te ateas ted to weaout qucy te 

harsh underground environment. Also, the seat 

is usually attached directly to the machine 

frame since vibration-isolation systems are 

difficult to install because of space limitations. Thus, the operator is subjected to 

almost constant vibration and shock loading 

during equipment operation. 

A past Bureau research program (Remington, 

Anderson, Alakel, 1984) conducted a limited 

evaluation of mobile underground coal mine 

equipment operators to WBV. The data indicated 

that between 33% and 39% of the operators were 

exposed to vertical vibration levels that exceeded the International Standard Organization's 

(ISO, 1974) fatigue-decreased proficiency level 

(intended to preserve human working efficiency) 

and 7% to 14% exceeded the exposure limit (intended to protect workers from physical injury 

or illness caused by daily exposure at work). 

Various reseach studies and reviews have 

indicated that WBV can affect the musculoskeletal system (Carlsoo, 1982; Seidel and Heide, 

1986; Wilder, Woodworth, Frymoyer, Pope, 1982; 

Wilder, Frymoyer, Pope, 1985; Chaffin, Andersson, 1984), the cardiovascular system (Seidel 

and Heide, 1986; Wilder et al., 1982; Wilder et 

al., 1985), and gastrointestinal system (Seidel 

ts research will be used to recommend changes 

in underground mining equipment seat design. 

METHOD 

Subiects 

Eight healthy men (35.5 yr of age 2 6.5 SD) 

volunteered to participate in a pilot study 

that examined the effects of vibration, seatback angle, and presence or absence of foam 

padding on various physiological measures and 

subjective discomfort evaluations. The subjects were all employees of the Bureau of Mines 

Pittsburgh Research Center and were minimally 

familiar with the test protocol. Potential 

subjects were advised of the nature of the 

investigation and signed an informed consent 

form before undergoing screening medical exams. 

They received a thorough physical examination 

and graded exercise tolerance test (American 

College of Sports Medicine, 1980) prior to 

participation to ensure that they would not be 

adversely affected by this testing. 

Experimental Desiqn 

The independent variables in this investigation were (1) presence or absence of random, 

broad-band vibration, (2) seat back angle of 
noise" was played to mask extraneous auditory 

signals. The foam material was manufactured by 

1Reference to specific products does not imply 

endorsement by the U.S. Bureau of Mines. 

Horizontal motion 

motor and wheel 

;////////////////////////////////////: 

Figure I. Schematic of vibration-generating 

equipment (horizontal motion not utilized). 

octave-band power spectrum of the vibration 

generated by the shake table. This spectrum is 

an average of the four segments of the normal 

cycle that the coal haulage vehicle (shuttle 

car) undergoes when moving coal from the mining 

face to the dumping point for removal to the 

surface. These segments are (a) loading coal 

into the haulage vehicle, (b) tramming loaded 

to the dump point, (c) unloading the coal, and 

(d) tramming empty back to the mining face. 

Data were collected during actual shuttle 

car operation underground. Vertical vibration 

signals were collected via a uniaxial accelerometer that was attached to the machine frame 

directly beneath the operator's seat. These 

data were processed so the computer-controlled 

platform could approximate the signals gathered 

from the shuttle car during operation. 

Figure 3 indicates that the composite 

vibration spectrum to which the subjects were 

exposed was broad-band and very low intensity. 

The acceleration levels of the spectrum were 

greater than 0.03 m/secz (approximately 0.003 

g) from 3.15 Hz to 80 Hz. The maximum acceleration of the vibration peaked at 10 Hz at 

approximately 0.3 m/secz (approximately 0.03 g) 

and at 12.5 Hz at slightly less than 0.4 m/sec2 

(apitepximately 0.04 g). 
ning the 30-min test period, each subject was 

instructed to sit quietly so resting heart rate 

and blood pressure levels could be obtained. 

During testing, heart rate was collected 

during the last 10 sec of every min. The final 

25 HR values were averaged and taken as the mean 

value for that test configuration. Blood 

pressures were collected every 5 min during 

programed pauses in the vibration cycle. 

Systolic, diastolic, and mean values were 

averaged at the end of the test. Every 10 min 

(at min 9, 19, and 29) the subjective disaomfort 

form was also completed. After the test 

period, a 30-min break was provided for the 

subject to attend to personal needs and to 

recover by relaxing in a reclined posture bfore 

beginning the next experimental condition. 

As shown in Table 1, heart rate (p c 0.01), 

systolic BP, and mean BP (E < 0.05) were all 

significantly increased during the vibrating 

test day. The vibrating condition caused a 9.3% 

increase in the average HR (for all test 

configurations) over the nonvibrating conditions (69.9 to 76.4 beats per min; F1,7=14.538, 

p 0.007). Neither the heart rate nor the 

blood pressures were significantly affected by 

the angle of the seat back or the presence or 

absence of foam material. The systolic BP 

increased 3.2% in the average value for all 

test conditions from the nonvibrating day 

(127.1 mm Hg to 131.2 IUIU Hg; Fr,7= 9.006, 

p= 0.020). Additionally, the vibrating test 

condition caused a 4.4% increase in the mean BP 

for all test configurations (96.7 mm Hg to 

100.9 Rm Hg; &,-I= 11.052, p 0.013) 

Data Treatment Subiective Discomfort Data 

The results of data collected for the six The lower portion of Table 1 presents the 

dependent measures were analyzed using a 2 x 2 x subjective discomfort data. The number of times 

2 (vibration or not x seat back angle x seat the subjects reported discoHlfort was signifimaterial) analysis of variance with repeated cantly affected by whether they were seated in 

measures (ANOVR) statistical package (Games, the untreated (steel) seat or in the seat 

Gray, Herron, and Pitz, 1980). Critical alpha treated with foam padding (20.7 times for the 

levels were 0.05 in all cases. evaluation of the steel seat versus 16.5 times 

for the padded seat; E1,7 = 10.920, p = 0.013) 

and also whether the subject was vibrating or 
DISCUSSION 

Phvsioloqical Data 

Three of the four physiological dependent 

measures were significantly (p < 0.05) affected 

by the vibrating condition. Hasan (1970) conducted a thorough review of the literature 

related to the biomedical effects of whole-body 

vibration. He describes conflicting reports on 

the effects of vibration on the cardiovascular 

system. In general, most investigators have 

found no alteration in the heart rate or mean 

blood pressure at low frequencies of vibration. 

After an initial burst of activity, the HR and 

BP reverted back to normal or even slightly subnormal levels with continued exposure. However, 

a slight increase in HR and BP has been observed 

in subjects at a vibration frequency of 5 Hz 

(Hasan, 1970). The fact that the shake table 

generated a broad-band random signal may be the 

explanation for the significant increases in the 

heart rate and in the systolic and mean blood 

pressures. Diastolic blood pressure was also 

elevated, but was not statistically significant. 

None of the four physiological measures were 

affected by the seat back angle, or the presence 

or absence of foam material. Despite the lack 

subjects. As expected, the number of times the 

subjects reported discomfort was increased significantly when they were vibrated and when 

seated in the steel seat. Both the vibrating 

condition and the steel seat significantly 

increased the overall rating of discomfort felt 

by the subjects during the testing. It is 

quite surprising that the seat back angle did 

not have any effect on either of the discomfort 

categories. This type of information will be 

valuable for the purposes of designing a favorable work station. Other seat back angles will 

be investigated in future research studies. 

SUMMAFlY OF PILOT TEST RESULTS 

Results of this pilot subject testing are: 

1. Heart rate and the systolic and mean blood 

pressures were significantly increased by the 

vibrating condition. 

2. Both the vibrating condition and the steel 

seat had a significant effect on both of the 

subjective discomfort categories. 

3. The posture of the subject (seatback angle) 

had no significant effect on any of the six 

dependent variables. 
WBV on operating proficiency. 

5. It is important to know whether mobile 

underground machine operators are experiencing 

compression of the intervertebral disks from 

WBV. A precise measurment of stature is needed 

for future research studies. 

6. Back extensor muscle endurance will be 

measured to determine if WBV will adversely 

affect this variable. 

REFERENCES 

American College of Sports Medicine, Guidelines 

for Graded Exercise Testing and Exercise 

Prescription, Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia, 

1980, 151 pp. 

Carlsoo, S., The effect of vibration on the 

skeleton, joints, and muscles: A review of the 

literature, Applied Ergonomics, v. 13, no. 4, 

1982, pp. 251-258. 

Chaffin, D.B. and G.B.J. Andersson, Occupational 

Biomechanics. (John Wiley and Sons, New York, 

1984, 454 pp. 

Games, P.A., G.S. Gray, W.L. Herron, and G.F. 

Pitz, ANOVR: Analysis of variance on repea

pp. 673-681. 

Remington, P.J., D.A. Anderson, M.N. Alakel, 

Assessment of whole-body vibration levels of 

coal miners. Vol. 11: Whole-body vibration 

exposure of Underground coal mining machine 

operators, BuMines Contract No. 50388045, 

March 1984, (BBN Rep. No. 5616), 98 pp. 

Seidel, H., R. Heide, Long-term effects of 

whole-body vibration: A critical survey of 

the literature, Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. 

Health, v. 58, 1986, pp. 1-26. 

Soule, R.D., Vibration. Chap 26, in: The 

Industrial Environment-Its Evaluation and 

Control, U.S. Dept of HEW, NIOSH, U.S. 

Government Printing Office, 1973, 719 pp. 

Weaver, L.A., Vibration: An overview of 

documented effects on humans, Professional 

Safety, v. .24, no. 4, 1979, pp. 29-37. 

Wilder, D.G., B.B. Woodworth, J.W. Frymoyer, 

M.H. Pope, Vibration and the human spine, 

Spine, v. 7, no. 3, 1982, pp. 243-254. 

Wilder, D.G., J.W. Frymoyer, M.H. Pope, The effect of vibration on the spine of the seated 

individual, Automedica, v.6, 1985, pp. 5-35. 
Finally, two or more keys are usually (although 

not necessarily) operated simultaneously, which 

is known as a chord operation. 

These TCK features mean that (1) a very 

small number of keys represents a large number 

of state combinations; four keys allow eightyone different inputs, 8 keys nearly 6,561. (2) 

Hence, a fingertip never needs to leave its 

assigned keytop. (3) This, in turn, allows to 

use either a wrist support, since their are no 

hand movements; or one can in fact "strap" the 

keyboard to the hand. (4) Each finger operates 

only one key, thus keying errors associated with 

activating a "wrong" key cannot occur. (5) The 

displacement of the key tops is only about 1 

millimeter from the intermediate OFF position, 

hence, motoric requirements and resulting muscular fatigue are very small. 

TCK QUESTIONS 

For this new TCK, questions existed which 

could not be answered from the literature. 

These included: Which designs should be applied 

to the keys and to their arrangement on a keyboard? Are the motoric requirements to operate 

the TCK keys compatible with characteristics of 

the human hand/arm system? What are the percep 

selected. Based on the experience of the investigators (i. e., without formal experimentation) 

key displacements of about 1 mm from the central 

OFF position at the finger interface were 

selected. The static force to achieve these 

displacements was chosen to be about 1 N. The 

direction of displacement was chosen to be foreaft horizontally. The keys are arranged side by 

side, but at slightly different distances from 

the subjects frontal plane according to the 

natural positioning of the fingertips. The 

distance between centers of adjacent keys is 

about 22 mm. The tops of the keys protrude 

about 15 mm above the base surface, on which the 

palms of the subjects' rest. (Note that formal 

optimization of design features is part of the 

future evaluation program.) Figure 1 depicts 

the major design features of the 1987 keyboard. 

In the first experiment, the two innermost 

keys of the keyboards for each hand were 

assigned to the index and middle fingers, 

respectively, of the left and right hand. (The 

two outer keys were not used in these experiments.) Each input was so coded that a chord of 

two keys was employed in each case. The 

numerals 0 through 9 were assigned to the chords 

listed in Table 1. 
Figure 1. Location of the eight keys, four for each hand, of the 1987 TCK design. Dimensions in 

A training paradigm was developed in wh

the chords were learned in three subsets: th

first consisted of the numerals 1, 2, 3, and 

The second subset included the numerals 0 and 

The third subset consisted of the numerals 6

8, and 9. 

A software program was developed which 

generated, randomly, the numerals 0 through 

and displayed these on a computer screen loc

directly behind the TCK. If the subject 

responded to the displayed target numeral by 

inputting the correct code, that number appe

next to the target with the word "correct," 

then both were immediately replaced by a new 

randomly generated target numeral. Each "tr

consisted of 50 such randomly generated targ

If the subject responded to the target numer

with an incorrect code input, a beep sounded 

the actually generated numeral was displayed 

next to the target numeral. This prompted th

subject to try again to generate the correct 

code input. 

Numeral 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

Table 1: Chord Coding of the Numerals 0-9. 

Right 

Index 

fore 

fore 

aft 

aft 

aft 

fore 

Right 

Middle 

fore 

aft 

aft 

fore 

Left 

Middle 

aft 

fore 

aft 

fore 

Left 

Index 

aft 

fore 

aft 

fore 

aft 

fore 
, 

"errors" occurred in such few instances that 

their occurrence was also of no value in making 

any judgements about subject performance. 

Though limited by the experimental conditions, and by the fact that only three subjects 

were trained, the results are of considerable 

interest. Figure 2 depicts the mean input times 

of subject #3. First, all subjects achieved 

Figure 2 

p

The results of these experiments will be 

discussed, together with an assessment of the 

prospects of useful employment of the Ternary 

Chord Keyboard. 

A listing of References will be provided 

upon request. 

,,,,, 1,1~1,1,1~1 

0.0 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 

Trial 

Mean input times for numerals 0 through 9, combined, during 108 trials, for one subject 
Numerous studies of experienced 

shift workers conducted during the 

past ten years have shown that most 

night work schedules decrease sleep 

time, disrupt biological rhythms, 

and may increase fatigue. 

Decrements in performance and 

alertness associated witn night work 

have been demonstrated in 

experienced workers. Recent data 

suggests that increased use of 

extended workshifts, under 

and recovery of function. The 

panelists will review what we 

currently know about potential shift 

work interventions, and attempt to 

identify what we need to learn if 

continued progress is to made toward 

optimal shift system designs and 

effective personal coping 

strategies. The individual members, 

dimensions, and techniques to be 

reviewed and discussed are as 

follows: 

compressed workweeks, may exacerbate 

these decrements. Such decrements Timothy H. Monk will review 

may be especially apparent at night 'Manipulating sleepiness by varying 

when fatigue from longer hours can 

summate with circadian 

rhythm-related declines in 

alertness. Although definitive 

workplace data is difficult to 

obtain, it is reasonable to argue 

that many 'round-the-clock shift 

systems significantly decrease 

workplace productivity and 

compromise worker safety and health. 

- 

chronobiological napping, schedule, 

and performance demands'. Dr. Monk 

conducts biological rhythm research 

at the Western Psychiatric Institute 

of the University of Pittsburgh. He 

is co-editor of the book Hours of 

Work, and co-author of thechapter 

on 'Work Schedules' in the Handbook 

of Human Factors. 

Michael H. Bonnet will review 

Despite potential productivity, 'Physical fitness, exercise, and 

health, and safety compromises, environmental variables as factors 
a Professor of Psychology at the 

University of Arizona, and the 

author of many articles on changing 

sleep-wake behavior using behavioral 

techniques. 

James K. Walsh will review the 

research and efficacy of 'Using 

psycnopharmacologica1 aids to 

improve performance wnile working 

nights'. Dr. Walsh is Director of 

the Sleep Disorders Center at 

Deaconess Hospital in St. Louis. He 

is a member of the Executive 

Committee of the Association of 

Professional Sleep Societies. 

James C. Duchon is a Human Factors 

Engineer at the U.S. Bureau of Mines 

Twin cities Research Center. He 

will serve as a discussant and 

conclude the panel by providing a 

comprehensive summary. In doing 

this, he will explore how these 

divergent intervention techniques 
person-embodied consulting, the expertise of a 

specific individual is sought to solve a specific problem. It is necessary for the consultant 

to consider systemic, cognitive, and behavioral 

aspects of hidher relationship with the client 

during the early phases of the consultation. 

HISTORY OF TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER 

Technology transfer became a serious concern of industrialized nations only after the 

Second World War with the reconstruction of devastated countries and the re-emergence of postcolonial nations. The emergence of Germany and 

Japan as industrial nations as well as the progress of a number of developing countries (such 

as the Republic of Korea and China) indicates 

the ability of nations to make the transition to 

technology despite the ravages of war or stage 

of socioeconomic development. Yet the record 

suggests that such transitions have not been as 

easy or as fast as some national leaders might 

expect (Dahlman, et al., 1985). The change from 

the status of a developing to industrial nation 

requires a number of considerations which serve 

as preconditions for technology transfer among 

which are institutional development, literacy 

and education, and technology selection and 

adaptation. Of these, the latter has become the 

most recent and important focus of the process 

Role of Technical Assistance 

The selection and adaptation of technology 

for transfer is usually effected through international technical assistance programs. 

Unfortunately, instead of leading to further development and becoming a means for better international understanding, many of these programs 

have become wasteful of resources as well as 

potential and actual sources of international 

embarrassment and frustration. 

At the core of technical assistance is the 

relationship between the consultant (the technical assistance or "change" agent) and the 

recipient. These relationships are usually 

specified in terms of specific services, technologies, or information to be provided. Goulet 

( 1975) identifies such relationships as either 

product-embodied technology, process-embodied 

technology, or person-embodied technology. One 

or all of these modes may be employed to produce 

the desired result in technical assistance. 

Product-embodied technology is highly sophisticated. It represents a unique way in 

which a product is produced or assembled. The 

level of expertise is highly dependent on the 

skills possessed within a firm or organization. 
their own resources. Thus, process-embodied 

technology transfer is no longer needed in many 

developing countries. Many plants in such countries no longer exclusively rely on outside 

resident consultants or workers to maintain production. The recognized need in many of these 

countries is to better rationalize production 

capabilities through innovations to increase 

productivity and efficiency in managing resources. 

The emphasis for the consultant, then, has 

shifted to the product-embodied and personembodied technologies and the requirements for 

successful technology transfer depend more than 

ever upon the skills of the consultant and 

client. The consultant-client interface (CCI) 

should be the primary focus for development 

programs. 

CONSULTING AS PROCESS 

A number of models have been proposed (see 

Lethem and Cooper, 1983) for effecting technical 

assistance based on a systems approach. Such 

models have proven useful in examining the different categories of processes which interact or 

represent recognizable stages of evolution in 

technical assistance. The literature suggests a 

number of consulting process models which are 

Other approaches, however, focus upon the 

consulting process. Recent research on improving the client-consultant interface indicates 

that three processes are pivotal to the success 

of the consulting process: the matching process, the contracting process, and the communication process (Kellogg, 1987). Lethem and Cooper 

( 1983 identify similar human factors considerations which, in contrast to physical investments, "do not seem to generate momentum toward 

implementation." The critical area is the 

"matching process" which emphasizes the personalities, skills, needs, and goals of the CCI. 

These considerations are rarely incorporated 

into current contracting efforts which rely more 

upon "black box" project models. Such models 

separate the establishment of the CCI as well as 

the diagnostic phase of the consulting from the 

more empirically definable design and implementation phases. Disjoining,the process in this 

manner can invite failure since person-embodied 

technology, and to a lesser extent productembodied technology, must rely more heavily upon 

the client-consultant relationship which necessarily precedes design and implementation. 

Within either the process-embodied model or 

the consulting model (see Figure I), such discontinuities will most likely occur just prior 
, pp

process of identification of shared goals. The 

client-consultant relationship should be an 

integral part of any diagnosis-prescription and 

subsequent consulting activities. At the end of 

the consulting assignment the client expects 

(and is expected, by involved lenders!) to possess and control the use of the new technologies 

and skills. Without early involvement, the CCI 

will most likely not be able to agree upon a 

psychologically equitable contract. Roles will 

not have been defined until later stages. Both 

the consultant and client can easily find themselves engaged in a mechanistic and unsatisfactory relationship that merely meets the 

requirements of bureaucratic standards but which 

does not achieve authentic communication. 

The diversity and complexity of technology 

transfer, however, requires a more comprehensive 

approach in most cases, necessitating numerous 

consultants often from more than one organization. A consultant team is often needed which 

includes expatriate and indigenous consultants 

working together. Otherwise, the expatriate 

consultant may find himself/herself only able to 

provide diagnosis and prescription advice 

without following through with implementation. 

This, in turn, can be quite damaging to the 

client. In one case, a chemical specialist 

assisted a firm in a host country only to advise 

g

requires certain behavioral and cognitive skills 

on the part of the consultant to deal with the 

problem in its totality. If additional consultants are required, they should be under the 

direction of the original consultant who maintains contact with the client throughout the 

process. Change is a difficult process for most 

clients who quite naturally may react defensively to some suggestions from new consultants and 

then begin to seek solutions at random. 

Thus, the voluntary nature of the clientconsultant relationship cannot be overemphasized. The client should be made aware 

that he/she is free to terminate the consulting 

relationship at any time and seek solutions 

appropriate to conditions. This is less likely 

to occur when the CCI is established early. 

Defense reduction occurs only as the relationship evolves. A major educational institution 

in the Far East was unable to implement needed 

reforms until the consultant gained the confidence of the faculty over a long period of time, 

and reduced any perceived threat to their seniority. Prior contacts through administrative 

officers proved inadequate since the scope and 

intent of the changes were not adequately cormnunicated to faculty members by previous consultants who were constrained by time limitations. 
transfer, specifically as related to the client

consultant relationship. The systems approach 

to social problems is one which gives equal 

emphasis to individuals as well as to the overall social structure or system. The cognitive 

approach emphasizes the role of individuals1 

capabilities, expectations, and perceptions in 

guiding human interactions. We contend that one 

or both of these approaches is often excluded in 

the process of technology transfer. Both views, 

however, have important implications for the CCI 

in technology transfer, and both are readily 

integrated into a cognitive-systems framework. 

General systems theories (i.e., Boulding, 

1956; Sameroff, 1983) offer a holistic and ecological view of human interactions. An understanding of the overall system and its 

interrelationships is considered a prerequisite 

to understanding specific relationships within 

that system. In practical terms, then, the consultant needs a good understanding of the overall mission(s) of the organizations involved as 

well as of the institution in relation to the 

client and consultant. Critical is an appreciation for the context in which the consulting 

occurs. The systems perspective is one which 

assumes that when any aspect of a system changes 

every other aspect of that system changes also. 

No one factor, therefore, can be considered in 

isolation within the consultation process. The

tal models for the task and situation, particu

larly on the part of the consultant, needs to 

take place early on in the consulting process. 

Mental models for various domains of knowledge and skills have also been found to generally differ between novices, experts, and persons 

who possess intermediate levels of expertise. 

They are organized differently, with different 

concepts delegated to different levels of importance. Expert mental models are also more hierarchical, more highly and tightly elaborated, 

easier to access and apply, less contextspecific, and more automated (Bransford, 

Sherwood, Vye, and Reiser , 1986 ; Ryder , Redding, 

and Beckschi, 1987). Typically, the client is 

the novice who is seeking expertise from the 

consultant, who is presumably (but not always!) 

the expert. This discrepancy in itself can 

often be a source for conflict and misunderstanding as the client and consultant may have 

different mental models and perceptions about 

the problem at hand and how to solve it. 

Transferring nuclear technology to nations with 

little experience or understanding of such technology is problematic since the lack of experience often leads to faulty preconceptions by the 

client. Similarly, the consultant's expectations about capabilities of the client and his 

or her environment can lead to frustration when 

such expectations fall short of reality. 
transfer in the near future. One area which is 

amenable to immediate change is for developing 

countries to assume greater organizational 

responsibility for their technological development. Insofar as is possible, the contracting 

of long-term resident consultants should be 

avoided. Instead, short-term, renewable contracts are beneficial to the client-consultant 

relationship. Arranging for consultants to provide expertise on short-term visits would provide the autonomy and openness that is necessary 

for creativity, appropriate perspective-taking, 

and genuine assistance (rather than pseudocolonialism) . Concomitant with the arrangement 

for short-term consultants is the need to train 

specialists to act as consultants in a crosscultural setting or to train an indigenous core 

of consultants (Kofler and Meshkati , 1987). 

Annual : Developing human resources ( pp . 247- 

268). San Diego, CA : University Associates. 

Kofler, V.L., and Meshkati, N. (1987). Transfer 

of technolonv: Factors for success. . . - - - - In - - - 

~nternationai HRD Annual (~ol. 111, pp. 71- 

85). Alexandria, VA: American Society for 

Training and ~evelo~ment. 

Lethem, F., and Cooper, L. (1983). Managing 

project-related technical assistance. 

Washington, D.C.: World Bank. 

Rumelhart, D.E., and Norman, D.A. (1981). Analogical processes in learning. In J.R. 

Anderson (Ed.), Cognitive skills and their 

acquisition (pp. 335-359). Hillsdale, NJ: 

Erlbaum. 

Finally, additional research is needed to Ryder, J.M., Redding, R.E., and Beckschi, P.F. 

support a more comprehensive working model for ( 1987 . Training development for complex 

the CCI, a model which addresses human factors cognitive tasks. Proceedings of the Human 

issues in the process of technology transfer. Factors Society (pp. 1261-1265). Santa 

Monica, CA: Human Factors Society. 

FOOTNOTE 

Sameroff, A. J. ( 1983). Developmental systems: 

Unless otherwise indicated, examples of Contexts and evolution. In P.H. Mussen (Ed.), 

cross-cultural consultation and technology Handbook of child psychology (Vol. I). New 

transfer are derived from the experience of the York: Wiley. 

authors and their associates in these areas. 
opmental literature abounds with failure stories 

of programs and projects which ignored such variables and became inextricably mired dm in a 

swamp of sociocultural quicksand that fatally 

complicated program goals and objectives. 

-ally related to the success of transferred 

technologies is the relationship between the 

physical characteristics of the transferred 

technologies and the biological characteristics 

of the target population. Deficiencies in these 

areas can cause accidents, injuries, and illnesses. Projected productivity levels are especially cconprcnnised by such deficiencies. 

tkmm anthropometrical and ostecinetrical characteristics are extremely complex, imperfectly 

understocd by the scientists who specialize in 

these fields, and poorly dccumented. Generally 

speaking, during the past four million years of 

evolution the size of the human species has become increasingly larger and the mrphology of 

the widely dispersed groups has becare increasingly diversified. 

The early Australopithecines stood about 4 feet 

high and had small brain cases which measured 

about 450 cubic centimeters. The "average" rmn 

of modern western countries is about 5 '9" tall 

osteolcq, campilinq enormous compendiums 02 

data on human physical characteristics and 

their variations. These data have been reported in all scholarly languages, publications and 

professional journals. It is possible to get 

computer printouts, hundreds of pages in 

length, listing anthropometrical and osteological publications. However, this apparent abundance merely serves to underline the extent 

to which pr work designs can be achieved by 

planners who naively use this data. 

mst Human Factors Specialists, Hum Factors 

Engineers or Ergonomists lack the traininq and 

research background required to properly develop or reliably evaluate and utilize existing 

anthropomtrical and osteaetrical data bases. 

In order to emphasize the critical need for 

consulting with appropriate experts during the 

design and jnplemntation stages of programs 

and projects aimed at the successful transfer 

of technology between international populations 

this paper discusses and explains the deficiencies of such data bases. These deficiencies 

are discussed in terms of technical inadequacy, 

sampling and non-sampling error, population 

differences, differential maturation, ethnic 

variation, universal growth, environmntal influence on grmth, and gender difference~. 
metrical and osteometrical studies are conducted 

by trained and experienced experts, using the 

highly precise equipment developed for such 

studies, along with the statistical techniques 

developed for organizing and explaining the data, 

the information collected is objective, quantifiable, verifiable and comparable. It therefore 

allows conclusions to be arrived at which have 

a high degree of scientific certainty. 

SAMPLING AND NON-SAMPLING ERROR 

Normally, we cannot measure, or know the mean 

and standard deviation of an entire population, 

especially in international technology transfer 

work. Very little anthropametrical and osteomtrical data on Third World populations exists. 

It is therefore necessary to study a randomly 

selected sample group which should be representative of the target population. The extent to 

which the sample group is representative of the 

entire population is expressed through a statemt of the man and standard deviations. 

Sampling error results from non-random selection of representatives of the population. 

Non-sampling error can also occur from mistakes 

and inaccuuracies in observation, as when 

representatives of a population are measured by 

cesses that are determined by complex genetic 

and environmental factors. No one individual is 

exactly described bv the measurements of 

another. 

On the group level, Bittner et al. (1975) 

effectively denonstrated this restriction 

usinu a computer technique call Monte Carlo 

Welins. This technique demnstrates the 

"problems of categories" by studvina the degree of error that can occur in usinu a scecified percentile throuahout the desian of a 

work~lace. Thev found that if a policv of 

acckatina 95 -cent of the population 

(i.e., excluding 5 percent) is vigorously 

follcwed through seven sets of anthropwtric 

constraints (e.u. stature. seated eye level 

heiaht. po~liteal height, etc.), 25 percent of 

the pornlation is actually excluded. This 

mlative effect through filtering occurs because each successive dimension excludes 5 

percent of users and since the dhenssions are 

not mfectly correlated, a different 5 percent 

are excluded each time. 

Therefore, the characteristics of the 5th, 50th, 

or 95th xrcentiles from one copulation mav 

huxrfectly describe the characteristics of 

individuals in those sm percentiles in 
tion of long bone length to stature, and in 

dentition developtxmt (Ubelaker ,1978 : 44) . Other cranial and post-cranial differences exist, as well. 

For instance, black Africans have proportionally longer lower limbs than Europeans. Far 

Eastern peoples have proportionally shorter 

limbs, with the Japanese having the shortest, 

the Chinese and Koreans having the next shortest, 

and the Thai and Vietnamese having the least 

shortest (Pheasant, 1986: 50) . 

Trotter and Gleser (1952:495) report different 

ostemetric regression equations for estimating 

the stature of Whites, Negroes, ~ngoloids and 

Mexicans, as follcws: 

WHITES Stature = 2.32 Femur + 65.53 + 3.94 

Stature = 2.10 Femur + 72.22 + 3.91 

MEXICAN Stature = 2.44 F- + 58.67 + 2.99 

As Pheasant (ibid . ) indicates, anthropmetric 

percentiles are specific to the population which 

they describe. Therefore, data on one group 

cannot be used in technology transfer efforts 

ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES 

Environmental influences apparently influence 

my human physical characteristics, such as 

skin color, hair formtion and stature. 

Enviromtal influences on growth also appear 

to result in marked intergenerational differences in anthropometrics and osteametrics where 

imnigration is involved. 

For example, Shapiro (1939) found that first 

generation Hawaiian-born Japanese were taller 

than their Mgrant progenitors and larger in 

mst other dimensions. Such environmentally 

determined changes effectively result in new, 

distinct groups to which existing data bases 

do not apply. 

GENDER DIE'FErnCES 

Gender differences are significant enough that 

meamemnts for one sex are inappropriate for 

es of the -site sex (same percentile). 

Using measurements frm the roentgenograms of 

67 subjects, Anderson et al. (1964:198) found 

that at age 18 mles had a mean femur length of 

47.23 cm. The mean female femur length for age 

18 years was 43.'63 an. 
Even when trained experts in anthro~trical 

and osteometrical data bases are cons~~lted, 

thev are oft.= at a disadvantage for nroviding 

specific measurements. Where they cannot 

provide specific measurements. however, thev can 

provide ap~ro~riate data adiusbxents and statistical roba abilities concerning the appropriateness of the data or data ranue. 

Needless to sav, it would be to everyone's 

benefit if such experts had reliable current 

data bases to work from.. A universal, perpetual 

and computer-based data bank housincr current and 

reliable data on human bodv measurements should 

be developed. Such data would not only be invaluable in international technology transfer 

work, but would also provide critical information to aovernments, military organizations. 

mufacturing and service industries, medical 

researchers and others. The oriqinal cost 

would be extremelv hiah but could be offset by 

subscriber fees. Subscriber fees and data sales 

could be used to maintain and update the data 

base. 

Cameron, J., J.M. Tanner and R.A. Whitehouse. 

A Longitudinal Analysis of the Growth of 

Limb Segments in Adolescence. Annals of 

Hm Biology, 9. 211-220. 1982. 

Krogn?an, W-M. 

Preface to A Collation of Anthrommetry. 

Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory. 

Garret-t,W- and K.W. Kennedy. Ed. 

. AFSC. Wright Patterson AE'B, OH. 

National Technical Information Service. 

US Denartment of Cmce. 1971. 

Klem. C.B. 

A Different Way to Use Anthropometric Data 

As 'a Tool for Comuter Terminal VJorkstation 

Design. Human Factors Society Bulletin.. 

Vol. 30, No. 2, Februarv, 1987. 

Pheasant. S. 

Bodyspace: Anthropometry, Erqonamics and 

Design. Taylor and Francis: London. 1986. 

influenced by values of the surrounding culture. 

The norms of the social and cultural system are 

influenced by the behavior and requirements of 

the business community. This mutual influence 

becomes even more complicated when an 

organization seeks to do business in a culture 

different from its own. 

Negandhi (1975) wrote that management 

practices, behavior, and effectiveness are 

functions of technology, location, market 

conditions and socio-cultural variables. Bedian 

(1975) stated that different cultures possess 

different organizational norms and behavior 

standards. Management practices of any nation 

are deeply rooted in the historical and 

religious origins of that nation's culture. 

They are a product of customs and traditional 

social values and are also closely related to 

the existing social and economic system. 

methods, job skills, discipline and morale, and 

management decision making. Attitudes within the 

organization are derived from the attitudes 

prevailing in the culture from which the 

organization members are recruited. Management 

practices, therefore must cope with the attitudes 

and prejudices of the cultures constituting the 

organization. Since these cultures have been 

influenced by religious doctrine and history, 

some do not contribute to the efficiency and 

productivity of business enterprises. 

Social values and ideologies are a result of 

evolutionary change over a considerable length of 

time. Moreover, the present cultural environment 

is a product of the intermingling of many 

cultures. Long and Seo (1977) believe this can 

lead to contradictory values even within the same 

society. They also state that business customs 

have their roots in the precepts of religion. 

Flynn (1982) states that the influence of In order to examine the relationship between 

business on the culture and customs of the the religious origins of culture, cultural 

country is noticeably strong in Japan and the values, and management practices, four nations 

United States, which are fully industrialized. are compared. These nations represent four of 

Harari and Zeira (1977) write that there is a the major religions practiced in the world. They 

similarity of perception among employees in are the United States (Judeo-Christian), Japan 

industrialized countries, irrespective of (Buddhism), India (Hinduism), and Egypt (Islam). 
Management Structures 

The industrialization of Japan is rooted in 

enabling religious doctrine and the resulting 

familial system in which the entire nation is 

considered to be one huge family. The emergence 

of the 'zaibatsu' (large corporate entities 

controlled by a select few of the wealthiest 

families) in the late nineteenth century was a 

logical adaptation of the familial system to the 

task of industrialization. (Sours 1982) 

The Japanese management system is a product 

of Japan's unique culture. Japanese managers do 

not behave as individuals, but as members of 

groups. A manager is the leader of a group and 

a subgroup below. All members move as an entity 

without deviation from the group. This is an 

absolute requirement in Japanese organizations. 

Hattori (1977) describes this as a conformationauthoritization process of decision making. One 

of the paths to being successful in an 

organization is loyalty. In decision making 

processes, group consciousness functions more 

prominently. No individual member can make 

decisions by himself. Drucker (1971) calls it 

decision making by consensus. Vogel (1979) 

Historical Perspective 

Egypt is one of the oldest civilizations on 

earth, pre-dating the dawn of historical records. 

Thus it has a culture which has been developed 

over centuries. 

Throughout its long development, the Nile 

Valley has received numerous accretions of 

people, each bringing variant cultural 

contributions. Some contributions of alien 

cultures were assimilated; however, most were 

shed as the Egyptian civilization solidified. 

The Persian conquest of 525 B.C. brought the 

influence of a civilization as complex as the 

existing one. (Berque 1972). Later came Greeks, 

Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, Turks and Albanians. 

The nineteenth century saw the stretching of the 

French and British empires into North Africa. In 

1798, Napoleon conquered Egypt. Although an 

Egyptian government remained, real power passed 

to the French. As time passed, the British 

became more involved in Egyptian politics as 

well. In 1879, the Europeans overthrew the 

Egyptian Viceroy and inaugurated a period of 

colonization which lasted through World War I. 

After years of unrest, Egypt was formally granted 
the 1920s. Later the industrial base was 

broadened by the development of the furniture, 

shoe-making, and tobacco industries. 

Several aspects of Islam directly affect 

business practices. Tritton notes that Islammic 

law forbids the collecting of interest or the 

selling of something not yet produced. Business 

is generally conducted with few written 

docgments and verbal contracts are binding if 

four witnesses are present. These ideas, 

combined with the feeling of the universal 

brotherhood of Moslems, lead to a business 

environment that is not highly aggressive 

or profit-oriented. Modern Egyptian industry is 

strongly affected by governmental policies and 

in many ways acts as an arm of the government in 

pursuing national goals. (Wilbur 1969) In this 

way, businessmen are able to-discharge their 

responsibility to the Islammic brotherhood. 

INDIA 

Historical Perspective 

India's history is a series of conquests, 

ending in the British Raj (rule). This period 

was the most influential because the British 

ruled with a strong hand. During the eighteenth 

private executives or other persons with power or 

influence should do for their families are 

entirely different than in the West. (Lamb 1964) 

Chowdhry (1966) believes that young Indian 

executives live in an atmosphere of conflict. 

They are torn between obligations to the family 

and community, norms of the profession and 

demands of technology. 

Management Structures 

Before independence in 1947, almost all 

businesses were privately owned and managed. 

With independence the nation embarked on the path 

of democratic socialism. Historically, Indian 

management has employed the patrimonial system. 

(Dhingra and Pathak 1973) 

Indian management structures have their 

origins in the system developed by the British. 

'Indian managing agencies' were family 

enterprises in which the son followed the 

father's footsteps (Basu 1958). Although 

managing agencies have been abolished, management 

of private enterprise is centralized and 

personal. Typically the family is headed by the 

eldest male and his delegation of authority is 

extremely limited. Recruitment is highly 

subjective with most positions going to 
capitalism and industrialization of the West to 

a change in religious attitude. In the Middle 

Ages, the Roman Catholic Church regarded trade 

as a necessary evil, and any profit in excess of 

a wage for the trader's labor was evidence of 

the sin of avarice. Calvinism, which followed 

the Reformation of 1517, developed the 

Protestant ethic, which sees work as a positive 

good in and of itself, holding that the ability 

to accumulate wealth is a sign of God's grace. 

The Protestant ethic legitimized the pursuit of 

profit and thus enabled the tremendous 

industrial expansion that took place in the 

United States after the Civil War. In 1517, 

Martin Luther challenged the church's separation 

of religious and secular life. Calvinism, which 

followed, developed the Protestant work ethic. 

Later, with the publication in 1776 of Adam 

Smith's treatise &I inquiry into the wealth of 

nations, the theory of capitalistic ethic was 

born. Under Adam Smith's theory of laissez 

faire, the best possible allocation of resources 

for the benefit of society takes place when each 

individual pursues his own best interest. 

Smith's doctrine was reinforced by the concept 

of social Darwinism or the survival of the 

fittest. What was published as a scientific 

discovery soon extended into the broader reaches 

of society. (McNeil 1967) 

In conclusion, a nation's primary religion has 

a strong influence on its predominant management 

structure. Religion affects management and 

business practices primarily by influencing 

family structure and society's views on 

materialism. Management structures and business 

practices which are largely consistent with such 

religious and societal beliefs will tend to be 

the norm in the country. 

Ballon, R. The Japanese Employee. Rutland, VT: 

C. E. Tuttle, 1969. 

Basu, S.K. The Managing Agency System. 

Calcutta: World Press, 1958, pp 188 - 207. 

Bedeian, A. "A comparison and analysis of 

German and American managerial attitudes 

toward the legitimacy of organizational 

influence," Academy of Management Journal, 

18, 4, 1975, pg 897. 

Berque, J. Egypt: Imperialism Revolution 

Translated by J. Stewart. New York: 

Praeger, 1972. 
g, 

p

foreign investment environment," in Lee, 

S., and Schwendiman, G., Eds., Japanese 

Management. New York: Praeger, 1982. 

Lamb, B.P. India: A World in rans sit ion. New 

York: Praeger, 1964. 

Long, W., and Seo, K.K. Management in India and 

Japan. New York: Praeger, 1977. 

McNeil, W.H. A World History. Oxford: Oxford 

University Press, 1967. 

Neghandhi, A.R., "Comparative Management and 

Organizational Theory: A marriage needed," 

Academy of Management Journal, 18, 2, 1975, 

pgs 334 - 44. 

Prasad, B.S., and Neghandhi, A.R. Managerialism 

for Economic Development. The Hague: 

Ghof f , 1968. 

Smith, Adam. Inquiry into the Nature and 

Causes of the Wealth of Nations. New York: 

Collier and Sons, 1901. 
agricultural residues, which are gathered 

rather than sold in the rural areas. Urban 

dwellers consume proportionally more wood 

than their rural counterparts, generally in 

the form of charcoal. Some estimates are 

that the capital city, Bujumbura, which 

accounts for about 4 percent of the 

population, consumes 25 percent of the 

fuelwood (World Bank, 1982). 

Burundi has vast unexploited peat 

reserves which may provide an alternative 

fuel source, if they can be harvested at a 

reasonable cost without serious ecological 

damage (they retain vast amounts of water and 

some bogs are important for dry season agriculture) and if people will accept peat as a 

suitable fuel. Peat is the first stage in 

the process of decomposition of plant remains 

which over time leads to coal. It has a low 

ignition temperature and burns easily and 

completely under proper conditions. Proper 

burning procedures, providing both primary 

and secondary air sources, are required to 

avoid the production of volatiles (smoke) 

(Bord Na Mona). It has been estimated that 

commercial and household fuel. The project 

component described in this'paper focused on 

the household market in the capital city, and 

was staffed by a sociologist (myself), 

assisted by an interpreter linterviewer and a 

stove designer. It was carried out during a 

four month period in Burundi. 

The household energy component was 

divided into two phases. The first phase 

consisted of a household energy use survey 

carried out in four "quartiers" or neighborhoods, inhabited primarily or exclusively by 

Africans. The second phase consisted of the 

construction of peat stoves in selected 

households, an assessment of the need for 

design modifications and their implementation, and an evaluation of their 

effectiveness and acceptance. 

HOUSEHOLD ENERGY USE SURVEY 

Based on 1980 census data, the four 

neighborhoods selected for the survey 

accounted for 51 percent of the total 

households of Bujumbura, and represented both 
g pp, 

preferences, fuel purchasing habits and 

familiarity with community service centers. 

Although one or two questions were 

problematic, the interview process was 

generally trouble-free. No household refused 

to participate. We carried around a sample 

brick of peat and it elicited great 

curiosity, occasionally attracting large 

crowds of people. Great efforts were made to 

interview the respondent alone, but success 

in this regard was achieved in only about 

half the 121 cases, since the concept was 

culturally very alien. 

The survey showed that most households 

cooked with charcoal, which they purchased 

daily in small quantities from a vendor 

located close to their home. Very few had 

the disposable cash to buy an entire sack at 

once, which would have greatly reduced their 

overall cost. Sixty-five to 87% of the 

households, depending on the community, 

cooked outside most of the year but moved 

inside during the rainy season. The more 

traditional households did all of their 

cooking squatting on the ground. Only'one of 

the more middle class neighborhoods showed a 

peat. There were no appropriate peat 

cookstove models available in either the 

developed or the developing world. Irish 

peat stoves were generally made of iron, and 

would have been prohibitively expensive in 

Burundi. We looked instead toward the low 

cost fuel efficient stoves developed for 

other fuels, primarily firewood, in other . 

developing countries. The first model was 

based on the magan choola of India and was 

constructed of scrap metal. Although this 

model appeared to burn effectively, once it 

had been modified to suit the combustion 

properties of peat, it was found to be too 

expensive. 

The next model selected was the clay 

Lorena stove (Evans, 1979) developed in ' 

Guatemala. Because some women had indicated 

a desire to cook standing up (like rich women 

with gas stoves) instead of squatting on the 

ground, and because certain combustion 

characteristics of peat appeared to 

contraindicate a cheap, metal stove similar 

to that used for charcoal, this seemed a good 

choice. It is made of clay bricks covered 

with mud plaster. It must be noted that 

there was no "expert advisor", such as a heat 

transfer engineer, available to assist us. 
pypy g

hood. The negative rumors were disproved. 

Peat did not eat holds in the commonly used 

aluminum cooking pots. Some users eventually 

decided that beans tasted better cooked on 

peat than on charcoal. Although the first 

stoves were free, we eventually began to 

charge a small materials fee. The experiment 

was judged to be essentially successful and 

the project was completed. 

CONCLUSION 

Various lessons can be learned from this 

project. One is that African women are by no 

means unwilling to accept innovations, even 

in such a traditional area as the preparation 

of their family's meals. Even when they 

could not obtain peat, they often sat their 

old charcoal burners on top of the clay 

stove, so they wouldn't have to squat. 

Another lesson is that men must also be 

involved in the cookstove process. Cooking 

is done outside the house in Bujumbura, and 

in the rainy season a clay stove soon suffers 

if it has no roof. Building even a simple 

yy g 

and in fact, the community, in the design 

process and treating them as intelligent 

contributors, we generated an enthusiasm for 

peat as a cooking fuel which would never have 

occurred had we used a top down design 

methodology. 

NOTES 

Special thanks are due to Riaz Gondal, 

who acted as the stove designer and 

co-collaborator on the prototype project, and 

to all the people of Bujumbura who so 

generously answered the multitude of unusual 

questions. Additional thanks are due to 

those families who dared to try cooking on a 

"block of dirt." 

REFERENCES 

Burundi Energy Assessment. Washington, D.C.: 

The World Bank, 1982. 

Ianto Evans Lorena Owner-Built Stoves. 

Stanford, CA: Volunteers in Asia, 1979.