Working in Unusual or 

Restricted Postures 

Sean Gallagher 

National Institute for 

Occupational Safety ond 

Health 

43.1 Introduction ............................. 43- 1 

43.2 General Considerations ..................... 43-2 

43.3 Epidemiologic Studies of Restricted 

Postures and Musculoskeletal Disorders ......... 43-3 

43.4 Performance Limitations in Restricted 

Postures ................................. 43-4 

Effects of Posture on Lifting Capacity Biomechanics 

of Unusual or Restricted Postures Physiologic Costs of 

Work in Unusual or Restricted Postures Recent Evidence 

on the Hazards of Torso Flexion 

43.5 	 Intervention Principles for Unusual or 

Restricted Postures ........................ 43-1 1 

Avoid Full Flexion of the Torso Design Loads in 

Accordance with Posture-Specific Strength Capacity Use

of Mechanical-Assist Devices and Tools Rest Breaks/Job 

Rotation Personal Protective Equipment 

43.6 Summary ................................43-14 

43.1 Introduction 

The human body is remarkably adaptable and capable of performance in a wide variety of environments 

and circun~stances. It cannot be said, however, that the body is capable of performing equally well under 

all conditions. In fact, when faced with certain types of tasks or environmental demands, the body may 

have to adapt using methods that result in substantial performance limitations. Such a phenomenon is 

evident when workers must adopt unusual or restricted postures during performance of physically 

demanding work tasks. For the purposes of this discussion, the term "unusual posture" will be considered as any working posture other than typical standing or sitting positions. The term "restricted 

posture" designates postures that are forced upon workers due to restrictions in workspace. 

The vast majority of ergonomics research has focused on establishing design criteria for work involving 

standing (e.g., Snook and Ciriello, 1991; Waters et al., 1993) or seated postures (e.g., Grandjean, 1988), 

and understandably so. However, it must be recognized that there are numerous jobs (e.g., underground 

miners, aircraft baggage handlers, plumbers, agricultural workers, mechanics, etc.) where workers must 

perform in less desirable postures such as kneeling, stooping, squatting, and lying down (Haselgrave 

et al., 1997). Unfortunately, experience has shown that many ergonomics techniques used to analyze 

or design standing or sitting workstations often do not adapt well to situations where a restricted 
43-2 Interventions, Controls, and Applications in Occupational Ergonomics 

posture is adopted (Gallagher and Hamrick, 1991). However, recent years have seen an increase in 

research examining the musculoskeletal risks and physical limitations associated with working in these 

postures. The purpose of this article is to summarize current knowledge in this area, and to establish 

principles for ergonomic design of jobs when working in unusual or restricted postures. 

43.2 General Considerations 

Workers typically enjoy the benefits of high strength capacity and mobility when they assume a normal 

standing position. This stance permits many powerful muscle groups to work in concert to accomplish 

occupational tasks. However, the nluscular synergy present in the standing posture can be seriously dis

rupted when unusual or restricted postures are employed. One need only imagine a lift performed while 

lying down on one's side to understand that many powerful muscles (i.e., those of the legs, hips, and 

thighs) will be unable to f~~lly participate in the lifting assignment. This example illustrates two irnportan

aspects ofwork in unusual or restricted postures. First, the number of muscle groups available to generate 

forces to accomplish a task is often reduced compared to standing. Second, the reduced number of participating muscles may lead to increased demands on those that can be recruited. It should be eviden

that each unique postural configuration will result in its own set of strength limits. The number and iden

tity of the nluscles that can be effectively recruited for the job will largely determine these limits. 

Task performance in unusual or restricted work postures can also be affected by reduced mobility, stab

ility, and balance. For example, when one is unable to stand on one's feet, mobility may be dramatically 

reduced. Reduced mobility can have a significant impact on the method of task performance. Conside

an asymmetric lifting task performed in standing versus kneeling postures. When a worker is standing, i

is reasonable to request that he or she avoid hvisting the trunk simply by repositioning the feet when 

asymmetry is present. However, the task of repositioning is considerably more difficult when kneeling 

(especially when handling a load), and workers are not inclined to take the time nor the effort to do 

this. Instead, the worker will opt for the faster and more energy efficient twisting motion, at the 

expense of experiencing a sizable axial torque on the spine. Stability may also impact task performance 

in constrained postures. Workers may have to limit force application in certain postures to maintain 

balance. 

As mentioned previously, these awkward work postures are often the consequence of restrictions in 

workspace, either vertically or laterally. For example, underground miners and aircraft baggage handlers 

often operate in workspaces where the available vertical space does not allow upright standing. Work

space restrictions of this sort put not only the worker in a bind, but also the ergonomist. The worker 

is affected by the limitations of the posture he or she must employ. The ergonomist may be deprived 

of favored techniques for reducing nlusculoskeletal disorder risk. For example, restricted space greatly 

limits the number and type of mechanical devices (cranes, hoists, forklifts, etc.) available to reduce 

the muscular demands on the worker. If mechanical assistance is to be provided, it frequently must be 

custom fabricated for the environment. Restrictions in workspace also limit opportunities to ease the 

strain arising from the worker's postural demands, often forcing the ergonomist to recommend 

working postures from a limited menu of unpalatable alternatives. 

Restricted spaces may also result in more subtle effects. One is the tendency, as vertical space i

reduced, to force workers into asymmetric motions. Lifting symmetrically (i.e., in the sagittal plane) i

generally preferred in the standing posture, but becomes progressively more difficult if one is stooping 

in reduced vertical space. In fact, psychophysical lifting capacity in asymmetric lifts tends to be highe

than in synlnletric tasks under low ceilings (Gallagher, 1991). This represents a change from the unrestricted standing position, where asymmetry reduces lifting capacity (Garg and Badgel; 1986). Finally, a

Drury (1985) points out, space limitations tend to impose a single performance method on a worker

In unrestricted spaces, when a worker's preferred muscles fatiguc, it is often possible for an individua

to employ substitute motions which may shift part of the load off of fatigued muscles. Unfortunately
Working in Unusual or Restricted Postures 43-3 

the opportunity to employ substitute motion patterns decreases as workspace becomes more limited. The 

result is intensified fatigue and a decrease in performance capabilities in restricted postures. 

43.3 	 Epidemiologic Studies of Restricted Postures 

and Musculoskeletal Disorders . 

Unfortunately, the number of epidemiologic studies examining the association of restricted postures to 

the occurrence of musculoskeletal disorders remains sparse. However, studies that have investigated this 

relationship have tended to exhibit higher rates of musculoskeletal disorders in restricted as opposed to 

unrestricted postures. 

Lawrence (1955) examined British coal miners to identify factors related to degenerative disc changes, 

and found that injury, duration of heavy lifting, duration of stooping, and exposure to wet mine conditions were the factors most associated with spinal changes. Another study investigating spinal 

changes in miners was reported by MacDonald et al. (1984). These investigators used ultrasound to 

measure the spinal canal diameter of 204 coal miners and found that those with the greatest morbidity 

had significantly narrower spinal canals. The study by Lawrence (1955) and other evidence suggests that 

the seam height of the mine has a marked influence 011 the incidence of low back disorders. In general, 

compensation claims appear to be highest in seam heights of 0.9-1.8 m (where stooping is prevalent). 

Claims are slightly lower in seams less than 0.9 m (where kneeling and crawling predominate), and are 

lowest when the seam height is greater than 1.8 m. 

The finding of increased low back claims in conditions where stooping predominates is congruent with 

other evidence relating non-neutral trunk postures to low back disorders. For example, a case-control 

study by Punnett et al. (1991) examined the relationship between non-neutral trunk postures and risk of 

low back disorders. After adjusting for covariates such as age, gender, length of employment and medical 

history, time spent in non-neutral trunk postures (either mild or severe flexion) was strongly correlated 

with back disorders (OR 8.0,95% CI 1.4-44) (OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval). In fact, this study 

disclosed a dose-response between the degree of torso flexion and the risk of low back disorder. Mild 

flexion was associated with an OR of 4.9 while severe flexion was associated with an OR of 5.7. Although 

it was difficult in this study to find subjects that were not exposed to non-neutral postures, the strong 

increase in risk observed with both intensity and duration of exposure were notable. 

A study of 1773 randomly selected construction workers also examined the effects of awkward working 

postures on the prevalence rates of low back pain (Holmstrom et al., 1992). This study found that prevalence rate ratios for low back pain were increased for both stooping (p < 0.01) and kneeling (p < 0.05) 

when the duration of work in these postures were reported to be at least 1 h per day. Furthermore, a 

dose-response relationship was observed whereby longer durations of stooping and kneeling were 

associated with increased prevalence rate ratios for severe low back pain (Table 43.1). Thus, workers 

who adopt stooping or kneeling postures for longer periods of time appear to be at increased risk of 

experiencing severe low back pain. 

TABLE 43.1 Age-Standardized Prevalence Rate Ratios with 95% Confidence Intervals for Low Back Pain and Severe 

Low Back Pain When Adopting Stooping and Kneeling Postures for Different Durations - - -

<I h duration 1-4 h duration >4 h duration 

LRP Severe LBP LBP Severe LBP LBP Severe LBP - --

Stooping 1.17 1.31 1.35 1.88 1.29 2.6 1 

(1.1-1.3) (0.9- 1.8) (1.2-1.5) (1.4-2.6) (1.1-1.4) ( 1.7-3.8) 

Kneeling 1.13 2.4 1.23 2.6 1.24 3.5 

(1.0-1.3) (1.7-3.3) (1.1-1.4) (I .9-3.5) (1.1-1.4) (2.4-4.9) 

Source: From Holmstrom, E.B., Lindell, I. and Moritz, U.Spitre, 17(16):663-671, 1992. With permission. 
43-4 Interventions, Controls, and Applications in Occupational Ergonomics 

In addition to the effects on the back, working in certain unusual or restricted postures (particularly 

kneeling) has been shown to affect musculoskeletal disorders of the lower extremity (Lavender and 

Andersson, 1999). Sharrard (1963) reported on the results of examinations on 579 coal miners in a 

study examining the etiology of "beat knee." Forty percent of the miners reportedly were syn~ptomati

or had previously experienced symptoms, characterized as acute or simple chronic bursitis. Incidence 

rates were found to be higher in seam heights lower than 4 ft and in workers required to kneel for prolonged periods at the mine face. The incidence of "beat knee" was found to be higher in younger mineworkers; however, this finding was thought to be due to a "healthy worker" effect. Specifically, it was 

thought that older workers with "beat knee" may have left the mining profession. 

Studies have also indicated that other occupations where frequent kneeling is required experience 

higher rates of knee problems in relation to comparison occupational groups. Tanaka et al. (1982) 

found that occupational morbidity ratios for workers compensation claims involving knee-joint inflammation for carpet layers was over 13 times greater than that of carpenters, sheet metal workers, and 

tinsmiths. Knee inflammation among tile setters and floor layers were over six times greater than the 

same comparison groups. Workers in these occupations have been shown more likely to exhibit fluid 

accumulation in the superficial infrapatellar bursa, subcutaneous thickening of this bursa, and increased 

thickness in the prepatellar region (Myllymaki et al., 1993). The much higher incidence associated with 

carpet layers is probably also related to their use of a knee-kicker, a device used to stretch carpet during its 

installation. Knee impact forces during the use of this device have been shown to be as high as four times 

the body weight (Bhattacharya et al., 1985). . 

43.4 Performance Limitations in Restricted Postures 

The past couple of decades have seen a number of studies that have examined the effects of working in 

unusual or restricted postures on a variety of performance measures. These measures have included 

psychophysical lifting capacity, muscular strength, metabolic cost, and electromyography. The following 

sections provide information regarding some of the effects of restricted postures on these performance 

measures. 

43.4.1 Effects of Posture on Lifting Capacity 

43.4.1.1 Lifting Capacity for a Single Lift 

A comprehensive analysis of single lift psychophysical lifting capabilities in nontraditional working 

posture was performed by researchers at Texas Tech University under a contract from the U.S. Air 

Force (Gibbons, 1989). Under this contract, two lifting studies examined maximum psychophysical 

lifting capacities of both male and female subjects in standing, sitting, squatting, kneeling, and lying postures. The purpose was to simulate postures used during Air Force aircraft maintenance activities, which 

often involve use of unusual or restricted postures. Subjects were allowed to adjust the weight in lifting 

containers to the maximum they felt were acceptable for a single lift in each posture. It should be noted 

that the lifting tasks were standardized using percentages (35,60, and 85%) of the vertical reach height of 

the subject in each posture. Thus, a lift to 35% vertical reach height in the standing posture will have a 

greater vertical load excursion than a lift to 35% vertical reach height in a kneeling posture. 

Figure 43.1 and Figure 43.2 present data from male and female subjects, respectively, performing lifts 

in standing, kneeling (on one knee and on both knees), sitting and squatting postures. Inspection of these 

figures reveals several notable features. The first is that in all cases the standing posture resulted in the 

highest psychophysically acceptable loads compared to the restricted postures. One can also see from 

these figures that loads chosen in kneeling tasks result in the second highest estimates of lifting capacity 

(7 to 21% less than standing), and that one knee lifts did not differ from lifts on both knees in terms of 

load acceptability. The sitting posture resulted in acceptable lifting estimates just slightly below those 

achieved when kneeling (16 to 23% less than standing lifts), and squatting resulted in the lowest 
Worlzing in Unusual or Restricted Postures 

acceptable loads (20 to 33% less than standing). The squatting posture appears to be the least stable of the 

restricted postures, and it may be that the lower acceptable loads in this posture may be driven by the 

need to select a load that allows the subject to maintain his or her balance. 

It is also apparent that the effects of posture on lifting capacity are more pronounced with lifts of 35% 

of vertical reach, and that the effect becomes progressively diminished (though still apparent) when lifts 

to 60% and 85% of vertical reach are performed. It may be that strength capbilities for lifts to higher 

heights may be controlled more limitations in shoulder and arm strength, and are thus not as dependent 

on body posture per se. Finally, comparison of male strength (Figure 43.1) versus female strength 

(Figure 43.2) indicates that posture effects are similar for both genders; however, the strength exhibited 

by females averaged about 50 to 60% of that achieved by their male counterparts. 

FIGURE 43.1 Acceptable loads selected by males for single lifts in several postures. Bars represent means, error bars 

represent standard deviations. (From Gibbons, L.E. Summary of Ergonomics Research for the Crew Chief Model 

Development: Interim Report for Period February 1984 to December 1989. Armstrong Aerospace Medical 

Research Laboratory Report No. AAMRL-TR-50-038. Wright-Patterson Air Force Bare, Dayton, OH, 1989. With 

permission.) 

FIGURE 43.2 Acceptable loads selected by females for single lifts in several postures. Bars represent means, error 

bars represent standard deviations. (From Gibbons, L.E. Summary of Ergonomics Research for the Crew Chief 

Model Development: Interim Report for Period February 1984 to December 1989. Armstrong Aerospace Medical 

Research Laboratory Report No. AAMRL-TR-50-038. Wright-Patterson Air Force Bare, Dayton, OH, 1989. With 

permission.) 
43-6 Interventions, Controls, and Applications in Occupational Ergonomics 

A separate study performed at Texas Tech looked at strength capacities in prone, supine, or side-lying 

positions (Gibbons, 1989). These postures exhibit drastic reductions in lifting capacity, with acceptable 

loads just 25 to 40% of standing values. The only exception was when the subject performed a twohanded lift in a face-up (supine) position, similar to a weightlifter's "bench press" exertion. In this 

instance, the average acceptable load actually exceeded the standing value by 20%. It appears that 

control of the load, and a balanced exertion of forces by both arms, play important roles in determining 

lifting capacity in the supine position. 

43.4.1.2 Lifting Capacity for Longer Duration Tasks 

It should be emphasized that the data discussed in the previous section represent one-repetition 

maximrum values, and assume that workers would perform such tasks only occasionally, not for extended 

periods. However, periods of extended lifting in restricted posture are common in some industries. 

Examples include underground coal miners unloading supply items in a low-seam coal mine, or an aircraft baggage handler loading suitcases and packages inside the baggage compartment of a coinmercial 

airliner. Several recent studies have examined the lifting capacity of underground coal miners adopting 

restricted postures over more extended time frames (Gallagher et al., 1988; Gallagher and Unger, 1990; 

Gallagher, 1991; Gallagher and Hamrick, 1992). These studies also used the psychophysical approach, 

allowing subjects to adjust the weight in lifting boxes to acceptable loads during 20-min lifting 

periods. Most of these studies examined lifting capacities in kneeling and stooping postures, postures 

that predominate in underground coal mines having restricted vertical workspace. 

In general, findings of these studies are congruent with limitations associated with these postures in the 

single lift studies described previously. Restricted postures (stooping and kneeling) were found to result 

in lower estimates of acceptable loads compared to the standing posture (Gallagher and Hamrick, 1992), 

and kneeling was found to have a significantly reduced estimate of acceptable load compared to stooping 

(Gallagher et al., 1988; Gallagher and Unger, 1990; Gallagher, 1991). Kneeling and stooping postures were 

examined under different vertical space constraints to see whether additional restrictions in space would 

further affect lifting capacity (i.e., is lifting capacity when kneeling different under a 1.2 versus 0.9 m 

ceiling? Is lifting capacity when stooping different under a 1.5 versus 1.2m ceiling?). However, results 

indicated no additional decrements in lifting capacity were seen when comparing such conditions. 

The major determinant affecting lifting capacity in these studies was simply the posture adopted for 

the task (Gallagher and Unger, 1990). While posture was almost always an important determinant of 

lifting capacity in these studies, there were some factors, if present, that could reduce or eliminate the 

effect. In particular, it was found that if items had a poor hand-object coupling (no handholds), 

lifting capacity could be reduced to such an extent that posture effects were no longer evident (Gallagher 

and Hamrick, 1992). 

A surprising (and somewhat unsettling) finding from these studies is that psychophysical lifting 

capacity in prolonged torso flexion (over a 20-niin time frame) is not much different from unrestricted 

standing for the same lifting task (Gallagher and Hamrick, 1992). In one respect, this is not too surprising 

because the stooping posture is a position where considerable strength is available to lift a load. In fact, 

most workers prefer this position when initiating a lift off of the floor, probably due to the ability to 

employ the powerfill hip extensor muscles in overcoming the inertia of the load. In his critique of the 

psychophysical method, Snook (1985) states that psychophysical method of establishing acceptable 

loads does not appear to be sensitive to bending and twisting motions that are often associated with 

the onset of low back pain, and the results reported above seem to support this limitation. Recent 

studies have indicated that prolonged stooping may be associated with ligament creep and an attendant 

reduction in the ability to recruit the back muscles (Bogduk, 1997; Solomonow et al., 1999). Furthermore, it has been suggested that potentially damaging shear forces may be present in this posture 

(McGill, 1999), and fatigue failure may occur more rapidly (Gallagher, 2003). Subjects may not get sufficient proprioceptive feedback regarding these matters; thus, they may not play into estimates of load 

acceptability. Nonetheless, these and other biomechanical factors may be important in development of 

low back disorders. It seems clear that development of lifting standards for a stooping posture must not 
Working in Unusual or Restricted Postures 43-7 

rely solely on estimates of psychophysical lifting capacity, but should take into account biomechanical 

and physiological factors that may influence development of low back disorders in this posture. 

43.4.2 Biomechanics of Unusual or Restricted Postures 

As significant changes in whole-body posture are adopted, one would anticipate changes in both the 

magnitude and distribution of biomechanical stresses amongst the joints of the body, and available evidence appears to support this notion. The following sections describe results of studies examining 

various aspects of the biomechanics of working in restricted postures. 

43.4.2.1 Effects of Restricted Postures on Strength 

Studies examining static or dynamic strength capabilities in unusual or restricted postures are relatively 

rare. Isometric strength tests in kneeling versus standing postures have indicated that lateral exertions are 

weaker when kneeling; however, pushing forces are found to be equivalent or slightly higher when kneeling (Haselgrave et al., 1997). Static pulling and lifting forces in the kneeling posture exceeded those in the 

standing position, by 25 and 44%. Pushing upwards against a handle at eye height results in similar values 

in all postures (Gallagher, 1989). 

Gallagher (1997) investigated isometric and isokinetic trunk extension strength and muscle activity in 

standing and kneeling postures. Findings of this study showed that trunk extension strength is reduced by 

16% in the kneeling posture in comparison with standing, similar to decreases observed in psychophysical lifting capacity when kneeling. However, trunk muscle activity was virtually the same between the two 

postures. This indicates that the reduction in trunk extension strength when kneeling may be the result of 

a reduced capability to perform a strong rotation of the pelvis when the kneeling posture is adopted, as 

opposed to a change in fi~nction of the spinal muscles. 

An intriguing set of strength data comparing isometric strengths of coal miners working in restricted 

postures to a comparison population of industrial workers, presented by Ayoub et al. (1981), is shown in 

Figure 43.3. Strength measures included back strength, shoulder strength, arm strength, sitting leg 

strength and standing leg strength. When compared with a sample of industrial workers (Ayoub et al., 

1978), low-seam coal miners were found to have significantly lower back strength, but much higher 

leg strength. The authors ascribed the decrease in back strength to unspecified factors related to the postures imposed by the low-seam environment. Indeed, there is evidence to support this position. Lowseam coal miners may be obliged to work in a stooping posture for extended periods. In this posture, 

the spine is largely supported by ligaments and other passive tissues, "sparing" the use of the back 

I!Arm Strength 

8 Shoulder 

Strength 

Leg Strength 

Coal Miners Industrial 

Workers 

FIGURE 43.3 Comparison of strength measures for coal miners working in confined vertical space (Ayoub et al., 

1981) to an industrial population (From Ayoub, M.M., Rethea, N.J., Deivanayagam, S., Asfour, S.S., Bakken, G.M., 

Liles, P., Mital, A., and Sherif, M. Determination and Modeling of Lighting Capacity, Final Report, Grant P5ROIOH0054502, HEW, NIOSH. Texas Tech University, Lubbock 'I'X, 1978. With permission.) 
43-8 Interventions, Controls, and Applications in Occupational Ergonomics 

muscles. Studies of lifting in the stooping posture suggest that the gluteal muscles and hamstrings 

provide a large share of the forces in this position (Gallagher et al., 1988). The results of Ayoub 

et al. (1981) may reflect a relative deconditioning of back muscles when stooping (due to the 

flexion-relaxation phenomenon), perhaps the result of prolonged inhibition of muscular activity 

(e.g., Floyd and Silver, 1955) and damage associated with ligament creep (Solomonow et al., 2003). Furthermore, increased reliance on the leg and hip musculature may be necessary in situations where prolonged torso flexion is required (producing an increase in leg strength). Further research is needed to 

ascertain long-term adaptations in strength resulting from prolonged work in restricted postures. 

43.4.2.2 Lumbar Spine Loads in Restricted Workspaces 

Studies have suggested that one of the best predictors for low back pain is the external moment about the 

lumbar spine that results from the product of the force required to lift an object times the distance these 

force act away from the spine (Marras et al., 1993). As illustrated in Figure 43.4, recent evidence has 

shown that as vertical workspace is reduced, the moment experienced by the lumbar spine will be 

increased (Gallagher et al., 2001). Of course, such a response would be expected in the standing 

posture, where reduced ceiling heights would cause the trunk to bend forward increasing the moment 

on the lumbar spine. However, this study (which involved lifting heavy mining electrical cables) 

found no difference between stooping and kneeling postures in terms of the peak spinal moment experienced by the subject. The primary determinant of the lumbar moment was the ceiling height. The lower 

the ceiling was the higher the moment experienced (no matter which posture was chosen). The question 

raised by this study is why there was not a decreased moment when the kneeling posture is employed. 

Clearly, the trunk can maintain a more erect posture when kneeling. However, analysis of this position 

reveals that the knees create a barrier that prevents the worker from getting close to the load at the beginning (and most stressful part) of the lift. This creates a large horizontal distance between the spine and 

the load, resulting in a large moment, apparently offsetting the benefits of maintaining a more erect trunk 

position. 

I I I I I I 

1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 

Vertical Space (m) 

72 cases 

FIGURE 43.4 Lumbar moments, an indicator of strain experienced by the low back, are increased as vertical 

workspace becomes more confined (From Gallagher, S., Hamrick, C.A., Cornelian, K., and Redfern, M.S. 

Occ~~pntiorlal Ergonottrics, 2(4):201-213, 2001. With permission.) 

The point must be made, however, that though the spinal moments appear equivalent in these two 

postures, the same might not hold true for risk of experiencing a low back disorder. Biomechanical 
Worlting in Unusual or Restricted Postures 43-9 

analyses indicate that spinal shear forces are high when the spine is fi~lly flexed. In addition, there are 

indications that the compression tolerance of the spine is decreased in this position. These factors 

would tend to favor the kneeling posture. However, one must also bear in mind the lower lifting capacity 

when kneeling. If the stooping posture is necessary due to strength demands, care should be taken to 

avoid the end range of spinal motion when performing the lift (McGill, 1999). 

43.4.2.3 	 Trunk Muscle Activity in Restricted Postures 

Changes in posture necessarily influence the roles and activation patterns of the muscles of the body. 

Studies examining the influence of post~lre on trunk electromyography (muscle electrical activity) 

have illustrated that restricted postures often result in significant changes in the manner in which 

muscles are recruited. One of the first studies of the niuscle activity of the erector spinae muscles 

showed that when the trunk is placed in extreme flexion, these niuscles become electrically silent 

(Floyd and Silver, 1955). It appears that the spinal ligaments and fascia assume responsibility for supporting the spinal coli~mn when it is fully flexed (either in standing or sitting postures). Biomechanical 

nlodels suggest that this change results in an increased shear load on the lumbar spine compared to 

when muscles maintain control (Potvin et al., 1991). When lifting from a fully flexed posture, the 

back niuscles remain silent during the initial stages of lifting weights of up to 28.5 kg (Floyd and 

Silver, 1955). Many authorities believe that the change from active muscle support to ligament 

support of the spine might entail increased risk of low back disorder (Basmajian and DeLuca, 1985; 

Bogduk 1997; Solomonow et al., 2003). 

A recent study examined the influence of posture and load on the electromyographic activity of ten 

trunk muscles during a heavy cable-lifting task (Gallagher et al., 2002). Results of this study indicated 

that posture and load have quite different influences on trunk muscle recruitment (and thus loads experienced by the lumbar spine). No matter which posture was adopted, an increase in load resulted in 

increased nluscle activity of all ten trunks n~uscles studied. However, changes in posture typically influenced the activity of trunk muscles in a more selective manner, usually involving only a small subset of 

the muscles (though the ~nuscles affected by posture were often influential in terms of spine loading). 

Moreover, the effects of posture and load were found to be independent and additive (i.e., posture 

and load were found not to interact in terms of their influence on muscle activity). 

43.4.2.4 	 Intra-Abdominal Pressure 

Increased pressure within the abdominal cavity has been used by some researchers as a measure of stress 

on the spine, and has been used to assess restricted postures (Ridd, 1985). Analysis of intra-abdominal 

pressure (IAP) responses in standing and stooping postures reveal an almost linear decrement with progressively lower vertical workspace up to 90% of stature, whereupon the decrement levels off. In stooping 

positions ranging from 66 to 90%) of full stature, the decrease in lifting capacity was a consistent 60%, 

according to the IAP criterion. The luieeling posture was found to incur only an 8% decrease in 

lifting capacity where the space restriction was equivalent to 75% of stature. There is some indication 

that lifting asymmetrically is less stressfill than sagittal plane activities in restricted postures. Unfortunately, the assumption that IAP is a good indicator of spinal stress is still a contentious issue (McCill 

and Norman, 1987). 

43.4.3 	 Physiologic Costs of Work in Unusual or 

Restricted Postures 

The posture adopted in the performance of a work task has a decided influence on the metabolic 

demands incurred by an individual. Nowhere is this more evident than in the evaluation of metabolic 

demands of working in a restricted workspace. Several studies have indicated that restrictions in vertical 

space greatly increase the cost of locomotion. The most thorough experiment of the effects of stoop 

walking and crawling was reported by Morrissey et al. (1985). This study illustrated a progressive 

trend toward increasing metabolic cost as stooping becomes more severe (Table 43.2). Not only is the 
43-10 Interventions, Controls, and Applications in Occupational Ergonomics 

TABLE 43.2 Physiological Cost of Erect Walking, Stoopwalking, and Crawling 

Heart Rate Ventilation Volume Percent Work Oxygen Uptake 

Task Sex (beatslmin) (I/min) Capacity (ml kg-' min-') 

Normal walk Male 

Female 

90% male 

Stoopwalk Female 

80% Male 

Stoopwalk Female 

70% Male 

Stoopwalk Female 

60% Male 

Stoopwalk Female 

Crawling Male 

Female 

Note: Numbers in parentheses represent the standard deviation. 


Source: From Morrissey, S.J., George, C.E., and Ayoub, M.M. Applied Ergonomics, 16, 99- 102, 1985. With permission. 


metabolic cost increased as stooping becomes more severe, the maximum speed attainable by subjects is 

reduced, particularly when stoopwalking at 60% normal stature and when crawling. 

The metabolic cost of manual materials handling in restricted postures (stooping and kneeling) has 

also been studied. These studies suggest that the metabolic cost of manual materials handling is influenced by an interaction between the posture adopted and the task being performed. For example, the 

kneeling posture can be more costly than stooping when a lateral transfer of materials is done (Gallagher 

et al., 1988; Gallagher and Unger, 1990). However, other studies have illustrated that kneeling is more 

econonlical when the task requires increased vertical load displacement (Freivalds and Bise, 1991; 

Gallagher, 1991). A study of shoveling tasks found no difference in energy expenditure in standing, 

stooping and kneeling postures (Morrissey et al., 1983); however, only five subjects participated in 

this study and it may have suffered from a lack of sufficient statistical power to detect differences. 

43.4.4 Recent Evidence on the Hazards of Torso Flexion 

Torso flexion has long been considered on of the most hazardous positions in which to perform manual 

work. This belief has been reinforced by several recent studies that have uncovered some of the reasons 

why torso flexion may be so strongly related to the developn~ent of low back disorders. These studies have 

included an analysis of fatigue failure of the lumbar spine in flexed versus neutral postures (Gallagher, 

2003), as well as studies that have investigated the neurological effects of creep of the posterior ligaments 

of the lumbar spine resulting from prolonged or repeated flexion (Solomonow et al., 2003). As will be 

seen, these studies suggest that deep torso flexion may be a significant pathway for the development 

of at least two different types of low back disorder. 

Not only does deep flexion of the torso result in rapid fatigue failure of lumbar tissues when lifting, it 

also appears to be associated with neuroniuscular dysfunction in the lumbar region. A series of studies 

summarized by Solomonow et al. (2003) using a cat model have shown that creep of lumbar ligaments 

can lead to a rapid and long lasting dysfunction in the lumbar musculature. In fact, these authors have 

shown that the creep developed in 20 min of static or cyclic flexion does not fully recover even after 7 h of 

rest (Solomonow et al., 2003). Flexion was also shown by these authors to elicit a large inflammatory 

response in the soft tissues of the lumbar spine, which may result from collagen micro-damage and 

which may explain the hyperexcitability observed in the multifidus muscle with ligament creep (Solomonow 

et al., 2003). 

Fatigue failure of lumbar motion segments subjected to loads associated with lifting an object in different torso flexion postures was recently investigated by Gallagher (2003). This author simulated the spinal 
Working in Unusual or Restricted Postures 

loads associated with lifting a 9-kg weight in three torso flexion positions (neutral, partial, and full 

flexion), and subjected spinal motion segments to these loads repetitively until failure occurred. 

Results of this study are shown in Figure 43.5. As can be seen, the simulated loads associated with 

lifting 9 kg in the neutral posture could be tolerated for 8257 cycles on average; however, specimens 

in partial flexion lasted an average of 3257 cycles, while those at 45" lasted an average of only 263 

cycles before failure. Results of this study suggest that lifting of loads in a flexed torso posture may 

result in rapid fatigue failure of tissues of the lumbar spine, and may be an important determinant in 

the development of low back disorders. 

0 degrees 22 degrees 45 degrees 

Torso Flexion Angle 

FIGURE 43.5 The number ofcycles to failure for lumbar motion segments when exposed to spinal loads estimated 

when lifting a 9-kg box (From Gallagher, S., Ph.D. Dissertation, 2003). 

Epidemiologic studies have long revealed an association between torso flexion postures and low back 

disorders or pain. The etiology underlying the association has remained obscure, however. The recent 

studies described above suggest at least a couple of possible pathways by which low back disorders 

may develop during work in torso flexed postures. That is, the flexed trunk posture may lead to 

micro-damage of the ligaments of the spine, leading to a muscular dysfunction that, while recoverable, 

may affect the lumbar region for up to several days, or jobs such as lifting in trunk flexion may lead to 

more significant fatigue failure in motion segments of the lumbar spine, resulting in endplate fractures 

and disc degeneration which may lead to significant disability and pain, which may not be easily recoverable. It is hoped that continued research along these lines may further elucidate the etiology of low back 

disorders associated with torso flexion. 

43.5 	 Intervention Principles for Unusual or 

Restricted Postures 

The findings of recent studies that have examined the capabilities, limitations, and tolerances of unusual 

or restricted postures can assist in forming a basis for intervention principles designed to reduce the risk 

of musculoskeletal disorders to workers who must adopt them. The following sections discuss methods 

that may be useful in reducing injury risk for those who must work in restricted postures. 

43.5.1 	 Avoid Full Flexion of the Torso 

Perhaps the most important advice that can be given to reduce back injury risk is to avoid work in severe 

torso flexion. As discussed earlier, epidemiologic evidence indicates a clear association between flexion 

and low back disorders, and recent studies have highlighted several potential pathways associated with 

flexion that may lead to both short- or long-term low back disorders. If flexion cannot be avoided, it 

should be minimized, and frequent breaks should be allowed to assume a less stressful position on the 
43-12 Interventions, Controls, and Applications in Occupational Ergonomics 

back. Lifting in a flexed posture can lead to rapid fatigue failure of spinal tissues and should also be 

avoided entirely or, alternatively, minimized to the greatest extent possible. Any loads lifted in flexion 

should be as light as possible; however, it should be noted that even light loads may lead to fatigue 

failure over a short time frame. 

Evidence ofthe adverse effects associated with the flexed torso posture continues to mount, and several 

potential pathways to the development of low back disorders have been recently identified. Of all the 

restricted postures discussed in this paper, the stooping posture seems most likely to lead to short- or 

long-term low back disorders. Eliminating or minimizing the amount of torso flexion workers must 

perform on the job may be the best single action to take to reduce the risk of low back disorders in 

the occupational working environment. 

43.5.2 	 Design Loads in Accordance with Posture-Specific 

Strength Capacity 

As detailed previously, many unusual or restricted postures are associated with a reduced strength capability. As a result, loads that are acceptable to lift in an upright standing posture may exceed those appropriate when workers adopt a restricted posture. In general, lifting capacity in the kneeling and sitting 

postures is reduced by up to 20% compared to standing; whereas, squatting lifting capabilities may be 

reduced by up to 33% of the standing value. Lifting capacity in lying postures is generally much 

lower, with acceptable loads just 25-40% those considered acceptable when standing. It should be apparent that if workers must adopt one of the postures listed above for lifting activities, loads need to be 

adjusted downward to reflect the reduced strength capabilities associated with specific postures. This 

may require working closely with suppliers or manufacturers of items that must be manually handled 

in specific work postures. Figure 43.6 shows an example of redesign of bags of rock dust, used to suppress 

coal dust in an underground mine. The traditional 50-lb (23 kg) bag is shown on the left. Based on a 

request from the mine, the manufacturer supplied rock dust in a 40-lb (18 kg) bag more acceptable to 

handle in the restricted postures workers used in the mine. 

FIGURE 43.6 Redesign of a standard 50-lb (23 kg) bag to 40 Ih (18 kg) was achieved by working with supplier, and 

creates a more acceptable load for workers operating in restricted postures. 
Working in Unzzsual or Restricted Postures 43-13 

43.5.3 Use of Mechanical-Assist Devices and Tools 

Use of mechanical-assist devices and application-specific tools can often reduce the need to adopt 

awkward or restricted postures, or may reduce the stresses associated with operating in such postures. 

In unrestricted environments, examples of devices that can reduce the need to adopt awkward postures 

include lift tables and bin tilters. These devices may reduce the need for the worker to flex the trunk as 

would be needed to lift items off of the floor or to retrieve items from a large bin. 

Often, it may be necessary to develop specialized devices or tools to reduce postural stress in restricted 

environments. While restrictions in workspace may limit the degree to which certain types of mechanical-assist devices can be employed, experience has shown that it is often possible to develop and fabricate specialized devices or tools that can reduce the risk of musculoskeletal disorders in restricted 

environments. An example from the coal mining industry is shown in Figure 43.7. This figure shows 

a specialized cart that rides on conveyor belt structure in a mine and can be used to move heavy supplies 

in restricted spaces. Various carts, jacks, and hoists can often be used quite effectively to assist with transport of materials in environments with restricted vertical space. Use of such equipment can significantly 

reduce the threat of musculoskeletal disorders when working in restricted space. 

FIGURE 43.7 Example of a specialized cart to eliminate manual transfer of supplies in a restricted environment. 

43.5.4 Rest Breaks/ Job Rotation 

As mentioned earlier in this chapter, restricted spaces tend to force workers into situations where the 

burden or work will be borne by specific muscle groups, with a limited ability to employ substitute 

motion patterns as these muscles fatigue. As a result, localized muscle fatigue is likely to develop 

more quickly in the stressed muscle groups, with an attendant reduction in strength capacity and an 

increase in the risk of cumulative soft tissue damage and the development of musculoskeletal disorders. 

As a result, it is important to provide workers with more frequent rest breaks or opportunities to perform 

alternative tasks that relieve the strain experienced by affected muscle groups. However, while rest breaks 

and job rotation may be an effective method for reducing fatigue and strain associated with work involving restricted space, use of these methods also serves as an indicator that redesign of the job should be 

considered. 
43-14 Interventions, Controls, and Applications in Occupational Ergonomics 

43.5.5 Personal Protective Equipment 

If workers are required to perform tasks in a kneeling posture for any significant period of time, a good 

pair of kneepads should be provided and worn by the worker so that the risk of inflammation and bursitis 

can be reduced. Kneepads should provide cushioning foam or gel to reduce contact stresses on the knee 

joint, especially the patella and the patellar ligament. Often, kneepads are designed with a stiff exterior of 

plastic or rubber to protect the knee against puncture wounds from sharp objects as might be encountered when kneeling in a rocky or debris-covered surface. Some kneepads are articulated so that they 

bend with the knee as workers adopt standing and kneeling postures. 

43.6 Summary 

Many workers adopt unusual or restricted postures during performance of their daily work. Recent 

research has shown that these postures can cause significant reductions in performance capabilities 

and are associated with an increase in musculoskeletal complaints. Performance limitations result 

from the combinations of increased biomechanical loads, higher physiological costs, reduced strength, 

decreased stability or balance, and by limiting the use of substitute motion patterns to relieve fatigued 

muscles. Special care needs to be taken in the design of jobs requiring the use of such positions, in 

order that reduced capabilities can be accommodated. Recommendations based on studies of lifting 

capabilities in the standing posture may far exceed what should be lifted in restricted postures. The 

data presented in this review article may provide a starting point for the development of ergonomics 

recommendations that apply to workers who must cope with work in restricted postures. Mechanical 

aids can reduce the risk of overexertion, but may need to be custom fabricated when restricted workspaces are present. In many cases, it may be possible to reduce object weights or strength requirements 

of a task, and increasing the frequency of rest breaks is advisable when awkward postures are used. Job 

rotation may be an effective strategy if the job to which the worker is rotated allows relief of the muscular 

fatigue or stress experienced in an unusual or restricted posture. 

Though we have learned a substantial amount regarding such working postures in recent years, they 

remain a challenge to the ergonomics community. Continued development of models robust to changes 

in whole-body posture should do much to increase our insight into the structure and function of the 

musculoskeletal system. 

References 

Ayoub, M.M., Bethea, N.J., Deivanayagam, S., Asfour, S.S., Bakken, G.M., Liles, P., Mital, A., and Sherif, 

M. (1978). Determination and Modeling of Lifting Capacity. Final Report, Grant #5R010H0054502, HEW, NIOSH. Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX. 

Ayoub, M.M., Bethea, N.J., Bobo, M., Burford, C.L., Caddel, K., Intaranont, K., Morrissey, S., and 

Selan, J. 1981. Mining in Low Coal. Volume 1: Biomechanics and Work Physiology. Final 

Report -U.S. Bureau of Mines Contract No. H03087022. Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX. 

Basmajian, J.V. and DeLuca, C. (1985). Muscles Alive: Their Functions Revealed by Electromyography. 5th 

edn. Baltimore, MD: Williams and Wilkins. 

Bhattacharya, A., Mueller, M., and Putz-Andersson, V. (1985). Trauniatogenic factors affecting the knees 

of carpet installers. Applied Ergonomics, 16:243-250. 

Bogduk, N. (1997). Clinical Ariatomy of the Lumbar Spine and Sacrum. 3rd ed., New York: ChurchillLivingstone. 

Drury, C.G. (1985). Influence of restricted space on manual materials handling. Ergonomics, 28: 

167- 175. 

Floyd, W.F. and Silver, P.H.S. (1955). The function of the erectores spinae muscles in certain movements 

and postures in man. lournal ofPhysiology., 129:184-203. 
Worlzing in Unus~zal or Restricted Postzires 43-15 

Freivalds, A. and Rise, C.J. (1991). Metabolic analysis ofsupport personnel in low-seam coal mines. International Jolirnal oflndustrial Ergonomics, 8(2):147- 155. 

Gallagher, S. (1989). Isometric pushing, pulling, and lifting strengths in three postures. Proceedings ofthe 

Human FactorsSociety33rdAnr1iralMeeting, Human Factors Society, Santa Monica, CA, pp. 637-640. 

Gallagher, S. (1991). Acceptable weights and physiological costs of performing combined manual handling tasks in restricted postures. Ergonomics, 34(7):939-952. 

Gallagher, S., (1997), Trunk extension strength and trunk muscle activity in standing and kneeling 

postures. Spine, 22: 1864- 1872. 

Gallagher, S., (2003), Effects of Torso Flexion on Fatigue Failure of the Human Lumbosacral Spine, 

Ph.D. Dissertation, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 238 pp. 

Gallagher, S. and Unger, R.L. (1990). Lifting in four restricted lifting conditions. Applied Ergonomics, 

21 (3):237-245. 

Gallagher, S. and Hanirick, C.A. (1991). The kyphotic lumbar spine: issues in the analysis of the stresses 

in stooped lifting. Intertlational lournal of Indrrstrial Ergononrics, 8:33-47. 

Gallagher, S. and Hamrick, C.A. (1992). Acceptable workloads for three common mining materials. Ergonornics, 35(9):1013- 1031. 

Gallagher, S., Marras, W.S., and Bobick, T.G. (1988). Lifting in stooped and kneeling postures: Effects on 

lifting capacity, metabolic costs, and electromyography at eight trunk muscles. I~ternational 

Jotrrnul of Industrial Ergonomics, 3(1):65-76. 

Gallagher S., Hamrick, CA., Cornelius, K., and Redfern, M.S. (2001). The effects of restricted workspace 

on lumbar spine loading. Occupational Ergonomics, 2(4):201-213. 

Gallagher, S., Marras, W.S., Davis, K.G., and Kovacs, K. (2002). Effects of posture on dynamic back 

loading during a cable lifting task. Ergonomics, 45(5):380-398. 

Garg, A. and Badger, D. (1986). Maximum acceptable weights and maximum voluntary strength for 

asymmetric lifting. Ergonorriics, 295379-892. 

Gibbons, L.E. (1989). Summary of Ergonomics Research for the Crew Chief Model Development: 

Interim Report for Period February 1984 to December 1989. Armstrong Aerospace Medical 

Research Laboratory Report No. AAMRL-TR-90-038. Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, 

OH, 390 pp. 

Grandjean, E. (1988). Fitting the Task to the Man. 4th ed. London: Taylor and Francis. 

Haselgrave, C.M., Tracy, M.F., and Corlett, E.N. (1997). Strength capability while kneeling. Ergonorriics, 

34(7):939-952. 

Holmstrom, E.B., Lindell, J., and Moritz, U. (1992). Low back and neck/shoulder pain in construction 

workers: occupational workload and psychosocial risk factors. Part 1: Relationship to low back 

pain. Spine, 17(6):663-671. 

Lavender, S.A. and Andersson, G.B.J. (1999). Ergonon~ic principles applied to prevention of injuries to 

the lower extremity. In: Karwowski and Marras, W.S., eds. The Occrrpational Ergonomics Haridhook, 

Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, pp. 883-893. 

Lawrence, J.S. (1955). Rheumatism in coal miners. Part 111. Occupational factors. British Jotlrnal oflndustrial Medicine, 12:249-261. 

MacDonald, E.B., Porter, R., Hibbert, C., and Hart, J. (1984). The relationship between spinal canal 

diameter and back pain in coal miners. Journal ofOcctrpationa1 Medicine, 26(1):23-28. 

McGill, S.M. (1999). Dynamic low back models: theory and relevance in assisting the ergonomist to 

reduce the risk of low back injury. In: Karwowski, W., and Marras, W.S., eds. The Occupational 

Ergonorriics Handbook. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, pp. 945-965. 

McGill, S.M. and Norman, R.W. (1987). Reassessment of the role of intra-abdominal pressure in spinal 

compression. Ergonomics, 30(11): 1565- 1588. 

Marras, W.S., Lavender, S.A., Leurgans, S.E., Rajulu, S.L., Allread, W.G., Fathallah, F.A., and Ferguson, 

S.A. (1993). The role of dynamic three-dimensional motion in occupationally-related low back 

disorders. The effects of workplace factors, trunk position, and trunk motion characteristics on 

risk of injury. Spine, 18(5):617-628. 
43-16 Interventions, Controls, and Applications in Occupational Ergonomics 

Morrissey, S., Bethea, N.J., and Ayoub, M.M. (1983). Task dernands for shoveling in non-erect postures. 

Ergonornics, 27:847-853. 

Morrissey, S.J., George, C.E, and Ayoub, M.M. (1985). Metabolic costs of stoopwalking and crawling. 

Applied Ergonornics, 16: 99- 102. 

Myllymaki, T., Tikkakoski, T., Typpo, T., Kivimaki, J., and Suramo, I. (1993). Carpet layer's knee: an 

ultrasonogrphic study. Acta Radiologica, 34:496-499. 

Potvin, J.R., McGill, S.M., and Norman, R.W. (1991). Trunk muscle and lumbar ligament contributions 

to dynamic lifts with varying degrees of trunk flexion. Spine, 16(9): 1099- 1107. 

Punnett, L., Fine, L.J., Keyserling, W.M., Herrin, G.D., and Chaffin, D.B. (1991). Back disorders and nonneutral trunk postures of automobile assembly workers. Scandinavian journal of Work Environment and Health, 17:337-346. 

Ridd, J.E. (1985). Spatial restraints and intra-abdominal pressure. Ergonomics, 28:149- 166. 

Sharrard, W.J.W. (1963). Aetiology and pathology of beat knee. British Journal of Industrial Medicine 

20:24-3 1. 

Snook, S.H. (1985). Psychophysical considerations in permissible loads. Ergonomics, 28(1):327-330. 

Snook, S.H. and Ciriello, V.M. (1991). The design of manual handling tasks: revised tables of maximum 

acceptable weights and forces. Ergonomics, 34(9): 1197- 1213. 

Solomonow, M., Zhou, B.H., Baratta, R.V., Lu, Y., and Harris, M. (1999). Biomechanics of increased 

exposure to lumbar injury caused by cyclic loading. Part 1. Loss of reflexive muscular stabilization. 

Spine, 24(23):2426-2434. 

Tanaka, S., Smith, A.B., Halperin, W., and Jensen, R. (1982). Carpet layer's knee. The New England 

journal of Medicine, 307: 1276- 1277. 

Waters, T.A., Putz-Anderson, V., Garg, A,, and Fine, L.J. (1993). Revised NIOSH equation of the design 

and evaluation of manual lifting tasks. Ergonomics, 36(7):749-777.