FI L ED

U.S. COURT OF APPEAL S

EL EVENTH CI RCUI T

SEPTEMBER 15, 2010

J OHN L EY

CL ERK [ P U B L I S H ]

I N T H E U N I T E D S T A T E S C O U R T O F A P P E A L S

F O R T H E E L E V E N T H C I R C U I T

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

N o

. 0 9

- 1 4 1 9 4

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

D

. C

. D o c k e t N o

. 0 8

- 2 1 7 4 7

- C V

- U U

M I C C O S U K E E T R I B E O F I N D I A N S O F F L O R I D A

,

a f e d e r a l l y

- r e c o g n i z e d I n d i a n T r i b e

,

P l a i n t i f f

- A p p e l l a n t

,

v e r s u s

U N I T E D S T A T E S A R M Y C O R P S O F E N G I N E E R S

, S E C R E T A R Y O F T H E A R M Y

,

J o h n M

. M c H u g h

, i n h i s o f f i c i a l c a p a c i t y

,

L T

. G E N

. R O B E R T L

. V A N A N T W E R P

, C h i e f o f E n g i n e e r s

, U

. S

. A r m y C o r p s o f

E n g i n e e r s

, i n h i s o f

f i c i a l c a p a c i t y

,

B G

. G E N E R A L J O S E P H S C H R O E D E L

,

D i v i s i o n E n g i n e e r

, S o u t h A t l a n t i c D i v i s i o n

C o r p s o f E n g i n e e r s

, i n h i s o f f i c i a l c a p a c i t y

,

P A U L L

. G R O S S K R U G E R

,

D i s t r i c t E n g i n e e r

, J a c k s o n v i l l e D i s t r i c t

, C o r p s o f E n g i n e e r s

, i n h i s o f f i c i a l c a p a c i t y

, U N I T E D S T A T E S O F A M E R I C A

,

D e f e n d a n t s

- A p p e l l e e s

,

S O U T H F L O R I D A W A T E R M A N A G E M E N T D I S T R I C T

,

I n t e r v e n o r

- A p p e l l e e

._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

N o

. 0 9

- 1 4 5 3 9

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

D

. C

. D o c k e t N o

. 0 8

- 2 2 9 6 6

- C V

- P A S

M I C C O S U K E E T R I B E O F I N D I A N S O F F L O R I D A

,

a f e d e r a l l y

- r e c o g n i z e d I n d i a n T r i b e

,

P l a i n t i f f

- A p p e l l a n t

,

v e r s u s

U N I T E D S T A T E S O F A M E R I C A

, U

. S

. A R M Y C O R P S O F E N G I N E E R S

, S E C R E T A R Y O F T H E A R M Y

,

J o h n M

. M c H u g h

, i n h i s o f f i c i a l c a p a c i t y

, C H I E F O F E N G I N E E R S

, U

. S

. A R M Y C O R P S

O F E N G I N E E R S

,

L t

. G e n e r a l R o b e r t V a n A n t w e r p i n h i s

o f f i c i a l c a p a c i t y

,

D I V I S I O N E N G I N E E R

, S O U T H A T L A N T I C

D I V I S I O N C O R P S O F E N G I N E E R S

,

B g

. G e n e r a l J o s e p h S c h r o e d e l

, i n h i s

o f f i c i a l c a p a c i t y

, e t a l

. ,

D e f e n d a n t s

- A p p e l l e e s

.

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

A p p e a l s f

r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s D i s t r i c t C o u r t

f o r t h e S o u t h e r n D i s t r i c t o f F l o r i d a

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

( S e p t e m b e r 1 5

, 2 0 1 0 )

2B e f

o r e B L A C K

, W I L S O N a n d M A R T I N

, C i r c u i t J u d g e s

.

W I L S O N

, C i r c u i t J u d g e :

T h e M i c c o s u k e e T r i b e o f I n d i a n s o f F l o r i d a ( t h e T r i b e ) f i l e d t w o l a w s u i t s

c h a l l e n g i n g t h e f

e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t ’ s p l a n s t o r e p l a c e a m i l e o f t h e g r o u n d

- l e v e l

T a m i a m i T r a i l ( U

. S

. H i g h w a y 4 1 ) w i t h a b r i d g e

, t o i n c r e a s e t h e f l o w o f w a t e r i n t o

E v e r g l a d e s N a t i o n a l P a r k

. T h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t s d i s m i s s e d t h e T r i b e ’ s c l a i m s f o r l a c k

o f s u b j e c t m a t t e r j u r i s d i c t i o n

, a n d w e h a v e c o n s o l i d a t e d t h e T r i b e ’ s a p p e a l s o f

t h o s e d e c i s i o n s

. T h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t s c o n c l u d e d t h a t l a n g u a g e C o n g r e s s i n s e r t e d i n a

s p e n d i n g b i l l p a r t i a l l y r e p e a l e d t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l l a w s t h a t t h e T r i b e w a s

i n v o k i n g

. T h e T r i b e c h a l l e n g e s t h a t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

, a n d a s s e r t s t h e r u l i n g s v i o l a t e

t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o n s e v e r a l c o u n t s

. F o r t h e f o l l o w i n g r e a s o n s

, w e c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e

a c t o f C o n g r e s s d e p r i v e d t h e f e d e r a l c o u r t s o f s u b

j e c t m a t t e r j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r t h e

T r i b e ’ s c l a i m s

. T h e r e f

o r e

, w e a f

f i r m t h e j u d g m e n t s o f t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t s

.

I

. B a c k g r o u n d

a

. H i s t o r i c a l B a c k d r o

p o f t h e L i t i g a t i o n 1

T h e M i c c o s u k e e I n d i a n s h a v e l o n g r e s i d e d i n t h e E v e r g l a d e s

. T h e 2

Whil e some of the introductory backg round in this subsection is not part of the re cord 1

on appea l, it is included to assist in understanding the historical pre cursor to this l itigation. We

note that our a

naly sis and decision of the le g al issues in these appe als rest solely on the re cord.

See Br ent Richards Weisman, Unconque red People : Florida’s Seminole and 2

Micc osukee Indians 5–8 (Univ. Press of F la. 1999). The Miccosukee I ndians are desce nded

from the Cre ek Na tion, an association of villag es that stretc hed ac ross what is now Alaba ma and

3M i c c o s u k e e s ’ h i s t o r i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e i r n e i g h b o r s t h e S e m i n o l e I n d i a n s w a s

t e m p e r e d b y t h e f

a c t t h a t t h e M i c c o s u k e e s s p o k e t h e i r o w n l a n g u a g e

, M i k a s u k i

.

T h e f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t f

o r m a l l y r e c o g n i z e d t h e M i c c o s u k e e T r i b e o f I n d i a n s o f

F l o r i d a i n 1 9 6 2

. T r i b e m e m b e r s l i v e a n d w o r k o n s e v e r a l r e s e r v a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e

E v e r g l a d e s

.

G e o l o g i s t s e s t i m a t e t h a t t h e E v e r g l a d e s f o r m e d a b o u t 5

, 0 0 0 y e a r s a g o

. T h e 3

I n d i a n s c a l l e d t h e p l a c e P a

- h a y

- o k e e

, m e a n i n g “ G r a s s y W a t e r

. ” A B r i t i s h

c a r t o g r a p h e r l a b e l e d i t t h e R i v e r G l a d e s

, a n d a u t h o r M a r j o r y S t o n e m a n D o u g l a s

s u g g e s t e d t h a t l a t e r m a p m a k e r s s u b s t i t u t e d t h e w o r d “ E v e r ” f o r R i v e r

. T h e n a m e

4

Geor g ia, and it is sugg ested that their a ncestors mig ht have f

irst rea ched the southeaster n United

States as long as 10,000 y ear s ag o. See Miccosukee Tribe of I ndians of F lorida, History

, http:// www.micc osukee.c om/tribe_history 1.htm (last visited Aug . 25, 2010). Unde r Eleve nth

Circuit proce dure, the Clerk of this Court maintains a downloade d copy of all the I nterne t

source s cited in this opinion.

Patrick J. Gleason & Pete r Stone, Age, Origin, and Landscape Ev olution of t he 3

Eve rglades Peatland

, in Eve rglades: The Ecosy stem and its Restoration 149, 150 (Steven M.

Davis & J ohn C. Og den eds., 1994)

.

Marjory Stoneman Doug las , The Eve rglades: Rive r of Grass 7 (Pineapple Pre ss 1988) 4

(1947). Doug las descr ibed the bea uty of the Eve rg lades, a s well as ea rly repor ts of its dang ers:

The mirac le of the lig ht pours over the g ree n and brow n expanse of sawg rass a nd

of wa ter, shining and slow-moving below, the g rass a nd water that is the meaning

and the c entra l fac t of the Ever g lades of F lorida. I t is a river of g rass.

. . . . . . . ‘The E verg lades’ w as desc ribed a s a ser ies of vast, miasmic swa mps,

poisonous lagoons, hug e dismal marshe s without outl et, a r otting, shallow, inland

sea, or laby rinths of dark tr ees hung and looped a bout with snakes and dr ipping

mosses, maligna

nt with tropical feve rs and mala rias, evil to the white man.

Id. at 5–6.

4E v e r g l a d e s a p p e a r e d o n A m e r i c a n m i l i t a r y m a p s d u r i n g t h e S e m i n o l e W a r s

.

T h e E v e r g l a d e s c o v e r s m u c h o f t h e h a l f o f F l o r i d a s o u t h o f O r l a n d o

.

H i s t o r i c a l l y

, w a t e r m o v e d s o u t h w a r d f r o m t h e K i s s i m m e e R i v e r t o L a k e

O k e e c h o b e e

, t h e n s o u t h a n d s o u t h w e s t i n t o F l o r i d a B a y

. F r o m L a k e O k e e c h o b e e 5

t o t h e G u l f o f M e x i c o

, t h e l a n d d e c l i n e s a l m o s t i m p e r c e p t i b l y

— o n a v e r a g e o n l y

t h r e e i n c h e s p e r m i l e

— s o t h a t t h e w a t e r f o r m s a s h a l l o w

, t h i r t y

- m i l e w i d e r i v e r

,

m o v i n g s l o w l y s o u t h w a r d

. 6

I n b a d w e a t h e r t h e w a t e r d i d n o t a l w a y s m o v e s o g e n t l y

. A h u r r i c a n e i n

S e p t e m b e r 1 9 2 8 c a u s e d a b r e a c h o f t h e O k e e c h o b e e l e v e e

, d r o w n i n g u p w a r d s o f

2

, 0 0 0 f a r m w o r k e r s

. T h e t r a g e d y i n c r e a s e d p u b l i c a w a r e n e s s o f t h e d a n g e r s o f

7

u n c o n t r o l l e d E v e r g l a d e s w a t e r s

. A t t h e s a m e t i m e

, t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f F l o r i d a w a s

Appellee U.S. Army

Corps of Eng ineer s has posted animate d maps of the historic, 5

prese nt, and planned w ater flows of the Eve rg lades a t

http:// www.e verg ladesplan.or g /educa tion/requested_downloa ds.aspx (click on “view a nd

compar e”) (last visited Aug . 25, 2010).

H. Fling et al.

, The Role of Flow in the Everglades Landscape 1–2 (Univ. of F la. 6

Cooperative E x tension Service, D ec. 2004)

, available at http:// edis.ifas.ufl.e du/uw199

.

See Nat’l Weathe r Serv. Weathe r F orec ast Off ice Miami, Mem orial W

eb Page for the 7

1928 Oke echobe e Hurricane (June 29, 2009), http:// www.srh.noa a.g ov/mfl/? n=okee chobee

. Whil e no pre cise c ount of the dea d ever emer g ed, it has bee n sug g ested that the O keec hobee

hurrica ne wa s second only

to the Galveston hurr icane in 1900 as the dea dliest natural disaster in

United States history

. Id. Many of the de ad we re Car ibbean mig rant wor kers who w ere either

swept into the Ever g lades or bur ied in mass g rave s. Estimates of the dea th toll rang e fr om 1,700

to more than 2,500. Id. By compar ison, Hurrica

ne Ka trina killed approximately 1,800 in 2005.

Z ora N eale Hurston desc ribed the O keec hobee hur rica ne in her 1937 novel Their Eyes W ere

W atching God

.

5c o n t i n u i n g t o g r o w

, a n d w i t h i t t h e d e m a n d f o r l a n d

, f o o d

, a n d w a t e r

. I n 1 9 4 8

,

C o n g r e s s p a s s e d t h e F l o o d C o n t r o l A c t

, P u b

. L

. N o

. 8 0

- 8 5 8

, 6 2 S t a t

. 1 1 7 1

, 1 1 7 6

,

a u t h o r i z i n g t h e C e n t r a l a n d S o u t h e r n F l o r i d a p l a n t o c o n t r o l f l o o d i n g i n t h e

E v e r g l a d e s

, a n d p r o m o t e a g r i c u l t u r e a n d w a t e r s u p p l y

. T h e e f f e c t o f t h e s e r i e s o f

l e v e e s a n d c a n a l s t h a t f

o l l o w e d w a s t o s h u n t m o r e w a t e r o u t t h r o u g h t h e e a s t a n d

w e s t c o a s t s o f F l o r i d a

, a n d d r a s t i c a l l y r e d u c e t h e s o u t h w a r d f l o w t h r o u g h t h e

E v e r g l a d e s

.

T h e T a m i a m i T r a i l ( t h e T r a i l )

, a l s o k n o w n a s U

. S

. H i g h w a y 4 1

, w a s t h e f i r s t

h i g h w a y t o c r o s s t h e E v e r g l a d e s

. I t s n a m e d e r i v e s f r o m t h e c i t i e s a t i t s e n d s

,

T a m p a a n d M i a m i

. C o n s t r u c t i o n b e g a n d u r i n g t h e F i r s t W o r l d W a r a n d t o o k m o r e

t h a n a d e c a d e t o c o m p l e t e

. W h e n w o r k e r s w e r e n o t b a t t l i n g t h e s w a m p

, t h e y w e r e

u s i n g d y n a m i t e t o b r e a k t h r o u g h t h e r o c k b e d s o n t h e N a p l e s s i d e

. W h i l e t h e 8

n e w e r I n t e r s t a t e 7 5 t o t h e n o r t h

, c a l l e d “ A l l i g a t o r A l l e y

, ” c a r r i e s m o r e v e h i c l e s

a c r o s s t h e E v e r g l a d e s e v e r y d a y

, t h e T r a i l r e m a i n s a v i t a l r o a d a n d h u r r i c a n e

e v a c u a t i o n r o u t e

. S o m e o f t h e e a s t

- w e s t p o r t i o n o f t h e T r a i l r u n s a l o n g t h e

n o r t h e r n b o u n d a r y o f E v e r g l a d e s N a t i o n a l P a r k

. 9

Carrie Scupholm, Connecting the East and W est Coasts: The Tamiami T rail of t he 8

Sunshine State

, in Looking Beyond theHighway: Dixie Roads and Culture 73, 78 (Claudette

Stage r & Martha Ca

rver eds., 2006).

I n 1934, Congr ess passed le g islation crea ting the E verg lades Na tional Park, 48 Stat. 9

816 (codifie d at 16 U.S.C. § 410 et seq. ), and de clining to diminish “any exis ting r ights of the

Seminole I ndians which a re not in conf

lict with the purposes for

which the Eve rg lades Na tional

6A l t h o u g h t h e T r a i l r e m a i n s a n i m p r e s s i v e e n g i n e e r i n g a c h i e v e m e n t

, i t p o s e s

a s u b s t a n t i a l e n v i r o n m e n t a l c h a l l e n g e

. I t a c t s a s a d a m t o r e s t r i c t w a t e r f r o m

f l o w i n g s o u t h i n t o E v e r g l a d e s N a t i o n a l P a r k a n d g r e a t l y r e d u c e s t h e f l o w i n t o t h e

S h a r k R i v e r S l o u g h

, t h e m a i n w a t e r c o r r i d o r o f t h e E v e r g l a d e s

. M o r e o v e r

, t o

p r e s e r v e t h e r o a d b e d f

r o m e r o s i o n

, e n g i n e e r s f o u n d t h a t t h e y h a d t o l o w e r w a t e r

l e v e l s o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s w a m p

. T h e r e s t r i c t e d w a t e r f l o w w a s s u b s e q u e n t l y

b l a m e d f o r v a s t l o s s e s o f w a d i n g b i r d s

, f i s h

, a n d n a t i v e p l a n t s

.

b

. E f f o r t s t o R e s t o r e t h e E v e r

g l a d e s ’ H i s t o r i c F l o w s

O n t h e s t r e n g t h o f r e n e w e d c o n c e r n s a b o u t t h e h e a l t h o f t h e E v e r g l a d e s

, i n

1 9 8 9 C o n g r e s s e n a c t e d t h e E v e r g l a d e s N a t i o n a l P a r k P r o t e c t i o n a n d E x p a n s i o n

A c t

, P u b

. L

. N o

. 1 0 1

- 2 2 9

, 1 0 3 S t a t

. 1 9 4 6

, 1 6 U

. S

. C

. § 4 1 0 r

- 5 e t s e q

. ( E N P P E A )

.

T h e E N P P E A d i r e c t e d f e d e r a l a g e n c i e s t o r e s e a r c h w a y s t o i m p r o v e w a t e r f l o w i n

t h e p a r k

, a n d d e s c r i b e t h e m i n a r e p o r t t i t l e d “ M o d i f i e d W a t e r D e l i v e r i e s t o

E v e r g l a d e s N a t i o n a l P a r k

. ” I n 2 0 0 0

, t h e P r e s i d e n t s i g n e d t h e W a t e r R e s o u r c e s

D e v e l o p m e n t A c t

, P u b

. L

. N o

. 1 0 6

- 5 4 1

, § 6 0 1

, 1 1 4 S t a t

. 2 5 7 2

, 2 6 8 0 ( W R D A )

,

o u t l i n i n g t h e t h i r t y

- y e a r C o m p r e h e n s i v e E v e r g l a d e s R e s t o r a t i o n P l a n ( C E R P ) t h a t

u p d a t e d t h e o r i g i n a l C e n t r a l a n d S o u t h e r n F l o r i d a p l a n f o r t h e E v e r g l a d e s

. O n e

e l e m e n t o f C E R P c a l l e d f o r i m p r o v e m e n t o f w a t e r f l o w t h r o u g h t h e T r a i l

.

Park is cre ated.” 16 U.S.C. § 410b.

7I n J u n e 2 0 0 8

, t h e U

. S

. A r m y C o r p s o f E n g i n e e r s ( C o r p s ) i s s u e d i t s F i n a l

L i m i t e d R e e v a l u a t i o n R e p o r t a n d E n v i r o n m e n t a l A s s e s s m e n t ( L R R / E A )

c o n c e r n i n g i m p r o v e m e n t s t o t h e T r a i l

. I t c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e m o s t e f f e c t i v e a n d 1 0

e c o n o m i c a l o p t i o n o f a l l t h e o n e s s t u d i e d w a s “ A l t e r n a t i v e 3

. 2

. 2

. a ”

— c o n s t r u c t i o n

o f a m i l e

- l o n g b r i d g e a t t h e e a s t e r n e n d o f t h e T r a i l

. T h e b r i d g e w o u l d r e p l a c e t h e

c u r r e n t g r o u n d

- l e v e l r o a d b e d a n d w o u l d g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e t h e a m o u n t o f w a t e r t h a t

c o u l d f l o w s o u t h w a r d i n t o t h e S h a r k R i v e r S l o u g h

.

O n J u n e 1 8

, 2 0 0 8

, t h e T r i b e s u e d t h e C o r p s

, c l a i m i n g t h a t t h e s e l e c t i o n o f

A l t e r n a t i v e 3

. 2

. 2

. a v i o l a t e d t h e N a t i o n a l E n v i r o n m e n t a l P o l i c y A c t o f 1 9 6 9

, 4 2

U

. S

. C

. § 4 3 2 1 e t s e q

. ( N E P A )

, t h e F e d e r a l A d v i s o r y C o m m i t t e e A c t

, 5 U

. S

. C

. a p p

.

2 ( F A C A )

, a n d W R D A

. F o r e a s e

, w e r e f e r t o t h i s c a s e a s t h e N E P A c a s e

. T h e 1 1

T r i b e c l a i m e d t h a t t h e f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t f

a i l e d t o o b e y f

e d e r a l e n v i r o n m e n t a l

l a w s i n p l a n n i n g t h e b r i d g e

, i n p a r t b y f a i l i n g t o p r e p a r e a d e q u a t e s t a t e m e n t s o f

e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t

. M o r e o v e r

, t h e l a w s u i t a l l e g e d t h a t h i g h e r w a t e r l e v e l s

This final version of the L RR/EA is available at 1 0

http:// www.sa

j.usace .army .mil/Divi sions/Everg lades/B ranc hes/ProjectExe/Sections/L ECSW /M

WD/DOCS /TamiamiTrail/Fina l/MW D-TTM_F inal_L RR_MainDoc.pdf. The addendum, da ted

J uly 28, 2008, is available a t

http:// www.sa

j.usace .army .mil/Divi sions/Everg lades/B ranc hes/ProjectExe/Sections/L ECSW /M

WD/DOCS /TamiamiTrail/20080728_TTM_L RR_EA_Addendum_Fina l.pdf.

We note that two day s ear lier, on June 16, 2008, the Tribe sued the United States and 1 1

the Secr etar

y of the U.S. De partment of T ranspor tation (the DOT c ase) , claiming that the

Depa rtment of Tra

nsportation failed to c onduct the re quired re view of the bridg e proje ct. This

case , also befor e Judge U ng aro, le d to a sepa rate appea l to the Eleventh Circuit, which we

resolve w ith a separ ate opinion, No. 09-11891.

8w o u l d f

l o o d t r i b a l l a n d s a n d t r e e i s l a n d s

. T h e T r i b e a s k e d f o r j u d i c i a l r e v i e w

u n d e r t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i v e P r o c e d u r e A c t

, 5 U

. S

. C

. § 7 0 1 e t s e q

. , a n d r e q u e s t e d a n

i n j u n c t i o n t o s t o p t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n

.

c

. C o n g r e s s ’ s F i r s t A p

p r o p r i a t i o n s B i l l

C o n g r e s s i n t h e m e a n t i m e c o n t i n u e d t o l e g i s l a t e o n E v e r g l a d e s r e s t o r a t i o n

.

O n S e p t e m b e r 3 0

, 2 0 0 8

, C o n g r e s s p a s s e d a c o n t i n u i n g a p p r o p r i a t i o n s a c t

, P u b

. L

.

N o

. 1 1 0

- 3 2 9

, 1 2 2 S t a t

. 3 5 7 4

. S e c t i o n 1 5 3 o f t h e a c t s p o k e t o t h e i m m e d i a t e

b u i l d i n g o f t h e b r i d g e :

S E C

. 1 5 3

. A m o u n t s p r o v i d e d b y s e c t i o n 1 0 1 f o r i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f

t h e M o d i f

i e d W a t e r D e l i v e r i e s t o E v e r g l a d e s N a t i o n a l P a r k s h a l l b e

m a d e a v a i l a b l e t o t h e A r m y C o r p s o f E n g i n e e r

s

, w h i c h s h a l l

i m m e d i a t e l

y c a r r y o u t A l t e r n a t i v e 3

. 2

. 2

. a t o U

. S

. H i g h w a y 4 1 ( t h e

T a m i a m i T

r a i l ) a s s u b s t a n t i a l l y d e s c r i b e d i n t h e L i m i t e d R e e v a l u a t i o n

R e p o r t w i t h I n t e g r a t e d E n v i r o n m e n t a l A s s e s s m e n t a n d a d d e n d u m

,

a p p r o v e d A u g u s t 2 0 0 8

. . . .

1 2 2 S t a t

. a t 3 5 8 1 ( e m p h a s i s a d d e d )

.

O n O c t o b e r 2 4

, 2 0 0 8

, t h e T r i b e f i l e d s u i t a g a i n s t t h e C o r p s a n d t h e U

. S

. F i s h

a n d W i l d l i f

e S e r v i c e

, a l l e g i n g v i o l a t i o n s o f t h e E n d a n g e r e d S p e c i e s A c t o f 1 9 7 3

,

1 6 U

. S

. C

. § 1 5 3 1 e t s e q

. ( E S A )

. W e r e f e r t o t h i s c a s e a s t h e E S A c a s e

. T h e

l a w s u i t a l l e g e d t h a t a b i o l o g i c a l o p i n i o n i s s u e d b y t h e F i s h a n d W i l d l i f e S e r v i c e

f a i l e d t o f u l l y a d d r e s s t h e b r i d g e ’ s t h r e a t t o t h e c o n t i n u e d s u r v i v a l o f t w o

e n d a n g e r e d b i r d s p e c i e s

, t h e s n a i l k i t e a n d t h e w o o d s t o r k

. T h e r e a r e t w o w o o d

9s t o r k c o l o n i e s c l o s e t o t h e p l a n n e d b r i d g e r o u t e

. L i k e t h e N E P A s u i t

, t h e E S A s u i t

s o u g h t a c o u r t o r d e r b l o c k i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e b r i d g e u n t i l t h e f e d e r a l

g o v e r n m e n t c o m p l i e d w i t h t h e l a w

.

M e a n w h i l e

, t h e C o r p s m o v e d t o d i s m i s s t h e N E P A s u i t

, c i t i n g § 1 5 3 o f

C o n g r e s s ’ s c o n t i n u i n g a p p r o p r i a t i o n s a c t

. O n O c t o b e r 3 1

, 2 0 0 8

, t h e N E P A c o u r t

d e n i e d t h e C o r p s ’ s m o t i o n t o d i s m i s s t h e T r i b e ’ s s u i t f o r l a c k o f s u b

j e c t m a t t e r

j u r i s d i c t i o n

, h o l d i n g t h a t § 1 5 3 w a s n o t s p e c i f i c e n o u g h t o e x e m p t t h e C o r p s f r o m

N E P A

. S e c t i o n 1 5 3 n e i t h e r m e n t i o n e d N E P A b y n a m e

, n o r i n c l u d e d t h e k e y

p h r a s e “ n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g a n y o t h e r p r o v i s i o n o f l a w

, ” w h i c h t h e c o u r t d e s c r i b e d a s

“ t h e l a n g u a g e u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n e x e m p t i o n o r l i m i t e d r e p e a l

. ” D

. E

. 5 9 a t

5

. S h o r t l y t h e r e a f

t e r

, o n N o v e m b e r 1 3

, 2 0 0 8

, t h e N E P A c o u r t g r a n t e d i n p a r t t h e

T r i b e ’ s m o t i o n f

o r a p r e l i m i n a r y i n

j u n c t i o n t o e n

j o i n t h e C o r p s f

r o m b u i l d i n g t h e

b r i d g e u n t i l i t c o m p l i e d w i t h e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o c e d u r e s

.

d

. C o n g r e s s ’ s O m n i b u s A p p r o p r i a t i o n s A c t o

f 2 0 0 9

O n M a r c h 1 1

, 2 0 0 9

, C o n g r e s s p a s s e d t h e O m n i b u s A p p r o p r i a t i o n s A c t

,

2 0 0 9

, P u b

. L

. N o

. 1 1 1

- 8

, 1 2 3 S t a t

. 5 2 4 ( O m n i b u s A c t )

. T h e O m n i b u s A c t i n c l u d e d

t h i s p a s s a g e :

C O N S T R U C T I O N

( I N C L U D I N G R E S C I S S I O N O F F U N D S )

F o r c o n s t r u c t i o n

, i m p r o v e m e n t s

, r e p a i r o r r e p l a c e m e n t o f p h y s i c a l

f a c i l i t i e s

, i n c l u d i n g a p o r t i o n o f t h e e x p e n s e f o r t h e m o d i f

i c a t i o n s

10a u t h o r i z e d b y s e c t i o n 1 0 4 o f t h e E v e r g l a d e s N a t i o n a l P a r k P r o t e c t i o n

a n d E x p a n s i o n A c t o f 1 9 8 9

, $ 2 3 3

, 1 5 8

, 0 0 0

, t o r e m a i n a v a i l a b l e u n t i l

e x p e n d e d :

P r o v i d e d

, T h a t f

u n d s a p p r o p r i a t e d i n t h i s A c t

, o r i n a n y p r i o r A c t o f

C o n g r e s s

, f

o r t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e M o d i f i e d W a t e r D e l i v e r i e s t o

E v e r g l a d e s N a t i o n a l P a r k P r o j e c t

, s h a l l b e m a d e a v a i l a b l e t o t h e A r m y

C o r p s o f E n g i n e e r s w h i c h s h a l l

, n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g a n

y o t h e r p r o v i s i o n

o f l a w

, i m m e d i a t e l

y a n d w i t h o u t f

u r t h e r d e l a

y c o n s t r u c t o r c a u s e t o b e

c o n s t r u c t e d A l t e r n a t i v e 3

. 2

. 2

. a t o U

. S

. H i g h w a y 4 1 ( t h e T a m i a m i

T r a i l ) c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e L i m i t e d R e e v a l u a t i o n R e p o r t w i t h I n t e g r a t e d

E n v i r o n m e n t a l A s s e s s m e n t a n d a d d e n d u m

, a p p r o v e d A u g u s t 2 0 0 8

. . . .

1 2 3 S t a t

. a t 7 0 8 ( e m p h a s e s a d d e d )

. I n t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n

, w e r e f e r t o t h e

p h r a s e “ n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g a n y o t h e r p r o v i s i o n o f l a w ” a s t h e n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g c l a u s e

.

W e c a l l t h e p h r a s e “ i m m e d i a t e l y a n d w i t h o u t f u r t h e r d e l a y ” t h e i m m e d i a c y c l a u s e

.

O n J u n e 1 6

, 2 0 0 9

, t h e N E P A c o u r t

, i n r e s p o n s e t o t h e C o r p s ’ s r e n e w e d

m o t i o n t o d i s m i s s f

o r l a c k o f s u b

j e c t m a t t e r j u r i s d i c t i o n

, h e l d t h a t t h e O m n i b u s A c t

i s a n “ e x p l i c i t e x e m p t i o n ” f r o m N E P A a n d F A C A t h a t m o v e s t h e b r i d g e “ f r o m t h e

r e a c h o f s u c h s t a t u t e s

. ” D

. E

. 1 2 8 a t 7

. T h e c o u r t f o u n d i t s i g n i f

i c a n t t h a t C o n g r e s s

a d d e d t h e s a m e n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g c l a u s e t h a t t h e c o u r t h a d f o u n d l a c k i n g i n t h e

e a r l i e r a p p r o p r i a t i o n s a c t

. T h e N E P A c o u r t a l s o r e j e c t e d t h e T r i b e ’ s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l

c h a l l e n g e s t o t h e O m n i b u s A c t : v a g u e n e s s

, d e l e g a t i o n

, s e p a r a t i o n o f p o w e r s

, b i l l o f

a t t a i n d e r

, d u e p r o c e s s

, a n d e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n

. T h e N E P A c o u r t d i s m i s s e d t h e s u i t

f o r l a c k o f s u b

j e c t m a t t e r j u r i s d i c t i o n

, a n d d i s s o l v e d t h e p r e l i m i n a r y i n j u n c t i o n t h a t

11i t h a d e a r l i e r e n t e r e d

. T h e T r i b e t i m e l y a p p e a l e d

.

T h e C o r p s f

i l e d a c o p y o f t h e N E P A c o u r t ’ s d i s m i s s a l w i t h t h e E S A c o u r t

.

O n A u g u s t 3 1

, 2 0 0 9

, t h e E S A c o u r t a d o p t e d t h e r e a s o n i n g o f t h e N E P A c o u r t t o

c o n c l u d e i t t o o l a c k e d s u b j e c t m a t t e r j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r t h e T r i b e ’ s c l a i m s

. T h e E S A

c o u r t a l s o i n v o k e d t h e d o c t r i n e o f c o l l a t e r a l e s t o p p e l t o b a r t h e T r i b e f r o m

r e l i t i g a t i n g i t s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l c h a l l e n g e s t o t h e O m n i b u s A c t b e c a u s e t h e N E P A

c o u r t h a d a l r e a d y r e

j e c t e d t h e m

. T h e E S A c o u r t g r a n t e d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ’ m o t i o n

t o d i s m i s s t h e s u i t f

o r l a c k o f s u b

j e c t m a t t e r j u r i s d i c t i o n

. T h e T r i b e f i l e d i t s n o t i c e

o f a p p e a l t h e n e x t d a y

.

I I

. S t a n d a r d o f R e v i e w

T h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t ’ s g r a n t o f a m o t i o n t o d i s m i s s f o r l a c k o f s u b

j e c t m a t t e r

j u r i s d i c t i o n p r e s e n t s a l e g a l q u e s t i o n t h a t w e r e v i e w d e n o v o

. S i n a l t r a i n a l v

.

C o c a

- C o l a C o

. , 5 7 8 F

. 3 d 1 2 5 2

, 1 2 6 0 ( 1 1 t h C i r

. 2 0 0 9 ) ( c i t a t i o n o m i t t e d )

. “ I n

c o n s t r u i n g a s t a t u t e w e m u s t b e g i n

, a n d s h o u l d o f t e n e n d

. . . w i t h t h e l a n g u a g e o f

t h e s t a t u t e i t s e l f

. ” K e h o e v

. F i d

. F e d

. B a n k & T r u s t

, 4 2 1 F

. 3 d 1 2 0 9

, 1 2 1 2 ( 1 1 t h

C i r

. 2 0 0 5 ) ( c i t a t i o n o m i t t e d )

. W e r e v i e w t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t ’ s i n v o c a t i o n o f

c o l l a t e r a l e s t o p p e l d e n o v o

. U n i t e d S t a t e s v

. W

e i s s

, 4 6 7 F

. 3 d 1 3 0 0

, 1 3 0 8 ( 1 1 t h C i r

.

2 0 0 6 ) ( c i t a t i o n o m i t t e d )

.

I I I

. T y p e s o f R e p e a l

12T h e m a i n q u e s t i o n h e r e i s w h e t h e r t h e O m n i b u s A c t m o d i f i e s t h e N E P A

,

F A C A

, a n d E S A f

o r p u r p o s e s o f t h e T r i b e ’ s l a w s u i t s

, t h e r e b y d e p r i v i n g t h e f e d e r a l

c o u r t s o f s u b

j e c t m a t t e r j u r i s d i c t i o n t o h e a r t h e T r i b e ’ s c l a i m s

. B e s i d e s b e i n g t h e

p r i n c i p a l i s s u e o f t h i s a p p e a l

, t h e q u e s t i o n a n d t h e a n s w e r a l s o c o n t r o l t h e o u t c o m e

i n t h e r e l a t e d a p p e a l N o

. 0 9

- 1 1 8 9 1 ( t h e D O T c a s e )

. T h e f o c u s i s o n t h e i n t e r a c t i o n

b e t w e e n t h e O m n i b u s A c t a n d p r e v i o u s a c t s o f C o n g r e s s

. T h e t e r m f o r t h i s

d y n a m i c i s r e p e a l

— w h e t h e r a n d h o w a l a t e r a c t o f C o n g r e s s m o d i f i e s a n e a r l i e r

o n e

. A n o t h e r n a m e f

o r i t i s e x e m p t i o n

.

T h e T r i b e c l a i m s t h a t t h e O m n i b u s A c t e f f e c t s n o e x p l i c i t r e p e a l h e r e

b e c a u s e i t f

a i l s t o m e n t i o n a n y s t a t u t e i t i s r e p e a l i n g

. T h e T r i b e a l s o c l a i m s t h a t t h e

C o r p s h a s f

a i l e d t o m e e t t h e h i g h s t a n d a r d f o r s h o w i n g t h a t a n a p p r o p r i a t i o n s a c t

e f f e c t s a n i m p l i e d r e p e a l

. T h e C o r p s c o u n t e r s t h a t t h e p l a i n l a n g u a g e o f t h e

O m n i b u s A c t

, i n p a r t i c u l a r C o n g r e s s ’ s a d d i t i o n o f t h e n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g c l a u s e

,

m a k e s i t c l e a r t h a t C o n g r e s s i n t e n d e d t o r e l a x i t s e x i s t i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l s t a t u t e s i n

o r d e r t o g e t t h e b r i d g e b u i l t a s q u i c k l y a s p o s s i b l e

.

A t o r a l a r g u m e n t

, c o u n s e l f o r t h e T r i b e s a i d a r e p e a l h a s t o b e e i t h e r e x p r e s s

o r i m p l i e d

. W h i l e t h a t s t a t e m e n t m a y b e t r u e

, i t d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y f o l l o w

, a s

c o u n s e l c l a i m e d

, t h a t t h e r e a r e o n l y t w o m o d e s o f r e p e a l

. S u p r e m e C o u r t a n d

E l e v e n t h C i r c u i t c a s e s

, a n d S u t h e r l a n d S t a t u t e s a n d S t a t u t o r y C o n s t r u c t i o n

, s e e m

13t o i d e n t i f

y a t l e a s t t h r e e : e x p l i c i t r e p e a l s

, g e n e r a l r e p e a l i n g c l a u s e s

, a n d i m p l i e d

r e p e a l s

. W e r e v i e w t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f e a c h i n t u r n

.

1 2

a

. E x p l i c i t R e p e a l s

A n e x p l i c i t r e p e a l o c c u r s w h e n t h e l a t e r s t a t u t e e x p l i c i t l y i d e n t i f i e s t h e

e a r l i e r s t a t u t e i t i s r e p e a l i n g

. 1 A S u t h e r l a n d S t a t u t e s a n d S t a t u t o r y C o n s t r u c t i o n

§ 2 3 : 7 ( 7 t h e d

. 2 0 1 0 )

. C o n g r e s s c a n a c c o m p l i s h t h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n b y c i t i n g t h e

e a r l i e r s t a t u t e o r r e f

e r r i n g t o i t s s u b

j e c t m a t t e r

, i d

. , o r e v e n b y g i v i n g t h e s t y l e a n d

c a s e n u m b e r o f a l a w s u i t t h a t i s f i l e d u n d e r t h e e a r l i e r s t a t u t e

, R o b e r t s o n v

. S e a t t l e

A u d u b o n S o c

. , 5 0 3 U

. S

. 4 2 9

, 4 4 0

, 1 1 2 S

. C t

. 1 4 0 7

, 1 4 1 4 ( 1 9 9 2 )

. 1 3

C o n g r e s s w a l k s a f

i n e l i n e i n t e r m s o f w h a t i t m a y d o h e r e a n d s t i l l u p h o l d

t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f p o w e r s

. C o n g r e s s m a y n o t i n t e r f e r e i n t h e j u d i c i a l p r o c e s s

. I t

m a y n o t d i c t a t e t h e r e s u l t f o r a p a r t i c u l a r c a s e

, o r t e l l a n A r t i c l e I I I c o u r t h o w t o

a p p l y t h e l a w t o s p e c i f

i c f a c t s

. S e e N

i c h o l s v

. H o p p e r

, 1 7 3 F

. 3 d 8 2 0

, 8 2 3 ( 1 1 t h

C i r

. 1 9 9 9 ) ; H

e n d e r s o n v

. S c i e n t i

f i c

- A t l a n t a

, I

n c

. , 9 7 1 F

. 2 d 1 5 6 7

, 1 5 7 3 ( 1 1 t h C i r

.

Courts have noted tha t repe als g o by various name s, and moreove r that the bounda ries 1 2

betwee n ty

pes of r epea ls are not wr itten in stone. See, e .g.

, Bald Eagle Ridge Prot. Ass’n, Inc . v. Mallory , 119 F. Supp. 2d 473, 480 (M.D. Pa. 2000) (noting that repe als ca n be ca lled “re peal by

implication, ex emption, suspension, or any other wor d or phra se which ma y be used to

char acte rize this action”).

The re pealing statute in Seattle Audubon Socie ty also containe d an explicit 1 3

jurisdiction-stripping provision. 503 U.S. at 435 n.2, 112 S. Ct. at 1411 n.2 (quoting Pub. L . No.

101-121, § 318(b) (6)( A), 103 Stat. 701, 747). The Tribe a rg ues that bec ause the Omnibus Act

lacke d simil ar jurisdiction-stripping lang uag e, the district cour ts erre d in dismi ssing the la wsuits.

But ne ither Seattle Audubon nor any other c ase c ited by

the Tribe makes such lang uag e a

require ment for a

n expli cit repe al.

141 9 9 2 )

.

B u t C o n g r e s s i s a l w a y s f r e e t o a m e n d t h e l a w

, e v e n i f d o i n g s o h a s t h e e f f e c t

o f e x t i n g u i s h i n g a p e n d i n g c a s e

. S e e S e a t t l e A u d u b o n S o c i e t y

, 5 0 3 U

. S

. a t 4 4 0

,

1 1 2 S

. C t

. a t 1 4 1 4 ; S c i e n t i f i c

- A t l a n t a

, 9 7 1 F

. 2 d a t 1 5 7 3

. A n d a m o n g t h e a r e a s i n

w h i c h C o n g r e s s l e g i s l a t e s i s t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f t h e f e d e r a l c o u r t s

. C o n g r e s s o f t e n

e x e r c i s e s i t s p o w e r b o t h t o c o n f e r j u r i s d i c t i o n

, a n d t o d e n y i t

. S e e L a n d g r a f v

. U S I

F i l m P r o d

s

. , 5 1 1 U

. S

. 2 4 4

, 2 7 4

, 1 1 4 S

. C t

. 1 4 8 3

, 1 5 0 1 ( 1 9 9 4 )

. “ [ T ] h e r e i s a n

i m p o r t a n t d i f

f e r e n c e b e t w e e n C o n g r e s s t e l l i n g t h i s c o u r t h o w i t s h o u l d d e c i d e a

p a r t i c u l a r c a s e ( e x p r e s s l y p r o h i b i t e d b y U n i t e d S t a t e s v

. K l e i n

, 8 0 U

. S

. ( 1 3 W a l l

. )

1 2 8

, 1 4 7 ( 1 8 7 1 ) ) a n d C o n g r e s s w i t h d r a w i n g j u r i s d i c t i o n t o d e c i d e a p a r t i c u l a r c a s e

. . . . ” N a t ’ l C o a l

. t o S a v e O u r M a l l v

. N o r t o n

, 1 6 1 F

. S u p p

. 2 d 1 4

, 2 2 ( D

. D

. C

.

2 0 0 1 )

.

b

. G e n e r a l R e

p e a l i n g C l a u s e s

T o e f f e c t a n e x p l i c i t r e p e a l

, a s t a t u t e m u s t i d e n t i f y t h e r e p e a l e d s t a t u t e

. I f i t

d o e s n o t

, a s t a t u t e m a y s t i l l s o m e t i m e s e f f e c t a r e p e a l t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f a “ g e n e r a l

r e p e a l i n g c l a u s e

. ” S u t h e r l a n d § 2 3 : 8

. O n e e x a m p l e o f s u c h a c l a u s e i s

“ [ n ] o t w i t h s t a n d i n g a n y o t h e r F e d e r a l l a w

. ” U n i t e d S t a t e s v

. N

o v a k

, 4 7 6 F

. 3 d 1 0 4 1

,

1 0 4 6 ( 9 t h C i r

. 2 0 0 7 ) ( e n b a n c ) ( q u o t a t i o n o m i t t e d )

. T h e S u p r e m e C o u r t h a s f o u n d

t h e s e p h r a s e s h a v e t h e p o w e r t o o v e r r i d e o t h e r l a w :

15A s w e h a v e n o t e d p r e v i o u s l y i n c o n s t r u i n g s t a t u t e s

, t h e u s e o f s u c h a

“ n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g ” c l a u s e c l e a r l y s i g n a l s t h e d r a f t e r ’ s i n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e

p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e “ n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g ” s e c t i o n o v e r r i d e c o n f l i c t i n g

p r o v i s i o n s o f a n y o t h e r s e c t i o n

. L i k e w i s e

, t h e C o u r t s o f A p p e a l s

g e n e r a l l y h a v e i n t e r p r e t e d s i m i l a r “ n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g ” l a n g u a g e t o

s u p e r s e d e a l l o t h e r l a w s

, s t a t i n g t h a t [ a ] c l e a r e r s t a t e m e n t i s d i f f i c u l t

t o i m a g i n e

.

C i s n e r o s v

. A l

p i n e R i d g e G r o u p

, 5 0 8 U

. S

. 1 0

, 1 8

, 1 1 3 S

. C t

. 1 8 9 8

, 1 9 0 3 ( 1 9 9 3 )

( c i t a t i o n s

, o m i s s i o n

, a n d q u o t a t i o n s o m i t t e d ) ( i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e c l a u s e

“ [ n ] o t w i t h s t a n d i n g a n y o t h e r p r o v i s i o n s o f t h i s C o n t r a c t ” i n a S e c t i o n 8 l a n d l o r d

c o n t r a c t )

.

O u r C o u r t h a s p r e v i o u s l y r e a d t h e s e c l a u s e s t h e s a m e w a y

. I n C a s t r o v

.

S e c ’ y o f H o m e l a n d S e c

. , 4 7 2 F

. 3 d 1 3 3 4

, 1 3 3 7 ( 1 1 t h C i r

. 2 0 0 6 ) ( p e r c u r i a m ) ( c i t i n g

C i s n e r o s )

, o u r C o u r t h e l d t h a t t h e s a m e g e n e r a l r e p e a l i n g c l a u s e a t i s s u e h e r e

,

“ n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g a n y o t h e r p r o v i s i o n o f l a w

, ” w o r k e d a n e x e m p t i o n t o a n e a r l i e r

s t a t u t e c o n c e r n i n g h i r i n g s t a n d a r d s f o r T S A s c r e e n e r s

. 1 4

I n C a s t r o

, t h e p l a i n t i f

f s u e d t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f H o m e l a n d S e c u r i t y ( D H S )

,

c l a i m i n g t h a t i t v i o l a t e d t h e R e h a b i l i t a t i o n A c t o f 1 9 7 3 b y c i t i n g h i s h i s t o r y o f

s e i z u r e s a s a r e a s o n n o t t o h i r e h i m

. T h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t g r a n t e d D H S ’ s m o t i o n t o

d i s m i s s f o r f a i l u r e t o s t a t e a c l a i m

, f i n d i n g t h a t t h e A v i a t i o n a n d T r a n s p o r t a t i o n

I n the intere st of prec ision, we note that the re pealing statute at issue in Castro 1 4

contained two g ener al re pealing clause s: “Notwithstanding a ny other provision of law ,” 49

U.S.C. § 44935 note, and “Notwithstanding any provision of law,” 49 U.S.C. § 44935(e)(2) (A),

(f) (1). See Castro , 472 F.3d a t 1336–37. We do not dwell on the slight diffe renc e.

16S e c u r i t y A c t ( A T S A ) t h a t C o n g r e s s p a s s e d a f t e r t h e 9 / 1 1 t e r r o r i s t a t t a c k s e x e m p t e d

D H S f r o m t h e n o n d i s c r i m i n a t i o n p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e R e h a b i l i t a t i o n A c t

.

T h i s C o u r t a f

f i r m e d

, h o l d i n g t h a t t h e “ n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g ” c l a u s e w a s

“ C o n g r e s s ’ s i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e s t a t u t e c o n t a i n i n g t h a t l a n g u a g e i s i n t e n d e d t o t a k e

p r e c e d e n c e o v e r a n y p r e e x i s t i n g o r s u b s e q u e n t l y

- e n a c t e d l e g i s l a t i o n [ o n t h e s a m e

s u b j e c t ]

. ” I d

. ( o m i s s i o n a n d c i t a t i o n o m i t t e d )

. W h i l e t h i s p l a i n l a n g u a g e a l o n e w a s

e n o u g h t o e f

f e c t a r e p e a l

, t h i s C o u r t a l s o n o t e d t h a t A T S A s p e c i f i e d p h y s i c a l

r e q u i r e m e n t s f

o r s e c u r i t y s c r e e n e r s

— “ c o l o r p e r c e p t i o n

, v i s u a l a n d a u r a l a c u i t y

,

p h y s i c a l c o o r d i n a t i o n

, a n d m o t o r s k i l l s

, ” 4 9 U

. S

. C

. § 4 4 9 3 5 ( f ) ( 1 ) ( B )

— t h a t o n t h e i r

f a c e w e r e “ i n c o n s i s t e n t ” w i t h t h e R e h a b i l i t a t i o n A c t ’ s p r o h i b i t i o n o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n

o n t h e b a s i s o f p h y s i c a l d i s a b i l i t i e s

, 2 9 U

. S

. C

. § 7 9 4 ( a )

. 4 7 2 F

. 3 d a t 1 3 3 7

– 3 8

.

C a s t r o d i r e c t s o u r i n q u i r y h e r e b o t h f o r i t s e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g

c l a u s e

, a n d i t s p l a i n

- l a n g u a g e a p p r o a c h t o s t a t u t o r y c o n s t r u c t i o n

.

T h e N i n t h C i r c u i t h a s r e a d t h i s p h r a s e t h e s a m e w a y

. I n d o i n g s o

, t h a t c o u r t

e m p h a s i z e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f s t a t u t o r y c o n t e x t

. H e a r i n g a n a p p e a l t o a n

e n v i r o n m e n t a l l a w s u i t

, C o n s e j o d e D e s a r r o l l o E c o n o m i c o d e M e x i c a l i

, A

. C

. v

.

U n i t e d S t a t e s

, 4 8 2 F

. 3 d 1 1 5 7

, 1 1 6 9 ( 9 t h C i r

. 2 0 0 7 )

, t h e N i n t h C i r c u i t h e l d t h a t t h e

p h r a s e “ [ n ] o t w i t h s t a n d i n g a n y o t h e r p r o v i s i o n o f l a w ” i n a n o m n i b u s t a x b i l l

e x e m p t e d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f r o m N E P A a n d E S A f

o r p u r p o s e s o f l i n i n g t h e A l l

17A m e r i c a n C a n a l “ w i t h o u t d e l a y

. ”

T h e N i n t h C i r c u i t n o t e d t h a t t h e n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g c l a u s e i s n o t a l w a y s

a p p l i e d i n b l a n k e t f

a s h i o n

. “ W e h a v e r e p e a t e d l y h e l d t h a t t h e p h r a s e

‘ n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g a n y o t h e r p r o v i s i o n o f l a w ’ i s n o t a l w a y s c o n s t r u e d l i t e r a l l y

.

R a t h e r

, w h e n t h e p h r a s e i s u s e d

, w e h a v e d e t e r m i n e d i t s r e a c h b y ‘ t a k i n g i n t o

a c c o u n t t h e w h o l e o f t h e s t a t u t o r y c o n t e x t i n w h i c h i t a p p e a r s

. ’ ” I d

. a t 1 1 6 8

( i n t e r n a l q u o t a t i o n s a n d c i t a t i o n s o m i t t e d )

. 1 5

F u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t i n g m a t t e r s i s t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r a g e n e r a l r e p e a l i n g

c l a u s e r e q u i r e s t h e f

i n d i n g o f a c o n f

l i c t b e t w e e n t h e n e w e r a n d o l d e r s t a t u t e s

.

S o m e c o u r t s b a s e t h e i r f i n d i n g o f r e p e a l v i a a g e n e r a l r e p e a l i n g c l a u s e o n a n

“ i r r e c o n c i l a b l e c o n f

l i c t

. ” S e e

, e

. g

. , N

o r t o n

, 1 6 1 F

. S u p p

. 2 d a t 2 1 ; S u t h e r l a n d

§ 2 3 : 8 ( n o t i n g t h a t a g e n e r a l r e p e a l i n g c l a u s e “ h a s s o m e t i m e s b e e n h e l d t o r e p e a l

Commentators likewise have noted the diffic ulty of interpr eting the notwithstanding 1 5

clause . The c lause “ notwithstanding a ny other provision of law ” is “the statutory equivalent of

a

pare nt telling a c hild ‘I ’m serious,’ or ‘I rea lly mean it.’ De spite the admonition, courts and

administrators still m ust determine wha t the underlying dir ective me ans. And, ordina rily , there

will sti ll be other provisions of law that apply ; the trick is to determine w hich ones.” Yule Kim,

Cong. Rese arc h Serv., Statutory Interpretation: Gene ral Principles and Rece nt Trends 35

(2008), available at http:// assets.openc rs.com/rpts/97-589_20080831.pdf :

I n this sense, the statutory phrase is analog ous to a pare nt telling a c hild “don’t

under a ny circ umstances lea

ve the house until I return.” The pa rent doe sn’t rea lly

mean f or the c hild to remain under a ny and all cir cumstance s, but instead assumes

that the child will try

to ge t out if the house ca tches on fir e or some othe r

emer g ency

occur s.

Id. n.200.

18b e c a u s e a n a c t c o n f l i c t s ” )

. I n C a s t r o

, o u r C o u r t n o t e d t h a t t h e t w o s t a t u t e s w e r e

“ i n c o n s i s t e n t

, ” b u t s a i d t h e p l a i n l a n g u a g e o f t h e n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g c l a u s e w a s b y

i t s e l f s u f f i c i e n t t o s u p p o r t a r e p e a l

. 4 7 2 F

. 3 d a t 1 3 3 7

.

W e a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t a n o p e n

- e n d e d g e n e r a l r e p e a l i n g c l a u s e c a r r i e s t h e

p o t e n t i a l t o c r e a t e c o n f

u s i o n a b o u t p r e c i s e l y w h i c h l a w s

, i f a n y

, i t i s r e p e a l i n g

. A 1 6

g e n e r a l r e p e a l i n g c l a u s e o p e r a t e s i n t h e t w i l i g h t b e t w e e n t h e c l e a r e r e x t r e m e s o f

e x p l i c i t a n d i m p l i e d r e p e a l s

. A g e n e r a l r e p e a l i n g c l a u s e i s e x p l i c i t o n l y i n t h e

s e n s e t h a t i t i s a n n o u n c i n g a r e p e a l o f “ a l l l a w ” o r “ a n y l a w ” o r “ f e d e r a l l a w s ”

— i t s

a c t u a l r e a c h d e p e n d s o n a n a n a l y s i s o f t h e s t a t u t o r y l a n g u a g e r e l e v a n t t o i t

.

W i t h o u t t h a t c a r e f

u l a n a l y s i s

, a g e n e r a l r e p e a l i n g c l a u s e i s a b l u n t t o o l p r o n e t o

r e p e a l t o o l i t t l e o r t o o m u c h

.

c

. I m p l i e d R e p e a l s

A s t a t u t e e f

f e c t i n g a n i m p l i e d r e p e a l

, a l s o k n o w n a s a r e p e a l b y i m p l i c a t i o n

o r i m p l i c i t r e p e a l

, d o e s n o t i d e n t i f y t h e s t a t u t e i t i s r e p e a l i n g

. N o r d o e s i t h a v e a 1 7

For example, courts and c ommentators have long note d that a g ener al re pealing clause 1 6

that repe als all “inconsistent law” is basically a log ical nullity , beca

use the doc trine of implied

repe als ( see “I mplied Repeals,” Par t I I I .c, infra ) alre ady

neutra liz es any

inconsistent ear lier law

in favor of

the newe r re pealing law. See Sutherland § 23:8 (“An e x press g ener al re pealing

clause to the eff

ect that a ll inconsistent enactments ar e re peale d should leg ally be a nullity .”);

Great N. Ry. Co. v. United States , 155 F. 945, 947 ( 8th Cir. 1907) (Van D evante r, J.) (citations

omitted) (“[T]he ge nera l repe aling clause in section 10, ‘All laws a nd parts of la

ws in conflict

with the provisions of this act are here by repe aled,’ . . . repe als nothing w hich would not be

repe aled e qually

without it.”).

As stated bef

ore, c ourts do not use consistent terms to descr ibe these r epea ls. For 1 7

example, a Pennsy lvania district cour t found a re peal by

implication of NEPA when a fede ral

19g e n e r a l r e p e a l i n g c l a u s e

, l i k e t h e n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g c l a u s e a t i s s u e h e r e

. W h a t i s k e y

i s t h e l e g i s l a t u r e ’ s d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f i n t e n t t o r e p e a l a p r e

- e x i s t i n g l a w

. S u t h e r l a n d

§ 2 3 : 9

. C o n g r e s s ’ s i n t e n t t o e f f e c t a n i m p l i e d r e p e a l c a n b e i n f e r r e d w h e n a l a t e r

s t a t u t e c o n f

l i c t s w i t h o r i s r e p u g n a n t t o a n e a r l i e r s t a t u t e ; o r w h e n a n e w e r s t a t u t e

c o v e r s t h e w h o l e s u b

j e c t o f t h e e a r l i e r o n e

, a n d c l e a r l y i s i n t e n d e d a s a s u b s t i t u t e

.

S e e U n i t e d S t a t e s v

. D e v a l l

, 7 0 4 F

. 2 d 1 5 1 3

, 1 5 1 8 ( 1 1 t h C i r

. 1 9 8 3 ) ; s e e a l s o T u g

A l l i e

- B

, I n c

. v

. U n i t e d S t a t e s

, 2 7 3 F

. 3 d 9 3 6

, 9 5 1 ( 1 1 t h C i r

. 2 0 0 1 ) ( B l a c k

, J

. ,

c o n c u r r i n g ) ( l i s t i n g c a s e s r e q u i r i n g a “ p o s i t i v e r e p u g n a n c y ” b e t w e e n t w o s t a t u t e s

a s a p r e c o n d i t i o n f

o r f i n d i n g a n i m p l i e d r e p e a l )

. T h e r e f o r e f o r a n i m p l i e d r e p e a l

, a

c o n f l i c t i s a m i n i m u m r e q u i r e m e n t

, r a t h e r t h a n t h e h e l p f u l s i g n o f l e g i s l a t i v e i n t e n t

s u p p o r t i n g a g e n e r a l r e p e a l i n g c l a u s e

.

T h e E l e v e n t h C i r c u i t h a s h e l d t h a t w h e n t w o s t a t u t e s c o n f l i c t

, t h e l a t e r

e n a c t e d s t a t u t e c o n t r o l s t o t h e e x t e n t i t c o n f l i c t s w i t h t h e e a r l i e r

- e n a c t e d s t a t u t e

.

N g u y e n v

. U n i t e d S t a t e s

, 5 5 6 F

. 3 d 1 2 4 4

, 1 2 5 2

– 5 3 ( 1 1 t h C i r

. 2 0 0 9 )

. M o r e o v e r

, a

s p e c i f i c s t a t u t o r y p r o v i s i o n t r u m p s a g e n e r a l o n e

. I d

. a t 1 2 5 3

. T h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t

t w o s t a t u t e s c o n f

l i c t

, h o w e v e r

, i s o n e t h a t c o u r t s m u s t n o t r e a c h l i g h t l y

. I f a n y

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n p e r m i t s b o t h s t a t u t e s t o s t a n d

, t h e c o u r t m u s t a d o p t t h a t

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

, “ a b s e n t a c l e a r l y e x p r e s s e d c o n g r e s s i o n a l i n t e n t i o n t o t h e c o n t r a r y

. ”

highw ay statute used the g ener al re pealing clause “notwithstanding any other provision of law .”

Mallory , 119 F. Supp. 2d at 484.

20G a r

f i e l d v

. N D C H e a l t h C o r p

. , 4 6 6 F

. 3 d 1 2 5 5

, 1 2 6 6 ( 1 1 t h C i r

. 2 0 0 6 )

. C o u r t s m u s t

f i r s t “ a s s i d u o u s l y a t t e m p t ” t o t r y t o c o n s t r u e t w o s t a t u t e s i n h a r m o n y b e f o r e

c o n c l u d i n g t h a t o n e i m p l i e d l y r e p e a l s t h e o t h e r

. T u g A l l i e

- B

, 2 7 3 F

. 3 d a t 9 5 2

.

B e c a u s e a r e p e a l b y i m p l i c a t i o n r e q u i r e s t h e m o s t s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t t h e

i n t e n t o f C o n g r e s s

, t h e r e i s a p r e s u m p t i o n a g a i n s t f i n d i n g o n e

. T V

A v

. H i l l

, 4 3 7

U

. S

. 1 5 3

, 1 8 9

, 9 8 S

. C t

. 2 2 7 9

, 2 2 9 9 ( 1 9 7 8 ) ( c o n c l u d i n g t h a t C o n g r e s s ’ s r e p e a t e d

a p p r o p r i a t i o n s b i l l s f

u n d i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a d a m d i d n o t i m p l i e d l y r e p e a l E S A

p r o t e c t i o n f

o r a n e w s p e c i e s o f f

i s h e n d a n g e r e d b y t h e p r o j e c t ) ; P a t e l v

. Q u a l i t

y I n n

S

. , 8 4 6 F

. 2 d 7 0 0

, 7 0 4 ( 1 1 t h C i r

. 1 9 8 8 ) ( “ O n l y w h e n C o n g r e s s ’ i n t e n t t o r e p e a l o r

a m e n d i s c l e a r a n d m a n i f e s t w i l l w e c o n c l u d e t h a t a l a t e r a c t i m p l i c i t l y r e p e a l s o r

a m e n d s a n e a r l i e r o n e

. ” ) ; s e e a l s o T u g A l l i e

- B

, 2 7 3 F

. 3 d a t 9 5 9 ( n o t i n g t h e

“ p r i n c i p l e s o f j u d i c i a l r e s t r a i n t a n d s e p a r a t i o n o f p o w e r s w h i c h u n d e r l i e t h e

p a r t i c u l a r l y h i g h s t a n d a r d r e q u i r e d f o r a n i m p l i c i t r e p e a l ” )

.

T h i s p r e s u m p t i o n a g a i n s t r e p e a l b y i m p l i c a t i o n a p p l i e s w i t h “ e v e n g r e a t e r

f o r c e ” t o a n a p p r o p r i a t i o n s b i l l

, b e c a u s e l e g i s l a t o r s a r e e n t i t l e d t o a s s u m e t h a t t h e y

o n l y a p p r o p r i a t e m o n e y f o r l a w f u l p u r p o s e s

. T V

A

, 4 3 7 U

. S

. a t 1 9 0

, 9 8 S

. C t

. a t

2 3 0 0

. C o n g r e s s h a s t h e p o w e r t o e f f e c t a r e p e a l t h r o u g h a n a p p r o p r i a t i o n s

b i l l

— C o n g r e s s j u s t n e e d s t o b e c l e a r i t i s d o i n g s o

. U n i t e d S t a t e s v

. W

i l l

, 4 4 9 U

. S

.

2 0 0

, 2 2 2

, 1 0 1 S

. C t

. 4 7 1

, 4 8 4 ( 1 9 8 0 )

.

21I V

. A n a l y s i s

I n t h i s c a s e

, w e h o l d t h a t t h e n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g c l a u s e o f t h e O m n i b u s A c t

,

a n a l y z e d w i t h i n i t s s u r r o u n d i n g s t a t u t o r y l a n g u a g e

, r e p e a l s t h e r e l e v a n t

e n v i r o n m e n t a l l a w s s o a s t o d e p r i v e t h e f e d e r a l c o u r t s o f s u b

j e c t m a t t e r j u r i s d i c t i o n

o v e r t h e T r i b e ’ s s u i t s

. T h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t ’ s f i n d i n g t h a t t h e r e w a s a n “ e x p l i c i t

e x e m p t i o n ” f

r o m t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l l a w s

, w h i l e y i e l d i n g t h e c o r r e c t r e s u l t

, b l u r r e d

t h e l i n e s b e t w e e n t h e c a t e g o r i e s o f r e p e a l e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e c a s e s

. W e b e l i e v e i t i s

c o r r e c t a n d c l e a r e r t o i d e n t i f y a s s u c h t h e g e n e r a l r e p e a l i n g c l a u s e t h a t i s a t w o r k

h e r e

. O u r a n a l y s i s o f t h e O m n i b u s A c t p r o c e e d s i n t h r e e p a r t s

. F i r s t

, w e m e a s u r e

t h e e f f e c t o f t h e n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g c l a u s e

. S e c o n d

, w e c o n s i d e r t h e i m m e d i a c y

c l a u s e

. L a s t l y

, w e e x a m i n e t h e i m p e r a t i v e “ s h a l l

, ” w h i c h d e p r i v e s t h e C o r p s o f

d i s c r e t i o n a n d t h e r e f

o r e s t r e n g t h e n s t h e c a s e a g a i n s t j u d i c i a l r e v i e w h e r e

.

a

. N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g C l a u s e

I n t h e O m n i b u s A c t

, t h e n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g c l a u s e s p l i t s t h e v e r b p h r a s e “ s h a l l

. . . c o n s t r u c t o r c a u s e t o b e c o n s t r u c t e d

. ” T h e r e f o r e

, t h e c l a u s e s p e a k s d i r e c t l y t o

a n y l a w s r e g u l a t i n g t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e b r i d g e

. T h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l l a w s c l e a r l y

a p p l i e d t o s u c h a b r i c k s

- a n d

- m o r t a r p r o j e c t

. T o t h e e x t e n t t h e y d i d

, t h e

n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g c l a u s e r e p e a l s t h e m

.

W e b a s e o u r c o n c l u s i o n i n t h e s t a t u t o r y l a n g u a g e i n w h i c h t h e

22n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g c l a u s e a p p e a r s

. A s t h e N i n t h C i r c u i t n o t e d i n C o n s e j o

, a g e n e r a l 1 8

r e p e a l i n g c l a u s e m u s t b e r e a d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e e n t i r e s t a t u t e

. I n d e e d

, t h i s p o i n t

h i g h l i g h t s t h e w e a k n e s s i n t h e T r i b e ’ s a r g u m e n t t h a t t h e n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g c l a u s e

w o r k s o n l y t o r e p e a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n s l a w s r e l a t i n g t o t h e b r i d g e

. T h e T r i b e a r g u e s

t h a t t h e p r i m a r y p u r p o s e o f t h i s b i l l i s t o a p p r o p r i a t e m o n e y f o r i m p r o v e m e n t s t o

E v e r g l a d e s N a t i o n a l P a r k

, a n d t h a t t h e o n l y g r a m m a t i c a l e f f e c t o f t h e “ P r o v i d e d ”

c l a u s e s t h a t f

o l l o w t h e m a i n c l a u s e i s t o q u a l i f y t h e a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f m o n e y

.

T h e r e f o r e

, t h e T r i b e c o n c l u d e s

, a n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g c l a u s e l o c a t e d w i t h i n a

“ P r o v i d e d ” c l a u s e c a n o n l y r e p e a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n s l a w s

.

W h i l e t h i s a r g u m e n t h a s s u p e r f i c i a l a p p e a l

, i t s f

o c u s i s f a t a l l y o v e r b r o a d

.

T h e m o r e s p e c i f

i c a n d g r a m m a t i c a l l y r e l e v a n t a n a l y s i s o f t h e n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g

c l a u s e i s t h a t i t s p e a k s t o t h e v e r b c o n s t r u c t

, r a t h e r t h a n t o t h e s y n t a c t i c a l l y m o r e

d i s t a n t l a n g u a g e o f a p p r o p r i a t i n g

. T h e T r i b e h a s n o g o o d r e j o i n d e r t o t h i s p o i n t

.

M o r e o v e r

, t h e O m n i b u s A c t u s e s b r o a d l a n g u a g e h e r e : “ n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g a n y

The district cour

t also based its finding of an e x emption on the observa tion that 1 8

Congr ess included the notwithstanding clause in the Omnibus Act afte r the district cour t pointed

out the clause ’s abse nce f rom Congr ess’s ea

rlier- enac ted § 153. I nclusion of the

notwithstanding c lause the se cond time ar ound “is not coincidenta l but rather unde rscor es the

Court’s conclusion her e re g arding Congr ess’s cle ar intent.” D.E. 128 at 6. While we pre fer to

g round our holding in the plain lang uag e of the statute, we a cknowledg e the c ommon-sense

appea l of this arg ument. After all, amending statutes is one of Cong ress’s time-honor ed wa y s of

surmounting judicial inter preta tions with which it di sag ree s. See Scientific-Atlanta , 971 F.2d a t

1571–72 & n.4. A nd if succe ssive draf ts of a statute provide fodder for pr oponents of leg islative

history

, see Suthe rland

§ 45:6 & n.5, then suc cessive sta tutes furnish better evidenc e still.

23o t h e r p r o v i s i o n o f l a w

. ” 1 2 3 S t a t

. a t 7 0 8 ( e m p h a s i s a d d e d )

. N o t h i n g a b o u t t h e

w o r d “ a n y ” s u g g e s t s t h a t “ l a w ” s h o u l d r e f e r o n l y t o a p p r o p r i a t i o n l a w s

, r a t h e r t h a n

“ a n y ” l a w s

. 1 9

O u r f i n d i n g o f a r e p e a l s q u a r e s w i t h o u r p r e c e d e n t i n C a s t r o

. I f C a s t r o w e r e

t o c a l l o u r r e s u l t a n e x e m p t i o n r a t h e r t h a n r e p e a l v i a a g e n e r a l r e p e a l i n g c l a u s e

, t h e

f u n c t i o n a l d i f

f e r e n c e

, i f a n y

, w o u l d b e s l i g h t

. A t o r a l a r g u m e n t

, c o u n s e l f o r t h e

T r i b e s o u g h t t o d i s t i n g u i s h C a s t r o b y n o t i n g t h a t b o t h t h e s t a t u t e s t h e r e s p o k e t o

t h e s a m e s u b

j e c t m a t t e r

, w h e r e a s h e r e a b u d g e t l a w w o u l d r e p e a l e n v i r o n m e n t a l

l a w s

. T h i s o b

j e c t i o n i s u n a v a i l i n g

. E v e n i f o n e g r a n t s t h e T r i b e ’ s a s s u m p t i o n t h a t

t h e R e h a b i l i t a t i o n A c t a n d A T S A d o a d d r e s s t h e s a m e s u b j e c t m a t t e r

, t h e r e i s

n o t h i n g i n t h e o r y t h a t p r e v e n t s a b u d g e t b i l l f r o m d i s c u s s i n g a p u b l i c w o r k s p r o j e c t

i n g r e a t d e t a i l

, a s t h e O m n i b u s A c t h e r e w e l l i l l u s t r a t e s

.

T h e O m n i b u s A c t s u f

f i c i e n t l y s p e c i f

i e s i t s s u b

j e c t s

, a n d u s e s p r e c i s e

l a n g u a g e t o i d e n t i f

y t h e b r i d g e

. T h e c u r s o r y l a b e l s a p p l i e d t o a b i l l

— “ b u d g e t

, ”

“ d e f e n s e

, ” “ h e a l t h c a r e ”

— d o n o t d i c t a t e t h e r e p e a l a n a l y s i s

. T h e n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g

c l a u s e t h e r e f

o r e r e p e a l s t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l l a w s u n d e r w h i c h t h e T r i b e f i l e d s u i t

.

Fur ther unde rcutting the Tribe’ s arg ument is the fac t that environmental law s, not 1 9

budg etar y ones, we re the leg al sticking point for the bridg e in the run up to Cong ress’s pa ssag e

of the Omnibus Act. The re is ac cording ly no circ umstantial case tha t the notwithstanding c lause

was inser ted solely to repe al appr opriations laws. The T ribe a sks us to consider the implications

of Cong ress re pealing all laws potentially bear ing on the bridg e—for example the wag e and hour

laws—but answe ring that question is not necessar y for our decision her e. Our

Court in Castro

previously

declined to a

nswer the same broa der que stion. 472 F.3d at 1337 n.1.

24b

. I

m m e d i a c y C l a u s e

I n t h e O m n i b u s A c t

, C o n g r e s s o r d e r s t h e C o r p s t o b u i l d t h e b r i d g e

“ i m m e d i a t e l y a n d w i t h o u t f u r t h e r d e l a y

. ” L i k e t h e n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g c l a u s e

, t h i s

i m m e d i a c y c l a u s e a l s o s p l i t s t h e v e r b p h r a s e “ s h a l l

. . . c o n s t r u c t

. ” O u r c a s e s

r e q u i r e u s t o r e a d s u c h s i m p l e E n g l i s h s i m p l y

. “ I n t h e a b s e n c e o f a s t a t u t o r y

d e f i n i t i o n o f a t e r m

, w e l o o k t o t h e c o m m o n u s a g e o f w o r d s f o r t h e i r m e a n i n g

. ”

C B S I n c

. v

. P r i m e T

i m e 2 4 J o i n t V e n t u r e

, 2 4 5 F

. 3 d 1 2 1 7

, 1 2 2 2 ( 1 1 t h C i r

. 2 0 0 1 )

( q u o t a t i o n o m i t t e d )

.

T h e s i m p l e s t r e a d i n g o f t h i s p l a i n l a n g u a g e i s t h a t C o n g r e s s w a n t e d t h e

b r i d g e b u i l t n o w

. C o n g r e s s s o u g h t t o f a c i l i t a t e t h i s g o a l b y r e p e a l i n g t h e

e n v i r o n m e n t a l l a w s t h a t i t h a d p r e v i o u s l y p a s s e d

. A l l o w i n g f u r t h e r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e

c h a l l e n g e s t o t h e b r i d g e u n d e r t h o s e e n v i r o n m e n t a l l a w s

, m o r e t h a n t w o d e c a d e s

a f t e r C o n g r e s s p a s s e d l e g i s l a t i o n s e e k i n g t o i m p r o v e w a t e r f l o w s i n t h e E v e r g l a d e s

,

w o u l d f u r t h e r d e l a y t h e s p e e d y c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e b r i d g e a n d f r u s t r a t e C o n g r e s s ’ s

c l e a r i n t e n t

.

I n t h i s w a y

, t h e i m m e d i a c y c l a u s e c r e a t e s a d i r e c t c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e t i m e

c o n s u m i n g a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e v i e w m a n d a t e d b y t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l l a w s

, a n d

t h e r e f o r e t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l l a w s m u s t y i e l d

. T h i s f i n d i n g o f a c o n f

l i c t c e m e n t s

o u r c o n c l u s i o n t h a t C o n g r e s s e f f e c t e d a r e p e a l h e r e

. W e r e a c h t h i s c o n c l u s i o n

25w i t h o u t d e c i d i n g t h e i s s u e o f w h e t h e r f i n d i n g a c o n f

l i c t i s n e c e s s a r y f

o r t h e

o p e r a t i o n o f a g e n e r a l r e p e a l i n g c l a u s e

.

c

. M a n d a t o r y L a n g u a g e

I n t h e O m n i b u s A c t

, C o n g r e s s d i r e c t s t h a t t h e C o r p s s h a l l b u i l d t h e b r i d g e a s

d e s c r i b e d i n t h e J u n e 2 0 0 8 L R R / E A r e p o r t

. T h i s c o m m a n d d e n i e s t h e C o r p s a n y

d i s c r e t i o n i n t h e m a t t e r

. T h i s l a c k o f d i s c r e t i o n i s a t h i r d r e a s o n w h y t h e f e d e r a l

c o u r t s h a v e n o s u b

j e c t m a t t e r j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r t h e T r i b e ’ s s u i t s

. C l a i m s b r o u g h t

a g a i n s t a n a g e n c y u n d e r N E P A

, F A C A

, o r t h e E S A p r o c e e d o n l y w h e n t h e a g e n c y

h a s c h o i c e s i n a m a t t e r

— h e r e

, c h o i c e s b e t w e e n a l t e r n a t i v e s t h a t v a r y i n t h e i r

e n v i r o n m e n t a l f

r i e n d l i n e s s

. H e r e

, n o d i s c r e t i o n m e a n s n o j u r i s d i c t i o n

.

P r o c e d u r a l s t a t u t e s l i k e N E P A d o n o t a p p l y w h e n a n a g e n c y h a s n o

d i s c r e t i o n t o a c t o r n o t t o a c t o n a g i v e n m a t t e r

. D e p ’ t o f T r a n s p

. v

. P u b l i c C i t i

z e n

,

5 4 1 U

. S

. 7 5 2

, 7 7 0

, 1 2 4 S

. C t

. 2 2 0 4

, 2 2 1 7 ( 2 0 0 4 ) ( h o l d i n g t h a t N E P A d o e s n o t

a p p l y t o a n a g e n c y t h a t l a c k s s t a t u t o r y a u t h o r i t y t o a c t i n t h e r e l e v a n t m a n n e r ) ;

N a t ’ l A s s ’ n o

f H o m e B u i l d e r s v

. D e

f e n d e r s o f W i l d l i f e

, 5 5 1 U

. S

. 6 4 4

, 6 6 9

, 1 2 7 S

.

C t

. 2 5 1 8

, 2 5 3 6 ( 2 0 0 7 ) ( s a m e h o l d i n g u n d e r t h e E S A ) ; F l o r i d a K e y D e e r v

.

P a u l i s o n

, 5 2 2 F

. 3 d 1 1 3 3

, 1 1 4 4 ( 1 1 t h C i r

. 2 0 0 8 ) ( d i s c u s s i n g P u b l i c C i t i z e n ) ( “ [ A ] n

a g e n c y c a n n o t b e h e l d a c c o u n t a b l e f o r t h e e f f e c t s o f a c t i o n s i t h a s n o d i s c r e t i o n n o t

t o t a k e

. ” )

. M o r e o v e r

, t h e t e n s i o n b e t w e e n t h e C o r p s ’ s l a c k o f d i s c r e t i o n u n d e r t h e

26“ s h a l l ” o f t h e O m n i b u s A c t

, a n d t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l s t a t u t e s ’ p r e s u m p t i o n o f a g e n c y

d i s c r e t i o n

, i s a n a d d i t i o n a l c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n t h e s t a t u t e s t h a t w e c o n c l u d e s u p p o r t s

a f i n d i n g o f r e p e a l h e r e

.

T h e O m n i b u s A c t o f c o u r s e r e f e r s t o t h e L R R / E A

, w h i c h i n t u r n c o n t a i n s

o b l i q u e r e f

e r e n c e s t o N E P A a n d E S A

. T h e s e s t r a y m e n t i o n s a r e d e s c r i p t i v e 2 0

r a t h e r t h a n p r e s c r i p t i v e

, a n d t h e y a r e n o t t o b e m i s t a k e n f o r a g r a n t o f A r t i c l e I I I

j u r i s d i c t i o n

. Q u i t e t h e o p p o s i t e o b t a i n s

. W h e n a l e g i s l a t u r e w r i t e s a s e t o f

2 1

a d m i n i s t r a t i v e f

i n d i n g s i n t o l a w

, t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e f i n d i n g s b e c o m e l e g i s l a t i v e

o n e s

, a n d t h u s a r e n o l o n g e r r e v i e w a b l e t h r o u g h t h e o r d i n a r y a v e n u e s o f

a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l a w

. A s o n e c o u r t p u t i t

, i n t h i s p o s t u r e “ t h e r e c o r d o f d e c i s i o n

b e c a m e a l e g i s l a t i v e a c t i o n a n d n o t a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a c t i o n

. I n e f f e c t

, t h e r e i s n o

l o n g e r a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a c t i o n f o r u s t o r e v i e w

. ” M

a l l o r y

, 1 1 9 F

. S u p p

. 2 d a t 4 8 1

.

M a l l o r y w a s a P e n n s y l v a n i a d i s t r i c t c o u r t d e c i s i o n t h a t c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e

n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g c l a u s e i n a t r a n s p o r t a t i o n b i l l i n c o r p o r a t i n g t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e

The L RR/EA states that the environmental da ta on the bridg e had be en compiled “ in 2 0

compliance with NEPA,” L RR/EA at 5-56, and more over tha t the bridg e “w ould comply ” with

the ESA, L RR/EA at 5-55.

Counsel for the Tr ibe conc eded at oral ar g ument that it had waived this ar g ument on 2 1

appea l beca

use it had fa iled to arg

ue it to the district courts below. We g ener ally do not consider

arg uments raised f

or the fir st tim e on appe al. Harrison v. Benc hmark Elec s. Huntsville, Inc. , 593

F.3d 1206, 1215 n.8 ( 11th Cir. 2010) (citation omitted). We note it now only beca use it falls

within the sweep of

our plain-lang uag e ana ly sis of the Omnibus Act. The Tr ibe conc eded

moreove r that it waived a second a rg ument by

failing to make it to the courts below: that a ny

repe al or e x emption found within an appropr iations bill can la st only one y ear beca use of the

annual na ture of the appropr iations cy cle.

27r e c o r d o f d e c i s i o n e f f e c t e d a n i m p l i e d r e p e a l o f N E P A a n d t h e C l e a n W a t e r A c t f o r

a f e d e r a l i n t e r s t a t e h i g h w a y p r o j e c t

. M a l l o r y w e n t o n t o s t a t e : “ T h a t i s

, b y m a k i n g

t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d e c i s i o n a l e g i s l a t i v e d e c i s i o n

, C o n g r e s s h a s b a r r e d p l a i n t i f f s

f r o m s e e k i n g r e v i e w o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d e c i s i o n

. M o r e o v e r

, t h e a c t i o n r e m o v e s

f r o m t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a g e n c i e s a n y d i s c r e t i o n t h e y m a y h a v e h a d : t h e y n o w a r e

r e q u i r e d b y s t a t u t e t o a c t i n a p r e d e t e r m i n e d m a n n e r

. ” I d

. a t 4 8 2

.

W e b e l i e v e t h e a n a l y s i s i n M a l l o r y a p p l i e s h e r e

. T h e l a c k o f d i s c r e t i o n i n

C o n g r e s s ’ s c o m m a n d t o b u i l d t h e b r i d g e p r e c l u d e s t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f s t a t u t e s l i k e

N E P A o r t h e E S A

, w h i c h p r e s u m e a g e n c y d i s c r e t i o n a s a s t a r t i n g p o i n t

. A n d

, t h e

a d o p t i o n o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e f i n d i n g a s a l e g i s l a t i v e f

i n d i n g b a r s j u d i c i a l r e v i e w

o f a g e n c y a c t i o n

.

V

. C o n c l u s i o n

T h e N E P A c o u r t

, c l e a r l y a w a r e o f t h e h i g h l e g a l s t a n d a r d f o r a n i m p l i e d

r e p e a l o f N E P A a n d F A C A

, c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e O m n i b u s A c t e f f e c t e d a n “ e x p l i c i t

e x e m p t i o n

. . . f

r o m t h e r e a c h o f s u c h s t a t u t e s

. ” D

. E

. 1 2 8 a t 7

. I t d i d t h i s e v e n

t h o u g h t h e O m n i b u s A c t d o e s n o t e x p l i c i t l y m e n t i o n a n y s t a t u t e i t i s r e p e a l i n g

.

T h e T r i b e c o r r e c t l y p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e O m n i b u s A c t l a n g u a g e d o e s n o t m e e t t h e

g e n e r a l l y u n d e r s t o o d t e s t f o r a n e x p l i c i t r e p e a l

. F o r t h e r e a s o n s w e h a v e a l r e a d y

s t a t e d

, w e p r e f

e r t o d e s c r i b e t h i s r e p e a l a s o n e r e s u l t i n g f r o m a g e n e r a l r e p e a l i n g

28c l a u s e

. M o r e o v e r

, f o r t h e r e a s o n s s t a t e d b y t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t i n t h e N E P A c a s e

, 2 2

w e f i n d t h a t t h e T r i b e ’ s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l c h a l l e n g e s t o t h e O m n i b u s A c t a r e w i t h o u t

m e r i t

. W e t h e r e f

o r e a f f i r m t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t s ’ d i s m i s s a l s f o r l a c k o f s u b

j e c t 2 3

m a t t e r j u r i s d i c t i o n

. T h e r e f o r e

, w e a f

f i r m t h e j u d g m e n t s o f t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t s

.

A F F I R M E D

.

We also rejec t the Tribe’ s reque st for us to apply the rule of

construction that 2 2

ambig uous statutes must be rea d in the I ndians’ fa vor bec ause the Omnibus Act is an

unambig uous statute. See, e .g.

, Fla. Paraplegic Ass’n, Inc . v. Mic cosuke e Tribe of Indians of

Fla. , 166 F.3d 1126, 1131 ( 11th Cir. 1999).

Any possible error

in the ESA court’s a

pplication of collate ral e stoppel to bar the 2 3

Tribe’ s constitutional claims is harmless give n this panel’s dete rmination of the same

constitutional iss ues on the mer its.

29