safety research (1). Lake Lynn

Laboratory’s underground layout, including the

locations of antenna loops for a wireless

electromagnetic signaling and warning system, is

shown in figure 1. The new entry dimensions of the

underground mine range from 1.8 to 2.4-m high and

from 5.3 to 6.3-m wide. The average dimensions are

2.1 and 5.8-m, for an average cross-sectional area of

12-m . The underground configuration of the new

2

entries covers approximately 95-km , with an

2

overburden ranging from 50 to 100-m. The unique

nature of the facility allows it to be readily adapted

for elaborate mine rescue team simulations in

smoke-filled entries.

The LLL wireless signaling system transmits an

emergency warning that can quickly reach every

underground miner. The low-frequency

electromagnetic field can penetrate kilometers of soil and rock to reach the most remote shaft or tunnel, which

makes it ideal for underground signaling and paging. This system consists of a low-frequency transmitter that

can be strategically placed to create an electromagnetic signal that can completely envelop most mines without

the use of repeater systems. The transmitter loop antenna is on the surface, and a receiver/transmitter loop

antenna is underground. The person-wearable receivers are small, lightweight modules incorporated into the

miner's cap lamp assembly. Upon receiving an emergency or paging signal, the cap lamp begins to flash, which

in turn alerts the miner to evacuate the mine or call the surface for a message, depending on which signal is

received. The system can also turn devices such as strobe lights on or off. Additional information on wireless

signaling systems can be found in reference 2.

Identifying Team Members

NIOSH attempted to address issues raised by rescue team members that participated in the simulations. One

of the main concerns of the rescue teams was identifying other team members and marking locations, such as

crosscuts, brattice curtain, cribbing, and other items that may be found in the smoke-filled entries, or just

maintaining a reference point. Chemical lightsticks, a technology that has been around for years, were found to

be a valuable tool for underground rescue teams. The chemical light is nonflammable and not a source of

ignition, and it is weatherproof, maintenance free, and nontoxic. To activate, just remove the stick from the

package, bend, snap and shake. Instantly a source of light exists that can vary in intensity and duration. The

brightest lightstick would last 30-min; the least brightest, 12-hours.
MOST VISIBLE COLOR 

OF LIGHTSTICK

Yellow

8.5% Red

11.1%

Green

74.4%

Clear

6.0%

Yellow

4.1%

Red

8.2%

Green

77.5%

Clear

10.2%

White Smoke Black Smoke

1 Lightstick

Figure 3 - Response of the rescue team members

for the most visible color lightstick in these smokefilled environments.

Figure 2 - Chemical lightsticks attached to the

back of rescue team members helmets.

Figure 4 -Photograph of highvisibility team lifeline.

The lightsticks were assessed by the team members

during the simulations, both in white nontoxic smoke and

black toxic smoke produced from conveyor-belt fires.

Four lightstick colors were evaluated; clear, green, red,

and yellow. Team members, as shown in figure 2,

attached these lightsticks to the back of their helmets

with plastic ties. They can be also placed on the floor at

various critical locations and on obstacles during

exploration. Figure 3 shows the responses of the rescue

team members for the most visible color lightstick in

these smoke-filled environments. Of 114 mine

rescue team members participating in the white

nontoxic smoke simulations, 74.4 pct identified

green as the most dominant color; clear was the least

visible color. Out of the 49 rescue team members

that participated in fighting the conveyor-belt fire,

77.5 pct felt that green was the most dominant color;

yellow was the least visible color. Lightsticks are

now a crucial component for these team members.

Other chemical light shapes and intensities are

currently being considered. 

High-Visibility Team Lifeline

Very often rescue team members are attached to a team lifeline connected to the main communication/lifeline

that extends from the fresh air base. Team members are fixed along an 8.5-m length of rope at various distances

between the captain and tail-person. Team members have reported that if one person would trip and fall, other

team members could be pulled down with the falling team member. If the rope were entangled around debris,

finding it was difficult. 

These concerns were solved by using a high-visibility rope, shown in figure 4, with filaments made of

reflective material braided directly into the sheath. The reflective filaments, based on glass-bead technology,

generate a return more than 1,000 times brighter than plain, white rope. Double-locking snaps were attached to

both ends of the rope, with three or more snaps in-between both ends. D-shaped carabineers were then attached

to the
Figure5 - Rescue team members attached to the

high-visibility team lifeline.

snaps. Team members, shown in figure 5, attach the

carabineers to their mine belt and have freedom of

movement to slide between the captain and tailperson, providing flexibility of motion to do activities

such as carrying supplies, erecting temporary

ventilation controls and supporting roof. This also

alleviates tripping and falling problems.

Communications

Communication is a major issue and concern of

rescue teams. Team members are often unable to hear

other members, and at times the communication

signal to the fresh air base is also faulty. This can be

very frustrating to team members, especially in high

stress situations. The current practice is the tailperson, who has the earphones and microphone, talks

to the fresh air base. At LLL, a radiating

transmission line, base station and repeater system

along with two-way radios are used for daily

communications between employees. The in-mine

transmission line leaks a controlled amount of RF

energy over its full length so that two-way radio

communication can be maintained for a considerable distance through the mine passageways and to the surface.

The cable line is not frequency sensitive and can be used for high band VHF and UHF simultaneously.

The concept of speaking and hearing through the ear is not new, but its application in the voiceducer (3) twoway communication device achieves a high level of performance. The voiceducer combined with a two-way radio

provides two-way communications from a small device worn in the ear. Although it looks like an ordinary

earphone, the earpiece contains both an accelerometer microphone and miniature receiver component. The ear

microphone detects speech-induced bone vibrations via direct contact with the ear canal wall. The miniature

earpiece leaves the hands free and face unobscured when worn by rescue personnel with breathing apparatus.

When in high ambient noise, suitable earmuffs can be worn. The user consequently is afforded a much greater

degree of freedom than has previously been possible with two-way radios. Experiments with rescue teams at

LLL indicated this system showed potential. Both the captain and tail-person could communicate with the fresh

air base.

Additional research efforts could include inserting a wire antenna into the main line that extends from the

fresh air base or wrapping the main communication line with a wire antenna. The latter example could serve as

a backup communications system. During exploration, team members would have the antenna with them and

can use the voiceducer. By having several channels on the radios, communications between team members or

the fresh air base can be controlled.

Another new concept that will be evaluated with rescue teams is the head-contact microphone (4). It is a

hands-free radio microphone that can either be strapped onto the forehead or incorporated into a helmet headband.

A rescue member need not speak into this microphone; it gathers sounds from vibrations transmitted through the

skull and works whether the rescue member is wearing an SCBA or not. Little background noise is pickup by

the microphone, so rescue members need not shout. Ear speakers are suspended on the helmet and a touch

sensitive on/off switch can easily activate the system by a gloved hand.
MOST VISIBLE COLOR 

OF STROBE LIGHT

Green

37.3% Red

18.1%

Blue

18.1%

Amber

10.8%

Clear

15.7%

White Smoke

Figure6 - Responses of the rescue

team members for the most visible

color strobe light.

Strobe Lights

Another area examined was utilizing high-intensity (a xenon-white flash tube) strobe lights strategically

located in the entries to map out an escape route for evacuating miners during an emergency. These weather

resistant strobe lights with interchangeable reflective lenses, are compact and lightweight (100 gm) and provide

180° of visibility. The triangular shaped (9-cm each side by 4-cm high), lithium AA battery powered strobe

lights could be remotely activated by a wireless, through the earth signaling system such as the one installed at

LLL. Ideally, underground sensors would monitor the gases and smoke in the passageways during a fire. By

interfacing these data with a computer, the best escape route could be determined and the appropriate strobe lights

remotely turned on.

During the in-mine rescue team simulations conducted at

LLL, strobe lights were positioned in the center of the entry

about 1.8-m from the floor and in the entry crosscuts

predetermined to be the best escape routes. Rescue team

members were told that a roof fall had occurred and severed

the main communication/lifeline. Team members detached

themselves from the main communication/lifeline and

successfully followed the strobe lights out of the smoke-filled

entries to the fresh air base. Team members felt that by

keeping their cap lamps off, the strobe lights were easier to

follow. Five strobe light colors (red, green, blue, amber and

clear) were evaluated by 81 miners. Figure 6 shows that the

most visible color in the nontoxic white smoke was green and

the least visible color was amber.

A similar simulation was conducted for underground mine

personnel in a Western mine. Miners, in groups of five,

entered smoke-filled (nontoxic white smoke) passageways and

followed these strobe lights to the fresh air base. Not only did

this exercise allow miners to travel through smoke in their

mine (many for the very first time), but it gave them an opportunity to evaluate the strobe lights as an escape aid.

The miners felt that the colored reflectors currently mounted in the center of their entries would not have helped

them.

The concept of strobe lights was successful in experiments at the Lake Lynn Mine and several isolated

passageways of a Western mine. In a larger mine, the uncertainties inherent in a complex ventilation system

would complicate this process considerably. Additional research would be required to evaluate the feasibility of

using these devices in larger mines and incorporating audio output with each strobe light unit.

Vision Enhancement

Firefighting and similar emergency response activities often impair vision due to dense smoke or darkness.

Vision enhancement in such circumstances is a profound benefit for completing the assigned task. Infrared (IR)

thermal imaging enhances the users vision when visible light is inadequate. Thermal imaging both restores vision

and provides significant additional information to the user not otherwise possible to obtain. The technology

increases the responder’s understanding of the environment, thus enhancing safety and the ability to accomplish

the task. The first documented civilian life saved with thermal imaging technology was during a 1988 fire that

occurred in New York.
Figure 7 - A rescue team member

wearing the Cairns IRIS and exiting a

smoke-filled entry.

Figure8 - Photo of inflatable feed-tube partition

in the Lake Lynn Experimental Mine. 

Recent improvements in the sensitivity and resolution of

uncooled IR imaging sensors have provided the major enabling

technology for the development of practical helmet-mounted IR

vision system (5). In 1995, Cairns & Brother Inc. introduced

the first commercially available hands-free helmet-mounted IR

imaging systems (6). Firefighters use the Cairns IRIS to see

through dense smoke and darkness in structural fires. The system

processes the signal and displays a black and white image that

shows the hottest areas in white, the coldest as black and the

temperatures between as varying shades of gray. It can detect

0.3° C differences in temperatures. The sensor is a specially

coated 15-mm Germanium lens that filters out everything except

8 to 14-micron infrared radiation. A rechargeable nickel

cadmium battery pack provides 30-min of continuous,

uninterrupted use at ambient temperature.

The first demonstration of the Cairns IRIS in an

underground mine was conducted at Lake Lynn Laboratory on

February 8, 1996. The capabilities of the hands-free thermal

imaging camera in the smoke-filled mine passageways

suggested that it indeed had merit for mine rescue exploration.

Figure 7 shows a rescue team member wearing the Cairns IRIS

and exiting a smoke-filled entry.

Inflatable Feed-Tube Partition

When mine fires can no longer be fought directly

due to heat, smoke or hazardous roof conditions, high

expansion foam (HEF) may be one way to remotely

quench the fire. The firefighting personnel and HEF

generator can be located away from the immediate

vicinity of the fire at a less hazardous underground

location. The HEF is a convenient means of

conveying water to a fire (7,8). It quenches or

extinguishes a fire by diluting the oxygen

concentration through the production of steam,

blocking the air currents to the fire, and blocking the

radiant energy from the fuel (9) to other combustibles.

To effectively use the foam method for remotely

fighting fires in underground mine entries, it is often

necessary to construct, at some distance from the fire

site, a partition or stopping in fresh air to separate the foam generator and its operators from the smoke and toxic

fire products. If this is not done, the HEF could flow back over the foam generator, rendering the fire attack

futile. This problem is especially acute when the fire is found uphill in a sloping entry. Concrete block, wood,

plastic sheeting, mine brattice cloth or similar materials have been used for such partitions. Often, mine entries

have irregular dimensions to which the partition must conform to avoid leakage around the periphery.

Construction of such partitions can be a time-consuming process. After the partition is constructed, a hole must

be cut through it to allow passage of the high expansion foam from the
Figure 9 - Conceptual drawing of the positivepressure, inflatable walk-through escape device.

foam generator to the fire site. During a recent underground simulation for mine rescue teams and fire brigades

in an operating coal mine, it required 77 min to construct a partition from wood, metal and brattice curtain, and

start the foam propagating up the mine entry.

To address the drawbacks of constructing a partition for HEF generators, the inflatable feed-tube partition

(IFTP) (10,11) was developed. The IFTP, shown in figure 8, is a lightweight, inflatable rectangular bag. The

device can rapidly block large openings (within 15 min), such as those in underground mines, and simultaneously

provide a feed-tube for high expansion foam. This allows firefighting foam to freely flow to the fire site and

control or extinguish the fire.

The portable IFTP can be easily transported to a mine passageway leading to a fire area and then be inflated

by a permissible fan/air blower or a compressed air source (air source must be kept on to compensate for

leakage). The fabric used for the IFTP is made from a water and heat resistant, lightweight fabric (0.076-mm

thick), such as chemically treated, rip-stop nylon. The IFTP could also be fabricated from a material such as

Mylar or fire-resistant materials. The shape and size of the IFTP depend on the passageway dimensions in which

it may be used. For example, for a mine entry 2.1-m-high by 5.8-m-wide, the IFTP would take the shape of a

slightly oversized rectangular bag approximately 2.6-m-high by 6.1-m-wide and 3.1-m-long. Experiments in the

Lake Lynn Experimental Mine showed that a 2,800-L/s diesel-powered (fixed driving force), high-expansion

foam generator with the IFTP could push a foam plug 245-m through an entry 2.1-m high by 5.8-wide with a

4.3 pct rise in elevation, before the foam generator failed to push the foam plug further. Additional information

on the use of foam and partitions can be found in references 8, 11 and 12.

Positive-Pressure Inflatable Escape Device

Another conceptual use of an inflatable bag (13)

is a positive-pressure, inflatable walk-through escape

device (IED). This rapidly deployed device, with its

"pass-through" feature, allows extra time for

personnel evacuation by isolating a smoke-filled

entry from fresh air and is shown in figure 9. The

IED would be strategically placed in a mine entry,

and then be either manually or remotely deployed

during a mine fire. Mine personnel escaping from the

fire area would enter the bag from the smoke-filled

side, and exit into fresh air. Since the bag is under

positive pressure, it would be impervious to outside

contaminates, such as smoke and gaseous

combustion products. If the inflating air was clean

compressed air, the bag could be used as a temporary

shelter (14). The use of a fan for inflation, however,

would require that the fan remain in fresh air or that

filters be installed on the fan to cleanse the mine air

of any contaminants. 

Another potential use for this device could be realized during mine recovery operations following a fire or

explosion. It has also been very effective during the mine rescue simulations conducted at LLL and an operating

coal mine. The inflatable escape device was used as an airlock system during exploration by mine rescue teams.

The IED could be rapidly advanced as mine recovery continued. This device successfully
FRESH AIR BASE

FIRE

LOW

ROOF

AREA

Triple “R” Coal Mine Simulation

V3

S

V2

V1

S

S

N

IED

Figure 10 - Instructor’s Triple “R” Coal Mine

simulation map.

isolated smoke-filled entries from fresh air, and mine personnel effectively passed through the device to the fresh

air base or back into the smoke-filled entries. 

Mine Rescue Team Simulations

The “Triple R Coal Mine” simulation was one of the most aggressive mine rescue team exercises conducted

in the Lake Lynn Experimental Mine. A longwall panel fire resulted from an explosion and team members were

instructed to locate three missing miners. Rescue team members donned Draeger BG-174 self-contained

breathing apparatuses and traversed more than 305-m of mine passageways filled with nontoxic smoke.

Visibility ranged from 0.3 to 0.5-m. The team members moved the fresh air base, searched for "victims,”

administered first aid, and mapped the passageways. The instructors’ simulation map, shown in figure 10,

includes the locations of the two fatalities, an injured miner, and other pertinent information. The positivepressure inflatable escape device was used by rescue team members to enter the "smoke-filled" passageways from

a fresh air base. Various colored chemical lightsticks identified team members and were used to mark strategic

locations in the mine. In one area of the mine, a kerosene heater simulated a fire. A fiberglass duct, 81.3-cm in

diameter by 6.1-m in length, was placed on the floor in one crosscut. Surrounded by an inflatable bag, the duct

simulated a low roof and was the

only means to enter the other

entries. Two teams per day

participated in the exercise. One

team evaluated the Cairns IRIS

helmet-mounted thermal imaging

camera during exploration and the

other team used conventional

methods. The captain, tail-person

and fresh air base from both teams

used a hands-free, wireless

communication system. The

simulation indicated that new

protocols need to be developed

when mine rescue teams explore

with the Cairns IRIS because the

team member with the thermal

imaging camera can travel smokefilled entries much more rapidly

than other team members.

The “Red Creek Mine”

simulation focused on fire and

ventilation. The team members searched for "victims,” mapped the passageways and constructed temporary

stoppings. In one area of the mine, a kerosene heater was used to simulate a fire and reduce the oxygen

concentration to 18 pct. In another area, a 1.5 pct methane zone was established. Handheld sensors carried by

the rescue team members alarmed when they entered these areas, alerting them to the “hazardous” condition. A

flowchart of how two teams completed the tasks is shown in figure 11. The data suggest significant differences

in how teams go about exploring and solving the problems. For example, Team-1 completed all eight tasks

within 84 min. However, 85 min were required for Team-2 to complete only four tasks. The tasks included

locating and extinguishing the fire, identifying the methane zone, finding the two missing miners and a mining

scoop, setting up the brattice curtain and ventilating the smoke-filled entries. The simulation suggested a wide

variation in the way some teams go 
Entered IED

10:09 AM

Entere d IED

10:08 AM

Fire Out

80 m in

Fire Out

Fire Area

O - 18.4%

38 m in

2

Fire Are a

O - 18.8%

20m in

2

Metha ne

Rea ding - 1.4%

48 m in

M etha ne

Re a d ing - 1.6%

73m in

Body in

Ba rrica de

79 m in

Bod y in

Ba rrica d e

Loca ted

Scoop

43 m in

Loca ted

Scoop

49 m in

Setup Bra ttice

50m in

Setup

Bra tticce

Sta rt

Ve ntila ting

68 m in

Sta rt

Ventila ting

Tea m O ut

11:33AM

84 m in

Tea m Out

11:33 AM

85 m in

Opera tor's Body

44 m in

Opera tor'sBody

49 m in

Tea m -1 Tea m -2

Figure 11 - Flowchart depicting two teams completing the training simulation tasks.

about mapping the entries during exploration. This includes differences within each team between the maps kept

by the team map person and the fresh air base, and differences between the individual teams in deciding what

information is important to map. Some teams document on the map everything they see and others are very

sketchy; for example, the type of symbol used, or noting the location and visibility of smoke in the entry, or

keeping track of the time and the lowest SCBA pressure when doing a team check. Team members indicated that

the exercise was a challenging and a very realistic simulation. 

During another simulation, rescue team members were briefed on the protocol to be used during the

extinguishment of a conveyor-belt fire. Three-person teams (under apparatus) on a short team lifeline were led

into the Lake Lynn Fire Gallery, upstream of the growing fire. After 12 min, two teams of three members each

carrying charged waterlines were escorted into the fire gallery through both doors. These teams controlled the

rollback smoke and extinguished 4- to 5-meters of burning conveyor belt. 

At the end of each simulation, the team members answered a series of questions that included demographics

(age, mining and mine rescue experience, special training or routine tasks), usefulness of the fresh air base

briefing, how the team members made decisions, anxiety levels and physical demands of the rescue operation.

The rescue team as a whole was then debriefed. This open forum offers an opportunity for team members to

engage in some lively conversation about the simulation. For example, how was the strategy developed for

exploring the entries, and how good was the communication between team members and the fresh air base. Team

members, company personnel and State officials all agreed that the simulations are extremely beneficial. The

program offers a unique opportunity to develop and conduct realistic simulations for mine rescue teams at Lake

Lynn Laboratory and evaluate technology for mine rescue operations. 
Summary

This cooperative effort offered an excellent opportunity to evaluate new and existing technology that may

be used for underground mine rescue operations. For example, rescue teams have identified green as the most

visible colored lightstick in both white and black smoke. These teams have now added lightsticks to their cache

of rescue team supplies. 

By using the high-visibility team lifeline, team members have freedom of movement between the captain and

tail-person. They can visually see the rope and are more flexible to do activities such as carrying supplies,

erecting stoppings and supporting roof. This also alleviates tripping and falling problems.

Utilizing the voiceducer, with the present radiating transmission line at Lake Lynn Laboratory, has shown

potential for improved wireless communications for mine rescue teams. Additional research is required to

incorporate the antenna into the main lifeline.

Strobe lights were useful for mapping out an escape route for evacuating miners. Activation of the strobe

lights by the wireless, through the earth signaling system, was successful. Additional research would be required

to evaluate the feasibility of using these devices in larger mines and to incorporate audio output with each strobe

light unit.

The hands-free helmet mounted thermal imaging camera has merit for mine rescue exploration in the smokefilled mine passageways. However, the simulations suggested that new protocols need to be developed when

mine rescue teams explore with the Cairns IRIS, because the team member with the thermal imaging camera can

travel smoke-filled entries much more rapidly than other team members.

Both inflatable devices have shown merit in providing a relatively rapid method for isolation of a mine fire

and for use with a foam generator for fire suppression, or for personnel escape and rescue. The inflatable

partition can rapidly block large openings, such as those in underground mines, and simultaneously provide a

feed-tube for high expansion foam. The inflatable escape device could be used as an airlock system during

exploration by mine rescue teams and could be rapidly advanced as mine recovery operations continued. 

Since the onset of rescue team simulations at Lake Lynn Laboratory, several team members have decided

that rescue work was not for them. Some rescue teams, who trained in smoke for the first time, were so confused

that they gave up and had to be rescued. Overall, the strengths of the team and its members have improved since

their initial exercise. For example, confidence levels have increased, and members are now working as a team,

thinking through the problem together. Teams are successfully accomplishing their goals by replacing contest

rules and placards with realistic hands-on-training exercises.

Acknowledgments

The authors want to thank C. P. Lazzara, W. J. Wiehagen, E. S. Weiss, W. Slivensky, R. W. Pro,

F. A. Karnack, D. D. Sellers, M. J. Brnich and L. L. Rethi, Pittsburgh Research Laboratory, and, J. D. Cool, J.

Stanchek and D. Eppley, Pennsylvania Bureau of Deep Mine Safety, for their contributions to this effort.

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