NIOSH Firefighter Radio Communications 

TriData Corporation 86 September 2003 

APPENDIX B: FIRE DEPARTMENT COMMUNICATIONS – 

EXPERIENCES FROM THE FIELD 

The information contained in this appendix was gathered from a variety of sources. Much 

of the information comes from fire department management studies previously 

undertaken by TriData Corporation. Some information comes from individual fire 

department annual reports, websites, or other fire department literature. Wherever 

possible, the information from these studies was verified with the fire department to 

ensure that the most current data was reflected in this report. 

TABLE 1: EXPERIENCES FROM THE FIELD – DEPARTMENT OVERVIEW

Jurisdiction 

Resident 

Population 13

Land 

Area1

(sq. mi)

Land 

Area 

Protected

Fire 

Department 

Type 

Uniformed 

Employees 

Communications 

System 

Austin, TX 656,562 252 Urban Career 979 UHF (450 MHz) 

Bellingham, WA 67,171 32 Urban/ 

Suburban Career 140 VHF 

Boston, MA 589,141 48 Urban Career 1,600 UHF (483-MHz 

Conventional) 

Boulder, CO Rural 

Fire Department 18,000 25 Suburban/ Rural Combination 8 FTE; 35 Volunteer 

VHF 

(153–155-MHz) 

Brighton, CO 20,905 17 Suburban/ 

Rural Combination 9 FTE; 60 Volunteers 

UHF (400/800 MHz 

Trunked) 

Charlotte, NC 540,828 242 Urban Career 890 UHF (800 MHz 

Trunked) 

Chicago, IL 2,896,016 227 Urban Career 4,000 VHF (Conventional) 

Clark County, NV 1,375,675 8,000 Urban/ 

Rural Combination 1,300 Career; 400 Volunteer14 UHF (800 MHz 

Trunked) 

Dallas, TX 1,188,580 385 Urban Career 1,700 UHF (400 MHz) 

Detroit, MI 951,270 139 Urban Career 1,296 UHF (400 MHz) 

Everett, WA 91,488 48 Urban/ 

Suburban Career 158 VHF 

Fairfax County, VA 969,749 395 Urban/ 

Suburban Combination 1,166 UHF (460/800 MHz Trunked)) 

Gettysburg, OH 3,700 60 Rural Volunteer 50 Volunteers VHF (154-MHz) 

Los Angeles, CA 3,694,820 469 Urban Career 3,200 UHF (800 MHz 

Conventional) 

Milwaukee, WI 596,974 96 Urban Career 1,100 UHF (400 MHz) 

Phoenix, AZ 1,321,045 475 Urban Career 1,366 UHF (Conventional) 

Pittsburgh, PA 334,563 56 Urban Career 896 UHF 

Portland, OR 529,121 134 Urban Career 680 UHF (800 MHz) 

San Antonio, TX 1,144,646 412 Urban Career 1,018 UHF (800 MHz 

Trunked) 

San Diego, CA 1,223,400 324 Urban Career 1,100 UHF (800 MHz) 

 

13 Data from U.S. Census 2000 was used for consistency and comparison. Data may not agree with that 

reported by the jurisdiction. 

14 Many fire departments that operate within Clark County, NV including but not limited to Las Vegas, 

North Las Vegas, Henderson, and the Clark County Fire Departments. These numbers are estimates, based 

on information gathered from department websites. 
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TriData Corporation 87 September 2003 

Jurisdiction 

Resident 

Population 13

Land 

Area1

(sq. mi)

Land 

Area 

Protected

Fire 

Department 

Type 

Uniformed 

Employees 

Communications 

System 

San Francisco, CA 776,773 49 Urban Career 1,700 UHF (800 MHz) 

Schaumburg, IL 75,386 19 Suburban Career 138 UHF (800 MHz) 

Springfield, NJ 14,429 5 Suburban Combination 33 Career and 

Volunteer UHF (470 MHz) 

Wichita, KS 344,284 136 Urban Career 371 UHF (800 MHz 

Trunked) 

Austin, TX 

The all-career Austin Fire Department (AFD) serves a population of 663,000. Its nearly 

1,000 uniformed firefighters operate out of 39 fire stations strategically located 

throughout the department’s 234-square-mile response area. That area includes portions 

of two neighboring counties (Travis and Williamson) as well as Austin-Bergstrom 

International Airport.15 

Located in the Central Texas hill country, Austin is approximately 230 miles from 

Mexico and less than 200 miles from Dallas, Houston, and San Antonio. It is also the 

State Capital of Texas. 

Its downtown area has high-rise buildings (8 – 10 of which are over 20 stories), belowgrade structures such as tunnels (Capitol building), basements, and underground parking 

garages, and diverse terrain—all of which pose communication challenges. Austin is also 

home to many computer chip manufacturing plants. 

For the past 15 years, radio communications have been spread over six radio channels on 

the 450 UHF band. One channel is designated for dispatch, while the other five are 

devoted to tactical operations. Channels are assigned geographically, and each channel 

has a repeater. 

Communication problems are sometimes encountered by the fire department. Some are 

technical issues related to various structures (e.g., high-rise buildings, tunnels, concrete 

buildings, etc.) and others are related more to interoperability – where communications 

with other city departments or neighboring jurisdictions Is sometimes compromised. 

Overcapacity and training are not issues, as the department conducts training programs 

and employs standard operating procedures (SOPs). 

To remedy the interoperability problem, the Austin‘s public safety agencies are 

upgrading to an 800-MHz trunked system. Reconfiguration to the 800 MHz is expected 

to solve the interoperability problem. The improvement in interference may be achieved 

through a modified system design and infrastructure and should improve other 

interference caused within structures, as well. 

 

15 Austin Fire Department Fact Sheet (www.ci.austin.tx.us/fire/fdfacts.htm.). Data may not agree with that 

reported by the U.S Census 2000. 
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Bellingham, WA 

The Bellingham Fire Department (BFD) provides fire suppression as well as emergency 

medical services. Bellingham, Washington, is located in Whatcom County, which is the 

last county on the Washington coastline bordering British Columbia. Bellingham’s fulltime, career firefighters serve a population of approximately 78,000.16 This includes 

citizens of Bellingham and some fire protection districts in unincorporated Whatcom 

County. 

Bellingham is 90 miles north of Seattle and 50 miles south of Vancouver. To the east are 

the Cascade Mountains, and to the west is Puget Sound. The area covered by the BFD has 

a diverse topography with extremely mountainous areas to the east, and wide lowland 

floodplains near the marine shoreline. The BFD is the primary provider of emergency 

ambulance service throughout the county, and frequently responds to areas deep within 

the county where radio coverage is limited. 

Currently, the BFD uses a VHF radio system with relatively good coverage of their 

response area. However, the department reports various “dead spots” within the city 

where firefighters cannot communicate with dispatch or with one another. There is one 

particularly troublesome spot—a large mall in the City where firefighters cannot 

communicate using their portable radios and where pagers will not activate. For all 

incidents above a second alarm, the BFD uses mutual aid companies from nearby 

jurisdictions. All of these companies are dispatched by the same communications center, 

which facilitates communications prior to and during incidents. 

Like many departments, the BFD reports that communications from below grade are 

intermittent. In addition, communications with the Police Department are difficult, due to 

the lack of interoperability between the two agencies’ radio systems. 

With such close proximity to the Canadian border, there is a limit on the strength of the 

radio signals the BFD can use. A recent communications study for Whatcom County 

recommended transitioning all emergency service providers in the county to an 800 MHz 

system; the BFD is working with the county to identify possible sites for radio towers and 

repeaters. . In the interim, they are exploring the possibility of installing a repeater near 

the mall to improve communications in that part of the City. The Department also uses 

Nextel cellular phones. However, after an earthquake several years ago, they discovered 

that the radio system functioned, but the Nextel phones did not. 

In addition, BFD personnel reported difficulty using portable radios while wearing PPE 

(personal protection equipment), particularly gloves. To address this problem during 

emergency incidents, all BFD radios are programmed so that the first and last positions 

on the frequency dial are the same and are a channel that is always monitored by 

dispatch. With this scheme, if a firefighter becomes trapped or disoriented, etc., and 

 

16 The population served differs from the resident population as report by the U.S. Census 2000 because the 

Bellingham Fire Department protects citizens in parts of unincorporated Whatcom County. 
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cannot communicate with units on the scene, he can always communicate with the 

dispatch center. 

Boston, MA 

The Boston Fire Department (BFD) is one of the oldest career fire departments in the 

United States. Its 1,600 firefighters serve in 35 stations, protecting 575,000 people spread 

over 47 square miles.17

The fire department operates a conventional UHF 483 conventional system. One channel 

is dedicated to dispatch and four channels are for fire operations (all with repeaters). Each 

channel operates in duplex mode. There are 20 satellite receivers strategically placed 

throughout the city to support communications. The system has additional capabilities for 

use in tunnels and underground areas; special receivers and transmitters are dedicated to 

subterranean communications. 

Imperfections within the system design has led the department to upgrade or replace 

some of its communication system equipment – base stations, receivers, etc. Essentially 

the department now has a new infrastructure. 

Prior to the upgrade, BFD was plagued with unwanted signals out of the system. Like 

other cities, Boston experiences dead spots in high-rise buildings and basement or subbasement areas, as well as in some residential structures. The hilly terrain tends to cause 

dead spots in residential areas. To combat this problem, the BFD uses transmitter 

steering, which moves communications from one transmitter to another. 

Communications in underground structures also presents a problem. For more than a 

decade, the City of Boston has been undergoing major transportation changes. The plan is 

to eliminate the Central Artery, an elevated six-lane highway that runs through the center 

of downtown, with an underground expressway directly beneath the existing road. This 

project is known as “The Big Dig.” This new tunnel will present considerable challenges 

to the public safety departments of Boston, including the fire department. 

The walls of the tunnel create a man-made barrier to radio frequency signals that carry 

radio communications. In 1995, when the construction the Ted Williams Tunnel, which 

extends from Logan Airport to the Greater Boston area, was complete, the City 

implemented a state-of-the-art communication device (i.e. leaky cable) that could operate 

31 channels simultaneously. The city installed a leaky cable running along the roof of the 

tunnel. A leaky cable is a “by-product of conventional coaxial cable with small slits cut 

through its layers that allow RF signal to seep out in amounts strong enough to cover 

small areas of square footage.” [296] 

Many new buildings in Boston have bi-directional amplifiers incorporated within their 

structures. Bi-directional amplifiers, commonly known as BDAs, are used for 

 

17 Boston Fire Department Overview (www.cityofboston.gov/bfd/overview/overview.htm.). Data does not 

agree with U.S. Census residential population data. 
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improving/correcting portable radio communications to, from, and within (large) 

structures. These BDAs provide the fire department the ability to operate all four fire 

department channels within a building. 

Interoperability is another serious issue in Boston. Boston is part of a metro fire district 

that includes 34 other cities and towns. The district lacks a system for direct 

communication with all of the other departments. When a major incident occurs, a BFD 

chief, acting as the incident commander, will be collocated with an incident commander 

from another department. 

Boulder, CO Rural Fire Department 

Boulder Rural Fire Department is located to the north of the City of Boulder in 

unincorporated Boulder County, Colorado. It protects a population of approximately 

18,000, spread over 25 square miles. The region is suburban and rural, and includes 

mountains, heavily forested areas, as well as some light industrial areas. 

The Boulder Rural Fire Department is a combination department, with volunteer and 

career personnel. There are eight full-time paid staff and more than 35 volunteers who 

work out of two fire stations. 

The department operates on a VHF 153–155-MHz radio system. It is suitable to the local 

geography and terrain as its signals readily bend around obstacles. Each firefighter in the 

department carries a voice pager. Portable radios are located on each seat of the fire 

apparatus ensuring that each person staffing apparatus (e.g., fire engine) has a portable 

radio. 

The area is a mixture of mountains, valleys, and flat terrain. In the mountains, 

communications are sometimes limited, and in some cases, blocked out entirely. 

Both the shadowing of the mountains and limited numbers of repeaters often lead to these 

communication problems. Yet, the fire department reports that these pockets of limited 

radio communications are small enough to not cause serious problems. Most large ranges 

of dead spots are restricted to unpopulated areas. 

Where communications are problematic, the department uses “human repeaters.” That is, 

each portable radio carried by a firefighter rebroadcasts or radiates the signal. Mobile 

repeaters are never used. 

Another issue for the Boulder Rural Fire Department is interoperability. All of the 

surrounding counties use the 800 MHz radio systems. Therefore, firefighters from the 

Boulder Rural Fire Department are not capable of communicating directly with other 

firefighters working on an incident. 
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Brighton, CO 

Brighton, Colorado is located approximately 20 miles northeast of Denver. The 

combination Greater Brighton Fire Protection District (GBFPD) has nine career and 60 

volunteer uniformed personnel. The district is adjacent to Denver International Airport 

(DIA) and encompasses approximately 160 square miles of mostly rural Adams and 

Weld Counties, with a total population of 25,000.18

Recently, the GBFPD migrated from a 400 MHz radio system to an 800-MHz trunked 

system. However, due to the large number of volunteer personnel who rely on pagers, the 

District continues to simulcast its dispatch information on the 400-MHz band to activate 

those pagers. Nextel is gaining popularity in the region, particularly as more tower sites 

are added. 

The GBFPD is currently working out some coverage issues with the 800 MHz system. 

Additional radio towers have reduced the number of “dead spots,” but communications 

into and out of schools in the district remain a problem.. For interior operations, the 

district generally uses simplex mode, rather than the trunked system, to enhance 

communications. 

Interoperability in the region is also a struggle, as the high cost of 800MHz has deterred 

many city agencies and surrounding jurisdictions from adopting it. Several departments 

continue to use 400 MHz, while nearby Weld County remains on its 100 MHz system. 

Finally, the emergency activation feature of the radios is not enabled; the district is in the 

process of developing procedures for emergency radio communications, e.g., Mayday 

situations. 

Charlotte, NC 

The City of Charlotte, N.C. is home to over 500,000 people who live within the 242 

square miles of urban land area. It is surrounded by rolling hills. 

According to the Charlotte Convention and Visitors Bureau, nearly 300 Fortune 500 

companies have offices in Charlotte, as do 340 foreign firms.19 The downtown includes 

high-rise buildings and other large structures (e.g., convention center, football stadium, 

etc.). There are no underground tunnels or subway systems. 

The all-career Charlotte Fire Department provides services throughout the City of 

Charlotte and Mecklenburg County. It protects a population of over 600,000 and covers 

270 square miles. There are 890 uniformed personnel in the department. 

 

18 The City of Brighton has a resident population of 20,905. The remaining population served by the 

GBFPD is from Adams and Weld Counties. 

19 Charlotte Convention and Visitors Bureau (www.charlottecvb.org/visitor.cfm.) 
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For the past 14 years, the fire department has used an 800-MHz trunked system. The 

entire city government of over 11,000 people is on the network. The fire department 

operates on 28 channels, shared with the police department. Each firefighter has a 

portable radio. 

Like many fire departments around the nation, Charlotte reports problems with 

transmitting signals outside of a high-rise building or basement structure. It is testing a 

mobile repeater to alleviate this problem. To date, it has had some success with the 

mobile repeater. For interior operations, the department uses simplex mode – radio to 

radio – to communicate to, from, and within a building or structure. The mobile repeater 

has added robustness to the core of the structure, allowing better communications among 

firefighters on the simplex mode. Without the mobile repeater, the portable radios do not 

have the strength to reach the stationary repeaters. 

Interoperability between outlying counties is another problem. As a solution, the city has 

provided neighboring jurisdictions with Charlotte radios. 

The Charlotte Fire Department does not have overcapacity troubles. The department has 

standard operating procedures designed to shut down various parts of the system (i.e., 

private line on the radio, interconnect system, etc.) to ensure no overcapacity. 

Lastly, a proposal to improve fire communications in high-rise buildings by requiring a 

built-in communications infrastructure was defeated. 

Chicago, IL 

The Chicago Fire Department is one of the premier firefighting organizations in the 

world. It is one of the largest in the United States with nearly 4,000 uniformed personnel, 

protecting 3 million citizens over nearly 240 square miles. In addition, the department 

provides fire suppression services to one of the world’s busiest airports – O’Hare 

International. 

Communications are provided to the Chicago Fire Department by a separate department, 

the Office of Emergency Communications (OEC), otherwise known as the “9-1-1 

Center.” 

Chicago uses a conventional VHF system with two dispatch channels, one reaches 

citywide. Three simplex channels are used for fire operations and one command channel. 

Company officers all carry portable radios, and the department is in the process of issuing 

more – one radio for every two persons. 

As a whole, the Chicago Fire Department reports that it experiences few communication 

problems because it deploys a multi-simulcast radio system and 10 transmitter sites (per 

channel). The system has diversity: up to 32 receivers are within any 12 square miles 

area. Unlike many urban departments, Chicago has no plans to change its communication 

system to 800 MHz. Because of number of receivers around the city, communications 

with dispatch via portable radios functions well. 
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One challenge the department has is the inability of the fire department to talk directly 

with law enforcement and emergency medical services (EMS), which they operate on a 

different radio system (UHF). EMS and the fire department respond jointly on most 

incidents, so the fire department does have some access to the UHF system. A more 

permanent solution to this problem is being worked on, which will use technology to 

patch the systems together. The department deploys a command vehicle to every major 

incident. These vehicles have a suite of radios installed for communications by the 

incident commander with the various departments (e.g., fire, EMS, police, etc.). 

Considering the large number of high-rise buildings, the Chicago Fire Department is 

advocating built-in infrastructure within the structures. Currently, most in -building 

coverage is achieved with portable, simplex radios. There are occasional “dead spots” 

within some high-rise structures, basements, etc. These are considered “incident specific 

problems,” not system-wide. 

Subway communications are accomplished on a UHF frequency (same as law 

enforcement and EMS). As a result, the fire department cannot use its radios to 

communicate within the subways with the necessary authorities. In such instances, 

department personnel use EMS radios. 

Clark County, NV 

Clark County is located in southern Nevada. On a regional level it has a population of 

more than 1.5 million residents spanning an area of 8,000 square miles. Most of the 

population lives within the Las Vegas valley. Some of its incorporated areas are Las 

Vegas, North Las Vegas, and Henderson. The county includes both urban and rural areas. 

The Southern Nevada Area Communications Council, also known as SNACC, manages 

most fire department communications, including those for the City’s of Las Vegas, North 

Las Vegas, and Henderson and unincorporated Clark County. SNACC was created as a 

Joint Powers Authority by each of these jurisdictions. Each municipality buys into the 

system and pays annual operating costs. The communications network managed by 

SNACC covers approximately 4,000 square miles. 

Each department operates on an 800-MHz trunked radio system. There are a total of 20 

channels, with mobile radios are located in each piece of fire apparatus. Portable radios 

are located on each seat of the fire apparatus ensuring staffing personnel a means of 

communication. 

Despite its desert environment, Clark County has high mountains that make 

communications difficult. The tallest mountain is 12,000 feet. There are some others that 

reach heights of 9,000 feet. 

Casinos and other high-rise buildings present challenges. There are many in-building 

coverage issues. The size and construction of the buildings can shield RF signals, and, the 

Casinos are often very noisy (a combination of lots of people and slot machines), making 

it difficult for firefighters to hear radio communications. Interference from the Casino’s 
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TriData Corporation 94 September 2003 

own communication systems can disturb the fire department radio system. Lastly, each 

casino has at least one below ground level, in the basement. 

To manage the communication problems, SNACC and the local fire department 

sometimes post a firefighter in the security office of a casino to use both the fire 

department radio communications and the built-in communications system of the casino. 

Many of the casinos and other large buildings are wired with radio accessories, such bidirectional amplifiers. SNACC and the participating fire departments recently purchased 

mobile repeaters. They have not been tested. 

Like many other areas around the country, Clark County is experiencing interference 

with wireless communications towers, most notably Nextel. The county is awaiting final 

approval between the Federal Communication Commission and Nextel on a plan that 

addresses interference to public safety communications in the 800-MHz band. This plan 

is known as the Joint Commentors’ Consensus Plan. 

The goal is to eliminate interference to public safety communications on the 800-MHz 

band; to cause minimum disruption to existing services; and to provide sufficient 

spectrum for public safety users. It divides the 800-MHz band into two separate blocks of 

channels. The first is intended for public safety. The other block of channels would be 

used for Nextel and its wireless communications. 

Dallas, TX 

Dallas is one of the largest cities in the Southwest, and the seventh largest in the U.S. It is 

a major business and financial center, and also one of the top convention cities in the 

United States.20 It has numerous tall buildings, (with 25 buildings greater than 30 stories). 

The elevation of the city is between 450-750 feet, and there are many below ground 

structures, such as basements, sub-basements, and parking garages. 

Dallas Fire-Rescue (DFR) covers 378 square miles and a resident population of 

approximately 1.2 million. The department operates out of 55 fire stations, and currently 

has nearly 1,700 uniformed firefighters. 

DFR operates on a 400MHz UHF radio system. Each firefighter has a portable radio. 

There are four simplex channels for operations. The simplex channels are limited by 

distance. Interior fire operations sometimes create a communications problem. To 

communicate outside a structure, DFR sometimes has to relay the message via a runner 

through an egress stairwell. . 

Police and fire can communicate with each other, through a “patch system.” Dispatch 

will patch police and fire together, and they can talk directly to one another. 

 

20 The Dallas Convention and Visitors Bureau (www.dallascvb.com/visotrs/today.php.) 
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The department has done some investigative research and considered upgrading to an 800 

MHz radio system. However, the upgrade has not been pursued due to a lack of funding, 

and also because the department concluded that the 800 MHz radio system did not meet 

the needs of the city for 95 percent coverage. 

Detroit, MI 

Detroit has a residential population of over 950,000 across 139 square miles. The Detroit 

Fire Department (DFD) protects the city’s population with nearly 1,300 career 

firefighters. 

DFD uses a 400 MHz radio system, which has been in place for nearly 30 years. The 

Department is responsible for fire as well as EMS dispatching. Currently, DFD has one 

repeated channel for dispatch, four fire operations channels, and one channel for EMS. 

Some tactical fire operations channels are also repeated. 

Commanding officers for each fire company have portable radios. Personnel at or above 

the rank of Battalion Chief are also issued cell phones and pagers. 

Most communications problems are concentrated in the downtown area due to the high 

number of high-rise buildings, such as office buildings, apartment buildings, and other 

large structures. The Department has added repeaters to buildings and other areas of the 

City to alleviate these problems. Nonetheless, they still occur. There was an incident 

reported in which a firefighter used his cell phone to contact the command post outside. 

Firefighters also report equipment problems, notably that the portable radios are not 

waterproof. Also, they report that down tower sites and broken repeaters have hampered 

communications. 

The department is upgrading to an 800 MHz system at the end of 2003 to be able to 

communicate with all city departments (such as police, etc.). Some firefighters are 

opposed to the upgrade, as they fear that the new radio system will not work as well in 

sub-basements and other structures. 

Everett, WA 

The Everett, Washington Fire Department (EFD) is a full-time, career fire department 

that protects roughly 90,000 residents. Although the City boundaries encompass 41 

square miles, only 28 square miles are land, the other 14 are water. Everett is home to the 

USS Abraham Lincoln Aircraft Carrier Group, as well as other marine vessels. Everett’s 

coverage area includes a Boeing aircraft assembly plant, which is the largest enclosed 

structure in the world. Numerous warehouses and high-rise buildings complement the 

array of single-family homes throughout the city. 

The terrain includes hills throughout the City limits, with the northwest part of the city, 

along the waterfront, sitting considerably below the rest of the city. Everett is 80 miles 

south of the Canadian border. 
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EFD has used VHF radios with fairly good success. Problems with building penetration 

have been rare. With a portable radio, personnel can talk throughout half of the city. As a 

result of Canada reclaiming some of the VHF frequencies and essentially narrowing the 

available bandwidth, the EFD is implementing a new 800 MHz system in summer 2003, 

which will provide 95 percent coverage throughout the city limits. 

The communications problems encountered the current system are related to limited 

tactical channels and operation in a firefighting environment. Specifically, the EFD only 

has access to its dispatch channel and one tactical channel. When simultaneous incidents 

require a tactical channel, the incidents will need to share the one tactical channel or one 

will have the tactical channel while the second uses the dispatch channel for its 

operations. 

The EFD has experienced numerous problems due to use of full personal protective 

equipment (PPE) and SCBA. Members of the EFD have experienced difficulty operating 

the portable radio, especially the channel selector and volume control while wearing the 

bulky firefighting gloves that limit dexterity. Radio transmissions have been difficult to 

understand from the interior of a firefighting operation because voice distortion is created 

through the mask. Also mentioned by EFD staff is that voices are often difficult to 

understand because the interior firefighter transmitting is often out of breath. And lastly, 

since all firefighters have a portable radio when assigned to fire department apparatus, 

they do not cover their radio microphones or turn them off completely, a situation not 

recommended from both a safety and operational perspective. 

The EFD reports success during radio transmission in new buildings with leaky coaxial 

cables. The EFD is working diligently to have some older building retrofitted with this 

technology to further enhance the quality of radio transmissions. 

Fairfax County, VA 

Fairfax County, Virginia is located just outside Washington, D.C. The county 

encompasses nearly 400 square miles with a resident population of approximately 

970,000. The Fire and Rescue Department has 1,166 uniformed staff who responded to 

89,246 calls for service in FY2002. 

The county includes various structures, ranging from standard residential and commercial 

buildings to secure government installations (e.g., the Central Intelligence Agency’s 

Headquarters). 

The fire department currently uses an 800-MHz trunked digital system for 

communications with 20 available frequencies. Communications are simulcast on the 

department’s “old” 460 MHz channel as well. Dispatch and operations are separated; 

units are dispatched on one channel, while day-to-day operations are handled on another. 

Fairfax County is acquiring 20 additional analog channels, which will provide a back-up 

system should the digital system fail. 
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For working incidents, operations and command are assigned to additional channels to 

avoid impinging on tactical communications. The incident commander monitors the 

command and incident channels, as well as a talk-around channel for structures with 

communications problems. Fairfax uses two available talk-around channels, which are 

not repeated. In the event of communications problems during an incident, the incident 

commander can order all units on the incident to switch to the talk-around channel. 

Recently, the department purchased the Incident Commander Radio Interface (discussed 

in more detail in Chapter III) for use by the communications officer and to interface the 

talk around channels with operational channels. The department is developing Standard 

Operating Procedures for using the device. 

The department reports that there are a variety of dead spots in the county, particularly in 

and around a large regional mall as well as the local trauma center. To address these 

issues, the county is constructing three additional tower sites, for a total of 11 throughout 

the county. Also, a recent ordinance requires new buildings to maintain radio coverage 

throughout the structure. This has been accomplished in the county’s new jail, which has 

a combination of a bi-directional amplifier and leaky coaxial cable in the ceilings (see 

Chapter III for more details). 

Since transitioning to an 800 MHz system, Fairfax has had one failure, where the system 

entered “Failsoft” (a condition where specific channels are maintained, while the majority 

are offline). As a result, the dispatch center is preparing contingency plans to address 

such incidents in the future. More on such plans can be found in Chapter III 

Fairfax County’s public safety is experiencing system coverage degradation from Nextel 

(interference). The Nextel system, also operating on the 800-MHz band, appears to be 

incompatible with the pre-existing systems in the 800-MHz band. One proposed solution 

by the Department of Information Technology is to move Nextel out of the 800-MHz 

band. The county is opposed to reorganizing or restructuring its public safety radio 

system. 

The fire department, has issued some officers Nextel cellular phones. The department is 

in the process of purchasing these phones for all front-line suppression and EMS 

apparatus (medic units are already equipped with a conventional cellular phone for 

hospital communications). 

Gettysburg, OH 

The Gettysburg Rural Fire Department is a private, all-volunteer department. Located in 

Darke County, the department protects a population of approximately 3,700 over a 60 

square mile area. The department operates out of a single fire station. Total call volume is 

about 190 calls per year – 110 EMS calls and 80 fire calls. 

Mostly rural, and residential with some commercial structures, Gettysburg’s commercial 

structures are privately owned farmhouses. The tallest structure is about two stories. The 

geography and terrain of the area is mostly flat, with some hills. 
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The department operates on a UHF radio system (154-MHz) that includes four tactical 

operations channel and one dedicated dispatch center. 

The biggest challenge for fire department radio communications is interference. In 

Gettysburg, firefighters often encounter radio interference from the neighboring Miami 

County. Miami County, located to the east of Darke County, sits at a higher elevation and 

has higher towers. Although Miami County uses the 800 MHz radio system, it dispatches 

off of UHF. During its dispatches, it virtually blocks out communications to the 

Gettysburg Rural Fire Department. 

One solution is increased system design and infrastructure for Darke County. However, 

due to a shortage of money, the county cannot presently afford to add more system 

infrastructure. 

Los Angeles, CA 

The Los Angeles Fire Department (LAFD) protects approximately 3.7 million people 

who live in the second largest city in the United States. The department has over 3,200 

uniformed personnel, operating out of 103 fire stations, covering a land area over 470 

square miles. 

The LAFD uses a conventional 800 MHz system, which has been in place for the past 

decade. Every firefighter is issued a portable radio while on duty. There are 18 channels; 

three of which are dispatch channels broken down by Metro and Valley area. The city is 

divided into three regions, and each has a channel. There is also one command channel 

for the chiefs. 

The location of a Nextel tower is one challenge for the department. The Nextel operates 

on the same frequency and can cause radio interference. 

It is hard to maintain radio coverage for a city of this size and diverse topography, Hills 

and mountains present challenges. These general challenges do not regularly occur... 

Still, the LAFD has worked carefully on the strategic placement of towers and repeaters 

to address coverage concerns. And, in those are where dead spots are more frequent, the 

city has back-up repeater sites. . 

A common problem in many cities, communications in subways and tunnels present few 

challenges for the LAFD because the subways and tunnels are wired with underground 

cables, which carry a signal for four or five of the fire department channels. 

For major incidents, the LAFD reports no operational problems with the communication 

system per se; problems the department experiences are more of logistical issues. The 

system can handle the capacity, but since multiple channels may be used at the same 

time, firefighters are not always on the correct channel. 
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Interoperability is another difficulty for the fire department. Because the police and 

public works departments operate on a different radio system (500 MHz UHF band), the 

fire department cannot communicate directly with these departments. 

Milwaukee, WI 

The Milwaukee Fire Department protects a population of about 600,000 spread over 96 

square miles. There are 1,100 sworn personnel in the department. 

Currently, the Milwaukee Fire Department (MFD) uses a 400 MHz system with eight 

channels. Two channels are dedicated to dispatch; one is the main dispatch channel and 

the second is for the officers on the fireground to call dispatch. Five other channels are 

for fireground only. There is no interoperability with other city agencies. 

Overall, the communications system works about 98 percent of the time. The technology 

and equipment were not reported as issues. 

There are some spots (e.g., buildings and basement levels) where equipment does not 

work. For high-rise structure fires (anything over five stories), it is the department’s 

policy to put the command center in the lobby of the building (if it is safe to do so). 

Typically, there is good communication within the building. If they experience problems, 

they will use a runner. 

The single biggest problem the department has with communications is human error: 

firefighters do no know what channel they are on and do not communicate frequently 

with incident commander. The department considers this problem to be an issue of 

accountability and not a training problem. 

Phoenix, AZ 

The Phoenix Fire Department protects a population of nearly 1.4 million across 500 

square miles. It has over 1,366 sworn personnel that operate from 47 fire stations. In 

2002, the fire department responded to 133,519 calls – 104,635 EMS calls and 28,884 

fire and non-EMS calls. 

Currently, the fire department uses a conventional direct radio communication system in 

VHF. The primary infrastructure – two tower sites above the North Mountain and South 

Mountain and diversity receivers – does not use repeaters. The diversity receiver operates 

like a small radio tower and receives the emitted radio signal on several antennas. The 

department operates 24 VHF channels and there are 36 diversity receivers per channel. 

The department has had much success with this system. However, there are some 

challenges. High-rise buildings, basements, and any other structure with dense concrete 

may cause communication problems. With this system, the two major difficulties are fade 

and feedback. Where people are clustered together and one person transmits, there is lots 

of feedback. Fade is more related to the distance between one radio transmitting a signal 

and the other receiving it. The sound is usually muffled and difficult to understand. 
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Like many departments, Phoenix has problems using portable radios in a hostile 

environment, a working fire incident with zero visibility and wearing full personal 

protective equipment. The Phoenix Fire Department had a fire fatality a few years ago. 

The Department determined three factors the department needs to ensure firefighter 

safety – airway management, firefighter rescue techniques, and radio communications. 

The firefighter did issue a “mayday,” and was heard over the radios. The fire department 

could not locate and rescue the firefighter before his death. 

Dead spots are, for the most part, not a problem for the fire departments. The diversity 

receivers are strategically located throughout the City. There are a lot of them. Each 

receiver has the ability to receive a radio signal from within a 2-mile radius. 

The City of Phoenix is incorporating an 800 MHz digital trunked radio communications 

study. This is not the fire departments preference, but rather a recommendation that was 

made by a consultant for the police department. In addition, there is a big cost savings for 

the City to operate on the 800 MHz system. The City only has to operate and support one 

radio system. Also, there is less combined infrastructure. The system is being split by 

Phoenix and Mesa, Arizona. 

The conventional VHF radio system with diversity receivers has been successful. The fire 

department reports effective use on the fireground. While each channel on the 800-MHz 

trunked system is repeated, it must reach a tower to communicate. That is not the case for 

the current system. Even if simplex or talk-around channels are built in to the system 

(part conventional), firefighters wearing full PPE still have difficulty changing channels 

in a dark, hostile environment. 

The department reports that transitioning to the new communications system puts 

firefighters lives at greater risk. The Department must train each firefighter on the new 

system, whole changing current behaviors and adapting new ones for the current system. 

Training is to begin soon on the new system, before it is implemented in 2005. 

Pittsburgh, PA 

Pittsburgh, a mountainous city, covers 57 square miles. The Pittsburgh Fire Department 

serves a population of 360,000. The largest concentration of commercial activity is in the 

downtown area where there are numerous high-rise buildings. 

The fire department is part of a centralized UHF communications system for all city 

services—emergency, police, fire, etc, with a single, centralized dispatch. However, a 

single channel is dedicated to fire dispatch, another to fire ground communications, and 

then additional channels are available on demand, whenever necessary. This flexibility to 

use more or less channels has proved helpful for the department in the past. 

Large and high-rise structures, below grade structural areas, and tunnels areas pose the 

greatest communications problems for the Pittsburgh fire department. If the firefighter 

inside cannot communicate to the outside, the department bypasses the repeaters and goes 

to two-way radio talk around system for communications. The department uses these 
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radios in other situations as well, whenever the mountains interfere with reception on the 

larger system. Pittsburgh’s talk around radios have a 1⁄2-mile communications radius. Cell 

phones and pagers are used strictly for administrative purposes, although most of the 

firefighters carry one or the other. 

The communications system for the City of Pittsburgh seems to work well. Department 

staff have noted that an improvement it would be “portable radios with built-in repeaters” 

for the fireground.

Portland, OR 

Portland has a population of over 525,000 within city limits, and 1.8 million living within 

the metropolitan area. The city is approximately 130 square miles, situated 50 miles 

inland on the Columbia River midway between the Coast to the west and Cascade 

Mountain range to the east. The Columbia River is quite wide and Portland has one of the 

West Coast’s largest ports. The city is surrounded by the West Hills. Also in the vicinity 

of the City are Mount Hood and Mount Saint Helens, two volcanoes over 10,000 feet. 

Portland has a citywide consolidated communications system on an 800 MHz Motorola 

“Smart Zone” system. Set up in 1994, the system has had several software upgrades. 

There are 13-talk group channel and 1 administrative channel for the fire department. It is 

estimated that the system is running at 40 percent capacity. Each company has a mobile 

data terminal and three portable radios. The officer, the driver, and one two-person team 

have a radio (apparatus are staffed with four personnel). The city has four primary 

simulcast transmitter sites and 11 small repeaters. A fifth transmitter site has been 

planned, but has not been put into operation. 

The terrain surrounding Portland creates communication problems in shadowing and 

dead spots. To curb such difficulties within the central area, the city placed a large 

antenna above the West Hills. Coverage is still a problem in high-rise buildings, 

basements and sub-basements, and the light rail system underground tunnels. The tunnels 

have built-in antenna system, which alleviates most of the communication problems. 

In addition, the harbor provides significant communication problems. The fire department 

has many shipboard incidents and while the port also has antennas and other 

communication support equipment, communications are a problem below deck. 

To resolve some of its communication challenges, the department uses its simplex talk 

around channels in areas where communications are challenging. The department has 

created specific SOPs for such incidents, and trains on them as well. The Department is 

also in the process of acquiring mobile repeaters for chief vehicles. 

The city also experiences problems with the Nextel cellular phone system. As with other 

departments, the Nextel system, also operating on the 800-MHz band, is incompatible 

with the pre-existing systems in the 800-MHz band. To prevent major interference with 

fire department communications, Nextel and the fire department swapped frequencies to 
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resolve the problem. The fire department gave up a channel on the end of their radio band 

for Nextel’s channel in the middle of the city’s band. 

San Antonio, TX 

The City of San Antonio is the ninth largest city in the United States and third largest in 

the State of Texas. It has a population of over 1.1 million and a land area of more than 

400 square miles. The San Antonio Fire Department serves the City with more than 1,000 

uniformed firefighters operating out of 48 fire stations. 

San Antonio is large, so, the fire department often provides fire protection and response 

to its many high-rise buildings (some 30-40 stories) and other large structures such as the 

Alamo Dome, SBC Center, a Convention Center, Coliseum, etc. There are no 

underground tunnels or transportation systems. 

The San Antonio Fire Department uses a Motorola Simulcast System (UHF), with eight 

channels: one dedicated for dispatch, two for EMS, and the remainder for tactical fire 

operations. Each channel is repeated. 

The city is upgrading to an 800-MHz Trunked system by the end of this year. It is 

upgrading because the old system is antiquated. Some parts are no longer made for the 

radios and other equipment is outdated. The radios are also less resistant when exposed to 

hazardous conditions, such as water. 

There are no inadequate system capacity issues in the department. . However, there are 

some “dead spots” in the city, scattered about. There are also dead spots in some of the 

unincorporated type areas outside of the City (where the SAFD provides service). It is 

believed that the dead spots are generally caused by a lack of infrastructure – not enough 

repeaters, transmitters, etc. The department believes that adding new infrastructure (as 

part of the new 800 MHz upgrade) and strategically placing towers and repeaters, will 

resolve some of these issues. 

Interoperability is important communication problem for the department. The fire 

department cannot communicate with other city agencies or neighboring jurisdictions. In 

order to communicate with other city department, the dispatch center will “patch” the 

various departments together. 

The 800 MHz system has already been tested in the city, with 95 percent coverage. The 

All city agencies will be on the 800 MHz system, possibly the county’s sheriff’s office 

too. Other jurisdictions, if they choose, may also be on the city’s system (by leasing space 

from the city). The new system will have a lot of built-in infrastructure – 11 Tower sites. 

The city will own the entire infrastructure. Each firefighter will be issued a portable 

radio. 
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San Diego, CA 

The San Diego Fire-Rescue Department (SFRD) consists of 1,100 uniformed personnel 

who operate out of 44 stations and serves a population of 1.3 million people across 330 

square miles. The Department’s response area includes high-rise buildings, warehouses 

and other “typical” city hazards as well as miles of beach and shoreline. 

The department uses a Motorola 800 MHz system, which has been in place for 11 years. 

The operations units also carry VHF portables because neighboring departments (to 

which SFRD provides mutual aid) use this system. Dispatch and operations channels are 

separate; channels are assigned by geography. Each battalion (7 total) operates on its own 

channel. There is also one channel for all medical calls and one channel for all traffic 

incidents. Each channel has repeaters that are located throughout the City, either on 

mountaintops, high-rise buildings, etc. 

Until recently, SFRD used a VHF communications system. Unfortunately, the city was 

unsuccessful in eliminating VHF interference from Mexico and has since migrated to the 

800 MHz system. 

The 800 MHz system works, but the major challenge for the city is to train 1,000 

firefighters and 2,000 police officers to use it. The system is more complex than the one it 

replaces, and there are some in the department who are very good with the radios while 

others are not. 

To combat dead spots in structures, the department will use firefighters as mobile 

repeaters. In other words, a firefighter will stand at a stairwell support (within line of 

sight), another firefighter will be below him, etc. and the message is repeated to the 

outside. 

For the Super Bowl, the department used a Mobile C.O.W. (Cellular on wheels), which 

acts as a mobile antenna to allow communications to be repeated outside a building. This 

technology is also used for the San Diego Convention Center. The Mobile C.O.W. is run 

through an underground tunnel, beneath the convention center. 

Cruise ship fires also pose a challenge – ships have a radio on each deck at each door. 

The department typically needs to set up firefighters as mobile repeaters to facilitate 

communications. 

The department also uses cell phones and issues personnel alphanumeric pages. Senior 

staff is issued Blackberry wireless devices. 

San Francisco, CA 

San Francisco has a population of more than 775,00 spread over a small area, 49 square 

miles. The San Francisco Fire Department (SFFD) has more than 1,700 uniformed 

personnel operating out of 42 stations. 
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The city operates an 800 MHz radio system and has for the past eight years. Prior to that, 

the city was using an older Motorola 400 MHz system. The newer system allows the 

department to have more working channels and interoperability. There are 16 channels; 

three controlled for dispatch. Each battalion has an assigned channel. There are 10 

battalions. 

Despite the upgrade, the radio system is still limited inside high-rises. Dead spots still 

exist, but most have been eliminated. 

The department has added more towers and repeaters. It is currently upgrading the system 

with portable repeaters. The city is moving repeaters to higher areas of the city, to 

prevent interference from other high-rise buildings. 

BART, San Francisco’s underground public transportation system (subway), does pose 

some communication problems for the SFFD. Radios for BART are issued to fire stations 

located near subway stations. These radios are also carried by some Battalion Chiefs. 

There is no interference from the shipping channels. 

Schaumburg, IL 

The Schaumburg Fire Department (SFD) , a full-time career fire department, is located 

approximately 30 miles northwest of Chicago. Schaumburg has a resident population of 

approximately 75,000 people and encompasses roughly 20 square miles of mostly flat 

terrain. The SFD response district includes single-family residences, multi-story 

residential structures, including hotels, and high-rise commercial office buildings. 

The SFD has used 800 MHz technologies since 1988. Its initial 800 MHz system had one 

antenna site for the entire Village. A new system, which went on-line in April 2003, uses 

four antenna sites. Under its old system, the SFD experienced numerous dead spots 

throughout the Village where firefighters could not receive nor transmit radio traffic. 

Personnel of the SFD also had difficulty transmitting out of and into structures that used 

Lexan glass as windows or buildings that used significant amounts of concrete in 

construction. 

Most of the radio/communication problems the SFD experienced were in high-rise 

structures, which typically employ large amounts of concrete and Lexan glass during 

construction. The only reliable way the SFD could transmit out of high-rise structures 

was if the firefighter stood at the window. The SFD has experienced very few problems 

while operating at single-family residential structure fires. 

The SFD, which shares the 800 MHz system with Law Enforcement and Public Works, 

frequently experienced busy signals under the old system that utilized only three trunks. 

In its research for expanding its network of trunks, the SFD found from the FCC that few 

trunks are available; the SFD was able to purchase a trunk from a bus company in New 

Jersey that went out of business. 
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The new radio system and its new antenna sites have dramatically improved 

communications during structural firefighting events for the SFD. New building codes 

required signal boosters during construction for certain types of buildings. This has also 

helped improve communications for the SFD. 

Like many departments, the SFD struggles with the portable radio and the ease of using it 

in a zero-visibility environment, while wearing bulky fire department gloves. The only 

solutions that the SFD has come up with as a precautionary measure, as have other 

localities, is to program the extremes of the channel selector on the portable radio 

(selector turned all the way left or right) to the same, recognizable channel (usually 

dispatch) regardless of zone selection. If the firefighters operating in a zero-visibility 

environment accidentally change the radio from the tactical operations channel and are 

not able to find the appropriate channel, they can turn the selector all the way in either 

direction to ensure that they will be able to talk to a dispatcher in the event they need 

help. 

The SFD has enhanced radio interface and operability with its mutual aid neighbors by 

utilizing transponders on the apparatus and command vehicles that can convert VHF 

radio to 800 MHz and vice versa. This way, the SFD can continue to operate with only 

one radio system. 

Springfield, NJ 

Springfield, New Jersey is located about 23 miles southwest of New York City. The 

township encompasses 5.06 square miles of mostly flat terrain, which contains a 

combination of residential, commercial, and industrial structures. Springfield has a 

resident population of 14,250 and a daytime population of 30,000. 

The Springfield Fire Department (SFD) is a combination department, comprised of 

approximately 33 career and volunteer firefighters and officers. The SFD currently uses a 

high band radio system, at approximately 470 MHz. The Chief and Deputy Chief (as well 

as other senior Township officials) are issued also Nextel cellular phones to facilitate 

communication between these officials. 

Unlike many departments nationwide, the township reported that the SFD does not 

typically experience difficulties transmitting in and out of structures or from floor to 

floor. Instead, the department contends with radio interference from two neighboring 

jurisdictions that operate on similar frequencies. In both cases, the jurisdictions are at a 

higher elevation than Springfield and have higher radio towers. Depending on the 

weather and time of day, transmission from these departments “step on” SFD operations, 

making it difficult for units to transmit or receive messages from dispatch. 

To alleviate issues with neighboring jurisdictions, discussions are underway to study the 

feasibility of trunking the current radio system because there are not enough frequencies 

available for the SFD to completely modify their radio system (e.g., transition to 800 or 

900 MHz). 
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Wichita, KS 

The Wichita Fire Department (WFD) serves over 340,000 residents of Wichita. The city, 

located in Sedgwick County, has a diverse economy that includes agricultural services, 

aviation, and oil and gas production. The City serves a large hinterland in central Kansas. 

The Fire Department covers over 136 square miles of the City. The Department provides 

a full range of fire, rescue, hazardous materials, and other services. 

The Wichita Fire Department operates on an 800-MHz trunked system. This system has 

been operating for approximately 10 years. The fire department has one dispatch channel, 

one operations channel, seven tactical channels, one channel for Administration, and one 

command channel (for multi-agency use). Each company has a portable radio (company 

officers). 

Prior to the 800 MHz system, the city had an old 2-channel system. Even with additional 

repeaters and other modifications, problems stemmed from a lack of channels. 

All of the public safety departments within the City are connected to the 800 MHz 

system. 

Interacting with surrounding jurisdictions, also using an 800 MHz system, is problem for 

the WFD. Some of the surrounding jurisdictions are not tied into the Wichita system. 

The WFD also experiences problems communicating in elevators, large buildings, 

basements and sub-basements, and malls. There is often difficulty in transmitting a 

signal. The lower level of the mall has difficulty transmitting and receiving. To reduce 

the magnitude of the problem, firefighters must use the “talk around” channel, or simplex 

mode (radio to radio). 

The department has added repeaters in the past, with some success. The department 

knows which buildings have problems and do their best to work around them. There are 

relative few “dead spots” around the city. 

The WFD would like to try mobile vehicles, but does not have the financing. The city 

does not have any built-in radio ordinances for buildings.