PUBLISHED

UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS

FOR THE FOURTH CIRCUIT

No. 21-4091

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,

 Plaintiff – Appellee,

v.

SHAMAURI LEVON SHIVERS,

 Defendant – Appellant.

Appeal from the United States District Court for the Western District of North Carolina, at 

Asheville. Martin K. Reidinger, Chief District Judge. (1:20-cr-00038-MR-WCM-1)

Argued: October 27, 2022 Decided: December 27, 2022

Before AGEE and HARRIS, Circuit Judges, and Lydia K. GRIGGSBY, United States 

District Judge for the District of Maryland, sitting by designation.

Vacated and remanded with instructions by published opinion. Judge Agee wrote the 

opinion in which Judge Harris and Judge Griggsby joined.

ARGUED: Joshua B. Carpenter, FEDERAL DEFENDERS OF WESTERN NORTH 

CAROLINA, INC., Asheville, North Carolina, for Appellant. Anthony Joseph Enright, 

OFFICE OF THE UNITED STATES ATTORNEY, Charlotte, North Carolina, for 

Appellee. ON BRIEF: Anthony Martinez, Federal Public Defender, FEDERAL 

DEFENDERS OF WESTERN NORTH CAROLINA, INC., Charlotte, North Carolina, for 

Appellant. Dena J. King, United States Attorney, OFFICE OF THE UNITED STATES 

ATTORNEY, Charlotte, North Carolina, for Appellee.

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AGEE, Circuit Judge:

Shamauri Shivers appeals his sentence for Hobbs Act robbery, asserting that the 

district court erred in applying the U.S.S.G. § 3C1.2 sentencing enhancement for reckless 

endangerment during flight when he discarded a loaded firearm in view of pursuing law 

enforcement officers. As explained below, we agree with Shivers that the record does not 

reflect sufficient evidence that he created a substantial risk of death or serious bodily injury 

to another person when he fled from police. Therefore, the district court clearly erred by 

applying the enhancement. Further, we find that this error was not harmless because the 

district court declined to state that it would have applied the same sentence regardless of 

the enhancement, although it was asked to do so. Accordingly, we vacate Shivers’ sentence 

and remand to the district court for resentencing without application of the § 3C1.2 

enhancement.

I.

Under U.S.S.G. § 3C1.2, a defendant will receive a two-level sentencing 

enhancement “[i]f [he or she] recklessly created a substantial risk of death or serious bodily 

injury to another person in the course of fleeing from a law enforcement officer.” U.S.S.G. 

§ 3C1.2. “Reckless” is defined as “a situation in which the defendant was aware of the risk 

created by his conduct and the risk was of such a nature and degree that to disregard that 

risk constituted a gross deviation from the standard of care that a reasonable person would 

exercise in such a situation.” Id. § 3C1.2 cmt. n.2; id. § 2A1.4 cmt. n.1. “To another person” 

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refers to “any person, except a participant in the offense who willingly participated in the 

flight.” Id. § 3C1.2 cmt. n.4.

We recently applied § 3C1.2 in United States v. Dennings, 922 F.3d 232, 238 (4th 

Cir. 2019). In that case, while the defendant fled from police, the pursuing officer observed 

that his right hand was not empty but “was unable to determine if [he] was digging in his 

pocket or holding onto something.” Id. at 234. The defendant eventually fell, and the officer 

landed on top of him. Id. They struggled, and the defendant was “hesitant to relinquish 

control of” his right arm. Id. Officers then located a loaded firearm in his jacket pocket. Id. 

This Court discerned no clear error in the district court’s finding that these circumstances 

justified the application of § 3C1.2 because they created a risk that (1) the firearm could 

have discharged, and (2) the pursuing officer could have drawn his firearm in self-defense. 

Id. at 238. Further, the defendant’s conduct was reckless—by “moving his hands in a way 

that drew attention to the risk that he was reaching for a firearm,” he did not exercise 

reasonable care. Id. Therefore, the Court observed that, assuming mere armed flight would 

not warrant the application of § 3C1.2, the situation presented involved “flight-plussomething more,” thus justifying the enhancement. Id. at 237.

II.

With this baseline for understanding the law underlying Shivers’ arguments, we turn 

to the undisputed facts. 

In January 2019, Shivers robbed a convenience store at gunpoint in the middle of 

the night. An off-duty police detective who provided security for the store observed Shivers 

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committing the robbery and contacted the police department. The police responded 

immediately, set up a perimeter, and confronted Shivers as he exited the store. Shivers ran, 

and officers pursued on foot. As they ran, one officer saw Shivers discard a revolver in the 

street. Police eventually caught up to Shivers, and when an officer confronted Shivers with 

her service rifle, he submitted to being handcuffed without incident. 

Shivers was later charged with and pleaded guilty to Hobbs Act robbery in violation 

of 18 U.S.C. § 1951(a) as well as brandishing a firearm in furtherance of a crime of violence

in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 924(c)(1)(A)(ii).

Before sentencing, a probation officer prepared a Presentence Investigation Report 

(“PSR”) that recommended a two-level enhancement to Shivers’ offense level pursuant to 

§ 3C1.2. Shivers objected to the enhancement, claiming that he did not create a substantial 

risk of death or serious bodily injury because he did not point his firearm at law 

enforcement officers and did not resist arrest. Instead, he discarded the firearm shortly after 

leaving the convenience store and surrendered to police after a foot pursuit. He argued that 

under Dennings, a § 3C1.2 enhancement required something more than a passive or 

instinctive act, and his flight lacked that something more.

Probation responded as follows:

[O]fficers had established a perimeter around the store prior to the defendant 

exiting. When he did come out of the store, loud clear commands were given 

to Shivers to get on the ground while law enforcement pointed firearms at 

him. The defendant disregarded those commands and fled from authorities 

while armed. Furthermore, during flight in a congested area of downtown 

Asheville, Shivers threw his firearm in the street. In order to throw his 

firearm during flight, Shivers would have had to make an active movement 

with his arm. Such a movement by a defendant known to be armed with a 

firearm could easily have been interpreted by pursuing law enforcement as 

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aggressive and dangerous conduct. When the gun was secured, it was found 

to be loaded with six live rounds.

. . . . Thus, despite the fact that Shivers subsequently surrendered to law 

enforcement after he fled, the Probation Office maintains that the defendant’s 

conduct was more than mere possession of a firearm, that it did recklessly 

create a substantial risk of death or serious injury, and that the enhancement 

has been properly applied.

J.A. 160–61.

The district court overruled Shivers’ objection to the PSR and adopted the 

recommendation to apply the § 3C1.2 enhancement, although it found the issue to be “a 

very close call.” Id. at 101. The court agreed that the enhancement required “something 

more than mere passive flight,” but the “something more” need not be “much more”—

there simply must be “something that can be specifically identified as giving rise to a 

potential danger to a bystander, to a law enforcement officer, or even to the suspect.” Id.

And the court found that “something more” in Shivers’ case for two reasons. Id. First, the 

court reasoned that for Shivers to throw or drop the firearm, he had to reach for it, which 

could have caused a law enforcement officer to react with deadly force. Second, the court 

noted that throwing the firearm could have caused it to accidentally discharge and thereby

“potentially caus[ed] harm to a bystander, or even the suspect himself.” Id. at 101–02.

With the § 3C1.2 enhancement, Shivers’ sentencing range was 121 to 130 months’ 

imprisonment.1 He asked the court for a 114-month sentence, asserting that his history and 

characteristics warranted a downward variance. The Government opposed, arguing that the 

1 Without the enhancement, Shivers’ aggregate sentencing range would have been

114 to 121 months’ imprisonment.

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seriousness of the offense and Shivers’ choice to flee warranted a 121-month sentence. The 

court sentenced Shivers to 114 months’ imprisonment. The court explained that the facts

justifying the application of the enhancement were so slight that some reduction of the 

sentence was warranted. The court also reasoned that Shivers’ history and characteristics

called for a lower sentence. 

The Government asked if the court would “be willing to say that even if the 

objection to the presentence report [regarding the § 3C1.2 enhancement] should have been 

sustained that the Court still believes that 114 months would be the appropriate sentence.” 

Id. at 123–24. The court responded: “I will go so far as to say on the record that the sentence 

is based on the facts that are before the Court with regard to sentencing and the application 

of the factors under 3553(a). The technical calculation of the guideline range is not really 

a significant factor in that calculation.” Id. at 124. Consistent with this statement, in the 

Statement of Reasons, the court declined to check a box indicating that “[i]n the event the 

guideline determination(s) made in this case are found to be incorrect, the court would 

impose a sentence identical to that imposed in this case.” Id. at 165.

III.

When considering a challenge to a district court’s application of the Guidelines, this 

Court reviews factual findings for clear error and legal conclusions de novo. United States 

v. Allen, 446 F.3d 522, 527 (4th Cir. 2006). Specifically, the application of the § 3C1.2

enhancement is reviewed for clear error. United States v. Carter, 601 F.3d 252, 254 (4th

Cir. 2010). The Court will not find clear error unless “on the entire evidence, we are left 

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with the definite and firm conviction that a mistake has been committed.” United States v. 

Barnett, 48 F.4th 216, 220 (4th Cir. 2022) (quoting United States v. Manigan, 592 F.3d 

621, 631 (4th Cir. 2010)).

Shivers argues that the district court’s application of the § 3C1.2 enhancement 

erroneously rested upon (1) the risk that Shivers’ actions posed to himself, (2) the 

unsupported assumption that Shivers reached for the firearm to throw it, which presented

the risk that police might fire in self-defense, and (3) the risk posed by an accidental 

discharge. We will address each argument in turn.

A.

We begin with Shivers’ threshold claim that the district court procedurally erred by

applying the § 3C1.2 enhancement. 

Shivers first contends that the district court erred by considering the possible risk of 

harm to Shivers himself. We agree. The plain text of § 3C1.2 indicates that for the 

enhancement to apply, the defendant must create a risk of harm to “another person,” which 

is defined to include “any person, except a participant in the offense who willingly 

participated in the flight.” U.S.S.G. § 3C1.2 & cmt. n.4 (emphasis added). Shivers 

indisputably participated in the robbery and then willingly fled from the police. Therefore, 

the district court clearly erred in applying the § 3C1.2 enhancement based on possible harm 

to Shivers. 

Next, Shivers claims that the district court’s finding that he must have reached for 

the firearm in order to throw it was clearly erroneous. The Government responds that the 

district court’s finding was a “reasonabl[e] infer[ence].” Response Br. 18. However, at 

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oral argument, the Government was unable to identify any evidence in the record to support 

the district court’s inference that Shivers pulled the firearm out of his pocket as opposed to

simply holding it. Oral Argument at 28:24–29:18, United States v. Shivers, No. 21-4091

(4th Cir. Oct. 27, 2022), https://www.ca4.uscourts.gov/OAarchive/mp3/21-4091-

20221027.mp3. Nor is there evidence to suggest that Shivers made other suspicious or 

furtive hand movements that could have prompted a dangerous response from police.2 The 

record lacks definitive evidence to establish whether Shivers simply dropped the firearm 

on the ground or threw it as if tossing a ball or some other object. In fact, there was no 

testimony from the pursuing officers as to what exactly Shivers did with the firearm, 

although the Government could have presented such evidence. Because no evidence 

supports the district court’s finding that Shivers reached for the gun or that he acted in a 

way that could have caused a law enforcement officer to react with deadly force, the district 

court committed clear error. See Manigan, 592 F.3d at 631 (explaining that this Court has 

found clear error where “the findings under review are not supported by substantial 

evidence” (cleaned up)); see also United States v. Parker, 30 F.3d 542, 552–53 (4th Cir. 

1994) (rejecting certain inferences that had no basis in record evidence and declining the 

government’s invitation to “make up” evidence not in the record).

2 Compare J.A. 142 (“[A pursuing officer] noticed the suspect throw a silver 

revolver in the street as he ran[.]”), with Dennings, 922 F.3d at 238 (“[The defendant’s] 

right arm and hand were moving in a way that suggested he had or was reaching for 

something.”). This first statement was contained within the PSR, but it was drafted by the 

U.S. Attorney’s Office and is not tied to evidence in the record. Had the officer testified to 

this effect, that may have been enough to sustain the enhancement depending on the full 

context of that testimony.

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Third, Shivers argues that the district court should not have relied on the risk posed 

by an accidental discharge because there is no evidence relating to such a risk. Again, we 

agree. “The government bears the burden of proving the facts necessary to establish the 

applicability of [a sentencing] enhancement by the preponderance of the evidence.” United 

States v. McGee, 736 F.3d 263, 271 (4th Cir. 2013) (alteration in original) (quoting United 

States v. Garnett, 243 F.3d 824, 828 (4th Cir. 2001)). But here, the Government has not 

identified any evidence from which the district court could have concluded that there was 

a substantial risk of the firearm discharging when it hit the ground. See United States v. 

Mukes, 980 F.3d 526, 538 (6th Cir. 2020) (finding that the district court erred in applying 

the § 3C1.2 enhancement in part because the record was “insufficient to establish that 

Mukes’s dropping the firearm presented a risk of the gun discharging”). Nor is there 

evidence that Shivers struggled with the police, thereby increasing the risk that his firearm 

could have discharged intentionally or accidentally. See Dennings, 922 F.3d at 238. 

Therefore, we conclude that the district court clearly erred in finding that the risk of 

accidental discharge warranted the application of § 3C1.2.

The Government contends that regardless of the risk—or lack of it—created by 

reaching for or throwing the firearm, the imposition of the § 3C1.2 enhancement was 

warranted because Shivers fled while holding a loaded firearm. But we have never held in 

a published opinion that armed flight alone is enough to justify the application of the 

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§ 3C1.2 enhancement.

3 Instead, we have required “something more” than mere instinctive 

armed flight. Id. at 237; see id. at 235 (“[I]nstinctive flight is not enough to warrant 

imposition of the enhancement.”); see also United States v. John, 935 F.2d 644, 648 (4th 

Cir. 1991) (“For example, mere flight from an arresting officer would not, by itself, warrant 

an enhancement. . . . The cases suggest that endangering others during flight . . . involves 

active, willful behavior; in contrast, mere flight or disagreeableness during an encounter 

involves more passive or instinctive conduct.”). This approach comports with the plain 

language of § 3C1.2, which provides for the application of the enhancement only where 

there is evidence that the defendant “recklessly created a substantial risk of death or serious 

bodily injury to another person” while fleeing. U.S.S.G. § 3C1.2. Had the Sentencing 

Commission wanted this enhancement to apply to mere armed flight instead of to flight 

plus a specific finding of reckless creation of risk, it could have written the Guideline in 

that way. It chose not to do so, and this Court will not “rewrite the Guidelines to bring 

about a certain result.” United States v. Haas, 986 F.3d 467, 480 (4th Cir. 2021).

3 This Court admittedly has some inconsistent unpublished authority on whether 

mere armed flight is sufficient to warrant the application of the § 3C1.2 enhancement. 

Compare United States v. Jefferson, 58 F. App’x 8, 10 (4th Cir. 2003) (“[The defendant] 

posits that merely carrying a gun does not constitute reckless endangerment. He is correct 

to that extent.”), with United States v. Page, 169 F. App’x 782, 785 (4th Cir. 2006) 

(“Because [the defendant] fled from police officers while holding a loaded firearm, we 

conclude the district court did not clearly err in its application of § 3C1.2.”). However, 

these unpublished opinions “have no precedential value, and they are ‘entitled only to the 

weight they generate by the persuasiveness of their reasoning.’” Collins v. Pond Creek 

Mining Co., 468 F.3d 213, 219 (4th Cir. 2006) (quoting Hupman v. Cook, 640 F.2d 497, 

501 & n.7 (4th Cir. 1981)).

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In addition, the Government asserts that the application of the sentencing 

enhancement was warranted because a community member could have found the gun 

instead of the police and hurt himself or someone else. But there is no evidence to support 

that assertion, rendering it purely speculative. To the contrary, the evidence shows that the 

gun was discarded in view of a police officer within an established perimeter, and there is 

no evidence that the gun could have gone unnoticed by the officer or that there were

bystanders in the area who could have picked up the gun. See Mukes, 980 F.3d at 538

(finding that the Government did not meet its burden of showing that community members 

may have been placed in danger because there was no evidence about the presence of 

bystanders).

For these reasons, we conclude that the district court clearly erred in applying the 

§ 3C1.2 sentencing enhancement for reckless endangerment during flight where there was 

no evidence that Shivers did anything more than flee while armed and then discard his 

weapon in view of police. In most cases, it should not be difficult for the Government to 

present sufficient evidence to justify the imposition of the enhancement, but the record here 

simply lacks such evidence. We therefore hold that by failing to put on the necessary 

evidence that Shivers’ conduct created a substantial risk, the Government failed to carry 

its burden of proof, and the district court thus clearly erred in applying the enhancement 

when calculating Shivers’ Guidelines range.

B.

The foregoing conclusion does not end our analysis because an error in the 

application of a sentencing enhancement must be examined for harmlessness before 

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resentencing is warranted. See United States v. Hargrove, 701 F.3d 156, 161 (4th Cir. 

2012). Harmless-error review requires “knowledge that the district court would have 

reached the same result even if it had decided the guidelines issue the other way” and “a 

determination that the sentence would be reasonable even if the guidelines issue had been 

decided in the defendant’s favor.” Id. at 162 (quoting United States v. Savillon-Matute, 636 

F.3d 119, 123 (4th Cir. 2011)). The burden is on the party defending the court’s ruling to 

prove that the error “did not have a substantial and injurious effect or influence on the 

result.” United States v. Patterson, 957 F.3d 426, 440 (4th Cir. 2020) (quoting United 

States v. Lynn, 592 F.3d 572, 585 (4th Cir. 2010)). Here, that is the Government.

At Shivers’ sentencing hearing, the Government specifically asked if the court 

would be willing to find that even if the enhancement should not have been applied, it

would nevertheless have imposed a 114-month sentence. The court declined to do so, 

responding instead that the sentencing was based on the facts of the case and that “[t]he

technical calculation of the guideline range” was not “a significant factor.” J.A. 124. 

The Government relies on this exchange to support its contention that any error in 

applying the enhancement was harmless. But even if the Guidelines range—and, therefore,

the enhancement—was not a “significant factor” in the court’s sentence, the district court 

did not say that the enhancement was irrelevant to its sentencing decision despite several

opportunities to do so. Compare United States v. McDonald, 850 F.3d 640, 644 (4th Cir. 

2017) (“The district court noted that, had it not applied the ACCA, it would have arrived 

at the same 188-month sentence[.]”), and United States v. Mills, 917 F.3d 324, 331 (4th 

Cir. 2019) (“[T]he court expressly stated that 70 months’ imprisonment is the sentence that 

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the Court would have imposed even had the other range been the applicable one[.]” 

(cleaned up)), with J.A. 165 (Statement of Reasons) (failing to check the box indicating 

that “[i]n the event the guideline determination(s) made in this case are found to be 

incorrect, the court would impose a sentence identical to that imposed in this case”).

Given the district court’s arguable reliance on both the enhancement and Shivers’ 

history and characteristics in imposing a sentence below the Guidelines range, it is 

plausible that the district court may again impose a below-Guidelines sentence if this case 

were remanded for resentencing.4 Further, where it is unclear whether a district court would 

impose a lower sentence, courts have erred on the side of remanding for resentencing. See 

United States v. Lynn, 592 F.3d 572, 585 (4th Cir. 2010) (remanding for resentencing where 

“the extent of harm caused by a procedural sentencing error was not immediately clear”);

see also Molina-Martinez v. United States, 578 U.S. 189, 201 (2016) (“Where, however, 

the record is silent as to what the district court might have done had it considered the correct 

Guidelines range, the court’s reliance on an incorrect range in most instances will suffice 

to show an effect on the defendant’s substantial rights. Indeed, in the ordinary case a 

defendant will satisfy his burden to show prejudice by pointing to the application of an 

incorrect, higher Guidelines range and the sentence he received thereunder.”).

Therefore, we conclude that the Government failed to meet its burden of showing 

4 The error is not harmless even though Shivers received a sentence that falls within 

the Guidelines range that will apply without the enhancement. The district court could 

again rely on Shivers’ history and characteristics to impose a below-Guidelines sentence.

Whether the district court determines to do so is within its discretion.

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that any error regarding the application of the sentencing enhancement “did not have a 

substantial and injurious effect or influence on the result.” Patterson, 957 F.3d at 440 

(quoting Lynn, 592 F.3d at 585).5

IV.

For the foregoing reasons, we vacate Shivers’ sentence and remand for resentencing

without application of the § 3C1.2 enhancement.

VACATED AND REMANDED WITH INSTRUCTIONS

5 Because we find that the district court may have imposed a different sentence if it 

had not applied the § 3C1.2 enhancement, we need not determine whether the sentence was 

reasonable. See Hargrove, 701 F.3d at 162.

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