Ground Failures in Coal Mines with 

Weak Roof 

Greg Molinda, MS 

Lead Research Scientist (gdm4@cdc.gov) 

Chris Mark, PhD 

Principal Research Engineer (cnm7@cdc.gov)
	

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) 

P.O. Box 18070, Cochrans Mill Rd. Pgh., PA 15236 

ABSTRACT 

Coal miners who work and travel under supported roof expect to be protected from rock falls. 

However, rock fall accidents and injuries continue to occur in coal mines that have been supported 

according to the roof control plan. Experience at coal mines with large numbers of falls indicates that 

many have weak roof. Control of this roof may require additional ground control measures. An 

understanding of the geologic and stress conditions which lead to roof falls is necessary to assess the 

risk of failure and to design roof reinforcement to improve stability. Six common roof fall types, with 

attached field examples, are described. Roof support practices for each fall type are also described. 

INTRODUCTION 

Unplanned roof failures in coal mines can be caused by a number of different factors. These include 

geologic defects in the roof rock, moisture degradation of shales, extreme loading conditions under high 

cover, multiple seam mining, and inadequate support to name just a few. A large step toward a solution in 

any engineering failure is to understand the causes of the failure. Sometimes the causes of a roof fall 

cannot be determined, but often an investigation of the fall cavity, the condition of the surrounding roof, 

and the geotechnical environment can reveal the root causes. 

NIOSH has investigated roof failure in a number of coal mines in order to illustrate the causes and 

conditions leading up to a roof fall. Roof fall surveillance data indicate that a disproportionately large 

percentage of roof falls come from mines with weak roof [Pappas and Mark 2010]. Weak roof is here 

defined as a roof sequence with a Coal Mine Roof Rating (CMRR) of ≤40, or roof rock with an 

unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of ≤3,500 psi [Mark et al. 2004a]. Geotechnical data was 

collected from a total of 22 mines (Table 1). Mines were selected for investigation based on high roof fall 

rates, or their geographic location in areas like the Illinois or northern Appalachian Basins, which are 

known to have difficult roof conditions. Seventy percent of all CMRR values ≤ 45 included in a NIOSH 
database were from mines located in the Illinois Basin or the Northern Appalachian Basin [Molinda 

2010]. Of the 22 mines included in the study, 9 had roof fall rates in the highest 10% of all underground 

mines [MSHA 2007]. The mines were located in 8 states representing five different coal basins and 11 

coal seams. The database includes 5 long wall and 17 room and pillar mines. The roof geology covers a 

wide range of typical roof lithologies including black shale, gray shale, sandy shale, fireclay, stackrock, 

sandstone, and limestone. The Coal Mine Roof Rating (CMRR) ranges from 30-83 and averages 44. The 

depth of cover ranges from 25-900 ft and averages 325 ft. 

Coal mine roof that falls before the installation of roof bolts can be hazardous. From 1995-2008, 24 

miners were killed while travelling beneath unsupported roof [MSHA 1995-2008]. In that same period, 59 

miners were killed and 5,143 were injured while under permanently supported ground. Additionally, 

19,625 non-injury falls of roof were also reported to MSHA. This situation represents inadequate support, 

often caused by a failure to recognize hazardous geology. When roof falls occur and miners are killed 

under supported ground, roof diagnostics, failure mechanisms, and support procedures must be reexamined. 

Empirical methods rely on estimations of the effect of key geotechnical parameters to build a roof 

stability model which can then be used to design mine openings and prescribe roof support. These 

parameters include roof geology and stress regime. This approach has been successful in developing the 

Analysis of Roof Bolt Selection (ARBS) [Mark et al. 2001] and other NIOSH ground control tools 

including Analysis of Longwall Pillar Stability (ALPS) [Mark 1992], Analysis of Retreat Mining Pillar 

Stability (ARMPS) [Mark and Chase 1997], and Analysis of Multiple Seam Stability (AMSS) [Mark et 

al. 2007]. Difficulties arise when local geologic and stress conditions change and the changes are difficult 

to detect. In these instances, knowledge of the roof fall geology and stress history is necessary to provide 

input for entry design and support. 

Roof Fall Types 

An investigation of roof falls (rock pile and cavity) and adjacent entries may reveal clues to the 

causes of the roof fall [Molinda 2003]. Field investigation of numerous roof falls has resulted in a list of 

common roof fall types. The following is a list of observations and indications from roof fall examination. 

o Rust-stained shear surfaces indicate water inflow which may have weakened the roof. 

o Roof shears or slickensides may indicate severed roof beams. 

o Small rock fragments (<12 in across) in the rock fall pile may indicate rock failure between bolts. 

o Mud bands or rider coals at the top of flat-topped falls may indicate weak zones that separated 

above anchorage. 

o Cutters leading into the roof fall may have initiated roof failure due to roof compression. 

o Long, running, and linear trends in roof falls may indicate a poor mining orientation with respect 

to the local horizontal stress regime. 
 

These roof defects and mining conditions indicate the failure history leading to the roof fall. Once a 

roof fall failure type is recognized, it is easier to design the appropriate roof support. Most roof falls can 

be grouped into one of the following 6 roof fall types, which are described in turn, with individual case 

studies also presented. 

Stackrock Delamination 

Stackrock is a mining term for a sequence of roof rock composed of interbedded sandstone and shale 

layers. The “stack” looks like a tall column of telephone books or news papers (Fig. 1). 

Figure 1: Roof fall in a stackrock sequence. 

The interbeds can 

vary from alternating thin beds (0.1 in) to beds up to several inches thick. While this rock unit can be 

relatively strong perpendicular to bedding (CMRR = 40-60), it is often very weak parallel to bedding. 

Typically, thick stackrock sequences become unstable when subjected to horizontal stress. Stress 

concentrates in the stiffer sandstone beds, causing downward deflection, delamination, and crushing of 

rock at the rib abutment (cutter roof) [Molinda 2003]. Cutter roof is a compressional failure which begins 

on the entry corner and propagates upward into the roof, or begins up in the roof and cuts downward. The 

shear angle bounding the roof block dips at typically 60 degrees and extends upward, often to a strong 

layer which resists shearing. At this point, the cantilevered beam separates from the strong layer, shears 

the opposite wall of the entry, and falls (Fig. 2). 
Figure 2: Stackrock delaminates and cutters form when roof is subjected to horizontal stress 

Six of the mines visited reported problems with stackrock in the roof. Three of the mines are in the 

Illinois Basin and three are in the Northern Appalachian Basin. Since stackrock is a relatively stable 

sequence in the absence of horizontal stress, roof falls related to stackrock may indicate an increased 

horizontal stress is attacking the roof. The average depth of cover over the 6 mines is 280 ft. This 

relatively shallow cover indicates that the horizontal stress is related to a regional, in situ stress field. 

Eight of 22 mines visited report moderate to severe horizontal stress damage to the roof (Fig. 3). Damage 

from horizontal stress can be difficult to control and require a reorientation of the mine workings to 

reduce damage. 

Figure 3: Distribution of horizontal stress damage in study mines. 
The stackrock is a result of overbank deposits from river channel flooding and is often an indication 

that sandstone is nearby in the roof. The stackrock may coarsen upward or grade laterally to sandstone. 

Stackrock is often termed “adverse’ in the roof control plan, and secondary support must be installed to 

control it. Roof falls in stackrock are often high (25-30 ft) and the rock pile is characterized by large slabs 

spanning bolts or thick sequences of rock which has fallen intact. 

Some mines track the occurrence of stackrock with test holes which are required at intervals, usually 

every intersection or sometimes as frequently as every 20 ft. Other data can be obtained from longwall 

face maps, and regular face mapping in advancing room and pillar mines. Surface exploration holes 

provide less useful data because they are too widely spaced. Often maps based on data from surface 

exploration holes feature large “bullseyes”, indicating that the data is insufficient for meaningful 

contouring [Mark et al. , 2004b]. Such mapping may even mislead engineers as to the nature of the 

stackrock deposit. 

At a mine in the Upper Freeport seam in eastern Ohio, massive sandstone lenses (20-50 ft thick) 

invade the roof intermittently (Fig. 4). 

Figure 4: Stackrock sequence occur on the margins of sandstone channels. 

The mine is also subjected to a high horizontal stress oriented E-W. 

When the sandstone forms the immediate roof, conditions are excellent. Massive sandstone roof that has 

been exposed by mining for 40 years has survived with very little damage. Along the margins of these 

channel lenses however, the stackrock sequences occur at various levels ranging from immediate roof to 

10-20 ft into the roof. Horizontal stress attacks these sequences resulting in roof falls oriented N-S. The 

strong E-W stress field is also indicated by roof cutters and roof falls ripping N-S despite having to jigsaw 

around pillars. Cutter roof is common and often leads into roof falls. Where stackrock approaches the 

roof, stress damage is more frequent. In addition, water associated with the sandstone may also begin to 

drip through the roof, further weakening the rock. 
At the Ohio mine, roof cutters are worse where roof bolt spans to the rib are large. Roof bolts were 

observed to be up to 48 in from the rib in some places. Installing bolts close to ribs will help to control 

cutter roof and prevent its propagation. Angling longer corner bolts through the cutter to anchor over the 

rib is also a preferred control for cutter roof. Some mines have added an additional “cutter” bolt to the 

row pattern just to fulfill this function. In difficult cases, roof trusses have been effective, provided they 

maintain contact with the roof and have adequate surface control. 

Since stackrock, when coupled with horizontal stress, results in roof falls, finding the optimum 

mining orientation is the first job in improving roof conditions. This can be accomplished by first 

determining the local horizontal stress field. Roof fall orientation analysis and mapping of roof pots and 

cutters can provide the determination [Mark and Mucho 1994; Mark and Gadde 2008]. The optimum 

orientation can then be determined by using the Analysis of Horizontal Stress in Mining (AHSM) 

program developed by NIOSH. Development as close to parallel to the regional stress field as possible 

will minimize entry corner damage and roof pots. 

MINE A – CASE STUDY OF STACKROCK ROOF 

The study mine is a room and pillar mine located in the Illinois Basin and is mining the No. 5 seam. 

The depth of cover ranges from 150-350 ft with a mining height of 7-8 ft. There are three different roof 

geologies. 1. Black shale/limestone 2. Thick Dykersburg Shale 3. Stackrock. The stackrock presents the 

most difficult roof conditions. The mine maps sandstone in the roof and has identified complete coal seam 

washouts where the coal has been replaced by thick sandstone paleochannels. No mining takes place in 

proximity to these areas. To access reserves, a set of main entries was driven between the two sandstone 

washouts (Fig. 5). Numerous roof falls occurred and roof conditions were generally poor, requiring 

supplemental support. Between the sandstone washouts the roof consists of approximately 10 ft of 

Dykersburg shale overlain with 20-40 ft of stackrock (Fig. 6). Water associated with the sandstone and 

stackrock sequences drips through the roof and acts to weaken the soft shale below. A number of roof 

falls expose this stackrock in the fall cavity. There is evidence of an East-West regional stress field 

attacking the mine roof. A number of roof falls are oriented in N-S crosscuts on a separate development. 

Some falls have cutters leading into the roof fall cavity and some floor heave provides additional evidence 

of horizontal stress. Buckling and crushing of the stackrock sequence is seen on the intact margins of the 

roof falls (Fig.7). The stress field appears to be concentrated in the stackrock sequence above the shale, 

causing buckling of the underlying weak shale resulting in a roof fall. There does not appear to be stress 

damage in the roof where the shale is thicker than 20 ft or there is no evidence of overlying stackrock or 

sandstone. 
Figure 5: Poor roof conditions occurred when mining in stackrock between two channel washouts. 

Figure 6: Cross section of stackrock sequences causing poor roof conditions on the margins of 

paleochannels. 
Figure 7: Roof buckling and cutter roof due to horizontal stress. 

Figure 8: Roof shears can destroy the continuity of the roof beam. 
In another area where the stackrock comes right down on the coal seam, large domed falls reaching 

20-30 ft high occur (Fig. 1). Horizontal slippage and failure along bedding causes mid-entry crushing 

leading to the roof falls. The two channel sandstone washouts of the coal seam are part of the same 

surface drainage system present at the time of coal deposition. The stackrock sequences represent 

overbank transition zones along the margins of the channels and intersect between the channels (Fig. 6). 

When sandstone channels come close to the coal seam, stackrock sequences can be expected in the 

vicinity. 

Cable bolts were installed in the travelway of the mains between the two sandstone washouts. The 

travelway had two rows of cable bolts with a third row added in the intersections. There were very few 

falls in the travelway and numerous falls in the adjacent uncabled entries. Cable bolts are soft supports 

that stretch to allow some roof beam movement while the support is maintained intact, thus preserving the 

beam. Since stackrock delamination is often accompanied by bedding slippage, another bolting strategy 

may be to try to prevent bedding slippage with a dense pattern of large diameter (7/8 in.), fully grouted 

bolts concentrated in the intersections. If the roof beam can be maintained intact, it may be suspended 

with long cables should separation occur above roof bolt anchorage. 

Roof Defects 

The second failure mechanism is characterized by defective roof. These defects, or discontinuities, 

destroy the continuity of the roof beam, leading to key block failure. Many of the structures that occur in 

coal mine roof were created during deposition and compaction of peat or shortly thereafter. These include 

paleochannels, clay veins, kettlebottoms, slips, shears, pinchouts, lag deposits, concretions, rolls, or small 

faults [Molinda 2003; Molinda and Ingram 1991; Ingram and Molinda 1990; Ingram and Chase 1987; 

McCulloch et al. 1975]. The size of the features that most often affects coalbeds can be measured from 

inches to tens of feet. Roof bolt support of flatlying coal measure rocks relies on the strength of a clamped 

beam or the suspension of a clamped beam. When a structural defect (crosscutting or parallel to bedding) 

partially or completely severs or splits the beam, roof failure can occur (Fig. 8). A number of mines in the 

Illinois basin have large faults which are intersected by mining. The faults are most often normal faults 

caused by a tensional tearing of the crust (Fig. 9). Other faults are hinge faults or scissors-like faults that 

have large vertical offsets (20-30 ft) which reduce down to nothing at the hinge. Developments are often 

stopped at these faults, and roof conditions can be hazardous. 
Figure 9: Normal fault causes roof damage in an Indiana coal mine. 

Figure 10: Slickensided failure planes cause hazardous roof conditions. 
Slickensided roof, often called “horsebacks”, features a slick, glassy failure zone caused by small 

scale faulting of clay minerals in shale. These features are hazardous because they have low cohesion and 

bound roof blocks, which can fall without warning. In 14 of 59 rock fall fatalities that occurred from 

1995-2008 in supported ground, horsebacks or slips were identified as contributing to the rock fall. 

Horsebacks can be hazardous on several different levels [Molinda 2003]. Often the slickensides loosen 

and fall immediately when undermined. This creates an uneven and lumpy roof which is difficult to bolt. 

(Fig. 10, 11). Another hazard occurs after defective roof blocks are bolted up. With time these blocks can 

loosen and fall between bolts. Fatalities have occurred when roof blocks bounded by shear planes have 

fallen between roof bolts. If horsebacks are large, the failure plane reaches above the roof bolt anchorage 

and massive roof falls can occur. All of the mines visited for this study had slips and horseback 

occurrences in the roof, but numerous mines in the Illinois Basin had particular difficulties with these 

features. 

Figure 11: Slickensided failure planes cause hazardous roof conditions. 
Figure 12: Joints in black shale can loosen with time causing spalling roof. 

Figure 13: Siderite nodules present roof hazards. 
 

One mine in western Kentucky has poor roof conditions beneath surface stream valleys. Horsebacks 

and shears tend to increase under the valleys. Very little evidence of horizontal stress damage is seen in 

the mine. Overburden is in the 200-250 ft range so the poor conditions are not likely due to active 

horizontal stress concentrations under the valleys. Valley stress relief causes buckling and overthrusting 

beneath valleys as overburden pressures are transferred laterally into the unconfined strata under the 

valley [Fergusen and Hamel 1981; Molinda et al. 1992]. In addition to broken roof, these structures allow 

access to surface and formation water, further weakening the roof. 

Clay veins (or clay dikes) have long plagued underground coal mines from Illinois to Virginia. At the 

time of deposition and initial burial, tensional failure in the roof sediments caused an inflow of soft clays. 

During burial and compaction, these zones form slickensides and can become glide zones as horizontal 

stresses deform the roof. Damberger attributed these zones to earthquakes occurring shortly after peat 

deposition when the coalbed was still in a gel-like phase [Damberger 1973]. Clay veins affect both the 

No. 5 and 6 seams in the Illinois Basin. 

A number of mines in both the #5 and #6 seam have black shale as the immediate roof strata. The 

black shale is highly resistant to moisture-induced deterioration and so resists slaking [Molinda et al. 

2008; Molinda and Klemetti 2008, Molinda et al. 2006]. However, black shales in general are 

characterized by well-developed vertical jointing (spacing approx. 4 in) (Fig. 12). With time the joints 

relax, separate, and the rock between them falls away from the roof. This causes loss of bolt tension and 

also exposes moisture-sensitive shales above to mine humidity. The black shales also are well known for 

the occurrence of bands of siderite nodules. These nodules can be up to 3-4 ft across and are extremely 

hard to cut and drill. Continuous miner bits have been broken off when contacting the nodules (Fig. 13). 

Figure 14: Energy shale wedges are marked by large shears which form horsebacks. 
Discontinuities bound isolated blocks in the roof and promote key block failure. These blocks can fall 

out due to gravity unless some restraining force acts on them. Some residual horizontal stress can benefit 

the roof beam and act to confine the blocks in compression, as long as it is not great enough to damage 

the roof. 

Roof reinforcement for discontinuities should first start with detection. While it is impossible to 

detect slips with surface holes, mapping of adjacent entries can allow projection of roof defects in 

advance of mining. Once discontinuities are detected, roof bolt density should be determined by the 

frequency and spacing of the defects. High coverage steel screen can also provide confinement to 

detached blocks and prevent progressive unraveling leading to roof fall. Roof trusses can also be 

considered for increasing surface coverage and rock confinement. 

MINE B – CASE STUDY OF ROOF DEFECTS 

A room and pillar mine located in the Illinois Basin is mining the Herrin No. 6 seam under 

approximately 200 ft of cover. The mine operates a single super section with a mining height of 5.3 ft. 

There are two types of roof geology: 

1. Roof type #1 - 1.5 ft of Anna shale overlain by 4-5 ft of Brereton limestone. 

2. Roof type #2 - thick Energy shale 

There is rarely a roof fall in the black shale/Brereton limestone roof (roof fall rate = 0% in the study 

area) because the limestone is generally thick and strong enough to be self-supporting. The limestone is 

typically within 1-2 ft of the roof. Where the limestone is present within 2 ft of the roof, 3 ft bolts are 

installed and are required to anchor at least 12 in into the limestone. The limestone roof accounts for 

approximately 60% of exposed roof and is easily detected by drilling. The operator documented the 

limestone roof areas by using the 3 ft bolts as indicators. The underlying black shale is mechanically weak 

and sags with time. Steel screen is holding a substantial amount of rock and helps to maintain the roof 

line. 

The Energy shale occurs in large wedges and represents overbank deposits from the ancient 

Walshville channel system which transects the coal in the southern part of the basin [Krausse et al. 1979]. 

The Energy shale consists of numerous facies including dark gray shales, siltstones, and stackrock. A 

marine transgression followed Energy shale deposition, causing the black shale/limestone to be deposited 

over top of the Energy shale wedges nearest the channel floodplain. The Energy shale “wedges” are 

erratic and very difficult to anticipate. They have only been successfully mapped from underground 

exposures. The Energy shale is marked with rolls and shear bodies which are highly slickensided and 

contorted. These intersecting shears and horsebacks bound key blocks ranging from inches across to 10-

20 ft across, and cause them to fall out on mining (Fig. 14). The shears can also extend over the rib, 

isolating large brows which can slide into the entry. This can happen on the active section, making them 

particularly hazardous. The “horsebacks” also can loosen and fall after bolting if they are located between 

bolts. The falls show some time-dependency, indicating a relaxing of the slip surface. 

The roof fall rate (ft of fall/ft of entry) in the study area for the Energy shale is 2% compared to 0% 

for the black shale/limestone roof. If 1 ft of limestone anchorage cannot be achieved with a 3 ft bolt, then 

a 6 ft bolt is installed. If a roof crack is encountered during test drilling or the entry is sagging or 

“adverse”, then an 8 ft bolt or cable bolt is installed in the Energy shale, depending on the height of the 

separation. 
The mine has been successful covering the roof with steel screen, with a subsequent reduction in rock 

fall injuries. In potted and lumpy roof, the screen is formed to cover the roof cavity and prevent 

subsequent block and slab separation. In fractured roof, cables are more effective if steel screen 

confinement is provided to slabs between bolts so that the loads can be transferred to the cables. In 

extreme loading, cables can be post-grouted with polyurethane to consolidate the roof beam. When 

maintaining contact with the roof, trusses are effective in supporting roof blocks bounded by angled slips. 

Trusses also benefit from the confinement provided by steel screen. The mine installs a double row of 

bolts on the last row of a cut in order to prevent “horsebacks” from riding over into the bolted place where 

the operator stands. In addition to roof cavities, tall ribs are created in the weak Energy shale, posing 

sloughage problems. Steel screen can also provide rib support. 

A number of mines in southern Illinois and Kentucky are intersected by normal faults. These 

extensional faults have also caused poor roof conditions at the study mine. A normal fault zone, over 

1000 ft long, intersects the roof and offsets the coalbed by 2-3 ft. Large vertical fault planes transect the 

roof over a 600 ft wide zone. An igneous dike has intruded one fault plane. This zone is marked by 

numerous roof falls. When the vertical fault planes intersect the localized shears in the Energy shale, roof 

falls occur. Roof bolts and cable bolts installed vertically are ineffective in supporting vertical shear 

planes. Angled bolts and trusses are more effective in intersecting the fault planes. 

Cutter Roof 

Cutter roof refers to damage of coal mine roof caused by horizontal compression and crushing of roof 

rock. This most often occurs at the intersection of roof and rib, but can occur in the center of the entry or 

anywhere in the entry. The damage is caused by horizontal stress acting to shorten and crush the roof 

[Gale 1986; Mark 1991; Hasenfus and Su 2006; Mark and Gadde 2008]. The damage is more common in 

weak rocks but has been documented to occur in stackrock (as described earlier), and even in limestone in 

near-surface stone mines [Iannachione et al. 2001]. Cutter roof is a progressive failure and can lead to 

guttering, which is more extensive rock damage along the roof and rib intersection. This guttering can 

extend above the roof bolt anchorage horizon. In thick shale sequences the roof beam stays intact and the 

cutter works upward along the ribline causing a cantilevered roof and finally a roof fall (Fig. 2). Cutting 

usually occurs on the working section either running out of the newly exposed face, or shortly after 

mining (Fig. 15). While cutter roof often damages the roof at the working face, roof falls may not occur 

until months after mining when guttering has progressively severed the roof beam. Investigation of the 

roof surrounding the fall will often show cutter roof leading up to the roof fall, indicating cutter roof to be 

the cause of the fall. The initial failure, usually begins in an intersection. After the intersection falls out, 

the fall can progress to long, running falls perpendicular to the direction of maximum principal stress. A 

number of roof damage features, including potting, stitching, rock flour, cutting, and guttering indicate of 

the presence of horizontal stress and its orientation [Mark and Mucho 1994] (Fig. 16). 
Figure 15: Cutter roof in thick shale roof sequence. 

Figure 16: Roof pot and rock stitching caused by horizontal stress. 
 

MINE C – CASE STUDY OF CUTTER ROOF
	

A mine in the Illinois Basin is working the #9 seam under approximately 350 ft of cover. Seam height 

is 70 inches with 8-10 inches of drawrock taken, for a total mining height of 80 inches. The roof geology 

consists of 4 ft of dark gray to black laminated shale, overlain by an 8 in thick mud layer, overlain by a 

massive, poorly bedded shale. The black shale immediate roof is typically resistant to moisturedeterioration, but the overlying gray shale is moisture-sensitive. The roof is attacked by a horizontal stress 

field oriented approximately East – West to N. 80 E. This stress field orientation is consistent with other 

horizontal stress measurements in the basin [Ingram and Molinda 1990] Roof potting, guttering, and other 

stress damage was observed to lead into roof falls. Crosscuts on the left side of several production panels 

showed far more damage than crosscuts on the right side. The crosscuts on the left side are oriented at a 

larger angle to the E-W stress field (62 degrees) than those on the right side of panel (10 degrees). As a 

result, roof potting and guttering is more severe. (Fig. 17). 

Figure 17: Stress damage is more severe on the left side of a production panel than on the right side. 
Although the black shale is unreactive to moisture, it can be damaged and crushed by horizontal 

stress. Once this shale is damaged and falls away, the overlying mud band and moisture-sensitive gray 

shale is exposed. This leads to deterioration and chandelier bolts (Fig. 18). This type of failure was 

observed around the margins of several roof falls. 

Figure 18: Exposure of moisture-sensitive gray shale leads to chandelier bolts. 

Reorientation of developments or angling of crosscuts is the first remedy to minimizing damage from 

horizontal stress. Roof bolts nearest the rib can be angled to intersect the cutter and anchor over the stable 

rib. Cable bolts are often installed systematically in intersections to suspend the roof beam from a stable 

anchorage. 

Figure 19: Unraveling of rock between bolts leads to roof fall. 
 

Spalling Roof 

Roof spalling is the fall of rock between bolts. It can progress upwards, eventually above the roof bolt 

anchorage (Fig. 19). Rock spalling between bolts can be due to several factors. Poor bedding cohesion or 

a weak rock matrix can allow separation and scale to form between bolts (Fig. 20, 21). 

Figure 20: Progressive roof spalling leads to roof fall. 

The separation can 

be driven by horizontal stress or by gravity. Roof separation above bolt anchorage then compromises the 

roof beam and can lead to roof fall. The other mechanism is weathering of moisture-sensitive rocks. 

Moisture can weaken clay-rich shales and cause swelling, creating downward pressure on the roof, 

fracturing already-weak rocks [Molinda et. al. 2006]. This unraveling can eventually progress to a roof 

fall. A number of mines in the Illinois Basin have time-dependant deterioration of the roof leading to roof 

falls. Roof falls can continue to happen years after mining. Many studies show that mudrocks weaken 

with exposure to moisture [Mark et al. 2004a; Huang 1986; Cummings and Singh 1981; Aughenbaugh 

and Bruzewski 1976]. It may be this moisture-deterioration which explains some long-term roof falls. 
Figure 21: Weak cohesion in a roof fireclay leads to fall between bolts. 

The roof beam must be maintained between bolts as well as across the entry. Typical roof bolt 

patterns in the U.S. (4 ft x 4 ft) are largely adequate for much of coal measure roof. For a smaller 

proportion of weak roof, the typical roof bolt patterns may be inadequate. In the case of weak, moisturesensitive rock in a coal mine, the typical 4 ft roof bolt span, without effective surface control, may lead to 

unraveling between the bolts (Fig. 22). Van der Merwe [2001] found that 27% of all roof falls studied in 

South Africa were caused by bolt spacing that was too wide. Increasing the roof bolt density, and/or 

improving the surface control can help to reduce both rock fall injuries and roof falls in weak rock 
 

Figure 22: Progressive spalling between roof bolts in a moisture-sensitive roof shale. 

Figure 23: Rock pile below rib gutter is due to disaggregation of weak roof shale. 
Figure 24: Rock disaggregation between bolts extends nearly to bolt anchorage. 

Figure 25: Deterioration of black shale exposing moisture-sensitive gray shale in a western Kentucky 

mine. 
 

Spalling failure occurs in most coal basins. Eighteen of 22 mines visited in this study had some roof 

deterioration due to weak and moisture-sensitive roof rock. This condition is particularly prevalent in the 

Illinois Basin. Nine of 10 mines visited from the Illinois Basin had some roof damage due to moisturesensitivity. 

Evidence for this spalling type of disaggregating failure between bolts in weak rock can be seen in the 

rock pile below a roof fall. It is not uncommon to see small pieces of rock (8-15 inches across) which are 

piled up almost as though dumped from a truck (Figure 23). It is unlikely that the rock was broken this 

way from the impact of hitting the ground. Instead, the whole rock mass probably became fragmented 

between bolts and unraveled intermittently as small pieces. In very weak rock, spalling between bolts is 

common (Figure 24). In such potted roof, the rock mass was not even coherent enough to load the bolts 

and pull them from their anchorage. In fact, it is unlikely that these roof bolts ever saw any significant 

loads. As the rock unraveled, sometimes to the point that the plate is left with no rock contact, the 

reinforcing value of the roof bolts is reduced. A roof bolt plate that spins indicates no plate load and resupport may be necessary. Roof marked by chandelier bolts (hanging roof bolts or roof bolts that have 

columns of rock isolated around them) is often described as both “undersupported” and “unsupported”, 

depending on the depth of “chandeliering” (Fig. 18). 

The use of full column resin bolts is particularly important in very weak rock. The rock-resin 

interface facilitates load transfer to the bolt and resists vertical bed separation. In addition, full column 

grouting helps to resist bedding shear, which is the beginning of roof sag and unraveling. 

Figure 26: Time-dependent roof deterioration in an Illinois basin coal mine. 

A common roof sequence in the No. 5 and 6 seams in the Illinois basin has an immediate black shale 

(12-24 in) overlain by thick gray shale. This roof can experience failure by mechanical disintegration of 

the black shale exposing the overlying moisture-sensitive gray shale. The black shale, while not moisture-
sensitive, is often well-jointed. With time (3-5 years), the joints loosen and the black shale spalls away, 

exposing the highly moisture-sensitive gray shale. This rock weathers quickly, leaving chandelier bolts 

and roof potting progressing towards roof fall. (Figure 25). This process was observed at a mine in 

western Ky. The roof consisted of 12 in of black shale overlain by 20-30 ft of gray shale. The Coal Mine 

Roof Rating ranges from 39 (dry roof) to 36 (Ground water exposed). Immersion testing in water 

indicated moderate-severe moisture-sensitivity of the overlying gray shale. Roof falls in older workings 

were extending and increasing in numbers, indicating a time-dependence related to continued roof 

deterioration (Fig. 26). Since the damage also extended well into the mine, it seemed likely that the 

deterioration was only partially caused by weathering due to mine ventilation humidity, and partly from 

progressive mechanical failure along bedding. Torque-tension bolts are used in the primary pattern. These 

bolts are not fully grouted. In weak rock that spalls and fails around bolts, tension may be quickly lost as 

rock moves along bedding defects. It may be important to install a roof bolt with a full column of resin in 

order to maintain rock contact and resistance. 

Figure 27: Roof screen holding a large amount of broken rock. 

At the same mine, timbers were installed at the entrance to crosscuts for support. Where the roof was 

heavy and sagging, and floor heave also occurred, the timbers would punch through the black shale. This 

exposed the gray shale to deterioration, leading to progressive roof falls. This mechanism may explain the 

time-dependent roof failure. As a result, the mine replaced the timbers with 9 ft point-anchored bolts (7/8 

in diameter). 
MINE D – A CASE STUDY OF SPALLING ROOF 

An underground mine in the Illinois Basin is mining in the No. 6 seam. The roof is composed of 

Energy shale which has two facies: 

1. 0-6 ft of laminated shale 

2. ≥6 ft of gray shale. 

Both of the rock types are extremely weak (breakable by hand) and moisture-sensitive (complete 

disintegration within one hour of water immersion). There is a weak-moderate horizontal stress field, 

oriented E-W, attacking the roof. Roof falls are oriented N-S. The biaxial stress field is not overwhelming 

but strong enough to cut the weak roof shale (UCS = 1,200 psi). A small stress cutter develops on the 

ribline in entries oriented N-S and again on the box cut in the entry center. Once these cutters open up the 

roof, infiltrating moisture begins to deteriorate the roof. Weathering begins to occur within one month of 

roof exposure and is worst nearest the intake shaft and intake entries. Roof screens bag and are holding a 

large amount of broken rock (Fig. 27). Without the screen, much of the roof would likely be on the floor. 

At the study mine roof deterioration and falls are time-dependant and much more frequent in the older 

workings (Fig. 28). 

1983 

1985 

1987 

1989 

1991 

1993 

1995 

1997 

1999 

2001 

2003 

2005 

0. 0 

0. 5 

1. 0 

1. 5 

2. 0 

2. 5 

3. 0 

3. 5 

Roof Fall Rate (falls/200,000 hrs) 

Year 

Figure 28: Reportable roof falls increase with time and roof deterioration at an Illinois mine. 

More than 90% of the falls occur 2 or more years after mining. Roof falls are directly 

related to deterioration of rock between bolts. Roof and rib damage due to weathering steadily decreases 

when travelling away from the shaft from older workings into newer workings. Roof falls typically begin 

to occur 4-7 yrs after mining after rib guttering has severed the roof beam. In places where there is 

humidity roof conditions are extremely poor. 

Such extreme weakness and moisture-sensitivity forced the mine to reduce entry width to 16 ft, and 

use a dense 6 bolts per row roof pattern to cut down the spacing between roof bolts. Each row consists of 

four, 9 ft, point anchored, resin-assisted bolts, with two 4 ft “cutter” bolts angled over the rib to support 

the corner. The entire roof was screened with welded steel wire. Even though the roof is essentially 

rubbleized, the roof screen, supported by the dense roof bolt pattern, is effectively controlling it (Fig. 29). 
Figure 29: The rubbleized roof is effectively controlled by roof screen. 

In the highly fractured roof, installed bolt tension can quickly dissipate. When the roof screen loads from 

spalling rock, it effectively transfers load to the roof bolts and makes them again active. 

The effectiveness of the roof screen in preventing roof falls can be demonstrated by contrasting the 

screened area with one that was not been screened. This area is four years old. Extreme deterioration 

around roof bolts leading to roof falls has occurred. Rock piles on the floor from roof deterioration are 4-5 

ft high. The adjacent workings were fully screened after mining, and, even though these screened 

workings are over 14 yrs old, the entry is intact. Figure 30 shows the contact between screened and 

unscreened areas. The area that is not screened is impassible. The screened area, even though the roof is 

extremely broken, is still intact. The adjacent belt entry was screened and stands perfectly in contrast to 

the unscreened entry. The roof screen provides the confinement between bolts to arrest upward unraveling 

and transfer rock load to the roof bolts. 
Figure 30: The screened entry is stable and the floor is clear. The unscreened entry is impassable. 

The roof fall rate was calculated for those areas where roof screen was installed, and compared 

against those areas with no roof screen. The roof fall rate was 10.1 falls/10,000 ft of drivage for 

unscreened areas and was reduced to 2.5 roof falls/10,000 ft of drivage for areas with full screen. Roof 

fall injuries also decreased dramatically in the screened areas (Fig. 31). 

1983 

1985 

1987 

1989 

1991 

1993 

1995 

1997 

1999 

2001 

2003 

2005 

0 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

Roof fall injuries

Roof 

screening 

began 

Figure 31: Roof fall injuries dropped dramatically with the use of roof screen at an Illinois coal mine. 

In the initial screen installation at the mine, the roof screen extends only to within 18 in of the rib line. 

The unscreened corner allowed severe guttering to progress high up into the roof beam (Fig. 23). The 

problems were worst where the entry had been inadvertently cut wide, leaving unscreened roof in the 

corner. With time the corner guttering developed into roof falls even in screened entries. To control the 

guttering and brow development, the later steel screen installations were extended halfway down the rib 

(Fig. 32). Experience showed that corner guttering could even be arrested after it began. The mine used a 
special tool to push screen up into gutters to allow fallen rock piling up on the screen to confine the gutter 

(Fig. 33). After full roof and rib screening was introduced, roof falls were essentially eliminated. 

Figure 32: Rib and corner screening controls rib line guttering. 

Figure 33: Screening of rib gutters can stop further deterioration. 
In such extreme roof deterioration, reduced entry width, high density bolting patterns, and full surface 

control have allowed mining to continue. The use of head coal to protect the reactive shale has also been 

effective. The mine has also been successful when using a spray-on sealant in a limited area of the belt. 

Sandstone Bodies in the Roof 

The effect of sandstone-filled channels on coal mine roof is well documented [Molinda 2003; Ingram 

and Molinda 1990; Ingram and Chase 1987; Kertis 1985; McCabe and Pascoe 1978; McCulloch et al. 

1975]. Of the 22 mines in the database, 18 report that sandstone in the roof impacts roof stability. There 

are 4 main ways that sandstone can affect the roof. 

o The sandstone is within roof bolt reach and provides a stable and competent roof. 

o The sandstone margin is slickensided and disturbed, and causes poor roof conditions. 

o The sandstone is a groundwater aquifer which introduces water that infiltrates into the moisture 

sensitive, slickensided shales below, weakening the rock and causing roof falls. 

o Stackrock can form on the margins of sandstone channels and horizontal stress can concentrate in 

this rock, damaging the roof. 

A number of mines in the Illinois Basin track the location of sandstone bodies in the roof in both the 

#5 and #6 seams. When a sandstone body gets within approximately 15-20 ft of the coal seam, roof 

conditions often deteriorate. The frequency of slickensides and horsebacks associated with differential 

compaction increases beneath the sandstone bodies. Water inflows also increase, especially from longer, 

ungrouted cable bolt holes. 

When the sandstone body is within reach of the roof bolts, the roof can be supported in suspension. 

Perhaps the most straightforward roof support method is suspension of an underlying rock mass from an 

adequate anchor rock. If a substantial anchorage can be achieved, then the required roof bolt capacity can 

be determined from a simple dead load calculation. Where this anchorage can not be achieved, separation 

at the contact can occur and result in roof fall (Fig. 34). Again, this type of roof support relies on the 

competence of the suspended rock mass and its’ ability to stay intact. In the Illinois Basin, when marine 

roof conditions prevail, limestone can also provide a significant anchorage horizon. 
Figure 34: Failure to reach a stable anchorage with roof bolts can result in a roof fall. 

Many of the roof sequences in the Illinois Basin were formed when marine waters inundated coal 

swamps. In non-marine conditions, sandstone channels locally come down within reach of roof bolts to 

make good bolt anchorage. This situation is often short-lived as the sandstone channels may continue and 

cut out the coal bed completely. The margins of sandstone channel cutouts can be extremely hazardous 

because of sharp angular contacts and soft sediment disruptions. A Pittsburgh seam mine in WVa. had 

good roof when the sandstone layer laid directly on the coal seam. On the margins of this channel 

sandstone, slickensided “soapstone”, and disrupted rider seams fell out on mining and formed a lumpy, 

uneven roof (Fig. 35). 

Figure 35: Hazardous roof conditions occur on the margins of a sandstone channel at a West Virginia 

mine. 

As a result the mine had numerous roof falls and rock fall injuries from rock falling 

between roof bolts. Longer roof bolts and cable bolts were required to reach the sandstone anchorage. 
Cable bolts can be relied upon, through suspension, to transfer the load of the intact beam to a point in 

the roof far removed from rock unraveling. Again, it is important to take into consideration the 

competency of the rock mass in the design of cable bolts. A rock load height calculation is only one factor 

in the design. While a single massive cable bolt may have the same capacity as four smaller roof bolts, it 

is not correct to assume it has the same reinforcing value. A denser cable bolt pattern may be necessary to 

distribute the load and preserve the roof beam. 

MINE E – A CASE STUDY OF SANDSTONE IN THE ROOF 

A mine working the #5 seam in the Illinois Basin had 39 reportable roof falls in less than 15 months 

of operation. The roof consists of 6-24 inches of black shale overlain by 0-20 feet of weak, poorly 

bedded, moisture-sensitive gray shale. Overlying the gray shale is a massive sandstone layer 30-40 ft 

thick. Fifteen of 39 roof falls had sandstone exposed in the fall or water associated with sandstone. Slips, 

often occurring beneath or adjacent to the sandstone, were observed in 21 falls. The water associated with 

the sandstone may compromise the roof in several ways: 

• water swells the gray shale and causes roof bulking and damage. 

• water pressure damages the weakened gray shale. 

• water causes chemical weathering of the shale and reduces its strength. 

Falls occur several weeks to months after mining with very few falls occurring on the working 

section. This time-dependency may be an indication of the progressive roof damage from water inflow. 

The mine operators’ measurement indicated that all of the falls took place where the sandstone was less 

than 18 ft above the coal seam. The roof fall rate where the sandstone is less than 15 feet over the coal 

seam is 6 times greater than the rate when the sandstone is more than 15 ft above the coal seam. 

The roof falls average 8-12 ft high and usually extend to a flat top at the sandstone boundary. The 

gray shale below the sandstone is extremely moisture-sensitive. When exposed to formation water it 

swells and dislodges slickensided roof blocks. When downward pressure is put on the highly-jointed 

black shale it is easily fractured and falls. Once the black shale confinement is removed, the overlying 

gray shales are exposed to mine air humidity and quickly deteriorate, spalling progressively upward. 

In weak roof, intersections are vulnerable because of their greater spans. The rock load that must be 

carried in suspension by the supports is proportional to the cube of the intersection span [Molinda et al. 

1998]. Minimizing the intersection span, often accomplished by reducing the number of turnouts, can 

therefore significantly reduce the support requirements. 

Due to the soft and moisture-reactive roof rock, secondary support including posts, trusses, cable 

bolts, and Propsetters are routinely installed in high value entries and intersections. When the sandstone is 

located near the coal seam, cable bolts can be sized to anchor into the massive sandstone. 

Test holes every intersection provide data to effectively track the sandstone body. Surface drill data is 

not dense enough to provide the detail to track rapid changes in sandstone height. One issue is the 

introduction of water to the roof sequence through long test holes. On the other hand, even when the 

sandstone body is 15-20 ft above the roof, the water will find its way into the roof sequence even without 

a test hole. The test hole may actually provide a conduit for relieving water pressure and draining the roof. 
At this mine the correlation of roof falls to sandstone proximity is so well-established that the roof 

control plan calls for 10 ft cables as a supplemental support wherever the sandstone is within 15 ft of the 

coal seam. Additionally, when water is encountered dripping into the roof, indicating close proximity of 

the sandstone layer to the roof, supplemental support is automatically installed. 

MINE F – A CASE STUDY OF SANDSTONE IN THE ROOF 

A room and pillar mine in Ohio is mining the middle Kittanning seam with a mining height of 55-60 

in. The roof geology consists of massive sandstone (50-75 ft thick) which alternately lays directly on the 

coal and rises up into the roof above roof bolt anchorage (Fig. 36). 

Figure 36: Sandstone layer is the roof bolt anchorage when close to the coalbed. 

The surface of the sandstone unit 

weathers to a fine powder, but the rock itself makes a solid roof. When the sandstone rises into the roof it 

is underlain by weak, moisture-sensitive clay shale. The shale is 0-8 ft thick and begins to weather when 

the roof is only 6 months old, deteriorating to splintery fragments. Roof samples of the shale were tested 

for moisture-sensitivity and averaged 71% out of a possible 100% (very moisture-sensitive) [Molinda and 

Klemetti 2008; Unrug 1997]. The shale is bisected locally by kettlebottoms and numerous slips and small 

faults. No significant horizontal stress damage occurs. 

Locally, when the slips are more frequent, the roof shale falls out on mining up to the sandstone, 

creating a lumpy, uneven roof line. Mining is slowed considerably due to cleanup and additional roof 

support. When the shale stays intact, the roof support is designed to suspend the shale from the strong 

sandstone using 6 ft torque-tensioned bolts with 2 ft of fast set resin and 4 ft of slow set resin. The 2 ft 

resin anchor achieves significant anchorage in the sandstone and the tension puts a clamping force on the 

slips. The mine has had no roof falls since tensioned bolts were substituted for untensioned bolts. 
When 8 ft test holes do not encounter sandstone, 10 ft cable bolts are installed in the mains and 

intersections to reach the sandstone and suspend the shale. With time, considerable weathering has caused 

deterioration of the weak shale. Steel screen is used in the mains travelway, intake, and return to accept 

the load of weathered rock between roof bolts. Steel screen provided a significant benefit in maintaining 

the intake entry roof compared to roof in unscreened entries [Klemetti et al. 2009]. 

Roof Sag 

The stackrock failure model described previously is a delamination of bedding driven by horizontal 

stress. Separation of roof rock can also be driven by gravity. In thick shale sequences with no stiff 

sandstone interbeds and weak bedding cohesion, layers can sag under the force of gravity. In order for sag 

to occur, bedding contacts must be broken in shear or tension. As this softened zone deflects, significant 

bed separation can occur (Fig. 37). 

Figure 37: Bed separation in weak shale. 

If the separation occurs in or above the bolt anchor zone, roof fall can 

occur. As the beam deflects, crushing develops on the roof-rib abutment causing cutter roof. Tension 

cracks can also develop in the entry center (Fig. 38, 39). In order to prevent this deflection and reinforce 

the roof beam, it may be necessary to install a stiffer primary support. Stiffness can be increased by using 

a larger diameter bolt with full column resin grouting. Stiffness can also be increased by adding additional 

bolts to the pattern and increasing the density of the support by reducing the row spacing. 
Figure 38: Tension cracks in the entry center develop as roof sags. 

MINE G – A CASE STUDY OF ROOF SAG 

A number of the roof failure types previously described affect the roof of the study site. The roof 

sequence at a study mine consists of 2-3 ft of roof coal overlain by a weak, highly slickensided, moisturesensitive claystone. The claystone has coal streaks and large shears (extending 3-5 ft into the roof). The 

claystone is extremely moisture-sensitive and turned to mud shortly after immersion into water. 

Sandstone channels are locally found in the roof sequence over the coal seam, and large shears occur 

beneath the sandstone causing poor roof conditions. Water is also found in proximity to the sandstone 

causing swelling and degradation of the claystone. All roof falls have shown roof shears and slips, and it 

is thought that the density of the shears increases locally leading to roof falls. Horizontal stress damage is 

minimal. 
Figure 39: Tension crack develop in entry center as roof sags. 

Figure 40: Tension crack in the entry center. 

- 581 -
Figure 41: Stairstepping tension fractures begin at the rib abutment and extends over the pillar. 

Figure 42: Stairstepping fractures extend over the pillar. 
The roof coal has a Unit Rating of 36 and the overlying claystone has a Unit Rating of 32 for an 

overall ground water-adjusted Coal Mine Roof Rating of 30. The swelling claystone causes significant 

loading on the roof coal and causes damage to the roof when the roof coal is thinner than 2 ft. A large 

tension crack, often (3-4 in wide), can open in the entry center as the roof sags (Fig. 40). The roof beam 

also fails in tension and stair stepping tension fractures occur out and over the rib (Fig. 41). A similar 

failure was observed at another mine (Fig. 42). 

The roof support system is overall very strong consisting of six 7/8 in diameter, 7ft long fully-grouted 

bolts per row. Secondary support consists of a single row or double row of trusses between bolt rows. The 

trusses are designed to achieve solid anchorage away from the stair stepping fractures when drilled at a 

shallow angle over the rib. Post-grouted cable bolts up to 35 ft long with steel mats are used in high value 

locations or under adverse conditions. The entire roof is covered with welded steel wire screen. As the 

head coal fractures and sags (over 12 in) when loaded from above by the swelling claystone, the load is 

transferred to the cable bolts and the trusses. The key component of the system is the roof screen, which 

confines the soft roof rock between bolts and transfers the load to the cables and trusses. Without this 

confinement the brittle coal would fracture and fall away leaving no bearing surface for the trusses, bolt 

plates, and mats. 

The amount of roof sag can be extreme and solutions were sought to reduce the sag. One problem is 

poor roof bolt anchorage in the weak claystone. Short encapsulation pull tests (SEPT) tests were 

conducted to determine the roof horizon with the best “Grip Factor” [Pile et al. 2003]. The testing was 

successful in determining the optimum anchorage horizon and thus provides a basis for selecting roof bolt 

length. Other solutions included a novel hole rifleing bit, and using a larger diameter roof bolt hole to 

increase the rock resin surface area to prevent anchor pullout. Timely roof bolt installation is also 

important. If excessive roof sag and separation is allowed before bolting, resin squeezes into bedding 

cracks and prevents full grouting of the bolt due to resin loss at the collar. Post grouting of cable bolts 

also helps increase the stiffness of the support to reduce sag. The use of miner-bolter machines may help 

to reduce this delay in roof bolting. 

SUMMARY 

A high number of injuries and roof falls occur in weak rock sequences. In 2007 inherently weak and 

moisture-sensitive rock, coupled with high stresses, lead to 1568 unplanned roof falls and 443 rock fall 

injuries [MSHA 2007]. Most roof falls and injuries occur in supported ground, indicating that 

conventional roof support systems in these conditions may be inadequate. Recognition of failure 

mechanisms is important in designing mining sequences and support systems to safely mine the coal. 

NIOSH has conducted a study of coal mines with weak roof rock and detailed their geotechnical 

experiences in order to provide a basis for understanding coal mine roof hazards. Six common roof fall 

types have been described along with field examples of each. The roof geology, including defects, rock 

properties, and stress conditions have been described. In addition, roof support and control measures are 

included to evaluate both success and failure in these difficult ground conditions. 

Recognition of geologic structures and their behavior under stress is an important first step in safe 

roof support practice. A thorough examination of roof falls will often reveal the contributing factors to the 

fall. Once an understanding of these factors has been achieved, designing the appropriate roof support 

becomes easier. 

The transition between normal roof conditions and “adverse” roof is often subtle. In very weak roof 

rock sequences, the rock is often closer to “adverse” most of the time. For this reason, in difficult 

conditions, many mines use regular, systematic secondary support in high value roadways, including 
travel, belt, and escapeways. This support is often concentrated in intersections and can be installed on 

cycle or later when time permits. The support depends on the local conditions but may include a denser 

pattern of roof bolts, cable bolts, trusses, timbers, straps, or steel screen. Surface control has proven 

effective, and sometimes indispensible, in maintaining safe working places and travelways. Rock fall 

injuries and roof falls in supported ground indicate the need for improved roof support. Understanding 

roof failure mechanisms can help in designing roof support for weak ground conditions. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

The authors wish to acknowledge the numerous coal mine operators, engineers, safety men, and coal 

miners whose cooperation was essential to conduct the study. Specifically, Paul Chugh, Mark Odum, 

Marv Thompson, Ted Klemetti, and Craig Compton are acknowledged for their help in conducting the 

research. 

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118. 
Table 1: Geotechnical information from study mines. 

Mine 

ID State Coalbed Cover (ft) Longwall/R &P Roof geology CMRR CMRR (groundwater adjusted) Roof defects Moisture- sensitivity Water problems Draw-

A IN Danville No. 7 200-300 R&P Stackrock 38 38 Coal streaks, coal splits, slickensides Yes No Ye

Green fireclay 33 24 

B WY D-41 250-900 Longwall Weak claystone 45 36 Kettlebottoms Yes Yes Head 

C WV Pittsburgh 100-500 R&P Roof rash, coal riders, soapstone, claystone 40 33 Slickensides Yes Yes No 

D OH Middle Kitt. 50-300 R&P Shale overlain by sandstone 60 57 Slips, kettlebottoms Yes No N

E KY No. 9 <600 R&P Black shale overlain by gray shale 39 26 Siderite nods, faults Yes No No 

F KY No. 9 475 R&P Black shale overlain by gray shale, "slips" 38 26 Fossils, siderite nodules Yes Yes No 

G IN No. 5 160-330 R&P 

Thick Dyersburg shale (greenish-gray) 39 est. 26 est. Siderite nodules, slickensides, 

shears No Yes Ye

Black shale/limestone 83 est. 83 est. Stackrock 38 est. 38 est. 

H KY No. 9 200-300 R&P Black shale/gray shale 46 29 Mudstone, sag Yes Yes No 

I KY No. 9 200-300 R&P Black shale/gray shale 43 33 Slickensides, shears Yes Yes Ye

J WV No. 2 Gas R&P Black fireclay/brown fireclay 46 37 Coal streaks/fossils Yes Yes Ye

K IN No. 6 110-220 R&P Black shale/Brereton 84 86 Joints No No No 

Stackrock 38 est. 38 est. 

L IL No. 6 300-600 Longwall Energy shale, lam shale, gray shale 32 23 Weak rock, slicknsides Yes Yes No 

M MD Upper Freeport 180-380 Longwall Laminated gray shale/sandstone 62 57 Slickensides, clay veins No No No 

N WV Sewickley 0-600 R&P 

Black shale 42 38 Stackrock 61 59 Jointing, siderite nodules No Yes YeSandstone/gray shale 48 40 

O IL No. 6 600 Longwall Black shale/limestone 83 est. 83 est. Joints, siderite nodules, slickensides, faults Yes No No 

Energy shale 36 29 

P OH Upper Freeport 400-500 R&P Stackrock 38 est. 38 est. Stream valley defects No No No 

Q OH Mahoning R&P Black shale/gray shale 47 41 Slickensides, sandstone channels Yes No No 

R OH Mahoning R&P Black shale/gray shale 47 41 Slickensides, sandstone channels Yes No No 

S IN No. 5 250-300 R&P Gray shale/limestone 42 34 Siderite nodules, jointed Yes No N

T IL No 6 200 R&P Energy Shale 35 est. 25 est. Varve, sandstone Yes Yes Ye

U NM No. 8 100-600 Longwall Roof coal\weak claystone 31 25 Slips, shears Yes Yes N

V KY No. 9 350 R&P Black shale/gray shale 50 43 Joints, siderite nodules Yes Yes Ye