IC 9497 

INFORMATION CIRCULAR/2008 

Ergonomics and Risk Factor

Awareness Training for Miners

Department of Health and Human Services 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health 
Information Circular 9497 

Ergonomics and Risk Factor Awareness Training for Miners 

By Janet Torma-Krajewski, Ph.D., CIH, CPE, Lisa J. Steiner, CPE, Richard L. Unger,

 and William J. Wiehagen 

DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
 

Pittsburgh Research Laboratory 

Pittsburgh, PA 

July 2008 
This document is in the public domain and may be freely copied 

or reprinted. 

Disclaimer 

Mention of any company or product does not constitute endorsement by the National Institute for 

Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). In addition, citations to Web sites external to NIOSH 

do not constitute NIOSH endorsement of the sponsoring organizations or their programs or 

products. Furthermore, NIOSH is not responsible for the content of these Web sites. 

Ordering Information 

To receive documents or other information about occupational safety and health topics, 

contact NIOSH at 

Telephone: 1–800–CDC–INFO (1–800–232–4636) 

TTY: 1–888–232–6348 

e-mail: cdcinfo@cdc.gov 

or visit the NIOSH Web site at www.cdc.gov/niosh. 

For a monthly update on news at NIOSH, subscribe to NIOSH eNews by visiting 

www.cdc.gov/niosh/eNews. 

DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2008–111 

July 2008 

SAFER • HEALTHIER • PEOPLETM 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The authors thank the many outside organizations that helped to test and refine this training. The 

authors also thank the other NIOSH researchers who contributed to this effort. This includes 

Kim C. Gavel and Fred Turin for their work on the initial development of this training; 

E. William Rossi and Kelly L. Baron for developing illustrations and demonstrations; Pauline 

Lewis for preparing discussion notes; and Launa G. Mallett, Ph.D., and Charles Vaught, Ph.D., 

for their advice in developing training materials for adults. Finally, the authors thank Betty Gibbs 

of Gibbs and Associates for assisting in developing the Web-based content. 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Overview 

Introduction 

Content 

Training topics 

Performance objectives 

File formats 

Ergonomics and Risk Factor Awareness Training for Instructors 

Purpose of this training 

Who should take this training 

Outline of training topics 

How to take this training 

Guide to Conducting Ergonomics and Risk Factor Awareness Training 

Purpose of this guide 

Training topics 

Materials included in this guide 

How to conduct this training 

Materials needed to present training 

Part 1 – Presentation 

Slides with Discussion Notes 

Summary slides 

Part 2 – Presentation 

Slides with Discussion Notes 

Summary slides 

Part 1 – Handouts 

Risk Factor Report Card 

What Type of Injury Exercise 

Trainee Evaluation Form for Session 1 

Part 2 – Handouts 

General Risk Factor Descriptions 

Task Evaluation Form
 

Trainee Evaluation Form for Session 2 

Part 2 – Handouts for Employees 

Ergonomics Glossary 

Guide to Intervention Ideas 

The Ergonomics Manual 

Appendix: Development and Evaluation of Ergonomics and Risk Factor Awareness 

Training 
OVERVIEW
 

Introduction 

Ergonomics is the science of fitting the work task to the user. It seeks to prevent serious injury by 

considering designs that accommodate the abilities and limitations of people. 

Many workers perform tasks that involve exposure to ergonomic risk factors. Musculoskeletal 

disorders (MSDs) resulting from such exposure account for one-third of all occupational injuries 

and illnesses reported to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. MSDs are a type of injury that can 

take a long time to develop (i.e., they are a cumulative type of injury) and are associated with 

more lost time and higher compensation costs than other types of injuries. Exposures to risk 

factors can lead to the development of permanent, disabling injuries, and illnesses that may 

prevent workers from returning to their jobs and performing simple tasks that are part of their 

everyday routine. Reducing and eliminating risk factors will lead to healthier employees. 

Ergonomics is about putting “people first.” It is a way to better match tools, equipment, and work 

methods with workers. The application of ergonomics should be practical. It should benefit 

workers through better task designs and work procedures. Increasing the awareness of mining 

personnel to the benefits of applying ergonomics allows both management and employees to work 

together to gain significant benefits to worker health. Research has shown that ergonomics is most 

successful when it is approached as a participatory process—management and employees working 

together to modify job tasks, including equipment, tools, environment, and methods. The first step 

toward achieving a participatory process is to give employees knowledge of ergonomics and 

how it can be used to align their jobs to their abilities. 

The overall objective of Ergonomics and Risk Factor Awareness Training is to help reduce 

injuries and illnesses resulting from exposures to risk factors. Specifically, this training will 

increase awareness of risk factors and encourage miners to take action to report and reduce their 

exposures to risk factors. 

1
 
Content 

This training is designed specifically for the mining industry. Because mining is a diversified 

industry, examples representing both surface and underground mining processes for several 

different commodities and support services are incorporated into the training. This training 

package includes two components: 

• Ergonomics and Risk Factor Awareness Training for Instructors 

The training is designed to give instructors sufficient information about ergonomics and risk 

factors to allow them to adequately present similar training to employees. It includes 

information that should allow the instructor to respond to questions regarding material included 

in training given to other employees. 

• Guide to Conducting Ergonomics and Risk Factor Awareness Training 

This guide will assist the instructor in conducting the Ergonomics and Risk Factor Awareness 

Training. It includes examples of slides, along with discussion notes, descriptions of 

demonstrations, equipment needed for demonstrations, and suggested references. Suggested 

handout materials and training evaluation forms are also included in this guide. 

Training Topics 

This training includes four topics relevant to gaining a basic understanding of ergonomics, as well 

as how it applies to mining jobs. The last section contains interactive exercises that require 

trainees to apply what they learned in the previous topics. 

Topic 1: Introduction to Ergonomics 

This topic defines ergonomics and provides an example of using ergonomics to solve a problem. 

There is also a discussion on the benefits of using ergonomics to improve jobs. 

Topic 2: Musculoskeletal Disorders 

This topic defines cumulative trauma disorders or work-related musculoskeletal disorders and 

describes how a worker may progress from experiencing discomfort to developing a permanent, 

debilitating injury. The discussion includes three examples of this type of disorder. 

Topic 3: Risk Factors and Root Causes 

This topic presents descriptions and examples of ergonomic risk factors and their root causes. The 

four main risk factors receive special emphasis: forceful exertions, awkward postures, repetition, 

and vibration. 

2
 
Topic 4: Prevention 

This topic includes information about ways to control risk factors using engineering controls, 

administrative controls, work practices, or personal protective equipment (PPE). 

Exercises 

The exercises give trainees an opportunity to apply the knowledge gained in the previous sections. 

The participants review a video and then identify risk factors, potential body parts affected, 

root causes, and potential methods for controlling the risk factors 

Performance Objectives 

The following are objectives specific to each topic included in the training. 

Topic Objectives 

Introduction to ⋅ Understand that ergonomics is a science.

Ergonomics ⋅ Know that ergonomics seeks to design and organize the 

workplace to better match the capabilities and limitations of 

workers. 

Musculoskeletal ⋅ Identify the similarities and differences of acute and cumulative 

Disorders type injuries. 

⋅ Identify common cumulative trauma disorders. 

⋅ Identify and discriminate the signs and symptoms of cumulativetype injuries. 

Risk Factors and ⋅ Identify and discriminate between the common ergonomic risk 

Root Causes factors that can contribute to signs, symptoms and cumulative 

trauma disorders. 

⋅ Recognize and evaluate (from the video exercise) common 

ergonomic risk factors found in the workplace. 

Prevention ⋅ Select, apply, and discuss engineering controls, administrative 

controls, and PPE to reduce ergonomic risk factors. 

⋅ Discuss applying ergonomics to your workplace. Identify 

examples. 

3
 
File Formats 

The information included in this guide is offered in two formats: electronic files and hard copies. 

The electronic files include: 

•	 Ergonomics and Risk Factor Awareness Training for Instructors (Web and Adobe® PDF 

formats) 

•	 Materials needed for conducting Ergonomics and Risk Factor Awareness Training 

o	 Slide presentations (Microsoft® PowerPoint and Adobe® PDF formats) 

o	 Documents that may need to be copied, such as handouts and evaluation forms 

(Microsoft® Word, RTF, or Adobe® PDF formats) 

o	 Discussion notes (Adobe® PDF formats) 

All of the above electronic files, except for the training for instructors, are also provided in print 

formats. Instructions for accessing the training for instructions are included in the next section of 

this guide. Although a hard copy of this training can be printed from the PDF file provided on the 

enclosed CD, it is recommended that the Web format be used to complete this training because of 

the many videos and interactive exercises included in this training, 

4
 
ERGONOMICS AND RISK 

FACTOR AWARENESS 

TRAINING 

FOR INSTRUCTORS
 

Purpose of This Training 

This training will provide a trainer with sufficient information that will allow him/her to conduct a 

similar, but shorter version of the training for others. 

Who Should Take This Training 

Anyone who has not had any training in ergonomics should take this training. It would also be 

helpful for individuals who have had training, but their training either did not apply specifically to 

mining or did not emphasize the reporting of risk factor exposures. 

Outline of Training Topics 

Part 1 – Ergonomics 

• What is ergonomics? 

• It’s job design 

• Job design example 

• It’s how you do a job 

⋅ Lifting 

⋅ Using handtools 

⋅ Using joysticks 

⋅ Sitting postures 

⋅ Standing postures 

• Benefits of ergonomics 

• Ergonomics summary 

• Ergonomics review 

1
 
Part 2 – Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs) 

• What are MSDs? 

• Acute versus cumulative 

• MSD example 

• Trigger finger 

• Carpal tunnel syndrome 

• Tennis elbow 

• Symptoms of MSDs 

• Signs of MSDs 

• Injury progression 

• MSDs summary 

• MSDs review 

Part 3 – Risk Factors 

• What is a risk factor? 

• Risk factor effects 

• Ergonomic risk factors 

⋅ Forceful exertions 

⋅ Heavy or frequent lifting 

⋅ Forceful gripping 

⋅ Pushing or pulling 

⋅ Awkward or static postures 

⋅ Reaching 

⋅ Twisting the head 

⋅ Stooping 

⋅ Kneeling or squatting 

⋅ Static postures 

⋅ Repetitive motions 

⋅ Using equipment controls 

⋅ Using handtools 

⋅ Computer use 

⋅ Vibration 

⋅ Hand-arm vibration 

⋅ Whole-body vibration 

⋅ Jolting and jarring 

2 
 

• More ergonomic risk factors 

• Root causes 

• Root causes and ergonomics 

• Risk factors and root causes 

• Risk factors answers 

• Root causes answers 

• Risk factor summary 

• Risk factors review 

Part 4 – Prevention 

• How to prevent MSDs 

⋅ Reporting risk factors 

• Don’t focus on injuries! 

• Target risk factors 

• Controlling risk factors 

⋅ Engineering controls 

⋅ Administrative controls 

⋅ Personal protective equipment 

• Prevention summary 

• Prevention review 

Part 5 – Exercises 

• Exercise instructions 

• Risk factor review 

• Exercises 

More Information 

• Useful links 

• Contact the authors 

Glossary 

3 
 

How to Take This Training 

Screen Resolution 

The best screen resolution to view the site is 1,024×768 or better. 

The minimum screen resolution to effectively view the site is 800×600. At this resolution, you can 

improve readability by running your browser in Full Screen Mode (use the View/Full Screen menu 

option on your Web browser, or press F11.) 

Text Size 

If you use a screen resolution greater than 1,024×768, you may want to increase the text size to 

improve viewing. The list below describes the menu options used to change text size in several 

Web browsers. 

Internet Explorer 6+ View > Text Size 

Firefox 1+ (Mozilla) View > Text Size > Increase Ctrl++ / Decrease Ctrl+-

Netscape 7+ View > Text Zoom 

4
 
Site Navigation 

Every page on this site has a Contents menu like the one that appears under the title of this page. 

Click the Contents button, or press the F12 key, for a drop-down menu that provides access to 

every major page of the site. When you access the Contents menu by pressing the F12 key, you 

can move around the menu options with the arrow keys, select a menu option by pressing Enter, 

or exit the menu by pressing the F12 key again. To the right of the Contents menu are the ordered 

Navigation Links, which provide access to the Previous and Next pages of the training. In some 

cases, the Navigation Links will take you up a level to a previous page. 

Example of the dropdown Contents menu and ordered Navigation Links. 

Direct Page Access Using Keyboard Shortcuts 

The Up, Next, and Previous pages in the Navigation Links can be accessed directly from the 

keyboard. Under Windows, press ALT + Access Key. On Macs, press Control + Access Key. 

(NOTE: In Internet Explorer, you must press Enter after the access key combination): 

Page Access Key 

Up u 

Next n 

Previous p 

In addition, the following pages can be accessed directly from the keyboard: 

Page Access Key 

Exercise Index 1 

Using This Training (this page) 2 

5
 
PDF Files 

This site uses Adobe Acrobat® PDF files. You can download the free Adobe Reader from Adobe 

Systems at http://www.adobe.com/prodindex/acrobat/readstep.html. 

The entire training exercise is available as a PDF document formatted for printing. The link to the 

PDF file is in the upper right-hand corner of each page. 

Verified Browser Compatibility 

• Microsoft Internet Explorer 6 or greater 

• Mozilla Firefox 1.5 or greater 

• Netscape 8 or greater 

Playing Movies 

The Macromedia Flash Player is used for the videos and some of the illustrations. If you need the 

player and are connected to the Internet, you can download it by using this link: 

http://www.macromedia.com/go/getflashplayer/. 

The illustration below shows the video controls: 

6
 

• Play/Pause – Start and stop the video. 

• Back/Forward – Advance the video backwards or forwards a frame at a time. 

• Volume – Displays the Volume Slider. 

• Volume Slider – Drag the button to set the volume for videos with sound. 

• Position Slider – Drag the button to move forward or back through the video. 
 

 

 

GUIDE TO CONDUCTING 

ERGONOMICS AND RISK 

FACTOR AWARENESS 

TRAINING
 

Purpose of This Guide 

The information included in this section will provide a trainer with materials sufficient to 

conduct a similar, but shorter version of the Ergonomics and Risk Factor Awareness Training for 

Instructors. 

Training Topics 

Training materials provided in this guide are for the same topics as those included in the 

Ergonomics and Risk Factor Awareness Training for Instructors. However, some of the topics 

have been shortened so that this training could be given in two 60-minute sessions. The topics 

were divided into two parts, and a homework assignment was added that reinforces knowledge 

gained during the first part. The homework assignment is reviewed during the second part. 

Part 1 Introduction to Ergonomics 

Musculoskeletal Disorders 

Risk Factors
 

Homework Assignment 

Part 2	 Risk Factors (short review) 

Root Causes 

Prevention 

Exercises 

Review Homework Assignment 

1
 
 

 

Outline of Training Topics 

Part 1 – Ergonomics 

• What is ergonomics? 

• It’s job design 

• Job design example 

• Benefits of ergonomics 

• Ergonomics summary 

Part 2 – Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs) 

• What are MSDs? 

• Acute versus cumulative 

• MSD example 

• Symptoms of MSDs 

• Signs of MSDs 

• Injury progression 

• MSDs summary 

Part 3 – Risk Factors and Root Causes 

• What is a risk factor? 

• Risk factor effects 

• Ergonomic risk factors 

⋅ Forceful exertions 

⋅ Awkward or static postures 

⋅ Repetitive motions 

⋅ Vibration 

• More ergonomic risk factors 

• Root causes 

• Root causes and ergonomics 

• Risk factors and root causes 

• Risk factor summary 

• Homework assignment 

Part 4 – Prevention 

• How to prevent MSDs 

• Controlling risk factors 

⋅ Engineering controls 

⋅ Administrative controls 

⋅ Personal protective equipment 

Part 5 – Exercises 

2
 
Materials Included in This Guide 

This guide includes several mining industry-specific resources to assist trainers at being effective 

at transferring knowledge about ergonomics and ways to improve jobs: 

• Electronic version of the Microsoft® PowerPoint presentation 

• Hard copy of the Microsoft® PowerPoint presentation 

• Detailed notes, suggested demonstrations, and reference citations (Web links, books, and 

articles) for each slide 

• Handouts for the employees attending the training 

• Evaluation forms for obtaining feedback from trainees 

How to Conduct This Training 

Present this training in small group sessions (20–30 trainees). Make sure you are very familiar 

with the information on each slide so you do not simply read the information. You can use 

examples of experiences from your own site; workers will relate better to examples that are 

familiar to them. Use the graphics and the bulleted information on the slides to focus the 

information given during your presentation. The notes provided for each slide include additional 

information and demonstrations to enhance your discussion. Practice the demonstrations before

the training. 

Give the training in two sessions. The first should cover the first three topics, while the second 

session covers the last topic and the interactive exercises. Keep the time between the two 

sessions short so that only a brief review is necessary at the beginning of the second session. 

Also, give a homework assignment at the end of the first session. The homework assignment 

encourages trainees to look at their jobs and to identify potential risk factor exposures using the 

knowledge gained from the first three topics. 

You should plan on approximately 60 minutes for each session. Allow extra time to handle any 

discussions or questions raised by the trainees. 

3
 
 

Materials Needed to Present Training 

Part 1 

Materials for Presentation 

• Flip chart, white board, or chalkboard 

• Coin 

• Timer 

Materials for Demonstrations 

• Screwdriver with combination pistol/inline grip 

• Notebook or other object to simulate working surface 

• Two chock blocks 

• Vanilla wafers (two for each participant) 

• Large (jumbo) marshmallows (enough for each participant) 

• Empty aluminum soda pop can 

• Paper clips (enough for each participant) 

Handouts 

• What Type of Injury? 

• Risk Factor Report Card (use for homework assignment) 

• Course evaluation (one for each participant) 

Part 2 

Materials for Presentation 

• Flip chart, white board, or chalkboard 

• Examples of personal protective equipment for ergonomic risk factors 

Handouts 

• Task evaluation forms (two for each participant) 

• Summary page of common risk factors (one for each participant) 

• Course evaluation (one for each participant) 

4
 
Ergonomics and

Risk Factor Awareness

Ergonomics and 

Risk Factor Awareness 

PART 1

PART 1 

Introduction 

Musculoskeletal Injuries 

Risk Factors 

1
 
 

 

Ergonomics and 

Risk Factor Awareness

Ergonomics and 

Risk Factor Awareness 

PART 1

Suggested Discussion Points: 

Why is your company doing this training? 

Handouts/Tools/Reference Materials: 

International Labour Organization. Your health and safety at work: ergonomics. 

http://www.itcilo.it/english/actrav/telearn/osh/ergo/ergoa.htm 

2
 
Suggested Discussion Points: 

• There are principles and theories in ergonomics just like any other science 

• Cumulative trauma disorders or musculoskeletal disorders (also referred to as “MSDs”) 

• Risk factors that can impact the musculoskeletal system and result in MSDs 

• Steps to identify and control risk factors 

• Applying ergonomics to make your job safer 

3
 
 

 

 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

•	 Some tools, equipment, and machines are not designed to accommodate the typical user. 

Few machines are designed for individual differences. This forces individuals to use awkward 

positions, such as bending and reaching. 

•	 This “one size fits all” method of designing is opposite to the viewpoint of ergonomics. 

•	 Applying the science of ergonomics considers the variety of end users at the beginning of the 

design process. 

•	 In this example, the lathe was designed for a person who looks like the man in the bottom 

picture. The designer should have considered the end user’s anthropometry (body measurements) before designing the lathe. 

Handouts/Tools/Reference Materials: 

Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety: Work-related musculoskeletal disorders. 

http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/diseases/rmirsi.html 

4
 
 

 

 

Ergonomics is...
 

• Scientific study of human interaction with the 

work environment 

• Considers physical and mental capabilities of 

workers as they interact with tools, 

equipment, work methods, tasks, and 

working environment 

• Goal – to reduce work related injuries by 

adapting work to fit people 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

•	 Ergonomics is the systematic and scientific study of the worker’s interaction with his/her work 

environment. Job safety analyses (JSAs) are a very systematic way to break down a job to 

discover safety issues. In ergonomics, we break down tasks to identify risk factors that can be 

minimized to reduce cumulative injuries. 

•	 Ergonomics considers differences in people when designing job tasks. 

•	 Applying ergonomics seeks to put “people first” and considers how the work can be better 

designed to accommodate the user, reduce injury risk, and improve the quality of worklife. 

Handouts/Tools/Reference Materials: 

The Ergonomics Society (U.K.): What is ergonomics? 

http://www.ergonomics.org.uk/section.php?s=1 

Oregon OSHA: Introduction to ergonomics – cumulative trauma disorders. 

http://www.cbs.state.or.us/external/osha/educate/training/pages/201disorders.html 

5
 
 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

•	 Just because something is advertised as “ergonomic” does not mean it will reduce risk. How 

people use the tool is very important. 

•	 For example, demonstrate an inline and pistol grip screw driver (demonstration pictures below). 

•	 For example, you can adjust ergonomic chairs incorrectly. A chair may have all of the features 

needed to provide a good seated posture, but unless you know how to adjust it and the proper 

postures, it may not be used correctly. 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

This example shows that even if a tool is well designed, it can be used the wrong way and will not 

reduce risk to the user. 

Ask for a volunteer from the group and hand him or her the inline/pistol grip screwdriver. Then 

using a book, notebook, or sheet of paper, simulate a work surface. Hold the book/notebook/paper 

at approximately waist level of the volunteer with the book/notebook/paper parallel to the floor, 

as shown in Figures 1 and 2. Ask the employee to adjust the screwdriver (or choose either an 

inline or a pistol-grip style) to perform the task of placing a screw into the provided “work surface” 

6
 
using the most appropriate method. Figure 2 is the appropriate way, removing most of the 

deviation from the wrist and lowering the shoulder. 

Figure 1.—Poor posture. Figure 2.—Good posture. 

Now, rotate the book/notebook/paper so that it is perpendicular to the floor, as shown in Figures 3, 

4, and 5. Ask the volunteer to perform the same task on this “work surface.” Both Figures 3 and 4 

show a poor posture, whereas Figure 5 is an example of an appropriate way to use this tool for a 

vertical surface at this height. 

Figure 3.—Poor posture. Figure 4.—Poor posture. 

Figure 5.—Good posture. 

7
 
 

Props/Materials Needed: 

• Screwdriver with combination pistol/inline grips 

• Notebook or other object to simulate working surface 

Handouts/Tools/Reference Materials: 

International Labour Organization. Your health and safety at work: ergonomics. Refer to 

section D: Hand tools and controls. 

http://www.itcilo.it/english/actrav/telearn/osh/ergo/ergonomi.htm 

8
 
 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

Example of using ergonomics to solve a problem 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

Problem: At one mine, employees are required to chock their vehicles whenever they are parked 

on the mine property. This means that some employees have to chock their vehicles several times 

a day. Because the two chock blocks are connected with a rope, performing this task results in 

excessive stooping and bending. Other issues occur during muddy or wet conditions. 

Have the groups share their solution ideas. 

Props/Materials Needed: 

Two chock blocks 

9
 
Demos /Stories /Examples: 

Solution: A handle fabricated with conduit was attached to the two chock blocks by the Field 

Maintenance Department. This modification allowed employees to place the chock blocks in front 

and behind the tire and to pick the chock blocks off the ground with little or no stooping. The 

handle also helped alleviate issues that occur during unfavorable weather conditions. 

10
 
 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

Another example of using ergonomics to solve a problem. 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

Problem: Swinging a standard sledgehammer to carry out a task can be very strenuous on the 

body. With the Slide Sledge, using a heavy and awkward sledge hammer to exert a force is 

no longer necessary. The Slide Sledge is able to deliver a powerful payload of impact with 

minimal effort from the employee. 

Have the groups come up with more examples of how ergonomics has been used to solve 

problems, possibly from firsthand experience. 

Props/Materials Needed: 

Sledgehammer 

11
 
 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

Applying ergonomics can lead to many benefits to the employee, including: 

• Staying healthy as you get older 

• Enjoying leisure time activities 

• Reducing discomfort 

• Reducing fatigue 

• Enhancing quality of life 

• Making your job safer 

• Designing jobs for the next generation of workers – your children 

• Improved quality of work 

• Increased efficiency by working smarter – less wear and tear on the body 

• Preventing musculoskeletal injuries 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

1.	 Instead of telling them the benefits, ask the participants to offer benefits that they think would 

occur from applying ergonomics. Make a list on a flip chart, white board, or chalkboard. Then 

give them the list from the Suggested Discussion Points above. 

12
 
 

 

2.	 An alternative for audience participation is to follow the format for the “Family Feud” 

TV game show. Divide the class into two groups: “Family A” and “Family B.” Use a coin toss 

to decide which family goes first. Each family then takes turns until all of the benefits are 

identified. Hints: To control the time used to answer the question, set a time limit for each 

“family” to respond and/or limit the number of benefits that need to be identified to four or 

five. 

Props/Materials Needed: 

• Flip chart, white board, or chalkboard 

• Coin 

Handouts/Tools/Reference Materials: 

Hendrick HW [2003]. Determining the cost-benefits of ergonomics projects and factors that lead 

to their success. Appl Ergon 34(5):419–427. 

13
 
 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

Although applying ergonomics can lead to many benefits, many companies do not consider 

ergonomics for various reasons. These reasons are considered barriers, which could include: 

• Lack of resources (staff, time, money) 

• Lack of knowledge or expertise 

• Attitudes toward ergonomics 

• Safety culture 

• Lack of a regulation 

• Lack of commitment on all levels (top management to employees) 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

1. Instead of giving them the list of barriers, ask the participants to name barriers to implementing 

ergonomics in the workplace. Make a list on a flip chart, white board, or chalkboard. 

2. An alternative for audience participation is to follow the format for the “Family Feud” 

TV game show. Divide the class into two groups: “Family A” and “Family B.” Use a coin toss 

to decide which family goes first. Each family then takes turns until all of the barriers are 

14
 
identified. Hints: To control the time used to answer the question, set a time limit for each 

“family” to respond and/or limit the number of barriers that need to be identified to three 

or four. 

Props/Materials Needed: 

• Flip chart, white board, or chalkboard 

• Coin 

15
 
Suggested Discussion Points: 

When an ergonomic approach is not used, musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) may develop. 

This section will include information on: 

• How MSDs are different from acute injuries 

• Examples of MSDs 

• How MSDs may develop 

NOTE: Other terms for MSDs are cumulative trauma disorders (CTDs) or musculoskeletal 

injuries (MSIs). All three terms are interchangeable for purposes of this training. Companies may 

choose the term consistent within their organization. 

16
 
 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

It usually takes an injury to draw attention to a problem. Reactive means that the main effort to 

reduce injury risk is after an injury has occurred. Efforts are focused on preventing future injuries, 

not on the current injury. 

Reacting to injuries that have occurred does have value because of the cumulative nature of 

MSDs. Other workers may be developing an MSD, and action taken may be useful in preventing 

MSDs for these workers. However, with a reactive approach, one can sometimes wrongly assume 

that no injuries means no problems, when it really means that the injuries have not yet occurred 

because of the cumulative nature of MSDs. 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

What would happen if you did not provide preventive maintenance for your equipment? 

As an example: 

•	 A Monday morning quarterback cannot do anything to prevent the losing outcome of Sunday’s 

game; or 

•	 Shutting the barn door after the horse has left the barn will not prevent the horse from leaving 

the barn. 

17
 
 

 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

Concentrate on the importance of being proactive versus solely reactive. Being proactive can be 

described as PM (preventive maintenance) for people. 

Proactive means we avoid waiting for the injuries to occur and we keep an eye on risk factors 

connected to specific work tasks that can lead to signs, symptoms, and eventually injury. 

To do this, trainees must understand: 

• What musculoskeletal injuries are 

• How musculoskeletal injuries progress 

• Signals (signs and symptoms) that tell you when an injury might occur 

• How to prevent them from happening 

These will be presented in this portion of the training. 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

Participants probably will be able to relate to obesity, high cholesterol, and high blood pressure as 

risk factors for heart disease. 

18
 
 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

•	 Acute injuries occur instantaneously. Types of acute injuries include fractures, cuts, and 

bruises. People are more familiar with acute injuries. These injuries can affect any part of the 

body, including internal organs. 

•	 Cumulative injuries occur gradually over time with varying degrees of signs and symptoms, 

indicating that something is wrong. Some examples include herniated discs, tendonitis, carpal 

tunnel syndrome, and sprains/strains. These injuries affect muscles, nerves, tendons, ligaments, 

and blood vessels. 

NOTE: Some types of injuries can be either acute or cumulative depending on the precipitating 

event. For example, a sprain/strain can be cumulative if the exposure is highly repetitive and 

involves submaximal forceful exertions, or it can be acute if the precipitating event is a single 

overexertion exceeding the maximum capability of the worker. 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

Scenario: A person is smoking a cigarette by a gas pump. 

Question: What is the risk? 

19
 
Answer(s): 

A. Acute injury: explosion and tripping hazard 

B. Cumulative illness: lung cancer 

It is common for risky situations to have both an acute and a cumulative risk associated. 

20
 
 

 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

• Reinforce the differences between acute and cumulative. 

• Sometimes it is difficult to differentiate between the two types of injuries. 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

Hand out the list of injury scenarios and ask the participants to determine which injuries are acute 

or cumulative. This exercise can be done by individual participants or by separating the 

participants into teams. One team can do the odd-numbered scenarios, while the other team does 

the even-number scenarios. 

Handouts/Tools/Reference Materials: 

Acute and Cumulative Injury Handout 

Suggested answers to the injury scenarios: 

1. Acute 4. Acute 7. Acute 10. Cumulative 

2. Acute 5. Cumulative 8. Acute 11. Acute 

3. Cumulative 6. Cumulative 9. Acute 12. Cumulative 

21
 
Suggested Discussion Points: 

MSDs differ from other type of injuries in many ways. 

•	 Lost workdays are greater for MSDs. 

•	 MSDs cost more than other injuries. 

•	 MSDs take longer to get better and require more treatment. 

•	 MSDs increase a person’s risk for reinjury. Once you have an MSD, the risk for the same 

injury is higher, especially if the first injury was not properly treated, the recovery time was not 

adequate, and/or the root cause of the problem was not addressed. 

Sources of data shown in slide: 

•	 Days lost data: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics [1998]. BLS issues: 1996 lost-work time 

injuries and illnesses survey. Am Coll Occup Environ Med Rep 98:6–7. 

•	 Cost data: Webster BS, Snook SH [1994]. The cost of compensable upper-extremity 

cumulative trauma disorders. J Occup Med 36(7):713–717. 

•	 MSD info (1993–1994): Feuerstein M, Miller VI, Burrell LM, Berger R [1998]. Occupational 

upper-extremity disorders in the federal work force: prevalence, healthcare expenditures, and 

patterns of work disability. J Occup Environ Med 40(6):546–555. 

22
 
 

 

Case Study – Back Injuries Can be Serious 

Supervisor suffered back injury helping a worker move 

sheet metal in January 1978 

• Original injury - $1000 medical costs and no lost time 

• Recurrence in 1992 cost $18,000 

• Surgery/comp in 1993 cost $81,000 and resulted in permanent 

partial disability 

• Additional costs of $55,000 in 2001 alone 

By 2002, this 1978 back injury cost over 

$517,000! 

Original injury cost data did not appear to warrant investment . . . 

until you consider future costs. 

What about costs to the employee? 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

•	 High costs of MSDs 

•	 A back injury is a good predictor for a future injury – should implement an intervention or 

job improvement to prevent future back injuries 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

This example can be replaced with your own example if you have the cost data. The example 

shown in the slide is an actual case that happened at a U.S. Navy facility. The injury cost was 

$517,000 by the year 2002. 

Ask participants to think about the human cost to this type of situation. Ask them to give examples 

of what the worker would be experiencing, such as: 

•	 Pain 

•	 Time involved with rehabilitation 

•	 Unable to participate in leisure time activities 

•	 Reduced wages 

•	 Loss of function 

Source of data presented in slide: Barbara Wright, Ergonomics Program Manager, Naval Aviation 

Depot (NADEP), Jacksonville, FL 32223; phone: 904–542–3539; e-mail: Wrightbl@navair.navy.mil. 

23
 
Targeting Signs
 

Injury 

Signs 

decreased grip strength 

loss of muscle function 

decreased range of motion 

decreased nerve conduction 

speed 

change in skin color 

deformity 

swelling 

Slide Pointers: 

•	 Must click mouse to reveal the “signs” ring. If you are making this interactive, stop here to 

have participation. 

•	 Must click mouse to reveal the examples of “signs.” 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

Signs are objective findings (the change can be measured and/or observed) that include: 

•	 Decreased grip strength 

•	 Loss of muscle function 

•	 Decreased range of motion 

•	 Decreased nerve conduction speed 

•	 Change in skin color when exposed to cold or vibration 

•	 Deformity 

• Swelling 

In some cases, signs can be reversed, but not always. 

24
 
Demos /Stories /Examples: 

To emphasize what signs are, demonstrate decreased range of motion. Two examples affecting the 

shoulder and elbow joints include: 

•	 Stand with your arm at your side. Raise your arm outward to the side as far as you can. Then 

repeat, but only raise your arm as high as your shoulder. 

•	 Stand with your arm at your side with your palm facing forward. Raise your forearm as far as 

you can. Then repeat, but only raise your forearm so that it is parallel to the ground. 

Ask the participants what they could not do either at home or at work if their range of motion were 

decreased as shown in the demonstration. 

Ask the participants for examples of other signs and what they could not do as a result of that sign 

either at home or at work, such as: 

•	 Decreased grip strength – not being able to hold a large milk bottle with one hand 

•	 Decreased grip strength – not being able to open a bottle with a screw cap or even opening a 

door by turning a door knob 

•	 Loss of muscle function – not being able to lift your child into a car seat 

•	 Loss of muscle function – not being able to get dressed or to feed yourself 

25
 
 

Slide Pointers: 

•	 Must click mouse to reveal the “symptoms” ring. 

•	 Must click mouse to reveal the examples of “symptoms.” 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

•	 Symptoms are more subjective in nature and include pain, fatigue, numbness, or tingling 

sensations. 

•	 Any one or combination of these may be an early indicator that there is a problem. Symptoms 

that are ignored may progress to signs. The key is to recognize symptoms early before they 

progress to a sign or injury. 

•	 Symptoms can be treated – are reversible. 

•	 Failure to seek early treatment can result in chronic pain or permanent disability. 

•	 It is important to know that symptoms may occur at any time, not just while you are working. 

Symptoms may be experienced while sleeping, watching TV, or in a cold environment. 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

For instance, symptoms for carpal tunnel syndrome often occur at night. 

26
 
 

Slide Pointers: 

•	 Must click mouse to reveal each step of the progression. This will give you time to talk about 

each step. 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

•	 One possible progression for a cumulative injury starts with symptoms, such as fatigue or 

stiffness, then progresses to periodic pain and then continuous pain, and finally results in a loss 

of function. 

•	 The sooner the exposure is reduced or eliminated, the better the chance of avoiding permanent 

injury. 

•	 Preventing the progression of a cumulative injury by elimination of risk factors is ideal. 

•	 The longer one waits to get treatment, the longer it usually takes to get better. In addition, once 

loss of function occurs, you may never regain full function. 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

Ask participants if they can share any experiences with MSDs or cumulative disorders. Ask them 

to describe the progression of an MSD and to describe how long it took to get better. 

27
 
 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

•	 The vertebrae are the bones of the spine. 

•	 Vertebrae provide support and protection to the spinal cord. 

•	 Between each vertebra is a disc. The disc is a large, round ligament that connects the vertebrae 

together. 

•	 The disc serves as a shock absorber. 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

Video: Click on the vertebrae to start the video, and then click it again to stop the video when you 

are done. To move to the next slide, make sure your pointer is no longer on the picture. This will 

allow the presentation to advance. The disc is subjected to different types of stress as we use our 

backs each day. The disc generally acts as a shock absorber. Bending over results in compression 

of the disc and will cause the disc to bulge. Twisting and bending together is perhaps the greatest 

stress on the parts of the spine, especially the disc. 

Marshmallow Demo: To demonstrate how the discs behave between the vertebrae, give each 

participant two vanilla wafers and a large/jumbo marshmallow. Have them place the marshmallow 

between the two vanilla wafers and squeeze the two vanilla wafers together causing the 

marshmallow to bulge outside of the vanilla wafer “sandwich.” The marshmallow represents a 

28
 
 

spinal disc and its ability to compress and expand. Vanilla wafers represent two vertebrae and their 

ability to protect the disc. The nature of the disc (marshmallow) allows us to be able to bend and 

twist. 

Props/Materials Needed: 

• Vanilla wafers (two per participant) 

• Large fresh marshmallows (one per participant) 

Handouts/Tools/Reference Materials: 

Marras WS [2003]. The case for cumulative trauma in low back disorders (editorial). Spine 3(3): 

177–179. 

29
 
 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

•	 Degeneration occurs when wear and tear causes deterioration of the disc—small tears occur in 

the ligament. Over time, the tears may become bigger and longer (like when your favorite jeans 

get old and begin to fray). 

•	 Repeated lifting, combined with bending and twisting, may lead to injury and degeneration of 

the disc. 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

Video: Click on the vertebrae to start the video, and then click it again to stop the video when you 

are done. To move to the next slide, make sure your pointer is no longer on the picture. This will 

allow the presentation to advance. When the disc degenerates, pain receptors in the outer region 

are activated and a person can experience back pain. In addition, if the tears in the disc reach the 

outer layers, the center of the disc can protrude through the tears and push against the spinal 

nerves and cause severe pain. When this condition occurs, it is called a herniated disc. 

30
 
 

Paper Clip: Pass out one paper clip per individual, and ask him/her to straighten the paper clip. 

Once the paperclips are unfolded and more or less straight, have the participants bend it back and 

forth at the same point, counting how many bends it takes to break the paper clip. Have the 

participants share the number of bends required to break the paper clip. 

Soda Pop Can: Have the participants press down on the top of an empty soda pop can. No matter 

how hard the can is pressed, it will not collapse. Now have them gently press on the side of the 

can with one finger to cause a dent, and then press down on the top of the can. The can will 

compress off to one side. 

The discussion point that should be addressed with these examples is that the same principle 

applies to the human back—the more you bend it, the weaker it becomes. Also, this example 

highlights that everyone’s breaking point is different, which makes it difficult to define how many 

times it is safe to bend over and lift something or what weight is a safe weight to lift. It varies 

from person to person, just like the number of bends varied to break the paper clip. 

Props/Materials Needed: 

• Paper clips (enough for one per participant) 

• Empty soda pop can with no indentations 

Handouts/Tools/Reference Materials: 

American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. Herniated disk. 

http://orthoinfo.aaos.org/fact/thr_report.cfm?thread_id=185&topcategory=Spine 

31
 
 

 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

This slide shows the same spine 20 years apart. This is an example of the type and level of 

degeneration that can occur. Note the extensive level of degeneration of the disc and the bone. 

Although the specific cause of this degeneration is not important, it is important to know that its 

progress can be delayed. While some degeneration occurs with aging, its progress may be 

accelerated by heavy physical work, vibration exposure, smoking, and genetics. 

Applying ergonomics will reduce the stress experienced by the body and will minimize the degree 

of degeneration from exposures to risk factors. Ergonomics promotes healthy aging so you can 

have a higher quality of living. 

Handouts/Tools/Reference Materials: 

Anatomical models illustrating normal spines and spines with degeneration are available from 

www.backtalksystems.com. 

32
 
 

 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

•	 The carpal bones in the wrist and the transverse carpal ligament form a “tunnel” in the wrist. 

•	 The space in the tunnel is fixed and it cannot be expanded. 

•	 The median nerve and the tendons that move the fingers pass through this tunnel. 

Handouts/Tools/Reference Materials: 

•	 NIOSH facts: carpal tunnel syndrome. http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ctsfs.html 

•	 National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. Carpal tunnel syndrome fact sheet. 

http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/carpal_tunnel/detail_carpal_tunnel.htm 

•	 Continuum Health Partners, Inc. Common injuries of the hand and wrist: carpal tunnel 

syndrome. http://www.wehealny.org/services/orthopedics/carpal.html 

33
 
Suggested Discussion Points: 

•	 The median nerve (yellow) and flexor tendons (white) pass through the carpal tunnel opening. 

•	 The sheath (blue), or tenosynovium, that covers the tendons is very slippery and allows the 

tendons to glide against each other as the hand is used to grasp objects. 

•	 Any condition that irritates the tendons, such as repeatedly bending the wrist and applying 

force, can result in swelling and thickening of the sheath. 

•	 Inflammation of tendons and the sheath can cause discomfort or tendonitis. 

•	 The swelling of the sheath reduces the space in the carpal tunnel. 

If this condition gets to a point where increased swelling and pressure squeezes the median nerve 

against the ligament, carpal tunnel syndrome develops. This can result in numbness, tingling, and 

pain in the hand(s). Surgical releases are commonly performed to reduce the pressure, but scar 

tissue formed from the surgery can actually reduce the size of the tunnel. If the person goes back 

to the same working conditions, symptoms are likely to recur. Symptoms are often most acute 

while sleeping, since blood pressure is reduced. Advanced cases may result in permanent 

weakness and clumsiness of the hand. 

34
 
 

 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

Ask the participants to rub their hands together and ask them what they feel. The heat that occurs 

is due to friction. Think about your hands as the tendons in your wrist passing through the carpal 

tunnel. This internal heat generated by the tendons rubbing against each other can lead to 

inflammation and pain. 

Video: Click on the tendon picture with the black background to start the video, and then click it 

again to stop the video when you are done. To move to the next slide, make sure your pointer is no 

longer on the picture. This will allow the presentation to advance. The sheath (blue) that covers 

the tendons is very slippery and allows the tendons to glide against each other as the hand is used 

to grasp objects. 

Handouts/Tools/Reference Materials: 

Westmoreland R [1993]. Cumulative trauma disorders: some cautions for conservators. West Assoc 

Art Conserv Newsl 15(2):37–38. 

35
 
Suggested Discussion Points: 

•	 Trigger finger affects the movement of the tendons as they bend the fingers to form a fist. 

•	 The tendons that move the fingers are held in place on the bones by a series of narrow 

ligaments. These ligaments form an arch or tunnel on the surface of the bone for the tendon to 

run through along the bone. 

•	 When trigger finger occurs, the constant irritation from the tendon repeatedly sliding through 

the tunnel causes the tendon to swell in this area and form a nodule. 

•	 Repeated trauma from pistol-gripped power tools or long hours grasping a steering wheel can 

cause trigger finger. 

The symptoms of trigger finger include pain and a clicking sensation when the finger is bent. 

Tenderness usually occurs over the area of the nodule. The clicking sensation occurs when the 

nodule moves through the tunnel. If the nodule becomes too large, it may pass under the ligament 

and then not be able to return. If the nodule cannot move back through the tunnel, the finger will 

be locked in a flexed trigger finger position. 

36
 
 

 

MSDs vs. Heart Disease
 

Disease (Injury) Heart Disease MSDs 

Signs Artery blockage 

Loss of muscle 

function/decreased range 

of motion 

Symptoms Shortness of breath/chest 

pain/arm pain 

Pain/numbness/fatigue/ 

tingling 

Risk Factors 

High blood pressure/ 

smoking/no physical 

activity/age/male/race 

/high cholesterol/high 

triglycerides 

Excessive force/poor 

posture/repetition 

Root Cause Lifestyle/Genetics 

Object weight 

/workstation design/ 

position of work piece 

Address root causes to improve health!
 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

•	 MSDs develop over time similar to other types of diseases, such as heart disease. 

⋅ MSDs and heart disease have signs and symptoms. 

⋅ MSDs and heart disease have risk factors and root causes. 

•	 MSDs are not like some diseases that progress even if the exposure stops. MSDs can be 

reversed if the exposure is reduced and permanent damage has not already occurred. 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

Ask participants to name other diseases that would be similar to MSDs. 

Examples: diabetes, arthritis, silicosis. 

37
 
 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

•	 Do not assume that fatigue or discomfort is just “part of the job.” 

•	 It is important to learn to recognize early warning signals and take action. 

•	 Discuss the reporting procedure used by your organization, i.e., report to supervisor, 

ergonomics committee, safety director, etc. 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

Ask participants about the right procedure for their site. 

38
 
Suggested Discussion Points: 

•	 Risk factor exposures may result in discomfort or an MSD. 

•	 In addition to looking for and eliminating safety hazards, such as an unstable ladder or an oil 

spill on the floor, it is vital to identify and control risk factors. 

39
 
Suggested Discussion Points: 

• Exposure to risk factors may have some effect on workers. 

• Effects of risk factors depend on: 

⋅ Who? 

⋅ How many? 

⋅ How much of each risk factor? 

⋅ How often the exposure occurs (days per week and times per day)? 

⋅ How the work is done (tools, techniques used, or work station layout)? 

• Early effects of risk factors are more likely if: 

⋅ A worker is exposed to extreme levels. 

⋅ Multiple risk factors are in play, e.g., bending and twisting while lifting. 

⋅ A worker has a preexisting weakness due to heredity or a previous injury or illness. 

40
 
 

 

 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

• Much research has been done to identify risk factors that result in MSDs. 

• The four main musculoskeletal injury risk factors that are found in mining environments are: 

⋅ Force 

⋅ Posture 

⋅ Repetition 

⋅ Vibration 

Handouts/Tools/Reference Materials: 

Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety. Work-related musculoskeletal disorders 

(WMSDs): risk factors. http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/ergonomics/risk.html 

41
 
 

 

Examples of Forceful Work 

• Heavy lifting 

• Carrying heavy objects 

• Forceful pushing or pulling 

• Forceful gripping 

• Shoveling damp or 

heavy materials 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

•	 Examples: Heavy lifting or carrying, forceful pushing or pulling, forceful gripping, and 

shoveling 

•	 The actual force needed to do a job depends on many factors, such as: the task being 

performed, weight and shape of objects being handled, type of grip being used, and ability to 

get a good grip. 

•	 Strength is a function of body position. The amount of force that one can produce by the body 

will depend on the body position and the specific muscles being used. For example, if you are 

lifting an object at knee height versus shoulder height, a person could lift a heavier object at 

their knees using the leg muscles than at their shoulders using the shoulder/arm muscles. 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

Video: Click on the picture to start the video, and then click it again to stop the video when you 

are done. To move to the next slide, make sure your pointer is no longer on the picture. This will 

allow the presentation to advance. A quality control technician is obtaining a sample from a 

railcar. This is done several times during the shift. Play the video and ask the participants to 

identify the risk factors they observe. The risk factors shown in this video include shoveling, 

forceful pulling, heavy lifting, and carrying. 

42
 
 

 

Examples of Poor Posture 

• Trunk bent over more than 20 degrees 

• Twisting the trunk or head 

• Elbows above shoulders 

• Extended forward reaches 

• Reaching behind the body 

• Extreme wrist bending 

• Pinch grips 

• Kneeling or squatting 

• Static position 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

•	 It is common for workers to use postures that put stress on their bodies. 

•	 Elbows above shoulders, extended forward reaches, trunk bending, extreme wrist bending, 

pinch grips, and kneeling or squatting are poor postures often seen in the work environment. 

•	 Because work is dynamic, several different safe postures should be used throughout the 

work shift. 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

Video: Click on the picture to start the video, and then click it again to stop the video when you 

are done. To move to the next slide, make sure your pointer is no longer on the picture. This will 

allow the presentation to advance. This worker is welding. Awkward postures shown in the video 

include static posture, reaching with arm, and twisted and bent neck. This worker is wearing a 

powered air-purifying respirator. 

43
 
 

Demonstrate examples of some of the poor postures (see pictures below demonstrating poor 

postures): 

•	 Raise your hands and elbows above your shoulders and demonstrate using the power tool 

(screwdriver) from the earlier slide. 

•	 Bend your wrist in extreme flexion and extension. 

•	 Pick up a binder using a pinch grip. 

Ask participants what they think is a safe posture. A good rule of thumb is to work with your joints 

at about the midpoint of their range of motion. Demonstrate a neutral posture for the wrist and 

arm. 

•	 The wrist is straight—no wrinkles should be visible. 

•	 The arm should be bent about 90° at the elbow. 

Neutral posture: 

44
 
Demonstration of the differences between pinch and power grip strengths: Ask for two volunteers. 

Obtain maximum strength levels for both types of grips using a dynamometer. Record results on a 

white board or flip chart. Ask for two more volunteers and obtain their maximum power and pinch 

grips. Record the results. Discuss the differences between power and pinch grips. The pinch grip 

should be around 20% of the power grip. Ask the participants: if they had a choice, which grip 

they would use? Tasks should be designed to use power grips and not pinch grips. 

Two sources for dynamometers include: 

The Human Solution 

12417 River Bend, Suite 12 

Austin, TX 78732 

Phone: 1–800–531–3746 

http://www.thehumansolution.com/dynamometers.html 

Nexgen 

6600 Trans Canada Highway 

Suite 750 

Pointe Claire (Montreal), Quebec 

CANADA H9R 4S2 

Phone: 514–685–8593 

http://www.nexgenergo.com/medical/baseline1.html 

45
 
 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

•	 Highly repetitive motions are repeated every few seconds or minutes. 

•	 Using equipment controls, machine-paced assembly tasks, packing or unpacking items, 

computer keyboarding, and working at a store checkout line are commonly repetitious jobs. 

•	 Some parts of the body are more likely to be affected by repetitive motion than others, e.g., 

the wrist, elbow, and shoulder. 

•	 Repetition is more critical as a risk factor when combined with another risk factor, such as 

force or awkward posture. An example would be using a sledgehammer. Using it once would 

not generally be a problem, but using it many times could result in fatigue and possibly an 

injury. 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

Video: Click on the picture to start the video, and then click it again to stop the video when you 

are done. To move to the next slide, make sure your pointer is no longer on the picture. This will 

allow the presentation to advance. This worker is operating a surface drill. He manipulates the 

levers and switches throughout the shift. Also, note the awkward postures: forward reach and 

twisted neck. 

46
 
 

 

Handouts/Tools/Reference Materials: 

Ergonomics – high repetition. 

http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/etools/poultry/general_hazards/ergo_repetition.html 

47
 
Examples of Vibration 

Exposure
 

• Whole Body - Sitting or standing on vibrating surfaces 

(includes jolting and jarring) 

• Hand-Arm - Using vibrating tools 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

•	 Hand-arm and whole-body vibration are the primary forms of vibration exposure. 

•	 Commonly used power tools like sanders and drills have moderate hand-arm vibration levels. 

•	 Tools like impact wrenches and jackhammers have high hand-arm vibration levels. 

•	 Whole-body vibration is often caused from riding in mobile equipment like haul trucks or 

forklifts. 

Short-term effects of too much hand-arm vibration are reduced blood flow and loss of ability to 

feel things that are cold, hot, rough, or sharp. 

Exposure to whole-body vibration may also cause headaches, nausea, and back problems. 

How can we protect ourselves from hand-arm vibration? 

48
 
 

 

 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

Video: Click on the picture to start the video, and then click it again to stop the video when you 

are done. To move to the next slide, make sure your pointer is no longer on the picture. This will 

allow the presentation to advance. This is a video of mechanic using a grinder. This is an example 

of moderate arm-hand vibration. 

Also, you could ask how we could protect ourselves from hand-arm vibration. Answers may 

include antivibration gloves, properly setting the torque, and selecting the proper tool for the job. 

Handouts/Tools/Reference Materials: 

Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety. Vibration. 

http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents/vibration/vibration_intro.html 

49
 
 

Other Risk Factors
 

• Environmental Factors - temperature/humidity/altitude 

• Contact Stress – sharp edges 

• Pressure Points 

• Torque Reaction 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

There are other risk factors that occur at mining sites. They include: 

• Pressure points 

• Contact stress (sharp edges on desk/table tops) 

• Environmental conditions: heat stress, cold stress, high humidity, altitude 

• Restricted spaces: working under vehicles 

This worker is working under a vehicle in a restricted working space. 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

Ask the participants to identify the risk factors observed in the photo: restricted space, perhaps 

pressure points, lying on back. 

50
 
 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

•	 An MSD is more likely to occur if the exposure involves multiple risk factors. 

•	 Reducing the exposure to some of the risk factors will significantly reduce the chance of 

developing an MSD. 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

Ask the participants for examples of multiple risk factor exposures they have seen. 

•	 Lifting and twisting the trunk of the body 

•	 Operating a heavy power tool with a bent wrist 

•	 Operating a joystick with a bent wrist 

•	 Reaching above your head while holding a tool 

Video: Click on the picture to start the video, and then click it again to stop the video when you 

are done. To move to the next slide, make sure your pointer is no longer on the picture. This will 

allow the presentation to advance. Play the video and ask the participant to identify the risk 

factors observed. 

51
 
These workers are rebuilding a crusher and need to remove the springs. Risk factors observed 

include forceful exertions, forceful gripping, impacts from the hammer, repetition, and working 

above shoulder level. 

52
 
 

 _______________________________________________________________ 

 _______________________________________________________________ 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

_______________________________________ 

_______________________________________ 

 

 

Homework
 

•	 Identify tasks that you do or other workers do that

have exposures to risk factors. 

•	 Complete a concern card for each task - Describe 

the task and risk factors. Indicate if you have any 

discomfort. RISK FACTOR REPORT CARD Name: _________________________ 

1. Work Area / Job Title: ____________________________________________ 

2. Describe task: _________________________________________________ •	 Try to complete at 

least 2 concern cards. 3. Check all risk factors that apply: 4. Place X on affected areas. 

□ Poor Posture □ Forceful Gripping 

□ Repetitive Work □ Heavy Lifting/Carrying 

□ Vibrating Tools □ Bouncing/Jarring •	 Bring your cards to □ Static Posture □ Heavy Shoveling 

□ WB Vibration □ Forceful Push/Pull 

Other risk factors: _____________________ the next session. 5. Comments/suggestions: ______________ 

6. Plant/Mine Name: ____________________ 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

•	 The homework gives the participants practice at identifying risk factors associated with 

their jobs. 

•	 Discuss how to complete the card. Use an example of a completed card. 

Handouts/Tools/Reference Materials: 

•	 Risk Factor Report Card 

•	 Example of a completed Risk Factor Report Card 

If you choose not to do the homework assignment, delete this slide from the presentation. 

53
 
Provide date and time for the second session. 

Tell participants the topics that will be covered during the second session: 

• Review risk factors 

• Learn: 

⋅ Why risk factors occur (root causes) 

⋅ How to control risk factors 

• Practice: 

⋅ Identifying risk factors 

⋅ Improving jobs 

54
 
Ergonomics and

Risk Factor Awareness

Ergonomics and 

Risk Factor Awareness 

PART 1

Is this a problem? 

1

Objectives 

• To gain an understanding of: 

– What is ergonomics 

– How cumulative trauma disorders develop 

– Ergonomic risk factors 

– Controlling risk factors 

• To gain an understanding of how ergonomics 

applies to your job 

Ergonomics - What is it? 

Most people look like this... 

Some designers must think 

that people look like this... 

Ergonomics is... 

• Scientific study of human interaction with the 

work environment 

• Considers physical and mental capabilities of 

workers as they interact with tools, 

equipment, work methods, tasks, and 

working environment 

• Goal – to reduce work related injuries by 

adapting work to fit people 

Ergonomics is ... Ergonomics is ...

not onl not only the design of j sign of jobs,

tools and equipment, but nd equipment, but

..how people use ..how people use

them
What one company did... Taking the Work Out of Work 

What are the Benefits? 

What are the Barriers? 

Preventing

Musculoskeletal

Disorders

Preventing 

Musculoskeletal 

Disorders 

Cumulative Trauma Disorders (CTDs) 

Musculoskeletal Injuries (MSIs)

Cumulative Trauma Disorders (CTDs) 

Musculoskeletal Injuries (MSIs) 

Targeting Injuries 

Injury 

Reactive Reactive

2
 

 

 

 

 

Targeting Risk Factors 

Injury 

Risk 

Factors 

Proactive 

Reactive Reactive Work-Related Injuries 

• Acute injuries – 

– Occur instantly 

–	 Examples: fractures, cuts, 

bruises
 

• Cumulative injuries – 

– Develop gradually 

–	 Examples: sprains/ strains, 

herniated discs, tendonitis, 

carpal tunnel syndrome
 

What type of injury? 

Acute
 

or
 

Cumulative
 

???????????????????????????????? 

Musculoskeletal Disorders 

• Median number of lost work days 

– 5 days for all workers with injuries 

– 25 days for workers with MSDs 

• Average cost per injury 

– $824 for all other cases 

– $8,070 for an MSD 

• MSDs tend to have 

– Longer durations 

– Longer treatment time 

– Greater work disability 

Targeting Signs Case Study – Back Injuries Can be Serious 

Supervisor suffered back injury helping a worker move 

sheet metal in January 1978 • Original injury - $1000 medical costs and no lost time 

• Recurrence in 1992 cost $18,000 

• Surgery/comp in 1993 cost $81,000 and resulted in permanent 

partial disability 

• Additional costs of $55,000 in 2001 alone 

By 2002, this 1978 back injury cost over 

$517,000! 

Original injury cost data did not appear to warrant investment . . . 

until you consider future costs. 

What about costs to the employee? 

Injury 

Signs 

decreased grip strength 

loss of muscle function 

decreased range of motion 

decreased nerve conduction 

speed 

change in skin color 

deformity 

swelling 

3
achiness 

Targeting Symptoms 

Injury 

Signs 

Symptoms 

pain 

muscle tightness 

fatigue 

burning 

numbness 

tingling 

cramping 

Cumulative Injury Progression 

Loss of Function Loss of Function

Continuous Pain Continuous Pain

Pain Comes and Goes Pain Comes and Goes

Fatigue/Stiffness Fatigue/Stiffness

Spinal Movement Herniated Disc 

Spinal Degeneration Wrist Anatomy 

4
Tendon Movement Trigger Finger 

MSDs vs. Heart Disease 

Disease (Injury) Heart Disease MSDs 

Signs Artery blockage 

Loss of muscle 

function/decreased range 

of motion 

Symptoms Shortness of breath/chest 

pain/arm pain 

Pain/numbness/fatigue/ 

tingling 

Risk Factors 

High blood pressure/ 

smoking/no physical 

activity/age/male/race 

/high cholesterol/high 

triglycerides 

Excessive force/poor 

posture/repetition 

Root Cause Lifestyle/Genetics 

Object weight 

/workstation design/ 

position of work piece 

Address root causes to improve health! 

Risk Factors Risk Factors

Actions or conditions found to contribute 

to worker discomfort or injury

Actions or conditions found to contribute 

to worker discomfort or injury 

Take Action! Take Action!

As soon as you are aware of early warning signals 

Report Your Concerns 

Early action may prevent 

loss of function and serious 

injury! 

Risk Factor Effects
 

Are hard to predict, they depend on:
 

• Who is doing the work 

• How many risk factors there are 

• How much there is of each risk factor 

• How the work is done 

• How often the work is done 

5
 

 

 

Musculoskeletal Disorder
 

Risk Factors
 

Four Main Risk Factors 

1. Forceful Work - A lot of physical effort 

2. Poor Posture - Poor positioning of the body 

3. Repetitive Work - Doing the same movements many times 

4. Vibration Exposure - Two types: hand-arm and whole body 

Examples of Poor Posture 

• Trunk bent over more than 20 degrees 

• Twisting the trunk or head 

• Elbows above shoulders 

• Extended forward reaches 

• Reaching behind the body 

• Extreme wrist bending 

• Pinch grips 

• Kneeling or squatting 

• Static position 

Examples of Repetitive Work 

• Using equipment controls 

• Machine paced assembly tasks 

• Packing or unpacking items 

• Computer 

keyboarding 

• Manning a store 

checkout line 

Examples of Vibration
 

Exposure
 

• Whole Body - Sitting or standing on vibrating surfaces 

(includes jolting and jarring) 

• Hand-Arm - Using vibrating tools 

Examples of Forceful Work 

• Heavy lifting 

• Carrying heavy objects 

• Forceful pushing or pulling 

• Forceful gripping 

• Shoveling damp or 

heavy materials 

Other Risk Factors 

• Environmental Factors - temperature/humidity/altitude 

• Contact Stress - sharp edges 

• Pressure Points 

• Torque Reaction 

6
 

 

 _______________________________________________________________ 

 _______________________________________________________________ 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

_______________________________________ 

_______________________________________ 

 

Compounding Risk Factors 

Higher Priority! 

More than one risk factor present 

Reducing any one of the risk factors will 

significantly reduce the probability of injury. 

Homework 

•	 Identify tasks that you do or other workers do that 

have exposures to risk factors. 

•	 Complete a concern card for each task - Describe 

the task and risk factors. Indicate if you have any 

discomfort. RISK FACTOR REPORT CARD Name: _________________________

1. Work Area / Job Title: ____________________________________________ 

2. Describe task: _________________________________________________ •	 Try to complete at 

least 2 concern cards. 3. Check all risk factors that apply: 4. Place X on affected areas. 

□ Poor Posture □ Forceful Gripping 

□ Repetitive Work □ Heavy Lifting/Carrying 

□ Vibrating Tools □ Bouncing/Jarring • Bring your cards to □ Static Posture □ Heavy Shoveling 

□ WB Vibration □ Forceful Push/Pull 

Other risk factors: _____________________ the next session. 5. Comments/suggestions: ______________ 

6. Plant/Mine Name: ____________________ 

• Risk Factors Review 

• Root Causes 

• Controlling Risk Factors 

• Practice Exercises 

Next Session Next Session

7
 

Ergonomics and

Risk Factor Awareness

Ergonomics and 

Risk Factor Awareness 

PART 2

PART 2 

Risk Factors (Review) 

Root Causes 

Improving Jobs 

1
 
 

Ergonomics and

Risk Factor Awareness

Ergonomics and 

Risk Factor Awareness 

PART 2

Suggested Discussion Points: 

• Review why the participants are receiving this training. 

• Review briefly what was covered during the first session. 

• Discuss what will be covered during Part 2. 

2
 
Identifying Identifying

Risk Factors Risk Factors
 

Remember – Remember – 

Risk factors ar Risk factors ar actions or conditions found eactions or conditions found

to contribute to to contribute to er discomfort or i worker discomfort or injury

Suggested Discussion Points: 

• Risk factor exposures may result in discomfort or an MSD. 

• In addition to looking for and eliminating safety hazards, such as an unstable ladder or an 

oil spill on the floor, it is vital to identify and control MSD risk factors. 

• The next few slides are a quick review of the risk factors we learned in Part 1 of the training. 

3 
 

Cumulative Injury Risk Factors
 

Four Main Risk Factors 

1. Forceful Work - A lot of physical effort 

2. Poor Posture - Poor positioning of the body 

3. Repetitive Work - Doing the same movements many times 

4. Vibration Exposure - Two types: hand-arm and whole body 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

• Much research has been done to identify risk factors that result in MSDs. 

• The four main cumulative injury risk factors that are found in mining environments are: 

⋅ Force 

⋅ Posture 

⋅ Repetition 

⋅ Vibration 

4
 
 

 

Examples of Forceful Work 

•	 Heavy lifting 

• Carrying heavy objects 

• Forceful pushing or 

pulling 

• Forceful gripping 

• Shoveling damp or 

heavy materials 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

•	 Examples: Heavy lifting or carrying, forceful pushing or pulling, forceful gripping, and 

shoveling 

•	 The actual force needed to do a job depends on many factors, such as the task being performed, 

the weight and shape of objects being handled, the type of grip being used, and the ability to get 

a good grip. 

•	 Strength is a function of body position. The amount of force that one can produce will depend 

on the position relative to the object being lifted. 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

Video: Click on the picture to start the video, and then click it again to stop the video when you 

are done. To move to the next slide, make sure your pointer is no longer on the picture. This will 

allow the presentation to advance. This video demonstrates forceful work when using a cheater 

bar to set torque levels. 

5
 
 

 

 

Examples of Poor Posture
 

• Trunk bent over more than 20 degrees 

• Twisting the trunk or head 

• Elbows above shoulders 

• Extended forward reaches 

• Reaching behind body 

• Extreme wrist bending 

• Pinch grips 

• Kneeling or squatting 

• Static Position 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

•	 It is common for workers to use postures that put stress on their bodies. 

•	 Elbows above shoulders, extended forward reaches, trunk bending, extreme wrist bending, 

pinch grips, and kneeling or squatting are poor postures often seen in the work environment. 

•	 Because work is dynamic, several different safe postures should be used throughout the 

work shift. 

•	 Avoid using a static posture, i.e., staying in the same position for prolonged periods. 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

Video: Click on the picture to start the video, and then click it again to stop the video when you 

are done. To move to the next slide, make sure your pointer is no longer on the picture. This will 

allow the presentation to advance. This video demonstrates poor postures when operating water 

cannons. 

6
 
 

 

 

Examples of Repetitive Work
 

• Using equipment controls 

• Machine paced assembly 

tasks 

• Packing or unpacking 

items 

• Computer keyboarding 

• Manning a store 

checkout line 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

•	 Highly repetitive motions are repeated every few seconds or minutes. 

•	 Using equipment controls, machine-paced assembly tasks, packing or unpacking items, 

computer keyboarding, and working at a store checkout line are commonly repetitious jobs. 

•	 Some parts of the body are more likely to be affected by repetitive motion than other parts, 

e.g., the wrist, elbow, and shoulder. 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

Video: Click on the picture to start the video, and then click it again to stop the video when you 

are done. To move to the next slide, make sure your pointer is no longer on the picture. This will 

allow the presentation to advance. This worker is shoveling material from the walkway alongside 

of a conveyor. This task is done periodically throughout the shift every day. 

7
 
 

 

Examples of Vibration Exposure
 

• Whole Body - Sitting or standing on vibrating surfaces 

(Includes jolting & jarring) 

• Hand-Arm - Using vibrating tools 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

•	 Hand-arm and whole-body vibration are the primary forms of vibration exposure. 

•	 Commonly used power tools like sanders and drills have moderate hand-arm vibration levels. 

•	 Tools like impact wrenches and jackhammers have high hand-arm vibration levels. 

•	 Whole-body vibration is often caused from riding in mobile equipment like haul trucks or 

forklifts. 

Short-term effects of too much hand-arm vibration are reduced blood flow and loss of ability to 

feel things that are cold, hot, rough, or sharp. 

Exposure to whole-body vibration may also cause headaches, nausea, and back problems. 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

Video: Click on the picture to start the video, and then click it again to stop the video when you 

are done. To move to the next slide, make sure your pointer is no longer on the picture. This will 

allow the presentation to advance. This video demonstrates hand-arm vibration when using a 

chipping hammer. 

8
 
 

Other Risk Factors
 

• Environmental Factors - temperature/humidity/altitude 

• Contact Stress - sharp edges 

• Pressure Points 

• Torque Reaction 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

Other risk factors that occur at mining sites include: 

• Environmental conditions: heat stress, cold stress, high humidity, altitude 

• Contact stress (sharp edges on desk/table tops) 

• Pressure points 

• Torque reaction: hand/arm is jerked when tightening bolts with a pneumatic wrench 

9
 
 

 

Compounding Risk Factors 

Higher Priority! 

More than one risk factor present 

Reducing any one
 

of the risk factors 

will significantly reduce 

the probability of 

injury.
 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

•	 An MSD is more likely to occur if the exposure involves multiple risk factors. 

•	 Reducing the exposure to some of the risk factors will significantly reduce the chance of 

developing a MSD. 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

Video: Click on the picture to start the video, and then click it again to stop the video when you 

are done. To move to the next slide, make sure your pointer is no longer on the picture. This will 

allow the presentation to advance. This video demonstrates various compounding risk factors. 

The workers are rebuilding a crusher and need to remove the springs. Risk factors observed 

included forceful exertions, forceful gripping, impacts from the hammer, repetition, and working 

above shoulder level. 

10
 
 

Demos /Stories /Examples: 

Video: Click on the picture to start the video, and then click it again to stop the video when you 

are done. To move to the next slide, make sure your pointer is no longer on the picture. This will 

allow the presentation to advance. This person is stacking boxes of potatoes, which weigh 

50 pounds. He lifts the boxes off of the conveyor belt and places them on top of the other stacked 

boxes. This job is done for 12 hours/shift. It is a seasonal job lasting 6–8 weeks. Although the 

video only shows the worker stacking boxes above his shoulders, he also places the boxes on the 

pallets, which would entail lowering the boxes below his knees. 

Participants might be able to relate this job task to something they might see in a receiving area, 

or stacking or moving materials used in a maintenance area. 

It is important to redesign a lifting task that may cause injury instead of simply giving the worker 

a back belt. In the example, the worker is at risk whether he is wearing the back belt or not. 

11
 
 

 

 

Questions to pose are: 

1.	 What risk factors are present here? 

2.	 What part of the body is affected? 

3.	 What do you think about the back belt? (If this has not already been mentioned, discuss the use 

of back belts.) 

Write participants’ comments on a white board. 

Props / Materials Needed: 

• White board or flip chart 

• Could use overhead to show and fill out Task Evaluation Form 

Handouts/Tools/Reference Materials: 

•	 UCLA ergonomics: tips for lifting safety. http://ergonomics.ucla.edu/Tips_Lifting.html 

•	 NIOSH [1996]. Back belts: do they prevent injury? Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of 

Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and 

Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, DHHS (NIOSH) 

Publication No. 94–127. 

•	 NIOSH facts: back belts. http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/backfs.html 

•	 Summary of NIOSH back belt studies (March 2002). 

http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/beltsumm.html 

•	 Wassell JT, Gardner LI, Landsittel DP, Johnston JJ, Johnston JM [2000]. A prospective study 

of back belts for prevention of back pain and injury. JAMA 284:2727–2732. 

•	 Scientific Look at Back Belts (videotape – catalog No. VC 937). To order, contact: 

Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) 

National Mine Health and Safety Academy 

Department of Instructional Materials 

Printing and Property Management Branch 

1301 Airport Rd. 

Beaver, WV 25813–9426 

Phone: 304–256–3257 

e-mail: MSHADistributionCenter@dol.gov
 

12
 
 

 

 

Risk Factors Observed Risk Factors Observed

Task Evaluation 

Task Name: Task Name: Box Stacking Box Stacking

X Poor Posture Forceful Gripping 

à Static Posture X Heavy Lifting/Carrying 

Contact Stress à Forceful Pushing/Pulling 

à Pressure Points à Heavy Shoveling 

à Torque Reaction à Vibrating Tools 

X Repetitive Work à Bouncing/Jarring 

à Environment à Whole Body Vibration 

à Other (describe): ________________________ 

à Other (describe): ________________________ 

à Other (describe): ________________________ 

à

Body Parts Affected Body Parts Affected

X

X X 

X

X X 

X 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

This is a completed form showing what an observer might identify for the box-stacking task. 

Comment on similarities and differences between what was identified by the participants and 

this form. 

13
 
 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

• A root cause contributes or creates an undesired outcome. 

• A root cause is the specific cause or source of a problem. 

• There may be more than one root cause resulting in exposures to risk factors. 

• There are many different root causes for MSD risk factors. 

In order to reduce the chance of an injury, we must eliminate the causes. 

14
 
 

 

Risk Factor Root Causes
 

• Effort or strength required 

• Location of parts, equipment, or tools 

• Position of parts, equipment, or tools 

• Design of parts, equipment, or tools 

• Speed of work (cycle time) 

• Frequency of work 

• Duration of task 

• Productivity levels 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

•	 Observations help us understand why jobs are done certain ways. 

•	 Observations and measurements are essential to identifying root causes. 

•	 Measurements can also determine how much there is of each risk factor. This will be useful to 

know if the changes that are made result in less exposure. 

NOTE: Sometimes there is confusion as to the difference between location and position of parts. 

Location is where the part is placed—on the workbench, on the floor, suspended from a hoist, etc. 

Position is how the part is oriented relative to the worker—lying flat, placed upright on a side, 

tilted to one side, etc. 

Speed is how fast a task is done or cycle time. Frequency is how often a task is done—the number 

of times during the day, number of days per week, or number of weeks per month or year. 

Duration is how long the same task is done during the work shift. 

15
 
 

Root Causes – cont.
 

• Process used or required to do the task 

• Training - skill development 

• PPE - worn to do task 

• Environment – restricted work space 

16
 
 

 

 

 

 

 

Stacking Boxes 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

Identify root causes for the risk factors identified by the participants. 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

Video: Click on the picture to start the video, and then click it again to stop the video when you 

are done. To move to the next slide, make sure your pointer is no longer on the picture. This will 

allow the presentation to advance. Play the video and ask the participants to identify the root 

causes for the risk factors that they had identified earlier. Write their responses on the white board. 

If participants are reluctant to provide answers to your question, give prompts such as: 

• What determines the effort exerted by the worker in the video? (weight of the boxes) 

• Where are the boxes stacked? (stacked from the floor to above shoulder height) 

• How is the box lifted? (worker grabs the side and bottom because there are no handles) 

• What determines how many boxes are lifted each minute? (conveyor speed) 

17
 
 

 

 

If participants discuss the use of back belts, inform them that back belts do not help with lifting. 

The damage to the back is internal, and the back belt cannot stabilize these internal components. 

Refer to the reference material below for more information. 

Props / Materials Needed: 

White board or flip chart. 

Handouts/Tools/Reference Materials: 

•	 NIOSH [1996]. Back belts: do they prevent injury? Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of 

Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and 

Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, DHHS (NIOSH) 

Publication No. 94–127. 

18
 
 

 

 

Task Evaluation – Root Causes
 

Process used to do task Box stacks start at floor level and go to 

above shoulder/manually lift and carry 

boxes 

Effort/strength required Boxes weigh 50 lbs 

Location of parts, equipment or tools Lower to floor level / Lift to shoulder level 

required 

Position of parts, equipment or tools Position of conveyor & pallets promotes 

twisting 

Design of parts, equipment or tools Box size/design makes it hard to carry 

Speed of task Conveyor sets speed 

Frequency or repetition of task Conveyor pace sets repetition 

Duration of task Task is done 12 hours per day 

Productivity levels Limited time to ship product 

Environment 

Training 

PPE Back belt ?? 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

This is a completed form showing the root causes identified by an observer for the box-stacking 

task. Comment on the similarities and differences between what the participants identified and 

the form. 

19
 
 

 

 

Video Tape Examples
 

Three key questions: 

1. What is the risk factor(s)? 

2. What part(s) of the body is affected? 

3. What is causing the risk factor(s)? 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

In this exercise, the participants will watch someone performing a job and then decide which risk 

factors are present, identify the part of the body that is affected by the risk factors, and decide what 

might be causing the risk factors. 

Format: This exercise can be done by each individual participant or as a team exercise. If a team 

format is used, divide the class into two or three teams and ask each team to answer the three 

questions. Record the answers on the job evaluation form. Give them about 10 minutes to do the 

exercise. After the exercise has been completed, ask the participants/teams to share their 

responses. 

Handouts/Tools/Reference Materials: 

• Summary page of common risk factors 

• Job evaluation forms—enough for each participant/team for two exercises 

20
 
 

Demos /Stories /Examples: 

Video: Click on the picture to start the video, and then click it again to stop the video when you 

are done. To move to the next slide, make sure your pointer is no longer on the picture. This will 

allow the presentation to advance. These two mechanics are performing a brake repair job for a 

haul truck. The mechanics work 12-hour shifts, 4 days/week. This task is one of many performed 

by the mechanics. 

21
 
 

 

Risk Factors Observed Risk Factors Observed Body Parts Affected Body Parts Affected

Task Evaluation 

Task Name: Brake Repair 

X Poor Posture Forceful Gripping 

X Static Posture X Heavy Lifting/Carrying 

Contact Stress à Forceful Pushing/Pulling 

Pressure Points à Heavy Shoveling 

à Torque Reaction X Vibrating Tools 

à Repetitive Work à Bouncing/Jarring 

à Environment à Whole Body Vibration 

à Other (describe): _Cold Floor_______________ 

à Other (describe): ________________________ 

à Other (describe): ________________________ 

XX 

X 

X 

X 

à

X X 

X X 

XX 

X X 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

This completed form shows the risk factors/body parts affected as identified by an observer for the 

brake repair task. 

Comment on similarities and differences between what the participants identified and this form. 

22
 
 

 

 

 

Task Evaluation - Root Causes
 

Process used to do task Use power tool to remove bolts from 

brake assembly for haul truck 

Effort/strength required Hold tool (weight about 15 pounds) 

Location of parts, equipment or tools Brake assembly on floor 

Position of parts, equipment or tools Bolts about 20 inches above floor 

Design of parts, equipment or tools Vibration exposure from tool 

Speed of task 

Frequency or repetition of task 

Duration of task Must remove all bolts from assembly 

Productivity levels 

Environment Concrete floor 

Training / PPE No PPE provided 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

This completed form shows the root causes identified by an observer for the brake repair task. 

Comment on similarities and differences between what the participants identified and this form. 

23
 
 

Demos /Stories /Examples: 

Video: Click on the picture to start the video, and then click it again to stop the video when you 

are done. To move to the next slide, make sure your pointer is no longer on the picture. This will 

allow the presentation to advance. This video shows two operators using two different hydraulic 

pit stations at a phosphate mine. They work in this pit station all day. They are responsible for 

mixing the phosphate with water so it can be piped to the processing plant. 

24
 
 

 

Risk Factors Observed Risk Factors Observed Body Parts Affected Body Parts Affected

Task Evaluation 

Task Name: Hydraulic Pit Operation Task Name: Hydraulic Pit Operation

X Poor Posture Forceful Gripping 

X Static Posture à Heavy Lifting/Carrying 

Contact Stress à Forceful Pushing/Pulling 

X Pressure Points à Heavy Shoveling 

à Torque Reaction à Vibrating Tools 

X Repetitive Work à Bouncing/Jarring 

à Environment X Whole Body Vibration 

à Other (describe): ________________________ 

à Other (describe): ________________________ 

à Other (describe): ________________________ 

x 

X 

X 

X 

X 

XX 

X 

X 

X 

XX 

X 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

This completed form shows the risk factors/body parts affected as identified by an observer for the 

hydraulic pit station operator. 

Comment on similarities and differences between what the participants identified and this form. 

25
 
 

 

 

 

Task Evaluation - Root Causes
 Process used to do task 

Effort/strength required Use of quick, forceful gripping actions to position 

controls when moving tree stumps and logs 

Location of parts, equipment 

or tools 

Location of control causes leaning in and reaching 

Position of parts, equipment 

or tools 

Flat control table top increases reaches 

Design of parts, equipment or 

tools 

Sharp edge on control top causes contact stress; 

type of control causes frequent & exaggerated 

movements; poor seat – no arm rests/allows 

vibration exposure 

Speed of task Work pace controlled by dragline production 

Frequency/repetition of task Work pace controlled by dragline production 

Duration of task 12 hour shift with few breaks 

Productivity levels 

Environment 

Training / PPE 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

This completed form shows the root causes identified by an observer for the hydraulic pit station 

operator. 

Comment on similarities and differences between what the participants identified and this form. 

26
 
 

 

 

Preventing MSDs
 

Engineering 

Controls 

Engineering 

Controls 

Administrative 

Controls 

Administrative 

Controls 

PPE

Changes made to workers 

to reduce exposure to risk 

factors 

Rest Breaks 

Exercise 

Changes to 

procedures 

associated with 

work 

Changes to 

workstations, 

equipment, 

tools and 

environment 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

•	 The job improvement pyramid shows the three types of controls or job improvement categories 

that most changes fall into: 

⋅ Engineering controls 

⋅ Administrative controls 

⋅ Personal protective equipment (PPE) 

•	 The approaches used for preventing MSDs are the same as those used for preventing acute 

injuries and occupational diseases. 

Engineering controls are the changes that we prefer to do, but are sometimes costly and take more 

time. 

Administrative Controls are changes to work procedures. An example of this may be daily or weekly 

job rotation so that one person does not get excessive exposure to a particularly difficult job. 

Exercise, which is a change a person makes to himself/herself, can go a long way to 

improving an individual’s health and safety, both on and off the job. 

Rest breaks fall into the category of changes to work practices. They should be scheduled 

into any procedure, especially ones that are physically demanding. 

27
 
 

 

Personal protective equipment (PPE) is a “Band-Aid” fix to a larger problem. For instance, 

hearing protection is used when a machine or tool has high noise levels and protection is needed. 

If the noise were “engineered out” of the machine or tool, the “Band-Aid” would not be needed. 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

Have the participants think of the food pyramid: the top of the pyramid represents something that 

is necessary, but should be kept in small amounts, like oils and fats. As you move toward the 

bottom of the pyramid, these are methods that you want to use for improving jobs. Engineering 

controls are recommended as the first course of action. 

28
 
 

Engineering Controls 

• Workstation / Workplace layout 

• Equipment 

• Tools 

• Work environment 

• Work methods 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

•	 Engineering controls are the most effective type of controls because they remove or minimize 

the exposure to the risk factor. 

•	 Engineering controls can be applied to every aspect of a task: equipment, tools, work station, 

layout, methods, and environment. 

•	 There are many simple and inexpensive engineering controls. 

•	 When engineering controls are used, it is important to evaluate the changes to ensure that other 

risk factors are not introduced. 

29
 
 

 

Administrative Controls
 

• Job enlargement 

• Job rotation 

• Work pace and duration 

• Work-rest cycles 

• Training 

• Shift schedule / overtime 

• Exercises / stretches 

Slide Pointers: 

This slide is animated so that the content of the slide is hidden when it is first displayed on the 

screen. This will allow discussion by the participants. On the second click of the mouse, the list 

will appear. 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

•	 Administrative controls can take many forms. 

•	 The success of administrative controls usually depends on effective monitoring by management 

and feedback from employees. 

•	 Job enlargement and job rotation both seek to vary the exposures that a worker experiences. 

The objective of both is to limit exposures of a body part to a particular risk factor. Job 

enlargement occurs when multiple tasks are added to a job. Job rotation occurs when the 

number of tasks remains the same, but they are rotated throughout the work shift. 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

Format: Ask participants to identify different types of administrative controls. A team format can 

also be used. Ask each team to make a list of administrative controls for preventing MSDs. 

Determine which team has the most correct responses. Instead of using teams, the format for the 

“Family Feud” TV game show can also be used for this slide. 

30
 
 

 

Personal Protective Equipment 

• Anti-Vibration gloves – reduce 

vibration transmission 

• Knee pads – reduce pressure 

points 

• Shoe inserts – reduce discomfort 

• Cooling devices – reduce body 

temperature increases 

• Cold weather clothing – prevents 

hypothermia/frost bite 

Slide Pointers: 

This slide is animated so that the content of the slide is hidden when it is first displayed on the 

screen. This will allow discussion by the participants. On the second click of the mouse, the list 

will appear. On the third click of the mouse, the graphics will appear. 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

•	 PPE to prevent MSDs and environmental stress: available PPE is limited. 

•	 PPE is only a barrier between the employee and the risk factor. 

•	 How well PPE protects employees depends on several factors, such as using it as intended and 

the quality of PPE. 

•	 PPE can be expensive, e.g., periodically replaced, cleaning issues, maintenance issues. 

31
 
 

Demos /Stories /Examples: 

Format: Ask participants to identify different types of PPE. A team format can also be used. Ask 

each team to make a list of PPE for preventing MSDs and environmental disorders. Determine 

which team has the most correct responses. Instead of using teams, the format for the “Family 

Feud” TV game show can also be used for this slide. 

If you have examples of the PPE shown in this slide, the PPE can be shown to the participants. 

32
 
 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

Lesson to be learned: You can try to train things out, but that is only trying to make up for a very 

poor design, which must be constantly monitored for proper performance. Engineering controls 

require workers to do the task while removing or reducing the exposures. 

33
 
Job Improvement Job Improvement
 

Exercise Exercise
 

• What can be done to reduce the risk factor(s)? 

• What category do the changes fall under? 

– Engineering control 

– Administrative control 

– Personal protective equipment

Suggested Discussion Points: 

Encourage identifying controls that fall within the different categories. 

Demos /Stories/Examples: 

Video: Click on the picture to start the video, and then click it again to stop the video when you 

are done. To move to the next slide, make sure your pointer is no longer on the picture. This will 

allow the presentation to advance. The brake repair and hydraulic pit station operators will be 

shown again. This time, ask the participants to identify solutions to reduce the risk factors. Talk 

about what type of improvement can be made, i.e., is it an engineering control, administrative 

control, or PPE? Remind them that reducing the risk factors is a proactive step to reducing 

symptoms and signs, which will, of course, reduce or even eliminate injuries. 

Format: This exercise can be done by each individual participant or as a team exercise. If a team 

format is used, divide the class into two or three teams and ask each team to determine potential 

controls. Record the answers on the job evaluation form. Give them about 10 minutes to do the 

exercise. After the exercise has been completed, ask the participants/teams to share their 

responses. 

34 
 

Demos /Stories /Examples: 

Video: Click on the picture to start the video, and then click it again to stop the video when you 

are done. To move to the next slide, make sure your pointer is no longer on the picture. This will 

allow the presentation to advance. 

If participants are not able to identify controls, examples of controls include: 

• Engineering: 

⋅ Place pedestal on an adjustable-height table. 

⋅ Position part so nuts are on the side and not bottom. 

• Administrative: 

⋅ Reduce shift to 8 hours. 

⋅ Rotate tasks with improved postures. 

• PPE: 

⋅ Antivibration glove 

⋅ Cushion to place on the floor 

35
 
 

Demos /Stories /Examples: 

Video: Click on the picture to start the video, and then click it again to stop the video when you 

are done. To move to the next slide, make sure your pointer is no longer on the picture. This will 

allow the presentation to advance. 

If participants are not able to identify controls, examples of controls include: 

• Engineering: 

⋅ Rearrange controls so operator can see feeder without looking to the side. 

⋅ Pad the window seal to eliminate sharp edge. 

⋅ Provide chair so operator does not have to stand. 

⋅ Provide antifatigue mat when standing to operate controls. 

• Administrative: 

⋅ Reduce length of shift. 

⋅ Rotate to a different task—not operating equipment with joysticks 

• Personal protective equipment: 

⋅ Forearm pad 

36
 
 

 

 

 

 

 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

Risk factors observed by the workers and tasks associated with observed risk factors 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

Ask participants to provide information obtained for their homework. Make a list of the tasks and 

the risk factor observed. 

If the participants are not able to identify risk factors, give them some simple examples. 

•	 Mechanics use pneumatic wrenches: What is the risk factor exposure? (vibration) 

•	 Welders use chipping hammers: What is the risk factor exposure? (vibration) 

•	 Mechanics work under vehicles: What is the risk factor exposure? (restricted spaces, awkward 

postures) 

•	 Heavy equipment operator turns a steering wheel when driving a bulldozer: What is the risk 

factor exposure? (repetition) 

37
 
 

 

If the participants are able to identify risk factors, comment on the need to apply ergonomic 

principles to their jobs (find root causes and generate solutions that follow ergonomic principles). 

Props / Materials Needed: 

White board or flip chart 

If the homework assignment was not done, delete this slide from the training. 

38
 
 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

• Zero in on the risk factors in order to reduce injuries at work and at home proactively. 

• Avoid waiting for injuries to occur. 

• Even signs and symptoms are reactive. 

39
 
 

 

 

 

 _______________________________________________________________ 

 _______________________________________________________________ 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 _____________________ 

 

_______________________________________ 

_______________________________________ 

 

 

 

 

Risk Factor Report Card
 

RISK FACTOR REPORT CARD Name: _________________________ 

1. Work Area / Job Title: ____________________________________________ 

2. Describe task: _________________________________________________ 

3. Check all risk factors that apply: 

□ Poor Posture □ Forceful Gripping 

□ Repetitive Work □ Heavy Lifting/Carrying 

□ Vibrating Tools □ Bouncing/Jarring 

□ Static Posture □ Heavy Shoveling 

□ WB Vibration □ Forceful Push/Pull 

Other risk factors: 

5. Comments/suggestions: ______________ 

6. Plant/Mine Name: ____________________ 

4. Place X on affected areas. 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

• Example of a form that can be used to report concerns about participants’ jobs 

• Similar to what they have done during the exercises and homework 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

Encourage participants to take an active role in identifying risk factors associated with their jobs 

and deciding how to improve their jobs to reduce risk factors. At this time, give a card to each 

employee and ask him/her to complete it if he/she has not completed one for the homework. 

Instruct the participants to return the completed cards to you. 

Handouts/Tools/Reference Materials: 

• Concern cards—enough for each participant 

• Pens/pencils 

If you choose to use a different reporting system, replace this slide with your system. 

40
 
 

 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

•	 Participants should be able to recognize risk factors and early warning signs. 

•	 Take action by reporting your concerns. 

•	 It is important not to assume that fatigue, discomfort, or difficult working conditions are just 

“part of the job.” 

•	 Role of the supervisor, safety manager, ergonomics coordinator 

Demos / Stories / Examples: 

At this time, it may be appropriate to discuss the role of the supervisor in the ergonomics process. 

Potential roles may include: 

•	 Being an advocate for the ergonomics process 

•	 Encouraging employees to report concerns 

•	 Participating in improving jobs 

•	 Providing necessary resources 

•	 Serving as a communication link between employees and the ergonomics coordinator/ 

champion (safety and health representative for the company) 

41
 
 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

Remind participants that ergonomics will be a benefit to them. Applying ergonomics can lead to 

many benefits for the employee, including: 

• Staying healthy as you get older 

• Enjoying leisure time activities 

• Reducing discomfort 

• Reducing fatigue 

• Enhancing quality of life 

• Making job safer 

• Designing jobs for the next generation of workers—your children 

• Improving quality of work 

• Increasing efficiency by working smarter 

• Preventing musculoskeletal disorders 

42
 
 

 

 

Suggested Discussion Points: 

•	 Answer any questions the participants may have. 

•	 Encourage employees to participate in the process, reporting concerns and helping to resolve 

concerns as part of a team. Anyone can give suggestions at any time. 

•	 Ask participants to complete the course evaluation form. Encourage them to take the time to 

give honest and direct feedback. 

Handouts/Tools/Reference Materials: 

•	 Course evaluation form 

•	 Ergonomics glossary 

43
 
Ergonomics and

Risk Factor Awareness

Ergonomics and 

Risk Factor Awareness 

PART 2

Identifying 

Risk Factors

Identifying 

Risk Factors 

Remember –

Risk factors are actions or conditions found

to contribute to worker discomfort or injury

Remember – 

Risk factors are actions or conditions found 

to contribute to worker discomfort or injury 

Examples of Poor Posture 

• Trunk bent over more than 20 degrees 

• Twisting the trunk or head 

• Elbows above shoulders 

Examples of Repetitive Work 

• Using equipment controls 

• Machine paced assembly 

tasks 

• Extended forward reaches 

• Reaching behind body 

• Extreme wrist bending 

• Pinch grips 

• Kneeling or squatting 

• Static Position 

• Packing or unpacking 

items 

• Computer keyboarding 

• Manning a store 

checkout line 

Cumulative Injury Risk Factors 

Four Main Risk Factors 

1. Forceful Work - A lot of physical effort 

2. Poor Posture - Poor positioning of the body 

3. Repetitive Work - Doing the same movements many times 

4. Vibration Exposure - Two types: hand-arm and whole body 

Examples of Forceful Work 

• Heavy lifting 

• Carrying heavy objects 

• Forceful pushing or 

pulling 

• Forceful gripping 

• Shoveling damp or 

heavy materials 

1
Examples of Vibration Exposure 

• Whole Body - Sitting or standing on vibrating surfaces 

(Includes jolting & jarring) 

• Hand-Arm - Using vibrating tools 

Higher Priority! 

More than one risk factor present 

Reducing any one 

of the risk factors 

will significantly reduce 

the probability of 

injury.
 

Other Risk Factors 

• Environmental Factors - temperature/humidity/altitude 

• Contact Stress – sharp edges 

• Pressure Points 

• Torque Reaction 

Compounding Risk Factors Stacking boxes 

Risk Factors Observed Risk Factors Observed

Task Evaluation 

Task Name: Task Name: Box Stacking Box Stacking

X Poor Posture Forceful Gripping 

à Static Posture X Heavy Lifting/Carrying 

Contact Stress à Forceful Pushing/Pulling 

à Pressure Points à Heavy Shoveling 

à Torque Reaction à Vibrating Tools 

X Repetitive Work à Bouncing/Jarring 

à Environment à Whole Body Vibration 

à Other (describe): ________________________ 

à Other (describe): ________________________ 

à Other (describe): ________________________ 

à

Body Parts Affected Body Parts Affected

X

X X 

X

X X 

X 

Identifying Root 

Causes

Identifying Root 

Causes 

Specific cause or source of a problem Specific cause or source of a problem

2
Risk Factor Root Causes 

• Effort or strength required 

• Location of parts, equipment, or tools 

• Position of parts, equipment, or tools 

• Design of parts, equipment, or tools 

• Speed of work (cycle time) 

• Frequency of work 

• Duration of task 

• Productivity levels 

Root Causes – cont. 

• Process used or required to do the task 

• Training - skill development 

• PPE - worn to do task 

• Environment – restricted work space 

Task Evaluation – Root Causes 

Video Tape Examples 

Three key questions: 

1. What is the risk factor(s)? 

2. What part(s) of the body is affected? 

3. What is causing the risk factor(s)? 

Stacking Boxes Process used to do task Box stacks start at floor level and go to 

above shoulder/manually lift and carry 

boxes 

Effort/strength required Boxes weigh 50 lbs 

Location of parts, equipment or tools Lower to floor level / Lift to shoulder level 

required 

Position of parts, equipment or tools Position of conveyor & pallets promotes 

twisting 

Design of parts, equipment or tools Box size/design makes it hard to carry 

Speed of task Conveyor sets speed 

Frequency or repetition of task Conveyor pace sets repetition 

Duration of task Task is done 12 hours per day 

Productivity levels Limited time to ship product 

Environment 

Training 

PPE Back belt ?? 

Brake Repair 

3
 

 

Task Evaluation - Root Causes 

Risk Factors Observed Risk Factors Observed Body Parts Affected Body Parts Affected

Task Evaluation 

Task Name: Brake Repair 

X Poor Posture Forceful Gripping 

X Static Posture X Heavy Lifting/Carrying 

Contact Stress à Forceful Pushing/Pulling 

Pressure Points à Heavy Shoveling 

à Torque Reaction X Vibrating Tools 

à Repetitive Work à Bouncing/Jarring 

à Environment à Whole Body Vibration 

à Other (describe): _Cold Floor_______________ 

à Other (describe): ________________________ 

à Other (describe): ________________________ 

XX 

X 

X 

X 

à

X X 

X X 

XX 

X X 

Process used to do task Use power tool to remove bolts from 

brake assembly for haul truck 

Effort/strength required Hold tool (weight about 15 pounds) 

Location of parts, equipment or tools Brake assembly on floor 

Position of parts, equipment or tools Bolts about 20 inches above floor 

Design of parts, equipment or tools Vibration exposure from tool 

Speed of task 

Frequency or repetition of task 

Duration of task Must remove all bolts from assembly 

Productivity levels 

Environment Concrete floor 

Training / PPE No PPE provided 

Hydraulic Pit Station Operator 

Risk Factors Observed Risk Factors Observed Body Parts Affected Body Parts Affected

Task Evaluation 

Task Name: Hydraulic Pit Operation Task Name: Hydraulic Pit Operation

X Poor Posture Forceful Gripping 

X Static Posture à Heavy Lifting/Carrying 

Contact Stress à Forceful Pushing/Pulling 

X Pressure Points à Heavy Shoveling 

à Torque Reaction à Vibrating Tools 

X Repetitive Work à Bouncing/Jarring 

à Environment X Whole Body Vibration 

à Other (describe): ________________________ 

à Other (describe): ________________________ 

à Other (describe): ________________________ 

x 

X 

X 

X 

X 

XX 

X 

X 

X 

XX 

X 

Process used to do task 

Effort/strength required Use of quick, forceful gripping actions to position 

controls when moving tree stumps and logs 

Location of parts, equipment 

or tools 

Location of control causes leaning in and reaching 

Position of parts, equipment 

or tools 

Flat control table top increases reaches 

Design of parts, equipment or 

tools 

Sharp edge on control top causes contact stress; 

type of control causes frequent & exaggerated 

movements; poor seat – no arm rests/allows 

vibration exposure 

Speed of task Work pace controlled by dragline production 

Frequency/repetition of task Work pace controlled by dragline production 

Duration of task 12 hour shift with few breaks 

Productivity levels 

Environment 

Training / PPE 

Engineering 

Controls

Engineering 

Controls 

Administrative 

Controls

Administrative 

Controls 

PPE

Changes made to workers 

to reduce exposure to risk 

factors 

Rest Breaks 

Exercise 

Changes to 

procedures 

associated with 

work 

Changes to 

workstations, 

equipment, 

tools and 

environment 

Task Evaluation - Root Causes Preventing MSDs 

4
Engineering Controls 

• Workstation / Workplace layout 

• Equipment 

• Tools 

• Work environment 

• Work methods 

Personal Protective Equipment 

Lifting with your legs is not always the answer to preventing injury! Lifting with your legs is not always the answer to preventing in Lifting with your legs is not always the answer to preventing injury!

Job Improvement

Exercise

Job Improvement 

Exercise 

• What can be done to reduce the risk factor(s)? 

• What category do the changes fall under? 

– Engineering control 

– Administrative control 

– Personal protective equipment 

Brake Repair 

Administrative Controls 

• Job enlargement 

• Job rotation 

• Work pace and duration 

• Work-rest cycles 

• Training 

• Shift schedule / overtime 

• Exercises / stretches 

• Anti-Vibration gloves – reduce 

vibration transmission 

• Knee pads – reduce pressure 

points 

• Shoe inserts – reduce discomfort 

• Cooling devices – reduce body 

temperature increases 

• Cold weather clothing – prevents 

hypothermia/frost bite 

5
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

_______________________________________ 

_______________________________________ 

 

Hydraulic Pit Station Operator 

Homework Homework

Targeting Risk Factors 

Injury 

Symptoms 

Signs 

Risk 

Factors 

Proactive 

Risk Factor Report Card 

RISK FACTOR REPORT CARD Name: _________________________

1. Work Area / Job Title: ____________________________________________ 

2. Describe task: _________________________________________________

 _______________________________________________________________

 _______________________________________________________________ 

3. Check all risk factors that apply: 4. Place X on affected areas. 

□ Poor Posture □ Forceful Gripping 

□ Repetitive Work □ Heavy Lifting/Carrying 

□ Vibrating Tools □ Bouncing/Jarring 

□ Static Posture □ Heavy Shoveling 

□ WB Vibration □ Forceful Push/Pull 

Other risk factors: _____________________ 

5. Comments/suggestions: ______________ 

6. Plant/Mine Name: ____________________ 

Take Action! Take Action!

As soon as you are aware of risk factors, 

Report Your Concerns 

Early action may prevent

loss of function and serious 

injury! 

Remember – 

Ergonomics is about YOU! 

6
Discussion

and

Evaluation

Discussion 

and 

Evaluation 

7
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

RISK FACTOR REPORT CARD Name: 

1. Work Area/Job Title: 

2. Describe task: 

3. Check all risk factors that apply: 4. Place X on affected areas: 

□	 Poor Posture □ Forceful Gripping 

□	 Repetitive Work □ Heavy Lifting/Carrying 

□	 Vibrating Tools □ Bouncing/Jarring 

□	 Static Posture □ Heavy Shoveling 

□	 WB Vibration □ Forceful Push/Pull

 Other risk factors:
 

5. Comments/Suggestions: 

6. Plant/Mine Name: 
 

 

WHAT TYPE OF INJURY? 

Acute = sudden release of energy (accident)
 

Cumulative = occurs over a longer period of time
 

1. An employee was climbing down the 

boarding ladder of a water truck, 

reached the bottom of the ladder, 

extended his right leg down, and 

hopped from the ladder. The landing 

twisted his right knee, straining the 

knee and possibly tearing a ligament 

in the knee. 

6. While putting keeper bolts on cutting edges of 

a Cat 16–G, an employee twisted, causing pain 

in his back. The edges were already being held 

in place. The employee has a previous history 

of back injury. He has seen a chiropractor on 

and off for 6 years. The employee was released 

to return to work with no restrictions. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

An employee was separating plies on 

a piece of conveyor belt when the 

knife slipped, cutting her forearm. 

A technician was diagnosed with 

carpal tunnel syndrome caused by 

repetitive use of his hands in 

gripping-type motions while 

performing electrical wiring and 

other electrical work, which also 

required surgery prior to 

experiencing carpal tunnel syndrome. 

An employee was attempting to 

remove seven roof screens from a 

bundle of screens leaning against the 

rib when the entire bundle tipped 

over, striking her in the left leg. 

An employee was stacking 50-pound 

bags in the bagging area when he 

began to experience lower-back pain. 

The employee had been stacking 

bags for 1 hour when he was injured. 

The employee’s job requires him to 

stack bags for 3–4 hours every 

workday. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 

11. 

An employee was pulling on motor grader 

cutting edges while in a twisted position. He 

felt lower-back pain. 

An employee was dismounting a rubber-tired 

dozer. Her feet slipped on the ladder (lowest 

rung) and she landed hard on the ground, 

straining her knee. 

An employee placed his left hand on the drill 

mast, reached up with right hand, and grasped 

the drill steel to remove it from the hole. 

During this action, the left middle finger was 

smashed or caught between unknown objects, 

lacerating and crushing the distal phalange of 

the left middle finger. 

An employee was operating a bulldozer, 

performing a backfilling operation. During 

normal operations, the employee was turning 

and twisting while operating dozer. He started 

to experience back pains and swelling of 

muscles in the lower back. 

An employee bent down to pick up a bucket 

weighing approximately 10 pounds, felt a pop 

and experienced pain in the right groin area, 

resulting in a hernia. 

12. An employee was carrying 5-gallon buckets of 

oil to the top of the silo. He had pain in the 

right knee; an MRI revealed a small tear. 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Ergonomics and Risk Factor Awareness Training – Part 1 

Date ______________ Age _____ Mine ________________ Company _______________________ 

Years of experience within your industry _________ Job title ________________________________ 

Strongly Slightly Slightly Strongly 

Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 

The videos helped me understand risk factors. 

I understand the differences between acute and 

cumulative injuries. 

1 

1 

2 

2 

3 

3 

4 

4 

5 

5 

6 

6 

I would like to apply what I learned to my job. 1 2 3 4 5 6 

I would recommend this training to others. 1 2 3 4 5 6 

There was too much information given during this 

training. 1 2 3 4 5 6 

I believe I can identify risk factors from what I 

learned today. 1 2 3 4 5 6 

How much experience do you have in applying “ergonomics” in your work place? 

None A Lot 

1 2 3 4 5 

Did this training teach you how to apply the skills presented to your work setting? 

None A Lot 

1 2 3 4 5 

How much of the information presented during this training could be applied to mining jobs? 

None A Lot 

1 2 3 4 5 

How much do you think you will be able to apply to your job? 

None A Lot 

1 2 3 4 5 

Would you change the number of sessions used to offer this training? Yes No 

If yes, circle the number of sessions you would recommend: 2 3 4 Other ______________ 

What was the most important thing you learned? Why was that important? 

What suggestions do you have for improving this training? (If needed, please use the back of this form). 
General Risk Factors 

A risk factor exists when the movements, postures, or 

conditions described on this card are a regular and expected 

part of the job, occur more than one day per week, and more 

frequently than one week per year. 

1. Poor Posture 

Working with the hand(s) above the 

head, or the elbow(s) above the 

shoulders more than 2 hours total per 

day. 

Working with the neck bent more 

than 30 degrees (without support) 

more than 2 hours total per day. 

Working with the back bent more 

than 20 degrees (without support) 

more than 2 hours total per day. 

Kneeling or squatting more than 2 

hours total per day. 

2. Heavy or Frequent Lifting 

Lifting object weighing more than 75 

pounds once per day or more than 55 

pounds more than 10 times per day. 

Lifting object weighing more than 25 

pounds above the shoulders, below 

the knees or at arms length more than 

25 times per day. 

Lifting object weighing more than 10 

pounds if done more than twice per 

minute, more than 2 hours total per 

day. 

3. Forceful Gripping 

Pinching an unsupported object 

weighing 2 or more pounds, or 

pinching with a force of 4 or more 

pounds per hand, more than 2 hours 

per day (comparable to pinching half a 

ream of paper). 

Gripping an unsupported object(s) 

weighing 10 or more pounds per hand, 

or gripping with a force of 10 or more 

pounds per hand, more than 2 hours 

per day. 

1
 

 

General Risk Factors 

A risk factor exists when the movements, postures, or 

conditions described on this card are a regular and expected 

part of the job, occur more than one day per week, and more 

frequently than one week per year. 

4. Highly Repetitive Work 

Repeating the same motion with 

the neck, shoulders, elbows, wrists 

or hands (excluding keying 

activities) with little or no variation 

every few seconds, more than 2 

hours total per day. 

Performing intensive keying more 

than 4 hours total per day. 

5. Vibrating Tools (Hand/Arm Vibration) 

Using grinders, sanders, jig saws or 

other hand tools that typically have 

moderate vibration levels more than 2 

hours total per day. 

Using impact wrenches, carpet 

strippers, chain saws, percussive tools 

(jack hammers, scalers, chipping 

hammers) or other tools that typically 

have high vibration levels, more than 

30 minutes total per day. 

6. Contact or Impact Stress 

Contacting hard or sharp objects like 

work surface edges or narrow tool 

handles, more than 2 hours total per 

day. 

7. Bouncing or Jarring 

Traveling in mobile equipment over 

rough ground or flooring, more than 2 

hours total per day. 

2
 

 

_____________________________________________________________________________________ 

_____________________________________________________________________________________ 

_____________________________________________________________________________________ 

 

 

Task Evaluation 

Job Name: ____________________ Task: ________________________ Date: ________________ 

1. Brief Description of Task: 

2. Check all risk factors that apply: 3. Mark areas affected with an X 

__ Poor Posture __ Forceful Gripping 

__ Static Posture __ Heavy Lifting/Carrying 

__ Contact Stress __ Forceful Pushing/Pulling 

__ Pressure Points __ Heavy Shoveling 

__ Torque Reaction __ Vibrating Tools 

__ Repetitive Work __ Bouncing/Jarring 

__ Environment __ Whole Body Vibration 

__ Other (describe): _____________________________ 

__ Other (describe): _____________________________ 

__ Other (describe): _____________________________ 

4. Describe all root causes that apply:

 Process used to do the task: 

 Effort or strength required: 

 Location of parts, equipment or tools: 

 Position of parts, equipment or tools: 

 Design of parts, equipment or tools: 

 Speed of work (cycle time): 

 Frequency or repetition of tasks: 

 Duration of tasks:

 Productivity levels: 

 Training: 

PPE: 

 Environment factors (restricted work space...): 

Other: 

1
 
_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

_________________________________________ 

Task Evaluation 

Job Name: ________________________ Task: _____________________ Date: __________________ 

5. Brainstorm for task improvement ideas: 

Engineering Changes Administrative Changes 

Personal Protective Equipment 

2
 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Ergonomics and Risk Factor Awareness Training – Part 2 

Date ______________ Age _____ Mine ________________ Company ______________________ 

Years of experience within your industry _________ Job title _______________________________ 

Strongly Slightly Slightly Strongly 

Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree 

The videos helped me understand risk factors. 

The video exercises helped me understand how to 

reduce injury risk. 

1 

1 

2 

2 

3 

3 

4 

4 

5 

5 

6 

6 

I would like to apply what I learned to my job. 1 2 3 4 5 6 

I would recommend this training to others. 1 2 3 4 5 6 

There was too much information given during this 

training. 1 2 3 4 5 6 

The homework assignment helped me understand 

risk factors. 1 2 3 4 5 6 

How much experience do you have in applying “ergonomics” in your work place? 

None A Lot 

1 2 3 4 5 

Did this training teach you how to apply the skills presented to your work setting? 

None A Lot 

1 2 3 4 5 

How much of the information presented during this training could be applied to mining jobs? 

None A Lot 

1 2 3 4 5 

How much do you think you will be able to apply to your job? 

None A Lot 

1 2 3 4 5 

Would you change the number of sessions used to offer this training? Yes No 

If yes, circle the number of sessions you would recommend: 2 3 4 Other ______________ 

What was the most important thing you learned? Why was that important? 

What suggestions do you have for improving this training? (If needed, please use the back of this form). 
Ergonomics Glossary 

Administrative controls 

Procedures used to reduce the duration, frequency, or severity of exposure to a hazard. 

They may include training, job rotation, and gradual introduction to work. Administrative 

controls are part of hazard prevention and control strategy. 

Awkward posture 

If a job task looks uncomfortable, it probably is, and this increases the chances for injury. 

Whenever possible, arrange the work station or work processes to allow employees to 

work from a comfortable, neutral posture. Excessive torso bending, reaching away from 

the body, bending the neck, or reaching above shoulder height are examples of awkward 

postures. 

Discomfort 

Mental or physical distress. Examples of physical distress include aches and pains your 

body is experiencing. Examples of mental distress include loss of a loved one, pressure to 

perform at work, or lack of sleep. 

Engineering controls 

A method of controlling and preventing worker exposure to risk factors or hazards by 

redesigning equipment, tools, and work stations. 

Ergonomics 

Ergonomics is the field of study that seeks to match the physical and cognitive 

requirements of the job to the abilities of the worker. This is achieved by designing 

workplaces, environments, job tasks, equipment, and processes to suit the worker’s 

abilities. Ergonomics is the scientific study of people at work. 

Ergonomics program 

A systematic method (similar to an accident prevention or quality improvement program) 

used to evaluate, prevent, and manage work-related musculoskeletal disorders. The four 

elements of a typical ergonomics program are worksite analysis, hazard prevention and 

control, medical management, and training and education. To implement an ergonomics 

program, some companies use an ergonomics team or committee. This team would be 

responsible for identifying and correcting musculoskeletal hazards in the workplace. 

Fatigue 

A condition that results when the body cannot provide enough energy for the muscles to 

perform a task. It results in an incapacity to continue to perform work at the same rate. 

Force 

The amount of physical effort a person uses to do a task. 

1
 
Hand-arm vibration 

Vibration (generally from a hand tool) that goes through the hand, then travels through the 

rest of the body. 

Hazard prevention and control 

Eliminating or minimizing the hazards identified in the worksite analysis. It involves 

changing the jobs, work stations, tools, or environment to fit the worker. Hazard 

prevention and control is an element of the ergonomics program. 

Injury incident rate 

Represents the number of injuries and/or illnesses per 100 full-time workers, calculated 

as follows: (N/EH) × 200,000, where N = number of injuries and/or illnesses, EH = total 

hours worked by all employees during the calendar year, and 200,000 = base for 100 fulltime equivalent workers (working 40 hours per week, 50 weeks per year). 

Mechanical contact stress 

The contact of the body with a hard surface or edge that results in the compression of 

tissue. Can also result when using a part of the body as a hammer or striking instrument. 

Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) 

Illnesses and injuries that affect one or more parts of the soft tissue and bones in the body. 

The parts of the musculoskeletal system are bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments, cartilage, 

and their associated nerves and blood vessels. 

Neutral posture 

Comfortable working posture that reduces the risk of musculoskeletal disorders. An ideal 

posture for the upper body would be: arms at your sides, elbows bent, wrists straight, and 

eyes looking straight ahead. 

Personal protective equipment (PPE) 

Gloves, kneepads, and other equipment that may help reduce hazards until other controls 

can be implemented or that supplement existing controls. 

Repetitiveness 

Performing the same motions repeatedly. The severity of risk depends on the frequency of 

repetition, speed of the movement or action, the number of muscle groups involved, and 

the required force. 

Risk factors 

An aspect of a job that increases the worker’s chance of getting a work-related 

musculoskeletal disorder. 

Severity rate 

The cost in terms of lost workdays (or dollars) of new injuries and illnesses. It is calculated 

as the number of lost workdays per total number of hours worked by all employees during 

a specified time period. 

2
 
Static loading (or sustained exertions) 

Physical effort or posture that is held without movement and requires muscle contraction 

for more than a short time. As muscles remain contracted, the blood flow to the muscles is 

reduced. 

Worksite analysis 

A safety and health review that addresses work-related musculoskeletal disorders. It is a 

structured way of identifying jobs and work stations that may contain musculoskeletal 

hazards, risk factors that pose the hazards, and causes of the risk factors. 

3
 
Medical Terms for Musculoskeletal Disorders 

Carpal tunnel syndrome 

A compression of the median nerve as it passes through the carpal tunnel in the wrist. 

Chronic low-back pain 

General soreness and fatigue of the low back. Pain is usually constant, and it accompanies 

most activities. 

Constriction 

Binding, squeezing, or shrinking blood vessels so that circulation is reduced. 

Cubital tunnel syndrome 

Compression of the ulnar nerve as it passes through the notch of the elbow. 

Cumulative trauma disorders 

Injuries and illnesses that generally occur as a result of exposure to repeated stresses over a 

period of time. They affect one or more parts of the soft tissues and bones of the 

musculoskeletal system and/or nerves and blood vessels servicing the musculoskeletal 

system. 

Degenerative disc disease 

Wear and tear of the discs that separate the vertebrae of the spine. 

DeQuervain’s Disease 

An inflammation of the tendon and/or its sheath at the base of the thumb. 

Digital neuritis 

Compression of the nerves along the sides of the fingers or thumbs, resulting in tingling 

and numbness. 

Epicondylitis 

An inflammation of the tendons at the elbow. Also called tennis elbow (lateral or outside 

part of the elbow) or golfer’s elbow (medial or inside part of the elbow). 

Ganglionic cyst 

Swelling of the tendon sheath due to the buildup of synovial fluid inside the sheath. The 

cyst usually causes a bump under the skin. 

Nonspecific backache 

General soreness and fatigue of the low back. 

4
 
Osteoarthritis 

Most common type of arthritis, especially among older people, sometimes called 

degenerative joint disease or “wear-and-tear” arthritis. Unlike other types of arthritis, 

it only affects the joints, not internal organs. It causes persistent stiffness and swelling 

of the joints. 

Raynaud’s Phenomenon 

A constriction of the blood vessels in the hands and fingers. Also called “white finger.” 

Rotator cuff tendonitis 

Inflammation of one or more tendons at the shoulder. Also called “pitcher’s shoulder.” 

Sprain 

Overstretching or overexertion of a ligament that results in a tear or rupture of the 

ligament. 

Strain 

Overstretching or overexertion of a muscle or tendon. 

Tendonitis 

Inflammation of the tendon. 

Tenosynovitis 

Inflammation of the sheath around the tendon. 

Thoracic outlet syndrome 

Compression of the nerves and blood vessels between the neck and shoulder often 

associated with prolonged overhead work. 

Trigger finger 

A common term for tendonitis or tenosynovitis that causes painful locking of the finger(s) 

while flexing. 

Ulnar nerve entrapment 

Compression of the ulnar nerve as it passes through the wrist, often associated with 

prolonged flexion and extension of the wrist and pressure on the palm. 

5
 
Guide to Intervention Ideas 

Elimination/Substitution 

⋅ Increase the weight of the container/item and move with a mechanical assist (handle in bulk). 

⋅ Have materials delivered to a different area. 

⋅ Have the supplier perform part of the task. 

⋅ Do not act upon the input (ship as is). 

⋅ Ensure that current specifications are necessary. 

⋅ Install a feeder mechanism. 

⋅ Install overhead gantry, boom, or fixed hoist. 

⋅ Place collection ports lower to use gravity. 

⋅ Use a small electric portable lifting device. 

⋅ Use a conveyor belt. 

⋅ Use a forklift. 

⋅ Use a lever-type device. 

⋅ Use a rolling lever or portable rollers. 

⋅ Use a two-pole suspension system (stretcher). 

⋅ Use a vacuum tube conveyor system. 

⋅ Use an overhead suction lifting device. 

⋅ Use an overhead tube-fed dispenser system. 

⋅ Add a motor drive to carts. 

Force/Exertion 

⋅ Decrease the size of the container/item. 

⋅ Decrease the weight of the container/item. 

⋅ Change the composition of raw materials to something lighter in weight. 

⋅ Alter the properties of the materials (malleability, heat conductivity, etc.). 

⋅ Alter environmental conditions that affect material properties. 

⋅ Change the container or packaging that contains the materials. 

⋅ Add wheels. 

⋅ Change to bigger wheels. 

⋅ Bevel work surface edges. 

⋅ Install permanent handles. 

⋅ Place ramps over thresholds. 

⋅ Place rollers at edge of table. 

⋅ Use lighter trays or bins. 

⋅ Use lubricants to reduce friction. 

⋅ Use slip sheeting. 

⋅ Use special jack attachment. 

⋅ Use customized/redesigned hand trucks. 

⋅ Use special-applications dolly. 

1
 
⋅ Install a vice. 

⋅ Use a customized or stock jig. 

⋅ Use a handtool. 

⋅ Anchor tool to resist its force. 

⋅ Install tool balancer. 

⋅ Provide a guide attached to tool to hold work. 

⋅ Place recess in tables to support arms. 

⋅ Provide a chest support for forward leaning. 

⋅ Attach adjustable armrests to work surface. 

⋅ Place sleeves or extenders on levers or controls. 

⋅ Change handle design by adding padding or slip resistance. 

⋅ Alter tool size, diameter, weight, or length. 

⋅ Make tools electric-, air-, or battery-operated. 

⋅ Provide the appropriate tool. 

Posture 

⋅ Modify the position of the container/item. 

⋅ Change the container or packaging that contains the materials. 

⋅ Change the final placement location or position. 

⋅ Stop using the currently used storage space. 

⋅ Adjust chair height, angle, depth, or armrest. 

⋅ Replace current chairs with adjustable models. 

⋅ Place the worker on a platform. 

⋅ Place worker in trough or sunken floor. 

⋅ Change or install handles on carts. 

⋅ Use pallets to raise worker or work. 

⋅ Provide adjustable floor height. 

⋅ Place a second elevated work surface on top of work station. 

⋅ Split work-surface heights. 

⋅ Place something (such as wooden supports) under work station legs. 

⋅ Attach work station surface to wall to change working height. 

⋅ Cut two or four legs or bottom of work station. 

⋅ Sink floor or place work station in trough. 

⋅ Use a spring-loaded double-bottom cart. 

⋅ Install adjustable work station. 

⋅ Install lazy Susan (turntable). 

⋅ Add third hand or document holder. 

⋅ Cut out work surface. 

⋅ Angle bins toward the worker. 

⋅ Alter doorway/porthole to decrease awkward posturing. 

⋅ Modify trays on conveyor devices. 

⋅ Interchange shelves, bins, trays, and drawers. 

⋅ Make controls remote. 

⋅ Use a tool or reaching device. 

2
 
⋅ Properly space rungs on ladders. 

⋅ Provide step stools. 

⋅ Relocate meters, visual displays, or other input devices. 

⋅ Install lighting fixtures that can adjust direction of lighting. 

⋅ Provide headphones for audio input. 

⋅ Provide lighted magnifying glass. 

⋅ Provide glare screen or reposition monitor. 

⋅ Increase size of dials or visual display equipment. 

⋅ Allow adjustability in location and display features. 

⋅ Make control handles or buttons larger. 

⋅ Make foot or hand controls movable. 

⋅ Move all overhead controls down. 

⋅ Place controls inset into table. 

⋅ Change tool handle design by altering angle. 

⋅ Change handle by altering tool shape. 

⋅ Store tools in most convenient position. 

⋅ Provide a lumbar roll or supportive cushion. 

Repetition and Duration 

⋅ Decrease the number of different pieces to be handled. 

⋅ Order parts preassembled. 

⋅ Change the output rate. 

⋅ Increase or decrease the number of steps each worker performs. 

⋅ Enlarge job by having worker pack or put away whatever he or she processes. 

⋅ Provide sit/stand seating. 

⋅ Use several fixed tools rather than one adjustable one. 

⋅ Change work organization: spread similar work throughout different shifts. 

⋅ Allowances for breaks—work organization—how and when you do activities. 

Vibration 

⋅ Roadway maintenance. 

⋅ Improved vehicle seating: suspension system, seat padding, seat. 

⋅ Reduce vehicle speed. 

⋅ Use low-vibration tools. 

⋅ Apply dampening materials to tool handles. 

3
 
The Ergonomics Manual
 

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
 

Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
 

Principles Of Ergonomics 

Principle 1: Work In Neutral Postures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
 

Principle 2: Reduce Excessive Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
 

Principle 3: Keep Things In Easy Reach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
 

Principle 4: Work At Proper Heights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
 

Principle 5: Reduce Excessive Motions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
 

Principle 6: Minimize Fatigue And Static Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
 

Principle 7: Minimize Pressure Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
 

Principle 8: Provide Clearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
 

Principle 9: Move, Exercise And Stretch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
 

Principle 10: Maintain A Comfortable Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
 

Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
 

Cognitive Ergonomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
 

Work Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
 

Quality, Efficiency And Cost Reductions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
 

Wear And Tear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
 

Creating Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
 

Setting Up A Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
 

Ergonomics Task Evaluation Worksheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
 

© 1992, 2000 Dan MacLeod 

www.danmacleod.com 

dan@danmacleod.com 

Published by Comprehensive Loss Management, Inc., Minneapolis, MN 

Acknowledgments 

A previous version of this material was written by the author for the Ergonomics Group of Clayton Group Services. 
Introduction 

Ergonomics is a wide-ranging field that seeks to design tools, equipment and 

tasks to optimize human capabilities. Several catchphrases are described below that 

serve as good definitions. As you will see, in many ways, ergonomics is not really 

anything new. It amounts to seeing everyday things from a new perspective — that is, 

putting on your “ergonomics glasses.” Much of ergonomics is common sense, once you 

think about it. The field can be summarized in a set of basic principles, which form the 

core of this booklet. 

Fit the task to the person — Probably the best 

phrase to describe the field of ergonomics is “Fit 

the task to the person, not the person to the task.” 

Whenever we set up a piece of equipment, we need to 

ask, “How does the human fit in?” When designing a 

tool or planning a task, we need to consider human 

strengths and imitations. 

Work smarter, not harder — A time-worn 

phrase that many people aspire to is “Work smarter, 

not harder.” Normally, how one actually goes about 

doing so is left unstated. But ergonomics remedies 

that by providing methods for finding smarter ways 

of working. It prescribes the principles and techniques by which people can improve ways to work. 

The rules of work — The term ergonomics was 

coined from the Greek words ergon (meaning 

“work”) and nomos (meaning “rules”); so the literal 

meaning is “the rules of work,” which is a handy 

concept to think about and then apply. 

2
 
Introduction 

Targets for ergonomic 

improvement are

divided into two

broad categories: 

(1) physical issues, such as

reaches and exertion 

(2) cognitive issues, such as

mental overload and

confusing displays 

User friendliness — The term user friendly is synonymous 

with ergonomics. Anything that can be described as user 

friendly can also be said to be ergonomic; unfriendly items 

are not ergonomic. Being user friendly means that things are 

easy to understand and apply, that mistakes are reduced, 

and that the human is treated well in the process. The 

concept applies to both physical issues as well as mental, 

or cognitive, ones. 

Formal Definition 

Ergonomics is an interdisciplinary 

field of study that seeks to design 

tools, equipment and tasks to 

optimize human capabilities. In this 

context, tools, equipment and tasks 

are broadly defined. A tool might 

range from a simple hand tool, to a 

written set of directions, to an entire 

organizational system. Equipment 

includes factory production lines, 

household appliances and sports 

paraphernalia. A task could be 

either a physical or a mental 

activity, and it could be done as 

a job, a household chore or a 

leisure-time pursuit. 

Ergonomics seeks to improve 

the interrelationship between the 

human and a system, whether 

a simple hand tool or an entire 

production line. Whenever one 

designs a more effective interface 

between a human and a tool or task, 

that is ergonomics. 

3
 
Perspectives
 

★ 

★ 

★ ★ ★ 

★ 

★ 

It’s not just for work — Ergonomics can be applied to any 

human activity, including home chores and leisure activities. 

It’s not necessarily new — The term ergonomics 

might be new, but the concepts have been around since the 

earliest humans. A good example is a famous ergonomic 

device invented in the nineteenth century — the two-handed 

scythe. 

Cos 0 

BW (lbs.) 

HB (in.) 

L (lbs.) 

It doesn’t have to be hard — Although some technical 

aspects of ergonomics are difficult, practical application at 

work doesn’t have to be hard. Anyone can have a good idea. 

It’s about quality and effectiveness — People who are 

fatigued, uncomfortable or hurting are in no position to do their 

jobs right the first time, every time. Good ergonomics can put 

people in a better position to do the jobs they’re capable of. 

It doesn’t have to be expensive — On some occasions, 

improvements take capital investment, but often enough, the 

best solutions are inexpensive or even free. It just takes some 

creativity and thinking. A common example is simply relocating control buttons to be within better reach. 

Quality 

Costs 

It’s good for business — The focus of ergonomics is 

people. But when properly applied, ergonomics can reduce 

many costs for business, including workers’ compensation 

costs, turnover, absenteeism and a variety of inefficiencies. 

4
 
Working in awkward, contorted postures and positions increases physical stress on the 

body and reduces its strength, thereby making it more difficult to do a task. The optimal 

neutral posture is the one in which the muscles surrounding a joint are equally balanced 

— the posture that provides the most strength, the most control over movements and the 

least physical stress on the joint and surrounding tissue. Note that none of these postures 1 are at right angles, even though tools and equipment are generally built that way. 

Principle 

Work In Neutral Postures 

S-curve 

Keep the S-curve — Whether sitting or standing, it is 

important to maintain the natural S-curve of the back, which 

essentially means keeping a slight “sway back.” 

➡ 

➡ 

★ ★ 

Good lumbar support is important, especially to help prevent 

an injury-producing “C-curve.” 

The “inverted V-curve” is a serious injury-producing posture; it 

can be avoided with use of a tilter. Twisting motions, especially 

with a heavy load, can also cause injury. 

Keep the neck aligned — Adjusting the heights of or 

tilting the equipment or the worksurface often helps. 

Keep the elbows in and the shoulders relaxed — 

Here, changing the orientation of the product allows the 

elbows to hang naturally at the sides. 

Keep the wrists in neutral — The hands and wrists 

should be in the same plane as the forearms. 

Ideally, the hands should also be slanted slightly in and 

forward — the position your hands are in when you hold 

a steering wheel at the 10 and 2 o’clock positions. You can 

check this posture for yourself by dangling your arms at your 

sides while standing and noting the position of your wrists. 

5
 
Reduce Excessive Force 

Countless tools and machines through the ages have served to reduce exertion. The search 

for even more ways is one of the defining areas of contemporary workplace ergonomics. 

Excessive force can overload the muscles, creating fatigue and the potential for injury. 

Furthermore, applying excessive force to perform a task can slow down the effort and 

interfere with the ability to perform the task well. Consequently, almost anything that 

minimizes the exertion required for the task will make it easier and typically faster to 

perform — and with less effort.

2

Principle 

Increase leverage — Levers are usually thought of in 

terms of lifting large, heavy objects, but they can be applied in 

virtually any circumstance, such as increasing the diameter of a 

screwdriver handle. There are many opportunities in industry 

to use levers to reduce forces on the hands and fingers. 

Use conveyors — Creative uses include floor mounted, 

adjustable height, flex (or “snake”), short lengths, ball and 

omni-directional versions. 

A particularly neglected type of lever is the compound lever,
 

such as in this bolt cutter. It yields tremendous mechanical
 

advantage even with short grips and even when incorporated
 

into small tools used to squeeze tiny parts.
 

Use skids — Skid bars are an inexpensive way to reduce the
 

amount of lifting and carrying. Even a skid as short as a few
 

inches can be helpful.
 

Improve layouts — Poor layout (especially uneven heights,
 

reaches and distances that items need to be moved) often
 

causes forceful, wasted motions.
 

Use power grips — You can exert more force with a full 

hand grip (a power grip) than with the fingers alone (a pinch 

grip). A good example is carrying a box or tote — boxes with 

handholds take less exertion to carry. Consequently, with a 

good grip, you can accomplish the same task with less effort. 

Use fixtures — Using the hand as a fixture increases 

exertion and wastes effort. If you simply hold the object in a Heat malleable products — If plastic or a similar product 

fixture, it becomes much easier to work on. Furthermore, the needs to be manipulated or fitted, it’s often helpful to heat the 

fixture frees up both hands to do the actual work, rather than material to make it more malleable. Heat lamps and hand-held 

simply holding onto the object. heat guns can be used for this purpose. 

6
 
Principle 2: Reduce Excessive Force 

7 

Use appropriate grip size — The optimal size for a power 

grip is roughly that which permits the thumb and the forefinger 

to overlap slightly. If the grip is significantly larger or smaller, 

then more force is needed to accomplish the same work. 

Increase contact friction or use a collar — If a grip 

is slippery, you must squeeze harder to accomplish the same 

task. One common improvement is to cover the grip with a 

material that provides higher friction. In cases where the force 

applied is coaxial to the grip, providing a collar or stop on the 

grip can reduce grasping force. 

Use two-handed tools — Adding a second handle to a 

tool can halve the exertion required when one hand alone 

holds a tool. Having two handles also permits greater control 

and more accuracy in using the tool. “Tommy gun” grips are a 

version of this concept used for pressure hoses. Note that a 

prerequisite for a two-handled tool is that the product being 

worked on must be secured. 

Use arm braces — If a tool or its load is especially heavy, 

then it may be possible to add a forearm brace. The classic 

examples are (a) the “reachers” used in old-time grocery stores 

and (b) high-powered slingshots. 

Use counterbalances — Many loads that are held by the 

arms can be counterbalanced to make them virtually weightless. 

Techniques include overhead spring suspension, self-closing 

cylinders (like on doors or car hoods), a weight in combination 

with a pulley or some type of lever and fulcrum. 

Use good carts — Heavily loaded carts often require high 

force to be moved. Improvements include increasing wheel 

size, adding handles and providing better flooring. Power 

tuggers may be needed in some circumstances. 

Use power tools, machines and cylinders — 

Perhaps the most obvious way to reduce force is to 

completely mechanize the activity. Air and hydraulic cylinders 

are particularly useful when moderate force is needed. 

Strongest 

Friction grip 

Collar 

“Reacher” 

Arm brace 

★ ★ 
Keep Things In Easy Reach 

Make your work more user friendly by keeping within easy reach all the parts and tools that 

you need frequently. Long reaches often cause you to twist, bend and strain, making work 

more difficult. This principle goes along with that of keeping good posture. If the posture 

is OK, then the reaches will usually be OK. However, in the case of reaches, one evaluates 

the equipment and workstations themselves, whereas with posture, all the signs of 

problems come directly from observing individuals. Thus, evaluating both reaches 

and postures is needed to double-check using different perspectives. 

3

Principle 

Make cutouts — An increasingly common approach is to 

make a cutout in the work surface. Cutouts reduce reaches yet 

still allow large workspaces. Think “reach envelope” — The basic ideas are to (a) keep 

frequently used materials within the reach envelope of the 

entire arms and (b) keep constantly used things within the 

reach envelope of the forearms. Note that this envelope is 

a semicircle, not the rectangle typically used in fabricating 

work surfaces. 

Use swing arms — Another way to bring items closer yet Design for the short person — In general, make sure spare workspace is to use swing arms. that shorter-statured people can reach everything. If they can 

reach, so can everyone else. (There is an opposite rule later 

regarding clearance.) 

Tilt — When working out of boxes, it’s possible to use tilt 

tables or stands or even to prop up the box on one end. 

Tilted box stands can easily be fitted with hinges, cylinders 

and rollers to enable easy transfer to carts and conveyors. 

Rearrange — The point behind keeping things in easy reach 

is not a hard concept to grasp. What is difficult is having the 

presence of mind to notice the reaching. Typically, long 

reaches are so habitual that you’re unaware that you’re 

reaching or that you could easily move items closer. 

Reduce work surface size — All too often, the work 

surface is much bigger than needed. By cutting down its Remove barriers — Many reaches are caused by barriers 

size, you can eliminate long reaches plus increase floor space. that can be eliminated or relocated. 

8
 
Work At Proper Heights 

A common workplace problem is a mismatch in heights between people and the work 

that they’re doing. This mismatch leads to poor postures and related fatigue, discomfort 

and potential damage to soft tissue plus unnecessarily harder work and reduced ability 

to perform the task correctly. Proper height depends on the nature of the task. Once 

again, this principle is often correlated with posture: If the postures are correct, then 4 generally the heights will be correct. However, there are exceptions. 

Principle 

Provide adjustable heights — Because people vary in 

height, good design often involves making height adjustments 

in work surfaces. There are a variety of ways to do so: 

Design for elbow height — Generally, work is best done 

at about elbow height, whether sitting or standing. This is 

true for keyboarding as well as other kinds of work in 

manufacturing and assembly. Note that it is the work itself that 

should be at elbow height, not necessarily the work surface. 

1. Change the work surface — The best approach is to adjust 

the height of the work surface itself. This is easiest with only 

one person per workstation, which can then be adjusted once 

for that person — for example, by lengthening or shortening 

the legs of a workbench. It is harder if several people use the 

same workstation. Placing a simple riser or work surface 

platform can sometimes accommodate taller people. More 

elaborate is a crank-up or push-button adjustable surface. 

Consider the exceptions — The nature of the work also 

2. Stand on a platform — It usually is impossible to raise or affects the proper height. Heavier work, requiring upper-body lower assembly lines or large pieces of equipment. The alter- strength, should be lower than elbow height. Lighter work, native, then, is to provide platforms. While they may create such as precision work and inspection tasks, should be higher. congestion and possible tripping hazards, they have worked 

well in many facilities. 

Use tool extenders — The floor is an extremely awkward 

height ideal, it may be feasible to avoid the extremes; that is, 

Avoid extremes — When it isn’t possible to make every 

height from which to work. Long handles and tool extenders 

avoid working below knee level or above shoulder level. provide ways to improve the height. 

9
 
Reduce Excessive Motions 

Minimizing the number of motions required to do a task can lessen the wear and 

tear on your body and also improve efficiency. Repetitive motions are, in many ways, 

time wasters, and many of the techniques to reduce excessive motions amount to 

old-fashioned methods engineering — ideas that have perhaps been neglected in an 

era of high technology. Motion efficiency can be readily applied in many workplace 5 ergonomics activities. 

Principle 

Let the tool do the work — One of the best ways to 

reduce repetition is to allow machines and tools to do the 

work. Machines are good at performing repetitive tasks 

endlessly, so they should be exploited. 

Improve technique — It’s not uncommon to see two 

Slide rather than pick and place — It’s usually better to people working side by side on the same task, one working 

slide items, rather than pick them up one at a time and place smoothly and the other with hectic, exaggerated and wasted 

motions. It’s important to help employees learn to use the them in their locations. Although motions are still required, the 

most efficient, least injurious methods. Sometimes, this might total number is usually reduced. Try these techniques: 

• Move equipment closer together, equalize heights and tilt take some study and comparisons. The video camera offers an 

boxes and containers. excellent tool to help find the best method. You can videotape 

• Cut holes in work surfaces to permit items or scrap to drop various individuals and then watch the tapes during group 

meetings to identify good techniques. directly into containers or onto conveyors. 

Motion-saving mechanisms — A number of mechanical 

devices can be applied: 

Fewer motions . . . • Gearing — One turn yields multiple turns. 

• Rack and pinion — One motion yields multiple turns. 

• Old-fashioned sewing machine pedal — One stroke yields Improve layouts — Workstation changes to improve the multiple reciprocal motions. heights, reaches, locations and orientations of materials can 

• Yankee screwdriver — One push yields multiple turns. eliminate many unnecessary hand and arm motions. 

• Ratchet — Eliminates repetitive grasping and regrasping. 

Reduce the range of the motion — There is a distinction • Hoppers — Instead of using scoops to handle granular 

between a small, insignificant motion and a large, sweeping materials, hoppers reduce motions and save time. 

one. Thus, even if a motion cannot be eliminated altogether, it Keep materials oriented — Feeding parts and materials might be reduced. in the correct orientation to a workstation can reduce motions. 

Watch for double-handling — Double-handling is basically Furthermore, parts should never be allowed to become 

doing the same work twice — picking up and replacing an jumbled because extra work and more motions will be needed 

object only to have to pick it up and handle it again. to straighten them out again. 

. . . More motions 

10
 
Minimize Fatigue And Static Load 

Overloading people’s physical and mental capabilities can contribute to accidents, poor 

quality, lost productivity and wear-and-tear-type injuries. A particularly common 

source of fatigue is known as static load, which is holding the same position for a period 

of time (static means “not moving,” as in stationary). Static load is especially stressful 

in combination with high force and awkward posture, but the primary concern is the 

amount of time that the muscles are contracted. Even if a muscle is only lightly 

tensed, over an extended time, pain and fatigue can result. 

6

Principle 

★ 

★ 

Bench-mounted armrest 

Reduce force and duration — A common example of Use armrests — Armrests eliminate static load on the static load is writer’s cramp. You don’t need to hold onto shoulders in tasks that require outstretched arms. New types a pencil very hard, just for long periods, for your muscles to of armrests can be attached to workbenches and machines. tire and begin to hurt. To prevent writer’s cramp, (1) stop 

occasionally to stretch and (2) use a pencil grip, which makes 

it easier to hold. (It reduces slipperiness plus increases size.) 

Use footrests — For standing jobs, having a footrest Self-closing tool mounted
 

on a fixture
 available provides a chance to alternate postures occasionally. 

Use fixtures — It’s crucial to use fixtures, clamps and other 

ways to prevent static grasping of items, whether parts, 

tools or both, if possible. Don’t use your hands as fixtures. 

Use self-closing tools — Tweezers and clamping tools 

squeeze to open up the tool and then let go to hold it in place. 

This eliminates the need to grasp continually. Locking pliers 

provide a different version of the same concept, as do locking 

triggers on power tools. Use lean stands — Lean stands can relieve the static load 

on leg muscles. You wouldn’t want to remain on a lean stand 

for a long period, but from time to time, it provides relief from 

constant standing. Furthermore, unlike a chair or stool, which 

can take some effort to get into and out of, a lean stand 

enables you to revert instantaneously to a standing position 

for immediate attention to a machine or other work process. 

Use straps — Tools held for long periods can be fitted with Provide mobility — Staying in the same posture is fatiguing. 

straps to offload the muscles, as is common with hand-held Good design provides ways to change position yet not interrupt 

video cameras. work. (Fatigue interrupts work; good design doesn’t.) 

11
 
Minimize Pressure Points 

Direct pressure against the body, or contact stress, is a common issue in many workstations. In addition to being uncomfortable and interfering with your ability to work, 

contact stress can inhibit nerve function and bloodflow. For example, the hand is 

particularly sensitive because there are (a) a large number of nerves throughout the 

hand and fingers, which are typical points of contact, and (b) blood vessels in the fleshy 7

part of the palm, where hand tools normally press. 

Principle 

Contour and pad — Many tools and pieces of equipment Provide arm cushions — A common example of contact 

can be improved with these techniques: stress is having to lean your forearms against a hard edge. To 

• Contour the item to fit the shape of the body. make improvements, add padding and/or round out the edge. 

• Provide padding to soften the pressure. 

• Distribute the pressure over a larger surface area. 

Provide floor cushioning — Standing for long periods of 

time on hard surfaces (especially concrete floors) can damage 

tissue in the heels, contribute to other leg disorders and 

increase fatigue. Options include: 

•	 Antifatigue mats are the usual choice in production 

facilities where employees stand at single workstations. A 

variety of types are available for an assortment of conditions, 

ranging from oily areas in machine shops to clean-room 

conditions in pharmaceutical labs. 

• Cushioned insoles or heel cups for mobile staff — 

such as maintenance, engineers and supervisors — should 

be used where mats are not feasible. Viscoelastic, shockabsorbing materials typically work best. 

Provide good chairs and shop stools — Contact stress 

from sitting on hard surfaces, which is the epitome of discomfort from pressure points, can be lessened with cushioning and 

contouring. Proper seat height greatly affects pressure points 

on the legs. If the seat is too high and the legs dangle, the Use flat footrests — Foot rings and rails are common on 

pressure behind the knees can be excessive. If the seat is too stools and workstations, and they’re better than nothing. 

low, the weight of the body concentrates on the buttocks, However, the narrow dimension can create a pressure point 

again creating discomfort. on the bottom of the foot. It’s better to use a flat surface. 

Use whole-hand loops — Rather than using finger loops 

for tools such as scissors, providing whole-hand loops for 

heavily used tools eliminates rubbing on the fingers. 

12
 
You should have both adequate workspace and easy access to everything you need, with 

no barriers in the way. Lack of clearance can create bumping hazards or force you to 

work in contorted postures. It also can increase long reaches, especially if there is 

inadequate space for the knees or feet. Insufficient knee space is a common problem 

in the industrial workplace, although every part of the body can be affected — the 8 head, torso, feet and hands.

Principle 

Provide Clearance 

Clearance for 

maintenance 

Build in maintainability — Probably the single biggest 

ergonomics problem for maintenance personnel is lack of 

clearance. Many activities would be simple to perform if the 

worker could only reach an item and work on it with easy 

access. Unfortunately, too often the items to be fixed are 

buried within machines. The remedy is designing equipment 

Design for tall people — In general, the goal is to make with access in mind: 

sure that tall people have enough clearance, that is, room for • Provide removable panels. 

the head, knees, elbows and feet. If tall people can fit, then so • Provide quick disconnects. 

can everyone else. To improve access: • Relocate frequently accessed equipment. 

• Reorganize equipment, shelves and the like. 

• Increase the sizes of openings. 

•	 Eliminate obstructions between the person and the items 

needed to accomplish the task. 

Provide knee space — As noted earlier, a common 

problem is the lack of knee or thigh clearance under desks, 

workbenches and other types of equipment where people sit. 

Improvements include: 

• Thin surfaces, with no hindering drawers 

• Removal of obstacles 

Provide visual access — A related issue is the ability 

to see what you’re doing or to see dials and displays. A 

common problem is being unable to see when moving a cart 

or lift truck. Equally common is the difficulty of working at a Provide hand clearance — Equally important is having 

machine or workstation where gauges are too far from the sufficient space for the hands in order to avoid “knuckleoperator’s position. buster” injuries and simply to get the job done effectively. 

13
 
Move, Exercise And Stretch 

The human body needs to exercise and stretch. You shouldn’t conclude after reading 

all the preceding information that you’re best off just lying around, pushing buttons. 

To be healthy, you need to stretch each joint to the full range of motion periodically 

throughout the day. Your heartrate needs to rise for a period of time every day. 

Your muscles need to be loaded on occasion. Unfortunately, most jobs don’t promote 

these activities, and where there is movement or exertion, it’s often too much of the 

wrong type. 

9

Principle 

Allow for alternate postures — No one correct posture is 

best for an entire workday. It’s important to be able to change 

Keep fit — Staying in shape is important; some employers and move. Adjustable furniture and equipment can facilitate 

provide fitness centers onsite to help promote good fitness. such movement, but even without them, you can change 

positions often. And if you have adjustable equipment, take 

Do warm-ups — People who perform heavy tasks should advantage of it. warm up beforehand. Experience in sports has shown the 

value of warming up to prevent injuries. 

Take energy breaks — People doing sedentary tasks 

should stop and stretch from time to time. Aerobic activity can 

also provide benefits and reduce fatigue. 

Design for sit-stand —Alternate back and forth between 

sitting and standing. The most basic approach is to design the 

Change chair positioning — For those who sit for long workstation for a standing posture and then use a tall stool to 

periods, it’s important to adjust chairs. Shift, move and change sit on as needed. Stand until you get fatigued from standing; 

positions often. then sit and vice versa. 

14
 
We humans don’t perform well in less-than-ideal environments. Excessive heat and humidity 

slow us down; excessive cold hinders our ability to do effective work. Toxic chemicals can 

damage our health; vibration can injure sensitive tissue. This principle is more or less a 

catch-all category in ergonomics. Some topics are often addressed in other specialties 

— for instance, toxic chemicals in the field of industrial hygiene. Other issues, such as 10 lighting, have gained attention with the interest in workplace ergonomics. 

Principle 

Maintain A Comfortable Environment 

Task lighting 

Vibration-dampening material 

Dampen vibration and shock — Working with tools and 

equipment that create shock or vibration can cause injury. To 

isolate vibration: 

• Use vibration-dampening materials in or on tools. 

• Perform routine maintenance. 

Provide appropriate lighting — The quantity and quality • Mount equipment on vibration-dampening pads. of light at your workstation will either serve to enhance or • Use cushioned floormats for standing operations. obscure the details of your work. Common problems include: • Change equipment speeds and feeds. 

• Glare that shines in your eyes 

• Shadows that hide details 

• Poor contrast between your work and the background 

To make improvements, provide: 

• Task lighting or indirect lighting 

• Diffusers or shields to minimize glare 

• Better placement of lights 

Cold air deflector 

Use torque bars — In operations where power screwdrivers 

and nutrunners are used, it’s important to use torque bars 

and make other modifications to prevent shock from being 

transferred to the wrists. 

Torque 

bar 

Noise control — This is another often neglected topic that Avoid temperature extremes — Being excessively hot fits in this category. Multitudes of techniques are available to or cold while performing a task can cause discomfort and dampen noise, including isolation mounts, flexible connectors, may contribute to health problems. In many cases, the source mufflers and streamlined air and fluid-handling systems. of the problem is inherent — for instance, laying shingles on a 

hot day or moving meat in a cold storage locker. However, Colors — Colors can affect tasks in a number of important 

steps can be taken to avoid specific problems: ways. Small parts on a traditional white assembly table can be 

• Use ventilation defusers or deflectors to keep cold air from difficult to see; contrasting work surface colors can make them 

blowing directly on people. visible. Matte colors can reduce glare and eyestrain. Color on 

• Add heat shields around furnaces and other heat sources. walls and the good use of art can enhance work areas. 

15
 
Applications
 

SITTING WORKSTATIONS
 

STANDING TASKS 

Task lighting 

Parts and tools on 

swing arms 

Tiltable work surface 

Adjustable-height 

table 

Rounded, padded 

edges 

Knee clearance 

Good chair 

Alternate sit 

and stand 

Antifatigue mat Clearance for 

knees and feet 

Flat footrest 

Elbow height 

Common Issues

• Work surfaces not at good

heights

• Long reaches for materials

• Work surfaces with hard

edges

• Poor clearance for thighs

and knees

• Poor work area to perform

all tasks

• Shadows or glare 

Common Issues 

• Static load on legs 

• Awkward back

posture, bending 

• Pressure points from

hard floor 

• Awkward heights 

16
 
Applications 

HAND TOOLS 

Adjustment to change grip diameter 

Angled grip to promote neutral 

wrist posture 

Smooth, rounded grip surfaces 

Minimal force needed to 

squeeze trigger 

Full-hand trigger 

POWER DRIVERS 


Tool balancer 

Torque bar 

reduces shock 

Padding provides friction surface 

to reduce grip force plus 

shock/vibration dampening 

Collar reduces 

grip force 

Sleeve trigger 

reduces motions 

Tube-fed fasteners reduce 

hand and arm motions 

TOTES/BASKETS/PANS
 

Handholds, round and 

sufficiently large 

Lightweight 

Nestle loosely 

Easy to slide 

17
 
Applications 

CARTS
 

18 

Good grips, generally at 

waist height 

Push rather than pull 

Rear casters should 

swivel to maneuver 

heavy loads in tight 

areas (but fixed is better 

for traveling distances) 

Good-quality, large casters 

(with appropriate bearings, 

wheel hardness and brakes) 

PALLETIZING AND MATERIAL HANDLING 

Options For Improvement 

Scissors Lifts 

• Powered lift tables 

• Spring-loaded lift tables 

• Zero-clearance lift tables 

• Lift tables with Lazy Susans 

• Lift tables with roller conveyors 

• Lift tables that also tilt 

• Automatic palletizing systems 

Stretch Wrappers 

• No-bend manual stretch 

wrappers 

• Automatic stretch wrappers 

Conveyor Systems 

• Skids and slides 

• Roller or belt conveyors 

• Screw (or auger) conveyors 

• Ball conveyors 

• Flex conveyors 

• Air tube conveyors 

Mechanical Assists 

• Powered, articulated arms 

• Miscellaneous cranes and hoists 

• Vacuum hoists 

Alternative Methods 

• Hoppers 

• Chutes 

• Guides and funnels 

• Dollies and carts 

• Gurneys 

• Runways 

• Pumps 

• Overhead monorail systems 

• Cell production 

(to reduce handling) 

• Layout optimization 

(to reduce handling) 

• Pressurized air 

(hovercraft concept) 

• Bulk handling 

• Lift trucks with custom grabbers 

Use A Cart 

Appropriate 

To The Task 

• Hundreds of types on

the market 

• Multiple styles may

be needed 

• Adjustable height can

be helpful 

• Consider custom carts

for special needs 

Common

Issues

• Repetitive lifting,

bending, twisting

and reaching

heavy loads 
Applications 

MAINTENANCE
 

★ 

★ 

Good ergonomics can eliminate some of the awkward tasks associated 

with maintenance and repair. Moreover, these same considerations 

can reduce down time for repairs, improve inspection of critical 

components and reduce failure-related accidents. 

Improvements can be made by 

applying all the basic principles 

and concepts as needed but in 

particular, Principle 8 — 

Provide Clearance. 

Common Issues

• Heavy handling of equipment

• Repetitive motions of arms

and shoulders

• Awkward postures

• Static postures

• Static gripping

• Variety of hand tool issues

• Poor access and clearance

• Reaching and awkward

heights

• Pressure points

• Environmental issues such

as vibration and heat/cold 

MACHINING
 

19 

Options For Improvement 

• Shuttles to load parts 

• Equalize work surface heights to permit sliding of materials 

• Skid bars and guides to support loads while putting in and 

removing from machine 

• Skid bars, conveyors with gates or flex conveyors to handle 

totes 

• Air or hydraulic cylinders to do heavy pushing 

• Lift tables and tilted parts stands 

• Lean stands and footrests 

Common Issues 

• Heavy lifting and exertion to load

stock 

• Heavy exertion to change tooling 

• Long reaches to access tooling and

handle parts 

• Long reaches to make adjustments 

• Lifting of heavy totes and baskets 

• Repetitive hand and arm motions

to load and unload parts 

• Repetitive hand motions to deburr 

• Continuous standing on hard floors 
Applications 

COMPUTER WORKSTATIONS
 

Requirements 

Neck not bent or twisted 

Shoulders relaxed 

Elbows at sides 

“Keeping the curves” with 

good lumbar support 

Hands and wrists 

in neutral 

Not too much 

pressure here 

or here 

Enough knee space 

Tips 

Keyboard at about 

elbow height 

Mouse by keyboard 

and wrist rest 

Remember: It’s better for your spine to lean back slightly, as if you’re sitting in your carseat. 

Even so, no one posture is correct for an entire 8-hour day. You must change positions periodically. 

Top of screen at about 

eye level 

Copyholder next to 

monitor, at same 

height 

CHAIRS AND WORK STOOLS
 

Good lumbar support Armrests adjust 

and cushioning up and down 

Backrest adjusts: 

•	 Up and down, with good lumbar Pneumatic height adjustment 

support 

•	 Forward and backward, with 

locking mechanism 

20
 
Cognitive Ergonomics 

Almost everything in this booklet deals with physical ergonomics. It is helpful, however, to mention other 

major aspects of the field. Cognitive ergonomics addresses how we conceive information, process it mentally 

and decide on correct responses. By designing displays and controls — and, in fact, every type of information 

that we handle mentally — to take into account human perceptions and expectations, it’s possible to reduce 

errors and improve performance. 

21 

Design For Expectations 

Most people would expect to flip up the switch to turn the 

lights on. 

So horizontal switches violate our expectations and provide no 

hint of correct operation. We don’t know automatically which 

way to flip the switch. By studying issues like this, we can 

reduce mistakes and confusion. 

Standardize 

Which way would you turn these 

faucets to turn the water on? 

Many errors are caused by inconsistencies in how things are 

supposed to work. To prevent mistakes, a general rule is to 

ensure that similar devices work the same way. 

The operation of single faucets (such as outdoor spigots for 

garden hoses, above left) have been fairly standardized and 

follow the popular rule for activation: “Righty-tighty, leftyloosey.” Double faucets (like a sink, above right), on the other 

hand, are not standardized. 

Use Appropriate Displays 

Often, the type of display used will help provide the user 

with the easiest and most accurate way to gain necessary 

information. Digital displays are usually best when precise 

information is needed. However, analog gauges tend to be 

faster and clearer for general indication. 

Moving pointers and trend graphs are better for presenting 

relative information. But icons convey information quickly, 

particularly for warning signs. 

Use Patterns 

A: 32 

B: 43 

C: 28 

D: 82 

E: 45 

F: 38 

Which is easier to interpret — the list of numbers 

at the left or the graph above? 

Humans are good at recognizing patterns quickly and 

accurately. That’s why graphs are much easier to read and 

interpret than columns of numbers. Bar graphs are especially 

good for comparing numbers, and line graphs are good for 

showing trends. 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 A B C D E F 

Digital 

Analog 
Work Organization
 

A final general area of ergonomics has to do with the underlying design of work and related issues: 

● Task allocation — How should tasks be divided and assigned to accomplish goals? Is it better to have many 

people equally capable of doing many tasks? Or is it better to have a narrow division of labor, so that individuals 

are highly qualified at specific tasks? 

● Assembly lines versus work cells — Should the technology and equipment of the workplace be designed so 

that tasks are narrowly defined? Or should the physical layout promote team activities? 

● Shift work — Should there be more than one shift in a given workplace? And, if so, should employees 

be assigned to just one shift (thus prohibiting some people from enjoying normal evening family and social 

activities)? Or should they be rotated between shifts every couple of weeks (thus forcing everyone to disrupt 

their biological time clocks)? 

● Reward system — How should people be compensated for their activities? What actions should be rewarded? 

Should people be compensated for how much they put into a task (hours and effort) or how much they put out 

(quality and quantity of product)? 

● Structure — How many vertical layers should there be in an organization? What degree of horizontal segmentation? 

What amount of centralization? 

● Decision making — What kinds of decisions should be made at what levels of the organization? Should the 

strategic issues be left to just top managers? Or should rank-and-file employees be allowed — or required — to 

take part in decision making? 

These are huge topics, and other fields of study have clearly addressed them in more detail. Even so, ergonomics 

adds a certain perspective. In particular, ergonomics focuses on the point at which the technological and human 

sides of production mesh. There are many ways to approach these topics, but one helpful way is by considering 

occupational stress. 

OCCUPATIONAL STRESS 

An important topic in this category is how to reduce stress: 

● Plan — Anticipate, think ahead and prepare. Think of ways 

to avoid the stress of hurry-up-and-wait situations. Balance 

the flow of work. 

● Communicate — Think of how to share information, 

coordinate and help plan. Dedicate time so you can discuss 

issues and be kept up to date. 

● Empower — Give people the ability to control the events 

of their daily work lives. 

● Be involved — Encourage participation in the daily events 

of work life. Everyone’s ideas and input are important. 

● Promote teams — The team concept helps promote a 

sense of belonging, being valued and having a say. 

22
 
Quality, Efficiency And Cost Reductions
 

Poor ergonomics can inhibit people from doing their 

jobs well: 

•	 People who are working in awkward and uncomfortable 

postures — or maybe even hurting — are in no position to do 

their jobs right the first time, every time. 

•	 Fatigue is directly linked with lower productivity. 

•	 Manual tasks that are hard on people are often bottlenecks in 

production or, even worse, non-value-added steps. 

•	 Working in awkward postures reduces strength and affects 

fine motor control, which can lead to errors. 

Fortunately, by putting on your “ergonomics glasses,” you 

can start to identify ways of working that are simply better all 

around. Experience shows that productivity goes up with good 

ergonomics, not by making anyone work harder or faster but 

by finding smarter ways of working. The number of defects 

and errors can drop for the same reasons. By systematically 

evaluating all tasks from one end of the workplace to the other, 

it’s possible to find innovative ways to improve jobs from almost 

every perspective. 

Ergonomics is a people-based 

concept, and the prime 

motivator is improving human 

well-being. However, it’s also 

important to recognize the cost 

savings from doing so: 

● Workers’ compensation 

— Most workers’ compensation costs are related to 

back injuries, strains and 

other types of human wear 

and tear. These are exactly 

the types of problems 

that can be solved with 

ergonomics. 

● Turnover and absenteeism — One of the 

reasons people quit jobs or 

don’t show up every day is 

that they don’t like working 

in awkward and uncomfortable positions or are 

unnecessarily fatigued from 

work. In the current era 

of low unemployment, 

improved ergonomics can 

make many jobs more 

attractive. 

● Morale — An unsatisfactory work environment 

can reduce morale. 

Estimating the cost of 

poor morale is difficult, 

but everyone knows there 

is a cost associated with it. 

Systematically improving 

jobs using principles of 

ergonomics can improve 

morale, in terms of both the 

end results and the process 

of getting there. 

23
 
Wear And Tear 

There is a group of physical disorders that basically amount to wear and tear on the tissues surrounding the 

joints. General terms for these disorders include Cumulative Trauma Disorders (CTDs), Musculoskeletal 

Disorders (MSDs) and Repetitive Strain Injuries (RSIs). Most people experience disorders like these during 

their lives, often sports related or lower-back pain from everyday life. Usually, the symptoms are mild and 

disappear with rest, but sometimes, they can become disabling. 

● Symptoms 

•	 Soreness, pain or discomfort 

•	 Burning or tingling 


(“pins and needles” sensation)
 

•	 Numbness, weakness and clumsiness 

•	 Limited range of motion 

•	 Popping and cracking in the joints 

•	 Redness, swelling and local skin warmth 

● Get it checked out 

If you are having any problems of this sort, it’s 

important to get a medical evaluation using the 

normal procedures in your workplace. With early 

recognition, emerging disorders can be successfully 

and simply treated with aspirin and ice packs. 

Waiting too long might require surgery, which 

★ 

★ 

involves higher costs and less chance of complete 

recovery. 

● Risk factors 

Several factors can increase the risk of wear-and-tear 

problems, whether of the lower back, wrist, elbow 

or shoulder. The more factors involved and the 

greater the exposure to each, the higher the chance 

of developing a disorder: 

•	 Awkward postures — Body positions that deviate 

from neutral 

•	 Static load — Using the same muscles for a period 

of time without change 

•	 Pressure points — Direct pressure against any 

vulnerable part of the body 

•	 Force — The exertion required to make these 

motions 

•	 Repetition — The number of motions made per 

day by a particular body part 

•	 Environment — Extreme heat or cold; vibration 

and shock 

● Personal issues 

•	 Physical condition — Poor personal fitness can 

play a role in the development of some types of 

disorders. 

•	 Diseases and conditions — There are also several 

diseases (for example, diabetes) and conditions 

(pregnancy) that can increase the risk for certain 

types of disorders. 

● Prevention 

The approach to prevention is based in applying the 

concepts outlined in this manual. 

24
 
Creating Change 

Improving ergonomics often involves change, and at one point or another, you may need to serve as a 

“change agent.” Change must occur at two levels: (1) making sure the organizational climate is favorable 

and (2) on occasion, getting people to change habits. 

Atmosphere Of Innovation 

Much of what it takes to change organizational culture 

depends on the actions of top management, but everyone has a role. It helps to do these things: 

● Adopt a set of rules 

•	 Everyone is expected come up with ideas for
 

improvement.
 

•	 The best ideas are often discovered in group
 

settings. Two heads are better than one, and
 

twelve heads are better than two.
 

•	 Brainstorming and even raising “hare-brained” 

ideas are required. 

•	 Only a few of the ideas raised will actually be 

feasible. Consequently, (a) it’s crucial to raise a 

lot of ideas to increase the likelihood that you will 

find a good one, and (b) no one should feel discouraged if his or her idea doesn’t work. 

•	 Often, the only way to know if something is going 

to work is to try it. 

•	 Few ideas ever work from the start. It takes time 

— and usually a bit of trial and error — to get 

something to work right. 

•	 There is a difference between (a) a roadblock, 

which can be overcome, and (b) a fatal flaw, 

which totally kills an idea. Most problems are only 

roadblocks (but there may be many of these). 

•	 Failure should be expected. In the real world, not 

every good idea works. 

● Communicate — Explaining plans and keeping 

everyone updated is crucial. 

● Involve people — Participation creates ownership of ideas and helps people buy into the process, 

rather than have it dictated from above. 

We’re in the habit of adjusting our car seats. 


We need to do the same with equipment at work.
 

Individual Change 

Sometimes, new methods involve changing ingrained 

habits, which everyone knows can be difficult and 

frustrating. To help make change easier, try to do 

the following: 

● Train, involve and empower — Explain what, 

why and how. For example, with adjustable equipment, people need to be told how it is adjusted, what 

goals they are trying to accomplish, and why this is 

important. 

● Provide practice — Getting instructions is not 

enough. People must practice a technique for it to 

become a habit. 

● Try it; you’ll like it — Sometimes, people simply 

have to be talked into trying the new method for 

awhile. The length of trial must be long enough to 

overcome old habits. 

● Change everything — On occasion, individuals 

have done certain tasks for so long that any change 

feels awkward, even if it is clearly better. “Muscle 

memory” plays a strong role here. It may be easier to 

disrupt everything, so that everything is new and the 

task has to be learned all over again from scratch. 

25
 
preferably in a group of two or three members 

Setting Up A Program 


Establishing an initial, focused program is often necessary to set in motion an ongoing process. Several 

basic elements of such a program are outlined below, and every employer should adopt them in one form or 

another. Despite differences between types of industries and sizes of businesses, the following framework 

provides an approach for integrating ergonomics into the day-to-day worklife. 

PROGRAM ELEMENTS 

● Organization — A plan for getting organized, assigning responsibility and involving people 

● Training — An effort to provide training in ergonomics to personnel at all levels of the organization 

● Communication — Systems for describing activities and progress 

● Task Analysis — A systematic way to review all work areas for needed improvements 

● Making Improvements — The key part of the process: making improvements whenever feasible 

● Medical Management — Procedures and protocols for identifying and treating employees with 

symptoms of CTDs 

● Monitoring Progress — Ways to measure and evaluate the program 

The step of problem solving is commonly left out of most descriptions of ergonomic task analysis. 

One useful approach follows these steps: 

● Use a good checklist to review the task, 

of an ergonomics team. 

● Discuss issues with employees and 

supervisors. 

● Videotape the job. 

● Review video and checklist results 

with a team in a conference room. 

● Brainstorm options for 

improvement. 

● Plan actions for change. 

● Implement the changes. 

● Evaluate the results. 

26
 
Ergonomics Task Evaluation Worksheet 

(Make sure to explain your purpose to the people at the task you are evaluating) 

Area _______________________________________________ Date of Evaluation ______________________ 

Task ___________________________________________________________ Shift 1_____ 2_____ 3_____ 

Steps of the Task 

Ergonomics Issue Ideas for Improvement or Comments 

1. AWKWARD POSTURES?
 

Bent wrists 

Elbows from body 

Bent/twisted back 

Bent neck 

2. EXCESSIVE FORCES?
 

Grasping or pinching forces 

Push/pull arm forces 

Loads on back 

3. ANYTHING NOT IN EASY REACH?
 

Reach envelope: 

• full arm 

• fore arm 

4. NOT AT RIGHT HEIGHT?
 

Over shoulders/below knees 

Elbow height 

Equipment height relationships 

5. EXCESSIVE MOTIONS?
 

Hands 

Arms 

Back 

The Ergonomics Manual © 2000 Dan MacLeod This page may be reproduced for internal use. 

27
 
 

Ergonomics Task Evaluation Worksheet 

Ergonomics Issue Ideas for Improvement or Comments 

6. UNNECESSARILY FATIGUING?
 

Static loads: 

• grip 

• arm 

7. PRESSURE POINTS?
 

Tool grip 

Hard edges/surfaces 

Hard floor 

8. POOR CLEARANCE AND ACCESS?
 

Bump/not fit 

Can’t see 

9. FREEDOM TO MOVE & STRETCH?
 

Constant sitting 

Stand in one place 

10. UNCOMFORTABLE ENVIRONMENT?
 

Vibration 

Temperature extremes 

Glare, shadows, too bright or dark 

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
 

What suggestions and feedback do employees/supervisors have? 

Brainstorming Questions: 

• What alternative work methods are possible? 

• What improved types of tools are possible? 

• What types of mechanical assists might be used? 

• What changes in layout would help? 

• Would changes in the material-handling system help? 

• Would changes in the work process help? 

• Is there a completely different way of doing the job? 

Evaluator(s) _________________________________ ________________________________ Date _________________ 

The Ergonomics Manual © 2000 Dan MacLeod This page may be reproduced for internal use. 

28
 
Development and Evaluation 

Ergonomics and 

Risk Factor Awareness Training
 

In 2001, the first version of the Ergonomics and Risk Factor Awareness Training for employees 

was developed to assist Mine A with the implementation of its ergonomics process. Although 

there were many commercially available training courses that could have been used for this 

application, none was specific to the mining industry. The training developed for Mine A 

emphasized the need for employees to identify and report exposures to ergonomic risk factors 

prior to the occurrence of a musculoskeletal disorder. Interactive exercises included tasks that 

were specific to mining and in some cases included tasks performed at Mine A. Twenty-one 

training sessions were given to 280 employees, who submitted approximately 28 concern cards 

indicating potential risk factor exposures. 

Following this initial effort, the Ergonomics and Risk Factor Awareness Training was provided to 

approximately 800 people from several organizations/events (United Mine Workers of America, 

NIOSH Safety Seminar for Underground Stone Mines, Small Mines Conference, Industrial 

Minerals Association, and TRAM West) and four companies. When offering this training to these 

organizations, it was modified when possible to provide examples pertinent to their specific type 

of mining and tasks performed at their mines. In some cases, the companies provided short videos 

of tasks performed at their sites. The training was also modified to fit the time allowed for the 

training, usually 60–90 minutes. 

Additionally, this training was given to 77 employees at Mine B, also as part of its effort to 

implement an ergonomics process. Evaluation responses provided by Mine B employees are 

shown in Tables 1 and 2. Most of the employees thought the interactive exercises were easy to 

follow and helped them to understand ergonomic risk factors and how to control them. In addition, 

most of the employees would like to apply what they learned and thought they would be able to 

do so. Forty-nine percent of the employees agreed that they were overwhelmed by the amount of 

information presented. At the request of Mine B, additional information about back stresses 

associated with lifting was presented. Consequently, the Mine B training took approximately 

145 minutes (versus 90 minutes for the Mine A training) and may have been too long. Two 

employees commented that the training was too long or to make it shorter; two other employees 

thought the course should be more interactive. However, most of the employees would 

recommend this training to others. 

1
 
 

 

Table 1.—Mine B employee responses for questions 1 through 7 (n=77) 

Question Strongly 

Disagree Disagree Slightly 

Disagree 

Slightly 

Agree Agree Strongly 

Agree 

1. The video exercise was easy to follow. 1 1 5 54 15 

2. The video exercise helped me 

understand risk factors. 1 4 51 20 

3. The video exercise helped me 

understand how injury risk can be 

reduced. 

1 1 2 54 18 

4. The instructor gave good explanations. 1 1 4 48 23 

5. I would like to apply what I learned to 

my job. 1 3 48 25 

6. I would recommend this training to 

others. 1 1 6 43 25 

7. I was overwhelmed by the amount of 

information given during this training. 11 21 7 12 20 6 

 NOTE.—Some of the row totals do not equal 77 because one employee responded to only some of the questions. 

Except for the last question, only 3 employees responded as “disagreeing” with any of the other questions. 

Table 2.—Mine B employee responses for questions 8 through 10 (n=77)

Question None/Not at all A lot 

1 2 3 4 5 

8. After receiving this training, could you apply the skills 

presented in this workshop to your work setting? 0 1 16 45 15 

9. How much of this course content was new to you? 1 24 30 17 5 

10. How much experience do you have in implementing 

ergonomics in the workplace? 2 14 38 22 1 

Because the demand for this training far exceeds NIOSH resources available to provide this 

training, it was decided to develop a train-the-trainer package. This required the development of 

supporting materials for the trainer to use for giving the employee course, as well as a stand-alone 

course for the trainer to become knowledgeable in basic ergonomics. 

In August 2005, a focus group with members from the mining industry, the Mine Safety and 

Health Administration, and NIOSH was convened to discuss changes needed to the employee 

course and development of an instructor’s manual. The result from this focus group included 

separating the training into two sessions and adding more interactive exercises and 

demonstrations. The format and content of the instructor’s guide was considered suitable. 

In February 2006, NIOSH researchers presented the train-the-trainer course to safety and health 

representatives from Mine C. Input was received from these participants regarding further 

improvements to the employee course and instructor’s manual, which included: 

2
 
 

 

•	 Adding a homework assignment after the first session 

•	 Adding an example of an intervention specific to the mine receiving the training 

•	 Using the same form in the interactive exercises as employees will use to report risk factor 

exposures 

•	 Modifying the acute-cumulative-both injury exercise to allow only two choices (acute or 

cumulative) 

•	 Presenting “musculoskeletal disorders,” “musculoskeletal injuries,” and “cumulative trauma 

disorders” as equivalent terms 

•	 Highlighting the benefits of ergonomics for the employee and the impact of musculoskeletal 

disorders on employees 

•	 Providing vendor information for some demonstration materials and making minor formatting 

changes 

Within 6 weeks of receiving the train-the-trainer course, four of the six attendees presented parts 

of the employee training, which had been modified based on their input. The training was given at 

two sites during two sessions, 1 week apart. Twenty-two employees attended the training at one 

site, and 25 employees attended the training at the other site. The four trainers completed an 

evaluation following the second session of the employee training. The results of the evaluations 

are shown in Tables 3–4. Overall, the instructors felt comfortable presenting the four topics 

included in the employee training, but needed both the information presented in the train-thetrainer workshop and the instructor’s manual to present the four topics. Additionally, when asked 

the following question:

 Did attending the “train the trainer” workshop make you more comfortable with the subject matter? 

NOT AT ALL A Lot 

1 2 3 4 5 

two instructors circled “5”, one circled “4”, and one circled “3” and “4”. 

Three of the four instructors responded that the instructor’s manual was easy to read and felt 

comfortable doing the demonstrations. None of the instructors had problems playing the short 

videos with their computers and/or projection systems. All of the instructors thought that the 

technical level was appropriate for their employees and that the interactive exercises pertained to 

their sites. Giving the training during two sessions worked best for both sites. 

Three of the four instructors thought the homework assignment was completed satisfactorily by 

the employees. Because some employees at both sites were not literate, not everyone understood 

how to complete the assignment. However, 42 homework assignments were turned in at the 

beginning of the second session. 

3
 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

When asked for suggestions on how to improve either the training or the instructor’s manual, the 

instructors provided two comments: 

• Organize the manual so that the various parts can be found more easily. 

• The sequence of some of the slides needs to be changed. 

Table 3.—Responses by Mine C trainers related to the specific topics presented 

Question Strongly 

Disagree Disagree Slightly 

Agree 

Slightly 

Agree Agree Strongly 

Agree 

Topic: Ergonomics 

I was comfortable presenting this 

topic. 3 1 

I needed information from the 

workshop to present this topic. 2 2 

I needed information from the 

training manual to present this 

topic. 

1 1 2 

Topic: MSDs 

I was comfortable presenting this 

topic. 1 2 1 

I needed information from the 

workshop to present this topic. 2 2 

I needed information from the 

training manual to present this 

topic. 

1 1 2 

Topic: Risk factors 

I was comfortable presenting this 

topic. 2 2 

I needed information from the 

workshop to present this topic. 2 2 

I needed information from the 

training manual to present this 

topic. 

1 1 2 

Topic: Root causes/exercises 

I was comfortable presenting this 

topic. 1 2 1 

I needed information from the 

workshop to present this topic. 1 3 

I needed information from the 

training manual to present this 

topic. 

1 3 

4
 
Table 4.—Responses by Mine C trainers related to presenting the employee course 

Questions Yes No 

Was the instructor’s guide easy to read? 

Comments: Need larger size font for notes pages; need better organization 3 1 

Did you have any problems playing the videos on your computer? 4 

Did you feel comfortable doing the demonstrations? 3 1 

Do you believe giving this training during two sessions is best for your site? 4 

Was the technical level appropriate for the employees at your site? 4 

Did the interactive exercises pertain to your site? 3 

Did the trainees satisfactorily complete the homework assignment? 

Comments: They could have been more task-specific; some employees understood, but others did 

not; some employees cannot read or write 

3 1 

Did the trainees ask you questions about topics that were not covered by the material? 

Comment: What is carpal tunnel and how is it medically corrected? 2 2 

Mine C employees attending this training were also asked to complete evaluations after each 

session. The results of these evaluations are provided in Tables 5–6 (Part 1) and Tables 7–8 

(Part 2). Forty employees attended Part 1, while 35 employees attended Part 2. 

For Part 1, most of the employees thought the videos were helpful in understanding risk factors 

and believed they could identify risk factors from the material presented to them. Also, most of the 

employees understood the differences between acute and cumulative injuries. For Part 2, the 

employees agreed that the video exercises helped them to understand risk factors and how to 

reduce exposures to risk factors. The employees also agreed that the homework assignment helped 

them to understand risk factors. In general, most of the employees would like to apply what they 

learned and thought that the training helped them to apply the material presented to their jobs. The 

employees thought much of the material covered could be applied to mining jobs, as well as to 

their own jobs. At least 60% of the employees did not think too much information was presented 

during either Part 1 or 2. Both sessions took approximately 75–90 minutes each. Compared to the 

original training provided to Mine A employees, which took 90 minutes, additional time was 

needed during Part 2 to discuss the results of the homework assignment and to do a short review 

of material covered in Part 1. Most of the employees would recommend this training to others. 

Of the 21 comments received regarding how to improve the training, 17 did not believe any 

changes were needed. Of the four comments suggesting changes, one stated too much emphasis 

was on the employer costs associated with musculoskeletal disorders, another suggested providing 

better instructions for the homework assignment, and a third comment wanted more hands-on 

exercises. The fourth comment was not related to the training but to the need for NIOSH to collect 

baseline data, which would not normally be part of the training. 

The information received from the employees who received the training from Mine C trainers was 

very similar to the responses of employees who received the training from NIOSH trainers. Both 

groups understood the material presented and believed they could apply the information learned to 

improve their jobs. This would indicate that the trainers received sufficient information during the 

train-the-trainer course and from the training materials to effectively present the employee 

training. 

5
 
 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 5.—Mine C employee responses for questions 1 through 6, Part 1 (n=40) 

Question Strongly 

Disagree Disagree Slightly 

Disagree 

Slightly 

Agree Agree Strongly 

Agree 

1. The videos helped me understand risk 

factors. 1 2 2 20 15 

2. I understand the differences between 

acute and cumulative injuries. 4 13 22 

3. I would like to apply what I learned to 

my job. 2 0 18 18 

4. I would recommend this training to 

others. 1 3 18 18 

5. There was too much information given 

during this training. 8 13 7 3 5 4 

6. I believe I can identify ergonomic risk 

factors from what I learned today. 1 4 18 18 

NOTE.—Because some employees did not answer all questions, the row totals do not equal 40. 

Table 6.—Mine C employee responses for questions 7 through 10, Part 1 (n=40) 

Questions None/Not at all A lot 

1 2 3 4 5 

7. How much experience do you have in applying ergonomics 

in your workplace? 6 3 16 5 9 

8. Did this training teach you how to apply the skills presented 

to your work setting? 1 1 12 16 9 

9. How much of the information presented during this training 

could be applied to mining jobs? 8 12 19 

10. How much do you think you will be able to apply to your 

job? 2 13 10 14 

NOTE.—Because some employees did not answer all questions, the row totals do not equal 40. 

Table 7.—Mine C employee responses for questions 1 through 6, Part 2 (n=35) 

Question Strongly 

Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree 

Slightly 

Agree Agree Strongly Agree 

1. The video exercises helped me 

understand risk factors. 3 17 13 

2. The video exercises helped me 

understand how injury risk can be 

reduced. 

2 1 17 13 

3. I would like to apply what I learned to 

my job. 1 1 2 16 12 

4. I would recommend this training to 

others. 2 2 17 12 

5. There was too much information given 

during this training. 8 12 1 3 9 

6. The homework assignment helped me 

understand risk factors. 1 1 1 4 14 11 

NOTE.—Because some employees did not answer all questions, the row totals do not equal 35. 

6 
Table 8.—Mine C employee responses for questions 7 through 10, Part 2 (n=35)

Questions None/Not at all A lot 

1 2 3 4 5 

7. How much experience do you have in applying ergonomics 

in your workplace? 1 7 4 12 8 

8. Did this training teach you how to apply the skills presented 

to your work setting? 3 3 14 15 

9. How much of the information presented during this training 

could be applied to mining jobs? 1 4 10 20 

10. How much do you think you will be able to apply to your 

job? 1 6 9 18 

NOTE.—Because some employees did not answer all questions, the row totals do not equal 35. 

As a result of the information received from both the trainer and employee evaluations, the 

following modifications have been made: 

•	 A train-the-trainer course was developed and will be made available on the NIOSH Web site. 

(This course is very similar to the employee course, but contains additional information that 

may be needed by an instructor.) 

•	 The sequence of some of the slides for the employee training was changed. 

•	 A table of contents was added to the instructor’s manual. 

NOTE: Evaluation information from technical reviewers and pilot sites using the Internet training 

course will be added to this document as it becomes available. 

7
 
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TTY: 1–888–232–6348 

e-mail: cdcinfo@cdc.gov 

or visit the NIOSH Web site at www.cdc.gov/niosh.

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NIOSH eNews by visiting www.cdc.gov/niosh/eNews.

DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2008–111 

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safety and health at work for all people 

through research and prevention 

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