Table 5 (Continued).—State agencies that require the reporting of individuals with
elevated lead concentrations in blood (BLLs)

State

Maryland

Massachusetts

Michigan

New Jersey

New York

Oregon

16

Concentration that
requires reporting
Contact person (ug/dl)

Ellen Coe, R.N., M.P.H.

Health Registries Division

Maryland Department of the
Environment

2500 Broening Highway

Baltimore, MD 21224

301-631-3851, FAX 301-631-3198

Richard Rabin 15
Massachusetts Department of Labor
and Industries
Division of Occupational Hygiene
1001 Watertown Street
Newton, MA 02165
617-969-7177

25

Larry Chadzynski, R.S., M.P.H. 15
Ottice of the Director
Michigan Department of
Public Health ww
2423 N. Logar/Martin Luther King Blvd.
P.O. Box 30195
Lansing, MI 48909
517-335-8637

Barbara Gerwel, M.D. 25
Occupational Disease Prevention
Program
New Jersey Department of Health
C/N 360, John Fitch Plaza
Trenton, NJ 08625
609-984-1863

Robert Stone, Ph.0. 25
New York State Department of Health

2 University Place - Room 155

Albany, NY 12203-3313

518-456-6228

Jane Gordon, Ph.D. 25
Deputy State Epidemiologist
Oregon Health Division
1400 SW Sth Avenue
Portland, OR 97201
503-229-5821
(Continued)

ww

Lead Poisoning in Construction Workers


UNIT V

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY SAFETY AND HEALTH PRACTICES AND APPLICABLE

RESOURCES AND
STANDARDS

OSHA Standards

NIOSH Alerts

SCOPE OF
THE UNIT

OSHA STANDARDS

There are organized efforts in industry and government to prevent
accidents, injuries and illnesses, and pertinent resources are available in
the form of manuals, catalogs, pamphlets, videos, etc (1,2,3). These
resources cover the principles of hazard recognition and control as
applicable to various construction activities and tasks, and provide
training on safe procedures and practices. Further, there exists a
voluminous. body of safety..and health standards (4,5) enforced by
OSHA which are updated periodically. States that have their own safety
and health programs usually have their own version of the OSHA
standards. The OSH Act requires that all employers and employees
comply with the promulgated safety and health regulations and
standards under the appropriate jurisdictions.

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has
published a number of resource documents under the name NIOSH
Alert, addressing the prevention of occupational injuries and fatalities
in a variety of construction and/or other work practices. A listing of the
available NIOSH Alerts is provided in Table V-I. These documents are
also appended to this module in their entirety in an effort to disseminate
the valuable information and recommendations contained therein (see
APPENDIX). The NIOSH alerts typically cover:
. Background information on fatality/injury causing occupational tasks;
. Brief reports on relevant cases;
. Appropriate and applicable regulations and standards;
. Recommendations on procedures for hazard recognition, testing and
evaluation, prevention, safe work practices, and rescue operations; and
. References for further information on the subject.

The industry and government resources and OSHA standards are
exhaustive; so, no attempt will be made to cover in this unit every
possible aspect, and every detail. Instead, highlights are presented here
that are considered to be important and representative. The reader is
directed to the references listed in NIOSH Alert documents provided in
the APPENDIX, and the references cited at the end of this unit for a
more thorough coverage.

In the following sections of this unit, we present information on the
recognition and control of safety and health hazards for material
handling; welding and cutting; concrete construction; steel erection; fall
protection; ladders and scaffolds; cranes, derricks and hoists; heavy
construction equipment; motor vehicles; hand tools; electrical work;

v-3


UNIT VI

ENGINEERING, DESIGN AND CONTRACT ADMINISTRATION

CONSTRUCTION
FAILURES

L’Ambiance Plaza
Condominium
Collapse

Subsequent
Forensic
Investigations

Willow Island
Cooling Tower
Collapse

Kansas City
Hyatt Regency
Walkway Collapse

FOR SAFE CONSTRUCTION

Tragic construction failures, especially those which involve fatalities and
substantial economic losses, often receive wide media coverage and
bring public outcry for preventive actions. Such incidences have
frequently led to federal investigations, and controversy and debate
within the civil engineering and construction community, and have
prompted legislative initiatives. The following are a few of the most
infamous examples of construction failures, which have caused great
losses and generated significant public and professional interest.

On April 23, 1987, L’Ambiance Plaza, a 16 story apartment building in
Bridgeport, Connecticut, collapsed during construction. The lift slab
method was being used in this project to erect the structure. The
collapse resulted in 28 fatalities and 18 injuries, which made
L’Ambiance the most catastrophic construction accident of the 1980’s.
An investigation was performed by the National Bureau of Standards
(NBS; now called NIST - the National Institute for Standards and
Technology) .to determine the most probable cause of this collapse.
This investigation (1) concluded that the most probable technical cause
of the collapse was the failure of some lifting assembly components,
designed and erected by the lift slab contractor and its subcontractor.

Several subsequent forensic investigations were also conducted on this
accident identifying design deficiencies and suggesting various alternative
failure mechanisms (2,3,4). Many experts involved in this work believe
that the fragmentation of responsibility, the delegation of structural
design to the contractors, and poor communication between the parties
were the underlying reasons that led to the collapse of L’ Ambiance
Plaza (5).

In April 1978, the hyperbolic cooling tower of the Pleasants Power
Station near Willow Island, West Virginia, partially collapsed during
construction, resulting in the death of 51 construction workers. The
patented jumpform scaffolding, which was supported by the partially
completed concrete shell, collapsed as the connecting anchors pulled out
of the partially matured concrete, one day after the pouring (6). This
accident brought to the nation’s attention the potential hazards of
temporary structures and the potential limitations of construction
materials.

Although this failure did not occur during construction, an important
lesson may be learned from the errors which led to it. On July 17, 1981,
the second and fourth floor hanging walkways spanning across the
atrium of the Hyatt Regency Hotel in Kansas City, Missouri, collapsed
and fell to the ground floor during a social event. Described as "the
most devastating structural collapse ever to take place in the United

VI-2


Other than
Serious

Serious

Willful

Repeated
Imminent

Danger

Criminal
Prosecution

OSHA’s Training -

and Education
Programs

2) Other than serious violations may have a direct relationship to job
safety and health but probably would not cause death or serious
physical harm (e.g. a tripping hazard not leading to a serious fall).

3) Serious violations would be related to situations where death or
serious physical harm could result, and the employer knew, or should
have known, of the existence of the hazard (e.g. missing guard rails on
elevated platforms).

4) Willful violations involve cases where there is evidence that the
employer was aware that a hazardous condition existed, yet made no
reasonable effort to eliminate it (e.g. ignoring warnings of employees,
safety inspectors, etc. regarding an existing hazard).

5) Repeated violations occur when a previously cited violation is found
to have not been corrected upon reinspection.

6) Imminent danger is a violation where a hazard exists which could
cause death or serious physical harm immediately, or before it can be
eliminated through regular enforcement procedures. This may
necessitate legal action through federal district court if the employer
fails to correct it without delay.

OSHA is structured to essentially regulate the industry through the threat
of civil penalties. Only when a violation of an OSHA standard causes
an employee’s death is a criminal sanction possible. Since OSHA has
been generally reluctant to bring criminal cases to the courts, individual
state and local prosecutors have become increasingly aggressive in
using general criminal laws (e.g. man slaughter, assault, etc.) to indict
employers for creating unsafe workplace conditions (5).

OSHA indicates that voluntary compliance is preferable to compliance
that has to be forced through citations and penalties. In 1989, 14% of
OSHA’s $248 million budget was devoted to educating the work force
(3). OSHA’s Office of Training and Education conducts programs in

the recognition, avoidance, and prevention of unsafe and unhealthful
working conditions (6). Employers and employees can receive training
at the state and local level. The OSHA Training Institute trains
personnel from OSHA, other federal agencies, and employers and
employees. For further information, contact:

OSHA Training Institute
155 Times Drive

Des Plaines, IL. 60018
(312) 297-4810.


_ NIDSH
ALERT JULY 1985

Request for Assistance in Preventing
Electrocutions from Contact Between
Cranes and Power Lines

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES
PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE

CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL
NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH


Items for
Inspection

OSHA’s Role

Elements of a
Comprehensive
Audit

CONTRACTUAL
ASPECTS

of the management’s performing the audits are: (a) management is
primarily responsible for safety; (b) managers control work
performance, and (c) supervisors should know the hazards on the
jobsite. The main disadvantage is the possibility of a conflict of
interest. There may be a tendency to overlook or minimize some
situations which might imply negligence on management’s part. This
problem can be alleviated when safety professionals perform the audits.

There are numerous items which can be targeted for inspection and
jobsite observation. From a hazard standpoint, these may include
housekeeping and sanitation, fire prevention, electrical installations,
hand and power tools, ladders, scaffolding, cranes, hoists and derricks,
heavy equipment, motor vehicles, barricades, handling and storage of
materials, excavation and shoring, demolition, hazardous materials,
welding and cutting, personal protective equipment, concrete and
masonry construction, steel erection, and others.

There are different options to approaching field audits. Some types of
inspections are mandated by OSHA and can be found as specific
requirements, such as the inspection of excavations by a competent
person. In reality, all OSHA standards constitute items for inspection
from the OSHA compliance officer’s viewpoint. This provides pressure
on the contractor to perform self-inspection of the worksite.

A comprehensive safety and health program audit may include the
following key elements (14):

. Degree of management commitment

. Presence and effectiveness of the policy statement
. Program goal setting

. Definition of safety responsibilities

. Experience modification rating (over 2-3 years)

. Management supervisory meetings

. Pre-planning for jobsite safety

. Effectiveness of training and orientation programs
. Accident investigation activities

. Record keeping

. Substance abuse policy

- Safety budget

. Field performance audits.

Incorporation of safety and health in construction contracts can make
a significant and positive impact on the project’s safety and health
performance. One effective way of doing this is to establish target
safety and health standards and criteria for the project. The CICE
Southeastern Michigan Study Group (15) has suggested that such
standards must include a well-ordered and maintained site clean-up
program, and a unified site safety and health program. Further, the
group has suggested that the contractual requirements of the safety and
health program should address the following:

Vol-11


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Appreciation is expressed to the following individuals for their review of this document: John T.
Talty, NIOSH; Stephen D. Hudock, NIOSH; Dennis W. Groce, NIOSH; Ronald L. Stanevich,
NIOSH; David L. Spears, Colorado Carpenters Statewide Joint Apprenticeship Educational and
Training Committee; Carl Constant, General Motors Corporation; David L. Potts, J.A. Jones
Construction Company; and Ronald W. Eck, West Virginia University. The following graduate
students provided assistance in the preparation of the instructional materials for this module:
David Kliwinski, West Virginia University, Kevin Beachy, West Virginia University, Abbas
Abbas, Wayne State University; and Farid Mojaradi, Wayne State University. Gurkan Ozden,
Wayne State University, assisted in the preparation of the text, figures and tables. All of this
assistance is gratefully acknowledged. This publication was made possible by the support
provided by NIOSH, Order No. 91-39854, The grant was initiated by the ASCE Committee on
Curriculum and Accreditation under~the leadership - of: Bruce-Hanes.: Efforts of Daniel J.
McGinley for the administration of the grant for ASCE are hereby recognized.

This report was prepared in support of NIOSH Project SHAPE (Safety and Health
Awareness for Preventative Engineering). Project SHAPE is designed to enhance the
education of engineers in the safety and health field.

DISCLAIMER

The contents of this module are solely the responsibility of the author, and do not necessarily
represent the official views of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, or the
American Society of Civil Engineers. Mention of any company names or products does not imply
endorsement by NIOSH or ASCE. The information and recommendations provided in the module
do not form a regulation or a standard.

Il

~

ad

S

©


27.

28.

29.

30.

31.
32.

33.

34,

35.

36.

37.

38.

What are the principal safety hazards of operating heavy construction
equipment such as bulldozers, scrapers, graders and loaders? How
can these hazards be prevented or mitigated?

Describe the safety hazards and precautions related to motor vehicles
in the construction project environment.

List the hazards of using manual tools, electric tools, saws, and
powder actuated tools. Discuss the relevant hazard control principles

and practices.

What types of safety hazards are associated with electrical work?
How can these hazards be controlled?

How are injuries and fatalities caused by electricity?

What are the factors contributing to cave-ins during excavation and
trenching operations?

Name some excavation and trenching hazards other than cave-ins.

Discuss hazard control in excavation and trenching addressing the
shoring systems, sloping, and trench shields.

Define the term confined space. What types of hazards are present
in confined spaces? Describe the hazard control principles
associated with confined space entry.

List the health and safety hazards which must be considered in
hazardous waste site cleanup work.

Describe OSHA’s ten step program designed to address the health
and safety concerns of employees involved in contaminated site
cleanup operations.

Name the OSHA standards (by part, subpart and section number)
applicable to the various construction operations, activities and tasks
covered in this unit.

REFERENCES

. Associated General Contractors of America: Manual of Accident

Prevention in Construction, Washington, D.C. (1992).

. National Safety Council: Safety, Health and Environmental

Resources Catalog (1994).

. Michigan Department of Labor: SET on SAFETY, Safety Films &

Video Tapes from the Safety Education and Training Division,
Lansing, MI (1990).

. U.S. Department of Labor: Occupational Safety and Health

V-63


Objectives of + To inform workers of the consequences of improper lifting;

Lifting Training - To teach how to avoid unnecessary stress in lifting; and —_
- To have workers become aware of their personal physical limits. wot
Back Injuries , Instruction in the basic facts of manual handling should concentrate on

how back injuries occur, the frequency of injuries, the long term effects,

and the keys to injury avoidance. Employees also need to learn the

general and specific rules for safe lifting techniques. The general rules

call for the right attitude toward lifting (i.e."think before you lift !") and

practice of self-discipline. The specific rules are more descriptive on

how to lift properly. The seven general rules for safe lifting are:
General Rules 1) Lift comfortably. Although presently there are different views on
for Safe Lifting the position to lift correctly, the new concept is to lift with or without

a straight back depending upon what is most comfortable to the

individual. The traditional view js to lift with a straight back and bent

knees.

2) Avoid unnecessary bending. Whenever possible place objects on

waist level surfaces and not on the floor.

3) Avoid unnecessary twisting. Tum your feet, not your hips or

shoulders.

4) Avoid reaching out. Hold heavy objects close to your body. Avoid

reaching out to pick up an object.

5) Avoid excessive weights. Get help or use a mechanical device rather

than lifting a load that is too heavy.

6) Lift gradually. Lift slowly, smoothly and without a jerking motion.

7) Keep in good physical shape. Get proper exercise and maintain a

proper diet.
ww
Specific Rules . The traditional and more specific technique for lifting is the two-hand
for Safe Lifting squat lift method. This lifting method, according to the National Safety

Council (9), consists of six basic steps.

1) Correct feet positioning. Straddle the load with one foot beside the
load and one foot behind the object.

2) Keep the back straight and knees bent.

3) Get a good grip. Use a full-palm grip not just the fingertips.

4) Pull the load as close to the body as possible. Place elbows and
arms close to the body.

5) Tuck the chin in.

6) Keep the body positioned over the feet. Start the lift with the rear

foot.
NIOSH Equation A rational approach to safe manual lifting is establishing weight limits
for Manual for individuals. NIOSH (10) has developed an equation for this purpose
Lifting based upon biomechanical, physiological and psychophysical factors and

criteria. This equation is expressed as:
RWL = LC x HM x VM x DM x AM x FM x CM

where:


NIOSH/OSHA/USCG/EPA [1985]. Occupa-
tional safety and health guidance manual for
hazardous waste site activities. Cincinnati,
OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, Public Health Service, Centers for
Disease Control, National Institute for Oc-
cupational Safety and Health, DHHS (NIOSH)
Publication No. 85-115.

OSHA [1988]. Computerized information file,
SIC code sampling strategy subfile. Salt Lake
City, UT: Occupational Safety and Health Ad-
ministration, Office of Management and Data
Services.

OSHA/NIOSH [1991]. Working with lead in -
the construction industry. Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational
Safety and Health Administration, U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services,
National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health.

Rae C [1990]. Telephone conversation on
June 19, 1990, between C. Rae, NE Louisiana
University, College of Pharmacy and Health
Sciences, and M. Montopoli, Division of Sur-
veillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies,

Lead Poisoning in Construction Workers
*U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1992-648-179/60022

National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health, Centers for Disease Control, Public
Health Service, U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services, Cincinnati, OH.

Rekus J [1988]. Working on structural steel:
the lead hazard. Journal of Protective Coat-
ings and Linings, 5(10):38-44.

Rex J [1990]. A review of recent develop-
ments in surface preparation methods. Journal
of Protective Coatings and Linings 7(10):50-58.

Rosenstock L, Cullen MR [1986]. Clinical oc-
cupational medicine. Philadelphia, PA: W.B.
Saunders Company, p. 7.

Steel Structures Painting Council [1991].
Lead paint removal series. Vols. 14. Pittsburgh,
PA: Steel Stuctures Painting Council.

Ulenbelt P, Lumens M, Geron H, Herber R,
Broersen S, Zielhuis R [1990]. Work hygienic
behaviour as modifier of the lead air-lead
blood relation. Int Arch Occup Environ Health
62:203-207.

21


REVIEW QUESTIONS

1.

10.

11.

12.

13,

14.

Why do engineering and construction firms need a safety and health
program?

Summarize OSHA’s minimum requirements for jobsite safety and
health programs for contractors and subcontractors.

Why should owners be involved in jobsite safety?
Describe the elements of an effective safety and health program.

What should go into a policy statement prepared by top
management?

What is the best way to organize and administer a jobsite safety and
health program?

Why has the effectiveness of safety committees been questioned?
What are the duties of a safety director in a company?

What are the three levels of planning performed as part of a safety
and health program?

Why should there be a set of project safety rules?

Describe how safety and health training and worker orientation can
best be implemented by a company.

What is the significance of having a safety budget in a construction
project?

What is a safety audit? List the key elements of a comprehensive
audit.

Why should safety and health be a part of a construction contract?
What should the contractual requirements address regarding safety
and health?

REFERENCES

1.

U.S. Department of Labor: Occupational Safety and Health
Standards for General Industry, OSHA, 29 CFR Part 1910,
Commerce Clearing House, Inc., Chicago, IL (1993).

U.S. Department of Labor: Occupational Safety and Health

VII-14


Control of
Concrete Hazards

Cement
Handling

Mixers

Buckets

Buggies

Formwork and
Shoring Safety

Drawings

Controls and precautions against the hazardous substances and hazardous
material handling activities are essentially as covered previously in the
Material Handling parts of this module. Some specific information will
additionally be provided herein.

In handling cement, workers should wear goggles and close-fitting
clothing with gloves snug wrist, ankle, and neck bands. The use of
protective cream, and frequent washing are recommended for avoiding
skin irritations. Workers handling bulk cement should use both goggles
and respirators.

All gears, chains, and rollers of concrete mixers should be’ properly
guarded. Waste materials should-not be allowed to accumulate around
mixers. Ropes and sheaves should be inspected daily. Switches should
be locked in open position and tagged; fuses should be removed, and
the throttles should be closed when mixers are not operating. Power
switchers of mixers should be locked and be left in the off position
when workers are cleaning inside the drum.

Concrete buckets positioned by crane or overhead cableway should be
suspended from deep-throated hooks equipped with a swivel and safety
latch. Care should be exercised by the crane operator in swinging the
bucket, and a signal person should be engaged for safe operation.

Buggies should be kept clean without any material accumulating inside.
Handles of buggies should have knuckle guards and should not extend
beyond wheels on either side. If ready-mix trucks are unloading into
buggies, they should be routed to provide a smooth flow of traffic. If
possible, buggies should be routed in a continuous loop to minimize the
danger of collision. If a single runway is used, turnouts should be
provided. Runways should be smooth running surfaces of sufficient
width and strength to support the buggies. Stop cleats should be used
when dumping materials.

Safety of formwork involves adequate structural design and construction,

plus safe working conditions for the workers. The working drawings

for formwork should give the carpenter in the field a clear picture of

what is required and how to achieve it. Besides complete formwork

details and dimensions, the drawings should clearly indicate (15):

« Types and strengths of materials to be used in the formwork;

- Construction loads for which the formwork is designed, including
permissible concentrated loads if any;

« Limits on rates of pour and concrete temperatures;

. Planned pour sequence and schedule;

. Pouring pocket and cleanout: details;

. Expansion joint details;


REFERENCES

1.

Phillips, J.C.: How Big is the Construction Industry?, Construction
Industry Institute News, Vol.1, No.4, The University of Texas at
Austin, Austin, TX (Fail 1988).

National Safety Council: Accident Facts (1993).

Bureau of Labor Statistics: Record Keeping Guidelines for
Occupational Injuries and Illnesses, Department of Labor,
Washington, D.C. (September 1986). .

Moulton, L.K., Usmen, M.A., and D.L. Potts: National Forum on
Construction Safety and Health Priorities, Center for Excellence in
Construction Safety, Department of Civil Engineering, West
Virginia University, Morgantown, WV (September 1989).

Bell, C.A., and N.A. Stout: Fatal Injuries in Construction, EXCEL,
Vol.4, No.1, Center for Excellence in Construction Safety, West
Virginia University, Morgantown, WV (Fall 1990).

Michigan Department of Labor: Compensable Occupational Injury
and Illness Report, Michigan 1990, MIOSHA Information Division,
Bureau of Safety and Regulation, Lansing, MI (June 1993).
Michigan Department of Labor: Program - Related Fatalities,
Michigan 1992, MIOSHA Information Division, Bureau of Safety
and Regulation, Lansing, MI (April 1993).

1-12

w


Table 5 (Continued).—State agencies that require the reporting of individuals with
elevated lead concentrations in blood (BLLs)

Concentration that
requires reporting
State Contact person (ug/dl)
Texas Janet Pichette 40
Texas Department of Health
1100 West 49th Street
Austin, TX 78756
512-458-7268
Utah Oavid J. Thurman, M.D., M.P.H. 30 (218 years of age)
Bureau of Epidemiology 20 (<18 years of age)
Utah Department of Health
P.O. Box 16660
Sait Lake City, UT 84116-0660
801-538-6191
Wisconsin Larry Hanrahan, M.S. 25

Wisconsin Department of Health
and Social Services
One W. Wilson Street, Box 309

Madison, WI 53701

608-267-7173

Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations,
and Field Studies (DSHEFS)

For industrial hygiene information, please
contact

Alan Echt, C.1.H., DSHEFS
Aaron Sussell, M.P.H., DSHEFS
Telephone: (513) 841-4374

For engineering information, please contact

Phillip Froehlich

William Heitbrink, Ph.D., C.1.H.

Leroy Mickelsen, M.S.

Telephone: (513) 841-4221

Division of Physical Sciences and
Engineering (DPSE)

Lead Poisoning in Construction Workers

Mule

J. Donald Millar, M.D., D.T.P.H. (Lond.)

Assistant Surgeon General

Director, National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health

Centers for Disease Control

CARTES

nae

Adkison PD [1989]. Complying with regula-
tions on lead paint removal from utility struc-
tures. Journal of Protective Coatings and
Linings 6(10):33-37.

17


to load the sign onto a truck. Approximately 7
minutes after leaving the victim on the roof,
the coworker entered the building and ob-
served the victim lying on the concrete floor
beneath a shattered skylight. Apparently the
victim either sat on or fell into the skylight,
which collapsed under his weight [NIOSH
1989d]. The victim suffered massive head
injuries and was pronounced dead at the
scene.

Case No. 6 - One Death

On May 12, 1986, a 21-year-old male laborer
died when he fell through a domed, smoke-
vent skylight to a concrete floor 27 feet below.
The victim had been throwing old roofing
materials off a roof with six unguarded
skylights. During a work break, the victim sat
down on one of the skylights, which began to
break under his weight. As he attempted to
raise himself from the skylight with his arms,
the plastic dome failed completely and he feil.
Officials from the State of Maryland Occupa-
tional Safety and Health Administration
reported that the victim had been warned by
his supervisor and coworkers not to sit on
skylights [MOSH 1986].

Case No. 7 - One Death

On July 30, 1986, a 37-year-old male roofer
died after he stepped through a partially
covered skylight opening and fell 27 feet
below. Along with seven other workers, the
victim was installing rolled rubber roofing
material on a large building. The roof con-
tained 35 unguarded 4- by 4-foot openings
where domed smoke-vent skylights were to
be installed. While handling a roll of roofing
material, the victim stepped back and fell
through an opening that had been partially
covered by another roll of roofing material. He
died the following day [MOSH 1987a].

Case No. 8 - One Death

On March 6, 1987, a 26-year-old male roofer
died when he fell through a domed smoke-
vent skylight to a concrete floor 25 feet below.
The victim and two coworkers were installing
a spray-on roof covering. The two coworkers
were applying sealant, and the victim was
applying granular material. As the victim
stepped back, he stumbled over the curb of a
skylight, lost his balance, and fell backward
onto the skylight. The plastic dome fractured
under his weight, and he fell to his death
[MOSH 1987p}.

CONCLUSIONS:

Although current OSHA standards require
employees to guard both skylights and roof
openings, these standards were being vio-
lated in each case reviewed in this Alert.
Employers and workers may believe that the
translucent plastic domes on smoke-vent
skylights provide an adequate barrier against
falls, but many domes do not [ENR 1989].
Based on the incidents reported here, NIOSH
concludes that the increased use of skylights
in new construction presents a serious hazard
to workers in the construction trades.

RECOMMENDATIONS:

NIOSH recommends that the following
precautions be taken to prevent fatal falls
through skylights, skylight openings, and
other roof openings:

* NIOSH urges that all employers and
workers strictly adhere to the applicable
OSHA regulations.

—Railings or screens guarding all
skylights and other openings in roofs

Skylights


Impact on Safety

Material
Failures

Potential
Limitations of
Materials

Effects of

Environmental
Conditions

. If the project needs to be completed during adverse weather
conditions, design procurement should facilitate an early
enclosure of the structure to minimize the exposure to harsh weather.
Specifications should promote the use of weather compatible
materials, and limit field work by using preassembled modules.

These principles imply that the consideration of constructability issues
during design can eliminate difficulties in execution of construction
tasks and avoid unsafe conditions on the job site. Engineers and
architects can address safety issues by using a method known as "job
hazard analysis" during the initial planning and design stages. This
technique can assist in identifying accident producing conditions and
their locations and providing the corrective measures to eliminate
hazards. Finally, all document conflicts and discrepancies of
information caused by the possible lack of coordination between
different sections of the construction documents should be eliminated.
Such conflicts and gaps may go unnoticed and create constructability
problems (such as incompatibilities between structural members and
mechanical elements) when the project has reached an advanced stage.

Many structural/construction failures are caused by material deficiencies.
Materials, in and of themselves, may not be defective; however, their
inappropriate selection or utilization in the construction process may
lead to failures. Understanding the nature and properties of the
materials, along with their structural behavior, and strength and
durability performance in the service environment, is vital to the
successful performance of the structure, and the avoidance of failures.
For instance, freeze-thaw effects and shrinkage problems in concrete are
well known. However, strength development (maturity) is somewhat
less understood. The collapse of the Willow Island cooling tower
mentioned earlier was primarily attributable to incomplete curing of the
concrete resulting in insufficient material strength at the time of
formwork removal.

Building products have been continually evolving and their changing
attributes may present a challenge to the designers. New materials, as
well as technological advancements in traditional materials, create the
possibility of not fully understanding their potential limitations. For
instance, the performance of plastics which are gaining acceptance in
the construction industry have not been fully tested for all service
conditions. Improved properties of steel, concrete and wood can
enhance structural performance, but may also present some problems.
For instance, higher strength steel facilitates greater space availability,
but it may offer reduced ductility.

The effects of environmental conditions on materials is also an important
concern. For example, metals under certain conditions, are subject to

corrosion, despite conventionally adequate safeguards and quality

VI-7


Construction
Loads

Temporary
Structures

Scaffold Failures

LIABILITY
ISSUES

despite a possible lack of capacity to do so. This may cause problems
regarding structural safety.

One such area is construction loads, which may at times exceed the
anticipated service loads. Construction loads were a critical element in
the failure of L’Ambiance Plaza, and were not adequately addressed due
to the fragmentation of the design process and the misunderstandings
regarding responsibility. Apparently, the engineer of record proposed
the structural concept, namely the lift slab method, with a post-
tensioned concrete slab. However, critical elements such as the design
of the lifting equipment, columns and lateral bracing were left to the
discretion of the contractors. Some of these factors were blamed for the
failure (4,5).

Temporary structures cover those structures temporarily erected to assist
in the construction operations, and are central to shoring, formwork and
slip forms, scaffolding, ramps and platforms, bracing and guying,
cofferdams, etc. Contract documents prepared by the engineers may
specify the design of the temporary structures, or may require that the
contractor develop the necessary temporary structures. In the latter case,
the contractor generally assumes responsibility for their integrity.

Scaffold failure is a common type of accident associated with temporary
structures as demonstrated by many case histories. A scaffold resting
on concrete blocks collapsed in Chicago killing twelve workers (10).
Insufficient strength of the concrete blocks were determined as the
cause of collapse. Fourteen injuries were reported on another accident
in New Jersey when a scaffold collapsed pulling over a 12 feet high
masonry wall to which it was tied (19). Overloading with construction
materials, coupled with poor base support of the planks was the
apparent cause of failure. In a gymnasium remodeling project in
Illinois, the roof collapsed when the scaffold failed to support the roof
after the supporting beams were removed (20). The court decided that
the designers were at fault in that they did not determine the scaffold’s
ability to support the roof since the scaffold was intended to be used as
a shoring system. These cases underscore the importance of sound
design and construction of scaffolds.

Any decision of professional liability must begin with a basic

understanding of legal concepts as they apply to engineers. In the

American legal tradition the laws are created by the legislative branch,

enforced by the executive branch, and interpreted by the judicial branch.

Sources of these laws are:

- Constitutions of both the federal and state governments;

- Statutes and ordinances passed by federal, state and local legislative
bodies;

- Administration rules and regulations; and

- Common law (also known as case law) which is a set of legal

VI-13


1. Portable metal or conductive ladders
shall not be used for electrical work or
where they may contact electrical con-
ductors [29 CFR 1926.450(a)(11) or
1926.951(c)(1)].

2. Employers shall instruct each employee
in the recognition and avoidance of-un-
safe conditions and the regulations ap-
plicable to his work environment to
control or eliminate any hazards or other
exposure to illness or injury [29 CFR
1926.21 (b)(2)].

3. Portable ladders in use shall be tied,
blocked, or otherwise secured to prevent
their being displaced [29 CFR
1926.450(a)(10)].

Compliance with these regulations might have
prevented all five deaths.

CONCLUSIONS

The principal objectives of the NIOSH FACE
Program are to identify potential risk factors
that may contribute to traumatic worker
deaths and to recommend measures that
might prevent similar fatalities. Whether or not
awork operation complies with existing OSHA
regulations is only one variable that may con-
tribute to a fatality. However, in the investiga-
tions reported here, full compliance with
relevant OSHA regulations would probably
have prevented these deaths. The lack of
compliance with existing regulations in the five
incidents described suggests that many
employers and workers may be (1) working
unaware of these OSHA regulations, (2)
misinterpreting the requirements of the
regulations, or (3) failing to inform their
workers about the dangers of using metal
ladders around overhead power lines.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The following recommendations will help
prevent deaths and injuries resulting from
contact between metal ladders and everhead
power lines:

Metal Ladders

« NIOSH recommends that employers and
workers comply with the OSHA regulation
prohibiting the use of portable metal or
conductive ladders for electrical work or in
locations where they may contact electrical
conductors. Nonconductive ladders such
as those made of wood or fiber glass should
be used instead.

¢ Employers should fully inform workers
about the hazards of using portable metal
(including aluminum) ladders near ener-
gized power lines.

.

If portable metal ladders are used in the
vicinity of energized power lines, NIOSH
urges that all employers and workers strict-
ly adhere to the OSHA safety regulations
[29 CFR 1926.450 and 1926.951(c)(1)] for
providing proper balancing and securing of
ladders, and for maintaining safe working
distances to avoid contact with electrical
conductors.

¢ To assure proper protection for anyone
working near electrical power lines, ar-
tangements should be made with the
power company to de-energize the lines or
to cover the lines with insulating line hoses
or blankets.

Employers should provide workers with
training in emergency medical procedures
such as cardiopulmonary resuscitation.
Fatalities may be prevented by prompt
emergency medical care.

NIOSH also urges safety and trade associa-
tions, electrical utility companies, product
manufacturers, and OSHA State consultative
services to bring these recommendations to
the attention of employers and workers using
portable metal ladders. Further information on
electrical energy hazards can be found in six
previously published NIOSH Alerts [NIOSH
1987e, NIOSH 1986a, NIOSH 1986b,
NIOSH 1986c, NIOSH 1985b, NIOSH 1984].


REQUEST FOR ASSISTANCE IN PREVENTING FATALITIES
OF WORKERS WHO CONTACT ELECTRICAL ENERGY

ATTENTION!

PROMPT EMERGENCY MEDICAL CARE CAN BE LIFESAVING FOR WORKERS WHO HAVE
CONTACTED EITHER LOW VOLTAGE OR HIGH VOLTAGE ELECTRICAL ENERGY.
IMMEDIATE CARDIOPULMONARY RESUSCITATION (CPR) FOLLOWED BY ADVANCED
CARDIAC LIFE SUPPORT (ACLS) HAS BEEN SHOWN TO SAVE LIVES.

SUMMARY

Recent incidents that have come to the attention of NIOSH have shown
that electrocution victims can be revived if immediate cardiopulmonary
resuscitation (CPR) or defibrillation is Provided. While immediate
defibrillation would be ideal, CPR given within approximately
4 minutes of the electrocution, followed by advanced cardiac life
support (ACLS) measures within approximately 8 minutes, can be
lifesaving. This alert describes recommendations that can be used to
help save the lives of workers who contact electrical energy. Editors
of appropriate trade journals, safety and health officials, and
especially those who work with electrical equipment, are requested to
bring these recommendations to the attention of owners, managers, and
workers.

December 1986


Control of
Fire Hazards

Fire Watcher

Welding
Equipment
Safety

Protective
Clothing and
Equipment

Ventilation

Housekeeping

APPLICABLE
OSHA STANDARDS

- Radiation exposure may have latent adverse health effects.

Suitable fire control devices should be ready for emergency use near
welding operations. OSHA standards require that objects that present
fire hazards should be removed if practical; otherwise they should be
securely covered. Containers previously used to store flammable
substances must be either filled with water, or thoroughly cleaned,
before welding, cutting or heating.

Flying sparks and molten metal can travel up to 25 to 30 feet and retain
sufficient heat to ignite combustible material. Therefore, a second
person should serve as a "fire watcher" during welding and cutting and
continue this task for 30 minutes after the operation has ceased.

All electrical welding equipment should conform to the requirements of
the National Electric Manufactures Association or the Underwriters
Laboratories (1). Power circuits should conform to the requirements of
the National Electric Code. Electric holders should have adequate
current capacity and insulation against shock, shorting or flashing.
Electric stubs should be disposed of in a fire-proof container.

Protective clothing should cover all parts of the body, depending on the
nature of the work. It must include flame resistant clothing free of oil
and grease. Safety goggles or face shields with tinted lenses (to protect
against chipping hazards, sparks and harmful rays), flame resistant
gauntlet gloves, aprons, safety shoes, leggings, and respirators must be
used during welding and cutting.

OSHA standards require the use of mechanical ventilation to remove
metal fumes in excess of established limits. Freely moveable exhaust
hoods should be placed near the source of the fumes. The use of oxygen
for ventilation purposes is prohibited by OSHA. Ventilation of
confined spaces is also an important consideration during welding or
cutting operations. In such cases workers can be protected by using
airline respirators, and should maintain communication with a person
outside the confined space (see the Confined Space Entry section).

As previously emphasized, proper housekeeping can eliminate many
hazards associated with fire, explosions and electrical shocks. Removal
of loose combustible materials such as wood shavings, saw dust,
materials soaked in flammable liquids, highly volatile materials such as
fuels and solvents are important to fire safety. Wood and other
combustible material should be shielded from sparks. Electrical wires
for welding equipment should be regularly inspected for safe operation.

The OSHA standards applicable to welding and cutting as covered in
CFR 1926 Subpart J are provided in Table V-5.

V-18


OTHER
ORGANIZATIONS

Private Agencies

PRESENT STATUS
OF SAFETY AND
HEALTH
LEGISLATION

Elements of
the New Bill

Project SHAPE encourages improvements in engineering practice,
education and research through specific curriculum development efforts
addressing the integration of occupational safety and health concepts in
appropriate engineering design and professional courses. The primary
audience is undergraduate engineering students. If engineering
graduates receive basic knowledge in the occupational safety and health
field, it is expected that they will have a direct long-term impact on the
elimination of related problems in the workplace.

Besides OSHA (federal and state), OSHRC and NIOSH, there are
numerous other organizations in the U.S, and abroad which directly or
indirectly deal with construction safety and health. A majority of these
are professional, industry or trade organizations representing the
interests of their constituencies. A few are based in universities; and
some are government or quasi-government agencies. A selective list of
such organizations is presented in Table II-2. These organizations
engage in a variety of activities, which include development of
standards; research; development and distribution of printed and
audio/visual resource materials; organization of committees, meetings,
seminars and symposia; training programs; management of data bases;
and technical assistance. Obviously, not all of these organizations deal
with all aspects of construction safety and health.

There are also many private firms and industry groups which offer
consultation services including training, or market safety equipment and
related materials. In addition, insurance: companies can offer excellent
resources to assist their clients in safety and health related matters.

Two separate bills have been recently introduced in U.S. Congress;
one focusing on the specific needs of workers in the construction
industry, and another, a more comprehensive piece of legislation
applicable to industry as a whole (including construction). First, the
Construction Safety, Health and Education Bill was introduced in 1987,
it has since been the subject of several hearings and substantial
revisions. Second, the Comprehensive OSHA Reform Bill was
introduced during 1991; it has also been the subject of several hearings.
The two bills were later combined in the Senate. They have also been
recently combined in both chambers of the Congress - H.R. 1280 and
$.575.

The current Construction Safety and Health Bill (Title XII of H.R. 1280

and S.575) contains five major elements (9). They are:

1) A required system of coordinated safety management and oversight
on multi-employer construction projects;

2) Minimum requirements for contractor safety and health programs;

3) A direction for the establishment by OSHA of an effective system
for targeting construction workplace inspections based on timely and
accurate information;

I-13


WARNING!
LEAD WORK AREA—POISON
NO EATING OR SMOKING

RESPIRATORS REQUIRED

Figure 2. Sample of warning sign for lead work area
requiring respirators.

To minimize the amount of lead that may
accumulate in the worker's car and home and
to protect the members of the worker's
household, lead-contaminated clothing (in-
cluding work shoes) should be left at the
worksite for cleaning or disposal. Workers
who are welding, cutting, or burning should
wear nonflammable clothing [NIOSH 1988a].

Respiratory Protection

Effective source control measures (such as
containment or local exhaust ventilation)
should be implemented to minimize worker
exposure to lead. NIOSH prefers such
measures as the primary means of protecting
workers; but source control at construction
sites is often ineffective, and airborne lead
concentrations may be high or may vary un-
predictably. Therefore, respiratory protection
is also necessary for certain operations such
as blasting, sweeping, and vacuuming, and
for other jobs as determined at the worksite
by an industrial hygienist or other qualified
professional. However, respirators are the
least preferred method of controlling lead ex-
posure, and they should not be used as
the only means of preventing or mini-
mizing exposures. The use of respirators
should supplement the continued use of

Lead Poisoning in Construction Workers

engineering controls and good work practices
[OSHA/NIOSH 1991].

When respirators are used, the employer
must establish a comprehensive respiratory
protection program as outlined in the NIOSH
Respirator Decision Logic [NIOSH 19876] and
the NIOSH Guide to Industrial Respiratory
Protection [NIOSH 1987a], and as required in
the OSHA respiratory protection standard
[29 CFR 1910.134]. \mportant elements of
the OSHA respiratory protection standard are
(1) an evaluation of the worker's ability to
perform the work while wearing a respirator,
(2) regular training of personnel, (3) periodic
environmental monitoring, and (4) respirator
fit testing, maintenance, inspection, cleaning,
and storage. The program should be evaluated
regularly by the employer. Without a complete
respiratory protection program, workers will not
receive the protection anticipated.

Respirators should be selected by the person
who is in charge of the program and know-
ledgeable about the workplace and the limita-
tions associated with each type of respirator.
Because exposures to lead during construc-
tion may vary substantially throughout a
workshift and between days, the highest an-
ticipated exposure should be used to deter-
mine the appropriate respirator for each job.

Respirator selection should be made accord-
ing to the guidelines in Table 3. Employers
must use respirators that are certified by
NIOSH and the Mine Safety and Health Ad-
ministration (MSHA) [NIOSH 1991a].

NIOSH type CE respirators are required for
use by abrasive blasting operators [29 CFR
1910.94]. Currently, only continuous-flow
respirators are certified by NIOSH for
abrasive blasting [29 CFR 1910.94], but
positive-pressure, supplied-air respirators
would provide greater protection [NIOSH
1987b; 30 CFR 11]. The continuous-flow

W


Other
Common
Hazards

Electrical
Hazard Control

Overhead Cable
Precautions

Underground Cable
Precautions

Grounding
Precautions

inadequate safeguards create electrocution hazards.

Other common hazards in electrical work include:

. Unsafe installation operations, such as poor splicing;
. Faulty insulations;

- Overloading of conductors;

. Electric current in wet and moist areas;

. Fire hazards associated with generated heat;

« Vehicular collision with outdoor electrical equipment;
. Access to live parts by unqualified personnel; and

. Inadequate work space around electrical equipment.

Some practical steps can prevent the danger of electric shocks to
construction workers. These are described in the following paragraphs.

To avoid contact with overhead cables, crane operations should be kept
away from power lines a minimum distance of ten feet or more
depending on voltage rating of the line. Suitable barriers such as posts,
tension wires and earth banks should be placed at points where
overhead cables present a hazard. When working beneath the overhead
cable is unavoidable, precautions must be taken to prevent contact
between the cables and ladders, scaffold poles, and construction
equipment. It is particularly important. that a person. observe the
equipment clearance from power lines and wam the operators of
possible hazards.

The foremost precaution in underground cables is the correct
identification of all installation locations, routes, depths, and voltage.
Before commencement of excavation work, the local electric company
or an authorized state agency must be consulted. All buried cables
should be considered live and lethal. Hand digging should replace
power and metal tools when workers are nearing the assumed cable
location.

Effective grounding is a procedure that prevents harmful voltage leakage
between electrical enclosures and their surroundings. This is generally
accomplished by connecting all electrical enclosures together, by
connecting the complete electrical installation to its surrounding, and by
providing a low impedance path from every enclosure back to the
service entrance. These steps reduce the intensity of shock. Also, a
grounding conductor must connect the equipment enclosure to the
receptacle and to the service entrance. Damaged wiring and improperly
installed grounding conductors are ineffective and dangerous.
Consequently, a device known as "ground fault circuit interrupter"

V-47


Unsafe Acts and
Conditions

Unsafe Acts
in Construction

Unsafe Conditions
in Construction

Engineers’ Role

ACCIDENT
THEORIES

Domino Theory

For a given activity or project it is possible to identify the probable

unsafe acts and unsafe conditions. Some of the unsafe acts in a

construction environment are:

« Operating tools and equipment without authority;

. Using improper/defective/hazardous tools, equipment, materials, or
vehicles; .

. Using tools, equipment, materials or vehicles in an unsafe fashion (not
following safe procedures);

. Failure to use personal protective equipment (PPE) and other
gear provided to perform the job safely;

- Making safety devices inoperative;

. Failure to keep warning signs and labels;

- Unsafe positioning, loading, placing, mixing, lifting and carrying;

- Poor housekeeping; :

+ Poor attitude (distraction, teasing, horseplay, substance abuse, etc.);

Among the unsafe conditions which might exist in a construction

environment, one can list:

. Presence of unguarded, improperly or inadequately guarded, or
otherwise defective tools, equipment and materials;

- Poorly arranged site, materials and equipment;

. Improper dress;

« Improper ventilation and/or illumination;

. Unsafe design and construction;

. Lack of adequate training;

« Physiological or psychological limitations of the employees;

. Weather extremes (hot, cold, windy, wet, etc.);

. Lack of effective safety management efforts and programs; and

. Failure to provide personal protective and other equipment to perform
work safely.

It should be clear that both unsafe acts and unsafe conditions usually
contribute to the occurrence of accidents. Engineers have many
opportunities to eliminate or minimize the unsafe acts and conditions
through their role in design, management and training.

There are several theories about accidents providing insight into causal
factors and preventive actions. Naturally, none of these theories are
entirely adequate in covering all pertinent factors contributing to the
occurrence of accidents or predicting their likelihood. Depending on
the point of view, some may appear more plausible than others.

An early theory for accident/injury causation was Heinrich’s domino
theory, which models an accident as a series of factors built like
dominos as shown in Figure IV-1. The idea here was that any one
domino can knock others over, culminating in injury. According to this
theory:

1) Injuries are caused by accidents;


for Occupational Safety and Health, NIOSH
FACE Report 89-7.

NIOSH [1990aj. Fatal accident circumstances
and epidemiology: painter dies when scaffold
falls inside municipal water tank in Indiana.
Morgantown, WV: U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services, Public Health Service,
Centers for Disease Control, National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health, NIOSH
FACE Report 90-12.

NIOSH [1990b]. Fatal accident circumstan-
ces and epidemiology: painter dies following
a 40-foot fall from scaffold inside water tank in
Ohio. Morgantown, WV: U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, Public Health
Service, Centers for Disease Control, National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
NIOSH FACE Report 90-16.

NIOSH [1991a]. National Traumatic Oc-
cupational Fatality (NTOF) database. Mor-
gantown, WV: U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services, Public Health Ser-
vice, Centers for Disease Control, National

Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
Division of Safety Research.

NIOSH [1991b]. NIOSH Alert: request for
assistance in preventing electrocutions during
work with scaffolds near overhead power
lines. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, Public Health
Service, Centers for Disease Control, National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 91-110.

OSHA [1979]. Occupational fatalities related
to scaffolds as found in reports of OSHA
fatality/catastrophe investigations. Washington,
DC: U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational
Safety and Health Administration, Office of
Statistical Studies and Analysis.

Occup Saf & Health Rep [1992]. Sect. 1737,
Fall protection (Part 1926), RIN 1218-AA37;
Sect. 1738, Scaffolds (Part 1926), RIN 1218-
AA40; Sect. 1739, Fall protection systems
(personal protective equipment) (Part 1910),
RIN 1218-AA48. Occupational Safety &
Health Reporter, April 29.

Falls from Suspension Scaffolds

Sal


JANUARY 1986

PNET at

Request for Assistance in Preventing
Occupational Fatalities in Confined Spaces

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES

PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE

CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL

NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH


‘Section V — Reactivity Data
ad Uneapie Conctions to Avert
|

Incomoatioulty (Matenais t0 Avou)
Mazarcous Owasmposaon oF Byproducts
‘Hazardous ‘May Occur Condmans 1 Avoid
Pryce
‘wl Not Occur

Section Vi — Health Hazard Data
Rosas) of Enuy: ‘innaianon? ‘Sain?

Heean Hazards (Acute and Chrorec)

‘Signe ana Symeuome of Exposure

Mecca Condeons
Generaty Aggravetes by Exoosure

Emergency and Firm Aud Procedures

‘Section Vil — Precautions for Safe Handting and Use
‘Steps 10 Be Taxon m Case Matenai is Released or Spites

Wane Oncosas Mernod
Preceunors 10 Be Taken an Handing and Stonng

One Precevaone,

‘Section Vill — Controi Measures
‘Respwrasory Prowechon (Spscty Typey

Vereianon ‘Local Exnauet Spec
Mecharacel (Generay Omer

Proteceve Gloves | Eye Prowechon
(Ciner Pronecave Cicting or Equoment
VWastit, ew, Prececes

Pege 2
Figure V-1. (Continued)

OSHA Requased?

vV-8


Request for Assistance In

Preventing Electrocutions During Work with Scaffolds

Near Overhead Power Lines

WARNING!

Workers may be electrocuted when erecting, moving, or working from metal
or conductive scaffolds near overhead power lines.

The National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH) requests assis-
tance in preventing electrocutions of
workers who contact overhead power
lines when erecting or moving scaffolds,
or when using conductive tools or
materials from scaffolds. Recent NIOSH
investigations conducted under the Fatal
Accident Circumstances and Epidemiol-
ogy (FACE) Program suggest that many
employers, contractors, and workers may
be unaware of the hazards of working with
scaffolds near uninsulated overhead
power lines.

This Alert describes 13 deaths that oc-
curred in six separate incidents when
workers erected or moved scaffolds that
came into contact with energized, over-
head power lines, or when they contacted
overhead power lines while using conduc-
tive tools or materials from scaffolds. To
prevent such electrocutions, the recom-
mendations in this Alert should be fol-
lowed by every employer, manager,
supervisor, and worker where scaffolds

Scaffolds Near Power Lines

and conductive tools or materials are used
near overhead power lines. Editors of ap-
propriate trade journals, safety and health
officials, and other persons (especially
those in the building trades) are requested
to bring this Alert to the attention of
employers, contractors, and workers.

BACKGROUND

When scaffoids, conductive tools, or other
materials contact overhead power lines (see
Figure 1), workers receive serious and often
fatal injuries. Data from the NIOSH National
Traumatic Occupational Fatalities (NTOF)
data base indicate that nearly 6,500 traumatic
work-related deaths occur each year in the
United States; an estimated 7% of these
fatalities are electrocutions [NIOSH 1991].
The NTOF data base also shows that from
1980 through 1986, at least 25 deaths
resulted when workers contacted overhead
power lines while erecting or moving scaffolds
or while using conductive tools on scaffolds.


Keeping Records
of Training

Accident
Investigation
and
Record Keeping

Safety Budget

Safety Audits

Management Role

orientation and should be encouraged to read and understand them
thoroughly.

It is recommended that for all safety training, companies keep written

records of:

. Topics covered;

. Times, dates and locations of the training activities;

- Names of the employees in attendance; and

- Acknowledgement of the employees having received the particular
training by signing off.

This will help avoid unnecessary duplication and provide documentation
which can protect the company against OSHA citations and lawsuits.

As previously covered in Unit IV, accident investigations can highlight
problem areas, and help detect patterns of unsafe acts or conditions
which should be addressed in preventive efforts. In this regard,
accident reports make excellent training tools. Every accident,
including those without injury should be investigated as part of the
company safety and health program. The recordkeeping requirements
previously covered are also an important element of the safety and
health program. A thorough and continuous recordkeeping system for
recordable cases, accident investigations, safety training programs, test
results, etc. provide managers with significant information management
capability for good decision making, while meeting OSHA and other
mandates.

A company truly interested in safety will include a budget covering
safety program expenses, such as costs of safety personnel, training,
protective equipment, first aid station maintenance, etc. An advanced
program will include these safety costs showing them as part of direct
labor. An enhanced program will be able to demonstrate these costs as
part of operational or task performance, such as a percentage of each
cubic yard of concrete poured. Contractors should be required to show
that they are prepared to allocate resources for safety supervision, joint
consultation, training, safety equipment, and other necessary safety
program assets in relation to the size and nature of the project (13).

Safety and health audits measure the program’s effectiveness. Audits
include both field inspections and overall program evaluation. One of
the better tools for enhancing safety programs is a system of frequent
on-site inspections. These inspections, or field audits, provide
immediate and tangible evidence of the performance level of a safety
program, as well as providing for direct observation of any present or
developing site hazards. On-site inspections keep safety at the forefront
and insure a high degree of compliance with the rules. Safety audits
should be an on-going activity throughout the project.

Inspections may be performed by owner representatives, site
superintendents, foremen, or the company safety staff. The advantages

VH-10


4) Development of a cadre of OSHA compliance officers with

experience in the construction industry and special training in
construction safety and health; and

5) Establishment at OSHA headquarters of a new Office of

Construction Safety, Health and Education, and the position of a
Deputy Assistant Secretary for Construction to assure the existence
of a coherent safety program for owners. This office would also deal
with role definitions of safety responsibilities in the construction
industry, and proper coordination among the Agency’s offices and
directorates and the Advisory Committee on Construction Safety
and Health.

Of these five major elements, the first is probably the most significant
because it represents a new.legislative approach. .

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1.

What is the significance of the Pittsburgh study in the historical
development of safety and health legislation in the United States?

. What were the basis and rationale for the OSH Act of 1970? What

are the main provisions of the Act?

. Describe the roles of OSHA, OSHRC, NIOSH and the states in

dealing with the occupational safety and health problems in the U.S.

. What are OSHA’s inspection priorities? What types of violations

of the OSH Act are considered by the compliance officers in OSHA
inspections of construction projects?

. What are the main functions of OSHA’s new Office of Construction

and Engineering?

. Briefly describe NIOSH databases and grant programs. What are the

objectives of the SHAPE project?

. Name some important national and international professional and

trade organizations which can serve as valuable resources to the civil
engineer in safety and health related matters.

. Describe the legislative trends in construction safety and health.

REFERENCES

1,

Congress of the United States: Preventing Illness and Injury in the
Workplace, Office of Technology Assessment, Washington, D.C.
(1985).

. Lubove, R.: Workmen’s Compensation and the Prerogatives of

Voluntarism, Labor History, Vol.8, No.3, pp.254 - 279 (Fall 1967).

I-16


Control of
Flammable
Materials

Housekeeping

Proper
Manual Lifting

Many of the safety recommendations for explosive materials are also

applicable to flammable liquids. Specifically:

. Flammable gases and liquids should be segregated from all other
materials, equipment and activities which may create sparks or flame.

+ Flammable liquids should not be stored adjacent to gases. They should
be stored in fire resistant structures with approved fire extinguisher,
mortars, electric switches and ventilators.

. Flammable liquids should be stored at a minimum amount in approved
containers, and should be labelled for identification.

. All containers and dispensing equipment should be approved for the
specific use, and should be of the non-sparking type (especially during
transfer of the flammables from containers).

- Corrosive materials should be bonded, vented and equipped with spill
prevention catchments.

- Containers previously used for other flammable liquids should not be
reused for different liquids unless the container is thoroughly purged.

- All personnel handling flammable liquids should be trained in hazard
recognition and prevention.

. Unidentifiable flammable liquids should not be used until the nature
of their contents is confirmed.

The AGC Safety Manual (1) lists the following recommendations for

good housekeeping: ~

. In storage areas materials should be maintained in neat stockpiles for
ease of access. Keep aisles and walkways clear of loose materials and
tools.

- Clean up loose materials, waste, etc. in work areas immediately. This
is especially important in aisles and in the vicinity of ladders, ramps,
stairs, and machinery. Tools and loose materials should be removed
immediately if a hazard is created.

- In areas used by personnel, empty bottles, containers, and papers
should not be allowed to accumulate where lunches are eaten on the
job site. Trash disposal cans should be provided.

- Spills of oil, grease, or other liquid should be removed immediately
or sprinkled with sand.

. An effective means of managing solid waste is the provision of
suitable receptacles for waste and scrap. Combustible waste, such as
oily rags, paper, etc., should be stored in an appropriate covered
container, and disposed of regularly.

« Protruding nails should either be removed or bent over. Cleaned
lumber should be stacked in orderly piles. Workers performing this
task should wear heavy gloves and footwear with puncture-resistant
soles.

« Adequate lighting should be provided in or around all work areas,
passageways, stairs, ladders, and other areas used by workers.

Manual lifting remains an important part of the construction process and

should be performed by workers who are trained in the proper method
of lifting. According to Potts (8), the objectives of lifting training are:

V-11


Suggestions, requests for additional informa-
tion on safe work practices, or questions re-
lated to this announcement should be directed
to Dr. Thomas R. Bender, Director, Division of
Safety Research, 944 Chestnut Ridge Road,
Morgantown, West Virginia 26505-2888;
telephone (304) 291-4595.

We greatly appreciate your assistance.

onadd Millar, M.D., D.T. LA

\ Assistant Surgeon General

Director, National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health

Centers for Disease Control

\

REFERENC:

CFR [1988]. Code of federal regulations.
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Of-
fice, Office of the Federal Register.

NIOSH [1984]. Request for assistance in
preventing electrocutions of workers in fast food
restaurants. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, Public Health Ser-
vice, Centers for Disease Control, National In-
stitute for Occupational Safety and Health,
DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 85-104.

NIOSH [1985a]. Fatal accident circumstances
and epidemiology (FACE): Billboard worker dies
when metal ladder contacts 7,200 volt power line
in Kentucky. Morgantown, WV: U.S. Depart-
ment of Health and Human Services, Public
Health Service, Centers for Disease Control,
National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health, Division of Safety Research, FACE-85-
21-H.

NIOSH [1985b]. Request for assistance in
preventing electrocutions from contact between
cranes and power lines. Cincinnati, OH: U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services,
Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Con-
trol, National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 85-
111.

NIOSH [1986a]. Request for assistance in
preventing electrocutions due to damaged
receptacles and connectors. Cincinnati, OH:
U.S. Department of Health and Human Ser-
vices, Public Health Service, Centers for Dis-
ease Control, National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication
No. 87-100.

. NIOSH [1986b]. Request for assistance in

preventing fatalities of workers who contact
electrical energy. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Depart-
ment of Health and Human Services, Public
Health Service, Centers for Disease Control,
National Institute for Occupational Safety ‘and
Health, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 87-103.

NIOSH [1986c]. Request for assistance in
preventing grain auger electrocutions. Cincin-
nati, OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, Pubic Health Service, Centers for Dis-
ease Control, National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication
No. 86-119.

NIOSH [1987a]. Fatal accident circumstances
and epidemiology (FACE): Construction worker
electrocuted in North Carolina. Morgantown,
WV: U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Dis-
ease Control, National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health, Division of Safety Research,
FACE-88-5-Il.

NIOSH [1987b]. Fatal accident circumstances
and epidemiology (FACE): Painter electrocuted
in North Carolina. Morgantown, WV: U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services,
Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Con-
trol, National Institute for Occupational Safety

Metal Ladders


skylight opening to a concrete floor 33 feet
below. The victim was working as a member
of a crew engaged in replacing corrugated
metal roof sheeting and installing chain-link
fencing material on top of 3- by 8-foot fiber
glass panels used as skylights. The fencing
material was being installed to eliminate the
hazard of falls posed by the fiber glass
skylights. (Three months earlier a worker on
the same site had fallen to his death through
one of these skylights.) When the supervisor
ordered the crew to stop work temporarily, the
members of the crew moved toward a vent
stack to warm themselves. As they moved,
the victim stepped on one of the unguarded
skylights and fell through it. He died at the
hospital 2 hours later [NIOSH 1988b].

Case No. 3 - One Death

On December 14, 1988, a 41-year-old male
ironworker died after he fell 25 feet through a
roof opening. The victim was working as a
member of an eight-man crew installing steel
decking on the roof of a new six-story building.
The victim left the work area to get a small
Piece of decking material to finish the job.
When the victim did not return in 5 minutes,
the crew searched for him and found him lying
unconscious on the fifth floor of the stairweil.
The victim had removed a 3- by 6-foot piece
of decking that covered a 2-foot-square ven-
tilation opening in the top of the stairwell;
apparently, he then stepped forward and fell
through the opening. The victim died
12 hours later as a result of his injuries
[NIOSH 1989p].

Case No. 4 - One Death
On December 20, 1988, a 26-year-old male
sheet metal mechanic died when he was

knocked through a roof opening and fell to a
concrete floor 22 feet below. The victim and

Skylights

one coworker were preparing to install a 75-
pound, 54-inch-square steel cap over a 50-
inch-square opening on the roof of a
manufacturing plant. The men placed the cap
so that it leaned against a metal structure on
the roof 34 inches from the edge of the roof
opening. The victim then moved between the
cap and the roof opening and stooped over to
apply caulking to the 6-inch raised curb of the
opening. A gust of wind dislodged the cap,
which struck the victim and knocked him
headfirst through the roof opening [NIOSH
1989c].

Case No. § - One Death

On April 18, 1989, a 39-year-old male
electrician’s helper died when he feil through
a domed, smoke-vent skylight (see Figure 1)
to a concrete floor 16 feet below. Using a
1-inch-diameter rope, the victim and one
coworker had lowered an old electric sign to
the ground from the side of an unoccupied
single-story building. The victim stayed on the
roof to coil the rope while the coworker went

Figure 1. Scene of a skylight accident where
a worker fell to his death (Case No. 5).


Other Precautions

Safety Program

First Aid

(GFCT) has been developed to constantly monitor the flow of current
through the branch circuit conductor. This device will detect even a
small amount of current that would not trip fuses and circuit breakers.
A GFCI detects leakage in tools, and allows the current to flow to the
ground.

Other precautions to assure safe electrical work are as follows:

. Wiring with appropriate insulation and adequate current carrying
capacity should be used to prevent overload and heating.

« Switches, fuses, circuit breakers and other control devices should be
enclosed and grounded.

« Site illumination should provide adequate light for safe working
conditions. Temporary lights should be positioned as high as
possible, and the light poles and high posts should be secured. Special
attention should be given to the illumination of critical areas such as
floor openings, tunnels and shafts, and stairways. Portable lights
should have insulated handles, lamp cages and enclosed wiring.

. High voltage power lines (440 volts or higher) should have adequate
vertical clearance.

« Live electrical parts should be guarded to prevent accidental contact.

- Electrical installations in wet or damp areas (excavations and trenches)
should be placed on dry areas where workers can stand. Non-metallic
items should be used, wherever possible.

- Exposure of electrical installations to explosive and flammable
materials should be prevented. Switches, circuit breakers, and other
control devices should not be installed near such materials; if
unavoidable, special parts should be used.

As a general safety measure, a comprehensive safety program should be
established. This program should emphasize training on the hazards of
electricity, and should include routine inspections by qualified persons.
An effective maintenance program should be instituted to identify and
correct the problems. Access to live electrical parts should be restricted
to qualified personnel only, and a hazard communication program
should be established to identify the hazards associated with electrical
equipment. All circuits should be marked to indicate their voltage and
intended use. High voltage junction boxes, and transformers should be
clearly marked with warning signs. Many subcontractors utilize on-site
electric installations to perform their tasks (HVAC subcontractors,
communication subcontractors etc.) Supervisors must monitor these
activities to assure safe practices, especially on alteration work.

First aid treatment may be required if a worker receives an electrical
shock. The current.should be switched off before touching the victim.
If this is not possible, the victim should be freed using heavy duty
insulating gloves or other insulated material. Resuscitation may be
applied if necessary.

V-48


Page 2 - Request for Assistance in Preventing Occupational Fatalities in
Confined Spaces

BACKGROUND

The deaths of workers in confined spaces constitute a recurring occupational
tragedy; approximately 60% of these fatalities have involved would-be

rescuers. If you are required to work in a:
SEWER STORAGE TANK SHIP'S HOLD
SEPTIC TANK SILO REACTION VESSEL
SEWAGE DIGESTER VATTM — ~-—~BOTLER
PUMPING/LIFT STATION oUCcT PIPELINE
SEWAGE DISTRIBUTION UTILITY VAULT PIT

or HOLDING TANK

or similar type of structure or enclosure, you are working in a CONFINED
SPACE. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) defines a
confined space in 29 CFR 1926.21 as “any space having a limited means of
egress, which is subject to the accumulation of toxic or flammable
contaminants or has an oxygen deficient atmosphere." The NIOSH Criteria for
a Recommended Standard....Working in Confined Spaces dated December, 1979,
defines a confined space as:

...a space which by design has limited openings for entry and

. exit; unfavorable natural ventilation which could contain or
produce dangerous air contaminants, and which is not intended .
for continuous employee occupancy. Confined spaces include
but are not limited to storage tanks, compartments of ships,
process vessels, pits, silos, vats, degreasers, reaction
vessels, boilers, ventilation and exhaust ducts, sewers,
tunnels, underground utility vaults, and pipelines.

CASE REPORTS OF FATAL INCIDENTS

Case #1 - RECOGNITION AND RESCUE (FATALITIES = 1 WORKER + 1
RESCUER)

On December 29, 1983, a 54-year-old worker died inside a floating
cover of a sewage digester while attempting to restart a propane
heater that was being used to warm the outside of the sewage
digester cover prior to painting it. Workers had wired the
safety valve open so that the flow of propane would be constant,
even if the flame went out. The heater was located near an
opening in the cover of the digester. When the worker attempted
to restart the heater, an explosion occurred that vented through
the opening. The worker crawled away from the heater into an
area that was oxygen deficient and died. A co-worker attempted a
rescue and also died.

Case #2 - RECOGNITION AND RESCUE (FATALITIES = 1 WORKER + 1
RESCUER)

On March 8, 1984, a 20-year-old construction worker died while
attempting to refuel a gasoline engine powered pump used to


Classification
of Causal Factors

Natural
Disasters

Hurricane Andrew

Concerns for
Public Safety

Engineering and
Design

Constructability

These studies and others have shed considerable light on some of the
common causes of construction failures. Based on these considerations,
it is possible to summarize the causal factors governing construction
failures into 5 major classifications, which are:

1) Natural disasters;

2) Engineering and design considerations;

3) Material properties and performance;

4) Construction methods and procedures; and

5) Contract administration and project management.

Natural phenomena such as earthquakes, hurricanes, violent storms,
tornados, etc. often cause enormous destruction to buildings and other
structures during construction or service, leading to loss of life and
property damage of significant magnitude. Although most structures
can be designed and constructed to withstand such overwhelming forces
of nature, some damage is often unavoidable (hence the term "Act of
God"). However, a natural disaster may also reveal a latent deficiency
in design, construction techniques, or code requirements.

A recent example (1992) is Hurricane Andrew, which resulted in the
costliest disaster in U.S. history. This violent storm with gusty winds
exceeding 150 mph, devastated many buildings, while revealing critical
deficiencies in construction practices in the South Florida area. This
fact became particularly evident in residential construction, where roof
failures caused by inadequate connections (13) resulted in the total
destruction of many wooden frame houses. Experts pointed to cost
cutting measures by contractors as a contributing factor for the great
damage caused by Hurricane Andrew.

Such disasters may expose critical deficiencies in structures, raising
concems for public safety. The engineering community should
recognize the threat of natural disasters in geographic areas susceptible
to them, and propose corrective measures through code revisions to
eliminate or mitigate the potential failures.

Engineering and design for construction involve complex processes,
which blend technical expertise with skillful project organization and
management. In addition to design and construction knowledge, an
understanding of government regulations and building codes are
necessary, along with effective communications with various groups
involved in the construction process.

An important prerequisite to safe design and engineering is the
consideration of constructability. The constructability task force of the
Construction Industry Institute (CII), has defined constructability as the
optimum integration of construction knowledge and _— experience in
planning, design, procurement, and field operations to achieve overall

VI-5


Accident Investigations
Leading to Preventive
Measures

Record Keeping

OSHA Accident
Reporting Forms

Company Accident
Investigation Forms.

departments of a company and among various occupations;

- Indicate the possible need for engineering revision by identifying
unsafe equipment and materials;

« Disclose inefficiencies in operating processes and procedures;

- Reveal unsafe practices which call for employee training;

. Reveal improper placement of personnel;

. Provide supervisors with essential and timely information about
accidents; and

. Permit an objective evaluation of the progress of a particular safety
program adopted by the company.

Accident investigations also produce data serving as legal or liability

evidence to be used in the event of insurance claims or lawsuits.

The injury causation models previously described can be used as bases
for accident investigation and analysis. Accident investigation and
analysis, used as a preventive measure for future accidents, aims at
producing complete, meaningful and specific information about the
causes. Merely obtaining the information will not prevent the
recurrence of accidents. Appropriate action must be taken to correct
deficiencies and to provide the necessary training. Accident
investigations must be "fact finding" rather than "fault finding".
Fairness and impartiality are essential.

A good record-keeping system is essential to the success of an accident
investigation. Keeping records and reporting of work-related accidents
are required by law. OSHA requires that each employer having eleven
or more employees must maintain a log of recordable occupational
injuries and illnesses and an annual summary by calendar year. In
addition, a more detailed supplementary record must be made of each
recordable occupational injury or illness. Recordable cases include
every occupational death, occupational illness and occupational injury
involving loss of consciousness, restriction of work or motion, transfer
to another job, or medical treatment (which does not include first aid).
Figure IV-3 shows a decision chart for determining whether a case is
recordable.

Samples of the OSHA 200 form (Log and Summary of Occupational
Injuries and Illnesses) and the OSHA 101 form (Supplemental Record
of Occupational Injuries and Illnesses) are presented in Figure IV-4 and
Figure IV-5, respectively. Such records must be available for
inspection and submitted to the Bureau of Labor Statistics upon request.
If an employee is killed on the job, or if five or more employees are
hospitalized or killed in an accident, the employer must report the
accident to OSHA within 8 hours. These records must be maintained
for a period of not less than five years following the end of the year to
which they relate. .

Note that the OSHA 101 form essentially represents an individual
accident report. However, some companies prefer to generate more
detailed reports of their accident investigations.


Scaffolding
Hazards

Scaffolding
Precautions

Proper
Housekeeping

Suspended
Scaffolds

Scaffolds are the most common means of performing work at heights.
Main hazards are:

. Falls from the scaffold;
- Objects falling from the scaffold; and
- Collapse of the scaffold.

These are mainly caused by environmental hazards, high winds,
worker’s loss of balance, or the deposition of excessive material,
sometimes near the outer edges. Partial or total collapse of scaffolds can
cause major injuries. This may be brought about by poor erection,
defective materials and fittings, inadequate support or bracing, poor
foundation, insufficient ties, and overloading.

Scaffolds are most susceptible to collapse during erection or dismantling.
Some of the major precautions in controlling scaffold hazards are as
follows:

« The erection and dismantling of scaffolding should be carried out
according to plans prepared by experienced persons.

- The design of scaffolds should consider their purpose and location. In
addition, scaffolds must be built from sound, strong and defect-free
materials.

. Scaffolds should be designed to carry four times their intended load
which includes the workers, materials and the weight of the scaffold
itself. Adequate footing to support posts, and lateral stability by
diagonal bracing should be provided.

+ Scaffolds should be tied to the building to prevent movement of
framework towards or away from the structure. Secured ladders
and stairs for safe access and egress, and other safety features such as
clearance near electrical lines, head protection, guard rails and toe
boards should be provided according to the OSHA standards.

- Overloading of the scaffold work platforms can lead to collapse, and
should not be permitted. This is especially important during
demolition where large pieces of material may drop or fall on the
platform. :

- Dismantling scaffolds should be carried out under the supervision of
experienced personnel, proceeding horizontally, in full width. ©
Scaffolds should not be dismantled in vertical sections, and the
detached members should not be stored on platforms.

Proper housekeeping practices for maintaining scaffolds in safe working
condition include daily inspections by an experienced and responsible
person, use of communication signs (especially for incomplete
structures) and keeping the structure clean, free from debris, tools, ice,
snow, etc., before use. Scaffolding parts should be organized and stored
in a dry and protected area. Scaffolds should be protected from
collisions by vehicles and from open fires.

Suspended scaffolds are used for light, short-term work, such as painting
and repair jobs on the exterior surface of a building. These scaffolds
are suspended by fiber or wire ropes. The most common accidents with
these devices are caused by rope or outrigger failures. Rope failures are

. generally due to excessive wear or damage that reduces their strength.

V-31


Occupational Injury

Occupational Illness

Total Cases

Lost Workday Cases

Nonfatal Cases

Lost Workdays

National Data on
Incidence Rates

Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) codes (2). The definitions of
occupational injuries and illnesses and lost work days in these tables
are as follows (3):

Occupational injury is any injury such as a cut, fracture, sprain, strain,
amputation, etc., which results from a work event or from a single
instantaneous exposure in the work environment.

Occupational illness is any abnormal condition or disorder, other than
one resulting from an occupational injury, caused by exposure to factors
associated with employment. It includes acute and chronic illnesses or
diseases which may be caused by inhalation, absorption, ingestion, or
direct contact of an agent.

Total cases include all work-related deaths and illnesses, and those work-
related injuries that result in loss of consciousness, restriction of work
or motion, transfer to another job, or require medical treatment other
than first aid.

Lost workday cases are cases which involve days away from work, or
or days of restricted work activity, or both.

Nonfatal cases without lost workdays are cases that do not involve
fatalities or lost workdays but result in medical treatment other than first
aid, restriction of work or motion, loss of consciousness, transfer to
another job, or diagnosis of occupational illness.

Lost workdays are the number of workdays (consecutive or not) on
which the employee would have worked but could not because of
occupational injury or illness and/or the number of workdays
(consecutive or not) on which, because for injury or illness, the
employee was assigned to another job on a temporary basis; or worked
at a permanent job less than full time; or worked at a permanently
assigned job but could not perform all duties normally connected with
it. The number of lost workdays does not include the day of injury or
onset of illness or any days on which the employee would not have
worked even though able to work.

A glance at Table I-1 reveals that construction is a leading industry in
all categories of incidence rates. This situation has remained relatively
unchanged over many years. Table I-2 shows that the problem is
uniformly spread between all segments of the construction industry.
The lost workday statistics suggest that certain specialty trade
contractors, e.g. masonry, stonework and plastering workers, roofing,
siding and sheet metal workers, and water well drillers have the highest
incidence rates in the industry. One must recognize that a major part
of the incidence rate statistics in construction relate to injuries rather
than illnesses.

5


List of Tables

Table I-1 BLS Estimates of Occupational Injury and Illness Incidence
Rates by Industry Division, 1990 and 1991 ........sssssssssessecsssseessesssesseseeecseeees

Table I-2 BLS Estimates of Occupational Injury and Illness Incidence
Rates for the Construction Industry, 1991 .......csssssssssssssssssesseessssssnccssessesesees

Table I-1 EMR Impact on Cost of Workers Compensation Insurance ....

Table II-2 EMR vs. Safety Performance
Table 1-3 Analysis of Accident Costs ..........sscsscssssssssesssssssesssscccerscseeeesesesesessesnsnesnsaees
Table 1-4 Accident Cost Schedule in 1979 Dollars

Table II-5 Accident Cost Estimating System (ACES) Multiplier Sheet .............:c
Table IIl-1 OSHA Federal, Regional and Area Offices & Status of State Plans .........
Table II-2 Various Organizations Dealing with Construction Safety and Health .......

Table IV-1 Estimated Percentages of Accidents due to
Unsafe Acts versus Unsafe Conditions ..........sssscrssscsesssecnscssssssssasesnsecneeenee

Table V-1 Listing of Available NIOSH Alerts ...........sssssssssserssssssssssesnsssseneseeneeseeneenecsees
Table V-2 Coupling Multiplier - (CM) .......csssssssssssssssessessessecsscsseaecerssecsssassacsacenseneeneese
Table V-3 Frequency Multiplier - (FM) ........sssssssssssssssecsessnssncencsessscsnssscrsensensensensenees
Table V-4 OSHA Standards Related to Material Handling ............sssssessssseeeessenesseeee
Table V-5 29 CFR 1926 Subpart J - Welding and Cutting

Table V-6 29 CFR 1926 Subpart Q-Concrete and Masonry Construction .........:sc+
Table V-7 29 CFR 1926 Subpart R - Steel Erection ......ssssssscssssssssssccnecsssensersesennecnness
Table V-8 OSHA Standards on Fall Protection .........sssscsssssssesssssensssenessseccessconeescenes

Table V-9 29 CFR 1926 Subpart N-Cranes, Derricks
Hoists, Elevators, and Conveyors ........ssssssssssssssessssssnssessnescscesacnenssssessnsoeneaes

Table V-10 OSHA Standards for Heavy Construction Equipment
and Motor Vehicles ......s..sscssssssssssssecssscsssssscnssensecsnesnessneesnesensensesnsenseensessnes

Table V-11 OSHA Standards on Hand and Power Tools «......s.-sssssssscsssessssssessseseeeseeese

Table V-12 OSHA Standards on Electrical Safety ...

v

Page

14

14
1-5
I-s
1-7
I-10
11-10
1-8
I-14

Iv-2
v4

v-14
V-14
v-15
v-19
V-26
v-29
V-34

V-38

V-41
V-45
V-49


AIA Article 10

Safety and Health
as a Bid Item
in Contracts

- An individual designated by the successful bidder (as contractor) must
be assigned as safety manager.

+ There must be a plan to put the safety and health program in place on
the first day of work on the contract, and to assure that each worker
understands the program, that the program will be followed
consistently, and that there will be accountability for violations.

. There must be appropriate work environment safety and health training
(e.g. tool box meetings) selected for the construction procedures being
carried out by the contractor and its subcontractors, with a record
made, at each meeting, of the name of the discussion leader, the topics
discussed and the names of those in attendance.

_ +A monthly safety audit must be conducted by the contractor’s safety

manager with procedures established for the audit to be reviewed by
the contractor’s management and members of the project team.
. There must be an appropriate substance abuse awareness program.

With regard to the target safety and health criteria for the project, the

following have been suggested by the CICE group:

. A worker’s compensation experience modification rate (EMR) for
bidder and on-site, first tier subbidders should be at or below a
specified value on date of bid. For verification of the EMR rate, the
bidder and its on-site, first tier subbidders can provide confirmation
by providing a copy of the worker’s compensation policy declaration
page or a letter from their insurance carrier.

- Recordable incidence rates, based on OSHA Form No. 200 data,
should be maintained throughout the duration of the contract at or
above the values stated by bidder and its subbidders, unless other
criteria are agreed upon between owner and bidder. For verification
of the OSHA incidence rates, the bidder and its subbidders can
provide a copy of their last calendar year report.

The American Institute of Architects (AIA) document on General
Conditions of the Contract for Construction (16) includes a section
(Article 10) for protection of persons and property, which addresses the
safety and health aspects of a project. The contents of this section are
presented in Figure VII-3.

Inclusion of safety and health in construction contracts places the
required emphasis on their significance, and encourages the contractor
to pay systematic attention to safety and health. However, safety is
usually not a pay item in the contract, and its costs are lumped into the
“cost of doing business", or the project overhead. At the National
Forum on Construction Safety and Health Priorities (17), it was strongly
suggested that safety and health be included in the contracts as a bid
item just like excavation, borrow material, concrete, etc. This will make
owners pay for this item separately; however, it will provide the
resources to contractors to invest in safety and health appropriately,
delivering improved performance.

Vvi-12

ww


Common Features
of Accidents

Ergonomic Models

Focus on
Task Design

Systems Safety
Models

event). This model recognizes the interactive nature of the injury
process and requires a large amount of information to be collected on
the host, the agent, the environment, and the interactions between these

(2).

Using such a model, it should be possible to identify features common
to a set of injuries and accidents, and identify causes. This approach is
better than looking at each accident independently. Through this
approach of collective study, it may be possible, for instance, to
associate a group of accidents with a company’s particular processes or
products.

Neither workers, nor machines, nor workplaces exist apart from each
other. To accomplish work all must come together, and injuries and
illnesses sometimes result from their interactions. The study of these
interactions is called "ergonomics", or "human factors engineering".
This discipline is an applied science concerned with the design of
facilities, equipment, tools, and tasks that are compatible with the
anatomical, physiological, biochemical, perceptual, and behavioral
characteristics of humans. The principle behind ergonomics design is
that the machine should fit the worker rather than forcing the worker to
fit the machine. The objective is safety, effectiveness, and efficiency
wherever people are part of a system.

The injury causation models developed by ergonomists attempt to
provide insights into problems of "unsafe acts" or human error, which
are lacking in other models. Rather than viewing operators’ errors as
merely "unsafe acts” that can only be addressed through training and
motivation, the ergonomics approach looks carefully at the machine
features, or the design of the work, to see if they contributed to the
workers errors (2). In addition, ergonomists analyze the physical
capacities of workers, such as lifting or reaching ability, to determine
whether the task places undue stress on specified parts of the body, or
leads to excessive fatigue. The focus then is on designing the work
task, rather than installing machinery, and letting the worker find a way
to adapt. The principal shortcoming of the ergonomic model is the
absence of any analysis of hardware failures beyond the human/machine
interface.

The system safety models have been extensively used to analyze failures
in systems hardware and equipment. They focus on the human element
to a lesser degree. These models utilize a "network" of components
attempting to identify the critical system/subsystem components,
progressive failure modes and probabilities of failure. Several
techniques may be used in systems safety analysis (5). These include
failure mode and effect analysis (FMEA), technique for human error
rate prediction (THERP), and fault tree analysis (FTA).

IV-6


Page 6 - Request for Assistance in Preventing Electrocutions from Contact

Between Cranes and Power Lines

REFERENCES

1.

Bureau of Labor Statistics: Supplementary Data System Microdisk Files
User's Guide, 1976-1977, No. PB288258. Springfield, Virginia: National
Technical Information Service, 1978.

National Safety Council utility study, 1964-1968. Accident Facts.
Chicago, Illinois: National Safety Council, 1969-1976.

Coleman PJ, Gottlieb MS, Kaplan MC, Knutson SJ, McPeek JS. A human factor
analysis of material handling equipment. Madison, Wisconsin: State of
Wisconsin, Department of Industry, Labor and Human Relations,
January 1978;132-4.

Crane handbook. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Construction Safety Association
of Ontario, October 1975;133-50.

£.U.S.Government Printing Office: 1986 — 646-117/40931

w


WELDING AND
CUTTING

Welding and
Cutting Hazards

Inhalation

Burning

Fire

Explosion

Electrical Hazards

Other Common
Hazards

Welding is defined as the union of metal; and cutting is defined as
severing or removing of metal. Both tasks are accomplished by heating
metals at suitable temperatures. Welding and cutting are generally
achieved by three methods:

1) Gas welding and cutting, which involves the use of oxygen,
acetylene and other gaseous fuels to generate heat;

2) Are welding and cutting, which uses electric arc to create heat; and
3) Resistance welding, which involves the generation of heat by
resistance to flow of electric currents.

Welding and cutting produces a number of hazards to operators, which
are described below:

Fumes can cause intoxication through inhalation especially when toxic
materials such as lead, zinc, and cadmium coated materials are welded.
This hazard is more critical in confined spaces.

Unprotected skin can be burned if it comes in contact with molten metal
and sparks.

Cutting and welding are major producers of fire on construction sites.
Fires can be created by flying sparks or molten metal. Some flammable
materials may ignite in the presence of pure oxygen. Fires can also be
created by welding near combustible materials or containers which
contain (or have previously contained) combustible material.

Explosions can be created by welding around containers of explosives.
Explosion hazards are more critical during gas welding. Hazards are
also associated with improper storage and handling of gas cylinders
(such as exposure to heat or cold impact, etc.). Oxygen also forms a
highly explosive mixture with acetylene and other gaseous fuels.

In the case of arc welding and cutting, electric shock is a major hazard,
and can be fatal. High voltage electric shock, from faulty wiring and
grounding, or exposure to water, are the typical sources of electrical
hazards. Ultraviolet rays caused by electric arcs can damage the eye
lens by "sunburning" its surface. Ultraviolet light can also produce
burns and tumors on the skin which may turn malignant. Ultraviolet
light produces ozone and can form highly toxic substances in reaction
with other chemicals.

Other common hazards associated with welding and cutting include the

following:

. Chipping of excess metal or faulty welding can injure the eye.

- Working with goggles and face shields can reduce visibility resulting
in accidents.

. Handling hot equipment may cause burns.

. Extreme noise levels may be harmful to hearing.

V-17


Cold Weather
Precautions

Protection
Against Cold

APPLICABLE OSHA
STANDARDS

prevention of fires and the use of personal protective equipment.

+ Take measures to prevent unrolled wire mesh from recoiling. Such
measures include securing the ends or turning over the mesh.

+ Ensure that the twisted ends of tie wire are turned under the rebar to
prevent puncture wounds from their sharp ends.

« Place planking over reinforcing mats to afford footing and prevent
tripping or falling injuries.

. Cover exposed reinforcing rods with wood or other appropriate
material to prevent tripping and falling injuries.

. Use recommended safety belts and lanyards with positive latches or
equivalent fall protection equipment when working at
elevations over 6 feet.

. Tie-off safety belts to secure vertical bars and ensure the safety latch
is clipped down instead of up.

. Practice good housekeeping... .. ..

Extensive concreting is now carried out during periods of cold weather,
utilizing proper techniques of mixing and protection. Heaters of various
types are used to heat aggregates and other materials and to maintain
proper curing temperatures. These heaters should be frequently checked
for proper functioning. When construction areas are enclosed with
canvas, plastic film, or other materials and heated, proper ventilation
and lighting should be provided. Flame resistant material should be
used,

During cold weather concreting, it is extremely important that fresh
concrete be protected at all times from exposure to freezing
temperatures. Thin slabs lose heat rapidly and should be enclosed, if
Necessary, to protect them from wind and low temperature effects.
When heated materials are used in concrete production, it is generally
advisable to add the cement to the mix last to prevent flash sets (which
harms strength). Concrete should not be allowed to dry out during
periods of protective heating. Forms should not be removed until it is
certain that the concrete has developed sufficient strength to sustain all
live and dead loads which will be imposed. Workers should wear
proper clothing to protect themselves from frost-bite, hypothermia, and
pneumonia (7).

OSHA’s 29 CFR 1926 Subpart Q is the standard which covers both
concrete and masonry construction. The full scope of this standard is
shown in Table V-6, although aspects related to cast-in concrete are
primarily addressed in this module. .

Table V-6
29 CFR 1926 Subpart Q-Concrete and Masonry Construction

Scope ieecation, and definitions applicable to this subpart

1926.701 General requirements

1926.702 Requirements for equipment and tools
1926.703 Requirements for cast-in-place concrete
1926.704 Requirements for precast concrete
1926.705 Requirements for lift-slab operations
1926.706 Requirements for masonry construction

V-26


CONSTRUCTION SAFETY AND HEALTH
FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS

INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE

Prepared By

Mumtaz A. Usmen, Ph.D., P.E.
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Wayne State University
Detroit, Michigan 48202

For
AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS
345 East 47th Street
New York, New York 10017

October 1994


Sloping

Trench Shields

Inspections

Other Safety
Measures

Sloping is a method which involves cutting the side walls of an
excavation to form a safe angle for soil stability. This is called the
angle of repose, which represents the angle at which the soil settles to
a natural state with no tendency to further settle to a shallower form.
The angle of repose varies with the specifi ic soil conditions; however,
it can not exceed 45 percent. Sloping i is not a practical approach for
deep excavations because it requires excessive removal and replacement
of soil. However, sloping can be effectively used in conjunction with
shoring. Typically, the top of the trench is sloped in such cases to
allow for easy installation of the shoring system at lower depths.

Trench shields (boxes) are essentially used as “personnel protectors".
Such devices are commonly placed in an already excavated, but
unshored, trench or-pit- Normally, the trench walls remain intact long
enough to complete the construction. If they collapse, however, a
properly designed shield must be capable of withstanding thie maximum
anticipated lateral soil stress at a given depth. This minimizes the
potential for worker injury. Trench shields are most often used in open
areas away from existing utilities, streets, and buildings that may require
a support system. If ground conditions are favorable and the trench
zone requires no direct support, the use of a trench shield may be an
excellent choice. However, when the job calls for strict compaction and
replacement requirements, one must be cautious. If unstable soils
slough off as the shield is pulled up the trench line, it could make
proper construction a difficult and costly task (27).

Inspection of excavations by a competent person can assist in assessing

the soil stability and the quality of the shoring system. Daily

inspections should be performed. Attention should be directed to the

following during the inspections:

- Bulges on trench walls, cracks near the edges and walls.

+ Accumulation of loose rocks fallen from the trench wall;

. Water in the excavation area;

+ Soundness and quality of the shoring materials; e.g. decayed timber;
and

- Improper connections in the shoring system, and other signs of
distress;

Other safety measures adopted to protect the workers against excavation
hazards are as follows:
- Keep the excavated soil pile at least two feet from opening to avoid
excessive surcharge pressure.
« Keep all vehicles and equipment away from the trench.
- Be aware of vibrations, overhead utilities, and underground utilities.
- Be aware of toxic fumes; toxic fumes can seep through the soil and
accumulate at the bottom of an excavation. Clean air should be
provided in sufficient volume to dissipate the toxic gases.
- While excavating the soil, clear all unnecessary workers from the area.

V-52

ww


Page 5 - Request for Assistance in Preventing Fatalities of Workers
Who Contact Electrical Energy

Employers may contact the local office of the American Heart
Association, the American Red Cross, or equivalent groups or
agencies, to set up a course for employees.

Provision should be worked out at each worksite to provide
ADVANCED CARDIAC LIFE SUPPORT (ACLS) within 8 minutes (if
possible), usually by calling an ambulance staffed by
paramedics. Signs on or near phones should give the correct
emergency number for the area, and workers should be educated
regarding the information to give when the call is made. For
large facilities, a prearranged place should be established
for company personne! to meet paramedics in an emergency.

We are requesting that employers, worker representatives, editors of
appropriate trade journals, and safety and health professionals assist
in disseminating these recommendations to those individuals and
organizations responsible for providing a safe workplace. Suggestions
or questions related to this announcement should be directed to
Mr. John Moran, Director, Division of Safety Research, National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 944 Chestnut Ridge Road,
Morgantown, West Virginia 26505-2888, telephone (304) 291-4595.

We greatly appreciate your assistance.

(Lond. )

tant Surgeon General

Director, National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health

Centers for Disease Control



Shop Drawing
Reviews for
Hyatt Regency

ASCE Quality

Manual

Change Orders

Impact on
Budget, Schedule
and Safety

According to Banset and Parsons (8) who studied the problem, there
was a critical misunderstanding about individual and overlapping
responsibilities which led to serious breaches in communications
between the team members. Apparently, the structural engineer failed
to clearly communicate specific load information to the steel fabricators,
and the engineer of record delegated the design responsibility for the
box beam to the fabricator. Due to the omission of this critical
information, the fabricator acted upon the wrong assumption that the
engineer’s connection details were complete, and they merely had to be
developed. The commission which investigated this accident on behalf
of the state of Missouri ultimately concluded that the burden of
communication between the constructor and the designer laid on the

latter party.

The Hyatt Regency collapse also generated considerable debate with
regard to the inherent dangers of the traditional practices conceming shop
drawing reviews. In approving the shop drawings, design engineers
generally do not assume responsibility for the accuracy of the work
represented in the drawings. They simply verify that the information
submitted is in conformance with the design. In fact, the reviewed shop
drawings usually contain a statement which defines the limits of the
engineer’s professional liability in terms of the scope of evaluation and
the resulting action expected from the review. On the other hand, some
contractors view the engineer’s approval as assumption of responsibility
for the outcome of the shop drawing. The fact the that structural
engineers for the Hyatt Regency walkways were found liable, indicates
that the engineer’s role and responsibility is beyond just reviewing the
shop drawings to check for conformance to the design concept.

In the years following this tragedy, ASCE has addressed this issue in its
recent quality manual (15). It encourages continuing interactions
between design engineers and fabricators and allows delegation of
design responsibility to the fabricators, provided that they are performed
under the supervision of a qualified (licensed) professional engineer.
However, ASCE has also stated that the engineer of record should
assume the overall responsibility for design.

A change order is essentially a communication tool which is issued by
designers to the contractors/subcontractors during the construction phase
to alter the course of a project with owner’s approval. The necessity for
a change order may arise from unexpected site conditions, unavailability
of materials or equipment, potential design flaws, changes in owner’s
requirements and other relevant factors.

Change orders may have profound impacts on the project budget and
schedule, often imposing additional demands and liability for cost of the
related design and construction. This fact, coupled with time constraints
and pressures during construction, can cause the designers to pay

VI-10


Page 4 - Request for Assistance in Preventing Electrocutions from Contact
Between Cranes and Power Lines

TABLE 1
Status of Compliance with OSHA Standards (or Use of CSA-Ontario
Recommended Work Practices) in Operations Which Resulted in

Six Crane-related Electrocutions

Relevant OSHA Standard (or
CSA-Ontario Recommended

Work Practice) Status of Compliance by Case
Hh 2 8 om OS
1. Move, insulate, or de-energize No No No No No

power line before starting work (OSHA)

2. Maintain recommended absolute No No No No No
limit of approach (minimum
clearance) for specific voltage (OSHA)

3. Utilize a signal man (OSHA) No No No No No

4. Utilize nonconductive taglines, No No No No No
vrather than direct contact, to
. stabilize load (CSA-Ontario)

5. Do not store combustible materials No Yes No Yes Yes
directly beneath power lines
(OSHA & CSA-Ontario)

6. Use boom guards, insulating No No No No No
lines, or proximity warning
devices in addition to
other requirements (OSHA)

7. Use insulating boots and No No No No No
gloves when workers connect
loads or contact the crane
while in the vicinity of
overhead power lines (CSA-Ontario)

No = Data demonstrated lack of compliance with the OSHA standard (or lack of
use of CSA-Ontario recommended work practices).

Yes = Data demonstrated compliance with the OSHA standard (or use of
CSA-Ontario recommended work practices).


Page

UNIT V - CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY SAFETY AND HEALTH PRACTICES
-AND APPLICABLE OSHA STANDARDS

PURPOSE; OBJECTIVES; KEY TERMS V-1

RESOURCES AND STANDARDS V-3

SCOPE OF THE UNIT V-3

MATERIAL HANDLING V-5

APPLICABLE OSHA STA V-15
WELDING AND CUTTING V-17
APPLICABLE OSHA STANDARDS V-18
CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION ... V-19
APPLICABLE OSHA STANDARDS V-26
STEEL ERECTION essessssssssscssssseessesse V-27
APPLICABLE OSHA STANDARDS ... V-29
FALL PREVENTION AND PROTECTION V-29
FALL PREVENTION ... V-29
FALL PROTECTION DI ES ... V-33
APPLICABLE OSHA STANDARD: V-34
CRANES, DERRICKS AND HOISTS .. V-34
APPLICABLE OSHA STANDARDS V-38
HEAVY CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT .. V-39
APPLICABLE OSHA STANDARDS .. vV-41
MOTOR VEHICLES ....... a V-41
APPLICABLE OSHA STANDARD! V-42
HAND AND POWER TOOLS ..... V-42
APPLICABLE OSHA STANDARDS ... V-45
ELECTRICAL WORK oesesssssssseor V-46
APPLICABLE OSHA STANDARDS v-49
EXCAVATION AND TRENCHING v-49
APPLICABLE OSHA STANDARDS V-53
CONFINED SPACE ENTRY ...... V-53
APPLICABLE OSHA STANDARDS V-54
CONTAMINATED SITE CLEANUP V-55
APPLICABLE OSHA STANDARDS V-61
REVIEW QUESTIONS V-61
REFERENCES .......0 ee V-63

UNIT VI - ENGINEERING, DESIGN AND CONTRACT ADMINISTRATION FOR SAFE CONSTRUCTION

PURPOSE; OBJECTIVES; KEY TERMS VI-1
CONSTRUCTION FAILURES ....... VI-2
CAUSES OF CONSTRUCTION FAILURES .. VI-3
LIABILITY ISSUES ..... VI-13
REVIEW QUESTIONS VI-15
REFERENCES VI-16

UNIT VII - CONSTRUCTION SAFETY AND HEALTH MANAGEMENT
PURPOSE; OBJECTIVES; KEY. TERMS ..... VIl-1

NEED FOR A SAFETY AND HEALTH PROGRAM . VII-2
SAFETY AND HEALTH PROGRAM ELEMENTS VII-3
CONTRACTUAL ASPECTS VII-11
REVIEW QUESTIONS sss mo VII-14
REFERENCES ......... cone . consescnonnnosssconnsecsecesnnenscessannsecssscssnnesssccoronsssscssoneasecseess VIl-14



and Health, Division of Safety Research, FACE-
88-4-ll.

NIOSH [1987c]. Fatal accident circumstances
and epidemiology (FACE): Two painters
electrocuted in Ohio. Morgantown, WV: U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services,
Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Con-
trol, National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health, Division of Safety Research, FACE-
87-28-11.

NIOSH (1987d]. Fatal accident circumstances
and epidemiology (FACE): 27-year-old
painter electrocuted in Georgia. Morgantown,
WV: U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, Public Health Service, Centers for
Disease Control, National Institute for Oc-
cupational Safety and Health, Division of
Safety Research, FACE-87-32-lI.

NIOSH [1987e]. Request for assistance in
preventing electrocutions by undetected feed-
back electrical energy present in power lines.
Cincinnati, OH: us Department of Heaith
and Human Services, Public Health Service,
Centers for Disease Control, National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health, DHHS
(NIOSH) Publication No. 88-104.

NIOSH [1988]. National traumatic occupation-
al fatalities (NTOF) data base. Morgantown,
WV: U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, Public Health Service, Centers for
Disease Control, National Institute for Oc-
cupational Safety and Health, Division of
Safety Research. Unpublished data base.

Metal Ladders

22098

#U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1992-648-179/600C


Scaffolds Near Overhead Power Lines

WARNING!

Workers may be electrocuted when erecting, moving, or working from metal or.
conductive scaffolds near overhead power lines.

Take the following actions to protect yourself if you
are erecting, moving, or working from metal or
conductive scaffolds near overhead power lines.

« Be aware of overhead power lines in your work
area. Most overhead power lines are not
insulated.

Conduct initial and daily surveys of the worksite
and implement control measures and training
to address hazards at the site.

Recognize the hazards of moving, erecting, or
working from scaffolds near overhead power
lines.

Restrict the use of electrically conductive tools
or materials where they may contact overhead
power lines.

© Be trained in cardiopulmonary resuscitation
(CPR).

rel
Metal scaffold contacting an overhead power line.

¢ Always maintain the following minimum
clearance between scaffolds and power lines:

— 2 feet for insulated power lines of less
than 300 voits

— 10 feet for insulated power lines of 300 volts
or more and for all uninsulated power lines

If scaffolds must be moved in the area of
overhead power lines, appoint a competent
worker to observe the clearance between the
power lines and the scaffold and warn others
if the minimum distance is not maintained.

If minimum clearance cannot be maintained
when scaffolds must be erected or moved near
overhead power lines, notify the utility company
to de-energize the power lines or provide ade-
quate insulation before any work is initiated.

For additional information, refer to the
NIOSH Alert on Scatfolds Near Overhead
Power Lines [DHHS (NIOSH) 91-110], or
call 1-800-35-NIOSH, Single copies are
available free from the following:

Publications Dissemination, DSDTT

National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health:

4876 Columbia Parkway

Cincinnatl, OH 45226

(513) 533-8287

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
Public Health Service
Cantars for Disease Control
National inaiute for Geeupational Setety

and Hesith

Please tear out and post. Distribute copies to workers


APPLICABLE OSHA
STANDARDS

CONFINED SPACE
ENTRY

Confined Space
Hazards

Oxygen
Deficiency

Other
Atmospheric
Hazards

+ Protect the public by installing guardrails, barricades and warning
signs around the excavation area. -

OSHA standards for excavations, trenching, and shoring are covered by
in CFR 1926 Subpart P, which is presented in Table V-13.

Table V-13
29 CFR 1926 Subpart P-Excavations, Trenching, and Shoring

Section copa
T926.630 Scope, application, and definitions applicable to this subpart
1926.651 Score. Protection requirement

1926.652 Requirements for protective systems

Confined spaces are enclosed areas having limited access or egress (7).
They can be storage tanks, boilers, bins, silos, etc. which are accessible
through a manhole. Confined spaces commonly encountered on
construction projects include basements, trenches, shafts, bore holes,
ducts, pipelines, drains and sewers. Entry into confined spaces can be
hazardous and requires special care. Fatal accidents in confined spaces
are common.

The atmosphere in confined spaces may be hazardous due to lack of
oxygen, presence of toxic agents, or presence of flammable and
explosive gases. Other hazards in confined spaces include moving parts
of machines, extreme temperatures, collapses and cave-ins, and sudden
flooding. Difficulty of access and egress, and difficulty of moving in
confined spaces amplify the impact of these hazards. Some specific
hazards are discussed below.

Small drops in oxygen level can cause loss of balance and concentration,
breathing difficulties, and fatigue; and continued drop of oxygen level
may result in unconsciousness and death by suffocation. According to
NIOSH (28), an oxygen-deficient atmosphere has less than 19.5%
available oxygen (O,), requiring an approved self-contained breathing
apparatus (SCBA). Atmospheres with less than 16% O, cause faulty
judgement and rapid fatigue. Atmospheres below a 6% O, level create
breathing difficulties and cause death in minutes. Oxygen deficiency
is most commonly caused by gas leakage into the confined space,
oxidation due to corrosion or bacterial growth, and exhaustion of the
oxygen supply due to inhalation and combustion.

Presence of toxic gases in sufficient quantities is another source of

hazard. Hydrogen sulfide is a toxic gas commonly produced by the
decomposition of organic matter and is often present in the sewer

V-53


Additional

Functions

Personnel

Organization

Databases and
Grant Programs

Project SHAPE

4) To conduct education and training programs for professional
personnel who carry out OSH Act functions.

NIOSH also recommends limits for exposure to known dangerous
substances. Employers and employees can obtain technical assistance
from NIOSH on services such as evaluation of hazards determined from
on-site tests; work place health and safety conditions and preventive
measure information; accident prevention; industrial hygiene (health);
and medical services.

To address health and safety problems of American workers, NIOSH
employs scientists, physicians, nurses, engineers with various
specialities, chemists, physicists, industrial hygienists, epidemiologists,
toxicologists, behavioral scientists, ergonomists, physiologists,
psychologists, and sociologists, as well as statisticians, . educational
specialists, and writers.

Since 1973, NIOSH is a part of the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC) which is the U.S. Public Health Service (PHS)
agency for promoting health and preventing disease. NIOSH has
offices in four locations: headquarters in Washington, D.C.; staff offices
at the CDC facility in Atlanta; and major laboratories in Morgantown,
West Virginia and Cincinnati, Ohio. NIOSH staff are also assigned to
PHS regional offices in Atlanta, Boston and Denver. An organizational
chart for NIOSH is provided in Figure II-1.

NIOSH maintains extensive databases of occupational safety and health
information from around the world. NIOSHTIC is a computerized
bibliographic database which contains over 120,000 citations with
abstracts. Through a training grant program, NIOSH provides support
to fourteen Educational Resource Centers (ERCs) and thirty Training
Project Grantees located within colleges, universities and other
institutions throughout the United States. These grantees offer academic
and continuing education programs, perform research, and provide
outreach efforts to industry, state health departments, and professional
organizations and labor groups. NIOSH also offers direct short courses
in the occupational safety and health field. For further information
contact:

Registrar
NIOSH

4676 Columbia Parkway
Cincinnati, Ohio 45226 - 1998
($13) 533-8222.

A NIOSH initiative concerning engineering education is the Safety and
Health Awareness for Preventive Engineering (SHAPE) project, which
is the source of support behind the preparation of this instructional
module on construction safety and health.


This revised edition clarifies information about NIOSH-certified respirators for.
abrasive blasting operations (pages 11-13). :

DISCLAIMER

Mention of the name of any company or product does not constitute endorsement by
the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.

This document is in the public domain and may be freely copied or reprinted.
Copies of this and other NIOSH documents are available from

Publications Dissemination, DSDTT
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
4676 Columbia Parkway
Cincinnati, OH 45226
(513) 533-8287

For further information about other occupational safety and health problems, call

1-800-35-NIOSH

DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 91-116a


Roofing Safety

Sloping Roofs

Fragile Roofs,
Skylights and
Temporary
Openings

FALL PROTECTION
DEVICES

Active vs.
Passive
Protection

Safety Belts,
Harnesses and
Lanyards

Safety Nets

Roofing work causes a large number of fatal and serious fall injuries,
particularly when work is performed on fragile materials (20). Flat
roofs or low pitch roofs require edge protection and barriers. Sloping
roofs, on the other hand, require crawling ladders or boards, which must
be secured to prevent slipping. Also, a catch barrier or platform should
be erected at eaves to catch and hold workers. Steep roofs (those with
pitches greater than 50°) usually require a working platform.

Fragile roofing materials are such as‘asbestos, glass and plastic may fail
under the weight of the workers. The fragile or brittle nature of these
materials may not be readily detectable, so warning signs must be posted
to alert workers. Crawling boards and walkways should be provided for
crossing such roofs. Sky lights and other temporary openings on roofs
also expose workers to fall hazards. Temporary guardrails should be
placed around such openings.

Fall protection measures must be used in situations where fall prevention
methods such as platforms and guardrails are not feasible or practical,
or the occurrence of falls is unavoidable.

Fall protection devices eliminate physical injury by minimizing or
eliminating the impact. Generally referred to as fall arrest equipment,
they may be active or passive. Active protection equipment include
items which are wom by workers to stop a fall, such as safety belts,
hamesses and lanyards. In OSHA standards these devices have been
collectively named "“motion-stopping safety systems". Passive
protection equipment are installed on the structure in order to stop the
fall before impact. The primary example of passive protection is a
safety net. Fall arrest equipment should be selected based on the task
being performed.

Safety belts and harnesses are worn around the waist and attached by
a lanyard to a secure anchor point (21). The body belt is equipped with
a D-ring which is the link to the lanyard. A hamess is a belt system
that distributes the impact of the fall over the shoulders and holds the
body upright in case of suspension. Some lanyards contain shock
absorbers in the form of tear away sticking, stretch springs, or
deforming metal strips. These can reduce the impact of the fall by
absorbing the load’s impact.

Safety nets consist of personnel nets and debris nets (1). They are
passive fall protection systems installed within or on the periphery of
structures to catch falling workers, and tools, or debris. They should be
erected as close as possible to the working level. However, OSHA
standards require that safety nets be installed no more than 25 feet
below such working surfaces. Size of the net and the horizontal
projection beyond the outermost edge of the building are critical. Nets
should extend eight horizontal feet from the edge, and be sloped toward

V-33


Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bureau of Labor
Statistics Bulletin 2308, May 1988.

29 CFR 1910.23. Code of federal regulations.
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing
Office, Office of the Federal Register.

29 CFR 1926.28. Code of federal regulations.
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing
Oftice, Office of the Federal Register.

29 CFR 1926.500. Code of federal regula-
tions. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
Printing Office, Otfice of the Federal Register.

ENR [1989]. Safety law snags roofing firm.
ENR (Engineering News-Record) 223(1):28.

MOSH [1986]. Maryland occupational safety
and health inspection report no. 087-86. Bal-
timore, MD: Maryland Department of Licens-
ing .and Regulation, Division of Labor and
Industry, Occupational Safety and Health.

MOSH [1987a]. Maryland occupational
safety and heaith inspection report no. 003-
87. Baltimore, MD: Maryland Department of
Licensing and Regulation, Division of Labor
and Industry, Occupational Safety and Health.

MOSH [1987b]. Maryland occupational
safety and heaith inspection report no. 029-
87. Baltimore, MD: Maryland Department of
Licensing and Regulation, Division of Labor
and Industry, Occupational Safety and Health.

NIOSH [1988a]. Fatal accident circumstan-
ces and epidemiology (FACE): plumber falls
to his death through roof opening. FACE
Report 88-6. Morgantown, WV: U.S. Depart-
ment of Health and Human Services, Public

‘ZU, S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 199 1/642-179/40023

Health Service, Centers for Disease Control,
National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health, Division of Safety Research.

NIOSH [1988b]. Fatal accident circumstan-
ces and epidemiology (FACE): sheetmetal
helper falls to his death through a skylight
opening in South Carolina. FACE Report 88-
18. Morgantown, WV: U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, Public Health
Service, Centers for Disease Control, Nation-
al Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health, Division of Safety Research.

NIOSH [1989a]. National traumatic occupa-
tional fatality (NTOF) data base. Cincinnati,
OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, Public Health Service, Centers for
Disease Control, National Institute for Oc-
cupational Safety and Health, Division of
Safety Research. Unpublished data base.

NIOSH [1989b]. Fatal accident circumstan-
ces and epidemiology (FACE): ironworker
dies following a 25-foot fall through a roof
opening. FACE Report 89-12. Morgantown,
WV: U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, Public Health Service, Centers for
Disease Control, National Institute for Oc-
cupational Safety and Health, Division of
Safety Research.

NIOSH [1989c]. Fatal accident circumstan-
ces and epidemiology (FACE): sheet metal
mechanic dies following a 22-foot fall through
a roof opening. FACE Report 89-25. Mor-
gantown, WV: U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, Public Heaith Service,
Centers for Disease Control, National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health, Division
of Safety Research.

Skylights


Design Precautions

Shop Drawings

Erection
Precautions

Constructability issues should be addressed in design, including
flexibility, sequence of safe erection, non-standard connection details in
high altitudes, and sufficient tolerances and landing places to simplify
alignment and initial jointing. Extra holes in the structural components
should be provided as anchor points for safety hamesses. Bracing and
appropriate temporary support for the incomplete structural frame
should also be addressed.

Good communication between the ‘structural engineer, fabricator and

steel erectors can go a long way to eliminate design errors. Proposed

design modifications and other concerns should be discussed and

approved by the structural engineer. Construction and material loads on

incomplete structural frames should be addressed on the shop drawings.

The extent of responsibility. of ach. participant in the steel erection

operations should be clearly defined in order to prevent errors and

omissions. Shop drawings should address and encompass:

. The sequence of erection, alignment, and connections;

- Ground level assembly;

- Slinging and lifting, indicating safe lifting positions and maximum
weights of the hoisted members;

. Temporary bracing and support measures to prevent structural failures;

- Access and safe passages to critical locations;

. Safety considerations such as guard rails, safety nets, and holes
(anchor points) for harnesses;

. Stacking and storing requirements; and

. Distinctive marking for similar members to aid in identification.

Safety precautions in regard to welding and cutting, fall protection,

scaffolding, rigging and hoisting are covered in the appropriate sections

of this module. The following recommendations for safety measures in
regard to steel erection operations are additionally given here:

. Establish good management controls and good discipline to assure
adherence to the erection plan and to the maintenance of safety
features;

- Monitor the structural performance of erected members by a certified
field inspector;

« Incorporate medical examination for workers with critical
responsibilities (e.g. riggers, crane operators, and workers
operating at high elevations);

- Monitor the quality of tools and materials;

. Ensure that the erection of the vertical elements are in good
coordination with the progress of the installation of the
permanent floors, and in accordance with the applicable OSHA
standards.

- Provide containers for rivets and bolts to prevent falling objects;

+ Train workers on all aspects of safe erection procedures; and

- Provide all the necessary personal protective equipment.

V-28


EXISTING
PROBLEMS
AND NEEDS

Critical Issues

Accident
Surveillance

Construction
Team Interface

Engineering
Needs

In 1989, the Center for Excellence in Construction Safety conducted a
National Forum on Construction Safety and Health Priorities (4). The
event was sponsored by the National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health (NIOSH), along with several construction industry trade and
professional organizations, bringing together over 150 representatives
of the industry, labor and academia. The purposes of the forum were to
define the prevailing critical issues, to prioritize them, and to generate
strategies for potential solutions to the underlying problems.

The forum identified seven critical issues needing attention by the
industry. These were:

. Accident surveillance;

« Construction team interface;

« Engineering needs;

« Legal / legislative aspects;

« Occupational health;

- Primary safety exposures; and

+ Education and training.

Concerns about accident surveillance covered proper and meaningful
data collection, accident reporting requirements and procedures, data
analysis and contractual aspects, including liability issues. It was
suggested that a vastly improved system of accident surveillance is
needed to help contractors and regulatory agencies acquire the data
significant to the understanding and solution of the problems. Training
of the pertinent personnel on the effective implementation of all of the
surveillance related tasks was also recommended.

With respect to construction team interface, it was very clear that the
overriding problem revolves around the lack of a real understanding of
the roles and responsibilities for safety and health by the project
participants, i.e. the owner, A/E, contractor, CM, and workers. It was
recognized that safety and health in the construction industry was not
managed in the same manner as cost, quality, schedule and productivity,
mainly due to the lack of appropriate education and training in this area.
The recommendation was to make the industry fully understand the
economic benefits of effective safety and health programs, and that
owners should screen contractors based on their safety and health
Tecords.

Engineering needs dealt with the application of engineering principles
and skills to accident prevention, particularly with respect to
construction erection systems, the construction process, equipment
design and accident data. It was contended that many construction
accidents and failures can be prevented by proper engineering. There is
a need for sound structural design rationale for temporary erection
systems and criteria for acceptable risk in various situations and
environments. The need for standardization of the layout controls and

1-9


Case No. 1 — Two Fatalities

On June 17, 1986, a 28-year-old painter and
a 33-year-old carpenter were painting church
windows from a tubular, welded-frame scaf-
fold approximately 25 feet high and mounted
on rubber casters. After the workers had com-
pleted one side of the church, they attempted
to move the scaffold to another location to
continue painting. The workers passed the
scaffold under a 12,000-volt power line that
was approximately 30 feet above ground
level. They then changed direction and tried
to pass the scaffold under the same powerline
at a point that was only 24 feet above ground
level. The scaffold contacted one phase of
the power line, providing a path to the ground
for the electric current. The two workers
grasping the scaffold were electrocuted
[NIOSH 1986e].

Case No, 2 - One Fatality

On August 27, 1986, a company owner and
six workers were painting a concrete silo. A
5- by 7-foot tubular, welded-frame scaffold
was erected to reach the top of the silo ap-
proximately 6 feet across from a 7,200-volt
Power line. Workers were using 8-foot
aluminum poles with rollers to paint the side of
the silo. A 19-year-old laborer who was paint-
ing from the scaffold pulled the aluminum pole
back onto the scaffold to load more paint onto
the roller. In doing so, he contacted the power
line with the aluminum pole and was
electrocuted [NIOSH 1986g].

Case No. 3 ~ Four Fatalities

On October 31, 1986, a crew of four painters
(aged 56, 37, 37, and 31) completed Painting
one side of a three-story structure. The crew
was using a five-tier, tubular, welded-frame
scaffold mounted on 5-inch, rubber-clad
aluminum wheels. The painters and the crew
chief attempted to move the 28.5-foot scatfold

Scaffolds Near Power Lines

to the other side of the structure. The scaffold
contacted one phase of a 12,000-volt power
line that was approximately 27.5 feet above
the ground. The contact created a path to
the ground for the electric current. The four
painters were electrocuted and the crew chief
was severely burned [NIOSH 1986a].

Case No. 4~ One Fatality

On November 24, 1986, seven employees of
a masonry company were erecting a brick wall
from a tubular, welded-frame scaffold ap-
proximately 24 feet high. The scaffold had
been constructed approximately 21 inches
across from a 7,620-volt power line. A
laborer carried a piece of wire reinforcement
(10 feet long by 8 inches wide) along the top
section of the scaffold and contacted the
power line with it. The laborer, who was wear-
ing leather gloves, received an electric shock
and dropped the wire reinforcement, which fell
across the power line and simultaneously con-
tacted the metal rail of the scaffold, energizing
the entire scaffold. A 20-year-old bricklayer
standing on the work platform in contact with
the main scaffold was electrocuted [NIOSH
1986f].

Case No. 5 - Two Fatalities

On June 5, 1987, a seven-tier, tubular,
welded-frame scaffold (31 feet high) was
erected to paint a 33-foot-high sign at the
entrance of a new shopping mail. After the
sign had been partially painted, the scaffold
was moved to allow concrete to be placed in
the area around the sign. The scaffold was
Positioned approximately 10 feet horizontally
from a 13,750-volt overhead power line.
Several days later, the crew of seven workers
(carpenters, laborers, and painters) were in-
structed to replace the scaffold and finish
painting the sign. The crew positioned them-
selves around the scaffold and attempted to lift
it approximately 5 inches onto the newly


Hierarchy of
Controls

Eliminate

Control
Train

Prescribe PPE

Barriers in
Hazard Control

Physical Barriers

Human Barriers

Hierarchy of controls describes the order that should be followed when

choosing among options for controlling health and safety hazards. The

concept has traditionally been considered more applicable to health
hazards than safety hazards (2); however, it has been adopted by ANSI,

OSHA and many safety organizations for the control of accident and

injury hazards. The basic principle is to control the hazard as close to

the source as possible. A priority system has been suggested in the

National Safety Council’s Accident Prevention Manual (12), which lists

the following hierarchy:

1) Eliminate the hazard from the machine, method, material, or plant
structure;

2) Control the hazard by enclosing or guarding it at its source;

3) Train personnel. to be aware of the hazard and to follow safe job
procedures: to avoid it;-and.

4) Prescribe personal protective equipment (PPE) for personnel to shield
them against the hazard. Many industrial hygienists regard this type
of control as a last resort, used as a back-up.

For a comprehensive discussion of the hierarchy of controls concept,

including its advantages and limitations, please refer to reference (2).

Hazard control principles can also be described by considering barriers.
Barriers can be physical or human barriers. The physical barriers could
be:

. A barrier at the energy source; an example of this is de-energizing a
circuit by use of a switch;

. A barrier between the energy source and worker, examples are
insulation of electrical conductors, grounding, safety nets, and pressure
vessels;

- A barrier on the worker, examples are respirators, safety harness and
insulated gloves; and

. A barrier of space or time between the energy source and the worker;
an example for this could be requiring minimum distances between
earth moving equipment.

Human barriers, on the other hand, can be represented by the following:

- Designing to eliminate hazards; an example is relocating utilities away
from the construction site;

- Macro work practices and procedures; an example is moving an
assembled scaffolding by crane instead of constantly assembling and
dismantling;

. Rules, regulations and procedures; example, detailed task
descriptions;

- Management control and incentives;examples are enforcement of
procedures by supervision and issuing penalties for non-compliance;
and

- Education and training; this could focus on hazard recognition, correct
tool usage and use of personal protective equipment.

IV-18

ww


we

Request for Assistance in Preventing Occupational Fatalities in

Confined Spaces

Page 6 -

painful ss94yyO EG

uorjerxAydse yo Z
‘Gurumosp yo paip Z
pasanooas ynq

1] 1 J9420M JoYy}OUe
SOINpLey JOAT]

9ynoe JO palp 19440K

JOyYJOM JO
Jaye) sem sonosay

Jaye] Sy99m
om} pap sanosay

painful ssayyo Gl

paumoip ssanosal ¢

painful ss9yyo ge

OL

rd
@

Ol

SW1LOL

asaydsouye 1x0}
tpaezey peorsAud

asaydsowye 91X0]

asaydsowye 1x0)

paezey jeorsdyd
teroydsowye 91x0)

yixa pue Asqua
poyswyy :uolsojdxa
tasaydsowye 91x]
Aouaraiyap uabAxo

paezey jeorshyd
fosoydsowye D1xOL

Aouatotyap uabAxg

IN3HHOO

SHLV3G

WWiol wanoszu waNuOM

GUVZVH 40 3dAL

u01yeys
Guidwnd ofemas

vole
ALBA aut] sazeM
punos6sapun

yue) a6e10)s
proe ,jueds,
yuey J0}eM 9}SeH
yuey

oBes0ys auanjo)
yuey Guysnyoesy

uo!yons}sSUu0d
aul] Jemag

49)s06)p obemas

30vdS 4O 3dAL

G8/S/L

G8/2/L

G8/L/9

G8/E1/S

68/S/e1

v8/b/01

¥8/8/€
€8/62/21

sivd

HOvdS G3NINOD NI ALITIVLV4 “TWNOILVdN990 JO SLNSGIONI 40 SOLLSIYALOVUVHD 0319373S

1 dav.

SH

1

oH

SH

b#

ci

eH
Lt
aS¥9


Bulldozer
Precautions

Scraper Precautions

Motor Grader
Precautions

Front-end Loader
Precautions

Training

. Dust must be kept down on all roads.
. Operators must be given clear and specific instructions.

,- All personnel should be clear of the work area.

« Unauthorized -riding on the equipment should be prohibited.

. Speeds should be consistent with job conditions and OSHA
requirements. :

. Signal person is needed in busy areas.

. Equipment should have an audible reverse signal alarm system which
will operate automatically with backward movement.

- Repairs should be done when the machine is not running.

- During refuelling operations, all personnel in the vicinity should stop
all motors and refrain from smoking.

« Personal protective equipment (hard hat, steel toed shoes, gloves,
safety glasses, respirators, etc.) should be used at all times.

Specific precautions for specific equipment are also available. Typical

bulldozer precautions are given below:

. On steep grades, the blade should be lowered to secure a load, and
should not be jammed into the earth (this may cause overturning).

- To avoid overturning in filling operations, bulldozers should not get
too close to the edge, and side hill travel should be avoided.

« When coupling a tractor to another piece of equipment, the bulldozer
should be stopped, put in neutral gear and the brakes should be set
before a person is allowed to couple the equipment.

- Master clutch should be disengaged, engine idled, and brakes locked
when receiving a wire rope on a drum or through sheaves.

Important Scraper precautions are:

« During downhill motion, scraper should remain in gear to prevent
speeding and brakes should be used to control speed.

+ Sharp down hill turns and turns top heavy with the apron up should
be avoided.

- Bowls should be blocked up when blades are being replaced.

Typical safety precautions for motor graders are listed below:

- The equipment should not be used on slopes greater than 45 degrees
to avoid overturning.

- When operating on highways, graders should be kept to the right side
of the roadway. Flagmen should warm traffic and warning
devices such as flags, flashing red lights, and the "slow moving
vehicle" emblem should be properly displayed.

+ The blade should be extended when scraping shoulders to prevent
overtuming.

- Operators should be aware of rocks, logs, trees when sloping banks.

Some typical front-end loader precautions are as follows:

. Prohibit unauthorized riding or use;

« Maintain speed limits as required by OSHA. .

. Prohibit jumping from or climbing on the equipment while it is in
motion.

Training of workers on all cases is essential, and must include a review
of potential hazards and familiarization with the equipment.

Vv-40


NiGsShi
ALER

JULY 1989

REQUEST FOR ASSISTANCE IN

Preventing Electrocutions
of Workers Using Portable
Metal Ladders Near
Overhead Power Lines

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES

Public Health Service
Centers for Disease Control
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health



Page 5 - Request for Assistance in Preventing Occupational Fatalities in
Confined Spaces

recommendations for assuring the safety and well-being of persons
required to work in confined spaces including a proposed
classification system and checklist that may be applied to different
types of confined spaces.

CONCLUSIONS

The case studies described above are summarized in Table 1 (see
page 6):


Case No. 1—Two Deaths

On November 15, 1988, a 53-year-old male
painting foreman and a 28-year-old male
painter died when the scaffold from which they
were working collapsed, causing them to fail
nearly 48 feet to the ground. The men were
painting the exterior of a 48-foot-high, 56-foot-
diameter storage tank. They were painting
the side of the tank from a two-point suspen-
sion scaffold supported by two steel outrig-
gers. The scaffold manufacturer specified
600 pounds of counterweight for this scaffold
and load, but the painters had rigged the scaffold
using only 200 pounds of counterweight (100
pounds per outrigger). The outriggers were not
tied off or otherwise secured.

No personal fall protection equipment was being
used by either worker. While the two men were
working on the scaffold, their weight caused the
outriggers to slip, and the scaffold, rigging, and
victims fell to the ground [NIOSH 1989c].

Case No. 2—One Death

On December 19, 1988, a 27-year-old male
cement finisher died when he fell from a
suspension scaffold and his safety lanyard
snapped. The victim and a coworker were
dismantling suspended scaffolding at the 160-
foot level inside a 172-foot-high, circular con-
crete silo. Both men were wearing safety
belts with nylon rope lanyards secured to in-
dependent lifelines.

The accident occurred when the victim lost his
balance and fell off an unguarded end of the
scaffold. The coworker stated that he saw the
victim fall and jerk upward as the lanyard
caught him. When the victim's weight dropped
back on the lanyard, it snapped, allowing him to
fall onto a concrete floor.

Examination of the lanyard after the event
showed burn damage at several places,

Falls from Suspension Scaffolds

including the point of failure. The employer
did net control inspection or distribution of this
fall protection equipment. Instead, the equip-
ment was kept in a common supply bin where
the workers could readily obtain it when
needed and return it when work was com-
pleted. The lanyard had been returned to the
storage bin even though it had probably been
damaged earlier during cutting and welding
operations [NIOSH 1989b].

Case No. 3—One Death

On March 15, 1989, a 33-year-old male caulk-
ing mechanic died when the scaffold on which
he was working failed and caused him to fall
60 feet to the ground. The victim and a
coworker were caulking the exterior skin plate
joints and windows of a new seven-story
building. Most of the work on the lower levels
of the building had previously been completed
using a personnel hoist. The upper floors of
the building could not be reached with this
device, so the crew brought a suspension
scaffold to the site on the day of the incident.

Upon arrival, the crew found that workers from
a window-washing firm had already rigged a
two-point suspension scaffold on the building.
An arrangement was made for one crew (con-
taining one worker from each company) to work
from the caulker's maniift while a second crew
worked from the window washers two-point
suspension scaffold. The victim and one
worker from the window-washing firm then
ascended the building using the two-point
suspension scaffold and began work at the sixth
floor. Although the victim and his coworker had
brought safety belts and lifelines to the site, this
equipment had been left in the company truck,
and none of the four workers were using any
type of fall protection equipment.

When work was completed at the sixth floor,
the men began their descent. Suddenly, the


CONCRETE
CONSTRUCTION

Concrete
Hazards

Material
Hazards

Cement

Silica

Table V-5
29 CFR 1926 Subpart J - Welding and Cutting

Section ropic

1926.330 Gas welding and cutting

1926351 Arc welding and cutting

1926.352 Fire prevention

1926.353 Ventilation and protection in welding, cutting, and heating
1926.354 Welding, cutting and heating in way of preservative coatings

Concrete is a mixture of portland cement, aggregate and water. Portland
cement is a hydraulic material which forms a paste when it chemically
reacts with water. This paste binds the aggregate into a hardened mass.
Concrete has a wide variety of applications in the construction industry.
It can be formed to many shapes. Its resistance to fire and moisture,
and its durability are desirable for many components of a structure.
Cast-in-place concrete can be prepared on the jobsite, or can be
delivered in ready-mixed form utilizing special trucks. This is a labor-
intensive method of construction. It involves the erection of formwork
and shoring; delivery and placement of the reinforcing steel; mixing,
handling, and placing of the fresh concrete; surface preparation and
finishing; curing; and removal of the formwork. Precast concrete
members are also manufactured to specific shapes at a plant and
delivered to the project sites.

Interaction between the workers and the concrete material can lead to
a variety of safety and health hazards. Hazards associated with concrete
construction can be categorized as:

+ Material hazards;

. Hazards of construction operations and jobsite conditions; and

- Structural failures.

Some materials used in concrete construction may pose certain safety
and health hazards if they are not properly handled. These hazards are
discussed in the following paragraphs.

Dry cement is abrasive and can cause cuts or scratches on skin. Wet
cement is an alkali and can cause first, second and third-degree skin
burns, which can lead to permanent disfigurement.

Grinding, sand blasting, dry cutting and surface cleaning are major
producers of cement dust. Sand blasting generates fine dust particles

V-19


AUGUSE. tage:

- BEQUESE FOR ASSISTANCE IN

: Preventing Worker Injuries
-and Deaths Caused by Falls
- From: Suspension. Scaffolds



Table 1 (Continued).—Airborne lead concentrations reported during operations on
bridges and other painted steei structures

Operation Job

Bridge repair (continued) Burner
Blaster

Paint removal from a tank Abrasive blasting

[Lippy et al. 1988]

Carpenter
Steam filter
Blaster helper

In 1978, OSHA promulgated a comprehen-
sive standard regulating occupational ex-
posure to inorganic lead in general industry
[29 CFR 1910.1025]. Under this standard, the
permissible exposure limit (PEL) for inorganic
lead is 50 yg/m® of air as an 8-hour time-
weighted average (TWA). However, the con-
struction industry was exempted from this
regulation and has a 200-yg/m* PEL for inor-
ganic lead (29 CFR 1926.55]. Unlike the OSHA
standard for general industry, the construction
standard does not require medical monitoring
of workers exposed to lead or removal of
workers from the job when they show elevated
concentrations of lead in the blood. Specific
medical monitoring recommendations for
these workers are discussed in the section
on conclusions and recommendations.

The NIOSH recommended exposure limit
(REL) for lead is less than 100 yg/m? of air

Lead Poisoning in Construction Workers

Exposure range

during task
(ug/m: Comments

840-4,900

1,070-1,120

490-870 Work conducted inside con-
tainment structure

a Work conducted outside con-
tainment structure

40-50 Work conducted outside con-
tainment structure

90-560 Work conducted inside contain-

ment structure

as a TWA for up to 10 hours per day during
a 40-hour workweek. This air concentra-
tion is to be maintained so that the worker's
lead concentration remains below 60 yg/100
grams of whole blood (approximately equi-
valent to 60 yg/dl) [NIOSH 1988; COC
1990]. NIOSH is presently reviewing the
data on the heaith effects of lead to deter-
mine whether our current recommendations
need to be updated.

Several States have instituted programs to
protect construction workers from the
hazards of occupational lead exposure. For
example, Maryland enacted in 1984 (and
modified in 1988) a comprehensive stand-
ard regulating occupational lead exposure
in construction work [Maryland Regula-
tions Code 1988]. Under this standard, the
permissible exposure limit for lead is 50 pg/m?
as an 8-hour TWA. This standard must be
incorporated in all contracts involving bridge
work in Maryland. Connecticut is currently
preparing similar requirements for inclusion
in contracts [Connecticut Department of
Transportation 1991].


. U.S. Department of Labor: All About OSHA, OSHA 2056,
Occupational Safety and Health Administration, Washington D.C.
(1994).

. Peyton, R.X., and T.C. Rubio: Construction Safety Practices and
Principles, Van Nostrund Reinhold, New York, NY (1991).

. Bowles, Jr., J.L.: Realities of OSHA Enforcement for Consulting
Engineers - An ACEC Guide to Construction Site Safety, American
Consulting Engineers Council, Washington, D.C. (1990).

. U.S. Department of Labor: OSHA Reference Book, OSHA 3081,
Occupational Safety and Health Administration, Washington D.C.
(1985).

. U.S. Department of Labor: Consultation Services for the Employer,
OSHA 3047, Occupational Safety and Health Administration,
Washington, D.C. (1985).

. U.S. Department of Labor, :Occupational Safety and Health
Administration: Office of Construction and Engineering,
Organization Staffing and Accomplishments; prepared for Advisory
Committee on Construction Safety and Health (1992).

. Lapping, J.E., and E.I. Leifer: The Need for New Federal Legislation
to Promote Better Safety and Health Conditions of Construction
Workers, EXCEL, Vol.6, No.283, Center for Excellence in
Construction Safety, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV
(Summer 1993).


Page 4 - Request for Assistance in Preventing Fatalities of Workers
Who Contact Electrical Energy

this case, CPR was begun within the 4-minute recommendation. An
ambulance, equipped and staffed to Provide ACLS, arrived within 6
minutes. The standards and guidelines [5] for CPR within 4 minutes,
and ACLS within 8 minutes, were met and the worker did survive.

In Case #2, the worker's contact with electrical energy was prolonged
and a coworker who aided him received an electrical shock, because
coworkers did not know how to de-energize the circuit. The optimal
times for CPR and ACLS were exceeded, and the resuscitation was
unsuccessful. Providing appropriate medical care after an electrical
energy incident will not guarantee success. However, as has been
reported elsewhere [5] and supported in the NIOSH case reports, the
chance for successful resuscitation after cardiopulmonary arrest is
best when the criteria for providing emergency medical care are met.

RECOMMENDAT 1 ONS
1. PREVENTION

PREVENTION must be the primary goal of any occupational
safety program. However, since contact with electrical energy
occurs even in facilities which promote safety, safety
Programs should provide for an appropriate emergency medical
response.

2. SAFE WORK PRACTICES

No one who works with electrical energy should work alone, and
in many instances, a "buddy system" should be established. It
may be advisable to have both members of the buddy system
trained in CPR, as one cannot predict which will contact
electrical energy.

Every individual who works with or around electrical energy
should be familiar with emergency procedures. This should
include knowing how to de-energize the electrical system
before rescuing or beginning resuscitation on a worker who
remains in contact with an electrical energy source.

All workers exposed to electrical hazards should be made aware
that even "low" voltage circuits can be fatal, and that prompt
emergency medical care can be lifesaving.

3. CPR AND ACLS PROCEDURES

CARDIOPULMONARY RESUSCITATION (CPR) and first aid should be
immediately available at every worksite. This capability is
necessary to provide prompt (within 4 minutes) care for
victims of cardiac or respiratory arrest, from any cause.


Case No. 1

A study now being conducted in Connecticut
has identified four workers with lead poisoning
at three different bridge sites [Mintz 1990].
Containment structures were used at all three
sites. The workers’ BLLs ranged from 51 to
66 g/dl, but none reported symptoms of lead
intoxication. Personal breathing zone samples
indicated airborne lead concentrations of 4 to
640 g/m, All workers wore respiratory pro-
tection (abrasive blasting, haif-mask, or dis-
posable respirators).

Case No. 2

In 1989, eight workers at a bridge site in
Monroe, Louisiana, developed lead poisoning
while working in a containment structure [Rae
1990]. The BLLs of these workers ranged from
56 to 146 yg/dl. Their complaints included
malaise, arm numbness, abdominal discom-
fort, joint and muscle aches, headache, and
diarrhea. Airborne concentrations of lead
were not reported.

Case No. 3

In May 1990, 12 bridge workers in Baton
Rouge, Louisiana, developed lead poisoning
while working in a containment structure
[Johnson 1990]. The BLLs of affected workers
ranged from 52 to 102 yg/dl. Reported air-
borne cencentrations of lead ranged from
2 to 730 pg/m3. The worker with the BLL
of 102 yg/d! developed joint pains and re-
quired hospitalization for intravenous chela-
tion therapy.

Case No. 4

In March 1988, five workers developed lead
poisoning during demolition of a bridge in
Massachusetts [CDC 1989]. The BLLs of af-
fected workers ranged from 67 to 160 yg/dl.

Lead Poisoning in Construction Workers

All five workers reported symptoms consistent
with lead poisoning. Four of the five workers
were treated with intravenous chelation
therapy. Airborne lead concentrations were
not reported.

Case No. 5

In 1987, 11 workers who wore positive-pressure,
air-supplied respirators developed lead
poisoning during demolition of a bridge in
New York [Marino et al. 1989]. The BLLs of
these workers ranged from 52 to 120 ng/dl.
One worker with a BLL of 120 pg/dl reported
symptoms of muscle soreness, weakness,
lack of appetite, nausea, and vomiting.
Another worker with a BLL of 105 yg/di
reported symptoms of headache, tiredness,
and abdominal discomfort. Both workers re-
quired intravenous chelation therapy. Per-
sonal breathing zone concentrations of lead
ranged from 600 to 4,000 yg/m®.

Case No. 6

In March 1991, NIOSH investigators began a
study of lead exposures in 12 workers
engaged in abrasive blasting and repainting
of a bridge in Kentucky [NIOSH 1991b]. BLLs
were measured during the first week of work
and ranged from 5 to 48 yg/dl. The BLLs were
measured again after 1 month of exposure
and ranged from 9 to 61 g/dl. Two workers
had BLLs exceeding 50 yg/dl. The airborne
concentration of i finorganic lead ranged from 5
to 29,400 pg/m3. Blasters wore continuous-
flow. abrasive blasting respirators. Other
workers used half-mask, air-purifying respi-
rators with high-efficiency particulate air
(HEPA) filters. However, there was no com-
plete respiratory protection program consis-
tent with OSHA requirements [29 CFR
1910.134] and NIOSH recommendations
[NIOSH 1987a; NIOSH 1987b]. Running
water, coveralls, and clean change-rooms
were not available at the site.


}

For Calendar Year 19

panei Berto
an
flowrmnoon cae See OMB Osciosure
tement on a
{Masons ot ane Ovmeme of JURY “Type, Saves of, and Ovememe of ILLNESS: reverse.
[Petre jenna pn Stree ot tins Fevenien enters
_— nee we nt oss ucts crvciicuirCun conn fr Gun tae mom nnsn bs Ln redo —
Sn Gave oe a
drew GATE Ewa Eres eee ome Ener ue Eero CHECK ‘in DATE Ever e Enure Emer mem Ener mun Ere 2 CHECK
tom «CHECK CHECK beret beret Mt no erary wes + eteemn, CHECK CHECK tect eer ot tne enery wan
Mowe ingay in GavSemy DAYES! meson ook WJ 1 Miteaa irene DAVE emer Davao! mace inant
Se fan wh evn ae if . i i : H a trom work. eel wenea 8 oF @.
me oe ”, le recoroene 2 y { won Sort TM
mae cones ‘| fi i | | Sonet
sree ~ GH YE renin, Sam
= HHA =
cr pe ee
wim «@ @ @ i
| | |
| 4
||
| ath ||
ve. 2eT | |
awe ae?” |
vw a
Ww
4a
|
. |
| |
|
|
||
covet bn omen Tne rw om
coma re. 200 POST ONLY THIS PORTION OF THE LAST PAGE NO LATER THAN FEBRUARY 1.

Figure IV-4. (Continued)


APPLICABLE OSHA
STANDARDS

and federal agencies.

The plan should be rehearsed regularly using

drills and mock situations and be revised periodically in response to
new or changing site conditions or information.

OSHA standards applicable to contaminated and hazardous waste sites
are summarized in Table V-14.

Table V-14

OSHA Safety Standards Applicable to Work on Contaminated and

Hazardous Waste Sites

Safety Topics 29 CFR 1910 29 CFR 1910
Ventilation Subpart G 1910.94 Subpart D 1926.57
[ing tg Sere Re | EBERLE
loniziny . §

Hazardéus Mat. Subpart H

PPE

General Subpart I 1910.132

Eye / Face Subpart I 1910.133 Subpart E 1926.1
ath, ee, SE
Head Stbbart I 1910135 Subpart E 1926.100
Foot Subpart I 1910.136

Fire Protection Subpart L Subpart F

Material Handling Subpart N Subpart H

& Storage

Electrical Subpart S Subpart K

Toxic / Hazardous Subpart Z

Substances . .

‘Trenching & Subpart P
Excavation bp

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1.

What types of industry and government resources and standards are
available on construction safety and health?

What types of activities does the term material handling encompass,
as covered in this module?

. What are the different ways hazardous materials are classified?

. How can hazardous chemicals enter the human body? How do they

affect it?

List the various federal laws governing the control of hazardous
materials for public and occupational safety and health. What are
their aims and coverage?

Describe the right-to-know laws and the Hazard Communication
Standard. What is the role of MSDS in their implementation?

Discuss the material handling hazards related to delivery, storage
and movement. What are the means of effectively controlling these

v-61


58. Attachment, Check 1 or more aad # of pages.
A. Sketch , B= Photo,  C. Statement/police rep
E. ; News re telease, F. Medical report, C. "Additonal pages,

59. Employee signature:
Disagree =
60. ciel this accident have ‘eed’ ‘one of the following:
pemmanent disability ...

A.
B. Deat
C. Tem disability & lost workday ...
D. Med ‘treatment, no lost work ..
E, First aid treatment
61. Was this accident preventable
1= Preventable
pe Non-preventable
62. Do Be you think tis is a safe work place?
es =
Your ‘recommendation for achieving a safer job site .....
Investigated by
63. investi itor’s si e
Su ee "Ss aah date if not investigator.
64, Tavestigator (if other than supervisor)

Boston:
Reason:

65. Reviewed by safety professional
Peston:
Reason:

66. Ostia review (if any and their comments)

Loss resulted
68. Total cost (include medi juipment, corrective action & other) .....
69. Were e any & suits er’ a

70. oie judgement, describe:

Figure IV-6. (Continued)

Double check |
12 |corrective action

riti
| 121 | sgasdauga tts.

Follow through
10 on recommendations

| 9 | Correct the situation
| 8 | Make recommendations
| 7 | Make a report
6 | Analyze conclusions
5 Develop conclusions
| 4 | analyze the facts
| 3. | Gather the facts
| 2 | Prepare for the investigation
| 1. | Understand the need

Figure IV-7. The twelve steps of investigation (5).

Iv-17


Figure 1. Metal scaffold contacting an over-
head power line.

A review of the NTOF data:has revealed that
many occupational groups (e.g., brick-
masons, carpenters, painters, construction
laborers, and plasterers) are at risk of
electrocution because their jobs involve work-
ing from scaffolds near overhead power lines
[NIOSH 1991]. Through the FACE program,
NIOSH investigated 13 scaffold-related
electrocutions occurring over a 39-month
period (June 1986 through September 1989).
Because the FACE program is active in only
11 states, these fatalities represent only a
small proportion of the scaffold-related
electrocutions that occur each year in the
United States.

CURRENT OSHA REGULATIONS:

Current Occupational Safety and Health Ad-
ministration (OSHA) regulations for the con-
struction industry require employers to do the
following:

© Instruct each worker to recognize and
avoid unsafe conditions [29 CFR*
1926.21 (b)(2)]

“Code of Federal Regulations. See CFR in references.

© Provide prompt medical attention in case
of serious injury [29 CFR 1926.50]

© Advise workers exposed to electrical
hazards and protect against electric shock
by de-energizing the circuit or by guarding
it effectively with insulation or other means
[29 CFR 1926.416(a)(1) and (a)(3)]

© Post warning signs where such electrical
hazards exist [29 CFR 1926.416(a)(3)]

© Lock panels (scaffold sections or tiers)
together vertically with pins or other
equivalent means where uplift (separa-
tion of panels) may occur [29 CFR
1926.451(d)(6)]

OSHA has proposed revisions to the current
safety regulations to prevent workers from
placing scaffolds where they might contact
overhead power lines or other energized circuits
[51 Fed. Reg. 42706 (1986)]. These proposed
tegulations require that the following minimum
clearances be maintained between scaffolds
and exposed, energized power lines:

© 2 feet for insulated power lines of less than
300 volts

© 10 feet for insulated power lines of 300
volts or more and for all uninsulated power
lines

CASEREPORTS. ,

As part of the FACE Program, NIOSH inves-
tigated 13 electrocutions in six incidents that
occurred between June 1986 and September
1989. Each incident involved electrical con-
tact with conductive tools or materials used by
workers on scaffolds, or workers who erected
or moved scaffolds near overhead power lines.

Scaffolds Near Power Lines

ww


10.
1.

12.

13.

14.
15.

16.
17.
18.
19.
20.

21.
22.
23.

Ross, S.S.: Construction Disasters: Design Failures, Causes, and
Prevention, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY (1984).

Kaminetzky, D.: Design and Construction Failures: Lessons from
Forensic Investigations, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY (1991).
U.S. House of Representatives: Structural Failures in Public
Facilities, House Committee on Science and Technology Report 98-
621 (March 1984).

Eldukair, Z.A., and B.M. Ayyub: Analysis of Recent U.S. Structural
and Construction Failures, Journal of Performance of Constructed
Facilities, ASCE, Vol.5, No.1, pp. 57-73 (February 1991).

ENR: Andrew Exposes Safety Gaps (September 7, 1992).
Construction Industry Institute: Constructability: A Primer, CII, The
University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX (1986).

ASCE, Quality in the Constructed Project: A Guide for Owners,
Designers and Constructors, Vol.1, Manuals and Reports on
Engineering Practice No.73 (1990).

Carper, K.L.: Limited Field Inspection vs. Public Safety, Civil
Engineering, ASCE (May 1984).

Godfrey, K.A., Jr.: Building Failures-Construction Related Problems
and Solutions, Civil Engineering, ASCE (May 1984).

Sapper, A.G.: OSHA and the Design Professional, Civil
Engineering, ASCE, pp. 60-62 (April 1994).

Fullman, J.B.: Costruction Safety, Security, and Loss Prevention,
John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY (1984).

Miller v. De Witt, Supreme Court of Illinois, 371112d 273, 226
NE2d 630, January 19, 1967, Negligence Compensation Cases,
Annotated, Vol.6, 4th Series, Publ. Collaghan, Wilmette, Illinois
60091 (1970).

Bachner, J.P.: Practice Management for Design Professionals,
Wiley-Interscence, New York, NY (1991).

Jervis, B.M., and P. Levin: Construction Law: Principles and
Practice, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY (1988).

City of Moundsview, Appellant, V. Kenneth H. Walijarvi: Nos.
47358, 47422, Supreme Court of Minnesota, 263 NW2d 420, Feb.
17, 1978, College of Law Library, Wayne State University, Detroit,
MI (1978).


Bureau of Labor Statistics U.S. Department of Labor
Supplementary Record of
Occupational Injuries and Hinesses

‘This form is required by Public Law 91-596 and must be kept in the establishment for 5 years, | Case oF File No.
Failure to maintain can result in the issuance of citations and assessment of pensities.

Employer .
1, Name
2. Mail accdress (No. and street, city or town, State, and zip code)

2. Location, if difterent from mail acdress

Injured or il! Employee
4. Name (Firre, middle, and tere)

5. Home address (No, and street, city or town, State, and zip code)

6 Age 7, Sex: (Check one) moe C

8. Occupation (Enter reguisr job title, nox the specific activity he wes performing at time of injury.)

Social Security No.

S
Form Asorome

O.M.8 No. 1220-0029

See OMB Disclosure
Statement on reverse

Pld

Ferase

9. Cepartment (Enter name of deoerement ar division in which the injured person is requiarty employed, even though he may have been remporscily

working in another department at the time of injury.)

‘The Accident or Exposure te Occupational itiness

If accident oF exposure occurred on ariovers premian, give sodas of olant or emtanlisnment in wnicn it occurred, Do not inaicate denariment oF
ision within the plant of estebti occurred ourside employer's premuses at an identifiable address, give that address. If it occurred on
2 oUbIic highway or at any other place which ‘cannot be identified by number and street, please provide Olace references locating the place of injury as

accurately an possible.
10. Ptaca of accident or exousure (No. and street, city or town, Stare, and rip code)

11, Was olace of accident or exoesure on employer's premises? ve CJ nol

12. What was the emotoyee doing when injured? (8¢ specific. If he was using tools or equioment or henating material, name them and til what he was

doing with them.)

13. How did tne accident occur? (Describe fully the events which resulted in the injury or occupational iliness. Tell what happened and how it happened.
‘Name any objects or substances involved and tell how they were involved. Give full deraiis on ail factors which led or contributed to the accident,

Use separete sheet for additional soca.)

Occupational Injury or Occupational Iliness

14. Describe the injury oF iliness in detail and indicate the part of body sftectea. /E.¢., amputation of right index finger at second joint; frecaure of ribs:

leed poisoning: dermatitis of lett hend, ete.)

18.Name the object or substance which directty injured the empiovee. (Far exemple, the machine or thing he struck against or which struck him; the .

vapor or hei or. i: the chemical or. which icriecated his skin; or in cases of strains, hernias, ete., the thing he wes
Uteing, pulling, ete.)
16. Date of injury oF in‘tial diagnosis of cccusational illness 17, ia emotoyen die? (Check one! [] no CI

Omer
18.Name and address of physician

19.1f nospitalized, name and address of hospital

Date of report \Prepered by Otticiat position

OSHA No. 101 (Feb, 1981)

Figure IV-5. OSHA No. 101 Form : Supplemental Record of Injuries and Ilnesses

Iv-13


of workers and employers (including
subcontractors) by general construction
contractors, State departments of trans-
portation (including worksite inspectors),
labor union representatives, labor as-
sociations, editors of appropriate trade
journals, and safety and heaith officials.
Your assistance in this effort will help to
achieve one of the national health objec-
tives specified by Healthy People 2000
[DHHS 1990], a statement of national goals
for health promotion and disease preven-
tion. These goals are the product of a
national effort involving State health
departments, national organizations, and
many individuals. The goal for workers
exposed to lead is to eliminate exposures
that result in blood lead concentrations
greater than 25 yg/di of whole blood.

Workers are potentially exposed to lead
during work on bridges or other steel struc-
tures such as water and fuel storage tanks.
Workers who may be exposed to lead include
abrasive blasters, inspectors, iron workers
(welders and cutters), painters, and laborers.
In 1987, an estimated 44,000 persons worked
in bridge, tunnel, and elevated-highway con-
struction (Standard Industrial Classification
Code [SIC] 1622), and an estimated 14,000
persons worked in wrecking and demolition
(SIC 1795) [Bureau of the Census 1990].

An estimated 90,000 bridges in the United
States are coated with lead-containing paints
[Katauskas 1990]. According to a survey of
State departments of transportation, lead-
containing coatings were found on approxi-
mately 77% of U.S. bridges that were repainted
between 1985 and 1989 [Steel Structures
Painting Council 1991].

Maintenance of Steel Structures

Before a new coating may be applied to
bridges and other steel structures, deterio-
rated paint and corrosion must be removed
and the metal surface must be properly pre-
pared [Katauskas 1990]. In addition, all coat-
ings of lead-based paints must be removed
before another type of paint can be applied
[Katauskas 1990]. This process is most com-
monly accomplished by using a portable
device for abrasive blast cleaning. These
devices are designed to deliver a high-velocity
stream of abrasive to the metal surface. Com-
pressed air is generally used, but some
devices use water to deliver the abrasive. A
variety of nonmetallic and metallic abrasives
have been used, including silica sand, slag,
and steel grit. The worker performing the
blasting directs the blasting nozzle at the sur-
face to be cleaned. As the paint is removed,
small particles become airborne, and the used
abrasives become contaminated with lead-
containing paint particles.

Containment structures are used to reduce
the release of lead into the environment by
capturing paint chips, dust, and used abra-
sive. Where possible, containment structures
are designed so that the used abrasives and
debris are directed through chutes or tubes
into a barge or hopper. Because the recovery
systems in the containment structures are not
completely effective, some of the material
must be recovered manually by sweeping,
shoveling, or vacuuming. Under the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA),
waste material must be tested, and if the
leachable lead concentration is 5 parts per
million (ppm) or greater, the material is clas-
sified as a hazardous waste [40 CFR" 260].

"Code of Federal Regulations. See CFR in references.

Lead Poisoning in Construction Workers

ws


Disease Control, National Institute for Oc-
cupational Safety and Health, DHHS
(NIOSH) Publication No. 87-103.

NIOSH [1986d]. NIOSH Alert: request for as-
sistance in preventing grain auger electrocu-
tions. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, Public Health
Service, Centers for Disease Control, Nation-
al Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 86-119.

NIOSH [1986e]. Two workers electrocuted in
Tennessee. Morgantown, WV: U.S. Depart-
ment of Health and Human Services, Public
Health Service, Centers for Disease Control,
National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health, Division of Safety Research, Fatal
Accident Circumstances and Epidemiology
(FACE) Report 86-39-I.

NIOSH [1986f]. 20-Year-old bricklayer
electrocuted in Maryland. Morgantown, WV:
U.S. Department of Health and Human Serv-
ices, Public Health Service, Centers for Dis-
ease Control, National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health, Division of Safety Re-
search, Fatal Accident Circumstances and
Epidemiology (FACE) Report 87-19—lI.

NIOSH [1986g]. 19-Year-old laborer
electrocuted in Kentucky. Morgantown, WV:
U.S. Department of Health and Human Serv-
ices, Public Health Service, Centers for Dis-
ease Control, National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health, Division of Safety Re-
search, Fatal Accident Circumstances and
Epidemiology (FACE) Report 87-15—II.

NIOSH [1987a]. NIOSH Alert: request for as-
sistance in preventing electrocutions by un-
detected feedback electrical energy present
in power lines. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Depart-
ment of Health and Human Services, Public
Health Service, Centers for Disease Control,

Scaffolds Near Power Lines

National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 88-104.

NIOSH [1987b]. Two workers (a carpenter
and a laborer) electrocuted in South Carolina.
Morgantown, WV: U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services, Public Health Service,
Centers for Disease Control, National In-
stitute for Occupational Safety and Health,
Division of Safety Research, Fatal Accident
Circumstances and Epidemiology (FACE)
Report 8748-1.

NIOSH [1989a]. NIOSH Alert: request for as-
sistance in preventing electrocutions of
workers using portable metal ladders near
overhead power lines. Cincinnati, OH: U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services,
Public Health Service, Centers for Disease
Control, National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health, DHHS (NIOSH) Publica-
tion No, 89-110.

NIOSH [19896]. NIOSH testimony to the U.S.
Department of Labor: statement of the Na-
tional Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health. Presented at the OSHA informal
public hearing on the proposed rule for
electric power generation, transmission, and
distribution; electrical protective equipment,
November 28, 1989. NIOSH policy state-
ments. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, Public Health
Service, Centers for Disease Control, Nation-
al Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health.

NIOSH [1990a]. NIOSH comments to the
U.S. Department of Labor: statement of the
National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health. Submitted after the hearing on the
Occupational Safety and Health
Administration's proposed rule on permit re-
quired confined spaces, May 18, 1990.
NIOSH policy statements. Cincinnati, OH:


Containment structures are designed to
reduce the dispersion of lead into the environ-
ment, but they may increase worker exposure
to airbome lead. Current techniques for con-
tainment are not well defined and vary in their
efficiency in preventing lead from being
released into the environment. Some con-
tainment structures consist of tarpaulins or
open mesh fabrics placed over the blasting
area; some use rigid materials of wood, metal,
or plastic to enclose the blasting area; and
some use a combination of flexible and rigid
materials. Large air-moving devices may be
mounted on trucks and connected to the con-
tainment structures to exhaust dust-laden air.
The exhausted air is passed through dust
separation devices and filters before it is
released to the atmosphere. This ventilation
technique may also create a negative pressure
within the containment structure and help
reduce environmental contamination.

Workers may receive additional exposure at
some sites when the containment structures
(which may contain residual lead dust and
debris) are disassembled and moved. Workers
should be adequately protected while per-
forming these operations.

Potential for Exposure to ‘Airborne
Lead

At sites where workers performed bridge, tun-
nei, and elevated-highway construction
(SIC 1622), OSHA reported airborne lead
concentrations exceeding 200 micrograms
per cubic meter (ug/m*) for 65% of the
samples collected between April 1984 and
April 1988 [OSHA 1988]. Tables 1 and 2
summarize cases of occupational exposures
to lead reported during abrasive blasting,
sanding, burning, cutting, and welding. Most
of the operations described were conducted
outside containment structures. These data
indicate that persons working at the jobsite
outside the containment structure are also at

Lead Poisoning in Construction Workers

tisk of exposure to lead. Workers who do
not shower and change into clean clothing
before leaving the worksite may con-
taminate their homes and automobiles
with lead dust. Other members of the
household may then be exposed to harmful
amounts of lead [Grandjean and Bach 1986;
Kaye et al. 1987; Matte et al. 1989; Baker et
al. 1977].

The frequency and severity of medical symp-
toms increase with the concentration of lead
in the blood. Many adults with blood lead
levels (BLLs) of 80 yg/dl or greater have
symptoms or signs of acute lead poisoning,
although in some individuals, symptoms may
be so mild that they are overlooked [NIOSH
1978; Rosenstock and Cullen 1986]. Com-
mon symptoms of acute lead poisoning are
loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, stomach
cramps, constipation, difficulty in sleeping,
fatigue, moodiness, headache, joint or muscle
aches, anemia, and decreased sexual drive.
Severe health effects of acute lead exposure

_include damage to the nervous system, in-

cluding wrist or foot drop, tremors, and con-
vulsions or seizures. Acute lead poisoning
from uncontrolled occupational exposures
has resulted in fatalities [Hayhurst 1915].

Chronic lead poisoning may result after lead
has accumulated in the body over time, mostly
in the bone. Long after exposure has ceased,
some physiological event such as illness or
pregnancy may release this stored lead from
the bone and produce adverse health effects
such as impaired hemoglobin synthesis, al-
teration in the central and peripheral nervous
systems, hypertension, effects on male and
female reproductive systems, and damage to
the developing fetus [Landrigan 1989]. These
health effects may occur at BLLs below 50 yq/dl.


Structural
Failures

Concrete
Placement
Hazards

Delivery

Placement

reinforcement include:

« Slips and falls on loose bars;

- Working at heights;

- Falling objects;

- Improper posture while tying steel bars;

+ Working in areas with obstacles such as bar supports and protruding
elements;

- Puncture or injury from exposed reinforcing; and

- Collapse of reinforcing sections due to insufficient lateral bracing.

Finally, steel reinforcement is the main source of tensile strength in
concrete. Placement of the reinforcement generally follows structural
and shop drawings. Any design errors, or deviations from contract
documents could lead to serious structural problems and failures.

Concrete placement activities involve delivery, transportation, placement,
finishing and curing of concrete. These activities can expose the workers
to many hazards if the management does not plan for their proper
implementation.

The delivery of concrete to the project site starts by scheduling truck
arrivals. Failure to preplan the delivery or to position trucks in proper
locations may result in unsafe conditions for handling the concrete.
Failure to inspect the concrete for conformance to design specifications
may result in the use of substandard concrete leading to potential
structural failure.

Concrete may be deposited into formwork by a variety of methods. In

cases where ready-mix trucks are utilized, direct deposit or chute

extension can be employed. In other cases, concrete can be transported

in wheelbarrows. Conveyers may be used as a means to speed the

placement of concrete. Large projects and high-rise structures may

require a crane. Mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic and squeeze operated

pumps are utilized to transport concrete over great distances, which can

increase productivity. Such methods are particularly economical for

massive foundations and large slabs. Typical hazards associated with

concrete placement are:

- Injury and strain caused by handling chutes, shovelling and raking;

- Overexertion from wheelbarrows;

. Collapse of poorly constructed conveyer belts, or injury from moving
parts;

- General crane hazards (see later section);

- Injury caused by separation or surge of high pressure pumps;

- Improperly maintained hoses with unsecured joints and coupling in the
pipeline;

- Poor communication between the signalmen and operators; and

- Poor housekeeping.

V-22


Elevating Work
Platforms

Open Sides and
Floor Openings

Steel Erection
Fall Hazards

Safety Measures

In the case of outriggers, improper placement may be responsible for
failure. Suspended scaffolds should be inspected for defects, and ropes
should have a safety factor of eight.

Mobile elevating work platforms provide a temporary support surface

suitable for short duration tasks. Falls are the most common type of

hazard associated with this equipment. Falls can be caused by the

instability of the platform, or inadvertent movements caused by

collision, obstruction, uneven ground, or overloading. Fall of materials

and workers can be prevented by the following precautions:

. Wear a safety harness at all times and attach it to a secure anchor
point within the platform.

. Prevent pedestrian access beneath working platforms.

. Prevent accumulation of loose materials on the platform.

. Avoid collisions.

Open sides and floor openings present a significant fall hazard on
construction projects. When workers are exposed to fall hazards at
elevations of six feet or more, appropriate safeguards must be
incorporated into the work place. Falls may also occur near excavations
or manholes when workers are entering or leaving the area, or when
they simply may have not noticed the opening. In sewers, fall hazards
may lead to drowning if the person experiences unconsciousness. The
most effective means of fall protection on such locations are guard rails
with toe boards, covers for openings, and hazard communication signs.
Toe boards and screens are to be used to safeguard lower elevations
from falling objects. Materials should not be placed near edges, where
such protection is not provided. Prohibiting signs can warn workers
against entering a fall hazard zone.

Fall hazards are the greatest concern associated with steel erection
operations. High risk steel erection activities include:

- Rigging and connecting structural members, and decking;

- Placement of roof framing. members; and -

. The collapse of incomplete structural framework.

Preventing workers from falls during steel erection should concentrate

on incorporating erection precautions in design and planning phases,

and implementing active and passive protection systems. Provisions for

fall protection equipment, safe access and egress for all work areas, and

constructability issues (such as reducing the need to work at heights)

should be addressed in design and planning. Other safety measures

include:

. Safety training, and establishing safety rules such as prohibiting
column climbing, sliding, and beam walking;

. Providing means for safe access, such as fixed ladders, scaffolds, and
power-operated mobile work platforms; and

+ Providing fall arrest equipment.

V-32


Fault Tree
Analysis

Use of Computers

Energy Theory

The widely used fault-tree analysis is based on a symbolic logic diagram
that shows the cause-and-effect relationships between an undesirable

. event and one or more contributing causes. Beginning with a mishap
or failure (top event) the contributory events are traced backward in a
tree-like network until completely independent events (causal factors)
are reached. A conceptual fault tree diagram illustrating the
contributions of the man, machine, environmental and management
factors to a mishap is presented in Figure IV-2 (5).

al
_

factors
QO f 1
Environmental Management Environmental

factors factors factors factors

Machine

Figure IV-2. Conceptual Fault Tree Diagram (5)

Computers, with the right software, make it possible to process large
amounts of information by the various techniques of systems safety
analysis. A detailed coverage of the techniques and software are
outside the scope of this module. Excellent information on related
topics can be found in references (1), (5), and (6).

Haddon (8) proposed the idea that many accidents and injuries involve
the transfer, or release, of energy which must be controlled for the
prevention of mishaps. This theory suggests that quantities of energy,
means of energy transfer and rates of transfer are related to the kind and
severity of injuries. Depending on the case, safety engineers can focus


Incompatibility
of Materials

Material Selection

Contract
Administration

Shop Drawings

control. Galvanic action between certain metals is a common cause of
corrosion. Metal fatigue may create cracks which weaken the material,
and facilitate chemical reactions promoting corrosion. Contrary to
common belief, concrete does not always provide adequate protection
to reinforcing steel. Moisture can reach the steel through the cracks
(and sometimes pores) in concrete causing corrosion, which can lead to
total deterioration. Chlorides also promote corrosion in steel. They can
come from deicing salts, or from chloride additives used in high-bond
mortar (10).

Incompatibility of materials which come in contact in the constructed
form may also cause deterioration. Different materials which form the
composite members of a structural member may have incompatible
tolerances, strengths and ductilities. These differences can produce
unanticipated stress redistributions. Incompatibility may also lead to
differential movements resulting from temperature and moisture
gradients. Different materials have varying coefficients of expansion.
For instance, brick, limestone and concrete have uniquely different
coefficients, and under the same temperature gradient, they may expand
and contract at different rates leading to cracks.

Some of the most important decisions regarding design, and
constructability reviews involve material selection. Engineers and
architects must specify the materials, approve substitutions (as may be
required by value engineering analysis), and test the quality of the
material during construction. These tasks must take into account all
exposures, compatibility, and the limits of performance. In the selection
of materials, manufacturer’s design and performance data must be
scrutinized, and qualitative information should be clearly documented.

Contract administration encompasses all activities from the beginning
to the end of a construction project relating to the execution of the
project tasks as provided for by the contract documents. Shop drawings
and change orders are the two most important aspects which may
impact construction safety. They are discussed in the following
paragraphs.

Shop drawings are documents prepared by various subcontractors who
will perform specific construction tasks. They usually show the specific
components of the constructed system and the details of the erection
procedure. Shop drawings have two critical purposes. First, they
constitute the contractor’s interpretation of the design documents.
Secondly, they provide the freedom to contractors (especially in
complex projects) to propose construction details. This is particularly
necessary where it is not economically feasible to include all the
necessary details on the contract documents. It should be noted that, in
many cases, suppliers and subcontractors may have greater expertise in
materials, construction methods, and familiarity with some new

VI-8

w


Training

Medical Program

Site Characterization

4) Coordinating with the existing response community.

Planning should be viewed as an ongoing process: the cleanup activities
and site safety plan must be continuously adapted to new site
conditions, and new information that becomes available.

Anyone who enters a hazardous waste site must recognize and
understand the potential hazards to health and safety associated with the
cleanup of that site. Personnel actively involved in cleanup must be
thoroughly familiar with programs and procedures contained in the site
safety plan and must be trained to work safely in contaminated areas.
Furthermore, visitors to a site must receive adequate training on hazard
recognition and on the site’s standard operating procedures to enable
them to conduct their visit :safely..- The objectives of these training
programs for employees involved in hazardous waste site activities are:
- To make workers aware of the potential hazards they may encounter;
- To provide the knowledge and skills necessary to perform the work
with minimal risk to worker health and safety;
- To make workers aware of the purpose and limitations of safety
equipment; and
+ To assure that workers can safely avoid or escape from emergencies.

Employees should not engage in field activities until they have been
trained to a level consistent with their job function and the degree of
anticipated hazards. The training program should involve both
classroom instruction on relevant topics and hands-on practice. A
record of training should be maintained in each employee’s personnel
file to confirm that every person assigned to a task has had adequate
training, and that the training is up-to-date.

A medical program is essential to assess and monitor worker’s health
and fitness both prior to employment and during the course of work,
and to provide emergency and other treatment as needed. The medical
program should be developed for each site based on the specific needs,
location, and potential exposures of employees at the site. The program
should be designed by an experienced occupational health physician or
other qualified occupational health consultant in conjunction with the
site safety officer. A site medical program should provide: surveillance,
such as pre-employment screening; periodic medical examinations
(case-by-case basis); record keeping; and program review.

Site characterization provides the information needed to identify hazards
and to select worker protection methods. The more accurate, detailed,
and comprehensive the information available about a site, the better the
protective measures can be tailored to the actual hazards that workers
may encounter. The person with primary responsibility for site
characterization and assessment is the project team leader. Site
characterization generally proceeds in three phases:

V-57


UNIT VI
ENGINEERING, DESIGN AND CONTRACT ADMINISTRATION

FOR SAFE CONSTRUCTION

PURPOSE To present information on the engineering, design and contract
administration factors affecting the structural safety of constructed
facilities.

OBJECTIVES To educate civil engineering students through case histories on the

principles and concepts of:

1. The causal factors of construction failures, including
(a) Natural disasters
- (b) Engineering and design considerations
(c) Material properties and performance
(d) Construction methods and procedures
(e) Contract administration and project management

2. Safety implications of the constructability concepts, shop drawings
and change orders

3. Temporary structures
4. Engineer’s role regarding safety and quality assurance

5. Liability issues for engineers.

KEY TERMS Construction failure; structural failure; design deficiency; structural
details; erection procedures; communication process; natural disasters;
constructability; job hazard analysis; material properties; environmental
effects; contract administration; shop drawings; change orders; design
engineer; field inspection; quality control; construction loads; temporary
structures; professional liability; standard of care; expert witness;
doctrine of privity; strict liability.

VI-1


U.S. Department of Health and Human Serv-
ices, Public Health Service, Centers for Dis-
ease Control, National Institute for Occupational
Health.

NIOSH [1990b]. One laborer and two steel
workers electrocuted when an elevated work
platform contacts 69,000-volt power line in
Ohio. Morgantown, WV: U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, Public Health
Service, Centers for Disease Control, Nation-
al Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,

Division of Safety Research, Fatal Accident
Circumstances and Epidemiology (FACE)
Report 90-01.

NIOSH [1991]. National Traumatic Occupa-
tional Fatality (NTOF) database. Morgan-
town, WV: U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, Public Health Service,
Centers for Disease Control, National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health, Division
of Safety Research.

Scaffolds Near Power Lines

‘72. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1991 /548-235/40010

w

ww


Design Aspects

Constructability
Reviews

project objectives (14). It is indicated that this approach will lead to
greater productivity, lower costs, and improved quality and safety.

According to CII, the design process must integrate construction needs
from the conceptual stage to final delivery of contract documents.
Constructability analysis of the design can identify conflicts and
shortcomings that may complicate construction. It is therefore
beneficial to integrate such an analysis into the project execution plans
starting with the preliminary design stage. Meaningful input from the
constructors, construction managers or constructability consultants can
be very beneficial in the early stages of a project. Several critical
decisions are made during the schematic design stage that will
determine many subsequent construction activities. Factors such as
availability of raw materials and skilled labor, costs, and the overall
project schedule can be incorporated into these decisions. It might be
assumed that the project schedule is construction sensitive, and the
general construction methods might consider the impact of seasonal
weather conditions, site characteristics, drainage and soil conditions.

Constructability reviews can be applied in more depth during the design
development and construction document preparation phases by
incorporating the following objectives and principles (14):

. Design configurations should enable efficient construction and
eliminate spatial constraints, which complicate proper assembly,
especially for large structural elements.

- Sequence of design should follow construction logic and take into
account feasible construction time. For example, it may be important
to realize certain slabs which are designed for service loads may not
support the construction loads.

- Complicated construction details should be minimized, especially if
they require extensive on-site assembly. Standardization and pre-
assembled design should be maximized.

- Construction task interdependencies that would bring many trades
together should be minimized.

. Flexibility for field adjustments during implementation should be

allowed, and tight tolerances should be eliminated. An example of

this would be certain structural members which have adequate depth
to support the service loads not allowing for the necessary
connections.

The site layout should consider accessibility, and in contract

documents there should be provisions for safe access for workers and

storage materials and equipment.

The construction team should provide input and advice on access

needs, major equipment placement, and storage requirements.

Potential conflicts between underground work and heavy equipment

movement should be eliminated.

+ The design and erection sequence should consider the stability of
incomplete structural frames during construction.

VI-6


NIOSH [1984]. Lead: Method Nos. 7082 and
7105. In: Eller PM, ed. NIOSH manual of
analytical methods. 3rd ed. Cincinnati, OH:
U.S. Department of Health and Human Ser-
vices, Public Health Service, Centers for Dis-
ease Control, National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication
No. 84-100.

NIOSH [1986]. Criteria for a recommended
standard: occupational exposure to hot en-
vironments, revised criteria 1988. Cincinnati,
OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, Public Health Service, Centers for
Disease Control, National Institute for Oc-
cupational Safety and Health, DHHS (NIOSH)
Publication No. 86-113.

NIOSH [1987a]. Guide to industrial respi-
ratory protection. Cincinnati, OH: U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services,
Public Health Service, Centers for Disease
Control, National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health, DHHS (NIOSH) Publica-
tion No. 87-116.

NIOSH [19876]. NIOSH respirator decision
logic. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, Public Health
Service, Centers for Disease Control, Nation-
al Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 87-
108.

NIOSH [1988a]. Criteria for a recommended
standard: welding, brazing, and thermal cut-
ting. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, Public Health
Service, Centers for Disease Control, Nation-
al Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 88-
110.

NIOSH [19886]. NIOSH testimony to the U.S.
Department of Labor: comments of the Na-

20

tional Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health on the Mine Safety and Health Admin-
istration’s proposed rule on air quality, chemi-
cal substances, and respiratory protection
standards, March 1, 1990. NIOSH policy
statements. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department
of Health and Human Services, Public Health
Service, Centers for Disease Control, National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.

NIOSH [1988c]. Occupational safety and
health guideline for inorganic lead. Cincin-
nati, OH: U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, Public Health Service,
Centers for Disease Control, National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health, DHHS
(NIOSH) Publication No. 88-118, Supple-
ment 1-OHG.

NIOSH [1988d]. NIOSH testimony to the Oc-
cupational Safety and Health Administration
on PELs for crystalline silica, July, 1988.
NIOSH policy statements. Cincinnati, OH:
U.S. Department of Health and Human Ser-
vices, Public Health Service, Centers for Dis-
ease Control, National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health.

NIOSH [1991a]. Certified equipment list. Cin-
cinnati, OH: U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, Public Health Service,
Centers for Disease Control, National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health, DHHS
(NIOSH) Publication No. 91-105.

NIOSH [1991b]. Hazard evaluation and tech-
nical assistance interim report: M &J Paint-
ing Company, Brent-Spence Bridge,
Covington, KY. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Depart-
ment of Health and Human Services, Public
Health Service, Centers for Disease Control,
National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health, HETA 91-006. Unpublished
report.

Lead Poisoning in Construction Workers


heating and scraping, use of needle guns, and
chemical removal.

Materials containing crystalline silica should
not be used as abrasives for any blasting
operation, including paint removal [NIOSH
1988b]. Crystalline silica is associated with
silicosis and is classified by NIOSH as a po-
tential occupational carcinogen [NIOSH 1988d].

Lead-containing dust and abrasive materials
should be removed daily by using vacuums
equipped with HEPA filters or by using wet
methods to prevent lead-containing particles
from becoming airborne [Steel Structures
Painting Council 1991].

Work Inside Containment Structures

Containment structures are often used to
reduce environmental contamination by cap-
turing particles of paint and used blasting
materials. Although such structures reduce
environmental contamination, they may also
increase lead exposures for workers (see Fig-
ure 1). Ventilation should be provided to
reduce the airborne concentration of lead and
increase visibility. Containment structures
should be designed to optimize the flow of
ventilation air past the worker(s). Insofar as
possible, workers should be upstream from
the blasting operation to reduce exposure to
lead dust entrained in the ventilation air and
to improve visibility. Designs for the contain-
ment structure and ventilation systems should
be specific to each task because of varied
conditions at the worksite (i.e., the type of
steel structure being biasted, the type of blast-
ing methods, and the type of materials used
for construction).

Contract Specifications

All new contracts of Federal, State, and local
departments of transportation should include
specifications for a mandatory program of
worker protection from lead poisoning during

Lead Poisoning in Construction Workers

the maintenance, repainting, or demolition of
bridges and other steel structures.

Personal Hygiene Practices

Personal hygiene is an important element of any
program for protecting workers from exposure
to lead dust [Ulenbelt et al. 1990]. OSHA re-
quires employers to provide adequate washing
facilities at the worksite so that workers can
remove lead particles that accumulate on the
skin and hair [29 CFR 1926.51]. Showers
should also be available [OSHA/NIOSH 1991}.

All workers exposed to lead should wash their
hands and faces before eating, drinking, or
smoking, and they should not eat, drink, or use
tobacco products in the work area. Tobacco
products (cigarettes, cigars, chewing tobacco,
etc.) and food items should not be permitted
in the work area. Contaminated work clothes
should be removed before eating.

Workers should change into work clothes at
the worksite. Work clothes include dis-
posable or washable coveralls. Street clothes
should be stored separately from work clothes
in a clean area provided by the employer,
Separate lockers or storage facilities should
be provided so that clean clothing is not con-
taminated by work clothing and shoes.
Workers should change back into their street
clothes after washing or showering and before
leaving the worksite to prevent the accumula-
tion of lead dust in the workers’ cars and
homes and thereby protect family members
from exposure to lead. Cars shouldbe parked
where they will not be contaminated with lead.

Employers should arrange for the laundering
of protective clothing; or, if disposable protec-
tive clothing is used, the employer should
maintain an adequate supply at the worksite
and arrange for its safe disposal according to
applicable Federal [40 CFR 260] and State
regulations.


ARTICLE 10
PROTECTION OF PERSONS AND PROPERTY
10.1 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS AND PROGRAMS

10.1.1 The Contractor shail be responsible for initiating,
maintaining and supervising all safety precautions and
programs in connection with the performance of the Contract.

10.1.2 In the event the Contractor encounters on the site
material reasonably believed to be asbestos or polychlorinated
biphenyl (PCB) which has not been rendered harmless, the
Contractor shall immediately stop Work in the area affected
and report the condition to the Owner and Architect in
writing. The Work in the affected area shall not thereafter be
resumed except by written agreement of the Owner and
Contractor if in fact the material is asbestos or
polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) and has not been rendered
harmiess. The Work in the affected area shall be resumed in
the absence of asbestos or polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB),
or when it has been rendered harmless, by written agreement
of the Owner and Contractor, or in accordance with final
determination by the Architect on which arbitration has not
been demanded, or by arbitration under Article 4.

10.1.3 The Contractor shall not be required pursuant to
Article 7 to perform without consent any Work relating to
asbestos or polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB).

10.1.4 To the fullest extent permitted by law, the Owner shall
indemnify and hold harmless the Contractor, Architect,
Architect’s consultants and agents and employees of any of
them from and against claims, damages, losses and expenses,
including but not limited to attomeys’ fees, arising out of or
resulting from performance of the Work in the affected area
if in fact the material is asbestos or polychlorinated biphenyl
(PCB) and has not been rendered harmless, provided that
such claim, damage, loss or expense is attributable to bodily
injury, sickness, disease or death, or to injury to or
destruction of tangible property (other than the Work itself)
including loss of use resulting therefrom, but only to the
extent caused in whole or in part by negligent acts or
omissions of the Owner, anyone directly or indirectly
employed by the Owner may be liable, regardless of whether
or not such claim, damage, loss or expense is caused in part
by a party indemnified hereunder. Such obligation shall not
be construed to negate, abridge, or reduce other rights or
obligations of indemnity which would otherwise exist as to
a party or person described in this Subparagraph 10.1

10.2 SAFETY OF PERSONS AND PROPERTY

10.2.1 The Contractor shall take reasonable precautions for
safety of, and shall provide reasonable protection to prevent
damage, injury or loss to:

<1 employees on the Work and other persons who may
be affected thereby;

.2 the Work and materials and equipment to be
incorporated therein, whether in storage on or off
the site, under care, custody or control of the
Contractor or the Contractor’s Subcontractors or
Sub-subcontractors; and

3 other property at the site or adjacent thereto, such as
trees, shrubs, lawns, walks, pavements, roadways,
structures and utilities not designed for removal,
relocation or replacement in the course of
construction.

10.2.2 The Contractor shall give notices and comply with
applicable laws, ordinances, rules, regulations and lawful orders
of public authorities bearing on safety of persons or property or
their protection form damage, injury or loss.

10.2.3 The Contractor shail erect and maintain, as required by
existing conditions and performance of the Contract, reasonable
safeguards for safety and protection, including posting danger
signs and other wamings against hazards, promulgating safety
regulations and notifying owners and users of adjacent sites and
utilities.

10.2.4 When use or storage of explosives or other hazardous
materials or equipment or unusual methods are necessary for
execution of the Work, the Contractor shall exercise utmost
care and carry on such activities under supervision of properly
qualified personnel.

10.2.5 The Contractor shall promptly remedy damage and loss
(other than damage or loss insured under property insurance
required by the Contract Documents) to property referred to in
Clauses 10.2.1.2 and 10.2.1.3 caused in whole or in part by the
Contractor, a Subcontractor, Sub-subcontractor, or anyone
directly or indirectly employed by any of them, or by anyone
for whose acts they may be liable and for which the Contractor
is responsible under Clauses 10.2.1.2 and 10.2.1.3, except
damage or loss attributable to acts or omissions of the Owner
or Architect or anyone directly or indirectly employed by either
of them, or by anyone for whose acts either of them may be
liable, and not attributable to the fault or negligence of the
Contractor. The foregoing obligations of the Contractor are in
addition to the Contractor's obligations under Paragraph 3.18.

10.2.6 The Contractor shall designate a responsible member of
the Contractor's organization at the whose duty shall be the
prevention of accidents. This person shall be the Contractor's
superintendent unless otherwise designated by the Contractor
in writing to the Owner and Architect.

10.2.7 The Contractor shall not load or permit any part of the
construction or site to be loaded so as to endanger its safety.

10.3 EMERGENCIES

10.3.1 In an emergency affecting safety of persons or property,
the Contractor shall act, at the Contractor’s discretion, to
prevent threatened damage, injury or loss. Additional
compensation or extension of time claimed by the Contractor
on account of an emergency shall be determined as provided in
Paragraph 4.3 and Article 7.

Figure VII-3. AIA Article on Protection of Persons and Property (16)

VII-13


DISCLAIMER

Mention of the name of any company or product
does not constitute endorsement by the National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.

DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 85-111

Additional copies of this alert are available from

Publications Dissemination, DSDTT
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
4676 Columbia Parkway
Cincinnati, Ohio 45226
(513) 841-4287

1i


CONTENTS

Page

UNIT I - INTRODUCTION

PURPOSE; OBJECTIVES; KEY TERMS.
INTRODUCTION
CONSTRUCTION
STATISTICAL DATA
EXISTING PROBLEMS AND NEEDS ..
CONTENTS OF THE MODULE ..
REVIEW QUESTIONS
REFERENCES

UNIT II - WHY SAFETY AND HEALTH

PURPOSE; OBJECTIVES; KEY TERMS ..
CONCERNS FOR SAFETY AND HEALTH
HOW SAFETY SAVES MONEY .. je
ACCIDENT COST ACCOUNTING
REVIEW QUESTIONS ..
REFERENCES .

Teil
H-12

UNIT III - CONSTRUCTION SAFETY AND HEALTH LEGISLATION AND ORGANIZATIONS

PURPOSE; OBJECTIVES; KEY TERMS .ncssssccccsssssssssesssssesessessssseesssseesnvsssets Tll-1
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND ON SAFETY AND HEALTH LEGISLATION 11-2
OSH ACT OF 1970 .. . 1-3
OSHA’S ROLE IN SAFETY AND HEALTH m-4
OSHRC I-10.
NIOSH TH-10
OTHER I-13
PRESENT STATUS OF SAFETY AND HEALTH LEGISLATION IMl-13
REVIEW QUESTIONS TH-16
REFERENCES . I-16

UNIT IV - ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION AND ANALYSIS, AND INJURY CONTROL FUNDAMENTALS

PURPOSE; OBJECTIVES; KEY TERMS
DEFINITION OF ACCIDENT
HAZARD, RISK, SAFETY AND SAFETY ENGINEERING
CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS
ACCIDENT THEOREES .....
ACCIDENT INJURY RELATIONSHIPS
ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION .
ACCIDENT AND INJURY PREVENTION
REVIEW QUESTIONS ..
REFERENCES .

22222
WNNN—

SEsi
= do do
BR

a4

2

2
8



Training
and Worker
Orientation

Ways to Train
Employees

Training
Resources

New Worker
Orientation

company divisions or crews. Also, these rules should be modified as
site conditions or owner requirements dictate. These work practices
may be simple, one-page handouts for specific operations like erecting
scaffolds, excavating trenches, or operating specific pieces of
equipment. Depending on the situation, the safety rules may also be
very involved based on a hazard analysis for critical tasks. In any
event, there should be a list of general rules for everyone, such as those
shown in Figure VII-2. Rules must be concise and easy to understand.
They are instructions to field personnel for safe working procedures,
and therefore must be in a format which can easily be implemented in
the field.

Training and worker orientation are necessary elements of an effective
safety and health program. OSHA mandates employee training; see, for
example, 1926.21 (b)(2). There are two types of training:

1) Training for specific tasks; and
2) General training in accident avoidance and prevention.

It is desirable to integrate these efforts and train employees in safety
and health as part of craft training (12).

There are several ways to provide employee training. Discussions at
weekly toolbox meetings are an effective training method. Many
insurance companies and trade associations, such as the Associated
General Contractors (AGC), provide "tool box talks" to assist employers
in the selection and delivery of safety topics. Private subscription
services are also available to provide new topics on a regular basis.

Many insurance companies conduct safety seminars on the jobsite as part
of their services associated with the workers compensation coverage.
This type of training can be utilized effectively before employees start
work, or on specific hazardous operations. Local Safety councils and
trade associations may provide free or low-cost training programs.
These programs are tailor-made to meet specific ‘training requirements.
Many academic institutions also offer extensive safety courses. Finally,
safety consultants provide both training and training program evaluation
services. All training efforts must be carried out by qualified persons,
who are capable of stimulating and motivating the trainees.

A significant component of the company safety and health training
program is new worker orientation. New construction workers, and
workers starting on an entirely new activity without previous
experience, are particularly susceptible to being injured. The objectives
of the orientation program are to relieve beginner anxieties, indoctrinate
the workers to the company’s safety program, and teach safe work
practices which includes the use of personal protective equipment.
Each employee should be handed a set of company safety rules during

Vi-7


Excavation and
Trenching Hazards

Factors Causing
Cave-ins

Effects of
Water, Traffic
and Surcharge
Loads

Previous
Excavations

required. The exact method of support will depend on the soil type, as
well as site and ground water conditions. In shallow trenches, or
excavations with depths less than five feet, sloping or shoring may not
be required if the soil is cohesive. For deeper trenches, support will be
required as decided by a qualified person.

Detailed information on excavation and trenching hazards has been
presented by CECS (26). The primary hazard in excavation operations
is the possibility of cave-ins, or earth slides, burying workers in the
trenches. Many of these accidents result in death. Persons buried
beneath the soil become unable to breath and ultimately suffocate.
Complete burial is, in fact, not necessary to cause death. Pressure of
surrounding soil will force air from lungs and prevent further breathing.
The. likelihood of rescuing. buried_workers in such.cases is usually not

. very high because heavy equipment can not be used to uncover victims

for fear of causing further injuries. Furthermore, sending rescuers
inside a caved-in trench exposes more persons to the same danger.

The four important factors that contribute to cave-ins are as follows:
1) Weight: Weight is generated by the soil itself, construction
equipment and vehicles, or other objects.

2) The amount of water in soil: excessive moisture or lack of moisture
can weaken the soil leading to collapse.

3) Vibrations: Vibrations are caused by activities such as vehicular
traffic, blasting and pile driving.

4) Soil composition: The composition and structure of the soil affects
its stability during the excavation process. Mechanical failure due to
removal of lateral support is also a critical factor in cave-ins.

Water, either by rain or percolation, can effect the lateral resistance of
soil. Water can enter the dry soil through cracks and voids and cause
softening and sudden loss of strength. In cold climates freezing and
thawing can affect soil strength. Water can also increase the weight of
soil, and act as a lubricant contributing to slippage. Vehicle traffic,
especially large trucks and operation of heavy construction equipment
can cause soil displacement and instability. Other hazardous conditions
are created by placing excavated earth, pipes and shoring equipment too
close to the trench to form additional (surcharge) loads. Impacts during
unloading of these materials can lead to cave-ins as well.

There are certain excavation hazards that may be particular to a specific
location, such as a trenching operation at or near previously excavated
ground: Excavation reduces the inherent strength of the soil.
Therefore, starting a new excavation on previously excavated ground
increases the possibility of a cave-in. Where new excavation is planned
close or parallel to a previously excavated trench, it must be recognized
that the ground between them may be particularly susceptible to
collapse. Hazards are also caused by differing strata within a soil cut,

V-50


Storage

Storage According
to Use, Kind and Size

Control of
Explosive
Materials

loading and unloading facilities, minimization of manual handling tasks,
adequate availability and arrangement of storage areas, choice of
hazardous material locations, and future maintenance requirements.

Planned material storage lessens the handling needed to move materials
for processing, use, or shipment. Movement of materials is facilitated
by providing adequate storage space at receiving, processing, and
shipping areas. Storage should be organized to reduce hazards and to
enable safe and practical placement and removal of materials. Storage
equipment, (racks, bins, pallets, etc.) should match the temporary or
long term needs. Bags, bundles, and other containers need to be
suitably tacked, blocked, interlocked, and limited in height. For open
pits, tanks, vats, etc., covers and guardrails must be provided to reduce
contact and fall hazards. Special precautions are required for storage
of hazardous materials with consideration given to the level of
protection needed for each hazardous material. Attention should be
focused on items that by their nature are recognized to be harmful, e.g.,
those which are explosive, flammable, toxic, asphyxiating, or
biologically contaminated.

Basically, all materials should be stored according to their use and
characteristics. Materials should be segregated according to kind and
size, and should be placed in easily accessible, neat, and orderly piles.
Specific storage methods include cross stripping for lumber, piling for
sacked materials such as cement, stepping, cross piling, and cross tying.
Materials stored on constructed floors, or supporting members should
not be in excess of the strength of these members. Materials should not
be stored on scaffolding or other temporary structures beyond
immediate need.

The following precautions should be considered for prevention of

mishaps associated with explosive materials:

. Smoking, flames, intoxicants, and any item that can cause a spark
around explosives should be forbidden. .

. Transportation vehicles should be equipped with fire extinguisher and
aluminum deck surfaces. Vehicle battery and wiring should not come
in contact with explosives. Proper warning signs such as
"EXPLOSIVE", "DANGER", apd red flags should be displayed on
the vehicle.

« Vehicles should not be overloaded and the cargo should be secured.
Explosives should be received and stored for daily use only. They
should be stored in fire and bullet resistant buildings, protected from
weather and fire. They should be accessible only to authorized

personnel. :
. Metal tools should not be used for handling explosives.

. All explosives should be handled by well trained personnel, according
to manufacturer’s instructions, with one supervisor in charge of the
entire explosive operations.

V-10


Manager/Supervisor
24. Name of ‘Supervisor

Home phone # ( —
Social security
Home addre:
2s, Capi ey mange cue
. Cor ent course
Yes = 1 No=2__ if Yes specify ve and duration ...
26. History of accidents on Supervisor 's io sites,
How many = Minor = M, ..
OSHA Information
———— - -
27. Hospital Yes =1 No=2 Date:
Name & Address:
28. X- Rays taken Yes=1 No=2
29. Doctor Yes = 1 Date:
30. Bue of death of injury (if death, notify | Dept. of Labor within 8 hours) ...
ere: sean Sts =" Hospital = 2, Home.= 3
Dae E Dept. of Labor notified: ”
31. Injured Feceived medical treatment”
32. Injured received east Aid only
33. Termination or germanent transfer?
1 lo=2
34.
35.
36.
37. -_
= -
Worker’s Worker's compensation
fc) —
Ic,
3 38 Oesupaton y worked
Ave. overtime hrs. rl
40. Straight time hourly wage me

41. From Hl recone greet pn Ai income for last 13 weeks sesenee
Straight time total § # weeks Average $ ...
Overtme total $.... # weeks ..... Average $ ....
Board & Room- value $ .... Average pet week $
Combined average weekly caming

Loss Control

42. Place of accident ( address with city & state )
43. Exact location of accident ( same as # 10 above, include picture of site ) ...
“. Hous ental vn tens Housekeepit
ICT ws, Mi . in

4g Bare Sincere ee wh ).

. Part of indicate area of injury; or
47, Source of a ay juny. eure
# Source faci

. of acci cmt
50. Activil

l= ori tos Unauthorized , 3= Other explain ...

51. How long assigned Tas Task ..
52. Explain events of accids & describe i injury .....
53. Causal Factors ( why did it it happen )
54. Gpinion on major factor

Act =1 », Condition = 2 ...

56. Corrective actions-tell what has been done or planned, relate to each of # 55, 56 & 57
Estimate time of compietion of corrective action if not done yet.

57. letion of actions
List actions and each one completed.

Figure IV-6. (Continued)

I-16 wa


Page 8 - Request for Assistance in Preventing Occupational Fatalities in
Confined Spaces

2. TESTING, EVALUATION, AND MONITORING

All confined spaces should be TESTED by a qualified person before
entry to determine whether the confined space atmosphere is safe for
entry. Tests should be made for oxygen level, flammability, and
known or suspected toxic substances. EVALUATION of the confined
space should consider the following:

o methods for isolating the space by mechanical or electrical means
(i.e., double block and bleed, lockout, etc.),

o the institution of lockout-tagout procedures,
o ventilation of the space,
o cleaning and/or purging,

o work procedures, including use of safety lines attached to the
person working in the confined space and its use by a standby
person if trouble develops,

© personal protective equipment required (clothing, respirator,
boots, etc.),

0 special tools required, and
© communications system to be used.

The confined space should be continuously MONITORED to determine
whether the atmosphere has changed due to the work being performed.

3. RESCUE

RESCUE procedures should be established before entry and should be
specific for each type of confined space. A standby person should be
assigned for each entry where warranted. The standby person should
be equipped with rescue equipment including a safety line attached to
the worker in the confined space, self-contained breathing apparatus,
protective clothing, boots, etc. The standby person should use this
attached safety line to help rescue the worker. The rescue
procedures should be practiced frequently enough to provide a level
of proficiency that eliminates life-threatening rescue attempts and
ensures an efficient and calm response to any emergency.

OTHER HELPFUL PUBLICATIONS BY NIOSH

NIOSH has published the following documents which contain further
information:

Criteria for a Recommended Standard....Working in Confined Spaces, DHEW
Publication No. 80-106.


Work Environment

Powder Actuated
Tool Safety

Training

APPLICABLE OSHA
STANDARDS

The work environment should have sufficient unobstructed space and
adequate lighting around the tool. Adequate ventilation (to eliminate or
minimize hazardous dust or fumes) should be provided at all times.
With the exception of those which are hand-held, tools should be
properly fixed, using non-kickback attachments to avoid movement
during operation. Saws should not be in motion except during cutting.
Blades should be sharp, securely fitted to rotate in the correct direction.

To avoid hazards and injuries resulting from powder actuated tools the
operators must guard against misuse. Tools should not be loaded until
the operator is ready to use them. They should be unloaded when the
tool is carried around, and most importantly, they should not be pointed
at others. To avoid thorough penetration, spalling, edge failure, and
Ticochets, the material receiving the fastener should be examined in
terms of consistency, density and’ compressive strength. After
examining the material, the most suitable velocity, fastener size and
location should be determined. Stable footing and platforms should
always be provided particularly when working at elevations. In case of
misfires, the tool should be pressed against a surface for at least 30
seconds to allow for delayed detonation. Cartridges that have misfired
should be removed and stored in a metal box. Powder actuated tools
should only be issued to trained operators. They should be stored in a
dry and cool place and access to them should be controlled.

Most accidents created by hand and power tools can be minimized
through adequate training. No worker should operate any tools without
proper training in their safe use. The training program must stress not
only the technical details as recommended by the manufacturer, but also
clarify that powder actuated tools can be lethal.

OSHA standards dealing with hand and power tools are presented in
Table V-11.

Table V-11
OSHA Standards on Hand and Power Tools

29 CFR 1926 Subpart I - Tools - Hand and Power
jectic ic
Ge Tequirements
ce es tnt
1926.303 Abmcive hers and als
1926.304 — Woodworkin
1926.305  Jacks-lever ad ra eit screw and hydraulic
1926.306 Air receivers
1926.307 Mechanical power-transmission apparatus

29 CFR 1919 Subpart P - Hand and Portable Powered Tools
nd Other. Hand-Held Equipment
Hand an Sib le powered tools and equipment, general

1910343 fore Epon pe wered tools
1910.244 Other portable tools ahd equipment

V-45


Consultation
Assistance

Regional and
Area Offices

Office of
Construction
and Engineering

Functions

Employers may obtain free consultation assistance under the consultation
program, which is funded by OSHA and conducted by the states. While
the short-term goal is to identify hazards facing employees, the long-
term goal is to provide guidance in establishing, or improving the
company’s safety program. OSHA’s consultation program is
completely separate from its inspection program. No citations or
penalties are issued; however, the participants are obligated to correct
serious job safety and health hazards promptly. The thrust of the
program is to create a work environment which promotes health and
safety, rather than one which must react to crisis situations. For
additional information concerning consultation assistance, including a
directory of OSHA-funded consultation projects, refer to OSHA
publication No. 3047 (7).

Federal (national) OSHA offices are located in the Department of Labor
building in Washington, D.C. However, OSHA performs its
enforcement activities from regional and area offices throughout the
United States. A list of the 10 Department of Labor Regional Offices
is provided in Table III-1. Note that each region also has a number of
area offices serving as resource centers, as well as administering the
enforcement activities. These are listed in the same table. The status
of the states (and territories) in these regions are also indicated in
Table IIl-1. Approved Plan States are those which have their own plans
and jurisdictions. The Federal Plan States are those which do not have
approved plans and are directly under OSHA’s jurisdiction. Note that
the information provided in Table III-1 on the status of the state (and
territory) plans pertain to 1994. The situation may change in the future.

In recognition of the existence of critical safety and health problems in
the construction industry, OSHA in 1990 established the Office of
Construction and Engineering within the National Office in Washington,
D.C. The mission of this office is "to serve as OSHA’s principal source
on advising Agency components with respect to construction and
engineering activities and issues involved in the overall occupational
safety and health field, and to provide technical assistance and support
to all other National Office and regional organizations of the Agency
with regard to construction activities” (8). Composed of Engineering
and Construction branches, the Office serves the following functions:

1) Acting as technical construction advisor to the Assistant Secretary
on the impact of policy, technical, and field questions with regard to the
construction industry;

2) Providing construction safety responses to evaluate serious and/or
unusual problems and provides technical assistance to the Agency in
emergency situations;

3) Coordinating the activities of the Office with other National Office
Directories and Offices;

4) At the request of a region, participating in providing technical

Il-7


Table 5.—State agencies that require the reporting of individuals with elevated lead
concentrations in blood (BLLs)

Concentration that
requires reporting
State Contact person (ug/dl)

Alabama Charles Woernle, M.D., M.P.H. 15
State Epidemiologist
Department of Public Health
434 Monroe Street
Montgomery, AL 36130
205-242-5131

California Neil Maizlish, Ph.D. 25
Occupational Health Program
California Department of Health
Services
2151 Berkeley Way, Room 504
Berkeley, CA 94704
415-540-2115

Colorado Jane McCammon 25
Colorado Department of Health
Epidemiology Division
4210 E. 11th Ave.
Denver, CO 80220
303-331-8330

Connecticut Narda Tolentino, M.P.H. 25
Connecticut Department
of Health Services
Environmental Epidemiology and
Occupational Health (EEOH)
150 Washington Street
Hartford, CT 06106
203-566-8167

Mlinois Jane Keller 25
Occupational Disease Registry
Illinois Department of Public Health
Division of Epidemiologic Studies
605 W. Jefferson
Springfield, IL 62761
217-785-1873

lowa Joann Muldoon 25
Environmental Epidemiology Section
lowa Department of Public Health
Lucas State Office Building
Des Moines, IA 50319
515-281-5643,
(Continued)

“Questions regarding these reporting requirements should be directed to the contact person in each State.

Lead Poisoning in Construction Workers 15


For additional information, see the NIOSH Alert,
Request for Assistance in Preventing Lead
Poisoning in Construction Workers [DHHS
(NIOSH) 90-116a], or call 1-800-35-NIOSH. Singie
copies are available free from the following:

Publications Dissemination, DSOTT

National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health

4676 Columbia Parkway

Cincinnati, OH 45226

(813) 533-8287

U.S, Department of Health and Human Services
Pubitc Health Service

Centers for Olsease Control

National Institute tor Occupational Safety
NMEEISH and Health

ont

7 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES
Public Health Service

“oan Centers for Disease Control cavtene FOR DOLASE CONTROL



State WC Laws

More Recent
Federal
Legislation

OSH ACT OF 1970

Aim and
Coverage

At the state level, Maryland (1902) and New York (1910) passed the
first workers compensation laws but these were declared
unconstitutional based on the 14th amendment. In 1911, Wisconsin
and Washington passed the first "constitutional" workers compensation
laws. By 1928, 43 states had them; by 1948 all 48 states had workers
compensation laws. Also, Departments of Industrial Hygiene and
Safety were formed to provide education and conduct safety
inspections in many states.

More recent federal legislation dealing with safety and health includes:

. Establishment of Bureau of Labor Standards in the Department of
Labor (1934), which was the first permanent federal agency with a
mandate to promote safety and health for the entire workforce.

- Social Security Act (1935), which provided Public Health Service
(PHS) funding for the states, and barred persons under 18 from
working in "dangerous" jobs.

. Walsh - Healy Act (1936), which confirmed the federal regulatory
role of the Department of Labor concerning job safety and health.

- McNamara - O’Hara Act (1966) and Construction Safety Act (1969),
which extended federal regulations to service contract employers, and
federally funded construction employers, respectively.

+ Coal Mine Health and Safety Act (1969), following a mine explosion
in Farmingdale, West Virginia killing 78. This Act was amended in
1977 to include Department of Labor enforcement.

Without question, the most significant, comprehensive and far reaching
legislation relative to occupational safety and health in the United
States has been the Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) Act of 1970.
There had been strong sentiment among industry representatives, labor
groups and safety organizations that a federal agency was needed to
set safety standards and enforce them, if significant improvements were
to be expected in safety and health conditions in the U.S. work places.
Based on this demand, in 1970, it was found by the U.S. Congress
that occupational injuries and illnesses imposed a substantial burden
upon, and were a hindrance to, interstate commerce in terms of lost
production, and wages, medical expenses, and disability compensation
payments. In response to this situation, the OSH Act was passed on
December 28, 1970. Co-authored by Senator Williams (Dem. - N.J.)
and Congressman Steiger (Rep. - Wis.), the Act became effective on
April 28, 1971. The provisions of the Construction Safety Act of 1969
were included in this act by reference.

The basic aim of the OSH Act is to ensure, "so far as possible, every
working man and woman in the nation safe and healthful working
conditions and to preserve our human resources," through reduction of
work place hazards. The OSH Act requires that each employer furnish
his employees a work place free from recognized hazards that are
causing or likely to cause death or serious physical harm. Under the

I-3


APPLICABLE OSHA
STANDARDS

EXCAVATION AND
TRENCHING

Table V-12 covers OSHA’s standards on electrical safety.

Table V-12
OSHA Standards on Electrical Safety

29 CFR 1926 Subpart K-Electrical
Section ic

T926.403 General requirements

1926.404 Wiring design and protection

1926.405 int ethods, components, and equipment for general use
1926.406 specie equipment and installations

1926.407 (lassi lassified) locations

1926.408 Spec syst SYSTEMS ts

1926.417 Lockout. ‘md gg oe of circuits

1926.431 Maintenance of equipment

1926.432 Environmental deterioration of equipment
1926.441 Batteries and battery charging

22 CFR 1910 Sub, are S - Electrical
Section
2 Electric Galization systems

1910. 303 General requirements
Wing dest design and protection

ote. 305 jods, components, and equipment for eral use

1910.306 se equipment, and a Sliniocs Ben

1910.307 rsarious (lassi ified) locations

1910.308

1910.332

1910.333 Select and use of work practices

1910.334 ise af © uipment

1910.335 ir personnel protection

29 CFR 1926 Sul art V-Power Transmission and Distribution
ion
9350 Feguirements

1926.951 fae and ive quipment

1926.952 Mechanica’ pment

1926. 384 Grounding f fe tection of empl
unding for ion of employee

1936: 955 Overhead lines me Pioye

1926.956 Underground tines

1926.957 Construction in energized substations

1926.958 External load helicopters

1926.959 Lineman’s body belts, safety straps, and lanyards

Excavation and trenching operations are essential to many types of
construction projects. Foundations, drains, sewers, and underground
utilities are part of a great majority of construction projects, requiring
excavation or trenching. Excavation is the removal of soil and rock
from the original location. The behavior of soil during excavation is
dependent on its composition and the environmental conditions. Soil
composition varies, from sand which flows easily, through silt to clay
which is cohesive. Water is often present in soil to some degree and
affects soil behavior. Many types of soils can not support their own
weight during excavation. Therefore, some form of support is often

v-49


KEEPING PACE
ISN'T EASY!

- In today’s health world, no Your subscription will bring you six wider
. ranging issues a year- each one inciudin

health professional can afford more than a dozen peer-reviewed papers by
to fall behind. Let us help. recognized authorities in health and related
Public Health Reports - the journal of the fields, thought-provoking commentary on health
U.S. Public Health Service - brings together in issues and timely information on the prevention
one convenient source information you need on and control of disease.
Federal health policies, innovative programs and The cost of all this? Only $21 a year.
services of public and private agencies, research Don’t miss an issue! Subscribe now. Just
in health fields and public health around the world. complete and mail the coupon below.

, made out to 10 “Superintendent of Documents”
$21 | per year domestic; $26.25 foreign.)

© Charge my GPO Deposit Account | 1111111 2 bate
——Visa____Mastercad FIP T II iT Ei itl itiidi


DISCLAIMER

Mention of the name of any company or Product
does not constitute endorsement by the National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 86-110

Copies of this and other NIOSH documents are available from

Publications Dissemination, DSOTT
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
4676 Columbia Parkway
Cincinnati, Ohio 45226
(513) 841-4287


Page 4 - Request for Assistance in Preventing Occupational Fatalities in
Confined Spaces

Case #6 ~- RECOGNITION AND RESCUE (FATALITY = 1 RESCUER)

On June 7, 1985, a 43-year-old father died while attempting to
rescue his 28-year-old son from a tank used to store spent acids
from a metal pickling process. The tank was out of service so
that sludge could be removed from the bottom. The son collapsed
in the tank. The father attempted a rescue and also co! lapsed.
The two were removed from the tank; the son was revived, but the
father died. The cause of death is unknown.

Case #7 - RECOGNITION (FATALITY = 1 WORKER)

On July 2, 1985, a crew foreman became il! and was hospitalized
after using an epoxy coating, which contained 2-nitropropane and
coal tar pitch, to coat a valve on an underground waterline. The
valve was located in an enclosed service vault (12' x 15' x
15'). The worker was released from the hospital on July 3, 1985,
but was readmitted on July 6, 1985; he lapsed into a coma and
died on July 12, 1985, as a result of acute liver failure induced
by inhalation of 2-nitropropane and coal tar pitch vapors. A
co-worker was also hospitalized, but did not die.

Case #8 - RECOGNITION AND RESCUE (FATALITIES = 1 WORKER + 3
RESCUERS)

On July 5, 1985, a 27-year-old sewer worker entered an
underground pumping station (8' x 8' x 7') via a fixed ladder
inside a three foot diameter shaft. Because the work crew was
unaware of procedures to isolate the work area and ensure that
the pump had been bypassed, the transfer line was still under
pressure. Therefore, when the workers removed the bolts from an
inspection plate that covered a check valve, the: force of the
waste water blew the inspection plate off, allowing sewage to
flood the chamber, and trapping one of the workers. A co-worker,
a supervisor, and a policeman attempted a rescue and died. The
first two deaths appeared to be due to drowning and the latter
two appeared to be due to asphyxiation as a result of inhalation
of "sewer gas."

REGULATORY STATUS

As stated in the Regulatory Program of the United States Government
(Confined Spaces [29 CFR 1910], page 282 dated August, 1985), "there
are no specific OSHA rules directed toward all confined-space work,
forcing OSHA compliance personne! to cite other marginally
applicable standards or section 5(a)(1) in cases involving confined
Spaces. For this reason, OSHA field personnel have frequently and
strongly recommended the promulgation of a specific standard on
confined spaces." In the document Criteria for a Recommended
Standard....Working in Confined Spaces, the Nationa! Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has provided comprehensive


Table HI-2 (Continued)

ican Insurance Service Group, Inc.

American ce Service Group, (212) 669-0400
$ John S
New York NY, 10038

Center for Excellence in Construction Safety . (304) 293-6142

Wen Us

Virginie U University
P.O. Box 6031
Waunsen WV 26506

anization (WSO) (816) 747-3132
EY ast id Ss Mit jafery Organiza (WSO) (816)
Waresbrg MO 64093
Intemational Loss Control Inst.
pom | acy
Loganville, GA 30249 .
Construction Safety Association of (415) 366-1501
Ontario (SAO) ” a)
# Victoria Street,
Toronto, Ontario MSC2AS, CANADA

Heal and Safer, Frcoutve (HSE) ' (071) 243-6000

ards House
Peace ie Place, Westboume Grove

London W2 4TF

American Consulting Engineers Counci 7.7474
1oiS ISth Steeg NW. PB (202) 34
Washington, D.C. 20065

American Council for Construction Education G18) 323-2413

Institute of Steel Construction 312) 670-2400

Mi
Chicago, IL iiSTes-
American Subcontractor’s Association (703) 684-3450
1004 Duke Street,
Alexandria, VA 22314
fisigeiation, of Federal Safety & Health (301) 552-2104

Te Wiki Drive
Lanham, MD 20706-3737

Associated Specialty Contractors (301) 657-3110
7315 Wisconsin Avenue

Bethesda, MD 20814

Construction Industry & Manufacturers (414) 272-0943
Association

111 E. Wisconsin Avenue
Milwaukee, WI 53202

Construction Management Association of (703) 391-1200
12355 Sunrise Valley Drive Suite # 640
Reston, VA 22091

Construction ification Institute 103) 684-0300
601 Madison ret (3)

Alexandria, VA 22314-1791

(703) 524-3336
Soe #202
09
Intemational Brotherhood of Electrical (202) 728-6137.

Workers
Usk ‘1Sth St ey

08 Tee tiates
Astington,

NW,
20005


DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES
PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE
CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL
NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY ANO HEALTH
ROBERT A TAFT LABORATORIES
4676 COLUMBIA PARKWAY. CINCINNATI, OHIO 46226

OFFICIAL BUSINESS Third Class Mail POSTAGE ANO FEES PAID

PENALTY FOR PRIVATE USE. $300 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HHS,
HHS 396

Redistribution using indicia is illegal. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 86-110


Baker EL, Folland DS, Taylor TA, Frank M,
Peterson W, Lovejoy G et al. [1977]. Lead
poisoning in children of lead workers. N Engl
J Med 296(5):260-261.

Bureau of the Census [1990]. 1987 census of
construction workers, industry series: _in-
dustries 1622 and 1795. Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the
Census.

CDC (Centers for Disease Control) [1989].
Lead poisoning in bridge demolition workers—
Massachusetts. MMWR 38(40):692-694.

CDC (Centers for Disease Control) [1990].
NIOSH recommendations for occupational
safety and health standards 1988. MMWR
37(7):18.

29 CFR 1910.94. Code of Federal regula-
tions. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
Printing Office, Office of the Federal Register.

29 CFR 1910.134. Code of Federal regula-
tions. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
Printing Office, Office of the Federal Register.

29 CFR 1910.1025. Code of Federal reguila-
tions. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
Printing Office, Office of the Federal Reg-
ister.

29 CFR 1926.21. Code of Federal regula-
tions. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
Printing Office, Office of the Federal Register.

29 CFR 1926.51. Code of Federal regula-
tions. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
Printing Office, Office of the Federal Register.

29 CFR 1926.55. Code of Federal regula-
tions. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
Printing Office, Office of the Federal Register.

18

29 CFR 1926.59. Code of Federal regula-
tions. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
Printing Office, Office of the Federal Register.

29 CFR 1926.353. Code of Federal regula-
tions. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
Printing Office, Office of the Federal Register.

29 CFR 1926.354. Code of Federal regula-
tions. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
Printing Office, Office of the Federal Register.

30 CFR 11. Code of Federal regulations.
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing
Office, Office of the Federal Register.

40 CFR 260. Code of Federal regulations.
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing
Oftice, Office of the Federal Register.

Connecticut Department of Transportation
[1991]. Bid specifications—construction;
lead health and safety program, 4/8/91.
Hartford, CT: The Department.

DHHS [1990]. Healthy people 2000: national
health promotion and disease objectives.
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services, Public Health Service,
DHHS Publication No. (PHS) 91-50212.

Freund E, Seligman PJ, Chorba TL, Safford
SK, Drachman JG, Hull HF [1989]. Man-
datory reporting of occupational diseases by
clinicians. JAMA 262(21):3041-3044.

Grandjean P, Bach E [1986]. Indirect ex-
posures: the significance of bystanders at
work and at home. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J
47(12):819-824.

Hayhurst ER [1915]. A survey of industrial
health-hazards and occupational diseases in
Ohio. Columbus, OH: Ohio State Board of
Health, p. 357.

Lead Poisoning in Construction Workers


Work Zones

Decontamination

. Making a site map;

. Site preparation for subsequent activities;

. Establishing work zones;

- Using the "buddy system" when necessary;
- Establishing site security measures;

. Setting up communication networks, and

. Enforcing safe work practices.

The work zone concept deserves’ special mention. To reduce the
accidental spread of hazardous substances by workers from the
contaminated area to the clean area, zones should be delineated on the
site where different types of operations will occur, and the flow of
personnel among the zones should be controlled. The establishment of
work zones will help ensure that the personnel are properly protected
against the hazards, work activities and contamination are confined to
the appropriate areas, and personnel can be located and evacuated in an
emergency situation. Hazardous waste sites should be divided into as
many different zones as needed to meet operational and safety
objectives. The three frequently used zones are:

1) Exclusion Zone, the contaminated area;

2) Contamination Reduction Zone (CRZ), the area where
decontamination takes place; and

3) Support Zone, the uncontaminated area where workers should not
be exposed to hazardous conditions.

Delineation of these three zones should be based on sampling and
monitoring results and on an evaluation of potential routes, and the
amount of contaminant dispersion in the event of a release.

Decontamination is the process of removing or neutralizing
contaminants that have accumulated on personnel and equipment. It is
critical to health and safety at hazardous waste sites because it protects
workers from hazardous substances that may contaminate and
eventually permeate the protective clothing, respiratory equipment,
tools, vehicles, etc. Decontamination protects all site personnel by
minimizing the transfer of harmful materials into clean areas, and
protects the community by preventing uncontrolled transportation of
contaminants from the site. Therefore, a decontamination plan should
be developed (as part of the site safety plan) and set up before any
personnel or equipment may enter areas where the potential for
exposure to hazardous substances exists. The decontamination plan
should:
. determine the number and layout of decontamination stations;
. determine the decontamination equipment needed;
. determine the appropriate decontamination methods; and
. establish procedures to minimize worker contact with contaminants
during removal of personal protective clothing and equipment.

V-59


Request for Assistance in

NIOSH
ALERT

Preventing Worker Deaths and Injuries from Falls
Through Skylights and Roof Openings

The National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH) requests assist-
ance in preventing deaths from work near
skylights, skylight openings, and other
types of roof openings. Recent investiga-
tions by NIOSH suggest that many fatal
falls Involve such openings. This Alert
* describes eight deaths resulting trom falls
that occurred during work around these
openings.

Existing standards of the Occupational
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
regulate the guarding of skylights and
other root openings. Every employer, su-
pervisor, and worker in companies where
the work may Involve exposure to these
hazards should comply with these stand-
ards. NIOSH requests editors of ap-
propriate trade journals, safety and health
ofticials, and employers in the construc-
tion trades to bring the recommendations
in this A/ertto the attention of contractors
and workers.

Skylights

KGHRO!

Occupational fatalities caused by falls remain
a serious public health problem throughout
the United States. The U.S. Department of
Labor lists falls as one of the leading causes
of traumatic occupational death, accounting
for 8% of all occupational fatalities from
trauma (approximately 289 of 3,610 deaths)
in 1986 [BLS 1988]. The NIOSH National
Traumatic Occupational Fatality (NTOF) data
base indicates that during the period 1980-85,
falls accounted for nearly 10% (3,491 of
36,210) of all traumatic occupational deaths
for which a cause was identified [NIOSH
1989a]. Of this total, 28 deaths resulted from
falls through skylights, and 39 deaths resulted
from falls through roots or roof openings. A
NIOSH survey in seven States revealed that
approximately 22% (14 of 64) of the fatal falls
reported to State occupational safety and
health officials occurred when workers fell
through skylight openings or smoke-vent


Table 3.—NIOSH-recommended respiratory protection for workers exposed to
inorganic lead

Condition

<0.5 mg/mot
(10 x PEL*)

$1.25 mg/m?
(25 x PEL)

$2.5 mg/m?
(50 x PEL)

<50 mg/m?
(1,000 x PEL)

$100 mg/m?
(2,000 = PEL)

Planned or emergency
entry into environments containing unknown
concentrations or concentrations above
100 mg/m? (2,000 x PEL)

Firefighting

Escape only

Minimum respiratory protection”

Any air-purifying respirator with a high-efficiency
particulate filter

Any powered, air-purifying respirator with a high-
efficiency particulate filter, or

Any supplied-air respirator equipped with a hood or
helmet and operated in a continuous-flow mode (for
example, type CE abrasive blasting respirators)

Any air-puritying, full-facepiece respirator with a high-
efficiency particulate filter, or

Any powered, air-purifying respirator with a tight-fitting
facepiece and a high-efficiency particulate filter

Any supplied-air respirator equipped with a half-mask
and operated in a pressure-demand or other positive-
pressure mode

Any supplied-air respirator equipped with a full face-
piece and operated in a pressure-demand or other
positive-pressure mode

Any self-contained breathing apparatus equipped with
a full facepiece and operated in a pressure-demand or
other positive-pressure mode, or

Any supplied-air respirator equipped with a full faca-
piece and operated in a pressure-demand or other
positive-pressure mode in combination with an
auxiliary self-contained breathing apparatus operated
in a pressure-demand or other positive-pressure mode

Any self-contained breathing apparatus equipped with
a full facepiece and operated in a pressure-demand or
other positive-pressure mode

Any air-purifying, full-facepiece respirator with a high-
efficiency particulate filter, or

Any appropriate escape-type, self-contained breathing
apparatus

“only NIOSH/MSHA-approved equipment should be used.

Less than or equal to 0.5 mg/m?,
Multiple of the OSHA PEL for general industry.

12

ww

Lead Poisoning in Construction Workers ~~


Strict
Liability

Applicability
to A/E’s

The doctrine of strict liability generally applies to manufacturers of a

product. It is far more stringent than the doctrine of professional

liability, since negligence does not have to be proved. However, it must

be shown that (21):

. there was a defect in the product;

. the defect existed at the time the product was transferred to the
purchaser/user;

. the defect caused or contributed to an injury; and

. the product failed in normal use.

Claimants frequently assert that the A/E should also be held strictly
liable in tort for injuries caused by allegedly defective designs of
inherently dangerous structures. However, several courts have rejected
the strict liability doctrine in application to A/E’s, viewing the science
of engineering and construction as inexact, in that A/E’s are not
expected to guarantee the satisfactory results of their services. As the
Minnesota Supreme Court stated in the City of Moundsview vs.
Walijarvi case (23), the clients and A/E’s “enjoy a one to one
relationship and communicate fairly extensively during the course of the
relationship". The court also stated: "Normally an architect has but a
single chance to create a design for the client which will produce a
defect-free structure." However, in cases where the design-build
method is employed in a construction project, the doctrine of strict
liability may be applicable.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is the significance of studying construction and structural
failures such as the L’Ambiance Plaza apartments, Willow Island
cooling tower and Kansas City Hyatt Regency walkway?

2. Describe from the engineering viewpoint what factors caused the
above failures.

3. Synthesize the findings of references (11) and (12) to address the
general causes of construction failures.

4. What are the five major classes of causal factors of construction
failures according to this module?

5. Describe the role of natural disasters in causing or contributing to
failures.

6. What lessons were learned form Hurricane Andrew?

7. Define constructability. What should the designers know about
constructability?

VI-15


DISCLAIMER

Mention of the name of any company or product
does not constitute endorsement by the National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 87-103

Copies of this and other NIOSH documents are available from

Publications Dissemination, DSDTT
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
4676 Columbia Parkway
Cincinnati, Ohio 45226
(513) 841-4287


manual handling assist devices; rigging safety; welding and cutting
hazards; welding equipment safety; personal protective equipment;
concrete hazards; hazardous substances; formwork and shoring; striking
or falling objects; rebar handling and installation; structural failures;
concrete placement safety; shoring safety factor; cold weather
Precautions; steel erection; design hazard; erection safety;
communications; fall prevention; fall protection; safety harness; lanyard;
life line; anchor point; safety net; ladder safety; scaffolding safety;
elevating work platforms; roofing safety; crane; derrick; hoist; mobile
crane; tower crane; bridge crane; stability; heavy construction
equipment; bulldozer; scraper; motor grader; front-end loader; motor
vehicle safety; hand and power tools; manual tools; electric tool safety;
sawing safety; powder actuated tool; training; electrical work; overhead
and ‘underground~ cables; -receptacles;~connectors;~grounding; ground
fault circuit interrupter (GFCI; excavation and trenching; cave-in;
shoring systems; sloping; trench shield; inspection; competent person;
confined space entry; oxygen deficiency; atmospheric hazards; permit-
to-work system; monitoring; rescue; contaminated site cleanup;
hazardous chemicals; biological hazard; radioactive hazard; physical
hazard; site safety and health plan; hazard and safety training; medical
program; site characterization; air monitoring; protective clothing; site
control; decontamination; site emergencies.


Fire and
Explosions

Physical

Hazard Control

Planning and
Organization

long term health hazards.

Many potential hazards for fire and explosions are also present at a
hazardous waste site. These include chemical reactions, ignition of
explosive or flammable chemicals, ignition of material due to oxygen
enrichment, agitation of shock -or friction- sensitive compounds, and
sudden release of materials under pressure. Explosions and fires may
arise spontaneously. However, more commonly they result from site
activities, such as moving drums, accidently mixing incompatible
chemicals, or introducing an ignition source into an explosive or
flammable environment. Explosions pose the obvious hazards of
intense heat, open flame, smoke inhalation, and flying objects, as well
as causing the release of toxic chemicals into the environment.

Finally, workers are subject not only to the hazards of direct exposure,
but also to the danger posed by the disorderly physical environment of
hazardous waste sites, and the stress of working in protective clothing.
Trips and falls, striking objects and construction equipment and motor
vehicle mishaps are the types of accidents involving physical hazards
which can injure workers. Site personnel should constantly look for
potential hazards, and should immediately inform their supervisors of
any new hazards they note, so mitigative action can be taken.

OSHA has developed a ten step program to address the health and
safety concems of employees involved in contaminated site cleanup
(29). These steps encompass:

1) Planning and organization;

2) Training;

3) Medical programs;

4) Site characterization;

5) Air monitoring;

6) Personal protective equipment;

7) Site control;

8) Decontamination;

9) Handling drums and other containers; and

10) Site emergencies.

Adequate planning is the first and the most critical element of hazardous
waste site activities. The four aspects of planning are:

1) Developing an overall organizational structure for site operations to
identify the personnel needed, establishing the chain of command, and
specifying the overall responsibilities of each employee;

2) Establishing a comprehensive work plan that considers each specific
phase of the operation; .

3) Developing and implementing a site safety and health plan, which
should determine the health and safety concerns for each phase of the
operation and define the requirements and procedures for worker and
public protection; and

V-56


Form Oil

Acids

Other
Hazardous
Substances.

Formwork and
Shoring Hazards

Falls

which contain high concentrations of silica. Prolonged inhalation of
silica that exceeds permissible exposure limits can lead to lung diseases
such as silicosis.

Form oil and form release agents are sprayed on the forms immediately
prior to the placement of concrete to prevent adhesion of wet concrete
to wooden forms. A low pressure spray known as "Hudson Spray" is
commonly used for this application and it creates fumes that can be
toxic and hazardous, especially in confined spaces. Most form oils are
low hazard petroleum fuels; however, long-term inhalation may lead to
respiratory irritations. Some form release agents also contain solvents
which increase potential health hazards. High concentrations of
isopropyl alcohol, or xylene can cause loss of coordination and eye
irritation. Skin or eye contact with these agents are the primary cause
of health problems. Repeated absorption can cause various types of
skin irritation and damage. .

Various acidic solutions used for removing stains from concrete
surfaces can also pose health hazards. They are generally mixed on the
job site and brushed on the concrete. Contact with skin and eye can
cause burns, and the inhalation of fumes can damage respiratory organs.
The severity of these problems varies according to the type of
substance, concentration, and duration of contact.

There are a variety of other substances used in concrete construction
which may be potentially hazardous. These include the many types of
curing compounds which are applied on the freshly poured material to
promote quick setting and prevent surface cracking. Bond breakers are
applied in between existing and newly poured surfaces to prevent
adhesion. Several sealants and waterproofing agents are also used in
concrete. Many of these substances may possess inhalation and contact
hazards.

Formwork is the system which supports freshly poured concrete as it
cures. It also supports the workers (as they perform work), materials
and equipment during construction. Erecting and removing formwork
involve a number of operations that can create hazardous conditions,
and cause accidents and injuries. The major types of formwork hazards
are discussed below.

Falls from elevations is a major cause of accidents in concrete
construction (13). Erection of formwork is often performed at high
altitudes and in difficult positions. Falls from elevations can be caused
by lack of proper access and egress to the work area, or lack of
adequate fall protection measures such as safety nets, safety belts, and
guard rails. Use of the formwork and reinforcing for climbing is a
dangerous practice; it can lead to falls.

V-20


Table II-1. (Continued)
State Plan Federal Plan

OSHA Region V IN IL
32nd Floor, Rm. 3244 MI OH
230 South Dearborn St. MN Wi

Chicago, IL 60604
(312) 353-2220

Area Offices: Calumet, IL; Niles, IL; Aurora, IL; Cincinnati, OH; Cleveland, OH;
Columbus, OH; Indianapolis, IN; Toledo, OH; Appleton, WI;
Eau Claire, WI; Milwaukee, WI; Madison, WI; Minneapolis, MN;
Peoria, IL; Belleville, IL; Detroit, MI.

OSHA Region VI NM AR
525 Griffin Sq. Bldg., Rm. 602 LA
Dallas, Tx 75202 OK
(214) 767-4731 TX

Area Offices: Dallas, TX; Albuquerque, NM; Corpus Christi, TX; Houston, TX;
Little Rock, AR; Austin, TX; Baton Rouge, LA; Lubbock, TX;
Oklahoma City, OK.

OSHA Region VII IA KS
911 Walnut St. Rm 406 MO

Kansas City, MO 64106 NE

(816) 426-5861

Area Offices: Kansas City, MO; Des Moines, IA; Omaha, NE; St. Louis, MO; Wichita, KS.

OSHA Region VIII UT co
Federal Building, Rm 1576 WY MT
1961 Stout St., ND
Denver, CO 80204 sD

(303) 844-3061
Area Offices: Billings, MT; Bismarck, ND; Denver, CO; Salt Lake City, UT.

OSHA Region IX AZ ~~ American-Samoa

450 Golden Gate Ave., Box 36017 CA Guam

San Francisco, Ca 94102 HI Trust Territories

(415) 744-6670 NV __ of the Pacific

Area Offices: Berkeley, CA; Long Beach, CA; Phoenix, AZ; Honolulu, HI; Las Vegas, NV.
OSHA Region X AK D

Federal Office Bidg., Rm 6003 OR

909 First Ave. WA

Seattle, WA 98101-3212
(206) 553-5930
Area Offices: Anchorage, AK; Bellevue, WA; Boise, ID; Portland, OR.


APPLICABLE OSHA
STANDARDS

« Post rated load capacity charts, recommended operating speeds,
special warning hazards, and other essential information on cranes and
ancillary equipment.

. Assure cranes allow for proper access, unobstructed operator view,
ergonomically placed controls with suitable locking devices, protection
against the weather, and fire protection.

. Have competent persons supervise the placement, erection, and
dismantling of cranes.

. Inspect the cranes, their components, and rigging prior to use, before
a new shift, or under changing conditions, such as, overstressing,
ground movement, etc.

. Assure that only qualified and competent individuals, well-versed in
cranes, and hoists are allowed to operate and maintain the equipment.

. Confirm the competency of rigging personnel involved in lift
operations.

. Allow only authorized personnel engaged in hoisting operations in lift
areas.

. Supply hoists specifically designed to handle the maximum anticipated

. Require the safe load capacity and safe operating procedures to be
labelled on each hoist.

. Confirm that all hoists are properly installed and tested prior to initial
use. Assure hoist supports have an adequate design factor for the
maximum loads to be imposed (including weight of hoists/rigging).

. Determine the weight of the load to be lifted keeping within the
structural/stability limitations.

. Make sure the hoist and load hitch are centered above the load.

. Assure load attachments are secure and within capacity prior to the
lift.

. Make smooth lifts and movements to assure that the loads do not jerk
and fall.

. Report problems in equipment structure or functions.

- Secure the cranes and store the rigging equipment properly when not
in use.

- Maintain communication during lifts using proper signals.

Table V-9 lists the OSHA standard (29 CFR 1926 Subpart N) associated
with cranes, derricks and hoists. Elevators and conveyors are also
included in this subpart, but have not been elaborated on herein.

Table V-9 |
29 CFR 1926 Subpart N-Cranes, Derricks,
Hoists, Elevators, and Conveyors

HEB Goa derricks

1926.552 Rawal hoists, Personne! | hoists, and elevators
1926.553 Base-mounted drum hoi
Overhead hoists

1926.555 Conveyors
1926.556 Aerial lifts

V-38 ww


Reliability
of Data

NSC Data on
Fatalities

NIOSH Data on
Fatalities

State of
Michigan Data

Injury Types

Part of Body
Injured

The reliability of the injury and illness data has been widely questioned
(4). This is due to the belief that companies grossly underreport such
information. BLS surveys exclude public sector employees,
establishments with less than 11 employees, and the self-employed.
Also, occupational illnesses, especially those which are chronic (as
opposed to acute) with long latent periods, may be difficult to identify.

Fatalities and fatality rates (deaths per 100,000 workers) have been quite
high in the construction industry compared to other industries. This is
clearly displayed in Figures I-1 and I-2, which present data for the
1983-1992 period compiled by NSC (2). It is also observed from these
figures that there has been a steady decrease in fatalities over this
period, which is encouraging. However, the number and rate of
fatalities in the construction industry are still very.high, and are much
above the average of all industries.

NIOSH also compiles and publishes fatality data. According to an
earlier study (5), at least 6470 fatalities occurred in construction
nationally between 1980 and 1985, which translates into 25.8 deaths per
100,000 workers per year. During the same period, the average fatality
rate for all industries combined was 7.8 per 100,000 workers. Falls
were the leading cause of death (26.0%), followed by electrocution
(15.3%), machines (13.0%), motor vehicles (12,8%), and blunt force
(10.4%). The remaining fatalities (22.5%) were due to miscellaneous
causes which include drowning, explosions, homicide, suicide, and
environmental factors.

More detailed information on construction accidents, injuries and
illnesses is usually available at the state level. For example, according
to the statistics published by the Michigan Department of Labor (6), of
the 6,853 construction industry cases reported in 1990, 65 (0.9%) were
classified as amputation type of injury; 109 (1.6%) were burns due to
heat; 31 (0.5%) were chemical burns; 440 (6.4%) were contusions
and/or bruises; 843 (12.3%) involved cuts and lacerations; and 1,233
(18.0%) involved fractures. There were 126 (1.8%) scratches and
abrasions, and 2,487 (36.3% - highest of all) sprains and strains. The
occupational diseases totalled to 374 (5.5%), and the remaining 1,165
cases (17.0%) were classified as miscellaneous and non-classifiable.

In reference to the same data, when considering the part of the body
injured, 151 (2.2%) of the cases involved eye injuries, while 234 (3.4%)
involved head and neck injuries. There were 647 (9.4%) finger injuries
and 1,030 (15.0%) upper extremity injuries. Back, trunk and lower
extremity injuries numbered 1,532 (22.4%), 909 (13.3%) and 1,649
(24.1%) respectively, comprising a significant part of the total. The
remaining cases involved multiple body parts (515, or 7.5%), body
system (145, or 2.1%), and non-classifiable body parts (41, or 0.6%).

16


Striking or
Falling Objects

Formwork and
Shoring Failures

Common Hazards

Hazards of
Reinforcing Steel

Handling Hazards

Being struck by falling objects is also a significant cause of accidents
in concrete construction, since material handling is a major part of
. formwork erection. If any material or tool is not completely secured
during movement to position, or during use, it can come loose and fall
down. Falling objects during formwork stripping operations can also
cause safety hazards. .

Safe formwork and shoring is key to safe concrete construction. Failure
of formwork or shoring as a temporary structure can have devastating
consequences. Deformation of formwork during the curing period
jeopardizes the appearance, and more critically the structural integrity
of the concrete structure. Inadequate formwork and shoring operations
can generate hazards which may ultimately lead to total collapse.
Common formwork. and shoring hazards are:

+ Selection of unsuitable formwork and shoring system, and materials
for the intended use;

. Inadequate structural design in terms of capacity of the material,
connections, layout details and bracing;

. Faulty workmanship or design; absence of proper formwork drawings;

. Soil subsidence due to overload (may become more critical with wet
weather);

. Premature removal of formwork before concrete has obtained its
design strength;

. Improper placement of equipment and construction loads on
incomplete or inadequate shoring; and

. Improper pouring of concrete that causes eccentric loading beyond the
formwork’s capacity.

Other formwork hazards to workers are improper lifting, slipping and

falling, nail and wire puncture, and unsafe use of power and manual

tools.

Reinforcing steel is generally delivered to the job site by the fabricator.
Once delivered, reinforcing must be unloaded, stored and finally placed
in its permanent location. These phases include a great deal of manual
handling and mechanical hoisting.

Many accidents that occur during concrete construction are due to
handling of reinforcing steel (14). Lack of adequate planning creates
the first basic hazard. Unplanned delivery and lack of proper
communication can result in unloading with inadequate hoisting
equipment, inadequate safety equipment and manpower, or possibly
receiving the wrong amount or type of reinforcing steel (rebars). These
can lead to confusion and hasty decisions jeopardizing safety. Unsafe
practices in reinforcement handling also include exceeding the capacity
of hoisting equipment and improper lifting (such as lifting from bundle
ties). Other common hazards associated with the handling of

V-21


STEEL ERECTION

Advance Planning

Field Operations

Design Hazards

Erection Hazards

Steel erection includes all activities involved in receiving, distribution,
positioning and, connecting. the structural and non-structural steel
components of a building. Depending upon the structural design of a
building, these components may include various shapes of columns and
beams, girders and trusses, purlines, etc. Steel erection operations can
be divided into two segments: advance planning and operations.

Advance planning includes preparation of the shop drawings based on
the structural design provided in the contract documents. Shop drawings
contain information pertaining to the type and physical dimensions of
steel members, connection details, welding information, erection
sequence, etc. Approval of shop drawings by the structural engineer of
record, fabricating, and shipping the steel to the construction site
according to the sequence of erection complete the advance planning
phase. Field operations. for steel erection include hoisting and
positioning the steel, temporary connections, plumbing and permanently
bolting or welding the structural members, and decking and attaching
the miscellaneous (non-structural) steel members (e.g. ladders).

Inappropriate design decisions and poor construction practices are the
genesis of many hazards experienced during steel erection. Some of the
more common problems include:

. Spatial constraints imposed by design which complicates accessibility
and assembly;

- Complicated and non standard connection details, especially those
which must be performed in hazardous conditions such as high
altitudes;

. Tight tolerances and lack of flexibility for adjustment at the time of
positioning;

. Collapse due to instability of the incomplete structural frame (in cases
where the structural integrity of members are dependent on
interlocking elements or temporary bracing); and

. Failure due to design errors, or omissions on shop drawings. In many
cases these result from poor communications.

General hazards associated with welding and cutting, fall protection and

scaffolding, rigging and hoisting are covered in the appropriate sections

of this module. Some other specific hazards experienced during steel

erection include:

- Conflict with the public right of way;

. Overhead power lines and activities of other contractors;

. Fire hazards associated with riveting;

. Plank failures;

. Overloading of structural members such as decks or joists from
stacking materials;

. Failure due to improper erection sequence;

. Failure due to eccentric loading from material storage on structural
members; and .

. Faulty workmanship at critical connection points.

V-27


Table 4.—Actions required by the OSHA general industry standard for various lead
concentrations in blood (BLLs)

BLL*
Number of tests (ug/al) Action required
1 2aot Notification of worker in writing;
—_ medical examination of worker and
consultation
3 (average) 250 Removal of worker from job with
potential lead exposure
1 260 Removal of worker from job with
potential lead exposure
2 <408 Reinstatement of worker in job with

potential lead exposure

“In the OSHA general industry standard for lead, BLLs are reported in micrograms per 100 grams (ug/100 g) of
whole blood, which is approximately equal to yg/dl.
Greater than or equal to 40.

SLess than 40.

Training © Instruction about the use and care of appro-
priate protective equipment (including protec-

Workers should receive training [29 CFR tive clothing and respiratory protection)

1926.21] that includes the following: e

Information about specific work practices
for working safely with lead-containing
paints

© Information about the potential adverse
health effects of lead exposure

© Information about the early recognition of
lead intoxication

© Information in material safety data sheets alan Echt, Phillip Froehlich, William Heitbrink,
for new paints or coatings that contain lead

Leroy Mickelsen, Michael Montopoli, and
Sooner hazardous materials [29 CFA Aaron Sussell were the principal contributors
59] to this Alert. Comments, questions, or requests
© Instruction about heeding signs that mark for additional information should be directed to
the boundaries of lead-contaminated work _ these NIOSH investigators as follows:
areas
For medical information, please contact
® Discussion of the importance of personal

hygiene practices in reducing lead ex- Paul Seligman, M.D., M.P.H.
posure Telephone: (513) 841-4353

14 Lead Poisoning in Construction Workers


CONSTRUCTION
INDUSTRY

Project Team

Unique Aspects

Differences with
Other Industries

UNIT I

INTRODUCTION

The construction industry in the United States is a $500 billion/year
industry (Construction Industry Institute estimate as annual output,
1987). About 90 percent ($450 billion) of the total is new construction
work, while 10 percent ($50 billion) is maintenance and repairs (1).
Over the years, construction has been a major contributor to the national
economy. Presently, its share of the GNP is about 5 percent. In the
1970’s this percentage was well above 10 percent. The construction
industry employs over 5 million people annually availing 3 million full-
time jobs. This number-represents.more than 5 percent of the national
labor force. There are also about 1 million contractors and
subcontractors engaged in construction work.

Construction projects are conceived, planned, designed and built by a
team usually consisting of the owner, designer-architect/engineer (A/E)
and constructor (general contractor and subcontractors). A fourth entity,
the construction manager (CM) may also be involved. In addition,

- support roles are played by material and equipment suppliers, financiers,

insurers, regulators, and consultants. Workers carry out the construction
tasks.

The construction industry is large but diffuse and fragmented, generally
consisting of small units. A number of very large construction firms
also exist, each doing more than $1 billion business annually, often for
very large corporate clients whose construction bills run to the billions
of dollars. The industry undertakes diverse projects ranging in size
from single family residential units to multibillion dollar power plants.
The work may encompass general building construction (residential,
non-residential, institutional, industrial), heavy construction (highways,
public works infrastructure, utilities), and industrial construction (major
industrial complexes such as refineries, power plants, steel mills,etc.).
A significant part of construction work is done by special trade
contractors, which perform plumbing; heating and air conditioning;
painting and paper hanging; electrical work; masonry, stonework and
plastering; carpentry and floor work; roofing, siding, and sheet metal
work; concrete work; and other miscellaneous construction related work.

The construction industry is uniquely different from manufacturing and

other industries, in that:

+ Its products are site produced and one-of-a-kind. With the exception
of perhaps the housing sector, each project can be considered a “first,
full-scale prototype."

. The construction project is highly dependent on local conditions; i.e.

1-2


CONTAMINATED
SITE CLEANUP

Health and
Safety
Hazards

Site Conditions

Hazardous
Chemicals

Biological
and Radioactive
Hazards

Some construction projects may be planned for sites that are
contaminated. Contamination is generally caused by domestic or
industrial waste, or from the production and storage of hazardous
substances. Soil contamination is most likely to be encountered on sites
such as production and storage sites for materials like asbestos,
chemicals, explosives, petroleum, metal smelting, paint, steel, etc.
Other sites that may be contaminated include dockyards, landfills,
mines, quarries, scrap yards and sewage treatment sites. In recent
years, public awareness of environmental problems has generated much
debate on this issue. Consequently, governments at all levels have
enacted legislation requiring the cleanup of contaminated sites, which
include provisions for the protection of the personnel employed on these
operations.

Contaminated sites pose a number of health and safety hazards, which
could cause injuries and illnesses. Several factors distinguish the
hazardous waste site environment from other occupational situations
involving hazardous substances. An important factor is the
uncontrollable conditions at the site. In addition, the location and extent
of contamination is not always known, and boring and sampling may
not properly identify the entire problem. It is also important to
recognize that contaminants are subject to relocation with the movement
of the ground water.

A large variety and number of substances may be present in a given site.
Any individual location may contain hundreds of chemicals, which can
present hazards to human and public health. Frequently, an accurate
assessment of all chemical hazards is impossible due to the large
number of substances present and the potential interactions among the
substances. In addition, the identity of the substances is frequently
unknown, particularly in the initial stage of a site investigation. Most
of the sites contain substances that may be in gaseous, liquid or solid
form. These substances may enter the body by inhalation, skin
absorption, ingestion, or through a puncture wound. A contaminant can
cause damage at the point of contact, or can act systematically causing
a toxic effect at a part of the body distant from the initial point of
contact. Depending on the toxic material and the duration and
magnitude of exposure, adverse physiological reactions such as
asphyxiation, irritation, allergic sensitization and other chronic illnesses
can be experienced.

Besides the chemical hazards, site contamination may be caused by
biological agents or radioactive materials. Biological agents are

transmitted to the human body by living organisms such as bacteria,
fungi, and viruses. Radioactive materials emit harmful radiation in the
form of alpha and beta particles and gamma waves. They possess no
warming signs such as odor, taste and irritation that would alert the
workers to the imminent danger. Radioactive materials commonly pose

V-55


Formwork and
Shoring Removal

Testing of
Cylinders

Reinforcing
Installation Safety

Formwork and shoring should never be removed too early, allowing

concrete to set properly. Only personnel actually engaged in form

stripping should be allowed in the area during these operations. Hard

hats, gloves, and heavy-soled shoes should be wom. In cutting tie wires

under tension, care should be taken to prevent backlash which might hit

the body, particularly the face, eyes, or throat. Eye and face protection

is recommended. Safe removal depends on:

. Rate of strength gain in concrete;

. The accuracy of strength determination of in-situ concrete; and

. The level of temporary stress and deformation a structure can
withstand.

Tests on job-cured cylinders are used to ensure whether concrete has
attained ‘the strength required ‘to carry the load. Job specifications and
local building codes also regulate form removal (15).

The following safety measures are recommended to reduce injuries

during rebar handling and installation (16):

. Use mechanical hoisting equipment to place bundled bars in close
proximity to the desired work location. This practice minimizes
manual handling and reduces the chance of injury.

+ Use the proper lifting equipment in combination with two-part slings,
chokers, cables and guy wires to transport reinforcing bars safely.

. Space two-part slings properly to balance loads of 20 feet or longer.

- Tightly secure bundles of rebars with a tag line to prevent striking a
worker or structure.

+ Tie bundles of rebar securely to prevent loads from slipping and
falling on someone.

. Never hoist bundles by the wire wrappings that tie the bars together.

- Use shackles or hooks with a safety latch for hoisting.

. Never land hoisted bundles, or drop carried bars on formwork without
ensuring the formwork is strong enough to support the additional load.
This practice can prevent possible collapse and consequent injury.

. Use jigs, frame tables and other devices to facilitate the assembly of
column cages and other prefabricated units and to eliminate constant
bending by the worker.

. Use at least two workers to manually transport bars of excessive
length and weight. Ensure the bars are properly tied together.

« Lift with the arms and legs-not your back.

. Wear protective gloves, especially during unloading and stockpiling.

. Wear head protection and eye protection when placing/tying rebars.

. Never wear loose clothing or jewelry which can become snagged on
rebar dowels and formwork.

- Lear to tie rebar stifflegged instead of in a squatting position. This
practice will help prevent many aches and pains.

. Avoid field cutting and welding reinforcement. However, if necessary,
take the proper precautions with regard to hand and power tools,

V-25


electrical conductors.” Other pertinent regula-
tions require that "portable ladders in use shail
be tied, blocked, or otherwise secured to
prevent their being displaced” (29 CFR
1926.450(a)(10)]. Additional OSHA regula-
tions require employers to instruct each
worker to recognize and avoid unsafe condi-
tions [29 CFR 1926.21(b)(2)], and to provide
prompt medical attention in case of serious
injury [29 CFR 1926.50].

CASE REPORTS.

As part of the Fatal Accident Circumstances
and Epidemiology (FACE) Program, NIOSH
investigated five incidents (resulting in six
electrocutions) that occurred between 1985
and 1987 and that involved contact between
portable aluminum ladders and overhead
power lines. .

Case No. 1 - One Fatality

On May 4, 1985, a 28-year-old male worker
removed the bottom of a poster on a 12-by-
24-foot (-ft) billboard that was scheduled for
reposting. He then removed a 24-ft aluminum
hook ladder from the service truck. While the
worker was positioning the ladder to reach the
top section of the billboard, the ladder con-
tacted a 7,200-volt (-V) overhead power line
that was located 8 ft from the top of the
billboard, and he was electrocuted [NIOSH
1985aj.

Case No. 2 - One Fatality

On July 21, 1986, a 27-year-old male painter
was standing on a fully extended 24-ft
aluminum ladder while painting a rain gutter
on an apartment building. After painting a
section of the gutter, the worker descended
the ladder to move it to a new location. As he
was repositioning the ladder, it contacted a
7,200-V overhead power line that was located
8 ft from the gutter, and he was electrocuted
[NIOSH 1987q].

Case No. 3 - Two Fatalities

On November 17, 1986, two male painters (20
and 21 years old) were using a 36-ft aluminum
extension ladder to paint a 20-ft-high metal

light pole. One worker was standing on the
ladder painting, and his coworker was on the
ground hoiding the ladder. The ladder slipped
away from the pole and contacted a 12,460-V
overhead power line that was located within 2
ftof the pole. Both painters were electrocuted
[NIOSH 1987c].

Case No. 4 - One Fatality

On September 1, 1987, a 28-year-old male
painter and a coworker were using an
aluminum extension ladder while cleaning the
outside brick wail of a three-story convales-
cent home before painting. After cleaning one
section, the workers moved the ladder to
another location. The painter held the base of
the ladder as the coworker simultaneously
climbed and raised the extension of the 40-f
ladder. When the ladder was extended to
approximately 34 ft, it tipped backward, con-
tacting a 7,200-V overhead power line that
was located 15 ft from the structure. The
coworker on the ladder received an electrical
shock and fell to the ground. The painter hold-
ing the ladder provided a path to the ground
for the electrical current and was electrocuted
[NIOSH 1987b].

Case No. 5 - One Fatality

On September 24, 1987, an 18-year-old male
construction worker and two coworkers were
looking for an area on an office building roof
to store shingles. The 18-year-old and a
coworker were holding a fully extended, 32-ft
aluminum ladder as the other coworker de-
scended it. The ladder tipped backward, con-
tacting a 7,200-V overhead power line that
was located 6 ft from the building, electrocut-
ing the 18-year-old worker holding the ladder,
and shocking the other two coworkers [NIOSH
1987a].

APPLICATION OF EXISTING
REGULATIONS

Data demonstrated that employers and
workers in ail five fatal incidents violated the
following applicable” OSHA regulations:

“Regulation No. 3 did not apply to Case No. 1.

Metal Ladders

~~


Adjacent
Structures

Other Hazards

Hazard Control

Shoring
Systems

Shoring
Precautions

or by pockets of weak soil at the site. Existing vegetation such as large
trees extract the soil moisture through their roots and may contribute to
loss of soil strength.

One of the greatest hazards encountered during excavation is the collapse
of adjacent structures which can result in catastrophes and fatal injuries.
In construction projects involving proposed additions and renovations
a new trench is commonly excavated close to an existing foundation
wail. If the soil is removed to a depth that is equal to or greater than the
depth of the existing footing, and proper shoring is not provided to
support the existing structure, the loss of bearing support of the
excavated soil may cause a partial or full collapse of the existing
structure.

Although cave-in failures are generally the major concer in excavation
operations, other hazards may also be encountered. Excavations are
performed for a variety of purposes and they involve a variety of
activities. Physical injury from falls or falling objects, exposure to
buried electrical cables, and hazards associated with confined spaces are
also of major concern, and should not be overlooked.

Excavation cave-ins are preventable if certain precautionary measures
are adopted. It is important to recognize that visual inspection of soil
stability is not sufficient to assure the long-term safety of an excavation
because one can not anticipate the changes in the weather, rainfall, or
future unsafe practices. Therefore, soil analyses must be conducted by
a competent person, i.e. a geotechnical engineer, who will determine the
adequate support system depending of the nature of the excavation, soil
and ground water conditions.

Shoring is the support system designed to prevent the lateral movement
of soil to prevent cave-ins. It is commonly used for deep excavations
which are five feet or deeper. Various shoring systems are available to
prevent excavation cave-ins. Aluminum hydraulic shoring systems have
been developed as an economic method to assure the safety of workers.
Their light weight and adaptability to varying conditions make them
very attractive. Other shoring systems include vertical shores for
compact soils ("skip shoring"), stringer systems providing horizontal
support for intermittent or solid sheathing for relatively unstable soils,
and manhole braces.

Shoring systems must incorporate certain precautionary features to assure

the safety of workers. These are:

. Providing effective means of access and egress, such as securely fixed
ladders in trenches that are four feet or deeper;

. Erection of temporary barriers to guard against falls; and

- Construction of diversion dikes and ditches to provide drainage of the
adjacent area, which will prevent water from entering into a trench.

V-51


Crane Hazards

Overloading

Electrocution

Crane and
Derrick
Stability

point of application of the force. Hoists can be operated manually,
electrically or pneumatically.

The majority of crane accidents are caused by operational errors and
lack of planning. The main operational hazards on construction sites
are: .

. Overturning of the crane;

. Structural failure;

. Dropping the suspended load;

. Electrocution; and

- Incorrect erection, modification and dismantling procedures.

Overturning of the crane and structural failure can be caused by
overloading, instability of the. soil, improper placing and bracing of
outriggers, and sinking of outriggers into the ground. Overloading can
cause crane tipping, or damage the strength of jibs and hoist ropes,
leading to structural failure without any warning. Overloading may
occur when allowable radius for the load is exceeded. Other causes of
overloading are snatching of the load (from rest or from rapid
deceleration of suspended loads), dragging the load on the ground
(which increases the load due to frictional forces), eccentric lifting,
wind effects on suspended loads with large surfaces, and deflection of
the jib when the suspension ropes are stretched. Dropping the
suspended load is usually due to incorrect slinging. The cause may be
defective chains, slings and lifting gear, or the loads exceeding the
limits. Dropping the load may also be caused by a collision between
the load and a structure, or the crane itself.

Electrocution is also a potential hazard when the crane is operating in
the vicinity of overhead power lines. Contact with the line will conduct
the electric charge into the body of the crane and ultimately to the crane
operator and the workers who may contact the crane.

There are specific stability hazards associated with specific crane types.
In the case of mobile cranes, site gradient and soil composition are
critical for stability. Slopes as low as one percent can affect the
stability and capacity of a crane. Outriggers are commonly used in
mobile cranes to increase the base area. However, if the outriggers are
not fully extended or not pinned in position, they are not effective,
especially if the supporting soil is soft. Tower cranes are particularly
vulnerable to lateral forces and foundation instability. Inadequate
foundation support can cause a collapse. Vertical and horizontal loads,
swinging moments and overturning moments may exceed design limits
causing loss of balance. Strong winds on travelling tower cranes as
well as stationary cranes can upset the balance and cause overturning.
Guy derricks and stiff leg derricks are also susceptible to overturning.
The angle between the legs and the mast or the guy wires and mast is
especially critical to stability.

V-36


Page 3 - Request for Assistance in Preventing Fatalities of Workers
Who Contact Electrical Energy

NIOSH CASE REPORTS
Case #1 - SUCCESSFUL RESUSCITATION

A 30-year-old construction worker was working on a fire escape ina
building being renovated. Another worker handed the victim a metal
pipe, and he was holding it with both hands when it contacted a
nearby high voltage line, completing a path-to-ground. The worker
instantly collapsed from this contact with electrical energy.
Approximately 4 minutes after he collapsed, the fire department
rescue squad arrived and began CPR. Within 6 minutes, a paramedic
unit was on the scene providing defibrillation and other ACLS
measures. They were able to establish a heartbeat and pulse, but
the individual continued to require respiratory support during
transport to the hospital. He regained consciousness and was
discharged within two weeks. He did have to return for further
medical care for burns he received on his hands (current entrance)
and buttocks (current exit) [6].

Case #2 - UNSUCCESSFUL RESUSCITATION

An 18-year-old male restaurant worker contacted electrical energy
when he kneeled to plug a portable electric toaster into a
110-120 V/20 amp floor outlet. After a scream was heard, the victim
was found convulsing on the damp floor, with one hand on the plug
and the other on the receptacle box. The assistant manager went to
the electrical panel, but was unable to locate the appropriate
circuit breaker. A coworker attempting to take the victim's pulse
received an electrical shock, but was not injured. After
telephoning the emergency medical service, the assistant manager
returned to the panel and de-energized all of the circuits (3 to 8
minutes after the worker contacted electrical energy). The injured
worker was covered with a coat to "keep him warm." After about 5
minutes, another call was placed to the emergency squad, and the
assistant manager "yelled" for an off-duty employee who lived in an
apartment across the lot, who came and began CPR. The emergency
service was on the scene 10 minutes after receiving the first call.
ACLS measures were available, but the resuscitation was unsuccessful
and the worker was pronounced “dead on arrival" at the local
hospital. The exact time span between the worker contacting
electrical energy and the beginning of CPR is unknown, but it is
reasonable to assume that it was longer than 4 to 6 minutes.
Paramedics with ACLS capability arrived 10 minutes after receiving
the call, but more than 10 minutes after the accident occurred [7].

CONCLUS! ONS

In Case #1, basic life support was begun within 4 minutes by the fire
department rescue squad who happened to be stationed nearby. They
were experienced and had up-to-date knowledge in CPR techniques. In


Page 6 - Request for Assistance in Preventing Fatalities of Workers
Who Contact Electrical Energy

REFERENCES

1. Centers for Disease Control: Leading Work-Related Diseases and

Injuries--United States. MMWR 33:3-5 (1984).

2. National Fire Protection Association: National Electrical Code

1984, NFPA 70-1984. Quincy, MA: NFPA, 737 pp., (1983).

3. Wright RK, Davis JH. The investigation of electrical deaths:

report of 220 fatalities. Journal of Forensic Sciences, JFSCA

25(3):514-521 (1980).

4. Straatsma Glen W. Electrical shock syndrome. Alaska Medicine,

pp. 129-130 (November 1973).

5. 1985 National Conference on Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR)
and Emergency Cardiac Care (ECC). Standards and Guidelines for
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) and Emergency Cardiac Care

(ECC). JAMA 255(21):2905-2989 (June 1986).

6. Contributed by Mr. Edward J. Craren, Assistant Director, Emergency
Medical Services, Nebraska Department of Health, Lincoln, Nebraska
and Mr. Michael Dodge, Vice President, Eastern Ambulance Service,

Lincoln, Nebraska.

7. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health: Alert:
Request for Assistance in Preventing Electrocutions of Workers in
Fast Food Restaurants. Cincinnati, OH: DHHS (NIOSH) Publication

No. 85-104, pp. 1-3 (December 1984).


excavation and trenching; confined space entry; and contaminated site
cleanup. Applicable OSHA standards are cited for each case: however,
no attempt is made to elaborate the specific details of these standards.

The reader is directed to references (4) and (5) for details,

Table V-1

Listing of Available NIOSH Alerts

Title Date

1. Request for Assistance in 185
Preventing Electrocutions
Between Cranes and Power
Lines

2. Request for Assistance in 186
Preventing Occupational
Fatalities in Confined
Spaces

3. Request for Assistance in 12786
Preventing Fatalities of
Workers Who Contact Electrical
Energy

4, Request for Assistance in 1189
Preventing Electrocutions
of Workers Using Portable
Metal Ladders Near Overhead
Power Lines

5. Request for Assistance in 12789
Preventing Deaths and aes
m Falls Through Skylights
and Roof Openings

6. Request for Assistance in 8/91
Preventing Electrocutions
During Work with Scaffolds
Near Overhead Power Lines

7. Request for Assistance in . 4/92
Preventing Lead Poisoning
in Construction Workers

8. Request for Assistance in 8/92
Preventing Worker Injuries
and Deaths Caused by Falls
From Suspension Scaffolds

DHHS (NIOSH)

Publ. No.

85-111

86-110

87-103

89-110

90-100

91-110

91-116a

92-108

V-4

ww


REFERENCES

1

2.

10.

11.

12.

. Brauer, R.L.: Safety and Health for Engineers, Van Nostrund

Reinhold, New York (1990).
Congress of the United States: Preventing Illness and Injury in the

Workplace, Office of Technology Assessment, Washington, D.C.
(1985).

. Petersen, D.: Safety Management - A Human Approach, Doran,

Englewod, NJ (1975).

. Levitt, R.E., and N.M. Samelson: Construction Safety Management,

McGraw-Hill, New York, NY (1987).

. Ferry, T.S.: Moder Accident Investigation and Analysis, Second

Edition, Wiley - Interscience, New York, NY (1988).

. Hammer, W.: Occupational Safety. Management and Engineering,

Fourth Edition, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ (1989).

. Bird, F.E., Jr: Management Guide to Loss Control, Institute Press,

Atlanta, GA (1974).

. Haddon, W.J., Jr.: On the Escape of Tigers: An Ecological Note,

Technology Review (1970).

. Grose, V.L.: System Safety in Rapid Rail Transit, ASSE Journal,

American Society of Safety Engineers (August 1972).

Bird, F.E., Jr., and G.L. Germain: Damage Control, American
Management Association, New York, NY (1966).

Fletcher, J.A.: The Industrial Environment - Total Loss Control,
National Profile Limited, Willowdale, Ontario, Canada (1972).
National Safety Council: Accident Prevention Manual for Industrial
Operations: engineering and Technology, 9th edition, F.E. Mc Elroy
(ed.), Chicago, IL (1988).

Iv-20


Revised Example

Referring to the accident cost example described above involving the
lost workday hand injury (fracture), the multiplier is found from Table
II-5 as 1,400. If the wage rate (including fringe benefits) for the worker
is $20 per hour, the cost of this accident will amount to $20 x 1,400 =
$28,000.

Note that this figure is based on rate adjustments for the period from
1979 to 1988 and does not account for the inflation rate beyond. Please
also note again, the multipliers on this table are simply representative
values, and they can be adjusted based on company specific data.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What are the principal concerns in the construction industry
regarding safety and health?

2. How does the workers compensation insurance work for contractors?
How does EMR affect their competitiveness?

3. List and discuss the possible direct and indirect costs associated with
the following accident. State all your assumptions, and provide a
total cost estimate for this accident.

CASE STUDY

The deceased was on top of a mobile scaffold 15 feet above the level
of the third floor. Another employee was cutting wooden braces and
handing them up to him. The day was windy and the canvas sheets
15°x 20’ and 20’x 20’ were in use, hanging from the roof level to the
third floor level on the outside of the building, to protect the freshly
poured concrete from freezing. The scaffold was positioned near the
end of the building. The wind blew the canvas sheet into the
scaffold and knocked it over. The deceased fell to the concrete
surface of the third floor. He died the next day in the hospital from
injuries received. The second employee was able to jump out of the
way of the falling scaffold.

4, Summarize by sample calculations how money invested in company
safety and health programs provides savings. Will the savings
increase or decrease if the indirect to direct cost ratio (multiplier)
increases?

5. What are the advantages of instituting an accident cost accounting
system in the course of performing construction work?

6. Describe the main features of the Stanford Accident Cost Accounting
System.


Lead Poisoning in Construction Workers

Workers are at risk of lead poisoning during the maintenance, repaint-
ing, or demolition of bridges or other steel structures coated with

lead-containing paint.

oo WARNING! 5 4

cacao aaa

Take the following steps to protect yourself
and your family from lead exposure:

®@ Be aware of the health effects of lead
exposure (see p. 3 of the NIOSH Alert,
Request for Assistance in Preventing
Lead Poisoning in Construction Workers)
-and discuss with your doctor any
symptoms or concems that may be re-
lated to lead poisoning.

© Participate in any blood lead or air
monitoring program offered by your
employer.

@ Use engineering controls such as
source containment and local exhaust
ventilation to minimize exposures to
lead.

©® Be aware that the highest lead con-
centrations may occur inside contain-
ment structures.

© Use respirators when blasting, sweep-
ing, vacuuming, or performing other
high-risk jobs (as determined by an in-
dustrial hygienist or other qualified
professional).

Please tear out and post Distribute copies to workers.

Change into disposable or washable
coveralls at the worksite.

Do not eat, drink, or use tobacco prod-
ucts in the work area.

Wash your hands and face before
eating, drinking, or smoking outside the
work area.

Shower and change into clean clothing
before leaving the worksite to prevent
contaminating homes and automobiles.

See back of sheet to order complete Alert.


Bureau of Labor Statistics
Log and Summary of Occupational
Injuries and liinesses

MOTE This form required by Pubtie Low 81-606 ood use be Kept na 5 CASES: You wre 10 cord s00ut every excuse
in the ambiianment ter $ your. Falters te maincein and pest onal eer: every nentetal ecevosvonsl linen: and thoes nenteta cccusstone me
‘sn resatt in the emsonen of stations ond ememmamt of pananin, | jerien wnich invatve one or more of the (allowing: lam Of conscvovanee, reevicton
S00 posting requirements on the exter sae of form.) Of work oF motion, transter 10 anotner Job. oF medical trasement (omer then first ad),
Flee definitions an the ether side of form.)
Cee er Dewwet —Emoioyer's Meme, Cemsernen Deparment Denwipnion of inary or tens
Fae nerver
Yamane Onan of
i
fers tee Krew Crm roma or init, ana regular Job thin, nat —«Eruer Geperument in which Emer 0 bries deseriotion of the inry ov Winans,
amsept: e_hdey, — midtie initial, et rome, emby ome per the a ~ the pert or para of beer
rower) forming whan injured @F & employed er 9 deseriotian
— (erent of tinam. 19 we stwenee — S) nermal workplann oo
pro (ot a formal Wee, enero briet Sones ematervee i emipned,
) emeriorion of a emmioven's Shen cheugh wemmerecty
teadinaee coed ‘working in enesher dopere
=. ‘ment ot the time of inary.
~— a
—
~— ‘Typical eneries ter thie column might be:
rove. Amowuation of '5t joim rit toretinger:
Seein of tower back:
(on been nen; Elactreeuton—bedy.
ww ©

and Illnesses

Iv-11


Accident Investigation Report

Instructions to Supervisor/Investigator:

Please complete this form within 48 hours of the incident, Attach to this report any pictures police report, or witness
statements. Make copy for the injured person, for your file, and forward onginal to management.

Be accurate and use factual information only. Type or use black ink.

Copy Requested: Yes... No...
Copy Requested:

By:

Date:

Date Sent:
By:

Date:
Date Sent:

Agency or Company Information
._ — -

1. Dept. Code ..... 7
2. Main Office/Headquarter File No. .........
3. Original = 1
Revision = 2 . x
4. Your Office OSHA Case # ....... Injury = 1, Illness = 2
5. Is injured person a visitor to the site or a worker,
visitor = 1, worker = 2
6. Total Employees Injured
7. Minor

: Fill Report For Each.

Yes = 1, No=

i lent
. Date s ted to Supv. Month/day/year/ .... ... wa
rt

}. Date This Send to Management —.... ws «. a
Hand Delivered = H, Mailed = M
15. Contractor's Name
General = 1 Sub-contractor = 2
Contract # ..... » Type of Construction .......
Type of Work: Civil = 1, Military = 2

Personal Data
16. Name of Injured person: First, Initial, Last

Social

An

21. Job Title
Experience in type of work he/she was doing at time of accident,
# of months

How long with this agency/company ......
22. Any previous accident he/she has been involved in
Yes=1 No=2 = If.Yes specify when and how.

Figure IV-6. Example Accident Investigation Report Form

Iv-15


Safety Factor
for Shoring

Sills

Inspection

Shoring Design
Plan

+ The complete plan for shoring and reshoring, showing braces and
other details; and

- Maximum shore loadings for the mudsills, and the assumed soil
bearing values used in sill design.

Good housekeeping is important in preventing injuries caused by falling
objects, nails, splinters, etc. Workers constructing formwork or placing
reinforcing steel where there is a falling hazard should wear safety belts
or secure other forms of adequate fall protection.

Shoring and shoring equipment should have a safety factor based on
approved procedures. According to AGC (1), for normal concrete and
reinforcement, the design load (dead plus live) for formwork shoring
should not be lower than 100 pounds/square foot (psf) regardless of the
slab thickness. However, the minimum allowance for live load and
formwork should be at least 20 psf in addition to the weight of
concrete. When motorized carts are used, the design loads should be
increased by 25 psf. Shoring design should consider all details and
special conditions of the structure, including heavy beams, use of
cantilevered slabs, and the method of transporting concrete to the
placement location. The design must also consider lateral loads such
as wind, impact of placement, inclined supports, cable tensions and
forces imposed by the movement of equipment.

Sills are footings (usually wood) which distribute vertical loads to the
soil and should be capable of carrying the load without settlement or
displacement. Suitable sills should be used on any support system
where vertical shoring equipment could concentrate an excessive load
on a thin concrete section, or on any floor or support.

Continual inspections of formwork and shoring should be performed
during concrete pouring operations to make any necessary corrections
and adjustments. Before erection, all shoring equipment should be
inspected to ensure it is the type specified in the design and is free of
defects such as cracks and excessive knots in wooden members.
Tubular steel frame shoring should be inspected for excessive rusting,
straightness of parts, dents or kinks, damaged welds, and operation of
locking devices. After erection, the shoring equipment should be re-
inspected prior to placement.

The shoring design plan should be checked to ensure that:

- Layout details, including side bracing, have been met;

. All vertical shoring is plumb. The maximum allowable deviation
from the vertical is 1/8 inch in 3 feet;

- The spacing between towers and the spacing between cross bracing is
not greater than that shown on the shoring layout;

. All bracing devices are secured; and

- All base plates or adjustment screws firmly contact the footing or sill.

V-24


(COMPANY NAME) CORPORATE SAFETY POLICY

The management of (company name) construction company considers no phase of
its operations or administration of greater importance than accident prevention. To
accomplish this goal it is therefore necessary that an effective and understandable
safety policy be stated and enforced.

This company places the responsibility for workplace safety at all levels of
management and on each employee. Each member of the company team must work

toward achieving the goal of a safe and healthy workplace.

It is in the interest of safety that this company dedicates itself to providing the
highest levels of performances in safety, fire protection, and occupational health

consistent with OSHA regulations and nationally recognized standards.

Safety shall be an integral part of each job and each employee shall be responsible

for the safety phase of his work just as much as any other phase.
The success of (company name) safety program requires the combined efforts of
management, supervision and employees. We want our operations to be among the

safest in the construction industry. That goal can only be achieved if every person

contributes to this team effort.

Sincerely,

Company CEO

Figure VII-1. Sample Safety Policy (10)


Liability for
Professional
Services

Standard
of Care

Role of Engineer
as Expert Witness

Doctrine of
Privity

principles based on judicial decisions rendered by other courts
regarding similar cases. These decisions are respected as laws, and
are ordinarily used as precedents, when needed.

Liability for negligence dates back to the ancient Mesopotamian
civilization, where the much noted code of Hammurabi stated (10):
"If a builder builds a house for a man and does not make its
construction firm, and the house which he has built collapses and causes
death of the owner of the house, that builder shall be put to death".

The English common law, which was adopted in the U.S., holds a
person who represents himself with certain abilities and skills in which
the public trusts, liable for negligence, if the expected skills and
services are breached. In order to prove negligence, the courts have
established a concept known as the “standard of care" which is a
standard of service by a reasonable and prudent person with ordinary
professional competence. This implies that, in carrying out its
responsibilities, the A/E is required to possess and exercise the level of
skill and judgement that is accepted among similarly situated design
professionals (21). This standard may include both actions or lack
thereof. The law requires that all professional services be performed
with ordinary care and skill; however, it does not require that the results
of such services be guaranteed. The judgement regarding standard of
care varies according to the circumstances, and is generally drawn from
community practice, government standards, industry standards, statutes
and regulations, and judicial decisions.

Ordinarily, the standard of care is determined in each case independently
based on the state of practice at the time the service was performed. In
a legal dispute, opposing parties may present expert witnesses (often
engineers) who may testify on the competence of the services as it
compares to that of another reasonable/prudent engineer in the same
community. Bachner (21) has emphasized that it is the expert’s duty
to perform the research necessary to establish the facts about the case
and be totally impartial, although he/she is paid by a plaintiff or
defendant. Thus, when experts disagree about given issues, as
commonly is the case, the disagreement should stem from differing
judgements, and not from their acting as advocates for their clients.

Privity indicates a direct contractual relationships. In the past, lack of
privity protected design engineers from liability for third party claims
(mainly for injuries from construction accidents). It was understood that
A/E’s were not obligated to protect the workers from safety hazards
since they had no contract with them. However, increasingly, the A/E’s
liability is determined by the tort concept of foreseeability (22). In this
context, if a party is negligent in the performance of its duties, it may
be held liable to any party who suffered harm that was foreseeable at
the time duties were undertaken.

VI-14


Legal/
Legislative
Aspects

Occupational
Health

Primary Safety
Exposures

Education and
Training

operating procedures for construction equipment based on ergonomics
principles, and an effective accident data collection and analysis system
were also stressed.

The role and effectiveness of the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) was recognized as the single most important area
of concern in regard to legal and legislative aspects. It was suggested
that OSHA was not particularly effective in accident prevention due to
its focus on regulatory compliance and penalties, and not on providing
the appropriate education, training and incentives for the contractor to
work safely. The problem of inconsistency in the interpretation of
standards by OSHA personnel was emphasized. Performance based
safety and health standards for contractors were advocated.

On occupational health, the primary concern was over the applicability
of the OSHA Hazard Communication Standard to the construction
industry, although its benefits were readily acknowledged. The need
was expressed for a medical screening and monitoring system tailored
to the requirements and potential exposures of the job. The need for
effective safety and health programs with clearly assigned
responsibilities emphasizing the health aspects and hazard control was
also pointed out, with the suggestion that a model Safety and Health
program be developed at the project level.

The root causes of accidents were explored with respect to the primary
safety exposures. Six problem areas were identified: 1) lack of
company programs and written rules; 2) lack of basic, specific and
continuing training; 3) lack of planning, organization, motivation,
communication and control; 4) lack of a sound value system, i.e.
attitude, loyalty, sensitivity, etc.; 5) poor work practices and improper
procedures; and 6) lack of accountability and responsibility. The key
factors for solutions to these problems were identified as effective
education and training, and the implementation and enforcement of
well-designed safety and health programs.

Education and training was recognized, by far, as the most important
issue and need in the construction industry at all levels, from owners,
architects, design engineers, and construction management personnel,
all the way through the site supervisors and-foremen to the workers.
Lack of adequate education and training was cited as part of many
problems relating to construction safety and health, and the need for it
was frequently and strongly emphasized for devising effective solutions
to the problems. It was suggested that an awareness of safety and
health needs to be fostered by training in this area, and must be phased
into the educational system very early, such as in grade schools and
vocational training centers. It was particularly recommended that safety
and health education become a required part of the engineering
curriculum in the United States.

I-10

we


10.

11.

12.

13.

14,

15.

What are the objectives of constructability reviews?

Discuss the relationship between constructability and construction
safety.

What causes material failures? How do material failures lead to
construction failures?

How do shop drawings and change orders impact construction site
safety?

What is the role of the design engineer relative to construction
safety?

Why must we have a good understanding of the type and magnitude
of the construction loads in addition to the service loads of a
structure?

What is meant by the term temporary structures? What is their
significance with regard to construction safety? .

Define and discuss the terms professional liability, standard of care,
privity, and strict liability. Under what conditions could design
engineers be held strictly liable for their work?

REFERENCES

1.

National Bureau of Standards: Investigation of L’Ambiance Plaza
Building Collapse, NBS Technical Report No. PB88-112438
(September 1987).

Heger, F.J.: Public Safety Issues in Collapse of L’Ambiance Plaza,
Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities, ASCE, Vol. 5,
No.2, pp. 92-112 (February 1991).

. McGuire, W.: Comments on L’Ambiance Plaza Lifting Collar/

Shearheads, Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities,
ASCE, Vol.6, No.2, pp. 78-95 (February 1992).

Cuoco, D.A., Peraza, D., and T.Z. Scarangello: Investigation of
L’Ambiance Plaza Building Collapse, Journal of Performance of
Constructed Facilities, ASCE, Vol.6, No.4, pp., (November 1992).

. Fairweather, V.: L’Ambiance Plaza: What Have We Learned, Civil

Engineering, ASCE (February 1992).

Lew, HLS., et.al.: Investigation of Construction Failure of Reinforced
Concrete Cooling Tower at Willow Island, West Virginia, Center
for Building Technology, National Bureau of Standards (1979).
Pfrang, E.O., and R.M. Marshall: Collapse of the Hyatt Regency
Walkways, Civil Engineering, ASCE (July 1982).

Banset, E.A., and G.M. Parsons: Communications Failure in Hyatt
Regency Disaster, Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering,
ASCE, Vol.115, No.3, pp. 273-288 (July 1989).


REVIEW QUESTIONS

1,

2.

10.

‘ll.

12.

13.

14,

15.
16,

Define the terms accident, hazard, risk, safety and safety engineering.

What are some common unsafe acts and some common unsafe
conditions in the construction environment? Give an example of
how a combination of unsafe acts and unsafe conditions can cause
a construction accident.

. Describe Heinrich’s domino theory. Why is it not so popular

anymore?

. Compare and contrast Heinrich’s domino theory with the

management models of accident/injury causation.

. What are the essential features of behavioral models, epidemiologic

models and ergonomic models?

. What are the system safety models used for? What are some of the

network analysis tools used in application of system safety?

. How does fault tree analysis work? Describe by a conceptual

example.

. What is the basis of the energy theory? What are the different types

of energies that may be involved in injury causation?

. What is the multiple factor theory? What are its advantages?

Describe the 4M model.

What are the purposes of accident investigations and accident
reports?

Describe the main features of OSHA 200 and OSHA 101 forms.
Why should companies have their own accident investigation and
reporting forms?

List the twelve steps involved in an accident investigation, and
discuss the rationale behind these steps.

Why should "near-misses" be investigated?

Explain the meaning of the terms agent, vector, and host in regard
to abnormal energy transfer. Describe by examples the relevant
hazard control technologies.

Describe the hierarchy of controls principle. Give an example.

Describe the physical and human barriers which can be employed
for hazard control.

Iv-19


Table V-13 29 CFR 1926 Subpart P-Excavations, Trenching, and Shoring ...............

Table V-14 OSHA Safety Standards Applicable to Work ~
on Contaminated and Hazardous Waste Sites ......s...csssssssssssssesssseeserseseeses

List of Figures

Figure I-1, Fatality Statistics for 1983-1992:
Construction vs. National Industry Average .......sssssssscsssscsssusssssessssuseecssseees

Figure I-2. Fatality Rate for 1983-1992:
Construction vs. National Industry Average «.....ssssssssscssssssccssssesssssssesesessssses

Figure I-1. Organization of NIOSH .....-ssssssssssssssssssssssccessecssssasssssssees penevoneserovcaneonsscnans

Figure IV-1. Heinrich’s Domino Theory

Figure IV-2. Conceptual Fault Tree Diagram .......sscssssssccsssesssssessssseecsssesensesessseesrsneesenes

Figure IV-3. Guide to Recordability of Cases under the
Occupational Safety and Health Act ....sssssssssscssssecssssccsssesssecsssssesssseeesssse

Figure IV-4. OSHA No. 200 Form : Annual Summary of Occupational Injuries
and Illnesses

Figure IV-5. OSHA No. 101 Form: Supplemental Record of Injuries
and Illnesses

Figure IV-6. Example Accident Investigation Report Form .....ssssscsssscsssesssesessssseessssseee:
Figure IV-7. The Twelve Steps of Investigation ........ssssssssssssssssssssscsssssssssssssssecssssseceees
Figure V-1, OSHA Format for Material Safety Data Sheets ........cscsssssssssssssssscsesseeesssee

Figure VII-1. Sample Safety Policy

Figure VII-2. Sample General Safety Rules ............ssssccssssscsossecsssescssseesssseesssessssvessesesees
Figure VII-3. AIA Article on Protection of Persons and Property ......scscsssssssssessssseesssee

Page

V-53

V-61

1-7

1-7
I-12
Iv-4
Iv-7

IV-10

Iv-l1

IV-13
IV-15
IV-17

Vil-13


Page 9 - Request for Assistance in Preventing Occupational Fatalities in
Confined Spaces

Guidelines for Controlling Hazardous Energy During Maintenance and
Servicing, DHHS Publication No. 83-125.

We ask that editors of appropriate trade journals and safety and health
officials (i.e., inspectors, managers, and hygienists, especially those
associated with work in confined spaces) bring these recommendations to the
attention of workers, supervisors, managers, and owners.

Requests for additional information on contro! practices or questions
related to this announcement should be directed to Mr. John Moran, Director,
Division of Safety Research, National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health, 944 Chestnut Ridge Road, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505, Telephone
(304) 291-4595. .

We greatly appreciate your assistz

a, Dona illar, M.D., D.T.P.H.-CLond.)

Assistant Surgeon General

Director, National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health

Centers for Disease Control

‘Yr U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1991 $48-188/ 40801


must be installed before roofing work
begins and must remain in place until
consiruction is completed, in accord-
ance with 29 CFR 1910.23 and
1926.500.

—As required by current OSHA stand-
ards [29 CFR 1926.28(a)] and consis-
tent with accepted safe work practices,
employers must provide protection
against falls before workers begin any
operations that include the potential for
serious falls.

—wWhere conventional protective
devices such as guardrails or safety
beits/harnesses with lanyards may not
be practical, employers must provide
altemative forms of protection against
falls such as fixed covers, catch plat-
forms, or safety nets as described in
29 CFR 1926.105. All of the construc-
tion-related fatalities described here
could have been prevented had ap-
propriate safety netting been securely
in place directly below the roof open-
ings. Nets are especially useful be-
cause they provide passive protection
for workers—that is, the protection
does not depend on workers to recog-
nize the hazard and take appropriate
protective action. In construction
operations, netting can be installed
when the roof openings are made and
left in place until all construction ac-
tivities are complete or until more per-
manent guards are installed.

* Employers should assure that all workers
required to work near roof openings or
skylights are adequately trained to recog-
nize the serious hazard of falls (even from
relatively low heights) through roof open-
ings, and the danger of sitting or stepping
on skylights.

Skylights

° Manufacturers or purchasers of skylights
should affix conspicuous decals to each
skylight, warning individuals against sitting
or.stepping on these units.

° Manufacturers should modify the design of
skylights to strengthen them sufficiently to
support the weight of a worker who steps,
Sits, or falls on one. If such changes would
adversely affect the smoke-venting
capacity of the skylight, a dome-shaped
protective grillwork over the skylight should
be considered.

Comments or questions conceming this Alert
should be directed to Dr. Thomas R. Bender,
Director, Division of Safety Research, Nation-
al Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health, 944 Chestnut Ridge Road, Morgan-
town, West Virginia 26505-2888; telephone
(304) 291-4595.

We greatly appreciate your assistance, which
is crucial to protecting the lives of American
workers.

nald Millar, M.D., D.T.P.H. (Lond.)
Assistant Surgeon General
Director, National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health
Centers for Disease Control

BLS [1988]. Occupational injuries and ill-
nesses in the United States by industry, 1986.
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor,


Lead poisoning may occur when workers in-
hale or ingest lead dust and fumes during
abrasive blasting, sanding, cutting, burning, or
welding of bridges and other steel structures
coated with lead-containing paints. Data
presented in this document reveal lead poi-
soning among workers who were wearing
respirators. Therefore, a prudent policy is to
minimize the risk of adverse health effects by
keeping lead concentrations as low as possible
and by using all available controls—including
engineering controls, work practices, and re-
spiratory protection. To help achieve the
Healthy People 2000 [DHHS 1990] objective
of limiting worker blood lead concentrations
to 25 g/dl, NIOSH recommends the follow-
ing measures for reducing lead exposure and
preventing lead poisoning among workers
involved in demolishing or maintaining
bridges and other steel structures.

Air Monitoring

An industrial hygienist or other qualified
professional should perform an initial hazard
assessment of the worksite to determine the
composition of the paint. Environmental mon-
itoring should also be performed to (1) measure
worker exposure to airborne lead and other
hazardous agents (e.g., silica and solvents),
and (2) select the engineering controls and
PPE required. Environmental monitoring
should be performed as needed to measure
the effectiveness of controls and to determine
whether the proper respiratory protection is
being worn. Air samples should be collected
and analyzed according to NIOSH methods
[NIOSH 1984] or their equivalent.

Engineering Controls

Engineering controls should be used to mini-
mize exposures to lead at the worksite. At a

minimum, airborne lead exposures should not
exceed the current OSHA PEL for general
industry (50 g/m). Whenever possible, en-
gineering controis should include material
substitution (i.e., repainting of structures with
less toxic material), process and equipment
modification, isolation or automation, and
local and general exhaust ventilation. The
appropriate types of controls vary with the
operation.

Welding, Cutting, or Burning

Before welding, cutting, or burning any metal
coated with lead-containing materials, re-

. Move the coating to a point at least 4 inches

from the area where heat will be applied
[29 CFR 1926.354]. When removal of lead-
containing paint is not feasible, use engineering
controls (e.g., local exhaust ventilation) to
protect workers who are welding, cutting, or
burning lead-bearing materials. Such con-
trois should be used to remove fumes and
smoke at the source and to keep the con-
centration of lead in the breathing zone below
the OSHA PEL. Contaminated air should be
filtered before it is discharged into the environ-
ment well away from the source of intake air
and other workers. Replace contaminated air
with clean air [29 CFR 1926.353].

Surface Preparation

When performing abrasive blasting, scaling,
chipping, grinding, or other operations to
remove lead-containing paint, use work prac-
tices that minimize the amount of dust gener-
ated. Less dusty blasting techniques include
centrifugal blasting (using rotating blades to
propel the abrasive, which is recovered and
recycled), wet blasting (using high-pressure
water with or without an abrasive, or surround-
ing the blast nozzie with a ring of water), and
vacuum blasting (shrouding the nozzle with
local exhaust ventilation) [Rex 1990]. Other
methods that reduce dust include scraping,

Lead Poisoning in Construction Workers w


DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES ——————
PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE
CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL

NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH
AOBERT A. TAFT LABORATORIES Tamar
4876 COLUMBIA PARKWAY, CINCINNATI, OHIO 45226 =
Third Class Mail oe
POSTAGE ANO FEES P

OFFICIAL BUSINESS
PENALTY FOR PRIVATE USE. $300 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HKS
HHS 396

Redistribution using indicia is illegal. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 85-111 wet


Table V-4 (Continued)

22 CFR 1910 ) Subpart G - Occupational Health and Environmental Control
jection

‘T9T0.94 yank ition
1910.96 Jonizing radiation
1910.97 Nonionizing radiation

33 CFR 1910 Subpart H - Hazardous Materials
On
1 Compressed nse eneral requirements)

1910.102 Acetylene
1910.103 Hydrogen

1910-104 Oxygen

1910.105 Nitrous oxide

1910.106 Flammable an and combustible lic 7 .
1910.107 ay gamma id combustible materials
1910.109 Eo losives prishing wang f

1910.110 Storage and neon eeane Shy drous ammonia

29 CFR 1910 Subpart I - Personal Protective Equipment
2 General required oe

29 CFR 1910 Subpart J- General Environmental Controls
Section Topic

ti 1
0.144 Septet ion oe code for marking physical hazards
ito: 145 Specifications for accident prevention signs and tags

29 CFR 1910 Subpart N - Materials Handling and Storage
ion

176 Handling eneral
1910.177 Servicing A ce end single piece rim wheels
1910.178 Powered industrial trucks
1910.180 Crawler, locomotive, and truck cranes
1910.18] Derricks
1310183 Hetcapies
.. fe!
1910.184 Slings
29 SIR 1910 Subpart Z - “rosie and Hazardous Substances
$ Topic
. Air contaminant
1910-1001 Asbestos, Tremolite, anthophyllite, and actinolite
1910.1002 Goal ta tar pitch volatiles, interpretation of term
1910.1003 i
1910.1004 es, faph lamine
1910.1006 th A chi loromethy| et ether
19101007 3.3 - Dichlorobenzedine (and its salts)
1910.1008 bis = Chlorometiyi ether
1910.1009 beta - Naphthylamine
1910.1010 Be:
1910.1011 - Aminodiphenyl
19101012 Ethyleneimine
Big pe Sopoeeas
. inofluorene
1910.1015 ~ Rimethy laminoazobenzen
1910.1016 iimethy|
1910.1017 Viayt chloride
1910.1018 fnorgamc arsenic
1910.1025 Lead |
1910.1027 Cadmium
1910.1028 Benzene
1910.1029 Geke ‘oven emissions
1910.1030 ¢ pathogens
Wlotoss 1 {2eibrome 3-chloroprop:
. 0-3-< ane
1910.1045
1910.1047 iene o oxide
. syne
1910.1101
1910.1200 fizan?s communication

V-16


Table II-I
OSHA Federal, Regional and Area Offices & Status of State Plans (1994)

OSHA (National Office)
U.S. Dept. of Labor
Occupational Safety & Health Administration
200 Constitutional Avenue - Washington, D.C. 20210
(202) 523-8271 or (202) 523-8151
State Plan Federal Plan

OSHA Region I CT MA

1 Dock Square Bldg.4th flr. VT ME

16-18 North St. NH

Boston, MA 02109 RI

(617) 565-7164

Area Offices: Boston, MA; Concord, NH; Providence, RI; Springfield, MA; Augusta, ME;
Hartford, CT.

OSHA Region II NY NJ

1515 Broadway, Rm 3445 PR

New York, NY 10036 VI

(212) 337-2378

Area Offices: Manhattan, NY; Long Island, NY; Queens, NY; Albany, NY; Syracuse, NY;
Buffalo, NY; Puerto Rico, PR; Hasbrouck Heights, NJ; Avenel ,NJ; Dover, NJ;

Camden, NJ.
OSHA Region III MD DC
Gateway Building, Suite 2100 VA DE
3535 Market St., PA
Philadelphia, PA 19104 WV

(215) 596-1201

Area Offices: Philadelphia, PA; Wilmington, DE; Wilkes-Barre, PA; Allentown, PA; Pittsburgh, PA;
Erie, PA; Baltimore, MD; Charleston, WV; Harrisburg, PA; Richmond, VA.

OSHA Region IV KY AL
1374 Peachtree St., NE. Suite 587 sc FL
Atlanta, GA 30367 IN GA
(404) 347-3573 MS

NC

Area Offices: Atlanta, GA; Columbia, SC; Savannah, GA; Birmingham, AL; Fort Lauderdale, FL;
Jacksonville, FL; Tampa, FL; Jackson, MS; Mobile, AL; Nashville, TN; Frankfort, KY;
Raleigh, NC. ;

m-8


Table V-2

Coupling multiplier - CM (10)

V<75 em (30 in)

Coupling Coupling multipliers
Good 1.00 1.00
Fair 0.95 1.00
Poor 0.90 0.90
Table V-3
Frequency multiplier - FM (10)
Work duration
silh <2h s 8h
Frequency :
lifts/min V<75 V275 V<75 V275  V<75 V275
0.2 1.00 1.00 0.95 0.95 0.85 0.85
0.5 0.97 0.97 0.92 0.92 0.81 0.81
1 0.94 0.94 0.88 0.88 0.75 0.75
2 0.91 0.91 0.84 0.84 0.65 0.65
3 0.88 0.88 0.79 0.79 0.55 0.55
4 0.84 0.84 0.72 0.72 0.45 0.45
5 0.80 0.80 0.60 0.60 0.35 0.35
6 0.75 0.75 0.50 0.50 0.27 0.27
7 0.70 0.70 0.42 0.42 0.22 0.22
8 0.60 0.60 0.35 0.35 0.18 0.18
9 0.52 0.52 0.30 0.30 0.00 0.15
10 0.45 0.45 0.26 0.26 0.00 0.13
ll 0.41 0.41 0.00 0.23 0.00 0.00
12 0.37 0.37 0.00 0.21 0.00 0.00
13 0.00 0.34 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
14 0.00 0.31 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
15 0.00 0.28 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
>15 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Note: Values of V are in cm; 75 cm = 30 in.

V275 cm (30 in)

V-14

ww


GENERAL SAFETY RULES

ALL OF OUR SAFETY RULES MUST BE
OBEYED. FAILURE TO DO SO WILL
RESULT IN STRICT DISCIPLINARY
ACTION BEING TAKEN.

1. Keep your mind on your work at all
times. No horseplay on the job. Injury or
termi- nation, or both, can be the result.

2. Personal safety equipment must be wom
as prescribed for each job, such as; safety
glasses for eye protection; hard hats at all
times within the confines of the
construction area; gloves when handling
materials; and safety shoes are highly
recommended for protection against foot
injuries.

3. Shirts and long legged pants must be
wom to prevent sunburn and to protect
against acid burns, steam burns, weld
splatter and cuts. Minimum clothing for
the upper body is a "T" shirt.

4. If any part of your body should come in
contact with an acid or caustic substance,
tush to the nearest water available and
flush over the affected part. Secure
medical aid immediately.

5. Watch where you are walking. Don’t run.

6. The use of illegal drugs or alcohol or
being under the influence of same on the
project shall be cause for termination. If
you take or are given strong prescription
drugs that warn against driving or using
machinery, let your supervisor know
about them.

Figure VII-2. Sample General Safety Rules

1.

13.

14,

15.

16.

Do not distract the attention of fellow
workers. To do so may cause injury.

Sanitation facilities have been or will be
provided for your use. Defacing or
damaging these facilities is forbidden.

A good job is a clean job and a clean job
is a safe one. So keep your working area
free from rubbish and debris.

. Do not use a compressor to blow dust or

dirt from your clothes, hair, face or
hands,

Never work aloft if you are afraid to do
so, are subject to dizzy spells, or if you
are apt to be nervous or sick.

. Never move an injured person unless it is

absolutely necessary. Further injury may
result, Keep the injured as comfortable as
possible and utilize job site first-aid
facilities until a doctor arrives.

Know where firefighting equipment is
located and learn how to use it.

Larn to lift correctly - with the legs not
the back. If the load is too heavy, GET
HELP. 20% of all constriction related
injuries result from lifting materials.

Riding on loads, fenders, running boards,
sideboards, and gates or with your legs
hanging over the ends or sides of trucks
will not be tolerated.

Do not use power tools and equipment
until you have been properly instructed in
safe work methods and become
authorized to use them.


Material Safety Data Sheet U.S. Department of Labor

May be used to compty wih Occupational Satety end Heaith Administration
OSHA's Hazard Commurncation Standard, (Non-Mandatory Form)

29 CFR 1910.1200. Siandard must be Form Approved

consutied for specihc requirements. OMB No. 1218-0072

WOENTITY (As Used on Lapel and List)

‘Note: Blank soeces are not permuted. I any tem 1 not appicabie. oF 1

\Riormason 1 avetabie, he space must be maned 10 naca Met,

Section |

Mandacurer's Name Emergency Teieghone Number

‘Accrens iMumioer, Sweet. Cay, Sia, and 2° Code Telephone Number tor information
Date Prepared
Sigranure of Preparer (qpeanes)

‘Section il — Hazardous ingredients/identity information

Ones
Hazardous Components (Specie Chemical identity: Common Name(si) OSHA PEL ACGIH TL Ponmenses

Section Il! — Physical/Chemical Characteristics

Bomng Powe | ‘Specie Gramry (H70 = 1)
Vapor Pressure (mm Hg.) Maung Pow
Vapor Oenany (AIA = 1) Evaporanon Risse

(Quy Acotme + 1)
Scuuomey Waser
‘Appearance ana Odor

‘Section |V — Fire and Explosion Hazard Data

Unueual Fire and Exptoson Hazarce

Figure V-1. OSHA format for material safety data sheets

{=

V-7


UNIT I

CONSTRUCTION SAFETY AND HEALTH LEGISLATION AND ORGANIZATIONS

PURPOSE

OBJECTIVES

KEY TERMS

To familiarize the students with the historical background of legislative
developments in the area of safety and health (with special focus on
construction), and to list and summarize the roles and responsibilities
of the main public, private and professional organizations involved in
construction safety and health.

To present information on:

1. The historical perspective on the legislative developments at the
federal and state levels concerning safety and health

2. The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970; its significance and
impact

3. OSHA, OSHRC and NIOSH and other organizations dealing with
safety and health

4. Present state of construction safety and health related legislation.

Labor legislation; federal acts; state workers compensation laws; OSH
Act;OSHA; OSHRC; NIOSH; safety and health standards; employers;
employees; workplace inspections; imminent danger inspection;
catastrophies and fatalities; employee complaints; special inspections;
programmed inspections; violations; de minimis; other than serious;
serious; willful; repeated; imminent danger violation; citations;
compliance officer, education and training; consultation; federally
approved state plans; safety and health organizations; civil penalties; _
criminal sanctions, Comprehensive OSHA Reform Bill.


UNIT IV

ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION AND ANALYSIS, AND INJURY CONTROL

PURPOSE

OBJECTIVES

KEY TERMS

FUNDAMENTALS

To summarize the principles governing accident investigation and
analysis, and the identification, prevention and control of the hazards
causing construction accidents and injuries.

To familiarize the civil engineering student with:

1. Definitions of accident, hazard, risk, safety, and safety engineering
2. Causes of accidents in terms of unsafe acts and unsafe conditions
3. Accident/injury causation theories

4. Accident investigation, reporting and record keeping

5. Accident/injury prevention and hazard control.

Accident; hazard; risk; safety; safety engineering; unsafe acts; unsafe
conditions; domino theory; behavioral models; management models;
epidemiology; ergonomics; systems safety; fault tree analysis; energy
theory; multiple factor theories; accident investigation; accident report;

record keeping; injury prevention; hazard control; agent; vector; host;
hierarchy of controls; barriers.


Page 2 - Request for Assistance in Preventing Electrocutions from Contact
Between Cranes and Power Lines

Case #3:

Roof materials for an addition to a commercial building were
stored outside the building directly beneath a 7,200 volt
power Line. While hocking a load (joist angle bracing) to the
crane, a worker was electrocuted when the cable came into
contact with the power line as the boom swung.

Case #4:

A construction company was in the process of laying concrete
water pipe with a crane. As workmen were placing support
timbers beneath the crane’s outrigger pads, the operator began
extending the crane boom for the next lift when the boom came
into contact with a 3 phase 13,800 volt overhead power line.
One worker touching an outrigger of the crane was electrocuted.

Case #5:

At a highway construction site, a carpenter attached a 4' x 8'

wood and metal form to a crane. While holding on to the form

in attempting to guide it into place, the carpenter was

electrocuted when the boom or cable came into contact with a
. 34,000 volt power line.

APPROPRIATE STANDARDS AND RECOMMENDED WORK PRACTICES

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Safety and Health
Regulations for Construction, Subpart N--Cranes, Derricks, Hoists, Elevators,
and Conveyors (29 CFR 1926.550(a)(15)) contains specific requirements for the
safe use of cranes proximate to overhead power lines. Electrical distribution
and transmission lines are required to be de-energized and visibly grounded,
moved, or separated from cranes with independent insulating barriers. The
regulation states that when it is not possible to meet these requirements,
cranes may operate proximate to power lines only if:

a) minimum clearance (absolute limit of approach) is maintained
between the crane and the lines (10 feet for <50 kV and 10 feet
plus 0.4 inch for each 1 kV over 50 kV, or twice the length of
the line insulator but never less than 10 feet); or,

b) in transit with no load and boom lowered, minimum clearance
(absolute limit of approach) is maintained (4 feet for <50 kV,
LO feet for 50 kV to 345 kV, or 16 feet for up to and including
750 kV).


— incorporate additional safety provisions as
appropriate to strengthen their safety
programs.

Design and Construction of Scatfolds

The design and construction of scaffolds must
conform with OSHA requirements concerning
type of equipment, rated capacities, construc-
tion methods, and use. Each scaffold and
scaffold component must be capable of sup-
porting its own weight plus at least four times
the maximum intended load without failure.
Each suspension rope must be capable of
supporting at least six times the maximum
intended load.

Shielding of Ropes

Suspension ropes and droplines for body belt
or harness systems should be shielded from

— heat-producing processes such as weld-
ing,

— acids or other corrosive substances, and
— sharp edges or abrasions.

Such ropes should be made from material that
is not adversely affected by heat or by acids
or other corrosives.

Inspection

Employers should require a competent per-
son to inspect all scaffolds and scaffold com-
ponents for visible defects before use on each
workshift. Scaffolds should be erected,
moved, dismantled, or altered only under the
supervision of a competent person.

All components of personal fall protection
equipment (including body belts or har-
nesses, lanyards, droplines, trolley lines, and

points of anchorage) should be inspected by
a competent person before use. Any visibly
damaged or worn equipment should be
removed from service immediately.

Use of Fail Protection Equipment

Employers should provide appropriate fall protec-
tion systems and ensure their use by all workers
on suspension scaffolds. Generally, these
workers sheuld be protected by a Type | guard-
rail system$ or a combination of body belt or
hamess system with a Type Il guardrail system."

However, when single-point and two-point ad-
justable suspension scaffolds are used,
workers must be protected by both a body belt
or harness system and a Type | or Type II
guardrail system. Also, when boatswain
chairs, catenary scaffolds, and float scaffolds
are used, workers must be protected only by
a body belt or hamess system.

Use of Structural Members as Anchor
Points

Structurally sound portions of buildings or
other structures must be used to anchor
droplines for body belt or harness systems
and tiebacks for suspension scaffold support
devices. Droplines and tiebacks should be
secured to separate anchor points of struc-
tural members. Owners, architects, and en-
gineers planning renovation or designing new
facilities should incorporate strategically lo-
cated anchor points on structural members of
buildings for future exterior maintenance and
repair work.

“Type | guardrail eystams are those capable of providing adaquate

restrain provide

Type Il systems must be supplemented by
zyuiema provide adequate fall protecdow [st Fed, Reg. 42680
(1986).

Falls from Suspension Scaffolds


UNIT V

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY SAFETY AND HEALTH PRACTICES AND APPLICABLE

PURPOSE

OBJECTIVES

KEY TERMS

OSHA STANDARDS

To present an overview of the scope and nature of constniction related

hazards, and the standards and practices associated: with their control:
To familiarize the student with:

1. The specific hazards related to various construction activities and
tasks.

2. The industry practices for hazard control.
3. Applicable OSHA standards.

4. The identification and control of the safety and health hazards
specifically related to:
(a) Material handling;
(b) Welding and cutting;
(c) Concrete construction;
(d) Steel erection;
(e) Fall protection, ladders and scaffolds;
(f) Cranes, derricks and hoists;
(g) Heavy construction equipment,
(h) Motor vehicles;
(i) Hand and power tools;
@ Electrical work;
(k) Excavation and trenching;
@ Confined space entry; and
(m) Contaminated site cleanup.

Safety and health resources; OSHA standards; NIOSH Alerts; material
handling; hazardous material; ignitable; corrosive, reactive; toxic;
asphyxiant; carcinogen; mutagen; teratogen; asbestosis; silicosis; right-
to-know laws; hazard communication standard; housekeeping; manual
lifting; back injuries; NIOSH equation for weight limit; lifting index;

V-1


An investigation revealed that the 5/8-inch
nylon hoist rope had broken at a point where
it had been burned some time before the
incident [NIOSH 1990b].

The fatal incidents reported here all involved
violations of OSHA regulations for scaffolds.
These regulations include the use of proper
scaffold equipment, appropriate installation of
equipment, use of proper operating proce-
dures, use of prescribed personal fall protec-
tion equipment, and adequate training of
workers.

None of the deaths described here would
have occurred if the existing and proposed
OSHA regulations for the safe use of scaffolds
had been observed.

NIOSH recommends the following measures
to prevent serious injuries and fatal falls while
working from suspension scaffolds:

1. Comply with the current and proposed
OSHA regulations for working with scaf-
folds.

2. Assure that design and construction of
scaffolds conform with OSHA requirements.

3. Shield scaffold suspension ropes and
body belt or harness system droplines
(lifelines) from hot or corrosive processes,
and protect them from sharp edges or
abrasion.

Falls from Suspension Scaffolds

4. Inspect all scaffolds, scaffold components,
and personai fall protection equipment
before each use.

5. Provide personal fall protection equipment
and make sure that it is used by all workers
on suspension scaffolds.

6. Use structurally sound portions of build-
ings or other structures to anchor
droplines for body belt or harness systems
and tiebacks for suspension scaffold sup-
port devices. Droplines and tiebacks
should be secured to separate anchor
points on structural members.

7. Provide proper training for all workers who
use any type of suspension scaffold or fall
protection equipment.

8. Follow scaffold manufacturers’ guidance
regarding the assembly, rigging, and use
of scaffolds.

These recommendations are discussed
briefly in the following subsections. Please
note that an earlier NIOSH Alert [NIOSH
1991b] presents recommendations for
preventing electrocutions during work with
scaffolds near overhead power lines.

Compliance with OSHA regulations

Employers and workers must comply with the
current OSHA regulations for working with
scaffolds (29 CFR 1910.28, 1926.451]. Fur-
thermore, they should

— consider ail provisions of the OSHA
proposed rulemaking for safe use of scaf-
folds in construction [51 Feg. Reg. 42680
(1986)}, and


Agencies

The Roles
of States

OSHA’S ROLE IN
SAFETY AND HEALTH

OSHA Inspections

Act, both the employers and the employees are required to comply with
the promulgated safety and health standards. With only a few
exceptions, the Act applies to every employer who has one or more
employees. Employers with 11 or more must keep records of all work-
related injuries and illnesses. The Act is not applicable to farm
employees who are family of the employer, to the self-employed, and
to employees at work places that are covered by other federal agencies.

The OSH Act created three agencies:

1) The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) -
within the Department of Labor - to administer the Act, headed by an
Assistant Secretary of Labor. OSHA is responsible for the
establishment of safety and health standards and the rules and
regulations to implement them.

2) The Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission
(OSHRC) - an independent body to hear and settle cases in which
employers contest actions started by OSHA.

3) The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH) - within the Department of Health and Human Services - to
conduct research and education, and develop data, criteria and
recommended standards for OSHA.

Under the OSH Act, each state was allowed to promulgate its own
version of the OSHA act, as long as the state’s plan was at least as
strict as the federal standards. If a state exercises its right under the Act
to enact a safety and health plan meeting this criteria, then it becomes
the sole safety and health agency within that jurisdiction. Otherwise,
federal jurisdiction prevails over the state’s employers. Construction in
that state is then subject to inspection by both Federal and State safety
inspection agencies.

In administrating the OSH Act, OSHA performs four main functions;

these are:

1) To set standards;

2) To conduct work place inspections;

3) To issue citations to employers, who violate the standards, sometimes
assessing fines; and

4) To offer employers assistance in reducing the work place hazards.

OSHA conducts numerous inspections each year, while the states and
territories operating their own job safety and health programs conduct
many additional visits. However, there are more than five million work
places covered by the OSH Act. Recognizing that OSHA can not
possibly reach all these work places, a system of inspection priorities
has been established. The idea behind this system is to focus the
agency’s limited resources on work places that present the greatest
hazards to employee health and safety.

m-4


Safety
Director

Duties

Planning

Project Safety
Rules

Nature of
the Rules

safety problems make more positive impact on the safety record of the
company than those covering generalities. Safety committees are
established in some jobs to address a range of issues which cover
planning, training and audits (11). The effectiveness of safety
committees is open to question, however, because delegation of
responsibility to a committee by the management personnel may
actually dilute their commitment and active participation.

The safety supervisor/director plays an important role in the

implementation of the safety program. These professionals are usually

in staff positions rather than line positions, as safety is a staff

responsibility. They provide support to the line managers who actually

control safety and health performance. Among their duties are:

. Serving as consultants to management on technical and organizational
aspects of safety and health;

. Developing and participating in the training and worker orientation
programs;

. Assisting in safety and health planning, monitoring (jobsite
supervision) and recordkeeping; and

. Keeping the organization up-to-date on safety and health regulations
and related matters.

In situations of imminent danger, they can take steps to shut down jobs.

There needs to be a project specific safety and health plan prepared by
the contractor in addition to any previously prepared manual the
company might have. This plan should address the operational and task
hazards, owner’s requirements, and unique problems which may be
potentially encountered. Planning for safety is an on-going process,
starting in the bid process and continuing through the completion of all
of the project tasks on the jobsite. According to Levitt and Samelson
(9), there are three levels of planning: "big scale planning," "small
rolling-window planning,” and "fine-tune planning.” Big-scale planning
covers such areas as site planning and the development of work
procedures for basic tasks including equipment and material usage. It
begins before the project starts, but it also continues on a regular basis
in order to keep the big picture of the project in mind and up to date.
Small rolling-window planning takes a two-week rolling window view
of the total job; the coming week is planned and planning is begun on
the following week. Fine-tune planning is daily planning for the current
week and concerns immediate operations and production.

All company safety rules should be published in a written form. Written
rules are more easily enforced, and provide readily available guidance
for operational safety. These rules should include what penalties are
given for non-compliance. Each current employee, as well as any new
employee, should be furnished a copy of the safety rules.

Each contractor should have rules for basic types of operations it
performs. In some cases there should be rules for the different

VH-6


APPLICABLE OSHA
STANDARDS

CRANES, DERRICKS
AND HOISTS

Mobile Mechanical
Crane

the building to catch and hold falling objects and persons. The quality
of nets, hardware and the connections must be checked and tested, and
they must conform to the OSHA standards. Ropes should be made of
No.1 grade pure manila and nylon, and should meet OSHA’s impact
resistance requirements. Fall arrest equipment should be used only if
fall prevention is not possible. They are only effective if used properly
and maintained in good condition.

OSHA standards pertinent to fall protection are presented in Table
V-8.

Table V-8
OSHA Standards. on Fall Protection

29 CFR 1926 Subpart L-Ladders and Scaffolding

Subpart M-Floor and Wall Openings
tion Topic
451 caffolding
1926.453 Manually propelled mobile ladder stands and scaffolds
1926.500  Guardrails, handrails, and covers

29 CFR 1910 Subpart D - Walking - Working Surfaces
jection ‘opic

Gen juirements
1910.23 Guarding floor and wall openings and holes
1910.24 Fixed industrial stairs
1910.25 Portable wood ladders
1910.26 Portable metal ladders
191038 Setery equrements for seafolding

ents for scaffo

1910.29 Manually propelled mobile ladder stands and scaffolds (towers)
1910.30 Other working surfaces

29 CFR 1926 Subpart E-Personal Protective and Life Saving Equipment
Nc

.! Criteria for Protective equipment
1926.96 Occupational foot protection
1926.97 Protective clothing for fire brigades
1926.98 Respiratory protection for fire brigades
1926.100 Head protection
1926.101 Hearing protection _
1926.102 Eye and face protection

Respiratot rotection

Safety belts, lifelines, and lanyards
1926.105 Safety nets

1926.106 Working over or near water

Cranes, derricks and hoists are machines that move heavy loads of
construction materials and equipment over a limited area. This
Movement can be vertical or horizontal. There are many types of
cranes (22). Four major types are described below.

A mobile mechanical crane has a rigid mechanical drive from its power
plant through the transmissions, chains, gears and shafts. The basic

V-34


Page 7 - Request for Assistance in Preventing Occupational Fatalities in
Confined Spaces

Based on the information derived from these case studies, NIOSH concludes
that these fatalities occurred as a result of encountering one or more of
the following potential hazards:

o lack of natural ventilation,

© oxygen deficient atmosphere,

o flammable/explosive atmosphere,

o unexpected release of hazardous energy,

o limited entry and exit,

© dangerous concentrations of air contaminants,

o physical barriers or limitations to movement, or
o instability of stored product.

In each of these cases there was a lack of RECOGNITION and TESTING,
EVALUATION, and MONITORING prior to entry nor had a well-planned RESCUE
been attempted.

These incident reports suggest that RECOGNITION of what is a confined
space in conjunction with the proper TESTING, EVALUATION, and MONITORING
of the atmosphere and development of appropriate RESCUE procedures could
prevent such deaths. These three steps are discussed below.

NIOSH investigations indicate that workers usually do not RECOGNIZE that
they are working in a confined space and that they may encounter unforeseen
hazards. TESTING and EVALUATION of the atmosphere are typically not
initiated prior to entry and MONITORING is not performed during the
confined space work procedures. RESCUE is seldom planned and usually
consists of spontaneous reaction in an emergency situation.

RECOMMENDAT | ONS:

In light of findings to date regarding occupationa! deaths in confined
spaces, NIOSH recommends that managers, supervisors, and workers be made
familiar with the following three steps:

1. RECOGNITION

Worker training is essential to the RECOGNITION of what constitutes
a confined space and the hazards that may be encountered in them.
This training should stress that death to the worker is the likely
outcome if proper precautions are not taken before entry is made.


on:
Types of Energy - Mechanical energy (structural loads, noise and vibration, friction,
tools and machines, fluid pressure, motor vehicles); wat
. Electrical energy (power shock, heat, arcing);
. Thermal energy (fire, heat and cold, expansion, explosion);
« Chemical energy (hazardous materials, gases, fumes); and
. Radiation (ionizing and non-ionizing).
It is also possible to add bio-hazards (bacterial, fungal, parasitic,
Tickettsial and viral) to this list.

Multiple Factor In this approach, it is suggested that multiple factors combine in a

Theories random or other fashion to cause accidents and injuries. Multiple factor
theories help identify which characteristics of the considered factors are
involved so that possible critical..combinations can be analyzed by
qualitative and/or quantitative techniques. A specific case of the
multiple factor theories is the 4M model (9), referring to MAN,
MACHINE, MEDIA, and MANAGEMENT. These factors can be
described by a set of characteristics. For example, age, height, gender,
skill level, and motivation could be the characteristics associated with
man. Temperature, humidity, and contaminants in air could be the
media characteristics. Machine characteristics could include size, shape,
energy source, and type of motion. Management characteristics might
be management style, organizational structure, communication system,
‘policy and procedures. Each of these factors can be analyzed singly or
in combination to identify the cause of a related accident or injury.

ACCIDENT INJURY The question of what proportion of accidents result in injury has been ~~

RELATIONSHIPS addressed by a number of researchers (1). Heinrich’s early studies
yielded a 300:29:1 ratio, indicating that for every group of 330
accidents of the same kind, 300 result in no injuries, 29 produce minor
injuries, and 1 results in a major, lost-time injury. Bird and Germain
(10) later reported a ratio of 500:100:1 for property-damage (only)
accidents, minor-injury accidents, and disabling-injury accidents. Other
studies by Fletcher (11) showed a 175:19:1 for no-injury, minor-injury,
and serious-injury accidents. These relationships show that many
accidents do not result in major injury. They further indicate that as the
severity of accidents increases, the frequency of major injury cases

décreases.
ACCIDENT Every accident, including those which do not result in serious injury or
INVESTIGATION property damage, should be investigated. In industrial accidents, this

can be accomplished by the supervisor/foreman, line manager, safety
professional, a special committee, or a consultant (5). The results of
accident investigations should be documented in a report. The
information gathered in this process can be analyzed to:
Purpose of . Identify the principal causes (materials, machines, methods);
Accident Reports . Assess the degree of damage and the value of losses;
. Reveal the size of the accident problem relative to different

V-3 ww


APPLICABLE OSHA
STANDARDS

FALL PREVENTION
AND PROTECTION

Activities Causing
Fall Hazards

Fall Prevention
vs. Protection

FALL PREVENTION

OSHA’s steel erection safety standards are covered in 29 CFR 1926
Subpart R, which is presented in Table V-7.

Table V-7
29 CFR 1926 Subpart R - Steel Erection
Secti Topi
T8670 Flooring requirements
1926.751 Structural steel assembly
1926.752 Bolting, riveting, fitting-up, and plumbing-up

Falls from elevations, or on a given surface, can occur during a number
of construction activities. Fall hazards are also associated with
improper storage and/or handling of materials at heights, which result
in strike injuries by falling objects. Falls are most likely to occur during
the following activities:

« Using ladders and stairways

- Working on scaffolding

- Working near floor openings and other unguarded openings

- Excavations

« Working on roofs

- Steel erection

. Precast concrete placement

« Working on elevated and/or suspended platforms

. Hoisting of materials and workers

. Material handling and storage.

A substantial number of serious and fatal injuries result from falls.
Falls from heights represent one-third of all construction related
fatalities and they are the number one cause of deaths on construction
sites (17,18).

It is possible to control fall hazards in two ways:

Fall prevention and fall protection. Prevention eliminates fall hazards
by eliminating the hazardous conditions. Protection, on the other hand,
provides fall arrest and safety measures when the hazardous condition
can not be eliminated.

An important step in fall prevention is the provision of safe access and

egress by the proper use of ladders and scaffolding. Other’ issues -
regarding fall prevention include open sides and floor openings, steel

erection and roofing activities:

V-29


NiOSH
ALERT

ALERT

ALERT

ALERT

ALERT
ALERT

p Request for Assistance in

Preventing Fatalities of Workers
Who Contaci Electrical Energy

December 1986

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES
Public Health Service

Centers for Disease Control

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health


REQUESE FOR ASSISTANCE Int

Preventing Eead. Poisoning in
. Construction: Warkers: :



DISCLAIMER

Mention of the name of any company or product does not constitute endorsement by
the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.

: This document is in the public domain and may be freely copied or reprinted.

Copies of this and other NIOSH documents are available from

Publications Dissemination, DSDTT
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
4676 Columbia Parkway
Cincinnati, OH 45226
(513) 533-8287

For further information about other occupational safety and health problems, call
1-800-35-NIOSH

DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 91-110


Classification
Based on Health
Effects

Federal Laws
on Control of
Hazardous
Materials

Right-to-Know
Laws

Hazard
Communication
Standard

affect different people differently, an example being the case of an
allergic reaction.

It is also possible to classify hazardous materials based on their health
effects. Asphyxiants are materials which cause oxygen displacement
in a breathing atmosphere and interfere with oxygen transport and
breathing. Carcinogens produce cancer, or tumor induction, in man
and animals. Mutagens cause changes in the genetic structure in a
current generation of animals or humans, whose effects can show up in
future generations in the form of cancer or some mutation. Teratogens
are substances that cause malformations or serious abnormalities in a
human or animal fetus. Finally, lung disorders such as asbestosis or
silicosis can result from inhalation of fibrous or fine particulate
materials.

There are a number of federal laws governing the control of hazardous
materials for public safety and health. The Toxic Substances Control
Act (TSCA) of 1976 requires all new chemicals to be tested for safety.
The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1976
regulates the generation, treatment, storage and disposal of hazardous
wastes, and has instituted a manifest system for tracking hazardous
materials from. creation to disposal or use. The Hazardous Materials
Transportation Act of 1974 controls the packaging, labelling and
transportation of hazardous materials. The Comprehensive
Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA)
of 1980 and Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA)
of 1986 deal with hazardous waste site cleanup.

Federal and state right-to-know laws came about as a result of increasing
public demand for open information regarding the dangers of chemicals.
To comply with the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-
Know Act of 1986 (also called SARA Title IIT) employers must inform
their employees inside and citizens outside a plant about the dangers of
chemicals at the site. This act covers the labelling and storage
requirements, and mandates the use of material safety data sheets
(MSDS) to provide details on the chemicals or compounds and list the
procedures for protection from related hazards. The OSHA format for
MSDS is presented in Figure V-1.

The OSHA Hazard Communication Standard (29 CFR 1926.59) requires
employers to inform their employees of the hazards associated with the
use of and exposure to chemicals in the workplace. Originally
applicable to manufacturing, this standard was extended to the
construction industry effective May 23, 1988. Any chemical known to

“be present in the workplace, in such a manner that employees may be

exposed to it under normal conditions of use or in a foreseeable
emergency, is covered ‘under this standard. To comply with this
standard, the employer must:

V-6


Ladder
Hazards

Maintenance
and Inspection

Improper
Ladder Use

Ladder Safety

Selection, inspection, maintenance, and proper use of ladders are the key
factors in eliminating the related hazards. Selection considerations are
duration of work, location, and height. There are two categories of
ladders; portable and fixed. Portable ladders should only be used for
short durations, moderate heights, or when the ladder needs to be
frequently relocated. Portable ladders can be manufactured or job-built.
In the latter case, ladders should be constructed to meet the OSHA
standards. Ladders should be built from seasoned, straight grained
wood, free from knots and defects. Fixed ladders should be used when
regular and long term access from one level to another is required.

Ladders should be maintained in good condition. They should be
regularly inspected for damage and defects such as deterioration,
corrosion (in case of metal ladders) and structural failure. The load
capacity requirements are specified in the OSHA standards for different
ladders. Wooden ladders should be treated with clear preservative.
Unsafe ladders should be-tagged and removed from use, until repaired
or discarded.

Improper use of ladders is the cause of many accidents. The four
principal causes of such accidents are:

1) Improper ascending, descending or working from ladders;

2) Instability of ladders due to improper positioning;

3) Structural failure due to overloading; and

4) Using ladders to carry materials, tools or equipment.

To eliminate accidents associated with ladders the following measures

must be taken (19):

- Proper safety training and supervision must be instituted to ‘assure
compliance with the OSHA standards.

. Ladders must be used with free hands, facing the ladder, and
maintaining a three-point contact at all times (one hand and two feet
or two hands and one foot).

« The bottom of the ladder must be placed on a level, firm and unfrozen
surface.

- The ladder must be secured near the top or bottom to prevent slipping
and excessive swaying.

. The ladder must extend three feet above its top resting point and must
be positioned so that the distance from the bottom of the ladder to the
wall is one-quarter of the length of the wall.

« Step ladders should be fully open when in use, and equipped with a
spreader. Workers should not stand on the top few rungs of the
ladder.

« In cases where access is required for an appreciable length of time,
adequately built temporary stairways should be used.

- Metal ladders should not be used near electrical equipment and power
lines. :

V-30

ww


22.
23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.
29.

Shapiro, H.L, et.al.: Cranes and Derricks, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill,
New York, NY (1991).

Potts, D.L.: Hoist Safety, EXCEL, Vol.5, No.1, Center for
Excellence in Construction Safety, West Virginia University,
Morgantown, WV (Fall 1991).

Center for Excellence in Construction Safety, EXCEL, Vol.5, No.1,
West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV (Fall 1991).

Center for Excellence in Construction Safety: Newsletter,

Vol.3, No.2, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV (Winter
1990).

Center for Excellence in Construction Safety: Newsletter,

Vol.2, No.3, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV (January
1989).

Wood, W.: Trench Shields, Center for Excellence in Construction
Safety Newsletter, Vol.2, No.3, West Virginia University,
Morgantown, WV (January 1989).

Pettit, T. and H. Linn: A Guide to Safety in Confined Spaces,
USDHHS, PHS, CDC, NIOSH (July 1987).

Engineering Society of Detroit: Health and Safety Management for
Hazardous Materials Operations, Certificate Course Notes, Lansing,
MI (March 1990).

V-65


skylights (translucent plastic domes that serve
as both skylights and automatic smoke vents
in case of fire). The recent increase in the use
of smoke-vent skylights in new construction
has increased the exposure of workers to
these hazards. Deaths can be prevented by
compliance with existing OSHA standards for
guarding roof openings and by improvement
in the worker's awareness of the hazards in-
volved in working near skylights, skylight
openings, and other roof openings.

RELEVANT REGULATIONS

OSHA has promulgated regulations to protect
workers from the hazards associated with roof
openings [29 CFR* 1910 and 1926]. The
OSHA General Industry Standard requires
that “every skylight floor opening and hole
shail be guarded by a standard skylight screen
or a fixed standard railing on all exposed
sides" (29 CFR 1910.23(a)(4)]. Require-
ments for a standard skylight screen are given
in 29 CFR 1910.23(@)(8), as follows:

Skylight screens shail be of such construction and
mounting that they are capable of withstanding a
load of atleast 200 pounds applied perpendicular-
ly at any one area on the screen. They shail also
be of such construction and mounting that under
ordinary loads or impacts, they will not deflect
downward sufficiently to break the glass below
them. The construction shail be of grillwork with
openings not more than 4 inches long or of slat-
work with openings not more than 2 inches wide
with length unrestricted.

The OSHA Construction Standard addresses
the hazards posed by skylight openings
during construction:

Wherever there is a danger of falling through a
skylight opening, it shall be guarded by a fixed
standard railing on ail exposed sides or a cover
capable of sustaining the weight of a 200 pound
person [29 CFR 1926.500(b)(4)].

"Code of Federal Regulations.

CASE REPORTS ~

The following case reports demonstrate that
employers and workers violated the ap-
plicable OSHA regulations in all eight fatal
incidents. Compliance with these regulations
might have prevented all eight deaths.

From October 1987 through April 1989,
NIOSH, as a part of the Fatal Accident Cir-
cumstances and Epidemiology (FACE) Pro-
gram, has investigated five fatal falls involving
skylights or roof openings. These incidents
are reported here along with information from
three similar cases (Case Nos. 6, 7, and 8)
previously investigated by the State of
Maryland.

Case No. 1 - One Death

On October 30, 1987, a 24-year-old maieTM”

plumber died when he fell through an un-
guarded skylight opening to a concrete floor
approximately 22 feet below. The victim and
a coworker were installing plumbing fixtures
on the roof of a new building. The roof con-
tained numerous 4- by 4-foot openings framed
with 2- by 6-inch wood. These openings were
intended for smoke-vent skylights when the
structure was complete. Although the victim
and others had been working on this project
for several days before the incident, no fall
Protection or guards of any type were in piace.
At the time of the incident, the victim and a
coworker were discussing the relocation of a
fixture on the roof. The victim was walking
away from his coworker and looking back over
his shoulder to talk to him when he stepped
through a skylight opening [NIOSH 1988a].

Case No. 2 - One Death

On January 6, 1988, an 18-year-old maleTMTM”

sheet metal helper died after he fell through a

Skylights


Structural
Details

CAUSES OF
CONSTRUCTION
FAILURES

Findings of the
House Committee
on Science and
Technology

Recent
Research
Findings

States" (7), this failure took the lives of 114 people and injured 200
more. According to NBS, which performed an investigation on the
failure, the cause of the collapse was inadequate connection details
between the steel box beams and the hanging rods (7,8).

It was found that without the consent of the engineer of record, these
critical details were altered by the steel fabricators in such a way that
the main source of support for the second floor walkway was
transferred from the roof to the fourth floor walkway, creating an
overload situation. This flawed revision was not noticed by the
engineer of record, who checked the shop drawings only for
conformance to the original design. This failure raised the question of
responsibility for the shop drawings and the design of structural details,
causing the engineering profession to start reconsidering the traditional
practices with regard to structural details, particularly those which do
not conform to the American Institute for Steel Construction (AISC)
standards.

Prevention of construction failures, first and foremost, require the
understanding of the causes. Many efforts have been directed toward
this end by engineers, forensic scientists, the legal community, and
legislators (9,10). In the early 1980’s, this problem was addressed by
the Investigations Subcommittee of the House Committee on Science
and Technology through a study aimed at determining the underlying
causes of the construction failures, and the possible related
shortcomings in technology and education. This investigation was
based on extensive interviews with construction engineers focusing on
the understanding of the actions that take place during construction. The

findings of this study were summarized as follows (11):

. The organization of a construction project is unique since it brings
together many parties for a limited period of time. .

. There is little evidence of the presence of consistent methods of
maintaining overall project quality.

. The structural engineer in charge of design does not perform all of the
design work; important details are implemented by steel fabricators.

. The structural engineer, who is the logical person to inspect a
structure,is discouraged from doing so.

. Recent engineering graduates are well trained in mathematics and
computers, but are relatively unsophisticated about the behavior of
structures.

. Long-span structures require careful quality control, and there is a
need for new approaches emphasizing dynamic behavior analysis.

More recently, Eldukair and Ayyub (12) conducted a comprehensive
study of the causes of construction/ structural failures, by reviewing 604
cases which occurred in the United States between 1975 and 1986.
They discovered that:

- Nearly 57 percent of failures resulted in collapse and 4 percent

VI-3


NIOSH Headquarters
Bldg. 1, Rm. 3007

Centers for Disease Control

NIOSH Washington Office
200 Independence Ave.S.W

and Prevention, 1600 Clifton—— Washington, D.C. 20201

Rd. Atlanta, GA 30333

(404) 639-3061

t
-Appalachian Laboratories—

472-7134

944 Chestnut Ridge Rd. Morgantown, WY 26505-2888

Div. of Respiratory
Disease Studies
Studies of occupational
respiratory diseases;
mandated medical
examination of coal
miners (304) 291-4474

Div. of Safety Research
Respirator certifications;
Surveillance and studies to
reduce musculoskeletal and

traumatic work-realted
injuries and death
(304) 284-5700

Cincinnati Laboratories
p74676 Columbia Pkw Cincinnati, OH 45226-1998

Robert A. Taft Laboratories

Div. of Biomedical &
Behavorial Science
Laboratory and work site
studies on toxicology,
ergonomics, stress, and
effects of physical agents
(S13) 533-8465

Div. of Standards Develop.
& Technology Transfer
NIOSH scientific policy
development; clearinghouse
of technical information on
occupational ‘safety

and health (513) 533-8302

Div. of Training & Manpower
Development, Training and
education programs for OH&S
personnel (513) 533-8821

Figure II-1. Organization of NIOSH

Alice Hamilton Laboratories

|

Div. of Physical Sciences &
Engineering -

Analytic support for
research methods/equipment
to control and measure
occupational health hazards
(513) 841-4321

Div. of Surveillance, Hazard
Evaluations & Field Studies
Surveillance and industry-
wide studies; health hazard
evaluations and technical
assistance on request

(513) 841-4428

I-12


REQUEST FOR ASSISTANCE IN PREVENTING

ELECTROCUTIONS FROM CONTACT BETWEEN CRANES AND POWER LINES

BACKGROUND

Contact between cranes and overhead power lines is a major cause of fatal
occupational injuries in the United States. Based upon an analysis by the
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) of the data from
the Supplementary Data System [1] of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, there
were approximately 2,300 lost workday occupational injuries in the United
States in 1981 which resulted from contact with electrical current by crane
booms, cables, or loads. These 2,300 injuries were extremely severe,
resulting in 115 fatalities and 200 permanent total disabilities. Comparable
statistics obtained in studies conducted by the National Safety Council from
1964 to 1976 produced an estimated annual average of 150 fatalities resulting
from such incidents [2]. NIOSH believes that this type of event is the most
common cause of fatalities associated with mobile crane operations [3] and is

responsible for approximately 1.5% of all fatal work-related injuries each
year.

CASE REPORTS

As part of the Fatal Accident Circumstances and Epidemiology (FACE) Project
conducted by NIOSH, six fatal injuries involving crane-related electrocutions
were investigated. The synopses of these cases are as follows:

Case #1:

A 28-year-old construction worker was holding on to a steel
ladder being moved by a telescoping boom crane. As the
crane's boom was swung in the direction of 7,200 volt power
lines, the cable contacted the closest of the lines and the
worker was electrocuted,

Case #2:

A co-owner of a steel erection company and three workers
were using a telescoping boom crane to move a section of a
steel framing member at the construction site of a
commercial storage shed. As the section was moved, it came
into contact with a 23,000 volt overhead power line. Two
of the three workers who were in direct contact with the
load were electrocuted while the third received serious
electrical burns.

July 1985


Page 2 - Request for Assistance in Preventing Fatalities of Workers
Who Contact Electrical Energy

BACKGROUND

It has been estimated that at least 700 occupational electrocutions
occur each year [1]. Therefore, a primary goal of occupational safety
Programs must be to prevent workers from contacting electrical
energy. Effective measures include safe work Practices, job training,
Proper tools, protective equipment, and lockout/tag-out procedures.

Investigations by NIOSH, as part of its Fatal Accident Circumstances
and Epidemiology (FACE) Project, also have revealed that once an
electrical energy incident occurs, emergency response plans are often
lacking, even in organizations which Promote safety. Hence, a
secondary goal of safety programs must be to Provide appropriate
emergency medical care to workers who contact electrical energy.

The National Electrical Code divides voltages into two categories:
greater than 600 volts (high voltage) and less than or equal to 600
volts (low voltage) [2]. Momentary contact with low voltages produces
no thermal injury, but may cause ventricular fibrillation (very rapid,
ineffective, heartbeat) [3].

In contacts with high voltage, massive current flows may stop the
heart completely. When the circuit breaks, the heart may start

beating normally [3]. Supporting respiration by immediate
mouth-to-mouth techniques may be required, even if heartbeat and pulse
are present. If extensive burns are present, death may result from

subsequent complications [4].
APPROPRIATE STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES

The revised "Standards and Guide! ines for Cardiopulmonary
Resuscitation (CPR) and Emergency Cardiac Care (ECC)" published in
June 1986, is a product of the 1985 National Conference on CPR and
“ECC. There are two parts: basic cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)
and advanced cardiac life support (ACLS). A lay person can be trained
in CPR to support circulation and ventilation of the victim of cardiac
or respiratory arrest, until ACLS (provided by medical professionals
using special equipment) can restore normal heart and ventilatory
action [5].

Speed has been found to be critical to resuscitation: immediate
defibrillation would be ideal. The highest success rate has been
achieved in those patients for whom CPR followed cardiac arrest within
approximately 4 minutes, and ACLS was begun within approximately
8 minutes of the arrest [5]. CPR often must be initiated immediately
by lay individuals at the scene of the incident. It should be noted
that CPR skills can be gained in 4-hour courses similar to those
taught by the American Heart Association or the American Red Cross.


Table I-1
BLS Estimates of Occupational Injury and Illness
Incidence Rates by Industry Division, 1990-1991 (2)

Incidence Rates?
Nonfatal
Total * Lost Cases Lost
Cases° Workday Without Lost Workdays
Cases Workdays

1991 | 1990 1991 | 1990 1991 | 1990 1991 | 1990
8.4 38.8 3.9 41 45 47 86.5 84.0
108 116 5.4 5.9 5.3 5.7 108.3 112.2
74 8.3 4.5 5.0 2.8 3.3 129.6 119.5
13.0 142 6.1 6.7 6.9 7.5 148.1 147.9
12.7 13.2 5.6 3.8 At 73 121.5 120.7
9.3 9.6 5.4 5.5 3.9 4.0 140.0 134.1
7.6 79 3.4 3.5 4.1 44 72.0 65.6
2.4 2.4 11 11 13 13 24.10 273
62 6.0 2.8 28 3.3 3.2 60.0 56.4

4 Standard Industrial Classification Manual, 1987 Edition (See Table I-2).
» Incidence Rate = (No. of injuries & illness x 200,000) OR (No. of lost workdays x 200,000)

Total hours worked by all employees during period covered

where 200,000 is the base for 100 full-time equivalent workers (working 40 hours per week, 50 weeks per year).
© Includes fatalities, Because of rounding, the difference between the total and sum of the rates for lost workday

Cases and nonfatal cases without lost workdays may not reflect the fatality rate.
4 Excludes farms with less than 11 employees.

Table I-2
BLS Estimates of Occupational Injury and Illness
Incidence Rates for the Construction Industry, 1991 (2)

Incidence Rates?
SIC Total Lost Nonfatal Cases
Code# Cases© Workday  WithoutLost —_Lost
Cases Workdays Workdays

13.0 61 6.9 148.1

15 12.0 5.5 6.4 132.0
152 9.7 49 49 122.5
154 14.2 6.2 8.0 143.4
16 12.8 6.0 6.8 160.1
161 13.6 6.2 74 176.6
162 12.4 5.9 6.5 153.2
7 13.5 6.3 71 151.3
171 14.1 5.8 8.3 133.8
172 9.9 3.7 4.2 165.4
173 12.6 5.1 75 107.5
174 14.7 7.5 7: 189.8
175 13.2 7.0 6.2 156.2
Roofing, siding, and sheet metal work 176 | 16.7. 8.9 78 245.7

See footnotes on Table I-1 for a, b, and c.

14


constructed concrete pad. As they were lifting
the scaffold, the top section partially separated
from the adjoining section, toppled over, and
contacted the power line. A 28-year-old
carpenter and a 31-year-old laborer were
electrocuted. The other five workers were
hospitalized with electrical -burns [NIOSH
1987b].

Case No. 6 — Three Fatalities

On September 25, 1989, six workers were
using a mobile, elevated work platform to in-
stall aluminum siding on a warehouse under
construction. The platform measured 25.5 feet
from ground level to the top guardrail. Ap-
proximately 3 days before the incident, the
crew had passed the platform under a 69,000-
volt overhead power line located 34 feet
above the ground. On the day of the incident,
the crew tried to pass the platform under the
same power line at a different location where
the power line was only 27 feet above ground
level. In addition, fill dirt brought into this
location for landscaping caused the ground
level to slope upward approximately 1.5 feet.
As the crew passed the platform under the
power line, the top guardrail contacted the
bottom phase of the power line. Three crew
members (a 30-year-old laborer and two steel
workers aged 34 and 38) were electrocuted;
three others were seriously burned [NIOSH
1990].

‘CONCLUSIONS

Many employers, contractors, and workers
may be unaware of the hazards of working
with scaffolds near overhead power lines. If
the current and the proposed OSHA regula-
tions had been followed, particularly with
regard to minimum clearances, the electrocu-
tions reported here could have been
prevented.

RECOMMENDATIONS: © .

The following precautions should be taken
to prevent electrocutions and injuries result-
ing from contact between overhead power
lines and conductive tools, materials, or
scaffolds:

© Employers, contractors, and workers
should comply with the current OSHA
regulations for working with scaffolds
near energized power lines [29 CFR
1926.21 (b)(2), 1926.50, 1926.416(a)(1),
1926.416(a)(3), 1926.451(d)(6)].

@ In accordance with the proposed OSHA
regulations [51 Fed. Reg. 42706 (1986)],
scaffolds should not be used or moved
within the following minimum clearance
distances from exposed, energized power
lines:

— 2 feet for insulated power lines of less
than 300 volts

— 10 feet for insulated power lines of 300
volts or more and for all uninsulated
power lines

© Employers should review existing safety
Programs and revise them where needed
to address work with scaffolds around
power lines.

© Employers should develop and implement
safety programs where none exist. Com-
prehensive safety programs should in-
clude, but not be limited to, safety training
in the hazards of scaffolds and power lines,
with special emphasis on avoiding inadver-
tent contact.

@ Managers and workers should conduct in-

itial and daily surveys at the worksite
before beginning any job; managers

Scaffolds Near Power Lines

~~


UNIT VII

CONSTRUCTION SAFETY AND HEALTH MANAGEMENT

PURPOSE To impress upon civil engineering students the significance of a
systematic approach to achieving good safety and health in construction
projects and to present information on the principles and practice of
safety and health management as applicable to construction projects.

OBJECTIVES To familiarize the students with:
1. OSHA and ANSI requirements for safety and health management;

- 2. Elements of an effective construction safety and health program;
namely,
(a) Top management commitment
(b) Goal setting
(c) Organization and administration
(d) Planning
(e) Project safety rules
(f) Training and worker orientation
(g) Accident investigation and record keeping
(h) Safety budget
(i) Safety audits

3. Contractual aspects of safety and health management.

KEY TERMS OSHA requirements; ANSI standards; BRT model programs; safety and
health program; top management commitment; policy statement; goal
setting; organization and administration; assignment of responsibilities;
communication network; safety meetings; safety committees; safety
director; planning; safety rules; training; worker orientation; training
resources; accident investigation; record keeping; safety budget; safety
audit; safety and health in bids and contracts.

Vu-1


20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

Be sure that all guards are in place.
Do not remove, displace, damage, or
destroy any safety device or safeguard
furnished or provided for use on the
job, nor interfere with the use thereof.

Do not enter an area which has been
roped off or barricaded.

If you must work around power
shovels, cranes, trucks, and dozers,
make sure operators can always see
you.

Never oil, lubricate or fuel equipment
while it is running or in motion.

Rope off barricade danger areas.

Keep away from the edge of cuts, em-
bankments, trenches, holes and/or pits.

Trenches must be shored or sloped to
comply with the most stringent
reqirements. Keep out of trenches or
cuts that have not been properly
sloped or shored. Excavated or other
material shall not be stored nearer
than 3 feet from the edge of any
excavation.

Use the "four and one" rule when
using a ladder. One foot of base for
every four feet of height.

Always secure the bottom of the
ladder with cleats and/or safety feet.
Lash off the top of ladder to avoid
shifting.

Ladders must extend three feet above
a landing for proper use.

Defective ladders must be properly
tagged and removed form service.

Figure VII-2. (Continued)

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

35.

36.

37.

Keep ladder base free of debris, horses,
wires, material, etc.

Build scaffolds according to manufac-
turers’ recommendations.

Scaffold planks must be cleated or
secured to prevent them from sliding.

Use only extension cords of the three
prong type. Check the electrical
grounding system daily. ~~~

The use of safety belts with safety lines
when working form unprotected high
places is mandatory. Always keep your
line as tight as possible.

Tar kettles must be kept at least 25 ft.
from buildings or structures and never
on roofs.

Open fires are prohibited.

Know what emergency procedures have
been established for your job site.
(Location of Emergency Phone, First
Aid Kit, Stretcher location, Fire
Extinguishers location, Evacuation Plan,
etc.)

Notify your supervisor of unlabeled or
suspect toxic substances immediately
and avoid contact.

The information contained herein in no way
relieves suppliers or contractors of their
lawful or contractual responsibilities and
obligations for safety. Suppliers and/or

subcontractors

should seek professional

guidance (legal / safety) in developing their
own safety rules and programs.

VIl-9


Proper Training of Workers

Employers should provide workers with
proper training, including the manufacturers’
tecommendations for installing and operating
suspended scaffold systems and for using
personal fall protection equipment. Untrained
personnel should never be permitted to work
from any type of suspension scaffold.

Dwayne Smith and Ronald Stanevich,
Division of Safety Research, NIOSH, were the
principal contributors to this Alert. Comments
or questions concerning this Alert should be
directed to Thomas R. Bender, M.D., Director,
Division of Safety Research, National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health, 944
Chestnut Ridge Road, Morgantown, WV
26505-2888; telephone, (304) 291-4595.

We greatly appreciate your assistance, which
is crucial to protecting the lives of American
workers. :

.

J. Donald Millar, M.D., D.T.P.H. (Lond.)

Assistant Surgeon General

Director, National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health

Centers for Disease Control

Bobick TG, Schnitzer PG, Stanevich RL
[1990]. Investigation of selected occupational

Falls from Suspension Scaffolds

fatalities caused by falls from elevations. In:
Das B, ed. Advances in industrial ergonomics
and safety, ll. London, England: Taylor &
Francis, pp. 527-534.

BLS [1988]. Occupational injuries and ill-
nesses in the United States by industry, 1986.
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor,
Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bulletin No. 2308.

CFR. Code of Federal regulations. Washing-
ton, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office,
Office of the Federal Register.

51 Fed. Reg. 42680 [1986]. Occupational
Safety and Health Administration: safety
standards for scaffolds used in the construc-
tion industry; notice of proposed rulemaking.
(To be codified at 29 CFR 1926.)

NIOSH [1989a]. Fatal accident circumstan-
ces and epidemiology: caulking mechanic
dies in fall when scaffold fails. Morgantown,
WV: U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, Public Health Service, Centers for
Disease Control, National Institute for Oc-
cupational Safety and Health, NIOSH FACE
Report 89-29.

NIOSH [1989b]. Fatal accident circumstan-
ces and epidemiology: cement finisher dies
after 160-foot fall from scaffold. Morgantown,
WV: U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, Public Health Service, Centers for
Disease Control, National Institute for Oc-
cupational Safety and Health, NIOSH FACE
Report 89-21.

NIOSH [1989c]. Fatal accident circumstan-
ces and epidemiology: foreman and painter
die in 48-foot fall when scaffold collapses.
Morgantown, WV: U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services, Public Health Service,
Centers for Disease Control, National Institute


10.

ll.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

Standards for the Construction Industry, OSHA, 29 CFR Part 1926,
Commerce Clearing House, Inc., Chicago, IL (1993).

National Safety Council: Basic Elements of an Employer Program
to Provide a Safe and Healthful Work Environment, American
National Standard, ANSI A10-38-1991 (December 1991).
National Safety Council: Construction and Demolition Operations -
Safety and Health Program Requirements for Multi - Employer
Projects, American National Standard, ANSI A10-33-1992
(February 1992).

The Business Roundtable: Model for an Owner Safety Process, Air
Products and Chemicals, Inc., Construction Industry Safety
Excellence Award Program (June 1988).

The Business Roundtable: Model for an Owner Safety Process,
Shell Oil Company, 1990 Owner Award Winner, Construction
Industry Safety Excellence Award Program (1990).

The Business Roundtable: Model for an Owner Safety Process,
Monsanto Chemical Company, 1989 Owner Award Recipient,
Construction Industry Safety Excellence Award Program (March
1992).

The Business Roundtable: Model for an Owner Safety Process, Gulf
States Inc., 1989 Constructor Award Recipient, Construction
Industry Safety Excellence Award Program (1989).

Levitt, R.E., and N.M. Samelson: Construction Safety Management,
McGraw-Hill, New York, NY .(1987).

Peyton, R.X., and T.C. Rubio: Construction Safety Practices and
Principles, Van Nostrund Reinhold, New York, NY (1991).
Dailey, D.A.: Creativity and Motivation: Keys to Effective Safety
Committees, Professional Safety (December 1986).

. Roberts, C.A.: Construction Safety Training, EXCEL, Vol.3, No.3,

Center for Excellence in Construction Safety, West Virginia
University, Morgantown, WV (May 1990).

Potts, D.L.: Essential Elements of a Construction Safety and Health
Program, EXCEL, Vol.5, No.4, Center for Excellence in
Construction Safety, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV
(Fall 1992).

Associated Builders and Contractors: Merit Safety Performance
Program (MSPP), Safety Program Audit Form (undated).
Construction Industry Cost Effectiveness Southeastern Michigan
Study Group: Model Bidding and Contracting Guidelines, Michigan
Construction Users Council, Saline, MI (1990).

American Institute of Architects: General Conditions of the Contract
for Construction, AIA Document A201 (1987).

Moulton, L.K., Usmen, M.A., and D.L. Potts: National Forum on
Construction Safety and Health Priorities, Center for Excellence in
Construction Safety, Department of Civil Engineering, West
Virginia University, Morgantown, WV (September 1989).

VII-15


Event or exposure
resulting in
injury or illness

I
I

on oft
employer's employer’ s
premises premises

i
! i |

|
Employee Employee present. Employee in Employee
engaged in at the location as travel status engaged in
work-related a condition and engaged in activity for
activity of employment work or travel own personal
function use or
enjoyment
| | | |
Presumed Not
work work
related related
. Tf a case is work related, and
1
1 i}
Results from a work Does not result
accident or from an from a work accident
exposure in the or from an exposure
work environment in the work
and is environment
' |
1
[a aeach| [an 11ane:
I
! | | | —
Medical Loss Restriction Transfer None
treatment of of work to of
(other than conscious- or motion another these
first aid) ness job
1 1 ! | 1 \
Then case Then case
must be is not
recorded to be
recorded

Figure IV-3. Guide to recordability of cases under the Occupational Safety and Health Act

IV-10


Preventing Falls from Suspension Scaffolds

WARNING!

Workers may die or be injured if scaffold equipment and fall protection systems

are defective or misused.

Take the following steps to protect yourself if
you are working from suspension scaffolds:

© Always use appropriate fall protection when
working from suspension scaffolds.
Generally, both guardrail systems and body
belt or hamess systems should be used.

© Ensure that a competent person has in-
spected all scaffolds, scaffold parts, and
personal fall protection equipment before
each use.

© Shield scaffold suspension ropes and
droplines for body belt or harness systems
during the following:

— Hot processes such as welding

— Processes that use acids or other cor-
rosives

— Processes that involve sharp edges or
abrasion

Use structurally sound portions of build-
ings or other structures to anchor droplines
or body belt or harness systems and
tiebacks for suspension scaffold support
devices. Droplines and tiebacks should be
secured to separate anchor points on
structural members.

Participate ‘in any training programs of-
fered by your employer.

For additional information, refer to NIOSH Alert: Request for
Assistance in Preventing Worker Injuries and Deaths Caused
by Falls from Supension Scaffoilds [DHHS (NIOSH) 92-108],
or call 1-800-35-NIOSH. Single copies of the Alert are available
from the following:

Publications Dissemination, DSDTT
National Institute for Occupational Safety

Worker with fall protection systems in place.
Please tear out and post. Distribute copies to workers.

and Health
4676 Columbia Parkway
Cincinnatl, OH 45226

Telephone: (513) 533-8287

‘_ Public Health Service
Centers for Disease Control

and Heaith

~atw U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

~~ __ National institute for Occupational Safety

*U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1992-750-160/60025


Health, 944 Chestnut Ridge Road, Morgan-
town, West Virginia 26505-2888; telephone
(304) 291-4595.

Further information about electrical hazards is
available in seven previously published
NIOSH Alerts [NIOSH 1984, 1985, 1986b,
1986c, 1986d, 1987a, 1989a],

\ Os

|. Donald Millar, M.D., D.T.P.H. (Lond.)
Assistant Surgeon General
Director, National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health
Centers for Disease Control

29 CFR 1926.21(b)(2).
regulations. Washington, DC: U.S. Govern-
ment Printing Office, Office of the Federal
Register.

Code of Federal

29 CFR 1926.50. Code of Federal regula-
tions. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
Printing Office, Office of the Federal Register.

29 CFR 1926.416(a)(1), (3). Code of Federal
regulations. Washington, DC: U.S. Govern-
ment Printing Office, Office of the Federal
Register.

29 CFR 1926.451(d)(6). Code of Federal
regulations. Washington, DC: U.S. Govern-
ment Printing Office, Office of the Federal
Register.

51 Fed. Reg. 42706 [1986]. Occupational
Safety and Health Administration: safety

standards for scaffolds used in the construc-
tion industry; proposed rulemaking.

NIOSH [1984]. NIOSH Alert: request for as-
sistance in preventing electrocutions of
workers in fast food restaurants. Cincinnati,
OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, Public Health Service, Centers for
Disease Control, National Institute for Oc-
cupational Safety and Health, DHHS (NIOSH)
Publication No. 85~104,

NIOSH [1985]. NIOSH Alert: request for as-
sistance in preventing electrocutions from
contact between cranes and power lines. Cin-
cinnati, OH: U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, Public Health Service,
Centers for Disease Control, National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health, DHHS
(NIOSH) Publication No. 85111.

NIOSH [1986a]. Four members of a main-
tenance crew electrocuted in California at a
major naval installation. Morgantown, WV:
U.S. Department of Health and Human Serv-
ices, Public Health Service, Centers for Dis-
ease Control, National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health, Division of Safety Research,
Fatal Accident Circumstances and Epidemiol-
ogy (FACE) Report 87-2-I.

NIOSH [1986b]. NIOSH Alert: request for as-
sistance in preventing electrocutions due to
damaged receptacles and connectors. Cin-
cinnati, OH: U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, Public Health Service,
Centers for Disease Control, National In-
stitute for Occupational Safety and Health,
DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 87-100.

NIOSH [1986c]. NIOSH Alert: request for as-
sistance in preventing fatalities of workers
who contact electrical energy. Cincinnati,
OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, Public Health Service, Centers for

Scaffolds Near Power Lines


respirators are recommended by NIOSH only
for airborne concentrations less than or equal
to 25 times the OSHA PEL for general in-
dustry—50 pg/m? [NIOSH 1987b]. Further-
more, manufacturer's instructions regarding
quality of air, air pressure, and inside diameter

and length of hoses must be strictly followed. -

Use of longer hoses, hoses having a smaller
inside diameter, or hoses with kinks and bends
may restrict the flow of air to the respirator.

In all cases, respiratory protection should be
donned before entering the contaminated
work area, and it should be removed only after
the worker has left that area.

Medical Surveillance

Medical Monitoring

BLLs are currently the best indicator of per-
sonal lead exposure. Workers potentially ex-
posed to lead should therefore be monitored
for the presence of lead in blood and the
effects of lead on the bload-forming system.
This assessment is necessary to ensure that
engineering controls, personal hygiene prac-
tices, and PPE are preventing lead exposure.

The OSHA general industry standard contains
provisions for the medical monitoring of
workers exposed to lead [29 CFR 1910.25].
NIOSH supports the use of these provisions
for construction workers but acknowledges
that these workers may require more frequent
blood lead monitoring (for example, monthly)
than specified in the OSHA standard because
of their highly variable, unpredictable ex-
posures to lead. Similar provisions for more
frequent monitoring have also been specified
by the Connecticut Department of Transpor-
tation to be included in bid specifications for
construction work involving lead exposure
[Connecticut Department of Transportation
4991].

Lead Poisoning in Construction Workers

Lead concentration in the blood should be
measured for any exposed worker who expe-
riences symptoms or signs of lead poisoning.
Analyses of blood should be performed only by
OSHA-listed laboratories (a listing is available
from the OSHA Analytical Laboratory in Sait
Lake City, Utah; telephone, 801-524-4270).

’ The results of all laboratory analyses, a des-

cription of the worker's job, and any available
data on possible exposures should be eval-
uated by a physician with experience and
training in occupational health. To detect the
health effects of excess lead exposure and to
provide a baseline for comparison with future
results, an occupational health interview and
a physical examination should be pertormed
before job placement, before returning to work
after being removed from the job because of
elevated blood lead concentrations, and an-
nually for all workers exposed to lead.

Medical Protection

The OSHA lead standard for general industry
[29 CFR 1910.1025] requires that certain ac-
tions be taken at given concentrations of lead
in the blood (see Table 4). These actions are
designed to prevent many of the adverse
health effects of lead exposure.

Mandatory Reporting

Presently, 15 States require laboratories and
health care providers to report cases of
elevated blood lead concentrations to the
State health department [Freund et al. 1989].
Table 5 provides a list of the States that re-
quire such reporting and the concentration
that requires reporting for each State. To
monitor progress in achieving the Healthy
People 2000 objective for lead concentrations
in blood [DHHS 1990], cases of elevated BLLs
should be reported to all State health depart-
ments.

13


Poor Safety
Record

STATISTICAL
DATA

Main Organizations
Collecting Data

Other Data
Sources

Discrepancies
in Data

Incidence Rates

site, climate, local codes and regulations.

. The work is very labor-intensive involving large forces and energies.
The tasks are very variable; mass production and standardization are
very difficult to achieve.

. The industry brings together diverse entities such as designers,
builders, planners, developers, skilled craftspeople, laborers, suppliers,
distributors, managers, lawyers and regulators. These entities are
joined together for a single project usually under complex
arrangements, and are then dispersed upon completion of the work.
The workforce is transient in most cases.

Because of the inherent diversity and complexity of construction projects,
the industry has traditionally suffered low productivity, a high degree
of disputes, litigation and business failures, and a poor record of site

Several organizations collect, process, and publish information/statistics
on occupational injuries and illnesses. The main ones are:

- The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA);

. The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS);

.« The National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS);

« The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH);
and

« The National Safety Council (NSC).

OSHA and BLS are within the U.S. Department of Labor. NCHS and
NIOSH are agencies housed in the U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services. NSC is a voluntary association consisting of both
individuals and organizations interested in promoting safety.

Injury and illness data are also compiled by the states (usually through
their labor departments and workers compensation programs), and by
insurance companies. While the states commonly publish these data,
insurance companies in general do not.

In studying safety and health statistics, it is important to recognize that
due to the different techniques and databases employed by different
agencies in compiling their statistics, (e.g. sampling techniques, data
analysis, using company reports, workers compensation data, death
certificates, etc.), significant discrepancies may exist between their
figures in reporting the same information.

Table I-1 summarizes the BLS estimates of the occupational injury and
illness incidence rates per 100 full-time workers in different industries
for 1990 and 1991. Table.I-2 shows for 1991 the breakdown of the
construction industry statistics into sectors represented by the various

1-3


Falls from
scaffolds ac-
counted for
21% (82 of
386 incidents
and 86 deaths)
of fatal falls
from working
surfaces re-
ported for the
period 1974 to
1978 [OSHA
1979]. Sus-
pension scaf-
folds were in-
volved in 30%
(25 of 82 inci-
dents and 27
deaths) of the falls from scaffolds. Of the 25
falls from suspension scaffolds, 68% (17) in-
volved scaffold equipment failure. Personal
fall protection equipment was used in only
three of these incidents, but it was used im-
properly in each case. In one incident, a
worker fell out of his improperly fastened
safety belt; in the other two incidents, exces-
sively long lanyards broke or separated after
victims fell 30 feet:

Figure 1. Worker with fall protection
systems in place.

ND PROPOSED OSHA

ONS: .:

OSHA regulations were promulgated in 1971
to protect workers from the hazards of moor’
from scaffolds in both general industry [29 CFR
1910.28] and the construction industry (29 CFR
1926.451]. However, falls from scaffolds
continued to occur, and in 1986, OSHA pro-
posed to revise the construction industry
safety regulations addressing all types of
scaffolds [51 Fed. Reg.* 42680 (1986)].

‘Code of Federal Regulations, See CFR in reterences.
"Federal Register. See Fed. Reg. in references.

The proposed regulations would apply to
the design, construction, and use of ail scaf-
folds in construction. Instead of specifica-
tion standards, the proposed regulations
would use performance criteria to reduce

the danger of slipping or falling from scaf-
folds. °

The proposed regulations provide general
requirements for all scaffolds regarding
capacity, construction, access, use, and fall
protection. In addition, they include pro-
visions for the following:

© Use of a competent person (as defined in
29 CFR 1926.32) to inspect scaffolds and
equipment before use

© Use of scaffold components capable of
supporting proper loads

© Proper shielding of ropes from corrosive
processes or heat

© Use of both guardrail systems and body
belt or harness systems for work from
suspension scaffolds

OSHA has scheduled final action on the pro-
posed regulations for scaffolds and fall protec-
tion systems in 1992 [Occup Saf & Health
Rep 1992].

| CASE REPORTS: ©

The NIOSH Fatal Accident Circumstances
and Epidemiology (FACE) Program has been
investigating fall-related fatalities among
workers since October 1988. The following
subsections present findings from five case
reports of falls from suspension scaffolds that
resulted in the deaths of six workers.

Falls from Suspension Scaffolds


2) Accidents are caused by unsafe acts and unsafe conditions;

3) Unsafe acts are caused by faults of persons; and

4) Faults of persons are created by the social environment, or acquired ws
* through inheritance.

SOCIAL FAULT UNSAFE ACTS
ENVIRONMENTAL —»> OF —> & — ACCIDENT — > INJURY
AND PERSON CONDITIONS

ANCESTARY

NN

MISTAKES OF PEOPLE

Figure IV-1. Heinrich’s Domino Theory (2)

Person Based The most important domino in this approach is the one which relates to
Approach unsafe acts and conditions (but particularly to unsafe acts) which results
from person-based factors. It should be noted that the Domino theory
has lost its popularity with the advent of the newer, more complex wat
accident/injury causation models.

Behavioral Many safety specialists have emphasized the behavioral side of

Models accident/injury causation, referring to the "accident proneness" of
certain individuals (3). Efforts were made to identify such workers and
either release them or not hire them in the first place. In later studies
however, it was to reliably predict which workers are really injury
prone. Yet, the belief still holds in many circles.

Motivational Other behavioral models have considered motivational factors and
Factors rewards for safety. However, there is some controversy over whether
workers perceive positive rewards for working safely (4).

Attitude According to Ferry (5), most unsafe acts can be attributed to the
worker’s attitude and to lack of knowledge or skill. Even after training
to correct skill deficiencies, there is still the matter of attitude. Based on
worker behavior, it may be possible to list several characteristics of
poor attitude. These are:

Characteristics - Poor work habits
of Poor Attitude . Indifference
- Daring acts

Iv-4 ww


10.

11.

12.

13.

14.
15.

16.

17.

18.

19,

20.

21.

Standards for General Industry, OSHA 29 CFR Part 1910,
Commerce Clearing House, Inc., Chicago, IL (1993).

. U.S. Department of Labor: Occupational Safety and Health

Standards for the Construction Industry, OSHA 29 CFR Part 1926,
Commerce Clearing House, Inc., Chicago, IL (1993).

. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services: NIOSH Pocket

Guide to Chemical Hazards, PHS, CDC (September 1985).

. Brauer, R.L.: Safety and Health for Engineers, Van Nostrund

Reinhold, New York, NY (1990).

. Potts, D.: Manual Handling of Materials: Training for Safe Lifting,

EXCEL, Vol.4, No.4, Center for Excellence in Construction Safety,
West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV (Fall 1991).

. National Safety Council: Accident Prevention Manual for Industrial

Operations: Engineering and Technology, 9th edition, F.E. Mc Elroy
(ed.), Chicago, IL (1988). .

Waters, T.R., et.al.: Revised NIOSH Equation for the Design and
Evaluation of Manual Lifting Tasks, Ergonomics, Vol.36, No.7,
pp.749-776 (1993).

Center for Excellence in Construction Safety: Manual Handling
Equipment Safety Considerations, EXCEL, Vol.5, No.1, West
Virginia University, Morgantown, WV (Fall 1991).

Potts, D.: General Considerations for Safe Rigging Practices,
EXCEL, Vol.5, No.1, Center for Excellence in Construction Safety,
West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV (Fall 1991).
Kliwinski, D.: Categories of Formwork Accidents, Center for
Excellence in Construction Safety Newsletter, Vol.2, No.4, West
Virginia University, Morgantown, WV (April 1989).

Sparks, G.C.: Preventable Injuries Associated with Accidents While
Handling Reinforcing Steel, Coricrete Construction (August 1984).
Center for Occupational Research and Development: Safety of
Concrete, Forms and Shoring, Safety and Health Training Module
SH-37, Waco, TX (1981).

Kliwinski, D.: Preventing Injuries During the Installation of
Reinforcing Steel, Center for Excellence in Construction Safety
Newsletter, Vol.2, No.4, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV
(April 1989).

Fullman, J.B.: Construction Safety, Security, and Loss Prevention,
John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY (1984).

Cartwirght, E.: Falls-Leading Cause of Construction Related Deaths,
Center for Excellence in Construction Safety Newsletter, Vol.2,
No.1, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV (June 1988).
Kliwinski, D.P.: Elevated Workplaces: Ladders and Scaffolds, Center
for Excellence in Construction Safety Newsletter, Vol.2, No.1, West
Virginia University, Morgantown, WV (June 1988).

Paterson, I.: Plan for Roof Safety, Center for Excellence in
Construction Safety Newsletter, Vol.2, No.1, West Virginia
University, Morgantown, WV (June 1988).

Kliwinski, D.P.: Fall Arrest Equipment: Uses and Requirements,
Center for Excellence in Construction Safety Newsletter, Vol.2,
No.2, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV (October 1988).

V-64


Request for Assistance in

PREVENTING LEAD POISONING IN CONSTRUCTION

WORKERS

The National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH) requests assis-
tance in preventing the lead poisoning* of
workers engaged in the maintenance,
repainting, or demolition of bridges or
other steel structures coated with lead-
containing paints. NIOSH recently learned
of 42 workers who developed lead poison-
ing while working on bridges. Operations
such as abrasive blasting, sanding, burn-
ing, cutting, or welding on steel structures
coated with lead-containing paints may
produce very high concentrations of lead
dust and fumes. Furthermore, the recent
introduction of containment structures
(enclosures designed to reduce environ-
mental contamination by capturing par-
ticles of paint and used blasting material)
may resuit in even higher airborne concen-
trations of lead. Lead dust at the worksite

“For the purposes of this document, NIOSH has defined lead poison-
Ing as a concentration of lead In whole blood (known by OSHA as a
blood lead level, or BLL) exceeding 50 micrograms per deciliter
(ug/dl). See Table 4 for a list of actions required by the

‘Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) general Industry standard
for various BLLs.

Lead Poisoning in Construction Workers

may also resuit in contamination of workers’
homes and automobiles.

For the construction industry, NIOSH and
the Occupational Safety and Health Ad-
ministration (OSHA) have recently recom-
mended that exposure to lead dust and
fumes be minimized by the use of engi-
neering controls and work practices, and
by the use of personal protective equip-
ment (PPE)—including respirators—for
additional protection [OSHA/NIOSH 1991].
Airborne lead concentrations and blood
lead concentrations should be monitored
to determine the effectiveness of controls
and PPE. All new contracts of Federal,
State, and local departments of transpor-
tation should include specifications for a
mandatory program of worker protection
from lead poisoning during the mainte-
nance, repainting, or demolition of bridges
and other steel structures.

NIOSH requests that the recommenda-
tions in this Alert be brought to the attention


REFERENCES

v1

. National Safety Council: Accident Facts (1993).

2. The Business Roundtable: Improving Construction Safety

Performance, Construction Industry Cost Effectiveness Project
Report A-3, New York, NY (May 1988).

. Construction Industry Cost Effectiveness Southeastern Michigan

Study Group: Model Bidding and Contracting Guidelines, Michigan
Construction Users Council, Saline, MI (1990).

. Heinrich, H.W.: Industrial Accident Prevention, McGraw-Hill, New

York, NY (1931).

. Hinze, J., and L.L. Applegate: Cost of Construction Injuries, Journal

of Construction Engineering and Management, ASCE, Vol.117,
No.3, pp: 537-550 (September 1991).

. Robinson, M.R.: Accident Cost Accounting as a Means of

Improving Construction Safety, Department of Civil Engineering
Technical Report No. 242, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA
(1979).

. Levitt, R.E., and N.M. Samelson: Construction Safety Management,

McGraw-Hill, New York, NY (1987).

. Peyton, R.X., and T.C. Rubio: Construction Safety Practices and

Principles, Van Nostrund Reinhold, New York, NY (1991).

I-12


CONTENTS
OF THE
MODULE

Following Units

This instructional module responds to the critical need for the
development of a resource document for use by civil engineering faculty
and students in the area of construction safety and health. Many
graduates of Civil Engineering programs frequently find themselves in
responsible positions as employees of or consultants to construction
project participants, having little or no background or training in safety
and health. Their knowledge on this important topic may be less than
adequate for providing the optimal professional service in design,
management, or supervision. Traditionally, the emphasis in civil
engineering curricula has been on the safety of a facility as designed or
constructed, and little attention has been given to public safety and
health, and occupational safety and health during the construction
process.. Most of the knowledge on work site safety and health has
been gained, and-to:a large: extent-continues to be acquired, through
experience on the job. It is hoped that this module will fill an
important gap which exists in the civil engineering curriculum,
affording opportunities for teaching and learning the significance,
principles and practice of construction safety and health.

In the following units of this instructional module we will present state-
of-the-art information on the rationale for safety and health, legislative
aspects and related organizations, principles of accident analysis and
injury control, construction industry safety and health practices and
standards, engineering, design and contract administration for safe
construction, and management of safety and health in construction
projects.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What are these unique aspects of the construction industry leading to
the poor safety and health record of the industry?

2. Name and discuss the organizations which collect, process and
publish statistical information on occupational safety and health.

3. What is meant by the term incidence rate? What types of incidence
rates are compiled by the Bureau of Labor Statistics?

4. What types of statistical information on occupational safety and
health are available from the Michigan Department of Labor? What
is the significance of this information?

5. List and discuss the seven critical issues (needing attention) that were
established at the National Forum on Construction Safety and Health
Priorities organized in 1989 by CECS. Which one of these issues do
you think is the most important? Why?

Tl


ABSTRACT

The primary aim of this instructional module is to develop in the faculty and students an awareness
of the many facets of safety and health, as applicable to civil engineering and construction work.
Lack of a significant coverage of occupational and public safety and health topics in the related
curricula has produced a gap of knowledge; this module attempts to fill this gap. Although a broad
range of issues, concepts, principles and recommendations regarding construction safety and health
are covered, this coverage is not intended to be comprehensive or exhaustive. Numerous references
are provided in the module to lead the faculty and students into a vast wealth of knowledge in the
fast changing field of safety and health engineering and management.

The module consists of seven units which can be utilized independently, or in desired combinations.
It is envisioned that the information presented will be integrated in design and professional courses
as a complement to the existing course materials, as deemed suitable. The loose-bound format in
which the units are presented should allow future expansion and updates. Each unit starts with a
set of goals and objectives, lists the key terms relevant to the covered topics, presents concise
information on the subject matter, and contains a list of the cited references at the end. Review
questions are also incorporated in each unit to guide the faculty and students to synthesizing the
important parts of the contents, and developing detailed summaries of the material covered
through the answers.

In the first unit of this module an introduction to the occupational safety and health problems in the
construction industry is offered using statistical data, followed by a discussion of the needs for
improving the industry's poor safety and health record, with special emphasis on the need for
education and training. In the second unit, humanitarian, legal, institutional and economic
concems are described, stressing that accidents cost money and effective safety and health
programs result in tangible savings. The third unit covers the salient points of safety and health
legislation from a historical perspective, and presents information on the various federal and state
agencies, and professional and trade organizations involved in safety and health.

The fourth unit of this module presents findamental information on the causation of accidents,
injuries and illnesses, and accident investigation, reporting, and prevention/control principles. The
recognition and control of specific hazards associated with a variety of construction tasks and
operations are covered in the fifth unit at some depth, with citations of the relevant OSHA
standards, The sixth unit is devoted to the understanding of the causes of construction and
structural failures through well-known case histories, along with the definition of the engineer's role
(and liability) in the delivery of safe design and construction. Finally, in the seventh unit, the need
for and the elements of effective company and project safety and health programs are discussed
with emphasis on planning, organization, implementation and evaluation.

There may be several important topics related to construction safety and health not covered in this
module, or covered in insufficient detail. The faculty and students are encouraged to identify and
explore such topics through their own research. Also, some of the information presented,
especially the information pertaining to regulations and standards, may become obsolete with time.

It is the responsibility of the engineer to stay current in the field to effectively perform his/her
professional duties.


The Role of the
Design Engineer

Erosion of Authority
over Design Execution

Legal Exposure

Cost Factor

Design Engineer’s
Role in
Construction

insufficient attention to the preparation of change orders. Yet, change
orders become a part of the contract documents, and any errors or
omissions on them actually can become design flaws, which might have
an impact on the safety of the constructed facility and the site
personnel. Change orders should contain clearly written instructions
supported by complete and accurate drawings to avoid confusion and
poor guidance on the project changes.

Many building failures occur during construction. As the most critical
phase of a project, construction, especially the erection of the structural
frame, warrants special attention from the design engineer. Ironically,
the design engineer’s role during this phase is decreasing, despite the
growing complexities associated with the construction process and
technology.

According to Carper (16), there are two basic reasons for the erosion of
the engineer’s authority over the execution of design. The first reason
is the issue of professional liability and some seemingly arbitrary
litigation outcomes. In response to this dilemma, many engineers have
voluntarily reduced or eliminated the field inspection functions from their
services. The increase in legal exposure is arguably a legitimate
business concern; however, indemnification has proven to be a weak
legal defense. Further, it was observed that the design engineers
responsible for the Hyatt Regency Hotel were held liable for the
collapse, despite their attempt to relinquish their design responsibilities
to the fabricators. Similarly, the design engineer for L’Ambiance Plaza,
who did not perform field inspection, surrendered his full professional
insurance policy to settle legal claims resulting from the collapse.

The second reason for the loss of engineer’s control is the cost. In an
attempt to reduce cost, clients are often reluctant to retain the services
of the design engineer for field inspection, if they find a less expensive
alternative. In a competitive market, engineers may have to agree to
this conflict in responsibility and authority, in order to appease clients.
Occasionally (especially in fast-track construction projects) the
responsibility for field inspection is left to the discretion of the
construction manager. Since the desire to reduce the cost and duration
of construction is an important consideration to the construction
manager, this approach may be preferable; but it may compromise
quality and safety.

It is clear that, in the interest of safety and quality, the design engineers

should assume a greater role during the construction phase of a project

in order to control the execution of their design. Engineers can improve

the quality of construction by:

. Assuring that the construction materials meet the specification
requirements;

. Assuring that the construction details conform to the contract

VI-11


Hazard Control
In Confined
Spaces

Monitoring,
Protective
Equipment

and
Communications

Rescue
Operations

APPLICABLE OSHA
STANDARDS

systems. Hydrogen sulfide is both toxic and explosive. Another highly
explosive gas, methane, is also often present in sewer lines. Other lethal
gases are carbon dioxide which is naturally present in soil, and carbon
monoxide which is usually produced by internal combustion engines.
Leakage can cause chemical vapors to poison a confined space
atmosphere; ammonia and chlorine are typical toxic fumes that may be
encountered. Nitrous fumes may be left in a confined space
immediately after explosive operations. Very small quantities of certain
vapors and gases can cause fire and explosions. While methane and
hydrogen sulfide are explosive gases, petroleum and vapors of solvents
such as acetone and toluene can cause fire.

Good advance planning and adequate training in safe methods of work
in confined: spaces will enable workers to enter these areas safely.
Training will vary according to the nature of the activity and the
confined space. The training program should consider the role of
supervisors, workers, persons outside the confined spaces, and rescue
personnel. A permit-to-work system, in which each step is planned and
authorized, is required for confined space entry. Other alternatives to
entry should be considered for confined space operations wherever
possible. If entry to the space is unavoidable, then appropriate
breathing apparatus should be considered. The use of mechanical or
forced ventilation is the first choice. Before entry into a confined
space, the space should be withdrawn from service and be isolated from
electrical and mechanical sources.

Personnel planning to work in confined spaces should check for leakages
and test the atmosphere for oxygen, and flammable, explosive and toxic
gases. Once begun, the operation should be constantly monitored.
Personal protective equipment such as breathing apparatus, harnesses,
lifelines, and rescue equipment must be provided and used as necessary.
Personnel must be informed on the details of activities and the required
communications. A trained person should be in attendance and in
continual verbal communication with the workers in confined spaces
throughout the operation.

Rescue operations may be needed when a person is injured, or collapses
in a confined space, becoming unconscious. Rescuers must wear
breathing apparatus and safety harnesses that are attached to a lifeline
before entering the space. The rescue equipment must include lifting
tools such as tripods and winches to carry the unconscious workers.

OSHA has recently issued its final general industry rule for Permit-
Required Confined Spaces (29 CFR 1910.146). The standard does not
apply to the construction industry; however, contractors are required to
protect their employees from confined space hazards. In addition,
OSHA’s Construction Industry Safety Training and Education Standard
(29 CFR 1926.21, paragraphs 6(i) and 6(ii) ) requires construction
employers to protect their employees from confined space hazards.

V-54


Recommended
Weight Limit

Lifting Index

Manual Handling
Assist Devices

Hooks

Bars

Two-wheel Trucks

RWL= Recommended weight limit; and

Metric US customary
LC = load constant = 23 kg 51 Ibs
HM = horizontal multiplier = (25/H) (10/H)
VM = vertical multiplier. = (1-(0.003{V-75|)) (1-(0.0075]V-30))
DM = distance multiplier | = (0.82+(4.5/D)) (0.82+(1.8/D))

AM = asymmetric multiplier = (1-(0.0032A)) (1-(0.0032A))
FM = frequency multiplier (from Table V-2)
CM = coupling multiplier (from Table V-3).

In the above formulas:

H= horizontal distance of hands from midpoint between the ankles.
Measure at the origin and the destination of the lift (cm or in).

V= vertical distance of the hands from the floor. Measure at the
origin and destination of the lift (cm or in).

D= __vertical travel distance between the origin and the destination of
the lift (cm or in).

A= angle of asymmetry-angular displacement of the load from the
sagittal plane. Measure at the origin and destination of the lift
(degrees).

F= average frequency rate of lifting measured in lifts/min. Duration
is defined to be: < 1h; < 2h; or < 8h assuming appropriate
recovery allowances (see Table V-3).

Based on this equation, a lifting index (LI) has been defined as the ratio
of the load lifted to the recommended weight limit. The concept
suggests that the risk of injury increases as the load or job demands
exceeds some baseline capacity of the worker. LI is an index of
relative physical stress, and can be used to identify hazardous lifting
tasks.

A variety of tools and equipment are available to assist in the manual
handling of materials. Use of such items will aid in reducing strains and
other injuries. Each should be used only for the designed task,
inspected before use, and kept in good condition. Some of the
tools/equipment safeguards are (11):

Hooks should be used in a manner:so as not to glance off hard objects.

They should be stored in a safe place and maintained in ready-to-use
condition.

In working with bars, the body should be positioned to avoid contact
due to slippage or fall of material.

Trucks with widely-spaced wheels are recommended to prevent
overloading and knuckle guards should be furnished to protect hands
from contacts. Hand trucks should be in a vertical position when not
in use.

V-13


should then implement appropriate control
measures and training to address hazards
identified at the site.

®@ Employers should inform workers about
the hazards of erecting, moving, or working
from scaffolds near overhead power lines
or other energized circuits. These instruc-
tions should emphasize that most over-
head, high-voltage power lines are not
insulated and that workers should assume
that such lines are not insulated if there is
any doubt.

© Employers should notify the utility com-
pany when scaffolds must be erected or
moved in areas with overhead power lines
where the required clearances cannot be
maintained. In such situations, utility com-
panies should de-energize the power lines
or cover them with insulating hoses or
blankets betore any work is initiated.

© Before a scaffold is erected or moved,
employers should ensure that workers
consider the following factors:

— Distance from overhead power lines

— Vertical clearance between the ground
and any sagging power lines

— Scaffold height and weight
— Wheel condition
— Obstacles

— Ground slope or changes in elevation
that may aiter clearance distance

— Other ground or floor conditions

© Clearance between the power lines and
scaffold should be monitored. If a scaffold
is to be moved in the vicinity of overhead
power lines, a competent worker should be
assigned to observe the clearance and

Scaffolds Near Power Lines

warn others if the minimum distance is not
maintained.

® Electrically conductive tools or materials
should not be used where they may contact
overhead power lines. Nonconductive
tools or materials should be substituted.

© Manufacturers should consider developing
scaffolds made of nonconductive materials.

© Employers should establish procedures to
be followed in emergencies (for example,
if a scaffold contacts an electric power line,
keep all unauthorized personnel away from
the area).

© All employers and workers should be
trained in cardiopulmonary resuscitation
(CPR) [NIOSH 1986c, 1989a, 1989b,
1990a].

© Manufacturers or purchasers of scaffolds
should affix conspicuous decals to each
scaffold section warning about the hazards
of contacting overhead power lines.

NIOSH urges safety and trade associations,
electric utility companies, product manufac-
turers, and OSHA State consultative services
to bring these recommendations to the atten-
tion of all employers and workers using scaf-
folds.

| ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: :

Richard W. Braddee, Division of Safety Re-
search, NIOSH, was the principal author of
this Alert.

Comments or questions about this document
should be directed to Thomas R. Bender,
M.D., Director, Division of Safety Research,
National Institute for Occupational Safety and


Inspection Priorities

Imminent Danger

Catastrophies and
Fatalities

Employee Complaints

Special Inspection
Programs

Programmed
Inspections

Compliance
Officer’s
Role

Violations

De Minimis

OSHA’s order of inspection priorities are as follows (3):

1) Imminent danger is top priority, and represents a condition where
there is reasonable certainty that a danger exists and can be expected to
cause death or serious physical harm immediately. If not corrected, the
situation would most likely result in an accident causing severe or
permanently disabling injury.

2) Catastrophes and fatalities is represented by accidents and fatalities
resulting in the hospitalization of five or more employees. Such
occurrences must be reported to OSHA within 8 hours. Investigations
are made to determine if OSHA standards were violated and to avoid
recurrence of similar accidents.

3) Employee complaints are based on alleged violations of standards.
The Act gives each employee the right to request an OSHA inspection
if he or she feels there is an imminent danger from a hazard, or there
is a violation of an OSHA standard. The identity of the complainant
can be kept confidential, if requested.

4) Special inspection programs target specific hazards and specific
industries for which problems are perceived. Recent examples have
included trenching operations, and chemical plants producing hazardous
chemicals.

5) Programmed inspections involve random visits targeted at high-hazard
industries, occupations, or substances. Targeting is based on high
illness or injury incidence rates. Special emphasis may be regional or
national in scope, depending on the distribution of the workplaces
involved.

OSHA inspections are performed by compliance officers. Originally,
it was the intent that all inspections would be conducted without
advance notice to the employer, so the potential for surprise inspection
provided an incentive for all employers to eliminate or reduce hazards,
However, it has turned out that according to the Fourth Amendment, the
employer may request a warrant before the start of the inspection (4).
Once on site, the function of the compliance officer is to identify and
measure conditions and/or acts which are considered unsafe and in
violation of OSHA safety and health regulations. In the pursuit of his
duties, he may go wherever he wishes on the project. He may take
samples or measurements. He can request copies of literature,
documents or contracts which relate to safety or industrial hygiene. The
compliance officer may consult with employees regarding matters of
safety and health to the extent necessary for the conduct of an effective
and thorough inspection.

A citation is issued by the compliance officer when violations of OSHA
standards are observed. ¢ OSH Act provides the basis for
determining six classifications of violations:

1) De Minimis violations are those that have no direct or immediate
relationship to job safety and health (e.g. not posting the phone number
of the "nearest medical facility").


Organization and
Administration

Assignment of
Responsibilities

Communication
Network

Meetings

An organizational and administrative structure should be established to
achieve the best results from a safety and health program through line
management and support staff. This is possible through setting an
effective chain of communication between all levels. There is no set
tule as to the proper location of safety and health responsibility in an
organization; it is company specific, depending on the need. It is
common, however, to have a safety and health department at both the
home office of a company, as well as at the individual project level.
Usually, the home office serves a staff function, while the field office
provides a line function under the project superintendent.

It is important to recognize that safety on the project is everybody’s
responsibility. Following the commitment of top management comes
the assignment of safety duties. Employees at all levels must share in
these duties because each employee has a safety duty to every other
employee. Safety assignments must be understood by all employees.
The right of each employee to a safe work place must be explained and
delineated, along with the duty to help keep it that way. It is highly
desirable to put the assignments in writing. These might include
individual responsibilities for program accomplishment and/or
compliance for the company’s president, management , jobsite
superintendents, safety staff, foremen, craft personnel, subcontractors,
suppliers, architect/ engineers, owner personnel, and _ visitors.
Accountability should also be addressed stating how incentives are
distributed or disciplinary actions will be taken.

Maintaining an effective communication network on the jobsite is key
to successful safety and health management. Managers can accomplish
this by the chain of command system, direct contacts, and group
meetings. The chain of command system alone has drawbacks since it
can lead to distorted or "filtered" information through the hierarchy
which may provide misleading data on which to act. Managers who
walk through the job frequently and talk directly with the site personnel
can create a medium of effective two-way communication and convey
their safety and health priorities. It is better when they share
information with workers and foremen and listen to their feedback,
rather than just issuing orders. This way the integrity of the chain of
command system is not undermined. It is also important that follow-up
action is taken to address the issues discussed with the site personnel.
Otherwise, the interest in participation may dwindle.

Meeting with different supervisory groups and groups of craft workers
can also be very effective. They may be regularly scheduled or ad hoc,
or may be part of a project meeting (i.e. as an agenda item). Safety
meetings serve a good purpose for planning, or may address specific
problems. Toolbox meetings are particularly useful exchanging
information, and providing for continuing training to the workers.
Research (9) has shown that toolbox meetings addressing specific job

VII-5


Request for Assistance in

PREVENTING WORKER INJURIES AND DEATHS
CAUSED BY FALLS FROM SUSPENSION SCAFFOLDS

WARNING!

Workers may die or be injured if scaffold equipment and fall protection systems
are defective or misused.

The National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH) requests assis-
tance in preventing worker injuries and
deaths caused by falls from suspension
scaffolds. “Suspension scaffold” means
one or more working platforms suspended
by ropes or other means from an overhead
structure. Recent investigations by
NIOSH suggest that fatal falls occur as a
result of defective scaffold equipment, im-
proper installation or operation, improper
training of workers, or a failure to use
appropriate personal fall protection equip-
ment. This Alert describes five incidents

resulting in six deaths caused by falls from _

suspension scaffolds.

Safety regulations of the Occupational
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
establish specific requirements for sus-
pension scaffolds and their operation,
including the use of fall protection systems"
(Figure 1). Every employer, supervisor,
and worker involved in work from suspen-
sion scaffolds must comply with these

“Fall protection systems consist of body belt or hamess systems
(personal fail arrest systems) usad independent or in combination
with guardrail systems.

Fails from Suspension Scaffolds

regulations. NIOSH requests editors of
trade journals, safety and heaith officials,
and employers in the construction trades to
bring the recommendations in this Alert to
the attention of construction supervisors
and workers.

Falls are a leading cause of traumatic occupa-
tional death. For the period 1980-85, the
NIOSH National Traumatic Occupational
fatalities (NTOF) database indicates that falls
accounted for nearly 10% (3,491 of 36,210) of
all traumatic occupational deaths for which a
cause was identified (Bobick et al. 1990;
NIOSH 1991a]. For 1986, the U.S. Depart-
ment of Labor indicates that falls accounted
for 8% (289 of 3,610) of all occupational
fatalities from trauma [BLS 1988].

Fatal falls from scaffolds during the period
1980-85 accounted for 17% of all falls from
elevations (461 of 2,705) and were second
only to falls from buildings [Bobick 1988;
NIOSH 1991a].


- wae consroction ~@ national induary average

No. of Fatalities
8

Figure I-1. Fatality Statistics for 1983-1992: Construction vs.
National Industry Average

@ 7 “the construction —@ National Indusry Avernge

a

3

s

re

g-

2

2»

a.

e 4 1 ! \ ! \ l ! 1 |
wo esis tsetse tun

Year

Figure I-2. Fatality Rate Statistics for 1983-1992: Construction vs.
National Industry Average

1-7


Business
Roundtable
Model Programs

SAFETY AND HEALTH
PROGRAM ELEMENTS

Top Management
Commitment

Policy
Statement

Goal
Setting

Demolition Operations - Safety and Health Program Requirements for
Multi-Employer Projects". These documents provide guidance to
employers on how to construct effective programs, and assign
responsibilities to personnel.

The Business Roundtable, BRT (5,6,7,8) has published a number of
model safety and health programs to demonstrate success stories on how
owners and contractors can promote and achieve excellent safety and
health records on their projects. These cases particularly underscore the
need for owner involvement in jobsite safety throughout the execution
of the construction project.

Depending on the sophistication of the contracting firm, the nature of
the project, and owner requirements, a safety and health program can
be relatively plain and simple, or highly detailed. In this regard, there
is not a unique set of elements for a company safety and health
program. We will list and summarize here the key elements believed
to be common to successful programs. :

Research (9) has shown that. safety starts at the top. Companies in

which the chief executive has a strong commitment for safety and

health and communicates this concern to employees by word and deed

have better safety records than companies for which this is not true.

Although chief executives do not normally supervise construction

workers on the jobsite, the image they project and the behavior they

display on and off the jobsite can have a great impact on the company’s

safety performance. This can be achieved by:

. Creating an organizational culture in which safety and health are top
priority;

. Holding line managers accountable for the safety and health of their
subordinates; and

. Focusing on and providing staff support and other necessary resources
to help line managers meet their goals on safety and health.

A written safety and health policy statement issued by top management
is the best way to show the commitment to safety and health; to start
the communication of goals and expectations; and to set the ground
rules for the delivery of a successful program (10). A typical policy
statement is illustrated in Figure VII-1.

There needs to be clear goals for the safety and health program at the
corporate as well as the project level. These goals need to be
communicated to all employees. Goals may include zero fatalities and
permanent disability causing injuries, prevention of major fires, vehicle
accidents, etc., and full compliance with OSHA standards. The goals set
for the program should be measurable to assess whether they are being
successfully met.

VII-3


DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES
PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE
CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL

_LMATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH
ROBERT A. TAFT LABORATORIES
4676 COLUMBIA PARKWAY, CINCINNATI, OHIO 45226

OFFICIAL BUSINESS
PENALTY FOR PRIVATE USE. $300

Third Class Mail

Rp
=,

POSTAGE ANO FEES PAID
US. DEPARTMENT OF HHS:
HHS 396

DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 87-103

Fy.s Gor

siee: [NYTer 4S-1e



Staff

OSHRC

NIOSH

Main Functions

assistance to State government agencies;

5) Keeping abreast of changes in developments in the construction
industry to execute construction and overall occupational safety and
health engineering feasibility programs;

6) Coordinating Agency interaction with the Advisory Committee on
construction safety and health and its working groups; and

7) Providing a variety of technical information to the OSHA Training
Institute regarding training activities and courses in the construction
field.

The Office of Construction and Engineering is staffed with civil,
structural and geotechnical engineers, and construction safety specialists
who perform accident and construction failure investigations, provide
technical support. to regional- offices, offer technical expertise in the
development of safety standards, and participate in the development and
delivery of OSHA training programs.

The Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission (OSHRC) is
a quasi judicial board of 3 members appointed by the President and
confirmed by the U.S. Senate. It has a corps of administrative law
judges based in field offices located in regional offices in Atlanta,
Boston, Dallas, Denver, and Washington D.C. If an employer inspected
by OSHA receives a citation or a penalty with which he does not
agree, he has 15 working days to inform OSHA in writing that he is
contesting the citation or penalty. The case then is handled by
OSHRC, through an administrative law judge. Based on its findings,
the Commission may agree with, modify, or overrule OSHA’s findings.
A publication titled Occupational Safety and Health Reporter published
by Bureau of National Affairs provides the full text of court decisions
on occupational safety and health and of decisions of the OSHRC, and
digests of Review Commission judges’ reports that become the final
orders of the Commission. The address and telephone number for this

body is:

Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission
1625 K Street

Washington, D.C. 20006

(202) 634-7960.

The OSH Act established the National Institute for Occupational Safety

and Health (NIOSH) to provide services in research, training, and

technical assistance for occupational safety and health. The four main

functions of NIOSH are:

1) To develop criteria for recommended standards for job safety and
health;

2) To conduct research experiments and surveys on various issues
related to job safety and health, including psychological factors;

3) To provide technical assistance; and

I-10


REQUEST FOR ASSISTANCE IN PREVENTING
OCCUPATIONAL FATALITIES IN CONFINED SPACES

SUMMARY

This Alert requests the assistance of Managers, supervisors, and workers in
the prevention of deaths that occur in confined spaces. Confined spaces may
be encountered in virtually any occupation; therefore, their recognition is
the first step in preventing fatalities. Since deaths in confined spaces
often occur because the atmosphere is oxygen deficient or toxic, confined
spaces should be tested prior to entry and continually monitored. More than
60% of confined space fatalities occur among would-be rescuers; therefore, a
well-designed and properly executed rescue plan is a must. This Alert
describes 16 deaths that occurred in a variety of confined spaces. Had
these spaces been properly evaluated prior to entry and continuously
monitored while the work was being performed and had appropriate rescue
Procedures been in effect, none of the 16 deaths would have occurred. There
are no specific OSHA rules that apply to all! confined spaces.
Recommendations for Recognition, Testing, Evaluation, and Monitoring, and
Rescue of Workers are presented. Other National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH) publications on this subject as well as a source
for additional information and assistance are also presented.

January 1986


DISCLAIMER

Mention of the name of any company or product does not constitute endorsement
by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.

DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 89-110

Copies of this and other NIOSH documents are available from

Publications Dissemination, DSDTT
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
4676 Columbia Parkway
Cincinnati, Ohio 45226
(513) 533-8287

For further information on other occupational safety and health problems, call
1-800-35-NIOSH


Safety
Precautions

APPLICABLE OSHA
STANDARDS

HAND AND POWER
TOOLS

contributors to motor vehicle safety problems on construction sites.

Safety precautions for construction motor vehicles can be listed as

follows (1):

« Establish a site traffic system which includes the planning of routes
and installation of appropriate traffic and hazard signs.

- Segregate vehicles from the pedestrians and construction activities by
means of physical barriers wherever possible.

- Restrict the traffic movement to assigned routes, parking and loading
areas.

- Provide adequate width to allow for safe movements (turning at
comers, etc.).

. Communicate site hazards such as excavations, rough terrain,
underground utilities and other obstructions to all concemed personnel.

. Provide adequate lighting for motor vehicle routes and work areas.

« Maximize one-way traffic operation, and eliminate vehicular and
pedestrian crossings.

- Minimize reverse motion of the vehicles; prohibit construction
activities from areas where vehicles have to reverse; use audible
warning and/or signal person when reversing is necessary.

. Maintain the construction roads in safe condition, and grade regularly.

. Assure the competence of drivers.

. Enforce speed limits and traffic regulations on the construction site.

+ Train and supervise all employees with regard to the hazards of site
traffic,

. Assure that the employees do not ride vehicles in unsecured positions,
or ride in vehicles which are not designed for transport of personnel.

- Prohibit overloading; properly block vehicles while loading.

- Instruct drivers not to remain in cab while the vehicle is being
unloaded.

- Perform routine inspections on the vehicles for mechanical safety (e.g.
the steering wheel, brakes, and emergency brakes); keep all windows
clean for good visibility.

29 CFR 1926 Subpart O, which is also presented in Table V-10 covers
motor vehicle safety.

Hand tools are used in a great number of construction activities, from
formwork erection to finishing of dry wall and installing hardware.
Hand tools may be classified under three categories: manual tools,
power hand tools, and powder actuated hand tools. The first class of
tools are those that are manually operated; they include common tools
like hammers, wrenches, saws, etc. Power hand tools are portable tools
which are energized by electricity, gasoline, or compressed air. The

V-42


UNIT VII

CONSTRUCTION SAFETY AND HEALTH MANAGEMENT

NEED FOR A SAFETY
AND HEALTH PROGRAM

OSHA Minimum
Requirements

ANSI Standards

Managers responsible for construction projects must recognize that safety
and health must be managed in the same way as cost, schedule, quality
and productivity for effective loss control. Management of safety and
health deals with managerial decisions and actions taken at all levels to
produce an organizational setting in which employees are trained,
motivated and supervised to perform work free from injury and illness.
Development and implementation of a company safety and health
program is key to good management. Safety and health programs are
most effective when they are designed to meet the specific and
individual needs of each company. It may even be useful to develop
one for each project.

OSHA (1,2) has set minimum requirements for jobsite safety and health
programs for contractors and subcontractors. These requirements can
be summarized as follows:

1) The employer shall initiate and maintain a jobsite safety and health
program.

2) No worker will be required to perform work under unsanitary,
hazardous or dangerous conditions.

3) Frequent and regular inspections of jobsite materials shall be
conducted by competent persons.

4) Machines, tools and equipment must comply with safety standards,
or otherwise be tagged to prevent use,or be removed from the job-
site.

5) Only employees qualified by training or experience may operate
equipment.

6) Every employee shall be instructed in the recognition and avoidance
of unsafe conditions, and in the safety and the health regulations
applicable to his or her work.

7) Copies of OSHA rules must be available to workers upon request.

8) All fatalities, or accidents resulting in the hospitalization of 5 or
more workers must be reported to the OSHA area director.

9) A record of all lost-time injuries must be kept and posted at the
job-site.

10) An employee representative must be given the opportunity to
participate in all conferences during OSHA inspections.

11) The name and location of the nearest medical facilities must be
prominently posted at the jobsite.

12) All workers must have access to exposure and medical records.

American National Standards Institute, ANSI (3,4) has issued standards

under the titles of "Basic Elements of an Employer Program to Provide
a Safe and Healthful Work Environment", and "Construction and

Vul-2

ww


Mobile Hydraulic
Crane

Tower Crane

Bridge Crane

Derricks

Hoists

crane motions are the raising and lowering of the load by raising and
lowering the crane boom, and swinging the load by rotating the crane
body. The boom is the main component of the crane. It is a long,
structurally reinforced beam consisting of three or four connected
chords. . Another section, which is known as the "jib", is mounted on
top of the boom in order to extend the reach; however, this occurs at
reduced load capacity. The operator controls the motion and the hoist,
mechanically or hydraulically. A mobile crane can be mounted on a
conventional truck or on other wheel-top carriers.

Mobile hydraulic cranes function similarly to mechanical cranes. The
motions and the power of this type of crane, however, are controlled by
hydraulic pumps which supply pressure by actuating cylinders or
hydraulic motors.

A tower crane is primarily used for high rise construction or on projects
where great mobility is not required. A tower crane consists of a
cantilevered horizontal boom that is connected to a fixed tower. The
tower is supported by other structures and sits on a foundation. The
load is suspended from a trolley which traverses the length of the boom
and gives greater flexibility to the movements of the load. The height
of the tower crane can be extended to accommodate the building
requirements during construction.

Bridge cranes mainly consist of two types: overhead cranes and gantry
cranes. In the overhead type the load is supported by a bridge structure
equipped with a track on which a hoist system can move. The bridge
is commonly fixed to the building itself. In the gantry crane a pulley
is suspended from a trolley that can travel along a bridge-like structure.
The ends of this structure, however, rest on upright towers that move
on rubber tires (for construction sites). Some gantry cranes with
rotating bodies can serve circular spaces, where one end is free to circle
the crane.

Derricks are hoisting machines which consist of a mast and a slanted
boom (22). There are two types of derricks, one supported by guy lines
and the other by stiff legs. The boom may be fixed or it might rotate.
Derricks can be mobile or fixed. “A winch (a cylinder or drum around
which a chord of sling is coiled) attached to the mast provides the
lifting action by coiling the tackle through the boom hoist to which a
hook is connected. The boom and the mast can fully rotate depending
on the design.

A material hoist is another common mechanical device, used for
moving heavy loads (1). It lifts directly from above the load. It is
primarily used for raising and lowering loads, while the material is
suspended. However, a hoist can also move objects horizontally.
Hoists consist of sheaves (grooved wheels) that change the direction or

V-35


Table 2.—Airborne lead concentrations reported for case studies

Location
Case and .
No." description Job
1 Connecticut, paint removal Blaster
from bridge (with contain- Groundsman
ment structures)
3 Louisiana, paint removal Blaster
from bridge (with contain-
ment structures)
5 New York, bridge demolition Burners
6 Kentucky, paint removal Blaster
from bridge (with contain-
ment structures)
Blaster
Groundsman

“No samples were collected for Cases 2 and 4.
‘Area samples.

NIOSH recently learned of 42 construction
workers at 8 different worksites who deve-
loped lead poisoning (BLLs exceeding
50 yg/dl of blood) while working on bridges
[Mintz 1990; Rae 1990; Johnson 1990; COC
1989; Marino et al. 1989; NIOSH 1991bj.
The BLLs for these workers ranged from 51
to 160 g/dl. The mean BLL for the U.S.

Range of airborne
lead concentration
during task
(ugim”) Comments

4-540 Work conducted inside

20-640 containment structure

3,110-3,150"

230-4107 Work conducted outside
containment structure

2-730 Work conducted inside
containment structure

600-4,000

3,690-29,400 Work conducted inside
containment structure;
samples taken outside
respirator

3-190 Work conducted inside |
containment structure;
samples taken inside
respirator

5-6,720 Work conducted outside

containment structure

population is 13.9 yg/dl, and the upper 95th
percentile is 25.0 yg/di [NCHS 1984]. The
airborne concentrations of lead ranged from 2
to 29,400 yg/m® (see Table 2). At least 26 of
the 42 cases of lead poisoning (62%) were
workers employed at a site using a contain-
ment structure. The actual number of cases
of occupational lead poisoning nationwide is
much larger than 42, but it cannot be ac-
curately determined since employers are not
required to routinely measure lead concentra-
tion in the blood of exposed construction
workers.

Lead Poisoning in Construction Workers

ww


DISCLAIMER

Mention of the name of any company or product does not constitute endorsement by
the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.

Copies of this and other NIOSH documents are available from

Publications Dissemination, DSDTT
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
4676 Columbia Parkway
Cincinnati, Ohio 45226
(513) 533-8287

For information about other occupational safety and health problems, cail
1-800-35-NIOSH

DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 90-100


Source of
Injury or
Hiness

Type of

Accident or

Exposure

Month, Day and
Age Group

Michigan Fatalities

Construction
Work is Dangerous

In regard to the source of injury and illness, of the same 6,853 cases,
329 (4.8%) involved boxes, barrels and containers; 92 (1.3%) were
caused by chemicals; and 673 (9.8%) were related to handtools.
Machines, metal items and vehicles were respectively the source of
injury and illness in 318 (4.6%), 854 (12.5%), and 301 (4.4%) of the
cases. Wood items were involved in 331 (4.8%) cases, and working
surfaces in 1,620 (23.6%). There were 2,335 (34.1%) cases attributed
to other classifiable or non-classifiable sources.

The statistics regarding the type of accident or exposure revealed that
1,581 cases (23.1%) involved struck by or struck against type action;
1,771 (25.8%) were falls; 269 (3.9%) occurred as caught in or between
objects; and 113 (1.6%) occurred as rubbed or abraded by objects.
There were 530 (7.7%).. cases involving bodily reaction and 1,917
(28.0%) overexertion. Contact with temperature extremes and
radiation/caustic substances occurred in 109 (1.6%) and 116 (1.7%)
cases, respectively. Motor vehicles were involved in 109 (1.6%) cases.
The remaining 338 (4.9%) cases, again, were miscellaneous classifiable
and non-classifiable accidents and exposures.

Finally, the data showed that a larger number of cases occurred over the
summer months as compared to other seasons, and Monday was the
worst day of the week in terms of accident occurrence. The 25 to 34
year age group of the construction workers appeared to be most
susceptible to accidents.

Michigan Department of Labor also provides statistics on construction-
related fatalities (7). In 1988, construction led all other industries in the
state in terms of fatality rate per 10,000 workers, except for the oil and
gas extraction industry. The fatality rate for construction was 1.31
followed by agriculture, forestry and fishing (1.24), transportation and
public utilities (0.47), manufacturing (0.18), wholesale trade (0.15), and
services (0.08). Construction also led all the state industries in the
number and percentage of fatalities. Of the total 61 fatalities, 17 (28%)
occurred on construction job sites. A close second was manufacturing
with 16 cases (26%). During the period from 1987 to 1992,
construction fatalities were higher in number than manufacturing
fatalities for four years out of seven despite a much larger workforce in
the manufacturing industry. Construction led all industries in
percentage of total fatalities during each year of the same period.

The national as well as Michigan statistics clearly point out that
construction work is dangerous, and there exist significant problems
concerning safety and health in the construction industry which need to
be addressed. Although some improvement in certain indicators is
apparent, the situation is nowhere it should be.

1-8

ww


APPLICABLE OSHA
STANDARDS

MOTOR VEHICLES

Safety Hazards

The OSHA standards for heavy construction equipment are covered in
29 CFR 1926 subparts N and W, which also include the standards for
motor vehicles. Table V-10 groups them together, although safety
information on motor vehicles will be provided separately in the next
section.

Table V-10
OSHA Standards for Heavy Construction Equipment
and Motor Vehicles

29 CFR 1926 Subpart O-Motor Vehicles,
Mechanized Equipment and Marine Operations

Topic
x Equipment.
roe cot Motor. vehicles
602: dling -equipment-
1a 603 Pile driving equipment
Site clearing

1926 os Marine ‘operations and equipment

29 CFR 1926 Subpart W-Rollover Protective Structures; Overhead Protection
Section Toy

¥ Rol id Protective structures (ROPS) for material handling equipment
1926.1001 Minimum performance criteria for rollover protective structures for
ignated scrapers, loaders, dozers, crawler tractors
1926.1002 Protective fame (ROPS) test procedures and performance requirements for
agricultural and industrial tractors used in construction
1926.1003 protection for operators of agricultural and industrial tractors

Transporting material and personnel on and around construction sites,
especially on large, complex projects, require special attention to traffic
operations and vehicle related safety hazards. Numerous injuries and
fatalities occur because of mishaps involving construction vehicles on
and off the construction project sites. On site aspects are the primary
focus on herein.

Mishaps occur during loading and unloading operations, during
mounting and dismounting of personnel, from collisions between the
vehicles or between vehicles and fixed objects (e.g. temporary and
permanent structures), from run-away vehicles, and from vehicles
tunning over people or striking them. Overtuming of vehicles caused
by steep terrain, earth slides, improper loading or overloading of the
vehicles, unsafe vehicles, and driver errors are the other common motor
vehicle hazards. The absence of law enforcement on private
construction sites may encourage unsafe and reckless practices, such as
riding vehicles at high speeds or jumping off the vehicles while in
motion. Lack of planning for an effective site transportation system,
failure to supervise the traffic operations, improper maintenance
practices and lack of adequate training efforts are fundamental

V-41


Request for Assistance In

Preventing Electrocutions of Workers Using Portable
Metal Ladders Near Overhead Power Lines

- Persons using portable metal or conducti

power lines.are at risk of electrocution:

The National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH) Is requesting
assistance in preventing electrocutions
that occur when portable metal ladders
(including aluminum ladders) contact
overhead power lines. Portable metal lad-
ders are used widely in many industries.
This Alert describes six deaths that oc-
curred because portable aluminum lad-
ders, which are electrical conductors,
came in contact with energized overhead
power lines. If nonconductive ladders had
been used instead, or if safe working
Clearances had been maintained, these
deaths might have been prevented.

Specific Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) regulations govern
the use of portable metal ladders. These
tegulations should be implemented and
enforced by every employer, manager, su-
pervisor, and worker in operations that use
portable metal ladders. Editors of ap-
propriate trade journals, safety and health
officials, and other persons (especially
those in the building trades) are requested
to bring the recommendations in this Alert
to the attention of contractors and
workers.

WARNING!

ladders near energized overhead

BACKGROUND

Contact between portable metal ladders and
overhead power lines causes serious and
often fatal injuries to workers in the United
States. Data show that during the years 1980
through 1985, the contact of metal ladders
with overhead power lines accounted for ap-
proximately 4% of all work-related electrocu-
tions in the United States (e.g., 17 out of 382
deaths for 1985) [NIOSH 1988].

REGULATIONS

Safety regulations promulgated by the Oc-
cupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) establish specific requirements in-
tended to prevent workers from positioning
portable metal ladders where they might con-
tact electrical conductors [29 CFR”
1926.450(a)(11) and 1926.951(c)(1)]. These
regulations stipulate that "portable metal or
conductive ladders shall not be used for
electrical work or where they may contact

"Code of Federal Regulations. See CFA in references.


ELECTRICAL WORK

Electrical
Hazards

Overhead and
Underground
Cables

Receptacles,
Connectors and
Grounding

Site Distribution
Systems

Electricity is present in almost every aspect of the building
environment. Aside from post occupancy needs, electricity is an

integral part of the construction process. It is used for site illumination,

and as a source of power for energizing various tools and equipment.
CECS (25) has presented some useful information on electrical safety,
which is summarized in the following paragraphs.

Electricity is dangerous because it rarely gives any advance warming
of its potential danger. Unlike other hazards, electricity can not be seen
or heard; therefore unintended human contact is always a possibility.
Electric shock is a major hazard and its severity depends on the amount
of current, duration of the contact, and route of entry. Shocks with high
levels of electricity (amperage and voltage) can cause fibrillation of the
heart which may lead to death; however, small currents can also be
lethal. Electrocution is one of the most common causes of construction
related fatalities. Electric shocks cause external buns and internal
damage, muscle contractions, and loss of balance which can lead to falls
from elevations.

Overhead power lines and underground cables are the basic means of
electric supply and distribution. Generally, high voltage electricity is
routed on uninsulated overhead lines. If equipment booms come in
contact with overhead power lines, electric arcs may travel a
considerable distance and expose workers to the risk of electrocution.
Underground cables can be damaged during excavation operations. In
cases where machine operators come in contact with underground
cables, fatal injures are possible.

Receptacles and connectors are the most common means of electrical
distribution. Damaged or defective receptacles and connectors are hidden
hazards, since they can energize metal components. Improper
grounding and temporary wiring can also cause electric shocks. Lack
of proper grounding results in shocks from internal current leakage to
the enclosure of equipment. A person coming in contact with the
equipment provides a path for the electric current. Workers holding
tools usually experience a tightening of the grip allowing more current
to flow, increasing the danger of electrocution. This is because the
involuntary muscle contraction extends the time the person is in contact
with the current.

Site distribution systems provide power to energize electrical equipment,

and site illumination. Much of the wiring will be temporary; however,
makeshift installations with poor workmanship, inferior materials, and

v-46


Figure 1. Construction worker using a HEPA-filter vacuum inside a containment structure. Note that the worker
is obscured by a high airborne concentration of dust.

Warning Signs

Warning signs should be posted to mark the
boundaries of lead-contaminated work areas.
These signs should follow the example
presented in the OSHA general industry
standard [29 CFR 1910.1025], which warns
about the lead hazard and prohibits eating and
drinking in the area. Such signs should also
specify any PPE required (for example,
respirators), The sample sign in Figure 2
contains all the information needed for a lead-
contaminated work area where respirators are
required.

Personal Protective Equipment
(PPE)

Engineering controls and good work practices
should be used to minimize worker exposure
to lead. Because of the variable exposure
concentrations in the construction industry

10

and the difficulty of monitoring a mobile
workforce, PPE should be used whenever
workers are potentially exposed to lead
[OSHA/NIOSH 1991]. The use of PPE shouid
supplement the continued use of engineering
controls and good work practices.

Protective Clothing

Protective clothing not only shields workers
from the hazards of welding and abrasive
blasting, but it also minimizes the accumula-
tion of lead on the worker's skin and hair.
Workers should change into washable cover-
alls or disposable clothing before entering the
contaminated work area. Because wearing
PPE (especially protective clothing) can con-
tribute to the development of heat stress
[NIOSH/OSHA/USCG/EPA 1985], a poten-
tially serious illness, regular monitoring and
other preventive measures are vital [NIOSH
1986].

Lead Poisoning in Construction Workers

wi

ws


Lobel
LEP

August 199T

REQUEST FOR ASSISTANCE IN.

Preventing Electrocutions
During Work with Scaffolds
Near Overhead Power Lines

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH ANO HUMAN SERVICES
Public Health Service
Centers far Disease Contrat
~ Natiorat Institute for Occupationat Safety and. Healttr (CENTERS FOR CISEASE CONTROC



INGE

AAL_E}

December 1989

REQUEST FOR ASSISTANCE IN

Preventing Worker Deaths
and Injuries from Falls
Through Skylights and
Roof Openings

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES
Public Health Service

Centers for Disease Contral

National Institute tor Qccupatianal Satety and Health



10.

11.

12.
13.

14,

15.
16.
17.
18.

19.
20.

21.

22.

24.

25.
26.

hazards?

. What are the best practices for housekeeping?

. Discuss the general and specific rules for safe manual lifting.

Describe the NIOSH equation for manual lifting. What is the
significance of the lifting index (LI)?

What are some of the tools and equipment used to assist in the
manual handling of materials?

Summarize the safe rigging procedures.

What are the differences between gas, arc, and resistance welding
(and cutting)?

Name the principal hazards associated with welding and cutting.
How can they be controlled and prevented?

What are the three main categories of concrete hazards?

Discuss the concrete material hazards and their control.

Describe the formwork and shoring hazards associated with concrete
construction, along with the necessary measures for their control.
What types of hazards arise during rebar and concrete placement?
How can these tasks be performed safely?

Name the precautions necessary for cold weather concreting.

Discuss the hazards and precautions associated with steel erection
operations.

What are the typical construction activities exposing workers to fall
hazards?

Distinguish between fall prevention and fall protection; between
active and passive fall protection.

. Discuss ladder hazards and safety, and scaffolding hazards and

safety.

Describe the hazards and safety measures associated with open sides
and floor openings, and associated with roofing work.

What is meant by a motion-stopping safety system?

Discuss the hazards and safety precautions associated with cranes,
derricks, and hoists?

V-62


Employer’s Duties

Material
Handling
Hazards

Material
Handling
Controls

Worksite
Layout

. Conduct an inventory and list all hazardous chemicals on the job-site,
and maintain an up-to-date inventory;

- Collect and maintain the appropriate MSDS’s;

. Develop a written Hazard Communication Program (must be
maintained at the job-site);

. Ensure that containers for all chemicals are properly labelled; and

. Establish a continuing training and information program for
employees exposed to hazardous chemicals;

. The training program must include methods for hazard identification;
physical and health hazards of chemicals on the jobsite; protective
measures to be taken in case of exposure; specific safe work practices,
emergency release or spill equipment; and the details of the Hazard
Communication Standard such as labels and warning systems, and
MSDS.

Improper handling of materials can lead to several hazards. Some relate
to poor housekeeping; some are unique to particular activities,
equipment or materials. Hazards may stem from a lack of proper
planning of the material handling jobs such as delivery, storage and
movement, or from failure to properly communicate with and provide
clear instructions to participating employees. Loading and unloading
operations associated with material delivery can create hazards resulting
from failed lifting equipment (e.g. buckling of crane boom, collapse of
a conveyor support, rigging failure, breaking of a wire or chain rope),
which can cause serious injury to workers. Manual lifting and material
handling also commonly cause injuries and health problems like strain
and sprain of muscles, torn ligaments and spinal disc injury and hernia.
Improperly stacked or stored materials may cause items to fall down on
people or tip over from piles, overload the storage shelf or area, or
protrude into traffic ways and aisles, creating obstacles or tripping
hazards. Improper segregation of materials may create additional
hazards from fire, explosion and corrosion. Loads in motion also pose
safety hazards if not properly controlled. Moving loads may strike
other objects or persons causing property damage and bodily injury.
Ropes, chains and slings are rigging devices used to lift loads. The main
hazards of rigging are failures due overloading, deterioration or wear,
harmful and improper rigging.

Effective control of material handling hazards starts with good planning
of the site layout and activities,and continues with proper storage and
housekeeping practices. Training in hazard communication
requirements, safe manual lifting and handling procedures, and safe
operation of material handling equipment are also essential.

The need to move materials safely and efficiently should be included in
planning for the arrangement or modification of work places. Detail
should address concerns such as flow of materials, methods of site
transport, purchase of safe operating equipment, ergonomic factors,

v-9


victim's end of the scaffold dropped to a ver-
tical position. The victim fell from the scaffold
to the ground 60 feet below. The second man
on the scaffold (the window washer) managed
to cling to the scaffold and a nearby window
ledge until he could be rescued.

Inspection of the scaffold hoist revealed a
defect in a centrifugal safety brake. This
defect and the victim’s possible failure to
release the parking brake before beginning
his descent caused one end of the scaffold to
drop [NIOSH 19894].

Case No. 4—One Death

On October 21, 1989, a 37-year-old male
painter died when the platform he was working
from fell 65 feet inside a municipal water
storage tank. The victim was a member of a
three-man crew that was using an im-
provised suspension scaffold to paint the
interior of the 68-foot-tall, 32-foot-diameter
water tank. The scaffold consisted of an
aluminum ladder used as a platform and
secured to steel “stirrups” made of steel bar
stock bent into a box shape and attached to
each end of the ladder. Wire cables from
each stirrup ran to a common tie-off point. A
cable from this common tie-off was rigged to
a block and tackle used from ground levei to
raise and lower the platform. The block and
tackle supporting the system was secured to
a vertical steel pipe on top of the tank with a
cable that was fashioned into a loop by U-
bolting the dead ends of a piece of wire rope.

The victim had been painting from one end of
this scaffold while wearing a safety belt and
lanyard attached to an independent lifeline.
When the victim finished painting, he un-
hooked his lanyard from his lifeline and moved
along the ladder platform to a position where
he could hand his paint spray gun to the
foreman (who was at the top of the tank). As

4

the foreman took the spray gun, he heard a
“pop” and saw the scaffold and the victim fall
65 feet to the floor of the tank.

Investigation of the incident revealed that the
two U-bolts on the loop of cable supporting the
block and tackle had loosened enough to
allow the cable ends to slip through, causing
the scaffold to fall. This particular rig had been
used without incident every day for 2 weeks
preceding this fatal fall [NIOSH 1990a].

Case No. 5—One Death

On November 20, 1989, a 39-year-old
painter died after falling 40 feet when a
scaffold suspension rope broke. The victim
was a member of a three-man crew engaged
in the abrasive blasting and painting of the
interior of a 48-foot-high, 30-foot-diameter
steel water tank.

Three separate two-point suspension scaf-
folds were used to reach the interior walls of
the tank. The scaffolds abutted each other in
a U-shaped configuration. The center scaf-
fold platform was overlapped by one end of
each of the other two scaffolds. Suspension
topes were located at each end of the center
platform and at the outer ends of the two other
platforms. The platform unit was raised by
alternately raising each suspension point a
few feet at a time.

Two men were involved in this operation
when the incident occurred. The victim was
standing on an outer end of the platform and
was pulling on the suspension rope to raise
that end of the scaffold. He fell when the
rope broke and his end of the platform
dropped to a vertical position. The victim
was not using personal fall protection equip-
ment although it was available and was
being used by the second painter.

Fails from Suspension Scaffolds

w/


Dollies

Rollers

Jacks

Rigging Safety

APPLICABLE OSHA
STANDARDS

Materials should be loaded evenly on dollies to prevent tipping and
obstruction of view. They should be pushed rather than pulled, unless
specially designed to be pulled.

Hands and feet should be kept away from pinch points and the rollers
should be extended beyond the load.

Properly rated jacks should be used for the load, placing the jack on
level, stable, and clean surface. Méetal-to-metal contact should be
avoided by using wooden shims. The load should be blocked after the
J

Rigging of loads must be done with relative precision and performed by

trained, experienced personnel. Competent supervision is needed to see

that (a) suitable rigging equipment is available having the necessary
capacity for the job, (b) rigging equipment is in safe working condition,

(c) loads are rigged properly, and (d) the safety of the rigging crew and

other affected personnel is maintained. The following safety tions

and procedures are recommended in regard to safe rigging Fay:

- Learn the safe working load of the equipment, tackle, and hardware
before use.

. Determine the weight of the load prior to riggin it.

- Use the Proper rigging equipment for the job t performed.

. Examine all hardware, equipment, tackle, and slings before use and
destroy defective components. Inspect daily for wear and abrasion,
broken wires, worn or cracked fittings, loose seizings and
splices, kinking, crushing, flattening, and corrosion.

- Never exceed safe working loads of equipment, tackle and hardware.

- Allow for a greater degree of safe working limits, when conducting
other than center of gravity lifts.

Representative OSHA standards applicable to Material Handling as
covered in this part of the module are given in Table V-4.

Table V-4
OSHA Standards Related to Material Handling

29 CFR 1926 Subpart C - General Safety and Health Provisions
Section Topic

1926.20 General safety aid Peaith provisions
199835 Housekeeping,“ TMOTM
. us
192626 Illumination ©
1926.27 Sanitation
1926.28 Personal protective equipment

29 CFR 1926 Subpart D - Occupational Heaith and Environmental Controls
ion

. ‘opic .
926.50 Medical services and first aid
1926.51 Sanitation
29 CFR 1926 Subpart F - Fire Protection and Prevention
on Topic
.150 Fire profection
1926.151 Fire prevention woe
. iquefied eum
1326:134 Telnporary’ beating devices

29 CFR 1926 Subpart G 7 Signs, Signals, and Barricades
IC
Accident prevent ‘Signs and tags

1926201 Signallin;
1926202 Bamcades

V-15


NIOSH ALERT

Many workers have
died from falls
through skylights
or roof openings.

Be aware of all skylights and roof openings in your work area.

. Do not sit or step on skylights—they may not support your weight.
Read any safety decals affixed to skylights.

Use fail protection for any work that might result in falls.

1.
2

3.
4,
5.

Make sure that all skylights and roof openings are appropriately
guarded before work begins.

6. Use nets, catch platforms, or fixed covers if guardrails, screens,
protective grillwork, and safety belts are not practical.

For additional information, refer to the NIOSH Alert ry
on Skylights (DHHS NIOSH 90-100), or call —_ Db
1-800-35-NIOSH.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
Public Heaith Service

Centers for Disease Control

National institute tor Occupational Safety and Heaith

This document is in the public domain and may be freely copied or reprinted. NibS-


PURPOSE

OBJECTIVES

KEY TERMS

UNIT I

WHY SAFETY AND HEALTH

To introduce civil engineering .students to the need and significance of
addressing the safety and health issues presented by a construction
Project.

In regards to safety and health, to acquaint the student with:

1

2.

7.

Humanitarian concerns

Legal/regulatory concerns

. Institutional concems
. Economic concerns
. Direct and indirect costs of accidents

. Insurance considerations and experience modification rating (EMR)

Savings realized through safety and health programs

Accident cost accounting systems.

Concems for safety and health; humanitarian; legal and regulatory;
institutional; economic impact; accident direct costs; indirect costs;
workers compensation insurance; liability insurance; property insurance;
manual rate; experience modification rating (EMR); multiplier; accident
cost accounting; safety program costs; safety program savings.


Page 5 - Request for Assistance in Preventing Electrocutions from Contact
Between Cranes and Power Lines

RECOMMENDATIONS BY NIOSH

The existing OSHA standard appears sufficient to prevent the crane-related
electrocutions described in this alert as well as all others. NIOSH urges all
employers who use cranes in the vicinity of overhead power lines to
familiarize themselves with and implement the existing OSHA standard. NIOSH
urges safety and trade associations, crane manufacturers, electric utility
companies, and OSHA state consultative services to bring this standard to the
attention of employers who use cranes. Implementation of the work practices
described by the CSA of Ontario can provide an additional margin of safety.

Suggestions, requests for additional information on safe work practices, or
questions related to this announcement should be directed to Mr. John Moran,
Director, Division of Safety Research, 944 Chestnut Ridge Road, Morgantown,
West Virginia 26505-2888, Telephone (304) 291-4595.

We greatly appreciate your a ae

i

|

~ al F

Sade LA)

&, Dodald Millar, M.D., D.T.P.H.; (Lond.)

Assistant Surgeon General

Director, National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health

Centers for Disease Control



Johnson T [1990]. Data gathered during in-
vestigation of bridge repainting in Baton
Rouge, LA. Litchfield, MN: Johnson Brothers.
Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services, Public Health Service,
Centers for Disease Control, National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health, HETA
90-283. Unpublished data.

Katauskas T [1990]. R & D special report:
DOT coats rusting bridges with layers of
problems. R & D Magazine, May 1990:42-48.

Kaye WE, Novotny TE, Tucker M [1987].
New ceramics-related industry implicated in
elevated blood lead levels in children. Arch
Environ Health 42(2):161-164,

Landrigan PJ [1989]. Toxicity of lead at low
dose. Br J Ind Med 46:593-596.

Lippy BE, Baughn KT, Moreland RF [1988].
Lead exposure in construction: a case
study supporting one state’s more stringent
standard. Unpublished paper presented at
the American Industrial Hygiene Association
Conference, San Francisco, CA, May 19, 1988.

Marino PE, Franzblau A, Lilis R, Landrigan PJ
[1989]. Acute lead poisoning in construction
workers: the failure of current protective
standards. Arch Environ Health 44(3):140-
145.

Maryland Regulations Code [1988]. Occupa-
tional exposure to lead in construction work.
Title 09, Subtitle 12, Chapter 32 (COMAR
09.12.32),

Matte TD, Figueroa JP, Ostrowski S, Burr G,
Jackson-Hunt L, Keenlyside RA et al. [1989].
Lead poisoning among household members
exposed to lead-acid battery repair shops in
Kingston, Jamaica. Int J Epidemiol 18(4):874—
881.

Lead Poisoning in Construction Workers

Mintz E [1990] . Information provided by the
Connecticut Department of Health Services in
the course of d technical assistance project,
[September 9, 1990]. Cincinnati, OH: U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services,
Public Health Service, Centers for Disease
Control, National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health, Division of Surveillance,
Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies.

NCHS [1984]. Blood lead levels for persons
ages 6 months-74 years: United States,
1976-80. Hyattsville, MD: U.S. Department
of Health and Human Services, Public Health
Service, National Center for Health Statistics,
DHHS Publication No. (PHS) 84-1683.

New Jersey Department of Health [1988a]. A
report on lead exposure at the rts 1 and 9
bridge construction site, Newark, NJ. Tren-
ton, NJ: New Jersey Department of Health.
Occupational Health Service, Health Hazard
Evaluation Program.

New Jersey Department of Health [1988b]. A
report on lead exposure evaluation at the 7th
Avenue and Bathgate Place bridge replace-
ment site, Newark, NJ. Trenton, NJ: New
Jersey Department of Health, Occupational
Health Service.

New Jersey Department of Health [1990]. A
report on lead exposure evaluation at the 14th
Street viaduct rehabilitation project, Hoboken,
NJ. Trenton, NJ: New Jersey Department of
Health, Occupational Health Service.

NIOSH [1978]. Criteria for a recommended
standard: occupational exposure to lead
(revised criteria—1978). Cincinnati, OH: U.S.
Department of Health, Education, and Wel-
fare, Public Health Service, Center for Dis-
ease Control, National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health, DHEW (NIOSH) Publication
No. 78-158.

19


Manual Tool
Hazards

Electric Tool
Hazards

Sawing Hazards

powder actuated tools utilize explosive charges to drive fasteners into
position. These tools do not require an independent power source, and
can be used without cables. Powder actuated tools are of two basic
types: direct-acting and indirect-acting. In the first case, the expanding
(explosive) gas force acts directly on the fastener, driving it along the
barrel. In indirect-acting tools the gas force acts on a captive piston
which in turn drives the fastener into position. There are three classes
of powder actuated tools based on power and velocity. These are low
velocity class tools with a test velocity of 300 feet per second; medium
velocity class tools with a test velocity between 300 feet and 500 feet
per second; and high velocity class tools with a test velocity over 500
feet per second. The most common powder actuated tools are of the
low velocity class, and of the indirect type. Some tools include
provisions for varying the velocity. : Safe work practices associated with
the use of hand, power, and powder actuated tools are covered in
AGC’s Manual of Accident Prevention in Construction (1).

Hazards associated with manual hand tools can be caused by poor

maintenance, poor housekeeping and improper use. Some of these

hazards are:

. Using damaged tools (examples are defective handles in hammers and
saws, and worn-our wrench teeth which can cause slippage);

- Poor housekeeping and improper storage, which can expose sharp
edges and create tripping hazards;

- Electrocution hazards caused by metallic tools (metals are good
conductors of electricity); .

- Misuse of tools, or using tools for wrong tasks; and

- Foreign body in the eye, which is a common injury due to lack of eye
protection while operating or sharpening the tool.

Portable electric hand tools are very popular on construction sites. Most
accidents involving these tools are due to damage or internal defects,
and improper grounding (or no grounding). Other accidents are caused
by defective insulation of the connecting cables, faults and defects in
conductors, defective enclosures, and damaged receptacles and sockets.
Many of these defects can cause electrocutions. Defects in these tools
may be due to overworking, overheating, or damage to insulation or
grounding. Damaged cords have been the cause of many construction
accidents. Reverse polarity in wiring (the reversal of hot and neutral
wires) can also cause electrocution. Use of electric tools in wet areas
exposes the operator to shock hazards.

A variety of saws are used in many construction operations such as
carpentry, concrete work, cutting masonry, etc. Power saws are
commonly used for these operations. There are four basic types of
saws: portable hand saws; table or bench saws; swing cut-off saws; and
chain saws. Some hazards associated with all of these types of saws
are as follows:

V-43


UNIT

CONSTRUCTION SAFETY AND HEALTH LEGISLATION AND ORGANIZATIONS

HISTORICAL
BACKGROUND
ON SAFETY
AND HEALTH
LEGISLATION

Anglo-American
Common Law

Necessity for
Compensation

Early Federal
Legislation

Before the nineteenth century, America was mainly an agrarian society.
With the industrial revolution occurring in the second half of
the nineteenth century, the way of life started to change quickly with
people moving from the countryside to urban areas looking for work.
The working conditions in many factories and other establishments
were very unsatisfactory: work areas were overcrowded; ventilation,
lighting and sanitary conditions were very poor; and workers (many
of whom were women and children) usually worked 14 to 16 hours a
day. In general, illnesses, accidents, and even deaths caused by poor
working conditions in-these- work places were accepted as inevitable.

Under Anglo - American common law, workers could sue their
employers for damages or injuries incurred in employment, but the
same law provided strong defenses for the employers through
considerations of contributory negligence by the injured employee;
negligence by others; and knowledgeable assumption of risk by the
employee (1).

Although labor legislation protecting workers and compensation laws
were present in Europe in the nineteenth century (Germany, England,
France), little was done on safety legislation in the U.S. Nevertheless,
in 1867, Massachusetts initiated labor/safety related laws involving
factory inspections, labor statistics, and limitation of daily working
hours to 10. Other states joined with their own legislation later in the
century. Not until the early 1900’s had sentiment begun focusing on
worker protection and compensation. The famous "Pittsburgh study"
undertaken in 1907-1908 documented, for the first time, the number of
industrial fatalities in Allegheny county (526) in one year, and
concluded that the cost of work accidents almost exclusively fell on
the workers and their families. This finding underscored the necessity
for a system of compensation to achieve justice, social expediency and
prevention (2).

The first federal legislation on workers compensation was enacted by
Congress in 1908 - for federal employees only, with a limited scope.
In 1910, the U.S. Bureau of Mines was established in the Department
of the Interior to reduce mine accidents (after the 1907° Monongah,
West Virginia mine disaster killing 362 miners). In 1913, the Bureau
of Labor Statistics was organized to collect, tabulate and disseminate
facts about industrial accidents and health problems. The National
Bureau of Standards began issuing safety standards for industrial
materials and equipment the same year.

Ii-2


Steps of
Investigation

ACCIDENT AND
INJURY
PREVENTION

Hazard Control

Abnormal Energy
Transfer

Control Technologies

An example of a comprehensive accident investigation report is
provided in Figure IV-6.

An accident investigation may be conducted by the supervisor or
foreman, by the safety professional of the company, by the project
safety committee, by an investigative committee or by an independent
consultant. Ferry (5) has illustrated the accident investigation process
in twelve ascending steps as shown in Figure IV-7. It is clear that a
complete investigation involves preparation for the investigation;
performing the investigation; taking action to correct the situation; and
critiquing the investigation to ensure that the process is continually
improved. Elements of this process are included in the example
accident report form presented in Figure IV-6.

Information gathered. and lessons. learned from past accidents can be
integrated in preventive strategies to eliminate or minimize the risks for
future mishaps of similar nature. A better strategy, perhaps, is the
analysis of “near-misses", or potential accidents, so future accidents can
be prevented before any accident occurs for the first time. An accident
prevention program can focus on frequency, severity, or cost, singly or
in combination, and try to direct the preventive efforts toward the
critical accident or injury types as judged by these factors.

In order to eliminate or minimize hazards, one must be able to:
« Recognize the hazards;

. Define and select preventive actions;

. Assign responsibilities for implementation; and

- Monitor the effectiveness of preventive actions.

Based on Haddon’s energy theory, one can consider injuries to be caused
by abnormal energy transfers or interferences with energy transfer. An
injury causing event can thus be broken down to three components:

1) The source of hazard (agent);

2) The transmission of hazard (vector); and

3) The worker (host).

Control technologies suggested by this approach should consequently
consider:

- Control at the source of energy;

- Control of transmission of energy; and

+ Control at the worker.

For example, control of electrical energy at the source may involve
Proper grounding. Control of transmission could include separating the
worker from the hazard by placing barriers or guards between the
hazard and the worker. Personal protective equipment, such as
insulated gloves, represents a control applied on the worker.

Iv-14


HEAVY CONSTRUCTION Heavy construction equipment is an integral part of construction

EQUIPMENT

Bulldozers,
Scrapers,
Graders

and Loaders

Heavy Equipment
Safety Hazards

General Safety
Precautions

operations. The machinery is used for many demanding tasks that are
beyond human capability. Earth moving equipment such as bulldozers,
scrapers, motor graders, and front-end loaders are typical of the heavy
construction equipment which perform cutting, transporting and grading.

Bulldozers are used to strip soil in layers. They move and grade
earth/rock material for distances less than 300 feet. Types are bulldozers
and angle dozers. Scrapers also strip in layers. However, they also load
the earth into bowls, and haul, spread, and partially compact it. Types
are crawler-tractor-pulled scrapers, and wheel-tractor-pulled scrapers.
They represent a compromise between best backing and best hauling
machines. Motor Graders cut, shape and grade. They have a blade
that can be set at different angles. They can be quite versatile when
fitted with rippers, backslopers, snow plows, etc. Front-End Loaders
are used to transport bulk materials, to load trucks, to excavate earth,
etc. Types are crawler and wheel loaders. Other heavy construction
equipment such as hydraulic excavators, trenching machines, tractors
and rollers are not covered in this module. Relevant information can
be found in reference (1).

There are many hazards associated with the heavy construction

equipment that are common to all. These may be listed as:

+ Poor repairs and. service;

. Obstructed view in backing;

- Striking people and collision with other equipment;

. Travelling empty at excessive speeds;

. Pinch points between equipment and objects;

« Riders falling from equipment or bucket;

. Overturning of the equipment;

- Unexpected electrical shock;

. Failure of lifting mechanisms/operational failures;

« Injuries to operators due to ingress/egress difficulties;

- Runaway machines (not blocking wheels upon parking or operator
inability to control); and

- Being struck by limbs of trees or other overhead obstructions, and
moving equipment.

It is possible to list some general as well as specific safety precautions

associated with heavy construction equipment. Recommendations for

general precautions are as follows:

« Management should carefully select competent operators.

- Rules should be clearly set for operation.

. All equipment should be kept in good working condition.

. All new machines should be equipped with rollover protection.

- Existing machines with rollover protection should be maintained in
working condition.

- Adequate illumination should be provided for night operations.

V-39


DISCLAIMER

Mention of any company or product does not constitute endorsement by the National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.

This document is in the public domain and may be freely copied or reprinted.

Copies of this and other NIOSH documents are available from

Publications Dissemination, DSOTT
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
4676 Columbia Parkway
Cincinnati, OH 45226
(513) 533-8287

For information about other occupational safety and health problems, call
1-800-35-NIOSH

OHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 92-108


Table II-2
Various Organizations Dealing with Construction Safety and Health

{ealeitary tet Benes ssp
Plaines, IL 60018-2187

National Safety Council NSC)

Chicogar tf age 6601

American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

1430 Bi
New You. N.Y. 10018

National In
Gime ha "Rain! Baa of tandards)

Associated G General Contractors of

‘America, Inc. (AGC)
1957 E ‘suet, NW,
ington, D.C. 26006

nal Constructors Association (NCA)
Nort 15th Street, N.W.

Washington, DC. 20005

Business Round T:
1615 L See NW Su "Suite 1100
Washingwn, D.C. 20036

Construction Industry

‘The University of Texas at Tawa
3208 Red River, Suse 300

Hastin TX 78705-2608

Building and Construction Trades Dept.

815 16th Street
Washington, D.C. 20006

Bureau of National Affairs (BNA)
1231 25th Si JN WwW.

Washington, D.

American Society of Civil Engineers

re East 47th Si
‘New York, fd T0017. 2398

American Concrete Institute (ACT)

Box 19150/Redford Station

22400 West 7 Mile Road

Detroit, MI 48219

American Institute of Architects (ALA)

1735 New York Avenue, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20006

hiladeiphia, PA 19103
National Socenyof Professional

aoe VA 22314

(708) 692-4121
(312) 527-4800
(800) 621-7619

(212) 642-4948

201) 975-5900

(202) 637-8800

(202) 393-2040

(202) 223-1510

(202) 872-1260

(512) 471-4319

* (202) 347-1416

(800) 452-7773

(212) 705-7496

(313) 532-2600

(202) 626-7300

(215) 299-5400

(703) 684-2800

(202) 382-2090

Iil-14


Page 3 - Request for Assistance in Preventing Occupational Fatalities in
Confined Spaces

remove waste water from a 66 inch diameter sewer line that was
under construction. The pump was approximately 3,000 feet from
where the worker had entered the line. The worker was overcome
by carbon monoxide. A co-worker, who had also entered the sewer
line, escaped. A 28-year-old state inspector entered from
another point along the sewer line and died in a rescue attempt.
Both deaths were due to carbon monoxide intoxication. In
addition to the fatalities, 30 firefighters and 8 construction
workers were treated for carbon monoxide exposure.

Case #3 - RECOGNITION AND RESCUE (FATALITIES = 2 RESCUERS)

On October 4, 1984, two workers (26 and 27 years old) were
overcome by gas vapors and drowned after rescuing a third worker
from a fracturing tank at a natural gas well. The tank contained
a mixture of mud, water, and natural gas. The first worker had
been attempting to move a hose from the tank to another tank.
The hose was secured by a chain and when the worker moved the
hose, the chain fell into the tank. The worker entered the tank
to retrieve the chain and was overcome.

Case #4 - RECOGNITION AND RESCUE (FATALITIES = 1 WORKER + 1
RESCUER)

On December 5, 1984, a 22-year-old worker died inside a toluene
storage tank that was 10 feet in diameter and 20 feet high while
attempting to clean the tank. The worker entered the tank
through the 16 inch diameter top opening using a 1/2 inch rope
for descent. Although a self-contained breathing apparatus was
present, the worker was not wearing it when he entered the tank.
The worker was overcome and collapsed onto the floor of the
tank. In an attempt to rescue the worker, fire department
personne! began cutting an opening into the side of the tank.
The tank exploded, killing a 32-year-old firefighter and injuring
15 others.

Case #5 - RECOGNITION AND RESCUE (FATALITIES = 1 WORKER + 1
RESCUER)

On May 13, 1985, a 21-year-old worker died inside a waste water
holding tank that was four feet in diameter and eight feet deep
while attempting to clean and repair a drain line. Sulfuric acid
was used to unclog a floor drain leading into the holding tank.
The worker collapsed and fell face down into six inches of water
in the bottom of the tank. A second 21-year-old worker attempted
a rescue and was also overcome and collapsed. The first worker
was pronounced dead at the scene and the second worker died two
weeks later. Cause of death was attributed to asphyxiation by
methane gas. Sulfuric acid vapors may have also contributed to
the cause of death.


Role Defined
in Contracts

Design Engineers
as Inspectors

Quality Assurance
and Control
Programs

Construction
Methods and
Procedures

documents;
- Evaluating the design performance and checking for errors; and
« Interpreting the intent of contract documents.

The degree of the engineer’s involvement in the construction phase could
vary depending on the nature of the project and should be defined in the
contractual agreements between the designer and the owner.

Recent construction failures have alerted the public to the importance
of construction inspection by design engineers. Many governmental
agencies at the local and state levels now require some form of
inspection by the engineer of record. After the collapse of the
L’Ambiance Plaza apartment building, the State of Connecticut enacted
legislation which requires the architects/engineers to certify that the
completed building is in conformance with their contract documents.
Similarly, following the collapse of the Harbor Cay condominium
project (not elaborated herein), the State of Florida mandated that
certain buildings, especially those with unique design features, should
be erected in the presence of a special inspector who must be a
professional engineer or a registered architect in the state of Florida

(17).

The construction phase is by far the most demanding portion of a project.
All evidence seems to point to the importance of a well defined and
organized field inspection and quality assurance and control program
recognizing the roles of the owner, designer and contractor. Reluctance
of the design engineer to interfere in construction issues for fear of legal
exposure may not be a sound strategy for avoiding liability. Recently,
OSHA has linked some construction accidents to inadequate or faulty
design decisions and indicated that the design professionals perform
"construction related acts" by virtue of their involvement in design,
although this claim has been strongly contested (18). Some recent
litigation cases have sought to increase the engineer’s role in
construction methods and safety. For instance, the L’Ambiance legal
settlement has shown that design professionals can no longer rely on
“observation only” type contractual agreements, and might be subject
to costly litigation, should construction problems arise. Therefore, it
appears in the professional interest of the engineers to lead quality
control programs more aggressively, eliminate poor materials and
craftsmanship, and prevent failures for obvious reasons, as well as a
means to avoid professional liability.

In present practice, the construction methods and procedures by which
a building is erected are considered to be the responsibility of the
contractor. In a great majority of construction projects, constructors are
proficient and possess sufficient knowledge and experience in their
work. However, there may be some construction situations requiring
sophisticated structural design decisions at the time of erection, and
some constructors may attempt to make such decisions on their own

VI-12


Insurance costs = 1% + 7% = 8% of direct labor costs;
Accident claims costs = 65% x 8% = 5.2% of direct labor costs;

Tadieant anata = 6 EW we AN OOS LA ee _
Table II-4
Accident Cost Schedule in 1979 Dollars (7)
Injury type
Strain
sprain Cut
crush, mash puncture Bruise
smash Fracture laceration Bum abrasion Other
Non Non- Non- Non- Non- Non-
Lost Lost Lost Lost Lost Lost Lost’ Lost Lost Lost — Lost Lost
Head, face NA NA 700 8,000 250 3,000 325 7,500 250 1,000 350 6,000
Eye(s) (1) 45,000 NA NA 250 3,000 200 «5,000 300 1,000 300 5,000
(2) 245,000
Neck and shoulder NA 350 7,000 1,500 8,000 250 3,000 325 5,000 250 2,000 300 7,000
Arm(s) andelbow(s) (1) 190,000 350 4,000 1,000 6,000 280 3,000 250 5,000 300 3,000 250 6,000
(2) 250,000
Wrist(s) and hand (1) 52,000 275 2,500 700 9,000 250 3,000 325 3,000 250 4,000 350 8,000
(2) 250,000
‘Thumb(s) and fingers 8,000 ea. 275 2,500 350 5,000 250 3,000 200 5,000 200 3,000 200 5,000
up to 37,000
Back NA 2,000 10,000 NA 100,000 250 3,000 325 7,500 320 5,000 350 10,000
Chest and lower trunk NA 450 4,000 NA 250 8,000 325 5,000 250 3,000 250 9,000
Ribs NA 350 1,000 450 4,000 NA 325 5,000 350 3,000 © 300_-9,000
Hip NA NA 3,500 450 12,000 200 3,000 325 5,000 350 5,000 430 4,000
Leg(s) and knees (1) 89,000 375 4,000 500 15,000 250 3,000 325 5,000 250 3,000 300 8,000
(2) 280,000
Foot (feet) and (1) 44,000 —-300.-2,500 450 9,000 200 2,500 300 3,000 280 1,000 350 2,000
ankle(s) (2) 90,000
7,000 ea. 300 1,500 200 2,500 250 3,000 325 2,000 200 1,000 220 2,000
up to 40,000
200 8,000
30,000
10,000
90,000
Table II-5
Accident Cost Estimating System (ACES) Multiplier Sheet (8)
Injury Type Strain, Sprain,
or Crush, Smash, Cut, Puncture Bruise
Body Part Amputation Mash Fracture Laceration Bum Abrasion Other
Eyes(s) 5.3K-28.8K NA NA 35-350 25-610 35-120 35-610
Head/Face NA NA 80 - 960 35-350 40-880 35-120 40-720
‘Neck and Shoulder NA 40 - 830 175-960 35-350 40-610 35-240 35-830
Arm(s) and Elbows) 24.4K-28.8K 40 - 480 120-720 35-350 35-610 35-610 35-720
Wrist(s) & Hands 6.1K-28.8K 35-305 80- 1.4K 35-350 40-610 35-380 40-720
Thumb(s) & Finger(s) 960@ 35-305 40-610 35-350 25-610 25-352 25-610
Chest & Trunk NA 35-480 NA 35-960 40-610 35-350 35-LIK
Rib(s) NA 40 - 120 35-480 NA 40-610 40-350 35-11K
Back NA 249 - 1.2K NA-11.8K 35-350 40-880 40-610 40-1.2K
Hip(s) NA NA-415 55-14K 25-350 40-610 40-610 55-480
Leg(s) & Knee(s) 10.6K-33.6K 50-480 $5-1.8K 35-350 40 -610 35-350 35-960
Foot/Feet & Ankle(s) 6.1K-10.6K 35-305 55-1.0K 25-350 35-350 35-120 40 - 240
Toes) 830@ 35-175 25-305 35-350 40-240 25-120 35-240
Hernia Rupture NA NA NA NA NA NA 35-960

Gnarial Cansideration: HeartAttack = %45K. Hearing Loss=1.2K.  Death=10.6K


MATERIAL
HANDLING

Hazardous
Materials

Hazardous
Chemicals

Ways of Entry
to Human Body

Health Effects
of Exposure

In the context of this module, the term material handling encompasses
all activities associated with the transportation, receiving, storage,
dispensing, and management of the construction and related materials
on and off the jobsite. Materials themselves may be considered
hazardous, or there may be hazards created by their improper handling.
Dealing effectively with the various types of materials handled in
construction projects requires understanding their hazards, and making
effective planning and implementation decisions with regard to the
mode of transport, time of delivery, quantity of materials, and allocation
of safe and suitable storage space.

The Transportation Safety Act of 1974 defines several classes of -
hazardous materials including explosives, radioactive substances,
flammable/combustible liquids and solids, oxidizing or corrosive
materials, compressed gasses, poisons, etiological agents (hazardous
biological materials), irritating materials and other regulated materials.
Under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976, the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) classifies hazardous materials
as ignitable, corrosive, reactive, or toxic.

Materials characterized as chemicals may be in the form of solid, liquid,
granules, powder, vapour or gas. Chemicals commonly used in the
construction industry include acids, bases, solvents and alkaline
materials (e.g. cement). Hazardous chemicals are listed by a variety of
agencies. For instance, NIOSH has. compiled a list of some 5000
chemicals that have an inherent hazard (6).

Chemicals can enter the human body in four ways:

. Inhalation: breathing of gases, vapour, fumes, and dust which can
effect lungs, nose, throat, and blood;

. Absorption: chemicals penetrating human skin directly or through
cuts;

- Ingestion: chemicals entering through the mouth; or

. Injection: chemicals entering the body purposely or accidentally.
Besides these four routes of entry, some materials may be harmful in
direct contact with external tissue. Examples are burns, dermatitis and
eye irritation problems resulting from the skin or eye making contact
with harmful substances.

It is important to note that the likelihood and severity of the health
effects from harmful substances depend on the type and quantity of the
substance, the rate and duration of exposure, and what happens to the
substance in the body. Most hazardous substances affect particular
organs of the body; some affect the nervous system, or blood.
Exposures can be acute or chronic. An example of an acute effect is
a strong acid or caustic contacting a tissue and destroying it. Chronic
effects of hazardous materials are observable after a latency period,
which is usually the case with carcinogens. Chemical exposure may

V-5


ww

Table 1.—Airborne lead concentrations reported during operations on bridges and
other painted steel structures

Exposure range

during task
Operation Job (agi) Comments
Bridge rehabilitation Torch bumer 220-6,000 Work conducted in semicon-
{New Jersey Depart- fined area
ment of Health 1988]

Hammering and drilling 40-360 Workers were mechanically
disturbing painted surtace in
semiconfined area

Bridge demolition (no Torch burner 110-1200 Workers were cutting beams on
containment structure) bridge
[New Jersey Depart.
ment of Health 1988b]

Bumer helper 330 These workers assisted bumers
who were cutting the bridge

Power tool use 5-50

Bridge demolition (no Bumer 180-1,800
containment structure)
(New Jersey Depart- wt!
ment of Health 1990]
Rivet removal 500-930
Paint removal trom Blaster 230-860 Sampies were taken inside res-
boiler (no containment pirator
structure) [Adkison
1989}
640-1,400 Samples were taken outside
respirator

Power tool operators. 80-790 Workers were spot cleaning an
existing surface

Power plant (no con- Bumer 2,100-22,400
tainment structure)
[Rekus 1988]

Bridge repair (no con- Welder 2,200—-4,200
tainment structure) Blaster 10,400
{Rekus 1988]

(Continued)

ww

4 Lead Poisoning in Construction Workers


Deficiencies
in Processing

Coordination
with Schedule

Effective
Communication

Communication
Failures in
Hyatt Regency
Collapse

technologies, than the designer. This freedom generally results in a
competitive bid since the contractor is not forced to comply with
specific methods in which he may not be totally proficient. Shop
drawings are reviewed by both the contractors and the designers. They
are reviewed more critically by the responsible designers if the case
concems structural details. Usually shop drawings receive precedence
over contract documents, and thus become the sole source of
information and guidance for the construction team. Any errors or
omissions on shop drawings can lead to inadequate construction which
may result in failures.

Deficiencies in shop drawing submittal and processing practices can
jeopardize safe and efficient construction. Three crucial factors must be
observed to minimize such problems, namely:

1) Efficient planning and time management;

2) Adequate shop drawing reviews; and

3) Good communication between the designer and the contractor.

Shop drawings must be coordinated with the construction schedule,
which should be based on critical path considerations. Since the
ordering and fabrication of most materials are dependent upon their
respective shop drawing reviews, unreasonable delays by contractors
and/or designers in completing these tasks may lead to overall project
delays, and budget overruns. However, shortage of time, pressures
from the contractor, or budgetary concerns must not be compromising
factors, jeopardizing safe design and construction. Shop drawings must
always be thoroughly reviewed by the members of the design team,
who have adequate knowledge of and familiarity with the task, and the
design concept.

Effective communication is perhaps the most critical factor in preventing
failures. In practice, there is often some overlap of design responsibility
between the engineer/design professional and the contractor /
subcontractor. This is especially common in certain areas like steel
connections or precast concrete construction. It is important that the
designers develop excellent communications with the contractors, and
clearly express their intentions. Also, the contract documents must
clearly define the extent of the contractors’ responsibilities to eliminate
any misunderstandings.

An unfortunate example of communication failure is the collapse of the
Hyatt Regency walkways described at the beginning of this unit. In this
case, the technical cause of the collapse was found to be the inadequacy
of critical steel connections. The original contract documents had called
for a set of continuous hanger rods, which would suspend from the roof
framing and pass through the fourth floor box-beam on through the
second floor. As constructed, however, two sets of hanger rods were
used, one set extending from the fourth floor box-beam to the roof
framing, and another set from the second floor box-beams to the fourth
floor box-beams. It is believed that the fundamental reason which led
to inadequate design of details was the failure of the engineers to
properly communicate their intentions to the steel fabricators.

VI-9


Air Monitoring

Personal
Protective
Gear

Respirators

Protective |
Clothing

Site Control

1) Off-site characterization to gather information (before entry) on site
location, geological, meteorological and hydrological data, and
information on site history regarding presence of hazardous materials;
2) On-site survey to verify and supplement information from the off-
site characterization; and

3) Monitoring to keep up with changes in site conditions (e.g.
atmospheric hazards).

Air monitoring is the process. of identification and quantification of
airborne contaminant. It can be achieved by direct reading instruments,
or by laboratory analysis of air samples obtained from the site. The
results from air monitoring indicate the potential inhalation exposure of
workers, and determine the extent of hazard and the required control
measures.

The purpose of personal protective equipment (PPE) and protective
clothing is to shield or isolate individuals from chemical, physical, and
biologic hazards that may be encountered at hazardous waste sites.
Careful selection and use of adequate personal protective gear should
protect the respiratory system, skin, eyes, face, hands, feet, head, body
and hearing. No single combination of protective equipment and
clothing is capable of protecting against all hazards. Thus PPE should
be used in conjunction with other protective methods. The use of PPE
can itself create significant worker hazards, such as heat stress, physical
and psychological stress, and impaired vision, mobility and
communication. In general, the greater the level of PPE use, the greater
are the associated risks.

Respiratory protection is of primary importance since inhalation is one
of the major routes of exposure to chemical toxicants. The federal
regulations require the use of respirators that have been tested and
approved by the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) and
the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
Relevant testing procedures are described in 30 CFR Part 11.

Personal protective clothing is considered to be any article offering skin
or body protection. It includes fully-encapsulating suits, non-
encapsulating suits, aprons, leggings, and sleeve protectors, gloves,
firefighter protective clothing, proximity garments, blast and
fragmentation suits, cooling garments, and radiation-protective suits.
Special protective clothing is available offering a range of protection
against different chemicals. Selection of protective clothing is a
complex task and should be performed by personnel with training and
experience based upon factors such as permeability, durability,
flexibility, temperature effects, ease of decontamination, compatibility
with other equipment, and duration of usé.

Several site control procedures can be implemented to reduce worker
and public exposure to existing hazards. These encompass:

V-58


Handling Drums Accidents may occur during handling of drums and other hazardous
and Other waste containers. Hazards include detonations, fires, explosions, vapour
Containers generation, and physical injury resulting from moving heavy containers w/
by hand and working around stacked drums, heavy equipment, and
deteriorated drums. While these hazards are always present, proper
work practices such as minimizing handling and using equipment and
procedures that isolate workers from hazardous substances can minimize
the risk of site personnel. The appropriate procedures for handling
drums depend on their type, contents, and condition. Thus, prior to any
handling, drums should be visually inspected to gain as much
information as possible on these aspects. The inspector should look for:
» Symbols, words, or other marks on the drum indicating that its
contents are hazardous, e.g., radioactive, explosive, corrosive, toxic,
flammable; :
- Signs of deterioration such as corrosion, rust, leaks, or bulging due to
intemal pressure; and
- Drum type, and the drum head configuration.

Monitoring Monitoring should be conducted around the drums using instruments
such as a gamma radiation monitor, organic vapour monitor, and a
combustible gas meter. If buried drums are suspected, ground-
penetrating systems, such as electromagnetic wave, electrical resistivity,
ground-penetrating radar, magnetometry, and metal detection devices
can be used to estimate their location and depth.

Site Emergencies Site emergencies is the final category that must be considered during an
effective cleanup operation of hazardous waste. Emergencies happen w
quickly and unexpectedly and require immediate response. Site
emergencies can present complexities. Uncontrolled toxic chemicals
may be numerous and unidentified; their effects may be synergistic.
Hazards may potentiate one another; for example, a flammable spill
may feed a fire. Rescue personnel attempting to remove injured
workers may themselves become victims. This variability means that
advance planning, including anticipation of different emergency
scenarios and thorough preparation for contingencies, is essential to
protect worker and community health and safety. Therefore, a
contingency plan is required as a discrete section of the site safety plan.

Contingency Plan The contingency plan sets forth policies and procedures for responding

to site emergencies, and should ingorporate:

« The roles, lines of authority, training, and communication of
personnel.

. Mapping, security and control, refuges, evacuation routes, and
decontamination stations at the site;

+ MedicaV/first aid;

. Equipment;

. Emergency procedures

- Documentation; and

- Reporting.

The contingency plan should be compatible and integrated with the
pollution response, disaster, fire, and emergency plans of local, state,

v6 ww


PURPOSE

OBJECTIVES

KEY TERMS

UNIT I

INTRODUCTION

To present an overview of the nature and magnitude of the safety and
health problems in the construction industry, and emphasize the need
for proper education and training on this topic, particularly for civil
engineers.

To familiarize the civil engineering faculty and students intending to

utilize this unit with:

1. The entities involved in construction projects which may be
concemed with jobsite safety and health

2. Unique aspects of the construction industry leading to its
traditionally poor safety and health record

3. Statistical information on construction safety and health

4. The problems and needs in the construction industry
concerning safety and health

5. The specific need for education and training on construction
safety and health.

Construction industry; project team; owner; designer, A/E; CM; injury
and illness statistics; incidence rates; occupational injury and illness;lost
workdays; fatalities; accident surveillance; construction team interface;
engineering needs; legal/legislative aspects; occupational health; primary
safety exposures; education and training.

il


Hoist Hazards

Hazard Control
for Cranes and
Hoists

Advanced Planning

Precautions During
Crane Operations

Maintenance
and Inspection

Additional Safety
Precautions for
Cranes and Hoists

Major factors affecting the safe use of hoists are design and operating
conditions, operators’ skill and knowledge, and proper rigging practices.
Accidents associated with hoists results from: (a) failure of attachment
devices during a lift resulting in dropped loads; (b) collision with
persons or objects as consequences of uncontrolled movement of the
hoists or loads; (c) contacts occurring to personnel in work area, while
loads are being attached; and (d) failure of the structural or mechanical
parts of hoists during lifting or moving loads (23).

Advance planning of the lifting operations by cranes and hoists, and

the proper maintenance of the lifting equipment are the two key factors

in eliminating the hazardous conditions from these operations.

Advanced planning should include:

. Selection of trained and able workers, and briefing them about the
operation;

- Organizing the sequence and the process of the lifting operation;

« Identifying the correct lifting position with respect to weight and
center of gravity;

. Establishing the maximum lift height and radius to which the load
will be taken;

+ Selection of appropriate crane and lifting gear for the job;

+ Preparation of the path of moving loads, the routes to be taken by
mobile cranes;

. Elimination of the obstruction, excavation and electrical hazards;
assessing the soil bearing capacity; and

+ Scheduling activities properly to avoid conflict of operations and
work under suspended loads.

The following precautions are recommended during crane operations:

. Assure that the suspended load does not exceed the rated capacity of
the crane;

. Assure that outriggers used in all lifting operations are equally and
fully extended;

- Keep the crane operation a safe distance from the edge of
excavations and electrical power lines. One should be prepared to
disconnect the electrical supply in case of contact between the crane
boom and a power line. The operator should be instructed to
remain in the cab, or jump out of the cab without touching the body
of the crane to avoid electrocution.

Height precautions are especially critical to tower cranes. Safe access

to the cab and the jib are important to prevent falls.

Maintenance is extremely important in securing the safety of machinery
and equipment. OSHA standards require inspection of all machinery
before each use. Results of tests and inspections should be recorded.
Frequent inspections should be made on wire ropes and guys, hoists and
trolley cables, jib and counter weight jib guy lines, hoist rope anchorage
on winding drum, foundations, and structural connections.

The following additional safety precautions have been recommended by

CECS (24) for crane and hoisting operations:

. Assure that cranes meet applicable governmental and voluntary
standards.

V-37


UNIT IV

ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION AND ANALYSIS, AND INJURY CONTROL

DEFINITION
OF
ACCIDENT

SAFETY ENGINEERING

CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS

FUNDAMENTALS

The dictionary defines an accident as "a happening or event that is
not expected, foreseen or intended". In terms of its effects, it can also
be defined as "an unexpected, unforeseen or unintended event which has
a probability of causing personal injury or property damage." For the
construction industry, an accident may be defined as "any event which
interrupts the work process, caused by a combination of human,
situational or environmental factors , which may result in personal
injury, death, property damage, and other undesirable events". It should
be noted that the use of the term accident in this module does not
imply that construction accidents are unforeseen and unpredictable;
neither does it imply a "no-fault" situation.

Other terms related to accidents include hazard, risk, safety, and
safety engineering. According to Brauer (1), a hazard is "a
condition with the potential of causing or contributing to an accident or
illness." Risk is "a measure of both the likelihood and the
consequences of all hazards of an activity or condition". Safety is "the
state of being relatively free from harm, danger, injury or damage”.
Safety engineering is “the application of engineering principles to the
recognition and control of ".

All accidents, injuries and illnesses can be attributed to one or more
identifiable causes. Chance may play a role in bringing the causes
together. It is generally agreed that accidents are caused by unsafe acts
or unsafe conditions, or a combination of unsafe acts and unsafe
conditions. Heinrich in the 1920’s studied 75,000 accidents and
established his well-known 88:10:2 ratio. He suggested that 88 percent
of the accidents were caused by unsafe acts, 10 percent from unsafe
conditions, and 2 percent were unpreventable (acts of God). Later
studies, however, indicated that most accidents can be characterized as
having resulted from a combination of unsafe acts and unsafe conditions
(2). This is shown in Table IV-1.

Table IV-1
Estimated Percentages of Accidents Due to Unsafe Acts versus
Unsafe ‘Conditions (2)

¥ due to * due to * due to a
Study unsafe acts unsafe cond. combination unknown
- 16 84 -

2 3 95 -

19 18 63 -

21 - 79 :

26 58 2 13

35 s4 4 7

38 10 - -

a Investigations of reported fatalities.
Random sample of accident reports.
¢ Henrich classified 2 percent as “unpreventable*.


Page 3 - Request for Assistance in Preventing Electrocutions from Contact
Between Cranes and Power Lines

Additionally, 1926.550(a)(15) requires that: a person be designated to observe
the clearance of the crane when it is difficult for the crane operator to use
direct observation; cage-type boom guards, insulating lines, or proximity
warning devices may be used, but their use does not eliminate the need to
adhere to the other parts of the regulation; any overhead wire is to be
considered energized until the owner of the line or the electric utility
indicates that it is not energized and that it has been visibly grounded;
transmitter towers should also be de-energized or tests shall be conducted to
determine if an electrical charge has been induced on the crane. Induced
charges shall be dissipated by providing an electrical ground directly to the
upper rotating structure supporting the boom; ground jumper cables shall be
attached to materials when an electrical charge is induced; crews shall be
provided with nonconductive poles to attach the ground cable to the load;

combustible and flammable materials shall be removed from the immediate area
prior to operations.

The Construction Safety Association of Ontario, Canada (CSA-Ontario),
recommends safe work practices [4] beyond those addressed in the OSHA standard
including the use of nonconductive taglines to guide Loads and the use of
insulating personal protective equipment by exposed workers.

APPLICATION OF EXISTING STANDARDS AND RECOMMENDED WORK PRACTICES

Table 1 presents an analysis for each of the five cases described in this
alert regarding compliance with the OSHA standard or CSA-Ontario recommended
work practices. In two of the cases, neither the OSHA standard nor the
CSA-Ontario recommended work practices were being followed. In the remaining
three cases, only one of these safe work practices (avoiding the storage of
materials directly under power lines) was being followed. In.each of these
five cases, there was demonstrable lack of compliance with the OSHA standard.

CONCLUSION

The principal objective of the investigations undertaken by NIOSH as part of
its Fatal Accident Circumstances and Epidemiology (FACE) Project is to
determine what factors enabled the fatality to occur. The goal is to learn
how such fatalities can be prevented. In this context, whether or not an
operation was "in compliance” with existing standards is but one of many
variables which may or may not have contributed to the fatality. However, in
the course of the investigations reported here, it became obvious that full
compliance with relevant OSHA standards and full use of the CSA-Ontario work
practices would have prevented each fatality.

As an obvious first step in preventing such fatalities in the future, we
conclude that all such operations should be done only in compliance with
existing OSHA standards.


Toll of
Failures

Need for
Inspection
and Control

resulted in other unsafe conditions.

. A critical percentage (43.7 percent) of the structural failures occurred
during the construction phase.

- Errors in design and construction phases of the projects were the most
predominant sources of failures. Design errors occurred in 51 percent
of the total failure cases; 57 percent of the total failure cases recorded
deficiencies in construction procedures.

- Structural designers were responsible for the errors in 48 percent of
the cases. Contractor’s site staff was accountable for errors in 60
percent of the total failure cases.

. Deficiencies in the construction procedures primarily involved
inadequate construction methods, ineffective evaluation of laws and
safety regulations, and inadequate planning and supervision.

. Errors in management practices had a tremendous effect on the
performance of project activities, the schedule, and safety. These
included deficiencies in work responsibilities, deficiencies in the
communication process, and insufficient work cooperation. Errors in
defining work responsibilities were dominant (30%) as part of the
deficiencies in management practices.

. A great majority of the cases (86%) indicated that reinforced concrete
elements were involved in the failures, and the highest number of
failed members (34%) were slabs and plates.

. The primary causes of most failures were poor erection procedures and
inadequate connection elements leading to inadequate load behavior,
followed by unclear contract information, and contravention of
information. A small percentage of failures were attributed to
unforeseen events.

- Secondary causes of failures were led by environmental effects
(mostly poor weather conditions), followed by poor supervision
and control, poor communications, poor material and equipment usage,
poor workmanship, and other minor technical and nontechnical factors.

The study found that the cases examined caused 416 total deaths and
2515 total injuries. The total direct costs of damage associated with the
studied structural and construction failures in 1986 were estimated at
$3.5 billion. The hidden indirect costs were excluded from the estimate
because of the difficulty of their determination.

It was also observed in the study that errors can be discovered with

additional inspection procedures along the planning, design, construction

and utilization phases of the building process. The authors recognized

four areas of control to prevent failures:

- Appointment of experienced and qualified site staff;

- Implementation of quality assurance and quality control procedures;

. Enforcement of penalties on contractors; and

- Implementing systematic procedures; i.e. planning, scheduling,
supervision and control.


Hazards of
Other Power Tools

Powder Actuated
Tool Hazards

Hazard Control
for Hand and
Power Tools

Electric Tool
Safety

- Poorly maintained saws may lack fixed guards over the blades, and the
blades may not be adequately secured.

- During use, material being cut may not be adequately supported.

. Dust inhalation can be a problem.

« Operator distraction can cause accidents.

- Foreign objects (such as nails) in the material can shatter and fly in
pieces upon contact with the blade, and injure the operator.

Other power tools such as drills, grinders and sanders also present
hazards to the operators. The most common hazard is the generation
of flying particles during grinding, which can cause injury, particularly
to the eye. Overspeeding and incorrect mounting of wheels on grinders
can crack the wheel while it is rotating. This cracking could lead to
wheel bursting, which could injure the operators.

Powder actuated tools operate with great force, and are potentially lethal.

Inadequate training, incompetent and irresponsible use are the primary

factors contributing to hazardous conditions. Basic hazards associated

with powder actuated tools include:

. Attempting to use the tool on unsuitable materials;

. Thorough penetration caused by excessive velocity, changes in the
consistency of material penetrated, or voids in the material;

. Ricochet caused by positioning the fasteners into very hard materials
or near the edges;

+ Spalling of the material (e.g. in concrete spalling is caused by the
initial compressive impact.)

. Misfiring; and

- Operating near explosive materials.

All tools should be kept in safe working condition, stored properly in
suitable containers, and protected against corrosion. Adjustable parts
should be lubricated to prevent wear and misalignment. Tools should
be maintained regularly. Damaged tools should not be kept on the
jobsite, and should be repaired properly. Personal protective equipment
should be used during tool use, the choice depending on the nature of
the task. Eye protection, safety helmets, gloves, steel toed shoes,
respirators, etc. are effective shields from injury. Tools should be
properly selected for the particular operation. For example, manual
saws should be selected based on shape and size with correct teeth for
the size of cut and the material being cut.

All tools should be equipped with adequate guards and safety devices.
Electric tools should be equipped with ground fault circuit interrupters.
Extension cords should be durable and be weather proofed. Cords
should be rated for outdoor use, but should still be kept away from
water, since moisture can seep into insulation. Cords should be
inspected to ensure that the entire length of insulation is intact and the
plug pins are not damaged. All tools must use a three-wire cord with

a grounding plug.

V-44


Management
Models

Modified
Domino

Effects

Factors Causing

Management Failure

Epidemiologic
Models

. Laziness

« Haste

- Temper

. Following poor examples
« Perfectionism

.« Boredom

. Self-destructive action
« Peer-destructive action
. Superiority

« Inferiority, and

+ Paranoia. -

These models utilize a modified version of the domino theory, shifting

the emphasis: from: the worker as the cause of the injuries to the

management system in which the worker exists (6). The domino effects

in this case are as follows:

1) Injuries are caused by accidents.

2) For each accident, there are immediate causes that are symptomatic
of problems in the overall system.

3) There are basic causes in the overall management of the system that
produce the immediate causes of the accident.

4) The lack of management control permits the basic causes of
accidents to exist in the system.

Ferry (5) has listed the following basic mishap causal factors traceable
to management failure:

. Poor housekeeping

. Improper use of tools, equipment, and facilities

- Unsafe or defective equipment and facilities

- Lack of proper procedures

» Unsafe improvised procedures

- Failure to follow prescribed procedures

+ Job not understood

. Lack of awareness of hazards involved

- Lack of proper tools, equipment, and facilities

- Lack of guards and safety devices

- Lack of protective clothing and equipment

. Exceeding prescribed limits, loatis, speed, strength, and so on
« Inattention, neglect of safe practices

. Fatigue and reduced alertness

. Misconduct, poor attitude.

Epidemiology is the science which deals with the search for causal
association between diseases or other biological processes and specific
environmental experiences or exposures. The epidemiologic model
applied to injury research seeks to explain the occurrence of injuries
within the system of host (injured victim), agent (means of injury) and
environment (physical, psychological, and social factors related to the

Iv-5