I 

110TH CONGRESS 

2D SESSION H. R. 5757 

To amend title XIX of the Social Security Act to require asset verification 

through access to information held by financial institutions, to reduce 

fraud and abuse in State Medicaid programs, and for other purposes. 

IN THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES 

APRIL 10, 2008 

Mr. DEAL of Georgia (for himself, Mr. BURGESS, Mrs. BLACKBURN, Mr. 

SHADEGG, Mr. SULLIVAN, Mr. TERRY, Mr. HALL of Texas, Mr. WESTMORELAND, Mr. UPTON, and Mr. GINGREY) introduced the following bill; 

which was referred to the Committee on Energy and Commerce 

A BILL 

To amend title XIX of the Social Security Act to require 

asset verification through access to information held by 

financial institutions, to reduce fraud and abuse in State 

Medicaid programs, and for other purposes. 

1 Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representa2 tives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, 

3 SECTION 1. SHORT TITLE. 

4 This Act may be cited as the ‘‘Medicaid Fraud Re5 duction Act of 2008’’. 


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1 SEC. 2. ASSET VERIFICATION THROUGH ACCESS TO INFOR2 MATION HELD BY FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS. 

3 (a) ADDITION OF AUTHORITY.—Title XIX of the So4 cial Security Act is amended by inserting after section 

5 1939 the following new section: 

6 ‘‘ASSET VERIFICATION THROUGH ACCESS TO

7 INFORMATION HELD BY FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS

8 ‘‘SEC. 1940. (a) IMPLEMENTATION.— 

9 ‘‘(1) IN GENERAL.—Subject to the provisions of 

10 this section, each State shall implement an asset 

11 verification program described in subsection (b), for 

12 purposes of determining or redetermining the eligi13 bility of an individual for medical assistance under 

14 the State plan under this title. 

15 ‘‘(2) PLAN SUBMITTAL.—In order to meet the 

16 requirement of paragraph (1), each State shall— 

17 ‘‘(A) submit not later than January 1, 

18 2009, a State plan amendment under this title 

19 that describes how the State intends to imple20 ment the asset verification program; and 

21 ‘‘(B) provide for implementation of such 

22 program for eligibility determinations and rede23 terminations made on or after July 1, 2009. 

24 ‘‘(b) ASSET VERIFICATION PROGRAM.— 


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1 ‘‘(1) IN GENERAL.—For purposes of this sec2 tion, an asset verification program means a program 

3 described in paragraph (2) under which a State— 

4 ‘‘(A) requires each applicant for, or recipi5 ent of, medical assistance under the State plan 

6 under this title to provide authorization by such 

7 applicant or recipient (and any other person 

8 whose income or resources are material to the 

9 determination of the eligibility of the applicant 

10 or recipient for such assistance) for the State to 

11 obtain (subject to the cost reimbursement re12 quirements of section 1115(a) of the Right to 

13 Financial Privacy Act) from any financial insti14 tution (within the meaning of section 1101(1) 

15 of such Act) any financial record (within the 

16 meaning of section 1101(2) of such Act) held 

17 by the institution with respect to the applicant 

18 or recipient (and such other person, as applica19 ble), to permit the State to obtain such record 

20 whenever the State determines the record is 

21 needed in connection with a determination with 

22 respect to such eligibility for (or the amount or 

23 extent of) such medical assistance; and 

24 ‘‘(B) uses the authorization provided under 

25 subparagraph (A) to verify the financial reVerDate Aug 31 2005 03:36 Apr 12, 2008 Jkt 069200 PO 00000 Frm 00003 Fmt 6652 Sfmt 6201 E:\BILLS\H5757.IH H5757

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1 sources of such applicant or recipient (and such 

2 other person, as applicable), in order to deter3 mine or redetermine the eligibility of such appli4 cant or recipient for medical assistance under 

5 the State plan. 

6 ‘‘(2) PROGRAM DESCRIBED.—A program de7 scribed in this paragraph is a program for verifying 

8 individual assets in a manner consistent with the ap9 proach used by the Commissioner of Social Security 

10 under section 1631(e)(1)(B)(ii). 

11 ‘‘(c) DURATION OF AUTHORIZATION.—Notwith12 standing section 1104(a)(1) of the Right to Financial Pri13 vacy Act, an authorization provided to a State under sub14 section (b)(1) shall remain effective until the earliest of— 

15 ‘‘(1) the rendering of a final adverse decision on 

16 the applicant’s application for medical assistance 

17 under the State’s plan under this title; 

18 ‘‘(2) the cessation of the recipient’s eligibility 

19 for such medical assistance; or 

20 ‘‘(3) the express revocation by the applicant or 

21 recipient (or such other person described in sub22 section (b)(1), as applicable) of the authorization, in 

23 a written notification to the State. 

24 ‘‘(d) TREATMENT OF RIGHT TO FINANCIAL PRIVACY

25 ACT REQUIREMENTS.— 


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1 ‘‘(1) An authorization obtained by the State 

2 under subsection (b)(1) shall be considered to meet 

3 the requirements of the Right to Financial Privacy 

4 Act for purposes of section 1103(a) of such Act, and 

5 need not be furnished to the financial institution, 

6 notwithstanding section 1104(a) of such Act. 

7 ‘‘(2) The certification requirements of section 

8 1103(b) of the Right to Financial Privacy Act shall 

9 not apply to requests by the State pursuant to an 

10 authorization provided under subsection (b)(1). 

11 ‘‘(3) A request by the State pursuant to an au12 thorization provided under subsection (b)(1) is 

13 deemed to meet the requirements of section 

14 1104(a)(3) of the Right to Financial Privacy Act 

15 and of section 1102 of such Act, relating to a rea16 sonable description of financial records. 

17 ‘‘(e) REQUIRED DISCLOSURE.—The State shall in18 form any person who provides authorization pursuant to 

19 subsection (b)(1)(A) of the duration and scope of the au20 thorization. 

21 ‘‘(f) REFUSAL OR REVOCATION OF AUTHORIZA22 TION.—If an applicant for, or recipient of, medical assist23 ance under the State plan under this title (or such other 

24 person described in subsection (b)(1), as applicable) re25 fuses to provide, or revokes, any authorization made by 


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1 the applicant or recipient (or such other person, as appli2 cable) for the State to obtain from any financial institu3 tion any financial record, the State shall, on that basis, 

4 determine that the applicant or recipient is ineligible for 

5 medical assistance. 

6 ‘‘(g) USE OF CONTRACTOR.—For purposes of imple7 menting an asset verification program under this section, 

8 a State may select and enter into a contract with a public 

9 or private entity meeting such criteria and qualifications 

10 as the State determines appropriate. 

11 ‘‘(h) TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE.—The Secretary shall 

12 provide States with technical assistance to aid in imple13 mentation of an asset verification program under this sec14 tion. 

15 ‘‘(i) REPORTS.—A State implementing an asset 

16 verification program under this section shall furnish to the 

17 Secretary such reports concerning the program, at such 

18 times, in such format, and containing such information 

19 as the Secretary determines appropriate. 

20 ‘‘(j) PAYMENT ADJUSTMENT.— 

21 ‘‘(1) IN GENERAL.—In the case of a State that 

22 submits the State plan amendment required under 

23 subsection (a)(2)(A) by January 1, 2009, in addition 

24 to any other amounts payable to the State under 

25 this title (and notwithstanding the limitations of 


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1 subsections (f) and (g) of section 1108), there shall 

2 be paid to the State under section 1903(a) for the 

3 calendar quarter beginning on such date, the 

4 amount of $1,000,000. 

5 ‘‘(2) RECOVERY OF PAYMENTS FOR PROGRAMS

6 NOT IMPLEMENTED BY JULY 1, 2009.—In the case of 

7 a State that received an additional payment under 

8 paragraph (1) and fails to implement the asset 

9 verification program by July 1, 2009, the amount 

10 paid to the State under such paragraph shall be sub11 ject to disallowance and recovery. 

12 ‘‘(k) TREATMENT OF PROGRAM EXPENSES.—Not13 withstanding any other provision of law, reasonable ex14 penses of States in carrying out the program under this 

15 section shall be treated, for purposes of section 1903(a), 

16 in the same manner as State expenditures specified in 

17 paragraph (7) of such section.’’. 

18 (b) STATE PLAN REQUIREMENTS.—Section 1902(a) 

19 of such Act (42 U.S.C. 1396a(a)) is amended— 

20 (1) in paragraph (69) by striking ‘‘and’’ at the 

21 end; 

22 (2) in paragraph (70) by striking the period at 

23 the end and inserting ‘‘; and’’; and 

24 (3) by inserting after paragraph (70), as so 

25 amended, the following new paragraph: 


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1 ‘‘(71) provide that the State will implement an 

2 asset verification program under section 1940.’’. 

3 (c) WITHHOLDING OF FEDERAL MATCHING PAY4 MENTS FOR NONCOMPLIANT STATES.—Section 1903(i) of 

5 such Act (42 U.S.C. 1396b(i)) is amended— 

6 (1) in paragraph (22) by striking ‘‘or’’ at the 

7 end; 

8 (2) in paragraph (23) by striking the period at 

9 the end and inserting ‘‘; or’’; and 

10 (3) by adding after paragraph (23) the fol11 lowing new paragraph: 

12 ‘‘(24) if a State fails to implement an asset 

13 verification program in accordance with the require14 ments of section 1940, with respect to amounts ex15 pended by such State for medical assistance for indi16 viduals subject to asset verification under such sec17 tion, unless— 

18 ‘‘(A) the State demonstrates to the Sec19 retary’s satisfaction that the State made a good 

20 faith effort to comply; 

21 ‘‘(B) not later than 60 days after the date 

22 of a finding of that the State is in noncompli23 ance, the State submits to the Secretary (and 

24 the Secretary approves) a corrective action plan 

25 to remedy such noncompliance; and 


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1 ‘‘(C) not later than 12 months after the 

2 date of such submission (and approval), the 

3 State fulfills the terms of such corrective action 

4 plan.’’. 

5 (d) REPEAL.—Section 4 of Public Law 110–90 is re6 pealed. 

7 SEC. 3. FUNDS FOR STATES TO REDUCE MEDICAID FRAUD. 

8 Section 1903 of the Social Security Act (42 U.S.C. 

9 1396b) is amended by adding at the end the following new 

10 subsection: 

11 ‘‘(aa) PAYMENTS TO REDUCE FRAUD.— 

12 ‘‘(1) PAYMENTS.—In addition to the payments 

13 otherwise provided under subsection (a), subject to 

14 paragraph (2), the Secretary shall provide for pay15 ments to eligible States under such subsection to es16 tablish and carry out practices to reduce fraud 

17 under the State Medicaid program under this title. 

18 ‘‘(2) LIMITATION.—The total amount of pay19 ments under this subsection shall not exceed 

20 $250,000,000, and shall be available to the Sec21 retary for payments under this subsection during fis22 cal years 2009 and 2010 and during subsequent fis23 cal years in the case described in paragraph (6)(B). 

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1 gation of the Secretary to provide for the payment 

2 of amounts provided under this subsection. 

3 ‘‘(3) ELIGIBILITY.—The Secretary shall provide 

4 for a payment to a State under paragraph (1) if 

5 such State— 

6 ‘‘(A) demonstrates to the satisfaction of 

7 the Secretary a need for assistance to reduce 

8 fraud under the State Medicaid program; 

9 ‘‘(B) provides an effective proposal to re10 duce such fraud; and 

11 ‘‘(C) satisfies any other criteria specified 

12 by the Secretary. 

13 ‘‘(4) FORM AND MANNER OF PAYMENT.—Pay14 ment to a State under this subsection shall be made 

15 only upon the submission to the Secretary of such 

16 application in such form and in such manner as the 

17 Secretary shall specify. Payment to a State under 

18 this subsection shall be made in the same manner as 

19 other payments under subsection (a). There is no re20 quirement for State matching funds to receive pay21 ments under this subsection. 

22 ‘‘(5) NOTIFICATION.—The Secretary shall pro23 vide for States to be notified of the opportunity to 

24 receive payments under this subsection as soon as 


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1 feasible after the date of the enactment of this sub2 section, but not later than April 1, 2009. 

3 ‘‘(6) AVAILABILITY OF PAYMENTS TO

4 STATES.— 

5 ‘‘(A) IN GENERAL.—Payment to a State 

6 under this subsection shall be available to the 

7 State during the period provided in the ap8 proved proposal of the State provided under 

9 paragraph (3). 

10 ‘‘(B) RECOVERY AND REUSE OF MISSPENT

11 FUNDS.—Amounts paid to a State under this 

12 subsection that are expended in a manner in13 consistent with the approved proposal of the 

14 State under paragraph (3) are subject to dis15 allowance and recovery. Insofar as such 

16 amounts are so disallowed and recovered such 

17 amounts shall be made available to other States 

18 under this subsection. 

19 ‘‘(7) REPORTS.—Each State receiving payment 

20 under this subsection shall submit to the Secretary 

21 a reports on the impact of the practices carried out 

22 with such payment on the reduction of fraud under 

23 the State Medicaid program, as specified by the Sec24 retary.’’. 


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1 SEC. 4. FUNDS TO REDUCE MEDICAID FRAUD AND ABUSE. 

2 (a) IN GENERAL.—For purposes of reducing fraud 

3 and abuse in the Medicaid program under title XIX of 

4 the Social Security Act, there is appropriated to the Sec5 retary of Health and Human Services, out of any money 

6 in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, $25,000,000, 

7 for fiscal year 2009 and each subsequent fiscal year, to 

8 be equally divided between the Office of the Inspector Gen9 eral of the Department of Health and Human Services 

10 and the Center for Medicaid and State Operations of the 

11 Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services. Amounts ap12 propriated under this section shall remain available for ex13 penditure until expended and shall be in addition to any 

14 other amounts appropriated or made available to the Of15 fice of Inspector General or the Center for Medicaid and 

16 State Operations for activities of such Office or Center, 

17 respectively, with respect to the Medicaid program. 

18 (b) ANNUAL REPORT.—Not later than September 30 

19 of 2009 and of each subsequent year, the Secretary of 

20 Health and Human Services shall submit to the Com21 mittee on Energy and Commerce of the House of Rep22 resentatives and the Committee on Finance of the Senate 

23 a report on the activities (and the results of such activi24 ties) funded under subsection (a) to reduce fraud and 

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1 cluding the amount of funds appropriated under such sub2 section (a) for each such activity and an estimate of the 

3 savings to the Medicaid program resulting from each such 

4 activity. 

5 SEC. 5. ELECTRONIC VERIFICATION OF PROPERTY TRANS6 FERS. 

7 (a) REPORT.—Not later than July 1, 2009, the Sec8 retary of Health and Human Services shall submit to the 

9 Committee on Energy and Commerce of the House of 

10 Representatives and the Committee on Finance of the 

11 Senate a report that— 

12 (1) examines the feasibility of implementing a 

13 system under which transfers of assets, particularly 

14 real property, of applicants and recipients of medical 

15 assistance under State plans under title XIX of the 

16 Social Security Act are verified electronically for 

17 purposes of carrying out section 1917(c) of such Act 

18 (42 U.S.C. 1396p(c)); and 

19 (2) estimates the potential savings to the Med20 icaid program under such title from requiring States 

21 to implement such a system. 

22 (b) AUTHORIZED IMPLEMENTATION.—If the Sec23 retary of Health and Human Services determines, based 

24 on the report under subsection (a), that it would be fea25 sible and cost-effective to implement a system described 


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1 in paragraph (1) of such subsection, the Secretary is au2 thorized to require States in their State plans under title 

3 XIX of the Social Security Act to implement such a sys4 tem. For purposes of meeting such requirement, a State 

5 may select and enter into a contract with a public or pri6 vate entity. 

7 SEC. 6. DISALLOWANCE OF EXPENSES ASSOCIATED WITH 

8 CERTAIN CONSULTANTS. 

9 (a) WITHHOLDING OF FEDERAL MATCHING PAY10 MENTS FOR NONCOMPLIANT STATES.—Section 1903(i) of 

11 the Social Security Act (42 U.S.C. 1396b(i)), as amended 

12 by section 2(c) of this Act, is amended— 

13 (1) in paragraph (23) by striking ‘‘or’’ at the 

14 end; 

15 (2) in paragraph (24) by striking the period at 

16 the end and inserting ‘‘; or’’; and 

17 (3) by adding after paragraph (24) the fol18 lowing new paragraph: 

19 ‘‘(25) with respect to amounts expended by 

20 such State— 

21 ‘‘(A) other than for compensation of a 

22 State employee or payment to an entity that is 

23 part of a State government, for the purpose of 

24 increasing the amount of payments made to the 

25 State under this title; and 


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1 ‘‘(B) for some or all (as determined by the 

2 Secretary) of any additional amounts of Federal 

3 payments to the State that the Secretary deter4 mines are attributable to expenditures described 

5 in subparagraph (A).’’. 

6 (b) EFFECTIVE DATE.—The amendments made by 

7 subsection (a) shall apply with respect to expenditures de8 scribed in subparagraph (A) of section 1903(i)(25) of the 

9 Social Security Act, as added by subsection (a), made on 

10 or after October 1, 2008, regardless of whether such ex11 penditures were pursuant to contracts or arrangements 

12 entered into before, on, or after such date. 

13 SEC. 7. STATE INTERNET-BASED TRANSPARENCY PRO14 GRAMS UNDER MEDICAID. 

15 Title XIX of the Social Security Act, as amended by 

16 section 2(a) is further amended by inserting after section 

17 1940 the following new section: 

18 ‘‘SEC. 1941. STATE INTERNET-BASED TRANSPARENCY PRO19 GRAMS. 

20 ‘‘(a) IN GENERAL.—Not later than July 1, 2009, 

21 subject to subsection (h), each of the 50 States and the 

22 District of Columbia shall submit a State plan amendment 

23 described in subsection (b) to create an Internet-based 

24 transparency program for purposes of improving public 


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1 disclosure of information relating to payments made under 

2 the State plan under this title. 

3 ‘‘(b) ELIGIBLE STATE PLAN AMENDMENT.—A State 

4 plan amendment described in this subsection is a State 

5 plan amendment that provides for the following: 

6 ‘‘(1) PROGRAM DESCRIBED.—A program under 

7 which the State discloses through a publicly acces8 sible Internet site the following information: 

9 ‘‘(A) The name of each hospital, nursing 

10 facility, outpatient surgery center, intermediate 

11 care facility for the mentally retarded, institu12 tion for mental diseases, that receives payment 

13 under this title for the provision of health care 

14 items and services, and, at the option of the 

15 State, such other health care provider (such as 

16 a physician) that receives payment under this 

17 title for the provision of health care items and 

18 services. 

19 ‘‘(B) The total amount of payments made 

20 under this title to each entity described in sub21 paragraph (A). 

22 ‘‘(C) The amount of dollars paid per pa23 tient to each such entity. 


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1 ‘‘(2) IMPLEMENTATION DATE.—The implemen2 tation of such a program described in paragraph (1) 

3 by January 1, 2010. 

4 ‘‘(c) USE OF CONTRACTOR.—For purposes of imple5 menting an Internet-based transparency program, a State 

6 or the District of Columbia may select and enter into a 

7 contract with a public or private entity meeting such cri8 teria and qualifications as the State determines appro9 priate. 

10 ‘‘(d) BONUS PAYMENT FOR TIMELY SUBMISSION OF

11 STATE PLAN AMENDMENTS.— 

12 ‘‘(1) IN GENERAL.—In the case of a State that 

13 submits the State plan amendment under subsection 

14 (a) by July 1, 2009, in addition to any other 

15 amounts payable to the State under this title there 

16 shall be paid to the State under section 1903(a) for 

17 the calendar quarter beginning on such date the 

18 amount of $1,000,000. 

19 ‘‘(2) RECOVERY OF PAYMENTS FOR PROGRAMS

20 NOT IMPLEMENTED BY JANUARY 1, 2010.—In the 

21 case of a State that received an additional payment 

22 under paragraph (1) and that fails to implement an 

23 Internet-based transparency program by January 1, 

24 2010, the amount paid to the State under such 


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1 paragraph shall be subject to disallowance and re2 covery. 

3 ‘‘(e) INCENTIVES FOR IMPLEMENTATION.—If the 

4 Secretary determines that one of the 50 State or the Dis5 trict of Columbia has not implemented an Internet-based 

6 transparency program for any day after January 1, 2010, 

7 the Secretary shall reduce the amount paid to the State 

8 or the District of Columbia, respectively, under section 

9 1903(a) by $25,000 for each such day. Such reduction 

10 shall be made unless— 

11 ‘‘(1) the State or the District of Columbia, re12 spectively, demonstrates to the Secretary’s satisfac13 tion that the State made a good faith effort to have 

14 such a program implemented; 

15 ‘‘(2) not later than 60 days after the date of a 

16 finding that the State or the District of Columbia, 

17 respectively, has not implemented such a program, 

18 the State or the District of Columbia, respectively, 

19 submits to the Secretary (and the Secretary ap20 proves) a corrective action plan to implement such 

21 a program; and 

22 ‘‘(3) not later than 12 months after the date of 

23 such submission (and approval), the State or the 

24 District of Columbia, respectively, fulfills the terms 

25 of such corrective action plan. 


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1 ‘‘(f) TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE.—The Secretary shall 

2 provide States with technical assistance to aid in imple3 mentation of an Internet-based transparency program. 

4 ‘‘(g) REPORTS.—A State implementing an Internet5 based transparency program under this section shall fur6 nish to the Secretary such reports concerning the pro7 gram, at such times, in such format, and containing such 

8 information as the Secretary determines appropriate. 

9 ‘‘(h) TREATMENT OF COMMONWEALTHS AND TERRI10 TORIES.—A commonwealth or territory may, but is not re11 quired to, submit a State plan amendment described in 

12 subsection (b) to create an Internet-based transparency 

13 program under this section. Payment under subsection (e) 

14 shall not be counted against payment limitations imposed 

15 under subsection (f) and (g) of section 1108. 

16 ‘‘(i) INTERNET-BASED TRANSPARENCY PROGRAM

17 DEFINED.—For purposes of this section, the term ‘Inter18 net-based transparency program’ means the program de19 scribed in subsection (b)(1).’’. 

20 SEC. 8. PERMITTING LIMITATIONS, RESTRICTIONS, AND 

21 SUSPENSIONS OF MEDICAID ELIGIBILITY IN 

22 CASES OF FRAUD. 

23 (a) IN GENERAL.—Section 1128B(a) of the Social 

24 Security Act (42 U.S.C. 1320a–7b(a)) is amended by add25 ing at the end the following sentence: ‘‘In addition, in any 


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1 case where an individual who is otherwise eligible for med2 ical assistance under a State Medicaid program under title 

3 XIX is convicted of an offense of fraud or abuse, relating 

4 to such program, under State law or is the subject of a 

5 Federal or State civil court judgment or administrative 

6 agency decision based on fraud or abuse relating to such 

7 program, the Director of the State Medicaid program may 

8 at the option of the Director (notwithstanding any other 

9 provision of such program) limit, restrict, or suspend the 

10 eligibility of that individual, with respect to such program, 

11 for such period (not exceeding 10 years) as the Director 

12 deems appropriate and the Administrator of the Centers 

13 of Medicare & Medicaid Services may at the option of the 

14 Administrator (notwithstanding any other provision of 

15 such program) deny payment under section 1903(a) for 

16 any amounts expended as medical assistance with respect 

17 to such individual for such period (not exceeding 10 years) 

18 as the Administrator deems appropriate; but the imposi19 tion of a limitation, restriction, suspension, or denial with 

20 respect to the eligibility of any individual under this sen21 tence shall not affect the eligibility of any other person 

22 for assistance under the program, regardless of the rela23 tionship between that individual and such other person.’’. 

24 (b) EFFECTIVE DATE.—The amendment made by 

25 subsection (a) shall apply to convictions, judgments, and 


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1 decisions occurring on or after the date of the enactment 

2 of this Act. 

3 SEC. 9. EXTENDED PERIOD TO RECOVER MEDICAID OVER4 PAYMENTS IN CASES OF FRAUD AND ABUSE. 

5 (a) IN GENERAL.—Section 1903(d)(2)(C) of the So6 cial Security Act (42 U.S.C. 1396b(d)(2)(C)) is amended 

7 by adding at the end the following new sentence: ‘‘Not8 withstanding the previous provisions of this subparagraph, 

9 the Secretary may extend the period of recovery and pay10 ment adjustment from 60 days to a period of 1 year in 

11 the case of an overpayment that was the result of fraud 

12 or abuse.’’. 

13 (b) EFFECTIVE DATE.—The amendments made by 

14 subsection (a) shall apply to overpayments discovered on 

15 or after the date of the enactment of this Act. 

Æ 


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