Application of fatigue

management systems: small mines

and low technology solutions

by B.M. Eiter, L. Steiner and A. Kelhart

Abstract The impact of fatigue is seen not only in its effect on job performance of haul 

truck operators but also on the health of the operator and the productivity at the mine site. Its 

impact can even extend outside of the mine site to the health and well-being of the surrounding 

community (Fourie et al., 2010). In this paper, a case study of a small surface mining organization 

is presented. The goal is to highlight the fatigue risk management system implemented at the 

studied mine site. Mine safety personnel who were interviewed discuss the changes made to 

the infrastructure of the mine, to administrative areas such as the number of shifts and the use 

of vacation time, as well as the implementation of new technology into haulage vehicles. This 

paper reviews how these changes are supported in the research literature.

 

Introduction

Historically, mining has been one 

of the most hazardous work environments around the world. The number 

of fatal and nonfatal injuries is especially high for those in positions working in and around trucks. Md-Nor et al. 

(2008) reported 516 fatal injuries in the 

United States between 1995 and 2006 

attributed to the general category of 

equipment. Of those fatal injuries, 113 

(21.8%) were truck-related. A more 

recent review of data from the U.S. 

Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA, 2010) by Sun et al. (2010) 

reveals an additional 15 fatal injuries 

attributed to trucks from 2007 to 2009. 

There are many factors that contribute 

to the number of haul truck-related 

fatal and nonfatal injuries; some of 

these factors include lack of visibility, 

road conditions, truck driver behavior and operational conditions, as well 

as weather conditions (Groves et al., 

2007). While the causes for truck related incidents and accidents can rarely 

be attributed to a single factor, they 

often involve a significant human performance component (Patterson and 

Shappell, 2010; Randolph, 1998). Driver 

fatigue, in particular, has been identified as a major factor contributing to 

crashes in haul truck traffic (Orchansky 

et al., 2010; Santos et al., 2010; Schutte 

and Maldonado, 2003).

One way to define fatigue is as the 

transitory period between awake and 

asleep; if fatigue goes uninterrupted, it 

can lead to sleep (Lal and Craig, 2001). 

A number of factors contribute to fatigue, including the amount and quality 

of sleep (Stutts et al., 2003), the disruption of circadian rhythms (Akerstedt 

and Wright, 2009) and sleep-related

disorders (Connor et al., 2001). Driving for prolonged periods of time can 

also result in impaired concentration

and reduced alertness, feelings of fatigue or drowsiness, and longer reaction 

time (Hakkanen and Summala, 2001; 

McDonald, 1984). As a consequence, 

drivers fall asleep with some regularity during a work shift, especially during the late night/early morning hours 

(Mitler et al., 1997).

The effect of fatigue extends beyond the driving behavior of the operator into areas such as the health 

and well-being of the operator and the 

functionality of the mining organization, as well as the productivity of the 

surrounding community (Fourie et 

al., 2010). Chronic sleep loss has been 

identified as a contributing factor to 

several health-related issues, including obesity and diabetes (Knutson and 

Van Cauter, 2003) and gastrointenstinal 

problems (Monk and Folkard, 1992). 

Organizations with overly fatigued 

mine employees can be affected by reduced productivity and morale and may

even see an increase in accident rates

(Dawson et al., 2000). Fatigue can also
impact the economy of a community; some researchers have

estimated the costs of workplace fatigue to be as high as $18

billion per year in the United States alone (Caldwell, 2001). 

There has been a recent effort by the mining industry

to implement fatigue risk management systems to manage

fatigue. The goal of these systems is to, first, detect and monitor changes in driver fatigue levels and, then, either change

the drivers’ working environment to limit burdens that may

increase fatigue or to provide some type of feedback so the

driver can safely work through the fatigue. Several reports

have recently been published discussing the importance of

fatigue risk management for workers (Lerman et al., 2012)

performing driving-related tasks (Fourie et al., 2010). In

2008, Edwards et al. published an Operator Fatigue Detection

Technology Review in order to review existing and emerging fatigue detection technologies. Twenty-one products

were included in the review. The reviewed products monitor

such traits as eye closure (e.g., percent eye closure), reaction time, steering behavior and skin conductance, ranging

in price from $10 to approximately $9,000 per unit to install. More recently, Goodbody (2013) provides an updated

review of available technology, as well as suggestions for

attributes mining companies should take into consideration

when choosing a fatigue-monitoring/detection technology.

The majority of the fatigue monitoring/detection technologies reviewed by Edwards et al. and Goodbody were highly

technical and require at least one of the following to install

and implement the technology: a change to the mine-wide

communication infrastructure, a large capital investment

and/or a commitment from mine management and the work

force. While the consensus of both reports is that a number

of technologies are rated highly and are recommended, it is

not possible and, in some cases, not necessary, for all surface

mining operations – especially those with a smaller number

of employees – to adopt one of the reviewed systems.

surface mine operation] being studied are integral to understanding the case” ( Yin, 2011). Thus, a detailed description

The primary goal of this paper is to present a case study

of one surface mine facility that has implemented a fatigue

risk management system. One of the features of case study

research is the assumption that “examining the context and

other complex conditions related to the case [in this case the

of the surface mine site, mine workers and equipment is provided to establish a context. Moreover, the steps that mine

safety personnel took to change the working environment,

as well as miner behavior, in order to increase the health and

safety of the mining site for the employees will be discussed.

A secondary goal of this paper is to show that mine safety

personnel who are choosing to independently implement

fatigue risk management systems are making changes at the

mine site that are based on scientific principles and theories. In this case study, we highlight specific examples from

the studied surface mine. For each example, the pre-change

condition at the mine is described. This is followed by a discussion of the changes implemented, along with evidence

and references from the research literature that support the

changes made. This paper can also be used as a tool by mine

safety personnel at other surface mining operations of a similar size, that employ approximately

the same number of miners and are

interested in implementing a fatigue

risk management system that is focused more on making changes to the

work environment and work schedule.

Likewise, a mine that chooses a high

technology solution can also benefit

from this case study in terms of the

implementation of fatigue abatement

solutions.

Table 1

General mine site questions included on the pre-interview questionnaire.

General worksite questions

What type of mining work do you do?

Who are your typical clients?

How many facilities do you operate and where are they located?

How many employees work at the mine site?

What is the average age of those employees?

What is the average amount of time employees have worked for the company? 

Please indicate a range:

 (0-5 years) (6-10 years) (11-20 years) (21-30 years) (31 or more years)

Is the company union or nonunion?

What types of equipment do your employees most often use?

What types of training do your employees take part in throughout the year? 

How do shifts typically run at the mine site?

Do you offer any wellness programs? If yes, what wellness programs do you 

offer?

Do employees typically take part in these wellness programs?

Do you have any issues with employee obesity?

Do you ask employees to be tested for sleep apnea? 

Case study: methodology

The study is based on data collected from one surface mining operation. The case study is descriptive

in nature, as it involves the collection

of observations and information from

the mine, which were then compared

to pre-existing theories related to fatigue and fatigue management. All

data collected from the surface mine

operation was qualitative in nature;

therefore, no statistical tests were applied. A summary and synthesis of

the collected data is reported in this

paper. Specific changes made to the

work schedule, the infrastructure of

the mine and other aspects of the

mine environment are also discussed.

Data collection techniques. Ob-
servations of the surface mine operation were collected by

personnel from the U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Office of Mine Safety and

Health Research (OMSHR). Several data collection techniques were used in this case study, as follows:

• A brief pre-interview questionnaire was given to

mine safety personnel prior to the interview. This

questionnaire was emailed to mine safety personnel

and included general mine site questions as well as

general questions related to fatigue at the mine site

(Table 1). The questionnaire responses were used to

guide the formation of the questions included in the

interview.

• An interview was conducted with mine safety personnel. A series of questions were prepared for the

interview that lasted approximately two hours. The

majority of prepared questions included in the interview were open-ended, and the interviewee was

asked to answer the questions as completely as possible (Table 2). Additional, unprepared questions were

asked as well, in order to gather as much information

as possible during the interview. The interviewee was

also given the opportunity to provide any additional

information pertinent to the questions provided.

Case study: surface mining operation 

The focus of this case study is a surface mining operation 

located in the northeast region of the United States. The 

company is family owned and operated; there are currently 

family members from several generations working in various 

departments at the mine site. The operation has been mining 

sand, stone and gravel for approximately 50 years from the 

same quarry. There are approximately 60 employees working 

at the mine site. The majority of employees have worked for 

the company for at least 11 years, many have 20+ years of 

service, and the average employee age is 50 years old, which 

is slightly higher than the current average age of a stone 

miner (approximately 43 years old; McWilliams et al., 2012). 

The workforce is reported to be mostly married men with 

children and the overall community is religious and values 

strong family commitments. Because of the family presence 

and the length of time the company has been mining from the 

same quarry, there is also a strong relationship between the 

company and the surrounding community.

Initial mine observation. In the early 1990s, a fatality occurred at the mine site. The operator of a haul truck was 

assisting in the building of a stockpile. The pile was recently 

formed and not very tall; the operator inaccurately positioned the haul truck prior to dumping and backed a set of 

Table 2

A sample of the planned, open-ended questions included in the interview.

Interview questions

What is your safety record at the mine site? 

Within the past 10 years, how many fatalities have you experienced?

Within the past 10 years, can you estimate how many accidents and injuries you have experienced that resulted in lost 

time? 

Do you think your employees experience fatigue while they are working? If yes, how and why have you come to this 

conclusion? 

• Can you provide one specific example of how fatigue affects your employees’ work?

• Do you attribute any of these events (fatalities, accidents or injuries) to fatigue?

• Approximately how many errors would you attribute to fatigue?

When did you decide to implement a fatigue risk management system (FRMS)? Was there a reason you chose to do 

this?

What did you choose to focus on or change with the FRMS that was implemented?

• Did you make changes to the employees’ work schedule?

• Did you make changes to the mine site environment?

• What else have you chosen to change?

Why did you decide to focus on the identified components? Can you give me an example to highlight why you chose a 

component?

How have you chosen to implement the system?

How did you introduce the system to your employees? 

How much time was there between the decision to use the FRMS and the implementation of the system?

Did you choose to implement the system all at once or did you phase in the system?

Was there new training implemented to introduce employees to the FRMS?

How did your employees react to the implementation of the system? 

How did you measure success with the FRMS you implemented?
wheels through the side berm and hung the truck up. The

operator then decided to jump from the truck, which caused

the truck to slide down into the quarry and flip over, crushing

the driver. The truck sustained minimal damage. 

This particular surface mine’s incident, accident, injury

and citation rates had always been exemplary, as reported by

mine safety personnel. The organization was compliant with

regulations; however, the fatality illustrated to mine manage

.

. 

-

ment that employees may not have been working as safely as

possible. The senior staff began to look for ways to minimize

the effect of human error at the mine site.

In an initial series of changes, haul roads were widened,

berms were made higher and set further back, and “best practices” safe work procedures were made a strong priority. In

addition, a safety committee was formed. This committee

includes representatives from mine management and mine

safety personnel, as well as the mining workforce. The safety

committee was empowered to seek out areas with potential

problems or hazards, and develop and present ideas for how

to improve those problem areas. Overall, company effort was

recognized and appreciated by employees.

The next series of important changes took place sometime later (approximately 10 years), when it was becoming

evident that some employees were showing signs of fatigue.

The number of hours worked was reviewed. It was determined that it was not unusual for some employees to work

65 to 80 hours per week. Further evaluation revealed that

employees were not taking their paid vacation time. Rather,

they chose to work through the entire year, in order to receive payment for vacation time not taken during the previous year.

Senior staff and mine safety personnel decided to widen

the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA)

hours of service rule to include their mining workforce. At

the beginning of the next benefit year, the vacation utilization

policy was changed to a “use it or lose it” approach. That year,

100% of vacation time was taken as time off. That approach

continues to this day.

In retrospect, mine safety personnel realized that a hidden benefit to these changes was a reduction in domestic

issues and the number of divorces reported by employees. It

is interesting to note that, overall, divorce is not as common

in the small, religious community. The effect of divorce on

the workforce is not confined to mood and morale; it also impacts the safety of the operators. Research shows an increase

in driving accidents for those drivers experiencing marital

conflict and divorce; this increase is present up to six months

after the divorce has concluded (Norris et al., 2000). 

Clearly, the mine chose to implement a targeted fatigue

risk management program to increase the well-being, health

and safety of the miners at the mine site. Management did

this by analyzing how the mine was currently operating and

considering worst-case scenarios. Mine safety personnel also

spent time talking with the miners to assess their safety concerns. Because of the nature of the mine and the workforce,

open, honest and respectful communication between employees and management has always been encouraged by

mine management, who believes it is necessary for the miners

to feel safe at the work site in order to be productive.

Work schedule. The average number of hours worked 

per week by a miner at the case study surface mine was previously not limited. Miners were permitted to work as many

hours of available overtime as they wanted; in some cases,

this amounted to 40 hours of overtime in one week. The

structure of the work schedule was a shift work schedule;

during one period, a typical schedule included three shifts

that lasted between 8 and 12 hours per shift. While the most

heavily populated shift was the day shift (scheduled between

7 am and 4 pm), miners did work the evening and night shifts

as well.

In the United States, 40 or more hours at the work site

is considered a normal workweek and comes out to roughly

2,000 hours worked per year. The average mine worker at the

studied mine, therefore, worked a considerable number of

overtime hours. Within the research literature, there is ample

evidence that associates overtime and extended work schedules with increased levels of fatigue (Duchon and Smith,

1994; Rosa, 1995), cardiovascular disease (Buell and Breslow,

1960; Liu and Tanaka, 2002), the onset of musculoskeletal

disorders (Bergqvist et al., 1995; Dembe et al., 2005), as well

as psychological issues such as stress (Kircaldy et al., 1997)

and depression (Proctor et al., 1996). All of these factors can

lead to accidents, injuries and even death.

Shift work also has adverse effects on physical and mental health. Frequent shift work can result in a decoupling of

the internal circadian pacemaker from external, environmental factors such as the light/dark cycle (Shen et al., 2006). This

decoupling can lead to disruptions in the normal sleep-wake

rhythm (Costa, 2003) and cause workers to be vulnerable to

work-related fatigue because there is a mismatch between

a person’s desired sleep-wake schedule and the shift work

schedule (Hossain et al., 2003). Altogether, shift work can

cause high subjective fatigue (e.g., a person’s experience of

fatigue), which increases the possibility of falling asleep while

on the job and, therefore, increases the risk of workplace accidents (Akerstedt et al., 2002).

When the mine implemented the fatigue risk management program, one of the first changes mine management

made was to the work schedule. Consistent with the FMCSA

standards, the number of permissible hours worked per week

was capped at 60 and the shift work schedule was eliminated

(there are instances when multiple shifts are run, e.g., weather emergencies such as blizzards and floods). Instead of running three shifts, the mine consolidated the work schedule

so that all employees worked the day shift. The exception to

this schedule was the maintenance shift, which runs from 2

pm until 10:30 pm for approximately nine months of the year

The miners working this shift revert to the day shift during

the winter months. While limiting the number of possible

overtime hours was initially an unpopular decision, mine

management made the decision to change the work schedule

to ensure that some miners were not working around the

clock. By changing the work schedule, the mining operation

took steps to accommodate sleep schedules and gave miners

the opportunity to spend time with family.

Within the fatigue risk management program, the mining

operation also mandated breaks, a mid-morning break and a

lunch break. During these breaks, miners have the opportunity to stretch, relax, eat a snack or meal or use the restroom

All of these activities are different from typical work-related

tasks and give the miner time to relax or re-energize. There
is also research indicating that performing moderate exercise

(e.g., stretching or taking a short walk) leads to reports of increased energy and decreased levels of tiredness for a longer

period of time, compared to results following eating a sugary

snack, which initially increases energy and decreases levels of

tiredness but causes the exact opposite effect pattern just one

hour later (Thayer, 1987). Stretching and moderate exercise

can, therefore, be used as a tool to moderate fatigue more

effectively than some foods and beverages.

While mine management mandated breaks and mine

safety personnel encouraged the use of stretching and moderate exercise, the mining operation has not made recommendations on weight or diet. The mine recognizes that there

are a number of instances of obesity at the mine site — this

is a common characteristic across those in the truck driving

industry – however, it is not a characteristic the mine chooses

to regulate. The mine does provide an unlimited supply of

cold beverages during the summer months and an effort is

made to provide a variety of types of beverages (e.g., water,

sports drinks, soda, etc.) so that employees have a choice.

Finally, the mine implemented a policy regarding days

off. All miners are given paid benefit time, and it is mandated

that miners have to take vacation time sometime during the

year. The number of personal days available to the miners

depends on the length of their service at the mine – this can

range from zero to seven days. In addition, employees receive

up to four weeks of vacation, depending on the length of

their service. This paid benefit time is considered “use it or

lose it” time because the miners have to use it by the end of

the fiscal year or lose it. Prior to the implementation of the

fatigue risk management system, miners had been permitted

to save paid vacation time and then cash the unused vacation

hours in for money. While this was initially an unpopular

policy change, mine safety personnel believe it was important

change to have made because it required workers to take

time off from work, therefore giving miners the opportunity

to relax, spend time with family and friends, schedule doctor

and dentist appointments, etc. All of these factors contribute

to the safety and well-being of the workforce. 

Driving route. Surface mines are structurally dynamic;

i.e., the number of intersections and driving routes regularly

change to accommodate the location of the materials that

must be mined and then transported. The list of potential

cognitive demands (tasks that require some level of mental effort) an operator must juggle is not limited to routes

and intersections, however. Operators must also be aware

of drop-offs, watch for oncoming traffic, which sometimes

moves too quickly and also comes in a variety of sizes, must

be able to drive in a reverse driving pattern, must be able

to keep track of vehicles that move in and out of the haul

truck’s blind spots, and handle unexpected muddy and icy

ramps. Mine safety personnel at the studied mine report that

rounds run between six and eight hours under ideal circumstances, but can last up to 10 hours. Driving a haul truck,

therefore, requires a high level of cognitive effort because

it requires the coordination of sustained vigilance, selective

attention, complex decision-making and the occasional use

of automatic perceptual-motor control skills.

MSHA offers recommendations for the construction of

the infrastructure at surface mining operations. According to

MSHA’s Haul Road Inspection Handbook (PH99-I-4), haul 

roads with traffic moving in both directions should be three 

and a half times the width of the widest vehicle traveling on 

the road and two times the width of the widest vehicle for 

one-lane roads (Fig. 1). Berms must be maintained on the 

outside edge of all haul roads where there is a danger of a 

haul truck overturning; it is recommended that berms be at 

least mid-axle height to the largest equipment that uses the 

haul road. These recommendations are enforced to ensure 

that haul roads are as safe and maneuverable as possible. 

Even with these recommendations in place, there are still a 

large number of accidents, injuries and fatalities that occur 

on haul roads because trucks collide with other trucks and 

with walls, and because trucks drive off of roads into berms 

or into the pit (Santos et al., 2010). 

, 

: 

Figure 1

Example of a haul road that an operator would travel from the 

load site to the dump site. 

Because of the complexity of the task a haul truck operator performs, there are several factors associated with the

task that likely contribute to the number of accidents, injuries

and fatalities occurring on haul roads. Haul truck operators

need to be aware of oncoming traffic, proximity of the truck

to the berm and vehicle traffic moving through intersections

as well as incoming information from dispatch. The operator must not only divide attention between these tasks but

also make ongoing steering decisions. Attention is a limitedcapacity resource (Wickens, 1984). In this case, driving is the

primary task, and engaging in any additional task(s) diverts

attention from the primary task and, therefore, comes at a

cost. In research studies investigating drivers multi-tasking by

using a cell phone, drivers talking on a cell phone while driving were more likely to fail to stop at a four-way interaction

and were more likely to rear-end other vehicles than drivers

not talking on cell phones (Strayer and Drews, 2006). Vigilance, or sustained attention, is also necessary and important

during the haul cycle as drivers often drive for long periods of

time (see Fig. 1 for an example of a driving route). Prolonged

vigilance, brought on by an extended amount of time on task,

has been shown to lead to increases in subjective reports of

fatigue as well as decrements in driver performance, espe

cially when the driving task is monotonous (Thiffault and

Bergeron, 2003).

-

Driver stress and anxiety are also factors that contribute

to the onset of fatigue and a decrement in driver performance. Driver stress can increase for a number of reasons

time pressure to complete a job, long work hours, personal
Figure 2

Example of a sign used at a surface mine site to warn 

operators of haul road traffic pattern.

situations, unpredictable and hazardous road conditions, and

other truck traffic. All of these potential factors contribute

to increases in driver stress. One explanation for the effect

of stress on driving is that stress diverts attention away from

the primary task (driving) through a process called cognitive interference. When an operator experiences cognitive

interference, thoughts associated with a stressor intrude on

task-related activities and work to reduce the quality and

level of driving performance (Sarason et al., 1995). Operators

who have experienced a recent stressful event are five times

more likely to cause fatal accidents than unstressed drivers

(Brenner and Selzer, 1969). Moreover, repeated exposure to

stressful driving contexts during a haul cycle can lead to the

onset of fatigue symptoms (Lal and Craig, 2001).

In order to reduce attention demands placed on operators, limit driver stress and minimize fatigue, mine safety

personnel at this mine made several changes to the infrastructure and operation of the mine. One of these changes

was to widen the haul roads beyond even the MSHA recommendation. The overall goal of widening the roads was to

make the driving environment as safe as possible. By widening the haul roads, the mine decreased driver stress associated with such problems as vehicle collisions and the proximity

of the truck to the berm. Widening the roads makes it possible for the driver to operate the vehicle further away from

the berm, thus setting the vehicle back from the edge of the

road and minimizing the risk of driving into the berm or off

the road into the pit. Moreover, maintaining the quality and

integrity of the haul roads not only eases psychological stress

but also the physical stress put on the body from jolting and

whole body vibration (Kittusamy and Buchholz, 2004).

Attending to haul truck traffic and being aware of the

proximity of vehicles of varying shapes and sizes throughout the haul cycle can be cognitively demanding and, as a

consequence, increase driver stress. To optimize the driving experience, some of the haul truck traffic patterns at the

surface mine move in a reverse driving pattern so that the

haul truck cab is closest to the outside of the haul road, on

the opposite side of oncoming traffic (Fig. 2). Thus, while the

truck moves, the cab runs parallel to the berm. The operator

is able to more easily see the berm, which improves visibility

of the location of the edge of the road and, therefore, decreases guesswork. Furthermore, if two haul trucks were to

collide head-on or be involved in a sideswipe, the operator

cabs would not collide. Driving in a reverse pattern can limit

driver stress as well as the possibility of injury to the operator

of the vehicle. 

To further increase the visible area around the truck,

vehicles at the mine site have been equipped with rear vision cameras. These cameras are mounted on vehicles to

eliminate some of the more hazardous blind spots. In fact,

one of the principal benefits of the rear vision camera is the

elimination of the blind spot that occurs while driving in reverse. Mine safety personnel report that most operators are

typically uncomfortable while driving in reverse because they

are effectively driving blindly. By enhancing the “vision” of

the operator with the rear vision camera, the mine increases

pedestrian safety by decreasing the likelihood a haul truck

will back over a person or smaller vehicle. Use of the camera,

therefore, also limits one source of on-the-job stress.

After being trained to use the camera and operating the

truck with it for some time, all operators not only use the

camera but report that the camera makes their job easier. In

fact, a spare truck at the site did not have a camera installed

and operators expressed concern about using the truck without a rear vision camera.

Conclusion

The implementation of this fatigue risk management system was not without cost. First, changing the work schedule

did limit the total number of hours worked per week and

reduced the amount of product moved from the site. This

means that employees may work fewer hours per week, but,

in the long run, employee quality of work/home life has likely

improved. Secondly, widening the haul roads required an initial investment, as did the installation of rear vision cameras

on the fleet of vehicles. However, this investment is small

relative to the cost of the loss of a life and the penalties associated with that loss. In fact, investing in these changes can

lead to long-term savings because of a reduction in property

damage and lower insurance payments.

The mine safety personnel interviewed for this analysis stressed the importance of implementing a fatigue risk

management system that took into account mine-specific

issues. Targeted changes can be made at a mine to increase

the health, safety and happiness of the employees, but mine

management needs to be in touch with the workforce to effectively implement and recognize the changes’ value. n
Disclosure

The findings and conclusions in this presentation are

those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the

views of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and

Health. Mention of company names or products does not

constitute endorsement by the Centers for Disease Control

and Prevention.

References

Akerstedt, T., Fredlund, P., Gillberg, M. and Jansson, B., 2002, “Work load

and work hours in relation to disturbed sleep and fatigue in a large

representative sample,” J. of Psychosomatic Res., Vol. 53, pp. 585-588.

.

,

.

.

.

:

:

.

,

,

Akerstedt,T. and Wright,K.P., 2009. “Sleep loss and fatigue in shift work and

shift work disorder,” Sleep Medicine Clinics, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 257-271

Bergqvist, U., Wolgast, E., Nilsson, B., and Voss, M.,1995,“Musculoskeletal

disorders among visual display terminal workers: individual, ergonomic

and work organizational factors,” Ergonomics, Vol. 38, No. 4, pp. 763-776

Brenner, B. and Selzer, M.L., 1969, “Risk of causing a fatal accident associated with alcoholism, psychopathology and stress: further analysis of

previous data,” Behavioral Science, Vol. 14, pp. 490-495.

Buell, P. and Breslow, L., 1960. “Mortality from coronary heart disease in Californian

men who work long hours,” Journal of Chronicle Disease, Vol. 11, pp. 615-626.

Caldwell, J.A., 2001, “The impact of fatigue in air medical and other types of

operations: A review of fatigue facts and potential countermeasures,”

Air Medical Journal, Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 25-32.

Coleman, L.L., 2007, 2006 Coal Producer Survey, National Mining Association, 14 pp

Connor, J.,Whitlock, G.,Norton, R., and Jackson, R., 2001,“The role of

driver sleepiness in car crashes: A systematic review of epidemiological studies,” Accident Analysis & Prevention, Vol. 33, No. 1, pp. 31-41

Costa, G., 2003, “Shift work and occupational medicine: an overview,” Occupational Medicine, Vol. 53, pp. 83-88.

Dawson, D., Fletcher, A., and Hussey, F., 2000, “Beyond the midnight oil:

Parliamentary inquiry into managing fatigue in transport,” Adelaide

Centre for Sleep Research, University of South Australia. 

Dembe, A.E., Erickson, J.B., Delbos, R.G. and Banks, S.M., 2005, “The impact of overtime and long work hours on occupational injuries and illnesses

new evidence from the United States,” Occ. Env.Med., Vol. 62, pp. 588-597

Duchon, J. and Smith, T., 1994, Extended workdays in mining and other

industries: a review of the literature, US Bureau of Mines, Information

Circular, IC 9378, 11 pp.

Edwards, D., Aguirre, A., Davis, B., Dawson, T., and Trutschel, U., 2008,

Operator Fatigue: Detection Technology Review, Caterpillar, 58 pp.

Fourie, C., Holmes, A., Bourgeois-Bougrine, S., Hilditch, C., and Jackson,

P., 2010, “Fatigue risk management systems: A review of the literature,” Road Safety Research Report No. 110, London: Department

of Transportation. 

Goodbody, A., 2013, “Fatigue monitoring & safety: feeling tired?” Mining

Magazine, June, pp. 38-51.

Groves, W., Kecojevic, V., and Komljenovic, D., 2007, “Analysis of fatalities

and injuries involving mining equipment,” J. of Safety Res., Vol. 38

No. 4, pp. 461-470.

Hakkanen, H. and Summala, H., 2001, “Fatal traffic accidents among trailer

truck drivers and accident causes as viewed by other truck drivers,”

Accident Analysis & Prevention, Vol. 33, No. 2, pp. 187-196.

Hossain, J.L., Reinish, L.W., Kayumov, L., Bhuiya, P. and Shapiro, C.M.

2003, “Underlying sleep pathology may cause chronic high fatigue in

shift-workers,” J. of Sleep Res., Vol. 12, pp. 223-230.

Kirkcaldy, B.D., Trimpop, R., and Cooper, C.L., 1997, “Working hours, job

stress, work satisfaction and accident rates among medical practitioners, consultants and allied personnel,” Int. J. of Stress Management,

Vol. 4, pp. 79-87.

Kittusamy N.K. and Buchholz B., 2004, “Whole-body vibration and postural stress among operators of construction equipment: A literature

review,” J. of Safety Res., Vol. 35, pp. 255-261.

Knutson, K.L. and Van Cauter, E., 2003, “Associations between sleep loss

and increased risk of obesity and diabetes,” Annals of the New York

Academy of Sciences, Vol. 1129, pp. 287-304.

of driver fatigue,” Biological Psychology, Vol. 55, No. 3, pp. 173-194.

Liu, Y. and Tanaka, H., 2002, The Fukuoka Hart Study Group, “Overtime

work, insufficient sleep, and risk of non-fatal acute myocardial infarction in Japanese men,” Occ. Env. Med., Vol. 59, pp. 447-451.

Lal, S.K.L and Craig, A., 2001, “A critical review of the psychophysiology

Lerman, S.E., Flower, D.J., Gerson, B., and Hursh, S.R., 2012, “ACOEM

guidance document: fatigue risk management in the workplace,” J. of

Occ. and Env. Management, Vol. 54, No. 2, pp. 231-285. 

McDonald, N., 1984, Fatigue, Safety and the Truck Driver, Taylor & Francis, 229 pp.

McWilliams, L.J., Lenart, P.J., Lancaster, J.L., and Zeiner, Jr., J.R., 2012, National

Survey of the Mining Population Part 1: Employees, Office of Mine Safety 

and Health Research, Information Circular, IC 9527, 252 pp. 

Mitler, M.M., Miller, J.C., Lipsitz, J.J, Walsh, J.K., Wylie, C.D., 1997, “The sleep

of long-haul truck drivers,” New England J. of Med., Vol. 337, pp. 755-761.

Md-Nor, Z.A., Kecojevic, V., Komljenovic, D., and Groves, W., 2008, “Risk

assessment for haul truck-related fatalities in mining,” Mining Engineering, Vol. 60, No. 3, pp. 43-49.

Monk, T.H. and Folkard, S., 1992, Making Shiftwork Tolerable, London:

Taylor and Francis Group. 

MSHA, 2010, Equipment Safety and Health Information, <http://www.

msha.gov/equipmentsafety/equipmentsafetyhome.asp> (2.01.10).

Norris, F.H., Matthews, B.A. and Riad, J.K., 2000, “Characterological, situational, and behavioral risk factors for motor vehicle accidents: a prospective

examination,” Accident Analysis & Prevention,Vol. 32, No. 4, pp. 505-515.

Orchansky, D., Worrall, S., Maclean, A., and Nebot, E., 2010, “Designing a user interface for improving the awareness of mining vehicle operators,” Proceedings of

the 13th International IEEE Annual Conference on Intelligent Transportation

Systems, September 19-22, 2010, Sydney, Australia, IEEE, pp. 1435-1441.

Patterson, J.M. and Shappell, S.A., 2010, “Operator error and system deficiencies:

Analysis of 508 mining incidents and accidents from Queensland, Australia

using HFAS,” Accident Analysis & Prevention, Vol. 42, No. 4, pp. 1379-1385.

Proctor, S.P., White, R.F., Robins, T.G., Echeverria, D. and Rocskay, A.Z.,

1996, “The effect of overtime work on cognitive function in automotive workers,” Scand. J. of Work, Env. & Health, Vol. 22, pp. 124-32.

Randolph, R.F., 1998, “Injury analysis of Pennsylvania small surface coal

mines,” Proceedings of the 3rd Health and Safety Seminar for Small

Mines, pp. 83-92, University Park, PA.

Rosa, R.R., 1995, “Extended workshifts and excessive fatigue,” Journal of

Sleep Research, Vol. 4, pp. 51-56.

Santos, B., Porter, W., and Mayton, A.G., 2010, “An analysis of injuries to

haul truck operators in the U.S. mining industry,” Proceedings of the

Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 54th Annual Meeting.

Sarason, I.G., Sarason, B.R., and Pierce, G.R., 1995, “Cognitive interference:

At the intelligence-personality crossroads,” International Handbook

of Personality and Intelligence, D.H. Saklofske & M. Zeidner, eds.,

Plenum, pp. 285-298. 

Schutte, P.C. and Maldonado, C.C., 2003, “Factors affecting driver alertness during the operation of haul trucks in the South African mining

industry,” Safety in Mines Research Advisory Committee: CSIR mining

technology, SIM 020502, p. 78.

Shen, J., Botly, L.C., Chung, S.A., Gibbs, A.L., Sabanadzovic, S., Shapiro, C.M.,

2006, “Fatigue and shift work,” Journal of Sleep Research, Vol. 15, pp. 1-5.

Strayer, C.L., and Drews, F.A., 2006, “Multitasking in the automobile,” Attention: From Theory to Practice, A.F. Kramer, D.A. Wiegman and A.

Kirlik, eds., Oxford University Press, 274 pp.

Stutts, J.C., Wilkins, J.W., Osberg, J.S. and Vaughn, B.V., 2003, “Driver risk

factors for sleep-related crashes,” Accident Analysis & Prevention, Vol.

35, No. 3, pp. 321-331.

Sun, E., Nieto, A., Li, Z., and Kecojevic, V., 2010, “ An integrated information technology assisted driving system to improve mine trucksrelated safety,” Safety Science, Vol. 48, pp. 1490-1497.

Thayer, R.E., 1987, “Energy, tiredness, and tension effects of a sugar snack

versus moderate exercise,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 52, No. 1, pp. 119-125.

Thiffault, P. and Bergeron, J., 2003, “Monotony of road environment and

driver fatigue: a simulator study,” Accident Analysis & Prevention,

Vol. 35, pp. 381-391.

Wickens, C.D., 1984, “Processing resources in attention,” Varieties of Attention, R. Parasuraman and R. Davies, eds., Academic Press, pp. 63-101.

Yin, R.K., 2011, Applications of Case Study Research, Sage Publications,

231 pp.