DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

Summary 

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) recently published recommendations 

for reducing exposure to lead and 

noise at indoor firing ranges [NIOSH 

2009]. However, workers and users 

of outdoor firing ranges may be exposed to similar hazards. This followup document examines exposures at 

these ranges and recommends steps 

to reduce such exposures.

Reducing Exposure to Lead and 

Noise at Outdoor Firing Ranges

Exposure Sources

Several studies of outdoor firing ranges

have shown that exposure to lead and 

noise can cause health problems, particularly among employees and instructors 

[NIOSH 2011; Tripathi et al. 1991; Goldberg et al. 1991]. Lead exposure occurs 

mainly through inhalation of lead dust, 

skin contact with lead from bullets, or ingestion (e.g., eating or drinking with contaminated hands) [NIOSH 2009]. Workers 

and shooters involved in shooting, cleaning 

operations, collecting casings, and handling 

spent bullets may also be exposed to lead. 

Indoor vs. Outdoor Ranges

An estimated 9,000 non-military outdoor 

ranges exist in the United States, with millions of pounds of lead from bullets shot 

annually. Because outdoor ranges are 

typically built in an open area, lead and 

noise are more widely dispersed. Outdoor ranges need less cleaning and maintenance than indoor ranges. However, despite the natural ventilation of outdoor 

firing ranges, personal breathing zone 

lead levels can exceed the NIOSH recommended exposure limit (REL) and Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) permissible exposure limit 

(PEL) [Mancuso et al. 2008]. Some outdoor ranges have ballistic baffles overhead 

and concrete walls and structures on the 

sides. The air in these spaces can become 

stagnant and lead to increased exposures. 

Exposure Limits 

Lead

OSHA has established two different limits for airborne exposure to lead [29 CFR 

1910.1025*

]. The action level for airborne 

lead exposure is 30 micrograms per cubic meter of air (μg/m3) as an 8-hour time 

weighted average (TWA). The OSHA PEL 

for airborne exposure to lead is 50 μg/m3

as an 8-hour TWA. For workers exposed 

to airborne lead above the action level for 

more than 30 days per year, OSHA requires 

blood lead monitoring every 6 months. If 

an employee’s blood lead level (BLL) exceeds 60 μg lead/100 g of whole blood (or 

the average of the last 3 BLLs is greater than 

50 μg lead/100 g), the employee must be removed from further exposure until BLLs 

decline to 40 μg lead/100 g or less.

The NIOSH REL for airborne lead is 

50 μg/m3 as an 8-hour TWA.

The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services recommends that BLLs 

among all adults be reduced to <10 μg/dL 

[DHHS 2011].

Noise

For noise exposure, the OSHA PEL is 

90 decibels, A-weighted (dBA), and the 

action level is 85 dBA both as an 8-hour 

*Code of Federal Regulations. See CFR in 

References.

Description of Exposure

Affected Population

According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, more than 1.2 million Federal, State, 

and local law enforcement officers work 

in the United States [DOJ 2012, 2011]. 

These officers are required to train regularly in the use of firearms and may be 

exposed to hazardous levels of lead and 

noise if they train at outdoor ranges. In 

addition to law enforcement, NIOSH 

estimates that shooting ranges employ 

40,000−60,000 workers, and that about 

15% of the U.S. population, or 34.4 million people, participate in target shooting 

[NSSF 2010].
TWA using a 5-dB exchange rate [29 CFR 1910.95]. The OSHA 

occupational noise standard states that exposures to impulsive 

noise should not exceed 140 dB peak sound pressure level (SPL). 

The NIOSH REL for noise (8-hour TWA) is 85 dBA using a 

3-dB exchange rate [NIOSH 1998]. NIOSH also recommends 

that peak SPL not exceed 140 dB. 

NIOSH Investigations

NIOSH conducted Health Hazard Evaluations that involved exposure to lead and noise to law enforcement officers and employees at outdoor firing ranges (Figure 1). 

Lead

At a firing range in California, 16 personal breathing zone (PBZ) 

air samples and six surface wipe samples were collected for lead. 

The air samples did not exceed occupational exposure limits 

(REL or PEL) for lead. The highest lead exposure (15 μg/m3) was 

measured on an instructor at the range. Exposures can vary depending on weather conditions (particularly wind speed and direction) and the shooter’s proximity to the gun smoke source. 

The highest levels of surface contamination were on the firearms. Lead was also found on outdoor picnic tables where employees ate. Colorimetric wipe tests identified lead on hands, 

but employees had good personal hygiene practices; no lead was 

found on hand wipes after hand washing [NIOSH 2011]. 

Noise

NIOSH evaluated the noise exposure of a SWAT team in Fort 

Collins, CO, during training exercises. Hearing was tested before and immediately after training sessions. Noise measurements were made of firearms and of the protection offered by 

customized hearing protectors. Most officers did not show any 

change in hearing after shooting, but the oldest group did show 

mild hearing loss at higher frequencies. Firearm noise was between 159 and 169 dB, which was greater than the 140 dB peak 

limit for impulsive noise. Peak noise reductions from the ear 

plugs, ear muffs, and customized protectors were in the 30 dB 

range. Double hearing protection (plugs plus muffs) added 

15−20 dB of additional protection [NIOSH 2003]. 

Recommendations 

Workers and shooters at outdoor firing ranges should take the following steps to protect themselves [NIOSH 2003, 2009, 2011]: 

 Attend training, follow safe work practices, and participate in 

health monitoring programs.

 Report symptoms to your employer and get medical attention when needed: 

— Common health effects of lead poisoning in adults include reproductive effects, nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, 

poor appetite, weight loss, anemia, fatigue, hyperactivity, 

headaches, stomach pain, and kidney problems.

— Exposure to high noise levels can cause hearing loss, 

tinnitus (ringing in the ear), stress, high blood pressure, fatigue, and gastro-intestinal problems.

— If you suspect you have had high lead exposure, even if 

you show no symptoms, get your BLL tested. 

 Practice good hygiene: 

— Wash hands and face with soap and water or clean 

them with lead decontamination wipes after shooting, handling spent cartridge cases, or cleaning weapons, especially before eating, drinking, or smoking. 

Wipes for cleaning skin without water are commercially available and should be used if access to soap 

and water is limited [NIOSH 2009].

— Change clothes before leaving the range and wash 

clothes separately from other family clothing. 

 Use personal protective equipment (PPE): 

— Wear double hearing protection (earplugs and earmuffs) and eye protection when shooting.

— Wear a brimmed cap and tight-fitting clothes for protection against hot shells and ejected casings if the range’s 

shooting stations are in very close proximity.

— Wear properly-fitted respirators and full protective 

outer clothing for maintenance activities that involve 

close contact with lead dust or spent bullets.

— Wear gloves and eye protection when using chemicals 

to clean firearms. 

Employers should take the following steps to protect workers 

and shooters at firing ranges: 

 Consider providing non-lead bullets and non-lead primers (often referred to as “green” or non-toxic” ammunition) 

[NIOSH 2011].

 If state law permits, consider providing noise suppressors for 

gun barrels [NIOSH 2011].

 Establish effective engineering and administrative controls: 

— Apply appropriate noise control measures, such as 

sound transmission barriers (i.e., walls, earthen berms), 

and absorptive materials such as acoustical treatments 

Figure 1. NIOSH exposure assessment of Federal law enforcement officers conducting a live-fire training exercise
and natural vegetative (i.e., plants, trees, grass) buffers 

to limit noise in nearby areas [MN DNR 2003]. 

— If possible, use non-porous materials, coatings, or 

plastic covers on all contact surfaces to make them 

easier to clean.

— Limit the length of time that workers and shooters use 

the firing range: rotate assignments and provide quiet, 

clean, break areas. 

— If you operate a range with ballistic or overhead baffles and wall structures, consider using fans behind 

the shooters and pointed down-range in order to provide sufficient air movement away from the shooters.

— Routinely clean the range using proper techniques 

and disposal methods. Do not use dry sweeping, wiping, or dusting. Use wet cleaning and HEPA vacuums 

only [NIOSH2011].

— Consider installing wind speed and direction meters.

 Post range safety rules and provide authority to range masters to enforce them.

 Provide workers and shooters with training and information 

about hazards: 

— Inform workers and shooters about the importance 

of hygiene in reducing potential lead exposures, post 

warning signs, and provide convenient washing facilities to encourage frequent hand washing.

— Prohibit eating, smoking, chewing gum, or tobacco 

use in areas potentially contaminated with lead.

— Inform pregnant workers and shooters about possible 

risks to the fetus. 

— Ensure that workers are aware of symptoms that may 

indicate a health problem. 

— Tell workers about participating in medical surveillance 

programs and getting their BLLs tested, even if they 

don’t show symptoms. 

 Review OSHA requirements for medical monitoring for lead 

(29 CFR 1910.1025(j)) and noise (29 CFR 1910.95(d)(e)(g)(h)). 

 For best medical and lead management practices, consult 

the Association of Occupational and Environmental Clinics 

[Kosnett et al. 2007]. 

 To reduce lead contamination at your range, consult the 

EPA’s Best Management Practices for Lead at Outdoor Shooting Ranges [EPA 2001].

 Establish a hearing conservation program [NIOSH 2011].

 Provide workers with protective equipment: 

— Provide and encourage the use of double hearing protection devices (earplugs and earmuffs) along with hygiene and cleaning kits. 

— Provide skin protection, eye protection, and NIOSHapproved respirators†

 for workers who clean lead-contaminated areas.

— Provide knee or full body pads to limit transfer of lead 

to clothing. 

References 

CFR. Code of Federal regulations. Washington, DC: U.S. Government 

Printing Office, Office of the Federal Register. 

DHHS [2010]. Healthy people 2020. Occupational Safety and Health 

Objective 7. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

DOJ [2012]. Federal law enforcement officers, 2008. Washington, DC: 

U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs [http://www.

bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/fleo08.pdf].

DOJ [2011]. Census of state and local law enforcement agencies, 2008. 

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs [http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/pub/pdf/csllea08.pdf].

EPA [2001]. Best management practices for lead at outdoor shooting 

ranges. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 

[www.epa.gov/region2/waste/leadshot].

Goldberg RL, Hicks AM, O’Leary LM, London S [1991]. Lead exposure at uncovered outdoor firing ranges. J Occup Med 33(6):718−719.

Kosnett MJ, Wedeen RP, Rothenberg SJ, Hipkins KL, Materna BL, 

Schwartz BS, Hu H, Woolf A [2007]. Recommendations for medical 

management of adult lead exposure. Environ Health Perspect 115(3): 

463–471. 

Mancuso JD, McCoy J, Pelka B, Kahn PJ, Gaydos JC [2008]. The challenge of controlling lead and silica exposures from firing ranges in a 

special operations force. Military Medicine 173(2):182−186.

MN DNR [2003]. Outdoor shooting ranges: best practices. St Paul, MN: 

State of Minnesota Department of Natural Resources. 

NIOSH [1998]. Criteria for a recommended standard: occupational 

exposure to noise. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 98–126 [http://

www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/98-126/].

NIOSH [2003]. Health Hazard Evaluation report: Fort Collins Police 

Services—Colorado. By Tubbs RL, Murphy WJ. NIOSH HETA No. 

2002−0131−2898 [http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/hhe/reports/pdfs/2002-

0131-2898.pdf].

NIOSH [2009]. Preventing occupational exposures to lead and noise at 

indoor firing ranges. By Kardous C, et al. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication 

No. 2009–136 [http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2009-136/default.html].

NIOSH [2011]. Health Hazard Evaluation report: evaluating noise and 

lead exposures at an outdoor firing range—California. By Chen L, 

Brueck SE. NIOSH HETA No. 2011−0069−3140 [http://www.cdc.

gov/niosh/hhe/reports/pdfs/2011-0069-3140.pdf].

NSSF [2010]. Modern sports rifle owners are most active shooters. 

Newton, CT: National Shooting Sports Foundation, Inc. [http://www.

nssf.org/newsroom/releases/2010/041910.cfm].

Tripathi RK, Sherertz PC, Llewellyn GC, Armstrong CW [1991]. Lead 

exposure in outdoor firing range instructors. Am J Public Health 

81(6):753−5.

Acknowledgments 

This document was prepared by Chucri A. Kardous and Susan Afanuh, 

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.

†

A written respiratory protection program should be developed and 

implemented that meets the requirements of the OSHA respiratory 

protection standard [29 CFR 1910.134].
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

4676 Columbia Parkway

Cincinnati, OH 45226–1998

Official Business

Penalty for Private Use $300

For more information

Mention of any company or product does not constitute endorsement by NIOSH. In addition, citations to Web sites external to 

NIOSH do not constitute NIOSH endorsement of the sponsoring organizations or their programs or products. Furthermore, 

NIOSH is not responsible for the content of these Web sites.

This document is in the public domain and may be freely copied or reprinted. NIOSH encourages all readers of 

the Workplace Solutions to make them available to all 

interested employers and workers.

As part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, NIOSH 

is the Federal agency responsible for conducting research and making recommendations to prevent work-related illness and injuries. 

All Workplace Solutions are based on research studies that show 

how worker exposures to hazardous agents or activities can be significantly reduced.

More information about firing ranges and NIOSH HHEs on firing ranges can be found on the NIOSH firing range topic page: 

http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/ranges/

General information about noise and lead exposures can be found 

on these NIOSH topic pages:

http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/noise

http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/lead/

To obtain information about other occupational safety and health 

topics, contact NIOSH:

Telephone: 1–800–CDC–INFO (1–800–232–4636)

TTY: 1–888–232–6348 ■ E-mail: cdcinfo@cdc.gov

or visit the NIOSH Web site at www.cdc.gov/niosh

For a monthly update on news at NIOSH, subscribe to NIOSH 

eNews by visiting www.cdc.gov/niosh/eNews.

Safer • Healthier • PeopleTM November 2012

Reducing Exposure to Lead and Noise at Outdoor Firing Ranges DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2013−104