NIOSH Mining Program Information Circular IC 9534

Self-escape Core Competency Profile:

Guidance for Improving Underground 

Coal Miners’ Self-escape Competency

Centers for Disease Control

and Prevention

National Institute for Occupational 

Safety and Health
Information Circular 9534

Self-escape Core Competency Profile: Guidance for 

Improving Underground Coal Miners’ Self-escape

Competency

Margaret E. Ryan, MPH; Michael J. Brnich, Jr., CMSP; Cassandra L. Hoebbel, PhD

DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health 

Office of Mine Safety and Health Research 

Pittsburgh, PA • Spokane, WA

June 2023
This document is in the public domain and may be freely 

copied or reprinted.

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do not constitute NIOSH endorsement of the sponsoring organizations or their programs or 

products. Furthermore, NIOSH is not responsible for the content of these websites. All web 

addresses referenced in this document were accessible as of the publication date. 

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Suggested Citation 

NIOSH [2023]. Self-escape core competency profile: guidance for improving underground coal 

miners’ self-escape competency. By Ryan ME, Brnich MJ, Hoebbel CL. Pittsburgh PA: U.S.

Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National 

Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2023-133 (revised 

06/2023), IC 9534, https://doi.org/10.26616/NIOSHPUB2023133revised062023.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.26616/NIOSHPUB2023133revised062023

DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2023-133 (revised 06/2023)

June 2023

Front and back cover photos by NIOSH. 

Revisions 06/2023: The publication month was changed from May 2023 to June 2023. The author 

order was corrected in the suggested citation. A 2003 MSHA report was added to the reference list. 

Minor errors in grammar and layout were corrected for clarity. 
iii

Contents

Acknowledgments......................................................................................................................vi

Acronyms and Abbreviations..................................................................................................... vii

Introduction................................................................................................................................ 1

Chapter 1. Everyday Preparedness ........................................................................................... 7

Chapter 2. Situational Awareness: Mine Layout........................................................................13

Chapter 3. Emergency Diagnosis and Response......................................................................22

Chapter 4. Wayfinding...............................................................................................................29

Chapter 5. Self-contained Self-rescuers (SCSRs): Locating, Donning, and 

Switching/Swapping..................................................................................................................36

Chapter 6. Self-contained self-rescuers (SCSRs): Use and Expectations .................................41

Chapter 7. Communication........................................................................................................47

Chapter 8. Refuge Alternatives .................................................................................................54

Chapter 9. Firefighting...............................................................................................................58

Chapter 10. Overall Suggestions for Training and Assessment.................................................64

References ...............................................................................................................................68

Appendix A: Demonstration of NIOSH Self-escape Competency Survey Results .....................72

Appendix B: Personal Competency Assessment Forms............................................................75

Appendix C: Using Competency-based Training Strategies to Improve 

Self-escape KSAs: A Case Study .............................................................................................84

Appendix D: Training Resources...............................................................................................90

Appendix E: Post-exit Competency Items Based on Formal Task Analysis...............................94
iv

Figures

Figure 1. Illustration of the Shewhart cycle, which mine safety personnel can use as 

part of the ISD/SAT for continuous improvement ....................................................................... 6

Figure 2: First aid kit situated at a mine’s power center which serves as this mine’s 

designated meeting place .......................................................................................................... 7

Figure 3. Reflective lifeline signals sticker.................................................................................. 9

Figure 4. Accessible copies of the required Emergency Response Plan and Mine 

Emergency Evacuation and Firefighting Plan prominently displayed in the pre-shift area 

of an underground coal mine.....................................................................................................11

Figure 5. Escapeway map and roof control plan stored in PVC pipes at a mine’s designated 

meeting place ...........................................................................................................................13

Figure 6. Tagline/tetherline and escapeway map situated at an SCSR cache location..............17

Figure 7. Two miners navigating a smoke-filled simulated mine during an escape 

drill, looking at the mine map to locate key emergency resources while navigating 

towards the exit.........................................................................................................................18

Figure 8. A rescue capsule similar to the one used to rescue nine miners at Quecreek 

in 2002 and a display commemorating the rescue at the MSHA Academy in Beckley, WV.......21

Figure 9. A screenshot from NIOSH’s VR Mine immersive simulation training software 

depicting a section of a mine with dynamic ventilation...............................................................22

Figure 10. Miners navigating a smoke-filled simulated mine after fighting a simulated fire ........27

Figure 11. A red colored marker to indicate whether this is the primary or secondary 

escapeway and reflective signage to indicate the locations of a man door and SCSR cache....29

Figure 12. A group of miners using SCSR expectations training devices entering a simulated 

mine filled with smoke for a drill. The miners are walking single file and have their right hands

on the shoulder of the person in front of them to help them stay together in smoke ..................34

Figure 13. SCSR cache and tetherline storage. ........................................................................36

Figure 14. A group of miners donning live M20 SCSR units during a quarterly training.............39

Figure 15. SCSR cache ............................................................................................................41

Figure 16. Miners preparing for an escape drill in a smoke-filled simulated mine while 

using SCSRs ............................................................................................................................45

Figure 17. Surface mine phone and underground wireless tracking and 

communication systems............................................................................................................47

Figure 18. A mine phone affixed to the inside of a refuge alternative door ................................51

Figure 19. Reflective signage indicating the location of an RA in an underground coal mine.....54

Figure 20. A training demonstration of the deployment of an inflatable RA with the 

adequate space for requirements..............................................................................................56

Figure 21. Basic firefighting equipment stored in an underground coal mine.............................58
v

Figure 22. A group of underground coal miners engaged in hands-on firefighting training ........62

Figure 23. A safety trainer debriefing trainees after an emergency drill. ....................................67

Figure C1. Annual refresher map and lifeline symbol competency assessment quiz.................87

Figure C2. Annual expectations smoke drill mapping exercise..................................................88

Tables

Table 1. Performance Criteria (Core KSAs) for Everyday Preparedness.................................... 8

Table 2. Performance Criteria (Core KSAs) for Situational Awareness: Mine Layout ................14

Table 3. Performance Criteria (Core KSAs) for Emergency Diagnosis and Response ..............23

Table 4. Performance Criteria (Core KSAs) for Wayfinding.......................................................30

Table 5. Performance Criteria (Core KSAs) for SCSRs: Locating, Donning, and 

Switching/Swapping..................................................................................................................37

Table 6. Performance Criteria (Core KSAs) for SCSR Use and Expectations ...........................42

Table 7. Performance Criteria (Core KSAs) for Communication................................................48

Table 8. Performance Criteria (Core KSAs) for Refuge Alternatives..........................................55

Table 9. Performance Criteria (Core KSAs) for Firefighting.......................................................59

Table C1. Using competency-based strategies during 2018 self-escape training and 

preparedness events.................................................................................................................85

Table C2. How trainers translated self-escape competency survey KSAs into quiz items .........86
vi

Acknowledgments 

The authors would like to thank the following individuals for their contributions to the content of 

this guidance document: Brittney W. Bragg, NIOSH; Todd Dewitt, CONSOL Energy Inc.; Jason 

Diamond, CONSOL Energy Inc.; David Leverknight, Mine Safety and Health Administration 

(MSHA); Joseph A. Sbaffoni, JAS Mine Consulting, LLC; Richard Stoltz, MSHA; and the late 

Marlon Whoolery, Principal, Whoolery Training and Consulting. 

The authors would also like to acknowledge the following CONSOL Energy, Inc., safety and 

health professionals for incorporating the knowledge gained through this work into their selfescape training practices, as described in Appendix C of this document: Jason Diamond, Todd 

Moore, Shawn Dewitt, Todd Dewitt, and Ryan Nichols. 

This Information Circular has been reviewed in draft form in whole or in part by the following 

individuals: Dan Alexander, Ph.D., Adjunct Professor, Department of Mining Engineering, West 

Virginia University; Sekhar Bhattacharyya, Ph.D., Chair of Mining Engineering Program, The 

Pennsylvania State University; Thomas Barrington, Russell Bloomer, Brandon Boring, Nicholas 

Fallova, Benjamin Gandy, Kenny Garrett, Michael Getto, John Gibson, Eric Glisan, Kenneth 

Helfrich, Brittany Horton, David Leverknight, B. Shane McPherson, Thomas Morley, Nathan 

Mounts, Vance Rumbaugh, Paul Schmidt, Gary Shemon, Wesley Shumaker, Joey Wolford, 

Matthew Wharry, Andrew Yanik, MSHA; Tom Harman, Senior Director, Environment, Health 

and Safety, Portland Cement Association; John Opperman, Senior Safety and Loss Control 

Consultant, Encova Insurance; Josh Roberts, Director of Occupational Health and Safety, United

Mineworkers Association of America (UMWA); and William C. York-Feirn, Mine Safety 

Program Director, Colorado Department of Natural Resources (Ret.). 

Finally, the authors would like to thank Jeffery L. Kohler, Ph.D., Emeritus Professor, Energy 

and Mineral Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, for the initial scoping of this effort. 

Although the individuals mentioned above contributed to the work described in this document 

and/or provided valuable feedback for its finalization, their review of documents and/or 

acknowledgment here does not constitute endorsement of its final content. 
vii

Acronyms and Abbreviations

ABC airway, breathing, and circulation

AED automated external defibrillator

CCER closed circuit escape respirator

CPR cardiopulmonary resuscitation

DoD Department of Defense

EGL escape group leader

GAO Government Accountability Office

gOE Group for Organizational Effectiveness

IC Information Circular

ISD/SAT Instructional System Design/System Approach to Training

KSAs knowledge, skills, and abilities

MINER Act Mine Improvement and New Emergency Response Act of 2006

MSHA Mine Safety and Health Administration

MSTTC Mine Safety Technology and Training Commission

NAS National Academy of Sciences

NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

PPE personal protective equipment

RA refuge alternative

RP responsible person

SA situational awareness

SCBA self-contained breathing apparatus

SCSR self-contained self-rescuer
1

Self-escape Core Competency Profile: Guidance for 

Improving Underground Coal Miners’ Self-escape

Competency

Margaret E. Ryan, MPH;

1 Michael J. Brnich, Jr., CMSP;2 Cassandra L. Hoebbel, PhD3

Introduction

About the Self-escape Core Competency Profiles

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) developed this Information 

Circular (IC) for underground coal mine operators, managers, safety professionals, mineworkers, 

state and federal agencies, and anyone with an interest in improving self-escape preparedness. 

This document is intended to serve as a framework (or “competency profile”) upon which selfescape training for underground rank-and-file coal miners can be based. NIOSH researchers 

define rank-and-file miners as hourly workers with no formal self-escape leadership training or 

expectation to serve in a leadership role during the initial stages of emergency response but who, 

nonetheless, must be able to self-escape in the event of a mine emergency. 

The framework includes a set of nine core self-escape competency areas and related performance 

criteria. It is important to note that ALL underground coal miners, including those in self-escape 

leadership positions (e.g., the responsible person (RP) and the likely escape group leader (EGL)), 

must also be competent in these areas in addition to the competency areas specific to their 

leadership roles. These roles as they relate to endangered miners are covered in this document, 

but a detailed examination of all self-escape leadership roles and responsibilities is not. All 

aspects of mine emergency management remain a topic of great interest to NIOSH and selfescape leadership is the subject of ongoing research.

Mine safety personnel may use this document as a blueprint for planning and implementing 

competency-based training and assessment strategies at their mine sites. To help integrate this 

framework into current self-escape training practices, this document also includes guidance on 

how to introduce competency-based strategies into already required training activities (e.g., new 

miner training, annual refresher training, and quarterly escapeway training).

The self-escape competency profile for underground coal miners is based on the results of a fouryear research project carried out by NIOSH in response to recommendations made by the 

National Academy of Sciences (NAS) to advance self-escape training [NRC 2013]. An in-depth

1 Columbia University/New York State Psychiatric Institute. All work for this report was completed as an Associate 

Service Fellow, Pittsburgh Mining Research Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. 

2 Lead Mining Engineer, Pittsburgh Mining Research Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and 

Health (retired) 

3 Research Behavioral Scientist, Pittsburgh Mining Research Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety 

and Health
2

description of the purpose and scope of this research, including stakeholder consensus building 

and validation exercises, is provided in this IC’s companion publication, NIOSH Technical 

Report Advancing Self-escape Training: A Needs Analysis Based on the National Academy of 

Sciences Report, “Improving Self-escape from Underground Coal Mines” [NIOSH 2023].

Core Competency Areas and Training Topics 

The main body of this IC presents a self-escape competency framework for rank-and-file miners. 

This includes nine core competency areas and related training topics, as follows:

1. Everyday preparedness

a. Personal preparedness

b. Accounting for personnel

c. First aid

2. Situational awareness: mine layout

a. Location of mine emergency features and resources

b. Establishing and maintaining situational awareness

3. Emergency diagnosis and response

a. Knowing signs of danger

b. Decision-making

4. Wayfinding

a. General principles

b. Moving effectively as a group

c. Location and use of emergency features and apparatus

5. Self-contained self-rescuers (SCSRs)4: locating, donning, and switching/swapping

a. Locating

b. Donning

c. Switching/swapping

d. General maintenance

4 The SCSR approved under 42 C.F.R. Part 84, Subpart H, and closed circuit escape respirator (CCER) approved under 42 C.F.R. 

Part 84, Subpart O reflect two generations of the same respirator used in certain industrial and other work settings during 

emergencies to enable users to escape from atmospheres that can be immediately dangerous to life and health. The SCSR/CCER 

is used by miners to escape dangerous atmospheres in mines. Standards for the approval of CCERs were updated in a final rule 

published March 8, 2012, in which HHS codified a new Subpart O and removed only those technical requirements in 42 C.F.R. 

Part 84, Subpart H that were uniquely applicable to CCERs. All other applicable requirements of 42 C.F.R. Part 84 were 

unchanged. The purpose of these updated requirements is to enable NIOSH and MSHA to more effectively ensure the 

performance, reliability, and safety of CCERs used in underground coal mining. 

The former Subpart H performance rating system classified SCSRs by the duration of breathing air. Because duration is quite 

variable across users based on their diverse individual factors such as age, weight, and fitness level, NIOSH ‘s Subpart O 

requirements evaluate CCERs based on the liters of oxygen provided rather than the more arbitrary assessment of duration used

for the Subpart H SCSRs. NIOSH’s regulatory change applies to the approval of these devices whereas MSHA’s regulations 

apply to the deployment of these devices in mines. MSHA’s regulations remain to be duration based. 

Both SCSRs (approved under Subpart H) and CCERs (approved under Subpart O) are deployed in U.S. mines; however, the vast 

majority are SCSRs. For simplicity within this publication, NIOSH will use only the term “SCSR” throughout when referring to 

respirators that are appropriate to use for escape from atmospheres encountered in mining operation that are immediately dangers 

to life and health.
3

6. Self-contained self-rescuers (SCSRs): using and expectations

a. What to expect when using an SCSR

b. Communications

c. Preparedness

7. Communication

a. General principles

b. Communicating within an escape group

c. Communicating with the responsible person and surface personnel

d. Communication technology

8. Refuge alternatives (RAs)

a. When to enter

b. Operation

c. Managing resources

d. Communicating

9. Firefighting

a. Diagnosing

b. When to fight a fire

c. How to fight a fire

Each of these core competency areas is presented in the context of its related performance 

criteria; supplemental knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs); suggestions for training; and 

“KSAs in Action.” These elements are defined below. Also, for use by trainers, individual 

competency assessment checklists for each of the nine competency areas detailed in this IC are 

provided in Appendix B. These checklists can be used by individual miners to self-assess or to 

indicate anonymously which areas they would like to see additional training or by safety trainers 

as a reference to assess whether miners are able to properly demonstrate or explain each of the 

KSAs. 

Competency Areas

Through several stages and with substantial internal and external subject matter expert input 

along the way, researchers categorized critical self-escape KSAs identified through formal task 

analyses into nine core competency areas, listed above. These nine core competency areas are 

presented in the context of the four elements described below.

Performance Criteria (Core KSAs)

The core self-escape competency areas are made up of KSAs that task analysts [gOE/Aptima 

2016a; 2017 a, c] and internal and external subject matter experts considered critical and 

necessary for all underground miners to possess [NIOSH 2023]. For each of the nine competency 

areas, there are a number of topic areas and related core (or “need to know”) KSAs, which may 

serve as “performance criteria” or the learning objectives upon which to frame self-escape 

training and assessment activities. Successful explanation or demonstration of each KSA listed 

under each core competency suggests that miners have, for the time being, met the performance 

criteria or “mastered” that competency area. Examples of continuous formal and informal 

assessment activities that can be used to help monitor performance and prevent skill decay are 

described under each competency area’s “Suggestions for Training.”
4

Supplemental KSAs

The supplemental KSAs included in this document are those KSAs that subject matter experts

considered “good” or “helpful” for rank-and-file miners to know. These supplemental KSAs may 

provide an opportunity for additional or enhanced self-escape training when combined with the 

core KSAs during self-escape training and preparedness activities.

Suggestions for Training

Unless otherwise noted, the authors adapted suggestions for training for each of the nine 

competency areas from previous NIOSH research, NIOSH-sponsored contractor reports 

[gOE/Aptima 2016 a,b; gOE/Aptima 2017 a,b,c], and external subject matter expert feedback. 

Researchers mapped specific training suggestions to the relevant competency areas so that 

trainers may refer to them when planning competency-based training and assessment activities. 

KSAs in Action

The “KSAs in Action” sections include content from investigations and videos that document the 

mine emergencies that occurred at the Sago, Aracoma Alma No. 1, and Kentucky Darby Mines 

in 2006; Quecreek in 2002; Wilberg in 1984; and Farmington No. 9 in 1968. Researchers 

mapped specific KSAs listed in the competency profiles to quotations from cases representing

actions taken or events that unfolded during past mine emergencies to provide real-world 

examples of why these KSAs are important and why miners must be proficient in them [Cullen 

2017; MSHA 2007a; MSHA 2007b; MSHA 2007c; NIOSH 2009; Wooten 2006].

Miners’ Self-escape Competency: Why It Matters

Successful self-escape can require miners to utilize a wide variety of KSAs, some of which are

practiced throughout the year during required self-escape training and drills.

In three separate mine emergencies in 2006, over 80% of the miners who lost their lives survived 

the initial incident but perished while trying to-escape [Brnich and Kowalski-Trakofler 2010]. 

Investigative reports cited that deficiencies in miners’ mastery of numerous critical self-escape 

KSAs contributed to these fatalities, and the reports linked these KSA deficiencies to inadequate 

self-escape training [GAO 2007; McAteer et al. 2006 a,b; MSTTC 2006; NIOSH 2015].

The Mine Improvement and New Emergency Response Act of 2006 (MINER Act) strengthened 

existing self-escape training regulations and introduced new technologies, resources, and 

practices aimed at improving emergency preparedness in underground coal mines. Although the 

MINER Act also required the assessment of miners’ self-escape KSAs, it did not include explicit 

guidance on how to teach or evaluate these competencies [Hoebbel et al. 2018]. 

Moreover, the Mine Safety Technology and Training Commission [MSTTC] identified the lack 

of established assessment guidelines and practices as a key weakness in self-escape training 

system in the U.S. [MSTTC 2006], making it difficult for companies to readily identify gaps in 

critical self-escape KSAs before emergencies occur. NIOSH researchers have long emphasized 

the need for competency standards and procedures for measuring individual miners’ self-escape 

preparedness [Peters et al. 2010], beginning with “a comprehensive listing of competencies for 

miners, foremen, managers, and responsible persons” [NIOSH 2010, p 43]. 
5

The NIOSH-sponsored investigation conducted by the NAS in 2013 resulted in similar 

recommendations for NIOSH and MSHA to follow to advance self-escape training by shifting 

away from an hours-based system and, instead, to adopt a train-to-mastery self-escape 

framework with competency standards [NRC 2013].

Establishing a Framework for Competency-based Self-escape Training

The industry’s current hours-based system requires miners to attend a certain number of hours of 

annual refresher training, under the assumption that time in training will enable miners to build 

and maintain self-escape competence. Other activities, such as quarterly escapeway drills and 

SCSR expectations training, are more activity-based than hours-based, but guidance/requirements 

for competency assessment are limited. 

Completion of time-based training alone may not lead to full competence, particularly for 

complex procedural tasks. Results from the NIOSH Self-escape Competency Survey indicated 

that current time-based training has not resulted in full self-escape confidence among the mining 

workforce on any of 28 broad self-escape KSAs included in the survey [Hoebbel et al. 2018]. A 

brief summary of these results can be found in Appendix A and a detailed description of this 

research effort is provided in NIOSH [2023]. These findings further highlight the need for more 

effective guidelines and materials that mine companies can voluntarily use to effectively train, 

assess, monitor, and improve miners’ self-escape KSAs. 

Mining regulations in other countries such as the United Kingdom [Health and Safety Executive 

2014]; Australia [Queensland Government 2012], and South Africa [South African Government 

1998] require that coal miners meet minimum levels of education, training, experience, and 

assessment outcomes to demonstrate competence required to fulfill roles in coal mining. 

Competency-based education is also widely used in other fields, including the medical field and 

in emergency preparedness, to ensure that trainees can perform at a specific level of proficiency 

after they have completed training [Powell and Caraccio 2018; McGaghie et al. 1978]. 

According to Powell and Caraccio, there are four main requirements for a competency-based 

education system:

1. A standardized definition of competence

2. Frontline personnel willing to serve as competence assessors

3. Assessment, including evidence-based assessment tools and formative feedback

4. Performance monitoring and management over time

Using a Competency-based Framework for Continuous Self-escape Performance 

Management

To pave the way for effective self-escape training, NIOSH has developed an evidence-based set 

of self-escape competency areas with associated performance criteria along with training and 

assessment suggestions that the industry can use as an initial competency framework. Mine 

safety personnel can use these materials to introduce competency-based training, assessment, and 

continuous performance management strategies at their mine sites.
6

Figure 1 depicts an overview of how to carry out continuous performance improvement within 

the context of the Shewhart cycle (also known as “plan, do, check, act”). The Department of 

Defense (DoD) suggests that practitioners use the Shewhart Cycle as part of the Instructional 

System Design/System Approach to Training (ISD/SAT) [DoD 2001]. This same cycle is also 

recommended by the National Mining Association (NMA) in its CORESafety initiative for the 

management of safety and health in the mining industry [NMA, no date].

The cycle includes four basic steps: planning the approach, doing the activity, checking the 

results, and acting on the results.

Figure 1. Illustration of the Shewhart cycle, which mine safety personnel can 

use as part of the ISD/SAT for continuous improvement [adapted from DoD 2001].

The cycle begins with the “plan.” The plan will consist of all required training under CFR 30 

48.8 (annual refresher training) and the MINER Act [2006] (quarterly escapeway drills and 

expectations training) with emphasis placed on any identified or suspected deficiencies in critical 

self-escape KSAs. Once the training topics have been identified, the training suggestions 

provided within this document can help to facilitate what trainers might “do” to facilitate 

learning. “Checking” can include debriefing and other formal and informal assessment activities. 

Given varying degrees of operator restraints (e.g., lack of time and other resources), rigorous 

assessment activities will not always be feasible. The checklists provided in Appendix B can be 

used either formally (check the box if the trainee can demonstrate or explain each KSA) and 

informally (distribute to trainees and ask them to check the KSAs they think they can properly 

demonstrate or explain or identify items they would like to see more of during upcoming 

trainings). Thus, mine safety personnel can “act” to specifically target the competency areas 

most in need of improvement so that training efforts are tailored to miners’ specific, evolving 

needs, with the goal of continuous improvement.
7

Chapter 1

Everyday Preparedness

In addition to the core competencies discussed in the following chapters, it is essential that all 

miners remain current on all required trainings and take steps to increase personal preparedness 

to effectively respond to a mine emergency. Miners should be equipped with required personal 

protective equipment (PPE), functional devices such as multigas detectors and self-contained 

self-rescuers, and other necessities such as essential medications, reading glasses, food, and 

water. All miners should have a basic knowledge of who is working on their crew, including the 

designated responsible person (RP)5for their shift. All miners should also have basic first aid 

skills.

Figure 2: First aid kit situated at a mine’s power center 

which serves as this mine’s designated meeting place.

Photo by NIOSH

5 § 75.1501 Emergency evacuations. For each shift that miners work underground, there shall be in attendance a 

responsible person designated by the mine operator to take charge during mine emergencies involving a fire, 

explosion, or gas or water inundation.
 Everyday Preparedness

8

Core Competency Area

Table 1. Performance Criteria (Core KSAs) for Everyday Preparedness

6

“Serviceable” is defined by the manufacturer and may be different for different SCSR models.

7 This item was added to the competency framework based on external subject matter expert feedback which noted 

that outby workers, in particular, can benefit from this knowledge because it is not always straightforward to whom 

they should report; and oftentimes, the shift foreman and other “bosses” may not be in the workers’ direct vicinity.

Personal 

Preparedness

▪ Remains up-to-date on all required training 

▪ Knows the relative risk propensity of the mine (e.g., which is most likely to 

occur: gas or water inundation, fire, or explosion)

▪ When appropriate, the miner carries the following:

o Essential medications

o Emergency medicine sticker and card with known conditions

o Reading glasses

o Wristwatch

o Lunch and water

▪ Carries and knows how to use:

o Multigas detector

o Handheld radio

o Required personal protective equipment (PPE)

o Proximity sensor targets

▪ Has a serviceable6 SCSR on one’s person or within 25 feet of current location 

▪ Conducts checks on all personal equipment to ensure it is in working order

▪ Has the ability to attach to a tagline/tetherline in the event one is needed (e.g., 

belt loop, pants loop)

▪ Knows one’s own personal limitations and capabilities and has some familiarity 

with those of others on the crew/team

▪ Knows the chain of command for reporting a mine emergency (particularly for 

outby workers who may be working alone) 7

Accounting 

for Personnel

l

▪ Knows the location of and ensures the safety of inexperienced miners, if 

assigned

▪ Knows the identity and approximate or likely location of the designated RP on 

each shift 

First Aid ▪ Recognizes the need to seek medical assistance for oneself or others

▪ Knows where to locate first aid equipment and how to use it (e.g., backboard and 

straps, oxygen, automated external defibrillator (AED), bandages and dressings)

▪ Knows how to administer basic first aid for shock; check airway, breathing, and 

circulation (ABCs); and administer cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) 
 Everyday Preparedness

9

Supplemental KSAs for Rank-and-file Miners

▪ Knows procedures for immobilizing, transferring, and moving an injured miner

▪ Understands one’s own role in emergency response and that of the section foreman, who

will typically be responsible for leading the escape—i.e., the escape group leader (EGL)

▪ Has in mind a general escape plan with the crew every shift

▪ Has general knowledge of personnel on crew and assigned locations, as well as others

without assigned locations (e.g., construction crews, fire bosses, supply men)

▪ Knows the identity and location of new/inexperienced miners (e.g., “red hats,” new hires)

▪ Knows which crewmembers, if any, have specialized emergency response training or

experience (e.g., mine rescue, emergency medical, fire brigade)

▪ Knows one’s own personal limitations and capabilities and has some familiarity with

those of others on the crew/team

▪ If appropriate, carries the following:

o Extra permissible light

o Paper and pen

Figure 3. Reflective lifeline signals sticker8

8 Reflective lifeline signals stickers are available upon request at mining@cdc.gov.
 Everyday Preparedness

10

Suggestions for Training

First Aid

In addition to required first aid training, develop and incorporate practices into the 

training curriculum that require trainees to make decisions related to handling an injured 

miner (e.g., attempt to transport the injured miner out of the mine, to relative safety, or to 

await mine rescue).

Miners should be aware that sometimes, depending on the type of injury and severity of the 

injury, injured miners may need to be left behind during escape. 

Conduct group discussions and hands-on activities of different scenarios where miners 

must decide what do to if a member of the escape group is injured.

▪ Discuss, demonstrate, and practice how to provide first aid to an injured miner.

▪ Discuss scenarios where the escape group might have to move critically injured miners to 

relative safety during escape.

▪ Practice moving an injured miner in a confined space with low visibility (e.g., lights off, 

dust or smoke simulation).

▪ Practice administering first aid only with the equipment available to miners underground 

(e.g., if an AED is not available underground, avoid practicing a scenario where an AED 

is used).

▪ Demonstrate moving, loading, and transporting an injured miner on a backboard on the 

mantrip while using escape equipment (SCSRs, goggles, etc.).

▪ Rotate leaders (e.g., crew, first aid) during quarterly escape drills.

Use regular, everyday events as training opportunities.

▪ Explain to miners on each crew what initial actions need to be taken in the event of an 

emergency (e.g., deenergize equipment, notify foreman, etc.).

▪ Allow non-maintenance workers to shut down the belt when it is scheduled to be stopped 

for normal maintenance.

▪ Periodically require miners to pull power and lockout/tagout mining equipment.

▪ Rotate the operation of mantrips among workers.
 Everyday Preparedness

11

KSAs in Action

Figure 4. Accessible copies of the required Emergency Response Plan 

and Mine Emergency Evacuation and Firefighting Plan prominently 

displayed in the pre-shift area of an underground coal mine

Photo by NIOSH

Case:

Miners who formerly worked at the Wilberg Mine in Utah were interviewed about the 1984 fire 

that claimed 27 lives. One miner commented on the importance of everyday preparedness.

Your safety is in your hands. So keep yourself safe...take care of yourself. That’s what you 

have to do. Nobody’s gonna do it for you. You have to do it yourself. [Cullen 2017]

Relevant KSAs:

▪ Knows the relative risk propensity of the mine (e.g., which is most likely to occur: gas or

water inundation, fire, or explosion)

▪ Conducts checks on all personal equipment to ensure it is in working order

▪ Has the ability to attach to a tagline/tetherline in the event one is needed (e.g., belt loop,

pants loop)
 Everyday Preparedness

12

▪ Understands one’s own role in emergency response and that of the section foreman, who

will typically be responsible for leading the escape—i.e., the escape group leader (EGL)

▪ Knows one’s own personal limitations and capabilities and has some familiarity with

those of others on the crew/team

▪ Knows the identity and approximate or likely location of the designated RP on each shift

▪ Has a serviceable SCSR on one’s person or within 25 feet of current location

▪ Knows the chain of command for reporting a mine emergency (particularly for outby

workers who may be working alone)

▪ When appropriate, the miner carries the following:

o Essential medications

o Emergency medicine sticker and card with known conditions

o Reading glasses

o Wristwatch

o Lunch and water
13

Chapter 2

Situational Awareness: Mine Layout

Situational awareness (SA) can be defined as one’s ability to combine information about the 

current environment/situation with prior knowledge to form a clear idea of what is going on and 

what might happen next [Dominguez 1994]. Put more simply, situational awareness means 

knowing what is going on around you. To establish and maintain situational awareness, it is 

important that miners be familiar with the general layout of the mine, including how entries and 

crosscuts are numbered, the locations of emergency response features and resources, and 

awareness of landmarks, signage, and the direction of airflow. Some miners may have the ability 

to construct a mental model of the mine layout while others may need to rely on physical maps 

and other sensory cues.

Figure 5. Escapeway map and roof control plan stored 

in PVC pipes at a mine’s designated meeting place.

Photo by NIOSH
 Situational Awareness: Mine Layout

14

Core Competency Area

Table 2. Performance Criteria (Core KSAs) for Situational Awareness: Mine Layout

Location 

of Mine 

Emergency 

Features and 

Resources

▪ Recognizes one’s personal position in the mine relative to the locations of all 

emergency features and resources, including the following:

o Mine phones and other communication technology

o Meeting places

o SCSR caches

o Lifelines and primary and secondary escapeways

o Refuge alternatives

o Barricading supplies

o Tagline/tetherlines

o Mine maps9

o Firefighting equipment

o First aid equipment and medical supplies

Establishing 

and 

Maintaining 

Situational 

Awareness

▪ Pays attention to landmarks, signage, and the direction and temperature of 

airflow on the ride into the section and at the work location

▪ Knows the general layout of the mine

▪ Knows the numbering of entries and crosscuts on section

▪ Knows what questions to ask to gather specific details about changing conditions 

within the mine

▪ Establishes and maintains awareness of one’s own location within the mine 

relative to the event, if possible

▪ Recognizes one’s personal position within the mine relative to the locations of 

all emergency features and resources including primary and secondary

escapeways, exits, and fresh air

▪ Stays current on changes to mine installations (i.e., airshafts, slopes, and portals) 

▪ Uses handheld multigas detectors to assess air quality as one moves throughout 

the mine

▪ Notes the locations of transportation and whether transportation to the working 

section is staying or leaving the work location 

▪ Understands the basics of mine ventilation (location of air splits, airflow 

direction, point feeds, etc.)

▪ Knows what gases are present in the mine, how they interact, their potential 

effect on personnel, and event consequences

▪ Understands the basics of mine ventilation and expected airflow/ventilation in 

the mine

▪ Has a basic knowledge of the roof control plan and how it might change due to 

fires, explosions, etc.

▪ Knows the general locations of man doors (e.g., every 5th crosscut)

9 Mines are increasingly using handheld electronic devices which may contain preloaded maps. If applicable, all 

underground miners should have familiarity with this technology.
 Situational Awareness: Mine Layout

15

Supplemental KSAs for Rank-and-file Miners

▪ Has general knowledge of relative mine elevation (e.g., the location of higher and lower 

elevations)

▪ Understands the general potential impact of different emergencies on mine structure, 

ventilation, equipment, power, and communications

▪ Is made aware of changes in airshafts/slopes/portals and walks at least once in the first 

week after change

Suggestions for Training

Miners’ Understanding of the General Layout of the Mine

Help miners create a cognitive map of the layout of the mine and its features.

Cognitive maps are valuable for choosing and following an escape path that is most likely to lead 

to a successful escape. All miners should be able to read and interpret the mine map, but it is also

important for them to build and make use of mental representations of the mine, known as a 

cognitive map [Anderson 1990]. Many people are able to create cognitive maps of their 

surroundings through experience and practice. These mental maps may be the only resource 

available to miners in an emergency.

▪ The following are important elements of a cognitive map: 

o The physical layout of the mine (e.g., SCSR caches, primary and secondary

escapeways and lifelines, communication systems, and refuge alternatives)

o Miners’ current location within the mine

o Miners’ location relative to both the primary and secondary escapeways

▪ Encourage miners who are unable to create cognitive maps to always pay attention to 

their location within the mine and to carry or have easy access to a current mine map.

▪ Ensure miners know mine-specific primary and secondary escapeway marker colors and 

that these colors can vary by mine site.

Trainers and section leaders can help miners practice using a cognitive map as follows:

▪ Include the following in drill scenarios or quiz questions for the miners as they walk the 

escapeway during training:

o Key features in the both the primary and secondary escapeways (e.g., lifeline, 

respective marker colors)

o What to do if the escapeway is blocked at various points

o How to handle challenges that may occur (e.g., what to do if SCSR caches have 

been moved without the available mine map reflecting the change) 

▪ Immediately tell workers about new installations (e.g., entrances, shafts, slopes) rather 

than waiting until the next scheduled training.
 Situational Awareness: Mine Layout

16

▪ Have miners travel through the new installations within one week of the change.

▪ Predict and discuss what potential barriers or obstacles might exist on the way to the 

escapeway due to an explosion or other type of emergency.

▪ Present escape scenarios on up-to-date paper mine maps, showing locations of fire, 

inundation, explosion, or roof falls. Ask miners and teams of miners to draw the route 

they would take to escape in the presence of these obstacles.

▪ Review any cues that miners can use to determine which way to travel to get out of the 

mine in the presence of smoke or airborne dust in an emergency.

▪ Have the foreman review any recent changes or updates to the self-escape “picture” (e.g., 

if SCSR caches or refuge alternatives have been moved to new locations) with miners.

▪ During quarterly escapeway drills, note the estimated time it would take miners to walk 

the escapeways versus taking a mantrip.

Ask miners to consider situational awareness questions every time they go to a place to work.

Trainers and section leaders should encourage miners to ask themselves and each other the 

following questions daily:

▪ What am I/are we going to do in an emergency?

▪ Which direction will I/we head to escape (e.g., to find the escapeways, the mantrip, 

SCSR caches, etc.)?

▪ Where are the primary and secondary escapeways? 

▪ Where is the closest escapeway?

▪ What is between the escapeways and me?

▪ Where are my coworkers?

▪ How do current or planned changes in the mine installations (e.g., to entrances, shafts, 

slopes) affect and/or change escapeway routes?

▪ Where can I find an up-to-date mine map?

▪ Do I have or know where to find what I would need to write a note (e.g., chalk, paper and

pen)?

Integrate training opportunities into regular events at the job or worksite to maximize 

realism and promote skill transfer from the training environment to real life events.

▪ Without announcing ahead of time, ask miners to walk a portion of the escapeway path at 

the end of a shift.

▪ Use regular production moves to practice shutdown procedures.

▪ Provide the RP, EGL, or section foreman with “cue cards” of different escape scenarios

to review with miners during initial shift meetings or when breaking for lunch.
 Situational Awareness: Mine Layout

17

Conduct surprise simulated emergency event drills that occur at varying times and have

unexpected elements or obstacles.

▪ Conduct an underground escape drill at the end of a shift where miners need to escape the 

mine but the primary and/or secondary escapeways are blocked.

▪ Use SCSRs (e.g., expiring SCSRs that are available or training units) during surprise

evacuation drills when feasible.

▪ Conduct an escape exercise where a section of the lifeline is down, or have miners 

navigate from the section to the beginning of the lifeline or from primary to secondary 

escapeway.

▪ Turn off lights, use theatrical smoke or obscured goggles to impair vision while 

navigating to the escapeway entrance.

Figure 6. Tagline/tetherline and escapeway map situated at an SCSR cache location. Photo by NIOSH
 Situational Awareness: Mine Layout

18

KSAs in Action

Figure 7. Two miners navigating a smoke-filled simulated mine during 

an escape drill, looking at the mine map to locate key emergency 

resources while navigating towards the exit.

Photo by NIOSH

Cases:

In their investigative report of the 2006 Aracoma Mine fire, MSHA discussed events surrounding 

the evacuation of the crew from Section 2 after they encountered smoke in the escapeway.

It is not known why [the two miners that perished] did not escape via the alternate 

escapeway...[one] possibility is the two miners intended to remain in the NEM 

(Northeast Mains) intake air course. This was the route with which they were most 

familiar. [MSHA 2007a, p. 13]
 Situational Awareness: Mine Layout

19

When reporting on the 2006 explosion at the Darby Mine in Kentucky, MSHA discussed

findings from their assessment of the mine’s escape drills and fire drills. The agency determined 

escape drills were not conducted properly in that the drills were not switched between the 

primary and alternate escapeways.

Given that the miners had to escape on foot due to the explosion, the lack of practice 

relating to the alternate escapeway, more likely than not, added to the delay in evacuation 

of the mine. [MSHA 2007b, p. 26]

Had the miners been more familiar with the alternate escapeway, it is reasonably likely 

that the miners would have fared better in their escape attempt from the mine.

[MSHA 2007b, p. 26]

NIOSH researchers interviewed two miners who escaped from the 1968 explosion at 

Mountaineer Coal’s Farmington No. 9 Mine. One of the miners said his crew regularly 

emphasized meeting at the air shaft if there was a mine emergency. He said after the explosion 

occurred, the dump operator never came to the air shaft.

...and every weekly safety meeting that we had we always said if anything happened go to the 

new air shaft. He [the dump operator] didn't do it. He went the wrong way. [NIOSH 2009]

In their investigation of the 2002 Quecreek water inundation, MSHA noted multiple factors that 

contributed to the success of the rescue of nine trapped miners, which included the KSAs of the 

endangered miners.10

The miners who escaped the inrush of water made (similarly) good decisions. Their 

knowledge of escapeways and escape procedures aided their escape. [MSHA 2003, p. 66]

[Utilityman/Miner Helper] stated they should move to No.1 entry. [Shift foreman] had 

considered going to No. 2 entry since it had a little more space but agreed since No. 1 entry 

was located at the highest elevation on the section. [MSHA 2003, p. 16] 

Miners who formerly worked at the Wilberg Mine in Utah were interviewed about the 1984 fire 

that claimed 27 lives. One miner commented on the importance of wearing goggles while using 

SCSRs.

My biggest thing is always be aware of your surroundings, everything that’s going on around 

you. Keep your eye on the roof, keep your eye on the ribs; know who’s there with you, who’s 

not there with you and pay attention and remember your training. [Cullen 2017]

One miner, escaping with his crew, was having trouble with his SCSR. He decided to take an 

escape route that was less contaminated with smoke.

I made the decision I couldn’t go in this smoke...I did know where I was because...I’d 

worked in that area a lot...The other overcast that we just went over was over the intake...So 

10 Although the 9 endangered miners were ultimately rescued from Quecreek mine, the miners utilized critical 

wayfinding, decision-making, teamwork, and communication KSAs to get themselves into a position to make rescue 

possible. Other miners underground and those on the surface are also credited with quick thinking, effective 

decision-making and strong communication KSAs to lead to a successful outcome.
 Situational Awareness: Mine Layout

20

I went back...I went into the door and it wasn’t too bad...[I] got into the intake escapeway in 

2 Northwest [and followed it out]. [NIOSH 2000, p. 80]

The crew this miner was with was escaping through heavy smoke in the left return escapeway. 

As the crew reached a particular overcast where heavy smoke was pouring out, this miner 

recognized where he was and decided to make his way to the intake escapeway where he found 

the air was much clearer. He never told the escape group he was going out another way.

Note: While this decision worked out for both the decision-maker and the group he separated 

from, it is often recommended that endangered miners stick together and always recommended 

that they communicate their ideas, plans, or decisions to others in the group, whenever 

possible.

11

Relevant KSAs:

▪ Recognizes one’s personal position in the mine relative to the locations of all emergency 

features and resources including primary and secondary escapeways, exits, and fresh air

▪ Has general knowledge of relative mine elevation (e.g., the location of higher and lower 

elevations)

▪ Moves to higher elevation points, if possible, during water inundation

▪ Establishes and maintains awareness of one’s own location within the mine relative to the 

event, if possible

▪ Knows the general locations of man doors (e.g., every 5th crosscut)

▪ Is made aware of changes in airshafts/slopes/portals and walks at least once in the first 

week after change

11 All miners from this crew successfully escaped. However, when the main grouped exited the escapeway and 

conducted a head count, they discovered the last miner in line in the escape group was missing. This resulted in 

three miners going back into the smoke-filled escapeway and traveling to the last set of overcasts to look for him. 

Unable to find the missing miner, the group returned and learned the miner was out of danger.
Situational Awareness: Mine Layout

21

Figure 8. A rescue capsule similar to the one used to rescue nine miners 

at Quecreek in 2002 and a display commemorating the rescue at 

the MSHA Academy in Beckley, WV.

Photo by NIOSH
22

Chapter 3

Emergency Diagnosis and Response

Early diagnosis of potentially dangerous events in the mine can help in the prevention of or early 

response to a mine emergency. Thus, it is critical that all miners know and keep an eye out for 

signs of danger (e.g., smoke presence, loss of power, change in ventilation, elevated gas levels, 

alarms) and that they know what to do in the event that something does go wrong (e.g., travel to 

meeting location, alert others, decide to self-escape).

Figure 9. A screenshot from NIOSH’s VR Mine12 immersive simulation 

training software depicting a section of a mine with dynamic ventilation. 

Simulations such as these can be useful to train for emergency 

diagnosis and response decision-making.

12 More detailed descriptions of VR Mine and its potential for emergency response training is available in the 

NIOSH Technical Report associated with this IC [NIOSH 2023], Bellanca [2019], and Orr [2019].
 Emergency Diagnosis and Response

23

Core Competency Area

Table 3. Performance Criteria (Core KSAs) for Emergency Diagnosis and Response

Knowing 

Signs of 

Danger

▪ Knows the relative risk propensity of the mine (e.g., which is most likely to occur: 

gas or water inundation, fire, or explosion)

▪ Understands the significance of smoke presence (in airways, coming from fans, in 

return air shafts)

▪ Understands that even a small, localized methane explosion can damage or 

destroy ventilation control devices

▪ Knows critical gas levels (carbon monoxide (CO), oxygen (O2), methane (CH4), 

hydrogen sulfide (H2S), etc., if applicable) and how to respond, if out of 

acceptable limits

▪ Recognizes the meaning and significance of audio and visual alarm sensor alerts

▪ Recognizes the occurrence of and potential significance of a power outage or 

other interruption to the operation of fans

▪ Communicates conditions to the surface and other miners underground as soon as 

possible

▪ Calls out to confirm whether or not fans are running

▪ Understands the impact of fire, gases, and smoke on air quality

▪ Understands that both asphyxiation and poisoning can occur due to poor air 

quality

▪ Knows to verify and never ignore alarms and alerts

▪ Knows water or gas inundation can affect ventilation

Decisionmaking

▪ Recognizes the need to self-escape from the current work location or to travel to a 

meeting location or other place of relative safety

▪ Receives, acknowledges, and acts upon RP, EGL, dispatcher, and other outside 

guidance, as appropriate

▪ Knows to always ride out of the mine instead of exiting by foot if possible

▪ Understands the roles of the EGL and RP and defers to them if appropriate

▪ Recognizes the need for oneself or someone else to assume a leadership role

▪ Has general understanding of whether an injured miner or miners should be left in 

an RA to await rescue 

▪ Knows if and when to turn off equipment power 

▪ Knows where and how to barricade if all other options have been exhausted and 

an RA is not available

▪ Participates in the escape group’s decision-making
 Emergency Diagnosis and Response

24

Supplemental KSAs for Rank-and-file Miners

▪ Knows how and when to communicate any critical information about any miners still 

underground (location, headcount, names, physical conditions, needs)

▪ Knows how and when to communicate critical information about the situation (severity, 

conditions of the mine, affected areas, air quality, smoke, visibility, conditions of 

equipment, and needs)

▪ Knows if, when, and how to test roof conditions

▪ Knows who carries an anemometer to measure velocity and direction of airflow (e.g., 

foreman or fire boss)

Suggestions for Training

Diagnosis and Early Response

Prepare miners to be proactive and engaged in emergency preparedness and response.

Kowalski-Trakofler et al. [2010] describe initial response as “what happens between the time an 

incident is determined to be an emergency...and the time the rescue or escape is well 

underway” [Kowalski-Trakofler 2010, p. 1]. The timely diagnosis and response to a mine 

emergency, especially at the early stages, is critical to the survival of miners in a situation that 

involves self-escape. This requires that miners know the signs of danger and proactively know 

what action to take.

▪ Empower miners to communicate perceived risk before and during self-escape.

▪ Encourage miners to adopt the “see something, say something” mindset. This requires 

supervisor support and buy-in, which must be demonstrated to encourage participation. 

Trainers and mine management can emphasize this during training, encouraging this

mindset and behavior from the training group.

▪ Accept suggestions and questions from miners in good faith.

▪ In addition to those in self-escape leadership positions (e.g., RP, EGL, 

dispatcher/operator), cross-train all rank-and-file miners to assume some leadership 

responsibilities during self-escape.

Train miners on proper reactions to nuisance alarms.

▪ Discuss “nuisance alarms” that occur during normal operating conditions or activities 

(e.g., welding/cutting along belt) or because of faulty monitoring equipment.

▪ Teach miners to verify, rather than ignore, the validity of alarms that are suspected to be 

false.
 Emergency Diagnosis and Response

25

Train miners to understand and recognize cues associated with potential emergency events

and to quickly respond.

▪ Discuss subtle cues like change in direction of airflow, alarms and alerts, missing miners, 

and the presence of smoke and other odors.

▪ Help miners understand they may have more complete information than other miners, 

mine management, the EGL, and the RP and may need to make solo decisions.

▪ Emphasize the importance of communicating critical information to the surface and other 

miners as soon as possible.

Decision-making

Structure training so that decisions need to be made quickly and under some sense of 

pressure.

Providing more practice with decision-making in a variety of self-escape scenarios might make it 

easier for miners to make quicker, better decisions in an emergency. Miners might be better able 

to rely on what they have learned through practice to respond to real emergency events. This will 

allow miners to leverage their training to help them make decisions under a variety of situations.

Practicing all KSAs can lead to better retention and lessen the cognitive workload required for 

effective decision-making.

▪ Generate potential self-escape options.

▪ Discuss the tradeoffs and limitations of making quick decisions.

▪ Use time pressures to help uncover how trainees will respond under stress.

▪ Include elements such as surprises and varied challenges (e.g., impassible escapeway, 

communication and other equipment problems, roof falls).

▪ Periodically, on the section or other work location, present scenarios where decisions 

must be made quickly and with limited information, then debrief with groups about

decisions that were made.

▪ Periodically switch up groups during training to ensure that miners can become more 

comfortable working with those outside of their regular work group.

Practice decision-making in groups, with varying exercises/mediums.

▪ Use low-cost, high-impact methods for practicing decision-making skills, including 

group problem-solving exercises, classroom simulations, scenario-based training, and 

case studies.

▪ Gradually adjust task difficulty over time as miners indicate they are ready for more 

challenging exercises.

▪ Employ a variety of training media and modes (e.g., virtual reality, tabletop exercises, 

classroom simulations).
 Emergency Diagnosis and Response

26

▪ Structure training so that miners must make quick decisions and change their escape 

plans in real time as they encounter new information/barriers.

▪ Expose trainees regularly to realistic escape scenarios that enable them to develop and 

internalize “if-then” cues that they can instantly recognize when needed.

▪ Emphasize shared leadership when possible, to encourage the practice of transferring and 

sharing self-escape leadership functions among the escape group.

Discuss how to handle a scenario where one or more miners are missing after the initial 

emergency event.

▪ Have miners face a decision where they must decide to risk additional lives looking for 

missing miners or leave the missing miners and begin escape.

▪ Consider a simulation (e.g., quarterly response drill, tabletop exercise, scenario 

discussion) that could present situations that systematically vary in the risk the event 

poses to the miners, the number of missing miners, and the effects of miner knowledge of 

the mine layout and missing miners.

Increasing Realism

Provide high-fidelity simulations for developing self-escape knowledge and skills at 

trainings and drills other than annual expectations training, such as the quarterly 

escapeway drill. 

In addition to introducing time pressure, consider the following: 

▪ Utilize available technologies to communicate with the dispatcher on the surface.

▪ Have miners utilize an up-to-date mine map to bypass a simulated roof fall or other 

obstacle.

▪ Restrict trainees’ vision (e.g., use goggles or glasses that restrict a trainee’s ability to see).

▪ Use computer-based software (e.g., Mine Emergency Escape Training [Orr 2016] and 

Learn with Harry: Harry’s Hard Choices [University of Arizona, no date]), if possible, so 

that a group of miners can practice tasks that require teamwork (e.g., gathering at the 

meeting place, communicating, making decisions). The University of Arizona’s Western 

Mining Safety and Health Training Resource Center offers computer-based software for 

mine emergency response training: https://miningsh.arizona.edu/resources/software.
 Emergency Diagnosis and Response

27

KSAs in Action

Figure 10. Miners navigating a smoke-filled simulated mine after fighting a 

simulated fire. They donned their SCSRs upon evidence of smoke and 

encountered fire while exiting the mine.

Photo by NIOSH

Case:

During his interview about the 1984 Wilberg Mine fire, a miner describes the mine atmosphere 

in the area where he was working during the early stages of the fire. 

I looked around and it looked a little bit smoky. And I thought, well, they’re running those 

muckers out on the intake. Hauling cribs up you got exhaust...diesel exhaust and stuff 

coming off those muckers and it didn’t look excessive to me. It looked like just exhaust off the 

muckers. [Cullen 2017]

The following excerpts, drawn from miners’ experiences in evacuating hazardous conditions at 

various underground mines, are examples of individuals not perceiving danger when abnormal 

events begin to unfold. This normalization of unsafe circumstances can prevent quick diagnosis 

and response, and place miners in danger. 
 Emergency Diagnosis and Response

28

The fire boss at Brownfield13...saw the event incorrectly when he initially encountered 

smoke: “I stood up and I smelled smoke. I just kind of thought it was, you know, maybe a bad 

roller, the belt was rubbing on the straps, or something like that because we’ve had that 

before.” [NIOSH 2000, p. 73]

The haulage foreman at Cokedale14 seemed, to those who overheard his trolley phone 

exchanges, complacent about the problem he was facing: “I even heard him talk to the 

people [outside]. He said, ‘Look in my locker or by my locker and get another trolley 

switch.’” [NIOSH 2000, p. 73]

...one of the workers on 3 Left...thought his crew was leaving the face to fight a manageable 

fire: “They said ‘We got a fire on the belt. Back the machine out and let’s go.’ Well, I just felt 

we’d run down and put it out. I didn’t think there was any real major [problem]...” [NIOSH 

2000, p. 75].

The following excerpts are examples of miners working together to evaluate their escape options 

and escape during underground mine events that required evacuation.

Regrouping in the face area, several workers decided to gather information before beginning 

the next attempt to find their way out. An individual remembered the section map, which had 

been hanging in their dinner hole: “I stopped and got the map, read the map...what we wanted 

to do was see where it brought us out...[we] saw where it brought us out...we knew the smoke 

was coming down there so we knew...the fire had to be fairly close.” [NIOSH 2000, p. 149]

... [the miners] in 5 South crew began their evacuation down the belt entry: “We said we 

couldn’t go down the intake [escapeway] because that’s where the smoke was coming 

from...so everybody decided to go down the belt line.” These workers, who stayed close 

together throughout their escape, continued along the belt line until they hit heavy smoke 

and then crossed into the return aircourse. They traveled down the return entry, checking 

through doors for clear air as they went. [NIOSH 2000, p. 93]

Relevant KSAs:

▪ Understands the significance of smoke presence (in airways, coming from fans, in return 

air shafts)

▪ Understands the impact of fire, gases, and smoke on air quality

▪ Recognizes the need to self-escape from the current work location or to travel to a 

meeting location or other place of relative safety

▪ Understands that both asphyxiation and poisoning can occur due to poor air quality

13 Pseudonym used in place of the actual mine name to ensure anonymity at time of interviews.

14 Pseudonym used in place of the actual mine name to ensure anonymity at time of interviews.
29

Chapter 4

Wayfinding

Challenges and obstacles in the mine environment during self-escape (e.g., smoke, fire, gas, 

blocked escapeways) can make it difficult for miners to safely find their way to the mine exit.

Miners need keen situational awareness regarding mine emergency features and resources. In 

addition, it is critical that miners know to accept the presence of obstacles or setbacks during 

self-escape. Escaping miners should avoid splitting up if at all possible. 

Figure 11. A red colored marker to indicate whether this is the 

primary or secondary escapeway (left) and reflective signage to indicate 

the locations of a man door and SCSR cache (right)

Photo by NIOSH
 Wayfinding

30

Core Competency Area

Table 4. Performance Criteria (Core KSAs) for Wayfinding

General 

Principles

▪ Trusts training and relies on procedures learned and resources available

▪ Understands escape speed in emergency conditions can be reduced below 

normal walking speed

▪ Knows how to use other tactile wayfinding techniques (rib line, power cables, 

waterlines, belt, a cane or stick, if available) if a lifeline is not available

▪ Returns doors to the position they were found in when traveling through man 

doors or regulators

▪ Crosses over or under belts only at designated crossings

▪ Knows how to use handheld multigas detectors to assess air quality as one’s 

position changes

▪ Recognizes the need for oneself or someone else to assume a leadership role

▪ “Goes low” in smoke, after an explosion, or when encountering debris or 

difficult walking conditions

Moving 

Effectively 

as a Group

▪ Moves with and avoids splitting up the group, and gathers others as encountered

▪ Places one’s hand on the shoulder or belt of the person directly ahead if a 

tagline/tetherline is not available

▪ Reminds others to use available taglines/tetherlines

▪ Allows the most experienced worker to lead the tethered group, with the slowest 

person in the middle

▪ Whenever possible, remains attached to the tagline/tetherline when in smoke 

or dust

▪ Participates in identifying all miners present underground (e.g., headcounts)

▪ Communicates progress and other critical information (severity, conditions of 

mine, affected areas, conditions of equipment, and needs) to the surface and to 

other miners underground

Mine 

Emergency 

Features and 

Resources

▪ Knows how to find and use the following:

o Mine maps

o SCSRs (take extra units)

o Firefighting equipment

o Refuge alternatives

o Taglines/tetherlines (e.g., with everyone on same side, remain tethered 

when in smoke or dust whenever possible)

o Lifelines (knows tactile symbols)

o Primary and secondary escapeways including mine-specific designated 

escapeway marker colors

o Escapeway maps 
 Wayfinding

31

Supplemental KSAs for Rank-and-file Miners

▪ Moves to higher elevation points, if possible, during water inundation

▪ Knows if, when, and how to test roof conditions and where to set roof supports

▪ Recognizes signs of panic in oneself and others

▪ Knows who carries an anemometer to measure velocity and direction of airflow (e.g., 

section foreman, fire boss)

▪ Carries or uses cached writing instruments (e.g., pen and paper, chalkboard)

▪ Offers to take control of the group during escape if appropriate/necessary

Suggestions for Training

General Principles

Practice moving through the mine under realistic emergency conditions.

Miners must travel through the mine in emergency conditions with the potential presence of 

dangers and obstacles such as smoke, fire, water, and structural damage such as roof falls or 

blocked escapeways. Thus, miners must be prepared to move through the mine in various 

conditions under emergency scenarios.

▪ Have miners navigate the mine tactilely (e.g., no cap lamps or other lights). For example, 

miners could be required to find a power center only tactilely by following a machine 

cable, while moving along the escapeway using a lifeline, or while following a conveyor 

belt.

▪ Practice crawling or duck-walking to prepare for when visibility is possible only by 

“going low.”

▪ Practice nonverbal and verbal communication while using an SCSR. Emphasize keeping

the mouthpiece in place at all times, including while communicating. 

▪ Use simulated reductions in abilities (e.g., obscured vision or by creating an “injury” by 

strapping a knee or ankle) to increase realism in trainings throughout the year, not just 

during annual expectations training.

▪ Note difficulties during training for debrief and improved training.

Practice managing panic [Benson et al. 1974; Everly and Lating 2017].

▪ Practice deep (diaphragmatic) breathing with trainees, as it has been shown to produce a 

“relaxation response” [Benson et al. 1974] and aid in the management of acute stress 

[Everly and Lating 2017]. 
Wayfinding

32

Moving as a Group

Practice using the tagline/tetherline.

Keeping the group together in a mine emergency, under limited visibility and in dangerous 

conditions, can be a challenge. Miners must be prepared to use taglines and tetherlines in an 

emergency, to ensure that everybody can stay together and find their way out of the mine.

▪ Practice using a tagline/tetherline under various scenarios—for example, when boarding

a vehicle to self-escape, when the group must reverse its course, or when the group

follows the lifeline.

▪ Train the group to all link to tagline/tetherline from same side.

▪ Set the pace to the slowest or weakest member of the escape group.

▪ Practice team coordination while miners are connected via a tagline/tetherline. Focus on

communication and group situational awareness about changes to the mine environment

during different disaster scenarios.

▪ Eliminate potential barriers to cooperative work among the miners. Practice strategies for

controlling unhelpful emotions and train miners to work together to resolve conflicts in

escape scenarios.

Practice team coordination.

▪ Review and discuss potential challenging conflicts that might come up during the process

of self-escape.

▪ Review situations where the presumed EGL (typically the section foreman) might need to

relinquish control to another individual (e.g., is in panic, is injured, is not as capable as

another member), and where individual miners might need to assume a leadership role.

▪ Rotate non-supervisors into the role of the EGL during self-escape exercises. This will

help miners understand the role of the EGL and how to support that role when needed. It

will also help prepare them to carry out the EGL role if required.

▪ Provide opportunities for miners to discuss how they will work together in an emergency.

Miners should establish and confirm their respective escape roles and responsibilities, as

well as the actions they should take as a coordinated and cohesive group.

▪ Acknowledge the reality that conflicts may arise, and escape groups may split up due to

differences of opinion on how to proceed.

▪ Discuss with miners how team dynamics may change in response to a stressful situation.

o Help miners recognize that with uncertainty, some group members may hesitate

or resist the leader (if, for example, the leader says to use the refuge alternative).

o Expose miners to the unique challenges of team dynamics during escape training

and allow them to work through them. Debrief afterwards.
Wayfinding

33

Maintaining Situational Awareness

Provide mine map training and quizzes.

Miners’ ability to maintain situational awareness in normal and emergency conditions can help 

prevent both everyday injuries and prepare them for self-escape. It is important that miners 

understand the mine’s physical layout, the location of key self-escape resources, the exits and 

fresh air, and their own location within the mine. They must also maintain awareness of these 

things as their work location changes with work conditions and tasks.

▪ Present escape scenarios on up-to-date paper mine maps or handheld electronic devices,

if available, showing locations of fire, inundation, explosion, or roof falls.

▪ Instruct miners to draw their escape route from a variety of potential emergency

scenarios.

Train miners to understand the role and importance of situational awareness during escape.

Discuss how to overcome barriers to situational awareness (e.g., panic, confusion).

Ensure that drills use designated escapeways (both primary and secondary).

▪ Provide training for various escapeways by introducing obstacles in the primary

escapeway (e.g., with MSHA approval, conducting a scenario where a rockfall requires

re-routing).

▪ Always debrief after scenario-based trainings (e.g., “What went well?”; “Could you have

done something differently?”).
Wayfinding

34

KSAs in Action 

Figure 12. A group of miners using SCSR expectations training devices 

entering a simulated mine filled with smoke for a drill. The miners are walking 

single file and have their right hands on the shoulder of the person in front of 

them to help them stay together in smoke.

Photo by NIOSH

Cases:

Several miners attempted to escape in a battery mantrip from their work area in the Darby Mine 

following the explosion. 

After their personnel carrier became stuck on top of a damaged overcast, the crew attempted 

to escape out the No. 5 Entry following the high-voltage line... [MSHA 2007c, p. 25]

The Section 2 crew at the Aracoma Mine left their mantrip and started escape on foot towards 

the alternate escapeway, staying together and close to the rib.

En route to the [exit]...the miners held on to one another as they navigated the entry toward 

[the exit]. The men used the coal rib to guide themselves outby... [MSHA 2007a, p. 12]

One of the survivors of the Farmington No. 9 explosion was a shuttle car operator. After the first 

explosion, it was impossible to see because of dust and smoke. In his interview he described how 

his crew navigated back to the power center.

...my buggy cable was anchored at the dinner hole at the power center and that's where our 

self-rescuers were and...you couldn't see where to walk...So, we followed my buggy cable 

hand over hand back to the dinner hole... [NIOSH 2009]
Wayfinding

35

Miners who formerly worked at the Wilberg Mine in Utah were interviewed about the 1984 fire 

that claimed 27 lives. One miner commented on the importance of having situational awareness 

while wayfinding. 

Make sure you have a good up-to-date map and know the escapeways out of there right off 

the bat...I’m a firm believer if the guys that died...in the fire...knew their escapeways and 

knew where their self-rescuers were, they would have made it out. [Cullen 2017]

In their investigation of the 2002 Quecreek water inundation, MSHA noted multiple factors that 

contributed to the success of the rescue of nine trapped miners, including the escape group 

working together as a team. 

...the 1-Left section crew’s decisions to stay together, work as a team, and go to the highest 

ground were crucial for their survival. [MSHA 2003, p.66]

The following excerpts are examples of mine crews using their understanding of the mine layout 

and key features to guide their escape. 

A few moments later, several members of the group got lost by following reflective markers 

they thought led to an escapeway, but in fact marked a bleeder entry examination route 

which led to another part of the mine. The fire boss had to reassemble the group and told 

them: “Keep the stoppings to your left...if you don’t see one, go over till you do find one, and 

then always have the stoppings to the left of you...I told them, ignore the reflectors, because 

you are going to get lost.” [NIOSH 2000, p. 173]

Although the group encountered moderate to heavy smoke in the return, the foreman knew 

that the return airway would lead them directly past the fire area. The foreman, therefore, 

decided to continue traveling in the return, since he could follow a row of posts in this 

entry to guide himself. “I mean the return is double-timbered. I just stayed between the 

props and went.” [NIOSH 2000, p. 123]

The crew from [another section] also traveled through the...left return and used the props to 

guide themselves: “...we knew that the return went straight down because we’d walked it 

before. So we just stayed in the 6-foot walkway between the posts...” [NIOSH 2000, p. 123]

Relevant KSAs:

▪ Knows how to use other tactile wayfinding techniques (rib line, power cables, waterlines,

belt, a cane or stick, if available) if a lifeline is not available

▪ Moves with and avoids splitting up the group, and gathers others as encountered

▪ Places one’s hand on the shoulder or belt of the person directly ahead if a

tagline/tetherline is not available

▪ Reminds others to use available taglines/tetherlines

▪ Allows the most experienced worker to lead the tethered group, with the slowest person

in the middle

▪ Knows how to find and use mine maps, firefighting equipment, SCSRs, refuge

alternatives, taglines/tetherlines, lifelines, escapeways, and escapeway maps
36

Chapter 5

Self-contained Self-rescuers (SCSRs): Locating, Donning,

and Switching/Swapping

In a mine emergency, miners must be prepared to protect themselves if noxious gases (e.g., 

carbon monoxide) or low oxygen levels are present in the mine atmosphere. In case of a fire, 

they must protect themselves if there is the potential for life-threatening exposure to smoke. To 

prevent exposure to toxic, dangerous elements and to better ensure survival, miners must be 

prepared to successfully locate, don, and switch/swap between SCSRs during a mine emergency.

Figure 13. SCSR cache and tetherline storage.

Photo by NIOSH
SCSRs: Locating, Donning, and Switching/Swapping

37

Core Competency Area

Table 5. Performance Criteria (Core KSAs) for SCSRs:

Locating, Donning, and Switching/Swapping

Locating ▪ Has a serviceable SCSR on one’s person or within 25 feet of current location

▪ Knows the locations of SCSR caches

▪ Understands that SCSR caches are relocated during a section equipment or

power move

▪ Moves outby toward next accessible cache to switch/swap SCSRs

Donning ▪ Knows to don an SCSR:

o Upon evidence of a fire or explosion, first sign of smoke or heavy dust

o When a multigas detector alarms and indicates that one or more gases is/are

not within acceptable limits

o When instructed to do so

▪ Knows it is possible that carbon monoxide will precede smoke or other evidence

of fire

▪ Understands how to perform steps for opening, preparing, and donning all

SCSRs in use at the mine:

o Isolates the lungs first and adjusts straps to secure the unit close to the body

second

o Uses the manual start-up procedure if necessary and the correct procedure

applicable to the model (e.g., chemical oxygen units)

o If necessary, further adjusts neck straps so there is no tension or kinking in

the breathing tube

▪ Knows to wear the goggles with SCSR unit to protect against absorption of

carbon monoxide through the tear ducts

▪ Knows how and when to help others don an SCSR

▪ Understands that sealed, mine-ready SCSRs will be more difficult to open than

those used during training

▪ Knows that a short-term SCSR will last about 10 minutes and knows to move to

the nearest 1-hour unit after donning

▪ Knows that depletion rates may vary across devices and users

▪ Knows to keep the lungs isolated by never removing the nose clips or

mouthpiece, even if it is uncomfortable or difficult to communicate

Switching/

Swapping

▪ Knows when to switch/swap between SCSRs based on time, levels of exertion,

and oxygen gauge (if available)

▪ Knows breathing resistance is greater toward the end of the SCSR’s rated

duration

▪ Masters the sequence of steps for switching/swapping between SCSRs

▪ Knows how and when to help others switch/swap between SCSRs
 SCSRs: Locating, Donning, and Switching/Swapping

38

General 

Maintenance

▪ Inspects one’s own belt-wearable SCSR before each shift, checking the case, 

seals, clips, oxygen gauge (if available), and moisture indicator

▪ Does not use an SCSR for anything unsuited to its design (e.g., as a blunt force 

tool, as a seat)

▪ Knows when an SCSR should be removed from service

Suggestions for Training

Donning

Train SCSR use to the point it becomes automatic because of repetition and practice.

Miners must know how to don their SCSRs regardless of the conditions in the mine (e.g. in 

heavy smoke, with limited visibility, under stress). Donning the SCSR is often one of the first 

steps in evacuating from a mine emergency, ensuring that miners have a safe and adequate air 

supply when making their way out of a dangerous mine environment.

▪ Train miners often enough that the physical task of donning the SCSR correctly feels

automatic, leaving them with the mental capacity to focus on other decisions and actions.

▪ Stress the importance of donning and wearing the goggles when using the SCSRs to 

prevent absorption of carbon monoxide through the tear ducts.

▪ Ensure that trainees understand procedural knowledge first (e.g., the steps required for

donning an SCSR). Second, practice motor skills (e.g., hands-on practice donning the 

SCSR), and then third, focus on decision-making skills (e.g., whether to wait to don or 

switch/swap an SCSR).

▪ Whenever possible, use the mine’s expiring SCSR units or procure expiring units from 

closed mines to increase realism in device use and expectations.

Practice donning SCSRs under stressful conditions that mimic the conditions of a mine 

emergency [MSHA 2007a, pg. 26].

▪ Practice in an environment with limited visibility (e.g., darkness, smoke).

▪ Practice in the presence of distractions (e.g., noise, radio communications, confusion).

▪ Practice under time pressure (e.g., safety personnel timing how long it takes each miner 

to complete the donning procedure).

▪ Practice using real SCSR units that have expired and need to be sent back for 

refurbishment.
 SCSRs: Locating, Donning, and Switching/Swapping

39

Switching/Swapping

Improve team coordination through team training on switching/swapping SCSRs during 

an emergency.

Miners must know how to monitor their SCSR use and when to switch to a new unit. Additionally, 

the whole escape group must also be able to coordinate this process, planning and coordinating 

SCSR switching/swapping so that all miners’ needs are met (e.g., the whole group switch/swaps 

together when the first member must switch/swap).

▪ Practice team coordination during training, even though miners may be with a different 

“team” during an emergency.

▪ Train miners to switch/swap SCSRs together each time they reach a cache. Although 

units of the same model have the same oxygen capacity, each miner will use up the unit’s 

oxygen at different rates depending on their body’s oxygen requirements. 

KSAs in Action

Figure 14. A group of miners donning live M20 SCSR units during a quarterly training. Photo by NIOSH
SCSRs: Locating, Donning, and Switching/Swapping

40

Cases:

In their investigation report of the Sago Mine explosion, West Virginia investigators discuss one 

escape group’s use of SCSRs.

Some of the first-left crew donned their self-contained self-rescuers...However, others 

waited, thinking that they would find fresh air in the intake...when we [got to the intake] and 

saw that there was no fresh air there...we put our self-rescuers on... [Wooten 2006, 3.2.2]

In their final investigation report of the Aracoma Mine fire, MSHA described the mine’s SCSR 

training regimen. 

Training included donning a training unit in a small, dark room...to simulate donning under 

stressful conditions and poor visibility, such as in a smoke-filled environment...The described 

training exceeded the SCSR annual refresher training requirements. Miners evacuating... 

indicated the training was invaluable to escaping the mine. [MSHA 2007a, p. 26]

Miners who formerly worked at the Wilberg Mine in Utah were interviewed about the 1984 fire 

that claimed 27 lives. One miner commented on the importance of frequent hands-on SCSR 

training. 

Now all of a sudden everybody had to put their hands on, and these are good things, you know 

had to put their hands on their rescuers...when you are in a situation like that, if you are in 

smoke, if you are disoriented, if you are scared, it’s got to be automatic... [Cullen 2017]

Relevant KSAs:

▪ Knows to don an SCSR:

o Upon evidence of a fire or explosion, first sign of smoke or heavy dust

o When a multigas detector alarms and indicates that one or more gases is/are not

within acceptable limits

o When instructed to do so

▪ Knows it is possible that carbon monoxide will precede smoke or other evidence of fire

▪ Knows to wear the goggles with SCSR unit to protect against absorption of carbon

monoxide through the tear ducts

▪ Knows the locations of SCSR caches

▪ Moves outby toward the next accessible cache to switch/swap SCSRs

▪ Knows when to switch/swap between SCSRs based on time, levels of exertion, and

oxygen gauge (if available)
41

Chapter 6

Self-contained self-rescuers (SCSRs): Use and Expectations

Miners must know what to expect when using an SCSR so they can feel confident that their 

device is working properly during self-escape. Nonverbal communication skills are critical so 

that miners do not put themselves in danger by taking the mouthpiece out to communicate 

verbally.

Figure 15. SCSR cache.

Photo by NIOSH
 SCSRs: Use and Expectations

42

Core Competency Area

Table 6. Performance Criteria (Core KSAs) for SCSR Use and Expectations

What to Expect 

When Using an 

SCSR 

▪ Knows that breathing resistance will occur and that it may feel as if the unit 

is not working properly even though it is

▪ Knows that the unit can become warm or hot to the touch and breathing

resistance will increase the longer the SCSR is worn

▪ Understands that rate of escape should be reduced to below normal walking 

speed as breathing resistance increases

▪ Understands that resistance becomes greatest toward the end of the SCSR’s 

rated duration

▪ Knows to slow down to avoid depleting the oxygen supply before a 

switch/swap is possible

Communications ▪ Knows that verbal communication will be difficult or impossible while using 

SCSRs

▪ Knows nonverbal communication techniques (e.g., cap lamp signals, blinking 

lights, writing, tapping codes, hand signals) 

▪ Does not remove SCSR mouthpiece to communicate unless in fresh air (e.g., 

from RA)

Preparedness ▪ Picks up and carries an extra SCSR if possible

▪ Has a serviceable SCSR on one’s person or within 25feet of current location 

▪ Knows whether mantrip or other transportation is leaving the work area—if 

leaving, takes a 1-hour SCSR as transportation will not be immediately 

available

▪ Knows the duration of one’s personal SCSR and where the nearest cache of 

one-hour/high-capacity units is located

▪ Knows the rated duration of all SCSRs in use at the mine

▪ After donning an SCSR, tracks how much time has passed since donning the 

unit if possible

▪ Reduces one’s speed or activity rate as SCSR breathing resistance increases

▪ Raises the SCSR unit overhead if traveling through deep water

▪ Knows to wear the goggles from SCSR unit to protect against absorption of 

carbon monoxide through the tear ducts

Supplemental KSAs for Rank-and-file Miners

Knows to avoid fighting a fire while using an SCSR (a self-contained breathing apparatus 

(SCBA) with a full facepiece should be used instead, if the miner is trained and a unit available)
SCSRs: Use and Expectations

43

Suggestions for Training

What to Expect When Using an SCSR

Know and discuss the key issues that might influence a miner to remove their breathing 

apparatus [Kowalski-Trakofler and Vaught 2012].

To build trust in SCSRs and prevent confusion about whether the unit is working, trainers should 

help miners know what to expect when using the different types of SCSRs at their mine. 

Experience using SCSRs (or training units) while performing a variety of escape activities can 

help build knowledge and trust in the equipment. It can make miners more confident using these 

units during a real mine emergency.

Ensure that miners understand to not, under any circumstances, remove the SCSR 

mouthpiece unless they are certain they are in fresh air!

Key issues that might influence a miner to want to remove a breathing apparatus include:

▪ Heat generated by the SCSR

▪ Coughing

▪ Odd taste when the mouthpiece is inserted

▪ Difficulty breathing while using the unit

▪ Difficulty communicating

▪ Quality of the air supplied

▪ Nose clips slipping off or goggles fogging

▪ Behavior of the breathing bag (it may be working even if it isn’t inflating)

▪ Too much weight on neck from hose pulling (adjust or readjust unit straps)

Provide training that gives a sense of the experience of using an actual SCSR for long 

periods.

▪ Advise miners that the speed with which one walks, physical conditioning, speed and

depth of breathing, etc., will affect the rate of oxygen depletion.

▪ Have trainees walk around the mine property to replicate the actual time/distance it will

take to walk out of the mine while using the live SCSR units, if possible. Use expectation

trainers if live units are not available.

▪ Incorporate smoke, limited visibility, or crawling and ducking, which take longer and

may use more oxygen than walking.

Use live SCSRs during training when possible.

▪ Use live SCSRs (e.g., operational SCSRs that have reached the end of their service life)

whenever feasible.

▪ Encourage miners to share lessons learned from their experience using the live device.
 SCSRs: Use and Expectations

44

▪ Explain to miners that if they are moving or breathing too fast, they may “over-walk” or 

“out-breathe” the SCSR—i.e., their oxygen requirement is greater than the unit can 

provide, and they must slow down.

Communications

Address the challenges to communicating verbally while using SCSRs and offer 

communication strategy alternatives.

Using an SCSR severely limits or prevents verbal communication during a mine emergency. To

prepare miners to communicate during an emergency without taking off their SCSR 

mouthpieces—potentially exposing themselves to dangerous elements—miners must be fluent in 

some nonverbal communication strategies.

Options for communicating nonverbally while using an SCSR include the following gestures:

▪ Cap lamp signals

▪ Universal or mine-established tapping or beeping codes (1 = “Yes”; 2 = “No”) to answer 

questions from the surface or elsewhere in the mine 

▪ Paper and pencil, chalk, if available

▪ Hand signals, if trained [NIOSH 2011]
 SCSRs: Use and Expectations

45

KSAs in Action

Figure 16. Miners preparing for an escape drill in a smoke-filled 

simulated mine while using SCSRs.

Photo by NIOSH

Cases:

In reviewing SCSR usage following the Darby Mine explosion, MSHA’s final investigative 

report indicated miners did not appear to follow the correct procedure for using the devices.

The analysis of the SCSRs worn by [three miners who died of carbon monoxide poisoning] 

showed that the SCSRs had sufficient breathable oxygen capacity left to allow the miners to 

escape the mine. These factors indicate that proper SCSR usage procedures [including not 

taking the mouthpiece out to talk] were not followed. [MSHA 2007c, pp. 36–37]

After reaching a fresh air intake shaft at the Farmington No. 9 mine to await rescue, a miner 

describes his intention to remove his self-rescuer in what appeared to be clear air. He further 

stresses the importance of leaving one’s self-rescuer on until in a confirmed clear atmosphere.

And I started to take my self-rescuer out of my mouth when I looked over and Bud shook his 

head no and pointed to his rescuer. So, I left my rescuer in my mouth and within 30 minutes 

the 5 guys that had taken their rescuers out of their mouths were on the pavement, they were 

down...because of the carbon monoxide content in their blood. [NIOSH 2009]
SCSRs: Use and Expectations

46

So, when they tell you to put a rescuer on don't take it off until you get outside, they're not 

kidding. Just because the atmosphere is clear and looks good doesn't mean it's clear. There 

could be some, there could be some, deadly atmosphere, parts of that atmosphere, that you 

can't see, so you keep that self-rescuer on till you get outside, okay. [NIOSH 2009]

Miners who formerly worked at the Wilberg Mine in Utah were interviewed about the 1984 fire 

that claimed 27 lives. One miner commented on the importance of wearing goggles while using 

SCSRs.

But there were people who were wearing their rescuers but not their goggles...if you don’t 

wear your goggles, you get carbon monoxide in those ducts in your eyes...carbon monoxide 

poisoning is accumulative [sic] it’s not something that comes and goes...it builds up in your 

system...you have no oxygen carrying capacity. You’re done. [Cullen 2017].

The following excerpts are examples of common mistakes miners made when using SCSRs 

during underground mine evacuation, which could have dangerous or even fatal consequences 

depending on mine conditions.

Regarding use of their emergency breathing apparatus, expert opinion was that the crew 

members made some decision errors that could have killed them had carbon monoxide levels 

been high...[some] waited too long to don their apparatus. Secondly, almost half of the 

workers “cheated” by taking the mouthpiece out to breathe in areas where smoke was not so 

dense. [NIOSH 2000, p. 98]

A bratticeman described his experience [using his SCSR]: “And it seemed like the harder 

you used, you know, it seemed like you wasn’t getting the right amount of air out of them. But 

then [the boss] said, just slow the pace down.” [NIOSH 2000, p. 174]

Twenty-nine of the miners who escaped these fires (63%) reported having difficulty breathing 

with their SCSRs, largely because they were unfamiliar with how an SCSR worked. As a 

result, 27 of the 29 said they either took the mouthpiece out to catch a breath or “breathed 

around” the mouthpiece in smoke. [NIOSH 2000, p. 120]

Relevant KSAs:

▪ Knows that verbal communication will be difficult or impossible while using SCSRs

▪ Knows nonverbal communication techniques (e.g., cap lamp signals, blinking lights, writing,

tapping codes, hand signals)

▪ Does not remove SCSR mouthpiece to communicate unless in fresh air (e.g., from RA)

▪ Uses goggles with SCSR to protect against the absorption of carbon monoxide through

the tear ducts
47

Chapter 7

Communication

Clear, concise communication is critical in a mine emergency. To share information and 

cooperate with miners and personnel inside and outside of the mine during escape, miners must 

know what information to communicate, how to communicate it, and who to communicate it to.

This will help to expedite the coordination of emergency response activities and resources. 

Remember that the SCSR mouthpiece must not be removed to communicate. If it is safe to do so, 

communication can be attempted from a refuge alternative or by using nonverbal communication 

techniques.

Figure 17. Surface mine phone (left) and underground wireless 

tracking and communication systems (right).

Photos by NIOSH
Communication

48

Core Competency Area

Table 7. Performance Criteria (Core KSAs) for Communication

General 

Principles

▪ Speaks loudly and clearly

▪ Knows what information to gather and prioritize

▪ Knows how to concisely communicate critical information to others within the

mine and on the surface

▪ Does not remove SCSR mouthpiece to communicate unless in fresh air (e.g.,

from RA)

▪ Communicates with SCSR mouthpiece in place (“grunt lingo”) in the absence

of fresh air

▪ When possible, leaves handwritten notes or use other communications to relay

one’s plans

▪ Picks up the mine phone when passed during escape (if it is safe to stop at and

use during the emergency)

Communicating 

Within an 

Escape Group

▪ Knows how and when to communicate about plans and next steps with the

EGL and others in the group

▪ Determines how and when to use nonverbal communications (e.g., cap lamp

signals, blinking lights, writing, tapping codes, hand signals) with others in the

mine

▪ Speaks clearly and confidently to reassure those who may be panicking or upset

▪ Provides updates on one’s own physical condition and that of others in the

group to the EGL

Communicating 

with the EGL

and Surface 

Personnel

Reporting information:

▪ Communicates critical information about the miners still underground (e.g.,

location, headcount, names, physical condition, needs)

▪ Communicates progress and other critical information (severity, conditions of

mine, affected areas, conditions of equipment, and needs) to the surface and to

other miners underground

▪ Provides updates on the environmental conditions of the mine to the RP and

surface personnel

▪ Provides updates on the situation, plan, next steps, and needs to the RP and

surface personnel

▪ Provides updates on one’s own physical condition and that of others in the

mine to the RP and surface personnel

Receiving information:

▪ Receives, acknowledges, and acts upon RP, EGL, dispatcher, and other outside

guidance, as appropriate

▪ Repeats information received to confirm reception and understanding

▪ Confirms that information given is received and understood

▪ Knows what questions to ask to gather specific details about changing

conditions within the mine
Communication

49

Communication 

Technology

Communication 

Technology

▪ Understands how to operate all mine phones, radios, texting devices, and

backup systems used at the mine

▪ Uses nonverbal communications with others when necessary

Supplemental KSAs for Rank-and-file Miners

▪ Understands the potential effects of an emergency on communications equipment

▪ Carries or uses cached writing instruments (e.g., pen and paper, chalkboard)

▪ Responds to questions with universal or mine-established taps or beeps (e.g., 1 = “Yes”;

2 = “No”)

Suggestions for Training

Consider the value of training standardized communication techniques like structured 

communication, radio discipline, and nonverbal communication [NIOSH 1999, 2011a,b].

Communicating Within Escape Group

In a mine emergency, miners must work together during the process of self-escape. Effective 

communication skills can help the miners within the escape group coordinate their efforts.

Ensure all miners know the basic cap lamp communication signals.

Cap lamp signals may vary between mine sites and companies. Some examples include:

▪ Nodding in a circular motion = “It is safe to move forward”; “Come to me”

▪ Nodding up and down = “Move away” (or “Yes” when asked a question)

▪ Nodding from left to right = “Stop” (or “No” when asked a question)

Train miners to work together as a team in an emergency.

▪ Provide team-based practice under a variety of escape scenarios to encourage miners to

work together as a unit during their escape efforts.

▪ Arrange for team-based practice to take place with and without the RP and EGL to

encourage proper deference to leadership and leadership from rank-and-file miners when

necessary (e.g., when the RP or EGL are injured or unavailable).
Communication

50

Communicating to Leadership/Surface Personnel

Teach miners to use structured communication [NIOSH 1999]—establishing the “who,” 

“where,” and “what” essentials—when reporting a safety hazard or emergency event to 

others [Kowalski-Trakofler and Vaught 2012].

▪ Ensure that miners identify themselves first (who), then indicate exactly where the

incident is located (where), then clarify exactly what has happened (what).

Conduct scenarios in which communication lines between the miners underground and 

surface personnel are severed.

▪ Practice other ways trapped miners could communicate with the outside if seismic system

is deployed (e.g., striking the mine roof with crib block).

▪ Practice escape without access to surface personnel, such as the dispatcher, RP, or other

key leaders.

▪ Practice while keeping the mouthpiece in (nonverbal techniques or “grunt lingo”).

Communications Technology

Allow opportunities for trainees to practice coordinating tasks and procedures, including 

using communications equipment to coordinate escape efforts.

In an emergency, miners will need to use communication technology to communicate with one 

another and mine management or outside personnel. This is crucial for the coordination of the 

escape process.

▪ Practice using all communication technology available at the mine to communicate to

other personnel in the mine and on the surface.
Communication

51

KSAs in Action

Figure 18. A mine phone affixed to the inside of a refuge alternative door.

Photo by NIOSH
Communication

52

Case:

A mine examiner, walking the belt at the Aracoma Mine, immediately called the 

communications person to notify crews to evacuate.

[The belt walker] recognized smoke was traveling toward [the section]. He called outside 

and instructed [the dispatcher] to call [the section] and initiate an evacuation...receiving no 

response, [the dispatcher] then used the AMS computer to remotely stop the [belt]...Minutes 

after the belt was stopped, [the section production crew foreman] called [the dispatcher] to 

find out why the belt had stopped. [The dispatcher] informed [the section production crew 

foreman] of the fire and the need to evacuate. [MSHA 2007a, pp. 8–9]

In their investigation of the 2002 Quecreek water inundation, MSHA concluded that multiple 

factors contributed to the success of the rescue of nine trapped miners, including the quick 

thinking and persistence of miners in the affected area to notify others underground. 

[Shift foreman’s] decision and [the shuttle car operator’s] persistence to immediately notify 

the miners in 2-Left section was lifesaving because of the rapid inflow of water. Without that 

timely warning [the miners in 2-left] would not have been able to escape. [MSHA 2003, p. 66]

The following excerpts are examples of communication breakdowns during underground mine 

evacuations that resulted in varying accounts of what the conditions were and some miners not 

receiving notice to evacuate unsafe conditions. 

There were many independent conversations about the conditions that existed...with different 

information being shared. Some people were told a roof fall had occurred, [miner 1] was 

injured, and [miners 2, 3, and 4] were with him. Some were told there had been an explosion. 

Some were told a scoop battery was on fire while others may have been told there was a 

chance of a second explosion. [A foreman] knew miners had been injured and believed there 

was a fire in 4 Section. [MSHA 2001, p. 15]

Although [the CO room supervisor] told [the mine manager] that miners were evacuating 

the mine, investigators found no indication that any miner was notified to evacuate at this 

time. [MSHA 2001, p. 12]

...they said it was just a small [fire], burning on the belt. Well, if that’s all there was to it, we 

could have took [sic] a fire extinguisher, run down there in the mantrip [and put it out].

[NIOSH 2000, p. 75]

The Barrier Section Crew exited the mine at the North portal at approximately 3:35 p.m. 

[Miner A and Miner B] were removing track at the East Mains area inby the South portal. 

They were not informed that an explosion had occurred and exited the mine about 4:10 p.m. 

[MSHA 2010, p. 20]

Relevant KSAs:

▪ Knows what information to gather and prioritize

▪ Knows how to concisely communicate critical information to others within the mine and

on the surface
Communication

53

▪ Understands how to operate all mine phones, radios, texting devices, and backup systems

used at the mine

▪ Communicates progress and other critical information (severity, conditions of mine,

affected areas, conditions of equipment, and needs) to the surface and to other miners

underground

▪ Receives, acknowledges, and acts upon RP, EGL, dispatcher, and other outside guidance,

as appropriate

▪ Repeats information received to confirm reception and understanding

▪ Confirms that the information given is received and understood

▪ Knows what questions to ask to gather specific details about changing conditions within

the mine
54

Chapter 8

Refuge Alternatives

Refuge alternatives (RAs) provide a safe shelter if miners are unable to escape from the mine in 

an emergency and are often presented as the “last resort” for endangered miners. They are also 

suitable as a shelter for miners who are unable to escape due to injury, fatigue, or other limiting 

factors. They are a key self-escape resource and miners must know when and how to use them.

Figure 19. Reflective signage indicating the location 

of an RA in an underground coal mine.

Photo by NIOSH
Refuge Alternatives

55

Core Competency Area

Table 8. Performance Criteria (Core KSAs) for Refuge Alternatives

When to Enter ▪ Recognizes when all options for escape are exhausted and it is

necessary to take refuge in an RA as the last resort

▪ Knows where and how to barricade if all other options are

exhausted and an RA is not available

▪ Knows that, if miners are injured or unable to self-escape, the RA

is an option while they wait for rescue

Operation ▪ Knows how to deploy and configure an RA following the

manufacturer’s instructions

▪ Knows where instructions are located

▪ Understands the steps for entering an RA

▪ Knows how to check the air quality both inside and outside the RA

Managing 

Resources

▪ Conserves available resources (air, food, water, light)

▪ Takes extra SCSRs into the RA

Communicating ▪ Utilizes available technology to maintain communication with the

RP and dispatcher when possible

Suggestions for Training

How to Operate

Train miners on how to deploy the refuge alternative(s).

Miners may not be able to practice operating the RA and might need to deploy it for the first 

time during a mine emergency. Thus, they should be equipped with the guidance and instruction 

necessary to deploy the RA correctly when the time comes.

▪ Immediately train all new hires on the locations and deployment procedures of the mine’s

RAs.

▪ Regularly review deployment instructions for clarity and legibility and store in an

accessible and known location near the RA.

▪ Discuss the fact that, although having to deploy an RA is unlikely, miners will be trying

to deploy it under time pressure, reduced visibility, or other stressors.

▪ Communicate with mine management to ensure the RAs are positioned correctly with

enough room to fully deploy (varies by manufacturer).
Refuge Alternatives

56

When to Enter

Encourage the use of refuge alternatives when necessary.

The RA offers a potential location for miners to await rescue if all exits out of the mine are 

blocked. It can also be useful as a location to leave miners whose condition might prevent their 

ability to escape. The RA should be described as a valuable resource in a mine emergency that 

should be used when needed for refuge.

▪ Talk with miners about the reasons why they might be reluctant to accept the refuge

alternative as an option in the event of a mine emergency.

▪ Identify potential mechanisms for overcoming that obstacle.

▪ Ensure that miners are confident in their ability to deploy and use an RA, thereby

minimizing one potential barrier to take refuge as the last resort.

KSAs in Action

Figure 20. A training demonstration of the deployment of an 

inflatable RA with the adequate space for requirements.

Photo by NIOSH
Refuge Alternatives

57

Cases:

In the West Virginia Office of Miners’ Health and Safety Training’s investigation report of the 

Sago Mine explosion, investigators discuss one crew’s attempt to build a barricade when they 

believed escape was dangerous.

According to [the only surviving miner], the [crew] then returned to the face and built 

a barricade of curtain material to protect themselves from the dust and smoke.

[Wooten 2006, 3.2.4]

The eleven miners who perished in the [escape group] were...exposed to a hazardous 

atmosphere in the barricade after their SCSRs were no longer able to produce oxygen...

[Wooten 2006, 5.6.2]

Relevant KSAs:

▪ Recognizes when all options for escape are exhausted and it is necessary to take refuge in

an RA as the last resort

▪ Knows where and how to barricade if all other options are exhausted and an RA is not

available

▪ Knows how to deploy and configure an RA following the manufacturer’s instructions

▪ Understands the steps for entering an RA

▪ Knows how to check the air quality both inside and outside the RA

▪ Takes extra SCSRs into the RA
58

Chapter 9

Firefighting

Fires can double in size every 5–10 minutes in an underground coal mine. Therefore, the ability 

to quickly diagnose that a fire is present, where it might be, and its potential cause is critical to 

miners’ safety. Early detection and extinguishing of fires could be instrumental in preventing a 

dangerous event from becoming a deadly one. All miners should be trained in basic firefighting 

in the event they are in a position where they must fight a fire or assist in firefighting efforts.

Figure 21. Basic firefighting equipment stored in an underground coal mine.

Photo by NIOSH
Firefighting

59

Core Competency Area

Table 9. Performance Criteria (Core KSAs) for Firefighting

Diagnosis\ ▪ Knows how to visually inspect a fire to judge its severity (e.g., based on size and

spread, heat, location)

▪ Recognizes that underground coal mine fires can double in size every

5–10 minutes

▪ Knows when, where, and how to shut off power

▪ Understands the basics of mine ventilation and expected airflow/ventilation in the

mine

▪ Knows how to concisely communicate critical information about the fire to others

underground and on the surface

When to 

Fight a Fire

▪ Knows to seek advice from the EGL, RP, or other personnel if unsure whether to

stay or fight the fire

▪ Can determine when to abandon firefighting efforts and begin to or resume escape

How to 

Fight a Fire15

▪ Knows how to use a fire extinguisher

▪ Knows the location of firefighting equipment at all times

▪ Knows when, where, and how to shut off power

▪ Transfers from an SCSR to an SCBA with a full facepiece, if available and

properly trained, before fighting a fire

▪ Knows how to activate fire suppression systems on mobile equipment

▪ Understands how to set up and use fire hoses (“right to fight”)

▪ Knows to confirm an available water source and flush lines before assembling fire

hoses

▪ Uses a fog spray pattern to push smoke and heat away

▪ Keeps hoses between oneself and the rib to reduce tripping hazards

▪ Tests roof conditions and sets supports, if necessary, when fighting a fire

▪ Determines where to move based on one’s current location relative to the

progression of the fire

▪ Keeps the mine exit/fresh air to one’s back when fighting a fire, whenever

possible

▪ Monitors the working condition of firefighting equipment and ensures all hoses,

fittings, and nozzles are the same size and thread

15 It was noted by subject matter experts that most of these KSAs are critical for rank-and-file miners in the event 

they find themselves in a situation they must fight a fire.
 Firefighting

60

Supplemental KSAs for Rank-and-file Miners

▪ Is familiar with which crewmembers, if any, have specialized emergency response 

training or experience (e.g., mine rescue, emergency medical, fire brigade)

▪ Knows the firefighting plan

▪ Knows own role in the firefighting plan

▪ Does not attempt to fight a fire while using an SCSR

▪ Understands the significance of smoke presence (in airways, from fans, in return air 

shafts)

▪ Understands the impact of fire, gases, and smoke on air quality

▪ Considers where other workers might be in relation to the fire

▪ Periodically tests air quality and velocity to note changes

▪ Reports progress to the RP 

▪ Shares responsibility with mine management to regularly test water supply and pressure 

throughout the mine (i.e., 50 gallons per minute and 50 pounds per square inch)

Suggestions for Training

Diagnosis

Train miners on these aspects of fire scenarios and firefighting.

▪ Emphasize the importance of determining and communicating critical information to 

others in the mine and on the surface, such as:

o What might be burning (coal, lubricants, conveyor belt, mobile equipment)

o The location of the fire

o The location of yourself and other miners in relation to the fire

o The size and spread speed of the fire

o The velocity and direction of airflow

▪ Discuss mine-specific coal volatility as it relates to the speed in which the fire may 

spread.

▪ Discuss the potential collapse of the mine roof in the vicinity of a fire.

Train miners to ask themselves the following key questions if or when they are 

investigating a fire.

▪ Where is the rest of my crew? Other miners?

▪ Is anyone around me trained in intermediate or advanced firefighting (e.g., fire brigade, 

mine rescue team members)?
 Firefighting

61

▪ Where, if anywhere, can I remain in fresh air and avoid being exposed to smoke?

▪ If I’m going to escape, can I safely pass by the fire, or do I need to go a different way?

Train miners to understand the unique characteristics of the mine’s coal seam and how it 

might be affected during a fire.

When to fight a fire

“Time is a critical factor in any fire situation, and a few seconds saved can mean the 

difference between a fire's extinction or a disaster” [NIOSH 2005, p. 11]. If qualified 

firefighters are not underground for the initial response to a small fire, advise miners to 

follow these steps:

▪ If alone, attempt to extinguish the fire and then report the fire to other miners and the 

surface. 

▪ If two or more miners are together, one would report the fire to other miners and the 

surface, and the other(s) would attempt to extinguish the fire. 

▪ If the fire is spreading quickly and already too big to fight, report the fire to other miners 

underground and the surface, and begin escape.

How to fight a fire

Familiarize the workforce with the mine-specific firefighting plan and use a combination of 

classroom and hands-on training in firefighting basics.

▪ Regularly provide all miners with hands-on training with all firefighting equipment 

available at the mine (e.g., fire hoses, fire extinguishers, firefighting foam).

▪ For hands-on training using fire hoses, train in groups of at least three miners.

▪ Encourage miners to share in the responsibility of monitoring the condition of the 

firefighting equipment and that all nozzles, fittings, and hoses are the same size and 

thread.

▪ Use real or simulated fires to practice firefighting techniques with groups of miners.

▪ Discuss the potential collapse of the mine roof in the vicinity of a fire.

▪ Discuss mine-specific coal volatility as it relates to the speed with which the fire may 

spread.

▪ Discuss how high ventilation velocities across the fire zone may affect the fire (e.g., 

expands it faster downwind than low velocity).

▪ Have classroom-based discussions or simulations that include critical decisions that must 

be made and how to effectively communicate about the fire to the RP, the surface, and 

other miners underground. 

▪ Use on-the-job opportunities to train miners on how to respond to fires caused by jobspecific hazards.
 Firefighting

62

KSAs in Action

Figure 22. A group of underground coal miners engaged in hands-on firefighting training. Photos by NIOSH
Firefighting

63

Cases:

Although there was fire hose and a fire hose connection available at the Aracoma Mine, miners 

were unable to properly use them. Also, power to the mine’s water pumps had been cut off.

[The miner] was unable to [connect the firehouse to the firehouse outlet] because the threads 

of the firehose coupling and the threads of the firehose outlet were not compatible. When he 

opened the firehose outlet valve, in an attempt to direct at least some water onto the fire, he 

found there was no water in the line. [MSHA 2007a, p. 8]

[Miners] carried firehose down the...belt entry and connected [it] to a fire outlet. However, 

water was not available because the supply line water pumps had been de-energized.

[MSHA 2007a, p. 15].

Relevant KSAs:

▪ Knows the location of firefighting equipment at all times

▪ Understands how to set up and use fire hoses (“right to fight”)

▪ Knows to confirm an available water source and flush lines before assembling fire hoses

▪ Shares responsibility with mine management to regularly test water supply and pressure

throughout the mine (i.e., 50 gallons per minute and 50 pounds per square inch)

▪ Monitors the working condition of firefighting equipment and ensures all hoses, fittings,

and nozzles are the same size and thread
64

Chapter 10

Overall Suggestions for Training and 

Assessment

In addition to the nine core competency areas discussed above, some overall suggestions for 

training and assessment follow.

General Tips

▪ Train miners on the difference between information that can be accessed (e.g., the mine 

map) versus information that needs to be known (e.g., the location of the mine map).

▪ Deliver content using a broad range of methods (e.g., lecture, videos, hands-on practice, 

role plays, and computer-based modules) that include key decision points and feedback.

▪ Relate the training content to mine-specific characteristics whenever possible. 

▪ Use formal and informal assessment of knowledge (e.g., the locations of mine emergency 

features and resources), which is itself a teaching method, especially when feedback is 

provided.

▪ Encourage miners to speak up and ask questions during training by explicitly telling them 

they have the right to do so and that it is their responsibility. 

Planning Training

Tailor training and assessment curriculum around miners’ needs when possible

[Ryan et al. 2018].

If miners are struggling with a certain skill, such as map reading, incorporate it into training 

activities. For examples of how this is done, refer to Appendix C or the article, “Using 

Performance Management Strategies to Improve Mine Emergency Training and Preparedness” 

[Ryan et al. 2018].

Maximize the benefit of required quarterly escapeway drills by:

▪ Rotating leaders (EGL, RP, first aid) so miners can gain an understanding of the roles and 

responsibilities of others

▪ Using live SCSRs or expectations trainers whenever feasible 

▪ Turning off lights or using obscured goggles to impair vision while navigating the 

escapeways

▪ Asking miners to identify tactile lifeline symbols and to point out locations of SCSR 

caches, RAs, etc.

▪ Affording all miners the opportunity to shut the power down

▪ Introducing time pressure to simulate the urgency of mine emergency escape

▪ Keeping track of and noting the time it takes to walk the escapeway vs. taking a mantrip
 Overall Suggestions for Training and Assessment

65

Boosting Trainee Motivation

Ensure that the training includes ample challenge, but structure it so that trainees leave the 

training with a sense of accomplishment.

▪ Expose trainees to challenges that they can work through successfully and provide 

positive feedback for meeting those challenges.

▪ Determine whether miners can properly demonstrate or explain critical KSAs before 

moving on to the next training topic, if time allows during formal or informal training and 

assessment activities.

Communicate the organization’s commitment to and support for ensuring the safety of 

miners. Also, empower trainees to speak up and ask questions during training by explicitly 

telling them they have the right to do so and that it is their responsibility.

▪ Recognize that the trainee’s belief in the level of organizational support for self-escape 

training will influence their motivation.

▪ Understand that all miners may not be willing or able to demonstrate proficiency in all 

critical KSAs but that the “rising tide” of workforce preparedness will raise the overall 

level of emergency response preparedness for the mine.

Improving Teamwork

Build trust between miners and the mine operator, safety professionals, and other leaders 

throughout the training.

▪ Encourage and reward miners for being proactive about safety on the worksite by asking 

for suggestions and taking those suggestions seriously. If feasible, workers might also be 

motivated by material rewards such as a picnic lunch after annual training is completed or 

by designing and purchasing tee-shirts with worker-inspired safety slogans.

▪ Teach trainees to ask questions or seek additional information; similar to “see something, 

say something.” Stress miners’ responsibility to speak up, point out perceived risks, and 

ask clarifying questions.

▪ Encourage miners to mention any concerns during training or regular work hours (“see 

something, say something”), then debrief the whole group at the training or in safety 

meetings.

▪ Conduct training and exercise activities with those in leadership positions to improve 

miners’ teamwork and coordination abilities and to help them better understand their own 

role and the roles of others (e.g., the RP, section foremen) during self-escape. 

Cross-train miners on various roles and jobs to help them understand and support those in 

other roles and in case they must step up to perform a different role during an emergency.

▪ Afford non-maintenance workers the experience of shutting down the belt when it is 

stopped for normal maintenance.
Overall Suggestions for Training and Assessment

66

▪ Rotate operation of mantrips among all personnel on a shift to ensure all individuals can

operate the mantrip if necessary.

▪ Engage trainees in role-play activities to teach skills such as assertiveness, crosschecking, and conflict management. Integrate role-play activities into quarterly

escapeway drills or other trainings.

▪ Afford all miners the opportunity to shut down the power during section moves or

quarterly escapeway drills.

Train miners other than those in supervisory positions to be able to assume some 

leadership responsibilities during self-escape.

▪ Train miners to be able to perform some of the duties of the RP and EGL during training

and drills (e.g., surface personnel gather critical information and make appropriate

notifications and underground personnel account for personnel and report information to

the surface).

▪ Structure training scenarios where the designated leader is absent or incapacitated and

miners must assume or share leadership responsibilities with others in the escape group.

Encourage peer training.

Mine safety personnel can use peer training techniques to teach new competencies, enhance 

current skills, correct performance deficiencies, or serve as a motivational tool for employees 

who are performing well (e.g., the coaches and mentors). These techniques may help reduce the 

time needed to learn skills or correct deficiencies because of the continuous and targeted 

feedback provided by coaches and mentors to the trainee. 

Peer Coaching

Peer coaching is a training technique that involves using a combination of instruction and oneon-one guidance to improve trainees’ performance in a particular area. The trainee is typically 

someone who has been working at the company for a while and is a known expert on specific 

tasks or procedure. Coaches must be skilled in how to perform the tasks and how to train others 

to perform them.

Peer Mentoring

Peer mentoring is a form of training in which a senior employee (or more knowledgeable 

employee) helps to guide a less experienced employee over a period of time. This type of 

training can result in an ongoing relationship or friendship between workers. The mentor often 

provides the junior employee with guidance and a clear understanding of the organization.

Incorporating Assessment and Feedback

Use assessment tools and strategies.

▪ Use simple assessment tools, such as quizzes or “spot checks” throughout the day, to

evaluate individual self-escape KSAs covered in the training class. Spot checks could

include periodically asking an individual to demonstrate a hands-on task or explain where
Overall Suggestions for Training and Assessment

67

the primary and secondary escapeways are. These assessments can be carried out quickly 

and may provide insight into the overall performance of the workforce and areas in need 

of improvement that future trainings can address, and they can help identify individuals 

in need of immediate or personalized remediation.

▪ Develop strategies to evaluate training at the team level (e.g., during quarterly escapeway

drills).

▪ Consider ways to assess performance via observation. For example, observers can

examine teamwork by asking themselves these questions:

o Did individual team members or the group share a mutual understanding of the

task?

o Did team members coordinate effectively?

o Did team members recognize mistakes made by others? Did they work together to

correct them?

Debrief trainees on performance.

▪ Perform a group debrief with trainees to discuss what was and was not done correctly and

to give an opportunity for further questions or discussions. When facilitated by a

seasoned leader, these discussions help to build mutual understanding of “lessons

learned” and establish “best practices” for future reference.

▪ Remember to conduct spot checks and to provide feedback on the performance of solitary

workers who may be alone at the time of an emergency.

Figure 23. A safety trainer debriefing trainees after an emergency drill. Photo by NIOSH
68

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Sciences. Committee on Mine Safety: Essential Components of Self-escape; Board on HumanSystems Integration; Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education; National 

Research Council of The National Academies. Washington DC: National Academies Press. 
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U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 99-157. 

NIOSH [2000]. Behavioral and organizational dimensions of underground mine fires. By Vaught 

C, Brnich MJ, Mallett LG, Cole HP, Wiehagen WJ, Conti RS, Kowalski KM, Litton CD. 

Pittsburgh, PA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control 

and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, DHHS Publication No. 

2000-126. IC 9450. 

NIOSH [2009]. Escape from Farmington no. 9. Video. By Brnich MJ, Vaught C. Pittsburgh, PA: 

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 

2009-142D, DVD. 

NIOSH [2010]. Strategies for escape and rescue from underground coal mines. By Alexander 

DW, Bealko SB, Brnich MJ, Kowalski-Trakofler KM, Peters RH. Pittsburgh, PA: U.S. 

Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, DHHS Publication No. (NIOSH) 

2010-134, IC 9522. 

NIOSH [2011a]. Nonverbal communication for mine emergencies. By Kosmoski CL, Margolis 

KA, Kingsley Westerman CY, Mallett LG. Pittsburgh, PA: U.S. Department of Health and 

Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for 

Occupational Safety and Health. DHHS Publication No. 2012-104. RI 9688. 

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and Health, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2012-103, RI 9686, 

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training. By Haas EJ, Peters RH, and Kosmoski CL. Pittsburgh, PA: U.S. Department of Health 

and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for 

Occupational Safety and Health, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication 2015-188, RI 9699. 

NIOSH [2023]. Advancing self-escape training: a needs analysis based on the National Academy 

of Sciences report, “Improving Self-escape from Underground Coal Mines.” By Hoebbel CL, 

Bellanca JL, Ryan ME, Brnich MJ. Pittsburgh PA: U.S. Department of Health and Human 

Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety 

and Health, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2023-134 (revised 06/2023). 

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visual elements for accurate simulation. In: Cassenti D, ed. Advances in Human Factors and 

Simulation. Springer, Cham. 
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to improve miners’ health and safety training. In Brune J (ed). Extracting the Science: A Century 

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to improve mine emergency training and preparedness. Coal Age 123(9):37–39.

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72

Appendix A: Demonstration of NIOSH Self-escape

Competency Survey Results

Safety personnel from a coal company translated the NIOSH Self-escape Competency Survey 

results that were included in the Coal Age article “The ABCs of KSAs: Assessing the Selfescape Knowledge, Skills and Abilities of Coal Miners” [Hoebbel et al. 2018] into a simplified 

format to present at annual refresher training.

Safety personnel wanted to share the results with their workforce to let them know that if they 

lacked confidence in a certain area, they were not alone. Thus, they created simple slides to share 

the results of the NIOSH survey, which identified many gaps in miners’ self-escape KSAs, and 

they presented these slides before training activities began. This prompted miners to speak up or 

ask questions whenever they were having difficulty understanding or performing a task during 

the training event. A detailed overview of this industry collaboration is provided in the Coal Age 

article “Using Performance Management Strategies to Improve Mine Emergency Training and 

Preparedness” [Ryan et al. 2018].

The next two pages demonstrate the simplified format that the mine company used to present the 

survey results.
73

Over 50%

of rank-and-file miners were less than fully confident 

that they could correctly demonstrate or explain:

• The mine’s emergency response plan (ERP)

• The chain of command for reporting a mine emergency

• How to construct a proper barricade

• How to reestablish ventilation

• Ventilation/smoke leakage

• What alarms/alerts mean

• How to read mine map symbols

• When to construct a barricade

• The mine’s communication and tracking (CT) system

• Your own role in the mine’s emergency response plan (ERP)

Between 41% and 50%

of rank-and-file miners were less than fully confident 

that they could correctly demonstrate or explain:

• If or when to fight a fire

• How to fight a fire

• How to enter the mine’s refuge alternative

• What lifeline symbols mean

• Where the refuge alternative(s) is/are located

• What to expect when wearing an SCSR

• The location of the mine’s escapeways

• The location of the mine’s SCSR caches

• Where the mine’s tetherlines are located
74

Between 31% and 40%

of rank-and-file miners were less than fully confident 

that they could correctly demonstrate or explain:

• When to enter the mine’s refuge alternative (RA)

• Where to report in the event of a mine emergency

• How to test roof conditions

• Where the mine’s escapeway maps are located

• How to use a tetherline

Between 20% and 30%

of rank-and-file miners were less than fully confident 

that they could correctly demonstrate or explain:

• How to identify an explosive atmosphere with a gas meter

• When to don an SCSR

• How to properly don an SCSR

• How to use nonverbal communication

Appendix A References

Hoebbel C, Brnich MJ, Ryan ME [2018]. The ABCs of KSAs: Assessing the self-escape 

knowledge, skills and abilities of coal miners. Coal Age, 123(1):30–34.

Ryan ME, Diamond J, Brnich MJ, Hoebbel C [2018]. Using performance management strategies 

to improve mine emergency training and preparedness. Coal Age 123(9):37–39.
75

Appendix B: Personal Competency Assessment Forms

This appendix includes personal competency assessment forms for each of the nine competency 

areas detailed in this Information Circular. Miners can check the boxes next to specific KSA to 

identify where they might need or want additional training. Miners can also make suggestions on 

how training could be better from their perspective. This could lead to more KSA acquisition and 

retention. 

These forms will help mine safety personnel identify training priorities and develop training 

activities targeted toward specific workforce needs. 
Instructions:

1. Check the box next to the KSAs you would like to improve during future training events.

2. Please include training comments or suggestions related to your selections.

Competency Area—Everyday Preparedness

Personal 

Preparedness

 Remains up to date on all required training 

 Knows the relative risk propensity of the mine (e.g., which is most likely to occur: gas or 

water inundation, fire, or explosion)

 When appropriate, the miner carries the following:

 Essential medications

 Emergency medicine sticker and card with known conditions

 Reading glasses

 Wristwatch

 Lunch and water

 Carries and knows how to use:

 Multigas detector

 Handheld radio

 Required personal protective equipment (PPE)

 Proximity sensor targets

 Has a serviceable SCSR on one’s person or within 25feet of current location 

 Conducts checks on all personal equipment to ensure it is in working order

 Has the ability to attach to a tagline/tetherline in the event one is needed (e.g., belt loop, 

pants loop)

 Knows one’s own personal limitations and capabilities and has some familiarity with 

those of others on the crew/team

 Knows the chain of command for reporting a mine emergency (particularly for outby 

workers who may be working alone)

Accounting for 

Personnel

 Knows the location of and ensures the safety of inexperienced miners, if assigned

 Knows the identity and approximate or likely location of the designated RP on each shift

First Aid  Recognizes the need to seek medical assistance for oneself or others

 Knows where to locate first aid equipment and how to use it (e.g., backboard and straps, 

oxygen, automated external defibrillator (AED), bandages and dressings)

 Knows how to administer basic first aid for shock; check airway, breathing, and 

circulation (ABCs); and administer cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) 

Training Comments/Suggestions:
Instructions:

1. Check the box next to the KSAs you would like to improve during future training events. 

2. Please include training comments or suggestions related to your selections.

Competency Area—Situational Awareness: Mine Layout

Location 

of Mine Emergency 

Features and 

Resources

 Recognizes one’s personal position in the mine relative to the locations of all 

emergency features and resources, including the following:

 Mine phones and other communication technology

 Meeting places

 SCSR caches

 Lifelines and primary and secondary escapeways

 Refuge alternatives

 Barricading supplies

 Tagline/tetherlines

 Mine maps

 Firefighting equipment

 First aid equipment and medical supplies

Establishing and 

Maintaining 

Situational 

Awareness

 Pays attention to landmarks, signage, and the direction and temperature of airflow on 

the ride into the section and at the work location

 Knows the general layout of the mine

 Knows the numbering of entries and crosscuts on section

 Knows what questions to ask to gather specific details about changing conditions 

within the mine

 Establishes and maintains awareness of one’s own location within the mine relative to 

the event, if possible

 Recognizes one’s personal position within the mine relative to the locations of all 

emergency features and resources including primary and secondary escapeways, exits, 

and fresh air

 Stays current on changes to mine installations (i.e., airshafts, slopes, and portals) 

 Uses handheld multigas detectors to assess air quality as one moves throughout the mine

 Notes the locations of transportation and whether transportation to the working section 

is staying or leaving the work location 

 Understands the basics of mine ventilation (location of air splits, airflow direction, 

point feeds, etc.)

 Knows what gases are present in the mine, how they interact, their potential effect on 

personnel, and event consequences

 Understands the basics of mine ventilation and expected airflow/ventilation in the mine

 Has a basic knowledge of the roof control plan and how it might change due to fires, 

explosions, etc.

 Knows the general locations of man doors (e.g., every 5th crosscut)

Training Comments/Suggestions:
Instructions:

1. Check the box next to the KSAs you would like to improve during future training events.

2. Please include training comments or suggestions related to your selections.

Competency Area—Emergency Diagnosis and Response

Knowing 

Signs of 

Danger

 Knows the relative risk propensity of the mine (e.g., which is most likely to occur: gas or 

water inundation, fire, or explosion)

 Understands the significance of smoke presence (in airways, coming from fans, in return air 

shafts)

 Understands that even a small, localized methane explosion can damage or destroy 

ventilation control devices

 Knows critical gas levels (carbon monoxide (CO), oxygen (O2), methane (CH4), hydrogen 

sulfide (H2S), etc., if applicable) and how to respond, if out of acceptable limits

 Recognizes the meaning and significance of audio and visual alarm sensor alerts

 Recognizes the occurrence of and potential significance of a power outage or other 

interruption to the operation of fans

 Communicates conditions to the surface and other miners underground as soon as possible

 Calls out to confirm whether or not fans are running

 Understands the impact of fire, gases, and smoke on air quality

 Understands that both asphyxiation and poisoning can occur due to poor air quality

 Knows to verify and never ignore alarms and alerts

 Knows water or gas inundation can affect ventilation

Decisionmaking

 Recognizes the need to self-escape from the current work location or to travel to a meeting 

location or other place of relative safety

 Receives, acknowledges, and acts upon RP, EGL, dispatcher, and other outside guidance, as 

appropriate

 Knows to always ride out of the mine instead of exiting by foot if possible

 Understands the roles of the EGL and RP and defers to them if appropriate

 Recognizes the need for oneself or someone else to assume a leadership role

 Has general understanding of whether an injured miner or miners should be left in an RA to 

await rescue 

 Knows if and when to turn off equipment power 

 Knows where and how to barricade if all other options have been exhausted and an RA is 

not available

 Participates in the escape group’s decision-making

Training Comments/Suggestions:
Instructions:

1. Check the box next to the KSAs you would like to improve during future training events. 

2. Please include training comments or suggestions related to your selections.

Competency Area—Wayfinding

General 

Principles

 Trusts training and relies on procedures learned and resources available

 Understands escape speed in emergency conditions can be reduced below normal walking 

speed

 Knows how to use other tactile wayfinding techniques (rib line, power cables, waterlines, 

belt, a cane or stick, if available) if a lifeline is not available

 Returns doors to the position they were found in when traveling through man doors or 

regulators

 Crosses over or under belts only at designated crossings

 Knows how to use handheld multigas detectors to assess air quality as one’s position 

changes

 Recognizes the need for oneself or someone else to assume a leadership role

 “Goes low” in smoke, after an explosion, or when encountering debris or difficult walking 

conditions

Moving 

Effectively as 

a Group

 Moves with and avoids splitting up the group, and gathers others as encountered

 Places one’s hand on the shoulder or belt of the person directly ahead if a tagline/tetherline 

is not available

 Reminds others to use available taglines/tetherlines

 Allows the most experienced worker to lead the tethered group, with the slowest person in 

the middle

 Whenever possible, remains attached to the tagline/tetherline when in smoke or dust

 Participates in identifying all miners present underground (e.g., headcounts)

 Communicates progress and other critical information (severity, conditions of mine, 

affected areas, conditions of equipment, and needs) to the surface and to other miners 

underground

Mine 

Emergency 

Features and 

Resources

 Knows how to find and use the following:

 Mine maps

 SCSRs (take extra units)

 Firefighting equipment

 Refuge alternatives

 Taglines/tetherlines (e.g., with everyone on same side, remain tethered when in smoke 

or dust whenever possible)

 Lifelines (knows tactile symbols)

 Primary and secondary escapeways including mine-specific designated escapeway 

marker colors

 Escapeway maps

Training Comments/Suggestions:
Instructions:

1. Check the box next to the KSAs you would like to improve during future training events.

2. Please include training comments or suggestions related to your selections.

Competency Area—SCSRs: Locating, Donning, and Switching/Swapping

Locating  Has a serviceable SCSR on one’s person or within 25 feet of current location 

 Knows the locations of SCSR caches

 Understands that SCSR caches are relocated during a section equipment or power move

 Moves outby toward next accessible cache to switch/swap SCSRs

Donning  Knows to don an SCSR:

 Upon evidence of a fire or explosion, first sign of smoke or heavy dust

 When a multigas detector alarms and indicates that one or more gases is/are not within 

acceptable limits 

 When instructed to do so

 Knows it is possible that carbon monoxide will precede smoke or other evidence of fire

 Understands how to perform steps for opening, preparing, and donning all SCSRs in use at 

the mine:

 Isolates the lungs first and adjusts straps to secure the unit close to the body second

 Uses the manual start-up procedure if necessary and the correct procedure applicable to 

the model (e.g., chemical oxygen units)

 If necessary, further adjusts neck straps so there is no tension or kinking in the 

breathing tube

 Knows to wear the goggles with SCSR unit to protect against absorption of carbon 

monoxide through the tear ducts

 Knows how and when to help others don an SCSR

 Understands that sealed, mine-ready SCSRs will be more difficult to open than those used 

during training

 Knows that a short-term SCSR will last about 10 minutes and knows to move to the 

nearest 1-hour unit after donning 

 Knows that depletion rates may vary across devices and users 

 Knows to keep the lungs isolated by never removing the nose clips or mouthpiece, even if 

it is uncomfortable or difficult to communicate

Switching/

swapping

 Knows when to switch/swap between SCSRs based on time, levels of exertion, and oxygen 

gauge (if available)

 Knows breathing resistance is greater toward the end of the SCSR’s rated duration 

 Masters the sequence of steps for switching/swapping between SCSRs

 Knows how and when to help others switch/swap between SCSRs

General 

Maintenance

 Inspects one’s own belt-wearable SCSR before each shift, checking the case, seals, clips, 

oxygen gauge (if available), and moisture indicator

 Does not use an SCSR for anything unsuited to its design (e.g., as a blunt force tool, as a seat)

 Knows when an SCSR should be removed from service

Training Comments/Suggestions:
Instructions:

1. Check the box next to the KSAs you would like to improve during future training events.

2. Please include training comments or suggestions related to your selections.

Competency Area—SCSRs: Use and Expectations

What to Expect 

When Using an 

SCSR

 Knows that breathing resistance will occur and that it may feel as if the unit is not 

working properly even though it is

 Knows that the unit can become warm or hot to the touch and breathing resistance will 

increase the longer the SCSR is worn

 Understands that rate of escape should be reduced to below normal walking speed as 

breathing resistance increases

 Understands that resistance becomes greatest toward the end of the SCSR’s rated 

duration

 Knows to slow down to avoid depleting the oxygen supply before a switch/swap is 

possible

Communications  Knows that verbal communication will be difficult or impossible while using SCSRs

 Knows nonverbal communication techniques (e.g., cap lamp signals, blinking lights, 

writing, tapping codes, hand signals) 

 Does not remove SCSR mouthpiece to communicate unless in fresh air (e.g., from RA)

Preparedness  Picks up and carries an extra SCSR if possible

 Has a serviceable SCSR on one’s person or within 25 feet of current location 

 Knows whether mantrip or other transportation is leaving the work area—if leaving, 

takes a 1-hour SCSR as transportation will not be immediately available

 Knows the duration of one’s personal SCSR and where the nearest cache of onehour/high-capacity units is located

 Knows the rated duration of all SCSRs in use at the mine

 After donning an SCSR, tracks how much time has passed since donning the unit if 

possible

 Reduces one’s speed or activity rate as SCSR breathing resistance increases

 Raises the SCSR unit overhead if traveling through deep water

 Knows to wear the goggles from SCSR unit to protect against absorption of carbon 

monoxide through the tear ducts

Training Comments/Suggestions:
Instructions:

1. Check the box next to the KSAs you would like to improve during future training events.

2. Please include training comments or suggestions related to your selections.

Competency Area—Communication

General 

Principles

 Speaks loudly and clearly

 Knows what information to gather and prioritize 

 Knows how to concisely communicate critical information to others within the mine and 

on the surface

 Does not remove SCSR mouthpiece to communicate unless in fresh air (e.g., from RA)

 Communicates with SCSR mouthpiece in place (“grunt lingo”) in the absence of fresh air

 When possible, leaves handwritten notes or use other communications to relay one’s plans

 Picks up the mine phone when passed during escape (if it is safe to stop at and use during 

the emergency)

Communicating 

Within an 

Escape Group

 Knows how and when to communicate about plans and next steps with the EGL and 

others in the group

 Determines how and when to use nonverbal communications (e.g., cap lamp signals, 

blinking lights, writing, tapping codes, hand signals) with others in the mine

 Speaks clearly and confidently to reassure those who may be panicking or upset

 Provides updates on one’s own physical condition and that of others in the group to the EGL

Communicating 

with the EGL 

and Surface 

Personnel

Reporting information:

 Communicates critical information about the miners still underground (e.g., location, 

headcount, names, physical condition, needs)

 Communicates progress and other critical information (severity, conditions of mine, 

affected areas, conditions of equipment, and needs) to the surface and to other miners 

underground

 Provides updates on the environmental conditions of the mine to the RP and surface 

personnel

 Provides updates on the situation, plan, next steps, and needs to the RP and surface 

personnel 

 Provides updates on one’s own physical condition and that of others in the mine to the RP 

and surface personnel

Receiving information:

 Receives, acknowledges, and acts upon RP, EGL, dispatcher, and other outside guidance, 

as appropriate

 Repeats information received to confirm reception and understanding

 Confirms that information given is received and understood

 Knows what questions to ask to gather specific details about changing conditions within 

the mine

Communication 

Technology

 Understands how to operate all mine phones, radios, texting devices, and backup systems 

used at the mine

 Uses nonverbal communications with others when necessary

Training Comments/Suggestions:
Instructions:

1. Check the box next to the KSAs you would like to improve during future training events.

2. Please include training comments or suggestions related to your selections.

Competency Area—Refuge Alternatives 

When to Enter  Recognizes when all options for escape are exhausted and it is necessary to take refuge in 

an RA as the last resort

 Knows where and how to barricade if all other options are exhausted and an RA is not 

available

 Knows that, if miners are injured or unable to self-escape, the RA is an option while they 

wait for rescue

Operation  Knows how to deploy and configure an RA following the manufacturer’s instructions

 Knows where instructions are located

 Understands the steps for entering an RA

 Knows how to check the air quality both inside and outside the RA

Managing 

Resources

 Conserves available resources (air, food, water, light)

 Takes extra SCSRs into the RA

Communicating  Utilizes available technology to maintain communication with the RP and dispatcher 

when possible

Training Comments/Suggestions:
Instructions:

1. Check the box next to the KSAs you would like to improve during future training events.

2. Please include training comments or suggestions related to your selections.

Competency Area—Firefighting

Diagnosis  Knows how to visually inspect a fire to judge its severity (e.g., based on size and 

spread, heat, location)

 Recognizes that underground coal mine fires can double in size every 5–10 minutes

 Knows when, where, and how to shut off power 

 Understands the basics of mine ventilation and expected airflow/ventilation in the 

mine

 Knows how to concisely communicate critical information about the fire to others 

underground and on the surface

When to Fight a Fire  Knows to seek advice from the EGL, RP, or other personnel if unsure whether to 

stay or fight the fire

 Can determine when to abandon firefighting efforts and begin to or resume escape

How to Fight a Fire  Knows how to use a fire extinguisher

 Knows the location of firefighting equipment at all times

 Knows when, where, and how to shut off power

 Transfers from an SCSR to an SCBA with a full facepiece, if available and properly 

trained, before fighting a fire

 Knows how to activate fire suppression systems on mobile equipment

 Understands how to set up and use fire hoses (“right to fight”)

 Knows to confirm an available water source and flush lines before assembling fire 

hoses

 Uses a fog spray pattern to push smoke and heat away

 Keeps hoses between oneself and the rib to reduce tripping hazards

 Tests roof conditions and sets supports, if necessary, when fighting a fire

 Determines where to move based on one’s current location relative to the 

progression of the fire

 Keeps the mine exit/fresh air to one’s back when fighting a fire, whenever possible

 Monitors the working condition of firefighting equipment and ensures all hoses, 

fittings, and nozzles are the same size and thread

Training Comments/Suggestions:
85

Appendix C: Using Competency-based Training Strategies to Improve 

Self-escape KSAs: A Case Study

One of the mine companies that participated in the NIOSH Self-escape Competency Survey 

[Hoebbel et al. 2018] incorporated NIOSH’s research findings into its self-escape training 

practices over the course of one calendar year. Focusing on mine-specific gaps in KSAs, this 

company developed competency-based strategies for training, assessing, and improving the 

workforces’ self-escape KSAs. They integrated these strategies into multiple training activities, 

including annual refresher training (1st Quarter), annual smoke expectations training (2nd 

Quarter), and a quarterly response drill (3rd Quarter). This appendix provides an overview of 

these efforts, which are detailed in the Coal Age article, “Using Performance Management 

Strategies to Improve Mine Emergency Training and Preparedness” [Ryan et al. 2018].

Table C1 presents the company’s self-escape improvement efforts over the course of 2018.

Table C1. Using competency-based strategies during 2018 

self-escape training and preparedness events

-- 1

st Quarter:

Annual Refresher

2

nd Quarter:

Annual Expectations

3

rd Quarter:

Quarterly 

Escapeway Drill

4

th Quarter: 

End-of-year 

Assessment

Action Mine safety personnel 

used the KSAs listed 

on the Self-escape

Competency Survey to 

develop a competency 

assessment form.

Mine safety personnel 

developed, 

implemented, and 

assessed a hands-on 

mapping exercise 

during the smoke drill.

Trainees had the 

option to use a live 

M20 SCSR unit during 

the drill and attended 

1.5 hours of hands-on 

firefighting training 

after the drill.

Mine safety personnel 

developed and carried 

out a firefighting 

scenario during the 3rd

quarter escapeway 

drill.

Mine safety personnel 

re-administered the 1st

quarter assessment 

form during a 4th

quarter safety 

meeting.

Outcome Identified KSA gaps in 

mine map and lifeline 

symbol knowledge, 

SCSR donning and 

expectations, and 

firefighting.

Decided to focus on 

these areas during 

FY18 training events.

Miners performed well 

on the mapping 

exercises, and many 

took the opportunity to 

use the live SCSR. 

Miners appreciated the 

firefighting training 

and reported wanting 

more hands-on 

firefighting 

experience. 

Mine safety personnel 

observed that miners 

had difficulty 

unrolling the hoses 

with the correct end 

lined up with the water 

source. They decided 

to go over this in 

future firefighting 

training and 

potentially develop 

and implement more 

helpful cues for the 

miners.

The workforce had 

about a 10% 

improvement, on 

average, between 1st

quarter and 4th quarter 

results.

Miners reported 

feeling more 

accountable and 

learning more from 

training during 2018 

compared with other 

years.
86

Table C2 lists some of the self-escape KSAs from the NIOSH survey and matches them with the 

related assessment questions that Company A developed for an Annual Refresher quiz. These 

quiz items were created to assess miners’ competency in these specific self-escape areas. Miners 

had to put their names on the top of the quiz and, after going over the forms, the mine safety 

trainer individually counseled those who did not meet the company’s performance standard the 

next day.

Table C2. How trainers translated self-escape competency survey KSAs into quiz items

Self-escape Competency Survey 

KSA Annual Refresher Quiz Item

How to don an SCSR → Which rescuer has a removable nose clip: EBA 6.5 or M20?

How to don an SCSR → Write out the key steps for donning an M20 SCSR unit

How to don an SCSR → Write out the key steps for donning an EBA 6.5 SCSR unit

How to don an SCSR →

Write out they key steps for transferring from an M20 to EBA 6.5 

SCSR unit

How to fight a fire →

How long will a 20-lb dry chemical fire extinguisher last once you 

activate it?

How to fight a fire →

Name at least 6 locations where we store fire extinguishers 

underground

How to fight a fire → How many gallons of water do our diesel fire cars hold?

How to identify an explosive 

atmosphere using a multigas detector → What is the explosive range of methane? 

How to read mine map symbols →

Name at least 4 safety/emergency response items listed on an 

escapeway map

Lifeline symbols → While traveling on the lifeline, what symbol indicates a branch line?

Lifeline symbols → What symbol on the lifeline indicates a door?

Lifeline symbols → What symbol on the lifeline indicates an SCSR cache?

Lifeline symbols → What symbol on the lifeline indicates a refuge chamber?

How to read mine map symbols → What symbol on an escapeway map indicates an overcast?

How to read mine map symbols → What symbol on an escapeway map indicates a regulator?

What to expect when using an SCSR → What SCSR makes a constant sound during use: EBA 6.5 or M20?

Where escapeway maps are located → Name two locations where we keep escapeway maps underground

Where SCSR caches are located →

Name the specific locations where they keep SCSRs on section at 

your mine

Where taglines/tetherlines are located → Name two locations that we keep taglines/tetherlines underground
87

1

st Quarter: Annual Refresher Training

Figure C1 was included in the Annual Refresher training quiz to assess miners’ competency in 

lifeline and mine map symbol identification. Trainees had to match the items from the legend on 

the left side of the document to the appropriate mine map or lifeline symbol listed to the right. 

Mine safety personnel discovered that many of the trainees struggled in these competency areas 

and, as a result, tried to address and improve these competency gaps during the next self-escape 

training event.

Figure C1. Annual refresher map and lifeline symbol competency

assessment quiz. The figure shows the quiz correctly filled out.
88

2

nd Quarter: Annual Expectations 

During Annual Expectations training, each “escape group” was given a blank map of the 

simulated mine (as depicted in Figure C2). The escape groups, usually made up of 3-4 trainees, 

went through the simulated mine environment before the smoke drill began and mapped out the 

location of key emergency features (SCSR cache, fire extinguisher), the escapeways and mine 

features (e.g., man door signs, vent tubes). The groups then used this map to navigate the 

simulated mine in smoke, including locating and navigating to the SCSR cache and in attempting 

to escape.

Figure C2. Annual expectations smoke drill mapping exercise. The figure

shows a blank map for the miners to fill out as part of a self-escape exercise.

A safety trainer first explained the mapping exercise with trainees. Next, each group familiarized 

themselves with the simulated mine where the smoke drill was to take place before the drill 

began and mapped out the simulated mine layout (crosscuts, entries, where man doors or curtains 

were located, etc.), the primary and secondary escapeways, and where escape resources were 

located using the template they were given.

Miners then had to refer to the map they created when escaping the simulated mine in smoke 

during the drill. The safety trainer debriefed each of the groups after they went through the drill, 

assessing their maps for accuracy and answering any questions. 

Miners were given the option to use (expired) live M20 SCSR units during the escapeway drill in 

order to gain hands-on experience using the real equipment as opposed to a training unit.
89

3

rd Quarter: Quarterly Escapeway Drill

Mine safety personnel developed and implemented a firefighting scenario into the 3rd quarter 

quarterly escapeway drill, as described below.

Safety personnel went underground during the afternoon shift and told the outby shuttle car 

operator that he had to initiate a response to a scenario where the shuttle car caught fire outby.

The operator alerted others within and outside the mine via telephone, and the whole afternoon 

shift crew assembled and then collected and put together the firefighting equipment and 

advanced upon the “fire.” The shift foreman helped coordinate the firefighting response efforts.

Mine safety personnel observed the miners’ performance and debriefed with the whole shift crew 

afterwards about their performance. They asked miners for their feedback and thoughts on the 

firefighting plan and the drill.

4

th Quarter: End-of-year Assessment 

Mine safety personnel administered the same quiz that they had given miners in the beginning of 

the year during Annual Refresher Training again in the 4th quarter. Comparing results from the 

1st and 4th quarter, trainers reported that individuals’ scores improved by ~10% on average.

Trainees also had positive feedback about how much they learned over the course of the year. 

Some quotes from trainees are as follows:

• “I understand and learned a lot more from this year than last year.”

• “[Training] keeps getting better . . . I never looked at things in such detail!”

• “Informative, showed areas I was not as competent as I may have thought.”

Trainees also reported that they liked that they had to take quizzes about what they were learning 

in training, noting that it made them pay more attention.

• “I like the test that he gives out and that he collects it with your name on it. 

Accountability.”

• “The quizzes keep you from daydreaming.”

• “The accountability with the test is a good idea.”

Appendix C References

Hoebbel C, Brnich MJ, Ryan ME [2018]. The ABCs of KSAs: Assessing the self-escape 

knowledge, skills and abilities of coal miners. Coal Age, 123(1):30–34.

Ryan ME, Diamond J, Brnich MJ, Hoebbel C [2018]. Using performance management strategies 

to improve mine emergency training and preparedness. Coal Age 123(9):37–39.
90

Appendix D: Training Resources

The resources below are organized by competency area to assist with developing and 

implementing competency-based training and assessment strategies.

Emergency Diagnosis and Response

Emergency Response Planning for Small Mines: Who Needs It?

A paper that discusses emergency response planning with a special emphasis on small mine sites.

https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining/works/coversheet43.html

Escape and Evacuation: A Miners’ Education and Training Toolbox

A collection of 20 “toolbox talks” that include video components, a user’s guide, and emergency 

scenarios that cover evacuation decisions and steps for self-escape. Penn State Miner Training 

Program 2008.

https://sites.psu.edu/minertraining/msha/escapeandevacuation/

Escape From Farmington No. 9: An Oral History

A video-based training module that can be used to educate both inexperienced and veteran 

miners on important issues related to self-escape procedures.

https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining/works/coversheet1628.html

Wayfinding

Behavioral and Organizational Dimensions of Underground Mine Fires

A report that can aid trainers in creating behavior-based training for improving miners’ 

wayfinding skills. See Chapter 7: Smoke as an escape and behavioral environment and Chapter 

8: Wayfinding and escape behavior.

https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining/works/coversheet45.html

Underground Coal Mine Map Reading Training

A training that includes three components for teaching and testing mine map reading skills. 

https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining/works/coversheet1825.html

Lifeline Tactile Signal Flashcards

A collection of flashcards for practicing the lifeline tactile signals with the miners. 

https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining/works/coversheet1826.html
91

Lifeline Signals Sticker

A NIOSH-developed sticker that miners can use (e.g., put on their hard hats) to aid in the 

interpretation of the meaning of lifeline signals. Contact mining@cdc.gov to request free copies.

SCSRs

CSE Corporation SCSR Training Products

An online SCSR training resource center, including training videos on SCSR donning and 

changeover.

https://www.csecorporation.com/Resources?search=1&topic=5&type=1

Expectations Training for Miners using Self-contained Self-rescuers in Escape from 

Underground Coal Mines

A journal article that describes the research behind a NIOSH-developed SCSR expectations 

training program.

https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining/works/coversheet985.html

I Can’t Get Enough Air! Proper Self-contained Self-rescuer Usage

An instructor’s guide for implementing a training program about proper SCSR usage.

https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining/works/coversheet343.html
92

Ocenco M20 to Ocenco EBA 6.5

A video from archived MSHA DVD regarding the safe transfer process of switching from one 

SCSR to another.

https://archive.org/details/gov.msha.dvd013.9

MSHA - Streaming Media Files - Drager SCBA Escape System: Care, Use, and 

Operation - Including SCSR Transfer

A review of basic information regarding the care, use, and operation of the Drager SCBA.

https://arlweb.msha.gov/Streaming/DraegerComp.asp

Communication

Advanced Tutorial on Wireless Communication and Electronic Tracking: CT System 

Survivability, Reliability, and Availability

A training tutorial that overviews wireless communication and electronic tracking in mines.

https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining/content/emergencymanagementandresponse/commtracking/a

dvcommtrackingtutorial4.html

Nonverbal Communication for Mine Emergencies

A training program that teaches miners a series of nonverbal hand signals to use in the event of 

an emergency if they are unable to communicate verbally.

https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining/works/coversheet461.html

Radio 101: Operating Two-way Radios Every Day and in Emergencies

A program to train miners in the use of two-way radio communication in the mines.

https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining/works/coversheet522.html

The Emergency Communication Triangle

A 15-minute safety talk, including graphics, that focuses on the content of emergency warning 

messages. This talk presents a procedure for senders and receivers of emergency warnings.

https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining/works/coversheet838.html

Training to Improve Emergency Communication Skills

A paper that introduces a method for teaching workers to communicate necessary information 

when giving or receiving emergency warning messages.

https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining/works/coversheet1801.html

Refuge Alternatives

Emergency Escape and Refuge Alternatives

A training tool that can be used to teach miners about emergency escape and using refuge 

alternatives, including PowerPoint slides and an instructor’s guide.

https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining/works/coversheet366.html
93

Guidelines for Instructional Materials on Refuge Chamber Setup, Use, and Maintenance

Guidance for developing manuals and educational materials on refuge chambers for miners.

https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining/works/coversheet498.html

Harry’s Hard Choices: Mine Refuge Chamber Training

A paper-and-pencil simulation that covers topics related to self-escape, including information 

gathering, knowing one’s escapeways, and using SCSRs, multigas detectors, and refuge 

alternatives.

https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining/works/coversheet1838.html

Learn with Harry: Harry's Hard Choices

A serious game based on Harry’s Hard Choices: Mine Refuge Chamber Training from the

University of Arizona's Western Mining Safety and Health Training Resource Center.

https://miningsh.arizona.edu/learn-harry

How to Operate a Refuge Chamber: A Quick Start Guide

A training tool for teaching miners how to operate refuge chambers in a group-based training, 

including a PowerPoint presentation and instructor’s guide.

https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining/works/coversheet1695.html

Man Mountain’s Refuge: Mine Refuge Chamber Training

A training designed for teaching mine employees on how and when to use a mine refuge 

chamber, including an instructor’s guide and trainee problem book.

https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining/works/coversheet1679.html

Refuge Chamber Expectations Training

A training to inform miners of what to expect psychologically and physically if they must use a 

refuge chamber in a mine emergency.

https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining/works/coversheet455.html

Underground Mine Refuge Alternatives: A Look at Food, Water, and Sanitation 

Requirements

An article that reviews the MSHA regulations for food, water, and waste disposal/sanitation in 

refuge alternatives.

https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining/works/coversheet1964.html

When Do You Take Refuge? Decisionmaking During Mine Emergency Escape

A training that exposes trainees to escape scenarios where they may need to enter the refuge 

alternative rather than continue attempting to self-escape.

https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining/works/coversheet1556.html
94

Appendix E: Post-exit Competency Items Based on Formal 

Task Analysis

Although the subject matter experts that contributed to this guidance document did not deem 

these post-exit items “critical to self-escape,” they all stressed the importance of miners knowing 

to engage in self-care, to seek support for oneself and others, and to debrief about the incident 

after escape from an emergency. This appendix includes items from the original draft 

competency framework and others that were compiled by focus groups and external subject 

matter expert review. 
Post-exit

To effectively engage in emergency response management, it is critical to, upon reaching safety 

outside of the mine, remain calm, gather together, and contribute to critical incident debrief. It is 

critical for mine management to arrange a critical incident stress debrief and important for 

miners to follow up with physical and mental health professionals, as necessary. Psychological 

first aid is a topic that should be included in miner safety and health training (e.g., toolbox talks, 

written materials and resources, annual refresher training).

Competency Area—Post-exit

Performance Criteria (KSAs)

Debriefing  Communicates critical information about the miners still underground (location, 

headcount, names, physical condition, needs)

 Communicates critical information about the situation (route traveled, severity, 

conditions of mine, affected areas, conditions of equipment, and needs)

 Describes difficulties, barriers, deficiencies in information or other resources

Engaging in 

Self-care

 Participates in a group critical incident stress debrief

 Doesn’t hesitate to follow up with mental health professionals, if needed

 Knows that not everyone reacts to stress the same way

 Maintains a healthy diet and gets adequate sleep and exercise

 Shares experiences with trusted coworkers, family, and friends

 Recognize signs of traumatic stress in self and others

 Knows when to seek additional help and support for self and others
Promoting productive workplaces through safety and health research 

DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2023-133 (revised 06/2023)

DOI: https://doi.org/10.26616/NIOSHPUB2023133revised062023