R.Lany Grays()n.member SMLlhe Union PacilicJRocky Moumain (nerDy Prolessor 

01 Mining and director ollhe Western Mining SalelY and Heallh !raining and 

Translalioo Cenler.Universitv 01 Missouri·Rolia. DepartmeRl 01 Mining Engineering, 226 

MeNun Hall. Rolla. MO 6540S. e·mail gravsonl@umr.edu. Joel R. Warneke. member 

SML is Associate Research fellow with the Nationallnslilule lor Occupalional Heallh 

and SalelV. Ceoler lor Disease Coolro!. Spokane Research Center, l15 LMOnlgomerv

Ave. Spokane. WA 99207. e·mail jwameke@cdc.gov. 

The public's image of the mining industry has been that it harms the environment, exploits worker'S and harms nearby 

communities. These continuing image problems are now aHecting the recruitment of new miners into the industry. 

Some recent events, though, have converged to shape more effective public communication on mining's important 

role. Photo shows a shovel about to load a haul truck a1 a western United States coal mine. 

he mining industry has searched for a message that 

will resonate with the public while focusing on the 

industry's positive contributions to society. So far, 

environmental groups remain unconvinced and the public is still largely uninformed . In the authors' opinion. a 

number of recent events and experiences have converged 

to help shape a more effective public communication on 

mining's important role. TIlis article presents a perspective on coal's role in sustaining society by anchoring the 

message in a transparent way. including a material flow 

analysis, that links coal's impacts across.a range of social 

and environmental aspects. 

Past and continuing image problems 

In her 1994 paper. Nancy Bingham, with Caterpillar, 

outlined what the public thought about mining. Based on 

extensive interviews, the following results were found: 

• The public believed mining harms the environment. 

• The public believed mining harms people in nearby 

communities. 

• 1lle public believed mining exploits workers. 

• TI1e pUblic believed mining has lill Ie personal benefit 

to (he individual. 

The past and continuing im(lge problems are now affecting recruitment of new miners in a growing industry 

Ihat has milny workers ready to relire. 11,is exacerbiltes 

the labor shortage. 

Workforce issues. Miner health and safety in the 

20th century was marred with a public image of death 

and sometimes deception, especially in the coal sector. 

From 1<)00 through rhe 1920s. more than 3,000 miners 

a year perished at work, with two-thirds dying in coal 

mines (Grayson, 1999). Grandfathers and fathers discuss the high number of fatalities. And some of them 

speak of events they survived that were caused by fires 

and explosions. Major disasters persisted through 1972. 

The memories and stories are still etched in the minds of 

families living in coal mining regions. They are a stigma 

on the industry's public image as well as a deterrent to 

recruiting new miners. The tragedies of 2006 have now 

resurrected a public outcry. 
Another image stigma and recruitment deterrent 

is the history of miners succumbing to coal workers' 

pneumoconiosis and silicosis. Not until the Federal Coal 

Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969 were these problems 

significantly combated. And even today the diseases howe 

not been er~dic~ted . nle public. especially in coal regions, 

is aware of the ordeal. 

Measurement of the raw materials consumed in the United States, 1900-1995 

(Matos and Wagner,1998). 

3,000 

CfJ 2,500 

Z 

0

I-

() 2,000 

a:: 

lUJ 1,500 

z 

~ 

0 1,000 ...J 

...J 

:2 

500 

o 

o Construction melenals 

o tndustrlat mmerals 

• Recycled metals 

• Primary metals 

• Nonrenewable organics

o Recyd&d paper 

• PrImary paper 

• Wood products

ulture • 

1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1995 

The great early-century "war" between owners/operators and miners' unions has not been forgotten either. 

Some gr<lndfathers still carry buckshot from ill-fated 

organization drives. Battles between 

the two foes carried through the 1970s 

when strikes occurred during ineffective contract negotiations. These images. including gunfights at pJaces like 

Matewan, were also indelibly wrilten 

in history as negative public im~ges of 

the industry. 

FIG. 2 

Cost of electricity per kWh and percent of coal generation by state (EIA. 2003). 

~ =average retail price 

per kilowatt hour 

for 2005 

% = percent of total 

generation from coal 

for 2005 

~o 

.'1!D 

18.3~(> 

14% 

o <7.0C 

o 7.0~ - 8.5~ 

> 8.5¢ 

Hydro 

NH 12.Sc 17% 

VT 11.1C 0% 

MA 12.2C 2!i% 

RI 11.9¢ 0% 

CT U.Oe 12% 

NJ 11.1¢ 19% 

DE 7.Se 60% 

MD 7.8e &6% 

EnvironmentaJ damage. Beginning 

in the 19605 and \9705. environmental 

damage and indifference to its impacts 

began making its way to the forefront 

as a key issue marring the coal industry's image. La(ge gob piles dotted the 

landscape, particularly in Appalachia. 

And acid mine drainage fouled rivers 

and streams. often robbing the public 

of fish and recreation. Not until 1977 

was any serious federal action taken to 

coordinate improvement of environmental performance. This is one of the 

key pillars of the fast-evolving sustainable development movement. 

Community issues. Appalachian 

towns were poor in the early 20th 

century. Thousands of coal mines 
helped change some of that. admittedly sometimes at a large human 

cost. By the 1960s. miners' pay was 

improving and today it is excellent. 

However, the investment in communities was litlle, except for tax revenues. 

So, when coal mines shut down. the 

re\'enue source cnded and the towns 

reverted to poverty. TIlis was a slory 

repeated frequently.This syndrome led 

to major stories such as "TIle Curse of

Coal" (Gup. i 99l). Some of the press 

even predicted "The Death of Mining" 

(Atchinson. Business Week, 1984). hoping it would come true. 

FIG. 3 

Schematic of a coal-fired power plant (Tennessee Valley Authority, 2006). 

Coal-Fired Power Plant 

~d 

Sustainable development and 

mining 

The concept of sustainable development and its principles grew from 

early writings on environmental transgressions and land ethics (Leopold. 

1949: Darling. 1955; Carson, 1965). 

As a growing number of countries 

responded to the issues, international 

conferences began to focus on them. as described by Moffatt (1996). The most famous definilion of sustainable 

development came from the Brundtland Commission 

(World Commission on Environment and Development. 

1987). It Slated sustainable development as" .. . a notion 

that there may be limits 10 growth and that society mllst be 

reorganized to protect the interest of fUI ure generalions." 

This is a simple definition and is easily understood by the 

global public. However. many government and nongovernment organizations as well as industry have differenl, 

sometimes widely divergent definitions. 

Not long after the Brundtland Report, the environment was no longer viewed as an exrernality to economic 

matters. More businesses have adopted sustainable development and its principles as guiding aspects in their 

planning and execution of operations. Sustainable development was also galvanized on Ihe political agenda of 

numerous countries. And it has been at the forefront of 

global gatherings ever since the 1992 Rio Earth Summjt 

and its Agenda 2'1, and the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg. South Africa. 

By 1998. nine of the largest mining companies embarked on a new initiative aimed at achieving a serious 

change in the way their industry deals 

with ongoing problems. The Global 

Mining lnjtiative (II ED and WBCSD. 

2002) was a joint research project executed by the International Institute 

for Environment and Development 

(liED). It focused on finding "a more 

informed understanding of Ihe i.ndustry's actual and potential contribution 

to sus(ainable development." The indust ry partners agreed "it is no longer 

enough to argue that because society 

needs its products, it must tolerate 

whatever occurs in their production." 

Further, it is not "enough to play to a 

public audience conditioned to expect 

the worst from mining or other minerals industries." 

Finally, the initiative's partners noted that "we need to 

define what higher performance amounts to, and create 

sanctions and incentives to achieve it." 

FIG. 4 

Emissions reductions from coal use (Guarriello. 2004). 

~ 200 _ _ ------- -~ __....... 

• r---:CnaI;:--:-;eons:----.· ---" 

:- 150 1- -- --~!!!!!:!II=---------- :=cmn ~= i . f 100 

~ 

Year 

A set of guiding principles for the four"pillars" of sustainable development were specified early in the study and 

used as a framework for issues to be addressed. TIle four 

pillars. each with three or more subprinciples, included the 

following major spheres.These spheres are to "be applied 

in an integrated manner in decision-making:" 

• Economic sphere.

• Social sphere. 

• Environmental sphere.

• Governance sphere. 

The report specified important key challenges that 

must be met in order to achieve the major goal. The n.ine 

key challenges include: the viability of the mineral industry; the control , use and management of land; minerals 

and economic development; local communities and mines; 

mining, minerals and the environment; an integrated approach to using minerals; access to informal ion; artisanal 
.. 

and small-scale mining; and sector governance: roles, 

responsibilities and instruments for change. 

With the industry's approach to sustainable development outlined. the point must now be made that mining 

cannot have sustainable development of itself. Rather, 

mining plays an important role in sustaining society by 

provision of raw materials. That role must be pursued in 

consonance with sustainable development principles. 

FIG. 5 

Effective graph for emissions reductions (National Mining Association, 2006). 

1880 Mil 1.12 

1_ LN 

teeo ,~ 5.'-

ltol 1M ue 

1!192 ~ s..sa 

118:1 a2 5.14 

11&4 Sl8 s..-

1_ 110 LIe

,- • 7 s.eo 

,.., II1II1 1.'- ,- 031 $M

,- M' ..... 2000 III 4.se 

*' ... ..~ 

*2 ell 4-tO 

liS. 1 

,u 

15.2 

IS.1 

14a 

Ita 

10.7 

10.. 

Q.7 

~ 1.001 ..... 01. 

Coal's role in sustaining society

Because ofhistOlical accounts. the public believed thal 

the industry sustained itself at the expense of people and 

the environment. There is much to be done to reverse 

the negative perceptions and to build trust among all 

constituencies, There are ways of doing it but it will take 

time. Placing the new message in the context of the nine 

key challenges outlined in Breaking 

New Ground could make a difference. 

And there is some evidence that it 

works in changing the public image of 

the coal Lndustry. 

Viability of the industry. When 

presented the facts on coal's role as an 

energy source (23 percent). no one will 

deny il. Most of the population does 

not realize how much coal is used or 

that it most often has the competitive 

auvantage. 

On the other hand, most of the 

population is familiar with the emissions from coal, calling it dirty, But it 

is not familiar with clean coaltechnology. When told that more than 910 NIt 

(L billion st) of coal is produced in the 

United Slates. prim(lrily to generate 

more than 50 percent of our electricity.

people arc often ~tunned. 

If presented in (I picture similar 

(0 Fig. I. which shows the 'materials 

mountain' infused into the u.S.economy.coal·s role would 

quickly come into perspective. Adding coal and other energy sources to this figure would emphasize its role in the 

cconon1\', It would also build the case of coal's economic 

viability'-which can be reinforced by Fig. 2. especi,II Iy when 

the coal production states arc highlighted. 

The case is made definitively when the strong negative 

correlation (-0.64) is noted between the cost of electricity 

in a stale and the percentage of coal used for generating It 

in a state. and (-0.72) for a11 states except the hyuro power 

ones (Washington. Oregon and Idaho). Handling the environmental impacts effectively will need to be discussed 

to convince the public that it is the right choice without 

significant negat ive tradeoHs, The crowning point. and 

possibly the most persuasive argument for coal's sustained 

use. is the large reser;es that can fuel electric power in the 

United States for another 200 to 250 

years. Inevitably. a stable supply will 

maintain a stable price and therefore 

a stable economy. 

Most of the popula'tion does not realize how much coal is used or that it 

most often has the competitive advantage over other fuels. Photo shows an 

underground longwall in operation at an eastern United States coal mine. 

Coal and the environment. Using 

piCI ures to illusl rate how coal is used 

can also be helpful (Fig. 3). Coupling 

the picture with facts on emissions 

reductions and other pictures on new 

clean coal technology makes the casc 

th,ll air quality does lIot have to be 

compromised when coal is used for 

electric power generation. For example. the reduction of criteria emissions (c<lrbon monoxide. lead. nitrogen 

oxides. ozone. partiCUlate mailer and 

su Ifur dioxide) si ncc 1970 has bce n 

tremendolls despite dramatic growth 

in coal consumption (Fig. 4). An other 

convincing illustration of emis$ ions 

reductions is shown in Fig. 5. 

Further assuring the public that 

good science is directed at even better 
reductions is important. Showing diagrams of new clean 

coal technology plants and the associa!ed pilot project 

outcomes gives a clear picture of progress and protection 

of public health. For example. Fig. 6 shows an integrated 

gasification combined cycle (lGCC) plant that was tested 

in Florida. It achieved a 95-percent removal of SO, and 

keeping NO. below 0.271bJ minion Btu. -

Ultimate1y, public awareness of various !reatments 

and their uJt-imate effects provides the comprehensive 

information needed to build confidence in COllI as the 

primary source for power generation. For example. it is 

now known that limestone injection. 10w-NO burners, x selective cataly!ic reduction. dry precipitators. wet scrubbers, and wet precipi!ators can give the 

following results: 

• 98 percent removal of S02 (0.167 

IbsJmiJlion Btu). 

• >80 percent removal of NOx (0.09 

IbsJmlllion Btu).

• Particulate removal of 99.9 percent. 

• Mercury removal up to 90 percent 

(more work is needed).

• Sulfuric mist removal of 98 percen\. 

Tampa Electric's 

integrated 

gas combined 

cycle process 

flowsheet (U.S. 

Department of 

Energy. 2(06). 

Slw-ry Plant 

Radlal11 Syngn Coole, 

Slag Olspoll8l 

Enlni"". 

Flow Gultler 

Coal 80% 

Slurry 

SIN.... 

lllleek W ..., Recycled 

Stoam TUl1llno 

FIG. 7 

General scheme ,for economywide mate,ial flows accounting illustration, (Eurostat. 2001). 

Input 

Domestic 

Extraction: 

Foml fue Is 

Mmeral~ 

• bIomass 

Unused domestic 

extraction 

Import$' 

Indirect flows 

assocIated to 

imports 

Economy Output 

MalErial accumuJation 

Mall!rial throughput 

(per year) 

To nature: 

• EmiSSIOns t~ aJ( 

• Waste landtilled 

• Errusslons to water 

• DISSIpative flows 

Unused domestic 

P.:rtrnrtinn 

f------~... .. Exports ...:: :~ 

Indirect flows 

assOCIated to 

e:qlorts 

A stronger commitment to demonst Ta t j ng cI ea rim proveme nts in 

reducing coal waste disposal lind acid 

mine draioage are important poin!s to 

be made as well . News articles on new 

power generation facilities that use 

coal waste and remove gob piles can 

help. Demonstrating through facts !he return of fishing 

to once-polluted streams and rivers also helps. Success 

stories like the improvement of the Monongahela River 

in Pennsylvania and West Virginia will also help make the 

case. Verifiable numbers are needed. 

Coal's role in economic development and relationships witb loca1 communities. In the past. the industry 

focused on showing the correlation of coal production 

with growth in the gross domestic product (GOP). TIlis 

does not resonate wilh the public. It focuses on what!he 

industry wiJI do for its local economy. 

Peabody Energy and Arch Coal arc focusing on build-
ing energy campuses. Such efforts resonate well locally. 

TIle economic multipliers for the region are clearly delinell ted and generate buy-in by the communities involved. 

Pennitting at Ihe slate level is another mailer. and st ill 

difficult ,but the commun.ity buy-in creates <In atmosphere 

of political support. which has influence. By embracing the 

long-term existence of the energy campus and its synergy 

through community building. the case is made convincingly of a community-based partnership. 

FIG. 8 

Coal material flow analysis for 1993 (Mt). as modified by Warneke (2004). 

• COIlI,oUnS -.,J., 

o COMldtrcod "poUWIPr. reoM.lr 

un~nlron~ 

Polf'ftt poll.. I"" I") be UIW"O...lroIlN •

o OuajCIUI. pI['1wrc- of r.'IIpK1 (rom 

D,.. ~«hl'lolot)" 

1_......

. 

.-. 

, 

, 

..... 

---

•.1> 

An integraled approach to using coal. Data and information exchanged on Ihe various aspects discussed so s

far are helpful. Bu\. if provided alone, there are g<lps in 

understanding by the average citizen. 

Without an integrated linking of the 

economic. environmental and social 

impacts. gaps in knowledge and un· 

derstanding ultimately occur and ]elld

to gaps in acceptance and mistrust. So

presenting information in a way that 

cullivates full understllnding of the is· 

sues would pay large dividends. 

Material flows analysis is a way

of presenting interrelations among 

physical aspects of coal flows in the u.s. 

economy and their potential impacts. 

'me impacts may be quantified as well 

in an ;)ssociflted analysis of flom to the 

environment. Economic impacts may 

be quantified by linking the physical 

flows with associated monetary flows. 

In essence. a material flows accounting

system is an analog of a monetary flows

system. This has been in existence for 

decades to help guide governmental 

fiscal policymaking. Linking materiill flows accounts with associated 

financial flows accounts expands the 

understanding of nonfinancial impacts. 

A generlll economy·wide material-flows-accounting 

system is shown in Fig. 7. TIle key focuses are on physical 

inputs to and outputs from Ihe economy. But diagrams 

also track the buildup of materials in stock (in infmstructure primarily). Imports. exports. hoth u~ed and unused 

extractions. and indirect (or hidden) flows associated with 

material extrllctioJls are shown . Such diagrams may be 

modified to show exactly where nows go to the environment (air. land and water). Environmental disturbances 

generally occur on the materials extraction and storage 

ide as well. 

A stronger commitment by the industry to demonstrating clear improvements in reducing coel waste disposal and acid mine drainaga are important

poinhl. Photo shows stripping and blasting operetions at a western United 

States coa' mine. 

Figure 8 shows an early ( 1993) m(1lcrial flows analysis for the U.S. coal industry done by 

Ayres rind Ayres (19l)S). as modified 

by Warneke (2004) . It shows the 

paths of consumplion as well as various emissions that occur. Added 10 

the diagram are colors representing 

the potential impacts on the environmenl. Much of the data is generlllly 

llvailable through the U.S. Energy Information Administration, but much 

of it is nol. For example. considerable 

work is required to make a reasonably 

llccurate calculation of Ihe coal mine 

overburden disturbed. other emi~sions 

from extraction. the amount of rcruse 

generated from coal cleaning and the 

emissions from coking and power generation. In facl.Warneke (2004) noted 

several discrepancies wilh the previous 

1993 analysis. 

Beyond the material flows analysis 

picture, which the public generally 

will understand. is a description of the 

ultimate impacts the flows have on people. These impacts can be illustrated 

through the use of Driving Force-Pres-
sure-State-I mpact- Response models 

(Petruzela et a!.. 2000) . Figure 9 

(Warneke, 2004) shows one possible 

model for emissions from coal utilization, The driving force in this instance 

is the production of coal itself. while 

pressures are exerted on the environment by ncidifying, global warming and 

other polluting (CO. NOX.S01 and PM) 

emissions. TIle state resulting from the 

pressures relates to the towl amount 

of subsranees in the air as well as the 

mean temperature and other effects of 

the various emissions. 

The ultimate impacts people and 

society care about relate to their sun'ivability. rheir healt h. availability of food 

and potable woter. and aesthetically 

pleasing rcereat ional areas. As negative impacts occur at .m unacceptable 

level. the public response eventually 

intluences government policy. Laws 

are then passed or regulations revised 

to reftect the desire for reduced negative impacts. 

Transparency of informalion_ For 

the integrated <lpproach 10 work in building trust <lmong 

the public constituencies. information must be available 

(or anyone to examine. One of the best examples of this 

Clpproilch is the commodity flow information developed 

and shared by the u.s. Geological Survey (USGS. 2005a; 

USGS,2005b). This data is open to public access but, at 

the same time, it protects proprietary information of data 

providers. 

Companies wishing to build public trust and indicate 

social responsibility as stewards of the communities in 

which they work. the environment and of sustClinable 

development principles will need to share their data 

and information. too. Transparency of data equates to 

improved lru$t that the dat<l <lnd information will tell the 

true stote of affairs. 

Small mjne lind contractor issues. A lingering issue 

in the Unitell States and elsewhere is the small mine and 

contractor heillth and safety performance. Worker health 

and safety is one dimension of sustainable development. 

It is an important one that cannot be neglected. Elevated 

fatality rates for small mines aoll contractors operating in 

the United States are a persistent issue ilnd they must be 

adllressed soon. This issue was addressed in a paper at 

the 2006 SME Annual Meeting (Grayson. 2005). Other 

countries. like Australia, arc taking action now 10 solve 

the problem with contrtlctor safety (Wran and McClelland.200S). 

Addressing sector governance. In a perfect industry 

world. no government intervention would be necessary 

to ensure that sustainable development principles are 

addressed effectively. Instead. the indust'1' would police 

itself. It would work with government to rid the industry 

of " bCld players." incl uding those who blatantly pollute the 

environment ,subject workers to poor work conditions. or 

exploit workers or arc devoid of any community responsibility (alienate the social contract). Unfortunately, no 

perfect industry world exlsls and self-policing at present is 

only a good idea . Consequently,govemment intervention 

through regulation and enforcement will continue until 

the time that industry truly begins to self-enforce. 

FIG. 9 

Driving force-pressure-state-impact-response model for emissions from coal 

production.

Dri\'ing Forces 

C031 production 

Higher nitrogen IC\'I;ls. 

\,'atcr ano lano

nciliilicntion. lish dcnth 

rates. ;= of people stan·ing.

from CI"OO loss 

Response 

Clean Air Act. 

Kyott\ Prot(lcol. 

Clean Coal 

spcndinl!. 

Pres;;u re 

Acidi I~ ' illg emissions. 

global \\"nrming. other 

polluting emissions 

Impact State 

TOlnl al}louni of 

sIIbst3nccs in ntmosphcre. 

glohnlllle,lIl temperature, 

other etlccts 

Conclusions 

Looking at Bingham's article once again. all is not 

losl. according to the public. She notes: "The good news 

is that the most common beliefs about mining are not 

stroogly held and are quite susceptible to change." It was 

clear from the study that "the infonnation people do have 

comes mostly from movies and entertainment television, 

rather than textbooks or documentaries." This situation 

opens the door for good. integrated communication about 

the mining industry. This will lead to a cbange in public 

attitude about mining. 

Although mines cannot be sustainable UnlO themselves. mining wi.ll playa major role in sustaining society 

in many ways. Pursuing the principles of sustainable development has already begun to develop a new. integrated 

message for the industry tlwt the public and government 

will understand. And they wi)] often buy-in. 

TIle historical stigma attached to the coal industry 

is now slowly being reversed. as the industry expands in 

the 21st century. lluough a concerted effort using a wellintegrated message. the industry can make the change a 

permanent one. Those who work at mines or supporting operations are sustaining the massive U.S. economy. 

are nurturing communities and workers, and are strong 

stewards of the environment. One day the industry will 

be self-enforcing as well and the need for more regulation 

will diminish because of prevailing good-faith efforts. In 

the meantime, the industry must be diligent in pursuing 

the principles of sustainable development and place strong 

peer-pressure on all operators to do so. References are 

available from the authors.)