Whole-Body Vibration Analysis of 

Golf Course Maintenance Tasks

HHE Report No. 2018-0137-3385

August 2022 
Authors: Jessica G. Ramsey, MS, CPE

Scott E. Brueck, MS, CIH, COHC

Desktop Publisher: Shawna Watts

Editor: Cheryl Hamilton

Logistics: Donnie Booher and Kevin Moore

Keywords: North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) Code 713910 (Golf Courses 

and Country Clubs), Florida, Golf course, Groundskeeping, Grounds maintenance, Whole-body

vibration, WBV, Mowing, Mower, Back pain

Disclaimer 

The Health Hazard Evaluation Program investigates possible health hazards in the workplace under 

the authority of the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 [29 USC 669a(6)]. The Health 

Hazard Evaluation Program also provides, upon request, technical assistance to federal, state, and 

local agencies to investigate occupational health hazards and to prevent occupational disease or 

injury. Regulations guiding the Program can be found in Title 42, Code of Federal Regulations, 

Part 85; Requests for Health Hazard Evaluations [42 CFR Part 85]. 

Availability of Report

Copies of this report have been sent to the employer, employees, and union at the golf course. The 

state and local health departments and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regional

Office have also received a copy. This report is not copyrighted and may be freely reproduced.

Recommended Citation

NIOSH [2022]. Whole-body vibration analysis of golf course maintenance tasks. By Ramsey JG, 

Brueck SE. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease 

Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Health Hazard 

Evaluation Report 2018-0137-3385, https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/hhe/reports/pdfs/2018-0137-

3385.pdf. 
Table of Contents

Main Report

Introduction....................................................................................................................................................... 1

Our Approach ................................................................................................................................................... 1

Our Key Findings.............................................................................................................................................. 1

Our Recommendations.................................................................................................................................... 2

Supporting Technical Information 

Section A: Workplace Information............................................................................................................ A-1

Golf Course............................................................................................................................................... A-1

Employee Information ............................................................................................................................ A-1

Process Description ................................................................................................................................. A-1

Section B: Methods, Results, and Discussion .......................................................................................... B-1

Methods: Whole-body Vibration ........................................................................................................... B-1

Results: Whole-body Vibration .............................................................................................................. B-2

Methods: Informal Interviews................................................................................................................ B-7

Results: Informal Interviews................................................................................................................... B-7

Discussion ................................................................................................................................................. B-7

Limitations................................................................................................................................................. B-8

Conclusions............................................................................................................................................... B-8

Section C: Tables.......................................................................................................................................... C-1

Section D: References.................................................................................................................................. D-1
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1

Introduction

Request

Management from a golf course requested a health hazard evaluation concerning maintenance 

employees’ exposure to whole-body vibration. Employees reported pain or discomfort in their lower 

back, shoulders, neck, and knees, which they thought was related to excessive whole-body vibration

while doing certain work tasks.

Workplace 

The golf course consisted of 36 holes sitting on approximately 335 acres. Each hole consisted of a 

tee box, concrete cart path, fairway, grass and wooded rough, fairway hazards (bunkers, traps, and 

water hazards), and a putting green. The maintenance area consisted of an office building and partially 

covered structures for equipment storage. 

To learn more about the workplace, go to Section A in the Supporting Technical Information

Our Approach

We visited the golf course to learn more about health concerns and to measure whole-body vibration 

exposures. During our site visit, we completed the following activities:

• Observed work processes, work practices, and workplace conditions.

• Measured golf course maintenance employees’ exposures to whole-body vibration during 

two work shifts.

• Held confidential interviews with employees working during our visit.

To learn more about our methods, go to Section B in the Supporting Technical Information

Our Key Findings

Whole-body vibration exposures for most job tasks were above occupational 

action levels 

• The whole-body vibration crest factor ratios for the job tasks we measured ranged from 12–34.

Vibration with crest factor ratios greater than 9 are considered to have high impulsivity and are 

potentially more harmful.

• All of the job tasks we measured, except mowing the fairway, had whole-body vibration 

amounts that were above recommended action levels. 
2

• Driving a golf cart on a paved golf path was above the recommended exposure limit value of 

17 m/s1.75 during the sampling period.

• Operating the top dress and Tycrop equipment for a combined total of 7 hours, put the 

operator at the recommended exposure limit.

Interviewed employees reported work-related pain and discomfort

• Most of the interviewed employees reported low back pain and discomfort.

• Employees also reported pain or discomfort in other areas including the shoulders, neck, and 

knees.

• Employees stated that original equipment seats had been replaced with other manufacturers’ 

seats when they were worn out. This could contribute to pain and discomfort.

To learn more about our results, go to Section B in the Supporting Technical Information

Our Recommendations

The Occupational Safety and Health Act requires employers to provide a safe workplace.

Benefits of Improving Workplace Health and Safety:

 Improved worker health and well-being  Enhanced image and reputation 

 Better workplace morale  Superior products, processes, and services

 Easier employee recruiting and retention  May increase overall cost savings

The recommendations below are based on the findings of our evaluation. For each recommendation, 

we list a series of actions you can take to address the issue at your workplace. The actions at the 

beginning of each list are preferable to the ones listed later. The list order is based on a well-accepted 

approach called the “hierarchy of controls.” The hierarchy of controls groups actions by their likely 

effectiveness in reducing or removing hazards. In most cases, the preferred approach is to eliminate 

hazardous materials or processes and install engineering controls to reduce exposure or shield 

employees. Until such controls are in place, or if they are not effective or practical, administrative 

measures and personal protective equipment might be needed. Read more about the hierarchy of 

controls at https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/hierarchy/. 

We encourage the company to use a health and safety committee to discuss our 

recommendations and develop an action plan. Both employee representatives and 

management representatives should be included on the committee. Helpful guidance can be 

found in “Recommended Practices for Safety and Health Programs” at

https://www.osha.gov/shpguidelines/index.html. 
3

Recommendation 1: Reduce exposures to whole-body vibration

Why? Strong evidence of an association between whole-body vibration and low back disorder was 

found in 15 of 19 studies reviewed by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health 

(NIOSH). Whole-body vibration may act in combination with other work factors, such as prolonged 

sitting, lifting, and awkward positions, to cause increased risk of back disorders. Most job tasks were 

above the recommended action level for whole-body vibration. In addition, some job tasks were also 

at or above the recommended exposure limit for whole-body vibration. Most employees reported 

pain and discomfort in the low back area.

How? At your workplace, we recommend these specific actions:

Avoid driving on areas of the golf course known to be rough and uneven 

and take the shortest route when possible. 

Reduce driving speeds. 

Replace seats with original equipment seats, or when available, a seat that 

is designed to further dampen whole-body vibration. 

Reduce or eliminate rough and uneven areas of the cart paths through 

maintenance or replacement. 

Establish a schedule that rotates employees between job tasks. 
4

Recommendation 2: Encourage employees to report health concerns they think are 

work-related to their supervisors

Why? Identifying symptoms early can reduce severity. Management can periodically review this 

information to identify common procedures that might be associated with reported musculoskeletal 

health symptoms and safety concerns. Management can use this information to potentially identify 

opportunities for improvement.

How? At your workplace, we recommend these specific actions:

Establish a symptom reporting procedure so that information about 

reported health concerns and symptoms is documented. 

• Keep a log of employee symptoms related to work and periodically review the logs to 

look for trends. 

Encourage employees with health concerns to get an evaluation from a 

healthcare provider with occupational medicine expertise familiar with the 

types of exposures employees have and their health effects. 

• The American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine maintains a 

database of providers to help locate someone in your geographic area: 

https://acoem.org/Find-a-Provider. 
Supporting Technical Information

Whole-body Vibration Analysis of Golf Course 

Maintenance Tasks 

HHE Report No. 2018-0137-3385

August 2022 
A-1

Section A: Workplace Information

Golf Course

• Initially opened in the early 1920s

• 265 acres of maintained property (i.e., cared for in regular intervals)

• 200 acres of highly maintained property (i.e., mowed weekly) 

• Paved golf cart paths were approximately 50 years old

Employee Information

Number of employees at time of evaluation: 13-person crew plus an office clerk

Length of shift: Ranged from 24–40 hours per week

Union: American Federation of Governmental Employees Local 1897

Mean age: 56 years (range: 28–65 years)

Mean tenure at current job: 13 years (range: 1–40 years)

Process Description

The typical components of a golf course are 

shown in Figure A1. Maintenance employees 

were responsible for cutting grass in the tee 

boxes, fairways, putting greens, and roughs (the 

trees and taller grass along the periphery of the 

fairways) on a regular schedule. They also 

mechanically raked the sand in the bunkers

(also known as sand traps) daily. The same 

employees performed the same tasks on a 

regular basis, and due to the size of the course 

by the time they completed the full course, it 

was time to start over again. Additionally, 

employees performed biannual core aeration, 

periodic fertilizing, and regular sand top 

dressing of the putting greens.

Figure A1. Typical components of each hole at a golf 

course. Figure by Researchgate.net. 
B-1

Section B: Methods, Results, and Discussion

Methods: Whole-body Vibration 

We evaluated whole-body vibration exposure to the 

maintenance crew members during operation of 

groundskeeping equipment, tractors, and golf carts on 

September 3–4, 2018. We measured motions that created 

vibration between the seat and the operator during 

regularly scheduled groundskeeping operations. These 

motions were measured with a sensor (Larson Davis, 

HVM 200) that detects motion (acceleration) in three 

directions (axes). The sensor was embedded in a rubber 

seat pad oriented as specified by the International 

Organization for Standardization (ISO) 2361-1 [ISO 

1997]. ISO 2361-1 is an accepted standard for measuring, 

analyzing, and reporting results for whole-body vibration 

of a seated operator in a vehicle cab. The sampling rate 

was 1,000 Hertz (1,000 samples per second). The positive

z-axis was vertical upward perpendicular to the seating 

surface, and the positive x-axis projected anteriorly 

(forward) from the operator. The system was equipped 

with a data logger that we mounted to the side of the 

operator’s seat using a padded pouch and wraps. We 

taped the seat pad to the seat and used wires to connect 

the sensor to the data-logger. We taped or used plastic 

ties to secure the wires and data logger to equipment, 

so the measurement system was not intrusive to the 

operator, see Figure B1. We used a continuous measurement approach in which the data logger was 

manually started, and measurements were uninterrupted. 

We collected data while the operator was seated and operating the equipment under normal conditions 

including any loading, transporting, idling, or a combination of operation conditions. We excluded from 

analysis time periods when the operator was not seated on the equipment, such as during breaks or 

when operators got off equipment to make adjustments or do other tasks. We asked the maintenance 

employees to conduct their normal work activities and routines so that typical acceleration

measurements could be taken. Mowing tasks involved specific equipment for each task and data 

collection included driving between the areas being mowed (tee to tee, fairway to fairway, etc.) 

Employees typically took the shortest path between areas. NIOSH researchers measured whole-body 

vibration exposures for the golf cart task by driving a golf cart along the entire length of golf cart path 

at the course.

Figure B1. Rubber seat pad with embedded 

triaxial sensor for measuring whole-body 

vibration on the groundskeeping tractor seat.

Photo by NIOSH.
B-2

We evaluated the following tasks during our visit:

• Mowing the tees

• Mowing the fairway 

• Mowing the rough 

• Mowing the greens

• Mowing with a zero-turn machine 

• Top dressing the putting greens

• Fertilizing the putting greens 

• Mechanically raking the sand traps 

• Driving a golf cart on the cart path

Results: Whole-body Vibration 

We calculated crest factors, a measure of the impulsiveness of vibrations, using the ratio of weighted 

peak acceleration to weighted root mean square (rms) accelerations. Vibration that is more impulsive is

potentially more harmful than vibration that is not impulsive or has very low crest factor values. The 

American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) notes that its threshold limit 

value (TLV) is not valid for vibration with crest factors greater than 9 [ACGIH 2022]. The crest factor 

ratios for the job tasks we measured were all above 9, ranging from 12–34. The crest factors for the job 

tasks and sampling periods in shown in Table C1.

Additionally, the ISO indicates that when crest factors are greater than 9, the basic vibration evaluation 

method could underestimate the severity of vibration with respect to discomfort [ISO 1997]. For 

whole-body vibration crest factors greater than 9, ISO standard 2631-1 suggests using the “fourth 

power Vibration Dose Value (VDV) method” to evaluate potential health risk from vibration because 

the method is more sensitive to vibrational peaks [ISO 1997]. ACGIH has an action level and TLV for 

VDV exposures that follow the ISO 2631-1 whole-body vibration standard [ACGIH 2022]. The VDV 

action level is 8.5 meters per second (m/s1.75) and the TLV is 17.0 m/s1.75 for exposures up to 8 hours. 

VDVs between the action level and the TLV indicate that employees have a potential for experiencing 

health effects. 

The measured VDV values for the golf course maintenance tasks and sampling periods in shown in 

Table C2. All of the tasks, except mowing the fairway, were above the VDV action level of 8.5 m/s1.75, 

ranging from 11–17 m/s1.75. The only golf course maintenance task at or above the VDV TLV of 

17 m/s1.75 was driving the golf cart on the paved golf cart path. 

VDVs are dependent on the magnitude of whole-body vibration and task duration. To show the 

relationship between VDV levels and golf course maintenance task duration, we scaled VDVs for task 

lengths up to 8 hours using the equations below, based on the highest measured VDV value from either 
B-3

the x-, y-, or z-axis. Figures B2–B7 show daily VDVs for golf course maintenance tasks having 

durations of 2–8 hours. 

Where: 

VDVexp, x, y, or z = calculated VDV exposure for estimated task duration

VDVmeas = VDV for measurement period

Texp = duration of task for estimated vibration exposure (2–8 hours)

Tmeas = duration of measurement (hours)

Figure B2. Graph of VDVs for up to 8 hours when mowing roughs.

VVVVVVexp ,xx = 1.4 ∗ VVVVVVmeas ,xx � TTexp

TTmeas

�

1/4

VVVVVVexp ,yy = 1.4 ∗ VVVVVVmeas ,yy � TTexp

TTmeas

�

1/4

VVVVVVexp ,zz = 1.0 ∗ VVVVVVmeas ,zz � TTexp

TTmeas

�

1/4
B-4

Figure B3. Graph of VDVs for up to 8 hours when mowing the tee boxes.

Figure B4. Graph of VDVs for up to 8 hours when operating the zero-turn mower.
B-5

Figure B5. Graph of VDVs for up to 8 hours when mowing the fairways.

Figure B6. Graph of VDVs for up to 8 hours when using the Sandpro.
B-6

Figure B7. Graph of VDVs for up to 8 hours when using the fertilizer equipment.

For the golf course maintenance tasks we evaluated, Figure B8 shows when VDV exposures would 

reach the VDV TLV of 17.0 m/s1.75. The TLV for driving a golf cart was exceeded after 30 minutes. 

The TLVs were reached in 2.8 to 4.3 hours when using the rough mower, tee mower, and zero turn 

mower. The TLVs for using the Sandpro equipment, fertilizer spreader, and fairway mower were 

reached in 6.0 to 8.0 hours. Use of the top dress equipment would not reach the TLV during an 

8-hour work shift.

Figure B8. Time (hours) for golf course maintenance activities to reach the VDV TLV of 17 m/s1.75 (the top dress 

is not included in the figure because the VDV would not reach the TLV during an 8-hour work shift).
B-7

Additionally, we calculated an overall daily VDV when more than one task was performed per day. 

First, we calculated the partial VDVs for each task and each axis. Then, a daily VDV was calculated 

from the partial vibration exposures for each axis, using the following calculation:

VDVjj = [VDVjj14 + VDVjj24 ]1/4

The daily VDV is the highest axis of VDVx, VDVy, and VDVz. Table C3 shows the operator’s daily 

whole-body vibration exposure when performing multiple tasks. All the tasks are above the action level, 

however one set of tasks, operating the top dress and Tycrop equipment for a total of 8.5 hours, would 

put the operator at the VDV exposure limit.

Methods: Informal Interviews 

We invited employees to participate in confidential interviews. We collected demographic and job 

specific information such as name, age, job title, job description, years of experience, work history, and 

work- and nonwork-related symptoms and health problems.

Results: Informal Interviews 

We interviewed eight employees during our site visit. All the employees were male, ranging in age from 

28–66 years (median 56 years). The employees had worked at the golf course from 1–40 years (median 

13 years). Job titles of the interviewed employees included gardener, tractor operator, maintenance 

worker, and pest controller. Seven of the eight employees (88%) reported lower back pain/discomfort

the last 12 months. Other areas where employees reported pain or discomfort included shoulders 

(50%), neck (38%), and knees (38%). Three of the interviewed employees had visited a doctor or 

healthcare provider for their pain or discomfort. Two of those three employees were told by their 

doctor that their condition was work-related. Additionally, employees reported that the original 

equipment seats had been replaced on various equipment, sometimes with another manufacturer seat. 

Discussion 

In the United States, an estimated 7 million employees are exposed to whole-body vibration at work 

[Wasserman et al. 1974]. Exposure can cause chronic effects that affect employee health [Cohen et al. 

1977]. Most of the known chronic effects of whole-body vibration are concerned with changes in the 

spine and back of affected workers. Strong evidence of an association between whole-body vibration 

and low back disorder was found in 15 of 19 studies reviewed by NIOSH. Whole-body vibration may 

act in combination with other work factors, such as prolonged sitting, lifting, and awkward positions, 

to cause increased risk of back disorders [NIOSH 1997]. We found that golf course maintenance 

employees were exposed to whole-body vibration levels above the VDV action level. Because the seat 

of equipment may need to be replaced several times during its lifespan, it is important to replace with a 

seat that could provide vibration dampening. A previous health hazard evolution noted a relationship 

between driving speed and vibration level [NIOSH 2013]. Although we did not measure speed during 

this evaluation, reducing speed could reduce the employee’s whole-body vibration exposure. 

Additionally, we noted that maintenance employees drove the shortest distance between the areas they 

were mowing. Measurements included driving mowers from tee to tee, including the golf cart path and 
B-8

other rough surfaces. When possible, traveling over rough surfaces such as the cart path and the rough 

between fairways should be avoided to reduce vibration exposure. 

Limitations 

Whole-body vibration measurements can only document the equipment that was used and the areas of 

the golf course that were maintained during our visit. We did not collect data on the entire course, 

except for the golf cart paths. Therefore, results may be higher or lower on various days depending on 

the terrain of the different areas of the course. Additionally, results may vary depending on the 

equipment with a different operator. 

Conclusions

Most job tasks we evaluated were above the whole-body VDV action level, above which employees 

have a potential for experiencing health risks. Additionally, employees reported pain or discomfort in 

their lower back, shoulders, neck, and knees. We provided recommendations to assist with minimizing 

whole-body vibration exposures. These recommendations included reducing the amount of time spent 

on equipment, taking paths that are known to cause less vibration, and providing proper replacement 

seats on equipment.
C-1

Section C: Tables

Table C1. Whole-body vibration frequency weighted peak acceleration, frequency weighted root mean 

square acceleration, and crest factor values measured for golf course maintenance tasks

Job/Activity Frequency weighted peak 

acceleration (m/s2) 

Frequency weighted root mean 

square acceleration (m/s2) 

Crest factor 

(no units)

Top dress 20 0.58 34

Sandpro (Day 1)* 25 0.8 31

Top dress 14 0.53 26

Fertilizer 19 0.98 19

Tee mower* 21 1.1 19

Sandpro (Day 2) 18 1 18

Driving golf cart 23 1.4 16

Rough mower 19 1.2 16

Tycrop 16 1.1 15

Zero turn mower* 16 1.2 13

Fairway mower 12 1 12

* Task measurement did not include time during equipment idling and breaks. 
C-2

Table C2. VDV results for golf course maintenance tasks during the site visit based on measured wholebody vibration and cumulative task duration 

Job/Activity Measurement period 

(start–stop time) 

Cumulative sample 

duration (minutes) 

VDV

(m/s1.75) 

Driving golf cart 13:00–13:31 31 17

Sandpro (Day 1)* 05:35–11:05 285 15

Top dress (Day 1) 05:44–13:01 437 15

Rough mower 08:21–11:33 192 15

Tee mower* 05:27–08:47 180 14

Fertilizer 05:47–08:46 179 13

Zero turn mower* 09:19–11:08 81 13

Tycrop 05:28–06:55 87 13

Sandpro (Day 2) 09:19–10:58 99 12

Top dress (Day 2) 05:23–08:14 171 11

Fairway mower 12:08–13:16 68 8.2

VDV action level 8.5

VDV threshold limit value 17

* Task measurement did not include time during equipment idling and breaks. 

Table C3. VDV results for two different golf course maintenance tasks during day of site visit

Jobs Total time (hours) Axis with highest VDV VDV (m/s1.75) 

Top dress 1 + Tycrop 7.00 + 1.50 z 17

Top dress 2 + Rough mowing 2.85 + 3.20 z 16

Fertilizer + Sandpro 2 3.00 + 1.65 z 15

VDV action level 8.5

VDV threshold limit value 17
D-1

Section D: References 

Methods 

ACGIH [2022]. TLVs and BEIs: threshold limit values for chemical substances and physical agents and 

biological exposure indices. Cincinnati, OH: American Conference of Governmental Industrial 

Hygienists.

ISO [1997]. International Standard 2631-1. Mechanical vibration and shock–evaluation of human 

exposure to whole-body vibration. Geneva, Switzerland: International Standards Organization.

Discussion 

Cohen HH, Wasserman DE, Hornung R [1977]. Human performance and transmissibility under 

sinusoidal and mixed vertical vibration. Ergonomics 20(3):207–216, 

https://doi.org/10.1080/00140137708931623. 

NIOSH [1997]. Musculoskeletal disorders and workplace factors. A critical review of epidemiological 

evidence for work-related musculoskeletal disorders of the neck, upper extremity, and low back. 

Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and 

Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 

97-141, https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/97-141/pdfs/97-141.pdf. 

NIOSH [2013]. Evaluation of vibration exposure for interment technicians. By Ramsey JG, Lowe BD, 

Werren DM. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease 

Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Health Hazard 

Evaluation Report 2011-0166-3175, https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/hhe/reports/pdfs/2011-0166-

3175.pdf. 

Wasserman DE, Badger DW, Doyle TE, Margolies L [1974]. Industrial vibration-an overview. J Am 

Soc Saf Eng 19(6):38–43.
Promoting productive workplaces through safety 

and health research

HHE Report No. 2018-0137-3385