## F I LED United States C ourt of Appeals Tenth Circuit 

### A p ril23,2007 Elisab eth A. Shumaker C l erk of C ourt PU BL I SH UNI TED S TATES CO URT O F AP PEALS

T E N T H C IR C U IT UNI T E D S T AT E S OF AM E RI CA ,

P lain tiff-A p p e llan t, v. N o. 06- 5138 KEV I N LER OY RI CE,

D efe ndant - A ppel l ee. AP P EA L F ROM THE UNI TE D S TA TE S DI S TR I CT COURT F O R T H E N O R T H E R N D I S T R I C T O F O K L A H O MA

( D. C. NO . 0 6 - CR - 6 3 - T CK ) C l ai r e J . E vans , A ppel l antSect i on, C r i m i nal D i vi s i on, U ni t ed St at es D epart m ent o f J u s t i c e , Wa s h i n g t o n , D. C. ( Da v i d E . O’ M e i l i a , Un i t e d S t a t e s At t o rn e y , a n d D. E dw ar d Snow , A s s i s t antU ni t ed St at es A t t or ney , N or thern D i s tr i ctof O kl ahoma, O k lah o m a C ity , w ith h e r o n th e b rie fs) fo r P lain tiff-A p p e llan t. R ober tA . R i denour , A s s i s t antFeder al Publ i c D efe nder( J ohn V . B ut cher , Feder al P u b li c D efen d er, w ith h im o n the b ri ef) O ffice o f th e F ed era l Pu b li c D efen d er, N o rth e rn & E a ste rn D istric ts o f O k lah o m a , T u lsa O k lah o m a , fo r D e fe n d a n tA ppel l ee. B efo re B RI S CO E , Mc WI L L I A MS , and TY M KOVI CH , C i rcui tJudg es. TY M KOVI CH , C i r cui tJ udge.-2-

P o lice o ffice rs in T u lsa , O k lah o m a re c o v e re d a g u n b e lo n g in g to K e v in L er oyR i ce dur i ng an ea r l ym or ni ng tr aff i c s t op. T he off

i cer s had s t opped a c ar carr y i ng R i ce a nd t w o ot her s i n a hi gh cr i m e nei ghbor hood aft erobs ervi ng the car ’ s s us pi ci ous dr i vi ng pat t ern and a t ag l i ghtvi ol at i on. Suspi ci ons w er e further ar ous ed w hen dur i ng r out i ne i dent i fi cat i on chec ks the r ears eatpas s engergave confl i ct i ng i nform at i on aboutheri dent i ty . T he off i cer s al s o l earned thatR i ce w as know n t o be arm ed and da nger ous and had a n ext ens i ve cr i m i nal hi s t or y— i ncl udi ng bur gl ary , r obbery , and s hoot i ng w i th i nt entt o ki l l . T he o ffic e rs d e c id e d to re m o v e R ic e f ro m th e c a r a n d c o n d u c t a p a t- d o w n s e a rc h . R ic e h a d a h a n d g u n in h is p o c k e t. R i ce s ucce s s ful l yar gued i n the di s tr i ctcourtthatthe pol i ce l acke d r eas onabl e s us pi ci on t o conductthe pat - dow n s ear ch. Fi ndi ng the t ot al i tyof ci r cumst ance s s uppor t ed the off i cer ’ s r eas onabl e bel i ef thatR i ce mi ghtbe c a rry in g a w e a p o n , w e R E V E R S E th e d istric t co u rt’s r u lin g o n th e m o tio n to s u p p re s s e v id e n c e o f

th e g u n . I . Backg r ound Co rp o r a l Da n M i l l e ra n d Offi c e rJ a me s W e a k l e yo f t h e Tu l s a , Ok l a h o ma Pol i ce D epart m entt es t i fi ed att he s uppr es s i on hear i ng aboutt he ci r cumst ance s s u rr o u n d in g th e in c id e n t. T h e b a c k g ro u n d fa c ts a re la rg e ly u n d is p u te d . Th e Tr a ffic S top . A tar ound 2: 30 a. m . on T ues day , M ar ch 14, 2006, C orpor al M i l l erw as patr ol l i ng a r es i dent i al ar ea of T ul s a nea rt he i nt er s ect i on of-3-

E as t52nd and N or t h Peor i a St r eet . O ffi cer s cons i der ed thi s a hi gh cr i m e ar ea, and M i l l erhad pr evi ous l yr es ponded t o s hoot i ngs , m ur der s , and bur gl ar i es n e a rb y . C o rp o ra l M ille r s p o tte d a b la c k c a r p ro c e e d in g e a s tw a rd o n E a s t 5 2 n d . B e c a u se it w a s th e o n lyc a r o u t at th a t ti m e o f th e n ig h t, M ill e r fo llo w e d it as it tu rn e d s o u th o n R o c k fo rd a n d th e n c o n tin u e d to p ro c e e d e a s t o n 5 1 s t P la c e . M ill e r w a tch e d th e c a r’s p ro g re ss a s th e b ra k e lig h ts c a m e o n a n d th e v e h icle s l ow ed and then ac cel er at ed aga i n pas tfourorfi ve hous es befor e br aki ng and s l o wi n g a g a i n . T h e c a rr e p e a t e d th i s p r o c e d u r e a b o u te i g h tt i me s o v e rtwo re s id e n tia l b lo c k s , s to p p in g o n ly at s to p s ig n s . B as ed on the t i m e of ni ghtand the unus ual dr i vi ng patt ern, M i l l er s us pect ed the occ upant s m i ghtbe pr epar i ng fora bur gl aryordr i ve- bys hoot i ng, r el at i vel ycomm on occurr ence s i n the nei ghborhood. M i l l eral s o t es t i fi ed thatt he cardi d nothave a t ag l i ghti l l um i nat i ng i t s r earl i cens e pl at e, a vi ol at i on of O klahom a t raffi c l aw s. M i l l err adi oed tw o ot heroffi cer s on patr ol thatni ght , i ncl udi ng O ffi cer W eakl ey , and i nform ed them of t he ca r ’ s unus ual dr i vi ng and the t ag l i ght vi ol at i on. W eakl eyr endez vous ed w i th the vehi cl e and i ni t i at ed a s t op w i th M i l l er a n d a n o th e r o ffic e r a s b a c k u p . Th e E n c o u n te rWith R ic e . A s W eakl eyappr oache d the ca r , he s aw tw o m en i n t he dr i verand pas s engers eat s and a w om an i n the bac k s eat . H e i nform ed the-4-

dr i verof the t ag l i ghtvi ol at i on and as ked fora dr i ver ’ s l i cens e and pr oof of i ns ur ance . H e al s o as ked the pas s enger s fori dent i fi cat i on. T he fr onts eat pas s engerpr ovi ded an O kl ahoma i dent i fi cat i on car d i dent i fy i ng hi m as R i ce. T he back s eatpas s engers ai d s he had no i dent i fi cat i on, s o W eakl eyas ked forher name. She fi r s ts ai d hername w as A i es ha W atki ns , butw hen W eakl eyt ook out hi s pen and pa d and as ked forhername agai n, s he s ai d hername w as A i es ha W at s on. W eakl eyt es t i fi ed that , i n hi s exper i ence , i f s om eone s ay s theydo not have i dent i fi cat i on on t hem, t heyar e oft en try i ng t o conce al thei ri dent i tyand m aygive i nco nsi st ent nam es. W eakl eyt hen t ook t he dr i ver ’ s l i cens e, R i ce’ s i dent i fi cat i on car d, and the b a c k se a t p a ss e n g e r’s n a m e b a c k to h is p a tro l ca r. H e ra n a re c o rd s c h e c k o n a ll three ind ividu als w h il e w ri ti n g a c it ati o n fo r th e tag li g h t violati o n . T h e d ri v er’s r ecor d had a few i ns i gni fi cantentr i es , butthe names “A i es ha W atki ns ” and

“ A ies h a W a tso n ” h a d n o re c o rd s a ss o c iate d w ith th e m . W e a k ley co n sid e re d th is in fo rm a tio n u n u su a l b e c a u se “ [ u ]su a llyso m e b o d yh a s a re c o rd o f so m e so rt, w h e th e r it’s o ffe n siv e — b e in g a v ictim o f a c rim e , h a v in g so m e so rt o f tra ffic c ita tio n , s o m e th in g w ill c o m e b a c k .” R . a t 3 7 . T h e b a c k g ro u n d c h e c k o n R ic e re v e a le d m o re s e ri o u s in fo rm a tio n . W eakl eyt es t i fi ed, “Fi r s tt hi ng I not i ced on hi s r ecor d, i tappea r ed on the c o m p u te r s c re e n th a t h e h a s b e e n k n o w n to b e a rm e d a n d d a n g e ro u s .” R . a t 3 7 .-5-

R i ce a l s o had an e xt ens i ve cr i m i nal r ecor d. H i s s i xt een pr i orfel onyconvi ct i ons in c lu d e d ro b b e ry, b u rg la ry, a n d s h o o tin g w ith in te n t to k ill. Th e P a t- D o w n S e a r c h . B eca us e of the r es ul t s of the r ecor ds chec k, W eakleydecided to r em ov e t he o ccup ants from t he car for hi s safety . H e fi rs t as ked R i ce t o s t ep outof the ca rbeca us e he thoughtR i ce w as t he mosts i gni fi cant s afe t yt hr eat . A s he gotoutof the ca rand befor e W eakl eyr eques t ed a s ear ch, R i ce tur ned t ow ar ds W eakl eyand pl ace d hi s hands on t op of the ca r , as s um i ng t he pos i t i on fora w eapons s ear ch. W eakl eyper form ed a pa t - dow n s ear ch and r ecove r ed a gun. A boutfi ve mi nut es el aps ed betw een the t i m e W eakl eys t opped th e c a r a n d h is s e a rc h o f R ic e . Th e D is tr ic t C o u r t’s R u lin g . T h e d istric t co u rt g ra n ted R ice ’s m o tio n to su p p ress e v iden ce o f th e g u n af ter de term ining the c ir cu m stan ce s d id n o t sup p o rt a r eas onabl e s us pi ci on s uffi ci entt o s ear ch R i ce. A ccor di ng t o the court , “the pr obl em of t hi s cas e i s , t hatt her e has t o be an obj ect i vel yr eas onabl e s us pi ci on of ill e g a l ac tiv ity . A n d ru n n in g th a t re c o rd s c h e c k o n th e d e fe n d a n t in th is c a se is no teno ug h. ” R . at52 . T he co urtdis cou nted the b ack seat pass eng er’ s fal se iden ti tyan d o ther su rrou n d ing circu m stan ce s as irreleva n t t o the o fficer’s s us pi ci ons aboutR i ce. II . A n a ly sis Wh e n r e v i e wi n g a d i s t r i c tc o u r t ’ s d e c i s i o n o n a mo t i o n t o s u p p r e s s , we “ac ceptt he di s t r i ctcour t ’ s fac tual fi ndi ngs unl es s t heyar e cl ear l yerr oneous . T he-6-

ul t i m at e det erm i nat i on of r eas onabl enes s i s a ques t i on of l aw r evi ew abl e de novo. ” Uni t ed Stat es v. A l car az -A r el lano , 441 F. 3d 1252, 1258 ( 10th C i r . 2006) (i n terna l ci tat ion s o m itted). A det erm i nat i on of r eas onabl e s us pi ci on i s bas ed on “an obj ect i ve s t andar d t aki ng t he t ot al i tyof the ci r cumst ance s and i nform at i on avai l abl e t o t he off

i cer s i nt o acc ount . ” Uni t ed Stat es v. Johns on , 364 F. 3d 1185, 1189 ( 10t h C i r . 2004) ( quot i ng Uni t ed Stat es v. Lang , 8 1 F . 3 d 9 5 5 , 9 6 5 (10 th C ir . 1 9 9 6 )). A . LegalFr am ew ork. T hi s cas e r ai s es ques t i ons i m pl i cat i ng tw o di s t i nctl i nes of ca s es t hatm er ge in th is a p p e a l— tra ffic s to p s a n d p a t-d o w n w e a p o n s s e a rc h e s. T h e F o u rth A m endmentgoverns bot h s i tuat i ons and i n ei theri ns t ance pr ohi bi t s an u n re a s o n a b le s e a rc h o r s e iz u re . See , e. g. , A l car az -A r el lano , 441 F. 3d at1257 (tra ffic s to p ); Un itedS ta tes v . G a rc ia , 4 5 9 F .3 d 1 0 5 9 , 1 0 6 3 (1 0 th C ir. 2 0 0 6 ) (p a td o w n s e a rc h ). Si nce a t r aff

i c s t op i t s el f i s a s ei zur e, t he Four th A m endmentr equi r es t he s to p to b e ju s tifie d a t its in c e p tio n a n d re a s o n a b ly lim ite d in s c o p e . Uni t ed Stat es v . Ho lt , 264 F. 3d 1215, 1220 ( 10th C i r . 2001) . A j us t i fi abl e s t op m us tnotexce ed th e re a s o n a b le d u ra tio n re q u ir e d to c o m p le te th e p u rp o s e o f th e s to p . See Uni t ed Stat es v. Stew art , 4 7 3 F .3 d 1 2 6 5 , 1 2 6 9 (1 0 th C ir . 2 0 0 7 ).-7-

A pat - dow n s ear ch mustbe j us t i fi ed bya r eas onabl e s us pi ci on thata per s on is a rm e d a n d d a n g e ro u s . G a rc ia , 45 9 F . 3d at10 64 . D uri ng i nv est i gati ve st op s, i ncl udi ng a tr aff

i c s t op, an off

i cerm ayper form a pat - dow n s ear ch w her e he ha s r eas on t o bel i eve thathe i s deal i ng w i th an arm ed and d a n g e ro u s in d iv id u a l, reg a rd les s o f w h e th e r h e h a s p ro b a b le c a u se to a rre st th e in d iv id u a l fo r a c rim e . T h e o ffice r n e e d n o t b e a b so lu tely c e rta in th a t th e in d iv id u a l is a rm e d ; th e iss u e is w h e th e r a re a so n a b ly prudentm an i n t he ci r cumst ance s w oul d be w arr ant ed i n the bel i ef that h is safe tyo r th at of o thers w as in d an g er. Te rr y v . O h io , 3 9 2 U .S . 1 , 2 7 (1 9 6 8 ); s ee als o Uni t ed Stat es v. P alm er , 360 F. 3d 1243, 1246 ( 10t h C i r . 2004) . W e vi ew “the off i cer ’ s conductthr ough a fi l t erof comm on s ens e and or di naryhum an expe r i ence . ” G a rc ia , 459 F. 3d at1064. O ffice r sa fe tyis th e p rim a ryo bjec tiv e ju stif y in g a n o ffice r’s rig h t to p e rfo rm a p a t-d o w n se a rc h . A n d d u rin g tra ffic s to p s, w e h a v e c o n sis ten tly r ecogni zed thatt he r i s k t o offi cers afe tyi s hei ght ened bythe conf r ont at i onal n ature o f th e e n co u n ter: A n offi ceri n t oday ’ s r eal i tyhas an obj ect i ve, r eas onabl e bas i s t o fea r fo r h is o r h e r life e v e rytim e a m o to rist is s to p p e d . E v e rytra ffic s t op, aft eral l , i s a conf r ont at i on. T he mot or i s tm us ts us pend hi s or h e r p lan s a n d a n ticip a tes re c e iv in g a fin e a n d p e rh a p s e v e n a jail t erm . T hatexpec t at i on becomes even mor e r eal w hen the mot or i s tor a pas s engerknow s t her e ar e out s t andi ng arr es tw arr ant s orcurr ent cr i m i nal act i vi t yt hatm aybe di s cover ed dur i ng the cour s e of the s to p . Ho lt , 264 F. 3d at1223. W e furt herr ecogni zed that“[r ] es or tt o a l oaded w eapon i s an i ncreasi ng l yplausi ble opt i on for m anysuch m otor i st s t o escap e t ho se cons equenc es , and the off i cer , w hen s t oppi ng a ca ron a r out i ne tr aff i c s t op, never-8-

know s i n advanc e w hi ch mot or i s t s have thatopt i on byvi r tue of pos s es s i on of a l oaded w eapon i n t he ca r . ” Id. A n offi cerm ayther efor e t ake r eas onabl e “s t eps t o as s ur e hi m s el f thatt he per s on w i th w hom he i s deal i ng i s notarm ed w i th a w e a p o n th a t co u ld u n e x p e c ted lya n d fa tallyb e u se d a g a in st h im . C e rta in lyit w oul d be unr eas onabl e t o r equi r e thatpol i ce offi cer s t ake unne ces s aryr i s ks i n t he per form ance of thei rdut i es . ” Terry , 3 9 2 U .S . a t 2 3 . T he reasonab l e suspi ci on requi red t o just i fya pat- do w n search repr esent s a “mi ni m um l evel of obj ect i ve j us t i fi cat i on, ” A l car az -A r el lano , 441 F. 3d at1260 ( quot i ng Uni t ed Stat es v. Mendez , 118 F. 3d 1426, 1431 ( 10th C i r . 1997) ) , and

“ n e e d n o t rise to th e lev e l re q u ire d fo r p ro b a b le c a u se , an d it fa lls c o n sid e ra b ly s hor tof s at i s fy i ng a pr eponder ance of the evi dence s t andar d. ” Uni t ed Stat es v. A rvizu , 5 3 4 U .S . 2 6 6 , 2 7 4 (2 0 0 2 ). R e a so n a b le s u sp icio n is b a se d o n th e to tality of ci r cumst ance s , t aki ng i nt o acc ountan off i cer ’ s r eas onabl e i nfer ence s bas ed on tr a in in g , e x p e ri e n c e , a n d c o m m o n s e n s e . Id. a t 2 7 3 ; se e a lso G a rc ia , 459 F. 3d at 1 0 6 4 . B . Appl i cat i on . T he governm entcont ends ( 1) O ffi cerW eakl eydi d notexce ed the perm i s s i bl e s cope of

t he s t op w hen he s ear ched Ri ce, and ( 2) the s ear ch w as s uppor t ed byr eas onabl e s us pi ci on thatR i ce w as arm ed and da nger ous . T he di s t r i ctcourtr ecogni zed thatO ffi cerW eakl eydi d nots i gni fi cant l ydel aythe s t op, butt he courtdeci ded i n s uppr es s i ng evi dence of the gun, “[t ] hi s i s err at i c dr i vi ng-9-

in a h ig h c rim e a re a , I th in k th e o ffice rs a re ju stified in b e in g su sp icio u s, b u t I d o n ’t th in k y o u c a n g o f ro m th a t ju s tific a tio n to th e s to p a n d p a t- d o w n .” R . a t 5 3 . R i ce c oncede s on appea l t he tr aff i c s t op w as j us t i fi ed ati t s i ncept i on beca us e of the t ag l i ghtvi ol at i on. T he r emai ni ng i s s ues t hen ar e w hethert he offi cer s exce eded the r eas onabl e s cope of t he s t op orl acke d r eas onabl e s us pi ci on i n conduct i ng t he pat - dow n s ear ch. Th e Sc op e o

f th e S top . A n offi cerm aynotext end a tr aff i c s t op bey ond a r eas onabl e dur at i on nece s s aryt o acc om pl i s h the purpos e of the s t op unl es s t he d riv e r c o n se n ts to f

u rth e r q u e stio n in g o r th e o ffice r h a s re a so n a b le s u sp icio n to b e lie v e o th e r c ri m in a l a c tiv ity is a fo o t. A l car az -A r el lano , 4 4 1 F .3 d a t 1 2 5 9 . W hi l e a tr aff

i c s t op i s ongoi ng, how ever , an off i cerhas w i de di s cr et i on t o t ake re a s o n a b le p re c a u tio n s to p ro te c t h is s a fe ty. Ho lt , 264 F. 3d at1221–23. O bvi ous pr eca ut i ons i ncl ude runni ng a bac kgr ound chec k on t he dr i verand r emovi ng t he o c c u p a n ts f

ro m th e v e h ic le . Id. at1221–22 ( ci t i ng Mar yland v. Wi ls on , 51 9 U. S. 408, 415 ( 1997) and P e n n sy lv a n i a v . Mi mms , 4 3 4 U .S . 1 0 6 , 1 1 1 (1 9 7 7 )) . F urtherm ore, becau se passengers pres ent a r i sk t o o ffi cer s afet yequ al t o the r i sk p re s e n te d b yth e d ri v e r, Mar yland v. Wi ls on , 519 U . S. 408, 413–14 ( 1997) , an offi cerm ayas k fori dent i fi cat i on fr om pas s enger s and run backgr ound chec ks on th e m a s w e ll. Uni t ed Stat es v. Jens on , 4 6 2 F . 3 d 3 9 9 , 4 0 3

– 0 4 (5th C ir . 2 0 0 6 ); Un itedS ta tes v . P u rc e ll , 2 3 6 F . 3 d 1 2 7 4 , 1 2 7 8 (11 th C ir . 2 0 0 1 ); s ee als o Uni t ed-10-

Stat es v. R i vera , 867 F. 2d 1261, 1263 ( 10th C i r . 1989) ( not i ng thatoffi cercan le g itim a te ly as k q u e s tio n s a b o u t th e id e n tity o f p a s s e n g e rs d u ri n g a tr a ffic s to p ). N o n e o f O ffice r W e a k ley’s a c tio n s p rio r to se a rc h in g R ice u n re a so n a b ly ext ended the dur at i on of the s t op, w hi ch had be en i n pr ogr es s foronl ya fe w m i nut es w hen he r emoved R i ce f r om t he ca r . W eakl eyt es t i fi ed thathe had not fi ni s hed w r i t i ng t he ci t at i on w hen he r ece i ved the r es ul t s of R i ce’ s backgr ound chec k, atw hi ch poi ntW eakl eyi m m edi at el ydeci ded t o r eturn t o the ca rt o r emove t he occ upant s . B eca us e hi s act i ons di d notunr eas onabl yext end the tr aff i c s t op, W eakl eydi d notneed r eas onabl e s us pi ci on t o r eques ti dent i fi cat i on fr om R i ce, run a bac kgr ound chec k on hi m , orr emove R i ce oranyotherpas s engerfr om t he car . T hes e ac t i ons ar e ful l yj us t i fi ed byoffi cers afe tyconce rns no m at t erhow in n o c u o u s th e tra ffic v io latio n a n d n e e d n o t b e su p p o rte d b ya d d iti o n a l re a so n a b le s u s p ic io n . See Wi ls on , 5 1 9 U .S . at 4 1 5 ; A lcar az -A r el lano , 441 F. 3d at1259; Ho lt , 264 F. 3d at1221–22. R e a s o n a b le S u s

p ic io n fo rth e P a t- D o w n S e a r c h . A pat - dow n s ear ch, how ever , r equi r es addi t i onal s us pi ci on thatt he s us pectm aybe arm ed and d an g ero u s. A lth o u g h O fficer W ea k leyco u ld rem o v e R ice f rom the c ar a s a p art of a r out i ne tr aff

i c s t op, he coul d notper form a pat - dow n s ear ch forw eapons u n le s s h e re a s o n a b ly su s p e c te d th a t R ic e m ig h t b e c a rr y in g o n e . See Uni t ed Stat es v. D ennis on , 410 F. 3d 1203, 1211 ( 10th C i r . 2005) . W e conc l ude that r eas onabl e s us pi ci on w as pr es enther e.-11-

T h e re c o rd d isc lo se s a n u m b e r o f fa c ts ju stif

y in g th e p a t-d o w n se a rc h : ( 1) R i ce w as one of thr ee pe opl e i n a ca rdr i vi ng ar ound a hi gh cr i m e ar ea of Tul s a at2: 30 on a Tuesda ym orni ng, a t i m e w hen ther e w er e no othercar s or p e o p le a ro u n d ; (2 ) th e c a r p ro c e e d e d a lo n g tw o re sid e n tial b lo c k s, slo w in g in ter m itt e n tlyin a m an n er tha t an o b serv ing o fficer tho u g h t con sist en t w ith p rep aring fo r a b u rg lar yo r d riv e -b ysh o o tin g ; (3) t he car did not have a tag l i gh t , w hich i n the observi ng offi cers ’ e x p e rie n c e c o u ld in d ica te a d e sire to a v o id id e n tific a tio n ; (4 ) th e p a ss e n g e r in th e b a c k se a t h a d g iv e n W e a k ley w h a t h e , b a se d o n h is e x p e rie n c e , b e liev e d w e re fa lse n a m e s in ten d e d to c o n c e a l h e r tru e id e n tity ; ( 5) t he comput erchec k W eakl eyr an conf i r m ed hi s s us pi ci ons aboutthe back s eatpas s engerw hen hi s s ear ch r evea l ed no i nform at i on on the names s he g a v e ; ( 6) t he comput erchec k i dent i fi ed R i ce a s “know n t o be arm ed and d a n g e ro u s” ; ( 7) R i ce ha d a l engthyand vi ol entcr i m i nal r ecor d; and ( 8) R i ce i m m edi at el yas s um ed the pos i t i on fora w eapons s ear ch upon ex it ing the c ar. T aken t ogether , t hes e fa ct s s uppor tW eakl ey ’ s bel i ef thata pat - dow n s ear ch w a s j u s t i fi e d fo rh i s o w n s a fe t y.-12-

I n r eac hi ng a contr aryconcl us i on, the di s tr i ctcour t ’ s deci s i on di s count ed th e to talityo f

th e in fo rm a tio n k n o w n to th e o ffice rs b yfo c u sin g o n th e fa c ts in isolati o n . F o r ex am p le, the c o u rtem p h asize d tw o asp ec ts of the s top

— R ice’s c rim in a l h isto rya n d th e c a r’s “ e rra tic d riv in g in a h ig h c rim e a re a ”

— in co n clud ing that O fficer W ea k leyac ted w ith o u t r ea so n ab le su sp ici o n . T h e c o u rt found thats us pi ci ous m ovement s i n a hi gh cr i m e ar ea bya per s on w i th a cr i m i nal hi s t or ydo notamount t o r eas onabl e s us pi ci on s uffi ci entt o j us t i fyan i nves t i gat i ve det ent i on, r el y i ng on Un itedS ta tes v . D a v is , 9 4 F .3 d 1 4 6 5 (1 0 th C ir . 1 9 9 6 ). I n D a v is , w e c o n c lu d e d th a t o ffice rs h a d n o “ sp e c ific fa c tu a l b a sis ” to s us pecta cr i m e w hen theys t opped and de t ai ned a man on footw i th a cr i m i nal hi s t or yi n a hi gh cr i m e ar ea ne ara “know n cr i m i nal es t abl i s hm ent . ” Id. at 1 4 6 7

– 6 8 , 1 4 7 0 . H e re , in c o n tra st, R ice c o n c e d e s th e in iti a l sto p o f th e v e h icle w as val i d. T he off

i cer s i n D avis had noty eti ni t i at ed a va l i d s t op, and s o the o ffic e r s a fe ty co n c e rn s ju s tif y in g a p a t- d o w n s e a rc h fo r w e a p o n s w e re a tte n u a te d . A nd w hi l e R i ce c or r ect l ynot es t hata cr i m i nal r ecor d, s t andi ng al one, i s not s u ffic ie n t to c re a te re a s o n a b le s u s p ic io n o f a n yth in g , i d. at1468, i tm aybe one fac t orof s ever al t hatcontr i but es t o a fi ndi ng of r eas onabl e s us pi ci on. P alm er , 3 6 0 F .3 d a t 1 2 4 6 ; Uni t ed Stat es v. Sandoval , 2 9 F .3 d 5 3 7 , 5 4 2 (1 0 th C ir . 1 9 9 4 ). Gi v e n t h e o ffi c e rs a fe t yr a t i o n a l e u n d e r l y i n g th e j u s t i fi c a t i o n fo ra p a t - d o wn s ear ch, a s t r i ng of s er i ous fel oni es l i ke R i ce’ s carr i es addi t i onal w ei ght . T aken t ogether , t he i nform at i on pr es ent ed t o W eakl eyw as caus e t o bel i eve Ri ce w as-13-

p re se n tlya rm e d a n d d a n g e ro u s. T h e o ffice r w a s e n tit led fo r sa fe tyre a so n s to per form a pat - dow n s ear ch. T he di s t r i ctcour tal s o di s count ed the fa ctthatthe fa l s e i dent i typr ovi ded by t he bac k s eatpas s engercontr i but ed t o r eas onabl e s us pi ci on vi s - a- vi s R i ce. G i ven th e c irc u m sta n c e s h e re , the p a ss e n g e r’s a ttem p t to h id e h e r id e n tityis e n tirely cons i s t entw i t h effor t s t o avoi d det ect i on of cr i m i nal conduct . T hus , O ffi cer W eakl ey ’ s i nfer ence t hatt he pas s enger ’ s des i r e t o conce al heri dent i tyw as s om ehow r el at ed t o t he ac t i vi t i es of the ca r ’ s thr ee oc cupant s w as j us t i fi ed, and o u r c a s e la w s u p p o rt s s u c h a n in fe re n c e . See D ennis on , 410 F. 3d at1213 ( r ecogni zi ng as r eas onabl e an offi cer ’ s i nfer ence thata dr i vercoul d be hi di ng w eapons i n hi s carw hen hi s pas s engerhad an out s t andi ng w arr antfora w eapons v iolati o n ). A rea so n ab le office r ca n infer f rom the b eh av ior o f o n e o f a ca r’s pas s enger s a conc ern t hatr efl ect s on the ac t i ons and mot i vat i ons of the other p asse n g ers. T h e b ac k sea t pas sen g er’s b eh av ior co u ld o n lyh eigh ten W ea k ley ’s c o n c e rn th a t th is w a s a n yth in g b u t a ro u tin e tr a ffic s to p . W eakl eycoul d t hus r eas onabl yi nferatl eas ttw o thi ngs fr om the bac k s eat pas s enger ’ s evas i venes s — ( 1) t hathereage rnes s t o hi de heri dent i tym ade a ny i nnocentexpl anat i ons fort he party ’ s ear l y - m orni ng act i vi t i es l es s l i kel y , and ( 2) t he eva s i ve beha vi orm ade mor e l i kel ythe off i cer ’ s s us pi ci ons thatthei rconduct comport ed w i t h pr epar at i ons fora cr i m e. G i ven thatthe off i cer s s us pect ed at t empt s atbur gl aryora dr i ve- bys hoot i ng, bas ed on the hi s t or yof the r es i dent i al-14-

a re a in q u e s tio n , th e d ri v in g p a tte rn o f th e c a r, a n d th e o b s c u re d lic e n s e p la te , a great er l i keli ho od of il l egal act i vityal so m eant a great er l i keli ho od that atl east one per s on i n t he ca rw as arm ed. U lti m a tely , the q u e stio n b e fo re u s is w h e th e r a ll o f th e fa c ts a v a ilab le to O ffice r W e a k ley at th e m o m e n t o f th e se a rc h w o u ld “ w a rra n t a m a n o f re a so n a b le caut i on i n t he bel i ef thatt he ac t i on t aken w as appr opr i at e. ” Te rr y v . O h io , 392 U .S . 1 , 2 1

– 2 2 (1 9 6 8 ) ( in te rn a l q u o ta tio n s o m itte d ). H e re th e yd o . In th is c a s e , a r eas onabl yprudentoffi cerw oul d have done exac t l yw hatO ffi cerW eakl ey di d— conducta r out i ne pat - dow n s ear ch forw eapons t o pr ot ecthi s s afe tyand that of other s dur i ng t he tr aff i c s t op. I I I . C oncl usi on A c c o rd in g ly , the d istric t co u rt’s o rd e r g ra n tin g th e m o tio n to su p p re ss is R E V E R S E D a n d th e c a se is R E M A N D E D fo r p ro c e e d in g s c o n sis ten t w ith th is opi ni on.