168 K.M. Kowalski and A. Podlesny

doing when investigating the accidents. This appears to be a reflection, perceived or real,
of the demands of the organisation on the accident investigator during an investigation
and the support and trust evidenced at the time of the investigation.

The MSHA organisation was aware of the headquarters-field communication
problems and specific needs of each before this study, and has been actively involved in
developing strategies to remedy the problem. The workshop for the accident investigators
was evidence of their pro-active stance.

The authors suggest that the procedure, expectations, and support network during an
investigation be reviewed. The anecdotal reports suggest that the organisation re-evaluate
the communication process in the field between headquarters and the investigation site.
Generally, the anonymous reports indicated that the organisation provides support in
getting the job done, but that it also may contribute to slowing down the process and thus
contribute to worker burnout.

Based on the anecdotal reports, the authors suggest that specific training in working
with grieving families, including better interaction skills, role playing, crisis management
and decision-making under stress be incorporated into the general accident investigator
training. In addition, greater organisational support such as direct supervisor training on
support behaviours for the accident investigators, an evaluation of the initial information
needs and demands on the on-site investigator in the first 48 hours is recommended. A
further recommendation would be to enable further opportunities for the investigators to
learn from each other’s experiences. This allows for a psychological debriefing effect
that can assist in reducing stress. Engaging local community mental health and/or
pastoral services can help investigators, respondents, and grieving families. The subject
agency, MSHA, evidenced awareness of the stress issue as reflected in their request for a
workshop on stress, grief and coping--a positive step for the mining accident
investigators and a model for organisations with similar investigative responsibilities.

References and Notes

1 Names are fictitious and identifiers have been eliminated.

2 Selye, H. (1993) ‘History of the stress concept,’ in L. Goldberger and S. Breznitz (Eds.),
Handbook of Stress Theoretical and Clinical Aspects, The Free Press, Macmillan, pp.7-20.

3 Cannon, W.B. (1929) Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear, and Rage, Branford,
Boston, CT.

4 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (1994) 4th ed., American Psychiatric
Association, Washington, DC.

5 Pines, A.M. and Aronson, E. (1988) Career Burnout: Causes and Cures, 2nd ed., Free Press,
New York.

6 Hurrell, J.J. and Murphy, L.R. (1998) ‘Psychological job stress’, in W.N. Rom (Ed.),
Environmental and Occupational Medicine, 3rd ed., Lippincott-Raven Publishers,
Philadelphia, PA.

7 American Psychological Association Monitor (1999) APA Monitor, Vol. 30, No. 5, p.1.

8 McGuire, P.A. (1999) ‘Worker stress, health reaching critical point’, APA Monitor, Vol. 30,
No. 5, May.

9 Elisburg, D. (1995) ‘Workers’ compensation issues for psychologists: the workers point of

view’, in L.R. Murphy, J.J. Hurrell, S. Sauter and G. Kieta (Eds.), Job Stress Interventions,
American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, pp.369-381.


159

A study of burnout in accident investigators in the US mining industry

illnesses are a growing concern to US business and government. This concern is because
of the impact on production and the economy, plus the overall public health

consequences of the need for increased mental health awareness and services.

Figure 2 Model of stress and health

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164 K.M. Kowalski and A. Podlesny

The group of investigators had 1,558 total years of experience, or an average of
10.1 years with a standard deviation of 8.29. The range was from 0 years (5 investigators)
to one investigator having a high of 33 years of experience. The median was eight years
experience, and the mode was one year of experience (14 investigators). There were
96 investigators (62% of the overall group) with ten years of experience or less; 24% had
11-20 years of experience; and 14% had 21 years or more of experience.

Analysis of variance, correlation analysis, and multiple linear regression analysis
were performed on the data, The data were also analysed by creating XY (scatter) charts
with linear trend lines to illustrate the Emotional Exhaustion, Depersonalisation, and
Personal Accomplishment scores in relation to the age and experience of the
investigators.

5 Results

The authors observed that at the 0.05 critical level, the null hypothesis must be accepted
(i.e., there is no correlation between either age or experience and Emotional Exhaustion,
Depersonalisation, or Personal Accomplishment).

Further analysis between the relationships of the three aspects of burnout revealed
that when Emotional Exhaustion rises, Depersonalisation also tends to rise, while
Personal Accomplishment tends to fall. On the three respective subscales, these scores
are all indicators of movement from a lower to a higher degree of burnout. Maslach states
that given our limited knowledge about the relationships among the three aspects of
burnout, the scores for each subscale are considered separately and are not combined into
a single, total score.

The results of the scores for each of the three subscales of the MBI (Emotional
Exhaustion, Depersonalisation, and Personal Accomplishment) fell in the Moderate range
(Figure 6). This indicates that the accident investigators are experiencing moderate levels
of burnout. Low, moderate, and high are all indicators that the respondents are
experiencing some level of burnout.

Figure 6 Average scores on each subscale of the Maslach burnout inventory. Different shadings
on each of the subscales represents low, moderate and high bumout

60
40
2
Hy
8
5
20 tie
0
Emotional Depersonalization Personal
Exhaustion Accomplishment

(Low Burnout 2 Moderate Burnout @High Burnout ‘@ Score ]



A study of burnout in accident investigators in the US mining industry 161

Figure 3 Mine explosion at the portal

2 Role of MSHA inspectors

MSHA inspectors carry out the day-to-day mine inspections and enforce the mining
safety and health regulations passed by Congress. When a serious injury or fatality occurs
at a mine site, some of these mine inspectors are given a collateral duty as accident
investigators. They become responsible for conducting an investigation into the accident,
determining the cause of the accident, and making recommendations of any violations.
Many mining fatalities are a result of falls of ground. In underground mining, this refers
to the fall of the roof onto the victim; in surface mining it is the fall of part of the wall
around the mining pit. In addition, numerous accidents involve the heavy machinery used
to extract the mineral from the earth. These accidents are sudden and usually the injuries
are traumatic to the body.

Within the last several years, an additional task of meeting with the families of the
victims to present the official report has been imparted to the investigators. Approaching
this sometimes emotional and difficult task of presenting the report to grieving family
members while completing the principal task of fact-finding presents a challenge to the
accident investigators and has created a conflict of roles for some investigators.

The consequences of burnout due to these stressors are potentially problematic for
both the individual and the organisation. Burnout can result in work of less quality, job
turnover, absenteeism, and low morale. In addition, burnout is correlated with various
self-reported indices of personal dysfunction, including physical exhaustion, insomnia,
increased use of alcohol and drugs, and marital and family problems [14].


160 K.M. Kowalski and A. Podlesny

The study of occupational stress was given a new focus in the 1970s when US Public
Law 91-595 established the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. The
mission of NIOSH is to ensure a safe and healthy workplace for America’s workforce. To
carry out this mission, the agency conducts research and makes recommendations for the
prevention of work-related disease and injury. Recently, NIOSH has identified 21
research priorities including the organisation of work that encompasses work-related
psycho-social stressors [10].

The issue of stress on the job provided a focus for The American Psychological
Association and NIOSH when they joined together at the Stress in the Nineties
Conference in the beginning of 1990 and declared the 1990s the “Decade of Stress.”
They supported work resulting in a growing body of research on stress on the job. Most
of the studies focus on office workers, with a limited number of studies on disaster first
responders — firefighters, police, and medical workers. The former studies tend to address
cumulative stress and the latter tend to cover traumatic stress from natural or man-made
disasters.

There has been limited work in the mining industry regarding critical incident stress
in mine disasters and mine rescue [11,12]. Although the subject population of mine
accident investigators in this study may be exposed to a critical incident such as a mine
explosion, major underground roof fall, or surface mine highwall fall, exposure to day to
day cumulative-type stress, which can lead to burnout, is more likely. The accident
investigator is not at the scene at the time of the critical incident. Thus the exposure is
during the ensuing days as the investigation is being conducted. This is consequently the
first study of Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) accident investigators with
respect to worker burnout.

1.3 Danger in the mining industry

Mining is one of the most dangerous occupations in the world (Figure 3). Historically,
mining has been the industry sector with the highest fatal and nonfatal injury rates [13].
Even today, mining is the industry sector with the highest fatal injury rate, more than five
times the national average. The mining industry in the USA is highly regulated under
Title 30 Code of Federal Regulations, and has a separate government agency, the Mine
Safety and Health Administration. MSHA is part of the US Department of Labor and is
responsible for enforcing the laws concerning mining. In addition, the National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health, under the Department of Health and Human
Services, includes an Office for Mining Safety and Health Research. This office is
charged with providing for the safety and health of the nation’s miners through research.
According to the MSHA injury data reported under 30 CFR, Part 50, in a recent ten-year
period (1989-1998), there were 240,499 injuries in the mining industry in the USA. This
included 988 fatalities, 161,841 non-fatal injuries with days lost, and 77,670 non-fatal
injuries with no days lost.


A study of burnout in accident investigators in the US mining industry 163

4 Subjects and method

The subjects for the present study were 169 MSHA accident investigators from locations
across the country and representative of all mining commodities: coal, metal, non-metal,
stone, and sand and gravel. Of the 169 subjects, 167 were male, a demographic that is
reflective of the mining industry. The subjects were participating in a two-week training
class that included a three-and-a-half hour workshop entitled, Stress, Coping and Grief
for Accident Investigators given by one of the researchers. Two separate two-week
training sessions were offered, one in the spring and one the following winter. Each
training session consisted of four randomly selected groups, providing a total of eight
subject groups. Comparisons were made between the spring and winter groups, the eight
individual groups were compared to each other, and each group was then compared with
the overall average scores on the three subscales. The overall group was also broken
down into four age groups for comparison purposes. No significant statistical differences
were found between any of the groups.

The Maslach Burnout Inventory was administered to the subjects. The instrument was
passed out at the. very beginning of class, before introductions, and the students were
asked to fill it out voluntarily. They were asked to include their age and years of
experience in accident investigation (including experience outside the agency). Fifteen of
the accident investigators’ responses were excluded from the analysis (four investigators
did not complete their surveys; four did not note their experience; two did not note their
age; and five did not note their age or experience).

The ages of the investigators (see Figure 5) ranged from 26 to 67 years, with an
average age of 48 years and a standard deviation of 6.62. The ages of the investigators by
category included 10% under the age of 40; 43% were age 40-49; 44% were age 50-59;
and 4% of the investigators were age 60 and over.

Figure 5 Years of age and experience of MSHA investigators in study

70

60

50

40

30

20

Number of Investigators

10
0 | oo | :
26-39 40-49 50-59 60+ 0-5 6-10 11-20 21+
Age in Years Years of Experience



Int. J. Emergency Management, Vol. 1, No. 2, 2002 155

A study of burnout in accident investigators in the US
mining industry

Kathleen M. Kowalski and Audrey Podlesny

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,

Pittsburgh Research Laboratory, PO Box 18070,

626 Cochrans Mill Road; Pittsburgh, PA 15236, USA

E-mail: Kkowalski@cdc.gov E-mail: APodlesny@cdc.gov

Abstract: The Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) was administered and scored
for 154 Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) employees from the
US Department of Labor. These employees serve as accident investigators for
serious accidents and fatalities as part of their job duties. During a workshop on
stress designed for them, subjects volunteered anonymous written anecdotes,
confirming and illustrating the findings. The subjects represented locations
across the USA and all mining commodities: coal, metal, non-metal, stone, and
sand and gravel. The Maslach Bumout Inventory assesses three aspects of
experienced burnout: emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation, and reduced
personal accomplishments. The average results of the scores for each of the
three subscales for the study group of MSHA accident investigators fell in the
moderate range. These scores show that the subject population was at some risk
for emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation, tending toward burnout. The
group evidenced a lower sense of personal accomplishment in their jobs,
indicating a higher risk for bumout. From this outcome accident investigators
may be at moderate (note: this does not mean average) risk for burnout. The
authors recommend follow-up with this population — specifically in training to
work with grieving families; and greater organisational support for the accident
investigators in this area would be appropriate.

Keywords: Burnout; accident investigators; occupational safety and health;
job stress,

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Kowalski, K.M. and
Podlesny, A, (2002) ‘A study of bumout in accident investigators in the US
mining industry’, Int. J. Emergency Management, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp.155-169.

Biographical notes: Dr. Kathleen M. Kowalski is a Research Psychologist
with the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, US Department
of Health and Human Services. She is a member and officer of the Board of.
Directors of the International Emergency Management Society.

Audrey Podlesny is a Statistical Assistant with the Surveillance, Statistics, and
Research Support Activity at the Pittsburgh Research Laboratory of the
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.

1 Introduction

In work environments in the mining industry, an accident investigator has an important
job to do. He or she needs to have specific skills and sometimes find themselves in

Copyright © 2002 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.


166 K.M. Kowalski and A. Podlesny

worker, especially from conflicting or unclear tasks, contributed to worker stress. As one
worker reported:

“I was asked by management to go to the deceased miner’s home and spend
some time with his family. At the time it was not clear to me what I was
supposed to do. Things went ok, except it was very hard for me not to get
emotionally involved. The victim was a young man in his 20s. I now
understand why it was so difficult [relating to information provided in class
concerning death at a young age]. It was one of the hardest things I’ve had to
do since I have been with ....” [the agency]. (ill N,)

The depersonalisation score on the inventory suggested the need for the accident
investigators to remove themselves from the personal/human aspect of the job. This need
would be in direct conflict with the assignment of meeting with the family of the
deceased. Continuing in this vein, the majority of anecdotes dealt with the exchanges
with the family of the accident victim and various strategies employed to interact
successfully. One worker reported:

“My method of self-preservation is to distance myself from the emotional side
of the incident. This may seem cold, but in no way means that I’m uncaring or
unfeeling.” (Rob F.)

As noted, the Maslach Inventory evidenced this trait in the moderate depersonalisation
scores, indicating that emotional distancing is evident in this population. The above
example may indicate that this characteristic is a coping mechanism for this accident
investigator.

Many of the accident investigators shared personal experiences triggered by the work
experience of investigating a fatality. Many related the impact of their own personal
family deaths, some indicating that their own loss had made it easier to interact with the
victim’s family, for others, it was more difficult. Others spoke of the more human
philosophical and religious issues concerning death:

“... Two years ago a man was killed in an accident at the mine ... in the two
days following the accident I wrestled with many questions ... my relationship
with God, was I ready to die, since we all do not know when we will die.”

(Robert O.)

“During the on site investigation of a miner who I knew personally in the
community, my mine light kept reflecting off a spot of his blood left at the
scene. The blood had a fluorescent flow as if it was crying out to me to do
something to prevent a recurrence. I promised that day (to a dead man) to be on
guard for potential conditions and be very aggressive in efforts to prevent (the
loss) of another life. I often remember that glow of blood which also prompts a
rededication of my efforts.” (Alvin J.)

One of the characteristics of the mining industry is that it is a small, close-knit
community. Many people in the industry know each other, are related to each other, or
are good friends. Mines are not typically located near large cities, but mostly in rural
areas near small towns. Thus, when there is an accident, it can impact on the entire
mining community. Although workers are assigned investigations in geographic locations
different from their day-to-day work location, many of the subjects had experienced
knowing the victim or family:


A study of burnout in accident investigators in the US mining industry 165

The accident investigators scored in the lower half of the Moderate range for Emotional
Exhaustion. These scores indicate that the investigators are feeling a moderate level of
being emotionally overextended and exhausted in their work.

The Depersonalisation score fell toward the lower end of the Moderate range on the
subscale. The score was 1.8 points from the characterisation indicating a lower level of
burnout. The need to depersonalise may be interpreted as a necessary component in
accident investigation. In other words, purposefully trying to remove oneself from the
personal/human aspect of the job may facilitate successful completion of the job.

The Personal Accomplishment aspect is scored in the opposite direction from
Emotional Exhaustion and Depersonalisation. The Personal Accomplishment score was
in the upper end of the Moderate range, which was 1.1 points from the characterisation,
representing a high level of burnout. This indicates that many of the accident
investigators do not feel personal satisfaction and a sense of accomplishment in their
jobs.

6 Anecdotal data

Discussion of stress and grief may often trigger specific situations or memories for
individuals. Opportunities to share reactions and experiences were a part of the
workshop, and at the end of the workshop the groups were given an opportunity to
anonymously share their experiences in writing. Several major themes emerged in this
shared experience that reflect the stress held by accident investigators. One theme was
the demands placed on the investigator from within the organisation. Another theme dealt
with interactions with grieving families. Finally, a personal theme covering coping with
some of the more philosophical issues concerning death, grief, family values, and
personal safety were found.

The need for the latest information becomes crucial after a serious accident or fatality
in a mine. Information on miner injury and mine conditions direct the initial rescue effort
and allow headquarters to direct the appropriate equipment and skilled workers to the
scene. Unfortunately, continual demands from headquarters for information can interrupt
and slow down the investigation and report-formation process, and give a message of
lack of trust to the investigator. The following quoted experiences reflect organisational
issues. Two investigators in separate experiences noted:

“Management is 90% of the stress. They want pictures, a preliminary report,
and a video immediately. There is inquisition about what you did every minute
and what you ‘should be doing.’ You feel as if they are second guessing you
and they don’t trust you. If a preliminary report is important to headquarters,
then it should be formalised and part of the process ... [I] understand that they
need information, but if I keep getting calls, it interrupts my work.” (Ben C.)

“During the middle of an investigation when I thought I had resolved all
questions and pretty well had answers as to how the accident happened, a high
official (in the agency) called and asked it there was any truth that the body
may have been moved. This really upset me and I asked him where he got this
information and he said it was ‘just a rumour’.” (Albert K.)

Karasek [15] suggested that the amount of work is not as critical to worker health as the
interaction of workload and the amount of control a worker has over the work and related
work processes. This is referred to as ‘decision latitude’. Demands placed upon the


162 K.M. Kowalski and A. Podlesny
3 The instrument

The Maslach Burnout Inventory is a self-administered measure containing three
subscales that assess the different aspects of experienced burnout: emotional exhaustion,
depersonalisation, and reduced personal accomplishments. Subjects usually take
10-15 minutes to complete the inventory. According to Maslach [14] burnout is a
syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation, and reduced personal
accomplishment. A key aspect of the burnout syndrome is increased feelings of
emotional exhaustion. As emotional resources are diminished, there is a feeling that the
worker can no longer give of him/herself at a psychological level. Another aspect of the
burnout syndrome according to Maslach is the development of depersonalisation, which
includes negative and cynical attitudes and feelings. A third aspect of the burnout
syndrome, reduced personal accomplishments, refers to the tendency to evaluate oneself
negatively, particularly with regard to one’s work interactions with people.

Each of these three aspects is measured on separate subscales. The Emotional
Exhaustion subscale assesses feelings of being emotionally overextended and exhausted
by one’s work. The Depersonalisation subscale measures a negative feeling and personal
response toward recipients of one’s service. The Personal Accomplishment subscale
assesses feelings of competence and achievement in one’s work. The frequency that the
inventory respondent experiences feelings related to each subscale is assessed across a
seven-point, fully anchored response format.

Burnout is conceptualised as a continuous variable, ranging from low to moderate to
high degrees of experienced feeling. It is not viewed as a dichotomous variable, which is
either present or absent. A high degree of burnout is reflected in high scores on the
Emotional Exhaustion and Depersonalisation subscales and in a low score on the
Personal Accomplishment subscale. A moderate degree of burnout is reflected in
moderate scores on the three subscales. A low degree of burnout is reflected in low
scores on the Emotional Exhaustion and Depersonalisation subscales and in a high score
on the Personal Accomplishment subscale. The Maslach Burnout Inventory has been
found to be reliable, valid, and easy to administer. A subject responds to 22 statements
using a seven-point Likert scale ranging from never (0) to everyday (6). There were nine
statements scored on the Emotional Exhaustion subscale, five statements were scored on
the Depersonalisation subscale, and eight statements were scored on the Personal
Accomplishment subscale. Examples of statements are found in Figure 4.

Figure 4 Example of Maslach burnout inventory statements

HOW OFTEN: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Never Afow Oncea Afew  Oncea Afew Every day
timesa month timesa © week _—timesa
yearor orless month week
less
HOW Ol
0-6 Statements:

—_—_ I feel I'm positively influencing others people’s lives through my work.
In my work, | deal with emotional problems very calmly.

I've become more callous toward people since | took this job.

a | feel emotionally drained from my work.



158 K.M. Kowalski and A. Podlesny

The full symptom picture needs to be present for more than one to three months and the
disturbance must cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social,
occupational, or other important areas of functioning. Prolonged duress stress disorder
(PDSD) is cumulative in nature but may lead to PTSD manifestations rather than the
more passive and withdrawn exhaustion characteristic of burnout.

The second and more common type of stress is the day-to-day, cumulative stress.
Cumulative stress also has health consequences and may lead to burnout. Pines and
Aronson [5] defined burnout as “a state of physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion
caused by long-term involvement in emotionally demanding situations.”

Obtaining a measurement of stress due to specific work conditions is difficult because
stress in other parts of an individual’s life impacts the work life. Thus, many researchers
are moving toward lifestyle stress measures. Building on the work of others, Hurrell and
Murphy [6] presented a model of job stress and health. To provide a framework for the
reader, this model is presented in Figure 2. As the figure shows, job stress is seen as a
situation in which the working condition interacts with the individual worker
characteristics and results in a disruption, which can lead to a variety of illnesses.

By their nature, certain jobs are more prone to stress than others. For example, people
working in emergencies and disasters may be thought of as normal people exposed to
abnormal circumstances. When these people respond to a medical emergency, a natural
disaster, a terrorist threat, or an underground mining accident, they are exposed to
traumatic situations. Whether these people are first responders, happen to be on the
scene, or highly trained professionals such as rescue teams or emergency personnel, these
workers experience normal human responses to their circumstances. As a result, these
workers tend to be at higher risk for occupational stress illnesses. Certain mine industry
workers may well fall into this category of higher risk because of the hazardous,
changing, dynamic environment in which they must work and the types of tasks they do
daily on the job. The subject population of mine accident investigators falls into this
higher risk category for both cumulative and critical-incident stress. These mine accident
investigators do not perform this duty full time. Most are federal mine safety and health
inspectors who may find they are assigned to an investigation when an accident occurs.
The number of investigations an individual inspector performs may vary widely. In
addition, the subjects were asked to respond according to the accident investigation
aspects of their jobs, thus the authors expected more distress in this area than if
measuring the overall job stress.

1.2 Overview of stress on the job

American workers are working harder and longer than they have in the past two decades
just to maintain their standard of living [7]. The result may be a workforce more at risk
for psychological, physical, and behavioural health problems. During recent healthcare
reform discussions in regard to US workers, the costs associated with work-related
chronic ill health were described as representing a massive drain on the economy, with
occupational stress cited as a reason for the rapid increase in compensation claims [8].
The fact that disability due to job stress alone, without evidence of any physical injury or
illness, is now a compensable condition in about one-half of the states in the USA [9]
adds to potential future economic costs. At the Work, Stress, and Health ‘99 Conference,
sponsored by the American Psychological Association and the National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), it was noted that absences due to stress-related


10

ii

12

A study of burnout in accident investigators in the US mining industry 169

Rosenstock, L. (1997) ‘Work organization at the National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health’, J. Occupational Health Psychology, Vol. 2, pp.7-10.

Kowalski, K.M. (1994) ‘A human response to mine emergencies: the critical incident stress
factor’, 84th Annual Mine Inspectors Institute of America, 12-15 June, Lexington, KY.

Kowalski, K.M. (1995) ‘A human component to consider in your emergency management
plan: the critical incident stress factor’, Safety Science, Vol. 20, pp.115-123.

National Safety Council (1997) Accident Facts, 1997 edition, Itasca, IL.
Maslach, C. (1993) Maslach Burnout Inventory, 2nd ed., Consulting Psychologists Press Inc.,
California.

Karasek, R.A. (1979) “Job demands, decisions latitude and mental strain: implications for job
redesign’, Admin Science Quarterly, Vol. 24, pp.285-307.


A study of burnout in accident investigators in the US mining industry 157

Figure 1 The stress response

Stressor ———> Stress Response => _-Stress-Related Disease

A stressor can be either psycho-social or biogenic. Psycho-social stressors are
environmental events wherein the individual interpretation plays a key role in the onset of
the response. Biogenic stressors involve stimulants such as caffeine, nicotine, and
amphetamines. Biogenic stressors initiate the stress response directly, whereas psycho-
social stressors initiate the response indirectly. Those psycho-social stressors interpreted
as threatening by the individual will initiate a stress response. For example, Cannon {3]
described the fight or flight response, a physical response elicited by perceived
potentially dangerous situations.

There are two stress categories: traumatic stress and cumulative stress. Anyone
coming into contact with an incident that is perceived as threatening, or that threatens his
or her core psychological values and beliefs, may experience traumatic stress. But,
individual workers such as emergency room workers, police officers, firefighters, disaster
workers, and military personnel face traumatic stress more frequently because of the
environments in which they work. This type of stress is directly related to a critical
incident and sometimes referred to as critical-incident stress. Critical-incident stress may
result in physical and psychological reactions including sleep, eating, social disturbances,
nightmares and sometimes flashbacks. With a severe reaction to a critical-incident, the
inability of the individual to adjust to the critical-incident, may result in Post-traumatic
Stress Disorder (PTSD).

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (fourth edition) [4]
defines the essential feature of PTSD as the development of characteristic symptoms
following exposure to an extreme traumatic stressor involving direct personal experience
of an event. This event involves one or more of the following:

¢ actual or threatened death or serious injury

© threat to one’s physical integrity

¢ witnessing an event that involves death or injury

¢ threat to the physical integrity of another person

© — learning about unexpected or violent death, serious harm

¢ threat of death or injury experienced by a family member or other close associate [4].

The person’s response to the event usually involves intense fear, helplessness, or horror
(or in children, the response must involve disorganised or agitated behaviour). The
characteristic symptoms resulting from the exposure to the extreme trauma include:

© persistent re-experiencing of the traumatic event
© persistent avoidance of stimuli associated with the trauma
¢ numbing of the general responsiveness

© persistent symptoms of increased arousal


156 K.M. Kowalski and A. Podlesny

conflicting roles. An accident investigator is expected to uncover the facts, be totally
objective, non-judgmental, analyse the data, and reach a conclusion as to the cause of the
accident. All of these tasks are performed within time constraints, while responding to the
hierarchy in his/her organisation, the needs of the local authorities, and the concerns of
the workers and management at the accident site. He or she must take responsibility for
the conclusion of the investigation, and sometimes represent the facts in a court of law or
to the victim’s family. In addition, the nature of the work places accident investigators in
unexpected situations, as is illustrated in the following experiences of investigators of
fatal accidents in the mining industry.

“T was sent to one accident where a miner was buried under a large roof fall (in
an underground mine). By the time I got there, which was around 10:00 pm
they had not yet been able to locate the miner. I had been told that the accident
had occurred early that morning and the miner was presumed dead. As I was in
the parking lot with a co-worker getting equipment out of the trunk to prepare
to go underground, a kid about thirteen years old rode up to us on a bike and he
said, ‘Are you guys going to find my brother?’ I was caught completely off
guard and am not sure what I said to the kid - but I will never forget his
question.” (Roger P.) [1]
“(The) ... most difficult experience was to deliver the final fatality report to the
family of the worker who was killed. I didn’t know what to expect or how to

handle the situation. It worked out ok, but the time leading up to the actual
meeting was very stressful.” (Duane W.)

“T experienced . . . the stress of interviewing a severely injured individual while
he was still in the hospital a month after the accident. I felt sorrow for the
victim and had difficulty asking him questions about the accident which had
injured him so seriously.” (Andy 8.)

“After a surface mine explosion, we found hundreds of body parts, The more
you looked, the more you found. Afterwards it was hard to walk through a field
without expecting to see something nasty. We couldn’t reach the tops of
damaged structures because it was too unsafe, but the vultures could. The
presence of vultures on top of structures and sailing overhead left a feeling of
helplessness and cruelness that no one would talk about... .” (Karl W.)

These are very competent trained professionals explaining normal human reactions to
difficult circumstances. These are similar to reactions by professional emergency
personnel who respond to natural and man-made disasters.

1.1 The human stress response

Stress is a normal human characteristic. Although there is imperfect agreement on the
nature of human stress, there are some basic shared concepts. Hans Selye [2], an Austrian
endocrinologist, described a consistent pattern of mind-body reactions in 1926. He
referred to this pattern as the rate of ‘wear and tear’ on the body and coined the term
stress, which refers to the general response of the body to any demand placed upon it.
This demand Selye referred to as the stressor. The stressor leads to a stress response. The
stress response in turn can lead to stress-related disease (see Figure 1).


A study of burnout in accident investigators in the US mining industry 167

“After the recovery of the last body ... we [the rescue team] were on our way
outside. It was a cold, clear night and you could see the lights outside from
inside the mine. I felt very strange inside and worried what I was going to say
to the family ... I could hear people crying and praying. What I was worried
about the most was that the young man killed in the roof fall was my friend
who had worked for me some years before. I knew his family and they knew
me. I didn’t know who he was until we almost had him out of the roof fall.”

(Billy J.)

Another example of this community characteristic can be found in the following
examples:

“A fatal accident occurred where the owner of a small mine was killed ... the
second person at the scene was the victim’s nineteen year old son, who helped
in the rescue attempts.” (Sally Y.)

“Recently, I investigated a fatality where a driller had been killed by a falling
rock. The driller, a woman, was a drilling partner with her husband. He was
standing just a few feet from her when she was killed. He told us during the
interviews that he knew she was dead, but he just held her for a while before
getting help. The interview was the toughest that I have ever experienced.”

(Fred B.)

The stress themes discussed are specific to this population and thus it is inappropriate to
generalise the data. The three themes of the demands of the organisation itself, dealing
with the victim’s family and past personal experiences triggered by the work contribute
to the accident investigator’s stress levels and potential burnout. One worker, in summing
up his experience, wrote:
“After one investigation I actually sat back and reflected on how accidents can
happen to anyone including myself. I felt I had to get home right then to see
my wife and children and spend time with them. I then had fears for several
days that my wife or children may be involved in an accident of some sort ....”
(Kenny P.)

This is a normal reaction, though certainly stressful, for an individual in such
circumstances.

7 Conclusion and recommendations

The study group of MSHA accident investigators indicated a tendency toward emotional
exhaustion and depersonalisation on the burnout subscales. In addition, they evidenced a
moderate to low sense of personal accomplishment in their jobs. Thus, this is a group at
moderate risk for burnout. As burnout is conceptualised as a continuous variable, ranging
from low to high — as opposed to a dichotomous variable which is either present or absent
— one would hope for a result of low tendency in a subject population.

Overall, this subject group tended toward burnout, measuring in the moderate range.
In examining the data from the students’ self-report written anecdotes, three major
themes reflecting factors that may contribute to the accident investigators’ stress were
found. These themes were meeting the demands placed on the investigator from within
the organisation, dealing with the grieving families, and the past personal death
experiences of the investigator. A key finding was that the accident investigators did not
evidence a strong sense of personal accomplishment and importance in the job they were