FI L ED

U.S. COURT OF APPEAL S

EL EVENTH CI RCUI T

MAY 11, 2010

J OHN L EY

CL ERK [ P U B L I S H ]

I N T H E U N I T E D S T A T E S C O U R T O F A P P E A L S

F O R T H E E L E V E N T H C I R C U I T

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

N o

. 0 7

- 1 5 0 0 4

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

D

. C

. D o c k e t N o

. 0 1

- 0 1 2 7 5

- C V

- J

- 2 5

- H T S

A M E R I C A N A S S O C I A T I O N O F P E O P L E

W I T H D I S A B I L I T I E S

,

o n b e h a l f o f t h e m s e l v e s a n d o t h e r s

s i m i l a r l y s i t u a t e d

,

D A N I E L W

. O ' C O N N O R

,

K E N T B E L L

,

o n b e h a l f o f t h e m s e l v e s a n d o t h e r s s i m i l a r l y

s i t u a t e d

,

B E T H B O W E N

,

o n b e h a l f o f h e r s e l f a n d o t h e r s s i m i l a r l y

s i t u a t e d

,

P l a i n t i f f s

- A p p e l l e e s

,

v e r s u s

K A T H E R I N E H A R R I S

,

a s S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e f

o r t h e S t a t e

o f F l o r i d a

, e t a l

. ,

D e f e n d a n t s

,

J E R R Y H O L L A N D

,

a s S u p e r v i s o r o f E l e c t i o n s i n

D u v a l C o u n t y

, F l o r i d a

,D e f e n d a n t

- A p p e l l a n t

.

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

A p p e a l f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s D i s t r i c t C o u r t

f o r t h e M i d d l e D i s t r i c t o f F l o r i d a

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ( M a y 1 1

, 2 0 1 0 )

B e f o r e T J O F L A T a n d C A R N E S

, C i r c u i t J u d g e s

, a n d H O O D

, D i s t r i c t J u d g e

. *

T J O F L A T

, C i r c u i t J u d g e :

T h i s c a s e i s b e f

o r e t h i s c o u r t f

o r t h e t h i r d t i m e

. I n t h e f i r s t a p p e a l

, w h i c h

c h a l l e n g e d a n i n

j u n c t i o n e n t e r e d t o e n f

o r c e a f e d e r a l r e g u l a t i o n a g a i n s t o n e o f t h e

d e f e n d a n t s

, a p a n e l o f t h i s c o u r t

, w h i l e r e t a i n i n g j u r i s d i c t i o n

, r e m a n d e d t h e c a s e

w i t h t h e i n s t r u c t i o n t h a t t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t r e s o l v e t w o q u e s t i o n s o f f a c t

. T h e d i s t r i c t

c o u r t d i d a s i n s t r u c t e d

, a n d t h e c a s e w a s r e t u r n e d t o t h e p a n e l

. T h e p a n e l t h e n

f o u n d t h a t t h e i n

j u n c t i o n w a s p r e m a t u r e a n d d i s m i s s e d t h e a p p e a l a s m o o t

. A f t e r

t h e p a n e l ’ s m a n d a t e i s s u e d

, t h e d e f e n d a n t m o v e d t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t t o v a c a t e t h e

i n j u n c t i o n a n d d i s m i s s t h e c a s e

. T h e c o u r t d e n i e d h i s m o t i o n a n d e n t e r e d a f i n a l

j u d g m e n t

, e f

f e c t i v e l y r e i n s t a t i n g t h e i n j u n c t i o n

. T h i s a p p e a l i s f r o m t h a t j u d g m e n t

.

W e c o n c l u d e t h a t b e c a u s e t h e f e d e r a l r e g u l a t i o n a t i s s u e i s n o t s u b j e c t t o

e n f o r c e m e n t v i a t h e i n

j u n c t i o n t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t f a s h i o n e d

, t h e p l a i n t i f

f s h a d n o

Honora ble J oseph M. Hood, United States District Judge f or the Ea stern District of K entucky

, *

sitti ng by desig nation.

2l e g a l l y c o g n i z a b l e c l a i m f o r r e l i e f

. W e t h e r e f

o r e v a c a t e t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t ’ s

j u d g m e n t a n d r e m a n d t h e c a s e w i t h t h e i n s t r u c t i o n t h a t t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t v a c a t e t h e

i n j u n c t i o n a n d d i s m i s s t h e a c t i o n

.

I

.

P l a i n t i f f s a r e v i s u a l l y o r m a n u a l l y i m p a i r e d F l o r i d a c i t i z e n s w h o a r e

r e g i s t e r e d t o v o t e i n D u v a l C o u n t y

, F l o r i d a

, a n d a r e r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e A m e r i c a n

A s s o c i a t i o n o f P e o p l e w i t h D i s a b i l i t i e s ( c o l l e c t i v e l y “ P l a i n t i f f s ” )

. P l a i n t i f

f s f i l e d a

p u t a t i v e c l a s s a c t i o n o n N o v e m b e r 8

, 2 0 0 1

, a g a i n s t K a t h e r i n e H a r r i s

, F l o r i d a 1

S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e ; L

. C l a y t o n R o b e r t s

, D i r e c t o r o f t h e D i v i s i o n o f E l e c t i o n s o f t h e

F l o r i d a D e p a r t m e n t o f S t a t e ; J o h n S t a f f o r d

, t h e S u p e r v i s o r o f E l e c t i o n s o f D u v a l

C o u n t y ; a n d m e m b e r s o f t h e J a c k s o n v i l l e C i t y C o u n c i l ( c o l l e c t i v e l y

“ D e f e n d a n t s ” )

, a l l e g i n g t h a t D e f e n d a n t s v i o l a t e d f

e d e r a l s t a t u t o r y a n d s t a t e 2

c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o v i s i o n s b y f a i l i n g t o p r o v i d e h a n d i c a p p e d

- a c c e s s i b l e v o t i n g

m a c h i n e s t o v i s u a l l y o r m a n u a l l y i m p a i r e d F l o r i d a v o t e r s a f t e r t h e 2 0 0 0 g e n e r a l

The c ase w as filed in the Jacksonville Division of the U.S. District Court for the Middle 1

District of F lorida and a ssigne d to the Honora ble Ralph W. Nimm ons, J r. Judge Nimmons

handled the c ase until shortly befor e his dea th on November 24, 2003. The c ase w as then

rea ssigne d to the Honora

ble Way ne E. Alley

of the Western D istrict of Oklahoma, w ho handled

it until September 2, 2004. O n September 14, 2004, the case was re assig ned to the Honor able

Henr y L . Adams, Jr., and he has pr esided ove r the c ase since that date.

The g eog raphic limit s of the City of Jacksonville and Duval County are coextensive. The City 2

and the County

are consolidated a

nd are g overne d under the Charter of the Consolidated

Gover nment of the City

of Jacksonville, which established a may or-c ity

council for

m of

g overnme nt. Throug hout this opi nion, we re fer to the City

and the County

intercha ng eably

.

3e l e c t i o n

. S p e c i f i c a l l y

, D u v a l C o u n t y i m p l e m e n t e d o p t i c a l s c a n t e c h n o l o g y t o 3 4

a v o i d “ h a n g i n g c h a d s ” a n d o t h e r p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e p u n c h c a r d s y s t e m

u s e d i n 2 0 0 0

, b u t p u r c h a s e d o n l y t h r e e a c c e s s i b l e t o u c h s c r e e n m a c h i n e s w i t h

a u d i o c o m p o n e n t s f

o r t h e e n t i r e C o u n t y ’ s u s e

. 5

P l a i n t i f f s a l l e g e d t h a t d u e t o t h e l a c k o f h a n d i c a p p e d

- a c c e s s i b l e e q u i p m e n t

,

t h e y c o u l d n o t e n

j o y t h e d i r e c t a n d s e c r e t v o t i n g e x p e r i e n c e e n j o y e d b y n o n

d i s a b l e d c i t i z e n s

, w h i c h v i o l a t e d t h e i r f u n d a m e n t a l r i g h t t o v o t e

. T h e i r c o m p l a i n t

s t a t e d c l a i m s u n d e r t h e A m e r i c a n s w i t h D i s a b i l i t i e s A c t ( “ A D A ” )

, 4 2 U

. S

. C

. §

1 2 1 3 3

, t h e R e h a b i l i t a t i o n A c t

, 2 9 U

. S

. C

. § 7 9 4

, a n d p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e F l o r i d a

C o n s t i t u t i o n a n d s t a t u t e s

. P l a i n t i f f s r e q u e s t e d a d e c l a r a t i o n t h a t D e f e n d a n t s ’ 6

c o n d u c t v i o l a t e d t h o s e l a w s

, a s w e l l a s a n i n j u n c t i o n p r o h i b i t i n g D e f e n d a n t s f r o m

J err y Holland succ eede d J ohn Stafford a s Supervisor of Elec tions in Duval County , and 3

Glenda E . Hood and Edw ard C. Ka st succee ded Ka therine H arr is and L . Clay ton Roberts,

respe ctively . The district cour t dismi ssed the City

Council members and the state off icials from

the ca se in order s entere d on October 16, 2002, and September 20, 2007, respe ctively . Those

dismiss als are not challeng ed her e. Althoug h J err y Holland is the sole def

endant r emaining in

the ca se, for

brevity we r efe r to him and the others w ho wer e sued c ollectively as “D efe ndants.”

An optical sca

n sy stem provides voters w ith a paper ballot that fea tures ovals ne x t to each 4

candida te’s name or ballot issue. The voter uses a pe n to fill in t he oval c orre sponding to his or

her vote . Election off

icials then fe ed the ba llot through a machine tha t uses a lig ht beam to

rec ord which ova l the voter sele cted a nd tabulates the total number of votes.

After the 2000 g ener al elec tion, Florida e nacte d leg islation prohibiti ng the use of punc h car d 5

sy stems effe ctive September 2, 2002. Fla. Stat. § 101.56042.

The c omplaint invoked the district court’s fe dera l question jurisdiction, 28 U.S .C. § 1331, with 6

respe ct to the ADA a

nd Rehabilitation Act claims, and the c ourt’s supplemental jurisdiction, 28

U.S.C. § 1367, with respect to the state la w claims.

4c o n t i n u i n g t h e i r a l l e g e d l y i l l e g a l a c t i v i t i e s a n d f r o m p u r c h a s i n g m o r e i n a c c e s s i b l e

v o t i n g m a c h i n e s

.

D e f e n d a n t s m o v e d t o d i s m i s s t h e c o m p l a i n t u n d e r F e d e r a l R u l e o f C i v i l

P r o c e d u r e 1 2 ( b ) ( 6 )

, a r g u i n g t h e y h a d n o d u t i e s u n d e r t h e A D A

, R e h a b i l i t a t i o n A c t

,

o r t h e F l o r i d a C o n s t i t u t i o n a n d F l o r i d a s t a t u t e s t o e n s u r e t h a t v o t i n g s y s t e m s m e t

t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f a l l d i s a b l e d v o t e r s

, o r t o p r o v i d e a b s o l u t e s e c r e c y i n v o t i n g

.

A f t e r b r i e f i n g a n d o r a l a r g u m e n t

, o n O c t o b e r 1 6

, 2 0 0 2

, t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t g r a n t e d

D e f e n d a n t s ’ m o t i o n t o d i s m i s s P l a i n t i f f s ’ c l a i m s u n d e r t h e A D A

, t h e R e h a b i l i t a t i o n

A c t

, a n d t h e F l o r i d a C o n s t i t u t i o n a n d s t a t u t e s

. T h e c o u r t h e l d t h a t F l o r i d a l a w

,

w h i c h e n a b l e d h a n d i c a p p e d v o t e r s t o h a v e a t h i r d p a r t y a s s i s t t h e m i n t h e v o t i n g

b o o t h

, s a t i s f

i e d t h e A D A a n d t h e R e h a b i l i t a t i o n A c t a n d F l o r i d a ’ s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l

a n d s t a t u t o r y r e q u i r e m e n t s

. 7

T h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t g a v e P l a i n t i f f s l e a v e t o f

i l e a n a m e n d e d c o m p l a i n t

i n c l u d i n g f

u r t h e r a l l e g a t i o n s s u p p o r t i n g t h e i r A D A a n d R e h a b i l i t a t i o n A c t c l a i m s

,

a n d d i r e c t e d t h e m t o c o n s i d e r w h e t h e r t h e F l o r i d a e l e c t i o n l a w

, a s a m e n d e d b y t h e

2 0 0 2 F l o r i d a l e g i s l a t u r e

, s a t i s f i e d t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h o s e f e d e r a l s t a t u t e s

. 8

The district cour

t’s Florida

law holding is ambiguous. We interpr et the cour t’s holding a s 7

stated in the text preceding this footnote beca use it provides the only

basis on which the c ourt

could have found no violation of the ADA or the Reha bilitation Act.

The 2002 a mendments of the F lorida ele ction law we re e nacte d befor e the district cour t 8

enter ed its October

16, 2002 order , but were not before the cour t at the time Def

endants’ motion

to dismi ss was ar g ued and the court took the c ase unde r submission. R ather , the amendme nts

5P l a i n t i f

f s f i l e d a t w o

- c o u n t a m e n d e d c o m p l a i n t o n N o v e m b e r 5

, 2 0 0 2

, a l l e g i n g

v i o l a t i o n s o f t h e A D A a n d t h e R e h a b i l i t a t i o n A c t

. T h e a m e n d e d c o m p l a i n t n o t e d

t h a t t h e 2 0 0 2 F l o r i d a l e g i s l a t u r e h a d e n a c t e d H

. B

. 1 3 5 0

, m a n d a t i n g t h a t e a c h

p r e c i n c t i n F l o r i d a p r o v i d e o n e h a n d i c a p p e d

- a c c e s s i b l e v o t i n g m a c h i n e

, b u t

a s s e r t e d t h a t H

. B

. 1 3 5 0

, w h e n i m p l e m e n t e d

, w o u l d n o t s a t i s f y t h e A D A a n d

R e h a b i l i t a t i o n A c t r e q u i r e m e n t s

. M o r e o v e r

, H

. B

. 1 3 5 0 w o u l d n o t b e c o m e

e f f e c t i v e u n t i l o n e y e a r a f

t e r t h e F l o r i d a l e g i s l a t u r e a p p r o p r i a t e d f u n d i n g

, a n d u n t i l

t h a t o c c u r r e d

, D u v a l C o u n t y w o u l d n o t b e m a n d a t e d b y F l o r i d a l a w t o p r o v i d e a

h a n d i c a p p e d

- a c c e s s i b l e v o t i n g m a c h i n e a t e a c h p r e c i n c t

.

T h e a m e n d e d c o m p l a i n t a l s o n o t e d f e d e r a l l e g i s l a t i o n t h a t h a d b e c o m e

e f f e c t i v e o n e w e e k b e f

o r e i t s f i l i n g d a t e

. O n O c t o b e r 2 9

, 2 0 0 2

, P r e s i d e n t B u s h

s i g n e d i n t o l a w t h e H e l p A m e r i c a V o t e A c t o f 2 0 0 2 ( “ H A V A ” )

, P u b

. L

. N o

. 1 0 7

-

2 5 2

, 1 1 6 S t a t

. 1 6 6 6 ( c o d i f i e d a t 4 2 U

. S

. C

. § § 1 5 3 0 1

– 1 5 5 4 5 )

. I n i t s T i t l e I I I

,

H A V A r e q u i r e d v o t i n g e q u i p m e n t u s e d i n f e d e r a l e l e c t i o n s t o “ b e a c c e s s i b l e f o r

i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h d i s a b i l i t i e s

. . . i n a m a n n e r t h a t p r o v i d e s t h e s a m e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r

a c c e s s a n d p a r t i c i p a t i o n ( i n c l u d i n g p r i v a c y a n d i n d e p e n d e n c e ) a s f o r o t h e r v o t e r s ”

b y d e m a n d i n g “ a t l e a s t o n e d i r e c t r e c o r d i n g e l e c t r o n i c v o t i n g s y s t e m o r o t h e r

v o t i n g s y s t e m e q u i p p e d f o r i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h d i s a b i l i t i e s a t e a c h p o l l i n g p l a c e

. ” 4 2

wer e broug ht to the court’s a ttention shortly befor e the or der issued.

6U

. S

. C

. § 1 5 4 8 1 ( a ) ( 3 )

. S t a t e a n d l o c a l v o t i n g a u t h o r i t i e s h a d t o c o m p l y w i t h t h e

a c c e s s i b i l i t y p r o v i s i o n b y J a n u a r y 1

, 2 0 0 6

. I d

. § 1 5 4 8 1 ( d )

. H A V A p r o v i d e d

f u n d i n g f o r s t a t e s t o m a k e i m p r o v e m e n t s r e q u i r e d b y § 1 5 4 8 1

. I d

. § 1 5 3 0 1

.

T h e F l o r i d a l e g i s l a t u r e h a d e n a c t e d s i m i l a r l a w s g o v e r n i n g a c c e s s i b i l i t y i n

p o l l i n g p l a c e s

, w h i c h t h e a m e n d e d c o m p l a i n t o m i t t e d t o m e n t i o n

. R e s p o n d i n g t o

t h e r e p o r t o f a S e l e c t T a s k F o r c e o n V o t i n g A c c e s s i b i l i t y

, w h i c h t h e S e c r e t a r y o f

S t a t e h a d c r e a t e d f

o l l o w i n g t h e 2 0 0 0 g e n e r a l e l e c t i o n t o a d d r e s s p r o b l e m s w i t h

d i s a b l e d v o t e r a c c e s s i b i l i t y

, t h e 2 0 0 2 F l o r i d a l e g i s l a t u r e h a d p r o m u l g a t e d s t a n d a r d s

f o r v o t i n g e q u i p m e n t

— i n c l u d i n g s t a n d a r d s d e s i g n e d t o s o l v e t h e a c c e s s i b i l i t y

p r o b l e m

. T h e D e p a r t m e n t o f S t a t e w o u l d c e r t i f y e q u i p m e n t t h a t m e t s u c h s t a t u t o r y

s t a n d a r d s

. F l a

. S t a t

. § 1 0 1

. 5 6 0 6 2 ; s e e a l s o E l e c t r o n i c V o t i n g S y s t e m s A c t

, 2 0 0 2

F l a

. S e s s

. L a w S e r v

. 2 0 0 2

- 1 7 ( W e s t ) ( c o d i f i e d a t F l a

. S t a t

. § § 1 0 1

. 5 6 0 1

–

. 5 6 1 4 )

.

A m o n g o t h e r f

e a t u r e s

, v o t i n g s y s t e m s w o u l d b e r e q u i r e d t o i n c l u d e a t a c t i l e o r

a u d i o i n p u t d e v i c e ( o r b o t h )

, a m e t h o d b y w h i c h v o t e r s c o u l d c o n f i r m t a c t i l e o r

a u d i o i n p u t s

, o p e r a b l e c o n t r o l s d i s c e r n i b l e b y t h e v i s u a l l y i m p a i r e d

, a n d s p e c i f i c

f u n c t i o n s f

o r a u d i o b a l l o t s

. F l a

. S t a t

. § 1 0 1

. 5 6 0 6 2

. A s w i t h H

. B

. 1 3 5 0

, c o u n t y

c o m p l i a n c e w i t h § 1 0 1

. 5 6 0 6 2 w a s r e q u i r e d o n e y e a r a f t e r t h e F l o r i d a l e g i s l a t u r e

a p p r o p r i a t e d f

u n d i n g

. 2 0 0 2 F l a

. S e s s

. L a w S e r v

. 2 0 0 2

- 2 1 8 § 2 2 ( W e s t )

.

T h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t c o n v e n e d a b e n c h t r i a l o n P l a i n t i f f s ’ A D A a n d

7R e h a b i l i t a t i o n A c t c l a i m s o n S e p t e m b e r 2 3

, 2 0 0 3

. B y t h i s t i m e

, t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t

h a d d i s m i s s e d t h e C i t y C o u n c i l m e m b e r s f r o m t h e c a s e ; t h e C o u n t y ’ s S u p e r v i s o r o f

E l e c t i o n s

, t h e S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e

, a n d t h e S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t ’ s D i r e c t o r o f t h e

D i v i s i o n o f E l e c t i o n s r e m a i n e d

. T h e i r d e f e n s e t o P l a i n t i f

f s ’ c l a i m s w a s t h a t t h e

h a n d i c a p p e d

- a c c e s s i b l e v o t i n g m a c h i n e s p r o v i d e d b y t h e F l o r i d a l e g i s l a t u r e w o u l d

s a t i s f y H A V A T i t l e I I I

— a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e A D A a n d t h e R e h a b i l i t a t i o n A c t t o t h e

e x t e n t t h a t P l a i n t i f

f s w e r e c o n t e n d i n g t h a t t h e l a t t e r t w o s t a t u t e s a p p l i e d t o

h a n d i c a p p e d

- a c c e s s i b l e v o t i n g m a c h i n e s

— a n d t h a t a p p r o p r i a t e s t e p s w e r e b e i n g

t a k e n i n D u v a l C o u n t y t o m e e t H A V A T i t l e I I I ’ s r e q u i r e m e n t s

.

T h e t r i a l e n d e d o n O c t o b e r 1

, 2 0 0 3

, a n d

, o n M a r c h 2 6

, 2 0 0 4

, t h e d i s t r i c t

c o u r t i s s u e d a d e c l a r a t o r y j u d g m e n t a n d a n i n j u n c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e C o u n t y ’ s

S u p e r v i s o r o f E l e c t i o n s

. T h e c o u r t b y p a s s e d t h e q u e s t i o n s o f w h e t h e r t h e F l o r i d a 9

e l e c t i o n l a w

, a s a m e n d e d

, p a s s e d A D A a n d R e h a b i l i t a t i o n A c t m u s t e r b u t f o u n d 1 0

J udg e Alley

presided ove r the trial a

nd issued the dec lara tory

judgme nt and injunction. See 9

supra note 1. T he district cour t dismi ssed the Secr etar

y of State and the State Depa rtment’s

Direc tor of the Division of Elec tions from the ca se in the judg ment enter ed on September 20,

2007, which re flec ted the cour t’s Marc h 24, 2004 order

stating tha t the state off

icials would be

entitled to judgment a g ainst Plainti ffs upon submission of a final status re port reg arding the

application of D iebold Elections Sy stems, I nc. for cer tification of its handica

pped-a cce ssible

voting mac hines. Fr om this poi nt forwa rd, we ref er to the Ma

rch 26, 2004 judg ment, which

relied on the rea soning of the district court’s Ma

rch 24, 2004 or der.

Nor did the district cour t addre ss the question of whethe r HAV A Title I I I superse ded the 1 0

ADA a nd the Rehabilitation Act to the extent that Pl aintiffs we re a ttempting to apply those two

statutes to the handica

pped-a cce ssible voting mac hine issues at hand. Rathe r, as indica ted in the

text infra, the court foc used solely on Duval County ’s implementation of the provisions the

Florida leg islature had pr omulga ted to solve the handic apped vote r ac cessibility problem.

8t h a t t h e S u p e r v i s o r o f E l e c t i o n s

, t h e n J o h n S t a f f o r d

, h a d f

a i l e d t o s a t i s f

y t h e

r e q u i r e m e n t s o f a r e g u l a t i o n p r o m u l g a t e d u n d e r t h e A D A

, 2 8 C

. F

. R

. § 3 5

. 1 5 1 ( b )

,

w h i c h d e a l s w i t h “ N o n d i s c r i m i n a t i o n o n t h e B a s i s o f D i s a b i l i t y i n S t a t e a n d L o c a l

G o v e r n m e n t S e r v i c e s

. ” B a s e d o n t h i s v i o l a t i o n

, t h e c o u r t e n j o i n e d S t a f

f o r d t o 1 1

p r o v i d e

, b y A p r i l 1 2

, 2 0 0 4

, a t l e a s t o n e h a n d i c a p p e d

- a c c e s s i b l e v o t i n g m a c h i n e a t

t w e n t y p e r c e n t o f t h e p o l l i n g p l a c e s i n D u v a l C o u n t y a n d t o i n s t a l l

, b y M a y 1 4

,

2 0 0 4

, a n u n s p e c i f

i e d n u m b e r o f t o u c h s c r e e n v o t i n g m a c h i n e s w i t h a u d i o c a p a c i t y

,

a s c e r t i f i e d b y t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f S t a t e

. A m

. A s s ’ n o f P e o p l e w i t h D i s a b i l i t i e s v

. 1 2

H o o d

, 3 1 0 F

. S u p p

. 2 d 1 2 2 6 ( M

. D

. F l a

. 2 0 0 4 )

.

O n M a r c h 3 1

, 2 0 0 4

, S t a f f o r d a p p e a l e d t h e M a r c h 2 6 i n j u n c t i o n t o t h i s c o u r t

,

a s s e r t i n g t h a t t h e c a s e w a s m o o t b e c a u s e H A V A T i t l e I I I s u p e r s e d e d t h e A D A a n d

This reg ulation provides: 1 1

Eac h fac ility

or par t of a fa cility

altere d by , on behalf

of, or f or the use of

a public

entity in a manner

that aff ects or c ould affe ct the usability of the fa cility

or par t of

the fa cility

shall, to the max imum ex tent fea sible, be alter ed in such manne r that

the alter ed portion of the f acility is readily acc essible to and usable by individuals

with disabilit ies, if the alter ation was c ommenced a fter January 26, 1992.

28 C.F.R. § 35.151(b).

Under Florida law, counties w ere , and still are, r esponsible for c hoosing the ty pes of voting 1 2

machines use d in their prec incts. Any machines a

county purcha sed had to be manufa cture d by a

vendor a pproved by

the Dire ctor of the Division of Elections and ce rtified by the Dire ctor. F la.

Stat. § 101.294. Prior to the issuance of the district court’s Mar ch 26 judg ment, Diebold

Election Sy stems, I nc. applied to the D ivision of Elections for ce rtification of its ac cessible

touch scre en voting machine, a nd the district court instructe d the Secr etar y of State and the

Direc tor of the Division to submit a report deta iling Diebold’ s application and disclosing the

results of the tests per formed on the machine by handica pped tester s. See supra

note 9. The

repor t was submitted, and the district cour t dismi ssed these de fenda nts from the ca se.

9t h e R e h a b i l i t a t i o n A c t ( a s t h e y m i g h t a p p l y i n t h e h a n d i c a p p e d

- a c c e s s i b l e v o t i n g

m a c h i n e c o n t e x t )

. S t a f

f o r d f u r t h e r a s s e r t e d t h a t h e w a s i n t h e p r o c e s s o f

i m p l e m e n t i n g t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f F l o r i d a l a w a n d

, u n d e r T i t l e I I I

, h a d u n t i l J a n u a r y 1 3

1

, 2 0 0 6 t o c o m p l e t e t h e j o b

. T h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t ’ s i n j u n c t i o n w a s t h e r e f

o r e

p r e m a t u r e

.

W h i l e S t a f

f o r d ’ s a p p e a l w a s p e n d i n g

, t h e f o l l o w i n g e v e n t s t o o k p l a c e

. T h e

D i r e c t o r o f t h e D i v i s i o n o f E l e c t i o n s c e r t i f i e d t h e t o u c h s c r e e n s y s t e m

m a n u f a c t u r e d b y D i e b o l d E l e c t i o n S y s t e m s

, I n c

. f o r u s e i n F l o r i d a

. T h e F l o r i d a

l e g i s l a t u r e

, i n i t s 2 0 0 4

– 2 0 0 5 G e n e r a l A p p r o p r i a t i o n s A c t

, a p p r o p r i a t e d

$ 1 1

, 6 0 0

, 0 0 0 t o t h e c o u n t i e s t o c o m p l y w i t h H A V A T i t l e I I I a n d F l o r i d a l a w o n

v o t i n g a c c e s s i b i l i t y

. T h e a p p r o p r i a t i o n t r i g g e r e d t h e d e a d l i n e f o r a t l e a s t o n e T i t l e

I I I

- c o m p l i a n t v o t i n g m a c h i n e t o b e a v a i l a b l e i n e a c h p r e c i n c t b y J u l y 1

, 2 0 0 5

. I n

A p r i l 2 0 0 5

, t h e C i t y o f J a c k s o n v i l l e e n a c t e d a n o r d i n a n c e a p p r o p r i a t i n g a

$ 1

, 1 8 7

, 5 4 3

. 7 9 g r a n t f

r o m t h e s t a t e t o p u r c h a s e a t l e a s t o n e a c c e s s i b l e v o t i n g

m a c h i n e f

o r e a c h p r e c i n c t

. O n J u l y 2 9

, 2 0 0 5

, t h e C i t y a n d D i e b o l d e n t e r e d i n t o a

p u r c h a s e a g r e e m e n t f

o r D i e b o l d ’ s t o u c h s c r e e n m a c h i n e s

.

G i v e n t h i s i n f

o r m a t i o n

, o n A u g u s t 8

, 2 0 0 5

, t h i s c o u r t

, w h i l e r e t a i n i n g

j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r t h e a p p e a l

, r e m a n d e d t h e c a s e t o t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t t o a n s w e r t w o

Stafford w as re fer

ring to the Florida

leg islation that addressed the handica pped-a cce ssibili ty 1 3

problem—leg islation the district court approve d in its March 26, 2004 judg ment.

10q u e s t i o n s o f f a c t : ( 1 ) w h e t h e r t h e C i t y h a d a c o n t r a c t t o p r o v i d e D u v a l C o u n t y w i t h

e n o u g h d i s a b l e d

- c o m p l i a n t v o t i n g m a c h i n e s t o p l a c e o n e m a c h i n e i n e a c h v o t i n g

p r e c i n c t

, a n d ( 2 ) i f a c o n t r a c t e x i s t e d

, w h e t h e r t h e v o t i n g m a c h i n e s w o u l d b e i n

p l a c e a n d r e a d y f

o r u s e b y t h e n e x t e l e c t i o n

. T h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t h e l d a n e v i d e n t i a r y

h e a r i n g a n d a n s w e r e d b o t h q u e s t i o n s i n t h e a f f i r m a t i v e

.

B a s e d o n t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t ’ s a n s w e r s a n d S t a f f o r d ’ s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n t h a t t h e

C i t y h a d a c q u i r e d 3 2 6 H A V A

- c o m p l i a n t D i e b o l d t o u c h s c r e e n m a c h i n e s t h a t

w o u l d b e r e a d y f

o r u s e a s o f N o v e m b e r 1 7

, 2 0 0 5

, t h i s c o u r t c o n c l u d e d t h a t

S t a f f o r d ’ s a p p e a l w a s m o o t a n d

, o n A u g u s t 1 7

, 2 0 0 7

, e n t e r e d a n o r d e r d i s m i s s i n g

i t

. 1 4

O n S e p t e m b e r 1 8

, 2 0 0 7

, t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t

, a c t i n g o n i t s o w n i n i t i a t i v e

,

o r d e r e d t h e C l e r k o f t h e D i s t r i c t C o u r t t o e n t e r a f i n a l j u d g m e n t a g a i n s t S t a f f o r d i n

c o n f o r m a n c e w i t h t h e c o u r t ’ s M a r c h 2 6

, 2 0 0 4 d e c l a r a t o r y j u d g m e n t a n d

i n j u n c t i o n

, a n d t h e C l e r k d i d s o o n S e p t e m b e r 2 0

, 2 0 0 7

. O n O c t o b e r 4

, 2 0 0 7

,

1 5 1 6

S t a f f o r d m o v e d t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t t o v a c a t e t h e S e p t e m b e r 2 0 j u d g m e n t a n d t o

That the Die bold machines would be rea dy for use by

November

17, 2005, meant that 1 4

Stafford ha d complied with HAVA T itle I I I ’s J anuar y 1, 2006 deadline.

I n the same Septe mber 18, 2007 orde r, the c ourt denied Plaintiffs’ motion for a ttorney ’s fe es 1 5

and costs bec ause a

final judg ment had not bee n enter ed, but g ave Plaintiffs lea ve to re file a

motion for attorney ’s fe es and c osts within fourteen day s after entry of the Septembe r 18 orde r.

J udg e Adams was the district judg e who issued the Septe mber 18, 2007 orde r bec ause the 1 6

case had bee n rea ssigne d to him. S ee supr a note 1.

11d i s m i s s t h e c a s e w i t h p r e j u d i c e

. O n D e c e m b e r 3

, 2 0 0 7

, t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t e n t e r e d

1 7

a n o r d e r d e n y i n g h i s m o t i o n

. T h e n e x t d a y

, S t a f f o r d a p p e a l e d t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t ’ s

S e p t e m b e r 2 0 j u d g m e n t a n d t h e D e c e m b e r 3 o r d e r

. 1 8

S t a f f o r d p r e s e n t s t w o a r g u m e n t s f o r t h e r e v e r s a l o f t h e S e p t e m b e r 2 0

j u d g m e n t

. T h e f

i r s t a r g u m e n t i s t h a t o u r d i s m i s s a l o f t h e p r e v i o u s a p p e a l a s m o o t

r e q u i r e d t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t t o v a c a t e i t s M a r c h 2 6

, 2 0 0 4 d e c l a r a t o r y j u d g m e n t a n d

i n j u n c t i o n a n d t o d i s m i s s t h e c a s e

. T h e s e c o n d i s t h a t t h e A D A ’ s i m p l e m e n t i n g

r e g u l a t i o n

, 2 8 C

. F

. R

. § 3 5

. 1 5 1 ( b )

, d i d n o t p r o v i d e t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t w i t h a l e g a l

b a s i s f o r i s s u i n g t h e i n

j u n c t i o n

, w h i c h o b l i g a t e d h i m t o p u r c h a s e v o t i n g m a c h i n e s

t h a t w e r e a c c e s s i b l e t o t h e v i s u a l l y a n d m a n u a l l y i m p a i r e d

. W e a r e p e r s u a d e d b y

S t a f f o r d ’ s s e c o n d a r g u m e n t ; § 3 5

. 1 5 1 ( b ) d i d n o t p r o v i d e a p r i v a t e r i g h t o f a c t i o n

t h a t P l a i n t i f

f s c o u l d p u r s u e h e r e

. H a v i n g r e a c h e d t h i s h o l d i n g

, w h i c h w i l l o p e r a t e

t o t e r m i n a t e t h i s c o n t r o v e r s y

, w e n e e d n o t a d d r e s s S t a f f o r d ’ s f i r s t a r g u m e n t

.

I I

.

W e b e g i n o u r d i s c u s s i o n o f S t a f f o r d ’ s s e c o n d a r g u m e n t b y n o t i n g t h a t

a l t h o u g h P l a i n t i f

f s ’ a m e n d e d c o m p l a i n t s t a t e d c l a i m s u n d e r t h e A D A a n d t h e

R e h a b i l i t a t i o n A c t

, a n d t h e p a r t i e s t r i e d t h o s e c l a i m s t o t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t

, t h e

Stafford move d the district court pursua nt to Fed. R. Civ. P. 59(e). 1 7

We have jurisdiction bec ause the district court ente red a final judg ment as to the re lief 1 8

reque sted in Plainti ffs’ a

mended c omplaint. 28 U.S.C . § 1291. Pending be fore the district court,

and ther efor e not bef

ore us, a re Plaintiffs’ motions for a ttorney ’s fe es and c osts.

12d i s t r i c t c o u r t ’ s M a r c h 2 6

, 2 0 0 4 d e c l a r a t o r y j u d g m e n t d i d n o t h o l d t h a t S t a f f o r d ( o r

a n y o f t h e D e f

e n d a n t s ) h a d v i o l a t e d e i t h e r o f t h o s e t w o s t a t u t e s

. I n f a c t

, t h e d i s t r i c t

c o u r t r e a c h e d n o l e g a l h o l d i n g v i s

- à

- v i s t h e A D A o r t h e R e h a b i l i t a t i o n A c t

.

I n s t e a d

, t h e c o u r t f

o u n d t h a t S t a f

f o r d h a d v i o l a t e d o n e o f t h e A D A ’ s i m p l e m e n t i n g

r e g u l a t i o n s

, 2 8 C

. F

. R

. § 3 5

. 1 5 1 ( b )

. H o o d

, 3 1 0 F

. S u p p

. 2 d a t 1 2 3 6

. S p e c i f i c a l l y

,

t h e c o u r t c o n c l u d e d t h a t b y p u r c h a s i n g o p t i c a l s c a n m a c h i n e s w h e n i t w a s

t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y a n d f

i n a n c i a l l y f

e a s i b l e t o p u r c h a s e h a n d i c a p p e d

- a c c e s s i b l e t o u c h

s c r e e n m a c h i n e s

, S t a f

f o r d f a i l e d t o f u l f i l l h i s o b l i g a t i o n t o p r o v i d e “ t o t h e 1 9

m a x i m u m e x t e n t f

e a s i b l e ” a n a l t e r e d p o r t i o n o f a f a c i l i t y t h a t w a s “ r e a d i l y

a c c e s s i b l e a n d u s a b l e b y i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h d i s a b i l i t i e s

. ” 2 8 C

. F

. R

. § 3 5

. 1 5 1 ( b )

. T h e

c o u r t r e l i e d o n t h e e x p a n s i v e d e f i n i t i o n o f “ f

a c i l i t y ” i n 2 8 C

. F

. R

. § 3 5

. 1 0 4 t o h o l d

t h a t v o t i n g e q u i p m e n t c o n s t i t u t e d a f a c i l i t y t h a t

, w h e n a l t e r e d

, o b l i g a t e d t h e p u b l i c

e n t i t y o p e r a t i n g i t t o m a k e i t a c c e s s i b l e

. N o t a b l y

, h o w e v e r

, t h e c o u r t d i d n o t f i n d

t h a t t h i s s h o r t c o m i n g v i o l a t e d t h e A D A o r t h e R e h a b i l i t a t i o n A c t

.

I t i s u n c l e a r w h e r e t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t f o u n d t h e a u t h o r i t y t o o r d e r S t a f f o r d t o

c o m p l y w i t h 2 8 C

. F

. R

. § 3 5

. 1 5 1 ( b ) w i t h o u t f i r s t a s c e r t a i n i n g w h e t h e r t h e A D A

i t s e l f a u t h o r i z e d s u c h r e l i e f

. A l t h o u g h P l a i n t i f

f s r e f e r r e d t o A D A i m p l e m e n t i n g

Reca ll that in his October 16, 2002 order , J udg e Nimmons held that such purc hase of optical 1 9

scan ma chines did not violate the AD A bec ause F lorida law pr ovided for third- party assistance

in the voting booth.

13r e g u l a t i o n s i n t h e i r a m e n d e d c o m p l a i n t a n d t r i a l b r i e f

, t h e y d i d s o a s p a r t o f t h e i r

c l a i m t h a t S t a f

f o r d w a s e x c l u d i n g t h e m f r o m p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n a p r o g r a m o f v o t i n g

,

i n v i o l a t i o n o f t h e A D A

. S e e S h o t z v

. C a t e s

, 2 5 6 F

. 3 d 1 0 7 7

, 1 0 7 9 ( 1 1 t h C i r

. 2 0 0 1 )

( h o l d i n g t h a t t o p r o v e a v i o l a t i o n o f T i t l e I I o f t h e A D A

, a p l a i n t i f f m u s t s h o w

,

i n t e r a l i a

, “ t h a t h e w a s ‘ e x c l u d e d f r o m p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n o r

. . . d e n i e d t h e b e n e f i t s o f

t h e s e r v i c e s

, p r o g r a m s

, o r a c t i v i t i e s o f a p u b l i c e n t i t y ’ o r o t h e r w i s e ‘ d i s c r i m i n a t e d

[ a g a i n s t ] b y s u c h e n t i t y ’ ” ( q u o t i n g 4 2 U

. S

. C

. § 1 2 1 3 2 ) )

. T h e r e i s n o i n d i c a t i o n i n

t h e a m e n d e d c o m p l a i n t t h a t P l a i n t i f f s w e r e a l l e g i n g a v i o l a t i o n o f § 3 5

. 1 5 1 ( b ) a s a

f r e e s t a n d i n g c a u s e o f a c t i o n

. I n d e e d

, P l a i n t i f f s ’ t r i a l b r i e f d i d n o t e v e n c i t e §

3 5

. 1 5 1 ( b )

. I n s t e a d

, i t c i t e d 2 8 C

. F

. R

. § 3 5

. 1 4 9

, a l l e g i n g t h a t S t a f f o r d e x c l u d e d 2 0

t h e m f r o m a p r o g r a m o f v o t i n g

.

P r e c e d e n t o f t h e S u p r e m e C o u r t a n d t h e f e d e r a l c o u r t s o f a p p e a l s

, i n c l u d i n g

t h i s c o u r t

, c e r t a i n l y l e n d s n o s u p p o r t t o t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t ’ s h o l d i n g t h a t a n

a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e g u l a t i o n a u t o m a t i c a l l y c r e a t e s a p r i v a t e r i g h t o f a c t i o n

. I n C o r t v

.

This reg ulation rea ds: 2 0

Ex cept a s otherwise pr ovided in § 35.150, no qualified individual with a disability

shall, beca

use a public e ntity ’s fa cilities are ina cce ssible to or unusable by

individuals with di sabilities, be excluded from par ticipation in, or be denie d the

benef its of the service s, prog rams, or a ctivities of a public entity , or be subjec ted

to discrimination by

any public entity

.

28 C.F.R. § 35.149.

14A s h

, t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r C o n g r e s s i n t e n d e d t o c r e a t e a p r i v a t e r i g h t o f a c t i o n

w h e r e n o n e w a s e x p r e s s e d i n a s t a t u t e

, t h e S u p r e m e C o u r t l o o k e d f o r t h e a n s w e r t o

f o u r q u e s t i o n s :

F i r s t

, i s t h e p l a i n t i f

f o n e o f t h e c l a s s f

o r w h o s e e s p e c i a l b e n e f i t t h e

s t a t u t e w a s e n a c t e d

— t h a t i s

, d o e s t h e s t a t u t e c r e a t e a f e d e r a l r i g h t i n

f a v o r o f t h e p l a i n t i f

f ? S e c o n d

, i s t h e r e a n y i n d i c a t i o n o f l e g i s l a t i v e

i n t e n t

, e x p l i c i t o r i m p l i c i t

, e i t h e r t o c r e a t e s u c h a r e m e d y o r t o d e n y

o n e ? T h i r d

, i s i t c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e u n d e r l y i n g p u r p o s e s o f t h e

l e g i s l a t i v e s c h e m e t o i m p l y s u c h a r e m e d y f o r t h e p l a i n t i f

f ? A n d

f i n a l l y

, i s t h e c a u s e o f a c t i o n o n e t r a d i t i o n a l l y r e l e g a t e d t o s t a t e l a w

, i n a n a r e a b a s i c a l l y t h e c o n c e r n o f t h e S t a t e s

, s o t h a t i t w o u l d b e

i n a p p r o p r i a t e t o i n f

e r a c a u s e o f a c t i o n b a s e d s o l e l y o n f e d e r a l l a w ?

4 2 2 U

. S

. 6 6

, 7 8

, 9 5 S

. C t

. 2 0 8 0

, 2 0 8 8 ( 1 9 7 5 ) ( c i t a t i o n s a n d q u o t a t i o n s o m i t t e d )

. I n

l a t e r d e c i s i o n s

, t h e C o u r t f o c u s e d o n t h e s e c o n d q u e s t i o n

— l e g i s l a t i v e

i n t e n t

— a l m o s t t o t h e e x c l u s i o n o f t h e o t h e r s

. S e e

, e

. g

. , T h o m p s o n v

. T h o m p s o n

,

4 8 4 U

. S

. 1 7 4

, 1 7 9

, 1 0 8 S

. C t

. 5 1 3

, 5 1 6 ( 1 9 8 8 ) ( “ T h e i n t e n t o f C o n g r e s s r e m a i n s

t h e u l t i m a t e i s s u e

. . . . ” ) ; T o u c h e R o s s & C o

. v

. R e d i n g t o n

, 4 4 2 U

. S

. 5 6 0

, 5 7 5

, 9 9

S

. C t

. 2 4 7 9

, 2 4 8 9 ( 1 9 7 9 ) ( “ T h e c e n t r a l i n q u i r y [ i s ] w h e t h e r C o n g r e s s i n t e n d e d t o

c r e a t e

, e i t h e r e x p r e s s l y o r b y i m p l i c a t i o n

, a p r i v a t e c a u s e o f a c t i o n

. ” ) ; L o v e v

.

D e l t a A i r L i n e s

, 3 1 0 F

. 3 d 1 3 4 7

, 1 3 5 1

– 5 2 & n

. 2 ( 1 1 t h C i r

. 2 0 0 2 ) ( r e c o g n i z i n g t h i s

t r e n d a n d c i t i n g a d d i t i o n a l c a s e s )

. T h e r e f o r e

, f o r a n A D A i m p l e m e n t i n g r e g u l a t i o n

t o p r o v i d e a p r i v a t e r i g h t o f a c t i o n

, C o n g r e s s m u s t h a v e u n a m b i g u o u s l y i n d i c a t e d

i n t h e e n a b l i n g s t a t u t e

, e x p r e s s l y o r b y c l e a r i m p l i c a t i o n

, i t s i n t e n t t o p r o v i d e a

15r e m e d y t o i n j u r e d p a r t i e s

, b e i t m o n e t a r y

, d e c l a r a t o r y

, o r i n j u n c t i v e

.

I n A l e x a n d e r v

. S a n d o v a l

, 5 3 2 U

. S

. 2 7 5

, 1 2 1 S

. C t

. 1 5 1 1 ( 2 0 0 1 )

, t h e

S u p r e m e C o u r t s q u a r e l y a d d r e s s e d w h e t h e r a p r i v a t e r i g h t o f a c t i o n e x i s t e d t o

e n f o r c e a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e g u l a t i o n

. S e c t i o n 6 0 1 o f T i t l e V I o f t h e C i v i l R i g h t s

A c t o f 1 9 6 4 c o n t a i n e d a p r o v i s i o n p r o h i b i t i n g d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i n c o v e r e d p r o g r a m s

o r a c t i v i t i e s o n t h e b a s i s o f r a c e

, c o l o r

, o r n a t i o n a l o r i g i n

. 4 2 U

. S

. C

. § 2 0 0 0 d

.

S e c t i o n 6 0 2 o f T i t l e V I a u t h o r i z e d f e d e r a l a g e n c i e s t o e f

f e c t u a t e § 6 0 1 b y

p r o m u l g a t i n g r e g u l a t i o n s

. 4 2 U

. S

. C

. § 2 0 0 0 d

- 1

. O n e r e g u l a t i o n p r o m u l g a t e d

u n d e r § 6 0 2 p r o h i b i t e d f u n d i n g r e c i p i e n t s f

r o m u s i n g c r i t e r i a o r “ m e t h o d s o f

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ” t h a t h a d t h e e f f e c t o f d i s c r i m i n a t i n g b a s e d o n r a c e

, c o l o r

, o r

n a t i o n a l o r i g i n

. 2 8 C

. F

. R

. § 4 2

. 1 0 4 ( b ) ( 2 )

.

T h e p l a i n t i f

f s

, c o n t e n d i n g t h a t § 4 2

. 1 0 4 ( b ) ( 2 ) p r o v i d e d a p r i v a t e r i g h t o f

a c t i o n

, s u e d t o e n

j o i n t h e e n f

o r c e m e n t o f a n A l a b a m a p o l i c y m a n d a t i n g t h a t

d r i v e r ’ s l i c e n s e e x a m i n a t i o n s b e g i v e n o n l y i n E n g l i s h

. T h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t e n j o i n e d

t h e e n f o r c e m e n t

, a n d t h i s c o u r t a f f i r m e d

. S a n d o v a l v

. H a g a n

, 1 9 7 F

. 3 d 4 8 4

, 5 1 1

( 1 1 t h C i r

. 1 9 9 9 )

. T h e S u p r e m e C o u r t

, h o w e v e r

, r e v e r s e d

. T h e C o u r t n o t e d f i r s t

t h a t i t h a d p r e v i o u s l y i n t e r p r e t e d § 6 0 1 t o r e a c h o n l y i n t e n t i o n a l a c t s o f

d i s c r i m i n a t i o n

, n o t d i s p a r a t e

- i m p a c t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n

, 5 3 2 U

. S

. a t 2 8 0

– 8 1

, 1 2 1 S

. C t

.

a t 1 5 1 6 ( c i t i n g G u a r d i a n s A s s ’ n v

. C i v i l S e r v

. C o m m ’ n o f N

. Y

. C i t y

, 4 6 3 U

. S

. 5 8 2

,

161 0 3 S

. C t

. 3 2 2 1 ( 1 9 8 3 ) )

, a n d t h a t i t w a s “ c l e a r t h a t t h e p r i v a t e r i g h t o f a c t i o n t o

e n f o r c e § 6 0 1 d o e s n o t i n c l u d e a p r i v a t e r i g h t t o e n f o r c e ” t h e d i s p a r a t e

- i m p a c t

r e g u l a t i o n

, § 4 2

. 1 0 4 ( b ) ( 2 )

, i d

. a t 2 8 5

– 8 6

, 1 2 1 S

. C t

. a t 1 5 1 9 ( c i t i n g C e n t

. B a n k o f

D e n v e r

, N

. A

. v

. F i r s t I n t e r s t a t e B a n k o f D e n v e r

, N

. A

. , 5 1 1 U

. S

. 1 6 4

, 1 7 3

, 1 1 4 S

.

C t

. 1 4 3 9

, 1 4 4 6 ( 1 9 9 4 ) )

. I n s t e a d

, t h e r i g h t h a d t o “ c o m e

, i f a t a l l

, f r o m t h e

i n d e p e n d e n t f

o r c e o f § 6 0 2

. ” I d

. a t 2 8 6

, 1 2 1 S

. C t

. a t 1 5 1 9

.

E x a m i n i n g § 6 0 2

, t h e C o u r t f o u n d t h a t i t c o n t a i n e d n o “ r i g h t s

- c r e a t i n g ”

l a n g u a g e a k i n t o t h a t w h i c h t h e C o u r t h a d p r e v i o u s l y f o u n d i n § 6 0 1

. I d

. a t 2 8 8

( c i t i n g C a n n o n v

. U n i v

. o f C h i

. , 4 4 1 U

. S

. 6 7 7

, 6 9 0 n

. 1 3

, 9 9 S

. C t

. 1 9 4 6

, 1 9 5 4 n

. 1 3

( 1 9 7 9 ) ( f i n d i n g “ r i g h t s

- c r e a t i n g ” l a n g u a g e i n § 6 0 1 ) )

. F u r t h e r m o r e

, § 6 0 2

p r o v i d e d m e t h o d s f

o r i t s o w n e n f

o r c e m e n t ( s u c h a s a n a g e n c y ’ s a b i l i t y t o t e r m i n a t e

f u n d i n g t o a p r o g r a m t h a t v i o l a t e d t h e r e g u l a t i o n ) t h a t m i l i t a t e d a g a i n s t

c o n g r e s s i o n a l i n t e n t t o c r e a t e a p r i v a t e r e m e d y

. I d

. a t 2 8 9

– 9 1

, 1 2 1 S

. C t

. a t

1 5 2 1

– 2 2

. T h e C o u r t r e

j e c t e d t h e p l a i n t i f

f ’ s a r g u m e n t t h a t t h e r e g u l a t i o n c o n t a i n e d

r i g h t s

- c r e a t i n g l a n g u a g e t h a t m a d e i t p r i v a t e l y e n f o r c e a b l e

, b e c a u s e n o s u c h

l a n g u a g e a p p e a r e d i n § 6 0 2 : “ L a n g u a g e i n a r e g u l a t i o n m a y i n v o k e a p r i v a t e r i g h t

o f a c t i o n t h a t C o n g r e s s t h r o u g h s t a t u t o r y t e x t c r e a t e d

, b u t i t m a y n o t c r e a t e a r i g h t

t h a t C o n g r e s s h a s n o t

. ” I d

. a t 2 9 1

, 1 2 1 S

. C t

. a t 1 5 2 2

. T h u s

, b e c a u s e “ i t i s m o s t

c e r t a i n l y i n c o r r e c t t o s a y t h a t l a n g u a g e i n a r e g u l a t i o n c a n c o n j u r e u p a p r i v a t e

17c a u s e o f a c t i o n t h a t h a s n o t b e e n a u t h o r i z e d b y C o n g r e s s

, ” i d

. , a n d b e c a u s e T i t l e

V I d i d n o t “ d i s p l a y a n i n t e n t t o c r e a t e a f r e e s t a n d i n g p r i v a t e r i g h t o f a c t i o n t o

e n f o r c e r e g u l a t i o n s p r o m u l g a t e d u n d e r § 6 0 2

, ” i d

. a t 2 9 3

, 1 2 1 S

. C t

. a t 1 5 2 3

, t h e

C o u r t h e l d t h e p l a i n t i f

f s h a d n o s t a n d

- a l o n e c a u s e o f a c t i o n t o e n f o r c e § 6 0 2 ’ s

r e g u l a t i o n s

, i d

.

F o l l o w i n g S a n d o v a l ’ s r e a s o n i n g

, w e r e c o g n i z e d i n L o v e t h a t w e m u s t l o o k

t o “ l e g i s l a t i v e i n t e n t t o c r e a t e a p r i v a t e r i g h t o f a c t i o n a s t h e t o u c h s t o n e o f [ t h e ]

a n a l y s i s

. ” 3 1 0 F

. 3 d a t 1 3 5 2

. W e h e l d f u r t h e r t h a t “ w h i l e r e g u l a t i o n s t h a t m e r e l y

i n t e r p r e t a s t a t u t e m a y p r o v i d e e v i d e n c e o f w h a t p r i v a t e r i g h t s C o n g r e s s i n t e n d e d

t o c r e a t e

. . . ‘ r e g u l a t i o n s t h a t g o b e y o n d w h a t t h e s t a t u t e i t s e l f r e q u i r e s ’ a r e n o t

e n f o r c e a b l e t h r o u g h a p r i v a t e r i g h t o f a c t i o n

. ” I d

. a t 1 3 5 4 ( q u o t i n g S a n d o v a l

, 5 3 2

U

. S

. a t 2 9 3 n

. 8

, 1 2 1 S

. C t

. a t 1 5 2 3 n

. 8 )

. W e a l s o h e l d t h a t i f e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e

t e x t a n d h i s t o r y o f a s t a t u t e d o e s n o t a l l o w u s t o c o n c l u d e t h a t C o n g r e s s i n t e n d e d t o

c r e a t e a p r i v a t e r i g h t o f a c t i o n

, “ S a n d o v a l i n s t r u c t s t h a t s u c h a r i g h t m a y n o t b e

c r e a t e d o r c o n f

e r r e d b y r e g u l a t i o n s p r o m u l g a t e d t o i n t e r p r e t a n d e n f o r c e i t

. ” I d

. a t

1 3 5 3

.

T h e l e s s o n f

r o m S a n d o v a l a n d t h e c a s e s i n t e r p r e t i n g i t

, t a k e n t o g e t h e r w i t h

C o r t ’ s f o c u s o n l e g i s l a t i v e i n t e n t

, i s s i m p l e a n d s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d

. T h e r e i s n o

f r e e s t a n d i n g p r i v a t e r i g h t o f a c t i o n t o e n f o r c e a s t a t u t e ’ s i m p l e m e n t i n g r e g u l a t i o n

18u n l e s s C o n g r e s s h a s c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d

, e x p r e s s l y o r i m p l i e d l y

, t o t h e c o n t r a r y

. T o

f i n d s u c h a r i g h t o f a c t i o n

, a c o u r t m u s t e x a m i n e t h e t e x t

, h i s t o r y

, a n d s t r u c t u r e o f

b o t h t h e s t a t u t e a n d t h e r e g u l a t i o n t o s e e i f C o n g r e s s p r o v i d e d b o t h a r i g h t t o

e n f o r c e t h e r e g u l a t i o n a n d a r e m e d y f o r s u c c e s s f

u l p l a i n t i f

f s

. S e e S a n d o v a l

, 5 3 2

U

. S

. a t 2 8 8

, 1 2 1 S

. C t

. a t 1 5 2 0 ; C o r t

, 4 2 2 U

. S

. a t 7 8

, 9 5 S

. C t

. a t 2 0 8 8

.

I n t h i s c a s e

, t o f

i n d a p r i v a t e r i g h t o f a c t i o n i n § 3 5

. 1 5 1 ( b )

, t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t

w o u l d h a v e h a d t o e m p l o y a n a n a l y s i s o f t h e t y p e e m p l o y e d b y t h e N i n t h C i r c u i t i n

L o n b e r g v

. C i t y o f R i v e r s i d e

, 5 7 1 F

. 3 d 8 4 6 ( 9 t h C i r

. 2 0 0 9 )

, p e t i t i o n f o r c e r t

. f i l e d

,

( U

. S

. A p r

. 1 5

, 2 0 1 0 ) ( N o

. 0 9

- 1 2 5 9 )

. T h e r e

, t h e c o u r t a p p l i e d S a n d o v a l i n d e c i d i n g

a n A D A c l a i m t h a t a c i t y h a d n o t m e t t h e s t a n d a r d s f o r A D A c o m p l i a n c e t r a n s i t i o n

p l a n s s e t f

o r t h i n 2 8 C

. F

. R

. § 3 5

. 1 5 0 ( d )

. T h e c o u r t s u m m a r i z e d S a n d o v a l a s

i n s t r u c t [ i n g ] t h a t b e c a u s e o n l y C o n g r e s s c a n c r e a t e a p r i v a t e r i g h t o f

a c t i o n t h r o u g h s t a t u t e

, w e m u s t e x a m i n e a c h a l l e n g e d r e g u l a t i o n i n t h e

c o n t e x t o f t h e s t a t u t e i t i s m e a n t t o i m p l e m e n t

. O n l y t h o s e r e g u l a t i o n s

e f f e c t u a t i n g t h e s t a t u t e ’ s c l e a r p r o h i b i t i o n s o r r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e

e n f o r c e a b l e t h r o u g h t h e s t a t u t e ’ s p r i v a t e r i g h t o f a c t i o n ; r e g u l a t i o n s

t h a t d o n o t e n c a p s u l a t e t h e s t a t u t o r y r i g h t a n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g r e m e d y

a r e n o t p r i v a t e l y e n f

o r c e a b l e

.

5 7 1 F

. 3 d a t 8 5 0

– 5 1

. T h e c o u r t e x a m i n e d A D A T i t l e I I § 2 0 2

, 4 2 U

. S

. C

. § 1 2 1 3 2

( p r o h i b i t i n g d i s c r i m i n a t i o n b y p u b l i c e n t i t i e s o n t h e b a s i s o f d i s a b i l i t i e s )

, a n d 2 1

The statutory

prohibition ag ainst discrimination in Titl e I I of the AD A re ads: 2 1

Subject to the provisions of this subchapter, no qua lified individual with a

disability shall, by rea son of such disability , be excluded fr om participation in or

19f

o u n d t h a t i t s l a n g u a g e n e i t h e r i m p o s e d u p o n p u b l i c e n t i t i e s a n o b l i g a t i o n t o d r a f t a

d e t a i l e d c o m p l i a n c e p l a n t o a c h i e v e “ m e a n i n g f u l a c c e s s ” f

o r t h o s e w i t h

d i s a b i l i t i e s

, n o r i n d i c a t e d t h a t e n f o r c e m e n t o f § 3 5

. 1 5 0 ( d ) w o u l d n e c e s s a r i l y

r e m e d y a “ m e a n i n g f

u l a c c e s s ” v i o l a t i o n

. 5 7 1 F

. 3 d a t 8 5 1

. A c c o r d i n g l y

, “ u n d e r

S a n d o v a l

, [ § 3 5

. 1 5 0 ( d ) ] i s n o t e n f o r c e a b l e t h r o u g h § 2 0 2 ’ s p r i v a t e r i g h t o f a c t i o n

b e c a u s e t h e o b l i g a t i o n s i t i m p o s e s a r e n o w h e r e t o b e f o u n d i n § 2 0 2 ’ s p l a i n

l a n g u a g e

. ” I d

. a t 8 5 2

.

H e r e

, t h e o r d e r s u p p o r t i n g t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t ’ s M a r c h 2 6

, 2 0 0 4 d e c l a r a t o r y

j u d g m e n t a n d i n

j u n c t i o n i s b e r e f

t o f a n y s u c h a n a l y s i s

. F u r t h e r m o r e

, w h e n w e

e x a m i n e § 3 5

. 1 5 1 ( b ) i n a m a n n e r s i m i l a r t o t h e N i n t h C i r c u i t ’ s e x a m i n a t i o n i n

L o n b e r g

, w e f

i n d n o c o n g r e s s i o n a l i n t e n t t o c r e a t e a p r i v a t e r i g h t o f a c t i o n f o r t h e

r e g u l a t i o n ’ s e n f

o r c e m e n t

. A s t h e A D A ’ s t e x t i n d i c a t e s

, C o n g r e s s e n a c t e d t h e

s t a t u t e a s a p r o p h y l a c t i c m e a s u r e t o e r a d i c a t e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a g a i n s t p e r s o n s w i t h

d i s a b i l i t i e s

. 4 2 U

. S

. C

. § 1 2 1 0 1 ( f i n d i n g t h a t “ c e n s u s d a t a

, n a t i o n a l p o l l s

, a n d o t h e r

s t u d i e s h a v e d o c u m e n t e d t h a t p e o p l e w i t h d i s a b i l i t i e s

, a s a g r o u p

, o c c u p y a n

i n f e r i o r s t a t u s i n o u r s o c i e t y

, a n d a r e s e v e r e l y d i s a d v a n t a g e d s o c i a l l y

, v o c a t i o n a l l y

,

e c o n o m i c a l l y

, a n d e d u c a t i o n a l l y ” a n d s t a t i n g t h a t o n e o f t h e A D A ’ s p u r p o s e s i s “ t o

be denie d the bene fits of the ser vices, prog rams, or a ctivities of a public entity , or

be subjec ted to discrimination by such entity

.

42 U.S.C. § 12132.

20p r o v i d e a c l e a r a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e n a t i o n a l m a n d a t e f o r t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f

d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a g a i n s t i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h d i s a b i l i t i e s ” ) ; s e e a l s o T e n n e s s e e v

. L a n e

,

5 4 1 U

. S

. 5 0 9

, 5 3 1

, 1 2 4 S

. C t

. 1 9 7 8

, 1 9 9 3 ( 2 0 0 4 ) ( “ F a c e d w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e

e v i d e n c e o f t h e s h o r t c o m i n g s o f p r e v i o u s l e g i s l a t i v e r e s p o n s e s [ t o d i s a b i l i t y

d i s c r i m i n a t i o n ]

, C o n g r e s s w a s j u s t i f i e d i n c o n c l u d i n g t h a t t h i s d i f f i c u l t a n d

i n t r a c t a b l e p r o b l e [ m ] w a r r a n t e d a d d e d p r o p h y l a c t i c m e a s u r e s i n r e s p o n s e

. ”

( q u o t a t i o n s o m i t t e d ; s e c o n d a l t e r a t i o n i n o r i g i n a l ) )

. A s p a r t o f t h e s t a t u t e ’ s b r o a d

s w e e p

, C o n g r e s s i n t e n d e d t o g r a n t w i d e e n f o r c e m e n t p o w e r s t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e

A D A ’ s p u r p o s e s w o u l d b e e f f e c t e d

. 4 2 U

. S

. C

. § 1 2 1 0 1 ( b ) ( i n c l u d i n g a m o n g t h e

A D A ’ s p u r p o s e s “ t o p r o v i d e c l e a r

, s t r o n g

, c o n s i s t e n t

, e n f o r c e a b l e s t a n d a r d s

a d d r e s s i n g d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a g a i n s t i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h d i s a b i l i t i e s ” a n d “ t o i n v o k e t h e

s w e e p o f c o n g r e s s i o n a l a u t h o r i t y

, i n c l u d i n g t h e p o w e r t o e n f o r c e t h e f

o u r t e e n t h

a m e n d m e n t a n d t o r e g u l a t e c o m m e r c e ” )

.

W h i l e t h e A D A d i r e c t e d t h e A t t o r n e y G e n e r a l t o p r o m u l g a t e r e g u l a t i o n s

i m p l e m e n t i n g P a r t I I

, 4 2 U

. S

. C

. § 1 2 1 3 4

, t h e p u r p o s e o f t h o s e r e g u l a t i o n s i s t o 2 2

This section provides: 2 2

Not later tha

n 1 y ear afte r Jul y 26, 1990, the Attorney

Gene ral shall promulg ate

reg ulations in an acc essible forma t that implement this part. Such re g ulations

shall not include any

matter within the scope of the a uthority of the Sec reta

ry of

Transpor tation under sec tion 12143, 12149, or 12164 of this tit le.

. . . .

21p r o v i d e s t a n d a r d s f o r c o m p l i a n c e w i t h t h e A D A

, i d

. § 1 2 1 3 4 ( c )

, n o t t o g i v e

i n d i v i d u a l s a r i g h t t o s u e i f c o m p l i a n c e w i t h t h o s e s t a n d a r d s i s n o t m e t

. C o n g r e s s

,

i n f a s h i o n i n g a n e x p r e s s s t a t u t o r y r i g h t o f a c t i o n i n t h e A D A i t s e l f

, 4 2 U

. S

. C

. §

1 2 1 3 3

, a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t v i o l a t i o n s w o u l d o c c u r a n d p r o v i d e d a s t a t u t o r y

2 3

e n f o r c e m e n t m e c h a n i s m f

o r a g g r i e v e d p a r t i e s t o s e e k a r e m e d y

. S e e S a n d o v a l

,

5 3 2 U

. S

. a t 2 8 4

, 1 2 1 S

. C t

. a t 1 5 1 8 ( “ A C o n g r e s s t h a t i n t e n d s t h e s t a t u t e t o b e

e n f o r c e d t h r o u g h a p r i v a t e c a u s e o f a c t i o n i n t e n d s t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

o f t h e s t a t u t e t o b e s o e n f o r c e d a s w e l l

. ” )

. T h u s

, C o n g r e s s p l a c e d a n y a v a i l a b l e

r e c o u r s e f

o r p l a i n t i f

f s a l l e g i n g d i s a b i l i t y

- b a s e d d i s c r i m i n a t i o n w i t h i n t h e l a n g u a g e

o f t h e A D A

. T h e r e g u l a t i o n s

, b y c o n t r a s t

, i n t e r p r e t a n d d e f i n e t h e s c o p e o f t h e

A D A

. T h e y d o n o t

, t h e m s e l v e s

, c r e a t e a p r i v a t e r i g h t o f a c t i o n a n d a r e m e d y

.

Reg ulations under subsec tion (a) of this section shall include standar ds applicable

to fac iliti es and ve hicles cove red by this part, other than f

acilities, stations, rail

passeng er c ars, a

nd vehicles c overe d by

part B of this subchapter . Such standards

shall be consistent with the minimum guidelines and r equire ments issued by the

Arc hitectura l and Tra

nsportation Ba

rrier s Compli ance Boa

rd in ac corda

nce w ith

section 12204(a ) of this title.

42 U.S.C. § 12134(a), (c ).

This section provides: 2 3

The re medies, proc edure s, and rig hts set forth in section 794a of Title 29 shall be

the re medies, proc edure s, and rig hts this s ubchapte r provides to a ny person

alleg ing disc rimination on the basis of disability in violation of section 12132 of

this ti tle.

42 U.S.C. § 12133.

22T h e s i t u a t i o n i n t h i s c a s e r e s e m b l e s t h a t i n S a n d o v a l a n d L o n b e r g

, w h e r e a

s t a t u t e p r o h i b i t s d i s c r i m i n a t i o n ( h e r e

, 4 2 U

. S

. C

. § 1 2 1 3 2 ) ; i m p l e m e n t i n g

r e g u l a t i o n s e x i s t p u r s u a n t t o a n a u t h o r i z i n g s e c t i o n o f t h e s t a t u t e ( 4 2 U

. S

. C

. §

1 2 1 3 4 ) ; a n d a p r i v a t e r i g h t o f a c t i o n e x i s t s p u r s u a n t t o s t i l l a n o t h e r s e c t i o n o f t h e

s t a t u t e ( 4 2 U

. S

. C

. § 1 2 1 3 3 )

. A n i n d i v i d u a l ’ s a b i l i t y t o s u e l i e s i n § 1 2 1 3 3 ; a s i n

S a n d o v a l

, i t d o e s n o t a u t o m a t i c a l l y l i e i n t h e r e g u l a t i o n s i m p l e m e n t e d u n d e r t h e

s t a t u t e ’ s a u t h o r i t y

. T h i s o w e s

, m o r e o v e r

, t o t h e f o c u s o n l e g i s l a t i v e i n t e n t m a d e

c l e a r i n t h e c a s e s i n t e r p r e t i n g C o r t v

. A s h

. C o n g r e s s c o u l d h a v e s t a t e d i t t h a t

i n t e n d e d a p r i v a t e r i g h t o f a c t i o n u n d e r t h e A D A a n d

, s e p a r a t e l y

, u n d e r i t s

i m p l e m e n t i n g r e g u l a t i o n s

— b u t C o n g r e s s s a i d n o s u c h t h i n g

. F i n a l l y

, n o t h i n g i n §

1 2 1 3 3 i n d i c a t e s C o n g r e s s ’ s i n t e n t t o p r o v i d e a p r i v a t e r i g h t o f a c t i o n t o r e d r e s s

v i o l a t i o n s o f t h e A D A ’ s r e g u l a t i o n s

. R a t h e r

, t h a t s e c t i o n e x i s t s t o g r a n t a r i g h t o f 2 4

We note that while two circ uits have found 28 C.F .R. § 35.151 enforc eable throug h the 2 4

private r ight of

action cr eate d in ADA Title I I , 42 U.S.C. § 12133, those cases a re

distinguishable. I n Ability Center of Gre ater Toledo v. City

of Sandusky , 385 F.3d 901, 903–13

(6th Cir. 2004), the Six th Circuit held that beca use § 35.151 “e ffe ctuates a mandate of

Title I I ,”

it is enforce able throug h the ADA’ s private c ause of action, 42 U.S.C. § 12133. 385 F.3d a t 907.

The district cour

t here , howeve r, made no mention of enfor cing § 35.151(b) throug h the ADA;

rathe r, it treate d § 35.151(b) a s cre ating a fr eesta nding r ight to sue. Eve n Ability Center c annot

be extended to support that proposition. See id. at 906 (he eding Sandoval’s rule that “a pr ivate

plaintiff ca

nnot enforc e a r eg ulation throug h a priva te ca use of a ction g ener ally

available under

the controlling statute if the re g ulation imposes an obliga tion or prohibition that is not imposed

g ener ally by the controlling statute”). B eca use § 35.151’s pa

rticular sta

ndards f or newand

altere d construction do not appe ar in the g ener al languag e of the ADA, Sandova l forec loses

relianc e on the AD A Title I I cause of ac tion to enforce the re g ulation. 532 U.S. at 291, 121 S.

Ct. at 1522.

The Te nth Circuit’s decision that § 35.151 is privately enfor cea ble, Chaff

in v. Kan. State

Fa ir Bd., 348 F .3d 850, 858 (10th Cir. 2003), is dubious for at lea st two reasons. F irst, other

23a c t i o n t o t h o s e a l l e g i n g a v i o l a t i o n o f t h e A D A i t s e l f

, b y p r o v i d i n g t h e r e m e d i e s

a v a i l a b l e u n d e r t h e R e h a b i l i t a t i o n A c t

, 2 9 U

. S

. C

. § 7 9 4 a

. 2 5

E v e n i f w e w e r e t o a s s u m e t h a t § 3 5

. 1 5 1 ( b ) c r e a t e d a p r i v a t e r i g h t o f a c t i o n

,

i t i s p u z z l i n g w h y t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t a p p l i e d i t i n t h e c o n t e x t o f p r o v i d i n g

h a n d i c a p p e d

- a c c e s s i b l e v o t i n g m a c h i n e s

. S e c t i o n 3 5

. 1 5 1

, a s i t s t i t l e i m p l i e s

,

a d d r e s s e s p h y s i c a l a c c e s s b y t h e d i s a b l e d t o p u b l i c b u i l d i n g s

. I n s u b s e c t i o n ( a )

, i t

s e t s r e a s o n a b l e a r c h i t e c t u r a l s t a n d a r d s f o r p u b l i c e n t i t i e s t o f

o l l o w w h e n b u i l d i n g

n e w f a c i l i t i e s ; i n s u b s e c t i o n ( b )

, i t p r o v i d e s s t a n d a r d s f o r a l t e r i n g e x i s t i n g o n e s

.

S e e A s s ’ n f

o r D i s a b l e d A m s

. , I n c

. v

. F l a

. I n t ’ l U n i v

. , 4 0 5 F

. 3 d 9 5 4

, 9 5 9 ( 1 1 t h C i r

.

2 0 0 5 ) ; N o n d i s c r i m i n a t i o n o n t h e B a s i s o f D i s a b i l i t y i n S t a t e a n d L o c a l

G o v e r n m e n t S e r v i c e s

, 5 6 F e d

. R e g

. 3 5

, 6 9 4

, 3 5

, 7 1 0 ( J u l y 2 6

, 1 9 9 1 ) ( “ S e c t i o n

3 5

. 1 5 1 p r o v i d e s t h a t t h o s e b u i l d i n g s t h a t a r e c o n s t r u c t e d o r a l t e r e d b y

, o n b e h a l f

o f

, o r f o r t h e u s e o f a p u b l i c e n t i t y s h a l l b e d e s i g n e d

, c o n s t r u c t e d

, o r a l t e r e d t o b e

courts have noted that Chaff in ga ve short shrift to Sandoval’s instruc tion that reg ulations

imposing oblig ations bey ond a statutory mandate a

re not e nforc eable throug h the statute’s c ause

of ac tion. I verson v. City of B oston, 452 F.3d 94, 101–02 (1st Cir. 2006); Californians f or

Disability Rights, I nc. v. Cal. De p’t of Tra nsp., 249 F.R.D. 334, 341–42 (N .D. Cal. 2008).

Second, Chaff

in applied Sandoval in a c ateg orica l manner to seve ral AD A re g ulations, rather

than examining ea ch re g ulation individually to see if it evince d cong ressional intent to enfor ce

the re g ulations through a

private r ight of

action, as Sandova l demands. L onberg , 571 F.3d a t

852. Both of the se infirmities g rea tly diminis h Chaffin’s r eleva nce to the instant c ase.

Henc e, our c onclusion that § 35.151(b) doe s not confer an indepe ndent ca

use of a ction is

not sway ed by

our sister cir cuits’ dec isions in Abil ity Center or Chaffin.

The Reha

bilitation Act, in turn, relies on the re medies provided in Titles VI and VI I of the 2 5

Civil Rights Act of

1964, 42 U.S.C. §§ 2000d, 2000e-16. See 29 U.S.C. § 794a.

24r e a d i l y a c c e s s i b l e t o a n d u s a b l e b y i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h d i s a b i l i t i e s i f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n

w a s c o m m e n c e d a f

t e r t h e e f f e c t i v e d a t e o f t h i s p a r t

. ” )

. T h e r e g u l a t i o n p r e c e d i n g §

3 5

. 1 5 1 b o l s t e r s t h i s c o n c l u s i o n b y i n c o r p o r a t i n g § 3 5

. 1 5 1 i n t o i t s r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t

p u b l i c e n t i t i e s o p e r a t e s e r v i c e s

, p r o g r a m s

, o r a c t i v i t i e s s u c h t h a t t h e y a r e r e a d i l y

a c c e s s i b l e b y i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h d i s a b i l i t i e s : “ A p u b l i c e n t i t y

, i n m a k i n g a l t e r a t i o n s

t o e x i s t i n g b u i l d i n g s

, s h a l l m e e t t h e a c c e s s i b i l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s o f § 3 5

. 1 5 1

. ” 2 8

C

. F

. R

. § 3 5

. 1 5 0 ( b ) ( 1 ) ( e m p h a s i s a d d e d )

.

B y c o n t r a s t

, t h i s c a s e i s n o t

, a n d n e v e r h a s b e e n

, a b o u t v i s u a l l y a n d

m a n u a l l y i m p a i r e d v o t e r s ’ a c c e s s t o p o l l i n g p l a c e s t h e m s e l v e s

, i

. e

. , f i r e s t a t i o n s

,

s c h o o l s

, c h u r c h e s

, a n d o t h e r p h y s i c a l l o c a t i o n s w h e r e D u v a l C o u n t y p r e c i n c t s

m i g h t p l a c e v o t i n g m a c h i n e s

. F r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h i s l i t i g a t i o n

, P l a i n t i f f s

a t t e m p t e d t o ( 1 ) s e c u r e v o t i n g m a c h i n e s t h a t p r o v i d e d g r e a t e r a c c e s s i b i l i t y t o

v i s u a l l y a n d m a n u a l l y i m p a i r e d v o t e r s

, a n d ( 2 ) s e c u r e m o r e o f t h o s e m a c h i n e s s o

t h e y w e r e a v a i l a b l e i n a s m a n y D u v a l C o u n t y p o l l i n g p l a c e s a s p o s s i b l e

. P l a i n t i f f s

n e v e r c o m p l a i n e d a b o u t t h e a c c e s s i b i l i t y o f p o l l i n g l o c a t i o n s t h e m s e l v e s

. T h i s

b e g s t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h y a r e g u l a t i o n t h a t a d d r e s s e s b u i l d i n g s t a n d a r d s f o r

p h y s i c a l f

a c i l i t i e s w o u l d b e r e l e v a n t t o P l a i n t i f f s ’ a l l e g a t i o n s o f i n a d e q u a t e

,

u n d e r s u p p l i e d v o t i n g m a c h i n e s

.

S t i l l m o r e p u z z l i n g i s w h y t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t a p p l i e d § 3 5

. 1 5 1 ( b )

, w h i c h

25c o n c e r n s a l t e r a t i o n s t o e x i s t i n g f a c i l i t i e s

, t o i m p o s e a n o b l i g a t i o n o n S t a f f o r d t o

s u p p l y h a n d i c a p p e d

- a c c e s s i b l e v o t i n g m a c h i n e s

. T h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t s t a t e d

, w i t h o u t

f u r t h e r e l a b o r a t i o n

, t h a t “ [ t ] h e s t a n d a r d f o r a l t e r a t i o n s

, r a t h e r t h a n n e w

c o n s t r u c t i o n

, i s a p p l i c a b l e i n t h e i n s t a n t c a s e

. ” B u t § 3 5

. 1 5 1 ( b )

, b y i t s o w n

l a n g u a g e

, d o e s n o t b e c o m e o p e r a t i v e

— a n d t h e r e b y i m p o s e l e g a l o b l i g a t i o n s o n

a n y o n e

— u n l e s s a n d u n t i l a n a l t e r a t i o n h a s t a k e n p l a c e

. S e e 2 8 C

. F

. R

. § 3 5

. 1 5 1 ( b )

( “ E a c h f a c i l i t y o r p a r t o f a f

a c i l i t y a l t e r e d b y

, o n b e h a l f o f

, o r f o r t h e u s e o f a

p u b l i c e n t i t y

. . . s h a l l

, t o t h e m a x i m u m e x t e n t f e a s i b l e

, b e a l t e r e d i n s u c h m a n n e r

t h a t t h e a l t e r e d p o r t i o n o f t h e f a c i l i t y i s r e a d i l y a c c e s s i b l e t o a n d u s a b l e b y

i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h d i s a b i l i t i e s

. . . . ” )

. T h e s u b s e c t i o n ’ s l a n g u a g e i m p l i e s t h e

c o m m o n s e n s e p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t a n a l t e r a t i o n h a v i n g o c c u r r e d i s a p r e r e q u i s i t e t o

t h a t a l t e r a t i o n ’ s b e i n g m a d e a c c e s s i b l e t o t h e p u b l i c

.

N e w f a c i l i t i e s c o n s t r u c t e d f

o r u s e b y p u b l i c e n t i t i e s m u s t b e a c c e s s i b l e

, i d

. §

3 5

. 1 5 1 ( a ) ; a l t e r a t i o n s o f e x i s t i n g f a c i l i t i e s m u s t a l s o b e a c c e s s i b l e

, i d

. § 3 5

. 1 5 1 ( b )

.

N o t h i n g i n t h i s c a s e h a s b e e n a l t e r e d

, n o t v o t i n g m a c h i n e s o r a n y o t h e r “ f a c i l i t y ”

( a s s u m i n g t h a t a v o t i n g m a c h i n e c o u l d b e a f a c i l i t y )

. I n s t e a d

, S t a f

f o r d a c q u i r e d

3 2 6 n e w

, h a n d i c a p p e d

- a c c e s s i b l e v o t i n g m a c h i n e s b y N o v e m b e r 1 7

, 2 0 0 5

, i n

a d v a n c e o f t h e c o m p l i a n c e d a t e s p e c i f i e d b y H A V A

. W e r e w e t o s t r e t c h t h e

r e g u l a t o r y d e f

i n i t i o n a n d t r e a t t h e n e w v o t i n g m a c h i n e s a s “ n e w c o n s t r u c t i o n

, ”

26u n d e r § 3 5

. 1 5 1 ( a ) ( a n d w e d o n o t a d o p t s u c h a w a r p e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n )

, P l a i n t i f f s

c o u l d h a v e n o c o m p l a i n t

, s i n c e t h e y a d m i t t h a t t h e n e w v o t i n g m a c h i n e s m e t

f e d e r a l a n d s t a t e s t a n d a r d s f o r a c c e s s i b i l i t y b y v i s u a l l y a n d m a n u a l l y i m p a i r e d

v o t e r s

. I n s u m

, e v e n i f w e r e a d a p r i v a t e r i g h t o f a c t i o n i n t o § 3 5

. 1 5 1 ( w h i c h

,

a g a i n

, w e d o n o t )

, S t a f

f o r d w o u l d h a v e h a d n o o b l i g a t i o n u n d e r e i t h e r § 3 5

. 1 5 1 ( a )

o r § 3 5

. 1 5 1 ( b )

, t h e s u b s e c t i o n s c i t e d b y t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t

, t o d o m o r e t h a n h e d i d

.

A f i n a l w o r d i s i n o r d e r a b o u t w h y o u r d e c i s i o n o n P l a i n t i f f s ’ r e g u l a t o r y

c l a i m a l s o d i s p e n s e s w i t h t h e i r A D A a n d R e h a b i l i t a t i o n A c t c l a i m s

. R e c a l l t h a t t h e

d i s t r i c t c o u r t d i s m i s s e d t h o s e c l a i m s o n O c t o b e r 1 6

, 2 0 0 2

, b e c a u s e i t h e l d t h a t

F l o r i d a l a w f

u l f i l l e d t h o s e s t a t u t e s ’ r e q u i r e m e n t s

. T h a t o r d e r d i s m i s s i n g t h e

s t a t u t o r y c l a i m s w a s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e c o u r t ’ s S e p t e m b e r 2 0

, 2 0 0 7 f i n a l

j u d g m e n t

, a n d P l a i n t i f

f s d i d n o t c r o s s

- a p p e a l f

r o m t h a t j u d g m e n t

. T h e s t a t u t o r y

c l a i m s

, t h e r e f

o r e

, w e r e d i s p o s e d o f i n t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t

, a n d t h e r e i s n o n e e d f o r u s

t o i s s u e a n e w r u l i n g t h a t t h e y a r e m o o t

.

I I I

.

F o r t h e f o r e g o i n g r e a s o n s

, P l a i n t i f f s c o u l d n o t h a v e h a d a p r i v a t e r i g h t o f

a c t i o n u n d e r 2 8 C

. F

. R

. § 3 5

. 1 5 1 ( b )

, a n d t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t e r r e d b y a f f o r d i n g t h e m

o n e

. W e t h e r e f

o r e V A C A T E i t s j u d g m e n t o f S e p t e m b e r 2 0

, 2 0 0 7 a n d R E M A N D

t h e c a s e t o t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t w i t h t h e i n s t r u c t i o n t o v a c a t e t h e i n j u n c t i o n a n d e n t e r a

27f

i n a l j u d g m e n t d i s m i s s i n g t h i s c a s e w i t h p r e j u d i c e

. 2 6

S O O R D E R E D

.

As indicated in note 18, supr a, pending in the district court ar e Plaintiffs’ motions for 2 6

attorney ’s fe es and c osts. The ADA’ s attorney ’s fe e provision, by its terms, require s a par

ty to

preva il in order to re ceive an attorne y ’s fe e aw ard. 42 U .S.C. § 12205. P laintiffs ca nnot rec over

their attorne y ’s fe es her e on the g round that they preva iled, for they

did not. Nor ca

n they

rec over the ir attorney ’s fe es for serving as a “ cata ly st,” i.e., that they cause d Stafford to

implement the chang es they soug ht. Buc khannon B d. & Ca re H ome, I nc. v. W. Va. De p’t of

Hea lth & Human Re s., 532 U.S. 598, 610, 121 S. C t. 1835, 1843 (2001) (r ejec ting the “ cata ly st”

theory ), super seded in pa

rt by statute, OPEN Gover

nment Act of 2007, Pub. L . No. 110-175, 121

Stat. 2524 (2007) (c odified at 5 U.S.C. § 552(a) (4)( E)) ( amending the fe e-shifting provision of

the Fr eedom of

I nformation Ac t but not the ADA); Morillo-Cedron v. Dist. Dir. f or the U.S.

Citi zenship & I mmigra

tion Serv., 452 F.3d 1254, 1257 (11th Cir. 2006). A ccor dingly , this case

has ende d.

28