Using persuasive messages to encourage voluntary 

hearing protection among coal miners 

Michael T. Stephenson, Kim Witte, Charles Vaught, Brian L. Quick, 


Steve Booth-Butterfield, Dhaval Patel, Cynthia Zuckerman 


Department of Communication, Texas A&M University, 4234 TAMLI, College Station, TX 77843-4234, United States 

Abstract 

Introduction: This longitudinal field study was designed to encourage Appalachian coal miners in West Virginia and Pennsylvania to engage 

in hearing-protection behaviors. Method: Participants were mailed postcards that featured either a positive, negative, or neutral message on 

the outside of the postcard and a message encouraging hearing protection behaviors on the inside. The first posttest measurement of the 

effectiveness of the persuasive messages was conducted about a week after the postcards were mailed. The delayed posttest measurement was 

conducted six weeks later. Results: Responses from 307 coal miners revealed that the positive or neutral messages generated significantly 

more self-reported hearing protection behaviors than the negative message. Identical results were obtained in a delayed posttest assessment of 

miners' self-reported hearing protection behaviors. The positive message was also more effective than either the neutral or negative message 

in preventing defensive mechanisms from emerging over time. Impact on Industry: Positive and neutral messages were convincingly more 

than negative messages in facilitating self-reported hearing protection behaviors among coal miners. Similarly, the positive 

messages kept defensive processes at bay. 

Keywords: Hearing protection; Hearing loss; Coal miners; Campaign; Messages 

1. Introduction in the entire mining industry. As a result, the Mine Safety 

and Health Administration initiated a Federal law in 2000 

Hearing loss, one of the common occupational diseases establishing noise standards for employers of mines. In 

in the United States, is often accepted as a normal conjunction with the new standards, the mining industry 

consequence of employment. More than 30 million work- encourages a number of voluntary behaviors for coal mine 

ers are regularly exposed to hazardous noise levels. Those employees, including wearing hearing protection and 

afflicted with occupational hearing loss can experience: (a) getting a hearing test. In a joint effort with NIOSH, we 

the social isolation resulting from impaired communication developed a series of persuasive messages to advocate 

with family, friends, and coworkers; (b) a diminished these voluntary behaviors. 

ability to monitor the work environment (warning signals, The issue of practical importance is also accompanied 

equipment sounds); (c) a higher risk of worksite accidents by one of theoretical import as "surprisingly few" studies 

and injury; and (d) a reduced quality of life due to of persuasive messages elicit both positive and negative 

unrelenting tinnitus (ringing in the ears; National Institute affect (Dillard & Meijnders, 2002, p. 316). The primary 

for Occupational Safety and Health [NIOSH], 1996). The research goal of this study, beyond the applied goal of 

coal-mining sector has the highest levels of noise exposure increasing awareness about voluntary hearing protection, 

was to compare the effects of positive, negative, and 

neutral persuasive messages on both adaptive outcomes 

(attitudes, intentions, and self-reported behaviors) and 
defensive mechanisms typically used to filter out threatening or harmful information (perceived manipulation and 

message distortion). 

I. 1. Motivating through affect 

Two lines of research inform our study. The first 

research cluster examines the outcomes associated with 

some combination of rational or emotional persuasive 

appeals. Although there is no universal consensus about 

whether rational or emotional messages are more effective, 

the results are useful in guiding our expectations about the 

role of affect in persuasion. For example, Reeves, Newhagen, Maibach, Basil, and Kurz (1991) compared (among 

others) positive and negative television health ads from 

multiple health contexts, including AIDS, smoking, alcohol, and blood pressure, among others. They concluded 

that individuals were more likely to pay attention 

(measured by secondary reaction time) to positive ads, 

but that memory (assessed through recognition latency) 

was better for negative ads. Flora and Maibach (1990) 

compared emotional and rational messages about AIDS. 

They concluded that low-involved participants remembered 

emotional more than rational messages, but no memory 

differences were detected among high-involved participants. Finally, Zinn and Manfredo (2000) determined that 

rational and emotional appeals were equally persuasive for 

arguing against a trapping ban initiative in Colorado, 

although the emotional appeals were more likely to be 

recalled (using a thought-listing task). Some researchers 

have examined a variant of the emotional-rational issue by 

testing narratives against statistical messages (e.g., Baesler 

& Burgoon, 1994; Kopfman, Smith, Ah Yun, & Hodges, 

1998). Results, however, are inconsistent and inconclusive. 

In sum, the scattered research in this area suggests that 

emotional appeals have a slight advantage of being more 

memorable, particularly if they are negative. But such a 

conclusion rests on fairly shaky ground and confounding 

variables exist, including equating "emotional responses to 

involvement, cognitive responses, or liking" (Reeves et al., 

1991, p. 680). 

A second line of research provides theoretical guidance 

on the use of negative (fear-based) messages and is, 

arguably, more conclusive than the diffuse results associated 

with the emotional-rational message literature. While fear 

appeal messages have an admittedly schizophrenic history 

(Stephenson & Witte, 2001), more recent advances by Witte 

(1992, 1994) appear to have yielded at least some 

consistency in outcomes. At its essence, Witte's Extended 

Parallel Process Model explains why fear-inducing messages do and do not work. Perhaps most importantly for 

message designers, Witte clarifies how two message 

components emphasizing threat and efficacy should be 

constructed to elicit adaptive outcomes. There is little 

question about the prevalence of fear-arousing messages 

in the health literature, including AIDS messages (Freimuth, 

Hammond, Edgar, & Monahan, 1990), breast cancer 

messages (Kline & Mattson, 1999), and parental anti-drug 

ads (Stephenson, 2002). Although they have not always 

been viewed favorably (see Backer, Rogers, & Sopory, 

1992), fear appeals have a recent history of generating 

beneficial health outcomes. Fear, as a negative emotion 

(Witte, 1992), provide a basis for which to understand, 

explain, and predict outcomes of negative messages. 

Unfortunately, how the negative message would fare against 

a positive message on behavioral outcomes remains 

unknown. 

1.2. The proposed study 

Collectively, these research streams offer a rather 

disjointed picture for informing the comparative effectiveness of positive-, negative-, and neutral-based appeals. In 

general, we know that negative (fear-based) messages can 

elicit health behavior change. But beyond fear, other 

emotions are clearly less researched (Nabi, 2002). No 

evidence exists to suggest that message-induced positive 

emotion will facilitate changes in health behavior. Only 

Reeves et al. (1991) provide any indication of the effect 

of positive versus negative health ads, and their dependent 

variables were more proximal than actual behavior 

change. A study comparing the effect of emotion-based 

messages on behavior change is clearly warranted and 

poised to contribute new knowledge to campaign 

research. 

Hence, the focus of this investigation, and our first 

research question, is the comparative effectiveness of 

positive-, negative-, and neutral-affect messages in increasing voluntary hearing protection behaviors among Appalachian coal miners. But a second research question 

involves determining whether the effects, if any, remained 

constant, increased, or deteriorated over time. Third, we 

sought to determine which of the three emotional appeals 

were most effective in offsetting defensive mechanisms 

typically associated with fear-based persuasive appeals. 

The fourth and final research question, similar to the 

second, was whether these defensive mechanisms 

remained static or changed in some way over time. The 

longitudinal panel design, method, and procedures 

employed to answer these four research questions are 

subsequently described. 

2. Method 

The effectiveness of three message types to increase selfreported hearing-protection behaviors was tested in a field 

experiment employing a one-way design with three experimental conditions plus a control group. The three experimental conditions featured positive-(POS), negative- 

(NEG), and neutral-affect (NEUT) messages. To offset the 

threats to the validity of this field study, we also employed a 
fourth condition, a no-message experimental control group 

(CTRL). 

2.1. Sampling procedure 

Participants were miners from the Appalachian region of 

West Virginia and Pennsylvania. The United Mine Worker's 

Association provided a list of miners from 23 randomlyselected coal mines in West Virginia and ~enns~lvania.'. To

ensure that an adequate number of miners were available 

from each mine, we established criteria a priori that 

individuals would only be randomly selected from mines 

that employed at least 100 miners. 

Given that we had four conditions (three experimental 

groups plus control), we randomly assigned each of the 23 

mines to one of these four conditions. Six mines were 

randomly assigned to the POS message condition, six to the 

NEG message condition, six to the NEUT message 

condition, and five to the CTRL condition. 

Then, we randomly selected 50 miners from each of the 

23 mines to receive the persuasive message postcards. This 

procedure yielded a subject pool of 300 randomly selected 

miners who received the POS message manipulation, 300 

who received the NEG manipulation, 300 who received the 

NEUT manipulation, and 250 placed in the control group. 

2.2. Procedures and message manipulations 

Participants in the three experimental message conditions 

were mailed two different postcards containing recommendations for hearing protection while working. All postcards 

were pretested and validated (described later). A second 

postcard was mailed to miners one week after the first. A 

survey was mailed to miners one week after the second 

postcard. Affixed to the questionnaire were both postcards 

that they had previously received.' The CTRL condition 

received only the survey. All conditions received a cover 

letter in the survey packet from the United Mine Workers' 

Association, the labor union that represents the targeted 

miners, encouraging their assistance with the survey. 

Miners were asked to complete and mail back the survey 

in exchange for a custom-printed mining decal. An experienced research firm collected the surveys and entered data. 

Additionally, the research firm ensured that at least 10 inWe initially began with a list of 28 mines. But incomplete or missing 

addresses or phone numbers led us to drop 5 of the 28 mines. These five 

miners fell below our self-established threshold of 100, which we 

established to ensure an adequate number of miners were available from 

each mine. 

In most laboratory experiments assessing the effectiveness of 

persuasive messages, exposure is forced by asking respondents to underline 

passages andlor write summaries of the message manipulations to ensure 

that the manipulations were processed (see Witte, 1994). The strategy 

employed here tried to mimic this standard experimental procedure in the 

field setting by affixing the postcards to the surveys to reinforce the 

experimental manipulation. 

dividuals from each mine responded to the survey. In addition 

to guaranteeing representation across all mines, this procedure guaranteed the sample size needed to ensure adequate 

power to detect significant differences if there are, in fact, 

differences between groups. Hence, if a survey was not 

mailed, the research firm contacted miners to complete the 

survey by phone until each mine was represented by 10 

employees. 

About six weeks after the postcards were mailed, 

miners who had completed the first survey received a 

second identical survey. Once again, the research firm 

waited to receive the survey from the miner by mail. 

However, some miners had to be contacted so that the 

survey could be completed over the phone. A second 

custom-printed mining decal was provided to those 

completing the second survey. 

It was desirable that miners receive additional exposure 

to the messages beyond just the postcards (Homik, 2002). 

Therefore, we created 2' by 3' poster-sized versions of the 

front of each postcard. Safety representatives placed 

posters in and around locations frequented by miners 

while they were working (e.g., locker rooms, time card 

sites, drinking fountains). Quality control processes 

ensured that safety representatives received posters identical to the two messages assigned to the mine. These 

poster-sized messages were identical to the two postcards 

received by miners in the mail. Since the mines were 

randomly assigned to a condition, they received posters of 

only the postcards the miners from that mine were 

receiving. This was an easy and efficient way to increase 

exposure to the messages beyond the postcards received in 

the mail. Importantly, this prevented contamination of the 

stimuli among conditions. 

2.3. Participants 

The total number of completions after the initial survey 

was 324 (POS n=90; NEG n=82; NEUT n=82; CTRL 

n=70). Response rate to the initial survey was 28%. The 

number of completions of the follow-up survey, which 

occurred six weeks later, was 246 (POS n=66; NEG n=69; 

NEUT n=57; CTRL n=54). All miners were male. The 

average age was 50 (SE=5.9) and almost all respondents 

(98%) identified their race as WhitelEuropean-American 

with only a slight representation of BlacklAfiican-American 

or Native American. Most respondents (90%) were married. 

The majority of miners had completed high school (44.2%) 

or some college (30.6%) while others completed some high 

school (10.3%), vocational school (9.9%), or held a college 

degree (5.0%). The average amount of time spent working 

in a mine was 24.7 years (SD=6.8). 

2.4. Stimulus messages 

We used postcards to present the hearing protection 

message. The experimental message was conveyed on the 
front side of a 6 by 8 inch postcard. Each message 

contained a short phrase and an accompanying picture, 

both in color. All postcard fronts included a phrase like "it 

ALWAYS helps to wear hearing protection." Additionally, 

postcard fronts contained the NIOSH and the CDC symbol, 

phone number, and return address. Space was left to affix 

mailing labels to which postcards would be mailed (see 

Figs. 1 through 3). 

The back of all postcards contained a message containing a text-only message about voluntary hearing protection 

and was printed in three colors (red, blue, and black). The 

text addressed noise-induced hearing loss, the employer's 

responsibility to control noise levels, and a list of 

voluntary efficacious behaviors miners could employ to 

protect their hearing. The NIOSH 1-800 phone number 

and a web site that listed hearing-testing centers was also 

included (see Fig. 4). 

Postcards were produced professionally by NIOSH 

computer graphics staff and printed on cardstock. Prior 

to mailing, the 6 by 8 inch card was folded in half so that 

the miner's address and the experimental message were on 

the outside. 

2.5. Message validation pilot study 

Prior to the main study, all postcard messages were 

validated in a pilot study with 36 coal miners attending a 

training seminar in West Virginia. Miners read and rated 

the affect of 33 different messages created by the 

research team with approximately an equal amount of 

negative, positive, and neutral messages. Messages were 

counterbalanced to avoid an order effect. The entire 

procedure lasted approximately 40 minutes and participants were paid $25 when they completed the message 

Fig. 2. Negative emotion message. 

validation. The final six messages, two representing each 

of the three message types (POS, NEG, and NEUT), 

were selected. A unidimensional index of positive affect 

(happy and glad) and of negative affect (anxious, scared, 

and upset) was computed for all 33 postcards. While a 

neutral index was not measured, per se, it was 

operationalized as low on both the positive and negative 

affect index. 

Fig. 1. Positive emotion message. 
Fig. 3. Neutral emotion message. 

First, we selected the NEUT messages. Participants 

scored these two messages as having the lowest positive 

and negative affect scores, respectively. A paired t-test 

further indicated that the positive and negative indices for 

both messages were not significantly different from each 

other (p values ranged from .88 to 1.00). In short, 

recipients felt that these two messages generated little 

positive or negative affect when viewing them. Therefore, 

we deemed these two messages as neutral. Second, we 

selected the two POS and two NEG messages. The two 

POS messages scored significantly higher on the positive 

affect index than the two NEUT messages (p<.05). 

Finally, the two NEG messages scored significantly higher 

on the negative affect index than the two NEUT messages 

(p<.OOl). 

2.6. Measures for main study 

2.6.I. Hearing protection behaviors 

Miners indicated their current behavior by responding to 

the following three items on a seven point scale (l=not at all 

to 7=all of the time):(a) I wear hearing protection equipment 

underground; (b) I wear hearing protection to prevent hearing 

loss; and (c) I regularly use hearing protection in the mine. 

--

t 

Most miners (up to 90%) suffer signffiezlnt noise 

induced hearing loss (luringtheir careers. 

Your rnployar Ina~erpmdbilitylopmi&Ndtlblt s-rxing eomdr toreduse !he uoiw itvdr iu 

yanwd tnnrmrment 

Tiir duddbatht Krst1Ba ofdofew @&noirciudwtdbannglo~ iloxww that uo dsa ha@ ymcandomyau rrwnbprattctyouhtklog 

6 *'<nu cmmfmm plafwsmauofsrcamvemm condkmu 

'Ymt cw dmmutxno~rscrmcsmr-alhymu UMlW ddy rlprmntahvt 

'<nu can trU ebnt htanng ha cmcrmwdhpau co.-~-&nsmulltanrhaiQrr~kner 

abcutllm in ~Oidlt 

*Yousmdoyour ptrt to protat you lmumgby'*E.--7llfC' f!E.-FIl.JCPP.GXCTCE; FsGr-rLrfL~-M~C+ETTII?~C-~CI~ F HE..,PII~G TL,;ED 

CdlQ roP-I1.re mmber at800.3SMIOSH (800.3564674) a dnck oat ouhte Wtbmta nt 

C Polwangcrraru nryou mFmurmabaohaw 

muhmnyau rs apoud to. &-.id you cm do to pdct ymrmlf 

L. 

Fig. 4. Backside of all postcards 
These items formed a reliable composite initially (a=.88) and 

at the follow-up six weeks later (a=.88). 

2.6.2.Behavioral intentions 

Miners indicated their behavioral intent to wear hearing 

protection with the following item on a seven-point scale 

(l=strongly disagree to 7=strongly agree): I intend to wear 

hearing protection regularly. 

2.6.3.Attitudes toward hearing protection 

Attitudes toward hearing protection formed a reliable 

scale at the initial assessment (a=.68) and at the follow up 

(a=.69). On a seven point scale (l=strongly disagree to 

7=strongly agree), miners indicated their attitudes through 

the following four items: (a) wearing hearing protection is 

good; (b) wearing hearing protection is desirable; (c) 

wearing hearing protection is bad (reverse coded); and (d) 

wearing hearing protection is positive. 

2.6.4. Perceived manipulation 

The following item assessed perceived manipulation on a 

seven-point scale (l=strongly disagree to 7=strongly 

agree): I feel manipulated into wearing hearing protection. 

2.6.5.Message distortion 

The following item assessed message distortion on a 

seven-point scale (l=strongly disagree to 7=strongly agree): 

Safety campaigns exaggerate the problem of hearing loss. 

2.6.6. Covariates 

Since the new mining regulations had been put in place 

approximately 18 months prior to the postcard campaign, 

prior knowledge of the regulations was used as a covariate 

with response options of yes or no to the following: I knew 

about the new hearing regulations before receiving the 

postcards. 

2.6.7. Demographics 

Standard demographic data including sex, ethnicity, age, 

education, marital status, children, and time employed in the 

mine was collected. 

2.7. Data analysis for main study 

Data were analyzed with Multivariate Analysis of 

Variance (MANOVA). Attitudes, behavioral intentions, and 

self-reported behaviors were correlated at the posttest and at 

the six-week follow up, with Pearson r's ranging from .28 to 

.70. Similarly, perceived manipulation and message distortion were correlated from .26 to .29. Given these associations, 

we employed two separate MANOVAs to assess the multivariate effect prior to examining the univariate outcomes. 

Prior knowledge about the hearing regulations was entered as 

a covariate initially (hence, MANCOVAs), but it was 

removed if it was statistically nonsignificant. When the 

omnibus univariate Fwas statistically significant, a post-hoc 

test ascertained which groups differed significantly. It is 

important to note that field experiments involve more "noise" 

than lab experiments, and this often inflates random error 

(Kerlinger, 1964). Therefore, we report a small number of 

outcomes that are statistically significant at p=.06. Appropriately, those outcomes are noted below. 

3. Results 

3.I. RQI and RQ2: Comparative effectiveness and longevity 

of effect 

RQ1 focused on the comparative effectiveness of 

positive (POS), negative (NEG), and neutral (NEUT) 

messages to a no-message CTRL group. Of equal interest 

was the longevity of the effects and whether the outcomes at 

the first assessment would hold for the second assessment 

conducted six weeks later (RQ2). We report the outcomes for 

the three dependent variables: self-reported hearing protection behaviors, behavioral intentions, and positive attitudes. 

(See Table 1 for an overview of conditions over time.) 

The multivariate effect for the linear combination of selfreported behavior, behavioral intentions, and attitudes was 

statistically significant for the initial posttest, Wilks' A=.93, 

F (9, 752)=2.62, p<.001, partial r72=.03. The multivariate 

effect, however, was not statistically significant for the 

follow-up condition. 

Table 1 

Immediate (Time 1) and delayed (Time 2) posttest marginal means by 

experimental condition 

Outcome 

POS NEG NEUT 

Messaee tv~e 

CTRL F 

-- 

oartial nZ 

Behaviors 

Time 1 

Time 2 

5.22 

5.30 

4.29 

4.62 

5.04 

5.34 

4.48 

4.73 

5.49*** 

3.19* 

.05 

.04 

Intentions 

Time 1 

Time 2 

5.91 

6.15 

5.47 

5.58 

5.98 

5.96 

5.40 

5.45 

2.95* 

2.98' 

.03 

.04 

Attitudes 

Time 1 

Time 2 

6.28 

6.31 

6.19 

6.05 

6.30 

6.26 

5.92 

5.93 

2.75* 

2.28 

.03 

.03 

Perceived Manipulation 

Time 1 2.35 2.57 2.78 2.72 .SO .00 

Time 2 1.92 2.78 2.70 2.85 3.63** .04 

Message Distortion 

Time 1 2.36 2.59 2.33 2.48 .37 .OO 

Time 2 2.30 2.31 2.57 3.18 2.59* .04 

* p<.05. 

** p<.Ol. 

*** p<.001. 
3.1.1. Self-reported change in hearing protection 

Hearing protection behaviors at the initial assessment 

varied significantly by postcard condition, F (3, 31 1)=5.49, 

p=.001, partial r12=.05. Coal miners receiving the POS 

(M=5.22, SE=. 19) and NEUT postcards (M=5.04, SE=. 19) 

reported wearing hearing protection significantly more 

regularly compared to those receiving NEG (M=4.29, 

SE=.18) or those in the no-postcard CTRL condition 

(M=4.48, SE=.20). 

The findings at the follow-up were similar to those 

detected initially, F (3, 239)=3.19, p=.03, partial r12=.04. 

Miners who received the POS (M=5.30, SE=.20) and NEUT 

postcards (M-5.34, SE=.22) reported significantly more 

hearing protection behaviors than those who received the 

NEG postcards (M=4.62, SE=.20) or those in the no 

postcard CTRL condition3 (M=4.73, SE=.22). 

3.1.2. Behavioral intentions 

Behavioral intentions to use hearing protection at the 

initial assessment varied significantly by condition, F (3, 

31 1)=2.95,~=.03, partial q2=.03.Coal miners who received 

the POS postcards (M=5.91, SE=.17) and the NEUT 

postcards (M=5.98, SE=. 17) reported significantly stronger 

intentions to wearing hearing protection regularly than did 

miners who received the NEG postcards4 (M=5.47, SE=. 16) 

or those in the no-postcard CTRL condition (M=5.40, 

SE=. 18). 

Behavioral intentions also varied significantly by condition at the follow-up assessment, F (3, 239)=2.98, p<.05, 

partial q2=.04 with prior knowledge as a significant 

covariate. This time, however, miners who received POS 

postcards (M=6.15, SE=. 19) reported significantly stronger 

intentions than miners who had received the NEG postcards 

(M=5.58, SE=.18) or those receiving no-postcard CTRL 

(M=5.45, SE=.20). Those who had received the NEUT 

postcards did not vary significantly from any of the other 

groups (M-5.96, SE=. 19). 

3.1.3. Attitudes 

In the initial assessment, attitudes toward hearing 

protection varied significantly by postcard condition, F (3, 

311)=2.75, p<.05, partial t7'=.03. Miners who received the 

POS postcards (M=6.28, SE=.10), NEUT postcards 

(M=6.30, SE=. lo), and NEG postcards (M-6.19, SE=. 10) 

reported attitudes that were not significantly different from 

each other although they all were more favorable than 

miners in the no postcard CTRL condition (M=5.92, 

SE=.1 I).' In the six-week follow-up assessment, differences 

The significance level between the POS and the CTRL condition was 

p=.06. 

The significance level between the POS and the NEG condition was 

p=.06. 

The significance level between the NEG and the CTRL condition was 

p=.06. 

in attitudes toward hearing protection only approached 

significance, F (3, 242)=2.28, p=.08, partial r12=.03. 

3.2. RQ3 and RQ4: Defensive mechanisms and longevity of 

effect 

The third and fourth research questions sought information on the defensive mechanisms typically associated with 

persuasive messages (RQ3).Also of interest was the extent 

to which any of the defensive mechanisms had lasting 

effects (RQ4). 

Statistically, the multivariate effect for the linear 

composite comprised of perceived manipulation and 

message distortion was not significant. However, the 

multivariate effect at the follow-up assessment was 

significant, Wilks' A=.93, F (6, 478)=2.91, p<.01, partial 

r1'=.04. 

3.2.1. Perceived manipulation 

At the first assessment, no significant differences in 

perceived manipulation were detected. At the six-week 

follow-up, however, perceived manipulation varied significantly among groups, F (3, 240)=3.63, p=.01, partial 

r12=04.Miners who received the POS postcards (M=1.92, 

SE=.22) reported significantly less perceived manipulation 

than those who received the NEG postcards (M=2.78, 

SE=.21), the NEUT postcards (M=2.70, SE=.24), and the no 

postcard CTRL condition (M=2.85, SE=.24). 

3.2.2. Message distortion 

At the first assessment, no significant differences in 

message distortion emerged. At the follow-up, message 

distortion varied significantly by condition, F (3, 240)=2.59, 

p=.05, partial ~7~=.03. Miners who received the POS 

(M=2.30, SE=.24) or the NEG postcards (M=2.31, 

SE=.23) reported significantly less message distortion than 

those in the no-postcard CTRL condition (M=3.18, 

SE=.26). Miners who received the NEUT postcards 

(M=2.57, SE=.25) did not differ significantly with the other 

message conditions. 

4. Discussion 

The primary goal of this field experiment was to compare 

effects of positive, negative, and neutral persuasive appeals 

on the hearing-related attitudes, intentions, and self-reported 

behaviors of Appalachian coal miners (RQ1). Secondarily, 

we sought to determine if any of these outcomes could be 

detected six weeks later at the follow-up assessment (RQ2). 

Finally, it was of interest to investigate how the three 

emotion-based appeals differed with respect to controlling 

defense mechanisms that are sometimes detected with 

negative messages (RQ3) and whether those effects were 

also detected six weeks later at the follow-up assessment 

(RQ4). 
4.1. Message type and duration of effects 

Self-reports of hearing-protection behaviors were significantly greater for those receiving the positive and 

negative messages than for those who received negative 

messages. This outcome was robust; it was observed at 

both the initial assessment and at the six-week follow up. 

Variance explained was modest, but respectable, for a 

field experiment employing only postcards and posters. 

Across all self-reported behaviors, the negative messages 

were no more effective than the no-message control. 

Behavioral intention measures paralleled those of selfreported behavior change. Behavioral intentions to engage 

in hearing-protection behaviors were most influenced by 

positive messages and neutral messages, with little 

difference detected between the negative and no-message 

control conditions. In short, the positive and the neutral 

postcards were more successful than negative messages in 

this field experiment. 

Despite the consistency for self-reported behaviors and 

behavioral intentions, the attitudinal outcomes did not 

mirror their counterparts. Instead, all three experimental 

message conditions generated similar attitudinal outcomes, 

and attitudes were significantly more positive in the 

experimental conditions than in the no-message control 

group. No differences emerged at the follow-up assessment. 

The murky outcome detected for the attitudinal data may be 

explained by an observed ceiling effect on attitudes toward 

hearing protection. Mean attitude scores for all three 

experimental conditions were above 6 on a 7-point scale. 

Given the loud and pervasive levels of noise experienced 

underground in the mines, few would be likely to report 

negative feelings toward hearing protection. In short, the 

data indicate the attitudes are already favorable toward this 

topic. 

4.2. Defensive mechanisms 

Regarding defensive mechanisms often associated with 

persuasive appeals (RQ3), there were no differences in 

perceived manipulation or message distortion between 

experimental or control groups. Defensive mechanisms, 

therefore, were minimal at the outset. 

The follow-up assessment (RQ4), however, was far 

different. Indeed, only the positive message consistently 

kept the defensive mechanisms at bay. In fact, perceived 

manipulation actually dropped considerably from the initial 

to the follow up for the positive condition. For message 

distortion, positive message recipients remained the same 

over time although an increase was apparent for the neutral 

and control conditions. We speculate that heightened 

concern or fear about hearing loss emerged among 

individuals (except in the positive condition) after reading 

about hearing loss and how to prevent it, although 

subsequent research would be needed to verify this 

explanation. 

4.3. Impact on industry 

Campaigners and practitioners often face the issue of 

how to most effectively persuade a target audience to 

engage in a specific health-related behavior. It seems to be 

almost natural for individuals to turn to negative messages 

to try and induce behavior change. There is something 

intuitively appealing to health message designers about 

using scary or gory images or very sad stories to convert the 

masses (Stephenson & Witte, 2001). Indeed, theorists have 

made much progress when using these appeals properly 

(Witte, 1992, 1994). Still, the outcomes of this research 

inquiry intimate that negative-based appeals may not always 

be as effective as positive appeals. Of course our conclusions are tentative to the extent that this is a single study 

(albeit methodologically sound) based on a single topic. Yet 

we were able to introduce the need for miners to engage in 

voluntary hearing protection behaviors most effectively with 

positive message appeals when compared to the negative 

and neutral emotion-based appeals. 

Perhaps the most important practical application that 

emerges from this study is that this is a campaign 

approach that is both efficient and affordable. This is 

important given that most campaigns operate on a shoestring budget, regardless of whether they operate out of a 

community clinic or an academic researcher's office. The 

impact of two postcards that were mailed a week apart, 

combined with posters that were placed at the miners' 

worksites, elicited the desired intended outcome: selfreported behavior change. Likewise, campaigners can use 

postcards to test a multitude of theory-based messages in 

large field settings (see Maibach & Parrott, 1995). In 

short, researchers gain both internal validity (provided the 

messages are pretested) and external validity at a cost of 

next to nothing. 

4.4. Limitations 

The low response rate to the initial mailing was 

inherently problematic. Despite preliminary notification, 

personalizing the request, and offering an incentive, we 

obtained only 28% of the original sample. Although this 

response rate is not atypical of mail surveys (Bourque & 

Fielder, 1995; Frey, Botan, & Kreps, 2000), the primary 

validity issue is the likelihood of a biased sample. The 

problem was compounded with the loss of 78 miners from 

the initial assessment to the follow up. Other limitations 

include single-item measures for behavioral intentions, 

perceived manipulation, and message distortion. Additionally, given the number of questions in the survey 

instrument and the nature of the field study, we were 

not able to assess mediating factors like cognitions or 

affect. Fortunately, most theoretical research on affect and 

persuasive message processing has examined these mediating factors in experimental research where these variables are of high importance. The nature of our field study 
made it more appropriate that we focus on other outcome 

variables. 

Acknowledgements 

This research was funded in part by a grant from the 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention /National 

Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, Contract 

BH61-8533. 

References 

Backer, T. E., Rogers, E. M., & Sopory, P. (1992). Designing health 

communication campaigns. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 

Baesler, E. M., & Burgoon, J. K. (1994). The temporal effects of story and 

statistical evidence on belief change. Communication Research, 21, 

582-602. 

Bourque, L. B., & Fielder, E. P. (1995). How to conduct self-administered 

and mail surveys. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 

Dillard, J. P., & Meijnders, A. (2002). Persuasion and the structure of affect. 

In J. P. Dillard, & M. Pfau (Eds.), Thepersuasion handbook @p. 309- 

327). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 

Freimuth, V., Hammond, S. L., Edgar, T., & Monahan, J. L. (1990). 

Reaching those at risk: A content-analytic study of AIDS PSAs. 

Communication Research, 17, 775-791. 

Frey, L. R., Botan, C. H., & Kreps, G. L. (2000). Investigating 

Communication. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. 

Flora, J. A,, & Maibach, E. W. (1990). Cognitive responses to AIDS 

information: The effects of issue involvement and message appeal. 

Communication Research, 17, 759-774. 

Hornik, R. C. (2002). Public health communication: Evidencefor behavior 

change. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. 

Kerlinger, F. (1964). Foundations of behavioral research. New York: Holt, 

Rinehart and Winston. 

Kline, K. N., & Mattson, M. (1999). Breast self-examination pamphlets: A 

content analysis grounded in fear appeal research. Health Communication, 12, 1-22. 

Kopfman, J. E., Smith, S. W., Ah Yun, J. K., & Hodges, A. (1998). 

Affective and cognitive reactions to narrative versus statistical evidence 

organ donation messages. Journal ofApplied Communication Research, 

26, 279-300. 

Maibach, E. W., & Parrott, R. L. (Eds.). (1995). Designing health 

messages: Approaches from communication theoiy and public health 

practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 

Nabi, R. (2002). Discrete emotions and persuasion. In J. P. Dillard, & M. 

Pfau (Eds.), The persuasion handbook @p. 289-308). Thousand Oaks, 

CA: Sage. 

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health [NIOSH] (1996). 

National Occupational Research Agenda, DHHS Publication No. 

(NIOSH) 96- 115. 

Reeves, B. R., Newhagen, J., Maibach, E., Basil, M., & Kurz, K. (1991). 

Negative and positive television messages: Effects of message type and 

context on attention and memory. American Behavioral Scientist, 34, 

679-694. 

Stephenson, M. T. (2002). Anti-drug public service announcements 

targeting parents: An analysis and evaluation. Southern Communication 

Journal, 67, 335-350. 

Stephenson, M. T., & Witte, K. (2001). Generating fear in a risky world: 

Creating effective risk messages. In R. E. Rice, & C. K. Atkin 

(Eds.), Public communication campaigns (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, 

CA: Sage. 

Witte, K. (1992). Putting the fear back into fear appeals: The extended 

parallel process model. Communication Monographs, 59, 329-349. 

Witte, K. (1 994). Fear control and danger control: An empirical test of the 

extended parallel process model. Communication Monographs, 61, 

113-134. 

Zinn, H. C., & Manfredo, M. J. (2000). An experimental test of rational 

and emotional appeals about a recreation issue. Leisure Sciences, 22, 

183-194. 

Michael T. Stephenson is an Assistant Professor in the Department of 

Communication, Texas A&M University. His research interests include 

health communication campaigns and persuasion. He received a Ph.D. 

from the University of Kentucky and an M.A. from Texas A&M 

University. 

Kim Witte is a Senior Program Evaluation Officer at the Center for 

Communication Programs, Johns Hopkins University, on temporary leave 

from Michigan State University, where she is Professor in the Department 

of Communication. Her research interests are fear appeals. Her M.A. and 

Ph.D. are from the University of California-Irvine. 

Charles Vaught is a research sociologist at the Pittsburgh Research 

Laboratory of the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health 

(NIOSH). His research interest is coal-mining safety. His Ph.D. is from the 

University of Kentucky. 

Steve Booth-Butterfield is an adjunct professor in the Department of 

Communication Studies at West Virginia University. He is former branch 

chief of the Health Communications Research Branch in the Health Effects 

Laboratory Division at NIOSH in Morgantown, WV. His Ed.D. is from 

West Virginia University. 

Brian Quick is a doctoral candidate in the Department of Communication, Texas A&M University, where he studies health communication 

campaigns. 

Dhaval Patel is a research officer at Population Services International, 

Washington, DC, where he specializes in social marketing. His M.A. and 

Ph.D. are from Michigan State University. 

Cynthia ~uckerman is a lecturer in the Department of Communication at 

North Carolina State University and a Ph.D. student in the Department of 

Communication at Michigan State University.