Department of Health and Human Services

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

Safety and Health Training for an Evolving

Workforce: An Overview From the Mining

Industry

IC 9474

INFORMATION CIRCULAR/2004
Information Circular 9474

Safety and Health Training for an Evolving Workforce:

An Overview From the Mining Industry

By Kathleen M. Kowalski-Trakofler, Ph.D., Charles Vaught, Ph.D., CMSP, 

Launa G. Mallett, Ph.D., Michael J. Brnich, Jr., CMSP, Dana C. Reinke, 

Lisa J. Steiner, William J. Wiehagen, and Lynn L. Rethi

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

Pittsburgh Research Laboratory

Pittsburgh, PA

July 2004
This document is in the public domain and may be freely copied or reprinted.

Disclaimer: Mention of any company or product does not constitute endorsement by NIOSH.

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DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2004-155
CONTENTS

Page

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Introduction ................................................................................... 2

Mining workforce transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Learning characteristics of cohort differences ......................................................... 4

Training theories and methods ..................................................................... 5

Using general knowledge ......................................................................... 6

Perceived trends and potential applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

The bottom line for mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Conclusion and recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

ILLUSTRATIONS

1. Rate of U.S. traumatic occupational fatalities by industry division and year, 1983-1998 ...................... 3

2. Model for the evolving workforce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
SAFETY AND HEALTH TRAINING FOR AN EVOLVING WORKFORCE:

AN OVERVIEW FROM THE MINING INDUSTRY 

By Kathleen M. Kowalski-Trakofler, Ph.D.,1 Charles Vaught, Ph.D., CMSP,2 Launa G. Mallett, Ph.D.,2

Michael J. Brnich, Jr., CMSP,3 Dana C. Reinke,2 Lisa J. Steiner,4 William J. Wiehagen,5

and Lynn L. Rethi6

ABSTRACT

 Safety and health professionals recognize that training is a critical element of any effective safety and health

program. An extensive literature survey has led the authors to conclude that we are at the beginning of a

revolution in training due to changes in the demographics of the workforce, the rapid growth of technology,

and the universal ascendance of the information age. Of present major concern in the mining industry is how

to provide appropriate training for an aging workforce and concurrently develop training for the expected influx

of new and less experienced miners as older workers retire. This report explores the key issues in the changing

safety and health training area as identified by the multidisciplinary team of NIOSH researchers who conducted

the literature survey. Issues include generational differences between newer mine workers and the present

workforce with respect to their physical, psychological, social, and cultural characteristics; their learning styles

and work expectations; and the impact of technology. Some preliminary conclusions are offered for future

training needs.

1

Research psychologist.

2

Sociologist.

3

Safety and occupational health manager.

4

Supervisory general engineer.

5

Industrial engineer.

6

General engineer (now with the National Personal Protective Technology Laboratory, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Pittsburgh, PA).

Pittsburgh Research Laboratory, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Pittsburgh, PA.
2

INTRODUCTION

We are at the beginning of a revolutionary change in mine

safety and health training. The event leading to this revolution

is the projected retirement of a large number of today's mining

population within the next 5 years. Media coverage suggests

that the fast-approaching departure of "baby boomers" from the

workforce will have a profound impact on our Nation's economy

[Zachary and Rohwedder 2001; Kentucky Post 2001; Cines

2001; GAO 2001].

The mining industry is part of this trend. In fact, changes in

the workforce will have a greater impact on mining than in

many other industries because of past hiring patterns. The

mining boom that occurred in the late 1970s led to the

employment of many new miners, most of whom were in their

20s. Downsizing and layoffs occurred as mining became more

capital-intensive in the 1980s and 1990s. This led to a

corresponding decline in hiring new miners. This means that

mining today faces issues related not only to an aging

population of experienced miners, but also to training new

miners. The situation is becoming critical, and the industry will

need to apply a variety of effective and efficient approaches to

address emerging training problems.

Demographic changes have led us to examine training

concerns, but there are other compelling reasons that support the

belief that the challenges posed by safety and health training

issues (and solutions) require evolving and flexible responses to

meet the needs of the 21st-century miner. These issues include

the changing philosophy of training and learning theory, the

influences of a postindustrial economy, the information age,

rapid technological changes applicable to education, and the

sociotechnical nature of the mining environment itself.

A significant reason for the expectation that training will be

different in the 21st century reflects changes in the way safety and

health is taught. Miners who came into the industry after the

Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969 (and until

recently) were trained under a model that separated instruction and

production: training was a "staff" function and production was a

"line" function. Training and job performance were viewed as

discrete activities, with little connection between the two. Miners

were trained and then went to work. The next year, they were retrained and returned to work. Training and work have largely

resided in two separate spheres.

New miners are entering today's workforce at a time when

learning is beginning to be accepted as a continual and interactive

process. Current thinking recognizes the connections between

learning and work and acknowledges the importance of learning

as an integral part of the work process. The learner is perceived as

an active participant in his or her own instruction, bringing

personal experiences and world views to the instructional setting.

This "active" learning mode is based on the premise that certain

cognitive models and experiences are the basis for future learning

[Miller 2000].

Another key principle behind the present viewpoint on

training is the recognition that only a small fraction of all

learning results from formal training or teaching, and the rest

takes place outside the classroom. This implies that there are

many ways to promote and sustain the development of increased

learning besides traditional training.

Other contributors to the 21st-century training revolution

include widespread availability of information and the rapid

infusion of technology into our society. Gone are the days when

it was thought that power could best be exercised by restricting

the flow of information. It is now believed that knowledge management (KM) affords the most effective use of an organization's intellectual assets. KM adherents tell us that information

sharing and decision-making at the lowest level are keys to a

successful enterprise. KM, of course, has a major impact on

worker training. Changes in educational technology also affect

curriculum development and delivery.

Mining (along with agriculture, construction, and transportation) is one of the most dangerous occupations in the United

States (figure 1). As a critical element in an effective safety and

health program, training is especially relevant in the mining

industry because the mine environment is dynamic and constantly

changing. This dynamic environment makes engineering controls

harder to implement and frequently less effective than they might

be on a shop floor [Scharf et al. 2001]. Training serves as a

necessary condition for miners' well-being in their workplaces.

Even so, little attention has been given to the kinds of educational interventions that could help miners cope with their everchanging environment. There has been almost no research dealing with dynamic and physically demanding workplaces and

their effect on workers of various ages. Coal mine accident statistics from 1968 to 1978, after the last large influx of new

miners, suggest that being young and inexperienced leads to

higher injury rates among workers. Data also suggest that older

workers, while injured less often, sustain more serious injuries

with more lost time from the job [Fotta and Bockosh 2000].

Clearly, safety and health training should be a significant issue

for all mine workers, regardless of age.

MINING WORKFORCE TRANSFORMATION

The basis for the shift in training methods and styles is

grounded in demographic transformations and the globalizing

economy. The demographics of the workforce have changed

dramatically in the past few decades. There are currently four

cohorts of workers in the mining workforce. A cohort is a group

of individuals born at approximately the same time with

common experiences as they pass through life. Workers today

fall into the following categories defined by birth year:

Veterans (1922-1943), Boomers (1943-1960), Generation Xers

(1960-1980), and Nexters (1980-2000).

Because cohorts are generational, it may seem logical to assume that cohort differences are simply due to age differences.
3

Researchers studying age-related variation, however, have found

cohort membership to be a separate important factor. Problems

introduced into aging studies by cohort differences can be well

illustrated by the data. For example, when persons tested on the

Army Alpha examination in 1919 (mean age 19) were retested in

1961, they showed substantial increases in scores. When a new

group of 19-year olds were tested in 1961, they scored as high as

the 1961 scores of the 1919 group. "Thus, the apparent improvement with age was more fundamentally a cultural change."

[Stagner 1985].

Work-related cohort differences discussed in the literature

include such issues as career expectations, changing recruitment

and retainment strategies, skill obsolescence, and communication gaps. Each of these issues affects today's training practices.

Practically, training will have a positive impact only if

participants see it as valuable and worthwhile. Value determinations are impacted by a number of factors, one of which is

generational cohort variations. This means that training content

and methods have had to be reevaluated as new cohorts join the

Veterans and the Boomers in the training room. Today, "the

practical application of basic skills and job skills are preferred

over instruction in theory; hands-on activities over lecture"

[Ruch 2000]. As stated by Caudron [1997]:

Members of Generation X...are forcing companies to rethink and re-engineer their training programs drastically.

Gen Xers' values, communication styles, and life experiences are so different from those of the baby boomers

that traditional training doesn't stand a chance. To connect with these young employees, forget Father Knows

Best: bring on MTV.

Figure 1.—Rate (per 100,000 workers) of U.S. traumatic occupational fatalities by industry division and year,

1983-1998.

(NOTE: The number of fatalities is based on data from the National Traumatic Occupational Fatalities

surveillance system. Employment data are from the Bureau of Labor Statistics' Current Population Survey

monthly microdata files. 1998 data exclude New York State. "All other industries" includes manufacturing,

wholesale trade, retail trade, services, finance/insurance/real estate, and public administration.)
4

Recently, the authors developed a model to guide an exploration of issues in the literature and to determine how cohort

variation might impact the problem of training an evolving

mining workforce (figure 2). Initially, the model focuses on the

mining population in relation to the four cohorts found in the

general population: Veterans (1922-1943), Boomers (1943-

1960), Generation Xers (1960-1980), and Nexters (1980-2000).

Overlap exists in these group designations; in fact, some authors

use different terms to refer to the same cohorts. Zemke et al.

[2000] indicated that they would have overlapped the groups if

they had not been concerned about confusing the reader. For

convenience, the authors chose to use the Zemke et al. definitions, which would designate most miners in the current workforce as either Baby Boomers or Generation Xers. In all, more

than 330 articles were reviewed by our team in the areas defined

by the model.

Cohort is a key concept because it addresses the diversity of

today's worker population, which is substantially different from

the homogeneous worker population of the past 50 years.

Historically, the mining population may be viewed as fairly

homogeneous with common values, often because of the geographic location of mines and the adjacent communities and also

because families included generations of miners: a grandfather,

an uncle, a father, a son, a cousin. Career choice was relatively

predictable for those entering the workforce in mining communities, but this is not true today.

There is no longer an expectation of lifetime employment

with one company or even within one industry [Wyld 1994].

The psychological, social, and physical similarities and differences of cohorts, therefore, are basic to a better understanding

of the composition, characteristics, and needs of present and

future workers in the mining industry. In addition, past and

present training methods need to be reviewed and training approaches evaluated within the context of these various cohort

differences. With this information, training needs may be identified and appropriate evaluation techniques incorporated into

recommendations for the future.

LEARNING CHARACTERISTICS OF COHORT DIFFERENCES

Essentially, it took but four generations, or cohorts, of

workers to span the transition from a late industrial to postindustrial economy. Immediately before and somewhat after

World War II, but before the rise in the late 1980s of what came

to be called the "information economy," most of the Nation's

workforce was viewed as being homogeneous. Workers, in

general, were expected to stay with one company throughout

their careers, jobs were consistent and well-defined, and career

Figure 2.—Model for the evolving workforce.
5

directions were seen as always moving forward [Wyld 1994].

Individuals born in the 1930s through the early 1940s and

entering the workforce preferred a structured and traditional

learning environment. "A teacher teaches and a student listens

and learns" was the motto. The preferred training style was

logical, disciplined, and consistent. Trainers who followed

traditional styles of training were viewed as authorities and

almost automatically treated with respect by their trainees.

These Veterans were followed by Baby Boomers—those

born during or after World War II and raised in the postwar era

of extreme optimism, opportunity, and progress. Boomers are

discussed by Salopek [2000]. The traits associated with this

group are idealism, competition, antiauthoritarianism, and selfinterest. Boomers see training as a way to improve themselves

as workers and as people, so they are very interested in learning.

Those in this generation tie training to individual success.

Boomers will apply their strong work ethic in the training

classroom in order to improve themselves and to stand out on

the job. Boomers respond to a classroom that is more interactive without a central authority figure. Because they have

good interpersonal skills and like to interact with others, a

trainer can create a traditional classroom but give Boomers the

opportunity to talk and work with other trainees to accomplish

a task.

Generation Xers are those who were born between 1960 and

1980 and came of age in the shadow of the Boomers during the

rise of Asia as a supereconomy. The traits associated with this

group are diversity, skepticism, technical sophistication, and an

entrepreneurial orientation. Tulgan [2000] noted: "This

generation gap is different from others simply due to an accident

of history: we are living through the most profound changes in

the economy since the industrial revolution, and all of the forces

shaping the changing economy are the same forces that shaped

Generation X."

According to Tulgan [2000], Generation Xers learn well on

their own. They want to get involved with what they are

learning and get feedback on their use of skills. They respond

to trainers who are informed and who use time effectively

during training. Training materials created for Generation Xers

need few words, but they require more visual stimulation, such

as headlines, subheads, quotes, graphics, and lists.

Those born to the Baby Boomers and early Generation Xers

have been dubbed "Generation Nexters." This group is globally

concerned, health-conscious, and cyberliterate, as discussed by

Zemke et al. [2000]. Nexters think globally and exhibit and

expect diversity in all its forms: ethnic, religious, gender, etc.

Nexters are accustomed to classroom situations that encourage

interaction between students. They prefer to work in groups to

complete tasks. Nexters expect technology to be used in

training if possible and also expect the trainer to be comfortable

and competent in its use. Training materials created for Nexters

should be lively and varied, with multiple focal points similar to

materials created for Generation Xers. Nexters like to read, so

extra information should be included in training materials

geared toward them.

As noted by Ruch [2000]: "The common experiences of a

generation create a specific sensibility that connects its members

in some way." These connections may also have an opposite

result by creating divisions or differences that can lead to

misunderstandings between individuals from different cohorts.

TRAINING THEORIES AND METHODS

Training will only be successful if it is designed around

identified adult educational needs and sound learning principles.

Several authors [Caudron 2000; Lankard 1995] discuss the

importance of designing training materials targeted toward the

ways adults learn. Based on their research, these authors

suggest that the best adult learning experiences occur through

personal experience, group support, and mentoring. As opposed

to following the traditional model of an instructor imparting

knowledge to passive learners, training needs to allow employees to draw on experience.

Continuous on-the-job growth and skill development is

strongly suggested for the diverse workforce. The context of

learning is also important, since most adults want to know how

their newly acquired knowledge can be applied to the job.

Group activities are also important, as learners help each other

understand the learning experience through sharing knowledge

and questioning each other. The use of collaborative interaction

and an atmosphere where learners and instructors support each

other in the training process are key components in successful

training.

Lankard [1995] suggests three methods for trainers: action

learning, situated learning, and incidental learning. Action

learning is defined as learning that takes place in the process of

finding solutions to problems.

Action learning has been adopted in the workplace as a

viable approach to experiential management education

and development and an important element of a training

and development strategy...It involves the members of an

organization in group situations with the goal of helping

each group member learn through the process of finding

solutions to their own problems. Through this process,

learners increase their self-awareness and develop new

knowledge, attitudes, behaviors, and skills for making

changes and redefining their roles within new contexts.

In situated learning, knowledge is taught within the context of a

real-life situation. The notion is that by presenting content in an

authentic social context and culture, learning occurs that offers the

benefit of increased knowledge and potential for applying the

knowledge and skills in new ways in the real situation.

This strategy is based on the premise that knowledge is

not independent, but fundamentally situated, being in part
6

a product of the activity, context, and culture in which it

is developed...Thus, in situated learning, it is the authentic

social context in which learning occurs that offers the

benefit of increased knowledge and offers the learner the

potential for applying that knowledge in new ways and in

new situations.

Last, Lankard describes incidental learning—learning that is

embedded in the trainee's actions.

The primary intent of the activity is to accomplish the

task, not to learn. When incidental learning occurs, it is

a surprise—a byproduct of other activity. The learner

discovers something while in the process of doing something else. To act upon and pursue that discovery, the

learner must pull away from the primary or planned task

and examine the discovery clearly before he/she can learn

from it. Awareness of opportunities and the value of such

learning may be brought to learners' attention by emphasizing the outcomes they might anticipate through

incidental learning.

Examples provided include learning from mistakes, learning by

doing, and learning from personal experimentation. Lankard

concludes that these types of learning need to be considered for

future workplace training.

Accelerated learning has received a great deal of attention.

Greenbaum [1999] defines accelerated learning as a process in

which the learner is the key component of the learning process

as opposed to the content of the training. The key concept of

accelerated learning is that training methods and materials are

developed with an understanding of (and in support of) the

unique ways learners receive, process, recall, and use

knowledge and skills they are taught. Accelerated learning

acknowledges that everyone has a different preference for

learning. Some like to experience new content, while others

prefer to read about it. Some learners organize new information

following the "big picture" view, while others must follow a

logical sequence of discrete events in order to learn.

Accelerated learning—

• Uses the learners' existing knowledge as a foundation for

learning;

• Creates a collaborative environment by using specific

types and sequencing of events;

• Features a variety of perceptual styles to engage the

learner; and

• Applies real-life experiences to evaluate the learners'

knowledge and skills.

In short, accelerated learning incorporates a variety of teaching

methods and materials based on how people acquire knowledge

and skills in the "real world." The trainer's role changes to focusing on establishing an environment and processes that are

conducive to learning and facilitating training to enhance

retention.

USING GENERAL KNOWLEDGE

The growing interconnection between rapid technical change

and a globalizing economy has led organizations to increasingly

emphasize knowledge enhancement and knowledge application

in the workplace. The organization that survives is one that is

flexible and can improve its performance the best and the fastest. KM is an example of how organizations attempt to better

put to use their stocks of knowledge in order to improve

workplace performance.

In essence, all organizations must react to environmental

changes in much the same way—through information exchange.

The organization with the best, most accurate information in the

appropriate quantity and at the right time is the one most likely

to survive [Shockley 2000]. One outcome of this philosophy is

the growth of worker proficiency at knowledge-based decisionmaking and the organization's willingness to foster and enhance

employee skills in this area. It is generally recognized that, just

as KM allows organizations to react to their environment, it is

the decision-maker's facility at KM that determines whether or

not the organization will survive [Holsapple 2001; Holsapple

and Joshi 2001].

Bock [2004] characterizes the management of knowledge in

decision-making as a process with four parts that compose a loop:

• Knowledge is created. This happens in the heads of

people.

• Knowledge is captured. It is put on paper in a report,

entered into a computer system of some kind, or simply

remembered.

• Knowledge is classified and modified. The classification

can be the addition of keywords, or it may be indexing.

Modification can add context, background, or other

things that make it easier to re-use later. The test of this

step is how easily people in the organization will be able

to find and use the knowledge when they need it.

• Knowledge is shared. When knowledge is shared and

used, the persons who use it modify it. This takes the

loop back to knowledge creation.

Bock suggests that we look for important knowledge by asking:

"What do we lose when key people leave?" or "What do we

have to teach every new person?" He further notes that to

strengthen these repositories, we should change our thinking

from "training" to "facilitating learning," and put job aids and

learning tools in the hands of people on the job. This approach

allows for greater flexibility and breadth of learning for the

worker than the "old-fashioned" classroom structure. This

flexibility and increased knowledge are then reflected in the

organization.
7

The more that learning takes place, the more tacit or indirect

knowledge is created in the organization. The decision process,

which depends on explicit (clear-cut) and/or tacit (indirect)

knowledge, begins with the perception of a problem. Given the

increasing existence of unstructured conditions in modern

organizations, these problems are increasingly of the type that

require access to tacit knowledge. In recent years, organizations

have directed a great deal of interest to tacit knowledge and to

discovering ways it can be shared and used [Courtney 2001].

The decision process no longer consists principally of a

technically determined analysis, but of a developing mental

model that draws upon the store of tacit knowledge residing in

the organization.

Shockley [2000] suggests that training should run the gamut

from seminars in which senior managers explain why KM is

essential to survival and how each worker fits into the process,

to a review of the advantages of each individual having

information available to allow him or her to resolve problems

quickly and at the lowest level. The training should also

provide a general description of the organization's overall

system for capturing and disseminating information, and

specific instruction should be given any time a component is

added to the knowledge infrastructure or any time a critical

element changes. Communication skills become especially

important. Clearly, KM offers a set of tools and the opportunity

to support the reworking of organizational processes, but the

greatest benefit is likely to be innovation and creativity. Hackett

[2000] suggests that perhaps what is needed now is to apply the

lessons KM has to impart in order to create new organizational

capabilities for the enrichment of all.

PERCEIVED TRENDS AND POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS

A review of the literature with respect to overall evaluation

of trends in training indicates that organizations are indeed

conducting training using various sources [Cohen and Colligan

1998]. Both formal and informal training, incentives, worker

involvement, on-the-job training (OJT), and mentoring or

"coaching" are used. Today's employees also demand and expect more training and expect this training to provide them with

a growing "personal toolbox" of skills.

Lynch and Black [1998] used the Educational Quality of the

Workforce National Employer Survey to determine how

employers' training investments are appropriated. They found that

81% of the companies sampled provided some type of formal

training. Fifty percent used equipment suppliers and buyers for

training their employees. Thirty-six percent used private consultants, 34% used industry councils or associations, 33% used

technical or vocational institutes, 30% used community or junior

colleges, 20% used 4-year colleges, 12% used Governmentfunded training programs, and 5% used unions.

The researchers concluded that the types of training programs

offered by businesses varied considerably by employer. Most

employers offered some sort of informal training, and smaller

employers were less likely to provide formal training. In the

mining industry, training is mandated, and thus the principal

type of mine training would be considered formal.

Most U.S. organizations use a formal/informal approach to

provide training for their employees (although it must be noted

that it is easier to measure the effect of formal training as

opposed to informal training). Bartel [1989] reported that U.S.

organizations employing 50 or more workers spent $32 billion

on formal training programs. There are no such figures for informal workplace training. A survey comparing both formal

and informal training in relation to individual job wage growth

concluded that, when combined, formal and informal training

measures jointly accounted for the majority of improvement in

individual job wage growth [Loewenstein and Spletzer 1998].

In the past 20 years, studies have shown that incentives and

feedback programs have not only led to improved safety and

accident reduction [McAfee and Winn 1989], but have also

increased the skills knowledge of involved workers [Miles

1992]. Involvement of workers complements a movement back

to—

...training via apprenticeship and on-the-job training

experience that targets skills and knowledge and places

the burden of responsibility on the learner. Even though

the "renewed OJT" incorporates much of the new

technology...the knowledge and skills of the individual

trainer will always be the most critical component of OJT.

These include both knowledge of the job and the ability

to communicate that job effectively to the on-the-job

trainees [Semb et al. 2000].

Semb and his colleagues suggest that the body of literature

relating to tutoring (mentoring, coaching) might be extended to

the OJT environment with the ultimate goal of enhancing the

efficiency and effectiveness of the OJT. Although the number

of OJT studies is small (Semb et al. quote three references), they

suggest that there is rich material on tutoring, tutor training, and

supervisory training in the literature.

Today's employees demand training. Some suggest that it is

a key benefit, especially for younger workers. When it comes

to staying on the job, a study by Bridgegate LLC found that

workers under the age of 24 were twice as likely to be influenced by the amount of training provided as by money

[Kleiman 2000]. These young people have concluded that employment does not mean job security. Their only sense of security is what they know and how to do it. That is why they

value training so highly.

Experts agree that this emphasis on training benefits young

workers, while older workers are often neglected in the training

process [Hallett 1997]. Yet, training can mitigate declines in

performance as a worker ages. Age only accounts for a small

portion of the variance in worker performance. In one study,

older workers who received recent task training actually performed better than those who had not received recent training

[Czaja 1995].
8

There are several types of training that should be considered

for the aging workforce. These include task-specific training,

general ergonomics, age awareness, and employee wellness.

Specific training for older workers as well as their managers and

coworkers is needed now to educate them about the process of

aging and how it relates to job design. As physical and

physiological declines due to aging are discussed, the worker

should be given an opportunity to derive solutions for his or her

work environment.

Exercise and wellness programs, often promoted by companies for increased productivity, are critical for substantial

gains in muscle strength, aerobic capacity, thermoregulation,

mood state, and healthy lifestyle. Strength and flexibility

training can slow down the aging process and increase workers'

abilities. Physical function is strengthened through conditioning, reducing risk of injury and related costs while enhancing

productivity and worker capacity [Shephard 2000].

Czaja and Sharit [2001] report:

[When] considering skill acquisition, training and older

adults there are three important conclusions. One, older

people are quite capable of learning new skills, tasks, and

procedures. Two, training strategies may need to be

modified for older people and these modifications may

significantly improve the learning efficiency of older

adults. Finally, it is important to recognize that costs

associated with additional training or extended practice

may be offset by lower turnover and absenteeism among

older people.

The merits of providing transferable training (of use in other

jobs/industries) versus more job-specific training are currently

under consideration by companies. The current tendency is to

provide very specific, focused training for workers. Companies

are concerned that providing more transferable training may

develop skills that apply to competitive firms. In other words,

the global market for employee skills increases as the number of

skilled workers decreases, and organizations tend to underinvest

in training for fear of external "poaching" of "trained" employees. It is important to note that this trend in training is opposed

to the stated needs of certain workers, which are to focus on

their individual career development and to seek positions that

will allow them to improve their knowledge and skills. Thus, to

engage these goal-oriented employees, training needs to focus

on practical and universal skills and knowledge that satisfy the

workers' expectations.

Training must also recognize worker diversity. With the

"salad bowl" of employees needing safety and health training,

a comprehensive training program must include the following

assessment: (1) literacy among workers must be evaluated in

English or a native language; (2) if communicated in English,

workers must be taught to read and write English, with special

emphasis on workplace terms and language; (3) translators/

interpreters familiar with technical jargon should be used whenever possible; (4) signs and training materials must be easily

understood; and (5) cultural differences and their effects on the

workplace must be addressed.

One of the current trends in training is that of companies in

the same industry working together to develop "collaborative

materials." Dugas et al. [1999] identified a 1996 study that

looked at the success of delivering interactive instruction in the

workplace through industry organizations and associations.

Case studies were conducted looking at four human resources

council modules and four industry association modules. In all

cases, the councils or associations were contemplating development and distribution of courseware to associated employers.

The authors point out that these associations not only served as

developers and providers of courseware, but served as a conduit

to help small and midsize companies gain access to materials.

Six factors were identified as leading to the success of such a

program: development of partnerships, adequate needs assessments, authentication of materials, content that meets industry

needs, sufficient market for products, and appropriate delivery

media.

The final trend in training is that multimedia learning

materials are receiving the greatest attention. Dr. Brandon Hall,

a technology-based training expert has suggested that "this is a

major trend that's occurring and it's going to dramatically

change the face of training over the next several years

[Grensing-Pophal 1998]." Several authors [Dugas et al. 1999;

Grensing-Pophal 1998] point out a number of advantages to

using multimedia. They believe that multimedia instruction can

deliver training just-in-time, is self-paced, and, above all, is

interactive. Multimedia can also be cost-effective for employers

whose employees need constant upgrading of skills, but cannot

be released from work. The content of a training module can be

easily upgraded, especially if delivered on Intranet systems and

networks. Multimedia learning materials are particularly

advantageous for smaller and/or remotely located workplaces

where traditional training methods can be time-consuming and

expensive. Multimedia can offer reduced training time,

consistency in content delivery, and embedded evaluation.

THE BOTTOM LINE FOR MINING

In relation to training, investment in a human infrastructure

seems not to be understood by all accounting systems, some of

which are still firmly rooted in the 1900s. Some companies

view the capital outlay for training to build expertise within the

workforce as a cost, while these same companies might regard

the capital outlay to install a new state-of-the-art mine

monitoring system as an investment. If two companies have

similar resources to purchase similar equipment, what can

distinguish them in the competitive marketplace? The authors

argue that treating training as an investment can provide an

edge in safety, in performance, and in the "bottom line."
9

There are two key issues involving training as an investment:

cost-effectiveness and the measurement of training impact.

Donald Kirkpatrick [1976, 1977, 1998] is referenced widely for

his four-step process of training program evaluation, which was

first published in 1959. In 1976, Kirkpatrick defined evaluation

as "the determination of the effectiveness of a training

program." His steps include:

• Reaction – How well did the conferees like the program?

• Learning – What principle, facts, and techniques were

learned?

• Behavior – What changes in job behavior resulted from

the program?

• Results – What were the tangible results from the

program in terms of reduced cost, improved quality, improved

quantity, etc.?

Kirkpatrick's model of training evaluation has stood the test of

time and is still widely referenced [Mangum et al. 1990; Allen

and Nawrocki 2000; Fletcher and Chatelier 2000]. It allows for

the blending of motivation, learning, training transfer, and

economic benefit. There have been many issues raised,

however, that speak to the ongoing difficulty in assessing

bottom-line results of training. For example, as Rouse and Boff

[1999] note: "Investments to enhance human effectiveness in

complex systems are rife with several types of uncertainties,

intangible benefits, multiple stakeholders, and inherent

unpredictability. These characteristics make cost/benefit

analysis for such systems a considerable challenge." Additionally: "Psychologists and economists have both claimed the

evaluation turf and the measurement tools are so radically

different that it seems to confuse the decision maker" [Mangum

et al. 1990].

One reason why there has been a "push" to determine

"results" is mentioned by Oxenburgh [1994]: "Remember that

no matter what, or how good, your personal motivation is to

reduce injuries, you have to compete against other demands for

financial and personal resources within your company." The

idea to which Oxenburgh refers is one of competition between

divisions for scarce resources. Such competition within an

organization puts everyone in the position of needing to produce

favorable numbers on the benefit/cost question. Without

common agreement as to the factors to be considered on the cost

end and how to quantify intangible benefits, it becomes very

difficult to compare alternatives.

Treating training as an investment puts the mining industry in

a position to turn a crisis into an opportunity to develop its human

capital. In the future, organizations' viability may be influenced

in large part by their willingness to train workers in more transferable skills. In training workers in more transferable skills, they

are likely to follow the trends identified by Bassi and Van Buren

[1999]:

• Shifting from training to performance

• Training in computer skills

• Shifting from training to learning

• Creating virtual organizations

• Demonstrating training outcomes

• Measuring performance outcomes

• Delivering training to meet specific needs

• Fostering emphasis on KM

• Providing rapid development and deployment of training

• Providing teamwork training

Organizations incorporating these concepts into their employee

development plans will be at the forefront of preparing for the

needs and desires of the new cohorts of workers.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on this initial review of the psychological, sociological, ergonomic, training, education, and mining literature

relevant to the focus of who, what, where, how, and why we

train the future mining workforce, we recommend eight factors

on which training should focus:

• Demographic considerations.—Training should target the

different values, age-related work beliefs, and career expectations of the four generational groups discussed, plus

address other diversity issues such as cultural and language

differences.

• Formal and informal training.—Formal and informal

training both benefit the workforce, and together they offer the

best results in enhancing skill performance and, by inference,

greater safety on the job. In mining, where formal safety and

health training is mandated, attention should turn toward the

informal, mentoring, specific OJT.

• Content.—The content of the training must match the

needs of the worker being trained. The more mobile younger

workers tend to be more concerned about learning broader

(transferable) skills, which gives them the opportunity to change

careers if need be. For example, the specific skills for underground mining might also provide more general skills related to

those used by an electrician, mason, or equipment operator in

other settings.

• Learning styles.—Teaching methods must address different learning styles and be based on principles of adult learning.

• Worker involvement.—Support and training are needed

for workers to learn how to be involved in the organization, including training on management philosophy and practices,

communication, and policies. Management belief in worker input is crucial to worker involvement.

• Delivery methods.—Determining the best training method

is important. Multimedia should not be the only method used
10

just because it is the latest method of instruction. Although

computer training may offer many advantages to mining, the

delivery method needs to be carefully evaluated. For example,

teaching methods drawing on the knowledge of older workers

in class to create a dialogue with younger workers may be the

most successful method to transfer certain types of knowledge.

• Innovative ergonomic training solutions.—Ergonomic

solutions for worker safety and health should be viewed as a

preventive measure to build into training and into the workplace.

Integrating strength and flexibility training, wellness programs,

and healthy lifestyle training can become an accepted part of

future mine training.

• Evaluation.—Evaluation is an integral and key necessity

and should not be designed and added on as an afterthought. All

training programs used or developed for the evolving mining

workforce should contain an evaluation component such as field

testing, focus group input, judgment of performance, and/or

knowledge.

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