Prevention through 

Design (PtD)

Prevention through Design (PtD) 

can be defined as designing out 

or eliminating safety and health 

hazards associated with processes, 

structures, equipment, tools, or 

work organization. The National 

Institute for Occupational Safety 

and Health (NIOSH) launched a 

PtD initiative in 2007. The mission 

is to reduce or prevent occupational 

injuries, illnesses, and fatalities by 

considering hazard prevention in 

the design, re-design, and retrofit of 

new and existing workplaces, tools, 

equipment, and work processes 

[NIOSH 2008a,b].

Protecting Workers during 

Intermediate and Downstream 

Processing of Nanomaterials

Summary

 Engineered nanomaterials (ENM) 

are materials that are intentionally 

produced to have at least one primary 

dimension less than 100 nanometers 

(nm). These materials have new or 

unique properties different from those 

of larger forms of the same material, 

making them desirable for specific 

product applications. The health effects 

associated with nanomaterials are not 

yet clearly understood, so it is important 

for producers and users of ENMs to 

reduce employee exposure and manage 

risks appropriately. In 2013, NIOSH 

published a compendium of control 

approaches for nanomaterial production 

and use processes entitled Current Strategies for Engineering Controls in Nanomaterial Production and Downstream 

Handling Processes. This Workplace Design Solutions document provides guidance on exposure control approaches for 

intermediate and downstream processes 

commonly used after the production of 

nanomaterials.

Background

 The toxicity of many nanomaterials is 

presently unknown, but initial research 

indicates that there may be health concerns related to occupational inhalation 

exposures. Only a few types of ENMs 

have undergone extensive toxicological evaluation by NIOSH, e.g., titanium 

dioxide (TiO2

) and carbon nanotubes 

(CNTs). Results from animal studies 

with TiO2

 and other poorly soluble, low 

toxicity particles of fine and ultrafine 

(nanoscale) sizes have shown adverse 

pulmonary responses in exposed rats, 

including persistent pulmonary inflammation and lung tumors [NIOSH 2011; 

Oberdörster 2002; Donaldson 2009; 

Poland et al. 2012]. Similar toxicological responses have also been observed 

in rats and mice exposed to CNTs and 

carbon nanofibers (CNFs) [NIOSH 

2013a]. Because of the potential for 

health effects, it is important to control 

worker exposure and to manage risks 

appropriately throughout the lifecycle of 

ENM production.

Description of 

Exposure

After production, many nanomaterials are further processed. Ding et al. 

[2016] reviewed the published literature 

of nanomaterial release during various 

industrial and laboratory processes. 

They found that the amount and type of 

nanomaterial released into the workplace 

was largely based on the process energy. 

Centers for Disease Control

and Prevention

National Institute for Occupational 

Safety and Health
High energy processes, including spraying and machining (e.g., ball 

milling), were found to release nanoparticles. However, low energy 

processes, such as packing and bagging of nanomaterials during 

downstream processing tended to release relatively large agglomerates of nanomaterials into the workplace.

NIOSH recommends that manufacturers and downstream users of 

nanomaterials develop Prevention through Design strategies to protect workers (including maintenance personnel) during the production and handling of engineered nanomaterials. Engineering controls

protect workers by controlling the source of hazardous materials 

or isolating the worker from the hazard, and along with good work 

practices, are likely to be the most effective control strategy for nanomaterials. Traditionally, a hierarchy of controls (represented as an 

upside down triangle) has been used as a means of determining the 

preferred types of feasible and effective controls. The idea behind the 

hierarchy of controls is that the control methods at the top of the triangle (elimination, substitution, and engineering controls) are generally more effective in reducing the risk associated with a hazard than 

those at the bottom (administrative controls and personal protective 

equipment). The identification and adoption of effective engineering 

control technologies is an important first step in reducing the risk 

associated with worker exposure to ENMs.

Engineering Controls

A qualified industrial hygienist can help assess process-related 

risks and make recommendations to minimize exposure. Control 

measures for ENMs and other hazards should be implemented 

within the context of a comprehensive occupational safety and 

health management system [ANSI/AIHA 2012]. Engineering 

controls used during post-production processing of nanomaterials may include local exhaust ventilation (LEV) such as annular 

exhaust hoods, enclosures around the emission points, or even 

down flow booths for larger scale processes. Each of these controls 

should be carefully designed for the process, tested, and properly operated to be effective. Below is a description of exposure 

sources (i.e., points of potential release of ENMs during processing) and control approaches for a range of common processes 

used with nanomaterials.

Ball Milling

Ball milling machines may be used to reduce particle size, mix 

or blend materials, or change particle shape. Workers may be 

exposed to nanomaterials during this process primarily when 

loading or unloading materials into the ball mills. Witschger et 

al. [2007] investigated aerosol emissions during the high energy 

ball milling process. They concluded that an aerosol was released 

when handling ENMs before and after the milling process. To 

contain potential emissions, smaller ball mills may be placed in 

ventilated enclosures, such as dust cabinets, to reduce worker 

exposure to nanomaterials. Larger ball mills may require the use 

of a specially designed enclosure.

Ball Mill Enclosure

▶ Ventilated enclosure for capturing emissions during the processing of nanomaterials in a larger ball mill. Use see-through 

panels to allow for visibility.

▶ Design must account for access needs. Include hinged doors for 

allowing loading and unloading of the mill.

▶ Consider sealing the collection bag before removal from the 

enclosure to reduce the likelihood of spills and unintentional 

release of ENMs.

▶ Wet wipe the outside of the bag before removing it from the 

enclosure to minimize spread of material.
Spray Dryer

Following completion of production, nanomaterials may be refined through a common process such as spray drying [Lindeløv 

and Wahlberg 2009]. In the spray-drying process, a mixture of 

liquid and powder ingredients (slurry) is sprayed within a large 

sealed tank. Heat within the tank dries the slurry droplets, leaving 

a powder as the finished product. When the process is completed, 

the powder nanomaterial is commonly discharged into a drum or 

other container before packaging. Methner et al. [2010] reported 

exposure measurements at 12 facilities and noted that the highest 

background-adjusted concentration was observed during spray 

dryer drum change out. Evans et al. [2010] reported exposures 

related to changing out a drum that collected fugitive carbon 

nanofiber materials from a process reactor using a baghouse 

filtration system. These drums are often connected to the process 

outlet (thus minimizing exposure during operation), but workers 

may be exposed when removing/replacing the drums. The use of 

an annular hood, along with isolation valves and clamps to better 

contain potential emissions, can help reduce exposures.

Spray Dryer Product Collection Hood

▶ Local exhaust ventilation can be used to capture emissions during the collection of a product processed in a spray dryer.

▶ Place the exhaust pickup as close to the emission source as possible. The exhaust hood capture air velocity (speed) at the point 

where particles may be released should usually be at least 100 

feet per minute (fpm).

▶ Use baffles and shields to enclose the process as much as possible. Cross currents and drafts in the workplace can significantly reduce particle capture effectiveness.

▶ Note the use of an isolation valve to manually shut off the flow 

of material after the drum is filled and being removed.

▶ Note that a clamp can be used to create a dust-tight seal on the 

discharge outlet of the spray dryer during normal operation.
Extrusion

The addition of ENM to a thermoplastic using an extrusion 

process to create a nanocomposite with improved properties 

may also present the potential for worker exposure. This process 

starts by adding a nanomaterial into a hopper where it is fed into 

the barrel of the extruder. This nanomaterial may be added as 

the nanoparticles in powder form or as part of a masterbatch. 

The mixture is gradually melted by heaters arranged along 

the barrel and the mechanical energy generated by turning 

screws. The molten polymer is then forced through a die and 

cooled in a bath before being spooled or chopped into small 

pieces. Researchers have shown that individual and agglomerated nanoparticles from the feed/filler nanomaterial as well as 

polymer fume condensate can be emitted into the workplace 

during the extrusion process [Thompson et al. 2015; Tsai et al. 

2008a]. Tsai et al. [2008b] showed that enclosing and ventilating 

potential nanoparticle release points can result in substantial 

reductions in process emissions.

Extruder Hood and LEV System

▶ Consider using an exhaust hood and LEV system to capture 

emissions during the loading of nanomaterials/fillers and during nanocomposite discharge from the extruder.

▶ The hood should be shaped to enclose the source as much as 

possible while allowing access during operations. 

▶ Place the exhaust pickup of the LEV as close to the emission source as possible. The exhaust hood capture air velocity 

(speed) at the point where contaminants are released should 

usually be at least 100 fpm.

▶ When clearing clogged extruder heads, consider cleaning the 

head inside a ventilated enclosure to minimize the potential for 

worker exposure, especially when using a torch.
Product Discharge/Bag Filling

The process of filling or emptying bags/drums with nanomaterials 

is done following production or refining processes. The off-loading of product after spray drying, for example, may be a significant source of exposure when post-processing nanomaterials. Evans et al. [2010] studied nanoparticle concentrations in a facility 

that manufactured and processed carbon nanofibers (CNFs). The 

largest increases in particle concentration (consisting of mostly 

aerosolized CNFs) measured within the plant were related to the 

dumping of product into lined drums and manual change-out and 

closing of bags of the final treated product. A method that can be 

used to contain powders during process off-loading/emptying is 

the continuous liner system. Polypropylene liners are often used 

when products are discharged from the industrial processes into 

the intermediate or final product containers.

Continuous Liner for Product Collection

▶ Consider using a continuous liner product off-loading system 

that contains process emissions and product with a continuous 

feed of bags fitted to the process outlet.

▶ In this operation, a sleeve of polypropylene (poly) liners is 

stowed around the circumference of the discharge outlet. The 

liner (the bottom having been sealed) is pulled down into the 

overpack (usually a drum or a cardboard box). An outer liner 

may also be used to provide additional product containment 

instead of a hard overpack.

▶ Product is discharged into the liner through an isolation valve 

on the process outlet. Once full, the top of the first liner sleeve 

is closed using tape or a fastener, or it is heat sealed and cut. 

The product is then sealed within the poly-lined container, 

and a new poly liner is pulled down and sealed before starting 

discharge into the next container.
Bag Dumping

Bekker et al. [2015] conducted a study of occupational exposures 

in companies working with nanomaterials downstream of production (e.g., during use and application). They found that the highest 

measured concentrations were associated with larger scale/high 

energy tasks including spray activities and the dumping and mixing 

of powders. Technology for controlling dusts during bag dumping has 

been available for many years [NIOSH 2013b]. The standard control—

a ventilated bag dump station—consists of a hopper outfitted with an 

exhaust ventilation system to pull dust away from workers as they open 

and dump bags of powdered materials. This equipment can reduce the 

concentration of airborne dust caused by manually emptying bags or 

disposing of empty bags, but also relies on careful work practices.

Ventilated Bag Dump Station

▶ Use a ventilated bag dumping station to reduce dust emissions 

to the workplace air when emptying product from bags into a 

process hopper.

▶ Include a waste bag collection chute to allow for the disposal of 

bags following dumping.

▶ Enclose the system, including the waste bag collection area as 

much as possible.

▶ Ensure airflow into the enclosure between 100 -200 fpm.

▶ Locate the bag disposal point so that it can be easily reached 

and does not require the worker to place his/her head within 

the enclosed area.
Large-scale Material Handling/Packaging

Unidirectional flow booths, or downflow booths, are used in the 

pharmaceutical industry for large-scale powder packaging, process loading, and tray dryer loading [Hirst et al. 2002]. In general, 

these booths supply air from overhead (normally at 80–100 fpm) 

over the full depth of the booth. Particles generated in the booth 

are captured and carried to exhaust registers located along the 

back wall of the booth. The booths provide flexibility for a variety 

of operations that require handling of nanomaterials from larger 

containers, such as drums. Floura and Kremer [2008] evaluated a 

downflow booth used for transferring 55 lbs of lactose (a surrogate pharmaceutical material) from drum to drum. The concentration within the operator’s breathing zone averaged 2,250 μg/m3

without any ventilation controls and was reduced to an average of 

1.01 μg/m3 when the booth ventilation was turned on.

Downflow Booth-Large Scale Material Handling

▶ Consider using a downflow booth to contain nanomaterials 

and reduce exposure to a worker handling larger amounts of 

nanomaterial powders (such as drums/barrels).

▶ When air is recirculated into the booth, HEPA-filtered air is 

delivered through the ceiling-mounted supply air registers at a 

velocity of 80–100 fpm. This air is returned near the floor of the 

booth to draw any airborne powders away from the worker’s 

breathing zone. Note these filters will not remove volatile 

chemicals/vapors and care must be taken when using them.

▶ These booths can be designed to incorporate LEV for additional exposure reduction for specific operations.

▶ When scooping powders from bulk containers, shorter drums 

and/or long handled scoops should be used to eliminate the need 

for the worker to put their heads inside the drum [NIOSH 1997].

▶ Downflow booths are available from several commercial vendors.
Design and Operational Considerations

The local exhaust ventilation hood or enclosure should be 

designed to effectively capture the nanomaterials inadvertently 

released from the process. It should be tailored to the specific 

process being controlled (especially important for hot processes 

and processes releasing materials into the air at high velocities). 

Information about the design, operation, and maintenance of 

engineering controls for industrial processes is available from a 

variety of sources [ACGIH 2007, 2016; Burton 1999; Burgess et al. 

2004]. When designing these types of controls, it is necessary to 

take the following actions:

 Consult a qualified industrial ventilation engineer, industrial hygienist, or containment specialist to design the new control system.

 Consider access requirements when designing the control to ensure that the operator can perform required tasks without reducing control effectiveness (e.g., leaving enclosure doors open).

 Determine exhaust airflows capable of maintaining a negative 

pressure (even during the opening of access doors). Fans that 

move air through the LEV system need to be adequately sized 

to ensure the system works properly.

 Provide an easy way to check that the control system is working, e.g., manometer, pressure gauge or other visual indicator. 

Train workers to confirm that the control is turned on and 

working properly before use.

 Discharge exhaust air to a safe place away from doors, windows, and supply air intakes in accordance with local and state 

regulations. Consider discharging exhaust through a high 

efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter.

 Keep exhaust ducts short and simple—avoid flexible duct if possible. The choice of duct material needs to be compatible with 

both the nanomaterials and other materials in the process.

 Conduct initial performance tests of the control when it is installed 

at the facility. These tests should be scheduled as part of a regular 

preventive maintenance program to ensure adequate containment.

Preventative Maintenance and 

System Checks

 Develop a written preventive maintenance (PM) plan to check 

system performance and repair.

 Keep equipment in effective and efficient working order. 

Review the manufacturer’s performance specification to know 

whether the control is working properly.

 Look for signs of damage to the ducting and enclosure. Repair 

damage immediately.

 Regularly check that the enclosure/hood system is working 

properly and that there are no visible dust leaks.

 Have a qualified industrial ventilation engineer or industrial hygienist examine the ventilation control system and check its performance at least once every year or if it is modified or relocated.

 Keep the information obtained from all engineering control 

system tests/checks in a PM logbook.

 Conduct routine industrial hygiene monitoring to ensure controls are working at design conditions.

 To prevent potential exposures to maintenance personnel, potentially contaminated equipment should be cleaned or bagged 

and sealed before being removed from the production area.

Administrative Controls

The use of engineering controls is likely the most effective control 

strategy for nanomaterials. Administrative controls (e.g. work practices) and personal protective equipment (PPE) also have a place in 

PtD strategies and are usually identified as additional safeguards. 

Work practices are procedures followed by employers and workers 

to control hazards in the workplace. These practices, many of which 

are discussed below, include housekeeping and cleaning, storage 

and use procedures, labels and postings, hazard training, and procedures for the use of engineering controls. In addition, respirators 

may be needed and are often used during the implementation of 

engineering controls and work practices as well as during some 

short-duration maintenance procedures, and emergencies. Therefore, facilities should consider the following administrative and PPE 

approaches as a part of a comprehensive occupational safety and 

health management plan for nanomaterial production and use.

Cleaning and Housekeeping

 Clean the work area and equipment every day. Deal with 

spills immediately according to written procedures and using 

appropriate PPE. Standard approaches for cleaning spills can 

be used for cleaning surfaces contaminated with dry powder 

nanomaterials. These include using HEPA-filtered vacuum 

cleaners, wiping up dry powders with damp cloths, or wetting 

the powder before wiping.

 Dispose of cleaning wipes and other contaminated materials 

in a sealed bag to prevent release of the dried nanomaterial. 

Nanomaterial-contaminated waste, including cleaning materials, should be kept in a separate waste stream.

 Do not use dry methods such as a brush, broom, or compressed air to clean up contaminated work surfaces. Care must 

be taken when using wet methods for housekeeping activities 

to make sure that any other safety hazards (e.g., electrical hazards, slips/trips, etc.) are not introduced into the workplace.

Training

 Provide safety and health training to workers, supervisors, and 

managers including information on proper use, maintenance 

and inspection of the control.

 Provide workers with sufficient information to allow them to 

understand the nature of potential workplace exposures, health 

risks, routes of exposure, and instructions for reporting health 

symptoms [OSHA 2012].

 Ensure that training includes how to keep exposures low; how 

to check that the exposure control is working; how to use and 

care for PPE; how to use and care for respirators; and what to 

do if something goes wrong.
Personal Protective Equipment

Personal Protective Clothing

Because some types of nanoparticles have been found to penetrate 

the skin under certain conditions, prudent practice calls for appropriate protective clothing to be worn. PPE should be worn when 

engineering and/or administrative controls are not feasible or effective in reducing exposures to an acceptable level, or when controls 

are not feasible, such as during maintenance or in response to a 

spill. Follow job hazard assessment procedures for determining the 

need for and selection of PPE [OSHA 2002; ACS 2015].

 If appropriate, use nitrile or other chemically impervious 

gloves during handling and cleanup of nanomaterials. Gloves 

should be selected based on their effectiveness against the 

nanomaterial as well as any other chemicals being used. Gloves 

should be inspected before use and changed at least at the end 

of each shift and whenever they show visible signs of wear. 

Used gloves should be kept in a sealed plastic bag in the work 

area until they can be disposed of properly.

 Never use compressed air or other high energy techniques 

such as brushing or shaking to remove dust from clothing.

 Protective clothing made from air tight polyethylene is more resistant 

to nanoparticle penetration than cotton or polyester [Woskie 2010].

Respirators

Employers should consult with an occupational safety and health 

professional to determine the respirator best suited for their specific application. In the U.S., employers should always follow the 

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Respiratory Protection Standard (29 CFR 1910.134) if respiratory protection is used (www.osha.gov/SLTC/etools/respiratory/index.html). 

NIOSH guidance for selecting respirators may be found at http://

www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2005-100/default.html [NIOSH 2004].

Acknowledgments

This document was prepared by Dr. Kevin H. Dunn, Ms. Jennifer 

Topmiller, and Ms. Trudi McCleery, NIOSH Division of Applied 

Research and Technology, and Mr. John J. Whalen, formerly with 

NIOSH. Mr. Eugene Smith (on contract with NIOSH) prepared 

the illustrations. The authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions of the following NIOSH personnel who assisted with 

the technical content and review of the document, including: Dr. 

Charles Geraci, Ms. Laura Hodson, Ms. Susan Afanuh, Dr. Samy 

Rengasamy, Mr. Kevin L. Dunn, Mr. Eric Glassford and Mr. Matthew Dahm. Special appreciation is expressed to the following 

who served as external reviewers, including Ms. Renae Goldman, 

Dr. Torey Nalbone, and Dr. Kevin Sheffield.

Suggested Citation

NIOSH [2018]. Protecting workers during Intermediate and 

downstream processing of nanomaterials. By Dunn KH, Topmiller 

JL, McCleery T, Whalen J. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2018-

122. DOI: https://doi.org/10.26616/NIOSHPUB2018122

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Information

The information in this document is based on research 

related to Prevention through Design (PtD) initiatives. More 

information about PtD is available on the NIOSH Web site at 

http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/PtD/

Detailed information about developing comprehensive PtD 

strategies for nanomaterial use and production has been 

developed by NIOSH [2013b] in the document Current Strategies for Engineering Controls in Nanomaterial Production and 

Downstream Handling Processes (http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/

docs/2014-102/pdfs/2014-102.pdf).

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Furthermore, NIOSH is not responsible for the content of 

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This document is in the public domain and may be freely 

copied or reprinted. NIOSH encourages all readers of the 

Workplace Design Solutions to make them available to all 

interested employers and workers.

As part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 

NIOSH is the Federal agency responsible for conducting 

research and making recommendations to prevent workrelated illness and injuries.

March 2018 Publication No. 2018–122 DOI:https://doi.org/10.26616/NIOSHPUB2018122