A Handbook for Increasing 

Ocean Literacy

Tools for Educators and 

Ocean Literacy Advocates
2 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

Acknowledgments

A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy would not have been possible without 

the long-ago contributions of hundreds of ocean scientists and educators and 

the support of several organizations that have provided backbone support to 

the initial development, continual updates, and ongoing dissemination of core 

documents. The editors thank Craig Strang, Kathy DiRanna, and Jo Topps 

for allowing us to update and include the article on conceptual flow diagrams 

in this publication. Additionally, the many individuals who contributed to 

the development and refinement of 28 conceptual flow diagrams deserve 

acknowledgement once more for their contributions; these diagrams are still 

as useful today as they were more than a decade ago and have served ocean 

educators, curriculum developers, and others well in the intervening years. 

Finally, we also must acknowledge the work of 17 dedicated ocean literacy experts 

who gave many hours to the development of the NGSS-ocean literacy alignment. 

Individual and organizational contributors are included on NMEA’s Honor Roll 

for Ocean Literacy at www.marine-ed.org/ocean-literacy/honor-roll.

The editors also thank Bill Andrake, Lyndsey Manzo, Sarah Pedemonte, 

Pete Tebeau, Lynn Tran, and Lynn Whitley for assisting the editors with 

the creation of alternatives to the conceptual flow diagrams that will be 

accessible to those who rely on screen reader assistance—no small task! 

Finally, a special thanks belongs to the following organizations and networks 

for their past and ongoing support and promotion of the tools contained in 

this handbook:

The NSF-funded Centers for Ocean Science Education Excellence

The Lawrence Hall of Science 

National Marine Educators Association (NMEA)

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

NOAA Sea Grant 

The College of Exploration

This publication was supported by the eeBLUE partnership of the National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the US Department 

of Commerce and the North American Association of Environmental 

Education (NAAEE). This publication is an endorsed activity supporting 

the UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development.

Editors

Catherine Halversen, 

Lawrence Hall of Science, 

University of California 

Berkeley (emerita) 

Diana Payne, University of 

Connecticut, Connecticut Sea Grant

Sarah Schoedinger, 

NOAA Office of Education

Illustrations by 

Kaleigh Ballantine, 

Oregon State University 

for NOAA Education

Graphic design by 

Susie Morgan Creative

Copyright of this material 

belongs to the National 

Marine Educators Association 

(NMEA). Material included 

in this handbook is licensed 

under creative commons 

license CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

Preferred Citation: Halversen, C., 

Schoedinger, S., & Payne, D. 

(2021). A Handbook for Increasing 

Ocean Literacy: Tools for Educators 

and Ocean Literacy Advocates.

National Marine Educators 

Association, College Park, MD.

Published by the National Marine 

Educators Association (NMEA) 

www.oceanliteracyNMEA.org

Contact us

nmea@marine-ed.org
oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 3

Marine educators participating 

in a pre-conference workshop, 

Designing Professional 

Development to Support Ocean 

Literacy. June 29, 2009 (Photo 

credit: Craig Strang)

Fellow Ocean Enthusiasts,

1 This guide has been updated several times, most recently in 2021 

and is now titled, Ocean Literacy: The Essential Principles and 

Fundamental Concepts for Learners of All Ages (NOAA 2021)

Our one global ocean is the defining feature of our planet. It makes Earth 

habitable, influences our weather and climate, and supports a great diversity 

of life and ecosystems. While largely unexplored, the connection between 

the ocean and humans is undeniable. These ideas are the foundation of what 

has become an international effort to increase ocean literacy—to help each 

of us understand the ocean’s influence on us and our influence on the ocean.

A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy is a resource for 

you to help teach, learn, and communicate about the ocean. 

While originally intended for classroom teachers and informal 

educators for educational materials, programs, exhibits, and 

activity development in the United States, these resources 

can be used by anyone, anywhere, who seeks to increase 

ocean literacy. In 2021, the United Nations launched the Decade 

of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development 2021–2030. Ocean 

literacy has been integrated into the goals of and plans for the 

Decade and this handbook has been recognized as a contribution 

toward achieving “...the ocean we want” now and in the future.

In 2004, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association (NOAA), the 

National Science Foundation-funded Centers of Ocean Sciences Education 

Excellence (COSEE), National Geographic Society, National Marine Educators 

Association (NMEA), the College of Exploration, and the Lawrence Hall of 

Science, University of California Berkeley convened a series of meetings 

to define the most important ideas that the public should understand 

about the ocean. These meetings resulted in the publication of the seminal 

document, Ocean Literacy: The Essential Principles of Ocean Sciences K–12, 

originally published in 2005.1

 Upon publication of this guide, there 

was broad recognition of the potential power of a consensus document 

describing what every person should know about the ocean to be considered 

science literate. There was also recognition of the limitations of such a 

document that describes the ideal end state yet provides no road map for 

how to get there. The stage was set for the development and publication 

of the derivative document, The Ocean Literacy Scope and Sequence for 

Grades K–12, which provides just such a road map. These two documents 

ensured the inclusion of ocean science concepts in A Framework for K–12 

Science Education, and ultimately the Disciplinary Core Ideas of the Next 

Generation Science Standards (NGSS). While our community of ocean 
4 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

scientists and educators didn’t get all the desired changes to the final 

Framework and NGSS, there are without a doubt more ocean concepts 

in the final Framework report and NGSS than in the initial drafts.

The handbook includes the 28 conceptual flow diagrams of The Ocean Literacy 

Scope and Sequence for Grades K–12, an article explaining the theoretical 

basis for the Scope and Sequence, the Ocean Literacy Alignment to Next 

Generation Science Standards, as well as brief explanations about how to use 

these tools, their origins, and purposes. It is meant to be used in conjunction 

with the Ocean Literacy: The Essential Principles and Fundamental Concepts 

for Learners of All Ages (NOAA, 2021). It replaces the seminal publication 

(now out of print), Ocean Literacy Campaign Special Report #3 (NMEA, 2010). 

This handbook is intended to foster the conversation on Ocean Literacy 

and bring us closer to our collective goal of global ocean literacy. 

Ocean-literately yours, 

Diana Payne, Catherine Halversen, and Sarah Schoedinger

Editors

References

National Marine Educators Association. (2010). NMEA Special 

Report #3: The Ocean Literacy Campaign. Retrieved from: 

www.marine-ed.org/ocean-literacy/special-report

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (2021). Ocean Literacy: 

The Essential Principles and Fundamental Concepts of Ocean Science for Learners of 

All Ages. Washington, DC. Retrieved from: www.oceanliteracynmea.org/guide

National Marine Educators 

Association (NMEA) is a 

dedicated, influential memberbased organization of classroom 

teachers, informal educators, 

university professors, scientists, 

and more from around the world 

working together to advance the 

understanding and protection 

of our freshwater and marine 

ecosystems. From scientists 

working in the deep sea to 

students studying underwater 

archeology in the Great Lakes, 

NMEA members are dedicated 

to making known the world 

of water, both fresh and salt. 

For more information, please 

visit www.marine-ed.org.
oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 5

Table of Contents

Developing the Ideas of Ocean Literacy 

Using Conceptual Flow Diagrams 6

This article explains why conceptual flow diagrams, a key component of a scope 

and sequence, facilitate the development of learners’ conceptual understanding 

and organization of ocean sciences ideas embodied in the seven Essential 

Principles of Ocean Literacy.

Introduction to the Ocean Literacy 

Scope and Sequence for Grades K–12 12

This section introduces the reader to the organization of the scope and sequence 

and how to navigate the individual conceptual flow diagrams that show what 

learners should know at the end of 2nd, 5th, 8th, and 12th grades.

Conceptual Flow Diagrams 16

» Grades K through 2 17

» Grades 3 through 5 31

» Grades 6 through 8 45

» Grades 9 through 12 59

Alignment of the Ocean Literacy 

Framework to the NGSS 75

This section details the alignment between the Next Generation Science 

Standards (NGSS) and the concepts included in the Ocean Literacy Guide and 

Ocean Literacy Scope and Sequence for Grades K through 12.

About the Contributors and Credits 96

Marine educators discussing 

characteristics of effective 

professional development at 

a pre-conference workshop, 

Designing Professional 

Development to Support Ocean 

Literacy. June 29, 2009 (Photo 

credit: Craig Strang).
6 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

Developing the Ideas 

of Ocean Literacy Using 

Conceptual Flow Diagrams

By Craig Strang, Kathy DiRanna, Jo Topps

Upon publication of Ocean Literacy: The Essential Principles of Ocean 

Sciences K–12,

1 there was broad recognition of the potential power of 

a consensus document describing what every person should know 

about the ocean to be considered science literate. There was also 

recognition of the limitations of such a document that describes the 

ideal end state, yet provides no road map for how to get there. We 

knew that ultimately we would need to craft a road map to provide 

an answer to the question, “If students are to understand the Ocean 

Literacy Principles by the end of grade 12, what would we need to 

teach them in grades K through 2, in grades 3 through 5, in grades 

6 through 8, and in grades 9 through 12 to help them reach that 

goal?” The answer to that question—a scope and sequence—would 

be of great interest to teachers and informal science educators, 

but also to national and state standards committees, curriculum 

developers, textbook writers, and assessment specialists. But what 

would be an effective way to represent this complex information so 

that it would be comprehensive, understandable and accessible for 

these different end users? For this answer, we turned to literature 

in learning, teaching, and teacher professional development.

1 Since the publication of Ocean Literacy: The Essential Principles 

of Ocean Sciences for Grades K–12 in 2005, there have been two 

major updates to the Ocean Literacy Guide, one in 2013 and 

one in 2020. The title changed to Ocean Literacy: The Essential 

Principles of Ocean Sciences for Learners of All Ages in recognition 

that the concepts contained in the guide were important 

for informal as well as formal K through 12 education.

Organizing the essential components of 

effective professional development for 

educators at a pre-conference workshop, 

Designing Professional Development to 

Support Ocean Literacy. June 29, 2009 

(Photo credit: Craig Strang)

Research in the learning sciences (National Academies, 2018) reveal 

that to develop competence in an area of inquiry, students must: (a) 

have a deep foundation of factual knowledge, (b) understand facts 

and ideas in the context of a conceptual framework, and (c) organize 

knowledge in ways that facilitate retrieval and application. Thus to 

facilitate the development of students’ conceptual understanding 

and organization of ocean sciences ideas, the scope and sequence 

should have a logical and coherent approach to building the complex 

ideas of the Ocean Literacy Principles from one grade band to the 
oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 7

next. Conceptual flow diagrams (as shown on pages 

16 to 74) offer a way to present and organize such a 

progression of ideas, and can be a versatile tool for 

several reasons: they describe the developmentally 

appropriate concepts at each grade band, as well as the 

relationships among the concepts, in a graphical format; 

they provide a research-based example of a sequence 

in which the concepts can be taught, beginning at the 

earliest grades; and the diagrams balance the need for 

clarity and utility with fidelity to learning theory and 

cognitive science. Additionally, we have developed a 

way to organize these concepts in a tabular format. This 

helps convey the connections and relationships between 

concepts, without relying on visual cues. As in the 

conceptual flow diagrams, strands of connected ideas 

are organized under a topic title and brief description. 

Instead of using arrows to convey connections between 

individual concepts, the tabular format stacks the 

concepts and subconcepts in rows and columns in the 

order in which they should be presented (i.e., top row 

to bottom row within a column, then left to right). This 

means some concepts are repeated under each higherlevel concept to convey the connections among them.

Concept Maps versus 

Conceptual Flows

Conceptual flow diagrams (using arrows or a tabular 

format) are a specialized and distinct form of concept 

maps. Concept maps are graphical tools for organizing and 

representing knowledge that were developed in 1972 in 

the course of Joseph Novak’s research program at Cornell 

University where he sought to follow and understand 

changes in children’s knowledge and understanding of 

science (Novak & Musonda, 1991). The data from Novak’s 

study indicated “the lasting impact of early instruction in 

science and the value of concept maps as a representational 

tool for cognitive developmental changes.” Novak’s 

concept maps include concepts, usually enclosed in 

circles or boxes, and relationships between concepts 

indicated by a connecting line linking two concepts. Text 

on the connecting line, referred to as linking words or 

linking phrases, specify the relationship between the 

two concepts. Concepts are generally represented in a 

hierarchical fashion with the most inclusive, most general 

concepts at the top of the map, and more specific concepts 

arranged below. The hierarchical structure for a domain of 

knowledge may be somewhat relative as it often depends 

on the context in which that knowledge is being applied 

or considered (Novak & Cañas, 2008; Novak & Gowin, 

1984). The use of concept maps generally represents a 

constructivist approach to learning and teaching, as 

it assists the learner in developing and displaying the 

trajectory of their understanding of new concepts and ideas.

Figure 1

Shows the generic layout of conceptual flow 

diagrams developed by teachers to describe an 

instructional sequence.
8 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

Conceptual flow diagrams were first developed by the K–12 

Alliance/WestEd in California in 1989, for use with teachers 

during professional development institutes conducted for 

an NSF-funded statewide systemic initiative.2

 Hundreds 

of teachers have used this model to develop conceptual 

flow diagrams to improve their content knowledge, their 

curriculum planning, and their instruction of complex 

science concepts. As a product, a conceptual flow diagram 

resembles a map of nested concepts. The biggest ideas 

are supported by small ideas, and those small ideas are 

maintained by even smaller ideas that become learning 

sequence concepts (see Figure 1). The conceptual flow 

diagram differs from a concept map in that it addresses 

concepts in a unit of instruction, and has both a hierarchy 

of ideas (indicating the relationship between and among 

the ideas) and a direction, i.e., the sequence for instruction 

of the unit. Conceptual flow diagrams are intended to 

be read and taught from top to bottom and from left to 

right. Concepts nested beneath other concepts, either 

connected by arrows or in an individual column in 

the tabular format, serve to elucidate and support the 

concepts above. Concepts to the right, i.e., in another 

strand, or in the next column, build on those to the left, 

and often move in a developmental sequence, especially 

in the early grades, from more concrete to more abstract.

The process of guiding teachers through the development 

of conceptual flow diagrams is described at length in 

the book, Assessment Centered Teaching: A Reflective 

Practice (DiRanna et al., 2008). The process of making 

conceptual flow diagrams has also been adapted for a 

variety of purposes, including planning for classroom 

instruction and assessment simultaneously, assisting 

in school district analysis, selection and adoption 

of instructional materials, and helping curriculum 

developers to design instructional materials. Given these 

versatile uses of conceptual flow diagrams to display 

and organize big ideas and concepts in a well-thoughtout progression of learning and teaching for different 

educational purposes, we decided to use conceptual 

flow diagrams to represent the scope and sequence.

2 Since the time that the Ocean Literacy Scope and Sequence was developed, conceptual flow 

diagrams have evolved to include an emphasis on 3-dimensional instruction articulated in 

A Framework for K–12 Science Education, i.e., Scientific and Engineering Practices (SEPs), Disciplinary 

Core Ideas (DCIs), and Crosscutting Concepts (CCCs) (National Research Council, 2012).

Purpose of Conceptual 

Flow Diagrams

The conceptual flow diagram is a “backward-planning” 

tool. Starting with the end in mind and planning 

backwards (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005) is a means for 

setting comprehensible goals and designing better 

instruction. Teachers can array the big ideas that are 

important for students to know, the standards they are 

responsible for teaching, and the content presented in 

the instructional materials into one comprehensive, 

sequential chart. As teachers identify and integrate these 

three elements, the process of constructing a conceptual 

flow diagram enables teachers to clearly identify specific 

goals for student learning and progress. The conceptual 

flow diagram assists learners by making them aware 

of the links in the concepts they are addressing. Too 

often it is a mystery to students why they are learning 

what they are learning. As one teacher put it,

The conceptual flow diagram is a determination 

of where you are going in your teaching and 

what you’re going to reflect on. You have to 

know what concepts are important and the order 

in which they go to conceptualize the whole 

learning. I put my conceptual flow on the wall for 

the kids so they learn where they’re going, too.

—Teacher Leader 1, NSF Center for Assessment 

& Evaluation of Student Learning

Developing conceptual flow diagrams helps 

teachers build foundational knowledge about 

the importance of helping students to construct 

conceptual frameworks rather than “learn” factual 

information. When a conceptual flow is displayed in 

the classroom, it allows both teachers and students 

to connect new ideas and information, providing 

opportunities to learn with deeper understanding.
oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 9

A completed conceptual flow diagram serves the 

following four purposes:

1. Details the important concepts and 

linkages to other ideas;

2. Identifies an instructional sequence for which 

resources (e.g., textbooks, instructional 

materials) can be used to support teaching;

3. Identifies important concepts for assessment 

of student understanding; and

4. Eventually serves as the foundation of an 

assessment plan for the unit of instruction.

Construction of Conceptual 

Flow Diagrams

Conceptual flow diagrams are designed by a 

team, often led by a facilitator knowledgeable 

of the process. The process for a team of 2 to 5 

people to build a conceptual flow diagram for a 

unit of instruction includes these five steps:

1. Individuals write a narrative response to 

the question, “What should students be able 

to demonstrate their understanding about 

by the time they leave grade (blank)?

2. Individuals re-write and transfer each concept 

statement in complete sentences from their 

narrative responses onto separate post-it notes 

of three different sizes using the larger size 

for the larger, more important concepts.

3. Team members share their concepts on postit notes with one another. They arrange the 

notes into a collaborative draft conceptual 

flow diagram with larger concepts at the 

top, and smaller, nested, supporting concepts 

below. This step can take several hours.

4. Team members match their collaborative, draft 

conceptual flow diagram to the concepts addressed in 

the instructional materials and to the science content 

standards and pedagogy used by team members.

5. Team members review the progression of concept 

clusters (each cluster is comprised of a large concept 

and the nested, smaller concepts below it) and place 

them in an instructional sequence that provides 

strong links for student understanding (see Figure 2).

Figure 2

Sample of a first draft of the conceptual flow diagram for Principle 7 grades 6 through 8 developed at the first Ocean 

Literacy Scope and Sequence working meeting in 2006.
10 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

 Conceptual Flow and 

Teacher Change

In addition to aiding teachers in curriculum 

development, conceptual flow diagrams have been 

used as a foundational process for developing 

classroom assessment plans. A research study of teachers 

who received professional development on the building 

of conceptual flow diagrams found that most grade level 

teams shifted over time toward a greater focus on big 

ideas by removing, adding or reorganizing learning 

goals to focus on what was most important for students 

to learn. Another common shift was toward more 

coordinated relationships among big ideas and smaller 

supporting concepts. Most teams increasingly represented 

conceptual relationships among unit goals rather 

than as a list of sequential lesson topics. Paralleling 

organizational shifts in the conceptual flow diagrams, all 

of the teachers’ assessment plans were more coherently 

organized in later portfolios. Assessment plans 

shifted from long lists of possible assessments toward 

judicious selection of a few key assessments for tracking 

student progress. Teachers indicated generally strong 

understandings of how to use conceptual flow diagrams 

to guide assessment decisions and to select their 

“juncture” assessments (Gearhart & Osmundson, 2009). 

I think teachers need to understand the 

conceptual flow of their curriculum...what 

concepts they want students to learn; what 

concepts to assess with their students...

then they can plan for teaching.

[Developing the Conceptual Flow] moved us 

from a list of topics to...nesting of important 

ideas. Identifying what really matters for 

student understanding drives decisions 

about...questions in the assessment. 

—Teacher Leader 2, NSF Center for Assessment 

& Evaluation of Student Learning

In a political climate that often stresses coverage of 

material in preparation for state testing, teachers 

appreciate the process that building conceptual flow 

diagrams provides because it focuses on conceptual 

understanding of big ideas. One teacher explained,

My district is into curriculum mapping and...

I’m trying to cover the standards, but (by using 

conceptual flow diagrams) you have to go 

deeper into the standards to assess the concepts 

that are actually behind the understanding, 

instead of just checking off standards. 

—Teacher Leader 3, NSF Center for Assessment 

& Evaluation of Student Learning

Based on the findings of Gearhart and Osmundson, 

the benefits of conceptual flow diagrams appear 

to go beyond assessment planning: teachers take 

ownership of their instruction by becoming better 

consumers of instructional materials. As they grapple 

with important concepts and how they should be 

arranged in a meaningful sequence, teachers gain 

insight into how instructional materials are organized, 

which materials are designed to support students’ 

understanding of the big ideas, and which lessons, 

resources, and assessments need to be revised. Teachers 

can then modify their instruction and assessment 

practice to address any gaps or weaknesses. 

With a new focus on the concepts in the 

conceptual flow diagram, I was able to really 

see my instructional materials. I mean, I knew 

that our instructional materials were not often 

perfect, but this really brought out where the 

holes are, where I need to revise and what I 

need to put in there to make sure the students 

understand the concept that I’m trying to teach. 

—Teacher Leader 4, NSF Center for Assessment 

& Evaluation of Student Learning
oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 11

I always look at a unit now and make sure that 

it does flow conceptually. If not, then I rearrange 

to make sure I include ideas that build upon one 

another. I always make that a part of my science 

teaching and I want to incorporate conceptual 

flow diagrams into other content areas. 

—Teacher Leader 5, NSF Center for Assessment 

& Evaluation of Student Learning

While collaborative development of working versions of 

conceptual flow diagrams has been demonstrated as an 

effective teacher professional development activity, involving 

hundreds of people in the development of a set of 28 completed 

conceptual flow diagrams has, to say the least, never been 

accomplished before. The Ocean Literacy Scope and Sequence for 

Grades K–12 represents a new use of conceptual flow diagrams. 

In 2006, the authors and several other colleagues led a group 

of 46 ocean scientists and educators through the development 

of the first Ocean Literacy conceptual flow diagrams. The 

process was uplifting and invaluable. Achieving a final product, 

however, took considerable revision, iteration, and review 

before consensus was reached on all 28 diagrams. In 2015, 

the Alignment of Ocean Literacy to the Next Generation Science 

Standards was completed to detail the correlations between the 

Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS)—specifically the 

Disciplinary Core Ideas (DCI) and Performance Expectations 

(PE)—and the concepts included in the Ocean Literacy: The 

Essential Principles of Ocean Sciences for Learners of All Ages

and the Ocean Literacy Scope and Sequence for Grades K–12 

(Scope and Sequence). The alignment documents are organized 

by grade band and provide a 4-point scale with a description 

and explanation for each rating. Providing coherence across 

the Ocean Literacy Framework and NGSS helps to leverage 

our community’s work and make it more valuable and useful. 

(See page 75 for the Alignment documents.) The Scope 

and Sequence has become a catalyst for research about how 

students form and revise their understanding of complex 

ocean sciences concepts. Further, the Scope and Sequence 

is a driving force in defining the content that students will 

encounter in textbooks, curriculum materials, and assessments.

Editors’ Note: This article was updated to reflect 

changes since the original 2010 publication. Any 

errors are the responsibility of the editors. 

References

DiRanna, K., Osmundson, E., Topps, J., 

Barakos, L., Gearhart, M., Cerwin, K., 

Carnahan, D., Strang, C. (2008). Assessment

Centered Teaching: A Reflective Practice. 

Thousand Oaks, California; Corwin Press.

Gearhart, M., & Osmundson, E. 

(2009). Assessment Portfolios as 

Opportunities for Teacher Learning. 

Educational Assessment. 14:1-24.

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, 

and Medicine. (2018). How People Learn: 

Brain, Mind, Experience, and School. 

Washington, DC, National Research 

Council, National Academies Press. 

National Research Council. (2012). 

A Framework for K–12 Science Education: 

Practices, Crosscutting Concepts, and Core 

Ideas. Washington, DC: The National 

Academies Press. 

Novak, J.D., & Cañas, A.J. (2008). The 

Theory Underlying Concept Maps 

and How to Construct and Use Them, 

Technical Report Institute for Human 

and Machine Cognition CmapTools.

Novak, J. D., & Gowin, D. B. (1984). 

Learning how to learn. New York, NY: 

Cambridge University Press.

Novak, J. D., & Musonda, D. (1991). 

A twelve-year longitudinal study of science 

concept learning. American Educational 

Research Journal, 28(1), 117-153.

Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2005). 

Understanding by Design, Expanded 

2nd Edition. Alexandria, VA; Merrill Education/

ASCD College Textbook Series. 
12 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

Introduction to the 

Ocean Literacy Scope 

and Sequence for 

Grades K through 12

The Ocean Literacy Scope and Sequence for Grades K–12 is a series 

of 28 conceptual flow diagrams3

 that represent and organize 

the ideas of the seven Ocean Literacy Principles into four grade 

bands—K through 2, 3 through 5, 6 through 8, and 9 through 12—

effectively showing what students should know at the end of 2nd, 

5th, 8th, and 12th grades. This document provides specific guidance 

to educators, standards committees, curriculum developers, 

and scientists conducting outreach. It is one part of the Ocean 

Literacy Framework which comprises four key documents: 

» Ocean Literacy: The Essential Principles of Ocean Sciences 

for Learners of All Ages; 

» The Ocean Literacy Scope and Sequence for Grades K–12; 

» Alignment of Ocean Literacy to the Next Generation Science 

Standards; and

» International Ocean Literacy Survey. 

The scope and sequence was developed iteratively and thoughtfully 

with significant and substantive participation by hundreds of 

scientists, science educators, and classroom teachers around the 

country.4

 Thus, it represents a community consensus regarding the 

essential ideas in ocean sciences that all students should understand 

by the end of Grade 12 and a road map for how to get there. 

3 See “Developing the Ideas of Ocean Literacy Using 

Conceptual Flow Diagrams” in this handbook.

4 A more complete history is provided in the 

introduction to this handbook.

The freeware CmapTools was used in 

developing the conceptual flow diagrams 

(Photo credit: Craig Strang)

The scope and sequence conceptual flow diagrams provide 

specific guidance to help educators as they work to grow their 

learner’s conceptual understanding of essential ocean concepts. 

Dive into the conceptual flow diagrams on the following pages.

To access online versions of the Framework documents, please 

visit www.marine-ed.org/ocean-literacy/overview
oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 13

Earth has one big ocean with many features.

1

2

3

4

5

Strand A → Strand B → Strand C 

Dashed lines lead to cross-referenced concept 

statements in other essential principles.

The Ocean Literacy Scope and Sequence comprises 28 

conceptual flow diagrams (hereafter referred to as 

flows). There is one flow for each principle for each 

grade band (K through 2, 3 through 5, 6 through 8, and 

9 through 12). Each flow is read from top to bottom 

and left to right and represents one possible way of 

breaking down and organizing the major concepts and 

supporting ideas for each principle for a grade band.

The essential principle as well as the grade level are 

listed at the top of the page. The diagram shows three 

sets of text boxes (called strands) cascading down 

the page. Each strand represents a topic related to 

the essential principle and includes concepts and 

supporting subconcepts focused on the topic. 

Conceptual flow diagrams can be used as a 

suggested instructional sequence, organizer of 

ideas, and/or indicator of learning progression.

Figure 1

In this flow for Principle 1, Grades 3 through 5, there are three strands of topics and five levels of ideas. Read the flow from top to 

bottom and left to right, from Strand A (A1 to A5) to Strand B (B1 to B10) to Strand C (C1 to C5). Some of the concepts cross-reference 

other concepts in other principles within that same grade band. These cross-references are connections between principles.
14 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

Earth has one big ocean with many features

Supporting ideas on 

properties of ocean water 

discussed in further detail

For Grades 3-5, concept A2 in Principle 1 

is connected to concept B3 in Principle 3

Figure 2

Strand A of conceptual flow diagram of Principle 1 for Grades 3 to 5. Here is a breakdown of the components in a strand. 

The strand is identified by topic for easy reference. The strand begins with a major concept and then nested below are two 

levels of ideas that support the bigger idea. Supporting ideas can be examples, but not always.
oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 15

How to Use the Alternative Form 

of the Conceptual Flow Diagrams

In addition to the conceptual flow diagrams of the 

Ocean Literacy Scope and Sequence for Grades K–12, 

we also present the concepts in a tabular format. 

This helps convey the connections and relationships 

between concepts, without relying on visual cues. 

Strands of connected ideas are organized under a topic 

title and brief description. Instead of using arrows 

to convey connections between individual concepts, 

concepts are stacked in columns in the order in which 

they should be presented (i.e., top to bottom, then left 

to right). This means some concepts are repeated under 

each higher level concept to convey the connections 

among them. As users of assistive technology navigate 

the tables, the concepts become more and more specific.

Principle 1

32 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

Principle 1: Earth has one big ocean with many features.

The ocean, which covers 70% of Earth’s surface, is the defining feature of the planet.

Properties of Ocean Water — A Ocean Circulation — B Geographic and Geologic Features — C

97% of all water on Earth is 

salt water in the ocean.

The ocean is a single, huge, interconnected body of water that 

circulates through all the ocean basins and continents.

The ocean floor has a variety of geological and 

geographical features comparable to those on land.

A1 A4 B1 B6 C1 C2 C5

Only 3% of all water 

on Earth is fresh 

water stored in lakes, 

rivers, underground 

aquifers, glaciers, 

and other places.

Salinity and 

temperature 

vary 

throughout 

the ocean.

The ocean, the largest 

reservoir of water on Earth, is 

integral to the water cycle.

Water in the ocean is constantly 

moving and mixing vertically 

and horizontally.

The ocean has 

many basins. They 

are called the 

Pacific, Atlantic, 

Indian, Arctic, and 

Southern basins.

The ocean floor has other 

features such as mountains, 

plains, valleys, volcanoes, 

canyons, trenches, and ridges.

The features 

of the ocean 

floor influence ocean 

circulation 

patterns.

A2 A5 B2 B3 B7 B9 B10 C3 C4

Most of all the fresh 

water in the world 

is stored in ice 

caps and glaciers

The movement 

of ocean water 

as currents is 

partly driven 

by these differences in 

salinity and 

temperature.

Water circulates from 

land to the 

ocean and 

back via 

watersheds 

and the 

water cycle.

Lakes and glaciers are connected to the ocean 

via watersheds 

that are made up 

of rivers, streams, 

and groundwater.

Wind- and 

densitydriven 

currents 

move ocean 

water 

around 

Earth.

Tides move 

ocean water 

higher 

and lower, 

covering 

and uncovering the 

shoreline.

Waves 

crash on 

the shore 

moving 

and 

mixing 

the water.

The highest 

mountain 

on Earth is 

in the ocean. 

It is called 

Hawaii, an 

island in the 

Pacific Ocean.

The lowest 

point on Earth 

is in the ocean. 

It is called 

the Mariana 

Trench, and is 

located in the 

Pacific Ocean.

A3 B4 B8

Fresh water melting 

from glaciers contributes to the ocean and 

can change its salinity 

and temperature and 

cause sea level to rise.

Watersheds 

drain water 

from inland 

to the ocean.

Organisms 

travel on 

currents.

B5

Runoff from 

watersheds 

impacts the ocean.

GRADES 3 THROUGH 5
Principle 1

Principle 5

Principle 2

Principle 6

Principle 3

Principle 7

Principle 4

Conceptual Flow Diagrams
Principle 1

oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 17

GRADES K THROUGH 2
Principle 1

18 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

GRADES K THROUGH 2

Principle 1: Earth has one big ocean with many features.

Properties 

of Ocean 

Water — A

Geographic 

Features — B Ocean Circulation — C

Geologic 

Features 

— D

Ocean water 

has unique 

properties.

There is one 

big ocean that 

covers most of 

Earth’s surface.

Water in the ocean moves from place to place. The ocean 

floor has many 

features similar 

to those on land.

A1 B1 C1 C2 C3 C4 D1

The ocean 

is salty.

Different parts 

of the world 

ocean have 

different names, 

and all these 

different parts 

are connected 

to each other.

Water travels 

between the 

ocean, the sky 

and the land, 

(e.g., most rivers 

flow into the 

ocean and most 

rain that falls 

on land comes 

from the ocean). 

Tides move 

water higher 

and lower, 

covering and 

uncovering 

the shoreline.

Wind moves 

huge amounts 

of surface water 

from one place 

to another 

around Earth.

Moving 

ocean water 

transports 

living things 

around the 

world.

The ocean 

floor has 

plains, valleys, 

mountains, and 

volcanoes.
oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 19

GRADES K THROUGH 2 Principle 2

earth

earth

earth

earth earth
20 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

Principle 2 GRADES K THROUGH 2

Principle 2: The ocean and life in the ocean shape the features of Earth.

Erosion and Changing Coastlines — A

Moving water can cause coastal build up and erosion, carrying earth materials 

from one place to another and shaping the shoreline.

A1 A4

Shorelines are built up by earth materials brought to the shore by rivers and waves. Erosion is the wearing away 

of rocks, soil, shells, and other 

earth materials and features.

A2 A3 A5

Some earth materials from the ocean, 

such as sand, shells, corals, and rocks, 

are carried to the shore by waves.

Some earth materials from the land, 

such as rocks, sand, and soils, are 

carried to the shore by rivers.

Waves can break down and wear 

away cliffs, beaches, and materials 

brought to the shore, changing 

the shape of the shoreline.

A6

Rocks, shells, corals, plants, and other 

materials can be broken down into sand.
oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 21

GRADES K THROUGH 2 Principle 3
22 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

Principle 3 GRADES K THROUGH 2

Principle 3: The ocean is a major influence on weather and climate. 

Weather and Water Cycle — A

Local weather, including precipitation, fog, and wind, can be caused by the ocean — no matter where you live.

A1

Most precipitation on Earth comes from water that evaporated from the ocean.

A2 A3 A4

 When water evaporates and 

condenses, clouds form, which 

can lead to precipitation.

Most of the water in lakes, ponds, 

rivers, and the ground comes from 

water that evaporated from the ocean 

and fell to the land as precipitation.

Most of the water from land and 

in the atmosphere eventually 

returns to the ocean as run-off 

from rivers or precipitation.
oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 23

GRADES K THROUGH 2 Principle 4
24 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

Principle 4 GRADES K THROUGH 2

Principle 4: The ocean makes Earth habitable.

A B

Life as we know it does not 

exist without water.

Almost all the water on 

Earth is in the ocean.
oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 25

GRADES K THROUGH 2 Principle 5

(e.g., to find and capture prey).
26 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

Principle 5 GRADES K THROUGH 2

Principle 5: The ocean supports a great diversity of life and ecosystems.

Diversity of Life — A Diversity of 

Ecosystems — B

There is a great diversity of organisms in the ocean. The ocean holds a great 

diversity of unique 

environments and habitats 

where organisms live.

A1 A4 B1

More different kinds of organisms are 

found in the ocean than on land.

Ocean organisms have a 

variety of different structures 

and behaviors that help them 

to survive in the ocean.

There are distinct and unique 

ocean habitats throughout 

the ocean and on the 

coast, offshore, in the deep 

ocean, and at the surface.

A2 A3 B2

Many groups of organisms 

exist only in the ocean.

Ocean life ranges in size from 

the tiniest organisms to the 

largest animal on Earth.

Organisms living in different 

kinds of places in the ocean 

have different adaptations 

in structure and behavior, 

which help them to survive 

in their habitat, (e.g., to 

find and capture prey).
GRADES K THROUGH 2

oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 27

Principle 6
GRADES K THROUGH 2

28 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

Principle 6

Principle 6: The ocean and humans are inextricably interconnected.

Uses of the Ocean — A

Where 

People 

Live — B

Human Impact on the Ocean — C

Humans benefit from the ocean. People inhabit 

many different 

areas of Earth, 

but most live 

near the coast.

Humans impact the ocean.

A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 B1 C1 C3 C5

The ocean 

is a place 

where 

people 

go for 

recreation. 

The 

ocean 

provides 

much of 

the food 

we eat.

The ocean is a 

major source 

of the water in 

the water cycle, 

which provides 

precipitation 

for plants 

and animals, 

including people. 

The ocean 

is a place 

where 

people 

work. 

People use 

the ocean for 

transportation.

Living near 

the coast has 

benefits, but 

also risks 

from storms. 

Human 

activities, both 

inland and 

on the coast, 

can change 

the shape of 

beaches and 

other shorelines. 

Human 

activities 

sometimes 

pollute the 

ocean.

People can keep the ocean healthy. 

C2 C4 C6 C7 C8

Beaches may 

be made bigger 

or smaller 

by activities, 

such as the 

construction 

of river dams, 

harbors, and 

houses.

Storm 

drains and 

rivers carry 

pollutants, 

trash, and 

sediments from 

inland and 

coastal areas 

to the ocean.

People can 

keep the 

shoreline 

clean 

by not 

littering, by 

picking up 

litter and 

recycling. 

People can 

protect ocean 

animals and 

seaweeds by 

not collecting 

them, and by 

keeping their 

habitats safe 

and healthy. 

Ocean 

resources 

are limited, 

so people 

need to 

use these 

resources 

wisely. 
oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 29

GRADES K THROUGH 2 Principle 7
30 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

Principle 7 GRADES K THROUGH 2

Principle 7: The ocean is largely unexplored.

Life on Earth Depends 

on the Ocean — A People Explore the Ocean — B

All living things depend 

on resources from the 

ocean, such as oxygen, 

food, water, energy, etc.

People have always been interested in the ocean. People explore 

the ocean to answer questions they have about it.

A1 B1 B3 B4

Ocean resources are 

limited. People need to 

learn about these resources 

through exploration and 

scientific investigation.

People are still discovering 

new things about the 

ocean all the time.

People explore the 

ocean through many 

different hobbies and 

careers: scientists, fishers, 

engineers, surfers, 

swimmers, photographers, 

filmmakers, artists, and 

explorers all spend time 

exploring the ocean.

People use creativity, 

curiosity, tools, and 

technology to make better 

observations of the ocean.

B2

Ocean exploration helps 

us understand the health 

of the ocean and find new 

medicines, food for humans, 

and new sources of energy 

(e.g., oil, gas, and wind).
Principle 1

oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 31

Earth has one big ocean with many features.

GRADES 3 THROUGH 5
Principle 1

32 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

Principle 1: Earth has one big ocean with many features.

The ocean, which covers 70% of Earth’s surface, is the defining feature of the planet.

Properties of Ocean Water — A Ocean Circulation — B Geographic and Geologic Features — C

97% of all water on Earth is 

salt water in the ocean.

The ocean is a single, huge, interconnected body of water that 

circulates through all the ocean basins and continents.

The ocean floor has a variety of geological and 

geographical features comparable to those on land.

A1 A4 B1 B6 C1 C2 C5

Only 3% of all water 

on Earth is fresh 

water stored in lakes, 

rivers, underground 

aquifers, glaciers, 

and other places.

Salinity and 

temperature 

vary 

throughout 

the ocean.

The ocean, the largest 

reservoir of water on Earth, is 

integral to the water cycle.

Water in the ocean is constantly 

moving and mixing vertically 

and horizontally.

The ocean has 

many basins. They 

are called the 

Pacific, Atlantic, 

Indian, Arctic, and 

Southern basins.

The ocean floor has other 

features such as mountains, 

plains, valleys, volcanoes, 

canyons, trenches, and ridges.

The features 

of the ocean 

floor influence ocean 

circulation 

patterns.

A2 A5 B2 B3 B7 B9 B10 C3 C4

Most of all the fresh 

water in the world 

is stored in ice 

caps and glaciers

The movement 

of ocean water 

as currents is 

partly driven 

by these differences in 

salinity and 

temperature.

Water circulates from 

land to the 

ocean and 

back via 

watersheds 

and the 

water cycle.

Lakes and glaciers are connected to the ocean 

via watersheds 

that are made up 

of rivers, streams, 

and groundwater.

Wind- and 

densitydriven 

currents 

move ocean 

water 

around 

Earth.

Tides move 

ocean water 

higher 

and lower, 

covering 

and uncovering the 

shoreline.

Waves 

crash on 

the shore 

moving 

and 

mixing 

the water.

The highest 

mountain 

on Earth is 

in the ocean. 

It is called 

Hawaii, an 

island in the 

Pacific Ocean.

The lowest 

point on Earth 

is in the ocean. 

It is called 

the Mariana 

Trench, and is 

located in the 

Pacific Ocean.

A3 B4 B8

Fresh water melting 

from glaciers contributes to the ocean and 

can change its salinity 

and temperature and 

cause sea level to rise.

Watersheds 

drain water 

from inland 

to the ocean.

Organisms 

travel on 

currents.

B5

Runoff from 

watersheds 

impacts the ocean.

GRADES 3 THROUGH 5
oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 33

GRADES 3 THROUGH 5 Principle 2
34 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

Principle 2

Principle 2: The ocean and life in the ocean shape the features of Earth.

Rock Cycle — A Erosion — B

Many rocks found on land were formed in the ocean. The movement of water erodes and deposits materials that shape the coastline.

A1 A5 B1 B7 B9

Some rocks found on land were formed 

from compacted ocean sediments.

Some rocks found 

on land were 

formed in the 

ocean by underwater volcanic activity.

The movement of water can break down cliffs, rocks, 

and other beach materials, which constantly changes 

the appearance and location of the shoreline.

Rivers carry 

sediments 

downstream 

to the ocean.

Waves and 

currents move 

sediment along 

the coastline.

A2 A3 B2 B8 B10

Sediment is made 

up of materials that 

sink to the bottom 

of the ocean, which 

may include the 

shells of dead 

ocean organisms.

Dead organisms 

that fall into the 

ocean sediments 

may become fossils.

Beaches are made from different materials, such 

as sand, rocks, silt, and organic material.

Sediments are 

deposited at the 

mouths of rivers, 

contributing 

to formation 

of coastlines.

Large amounts 

of sediment 

from one 

area can be 

deposited in 

other locations 

along the coast.

A4 B3 B4 B5 B5

Marine fossils can 

be found on land 

in places that used 

to be covered by 

the ocean, (e.g., the 

Rocky Mountains).

Rocks and minerals 

from the shoreline 

and from inland 

are broken down 

into pebbles, sand, 

silt, and smaller 

materials.

Shells and other 

hard materials 

from once-living 

organisms are 

broken down into 

sand, silt, and 

smaller materials.

Most sand on most 

ocean beaches 

comes from rivers.

Most sand on most 

ocean beaches 

comes from rivers.

B6 B6 B6 B6

Sand grains come 

in many shapes, 

sizes, and colors 

that provide clues 

to their origin.

Sand grains come 

in many shapes, 

sizes and colors 

that provide clues 

to their origin.

Sand grains come 

in many shapes, 

sizes and colors 

that provide clues 

to their origin.

Sand grains come 

in many shapes, 

sizes and colors 

that provide clues 

to their origin.

GRADES 3 THROUGH 5
oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 35

GRADES 3 THROUGH 5 Principle 3
36 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

Principle 3

Principle 3: The ocean is a major influence on weather and climate. 

Nearly all the water on Earth is stored in the ocean. The ocean, which covers over 70% of Earth’s 

surface, controls the weather by dominating Earth’s energy and water systems.

Weather — A Water Cycle — B

The ocean absorbs and holds much of the 

solar energy that reaches Earth.

The ocean is an integral part of the water cycle. Solar 

energy absorbed by the ocean drives the water cycle.

A1 A3 B1 B2 B4

The ocean 

absorbs and 

holds more heat 

than the land.

The uneven heating of Earth causes convection 

currents, the movement of air and ocean 

water, from one place to another.

Solar energy 

warms water 

in the ocean 

and causes it 

to evaporate. 

Most water in 

the air comes 

from the ocean.

Water in the 

air eventually 

cools, condenses 

into clouds, 

and returns 

to the ocean 

or the land as 

precipitation.

Most of the 

water on land 

returns to the 

ocean through 

river runoff.

A2 A4 A5 A6 B3

The ocean 

moderates 

coastal weather 

because the 

temperature 

of air masses 

over the ocean 

fluctuates 

less than the 

temperature 

of air masses 

over the land.

Ocean currents 

move heat 

throughout 

ocean basins, 

which in turn, 

affects Earth’s 

weather.

Warm ocean 

water warms 

the air. The 

warm air rises, 

creating a low 

pressure area. 

Winds are set 

in motion as 

air moves from 

high-pressure 

to low-pressure 

areas.

The ocean 

provides the 

energy for wind, 

which can 

produce severe 

weather, such 

as hurricanes 

and cyclones.

Most of the 

fresh water on 

Earth comes 

from water that 

evaporated 

from the 

tropical ocean.

GRADES 3 THROUGH 5
oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 37

GRADES 3 THROUGH 5 Principle 4
38 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

Principle 4 GRADES 3 THROUGH 5

Principle 4: The ocean makes Earth habitable.

Origins of Life — A Oxygen Production — B

There is evidence that life 

started in the ocean.

Most of the oxygen in the atmosphere 

originally came from the activities of 

photosynthetic organisms in the ocean.

A1 B1

There is fossil evidence that the 

first organisms on Earth were 

bacteria that lived in the ocean.

Some organisms on land and in 

the ocean use carbon dioxide, 

water, and sunlight to make their 

own food. This process is called 

photosynthesis, and it releases oxygen.
oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 39

GRADES 3 THROUGH 5 Principle 5

availability

of food, high and low 

tides, and escape 

from predators.
40 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

Principle 5

Principle 5: The ocean supports a great diversity of life and ecosystems.

Diversity of Ecosystems — A Diversity of Life — B

The ocean supports a great diversity of interconnected and interdependent ecosystems, each defined 

by the interaction of the physical environment and the community of organisms living there.

The ocean provides most of Earth’s living space and supports a great diversity 

of life from the surface, through the water column, and down to the sea floor.

A1 A3 A4 A5 A9 B1 B6

Coastal ocean 

ecosystems, (e.g., 

rocky seashores, 

kelp forests, and 

surface waters 

around the Arctic 

and Antarctic) that 

support the most 

life are mainly 

located in sunlit 

areas where the 

water is cold and 

nutrient-rich.

Estuaries — 

shallow coastal 

ecosystems 

where fresh water from rivers 

mixes with salt 

water from the 

ocean — are 

important nursery grounds for 

many different 

ocean organisms.

Coral reefs are 

productive ecosystems found 

in clear, warm, 

nutrient-poor, 

tropical water. 

Algae living 

inside the coral 

provide them 

with some of 

the nutrients 

that they need 

to survive.

The open ocean ecosystem consists of the 

surface, mid-water, and deep parts of the 

ocean away from the coast and sea floor 

bottom. Each of these areas is made up of 

entirely different physical characteristics 

and diverse communities of organisms. 

There are 

deep ocean 

ecosystems 

that are independent of 

energy from 

sunlight and 

photosynthetic organisms. 

The great diversity of ecosystems in the ocean 

provides opportunities for organisms to develop a 

great diversity of adaptations, many of which are 

unique to organisms living in the ocean. 

There are 

many groups 

of organisms 

that occur in the 

ocean that do not 

occur on land or 

in fresh water, 

such as sea stars, 

squid, jellyfish, 

corals, many 

types of worms, 

and seaweeds. 

A2 A6 A7 A8 A8 B2 B5 B7

Phytoplankton, 

the base of most 

ocean food webs, 

flourish in coastal 

surface waters 

where there are 

plenty of nutrients 

and sunlight.

The sunlit surface 

layers of the 

ocean are where 

the sun’s energy 

is captured by 

photosynthetic 

phytoplankton 

(algae and 

bacteria). This 

layer only extends 

down about 

200 meters. 

The middle 

ocean layers are 

important living 

spaces for many 

organisms, such 

as large fish and 

jellyfish. There 

is not enough 

light to support 

photosynthesis 

here. This zone 

extends from 

200 meters down 

to 1,000 meters.

Deep water 

ecosystems 

below 1,000 

meters are 

in complete 

darkness 

and under 

extreme 

pressure. 

Deep water 

ecosystems 

below 1,000 

meters are 

in complete 

darkness 

and under 

extreme 

pressure. 

There are adaptations and life histories 

that exist only in the ocean, due to unique 

environmental and physical properties, 

such as salinity, pressure, temperature, 

light, and density, that are associated 

with living in a liquid environment. 

Organisms 

in the ocean 

exhibit an 

amazing variety 

of life cycles. 

Some undergo 

metamorphosis 

and have 

planktonic 

phases, some 

lay eggs, and 

others nurse 

their young. 

The ocean 

supports a 

tremendous 

variety of sizes of 

organisms, from 

extremely small 

to the largest 

animal ever to 

live on Earth. 

B3 B4 B8

Adaptations that help 

some organisms survive 

in the ocean include: 

blubber to retain heat, 

fins for swimming, 

gills for removing 

oxygen from water, 

collapsible lungs for 

deep diving, and acute 

hearing under water. 

Migration (both 

horizontal and 

vertical) is a strategy 

used by marine 

organisms to help them 

respond to daily and 

seasonal changes in 

ecosystems, such as 

the availability of food, 

high and low tides, and 

escape from predators.

Most of the 

organisms in 

the ocean are 

microscopic. 

Photosynthetic 

microbes are the 

most abundant 

forms of life 

in the ocean. 

GRADES 3 THROUGH 5
oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 41

Principle 6

Putting plastics 

and chemical 

pollution into 

the ocean can 

harm fish and 

shellfish and 

the people 

eating them.

Marine debris, 

including 

plastics, 

entangles 

and/or strangles 

ocean life, 

introduces 

chemical 

pollutants,

and can become

a hazard to 

navigation.

GRADES 3 THROUGH 5
42 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

Principle 6

Principle 6: The ocean and humans are inextricably connected.

Uses of the Ocean — A Where People Live- B Human Impact on the Ocean — C

The ocean provides basic support for all life, including human life. The ocean has always influenced 

where the majority of the 

human population lives.

Humans impact the ocean in positive and negative ways.

A1 A3 A4 A5 A6 B1 B3 B4 C1 C5 C7 C9 C12

The ocean is 

an important source 

of food for 

humans.

The freshwater that 

humans 

need is 

formed as a 

part of the 

water cycle 

when water 

evaporates 

from the 

ocean and 

returns to 

land as rain.

Humans 

use the 

ocean as 

a source 

for 

minerals, 

energy 

resources, and 

medicines.

Most of the 

oxygen 

humans 

breathe 

comes from 

photosynthetic organisms 

that live in 

the ocean.

Humans 

use the 

ocean for 

inspiration, recreation, and 

discovery. 

The ocean 

has influenced the 

evolution of 

transportation throughout human 

history.

People continue to live near 

the ocean 

because of 

access to 

resources, 

transportation, commerce, jobs, 

recreation, 

scenery, and 

moderate 

weather.

Living 

near the 

ocean 

exposes 

people to 

tsunamis, 

hurricanes, and 

severe 

storms.

The trash and pollutants people 

put into the environment affects 

the ocean and life in the ocean.

Ocean 

resources 

are finite 

and should 

be respected and 

cared for 

by people.

Individuals 

can take 

action to 

protect the 

ocean.

Public knowledge and 

opinion can greatly affect the choices 

that people make 

about the ocean.

National 

and international laws 

define how 

we protect 

the ocean.

A2 B2 C2 C3 C4 C6 C8 C10 C11 C13

Food from 

the ocean includes organisms, such 

as fish, crab, 

and oysters, 

as well as 

prepared 

products 

that contain 

organisms, 

such as algae.

Major coastal 

cities grow 

out of ports, 

which 

supported 

the transport 

and trade of 

goods and 

resources.

Putting 

plastics and 

chemical 

pollution 

into the 

ocean 

can harm 

fish and 

shellfish 

and the 

people 

eating them.

Marine 

debris, 

including 

plastics, entangles and/

or strangles 

ocean life, 

introduces 

chemical pollutants, and 

can become 

a hazard to 

navigation.

Pollution 

from 

cars and 

factories 

contributes 

to global 

climate 

change.

Overfishing 

can lead 

to the 

extinction 

of species.

Individuals 

can help protect the ocean 

by picking 

up trash, 

riding their 

bikes,using 

public transportation, 

and eating 

seafood 

that is not 

overfished.

Everyone 

can learn 

and influence other 

people 

about the 

wise use 

and protection of 

the ocean.

School 

clubs and 

afterschool 

groups can 

help educate and 

involve the 

community 

about the 

wise use and 

protection 

of the ocean.

Laws create 

marine 

sanctuaries, 

reserves, 

and marine 

protected 

areas that 

are intended 

to keep 

these ocean 

areas safe 

and healthy.

GRADES 3 THROUGH 5
oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 43

Principle 7

Human interest has led to the 

exploration of and research 

about the ocean and its 

resources. However, less than 

20% of the ocean is mapped, 

observed, and explored.

GRADES 3 THROUGH 5
44 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

Principle 7

Principle 7: The ocean is largely unexplored.

People Explore the Ocean — A Ocean Exploration Requires Collaboration — B Ocean Exploration Requires Technological Innovations — C

Human interest has led to the exploration of and research 

about the ocean and its resources. However, less than 20% 

of the ocean has been mapped, observed, and explored.

Ocean exploration is a collaborative process. It requires people with 

different areas of expertise and from different places and/or countries 

to work together, share knowledge, and use many types of technology 

to build a better understanding of the complex ocean system. 

Ocean exploration requires people to use creativity and knowledge to 

develop specialized tools because the ocean is so vast and the human 

body and senses are not well adapted for life under water.

A1 A4 B1 B4 C1

People explore the ocean 

to learn and discover more 

about it for many different 

political, economic, scientific, 

and social reasons.

The future health of the 

ocean and our ability to 

use it and benefit from its 

resources depends on our 

understanding of the ocean.

People develop areas of expertise 

for careers and/or hobbies in ocean 

exploration. These careers and 

hobbies include scientists, engineers, 

filmmakers, photographers, divers, 

architects, boat crews, and technicians. 

Communication of accurate 

and timely information by 

collaborative teams enables 

the public to make informed 

decisions that promote 

sustainability of the ocean.

Humans require specialized equipment for immersion in the water or for 

gathering information about the ocean without actually going under water.

A2 A3 A5 A6 B2 B3 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7

In the past, 

people 

explored 

the ocean 

for reasons 

that included 

discovering 

new land, 

locating 

trading 

routes, 

searching 

for gold 

and silver, 

spreading 

religion, and 

expanding 

political 

power.

Today we 

explore the 

ocean for 

reasons, such as: 

to understand 

the climate, 

to assess the 

health of the 

ocean, to find 

medicine and 

food for humans, 

and to search 

for sources of 

energy (e.g., 

petroleum, 

natural gas, 

wind, wave and 

tidal power).

The ocean 

affects all 

life on Earth 

because 

the ocean 

interacts 

with all 

other Earth 

systems: the 

atmosphere, 

biosphere and 

lithosphere.

The ocean 

will provide 

future 

generations 

with many 

opportunities 

for 

exploration, 

discovery, 

inquiry, and 

investigation.

Scientists 

specialize 

in different 

aspects of ocean 

exploration 

through the 

variety of science 

topics they study 

(e.g., weather, 

climate, animals, 

algae, geology). 

They share their 

expertise as 

they work with 

other scientists 

and engineers.

Engineers 

specialize in 

different aspects of 

ocean exploration 

through the 

variety of topics 

they study 

(e.g., chemical, 

mechanical, 

and electrical 

engineering). 

They share their 

expertise as 

they work with 

other engineers 

and scientists.

Humans are 

adapted to 

breathe air, 

and thus 

require 

special 

breathing 

equipment 

to explore 

under water 

(e.g., snorkels, 

SCUBA gear).

Human eyes 

are adapted 

to function 

in the air, 

and thus 

require 

special 

tools to see 

under water 

(e.g., masks, 

cameras). 

Humans 

require 

a certain 

amount of 

light to see, 

and thus 

require 

special 

lights to see 

deep in the 

ocean (e.g., 

dive lights).

Humans are 

adapted to 

living on 

land, and 

thus require 

special tools 

for protection 

from 

increasing 

pressure as 

we explore 

deeper into 

the ocean 

(e.g., humanoccupied 

submersibles).

Humans are 

adapted to 

survive within 

a particular 

range of 

temperatures, 

and thus 

require special 

equipment 

for protection 

from the cold 

temperatures 

in the ocean 

(e.g., wetsuits, 

dry suits, 

submersibles).

Ocean scientists 

and engineers 

develop 

specialized 

technology 

that allows 

the collection 

of complex 

information 

over large 

areas of the 

ocean without 

actually going 

under water 

themselves, such 

as satellites, 

sensors, 

computers, 

and robots.

GRADES 3 THROUGH 5
Principle 1

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lithospheric

GRADES 6 THROUGH 8
Principle 1 GRADES K THROUGH 2

46 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

Principle 1: Earth has one big ocean with many features.

The ocean, which covers 70% of Earth’s surface, is the defining feature of the planet.

Geologic Features — A Properties of Ocean Water — B Ocean Circulation — C

The size and shape of the ocean has changed over geologic 

time and continues to move and change.

97% of all water on Earth is ocean water, which 

has unique chemical and physical properties.

The ocean is one interconnected body of water that is integral to the water 

cycle; and is in constant motion in a global circulation system.

A1 A7 B1 B3 C1 C6 C9

Motion along the margins of lithospheric plates 

creates physical features on the ocean floor and land.

During various times 

in Earth’s geologic 

history, all of the 

continents have 

been joined into 

one supercontinent. 

A giant ocean 

circulated around 

the supercontinent.

Salts enter 

the ocean via 

erosion from 

land, volcanic 

emissions, 

reactions at the 

sea floor, and 

atmospheric 

deposition.

Density differences 

between masses of water 

can cause currents.

A global ocean circulation system is generated from 

tides and different types of currents moving the water.

Currents transport heat, 

nutrients, and organisms 

throughout the ocean.

All major watersheds, 

from the Amazon 

River to melting 

glaciers, mix fresh and 

salt water when they 

meet the ocean, which 

contributes to the density 

differences that set ocean 

currents in motion.

A2 A8 B2 B4 C2 C3 C4 C7 C8 C10 C11

Many of the physical features on the ocean 

floor are the result of the constant motion of the 

lithospheric plates that make up Earth’s crust.

The supercontinent 

broke apart along 

rift valleys to 

create new, smaller 

continents and 

ocean basins now 

known as the Pacific 

Ocean, Atlantic 

Ocean, etc.

The freezing 

point of 

ocean water 

decreases 

as salinity 

increases; the 

pH of ocean 

water is more 

basic than 

fresh water.

The density of ocean water 

increases as salinity (amount 

of dissolved salts) increases 

and as temperature decreases.

Deep ocean 

currents 

are driven 

by density 

differences 

between 

masses of 

ocean water.

The wind, combined with 

Earth’s rotation (Coriolis 

effect), drives surface 

currents in circular 

gyres in each ocean 

basin; clockwise in the 

Northern Hemisphere and 

counter-clockwise in the 

Southern Hemisphere.

Tides are 

mainly 

caused by the 

gravitational 

interaction 

between 

Earth, the 

moon and 

the sun.

Upwelling, which 

occurs mostly on 

west coasts, brings 

nutrients from 

deep water to the 

sunlit surface 

zone where 

photosynthetic 

primary 

producers grow.

Currents are 

especially 

important 

in moving 

young 

organisms 

(larvae and 

juveniles) 

to populate 

new areas.

As water 

travels 

through the 

watersheds, 

it collects 

nutrients, salts, 

sediments and 

pollutants and 

carries them 

into the ocean.

Sea 

level 

rises as 

glaciers 

melt.

A3 A4 A5 A9 B5 B6 C5 C5 C5

New lithospheric 

crust is generated 

at spreading 

centers while older, 

denser crust is 

recycled into the 

Earth’s interior at 

subduction zones, 

creating various 

physical features.

Plate 

movement 

is primarily 

caused 

by the 

convection 

of hot fluids 

below 

Earth’s 

crust.

Features on the 

ocean floor are 

highly varied, and 

include trenches, 

rift valleys, midocean ridges, 

seamounts, 

islands, and 

continental 

shelves.

The continents are 

still in motion today.

The salinity of 

ocean water 

can change due 

to adding or 

removing water 

(e.g., evaporation, 

melting glaciers, 

or inflow from 

rivers, streams, 

and rainfall).

The 

temperature 

of ocean 

water can 

change due to 

warming and 

cooling (e.g., 

heat from the 

sun or contact 

with ice).

Ocean 

circulation 

is influenced 

by the 

position 

of basins, 

continents, 

and other 

geologic 

features.

Ocean circulation is 

influenced by the position 

of basins, continents, and 

other geologic features.

Ocean 

circulation is 

influenced by 

the position 

of basins, 

continents, 

and other 

geologic 

features.

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GRADES 6 THROUGH 8 Principle 2
Principle 2

48 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

Principle 2: The ocean and life in the ocean shape the features of Earth. 

Geologic Change — A Rock Cycle — B

Many changes in geologic features occur where the ocean meets the land. Many of the rocks exposed on land were formed in the ocean.

A1 A13 Plate Tectonics 

— A19 B1 B2 B3

Many landforms are the result of a combination of constructive and destructive forces where the ocean meets the land. The surface of the land is 

shaped by sea level changes. 

Tectonic activity 

between oceanic 

and continental 

plates can result 

in volcanoes, 

earthquakes, and 

mountain formation near the coast. 

Some igneous 

rocks are formed 

in the ocean in 

volcanoes, at 

hot spots, and at 

mid-ocean ridges. 

Some 

metamorphic 

rocks are 

formed in the 

ocean (e.g., at 

subduction 

zones). 

Many sedimentary rocks are formed in 

the ocean from organic sediments.

A2 A8 A14 B4

Weathering is the breaking down of rocks, soils, and minerals 

through physical, chemical, and biological processes. 

Erosion and deposition of rocks, sediments, and 

other particles by wind, rain, waves, ice, gravity, 

or living organisms can alter coastlines. 

Sea level is affected by changes 

in climate and tectonic activity. 

Many marine organisms form carbonate 

and silicate skeletal structures, which 

contribute to the formation of sedimentary 

rocks, reefs, and stromatolites. 

A3 A6 A7 A9 A10 A15 A18 A18 B5 B9

Biological weathering is 

caused by living organisms 

(e.g., when sea urchins 

grind holes in rocks).

Chemical weathering breaks 

down and alters the chemical 

composition of rocks and 

minerals through hydrolysis, 

oxidation, and acidification.

Physical 

weathering of 

rocks can be 

caused by freezethaw cycles, salt 

crystallization, 

hydraulic action, 

pressure release, 

wind abrasion, 

and/or thermal 

expansion.

Powerful storms 

can cause drastic 

short- and longterm changes 

to coastlines.

Beach profiles change 

seasonally due to different 

wave action and water flow.

Variations in 

global climate 

affect the volume 

of water in the 

ocean by changing 

the size of polar 

ice caps and 

glaciers, resulting 

in relative sealevel changes. 

Tectonic activity 

causes uplift 

and subduction, 

which results 

in relative sea 

level changes. 

Tectonic activity 

causes uplift and 

subduction, which 

results in relative 

sea level changes. 

Some organisms, such as 

cyanobacteria, coralline 

algae, and corals construct 

complex structures (e.g., 

stromatolites and reefs). 

The skeletal 

structures 

formed by some 

organisms (e.g., 

mollusk shells, 

foraminifera, 

cocoliths, 

radiolaria, and 

diatom cell 

walls) sink and 

are deposited 

on the ocean 

floor, eventually 

forming 

sedimentary 

rocks. 

A4 A5 A4 A5 A5 A11 A12 A16 A16 A16 B6 B8

Organisms 

can release 

organic 

acids that 

can increase 

chemical 

weathering. 

Cracks in 

rock become 

sites where 

further 

weathering 

is more likely 

to occur. 

Organisms 

can release 

organic 

acids that 

can increase 

chemical 

weathering. 

Cracks in 

rock become 

sites where 

further 

weathering 

is more likely 

to occur. 

Cracks in rock 

become sites 

where further 

weathering 

is more likely 

to occur. 

Powerful 

winter wave 

action removes 

sediment from 

shorelines. 

Gentle summer 

wave action rebuilds beaches. 

Sediment 

deposits 

from rivers 

replace sand 

removed by 

waves and 

currents.

Changes in 

sea level can 

create, destroy, 

expose, and cover 

landforms, such 

as continental 

shelves, islands, 

marine terraces, 

beaches, and 

inland seas. 

Changes in 

sea level can 

create, destroy, 

expose, and cover 

landforms, such 

as continental 

shelves, islands, 

marine terraces, 

beaches, and 

inland seas. 

Changes in sea level 

can create, destroy, 

expose, and cover 

landforms, such as 

continental shelves, 

islands, marine 

terraces, beaches, 

and inland seas. 

Lime-secreting cyanobacteria trap 

sediments 

and form 

large mounds 

called 

stromatolites.

Coral 

reefs are 

produced 

by living 

organisms 

that 

secrete an 

exoskeleton 

of calcium 

carbonate.

A17 A17 A17 B7

Fossilized marine 

organisms, 

ancient coral 

reefs, and beaches 

can be found on 

land, far from 

current coastlines.

Fossilized marine 

organisms, 

ancient coral 

reefs, and 

beaches can be 

found on land, 

far from current 

coastlines.

Fossilized marine 

organisms, ancient 

coral reefs, and 

beaches can be 

found on land, 

far from current 

coastlines.

Stromatolites 

are a major 

component 

of the fossil 

record for 

the first 

3.5 billion 

years of life 

on Earth.

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Principle 3

transferred

GRADES 6 THROUGH 8
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Principle 3

Principle 3: The ocean is a major influence on weather and climate.

The interaction of oceanic and atmospheric processes controls weather and climate by dominating Earth’s energy system.

Weather and Climate — A Global Climate Change — B

The ocean moderates global weather and climate by absorbing most of the solar radiation reaching Earth. Changes in the ocean/atmosphere system 

can result in changes to the climate.

A1 A10 B1

Heat exchange between the ocean and the atmosphere drives the 

water cycle, and oceanic and atmospheric circulation.

Short-term and seasonal changes 

in ocean temperature can affect 

rainfall and temperatures on land (i.e., 

weather). Long-term changes in ocean 

temperature can affect the climate.

The global climate is influenced by the amount of carbon 

dioxide in the atmosphere. The more carbon dioxide 

in the atmosphere, the more the climate warms.

Water Cycle — A2 A7 A8 A11 A12 B2 B5

The ocean dominates the water cycle. The heat transferred 

from the tropical 

ocean provides 

the energy that 

drives atmospheric 

circulation and 

weather, including 

hurricanes, cyclones, 

and polar storms.

Increases in sea 

surface temperature 

increases atmospheric 

convection, changing 

patterns of rainfall 

and drought. The 

most important of 

these changes is 

called El Niño.

Land and ocean 

weather maps are 

used to display and 

identify weather 

patterns and 

to help predict 

future patterns

Longterm weather 

and oceanographic 

data sets contribute 

to climate 

predictions.

The ocean absorbs about 50% of all 

carbon dioxide added to the atmosphere.

There have been 

large abrupt 

changes in Earth’s 

climate over 

geologic time.

A3 A4 A6 A9 B3 B4 B6

Ocean 

currents 

move heat 

throughout 

the ocean 

basins.

The ocean loses heat 

through evaporation. 

The lost heat is 

released back to the 

atmosphere when 

the evaporated water 

vapor condenses 

and forms rain. 

The released heat 

drives atmospheric 

circulation.

The weather 

along coastlines 

is generally more 

moderate than 

inland regions 

because the 

ocean absorbs 

and retains heat 

more effectively 

than the land.

El Niño Southern 

Oscillation (ENSO) is 

important because 

it changes where 

the rain falls in 

the tropics, which 

changes atmospheric 

circulation.

Some of the carbon 

dioxide absorbed by 

the ocean is used by 

phytoplankton and 

other photosynthetic 

organisms in 

the process of 

photosynthesis. 

About half of 

the world’s 

photosynthesis 

(primary 

production) occurs 

in the sunlit layers 

of the ocean.

Absorbing 

carbon dioxide 

can decrease 

the ocean’s pH, 

making the water 

more acidic. 

This can have 

consequences for 

many organisms 

in the ocean.

Humans are 

changing the 

climate by 

continuing to 

release large 

amounts of 

carbon dioxide 

and methane into 

the atmosphere.

A5

Most rain that falls on 

land evaporated from 

the tropical ocean.

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GRADES 6 THROUGH 8 Principle 4
52 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

Principle 4

Principle 4: The ocean makes Earth habitable.

Ocean Production — A Origins of Life — B

Originally, all oxygen in the atmosphere came 

from photosynthetic organisms in the ocean.

Life started in the ocean, and the earliest evidence 

of life is found in ancient ocean sediments.

A1 A5 B1

Earth originally had an 

atmosphere containing gases 

toxic to most organisms; 

there was no life on land 

until oxygen became common 

in the atmosphere.

Most of the oxygen 

consumed by organisms 

living on land and in 

the water is produced 

by photosynthetic 

organisms in the ocean.

The fossil record of ancient lifeforms provides evidence 

for the theory of evolution and the important role that 

the ocean played in the evolution of life on Earth.

A2 A6 B2 B4

Cyanobacteria (blue-green 

algae) living in the ocean 

generated oxygen in Earth’s 

atmosphere through the 

process of photosynthesis, over 

many millions of years.

The process of 

photosynthesis 

produces oxygen gas, 

while respiration and 

decay use oxygen.

Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), the 

ancestors of all plants and algae, are 

among the oldest fossils currently 

known on Earth. These 3 billion-yearold organisms evolved in the ocean, and 

are found in ancient ocean sediments.

The millions of different 

species of organisms on Earth 

today are related by descent 

from common ancestors that 

evolved in the ocean and 

continue to evolve today.

A3 B3

The oxygen produced by 

cyanobacteria through 

photosynthesis first accumulated 

in the ocean, and then escaped 

into the atmosphere, where 

it formed ozone that blocked 

much UV radiation from 

reaching Earth’s surface.

The chloroplast, which plants 

use to make food for themselves 

through photosynthesis, is a 

remnant of cyanobacteria.

A4

By 550 million years ago, 

oxygen and ozone levels in the 

atmosphere were high enough 

that terrestrial organisms 

could develop and survive.

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oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 53

Principle 5

A.13.

A.9.

A.10. A.12.

A.14.

A.15.

A.16.

A.18. A.19.

A.20.

A.21.

photosynthesis

,

A.7.

A.8.

A.17.

A.22.

GRADES 6 THROUGH 8
54 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

Principle 5

Principle 5: The ocean supports a great diversity of life and ecosystems.

The ocean provides a vast living space and unique ecosystems, from the surface, through the water column, to the sea floor.

Diversity of Ecosystem — A Diversity of Life — B

Ocean ecosystems vary widely, based on the variety of environmental factors and the community of organisms living there. The diversity of ocean ecosystems allows for many unique lifeforms with many unique adaptations.

Primary Productivity — A1 A14 A20 B1 B3 B5

Ocean systems with the greatest abundance of life occur where environmental 

conditions and/or adaptations allow for high levels of productivity.

Differences in light, temperature, pressure, density, and chemical makeup of this 

fluid environment lead to distinct vertically and horizontally distributed ecosystems

Ocean ecosystems are 

connected to each other 

via a series of food webs.

The diversity 

of phyla is 

greater in the 

ocean than 

on land.

The ocean 

supports 

a range of 

animals from 

the smallest 

living thing 

to the largest 

animal on 

Earth.

Organisms in the ocean exhibit an amazing variety of adaptations to sound, density, 

pressure, patchy food distribution, and other environmental factors.

A2 A5 A7 A10 A12 A13 A15 A21 A22 B2 B4 B6 B7 B8 B9 B10 B11

Most primary 

productivity in the 

ocean takes place at the 

surface where there is 

plentiful sunlight for 

photosynthesis and 

nutrients for growth.

Some 

ecosystems 

function 

independent of 

light energy.

There are six places in the ocean, 

all on west coasts, with the right 

environmental conditions to create 

the most productive areas. These 

are the coastal upwelling zones.

Coral reefs occur where the 

water is warm 

and there 

are not many 

nutrients in the 

water, and yet 

they are very 

productive 

ecosystems.

Environmental conditions 

in estuaries 

(e.g., shallow, 

brackish 

water) and in 

mangroves 

(lots of decaying organisms) 

result in highly productive 

nursery areas 

for a great 

many ocean 

organisms.

At the poles, 

nutrients 

flowing into 

the ocean 

from melting glaciers, 

combined 

with long, 

sunny days in 

the summer, 

result in productivity, and 

abundance 

unequaled 

anywhere 

else in the 

world.

Ecosystems exist in layers of habitats and microhabitats due to 

gradients in specific environmental factors, such as temperature, 

salinity, and oxygen within the water column.

The diversity 

of phyla and 

life history 

strategies of 

ocean organisms create 

complex, interconnected 

food webs, 

often with 

many more 

levels than 

in terrestrial 

ecosystems.

Any change 

in an 

ecosystem 

or an 

organism 

in the 

community 

may have 

an adverse 

effect on 

many other 

ecosystems.

Many major 

groups (phyla 

and classes) 

of organisms, 

such as 

echinoderms, 

cephalopods, 

comb jellies, 

and many 

types of 

worms 

are found 

exclusively 

in the ocean.

Most of the 

biomass in 

the ocean is 

made up of 

microscopic 

microbes.

Different ocean 

organisms 

have different 

life history 

strategies. Some 

drift with 

the currents 

(plankton), 

some swim 

(nekton), and 

some live on 

the bottom 

(benthos).

“In the tropical 

ocean where 

there are fewer 

nutrients, 

diversity of life 

is higher and 

abundance of 

life is lower. 

In the polar 

regions where 

there are 

comparatively 

more nutrients, 

there is less 

diversity of 

life and more 

abundance 

of life.

Some ocean 

organisms 

such as phytoplankton 

have adaptations (e.g., 

oil droplets, 

spines, and a 

large surface 

area), which 

allow them 

to stay near 

the sunlit 

surface where 

photosynthesis can occur.

Many marine 

animals, 

from shrimp 

to whales, 

rely on sound 

to communicate, find prey 

and mates, 

and sense 

their environments. 

Sound travels 

through the 

ocean much 

better than 

light does.

Some ocean organisms 

have adaptations for 

living in or diving to 

the deep ocean. For 

example, elephant 

seals spend most 

of their life diving 

in the deep ocean 

to depths at which 

most mammals could 

not survive. Other 

organisms have 

bioluminescent lures 

to capture prey, or 

huge mouths and 

stomachs to take 

advantage of the 

scarce prey in the deep.

Organisms in the 

ocean exhibit an 

amazing variety 

of life cycles. Some 

have planktonic 

stages that help 

colonize new areas, 

some undergo long 

seasonal migrations to mate and 

have young, and 

others change sex 

as they mature 

or as the dominance hierarchy 

in the community changes.

A3 A6 A8 A9 A11 A16 B12

Microbes (photosynthetic 

algae and bacteria) are 

important primary 

producers and support a 

huge abundance of life.

Ecosystems, 

such as deep 

sea vents and 

cold water seeps 

depend on chemosynthesis — a 

process similar 

to photosynthesis, but with a 

different energy 

source — for 

primary productivity.

Coastal 

upwelling 

occurs when 

wind and 

the Coriolis 

effect push 

surface water 

offshore, 

allowing for 

cold nutrient 

water from 

deeper down 

to rise to the 

surface

Kelp forests and 

other coastal ocean 

ecosystems in 

upwelling zones 

have abundant 

sunlight, cold 

water, and 

nutrients, making 

them some of the 

most productive 

ecosystems in 

the world

A symbiotic 

relationship 

between corals 

and the algae 

living inside 

them allows 

the corals to 

thrive, even 

though the 

environmental 

conditions 

do not seem 

conducive to 

supporting life.

Ocean organisms are adapted to live in a relatively stable ocean. They are often 

adapted to tolerate very specific environmental conditions. For example, corals 

can only live within specific temperature ranges, and some larval fish can only 

live in very narrow layers of water with particular salinity and temperature.

Some of these 

life cycles are 

unique to ocean 

organisms, 

such as those 

of seahorses, 

corals, many 

fish, and kelp.

A4 A17 A18 A19

Microbes are the basis of 

most energy in food webs 

in the ocean. They are the 

primary food source for 

grazers, such as zooplankton and clams. Grazers are 

in turn the primary food 

for bigger organisms, such 

as fish and baleen whales.

Adaptations to specific environmental 

conditions can result in vertical and horizontal zonation patterns. For example, in 

intertidal areas, organisms are adapted to 

crashing waves and the cycle of the tides, 

while in the open ocean, many organisms 

are adapted to a specific temperature 

and salinity level. Different organisms 

are found in different density layers.

Humans have changed 

environmental 

conditions in the 

ocean, which has had 

a generally negative 

impact on organisms 

adapted to the 

previous conditions.

Changes to the 

climate will cause 

further changes 

to environmental 

conditions, which 

will likely have 

major impacts on 

many different 

ocean organisms.

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oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 55

Principle 6

positive ways

21.

20.

22.

GRADES 6 THROUGH 8
Principle 6

56 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

Principle 6: The ocean and humans are inextricably interconnected.

Ocean Affects Weather 

and Climate — A Uses of the Ocean — B Ocean Affects Where People Live — C Human Impact on the Ocean and Atmosphere — D Responsibility and Advocacy for the Ocean — E

The ocean absorbs and releases heat from the 

sun, as well as distributes heat around the 

globe, thus moderating the temperature on 

Earth so life, including human life, can exist.

The ocean is essential to the existence of human life on Earth. The ocean influences the population and population distribution of humans. Human activity contributes to changes in the ocean and atmosphere. Individual and collective actions are necessary for maintaining, conserving, and sustaining a healthy ocean.

A1 A2 B1 B3 B5 B8 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 D1 D8 D10 D13 D18 E1 E6

During the day, the 

ocean absorbs heat 

from the sun and, at 

night, releases the heat 

into the atmosphere, 

resulting in a relatively 

narrow temperature 

range suitable for 

life on Earth.

The circulation 

of warmer water 

from the equator 

toward the poles 

distributes heat 

around Earth.

Humans 

obtain 

food from 

the ocean 

through 

marine 

fisheries and 

aquaculture.

Humans 

need fresh 

water in 

order to 

survive.

Photosynthetic 

organisms in the ocean 

produce most of the 

oxygen consumed 

by humans.

Humans use resources 

from the ocean.

The vastness 

of the ocean 

has resulted in 

the isolation of 

civilizations; 

however, people 

have also used 

it to travel large 

distances and 

settle around 

the world.

Humans have 

historically used, 

and continue to 

use the ocean for 

transportation, 

commerce, 

exploration, 

recreation, and 

inspiration.

Most 

human 

population 

centers 

developed 

and thrived 

due to their 

access 

and/or 

proximity 

to the ocean.

The ocean 

influences 

many 

aspects 

of every 

coastal 

culture 

around 

the world.

Hurricanes, 

typhoons, 

and tsunamis 

may 

adversely 

affect 

humans 

living along 

or near the 

coastline.

Fishing and aquaculture affect the ocean. The 

introduction 

of non-native 

species 

affects ocean 

ecosystems.

Human-made modifications 

to the landscape 

affect the ocean.

Human activity can lead to the 

excess input of greenhouse gases 

into the atmosphere which can 

alter the temperature of Earth’s 

atmosphere and affect the ocean.

Pollution affects life in the ocean. Scientists are still learning about 

marine organisms and ocean 

ecosystems. New information is 

useful for helping guide policy 

decisions and individual actions.

It is important for the public to learn about issues regarding the ocean, and to take action.

B2 B4 B6 B7 B9 B10 B11 C6 D2 D5 D9 D11 D12 D14 D16 D19 D21 D22 E2 E7 E13 E14 E15

Some food 

from the 

ocean is 

consumed 

directly by 

humans, 

while others 

are used 

as pet food, 

food additives, animal 

feed, and 

fertilizer.

Most of 

Earth’s 

fresh water 

is water 

that has 

evaporated 

from the 

ocean and 

has returned 

in the form 

of rain.

Photosynthetic 

organisms 

include cyanobacteria, 

algae, and 

seagrass.

The process of photosynthesis 

produces 

oxygen 

gas, while 

respiration 

and decay 

use oxygen.

Humans 

use biotic 

resources 

from the 

ocean 

to make 

products, 

such as 

medicines 

and 

consumer 

goods.

Humans 

obtain 

energy 

from the 

ocean 

via wind, 

wave, 

oil, and 

natural 

gas.

Humans 

extract 

salt 

from 

the 

ocean.

Learning 

about and 

preparing 

for natural 

hazards can 

increase 

survival and 

minimize 

the adverse 

effects of 

these events.

Aquaculture and 

fisheries can be positive 

ways to supply growing 

demands for seafood, 

if done responsibly.

Aquaculture and fisheries can 

be destructive to ecosystems, 

if done improperly.

Non-native species can disrupt 

native food 

webs, introduce 

novel diseases, 

and out-compete 

native species 

for resources, leading to 

changes in ecosystems and loss 

of native species.

Building 

structures on 

land can affect 

the ocean in 

many ways, 

such as causing erosion, 

creating polluted runoff, 

or altering 

the flow of 

waterways.

Building 

structures 

in the ocean, 

such as piers, 

jetties, and 

marinas, 

can alter 

the shape 

of nearby 

coastlines 

and disrupt 

coastal 

habitats.

The excessive 

input of 

greenhouse gases 

traps increased 

amounts of solar 

heat, which 

can raise the 

temperature 

of the ocean.

Excessive 

greenhouse 

gases can 

lead to 

increased 

uptake 

of carbon 

dioxide by 

the ocean, 

which 

results in 

more acidic 

ocean water.

Pollutants 

move from the 

land into the 

ocean as water 

flows through 

watersheds 

via runoff 

and rivers.

Pollutants 

move from the 

atmosphere 

onto land and 

into the ocean 

through rain 

(e.g., acid 

rain, acid 

deposition).

Solid waste, 

such as 

garbage, 

fishing nets, 

and sewage 

enters the 

ocean via 

human 

activity.

There are national and international 

efforts that inform and regulate fishing 

practices and land development, and 

establish Marine Protected Areas.

Everyone can make informed decisions that reduce human impact on the ocean. Everyone 

can make 

informed 

choices about 

what they 

purchase and 

which businesses they 

support in 

ways that are 

environmentally friendly.

Everyone 

can use 

their 

knowledge to 

vote on 

larger 

issues 

that affect the 

ocean.

Everyone 

can advocate 

through their 

actions and 

by sharing 

information 

about the 

wise use and 

protection of 

the ocean.

D3 D4 D6 D7 D15 D17 D20 D20 D20 E3 E4 E5 E8 E9 E10 E11 E12

Aquaculture can 

reduce 

stress on 

overfished 

wildcaught 

seafood 

populations. 

Responsible 

fishery 

practices 

prevent the 

overfishing 

of target 

species, thus 

sustaining 

the 

ecosystem.

Aquaculture 

practices can 

release extra 

pollutants or 

non-native 

organisms 

into the 

water, and 

destroy 

habitats.

Many large-scale 

fishing practices 

can disrupt 

ecosystems, take 

more fish than 

can be replaced 

naturally and 

catch unintended 

organisms 

(bycatch).

Changes in ocean 

temperature can 

influence marine 

organisms by 

altering physical 

conditions (i.e., 

current patterns 

and temperature 

ranges) to which 

they are adapted.

Changes in 

pH of ocean 

water can 

dissolve 

the shells, 

tests, and 

skeletons 

of many 

marine 

organisms.

Marine 

organisms 

may ingest or 

absorb harmful toxicants, 

be impacted by 

water turbidity, 

and get caught 

in and ingest 

marine debris.

Marine organisms may 

ingest or absorb harmful 

toxicants, be 

impacted by 

water turbidity, 

and get caught 

in and ingest 

marine debris.

Marine 

organisms 

may ingest or 

absorb harmful toxicants, 

be impacted by 

water turbidity, 

and get caught 

in and ingest 

marine debris.

Sustainable 

fishing practices maintain 

fish populations, reduce 

bycatch, 

and protect 

against habitat destruction.

Marine 

Protected Areas 

are areas 

that 

protect 

marine 

organisms and 

habitats.

Responsible 

construction 

and development practices help to 

maintain 

the integrity 

of coastal environments.

Overfishing 

and habitat 

destruction 

can be reduced 

by only buying 

and eating 

seafood caught 

through 

sustainable 

means.

Non-native species 

can be reduced with 

actions, such as not 

releasing unwanted 

water, plants, or 

animals collected 

from different 

ecosystems, and not 

dumping ballast 

water from boats.

People can 

support the 

regulation of 

construction 

to minimize 

its impact 

on coastal 

habitats.

Climate change 

can be reduced 

with actions, 

such as using energy efficient appliances, turning 

off lights, walking, bicycling, 

or using public 

transportation.

Pollution can 

be reduced 

in our ocean 

with actions, 

such as recycling, using 

biodegradeable products, and not 

littering.

GRADES 6 THROUGH 8
oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 57

Principle 7

A.3.

A.5. A.6. A.7. B.4.

A.4.

Less than 20% of the ocean is 

mapped, observed, and explored.

GRADES 6 THROUGH 8
58 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

Principle 7

Principle 7: The ocean is largely unexplored. 

People Explore the Ocean — A Ocean Exploration Requires Collaboration — B Ocean Exploration Requires 

Technological Innovations — C

Exploration leads to a better understanding of systems. Ocean exploration and the analysis of ocean systems require collaboration and sharing 

of information on many different levels: local, regional, national, and international. 

The ocean has physical properties, such as depth, pressure, light, 

temperature, and salinity, that make it difficult to explore. Less 

than 20% of the ocean is mapped, observed, and explored.

A1 B1 B5 B6 C1

There are many opportunities for ocean exploration, which can lead to scientific investigations. Ocean exploration requires people and 

organizations in different disciplines of science, 

technology, engineering, mathematics, and 

people who carry traditional knowledge, who 

may be located in different parts of the world, 

to collaborate and share information. 

Local, regional, 

and national 

governments 

play large roles in 

ocean exploration 

through regulation 

and funding. 

There are many 

environmental 

and community 

groups that play 

a role in raising 

awareness about 

the importance 

of ocean 

exploration. 

Exploration of the ocean requires equipment and instruments 

that can collect data and operate in environments 

that are vast, have high density, high salinity, extreme 

temperatures, and increased pressure due to depth.

A2 A5 A6 A7 A8 B2 B3 B4 B4 B4 C2 C3 C4 C5

Ocean explorers 

are discovering 

geographic areas, 

both on the surface 

and under water, 

as well as new 

physical, biological, 

and geochemical 

features of 

the ocean.

Exploration leads 

to advances in 

research that will 

help us better 

understand 

changes over time 

in the climate, the 

acidification of 

the ocean, and the 

health of the ocean.

New methods and 

technologies are 

being developed 

to utilize the 

ocean for mineral 

and biological 

resources, and 

as a source of 

energy (e.g., tidal 

power, wave 

power, and ocean 

thermal energy 

conversion).

New habitats and 

species continue 

to be discovered 

throughout 

the ocean.

The current exploration of 

ocean organisms is leading 

to new discoveries for 

human health and about 

our interconnectedness 

to the ocean.

The communication of 

accurate and 

timely information about 

new discoveries allows 

the public 

to make 

informed 

decisions 

that promote 

sustainability 

of the ocean.

People build 

their knowledge 

and skills 

in different 

disciplines, as 

their careers 

and/or hobbies. 

These careers 

can be in science, 

engineering, 

film, 

photography, 

architecture, 

fishing, and 

boating. 

Young people can 

influence and 

even participate 

in ocean exploration by working 

with scientists 

and environmental and community groups, by joining online virtual 

expeditions, and 

through communication with government officials.

Young people can 

influence and 

even participate in 

ocean exploration 

by working with 

scientists and 

environmental and 

community groups, 

by joining online 

virtual expeditions, 

and through 

communication 

with government 

officials.

Young people can 

influence and 

even participate 

in ocean exploration by working 

with scientists 

and environmental and community groups, by joining online virtual 

expeditions, and 

through communication with government officials.

Special equipment has been 

developed to 

enable humans 

to remain below 

the surface of 

the ocean for 

longer periods 

of time and at 

greater depths 

(e.g., wetsuits, 

SCUBA gear, and 

human-occupied 

submersibles). 

Submersibles, 

Remotely Operated Vehicles 

(ROVs) and 

Autonomously 

Operated Vehicles (AUVs), 

are tools used 

for prolonged 

exploration 

of the ocean. 

Acoustic 

technology, 

such as 

sonar, can 

be used to 

measure 

across 

large distances and 

to locate 

unique 

underwater features.

Ocean-observing 

systems use tools 

such as satellites, 

sensors, 

Geographic 

Information 

System (GIS), 

buoys, and 

acoustic 

equipment to 

study large areas 

of the ocean.

A3 A3 A3 A3 A9 A10 C6

Data gathered 

from advanced 

technology enables 

scientists to make 

better estimations 

and predictions 

of physical 

and biological 

phenomena.

Data gathered 

from advanced 

technology 

enables scientists 

to make better 

estimations 

and predictions 

of physical 

and biological 

phenomena.

Data gathered 

from advanced 

technology 

enables scientists 

to make better 

estimations 

and predictions 

of physical 

and biological 

phenomena.

Data gathered 

from advanced 

technology 

enables scientists 

to make better 

estimations 

and predictions 

of physical 

and biological 

phenomena.

There are 

many ways 

that humans 

benefit from 

discoveries 

about the 

ocean (e.g., cancer research, 

new medicines, 

energy).

There are 

many ways 

that human 

activities 

negatively 

impact the 

ocean that 

are not fully 

understood.

The data from 

these systems 

can be accessed 

over the Internet, 

which allows for 

remote, real-time 

exploration of 

the ocean. 

A4 A4 A4 A4

Looking at data 

over time allows 

us to better 

understand the 

complexity of 

and changing 

patterns in the 

ocean (e.g., noise 

pollution, weather, 

sea surface 

temperatures, 

and dead zones).

Looking at data 

over time allows us to better 

understand the 

complexity of and 

changing patterns 

in the ocean (e.g., 

noise pollution, 

weather, sea surface temperatures, 

and dead zones).

Looking at 

data over time 

allows us to better 

understand the 

complexity of and 

changing patterns 

in the ocean (e.g., 

noise pollution, 

weather, sea surface temperatures, 

and dead zones).

Looking at 

data over time 

allows us to better 

understand the 

complexity of and 

changing patterns 

in the ocean (e.g., 

noise pollution, 

weather, sea surface temperatures, 

and dead zones).

GRADES 6 THROUGH 8
Principle 1

oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 59

GRADES 9 THROUGH 12

the
60 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

Principle 1

Principle 1: Earth has one big ocean with many features.

The ocean, which covers 70% of Earth’s surface, is the defining feature of the planet.

Geologic Features — A Properties of Ocean Water — B Ocean Circulation — C Sea Level — D

Ocean basins are composed of the sea floor and all of its 

geological features; and vary in size, shape, and features 

due to the movement of Earth’s crust (the lithosphere). 

The properties of ocean water (e.g., 

salinity, conductivity, freezing point, 

density, pH) affect the biological and 

physical characteristics of the ocean.

Ocean water is in constant motion. Sea level is the average height of 

the ocean relative to the land.

A1 A2 B1 B2 Currents — C1 Water Cycle 

— C14 Waves — C15 Tides — C18 D1

Although the 

ocean is large, 

it is finite, and 

its resources 

are limited.

The lithosphere is broken up into 7 

major plates and many minor plates 

that are constantly being recycled.

Salinity, a measure 

of all the salts 

in the ocean 

(e.g., magnesium, 

sodium, calcium, 

chlorine, 

potassium), along 

with temperature, 

determines 

the density of 

ocean water.

The pH of ocean water 

is slightly basic, and is 

affected by the amount 

of carbonate ions 

dissolved in sea water.

Water circulates throughout the ocean due to wind-driven and density-driven currents. Water circulates 

between the ocean 

and atmosphere 

through the 

water cycle.

Waves are a disturbance of 

water that transfer a large 

amount of energy over a long 

distance, but with very little 

horizontal movement of water.

Tides are 

the periodic 

rise and fall 

of surface 

water level.

Sea level varies from place to 

place, and changes over time.

A3 B3 C2 C7 C16 C17 C19 D2 D4 D5

The sea floor spreads at ocean 

ridges, forming new oceanic 

crust. At subduction zones, older 

oceanic crust is pushed down 

into the mantle to be recycled.

Balance of pH is vital 

for the health of marine 

ecosystems, including 

coral reefs, and 

important in controlling 

how easily the ocean 

will absorb and buffer 

future increases 

in atmospheric 

carbon dioxide.

Wind-driven surface currents are directed in gyres by the Coriolis 

effect, prevailing winds, continents, and other currents.

Variations in temperature and salinity are responsible for density-driven 

(thermohaline) circulation, and lead to density layering in the ocean.

Wind 

generates 

waves through 

friction 

between the 

wind and the 

water. Seismic 

activity from 

earthquakes 

can also cause 

waves called 

tsunamis.

Waves break 

in deep water 

when they 

become too 

steep, or in 

shallow water 

near the shore 

when the wave 

height is large 

compared 

to the depth 

of water.

Tides are 

primarily 

caused by 

gravitational 

attraction of 

the sun and 

moon on Earth’s 

ocean, and by 

the spinning 

of Earth.

Differences 

in 

atmospheric 

pressure and 

prevailing 

winds affect 

the height of 

the sea level 

in different 

regions. 

The 

movement of 

lithospheric 

plates can 

change the 

volume 

of ocean 

basins and 

the height 

of the land.

Global 

temperature 

changes can 

bring about 

sea level 

change by 

causing ice 

caps to melt 

or grow, and 

by causing 

sea water to 

warm and 

expand, or cool 

and contract.

A4 A5 C3 C4 C5 C8 C11 C20 D3 D6

The type of 

tectonic activities 

(e.g., subduction 

or convergence) 

determine ocean 

floor features (e.g., 

islands, seamounts, 

trenches, midocean ridges, 

rift valleys).

Changes on the 

sea floor occur 

rapidly due to 

catastrophic 

events (e.g., 

earthquakes 

and volcanic 

eruptions) or 

over millions of 

years (e.g., sea 

floor spreading).

Surface currents 

affect subsurface 

currents 

(Eckman forces).

Ocean gyres spin clockwise 

in the northern hemisphere 

and counterclockwise in 

the southern hemisphere, 

bringing cold water from 

high latitudes to west coasts 

of continents and warm 

water to east coasts.

Prevailing winds 

combined with 

the Coriolis effect 

results in upwelling, 

which moves surface 

water offshore 

to be replaced by 

nutrient-rich water 

from below.

Saltier water is more dense 

than fresher water, and colder 

water is more dense than 

warmer water. Water that is 

more dense tends to sink. Water 

that is less dense tends to rise.

Thermohaline circulation acts 

like a global conveyor belt that 

moves ocean water within and 

throughout all of the ocean basins.

Tides change 

cyclically 

relative to the 

position of the 

moon, sun, 

and Earth.

Differences 

in the height 

of sea level is 

a factor that 

sets currents 

in motion.

Human impact 

on global 

climate has a 

direct impact 

on changing 

sea level.

A6 A6 C6 C9 C10 C12 C13

New Earth features, 

such as islands, 

are constantly 

forming and being 

destroyed because 

of tectonic activities.

New Earth 

features, such 

as islands, are 

constantly 

forming and 

being destroyed 

because 

of tectonic 

activities.

Upwelling results 

in high productivity, 

which is greatest 

along the west coast 

of continents and 

around Antarctica.

The most 

dense layers 

flow along 

the ocean 

floor and 

less dense 

layers are 

stratified 

above.

As warmer 

equatorial water 

moves toward the 

poles, it cools and 

becomes more 

dense, sinking 

as it approaches 

the poles.

Extensive mixing 

between ocean 

basins transports 

energy (heat) and 

matter (solids, gases, 

and other dissolved 

substances), and 

living organisms 

around the ocean.

Changes 

in ocean 

circulation 

have a large 

impact on the 

climate and 

cause changes 

in ecosystems.

GRADES 9 THROUGH 12
GRADES K THROUGH 2

oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 61

GRADES 9 THROUGH 12 Principle 2

Na, K.

These include C, P, N, S, O and many metals such as Fe, Zn, Ca, 

All life on Earth depends on phosphorus 

for important compounds, e.g., ATP, 

DNA, and phospholipids.

frustules, spines, and spicules.

Ocean trenches, island arcs, 

stratovolcanoes, and some 

mountain ranges are 

examples of geologic features 

associated with subduction. 

N2

CO2, H2CO3, HCO3, CO3, CH4

CaCO3

CO2

HPO4, PO4 NO3, NO2, NH4

N2

SiO2
62 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

Principle 2

Principle 2: The ocean and life in the ocean shape the features of Earth.

All matter on Earth cycles through various reservoirs: the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and lithosphere.

Rock Cycle and Plate Tectonics — A Biogeochemical Cycles — B

All the rocks on land will end up in the ocean due to weathering and erosion. The continual formation and breakdown of rocks constitutes the rock cycle. The ocean plays a major role in the biogeochemical cycles that are fundamental to life on Earth.

A1 A7 B1

Rocks are constantly being broken down and recycled through weathering, erosion, 

and processes associated with plate tectonics, such as subduction and uplift.

Rocks are constantly being formed through accretion, 

sedimentation, volcanism, and igneous processes.

All elements are present in ocean water at various concentrations. Many elements in the ocean are needed by all living organisms. These include 

C, P, N, S, O and many metals such as Fe, Zn, Ca, Na, K. Other elements (Si, Sr) are needed by some select organisms.

A2 A3 A8 A9 A10 Carbon Cycle — B2 Phosphorus Cycle — B12 Nitrogen Cycle — B19 Silica Cycle — B26

Many products of weathering 

and erosion enter the ocean via 

rivers and atmospheric deposition. All matter remains in 

the ocean for different lengths 

of time (residence times). 

Oceanic plates are more dense 

than continental plates and are 

subducted beneath continental plates 

when the two collide, causing the 

continental plates to be lifted.

Accretion is the process 

by which material is 

added to a tectonic plate 

through subduction 

and uplift, sea level 

change, and wave action.

Sedimentation in the ocean can 

occur by the process of material 

settling out of the water by gravity 

so it accumulates on the sea floor, or 

by the process of currents or waves 

moving material along the sea floor.

Volcanism at plate 

boundaries and within 

plates, as well as uplift and 

exposure of igneous and 

sedimentary rocks, creates 

new rock formations.

The ocean is the largest reservoir of rapidly 

cycling organic and inorganic carbon on Earth.

All life on Earth depends on phosphorus 

for important compounds, e.g., ATP, 

DNA, and phospholipids.

All life on Earth depends on nitrogen for amino 

acids and proteins. Most of the nitrogen (N) 

on Earth is in the atmosphere as N2, which 

cannot be used directly by most organisms.

Some oceanic organisms (e.g., diatoms, 

radiolarian, sponges) use silica to construct 

the hard parts of their body, such as 

tests, frustules, spines, and spicules.

A4 B3 B13 B20 B27

Subduction can result in the addition of 

oceanic rocks and sediments to the upper 

mantle or to the edge of the continent.

Carbon in the form of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere 

enters the ocean by diffusion, convective mixing, and 

bubble entrainment. Carbon is present in the ocean in 

dissolved inorganic (CO2, H2CO3, HCO3, CO3, CH4), organic 

(carbohydrates, lipids, amino acids), and in particulate 

forms (carbonate minerals and living and dead organisms).

Terrestrial weathering of rocks is the primary 

source of phosphorus (P) in the ocean.

Some bacteria (including some cyanobacteria) in 

the ocean can fix N2 in the atmosphere and convert 

it to organic forms at the cellular level, thus making 

nitrogen available to other marine organisms. 

Terrestrial weathering of rocks and volcanic 

eruptions are the primary sources of silica 

(Si) in the ocean. Rivers transport the silica 

weathered from rocks on land to the ocean.

A5 A6 B4 B7 B14 B21 B28

Ocean trenches, island 

arcs, stratovolcanoes, 

and some mountain 

ranges are examples of 

geologic features associated with subduction.

Some parts of the 

ocean (e.g. the 

Pacific Rim) are 

dominated by 

subducted plate 

boundaries.

Inorganic carbon is 

converted by photo- and 

chemoautotrophs to organic matter in the process of 

carbon fixation (e.g., photoand chemosynthesis.

Inorganic carbon dissolved in 

seawater is used by some organisms, such as corals, protozoa, and mollusks, to form 

calcium carbonate (CaCO3) 

shells and other skeletal parts.

Phosphorus (P) is present in the ocean in 

dissolved inorganic (HPO4, PO4) and organic 

forms (phospholipids, sugars) as well as in 

particulate forms (e.g., minerals, such as 

apatite), and living and dead organisms.

Nitrogen (N) is continuously transformed between 

various oxidation states (NO3, NO2, NH4) and compounds 

(amino acids, urea) in the ocean through biologicallymediated transformation processes, such as nitrogen 

fixation, nitrification, denitrification, assimilation, 

ammonification, and anaerobic ammonium oxidation.

Silica (Si) is present in the ocean in 

dissolved inorganic (SiO2) and particulate 

forms (clays and other materials from 

land and biogenic skeletal materials).

B5 B8 B15 B22 B29

Most of the organic carbon 

is converted back to 

inorganic carbon through 

the process of respiration.

Much of the calcium 

carbonate from shells 

dissolves in the deep ocean.

Phytoplankton and other primary producers take up phosphorus dissolved in seawater and convert it to biomass, 

which is consumed by heterotrophic organisms higher in 

the food chain. In the process of respiration and regeneration, dissolved and particulate organic phosphorus 

is converted back to dissolved inorganic forms. Upwelling brings inorganic phosphorus back to the surface.

Phytoplankton and other primary producers take up nitrogen dissolved in seawater and convert it to biomass, 

which is consumed by heterotrophic organisms higher 

in the food chain. In the process of respiration and regeneration, dissolved and particulate organic nitrogen 

is converted back to dissolved inorganic forms. Upwelling brings inorganic nitrogen back to the surface.

Most of the biogenic silica skeletal 

material is dissolved in the ocean after 

the organisms die, and is converted back 

to dissolved inorganic silica. Upwelling 

brings inorganic silica back to the surface.

B6 B9 B16 B23 B30

Some organic carbon 

sinks to the sea floor 

where it accumulates 

over time and may 

become fossil fuel.

Some calcium carbonate 

from shells and corals accumulates to form sedimentary 

rocks, i.e., limestone, chalk, 

and carbonate banks.

Some organic (e.g., lipids, sugars) and inorganic (e.g., 

minerals such as apatite) phosphorus accumulates in 

ocean sediments, where it undergoes transformations 

and, over time, becomes part of sedimentary rocks.

Some organic forms of nitrogen (e.g., lipids, sugars) 

accumulate in ocean sediments, where they become 

part of the organic matter in sedimentary rocks.

Some relatively small fractions of the biogenic 

silica accumulates in ocean sediments, where 

it undergoes transformations and, over time, 

becomes part of sedimentary rocks, such 

as chert, diatomite, and clay materials.

B10 B17 B24 B31

Uplift and accretion processes, as well as sea 

level changes, may relocate sedimentary rocks 

containing both organic and inorganic carbon onto 

land, where rocks can undergo weathering and 

erosion before eventually returning to the ocean.

Uplift and accretion processes, as well as sea level 

changes may relocate oceanic sedimentary rocks 

containing both organic and inorganic phosphorus 

onto land, where the rocks can undergo weathering 

and erosion before eventually returning to the ocean.

Uplift and accretion processes, as well as sea 

level changes may relocate oceanic sedimentary 

rocks containing nitrogen onto land, where 

the rocks can undergo weathering and erosion 

before eventually returning to the ocean.

Uplift and accretion processes, as well as sea 

level changes, may relocate oceanic sedimentary rocks containing silica onto land, where 

the rocks can undergo weathering and erosion 

before eventually returning to the ocean.

B11 B18 B25 B32

Anthropogenic burning of fossil fuels converts 

organic (petroleum) to inorganic carbon (CO2) and 

releases carbon back into the atmosphere, which 

affects the climate and pH balance of ocean water.

Anthropogenic loading of phosphorus to waterways, 

(e.g., rivers, runoff, lakes, and groundwater) 

from fertilizers and waste water reaches the 

ocean, where it becomes available to primary 

producers. Phosphorus may cause eutrophication 

(i.e., harmful algal blooms) and alter food webs.

Anthropogenic loading of nitrogen to waterways (e.g., 

rivers, runoff, lakes, and groundwater) and the atmosphere 

from fertilizers, waste water, and fossil fuel combustion, 

may reach the ocean, where it becomes available to 

primary producers. Nitrogen may cause eutrophication 

(i.e., harmful algal blooms) and alter food webs.

Anthropogenic activities that alter 

continental weathering rates (e.g., acid 

rain) and affect the global water cycle may 

change the flux of silica into the ocean.

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Principle 3

Principle 3: The ocean is a major influence on weather and climate.

The interaction of oceanic and atmospheric processes controls weather and climate by dominating Earth’s energy system.

Weather and Climate — A Global Climate Change — B Consequences of Global Climate Change — C

Global climate and weather are determined by energy transfer from the sun. Energy transfer from the sun is influenced by the 

ocean, the topography of the land, by processes such as cloud cover and Earth’s rotation, and other factors. 

Changes in the ocean/atmosphere system can result in changes to the climate. Changes to weather and climate, which result from changes to the ocean/atmosphere system, 

have physical, chemical, biological, economic, and social consequences. 

A1 B1 B9 C1 C2 C4 C6 C8

The ocean absorbs most of the solar radiation reaching Earth. Differential heating of Earth results in circulation patterns in the atmosphere and ocean that globally distribute the heat. Carbon-containing gases (e.g., carbon dioxide and methane) are exchanged between the ocean and the 

atmosphere. These gases are called greenhouse gases. The exchange of carbon is part of the carbon cycle.

Changes in climate 

can cause changes 

in ocean circulation 

patterns, which 

can cause further 

changes in climate.

Climate change 

may alter the 

frequency and 

intensity of 

hurricanes 

and cyclones.

Climate change 

may alter the 

frequency and 

intensity of El 

Niño and La 

Niña events.

Increased carbon 

dioxide in the 

atmosphere can 

lead to ocean 

acidification.

Climate change 

affects species 

distribution, 

productivity, 

and diversity 

in the ocean.

As the climate warms, the rate at which 

glaciers and ice caps melt increases.

A2 A5 A16 B2 B6 B10 C3 C5 C7 C9 C10 C11

The ocean’s absorption of heat 

moderates the global climate.

Heat exchange between the ocean and the atmosphere drives oceanic and atmospheric circulation and the water cycle. Seasonal and shortterm changes in 

ocean temperature 

can affect rainfall 

and temperature 

on land (i.e., the 

weather). Long-term 

changes in ocean 

temperature can 

affect the climate.

Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere create a greenhouse 

effect by trapping longwave radiation and preventing it 

from leaving Earth, thus contributing to the warming of 

the atmosphere. The ocean removes and stores atmospheric 

carbon dioxide through biological and chemical 

activity that mediates the global greenhouse effect.

The ocean and atmosphere are in dynamic equilibrium related 

to carbon fluctuation. Excess carbon input into the atmosphere, 

including that from human activity, changes this equilibrium.

Feedback loops can 

amplify the effects of a 

change in one component of the climate 

system, influencing the 

equilibrium of the entire 

Earth system. These 

complex interactions 

may result in climate 

change that is more 

rapid and on a larger 

scale than projected by 

current climate models.

More frequent 

and/or intense 

El Niño and La 

Niña events may 

have worldwide economic 

impacts, e.g., 

collapse of fisheries, decreased 

agricultural 

production, etc.

Ocean acidification 

may alter biological 

activity, including 

inhibiting the 

ability of organisms to form 

shells, bones and 

exoskeletons, and 

may also dissolve 

these structures.

Climate change 

is changing 

ocean temperature, which can 

result in ecosystem changes, 

such as coral 

bleaching and 

redistributions 

of commercially valuable 

species.

As glaciers and ice 

caps melt, sea level 

rises. Rising sea 

level can inundate 

coastal regions 

and low-lying 

islands, destroying 

habitats and submerging ecosystems and human 

communities.

Ice reflects a 

large amount of 

heat from the 

sun back into the 

atmosphere. When 

ice melts, less heat 

is reflected back 

into the atmosphere, 

further warming 

the land and 

causing more 

ice to melt.

An increase in 

melting ice may 

cause a decrease 

in regional 

salinity. This can 

change ocean 

circulation. 

A3 A4 A4 A6 A8 A13 B3 B4 B5 B4 B5 B7 B8 B11

The weather 

along coastlines 

is generally more 

moderate than 

inland regions due 

to the greater heat 

capacity of the ocean.

Ocean 

currents 

move heat 

throughout the 

ocean 

basins.

Ocean currents move 

heat throughout the ocean 

basins.

Heating of Earth’s surface 

and atmosphere by the sun 

drives circulation of the 

upper layers of the ocean.

Heat exchange between the ocean and atmosphere can 

result in dramatic global and regional weather phenomena, 

including impacting patterns of rain and drought.

Heat stored in the tropical 

ocean provides energy 

for weather, including 

hurricanes, cyclones, 

and polar storms.

Carbon dioxide is 

taken up by phytoplankton through 

photosynthesis.

Ocean absorption of 

carbon dioxide may 

produce carbonic acid, 

which increases the 

acidity of the ocean.

An increase 

in greenhouse gases 

contributes 

to excessive 

warming of the 

atmosphere.

Ocean absorption of 

carbon dioxide 

may produce 

carbonic acid, 

which increases 

the acidity of 

the ocean.

An increase 

in greenhouse 

gases contributes to excessive warming of the 

atmosphere.

A primary 

source of excess 

carbon dioxide 

is burning 

fossil fuels.

Deforestation reduces 

the amount of photosynthesis, increasing the 

amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Changes in ocean 

circulation have 

produced large, 

abrupt changes in 

climate during the 

last 50,000 years.

A7 A9 A14

Differential heating causes 

vertical convection in the 

atmosphere, which helps drive 

horizontal wind patterns. 

Those wind patterns transfer 

energy to the ocean through 

surface wind stress, which 

drives the upper layer circulation patterns in the ocean.

El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and La Niña events are significant examples of global ocean/atmosphere phenomena, and 

cause important changes in global weather patterns because 

they alter the sea surface temperature patterns in the Pacific.

Most precipitation that 

falls on land evaporated 

from the tropical ocean

A10 A11

The increase in sea surface 

temperature increases atmospheric convection, changing 

patterns of rainfall and drought.

El Niño and La Niña

events affect ocean 

ecological communities.

A12

El Niño and La Niña events 

can affect terrestrial processes, such as fire frequency, drought, flooding, etc. 

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Principle 4 GRADES 9 THROUGH 12

Principle 4: The ocean makes Earth habitable.

Oxygen Production — A Origins of Life — B

The accumulation of oxygen in Earth’s atmosphere through photosynthesis was necessary for life to develop and be sustained on land. Life started in the ocean and the earliest evidence 

of life is found in ancient ocean sediments.

A1 A9 B1

All oxygen gas came originally from photosynthetic organisms in the ocean. Photosynthesis produces oxygen gas 

and is balanced by a loss of oxygen gas 

through respiration, decay of organisms, 

and oxidation of exposed minerals. The 

burial of some dead organisms in the sea 

floor sediments prevents their decay and 

keeps atmospheric oxygen near 20%. 

The millions of different species of organisms on Earth 

today are related by descent from common ancestors 

that evolved in the ocean and continue to evolve today. 

A2 A10 B2 B4

About 3 billion years ago, cyanobacteria, with the ability to use sunlight, water, and 

gases to synthesize organic molecules, produced oxygen gas as a waste product.

There is no steady state of oxygen gas on 

geological time scales. Oxygen and carbon 

dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere 

change within relatively wide limits, 

controlled by a combination of biological, geological, and chemical processes. 

The fossil record of ancient 

lifeforms provides evidence 

for the theory of evolution 

and the important role 

the ocean played in the 

evolution of life on Earth. 

One dominant theory 

about the evolution of early 

lifeforms (prokaryotes) is that 

they evolved about 3.5 billion 

years ago near a hydrothermal 

vent in the ocean.

A3 A4 B3 B5

Until about 2.5 billion years 

ago, the majority of oxygen 

gas produced through 

photosynthesis was consumed 

in the process of oxidizing 

reduced compounds, forming 

vast sedimentary deposits, 

and changing the chemistry 

of the ocean and sediments. 

Dissolved oxygen started to accumulate in the ocean when 

much of the free reduced compounds were oxidized. 

The first multicellular 

organisms to invade land 

from the ocean were plants, 

followed by arthropods. 

Later, organisms, such as 

lobe-finned fishes, started 

moving between the shallows 

and the land. These fishes 

evolved into amphibians.

Most living organisms, 

including all animals, plants, 

fungi, and protists, are 

eukaryotes that evolved 

from prokaryotes. 

A5 A7

The accumulation of oxygen in the 

ocean allowed for the development 

of aerobic bacteria that used oxygen 

in a new biochemical pathway, 

producing ATP more efficiently. 

Between 2.3 and 2.4 billion years 

ago, the oxygen concentration in the 

ocean was high enough that it started 

to escape and accumulate in the 

atmosphere, where it formed ozone, 

blocking much of the UV radiation 

from reaching Earth’s surface.

A6 A8

This energy efficient biological 

pathway that developed in aerobic 

bacteria, along with oxygen in the 

ocean, allowed for the development 

of complex oceanic eukaryotic 

cells about 2 billion years ago.

Multicellular life, which requires 

high oxygen levels, developed about 

1 billion years ago. By 550 million 

years ago, free oxygen and ozone 

levels were high enough to allow the 

development of terrestrial organisms. 
oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 67

GRADES 9 THROUGH 12

B.6.

B.7. B.10. B.11.

B.8. B.12. B.9.

webs

Principle 5, Part 1
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’

Principle 5, Part 2 GRADES 9 THROUGH 12
GRADES K THROUGH 2

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GRADES 9 THROUGH 12

have

Principle 5, Part 3
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Principle 5

Principle 5: The ocean supports a great diversity of life and ecosystems.

The ocean provides a vast, interconnected living space with diverse and unique ecosystems from the surface through the water column and down to the sea floor.

Primary Productivity — A Ecosystem Diversity — B Diversity of Life — C

Microbes, such as cyanobacteria and phytoplankton, are the most abundant lifeforms, and the most important primary producers in the ocean. They are the base of most of the food webs in the ocean. Ocean ecosystems are defined by environmental factors and the community of organisms living there. The diversity of ocean ecosystems allows for many lifeforms and adaptations of ocean organisms.

Phyletic Diversity — C1 Diverse Adaptations to Environmental Factors — C22 Diversity of Feeding Behaviors — C37 Diversity of Life Cycles and Reproductive Strategies — C44

The diversity of phyla is greater in the ocean than on land, and includes a range of organisms, from the smallest living things (microbes) to the largest animal on Earth (blue whale). Organisms in the ocean exhibit a wide variety of adaptations to survive in a watery environment. Many marine organisms have adaptations for feeding, capturing prey, and avoiding predators. Organisms in the ocean have a variety of reproductive strategies and life cycles.

A1 A7 B1 B6 C2 C8 C19 C23 C25 C27 C29 C31 C33 C38 C40 C42 C45 C47 C51 C53 C55

Primary production is the net gain in organic matter that occurs when 

producers make more organic matter than they use in respiration.

Chlorophyll, the green pigment 

found in microbes, algae, and 

other photosynthetic organisms, 

absorbs energy from sunlight; and 

together with carbon dioxide (inorganic carbon) and water, converts 

and stores chemical energy in the 

form of glucose (organic carbon).

Ocean life is not evenly distributed through time or space due to differences in 

abiotic factors such as oxygen, salinity, temperature, pH, light, nutrients, pressure, 

substrate, and circulation. A few regions of the ocean support the most abundant 

life on Earth, while the vast majority of the ocean does not support much life.

Ocean ecosystems are often composed of habitats and microhabitats that exist 

in distinct, vertically distributed zones. Vertical zonation exists as distinct 

horizontal layers or bands on the coastline and throughout the water column.

The first forms of life started in the ocean and 

evolved into the phyla seen today.

Most of the organisms and biomass in the ocean are small prokaryote and eukaryote microbes, which are the basis of all ocean food webs. The ocean supports larger 

animals than on land due 

to its unique physical and 

biological characteristics.

There are varying levels of light in 

the ocean. Some ocean organisms 

have adaptations that allow them 

to stay near the sunlit surface. 

These adaptations allow some to 

photosynthesize (e.g., phytoplankton, kelp) and others to stay near 

their food source (e.g., zooplankton).

The ocean acts as a filter, and allows 

different wavelengths of light to penetrate to different depths: red, yellow, 

and orange wavelengths are filtered out 

in shallow water; green and blue light 

penetrate the deepest. The color of some 

organisms is a feature that allows them 

to be camouflaged at different depths.

Since sound travels through 

the ocean further and 

faster than light does, many 

marine animals, from 

shrimp to whales, rely on 

sound to communicate, 

find prey and mates, and 

sense their environments.

Some ocean organisms have adaptations 

for living in or diving 

to the deep ocean.

Marine organisms have 

adaptations that allow 

them to osmoregulate in a 

saltwater environment.

Marine organisms are adapted to live within particular 

ecosystems in a relatively stable ocean where there 

are only small fluctuations in pH and temperature.

Some marine organisms have 

strategies and/or structures for 

finding food in the vast ocean where 

there is: varied abundance of food 

in specific locations like in coastal 

regions and upwelling zones; or 

scarcity of food in large expanses 

like the open ocean and deep sea.

Marine organisms have strategies and/or structures for 

capturing food in a watery 

environment where: food 

may be suspended in the water column; the organism has 

to contend with the fluid friction of water and buoyancy.

Some marine organisms have symbiotic 

relationships that help 

them acquire energy.

Marine organisms have different lifestyles (i.e., planktonic, 

nektonic, benthic), and many transition between lifestyles as part 

of their life cycle, which allows them to survive in different

ecosystems at different stages in their development. This is advantageous for a variety of reasons, such as: juveniles accessing 

different resources than adults (e.g., food and space); limiting 

competition between juveniles and adults; decreased predation rates on, and increased available nutrients for, juveniles.

Marine organisms have a range of life cycles and reproductive modes from 

simple, asexual reproduction to complex sexual reproduction, and some species shift between asexual and sexual (alternation of generation).

Reproductive strategies 

of marine organisms 

tend to be related to 

population density of 

the species, and thus 

are connected to mate 

competition and chances 

of finding mates.

Marine organisms have 

strategies for finding mates 

and maximizing fertilization 

of eggs in the vast ocean.

Marine organisms have strategies for 

maximizing survival and dispersal of 

offspring that have a range of parental 

care levels, thus the strategies entail 

different amounts of energy resources 

and investments from the parents.

A2 A6 B2 B7 B10 B11 C3 C5 C9 C13 C20 C21 C24 C26 C28 C30 C32 C34 C39 C41 C43 C46 C48 C49 C50 C52 C54 C56

Nutrients, such as minerals and vitamins, are needed 

to convert glucose into other organic material used 

to grow and reproduce. Some of the most important 

nutrients for producers in the ocean include: nitrogen (especially nitrate), phosphate, silicate, and iron. 

Nitrogen is often the nutrient in shortest supply.

Organisms 

that do not 

make their 

own food (heterotrophs) are 

dependent on 

the primary 

producers 

(autotrophs) to 

get the energy 

and matter 

they need 

to survive.

Ocean ecosystems with the greatest abundance of life occur where environmental conditions and/or adaptations allow for high levels of productivity.Zonation patterns occur in part 

because ocean organisms are 

adapted to live within specific 

environmental conditions.

Ocean ecosystems 

are connected to 

each other in a macro 

food web. Over time, 

organisms move 

from one ecosystem 

to another as they 

grow, migrate, and 

die. Changes in an 

ecosystem or an 

organism may have 

unpredictable effects 

on other ecosystems.

Ocean ecosystems support a 

large number of niches — the 

range of environmental conditions, including physical 

(e.g., temperature, depth) and 

biological (e.g., competitors, 

predators) under which an 

organism can live, and its 

role in the ecosystem (e.g., 

what it does and what it eats).

The first vertebrates 

to evolve were 

fish. Fish are the 

most numerous 

vertebrates in 

terms of species 

and individuals.

The majority of phyla that exist on Earth 

are still found exclusively in the ocean. 

These include seaweeds, echinoderms, 

ctenophores, urochordates (tunicates), and 

most sponges and cnideria. There is only 

one phylum that exists uniquely on land.

Prokaryote microbes are the most numerous ocean organisms. There are many diverse groups of eukaryote microbes including unicellular algae (phytoplankton) and fungi.Seawater is 

denser than 

air, and thus 

supports 

animals 

with much 

greater mass.

The great 

productivity of 

particular places in the ocean, 

such as upwelling zones and 

polar regions, 

can support 

organisms 

larger than 

those that can 

exist on land.

Plankton have features, such 

as oil droplets, spines, cilia, 

flagella, and/or a large surface area to volume ratio.

Even in relatively shallow water, 

many red organisms appear 

gray and are camouflaged.

Many large whales use 

low-frequency sound to 

communicate across entire 

ocean basins. Many toothed 

whales use echolocation to 

find and/or capture prey. 

Pistol shrimps use blasts 

of sound to shock prey.

Some marine mammals 

have many adaptations 

for deep diving, such 

as breath holding, 

slowing their heart rate, 

reducing blood flow to 

non-vital organs, and increasing oxygen storage. 

Many organisms use bioluminescence to find or 

attract prey and mates, 

and escape predators.

The body fluids of many marine 

organisms, including most 

fish, are more dilute than the 

surrounding seawater, so they 

tend to lose water by osmosis. To 

compensate, fish drink seawater 

and excrete salt through their 

gills and urine. Other organisms 

change the amount of ions in 

their body to match the salinity 

in the environment, (e.g., sharks 

regulate urea in their blood to 

match the ocean's salinity).

Small changes in temperature and pH due to human activities can affect an organism's survival 

and biological diversity, (e.g., coral bleaching 

due to increased temperature and inhibition of 

shell formation due to ocean acidification).

For exploiting patchy distribution of 

food, some strategies include: migrating long distances (e.g., Gray whales, 

chambered nautili, and zooplankton); 

and having fat reserves (e.g., marine 

mammals and sea birds). For surviving in environments where prey are 

hard to find, some strategies include: 

having large stomachs and mouths 

(e.g., deep-sea hatchet fish and gulper 

eels) to take advantage of prey when 

they find it; and hydrodynamic tuna 

that chase down prey at high speeds.

These strategies include: 

catching food in suspension 

(e.g., cnidarians, crinoids); 

filtering large quantities of 

water to strain out smaller organisms (e.g., baleen in whales, 

siphons in clams, modified 

legs in barnacles); and having 

strong muscles or fast reflexes 

to chase down and snatch 

prey (e.g., fast swimming 

tuna and marlin, tentacles 

of squids and octopuses).

Dinoflagellates called zooxanthellae live in the tissues of 

coral polyps. Coral gets sugars 

and oxygen from photosynthesis by the zoxanthellae 

and the zooxanthellae gets 

carbon dioxide, nutrients 

and shelter from the coral. 

Other examples of mutualism 

include clown fish living 

among anemone tentacles 

and cleaner fish removing 

parasites from other fish.

Some examples of these changes between lifestyles 

include: benthic adult crabs in the intertidal with 

a juvenile planktonic larval form; and sessile 

adult mollusks with a planktonic larval form.

Some common forms of 

asexual reproduction 

among marine organisms include: splitting 

or fission (e.g., anemones) and budding (e.g., 

sponges). Organisms 

that reproduce asexually can have extremely 

fast growth rates under 

favorable environmental conditions 

(e.g., microbes, algae).

Some marine organisms have alternation 

of generations, switching between sexual 

and asexual reproduction each generation 

(e.g., jellyfish, seaweed). For seaweeds, diploid sporophyte generation produces haploid spores through meiosis, and a haploid 

gametophyte generation produces haploid 

gametes. The fertilized gametes produce 

the sporophyte. In some green and brown 

algae, the gametophyte and the sporophyte look identical, while in kelps the 

large organism we see is the sporophyte. 

The kelp gametophyte is microscopic.

Sexual reproduction may 

involve separate males 

and females; or switching 

between male and female or 

vice versa or have both male 

and female reproductive 

organs simultaneously (i.e., 

hermaphroditic). Some hermaphroditic species change 

sex in response to age, population changes, and shifts in 

environmental factors (e.g., 

brittlestars, coral reef fish).

In places with high-population density, where there 

is high mate competition, 

organisms may change 

sex (e.g., blue head wrasse) 

or have multiple mates 

(e.g., squid). In places with 

low-population density, 

organisms may be monogamous (e.g., pelagic species 

like mahimahi), or develop 

parasitic relationships (e.g., 

anglerfish and isopods).

These strategies include: using

multiple environmental cues, such as

day length, tidal cycles, seasonal variations in current patterns, to synchronize their breeding or spawning cycles 

(e.g., grunions, elephant seals, and 

butterfly fish). For species that have external fertilization, females and males

produce millions of eggs and sperms

(e.g., sea urchins, squids); and for deep

sea and pelagic species, producing

bioluminescent signals to attract

mates (e.g., some pelagic octopuses).

These strategies include: releasing millions 

of eggs and sperm into the water (broadcast 

spawning), which offers no parental care, but 

increases probability for survival and dispersal 

of offspring by ocean currents (e.g., clams, corals, 

and most fish); brooding young inside male or 

female adults or defending patches of fertilized 

eggs, which offers some parental care (e.g., 

seahorse, octopus, some sharks, and surf perch); 

and intense parental care where one or both 

parents invest tremendous energy to nurture 

young until they are large enough to fend for 

themselves (e.g., marine mammals, sea birds).

A3 A4 B3 B4 B5 B8 B9 B12 C4 C6 C7 C10 C11 C12 C14 C16 C18 C35 C36

Most of the nutrients needed for 

primary productivity come from 

nutrient recycling. Nitrogen, 

phosphorus, and other nutrients 

in organic molecules, such as 

proteins and nucleic acids, are 

released when organisms die 

and are decomposed by bacteria.

Some of the organic matter 

produced by primary 

producers sinks below the 

sunlit surface zone, carrying 

nutrients to the deep.

Coastal habitats, such as estuaries and kelp forests, support a 

great diversity and number of 

organisms, which is due in part 

to: abundant sunlight and current patterns (e.g., upwelling, 

which brings nutrients to the 

surface, and nutrients flowing 

into the ocean from rivers).

There are deep ocean ecosystems that are independent 

of energy from sunlight and 

photosynthetic organisms. 

Hydrothermal vents, submarine hot springs, and methane 

cold seeps rely only on chemical energy and chemosynthetic organisms to support life.

Coral reefs, one of the most diverse 

ecosystems on Earth, thrive in nutrient-poor, warm waters because 

of a symbiotic relationship between 

corals and zooxanthellae, a type 

of dinoflagellate. This relationship 

enables corals to grow, forming 

substrates that are the foundation 

of complex reef ecosystems.

Many intertidal organisms are adapted 

to survive in zones 

defined by tidal 

cycles (amount of 

time exposed to air), 

crashing waves, predation, or substrate.

Many open 

ocean organisms 

are adapted to 

live only within 

distinct density 

layers or in 

zones defined 

by pressure or 

light levels.

Niches in the ocean are in a very 

dynamic environment, contributing to the high diversity seen 

in this ecosystem, e.g., sudden 

upwelling events create an environment conducive to the survival of a different set of organisms than were present prior to 

the influx of nutrient-rich water.

Some major groups 

left the ocean and 

evolved further on 

land. Some members 

of those groups later 

returned to the ocean, 

such as mammals, 

reptiles, birds, and 

flowering plants.

All major groups of invertebrates have marine representatives, and many only 

live in marine environments. 

Except for the insects, most 

invertebrate species and thus 

most animals, are marine. 

At least 97% of all species of 

animals are invertebrates.

Seaweeds are 

eukaryotes, multicellular photosynthetic 

organisms that have 

no seeds, and lack 

true roots and leaves. 

There are three phyla of seaweeds: green, 

brown, and red.

Some bacteria 

and archaea are 

chemosynthetic 

primary producers, 

and make their own 

food from chemical 

compounds, such as 

hydrogen sulfide at 

hydrothermal vents.

Most marine bacteria are 

heterotrophs that break 

down detritus and recycle 

essential nutrients back 

into the environment. 

Some symbiotic bacteria 

are responsible for the 

bioluminescence of some 

deep sea fish and squid.

Photosynthetic bacteria, 

called cyanobacteria, 

are thought to have 

made most of the oxygen 

in the atmosphere. 

Cyanobacteria were the 

first photosynthetic organisms, and still produce 

much of Earth's oxygen.

Dinoflagellates are phytoplankton that have animal-like 

features, such as flagella, and can 

ingest food as heterotrophs. Some 

of these organisms cause red tides 

and bioluminescence. Some, 

called zooxanthellae, have 

symbiotic relationships with 

organisms such as corals.

Diatoms are phytoplankton 

that produce a huge amount 

of the carbon and oxygen 

produced on Earth. Diatoms 

have cell walls made of glasslike silica. The ocean floor is 

covered by vast deposits of 

these siliceous sediments.

There are many 

species of marine fungi and 

they are mostly 

microbes. Most 

of these are 

decomposers.

Shelled organisms use calcium 

carbonate to construct shells and 

skeletons, relying on the abundant 

carbonate ions usually available in 

ocean water. As ocean pH decreases, 

the concentration of available carbonate ions also decreases, and carbonate 

from shells dissolves into the ocean 

water, leading to thinning shells.

Small increases in 

temperature can 

lead to coral bleaching as the symbiotic 

algae (zooxanthellae) living inside the 

coral polyp leave 

resulting in the 

death of the coral.

A5 A5 C15 C17

There is a direct relationship 

between primary productivity, 

current patterns, and upwelling. The highest levels of primary productivity are near the 

polar regions and in upwelling 

zones where there are high levels of nutrients and sunshine.

There is a direct relationship 

between primary productivity, current patterns, and 

upwelling. The highest levels of 

primary productivity are near 

the polar regions and in upwelling zones where there are high 

levels of nutrients and sunshine.

Coastal pollution can cause 

an increase in the numbers 

of some dinoflagellates, 

leading to disease in humans 

and marine organisms.

Some diatoms are harmful, 

including those that produce domoic acid, which accumulates in shellfish and 

fish and may lead to death 

in mammals that eat them.

GRADES 9 THROUGH 12
GRADES K THROUGH 2

oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 71

GRADES 9 THROUGH 12 Principle 6
72 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

Principle 6 GRADES 9 THROUGH 12

Principle 6: The ocean and humans are inextricably interconnected.

Use of the Ocean — A Where People Live — B Weather Impacts People — C Human Impact on the Ocean and Atmosphere — D Responsibility and Advocacy for the Ocean — E

The ocean is essential to the existence of human life on Earth. People choose to live in coastal areas for many reasons. Changes in the current patterns in the ocean can affect climate and weather. The exponential growth of human populations, together with technological advances, have exacerbated changes in the ocean and atmosphere. Achieving sustainability of the diverse ecosystems and resources in the ocean depends upon collective and individual action based on scientific research and exploration.

A1 B1 B3 B4 B5 C1 C2 D1 D7 D11 D15 E1 E2 E6

The ocean has an incredible array of renewable and non-renewable resources that humans use The ocean is a 

continuous body of 

water connecting 

all the land 

masses, which in 

turn facilitates 

exploration, 

transportation, 

and commerce.

Coastal 

areas 

provide 

moderate 

weather 

and 

climate.

Coastal areas 

provide 

opportunities 

for recreation, 

inspiration, and 

rejuvenation.

Coastal areas 

are a source 

for cultural 

heritage.

Changes in the weather and climate affect 

biodiversity, migration patterns, and fisheries, 

which may also adversely affect people. 

Hurricanes, typhoons, 

tsunamis, and the rising 

sea level may adversely 

affect humans living 

along or near the coastline.

Human activity contributes to global climate change. Humans contribute to some of the topographical 

changes of areas, such as beaches, bays, 

wetlands, the sea floor, and coral reefs.

Humans contribute to biological changes of ocean ecosystems. Humans contribute to biochemical changes in ocean ecosystems. The ocean 

historically has 

been seen as a 

common area: 

an inexhaustible 

resource exploited 

by many, but 

protected by no one.

Planning and action on a global, regional, and local 

level can result in enforceable regulations, laws, and 

accords aimed toward environmental sustainability.

It is important for the public to learn about the issues regarding the ocean and to take action.

A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 B2 B6 C3 D2 D4 D8 D9 D9 D12 E3 E7 E9 E14

Technology has 

enabled marine 

fisheries and 

aquaculture 

to produce 

increased 

amounts of food 

for humans.

The ocean provides 

most of the fresh 

water on Earth, and 

photosynthetic 

organisms in the ocean 

provide most of the 

oxygen on Earth.

Many of our medicines, 

chemicals (e.g., salt), 

and food products are 

extracted or derived 

from a variety of 

ocean life, including 

bacteria, algae, sponges, 

and fish products. 

Energy resources 

and raw materials 

are extracted 

from the sea floor, 

including mineral 

ores, crude oil, 

and natural gas.

Increased human population, 

and thus increased demand 

for resources, as well as 

improved technology, are 

having environmental, 

social, and ecological 

implications on the ocean.

The ocean supports 

the global economy 

and offers a host 

of opportunities 

for careers in 

commercial realms, 

recreation, and 

scientific research.

Cultural 

exchange has 

occurred, and 

continues to 

occur, as ships 

carry people 

across the ocean.

More effective global 

communication can 

provide warning to 

cities and remote areas, 

allowing sufficient time 

to minimize the effects 

of natural disasters on 

human populations.

Activities such as burning fossil 

fuels, the decay of organic waste 

in landfills, and the emission of 

hydrofluorocarbons in industrial 

processes input more greenhouse 

gases into the atmosphere than are 

being removed (i.e., being absorbed 

into the ocean, or taken up by trees).

Human actions have increased the effect of natural hazards. Topography is 

altered by activities 

such as blast fishing, 

the construction 

of dams, jetties, 

and landfills, and 

the drainage 

of wetlands.

The deliberate alteration of 

the ocean and/or terrestrial 

topography can have negative 

impacts on marine ecosystems.

The deliberate alteration of the ocean and/

or terrestrial topography can have negative 

impacts on marine ecosystems.

Ocean ecosystems are altered by activities that change 

symbiotic and predator/prey relationships.

Many marine resources are renewable with protection, 

regulation, education, and support for the ocean.

Mass education about the 

ocean (e.g., through the 

media, and both formal 

and informal means) can 

help people understand 

the relevance of the 

ocean to their own lives 

and future, and that of 

future generations.

Education helps people understand the impact of their personal choices in order to make informed decisions. Concerned citizens, 

including young people, 

can form community 

groups on a grassroots 

level to educate, conserve, 

and restore coastal 

and marine habitats.

D3 D5 D6 D10 D10 D13 D14 D16 D17 D18 D19 E4 E5 E8 E10 E11 E12 E13

Thermal expansion of water 

and melting ice caps raises the 

sea level, which could displace 

a large fraction of the world’s 

coastal populations and cause 

changes in ocean current 

patterns, affecting climate.

These human actions 

have increased the effects 

of storm surges, and the 

intensity and number of 

hurricanes and tunamis.

These human actions have 

intensified the effects of forest 

fires and droughts inland.

Some of these impacts 

include sedimentation that 

block coral growth, the loss 

of essential fish habitats, 

the disruption of migration 

routes, and loss of breeding 

and nesting areas for marine 

mammals, birds, and turtles.

Some of these impacts include sedimentation 

that block coral growth, the loss of essential 

fish habitats, the disruption of migration 

routes, and loss of breeding and nesting areas 

for marine mammals, birds, and turtles.

Activities, such as the introduction of invasive 

species through bilge water, aquarium trade, and 

poorly managed aquaculture and fisheries alter 

predator/prey relationships, which destabilizes 

food webs and leads to a loss of biodiversity.

Human activities that increase 

ocean temperature disrupt 

relationships between organisms, 

such as symbiotic relationships 

between coral and zooxanthellae.

Increased carbon emissions into the atmosphere 

from factories and automobiles lead to increased 

carbon dioxide uptake by the ocean. This 

process results in a decrease of pH of ocean 

water, known as ocean acidification, and leads 

to changes in organisms and ecosystems, such 

as shell thinning and disrupting food webs.

Biomagnification 

of toxic substances 

leads to the 

decreased fitness 

of organisms, 

which disrupts 

ecosystems.

Activities, such as the use 

of nitrogen-based fertilizer, 

the improper disposal of pet 

waste, and use of phosphorouscontaining detergents, can 

dramatically impact the 

biological health of coastal 

ecosystems (e.g., phosphorous 

build up, eutrophication, 

and algal blooms).

Rapid growth of 

some algae and 

dinoflagellates is 

responsible for the 

poisoning of marine 

birds, mammals, 

and humans, as well 

as the smothering 

of coral.

There are laws that 

establish protected 

areas such as Marine 

Protected Areas and 

marine reserves.

There are state and federal 

laws that regulate activities 

such as fishing, polluting, 

dumping sewage, emitting air 

pollutants, and oil drilling.

There are programs that 

offer consumer information 

about sustainably 

harvested seafood and 

other marine products.

Air pollution and excess greenhouse 

gases can be reduced through 

simple actions, such as turning off 

electronics to use less electricity, 

walking and biking instead of 

driving, carefully sealing and 

insulating homes, and using energy 

efficient appliances and light bulbs.

Biological and biochemical changes 

can be reduced through actions, 

such as eliminating the input of 

chemicals and other pollutants 

into our watersheds, not dumping 

into storm drains, not littering, 

using phosphorous- free detergents, 

and investing in biodegradeable 

household and gardening products.

Overfishing and the 

destruction of marine 

habitats can be reduced 

through actions, such as 

only buying and eating 

sustainably caught seafood 

and by respecting No Take 

Marine Protected Areas.

Compliance with 

regulations and 

laws concerning 

the protection of 

the ocean is a vital 

part of conserving 

marine resources.
GRADES K THROUGH 2

oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 73

GRADES 9 THROUGH 12 Principle 7

B.5.

C.9. C.16. C.17.

B.4. C.6.

C.7. C.14. C.22.

C.15.

C.11. C.13. C.18. C.19. C.20.

C.21.

A.6.

A.5.

A.4.

B.2. B.3. B.6. C.2. C.5.

C.3. C.4. C.8. C.10. C.12.
74 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

Principle 7

Principle 7: The ocean is largely unexplored.

People Explore the Ocean — A Ocean Exploration Requires Collaboration — B Ocean Exploration Requires Technological Innovations — C

Exploration leads to a better understanding of ocean systems. Ocean exploration involves collaboration of people in different careers, disciplines, countries, and organizations, which include universities, research Institutes, government agencies, and private industries. The ocean covers 70% of Earth, but less than 20% of it has been mapped, observed, and explored. This is due to extreme physical properties of the ocean that make exploration difficult, e.g., temperature, light, salinity, depth, vastness, and pressure. The ability to explore and observe the ocean depends on the development and use of new technologies, all of which have strengths and limitations.

A1 B1 B4 B5 C1 C6 

There are many opportunities for ocean exploration, which can lead to hypothesis-generated science. People in different countries with knowledge and skills in a 

diverse range of careers and disciplines propose ideas and 

develop methods for exploring and understanding the ocean.

Understanding the ocean requires the use of data and technologies 

from many domains of knowledge, such as computer science, 

engineering, biology, geology, chemistry, and physics.

Political, social, and scientific engagement on both national 

and international levels can affect the opportunity for, 

awareness of, and future directions of ocean exploration.

Scientific models and simulations are used to describe, manipulate, and experiment with ocean systems, in order to better 

understand these systems and their interactions, interconnections, and interdependence. 

Tools and technologies have been developed and deployed both in outer and inner space to collect a wide variety of data from ocean systems over time and geographic location. 

A2 A3 A6 A7 B2 B3 B3 B3 B6 C2 C5 C7 C14 C22 

Since 1970, the use of ocean 

resources has increased 

significantly. The sustainability 

of ocean resources therefore 

depends on our understanding 

of the potential and limitations 

of those resources 

New methods and technologies 

are being developed to utilize the 

ocean for mineral and biological 

resources, and as a source of energy 

(e.g., tidal power, wave power, and 

ocean thermal energy conversion). 

New habitats and species 

continue to be discovered 

throughout the ocean.

Current exploration of ocean organisms is 

leading to new discoveries for human health 

and our interconnectedness to the ocean. 

Careers in ocean exploration 

require personal interest and 

commitment, and years of study and 

apprenticeships, which may include 

education and training in vocational 

schools, colleges, and/or universities. 

The communication 

of accurate and timely 

information allows the 

public to make informed 

decisions that promote 

sustainability of the ocean. 

The communication of accurate and timely information 

allows the public to make informed decisions 

that promote sustainability of the ocean. 

The communication of accurate 

and timely information allows 

the public to make informed 

decisions that promote 

sustainability of the ocean. 

Exploring the ocean involves 

global participation because 

there is only one ocean that 

connects and sustains all life. 

Scientific models are physical, mathematical, or logical representations 

of entities, processes, and phenomena that make them comprehendible 

(e.g., computer rendering of ocean circulation patterns). 

Simulations are the implementation of these models over time to test, analyze, and 

experiment with the representations of these real-world ocean systems.

Submersibles allow scientists to observe and collect data below the ocean’s surface. These include HumanOccupied Vehicles (HOVs), Remotely-Operated Vehicles (ROVs), and Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs). Scientists and natural resource managers use this data to understand the ocean and climate processes, as well as to monitor water quality and other activity around protected areas. Advancements in technology to conduct 

molecular analysis (e.g., DNA technology 

and Isotope analysis) provide scientists with 

more detailed Information on organisms 

in large-scale systems (e.g., population 

structures, food webs, and migrations). 

A4 A4 A8 A9 C3 C4 C3 C4 C8 C10 C12 C15 

Data gathered from advanced 

technology enable scientists to make 

better estimations and predictions of 

physical and biological phenomena. 

Data gathered from advanced 

technology enable scientists 

to make better estimations 

and predictions of physical 

and biological phenomena. 

There are many ways 

that humans benefit from 

discoveries about the ocean 

(e.g., cancer research, new 

medicines, energy, etc.).

There are many ways that 

human activities negatively 

impact the ocean that are 

not fully understood.

Scientific models are limited by the accuracy of their 

representation of the complexity of ocean systems, which in 

turn is limited by: our scientific knowledge of the systems; 

our ability to transform our knowledge into accurate 

mathematical equations; our ability to collect sufficient 

types and quantity of data over time and geographic 

locations; and the power of computers to use these data to 

recreate the systems and make calculations and simulations. 

Advances in technology, such 

as satellites, sea floor and sea 

surface observatories, and 

digital media, have facilitated 

improvements in scientific models 

and simulations because they 

offer scientists extensive realtime data over time and space. 

Scientific models are limited by the accuracy of their 

representation of the complexity of ocean systems, which in 

turn is limited by: our scientific knowledge of the systems; 

our ability to transform our knowledge into accurate 

mathematical equations; our ability to collect sufficient types 

and quantity of data over time and geographic locations; 

and the power of computers to use these data to recreate 

the systems and make calculations and simulations. 

Advances in technology, such as satellites, 

sea floor and sea surface observatories, and 

digital media, have facilitated improvements 

in scientific models and simulations 

because they offer scientists extensive 

real-time data over time and space. 

HOVs allow scientists to go down to 

great depths to observe and collect 

samples. HOVs are compact and 

dependent on surface-support vessels.

ROVs are underwater robots 

tethered (i.e., linked by a cable) 

to a ship and operated by a pilot 

on that ship. The cables carry 

electrical power, video, and 

other data signals back and forth 

between the pilot and the vehicle.

AUVs are undersea computer- controlled 

systems. There is no physical connection 

to their operator, who may be onshore or 

aboard a ship. They are self-guiding and 

self-powered, are safe from bad weather, and 

can reach shallower water than boats and 

deeper water than human divers or ROVs.

Satellites collect and transmit largescale, continuous data from sensors (e.g., satellite imagery), or transmitters on buoys placed in fixed locations in the ocean, or on AUVs and living organisms that move throughout the ocean. 

A5 A5 C9 C11 C13 C16 C17 C18 C19 C20 

Looking at data over time 

allows us to better understand 

the complexity and changing 

patterns in the ocean (e.g., noise 

pollution, weather, sea surface 

temperatures, and dead zones).

Looking at data over time 

allows us to better understand 

the complexity and changing 

patterns in the ocean (e.g., noise 

pollution, weather, sea surface 

temperatures, and dead zones).

Groundbreaking research, such as the 

discovery of life at hydrothermal vents, has 

been done in HOVs. However, they are not 

capable of reaching the deepest regions in 

the ocean, are costly to operate, and lack the 

versatility and endurance of ROVs and AUVs. 

ROVs can be outfitted with additional 

sensors and equipment, such as 

sonars, magnetometers, robotic arms 

and water samplers, so scientists 

can collect data and specimens, 

and conduct experiments deep 

under the surface of the ocean.

AUVS can be outfitted with oceanographic 

sensors to measure numerous physical 

and biological features of the ocean. 

The geographic coverage and length of 

deployment time to collect data by AUVs is 

not limited by a cable or human occupant.

Scientists, and citizens alike, 

use satellite data from buoys 

in fixed locations to obtain 

information about local and 

regional places to understand 

daily, seasonal or annual patterns 

of change at these locations.

AUVs, such as gliders, can be 

programmed to collect data from 

specific depths along pre-determined 

paths. Satellites receive the data 

from the AUVs to obtain information 

about the ocean surface and water 

column for a geographic region.

Satellite data from living organisms (e.g., from 

transmitters attached to elephant seals, tuna, 

and/or sea turtles) provide information such 

as where these organisms travel. Scientists 

use this data to understand the geographic 

range and distribution, habitats, and 

migratory patterns of these organisms.

Satellites with cameras and 

radiometers provide extensive 

images of the ocean surface. 

For example, data from 

NOAA and NASA satellites 

are used to map sea surface 

temperatures and productivity.

Ocean-observing systems (OOS) are newer approaches to 

studying the ocean. They provide scientists with extensive and 

continuous data about the Earth, ocean, and atmosphere, so they 

can investigate the interactions and interconnections of ocean 

and climate processes, and the impacts from human activities.

C21 

An OOS employs both remote and in situ sensing methods 

to gather data. Remote sensing includes satellite-, aircraftand land-based sensors, power sources, and transmitters. 

In situ sensing includes platforms (ships, buoys, gliders), 

sampling devices, power sources, and transmitters. 

These devices and sensors collect a variety of data, such 

as salinity, sea surface temperature, and cloud cover, 

which are transmitted to computers in labs onshore.

GRADES 9 THROUGH 12
oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 75

Alignment of the Ocean Literacy 

Framework to the NGSS

oceanliteracyNMEA.org Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 75

Introduction to the Alignment of Ocean Literacy to 

the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS)

You can’t be science literate without being ocean literate. 

This document provides evidence to prove that statement 

and tools to achieve it. This innovative and rigorous 

document aligns Ocean Literacy to the Next Generation 

Science Standards (NGSS) by detailing why teaching 

ocean concepts is integral and essential to achieving the 

vision of NGSS. Intended for teachers, school leaders, 

informal educators, and curriculum developers, this 

alignment document provides critical guidance about 

when and how ocean concepts should be strategically 

inserted into the K through 12 science curriculum and 

can be used to influence state, district, and school science 

implementation plans. The Alignment of Ocean Literacy to 

the Next Generation Science Standards also provides strong 

justification for educators to provide ocean sciences 

learning experiences to supplement traditional texts 

that typically don’t adequately address ocean concepts. 

The Alignment of Ocean Literacy to the Next Generation 

Science Standards is one part of the Ocean Literacy 

Framework which includes three other key documents: 

» Ocean Literacy: The Essential Principles of Ocean 

Sciences for Learners of All Ages; 

» The Ocean Literacy Scope and Sequence 

for Grades K–12; and 

» International Ocean Literacy Survey.

1

1 For more information and to access online versions of the Ocean Literacy Framework 

documents, please visit www.marine-ed.org/ocean-literacy/overview

This alignment document details the correlations 

between NGSS, specifically the Disciplinary Core 

Ideas (DCI) and Performance Expectations (PE), 

and the concepts included in the other Ocean 

Literacy Framework documents. It provides 

coherence across the Ocean Literacy Framework 

and NGSS, leveraging our community’s work 

and making it more valuable and useful. 

This alignment is a necessary tool to focus attention on 

places in the NGSS where Ocean Literacy is essential to 

understanding the DCI, but the connection may not be 

obvious. The alignment documents are organized by 

grade band and provide a 4-point scale with a description 

for each rating that describes in detail the relationship 

between the NGSS at each grade level and each of 

the seven Ocean Literacy principles. There are many 

examples of Disciplinary Core Ideas in NGSS that directly 

match content described in Ocean Literacy: The Essential 

Principles of Ocean Sciences for Learners of All Ages

and The Ocean Literacy Scope and Sequence for Grades 

K–12 (see #1 in the rating scale below). There are also 

many examples of DCIs that do not explicitly mention the 

ocean, but cannot be fully understood without addressing 

the ocean component (see #2 in the rating scale).
Alignment of the 

Ocean Literacy Framework 

to the NGSS

76 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

Rating Scale for Alignment of the Ocean Literacy Framework 

to Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS)2

2 The Ocean Literacy-NGSS alignments were developed by the National Marine Educators Association Ocean 

Literacy Committee. Special acknowledgement goes to the Lawrence Hall of Science at the University of California, 

Berkeley for leading the development and supporting the final editing and design. The following individuals 

made significant contributions: Lincoln Bergman (Lawrence Hall of Science), Scott Carley (College of Exploration), 

Catherine Halversen (Lawrence Hall of Science), Kurt Holland (Seventh Generation Advisors), Beth Jewell (West 

Springfield High School), Lisa Klofkorn (Lawrence Hall of Science), Diana Payne (Connecticut Sea Grant), Sarah 

Pedemonte (Lawrence Hall of Science), Sarah Schoedinger (NOAA), Craig Strang (Lawrence Hall of Science), Lynn 

Tran (Lawrence Hall of Science), Peter Tuddenham (College of Exploration), Emily Weiss (Lawrence Hall of Science), 

Jim Wharton (Seattle Aquarium), Lynn Whitley (USC Wrigley Institute for Environmental Studies and Sea Grant)

1 means there is verbatim or nearly verbatim 

language in the Ocean Literacy Guide, the Scope 

& Sequence, and the NGSS. This rating is selfexplanatory. The connection and alignment should 

be obvious and not in need of any explanation.

2 means that understanding these Ocean Literacy 

Principles and/or Fundamental Concepts is 

essential to helping students to achieve full 

understanding of the Disciplinary Core Ideas 

(DCIs) and/or Performance Expectations (PE).

This rating is given for all the DCIs that have a terrestrial 

bias or ignore the uniqueness of ocean systems, such as: 

decomposition breaks things down into soil; references 

to only terrestrial habitats, ecosystems and food webs, 

etc. This rating says that a learner cannot achieve 

full understanding of the DCI without understanding 

the ocean component of the concept, e.g., you don’t 

fully understand primary productivity if you don’t 

understand chemosynthesis; you don’t fully understand 

decomposition if you only understand how it relates to 

soil, but not to detritus and marine snow in the water 

column; you don’t fully understand food webs and 

trophic levels unless you understand about microbes 

in the ocean because they play a very different role 

than plants do on land. The ocean “examples” are more 

than just examples; they illustrate different aspects 

of the concept than the terrestrial examples do.

3 means examples from the Ocean Literacy 

Guide or Scope & Sequence (not just any ocean 

examples) are excellent for teaching and 

understanding these DCIs and/or PEs.

This rating is given when an example from the Ocean 

Literacy Guide or the Scope & Sequence could be used 

to explain a general science DCI and/or PE, but using 

that example to explain that concept is not essential to 

ocean literacy, nor is it essential to understanding DCI, 

such as, ocean waves, as mentioned in some OLPs, are 

good examples of the physical properties of waves.

4 means these DCIs and/or PEs are building blocks or 

foundational ideas that help students to understand these 

Ocean Literacy Principles and/or Fundamental Concepts. 

This rating is given for general science concepts that 

help students understand the mechanisms behind 

OL concepts, such as force and motion helping to 

explain currents or phase change, and conservation 

of matter helping to explain the water cycle. 
Alignment of the 

Ocean Literacy Framework 

to the NGSS

oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 77

Examples of a rating of 4: 

K-PS2 Motion and Stability: 

Forces and Interactions.

Ocean Literacy Essential Principle 2: These basic 

ideas are important conceptual building blocks that 

help us understand waves, erosion, and landforms of 

the coast.

1-LS3 Heredity: Inheritance 

and Variation of Traits.

Ocean Literacy Essential Principle 5: DCI introduces 

the concept of inheritance and variation and provides 

an introduction to the concept of diversity described 

in OLFC 5A & C.

When no rating is given it means there is no substantive 

or helpful relationship. There is no rating given when 

no plausible, helpful, or meaningful relationship 

appears to exist between the OL Principles and/or 

Fundamental Concepts and the DCIs and/or PEs.

Example:

K-PS2 Motion and Stability: 

Forces and Interactions

Ocean Literacy Essential Principle 5: No relationship

Now that we have explained the rating scale, let’s dive 

in and explore these alignments in more detail!

NGSS Terminology

PS = Physical Science

ESS = Earth and Space Science

LS = Life Science

ETS = Engineering, Technology, and 

the Application of Science

SEP = Science and Engineering Practice

CC = Crosscutting Concept

DCI = Disciplinary Core Idea

PE = Performance Expectation

Ocean Literacy Terminology

OLP = Ocean Literacy Essential Principle

OLFC = Ocean Literacy Fundamental Concept

S&S = Scope and Sequence
Alignment of the 

Ocean Literacy Framework 

to the NGSS

78 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

GRADES K THROUGH 2

Alignment of Ocean Literacy Framework to the NGSS for Grades K–2

Standards by 

Disciplinary Core Idea (DCI)

OLP

1

OLP

2

OLP

3

OLP

4

OLP

5

OLP

6

OLP

7

Specific DCI & 

Performance Expectations (PE)

K-2-ETS1 Engineering Design 3 3 ETS1.A, B, C

K-ESS2 Earth’s Systems 4 2 ESS2.D, E; ESS3.C

K-ESS3 Earth and Human Activity 2212 ESS3.A, B, C

K-LS1 From Molecules to Organisms:

Structures and Processes 3 3 LS1.C

K-PS2 Motion and Stability:

Forces and Interactions 3 PS2.B

K-PS3 Energy 4 PS3.B

1-ESS1 Earth’s Place in the Universe

1-LS1 From Molecules to Organisms:

Structures and Processes 3 LS1.A, B, C

1-LS3 Heredity:

Inheritance and Variation of Traits 4 LS3.A, B

1-PS4 Waves and Their Applications in

Technologies for Information Transfer 3 PS4.C

2-ESS1 Earth’s Place in the Universe 3 ESS1.C

2-ESS2 Earth’s Systems 1 1 ESS2.A, B, C

2-LS2 Ecosystems:

Interactions, Energy, and Dynamics 3 LS2.A

2-LS4 Biological Evolution:

Unity and Diversity 1 LS4.D

2-PS1 Matter and Its Interactions 3 PS1.A

Explanation for Ratings

K through 2 ETS1 Engineering Design

OLP 6. This is a rating of 3 because people need 

to be able to design solutions to keep the ocean 

healthy and utilize ocean resources to improve 

our lives. Human interconnections with the ocean 

provide many examples (OLFC 6B, D, G; S&S grades 

K through 2, C strand) that illustrate and optimize 

the need for design solutions (DCI ETS1.A, B, C).

OLP 7. This is a rating of 3 because the ocean 

provides many examples (OLFC 7D, E, F; S&S 

grades K through 2, B2, B4) of engineering 

challenges (DCI ETS1.A, B, C) related to ocean 

exploration and opportunities ahead.

K-ESS2 Earth’s Systems

OLP 3. This is a rating of 4 because learners need to 

understand what weather is and that weather changes 

(DCI ESS2.D) in order to understand what causes 

weather (OLFC 3A, D; S&S grades K through 2, A3). 

OLP 6. This is a rating of 2 because understanding 

biogeology and human impacts on Earth systems 

(DCI ESS2.E, ESS3.C) would be incomplete without 

inclusion of ways humans impact the ocean. People 
Alignment of the 

Ocean Literacy Framework 

to the NGSS

oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 79

change the environment, e.g., pollution, physical 

modifications (OLFC 6D, F; S&S grades K through 2, B, 

C1, and C3 strands), as they engage in activities to live 

comfortably. Everyone can make choices to reduce 

their impact and be responsible for caring for the 

ocean (OLFC 6G; S&S grades K through 2, C5 strand). 

K-ESS3 Earth and Human Activity

OLP 4. This is a rating of 2 because understanding 

the natural resources living things need (DCI ESS3.A) 

is not complete without knowing that life as we know 

it does not exist without water (S&S grades K through 

2, A). Almost all the water on Earth is in the ocean 

(S&S grades K through 2, B), and the ocean provided 

and continues to provide water, oxygen, and 

nutrients needed for life to exist on Earth (OLFC 4C).

OLP 5. This is a rating of 2 because understanding 

the natural resources living things need (DCI 

ESS3.A) is not complete without considering the 

ocean as an environment and habitat where 

organisms live (S&S grades K through 2, B). 

OLP 6. This is a rating of 1 because human activities 

to live comfortably (DCI ESS3.B, C) involve use of 

resources from the ocean (OLFC 6B, C; S&S grades 

K through 2, A and B strands), and thus have an 

impact on the ocean (S&S grades K through 2, C 

strand). Everyone can make choices to reduce their 

impact and be responsible for caring for the ocean 

(OLFC 6G; S&S grades K through 2, C strand).

OLP 7. This is a rating of 2 because understanding 

that life on Earth depends on the ocean (OLFC 7A; 

S&S grades K through 2, A) and that people explore 

the ocean (S&S grades K through 2, B strand) are 

essential to understanding the natural resources 

that living things need to survive (DCI ESS3.A). 

Exploring the ocean helps us understand the health 

of the ocean and helps us find new medicines, food 

for humans, and new resources for energy for 

human activities (S&S grades K through 2, B2).

K-LS1 From Molecules to Organisms: 

Structures and Processes

OLP 5. This is a rating of 3 because the ocean 

(OLFC 5B, D; S&S grades K through 2, B2) provides 

many important examples of the organization for 

matter and energy flow in organisms (DCI LS1.C).

OLP 6. This is a rating of 3 because recognizing 

the ocean as a fundamental source of food and 

water (OLFC 6A, B; S&S grades K through 2, A2 

and A3) is a good example of how all animals 

need food and all plants and algae need water 

and light to live and grow (DCI LS1.C). 

K-PS2 Motion and Stability: 

Forces and Interactions

OLP 2. This is a rating of 3 because water in motion 

carries Earth materials from one place to another, 

especially in the coastal zone, leading to erosion 

and accretion (OLFC 2C; S&S grades K through 

2, A strands). This is an important example of 

when objects touch or collide they push on one 

another and can change motion (DCI PS2.B).

K-PS3 Energy

OLP 3. This is a rating of 4 because learners need 

to understand that sunlight warms Earth’s surface 

(DCI PS3.B) in order to understand the ocean 

absorbs heat energy from the sun (OLFC 3B).

1-ESS1 Earth’s Place in the Universe

No alignment between OL and NGSS. 

1-LS1 From Molecules to Organisms: 

Structures and Processes

OLP 5. This is a rating of 3 because there is a greater 

diversity of organisms in the ocean than are found 

on land (OLFC 5A, C, D; S&S grades K through 2, 

A strand). The variety of different structures and 

behaviors that marine organisms have to help them 

GRADES K THROUGH 2
Alignment of the 

Ocean Literacy Framework 

to the NGSS

80 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

survive (S&S grades K through 2, A4) provide unique 

and important examples for understanding structure 

and function (DCI LS1.A), growth and development 

of organisms (DCI LS1.B), and how organisms process 

information for growth and survival (DCI LS1.C).

1-LS3 Heredity: Inheritance 

and Variation of Traits

OLP 5. This is a rating of 4 because inheritance of traits 

and variation of traits (DCI LS3.A, B) are building blocks 

for understanding the great diversity of organisms in 

the ocean (OLFC 5A, C; S&S grades K through 2, A strand).

1-PS4 Waves and Their Applications in 

Technologies for Information Transfer

OLP 7. This is a rating of 3 because existing ocean 

technology for exploration and communication, 

including sensors (e.g., side-scan, multi-beam, and 

lidar) that rely on sound waves for information 

transfer, are expanding our ability to explore the 

ocean and provide novel examples of information 

technologies and instrumentation (DCI PS4.C).

2-ESS1 Earth’s Place in the Universe

OLP 2. This is a rating of 3 because the DCI, OLP, and 

S&S encourage direct examination of evidence to 

make Earth processes visible. Accretion, erosion, and 

associated coastline changes (OLFC 2C; S&S grades 

K through 2, A strands) are important examples 

for illuminating Earth events and timescales (DCI 

ESS1.C). Observing or experimenting with currents, 

waves, erosion, and deposition provide natural 

starting points for understanding these concepts. 

2-ESS2 Earth’s Systems

OLP 1. This is a rating of 1 because the OLP (OLFC 

1A, E, and G) describe and elaborate the concept that 

water is found in the ocean, rivers, lakes, and ponds 

(DCI ESS2.C). In order for students to understand that 

maps show where things are located and that one can 

map the shapes and kinds of land and water in any 

area (DCI ESS2.B), they must understand that the ocean 

is the defining feature on the planet (OLFC 1A; S&S 

grades K through 2, B). Geologic features on the ocean 

floor (plains, valleys, mountains, volcanoes), which are 

shown on bathymetric maps and are similar to those 

on land (OLFC 1B; S&S grades K through 2, D strand), 

provide important and unique examples of the shapes 

and kinds of land and water in any area (DCI ESS2.B).

OLP 2. This is a rating of 1 because the concept 

that moving water can change the shape of the 

land is nearly identical in the DCI (ESS2.A), OLFC 

2C, and S&S grades K through 2, A strands).

2-LS2 Ecosystems: Interactions, 

Energy, and Dynamics

OLP 5. This is a rating of 3 because photosynthetic 

microbes in the ocean (OLFC 5B) are 

examples of primary producers that depend 

on water and light to grow (DCI LS2.A).

2-LS4 Biological Evolution: 

Unity and Diversity

OLP 5. This is a rating of 1 because the DCI 

introduces the concept of many different kinds of 

organisms living in many different places on land 

and water (DCI LS4.D), which is essentially the 

concept represented in OLFC 5A through G, and I; and 

in S&S grades K through 2, A and B strands, related 

to the diversity of life and ecosystems in the ocean.

2-PS1 Matter and Its Interactions

OLP 1. This is a rating of 3 because understanding the 

unique structure and properties of seawater (OLFC 

1E; S&S grades K through 2, A strand) are important 

and instructive examples of how matter has different 

observable structure and properties (DCI PS1.A). 

The freezing point of seawater (OLFC 1E) is a good 

example of how the heating or cooling of a substance 

may cause changes that can be observed (DCI PS1.B).

GRADES K THROUGH 2
Alignment of the 

Ocean Literacy Framework 

to the NGSS

oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 81

GRADES 3 THROUGH 5

Alignment of Ocean Literacy Framework to the NGSS for Grades 3–5

Standards by 

Disciplinary Core Idea (DCI)

OLP

1

OLP

2

OLP

3

OLP

4

OLP

5

OLP

6

OLP

7

Specific DCI & 

Performance Expectations (PE)

3-5-ETS1 Engineering Design 3 3 ETS1.A, B, C

3-ESS2 Earth’s Systems 3 ESS2.D

3-ESS3 Earth and Human Activity 3 3 ESS3.B

3-LS1 From Molecules to Organisms:

Structures and Processes 1 LS1.B

3-LS2 Ecosystems:

Interactions, Energy, and Dynamics 3 LS2.D

3-LS3 Heredity:

Inheritance and Variation of Traits 4 3 LS3.A, B

3-LS4 Biological Evolution:

Unity and Diversity 3 341 3 LS4.A, B, C, D

3-PS2 Motion and Stability:

Forces and Interactions 3 3 PS2.A, B

4-ESS1 Earth’s Place in the Universe 3 2 ESS1.C; PE-ESS1-1

4-ESS2 Earth’s Systems 1 1 ESS2.A, B

4-ESS3 Earth and Human Activity 3 3 ESS3.A, B

4-LS1 From Molecules to Organisms:

Structures and Processes 2 LS1.A, D

4-PS3 Energy 3 PS3.B

4-PS4 Waves and Their Applications in

Technologies for Information Transfer 3 3 PS4.C

5-ESS1 Earth’s Place in the Universe

5-ESS2 Earth’s Systems 122 1 ESS2.A, C

5-ESS3 Earth and Human Activity 1 2 ESS3.C

5-LS1 From Molecules to Organisms:

Structures and Processes 2 2 LS1.C; PE 5-LS1-1

5-LS2 Ecosystems:

Interactions, Energy, and Dynamics 4 2 LS2.B

5-PS1 Matter and Its Interactions

5-PS2 Motion and Stability:

Forces and Interactions 4 4 PS2.B

5-PS3 Energy 2 PS3.D
Alignment of the 

Ocean Literacy Framework 

to the NGSS

82 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

Explanation for Ratings

3 through 5 ETS1 Engineering Design

OLP 6. This is a rating of 3 because human 

development and activity around the ocean 

(OLFC 6D; S&S grades 3 through 5, A4) provide 

many examples of design solutions to problems 

(ETS1.A, B, C) that unintentionally led to other 

problems such as pollution, changes to ocean 

chemistry, and physical modifications.

OLP 7. This is a rating of 3 because technologies 

for exploring the ocean (OLFC 7D; S&S grades 3 

through 5, C strand) provide good examples of 

how possible engineering solutions are developed 

(ETS1.B, C). Similarly, collaboration among 

interdisciplinary ocean scientists (OLFC 7F; S&S 

grades 3 through 5, B strand) is a good example of 

how communication and sharing of ideas among 

peers can lead to improved designs (ETS1.B, C).

3-ESS2 Earth’s Systems

OLP 3. This is a rating of 3 because the interaction of 

the ocean and atmosphere (OLFC 3A through D; S&S 

grades 3 through 5, A1 and A2) controls and regulates 

most of Earth’s weather and climate patterns that are 

recorded by scientists (DCI ESS2.D). Note: this could 

be rated as a 2 if the instructor’s intent is for learners 

to understand causes of weather and climate rather 

than only to observe and record weather and climate.

3-ESS3 Earth and Human Activity

OLP 3. This is a rating of 3 because natural 

hazards related to the ocean, e.g., hurricanes, 

cyclones, and El Niño (OLFC 3C, D; S&S grades 3 

through 5, A6) are important examples of natural 

hazards that may impact humans (ESS3.B).

OLP 6. This is a rating of 3 because tsunamis, 

hurricanes, cyclones, sea level change, and 

storm surges (OLFC 6F; S&S grades 3 through 

5, B4) are important examples of natural 

hazards that may impact humans (ESS3.B).

3-LS1 From Molecules to Organisms: 

Structures and Processes

OLP 5. This is a rating of 1 because the DCI (LS1.B), 

OLFC (5B, D, I) and S&S (grades 3 through 5, B5) all 

discuss reproduction and unique and diverse life 

cycles. Understanding life in the ocean is essential 

to understanding the diversity of life on Earth.

3-LS2 Ecosystems: Interactions, 

Energy, and Dynamics

OLP 5. This is a rating of 3 because the ocean 

(OLFC 5D) provides unique examples of animals 

working in groups to obtain food, defend 

themselves, and cope with changes (DCI LS2.D). 

For example, schooling behavior can be readily 

observed in an aquarium in the classroom.

3-LS3 Heredity: Inheritance 

and Variation of Traits

OLP 4. This is a rating of 4 because knowing 

the concepts of inheritance and variation 

(DCI LS3.A, B) can help learners understand 

how millions of different species on Earth are 

related by descent from common ancestors 

that evolved in the ocean (OLFC 4B).

OLP 5. This is a rating of 3 because the great 

diversity of major groups of organisms in 

the ocean (OLFC 5A, C) are compelling and 

illustrative examples of the concepts of 

inheritance, variation and diversity (DCI LS3.A, 

B). The concept that the environment can affect 

an organism’s traits (DCI LS3.A, B) is also related 

GRADES 3 THROUGH 5
Alignment of the 

Ocean Literacy Framework 

to the NGSS

oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 83

to the concept that physical factors influence the 

distribution of ocean organisms (OLFC 5F, H).

3-LS4 Biological Evolution: 

Unity and Diversity

OLP 2. This is a rating of 3 because marine fossils 

found on land (OLFC 2A; S&S grades 3 through 

5, A3, A4) are excellent examples of fossils that 

provide evidence of the types of organisms that 

lived long ago and of their environments (DCI 

LS4.A). Additionally, for learners to understand 

the evidence provided by land-based marine 

fossils, it is useful for them to know that sea level 

changes over time have contracted continental 

shelves and destroyed inland seas (OLFC 2B).

OLP 4. This is a rating of 3 because learners begin to 

learn about fossils and the environments indicated 

by those fossils (DCI LS4.A). The ocean provides 

many excellent examples for such fossil environment 

relationships (S&S grades 3 through 5, A, A1) but 

is not required in order to understand the DCI.

OLP 5. This is a rating of 4 because understanding 

adaptation, diverse environments, natural 

selection, and biodiversity (LS4.B, C, D) build and 

support understanding that ocean ecosystems 

are defined by environmental factors and the 

community of organisms living there and that the 

ocean supports a great diversity of ecosystems 

and adaptations (OLFC 5F; S&S grades 3 through 

5, B1). The DCI concepts generally support 

understanding of the ideas in the OLP and S&S.

OLP 6. This is a rating of 1 because the DCI 

(LS4.D), OLP, OLFC (6D), and S&S (grades 3 through 

5, C1 through C4) all discuss how changes to a 

habitat may affect organisms living there.

OLP 7. This is a rating of 3 because the concept 

that people are not adapted to survive well in 

an ocean environment (S&S grades 3 through 

5, C2, C3, C5, C6) is an excellent example of how 

some kinds of organisms survive better than 

others in particular environments (DCI LS4.C).

3-PS2 Motion and Stability: 

Forces and Interactions

OLP 1. This is a rating of 3 because ocean circulation 

(OLFC 1C; S&S grades 3 through 5, B, B1 through 

B10) provides a good example of forces and motion 

(DCI PS2.A). In later grades one would use an 

understanding of forces and motion to support 

deep understanding of ocean circulation.

OLP 2. This is a rating of 3 because forces that 

cause erosion and change the physical structure 

of coastal landforms (OLFC 2C, E; S&S grades 3 

through 5, B strand) provide good examples of how 

objects in contact exert forces on one another (DCI 

PS2.B). Additionally, the concepts that objects can 

exert force on one another and that an object’s 

motion can be observed and predicted (DCI PS2.A, 

B), support an understanding of the forces of 

waves and other forces that contribute to erosion 

and the formation of landforms (OLFC 2C, E).

4-ESS1 Earth’s Place in the Universe

OLP 1. This is a rating of 3 because the presence of 

marine terraces and other geological marine features 

(OLFC 1B; S&S grades 3 through 5, C strand) seen on 

land provide examples of and support an explanation 

for change over time (DCI ESS1.C; PE-ESS1-1).

OLP 2. This is a rating of 2 because in order to 

have a complete understanding of how patterns of 

rock formation reveal changes over time and how 

fossils can provide indications of the order of the 

change-causing events (DCI ESS1.C) learners need 

to understand ocean life laid down sediments, dead 

ocean organisms falling into those sediments often 

formed fossils, and marine fossils found on land are 

GRADES 3 THROUGH 5
Alignment of the 

Ocean Literacy Framework 

to the NGSS

84 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

evidence that the land was once covered by ocean 

(OLFC 2A; S&S grades 3 through 5, A2 through A4).

4-ESS2 Earth’s Systems

OLP 1. This is a rating of 1 because DCI ESS 2.B, OLFC 

1B, and S&S grades 3 through 5, C strand all list 

geologic seafloor features. Additionally, the OLP and 

DCI refer to plate movement/movement of Earth’s 

crust as giving rise to many of these features (DCI 

ESS2.B; OLP 1B). The DCI and OLP also discuss the 

water cycle/rainfall and how water breaks down 

and transports materials (DCI ESS2.A; OLFC 1F, G).

OLP 2. This is a rating of 1 because DCI ESS2.A; 

OLFC 2C, D; and S&S grades 3 through 5, B strand 

all describe processes of erosion that act to shape 

the land/coastline. In addition, the idea that 

living things affect the physical characteristics of 

their regions (DCI ESS2.E) is directly supported 

by the concept that ocean life laid down the 

vast volume of siliceous and carbonate rocks 

(OLFC 2A; S&S grades 3 through 5, A2).

4-ESS3 Earth and Human Activity

OLP 3. This is a rating of 3 because oceanrelated natural hazards, such as hurricanes and 

cyclones (OLFC 3D; S&S grades 3 through 5, A6), 

are strong examples of natural hazards humans 

cannot eliminate but can take steps to reduce 

their impact (DCI ESS3.B). The OLP and S&S also 

discuss the underlying causes of these natural 

hazards (OLFC 3D; S&S grades 3 through 5, A3, 

A5, A6). The standard does not call for a complete 

understanding of all natural hazards or their 

underlying causes. Therefore, it is not essential to 

understand ocean-related natural hazards to meet 

the standard, but ocean-related hazards are among 

the most prominent and dramatic examples.

OLP 6. This is a rating of 3 because the DCI ESS3.B 

discusses natural hazards and human response 

to those hazards. There are many ocean-related 

examples of these hazards as well as information 

about how humans may be affected because a large 

proportion of the human population live near 

the ocean (OLFC 6F; S&S grades 3 through 5, B4). 

Additionally, energy resources from the ocean (OLFC 

6B; S&S grades 3 through 5, A4) provide examples of 

naturally-derived energy and fuels (DCI ESS3.A).

4-LS1 From Molecules to Organisms: 

Structures and Processes

OLP 5. This is a rating of 2 because learners’ 

understanding of structure, function, and 

information processing (DCI LS1.A, D) is not 

complete unless they are aware of both terrestrial 

and marine examples (e.g., gills, collapsible 

lungs for deep diving, fins) since there are many 

categories of unique organisms that live only in the 

ocean. Ocean organisms provide many examples 

of unique life cycles and adaptations (OLFC 5D; 

S&S grades 3 through 5, B1 through B3, B5). The 

growth rates and life cycles of ocean microbes 

(OLFC 5B) are also connected, but not as strongly.

4-PS3 Energy

OLP 3. This is a rating of 3 because wave 

movement and heat exchange between the ocean 

and atmosphere (S&S grades 3 through 5, A 

through A5) are helpful examples of the transfer, 

transport, and conversion of energy (DCI PS3.B).

4-PS4 Waves and Their Applications in 

Technologies for Information Transfer

OLP 6. This is a rating of 3 because the ocean 

research and communications technology 

necessary for commerce, resource extraction, 

and resource management (OLFC 6B, D, E, G) 

would make interesting examples of information 

technologies and instrumentation (PS4.C) but 

are not essential to understanding them.

GRADES 3 THROUGH 5
Alignment of the 

Ocean Literacy Framework 

to the NGSS

oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 85

OLP 7. This is a rating of 3 because examples of 

“new ocean technologies, sensors, and tools” (OLFC 

7D) are dependent on the wave properties of sound 

and visible light (DCI PS4.C). These real-world 

examples would add interest for learners but are 

not essential to understanding the concepts.

5-ESS1 Earth’s Place in the Universe

No alignment between OLP and NGSS.

5-ESS2 Earth’s Systems

OLP 1. This is a rating of 1 because concepts 

connected to the role of water in Earth’s surface 

processes (ESS2.C) are directly referenced throughout 

the OLFC (1A, E, G). Also, the DCI, OLP, and S&S all 

directly address ocean system concepts (DCI ESS2.A; 

OLFC 1C; S&S grades 3 through 5, A and B strands).

OLP 2. This is a rating of 2 because many of 

the concepts related to how the movement 

of water erodes and deposits material that 

shape the coastline (S&S grades 3 through 5, 

B strand) are essential to fully understanding 

how the ocean shapes landforms (ESS2.A).

OLP 3. This is a rating of 2 because the concepts 

about how the ocean and atmosphere interact (S&S 

grades 3 through 5, A and B strands) are essential for 

understanding how Earth’s systems interact (ESS2.A).

OLP 5. This is a rating of 1 because the language 

regarding ocean ecosystems in the DCI (ESS2.A) 

is nearly the same as in the OLP (OLFC 5E 

through G, and I; S&S grades 3 through 5, A 

strand). The OLP and S&S provide multiple, 

diverse examples of ocean ecosystems.

5-ESS3 Earth and Human Activity

OLP 6. This is a rating of 1 because the OLP 

(OLFC 5D, E, G) and specifically the concepts 

developed in the S&S grades 3 through 5, 

C strand), provide an overview of how human 

activity has had and can have major effects on 

the ocean as identified in the DCI (ESS3.C).

OLP 7. This is a rating of 2 because in order to fully 

understand how communities use science ideas to 

protect Earth (DCI ESS3.C), related ocean science 

ideas must be considered (S&S grades 3 through 5, 

all strands). Excluding ocean concepts would result 

in an incomplete and inaccurate understanding of 

how to protect Earth’s resources and environment.

5-LS1 From Molecules to Organisms: 

Structures and Processes

OLP 4. This is a rating of 2 because the concept 

that plants acquire material for growth chiefly 

from the air and water (DCI LS1.C; PE 5-LS1-

1) demonstrates a terrestrial bias. The use of 

additional ocean examples, such as algae or 

microbes (S&S grades 3 through 5, B1) would 

address this bias and lead to a more complete 

understanding of primary productivity.

OLP 5. This is a rating of 2 because the concept 

that “plants” get what they need to live from air 

and water (DCI LS1.C) represents a terrestrial 

bias. An understanding of primary productivity 

is incomplete without understanding the huge 

ecological role played by photosynthetic ocean 

microbes and algae that do not require “air” 

(OLFC 5B; S&S grades 3 through 5, A6, B8).

5-LS2 Ecosystems: Interactions, 

Energy, and Dynamics

OLP 2. This is a rating of 4 because learners need to 

understand chemical cycling (DCI LS2.B) before being 

able to understand biogeochemical cycling (OLFC 

2A). This DCI is a building block for comprehending 

the concept of chemical cycling that will support 

discussion of biogeochemical cycling in a later grade.

GRADES 3 THROUGH 5
Alignment of the 

Ocean Literacy Framework 

to the NGSS

86 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

OLP 5. This is a rating of 2 because a full 

understanding of food webs (DCI LS2.B) requires 

examples of species and ecosystems from the 

ocean which are fundamentally different 

from those on land. Ocean food webs begin 

with microbes, not plants (OLFC 5B). There are 

unique types of energy transfer in the ocean 

that do not occur on land, including ecosystems 

that do not depend on light and photosynthesis 

(OLFC 5D, G; S&S grades 3 through 5, A2, A9).

5-PS1 Matter and Its Interactions

No alignment between OLP and NGSS.

5-PS2 Motion and Stability: 

Forces and Interactions

OLP 1. This is a rating of 4 because understanding 

the concept of gravitational force (DCI PS2.B) 

helps to build an understanding of density-driven 

currents and tides (S&S grades 3 through 5, B7, B9).

OLP 5. This is a rating of 4 because the focus 

on Earth’s gravitational force (DCI PS2.B) is a 

building block to understanding tides. This DCI 

has a tangential but important relationship 

to the discussion of tide-influenced vertical 

zonation in intertidal habitats (OLFC 5H).

5-PS3 Energy

OLP 5. This is a rating of 2 because the idea that 

all ecosystems are driven by the sun’s energy and 

all energy in food comes from the sun (DCI PS3.D) 

is inaccurate and represents a terrestrial bias. It is 

essential that learners explicitly understand there 

are important ecosystems and organisms supported 

through chemosynthetic processes (OLFC 5D, G).

GRADES 3 THROUGH 5
Alignment of the 

Ocean Literacy Framework 

to the NGSS

oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 87

GRADES 6 THROUGH 8

Alignment of Ocean Literacy Framework to the NGSS for Grades 6–8

Standards by 

Disciplinary Core Idea (DCI)

OLP

1

OLP

2

OLP

3

OLP

4

OLP

5

OLP

6

OLP

7

Specific DCI & 

Performance Expectations (PE)

MS-ESS1 Earth’s Place in the Universe 4 ESS1.C

MS-ESS2 Earth’s Systems 1113 ESS1.C; ESS2.A, C, D; PE ESS2-4, 2-6

MS-ESS3 Earth and Human Activity 1 1 ESS3.B, C, D

MS-LS1 From Molecules to Organisms: 

Structures and Processes 142 LS1.B, C; PS3.D

MS-LS2 Ecosystems: Interactions, 

Energy, and Dynamics 424 2 2 LS2.A, B, C; LS4.D

MS-LS3 Heredity: 

Inheritance and Variation of Traits

MS-LS4 Biological Evolution: 

Unity and Diversity 2 4 LS4.A, C

MS-PS1 Matter and Its Interactions 4 4 4 PS1.A, B; PS3A, B

MS-PS2 Motion and Stability: 

Forces and Interactions 4 PS2.A, B

MS-PS3 Energy 3 3 PS3.A, B, C

MS-PS4 Waves and Their Applications 

in Technologies for Information 

Transfer

MS-ETS1 Engineering Design 3 ETS1.A, B

Explanation for Ratings

MS-ESS1 Earth’s Place in the Universe 

OLP 2. This is a rating of 4 because understanding 

geologic timescales as interpreted through 

rock strata and fossils (DCI ESS1.C) is a 

fundamental building block to understanding 

the geologic changes, plate tectonics, and 

rock cycle ideas (OLFC 2A; S&S grades 6 

through 8 A17 through 19, and B strand). 

MS-ESS2 Earth’s Systems 

OLP 1. This is a rating of 1 because the OLP focuses 

on the global movement of ocean water (OLFC 1C; S&S 

grades 6 through 8 C1), the water cycle (OLFC 1F; S&S 

grades 6 through 8 C), and watersheds and coastal 

ocean (OLFC 1G; S&S grades 6 through 8 C9). These 

concepts are closely aligned with the roles of water 

in Earth’s (and ocean) processes (DCI ESS2.C), cycling 

of water through Earth’s systems (PE ESS2-4), and 

patterns of ocean and atmospheric circulation (PE 

ESS2-6). In addition, tectonic processes (DCI ESS1.C) 

that move Earth’s crust form features of the ocean 

floor (OLFC 1B; S&S grades 6 through 8 A strand). 

OLP 2. This is a rating of 1 because of the strong 

connections between three DCIs and the OLP. The 

history of planet Earth (DCI ESS1.C) is strongly 

connected to how ocean processes and plate tectonics 

influence the structure of the coast (OLFC 2E; 

S&S grades 6 through 8 A18, A19). Energy flowing 

and matter cycling in the planet’s systems over 

various scales have shaped Earth’s history (DCI 

ESS2.A) is strongly connected to Earth’s materials 

and geochemical cycles originating in the ocean 

(OLFC 2A) and to erosion redistributing sediments 
Alignment of the 

Ocean Literacy Framework 

to the NGSS

88 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

(OLFC 2C). Roles of water in Earth’s processes 

(DCI ESS2.C) is strongly connected to wind, waves, 

and currents eroding and redistributing earth 

materials (OLFC 2C) as well as to the formation of 

landforms through a combination of constructive 

and destructive forces where the ocean meets the 

land (S&S grades 6 through 8 A1 through A12). 

OLP 3. This is a rating of 1 because of the strong 

connections between three DCIs and the OLP. The 

core ideas that Earth’s history has been shaped 

by water (DCI ESS2.C) and by energy flowing and 

matter cycling (DCI ESS2.A) is strongly aligned to 

the concepts of the ocean’s role in energy, water, 

and carbon systems (OLFC 3A through C; S&S 

grades 6 through 8 A1, A2, A4). The concept that 

the ocean has a significant influence on climate 

by moving heat, carbon, and water (OLFC 3F; 

S&S grades 6 through 8 A, A1, A7, A10) is strongly 

aligned with the ocean absorbing, storing, and 

moving heat through currents (DCI ESS2.D). 

OLP 4. This is a rating of 3 because the concept 

that oxygen in the atmosphere originally came 

from organisms in the ocean (OLFC 4A; S&S grades 

6 through 8 A strand) is an excellent example for 

understanding how interactions between energy 

flowing and matter cycling in the planet’s systems 

over various scales produces chemical and physical 

changes in Earth’s materials and living organisms, 

which have shaped Earth’s history (DCI ESS2.A). 

MS-ESS3 Earth and Human Activity 

OLP 3. This is a rating of 1 because the effects of 

human activities on global climate change (DCI 

ESS3.D) is strongly aligned with the ideas that CO2

absorbed by the ocean affect the interrelationship 

between the ocean and atmosphere which can 

result in changes to the climate (OLFC 3E through 

G; S&S grades 6 through 8 B, B1) and humans are 

changing the climate by releasing CO2 into the 

atmosphere (S&S grades 6 through 8 B6). In addition, 

understanding the importance of mapping natural 

hazards and geologic forces to forecast future 

events (DCI ESS3.B) requires knowing about ocean 

weather maps and oceanographic data sets to 

predict future weather-related natural hazards, 

including hurricanes, extreme rainfall, droughts, 

and El Niño (S&S grades 6 through 8 A7, A8, A11, A12). 

OLP 6. This is a rating of 1 because the DCI 

focuses on how human activities have altered the 

biosphere, damaging natural habitats and causing 

extinctions (DCI ESS3.C), and the effects of human 

activities on global climate change (DCI ESS3.D). 

These ideas are strongly connected to the following 

concepts: humans affect the ocean in a variety of 

ways, including impacting biological diversity and 

causing extinctions; most people live near coasts 

(OLFC 6D, F); human activity leads to excess input of 

greenhouse gases; and pollution affects life in the 

ocean (S&S grades 6 through 8 D13 through 22). 

MS-LS1 From Molecules to Organisms: 

Structures and Processes 

OLP 3. This is a rating of 1 because the 

process of photosynthesis (DCI LS1.C) occurs 

in the ocean with about half the world’s 

photosynthesis taking place in the sunlit layers 

of the ocean (S&S grades 6 through 8 B3). 

OLP 4. This is a rating of 4 because understanding 

photosynthesis (DCI LS1.C, PS3.D) serves as 

a building block to and is an integral part of 

understanding oxygen in the atmosphere originally 

came from photosynthetic organisms in the ocean 

(OLFC 4A; S&S grades 6 through 8 A4 through 6). 

OLP 5. This is a rating of 2 because understanding 

growth and development of organisms (DCI LS1.B) 

is incomplete without knowing about adaptations 

for reproduction and growth in ocean organisms 

GRADES 6 THROUGH 8
Alignment of the 

Ocean Literacy Framework 

to the NGSS

oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 89

(OLFC 5D; S&S grades 6 through 8 B strand). In 

addition, to fully understand organization of matter 

and energy flow in organisms (DCI LS1.C) learners 

need to understand that there is non-photosynthetic 

primary productivity in the ocean (OLFC 5G; S&S 

grades 6 through 8 A5, A6) and microorganisms in 

the ocean produce a huge amount of oxygen on Earth 

(OLFC 5B; S&S grades 6 through 8 A2 through A4). 

MS-LS2 Ecosystems: Interactions, 

Energy, and Dynamics 

OLP 1. This is a rating of 4 because an understanding 

that the basic functions of an ecosystem— 

interdependent relationships (DCI LS2.A), the 

cycling of matter and energy transfer (DCI LS2.B), 

and the dynamic nature of ecosystems (DCI LS2.C)—

are integral to understanding ocean circulation 

(OLFC 1C; S&S grades 6 through 8 C strand) and 

physical and biological systems (OLFC 1E). 

OLP 2. This is a rating of 2 because learners would 

have an incomplete understanding of the cycling of 

matter and energy through an ecosystem (DCI LS2.B) 

without learning about biogeochemical cycles in 

the ocean (OLFC 2A, D; S&S grades 6 through 8 B3). 

OLP 3. This is a rating of 4 because cycles of matter 

and energy transfer in ecosystems (DCI LS2.B) is a 

building block for understanding the important role 

of the ocean in the carbon cycle (OLFC 3E; S&S grades 

6 through 8 B2, B3). Additionally, an understanding 

of ecosystem dynamics, functioning, and resilience 

(DCI LS2.C) is a building block for comprehending 

how changes in the ocean–atmosphere system can 

result in changes to the climate and atmosphere 

(OLFC 3G; S&S grades 6 through 8 B1, B5, B6) 

with regard to disruptions in ecosystems. 

OLP 5. This is a rating of 2 because learners would 

have an incomplete understanding of interdependent 

relationships in ecosystems (DCI LS2.A) and 

the cycling of matter and energy transfer in 

ecosystems (DCI LS2.B) if they do not understand 

how the ocean supports a great diversity of life 

and ecosystems including unique adaptations, 

behaviors, and ecosystems found only in the ocean 

(OLP 5; S&S grades 6 through 8 A and B strands). 

OLP 6. This is a rating of 2 because to 

understand how changes in biodiversity can 

influence resources and ecosystem services 

(DCI LS4.D) learners must know how humans 

and the ocean are inextricably interconnected 

(OLP 6; S&S grades 6 through 8 B strand). 

MS-LS3 Heredity: Inheritance 

and Variation of Traits 

No alignment between OLP and NGSS. 

MS-LS4 Biological Evolution: 

Unity and Diversity 

OLP 4. This is a rating of 2 because to achieve 

a full understanding of the evidence of 

common ancestry and diversity (DCI LS4.A) 

learners need to learn about the origins of life 

(OLP 4; S&S grades 6 through 8 B strand). 

OLP 5. This is a rating of 4 because an understanding 

of diversity (DCI LS4.A) and adaptations (DCI LS4.C) 

would be incomplete without learning about the 

diversity and unique adaptations of ocean life 

(OLFC 5D; S&S grades 6 through 8 B strand). 

MS-PS1 Matter and Its Interactions 

OLP 2. This is a rating of 4 because an 

understanding that substances react chemically 

in characteristic ways and that molecular 

balance is maintained (DCI PS1.B) is necessary 

to understand chemical weathering of rocks 

and minerals (S&S grades 6 through 8 A5). 

GRADES 6 THROUGH 8
Alignment of the 

Ocean Literacy Framework 

to the NGSS

90 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

OLP 3. This is a rating of 4 because an understanding 

of the structure and properties of matter and 

changes of state (DCI PS1.A) and energy (DCI PS3.A) 

is needed for: understanding heat exchange, energy, 

and the water cycle (OLP 3B); condensation and 

where rain falls (OLFC 3D); and the ocean moves heat, 

carbon, and water (OLFC 3F, S&S grades 6 through 

8 A). Learners must understand energy definitions 

(DCI PS3.A), heat transfer (DCI PS3.B), and molecular 

balance (DCI PS1.B) in order to understand how the 

ocean has such an influence on weather and climate 

(OLFC 3A, B, F; S&S grades 6 through 8 A strand). 

OLP 6. This is a rating of 4 because understanding 

the structure and properties of matter (DCI 

PS1.A) and characteristics and results of 

chemical reactions (DCI PS1.B) are necessary 

for understanding how human activities can 

change ocean temperature and pH (S&S grades 

6 through 8 D13 through 17) which in turn, can 

affect the survival of some organisms (OLFC 6E). 

MS-PS2 Motion and Stability: 

Forces and Interactions 

OLP 1. This is a rating of 4 because learners need 

to have a basic understanding of how gravity 

works (DCI PS2.A, B) to understand tides and 

density-driven thermohaline circulation (OLFC 

1C). However, the information presented on 

gravity in these DCIs is not fully supportive of an 

understanding of thermohaline circulation; it is 

much more closely tied to understanding tides. 

MS-PS3 Energy 

OLP 1. This is a rating of 3 because thermohaline 

circulation in the ocean (OLFC 1C; S&S grades 6 

through 8 C, C1, C6) provides a helpful example of 

how energy is transferred out of warmer regions into 

cooler ones (DCI PS3.B). There is also a connection 

to understanding that temperature is a measure of 

the average kinetic energy of particles of matter and 

that there is a relationship between temperature 

and the total energy in a system (DCI PS3.A). 

OLP 3. This is a rating of 3 because energy transfer 

from the ocean to the atmosphere (OLFC 3B through 

D) offers useful examples for understanding energy 

transfer and related ideas (DCI PS3.A, B, C). 

MS-PS4 Waves and their applications 

No alignment between OLP and NGSS. 

MS-ETS1 Engineering Design

OLP 6. This is a rating of 3 because the development 

of food, medicines and energy resources 

(OLFC 6B), engaging in discovery (OLFC 6E), 

modifying the ocean environment (OLFC 6D), 

and managing ocean resources (OLFC 6G) are 

all helpful examples of defining problems and 

developing engineered solutions (DCI ETS1.A, B). 

GRADES 6 THROUGH 8
Alignment of the 

Ocean Literacy Framework 

to the NGSS

oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 91

GRADES 9 THROUGH 12

Alignment of Ocean Literacy Framework to the NGSS for Grades 9–12

Standards by 

Disciplinary Core Idea (DCI)

OLP

1

OLP

2

OLP

3

OLP

4

OLP

5

OLP

6

OLP

7

Specific DCI & 

Performance Expectations (PE)

HS-ESS1 Earth’s Place in the Universe 2 1 ESS1.C; ESS2.B; PE HS-ESS1-5

HS-ESS2 Earth’s Systems 1322 1 ESS2.A, C, D, E

HS-ESS3 Earth and Human Activity 1 1 2 ESS2.D; ESS3.B; ESS3.C; ESS3.D

HS-LS1 From Molecules to Organisms: 

Structures and Processes 4 LS1.C

HS-LS2 Ecosystems: 

Interactions, Energy, and Dynamics 2123213 LS2.A, B, C; LS4.D; ETS1.B

HS-LS3 Heredity: 

Inheritance and Variation of Traits

HS-LS4 Biological Evolution: 

Unity and Diversity 231 LS4.A, C, D

HS-PS1 Matter and Its Interactions

HS-PS2 Motion and Stability: 

Forces and Interactions 4 PS1A; PS2.A, B

HS-PS3 Energy 3 3 PS3.A, B, C

HS-PS4 Waves and Their Applications 

in Technologies for Information 

Transfer

3 4 3 PS4.A, B, C

HS-ETS 1 Engineering Design 3 ETS1.A, B

Explanation for Ratings

HS-ESS1 Earth’s Place in the Universe 

OLP 1. This is a rating of 2 because in order to 

completely understand plate tectonics as the 

unifying theory to explain geologic history (DCI 

ESS2.B; PE HS-ESS1-5), learners need to understand 

the lithosphere includes the seafloor and all of 

its geological features and ocean basins vary in 

size and shape due to movement of Earth’s crust 

(OLFC 1B; S&S grades 9 through 12, A3 and A4). 

OLP 2. This is a rating of 1 because there is 

alignment between the concepts that tectonic 

activity influences the physical structure and 

landforms of the coast (OLFC 2E; S&S grades 9 

through 12, A through A4), many sedimentary 

rocks now exposed on land were formed in the 

ocean (OLFC 2A), processes associated with plate 

tectonics move sediments (OLFC 2C), and plate 

tectonics is the unifying theory that explains 

the past and current movement of rocks at 

Earth’s surface (DCI ESS2.B; PE HS-ESS1–5). 

HS-ESS2 Earth’s Systems 

OLP 1. This is a rating of 1 because the OLP 

focuses on the concept that the ocean is the 

defining feature of the planet (OLFC 1A), the 

ocean transports energy and matter around Earth 

(OLFC 1C; S&S grades 9 through 12, C7, C11, C12), 

and the unique properties of water (OLFC 1E; S&S 

grades 9 through 12, B strand). These concepts 

are closely aligned with the abundance of liquid 

water on Earth and its unique properties being 

central to the planet’s dynamics (DCI ESS2.C). 
Alignment of the 

Ocean Literacy Framework 

to the NGSS

92 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

OLP 2. This is a rating of 3 because the OLP 

provides important Earth system examples of the 

core idea that feedbacks between the biosphere 

and other Earth systems cause the co-evolution 

of life and Earth’s surface (DCI ESS2.E). Examples 

include biogeochemical cycles and sedimentary 

rocks found on land originated in the ocean 

(OLFC 2A) and the ocean is the largest reservoir 

of rapidly cycling carbon on Earth, which is 

then used by shell and reef building organisms 

(OLFC 2D; S&S grades 9 through 12, B strand). 

OLP 3. This is a rating of 2 because in order to fully 

understand the concepts that interactions and 

feedback effects between Earth’s systems cause 

changes to climate (DCI ESS2.A) and the foundation 

of the climate system is energy from the sun and 

interactions with the atmosphere, ocean and land 

(DCI ESS2.D). Learners must have an understanding 

of the following concepts: the interaction of oceanic 

and atmospheric processes controls climate by 

dominating Earth’s energy, water, and carbon 

systems (OLFC 3A; S&S grades 9 through 12, A and B 

strands); the ocean moderates climate by absorbing 

most of the solar radiation reaching Earth, and 

heat exchange between the ocean and atmosphere 

drives oceanic and atmospheric circulation (OLFC 

3A, B, F; S&S grades 9 through 12, A and B strands); 

and changes in the ocean–atmosphere system can 

result in changes to the climate that in turn, cause 

further changes to the ocean and atmosphere 

(OLFC 3G; S&S grades 9 through 12, C strand). 

OLP 4. This is a rating of 2 because to fully 

understand the concepts of changes in Earth’s 

atmosphere and feedbacks among Earth’s 

systems (DCI ESS2.D, E), learners must have an 

understanding of the influence of the ocean on the 

formation of and changes to Earth’s atmosphere 

and interaction with other systems (OLFC 4A, 

C; S&S grades 9 through 12, A and B strands). 

OLP 6. This is a rating of 1 because concepts 

addressing changes in the atmosphere due 

to human activity are described in both 

the DCI (ESS2.D) and the S&S (D1, D2). 

HS-ESS3 Earth and Human Activity 

OLP 3. This is a rating of 1 because the core 

ideas of weather and climate models (DCI 

ESS2.D) are addressed in the OLP, which also 

provides additional examples of the ocean’s 

influence on weather and climate (OLFC 3F, 

G; S&S grades 9 through 12, B1, B2, B5, B6). 

OLP 6. This is a rating of 1 because there are strong 

connections between three DCIs and the OLP. The 

core idea about natural hazards (DCI ESS3.B) is 

aligned with ideas about human actions increasing 

the effects of hurricanes and tsunamis (OLFC 6F; S&S 

grades 9 through 12, D4 through D6). Ideas about 

resource availability and their effect on human 

society (DCI ESS3.C) are aligned with concepts 

about foods, medicines, and mineral and energy 

resources from the ocean that humans depend on 

(OLFC 6B; S&S grades 9 through 12, A strand). Ideas 

about human impacts and management of Earth 

systems (DCI ESS3.C) are aligned with concepts on 

ocean resource management (OLFC 6E; S&S grades 

9 through 12, A2, D1, E3 through E5). Concepts 

about discovering and modeling Earth’s systems 

(ESS3-D) are aligned with making discoveries about 

the ocean–atmosphere–biosphere interactions and 

managing human impacts, including climate change 

(OLFC 6G; S&S grades 9 through 12, D14, D15, E2). 

OLP 7. This is a rating of 2 because in order to 

fully understand the core idea of modeling future 

climate (DCI ESS2.D) an understanding of ocean 

exploration and new technologies is needed (OLFC 

7D, E; S&S grades 9 through 12, A4, C2 through 

C5). To fully understand concepts about global 

climate change (ESS3.D) an understanding of the 

GRADES 9 THROUGH 12
Alignment of the 

Ocean Literacy Framework 

to the NGSS

oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 93

complexities and limitations of ocean modeling 

are needed (S&S grades 9 through 12, C3). 

HS-LS1 From Molecules to Organisms: 

Structures and Processes 

OLP 4. This is a rating of 4 because to understand 

oxygen production and the effect of oxygen on life 

on Earth (OLFC 4A; S&S grades 9 through 12, A 

strands) learners need to know about the process 

of photosynthesis as described in the DCI (LS1.C). 

HS-LS2 Ecosystems: Interactions, 

Energy, and Dynamics 

OLP 1. This is a rating of 2 because to fully 

understand cycles of matter and energy transfer 

in ecosystems and ecosystem dynamics (DCI 

LS2.B, C) an understanding of how ocean 

circulation transports (heat) energy and 

matter and how changes to it affect climate 

and climate stability are needed (OLFC 1C). 

OLP 2. This is a rating of 1 because the concepts 

that many biogeochemical cycles originate in the 

ocean (OLFC 2A), the role that rapidly cycling carbon 

plays in the ocean (OLFC 2D), and the connection of 

these cycles to the processes of photosynthesis and 

respiration (S&S grades 9 through 12, B strand) are 

strongly aligned with the cycles of matter and energy 

transfer, including photosynthesis, respiration, and 

the carbon cycle as described in the DCIs (LS2.B). 

OLP 3. This is a rating of 2 because to fully 

understand ecosystem dynamics, functioning, 

and resilience (DCI LS2.C) an understanding 

of the ocean’s influence on climate change and 

stability is needed (OLFC 3E through G; S&S grades 

9 through 12, B and C strands). Additionally, to 

fully understand cycles of matter and energy 

transfer in ecosystems (DCI LS2.B) learners need 

to understand the ocean’s role in the carbon cycle 

(OLFC 3E; S&S grades 9 through 12, B1 through B8). 

OLP 4. This is a rating of 3 because the concept 

of Earth’s changing atmosphere (OLFC 4C; S&S 

grades 9 through 12, A strand) provides an 

example of ecosystem dynamics, functioning, 

and resilience found in the DCI (LS2.C). 

OLP 5. This is a rating of 2 because in order to 

fully understand matter and energy transfer in 

ecosystems (DCI LS2.B) an understanding of the 

role microbes play as primary producers in ocean 

ecosystems (OLFC 5B; S&S grades 9 through 12, A 

strand) is needed. Understanding the uniqueness 

and diversity of ocean ecosystems (OLFC 5E, G; S&S 

grades 9 through 12, B strand) and the diversity 

of life and adaptations of ocean organisms (OLFC 

5C, D, F, H; S&S grades 9 through 12, C strand) 

are essential to comprehending how ecosystems 

are defined by environmental factors and the 

community of organisms living there (DCI LS2.A). 

OLP 6. This is a rating of 1 because the idea 

that human interactions with the ocean and 

ocean–atmosphere ecosystems may have 

negative consequences (OLFC 6D, E; S&S grades 

9 through 12, D strand) is closely aligned to the 

concept that complex ecosystem interactions 

are affected by stability vs. extreme fluctuations 

and anthropogenic effects such as pollution, 

overexploitation, and climate change (DCI LS2.C). 

Also, humans depend on living resources and 

benefit from biodiversity (DCI LS4.D) which 

aligns with the concept that humans benefit from 

the food, medicine, resources, biodiversity, and 

inspiration provided by the ocean (OLFC 6A through 

D; S&S grades 9 through 12, A and B strands). 

OLP 7. This is a rating of 3 because many examples 

of different technological advances to explore 

the ocean are provided, each with strengths and 

limitations which must be considered (OLFC 7C 

through E; S&S grades 9 through 12, C strand) when 

exploring how human activity impacts ecosystems 

GRADES 9 THROUGH 12
Alignment of the 

Ocean Literacy Framework 

to the NGSS

94 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

(DCI LS2.C) and when evaluating solutions (DCI 

ETS1.B) to sustain biodiversity (DCI LS4.D). 

HS-LS4 Biological Evolution: 

Unity and Diversity 

OLP 4. This is a rating of 2 because understanding 

that the earliest evidence of life is found in 

the ocean (OLFC 4B; S&S grades 9 through 12, 

B strand) is essential to fully understanding 

evidence of common ancestry and diversity 

as described in the DCI (LS4.A). 

OLP 5. This is a rating of 3 because the ocean 

provides excellent and diverse examples of 

adaptations as well as environmental conditions 

and variations (OLFC 5D, G, H; S&S grades 9 

through 12, B and C strands) introduced in the DCI 

(LS4.C) which focuses on the process of adaptation 

and connections to environmental change. 

OLP 6. This is a rating of 1 because the concepts 

that humans are dependent on natural resources 

and other benefits provided by biodiversity 

and on preserving landscapes for recreation 

and inspiration (DCI LS4.C, D) are strongly 

aligned with the ocean literacy concepts that 

although there is a strong interconnection to 

the environment, humans are having adverse 

impacts on biodiversity and resources (OLFC 6D, 

E; S&S grades 9 through 12, A and D strands). 

HS-PS1 Matter and Its Interactions 

No alignment between OL and NGSS. 

HS-PS2 Motion and Stability: 

Forces and Interactions 

OLP 1. This is a rating of 4 because learners need 

to understand the structure and properties of 

matter (DCI PS1.A) as well as forces and motion 

(DCI PS2.A, B) in order to understand thermal 

expansion and the forces at play in ocean circulation 

(OLFC 1C, D; S&S grades 9 through 12, C strand). 

HS-PS3 Energy 

OLP 3. This is a 3 because the ocean literacy concepts 

provide important Earth system examples of 

fundamental physical energy principles including 

definitions of energy (DCI PS3.A), conservation 

of energy, and energy transfer (DCI PS3.B, C). 

Examples include absorption of solar radiation by 

the ocean and the energy exchange between the 

ocean–atmosphere system, which drives Earth’s 

circulation, moderates climate, and provides the 

energy for hurricanes (OLFC 3A through D; S&S 

grades 9 through 12, A, A1, A4 through A8, A13). 

OLP 6. This is a rating of 3 because the ocean 

literacy concepts provide examples of energy 

resources from the ocean (OLFC 6B; S&S 

grades 9 through 12, A5) which help to apply 

fundamental physical energy principles, including 

definitions of energy (DCI PS3.A; PE HS-PS3-3). 

HS-PS4 Waves and Their Applications in 

Technologies for Information Transfer 

OLP 1. This is a rating of 3 because the core 

ideas about ocean waves, including how 

waves transfer energy over a long distance 

but with very little horizontal movement (S&S 

grades 9 through 12, C15 through 17), provide 

strong examples and an application of the 

concept of wave properties (DCI PS4.A). 

OLP 3. This is a rating of 4 because in order to 

understand solar radiation and heat exchange 

between the ocean and atmosphere (OLFC 3B, C; S&S 

grades 9 through 12, A and B strands) it is helpful to 

understand electromagnetic radiation, absorption, 

and conversion to thermal energy (DCI PS4.B). 

GRADES 9 THROUGH 12
Alignment of the 

Ocean Literacy Framework 

to the NGSS

oceanliteracyNMEA.org A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy 95

OLP 7. This is a rating of 3 because the development 

and use of information technologies in ocean 

exploration (OLFC 7D; S&S grades 9 through 

12, C strand) are examples of the importance 

of applying our understanding of waves and 

their interactions with matter in the use and 

development of essential tools (DCI PS4.A, C). 

HS-ETS1 Engineering Design 

OLP 6. This is a rating of 3 because as the human 

population, climate change, and impact on ocean 

resources increases (OLFC 6D; S&S grades 9 through 

12, A6, D1) achieving environmental sustainability 

in the ocean depends upon action based on scientific 

research and exploration (S&S grades 9 through 12, E 

strand) as well as regulations (S&S grades 9 through 

12, E2 through E8, E10). These ocean examples 

of global challenges may be addressed through 

engineering (DCI ETS1.A). When evaluating these 

solutions it is important to take into account social, 

cultural, and environmental impacts (DCI ETS1.B). 

GRADES 9 THROUGH 12
96 A Handbook for Increasing Ocean Literacy oceanliteracyNMEA.org

About the Contributors and Credits

Editors

Catherine Halversen is an emerita Senior Program 

Director in the Learning and Teaching Group at the 

Lawrence Hall of Science, University of California 

Berkeley where she also served as Co-Director of Marine, 

Activities, Resources & Education (MARE) and Director 

of Communicating Ocean and Climate Sciences. Her 

work focuses on developing and disseminating inperson and online professional learning programs, 

instructional materials, and courses for STEM university/

college faculty, K through 12 and informal educators 

(e.g., Reflecting on Practice for STEM Educators), and 

ocean and earth science undergraduates and graduate 

students. She has been involved in the Ocean Literacy 

Campaign since its inception and serves as a Vice Chair 

of the NMEA Ocean Literacy Committee. Catherine has 

a Masters in Integrative Biology/Marine Science and a 

Secondary Teaching Credential, both from University 

of California Berkeley. Pronouns: she/her/hers

Diana L. Payne is an ecologist, educator, photographer, 

and writer, currently serving as an Associate Professor 

and the Education Coordinator with Connecticut Sea 

Grant based at the University of Connecticut’s Avery 

Point campus. She is Chair of the NMEA Ocean Literacy 

Committee, a past President of NMEA, a past Chair of the Sea 

Grant Education Network (SGEN), a past Chair of the New 

England Ocean Science Education Collaborative (NEOSEC), 

and served as international expert in Ocean Literacy with 

the Fulbright Specialist Program. Diana is a co-editor of 

the first international book in marine science education, 

Exemplary Practices in Marine Science Education: 

A Resource for Practitioners and Researchers. She holds 

bachelor and masters degrees in biology and estuarine 

ecology, a Connecticut educator certification in biology 

for grades 7 through 12, and a doctorate in Educational 

Psychology from the University of Connecticut’s 

Neag School of Education. Pronouns: she/her/hers

Sarah Schoedinger is a Senior Education Program 

Manager in NOAA’s Office of Education. For over 

20 years her work has focused on building ocean literacy, 

environmental literacy, and science literacy among 

K through 12 and informal education audiences through 

grants and other partnerships. Sarah leads the office’s 

ocean literacy efforts and co-leads NOAA’s Environmental 

Literacy Program, which involves collaborating with 

and providing grants to formal and informal science 

education organizations to build environmental literacy 

and promote the use of NOAA-related sciences and data 

products. She is a Vice Chair of the NMEA Ocean Literacy 

Committee and a past President of NMEA. Sarah has a 

BA in philosophy and history of science and mathematics 

from St. John’s College and a MS in marine science from 

the University of Delaware. Pronouns: she/her/hers

Authors

Craig Strang is the Associate Director of Lawrence Hall 

of Science at the University of California, Berkeley. He 

is a past President of NMEA and served for many years 

as the founding Chair of the NMEA Ocean Literacy 

Committee. He was Principal Investigator of the Center 

for Ocean Sciences Education Excellence (COSEE) 

California, and founding chair of the National COSEE 

Council. He is Principal Investigator of the BEETLES 

(Better Environmental Education Teaching, Learning & 

Expertise Sharing) Project and Working Toward Racial 

Equity Project. He co-wrote the California Blueprint for 

Environmental Literacy and is Co-Chair of the California 

Environmental Literacy Initiative. Pronouns: he/him/his

Jo Topps is a Regional Director for the K–12 Alliance. 

Ms. Topps has extensive background in professional 

development, science education, and educational 

leadership. She directs the development, coordination 

and implementation of regional, statewide and national 

professional development programs. She also supervises 

student teachers at California State University, Long 

Beach. Jo has a BS in Social Science and a MS in Education.

Kathyrn DiRanna is the recently retired statewide 

director of K–12 Alliance at WestEd science professional 

learning program. She served as the CA NGSS K–8 Early 

Implementation Initiative Director, Project Director 

for multiple CA Math and Science Partnerships, Project 

Director for the NSF-funded California Statewide 

Systemic Initiative, and was co-leader of the NSF 

Center for Assessment and Evaluation of Student 

Learning. Kathy and her team pioneered the use of 

conceptual flows in 1989. Kathy has an MS in Zoology.