FI L ED

U.S. COURT OF APPEAL S

EL EVENTH CI RCUI T

J UL Y 06, 2010

J OHN L EY

CL ERK [ P U B L I S H ]

I N T H E U N I T E D S T A T E S C O U R T O F A P P E A L S

F O R T H E E L E V E N T H C I R C U I T

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

N o

. 0 8

- 1 6 7 8 8

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

D

. C

. D o c k e t N o

. 0 6

- 0 1 5 8 3

- C V

- O R L

- 3 1

- K R S

F I R S T V A G A B O N D S C H U R C H O F G O D

,

a n u n i n c o r p o r a t e d a s s o c i a t i o n

,

B R I A N N I C H O L S

, O R L A N D O F O O D N O T B O M B S

,

a n u n i n c o r p o r a t e d a s s o c i a t i o n

,

R Y A N S C O T T H U T C H I N S O N

,

B E N J A M I N B

. M A R K E S O N

,

E R I C M O N T A N E Z

, A D A M U L R I C H

,

P l a i n t i f f s

- A p p e l l e e s

- C r o s s A p p e l l a n t s

,

v e r s u s

C I T Y O F O R L A N D O

, F L O R I D A

,

D e f e n d a n t

- A p p e l l a n t

- C r o s s A p p e l l e e

,

N A T I O N A L L A W C E N T E R O N

H O M E L E S S N E S S & P O V E R T Y

,

A m i c u s

._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

A p p e a l s f

r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s D i s t r i c t C o u r t

f o r t h e M i d d l e D i s t r i c t o f F l o r i d a

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

( J u l y 6

, 2 0 1 0 )

B e f o r e E D M O N D S O N

, B A R K E T T a n d B A L D O C K

, C i r c u i t J u d g e s

. *

E D M O N D S O N

, C i r c u i t J u d g e :

T h i s c a s e i s a b o u t a l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t r e g u l a t i n g t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h s o m e

o f i t s p a r k s a r e u s e d

. W e d e c i d e w h e t h e r t h e C i t y o f O r l a n d o ’ s L a r g e G r o u p

F e e d i n g O r d i n a n c e

, a s a p p l i e d t o F i r s t V a g a b o n d s C h u r c h o f G o d a n d O r l a n d o

F o o d N o t B o m b s

, v i o l a t e s t h e F i r s t a n d F o u r t e e n t h A m e n d m e n t s t o t h e U n i t e d

S t a t e s C o n s t i t u t i o n

. W e a l s o d e c i d e w h e t h e r t h e o r d i n a n c e

, a s a p p l i e d t o F i r s t

V a g a b o n d s C h u r c h o f G o d

, v i o l a t e s t h e F l o r i d a R e l i g i o u s F r e e d o m R e s t o r a t i o n

A c t

. W e c o n c l u d e t h a t

, i n t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f t h i s c a s e

, t h e o r d i n a n c e d o e s n o t

o f f e n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s C o n s t i t u t i o n o r v i o l a t e t h e F l o r i d a R e l i g i o u s F r e e d o m

R e s t o r a t i o n A c t

. W e a f f i r m t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t ’ s j u d g m e n t i n p a r t a n d r e v e r s e i t i n

p a r t

. W e v a c a t e t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t ’ s p e r m a n e n t i n j u n c t i o n t h a t b a r r e d e n f o r c e m e n t

o f t h e o r d i n a n c e

.

Honora ble B obby

R. Baldoc k, United States Circuit J udg e for the Tenth Circuit, sitting *

by desig nation.

2I

. B A C K G R O U N D

P l a i n t i f f F i r s t V a g a b o n d s C h u r c h o f G o d i s a C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h ; P l a i n t i f f

B r i a n N i c h o l s i s t h e c h u r c h ’ s p a s t o r

. T h e C h u r c h ’ s c o n g r e g a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f 1

a p p r o x i m a t e l y f

o r t y m e m b e r s

, m o s t o f w h o m a r e h o m e l e s s

. B e c a u s e t h e C h u r c h

h a s n o b u i l d i n g

, P a s t o r N i c h o l s h o l d s s e r v i c e s e v e r y S u n d a y a t L a n g f o r d P a r k i n

O r l a n d o

. T h e C h u r c h s e r v e s f o o d t o i t s m e m b e r s a s a p a r t o f i t s r e l i g i o u s s e r v i c e s

.

P l a i n t i f f O r l a n d o F o o d N o t B o m b s i s a l o o s e l y s t r u c t u r e d o r g a n i z a t i o n o f

p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i s t s w h o s h a r e t h e v i e w t h a t s o c i e t y h a s a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o p r o v i d e

f o o d t o a l l o f i t s m e m b e r s ; P l a i n t i f f s R y a n H u t c h i n s o n

, E r i c M o n t a n e z

, B e n j a m i n

M a r k e s o n

, a n d A d a m U l r i c h a r e m e m b e r s o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n

. O F N B c o n d u c t s 2

f o o d

- s h a r i n g e v e n t s a t L a k e E o l a P a r k

, O r l a n d o ’ s s i g n a t u r e p a r k

, w h e r e O F N B

p r o v i d e s f

r e e f o o d t o h u n g r y a n d h o m e l e s s p e r s o n s

.

D e f e n d a n t i s t h e C i t y o f O r l a n d o ( “ t h e C i t y ” )

. A f t e r g e t t i n g c o m p l a i n t s

a b o u t l a r g e n u m b e r s o f h o m e l e s s p e o p l e d i s b u r s i n g f r o m L a k e E o l a P a r k i n t o

n e i g h b o r h o o d s a f

t e r f e e d i n g e v e n t s

, t h e C i t y e n a c t e d t h e L a r g e G r o u p F e e d i n g

O r d i n a n c e ( t h e “ O r d i n a n c e ” )

. T h e O r d i n a n c e r e q u i r e s a n y o n e c o n d u c t i n g a “ l a r g e 3

We refe r to the chur ch and its Plaintiff-pastor c ollectively as “the Church.” 1

We refe r to the org anization and its P laintiff-membe rs collec tively as “O FNB .” 2

A copy of the Or dinance appea

rs in the appe ndix of this opinion. 3

3g r o u p f

e e d i n g ” w i t h i n t h e G r e a t e r D o w n t o w n P a r k D i s t r i c t ( “ G D P D ” o r “ t h e

D i s t r i c t ” ) t o o b t a i n a p e r m i t f i r s t

. T h e D i s t r i c t i s t h e a r e a w i t h i n a t w o

- m i l e r a d i u s 4

a r o u n d O r l a n d o ’ s C i t y H a l l a n d e n c o m p a s s e s f e w e r t h a n h a l f o f t h e C i t y ’ s p a r k s

.

A “ l a r g e g r o u p f

e e d i n g ” i s d e f

i n e d a s a n “ e v e n t i n t e n d e d t o a t t r a c t

, a t t r a c t i n g

, o r

l i k e l y t o a t t r a c t 2 5 o r m o r e p e o p l e

, i n c l u d i n g d i s t r i b u t o r s a n d s e r v e r s

, i n a p a r k o r

p a r k f a c i l i t y o w n e d o r c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e C i t y

, i n c l u d i n g a d j a c e n t s i d e w a l k s a n d

r i g h t s

- o f

- w a y i n t h e G D P D

, f

o r t h e d e l i v e r y o r s e r v i c e o f f o o d

. ” 5

T h e O r d i n a n c e l i m i t s t h e n u m b e r o f p e r m i t s a p e r s o n

, g r o u p

, o r o r g a n i z a t i o n

c a n o b t a i n f

o r a s i n g l e p a r k w i t h i n t h e D i s t r i c t t o t w o p e r c o n s e c u t i v e 1 2

- m o n t h

p e r i o d

. B e c a u s e b o t h L a k e E o l a P a r k a n d L a n g f o r d P a r k a r e l o c a t e d i n t h e D i s t r i c t

,

t h e O r d i n a n c e a f

f e c t e d t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f b o t h O F N B a n d t h e C h u r c h

. T o c o m p l y

w i t h t h e O r d i n a n c e a n d c o n t i n u e t o s e r v e f o o d i n O r l a n d o ’ s p a r k s r e g u l a r l y

, b o t h

g r o u p s w i l l n e e d t o r o t a t e t h e i r e v e n t s a m o n g t h e p a r k s i n t h e D i s t r i c t o r m o v e t o a

p a r k o u t s i d e o f t h e D i s t r i c t

.

I n f e d e r a l c o u r t

, t h e P l a i n t i f f s b r o u g h t s i x c l a i m s a g a i n s t t h e C i t y

. T h e

C h u r c h a l l e g e d t h a t t h e O r d i n a n c e

, a s a p p l i e d t o t h e m

, v i o l a t e s t h e F l o r i d a

R e l i g i o u s F r e e d o m R e s t o r a t i o n A c t ( “ F R F R A ” )

, F l a

. S t a t

. § 7 6 1

. 0 1 e t s e q

. , a n d

Violations of the Ordina

nce a re punishable by

a fine of up to $500 or 60 day s of 4

imprisonment.

The Or dinance excludes the “a ctivities of City licensed or

contra cted c oncessionair es, 5

lessees, or

licensee s” fr om this definition.

4t h a t t h e O r d i n a n c e

, f a c i a l l y a n d a s a p p l i e d t o t h e m

, v i o l a t e s t h e F i r s t A m e n d m e n t ’ s

F r e e E x e r c i s e C l a u s e

. O F N B a l l e g e d t h a t t h e O r d i n a n c e

, b o t h f a c i a l l y a n d a s

a p p l i e d t o t h e m

, v i o l a t e s t h e F i r s t A m e n d m e n t ’ s F r e e S p e e c h C l a u s e

. B o t h 6

P l a i n t i f f s a l l e g e d t h a t t h e O r d i n a n c e

, f a c i a l l y a n d a s a p p l i e d t o t h e m

, v i o l a t e s t h e i r

r i g h t s u n d e r t h e F i r s t A m e n d m e n t ’ s F r e e A s s e m b l y C l a u s e a n d t h e F o u r t e e n t h

A m e n d m e n t ’ s D u e P r o c e s s a n d E q u a l P r o t e c t i o n C l a u s e s

. 7

T h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t g r a n t e d t h e C i t y s u m m a r y j u d g m e n t o n b o t h t h e d u e

p r o c e s s a n d e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n c l a i m s

. I n i t s s u m m a r y j u d g m e n t o r d e r

, t h e d i s t r i c t

c o u r t a l s o r e

j e c t e d O F N B ’ s f

a c i a l f r e e s p e e c h c l a i m b e c a u s e “ t h e c o n d u c t r e g u l a t e d

b y t h e o r d i n a n c e i s n o t

, o n i t s f a c e

, a n e x p r e s s i v e a c t i v i t y

. ” T h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t

, 8

Both OF NB and the Churc h alleg ed a f ree speec h claim in their complaint; but befor e 6

trial, the par

ties filed a joint stipulation clarify ing tha t only OFN B w as bring ing a

fre e spee ch

claim.

Some confusion exist s in this case about whe ther Plaintiffs also asse rted a claim that the 7

City violated their rig hts to ex pressive a ssociation under the First Amendme nt. The only

ref ere nce to a

First Amendme nt rig ht of associa tion in the pertinent Amende d Complaint i s in

the context of a broa der, sing le par ag raph in the F acts sec tion. That para g raph state s that the

City has “de prived Plaintiffs of their c onstitut ional rig hts to free speec h, fre e asse mbly and

association, fr ee e x erc ise of re ligion, equa l protection under the law a nd due proc ess.” The

Amended Complaint’s Causes of Action sec tion does not list a ca use of a ction for a

violation of

the rig ht to ex pressive a ssociation, but does list a cause of ac tion for ea ch of the other

constitutional rights at issue in this case . Given the subtlety of how this issue was put to the

district court in the plea dings, br iefing , and other wise, the district cour

t did not err in conc luding

that no expressive associa tion claim was being seriously presse d by

the par ties; and we w ill not

decide the claim for

the first time now on appe al. Cf. Davis v. Coca -Cola B ottling Co. Consol.,

516 F.3d 955, 972- 75 (11th Cir. 2008); Mag luta v. Samples, 256 F.3d 1282, 1284 (11th Cir.

2001) (“ [D] iscrete claims should be plead in se para te counts.”)

.

OFN B doe s not challeng e this determination on appe al. 8

5w i t h o u t a j u r y

, t h e n h e l d a t w o

- d a y t r i a l o n t h e r e m a i n i n g i s s u e s

. A t t h e c l o s e o f

t h e P l a i n t i f

f s ’ c a s e

, t h e C i t y m a d e a m o t i o n f o r a j u d g m e n t o n p a r t i a l f i n d i n g s

p u r s u a n t t o F e d

. R

. C i v

. P

. 5 2 ( c ) ; t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t d e c l i n e d t h e n t o r e n d e r

j u d g m e n t o n t h a t m o t i o n

.

S h o r t l y a f

t e r t r i a l

, t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t g r a n t e d t h e C i t y ’ s R u l e 5 2 ( c ) m o t i o n f o r

j u d g m e n t o n t h e F R F R A c l a i m

. L a t e r

, t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t e n t e r e d a n o p i n i o n a n d

o r d e r r u l i n g i n f

a v o r o f t h e C h u r c h o n i t s f r e e e x e r c i s e c l a i m

, i n f

a v o r o f O F N B o n

i t s a s

- a p p l i e d f

r e e s p e e c h c l a i m

, a n d i n f a v o r o f t h e C i t y o n t h e P l a i n t i f f s ’ f r e e

a s s e m b l y c l a i m s

. T h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t p e r m a n e n t l y e n j o i n e d t h e C i t y f

r o m e n f o r c i n g 9

t h e O r d i n a n c e a g a i n s t P l a i n t i f f s

. T h e C i t y a p p e a l s t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t ’ s c o n c l u s i o n s

,

a f t e r t r i a l

, o n t h e f

r e e s p e e c h a n d f

r e e e x e r c i s e c l a i m s

, a n d t h e r e s u l t i n g p e r m a n e n t

i n j u n c t i o n p r o h i b i t i n g t h e e n f o r c e m e n t o f t h e O r d i n a n c e a g a i n s t P l a i n t i f f s

. B o t h

t h e P l a i n t i f

f s a p p e a l t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t ’ s g r a n t o f s u m m a r y j u d g m e n t t o t h e C i t y o n

t h e i r d u e p r o c e s s ( v o i d

- f o r

- v a g u e n e s s ) c l a i m s

. T h e C h u r c h a p p e a l s t h e d i s t r i c t

c o u r t ’ s g r a n t o f s u m m a r y j u d g m e n t i n f a v o r o f t h e C i t y o n i t s e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n

c l a i m

, a s w e l l a s t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t ’ s c o n c l u s i o n

, u n d e r R u l e 5 2 ( c )

, t h a t t h e

O r d i n a n c e d o e s n o t v i o l a t e t h e F R F R A

.

Although the Church mentions its free assembly claim in its reply

brief, ne ither Plaintiff 9

discusses that claim in their initial briefs to this court. The issue is theref ore a bandoned. See

L ucas v. W.W. Graing er, Inc., 257 F .3d 1249, 1255 n.1 (11th Cir. 2001).

6I I

. D I S C U S S I O N

A

. F r e e S p e e c h C l a u s e

T h e C i t y a p p e a l s t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t ’ s c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e O r d i n a n c e v i o l a t e s

t h e F r e e S p e e c h C l a u s e

, a s a p p l i e d t o O F N B ; t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t t h o u g h t t h a t t h e

O r d i n a n c e r e g u l a t e s e x p r e s s i v e c o n d u c t b u t d o e s n o t f u r t h e r a s u b s t a n t i a l

g o v e r n m e n t i n t e r e s t

. I n t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f t h i s c a s e

, t h e f e e d i n g O r d i n a n c e

r e g u l a t e s n o p r o t e c t e d e x p r e s s i v e c o n d u c t ; w e c a n n o t a g r e e w i t h t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t ’ s

d e c i s i o n

.

W e r e v i e w t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t ’ s d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f h i s t o r i c a l f a c t f o r c l e a r

e r r o r

, b u t r e v i e w d e n o v o i t s c o n c l u s i o n s o f l a w a n d d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f

“ c o n s t i t u t i o n a l f

a c t

. ” S e e F l a n i g a n ’ s E n t e r p r i s e s

, I n c

. o f G e o r g i a v

. F u l t o n C o u n t y

,

G a

. , 5 9 6 F

. 3 d 1 2 6 5

, 1 2 7 5

- 7 6 ( 1 1 t h C i r

. 2 0 1 0 )

. O F N B c l a i m s t h a t t h e O r d i n a n c e i s

u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l b e c a u s e i t r e q u i r e s a p e r m i t t o e n g a g e i n l a r g e g r o u p f e e d i n g s

- -

c o n d u c t w h i c h O F N B c l a i m s i s s u f f i c i e n t l y e x p r e s s i v e t o c o u n t a s s p e e c h u n d e r t h e

F i r s t A m e n d m e n t

- - a n d l i m i t s t h e m a x i m u m n u m b e r o f p e r m i t s t h a t a p e r s o n o r

o r g a n i z a t i o n c a n o b t a i n t o t w o p e r y e a r p e r p a r k

. O F N B w i s h e s t o c o n d u c t

f e e d i n g s i n a s i n g l e p a r k l o c a t e d i n t h e D i s t r i c t m o r e o f t e n t h a n t h e O r d i n a n c e w i l l

7a l l o w

.

C o n d u c t t h a t i s e x p r e s s i v e c o m e s w i t h i n t h e F i r s t A m e n d m e n t ’ s p r o t e c t i o n

.

S e e T e x a s v

. J o h n s o n

, 1 0 9 S

. C t

. 2 5 3 3

, 2 5 3 8 ( 1 9 8 9 )

. A l l c o n d u c t i s n o t e x p r e s s i v e

.

N o r i s c o n d u c t p r e s u m p t i v e l y e x p r e s s i v e ; t h e p a r t y i n v o k i n g t h e F i r s t

A m e n d m e n t ’ s p r o t e c t i o n h a s t h e b u r d e n t o p r o v e t h a t i t a p p l i e s

. C l a r k v

.

C o m m u n i t y f

o r C r e a t i v e N o n

- V i o l e n c e

, 1 0 4 S

. C t

. 3 0 6 5

, 3 0 6 9 n

. 5 ( 1 9 8 4 )

. T o

d e t e r m i n e “ w h e t h e r p a r t i c u l a r c o n d u c t p o s s e s s e s s u f f i c i e n t c o m m u n i c a t i v e

e l e m e n t s t o b r i n g t h e F i r s t A m e n d m e n t i n t o p l a y

, ” w e h a v e t r a d i t i o n a l l y a s k e d t w o

t h i n g s : ( 1 ) w h e t h e r t h e p e r s o n s e e k i n g t h e F i r s t A m e n d m e n t ’ s p r o t e c t i o n h a d a n

“ i n t e n t t o c o n v e y a p a r t i c u l a r i z e d m e s s a g e ” ; a n d ( 2 ) w h e t h e r “ t h e l i k e l i h o o d w a s

g r e a t t h a t t h e m e s s a g e w o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d b y t h o s e w h o v i e w e d i t

. ” J o h n s o n

,

1 0 9 S

. C t

. a t 2 5 3 9 ( i n t e r n a l q u o t a t i o n m a r k s o m i t t e d )

. A “ n a r r o w

, s u c c i n c t l y

a r t i c u l a b l e m e s s a g e i s n o t a c o n d i t i o n o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o t e c t i o n

. ” H u r l e y v

.

I r i s h

- A m e r i c a n G a y

, L e s b i a n & B i s e x u a l G r o u p o f B o s t o n

, 1 1 5 S

. C t

. 2 3 3 8

, 2 3 4 5

( 1 9 9 5 )

. I n s t e a d

, “ i n d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r c o n d u c t i s e x p r e s s i v e

, w e a s k w h e t h e r

t h e r e a s o n a b l e p e r s o n w o u l d i n t e r p r e t i t a s s o m e s o r t o f m e s s a g e

, n o t w h e t h e r a n

o b s e r v e r w o u l d n e c e s s a r i l y i n f e r a s p e c i f i c m e s s a g e

. ” H o l l o m a n e x r e l

. H o l l o m a n

v

. H a r l a n d

, 3 7 0 F

. 3 d 1 2 5 2

, 1 2 7 0 ( 1 1 t h C i r

. 2 0 0 4 )

. T h i s i n q u i r y i s a n o b j e c t i v e o n e

.

S e e i d

.

8J u s t b e c a u s e t h e F i r s t A m e n d m e n t d o e s n o t r e q u i r e e x p r e s s i o n d e l i v e r e d v i a

c o n d u c t t o m e e t a l e v e l o f s p e c i f i c i t y o r c l a r i t y d o e s n o t m e a n “ t h a t a n a p p a r e n t l y

l i m i t l e s s v a r i e t y o f c o n d u c t c a n b e l a b e l e d ‘ s p e e c h ’ w h e n e v e r t h e p e r s o n e n g a g i n g

i n t h e c o n d u c t i n t e n d s t h e r e b y t o e x p r e s s a n i d e a

. ” S e e U n i t e d S t a t e s v

. O ’ B r i e n

,

8 8 S

. C t

. 1 6 7 3

, 1 6 7 8 ( 1 9 6 8 )

. T h e F i r s t A m e n d m e n t o n l y p r o t e c t s “ i n h e r e n t l y

e x p r e s s i v e ” c o n d u c t ; w h e n c o n d u c t i s “ i n h e r e n t l y e x p r e s s i v e

, ” i t w i l l b e

“ o v e r w h e l m i n g l y a p p a r e n t ” t o a r e a s o n a b l e o b s e r v e r t h a t h e i s v i e w i n g a f o r m o f

s y m b o l i c s p e e c h

. S e e R u m s f e l d v

. F o r u m f

o r A c a d e m i c a n d I n s t i t u t i o n a l R i g h t s

,

I n c

. ( “ F A I R ” )

, 1 2 6 S

. C t

. 1 2 9 7

, 1 3 1 0

- 1 1 ( 2 0 0 6 )

. W h e n t h e o b j e c t i v e r e a s o n a b l e

o b s e r v e r i s d e c i d i n g w h e t h e r h e i s v i e w i n g a f o r m o f e x p r e s s i o n

, h e i s g i v e n t o

u n d e r s t a n d f

a c t u a l c o n t e x t a n d e n v i r o n m e n t

. S p e n c e v

. W a s h i n g t o n

, 9 4 S

. C t

. 1 0

2 7 2 7

, 2 7 3 0 ( 1 9 7 4 ) ( p r o s e c u t i o n u n d e r s t a t u t e p r o h i b i t i n g f l a g d e s e c r a t i o n : h a n g i n g

a f l a g u p s i d e d o w n

, w i t h p e a c e s y m b o l s m a d e o f t a p e a t t a c h e d t o i t o n b o t h s i d e s

,

c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s l y w i t h t h e V i e t n a m W a r ’ s C a m b o d i a n i n c u r s i o n w a s p r o t e c t e d

e x p r e s s i v e c o n d u c t )

. T h e o b s e r v e r

, h o w e v e r

, i s d e a f a n d b l i n d t o e x p l a n a t o r y

s p e e c h

- - T

- s h i r t s

, b u t t o n s

, b a n n e r s

, s p e a k i n g

, a n d s o o n

- - a c c o m p a n y i n g t h e

c o n d u c t

. S e e F A I R

, 1 2 6 S

. C t

. a t 1 3 1 1 ( “ I f c o m b i n i n g s p e e c h a n d c o n d u c t w e r e

Contex t and environme nt mean that the objec tive rea sonable obser ver ha s some 1 0

awa rene ss of curr ent eve nts, common community prac tices, the sig nificanc e of pa rticular

locations, and so on. See, e .g ., J ohnson, 109 S. Ct . at 2536-37, 2540 (bur ning f lag at political

demonstration during the Republican N ational Convention is constitut ionally protec ted).

9e n o u g h t o c r e a t e e x p r e s s i v e c o n d u c t

, a r e g u l a t e d p a r t y c o u l d a l w a y s t r a n s f o r m

c o n d u c t i n t o ‘ s p e e c h ’ s i m p l y b y t a l k i n g a b o u t i t

. ” )

.

A t t r i a l

, O F N B a s s e r t e d t h a t b y h o l d i n g f o o d

- s h a r i n g e v e n t s

, i t i n t e n d s t o

c o n v e y t h e m e s s a g e t h a t s o c i e t y c a n a n d s h o u l d p r o v i d e f o o d f o r a l l o f i t s

m e m b e r s

. T h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t d e t e r m i n e d t h a t O F N B ’ s m e s s a g e i s l i k e l y t o b e

, a n d

i n f a c t i s

, u n d e r s t o o d b y t h e p u b l i c b a s e d o n t h e f o l l o w i n g t h i n g s : ( 1 ) O r l a n d o ’ s

M a y o r t e s t i f

i e d t h a t h e p e r s o n a l l y b e l i e v e d O F N B p r o v i d e d f o o d t o t h e h o m e l e s s

o n l y t o c o n v e y i t s p o l i t i c a l m e s s a g e ; ( 2 ) i n a v i d e o p r e s e n t e d b y O F N B

, a p o l i c e

o f f i c e r n o t e d t h a t h e r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e f e e d i n g w a s b e i n g h e l d m a i n l y f o r p o l i t i c a l

p u r p o s e s ; ( 3 ) t h e t e s t i m o n y a t t r i a l e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f O F N B ’ s

m e s s a g e b e i n g r e c e i v e d i s e n h a n c e d b y i t s u s e o f s i g n s

, T

- s h i r t s

, a n d b u t t o n s a t t h e

f e e d i n g s

. T h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t t h e n c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e O r d i n a n c e f u r t h e r s n o

s u b s t a n t i a l g o v e r n m e n t i n t e r e s t

.

W e a c c e p t t h a t O F N B h a d t h e r e q u i s i t e e x p r e s s i v e i n t e n t

, b u t w e b e l i e v e t h a t

t h e f e e d i n g s i n t h i s c a s e p r e s e n t a t m o s t a n a m b i g u o u s s i t u a t i o n t o a n o b j e c t i v e

r e a s o n a b l e o b s e r v e r ; t h e e x p r e s s i v e n a t u r e o f t h e c o n d u c t i s n o t “ o v e r w h e l m i n g l y

a p p a r e n t

. ” W e t h e r e f

o r e c a n n o t c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e l i k e l i h o o d i s g r e a t t h a t a

r e a s o n a b l e o b s e r v e r w o u l d u n d e r s t a n d O F N B ’ s c o n d u c t o f s i m p l y f e e d i n g p e o p l e

10t o b e t r u l y c o m m u n i c a t i v e

. 1 1

T h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s u n d e r l y i n g t h e S u p r e m e C o u r t ’ s F A I R d e c i s i o n p r o v i d e

a n a p t i l l u s t r a t i o n o f c o n d u c t t h a t

, l i k e t h e c o n d u c t h e r e

, i s t o o a m b i g u o u s t o

Be cause this inqui ry

is an objective one , the video of the police off icer and testimony

of 1 1

the May or, re lied upon by the district court, a

re not ve ry

helpful. I n some circ umstances,

evidenc e about wha

t some people subjec tively thought mig ht tend to show what an obje ctive

rea sonable obser

ver w ould think. But this case unde rscor es the potential proble m with rely ing

on evidenc e of a

n individual observer ’s subjective impre ssions. Here, the district court re lied

upon video evidenc e of one police off icer commenting on the political nature of the fe eding s.

The video shows this sce ne: A police of fice r ar rived a t a par

k wher e a f

eeding event wa s

occur ring and at whic h sever al people w ith camer as (still and video) a nd other e quipment --

some with media insignia -- we re pr esent. As the of fice r ente red the park, he was met by the

chapte r pre sident of the ACL U (who ide ntified himself in just that way ). The O ffice r

commented: “I t’s rea lly

not a big deal. I

understand this is more of a political statement than

any thing e lse. Ijust need to g et the name s of the g roups.” B ut the rec ord is devoid of e vidence

showing why

the offic er be lieved that the g roups wer e making a political statement. Did the

office r witness food be ing se rved a nd know by

that conduct a lone that OF NB was a ttempting to

convey a political messag e? Did the offic er a ssume it was a political statement be cause of the

prese nce of

media? The ACL U? Be cause of the pre sence of sig ns, buttons, or special T-shirts?

What information was he g iven by his supervisors bey ond what he sa w at the sc ene?

The testimony

of May or Dy er likew ise does not help us dete rmine whe ther a n objective

rea sonable pe rson would under stand the expressive natur e of O FNB ’s conduc t from observing

the conduc t. The May or testified a s follows:

Q: You have stated publicly that y ou don’t view Or lando Food, N ot Bombs, as a n

org anization that does a ser vice f or the homele ss; is t hat rig ht?

A: I don’t know wha t I ’ve sa id publicly in that reg ard. I

do not consider them homele ss

advocates, no.

Q: You – ac tually , y ou believed tha t Orlando F ood, Not Bombs, uses the home less to

serve its poli tical purposes?

A: That’s c orre ct.

This testimony

only ref lects the May or’s subjec tive view of O FNB as an or g anization

and, per haps, OF NB ’s intent in participatingin the fee dings. B ut the rec ord does not re flec t that

the May or for

med this view as a r esult of just viewing OFN B’ s conduct of f eeding people.

11r e c e i v e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o t e c t i o n a s a f o r m o f s p e e c h

. F A I R i n v o l v e d a n

a s s o c i a t i o n o f l a w s c h o o l s a n d l a w f a c u l t i e s t h a t s o u g h t “ t o r e s t r i c t m i l i t a r y

r e c r u i t i n g o n t h e i r c a m p u s e s b e c a u s e t h e y o b j e c t [ e d ] t o t h e p o l i c y C o n g r e s s h a d

a d o p t e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o h o m o s e x u a l s i n t h e m i l i t a r y

. ” 1 2 6 S

. C t

. a t 1 3 0 2

.

C o n g r e s s r e a c t e d t o t h e r e c r u i t i n g r e s t r i c t i o n s b y e n a c t i n g t h e S o l o m o n

A m e n d m e n t

, w h i c h d e n i e d f e d e r a l f u n d s t o e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t d i d n o t

p r o v i d e m i l i t a r y r e c r u i t e r s w i t h a c c e s s e q u a l t o t h a t p r o v i d e d t o o t h e r r e c r u i t e r s

.

I d

. a t 1 3 0 2

.

I n F A I R

, t h e s c h o o l s t h e n c l a i m e d

, a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s

, t h a t t h e S o l o m o n

A m e n d m e n t p r o h i b i t e d t h e m f r o m e n g a g i n g i n ( a c c o r d i n g t o t h e m ) e x p r e s s i v e

c o n d u c t : t r e a t i n g m i l i t a r y r e c r u i t e r s d i f f e r e n t l y w i t h t h e i n t e n t t o s h o w d i s a p p r o v a l

.

I d

. a t 1 3 1 0

. B e f

o r e t h e S o l o m o n A m e n d m e n t

, s o m e “ s c h o o l s ‘ e x p r e s s e d ’ t h e i r

d i s a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e m i l i t a r y ” b y r e q u i r i n g m i l i t a r y i n t e r v i e w s t o t a k e p l a c e o n

t h e s c h o o l s ’ u n d e r g r a d u a t e c a m p u s e s w h e n o t h e r i n t e r v i e w s t o o k p l a c e o n t h e i r

l a w s c h o o l c a m p u s e s

. I d

. a t 1 3 1 0

- 1 1

. B u t e v e n t h o u g h t h e s c h o o l s i n t e n d e d t o

c o n v e y a m e s s a g e o f d i s a p p r o v a l b y p l a c i n g t h e m i l i t a r y r e c r u i t e r s a t a d i f f e r e n t

l o c a t i o n

, t h e S u p r e m e C o u r t u n a n i m o u s l y c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e S o l o m o n 1 2

A m e n d m e n t d i d n o t r e g u l a t e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y p r o t e c t e d e x p r e s s i v e c o n d u c t

. I d

. a t

J ustice Alito took no part in the dec ision. 1 2

121 3 1 1

. T h e c o n d u c t w a s n o t p r o t e c t e d b e c a u s e

, u n l e s s a s c h o o l a c c o m p a n i e d i t s a c t

w i t h e x p l a n a t o r y s p e e c h

, “ [ a ] n o b s e r v e r w h o s e e s m i l i t a r y r e c r u i t e r s i n t e r v i e w i n g

a w a y f r o m t h e l a w s c h o o l h a s n o w a y o f k n o w i n g w h e t h e r t h e l a w s c h o o l i s

e x p r e s s i n g i t s d i s a p p r o v a l o f t h e m i l i t a r y

, a l l t h e l a w s c h o o l ’ s i n t e r v i e w r o o m s a r e

f u l l

, o r t h e m i l i t a r y r e c r u i t e r s d e c i d e d f o r r e a s o n s o f t h e i r o w n t h a t t h e y w o u l d

r a t h e r i n t e r v i e w s o m e p l a c e e l s e

. ” I d

. a t 1 3 1 1

.

L i k e t h e a m b i g u o u s c o n d u c t i n F A I R

, j u s t f e e d i n g p e o p l e i n t h e p a r k i s

c o n d u c t t o o a m b i g u o u s t o a l l o w u s t o c o n c l u d e t h a t a g r e a t l i k e l i h o o d e x i s t s t h a t a n

o b j e c t i v e r e a s o n a b l e o b s e r v e r w o u l d u n d e r s t a n d t h a t t h e f e e d e r s a r e t r y i n g t o

c o n v e y a m e s s a g e

. W i t h o u t t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f e x p l a n a t o r y s p e e c h ( T

- s h i r t s

, b u t t o n s

,

b a n n e r s

, a n d s o o n )

, a n o b j e c t i v e r e a s o n a b l e o b s e r v e r w o u l d n o t k n o w w h e t h e r t h e

g r o u p f e e d i n g w a s a f

a m i l y h a v i n g a r e u n i o n

, a c h u r c h i n t e n d i n g t o e n g a g e i n a

p u r e l y c h a r i t a b l e a c t

, a r e s t a u r a n t d i s t r i b u t i n g s u r p l u s f o o d f o r f r e e i n s t e a d o f

t h r o w i n g i t a w a y

, o r a n o r g a n i z a t i o n t r y i n g t o e n g a g e i n a f o r m o f p o l i t i c a l s p e e c h

.

S e e F A I R

, 1 2 6 S

. C t

. a t 1 3 1 1 ( “ T h e e x p r e s s i v e c o m p o n e n t o f [ t h e c o n d u c t ] i s n o t

c r e a t e d b y t h e c o n d u c t i t s e l f b u t b y t h e s p e e c h t h a t a c c o m p a n i e s i t

. ” )

.

T h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t h e r e n o t e d : “ [ T ] h e t e s t i m o n y a t t r i a l e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e

l i k e l i h o o d o f t h e O F N B P l a i n t i f f s ’ m e s s a g e b e i n g r e c e i v e d i s e n h a n c e d b y t h e i r u s e

o f s i g n s

, T

- s h i r t s a n d b u t t o n s

. ” W e a c c e p t t h a t f i n d i n g

, b u t t h e e x p l a n a t o r y s p e e c h

13i s a c t u a l l y “ s t r o n g e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e c o n d u c t a t i s s u e h e r e i s n o t s o i n h e r e n t l y

e x p r e s s i v e t h a t i t w a r r a n t s p r o t e c t i o n

. ” I d

. W e d o n o t s a y t o d a y t h a t t h e a c t o f

f e e d i n g c a n n e v e r

, a s a m a t t e r o f l a w

, b e s u f f i c i e n t l y e x p r e s s i v e t o r e c e i v e

c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o t e c t i o n ( t h i s a p p e a l p r e s e n t s a n a s

- a p p l i e d c h a l l e n g e ) ; b u t i n t h e

c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f t h i s c a s e

, w e a r e u n p e r s u a d e d t h a t t h e c o n d u c t o f s i m p l y f e e d i n g

p e o p l e

- - t h e o n l y c o n d u c t r e g u l a t e d b y t h e O r d i n a n c e

- - i s e x p r e s s i v e f o r F i r s t

A m e n d m e n t p u r p o s e s

.

B

. F r e e E x e r c i s e C l a u s e

T h e C i t y a p p e a l s t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t ’ s c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e O r d i n a n c e

, a s

a p p l i e d t o t h e C h u r c h

, v i o l a t e s t h e F r e e E x e r c i s e C l a u s e

. T h e O r d i n a n c e i s a

n e u t r a l l a w o f g e n e r a l a p p l i c a b i l i t y t h a t s e r v e s a r a t i o n a l b a s i s ; w e c a n n o t a p p r o v e

t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t ’ s c o n c l u s i o n t o t h e c o n t r a r y

.

W e r e v i e w d e n o v o t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t ’ s u l t i m a t e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e

O r d i n a n c e v i o l a t e s t h e F r e e E x e r c i s e C l a u s e

. S e e K i n g v

. R i c h m o n d C o u n t y

, G a

. ,

3 3 1 F

. 3 d 1 2 7 1

, 1 2 7 5 ( 1 1 t h C i r

. 2 0 0 3 )

. “ [ A ] l a w t h a t i s n e u t r a l a n d o f g e n e r a l

a p p l i c a b i l i t y n e e d n o t b e j u s t i f i e d b y a c o m p e l l i n g g o v e r n m e n t a l i n t e r e s t e v e n i f

t h e l a w h a s t h e i n c i d e n t a l e f f e c t o f b u r d e n i n g a p a r t i c u l a r r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e

. ”

14C h u r c h o f t h e L u k u m i B a b a l u A y e

, I n c

. v

. C i t y o f H i a l e a h

, 1 1 3 S

. C t

. 2 2 1 7

, 2 2 2 6

( 1 9 9 3 )

. T h a t t h e O r d i n a n c e i s n e u t r a l a n d g e n e r a l l y a p p l i c a b l e i n i t s r e s t r i c t i o n s o n

f e e d i n g i s u n d i s p u t e d ; t h e O r d i n a n c e t h e r e f o r e n e e d s o n l y t o s u r v i v e r a t i o n a l b a s i s

r e v i e w

. S e e C o m b s v

. H o m e r

- C e n t e r S c h o o l D i s t

. , 5 4 0 F

. 3 d 2 3 1

, 2 4 2

- 4 3 ( 3 d C i r

.

2 0 0 8 )

. U n d e r r a t i o n a l b a s i s r e v i e w

, t h e O r d i n a n c e i s p r e s u m e d c o n s t i t u t i o n a l

.

D e e n v

. E g l e s t o n

, 5 9 7 F

. 3 d 1 2 2 3

, 1 2 3 0

- 3 1 ( 1 1 t h C i r

. 2 0 1 0 )

. T h e b u r d e n i s o n

P l a i n t i f f s t o p r o v e t h a t t h e O r d i n a n c e i s n o t r a t i o n a l l y r e l a t e d t o a l e g i t i m a t e

g o v e r n m e n t i n t e r e s t

. I d

. a t 1 2 3 0

. T h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e O r d i n a n c e

l a c k s a r a t i o n a l b a s i s b e c a u s e “ [ n ] o n e o f t h e l e g i t i m a t e i n t e r e s t s p r o f f e r e d b y t h e

C i t y a r e s e r v e d b y [ t h e ] O r d i n a n c e ” a n d “ t h e O r d i n a n c e d o e s m u c h m o r e t h a n

i n c i d e n t a l l y b u r d e n N i c h o l s ’ c o n g r e g a t i o n

. ” 1 3

T h e C i t y c o n t e n d s t h a t t h e O r d i n a n c e f u r t h e r s i t s l e g i t i m a t e i n t e r e s t i n

i m p r o v e d p r e s e r v a t i o n a n d m a n a g e m e n t o f i t s p a r k s

, i n c l u d i n g d i s t r i b u t i n g a m o n g

p a r k s a n d t h e i r a d

j a c e n t n e i g h b o r h o o d s t h e i m p a c t s o f l a r g e g r o u p f e e d i n g s

. W e

a c c e p t t h a t t h e C i t y ’ s a s s e r t e d i n t e r e s t s a r e l e g i t i m a t e o n e s f o r a m u n i c i p a l i t y

. S e e

C l a r k

, 1 0 4 S

. C t

. a t 3 0 7 0 ( d i s c u s s i n g “ t h e G o v e r n m e n t ' s s u b s t a n t i a l i n t e r e s t i n

The district cour

t appea rs to have be en mistaken a bout the meaning of the wor d 1 3

“incidenta l.” B y

definition, neutral law s of g ener al applica bility do not more than incide ntally

burden a relig ious practice . See 7 Oxford Eng lish Dictionary 794 (2d ed. 1989) (def

ining

incidental as “ [o] ccur

ring or liable to occ ur in fortuitous or subordinate conjunction with

something e lse of which it for ms no essential part; ca sual”); The Random House Dictionar y of

the Eng lish L ang uag e 966 (2d e d. 1987) (de fining incidental as “ happening or likely to happen in

an unplanne d or subordinate conjunction with something e lse”).

15m a i n t a i n i n g t h e p a r k s

. . . i n a n a t t r a c t i v e a n d i n t a c t c o n d i t i o n ” ) ; S c i a r r i n o v

. C i t y

o f K e y W e s t

, F l a

. , 8 3 F

. 3 d 3 6 4

, 3 6 7

- 6 8 ( 1 1 t h C i r

. 1 9 9 6 )

. A l t h o u g h t h e d i s t r i c t

c o u r t d i d n o t e x p o u n d o n i t s c o n c l u s i o n s i n i t s w r i t t e n o r d e r

, t h e r e c o r d r e v e a l s

t h a t t h e c o u r t w a s u n c o n v i n c e d t h a t d i s t r i b u t i n g t h e i m p a c t o f l a r g e g r o u p f e e d i n g s

t o d i f f e r e n t p a r k s r e a l l y a d v a n c e d t h e l e g i t i m a t e i n t e r e s t ; i n s t e a d o f l e s s e n i n g t h e

b u r d e n o n t h e C i t y ’ s p a r k s

, t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t i n d i c a t e d a b e l i e f t h a t t h e C i t y w a s

j u s t m o v i n g t h e p r o b l e m a r o u n d

. A n d t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t s t r e s s e d a l l t h e p o t e n t i a l

p a r k

- u s e p r o b l e m s t h e O r d i n a n c e f a i l e d t o f i x

.

B u t i t i s f

a r f r o m i r r a t i o n a l f

o r t h e C i t y t o c o n c l u d e t h a t a n o v e r a l l r e d u c t i o n

i n t h e w e a r a n d t e a r o f i t s p a r k r e s o u r c e s w i l l r e s u l t f r o m r o t a t i n g t h e p a r k ’ s

f r e q u e n t l a r g e u s e r s a m o n g a l l a v a i l a b l e p a r k s i n t h e D i s t r i c t

. A l t h o u g h m o r e

e f f e c t i v e m e a n s m i g h t b e a v a i l a b l e t o t h e C i t y t o a c c o m p l i s h i t s g o a l o f p a r k

p r e s e r v a t i o n

, i t i s n o t f

o r f e d e r a l c o u r t s t o j u d g e t h e w i s d o m o r e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f a n

o r d i n a n c e o n r a t i o n a l b a s i s r e v i e w ; w e m u s t u p h o l d t h e l a w e v e n i f t h e r e i s a n

“ i m p e r f e c t f i t b e t w e e n m e a n s a n d e n d s

. ” S e e E g l e s t o n

, 5 9 7 F

. 3 d a t 1 2 3 0

- 3 1

.

O t h e r l e g i t i m a t e g r o u n d s m i g h t s u p p o r t a n o r d i n a n c e l i k e t h i s o n e

, b u t j u s t o n e

s u c h g r o u n d w i l l d o

. T h e O r d i n a n c e d o e s n o t f a i l t h e r a t i o n a l b a s i s t e s t

.

C

. F o u r t e e n t h A m e n d m e n t ’ s D u e P r o c e s s C l a u s e / V o i d

- f o r

- v a g u e n e s s

16I n t h e i r c o m p l a i n t

, P l a i n t i f f s r a i s e d b o t h a f

a c i a l a n d a s

- a p p l i e d v a g u e n e s s

c h a l l e n g e

. T h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e O r d i n a n c e w a s n o t v a g u e

, b u t d i d

n o t s p e c i f

y w h e t h e r i t w a s a d d r e s s i n g t h e f a c i a l o r a s

- a p p l i e d c h a l l e n g e

. P l a i n t i f f s

a l s o d o n o t c l e a r l y s p e c i f y w h i c h k i n d o f c h a l l e n g e t h e y a r e p u r s u i n g o n a p p e a l

.

W e r e v i e w d e n o v o t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t ’ s c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e O r d i n a n c e w a s

n o t u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y v a g u e

. U n i t e d S t a t e s v

. D u r a n

, 5 9 6 F

. 3 d 1 2 8 3

, 1 2 9 0 ( 1 1 t h

C i r

. 2 0 1 0 )

. B e c a u s e t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t d e c i d e d t h i s c l a i m o n s u m m a r y j u d g m e n t

, w e

t a k e t h e e v i d e n c e b e f

o r e t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t a t t h a t t i m e i n t h e l i g h t m o s t f a v o r a b l e t o

P l a i n t i f f s

. C h a p m a n v

. A I T r a n s p o r t

, 2 2 9 F

. 3 d 1 0 1 2

, 1 0 2 6

- 2 7 ( 1 1 t h C i r

. 2 0 0 0 ) ( e n

b a n c ) ; S c h w a r z v

. C i t y o f T r e a s u r e I s l a n d

, 5 4 4 F

. 3 d 1 2 0 1

, 1 2 1 1 ( 1 1 t h C i r

. 2 0 0 8 )

.

A l a w i s u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y v a g u e o n l y i f i t “ f a i l s t o p r o v i d e a p e r s o n o f o r d i n a r y

i n t e l l i g e n c e f

a i r n o t i c e o f w h a t i s p r o h i b i t e d

, o r i s s o s t a n d a r d l e s s t h a t i t a u t h o r i z e s

o r e n c o u r a g e s s e r i o u s l y d i s c r i m i n a t o r y e n f o r c e m e n t

. ” U n i t e d S t a t e s v

. W i l l i a m s

,

1 2 8 S

. C t

. 1 8 3 0

, 1 8 4 5 ( 2 0 0 8 )

.

L a n g u a g e h a s l i m i t s a n d p r e c i s i o n i s r a r e l y p o s s i b l e

. A n o r d i n a n c e c a n n o t

b e e x p e c t e d t o a d d r e s s s p e c i f i c a l l y e v e r y s e t o f p o t e n t i a l f a c t s ; a l a w n e e d n o t b e a

b o o k i n l e n g t h

. W h e n p a s s i n g o n t h e v a g u e n e s s o f a l a w

, w e m u s t r e m e m b e r t h a t

,

b e c a u s e w e a r e “ [ c ] o n d e m n e d t o t h e u s e o f w o r d s

, w e c a n n e v e r e x p e c t

m a t h e m a t i c a l c e r t a i n t y f r o m o u r l a n g u a g e

. ” G r a y n e d v

. C i t y o f R o c k f o r d

, 9 2 S

.

17C t

. 2 2 9 4

, 2 3 0 0 ( 1 9 7 2 )

. W i t h t h a t i n m i n d

, w e t u r n f i r s t t o P l a i n t i f

f s ’ a s

- a p p l i e d

c h a l l e n g e

.

T h e O r d i n a n c e m a k e s i t “ u n l a w f u l t o k n o w i n g l y s p o n s o r

, c o n d u c t

, o r

p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o r s e r v i c e o f f o o d a t a l a r g e g r o u p f

e e d i n g a t a p a r k

. ”

A l a r g e g r o u p f

e e d i n g i s d e f

i n e d a s “ a n e v e n t i n t e n d e d t o a t t r a c t

, a t t r a c t i n g

, o r

l i k e l y t o a t t r a c t t w e n t y

- f i v e ( 2 5 ) o r m o r e p e o p l e

. ” P l a i n t i f f s c o n t e n d t h a t a p p l y i n g

t h e O r d i n a n c e t o a n e v e n t t h a t i s “ l i k e l y t o a t t r a c t t w e n t y

- f i v e ( 2 5 ) o r m o r e p e o p l e ”

f a i l s t o g i v e f

a i r n o t i c e a n d e n c o u r a g e s d i s c r i m i n a t o r y e n f o r c e m e n t

. P l a i n t i f

f s

p r o d u c e d s o m e e v i d e n c e t h a t f o r t h e m t o e s t i m a t e h o w m a n y p e o p l e w i l l s h o w u p

a t a f o o d

- s h a r i n g e v e n t i s d i f f i c u l t

.

E v e n i f t h e P l a i n t i f

f s a r e c o r r e c t t h a t t h e “ l i k e l y ” p r o v i s i o n f a i l s t o p r o v i d e

f a i r n o t i c e o n i t s o w n

, t h e p o t e n t i a l v a g u e n e s s

- - i f a n y

- - i s c u r e d b y t h e

O r d i n a n c e ’ s “ k n o w i n g l y ” s c i e n t e r r e q u i r e m e n t

. S e e H i l l v

. C o l o r a d o

, 1 2 0 S

. C t

.

2 4 8 0

, 2 4 9 8 ( 2 0 0 0 ) ; U n i t e d S t a t e s v

. S t a r k s

, 1 5 7 F

. 3 d 8 3 3

, 8 3 9

- 4 0 ( 1 1 t h C i r

. 1 9 9 8 )

.

U n d e r F l o r i d a ’ s r u l e s o f s t a t u t o r y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a p p l i c a b l e t o c r i m i n a l l a w s

, t h e

O r d i n a n c e p r o v i d e s n o l i a b i l i t y f o r a s p o n s o r o r p a r t i c i p a n t t h a t i s s u r p r i s e d i n

g o o d f a i t h a b o u t t h e n u m b e r o f f e e d i n g p a r t i c i p a n t s a t a n e v e n t : a d e f e n d a n t ’ s

k n o w l e d g e t h a t t h e e v e n t i s l i k e l y

- - t h a t i s

, m a y b e r e a s o n a b l y e x p e c t e d t o h a p p e n

- - t o a t t r a c t t w e n t y

- f

i v e o r m o r e p e o p l e i s a n e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t o f t h e o f f e n s e

. S e e

18P o l i t e v

. S t a t e

, 9 7 3 S o

. 2 d 1 1 0 7

, 1 1 1 1

- 1 3 ( F l a

. 2 0 0 7 ) ( i n t e r p r e t i n g a c r i m i n a l l a w

a p p l i c a b l e t o “ [ w ] h o e v e r k n o w i n g l y a n d w i l l f u l l y r e s i s t s

, o b s t r u c t s

, o r o p p o s e s a n y

o f f i c e r ” a n d c o n c l u d i n g t h a t k n o w l e d g e o f t h e o f f i c e r ’ s s t a t u s i s a n e s s e n t i a l

e l e m e n t o f t h e o f

f e n s e )

. P u t d i f

f e r e n t l y

, t h e O r d i n a n c e r e q u i r e s t h e C i t y t o p r o v e t o

t h e p e r t i n e n t f

a c t f i n d e r i n a t r i a l t h a t t h e d e f e n d a n t k n e w t h a t i t w a s p r o b a b l e t h a t

a n e v e n t w o u l d a t t r a c t t w e n t y

- f i v e p e o p l e o r m o r e

. T h a t k n o w l e d g e m a y

s o m e t i m e s b e h a r d f

o r t h e C i t y t o p r o v e

, b u t t h a t d i f f i c u l t y d o e s n o t m a k e t h e

O r d i n a n c e u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y v a g u e

.

P l a i n t i f f s c o n t e n d t h a t t w o o t h e r p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e O r d i n a n c e e n c o u r a g e

, a n d

h a v e r e s u l t e d i n

, a r b i t r a r y a n d d i s c r i m i n a t o r y e n f o r c e m e n t

. T h e i r f

i r s t o b j e c t i o n i s

t o a p p l y i n g t h e O r d i n a n c e t o t h e p a r k ’ s “ a d j a c e n t s i d e w a l k s a n d r i g h t s

- o f

- w a y

. ” I n

t h e i r c o m p l a i n t

, P l a i n t i f f s a l l e g e d t h a t t h e y c o n d u c t e d f e e d i n g s i n a r e a s c l o s e t o

,

b u t n o t a d

j a c e n t t o

, p a r k s o n a t l e a s t s i x o c c a s i o n s

. P l a i n t i f f s p r o d u c e d s o m e

e v i d e n c e t h a t o n o n e o f t h e s e o c c a s i o n s

, w h e n t h e y w e r e s e r v i n g f o o d f r o m a

p a r k i n g s p a c e a p p r o x i m a t e l y o n e b l o c k a w a y f r o m L a k e E o l a P a r k

, a p o l i c e o f f i c e r

i n f o r m e d t h e m t h a t t h e y w e r e i n v i o l a t i o n o f t h e O r d i n a n c e b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e

“ a d j a c e n t ” t o t h e p a r k

.

I n m o s t c a s e s

, t h e p l a i n m e a n i n g o f t h e w o r d “ a d j a c e n t ” l e a v e s n o d o u b t

a b o u t w h i c h a r e a s a r e c o v e r e d b y t h e O r d i n a n c e

. S e e 1 O x f o r d E n g l i s h D i c t i o n a r y

191 5 5 ( 2 d e d

. 1 9 8 9 ) ( d e f i n i n g a d j a c e n t a s “ [ l ] y i n g n e a r o r c l o s e ( t o ) ; a d j o i n i n g ;

c o n t i g u o u s

, b o r d e r i n g ” ) ; T h e R a n d o m H o u s e D i c t i o n a r y o f t h e E n g l i s h L a n g u a g e

2 5 ( 2 d e d

. 1 9 8 7 ) ( d e f

i n i n g a d j a c e n t a s “ l y i n g n e a r

, c l o s e

, o r c o n t i g u o u s ; a d j o i n i n g ;

n e i g h b o r i n g ” )

. W e s u p p o s e t h a t

, i n a s i t u a t i o n l i k e t h e o n e d e s c r i b e d b y P l a i n t i f f s

,

i t m i g h t b e d e b a t a b l e w h e t h e r a n a r e a o n e b l o c k a w a y f r o m a p a r k i s “ a d

j a c e n t ” t o

t h e p a r k ( a l t h o u g h w e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r t h e O r d i n a n c e g o e s s o f a r )

. B u t t h a t a

p o l i c e o f f i c e r m a y h a v e s o m e d i f

f i c u l t y a p p l y i n g t h e O r d i n a n c e o n t h e m a r g i n s

d o e s n o t n e a r l y e s t a b l i s h t h a t t h e O r d i n a n c e d e l e g a t e s t o t h e o f f i c e r s “ a v i r t u a l l y

u n r e s t r a i n e d p o w e r t o a r r e s t a n d c h a r g e p e r s o n s w i t h a v i o l a t i o n

. ” K o l e n d e r v

.

L a w s o n

, 1 0 3 S

. C t

. 1 8 5 5

, 1 8 6 0 ( 1 9 8 3 ) ( q u o t i n g L e w i s v

. C i t y o f N e w O r l e a n s

, 9 4

S

. C t

. 9 7 0

, 9 7 3 ( 1 9 7 4 ) ( P o w e l l

, J

. , c o n c u r r i n g ) )

. A n o r d i n a n c e ’ s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i t y

d o e s n o t h a n g o n w h e t h e r e v e r y p o l i c e o f f i c e r w o u l d u n d e r s t a n d t h e o r d i n a n c e i n

t h e s a m e w a y i n e v e r y c o n c e i v a b l e f a c t u a l c i r c u m s t a n c e

. A b s o l u t e c l a r i t y i s t o o

m u c h t o e x p e c t f

r o m t h e d r a f

t e r s o f l a w s

, a n d p e r f

e c t k n o w l e d g e o f t h e f

u l l e s t

r e a c h o f t h e l a w s i s t o o m u c h t o e x p e c t o f e v e n t h e m o s t r e a s o n a b l e p o l i c e o f f i c e r s

.

T h e t e r m a d

j a c e n t p r o v i d e s a s u f

f i c i e n t l y c l e a r a n d d e f

i n i t e s t a n d a r d t o p o l i c e

o f f i c e r s a n d p r o s e c u t o r s

. S e e G r a y n e d v

. C i t y o f R o c k f o r d

, 9 2 S

. C t

. 2 2 9 4

, 2 3 0 0

-

0 1 ( 1 9 7 2 ) ( “ a d

j a c e n t ” t o s c h o o l n o t i m p e r m i s s i b l y v a g u e ) ; C o x v

. L o u i s i a n a

, 8 5 S

.

C t

. 4 7 6

, 4 8 2

- 4 8 3 ( 1 9 6 5 ) ( “ n e a r ” t h e c o u r t h o u s e n o t i m p e r m i s s i b l y v a g u e )

.

20P l a i n t i f f s s e c o n d o b

j e c t i o n

- - a l s o a n e c d o t a l l y b a s e d

- - m u s t s u f f e r a s i m i l a r

f a t e

. P l a i n t i f

f s p r o d u c e d s o m e e v i d e n c e t h a t

, o n a t l e a s t o n e o c c a s i o n

, p o l i c e

s e e m e d t o o p e r a t e w i t h t h e v i e w t h a t t h e O r d i n a n c e w a s i n a p p l i c a b l e i f t h e r e w a s a

u n i q u e s p o n s o r f

o r e v e r y t w e n t y

- f

i v e p e o p l e p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n a n e v e n t

. T h e C i t y

d i d n o t o p e r a t e u n d e r t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

, h o w e v e r

, w h e n i t l a t e r a r r e s t e d P l a i n t i f f

M o n t a n e z f

o r n o n c o m p l i a n c e w i t h t h e O r d i n a n c e

. T h e O r d i n a n c e m a k e s i t 1 4

u n l a w f u l t o “ s p o n s o r

, c o n d u c t

, o r p a r t i c i p a t e ” i n a l a r g e g r o u p f e e d i n g w i t h o u t a

p e r m i t ; a n d i t d e f

i n e s a l a r g e g r o u p f

e e d i n g a s a n e v e n t a t t r a c t i n g t w e n t y

- f i v e o r

m o r e p e o p l e

. U n d e r t h e p l a i n l a n g u a g e o f t h e O r d i n a n c e

, t h e r e f o r e

, t h e n u m b e r o f

s p o n s o r s p e r e v e n t i s n o t i m p o r t a n t

. B r i e f l y s t a t e d

, a s l o n g a s a s p o n s o r c o n d u c t s a

s e p a r a t e e v e n t a n d f

e w e r t h a n t w e n t y

- f

i v e p e o p l e p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h a t p a r t i c u l a r

f e e d i n g e v e n t

, t h e O r d i n a n c e i s n o t t r i g g e r e d

. T h e p l a i n l a n g u a g e o f t h e O r d i n a n c e

d o e s n o t p r o h i b i t m o r e t h a n o n e e v e n t f r o m o c c u r r i n g a t t h e s a m e t i m e i n a p a r k

.

F o r u s

, t h i s p o i n t i s t h e i m p o r t a n t o n e a b o u t t h e s e h i s t o r i c

- f a c t

- b a s e d

a r g u m e n t s : t h a t a n o r d i n a n c e m a y h a v e b e e n o c c a s i o n a l l y m i s i n t e r p r e t e d o r

m i s u n d e r s t o o d b y a f

e w p o l i c e o f

f i c e r s o r t h a t d i f

f e r e n t o f f i c e r s h a d d i f

f e r e n t

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s d o e s n o t r e n d e r t h e o r d i n a n c e u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y v a g u e

. L a w s a r e

n o t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y i n f

i r m s i m p l y b e c a u s e a p a r t i c u l a r p o l i c e o f f i c e r ’ s s u b

j e c t i v e

Plaintiff Montanez was ac quitted at trial. 1 4

21o p i n i o n a b o u t t h e l a w t u r n s o u t t o b e i n c o r r e c t

. S e e J o e l v

. C i t y o f O r l a n d o

, 2 3 2

F

. 3 d 1 3 5 3

, 1 3 6 0 ( 1 1 t h C i r

. 2 0 0 0 ) ( “ W e d o n o t f i n d t h e e v i d e n c e w h i c h J o e l

s u b m i t t e d i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e o r d i n a n c e i s s u b j e c t t o v a r y i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s b y C i t y

p o l i c e o f f i c e r s p r o b l e m a t i c

. ” ) ; S t a t e v

. R a f f i e l d

, 5 1 5 S o

. 2 d 2 8 3

, 2 8 5 ( F l a

. 1 s t D i s t

.

C t

. A p p

. 1 9 8 7 ) ( “ I f t h e s t a t u t o r y l a n g u a g e i s s u f f i c i e n t l y c l e a r

, t h e f

a c t t h a t o f

f i c i a l s

p l a c e d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o n t h e s t a t u t e d o e s n o t m a k e t h e s t a t u t e v o i d f o r

v a g u e n e s s

. ” )

.

H e r e

, w e s u p p o s e t h a t i n s o m e c a s e s i t m a y b e

, i n f a c t

, d i f f i c u l t f o r

e n f o r c e m e n t o f

f i c e r s t o d i s t i n g u i s h m u l t i p l e s p o n s o r s h o l d i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s

d i f f e r e n t f e e d i n g e v e n t s f

r o m a s i n g l e l a r g e r e v e n t w i t h m u l t i p l e s p o n s o r s : t w o

d i f f e r e n t s e t s o f f

a c t u a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s w i t h d i f f e r e n t l e g a l c o n s e q u e n c e s

. “ T h e

p r o b l e m t h a t [ c i r c u m s t a n c e ] p o s e s i s a d d r e s s e d

, n o t b y t h e d o c t r i n e o f v a g u e n e s s

,

b u t b y t h e r e q u i r e m e n t o f p r o o f b e y o n d a r e a s o n a b l e d o u b t

. ” W i l l i a m s

, 1 2 8 S

. C t

.

a t 1 8 4 6

. “ W h a t r e n d e r s a s t a t u t e v a g u e i s n o t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t i t w i l l s o m e t i m e s

b e d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e i n c r i m i n a t i n g f a c t i t e s t a b l i s h e s h a s b e e n

p r o v e d ; b u t r a t h e r t h e i n d e t e r m i n a c y o f p r e c i s e l y w h a t t h a t f a c t i s

. ” I d

. W h e t h e r a

s p o n s o r ’ s e v e n t h a d t h e r e q u i s i t e n u m b e r o f p a r t i c i p a n t s a t i t s e v e n t t o t r i g g e r t h e

O r d i n a n c e i s a p u r e q u e s t i o n o f f a c t f o r a g i v e n c a s e

, w e l l w i t h i n t h e c o m p e t e n c y

o f f i n d e r s o f f

a c t a t t r i a l

. S e e i d

.

22W e t h e r e f o r e c o n c l u d e t h a t P l a i n t i f f s h a v e f a i l e d t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e

O r d i n a n c e i s v a g u e a s a p p l i e d t o t h e m

. A b o u t t h e f a c i a l c h a l l e n g e

, t h o s e k i n d s o f

c h a l l e n g e s a r e d i s f

a v o r e d ; t h e g e n e r a l r u l e i s t h a t t h e y a r e w i t h o u t m e r i t u n l e s s a

p l a i n t i f f c a n d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e l a w i s u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y v a g u e i n a l l o f i t s

a p p l i c a t i o n s

, V i l l a g e o f H o f f m a n E s t a t e s

, 1 0 2 S

. C t

. a t 1 1 9 1

, o r t h a t t h e l a w

r e g u l a t e s a s u b s t a n t i a l a m o u n t o f c o n d u c t p r o t e c t e d b y t h e F i r s t A m e n d m e n t

,

W i l l i a m s

, 1 2 8 S

. C t

. a t 1 8 4 5

. S e e a l s o D u r a n

, 5 9 6 F

. 3 d a t 1 2 9 0

. W e h a v e a l r e a d y

c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e l a w i s c a p a b l e o f a t l e a s t o n e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a p p l i c a t i o n b e c a u s e

w e h a v e d e t e r m i n e d t h a t i t i s n o t u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y v a g u e a s a p p l i e d t o P l a i n t i f f s

.

W e h a v e l i k e w i s e a l r e a d y c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e O r d i n a n c e d o e s n o t i n f r i n g e

P l a i n t i f f s ’ F i r s t A m e n d m e n t r i g h t s

. T h e O r d i n a n c e

, o n i t s f a c e

, d o e s n o t r e g u l a t e a

s u b s t a n t i a l a m o u n t o f c o n d u c t p r o t e c t e d b y t h e F i r s t A m e n d m e n t

. P l a i n t i f f s ’ 1 5

This case is differe nt from Konikov, re lied upon by Plaintiffs. Konikov involved a 1 5

fac ial vag ueness c halleng e to a zoning or dinance that, on its face , implicated the cor e of the First

Amendment by

requiring a spec ial use per mit to operate a

“re ligious org anization” in a

residential zone. 410 F .3d at 1320. Despite dire ctly reg ulating c onstitut ionally protec ted

relig ious conduct, it was uncle ar to whom the or dinance applied bec ause the ordinanc e provide d

no definition of “r elig ious org anization. ” I d. at 1325, 1329-30. The re, the plaintiff produc ed

evidenc e that two member s of the depa rtment responsible f

or enf orcing the zoning ordina

nce -

-

one of w hom was the de partment’s ma nag er - - diffe red in their vie w about how many times a

relig ious gr oup would need to mee t in a wee k to trigg er the ordinanc e’s a pplicability . I d. at

1330-31. B eca

use of the c ore F irst Amendment values implicate d by that case , we c oncluded

that the plaintiff’s c laim showing tha t the ordinanc e ca rried a risk of discriminatory

enfor ceme nt

should survive summary

judgme nt. I d. at 1330-31. This ca se does not dire ctly involve the

same sort of c ore F irst Amendment conc erns; so we should not conduct the same sor t of

sear ching fac ial revie w. Konikov does not -- and pra ctically could not -- stand f

or the

proposition that laws are unconstitutional wheneve r enf orce ment office rs g et conf used or

disag ree about the pre cise fa ctual scope of the law

.

23f

a c i a l c h a l l e n g e m u s t f

a i l

.

D

. E q u a l P r o t e c t i o n C l a u s e

T h e C h u r c h a p p e a l s t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t ’ s d e t e r m i n a t i o n o n s u m m a r y j u d g m e n t

t h a t t h e O r d i n a n c e d o e s n o t v i o l a t e t h e E q u a l P r o t e c t i o n C l a u s e b y e x e m p t i n g f r o m

t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f “ L a r g e G r o u p F e e d i n g ” t h e “ a c t i v i t i e s o f C i t y l i c e n s e d o r

c o n t r a c t e d c o n c e s s i o n a i r e s

, l e s s e e s

, o r l i c e n s e e s

. ” W e r e v i e w d e n o v o t h e d i s t r i c t

c o u r t ’ s d e c i s i o n

. S e e U n i t e d S t a t e s v

. J o h n s

, 9 8 4 F

. 2 d 1 1 6 2

, 1 1 6 3 ( 1 1 t h C i r

.

1 9 9 3 )

. “ T h e E q u a l P r o t e c t i o n C l a u s e r e q u i r e s t h e g o v e r n m e n t t o t r e a t s i m i l a r l y

s i t u a t e d p e r s o n s i n a s i m i l a r m a n n e r

. ” L e i b v

. H i l l s b o r o u g h C o u n t y P u b

. T r a n s p

.

C o m m ’ n

, 5 5 8 F

. 3 d 1 3 0 1

, 1 3 0 5 ( 1 1 t h C i r

. 2 0 0 9 )

.

A s t h e C h u r c h n o t e s i n i t s b r i e f

, b e c a u s e t h e d i s t i n c t i o n d r a w n b y t h e l a w

( t h o s e w i t h C i t y l i c e n s e s o r c o n t r a c t s

, a n d t h o s e w i t h o u t t h e m ) d o e s n o t i n v o l v e a

s u s p e c t c l a s s i f

i c a t i o n

, t h e r a t i o n a l b a s i s t e s t a p p l i e s

. I d

. a t 1 3 0 6

. E v e n i f w e a c c e p t

f o r t h e s a k e o f d i s c u s s i o n t h a t t h e e x e m p t e d v e n d o r s a n d t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c a r e

o t h e r w i s e s i m i l a r l y s i t u a t e d

, a r a t i o n a l b a s i s e x i s t s f o r d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n t h e

t w o c l a s s e s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e C i t y ’ s a s s e r t e d i n t e r e s t s : t h e C i t y c o u l d r a t i o n a l l y

c o n c l u d e t h a t i t c a n m o r e e f f e c t i v e l y r e g u l a t e t h e v e n d o r s ’ c o n d u c t i n p a r k s

24d i r e c t l y t h r o u g h t h e c o n t r a c t s o r l i c e n s e s

. T h e v e n d o r e x e m p t i o n d o e s n o t v i o l a t e

t h e E q u a l P r o t e c t i o n C l a u s e

.

E

. F l o r i d a R e l i g i o u s F r e e d o m R e s t o r a t i o n A c t

T h e C h u r c h a p p e a l s t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t ’ s c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e O r d i n a n c e d o e s

n o t v i o l a t e s t a t e l a w : t h e F R F R A

. T h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t d e t e r m i n e d t h a t t h e C h u r c h

s h a r e s f o o d d u r i n g r e l i g i o u s s e r v i c e s p u r s u a n t t o a s i n c e r e l y h e l d r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f

,

b u t c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e O r d i n a n c e d o e s n o t s u b s t a n t i a l l y b u r d e n t h e C h u r c h ’ s

e x e r c i s e o f t h a t p r a c t i c e

. W e a g r e e w i t h t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t t h a t t h e O r d i n a n c e

i m p o s e s n o s u b s t a n t i a l b u r d e n o n t h e C h u r c h

.

W e r e v i e w t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t ’ s f a c t u a l f i n d i n g s f o r c l e a r e r r o r

, M i t c h e l l v

.

H i l l s b o r o u g h C o u n t y

, 4 6 8 F

. 3 d 1 2 7 6

, 1 2 8 2 ( 1 1 t h C i r

. 2 0 0 6 ) ; b u t w e r e v i e w d e

n o v o i t s u l t i m a t e c o n c l u s i o n a b o u t w h e t h e r t h e O r d i n a n c e v i o l a t e s t h e F R F R A

, s e e

L a w s o n v

. S i n g l e t a r y

, 8 5 F

. 3 d 5 0 2

, 5 1 1

- 1 2 ( 1 1 t h C i r

. 1 9 9 6 ) ( d i s c u s s i n g t h e

s t a n d a r d o f r e v i e w a p p l i c a b l e u n d e r a s i m i l a r f e d e r a l s t a t u t e )

.

“ T h e p r o t e c t i o n a f

f o r d e d t o t h e f

r e e e x e r c i s e o f r e l i g i o u s l y m o t i v a t e d

a c t i v i t y u n d e r t h e F R F R A i s b r o a d e r t h a n t h a t a f f o r d e d b y ” t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s

C o n s t i t u t i o n

. W a r n e r v

. C i t y o f B o c a R a t o n

, 8 8 7 S o

. 2 d 1 0 2 3

, 1 0 3 2 ( 2 0 0 4 )

. U n d e r

25t h e F R F R A

, a n e u t r a l l a w o f g e n e r a l a p p l i c a b i l i t y m u s t s a t i s f y s t r i c t s c r u t i n y w h e n

i t “ s u b s t a n t i a l l y b u r d e n [ s ] a p e r s o n ’ s e x e r c i s e o f r e l i g i o n

. ” I d

. A n “ e x e r c i s e o f

r e l i g i o n ” i s “ a n a c t o r r e f u s a l t o a c t t h a t i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y m o t i v a t e d b y a r e l i g i o u s

b e l i e f

, w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e r e l i g i o u s e x e r c i s e i s c o m p u l s o r y o r c e n t r a l t o a l a r g e r

s y s t e m o f r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f

. ” I d

. A b u r d e n o n r e l i g i o u s e x e r c i s e i s o n l y s u b s t a n t i a l

i f a p e r s o n i s p r o h i b i t e d f r o m e n g a g i n g i n p r o t e c t e d r e l i g i o u s c o n d u c t ( o r

, i f t h e

e x e r c i s e o f r e l i g i o n i s a r e f u s a l t o a c t

, t h e p e r s o n i s c o m p e l l e d t o a c t )

. S e e i d

. a t

1 0 3 3

. L a w s t h a t m e r e l y i n c o n v e n i e n c e t h e e x e r c i s e o f r e l i g i o n d o n o t c r e a t e a

s u b s t a n t i a l b u r d e n

. S e e i d

. a t 1 0 3 5

. T h e p a r t y c l a i m i n g a v i o l a t i o n o f t h e F R F R A

“ b e a r s t h e i n i t i a l b u r d e n o f s h o w i n g t h a t a r e g u l a t i o n c o n s t i t u t e s a s u b s t a n t i a l

b u r d e n o n h i s o r h e r e x e r c i s e o f r e l i g i o n

. ” I d

. a t 1 0 3 4

.

T h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t d e t e r m i n e d t h a t

, t o c o m p l y w i t h t h e O r d i n a n c e

, t h e C h u r c h

w o u l d n e e d t o l i m i t i t s s e r v i c e s t o t w i c e p e r y e a r

, o r r o t a t e t h e s e r v i c e s a m o n g

p a r k s i n t h e D i s t r i c t

, o r m o v e t h e s e r v i c e s t o a p a r k o u t s i d e o f t h e D i s t r i c t

. 1 6

A l t h o u g h t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t ’ s o r d e r i s n o t e n t i r e l y c l e a r t o u s

, t h e c o u r t a p p e a r e d t o

f o c u s o n t h e f

e a s i b i l i t y o f t h e C h u r c h r o t a t i n g i t s s e r v i c e s a m o n g p a r k s w i t h i n t h e

At trial, the City

contende d that the Church c ould also serve food at Sy lvia L ane, a site 1 6

(appa rently a conve rted pa

rking lot with portable bathrooms) se t aside within the District at

which the r estrictions of the Or dinance do not apply . The district cour t determined tha t this

location was unsuitable. We ne ed not and do not dete rmine whe ther the district c ourt’s

assessment of Sy lvia L ane w as cor rec t.

26D i s t r i c t w h e n d e c i d i n g t h a t t h e O r d i n a n c e i m p o s e d n o s u b s t a n t i a l b u r d e n

. T h e

C h u r c h a r g u e d ( a n d p r o d u c e d s o m e e v i d e n c e ) t h a t

, i f t h e s e r v i c e s h a d t o b e m o v e d

,

i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t s o m e h o m e l e s s m e m b e r s o f t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n w o u l d h a v e

d i f f i c u l t y l e a r n i n g o f a n d t r a v e l i n g t o t h e n e w l o c a t i o n

. B u t t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t f o u n d

t h a t t h e e v i d e n c e a t t r i a l e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t : ( 1 ) c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h t h e h o m e l e s s i s

p o s s i b l e ( b y w o r d

- o f

- m o u t h ) ; a n d ( 2 ) t h a t t h e h o m e l e s s h a v e m e a n s o f

t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a v a i l a b l e ( b u s s e r v i c e o r w a l k i n g )

. T h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t c o n s i d e r e d t h e

b u r d e n o n t h e C h u r c h a n d i t s m e m b e r s “ s i g n i f i c a n t

, ” b u t n o t “ s u b s t a n t i a l

. ” O n

a p p e a l

, t h e C h u r c h c o n t e n d s t h a t t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t ’ s f a c t u a l f i n d i n g s a b o u t t h e

f e a s a b i l i t y o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a r e c l e a r l y

e r r o n e o u s i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e r e c o r d

.

E v e n i f t h e C h u r c h i s c o r r e c t ( w h i c h w e d o u b t ) t h a t t h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t ’ s t w o

f a c t u a l f i n d i n g s a r e c l e a r l y e r r o n e o u s

, w e w o u l d s t i l l c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e C h u r c h h a s

n o t c a r r i e d i t s b u r d e n u n d e r t h e F R F R A : t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e C h u r c h t o r o t a t e i t s

s e r v i c e s a m o n g t h e D i s t r i c t p a r k s i s o n l y m i n i m a l l y p e r t i n e n t t o t h e O r d i n a n c e ’ s

v a l i d i t y

. T h e F R F R A d o e s n o t p r o v i d e t h e C h u r c h w i t h a r i g h t t o c o n d u c t i t s

s e r v i c e s a t a n y l o c a t i o n i t d e s i r e s ; i t d o e s n o t g u a r a n t e e a c c e s s t o t h e C i t y ’ s m o s t

d e s i r a b l e p a r k ( o r

, f

o r t h a t m a t t e r

, a n y p a r k a t a l l )

. A t m o s t

, w h a t t h e F R F R A 1 7

The Churc h seems to ac knowledg e this principle. The Church make s the following two 1 7

conce ssions in i ts appellate br ief: (1) “Althoug h the fa cilities at L ang ford Par k suit the needs of

27d o e s i s e n s u r e t h a t t h e C i t y m a y n o t

, w i t h o u t a c o m p e l l i n g i n t e r e s t

, a f f i r m a t i v e l y

f o r b i d t h e C h u r c h f

r o m f e e d i n g i t s m e m b e r s a s p a r t o f i t s r e l i g i o u s s e r v i c e s

. 1 8

W e a s s u m e o n l y f

o r t h e s a k e o f a r g u m e n t t h a t a c o n g r e g a t i o n o f i n d i g e n t s

m i g h t p r e s e n t a u n i q u e p r o b l e m u n d e r t h e F R F R A b e c a u s e

, i f n o p u b l i c s p a c e i s

a v a i l a b l e t o c o n d u c t r e l i g i o u s s e r v i c e s

, a l a w m a y h a v e t h e r e s u l t

, i n f a c t

, o f

p r o h i b i t i n g t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n ’ s r e l i g i o u s e x e r c i s e

. B u t

, i n s u c h a c i r c u m s t a n c e

, t h e

F R F R A a t m o s t m i g h t r e q u i r e t h e C i t y t o p r o v i d e s o m e a l t e r n a t i v e p u b l i c p l a c e

w h e r e r e l i g i o u s l y m o t i v a t e d f e e d i n g c a n o c c u r t h a t i s “ m i n i m a l l y s u i t a b l e ” t o t h a t

f u n c t i o n

. S e e A b b o t t v

. C i t y o f F o r t L a u d e r d a l e

, 7 8 3 S o

. 2 d 1 2 1 3

, 1 2 1 4

- 1 5 ( F l a

.

4 t h D i s t

. C t

. A p p

. 2 0 0 1 ) ( c o n c l u d i n g t h a t t h e t r i a l j u d g e

, a f t e r d e t e r m i n i n g t h a t a

p a r k r u l e t h a t p r o h i b i t e d f e e d i n g t h e h o m e l e s s v i o l a t e d t h e F R F R A a n d o r d e r i n g

t h e c i t y t o p r o v i d e a n a l t e r n a t i v e s p a c e o n p u b l i c p r o p e r t y w h e r e t h e f e e d i n g c o u l d

o c c u r

, h a d t h e a u t h o r i t y t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s p a c e w a s “ m i n i m a l l y

s u i t a b l e f o r t h e p u r p o s e s i n t e n d e d ” )

. T h e r e c o r d i n t h i s c a s e r e v e a l s t h a t s e v e r a l

p a r k s o u t s i d e o f t h e D i s t r i c t

- - w h e r e t h e O r d i n a n c e i s i n a p p l i c a b l e

- - c o n t a i n

FVCG a nd Nichols well, they

do not contend that by

using a nother pa rk with few er a

menities

they would, by

definition, be subjecte d to a substantial burden w ithin the meaning of the

FRF RA”; (2) “ FVCG a

nd Nichols are not claiming tha t the City must buil d new f

acilities at its

parks to ac commodate their relig ious worship.”

The Churc h does not contend tha t L ang ford Par k is of particula

r re ligious sig nificanc e. 1 8

28a m e n i t i e s t h a t m a k e t h o s e p a r k s a t l e a s t m i n i m a l l y s u i t a b l e f o r f e e d i n g

. 1 9

C o n d u c t i n g s e r v i c e s a t o n e f i x e d l o c a t i o n o u t s i d e o f t h e D i s t r i c t s h o u l d

a l l e v i a t e t h e C h u r c h ’ s c o n c e r n a b o u t t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n d i f f i c u l t i e s a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h i n f o r m i n g i t s i n d i g e n t m e m b e r s o f f r e q u e n t l o c a t i o n c h a n g e s

. A n d w h i l e u s i n g

o n e o f t h e n e a r b y p a r k s o u t s i d e t h e D i s t r i c t m i g h t r e s u l t i n s o m e e x t r a t r a n s i t t i m e

f o r t h e C h u r c h ’ s m e m b e r s ( i n c l u d i n g r e q u i r i n g e x t r a w a l k i n g i f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n i s

, i n

f a c t

, u n a v a i l a b l e )

, w e h a v e e a r l i e r s a i d t h a t n e e d i n g t o t r a v e l s o m e e x t r a d i s t a n c e i s

i n s u f f i c i e n t t o e s t a b l i s h a s u b s t a n t i a l b u r d e n

. T h e r e c o r d s h o w s t h a t s e v e r a l 2 0

o t h e r s p a r k s a r e c l o s e t o L a n g f o r d P a r k

. T h e C h u r c h d o e s n o t c o n t e n d

, n o r d i d t h e

Fr om the rec ord, we conclude that it is an undisputed fact that pa rks exist outside the 1 9

District that are , at least, minimally suited for food se rvice . And we c an infe r that fa ctual finding

from the r ecor d beca

use it is consistent with the dist rict cour t’s FRF RA decision. See United

States v. Robertson, 493 F.3d 1322, 1334- 35 (11th Cir. 2007). Orla ndo’s Dire ctor of F amilies,

Parks and Rec rea

tion, gave testimony

about the ame nities available a t various par ks in Orlando -

- both inside and outside the District. Plaintiffs did not attempt to rebut, and the district c ourt

appea rs to have r elied on, that par t of the Dire ctor’s te stimony

.

I n Midrash Sephar di, I nc. v. Town of Surfside, 366 F .3d 1214, 1218-19 (11th Cir. 2 0

2004), we addre ssed a c halleng e by two sy nag og ues to a zoning or dinance under the Religious

L and Use and I nstitut ionalized Persons Act (“RL UI PA”). RL UI PA and FRF RA use equivale nt

“substantial burde n” standa rds. See Westg ate Ta

berna cle, I nc. v. Palm Be ach County , 14 So. 3d

1027, 1031 (F la. 4th Dist. Ct. App. 2009). I n Midrash, the c halleng ed ordina nce e stablished

eig ht zoni ng districts, but permitted churc hes and sy nag og ues in only

one (a nd even the n, only

if

the chur ch or sy

nag og ue obtained a

conditional use per

mit). 366 F.3d at 1219. B eca use the

members of

the sy nag og ues adhe red stric tly to Orthodox J udaism, they wer e unable to use ca

rs

or others me ans of tra

nsportation during the Sabbath. I d. at 1221. We reje cted the sy nag og ues’

claim that forc ing the m to locate in the per missibl e district would substantially burden the ir

members, e ven thoug h the extra distance mig ht mean that “c ong reg ants who ar e ill, y oung or

very old” would be una

ble to attend ser

vices. I d. at 1227-28. We re ache d this result even

though the sy

nag og ues sug g ested “ that the sig nificant de cre ase in a ttendance would require them

to cea se oper ations altog ether .” I d. at 1227.

29d i s t r i c t c o u r t f i n d

, t h a t t h e s e p a r k s a r e n o t a t l e a s t m i n i m a l l y s u i t a b l e f o r t h e

C h u r c h ’ s s e r v i c e s

.

T h e O r d i n a n c e d o e s n o t f o r b i d t h e C h u r c h a n d i t s m e m b e r s f r o m e n g a g i n g

i n t h e i r r e l i g i o u s e x e r c i s e ; a t m o s t

, t h e O r d i n a n c e i m p o s e s s o m e i n c o n v e n i e n c e b y

r e q u i r i n g r e l o c a t i o n o u t s i d e t h e D i s t r i c t

. T h e d i s t r i c t c o u r t w a s t h e r e f o r e c o r r e c t t o

c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e O r d i n a n c e i m p o s e s n o s u b s t a n t i a l b u r d e n

, w i t h i n t h e m e a n i n g o f

t h e F R F R A

, o n t h e C h u r c h

.

I I I

. C O N C L U S I O N

T h e O r d i n a n c e i s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l

, p a r t i c u l a r l y a s a p p l i e d t o b o t h O F N B a n d

t h e C h u r c h

. T h e O r d i n a n c e a l s o d o e s n o t v i o l a t e t h e F R F R A a s a p p l i e d t o t h e

C h u r c h

. B e c a u s e t h e O r d i n a n c e i s e n f o r c e a b l e

, t h e p e r m a n e n t i n j u n c t i o n a g a i n s t

i t s e n f o r c e m e n t m u s t b e v a c a t e d

.

A F F I R M E D I N P A R T

, R E V E R S E D I N P A R T

, I N J U N C T I O N V A C A T E D

.

30A P P E N D I X

S e c

. 1 8 A

. 0 1

. D e f

i n i t i o n s

.

T h e f o l l o w i n g t e r m s

, w h e n u s e d i n t h i s C h a p t e r s h a l l h a v e t h e m e a n i n g s

r e s p e c t i v e l y a s c r i b e d t o t h e m i n t h i s s e c t i o n :

. . .

( 2 3 ) L a r g e G r o u p F e e d i n g i s d e f

i n e d a s a n e v e n t i n t e n d e d t o a t t r a c t

, a t t r a c t i n g

, o r

l i k e l y t o a t t r a c t t w e n t y

- f i v e ( 2 5 ) o r m o r e p e o p l e

, i n c l u d i n g d i s t r i b u t o r s a n d s e r v e r s

, i n a p a r k o r p a r k f

a c i l i t y o w n e d o r c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e C i t y

, i n c l u d i n g a d j a c e n t

s i d e w a l k s a n d r i g h t s

- o f

- w a y i n t h e G D P D

, f

o r t h e d e l i v e r y o r s e r v i c e o f g o o d

.

E x c l u d e d f

r o m t h i s d e f

i n i t i o n a r e a c t i v i t i e s o f C i t y l i c e n s e d o r c o n t r a c t e d

c o n c e s s i o n a i r e s

, l e s s e e s

, o r l i c e n s e e s

.

( 2 4 ) G r e a t e r O r l a n d o P a r k D i s t r i c t ( G D P D ) i s d e f i n e d a s a n a r e a w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s

o f t h e C i t y o f O r l a n d o

, F l o r i d a

, e x t e n d i n g o u t a t w o ( 2 ) m i l e r a d i u s i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s

f r o m C i t y H a l l a n d i n c l u d i n g a l l o f t h e p a r k s a n d p a r k f a c i l i t i e s o w n e d o r

c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e C i t y t o u c h e d b y t h a t r a d i u s

, i n t h e i r e n t i r e t y

.

S e c

. 1 8 A

. 0 9

- 2

. L a r g e G r o u p F e e d i n g i n P a r k s a n d P a r k F a c i l i t i e s O w n e d o r

C o n t r o l l e d b y t h e C i t y i n t h e G r e a t e r D o w n t o w n P a r k D i s t r i c t ( G D P D )

.

E x c e p t f o r a c t i v i t i e s o f a g o v e r n m e n t a l a g e n c y w i t h i n t h e s c o p e o f i t s

g o v e r n m e n t a l a u t h o r i t y

, o r u n l e s s s p e c i f i c a l l y p e r m i t t e d t o d o s o b y a p e r m i t o r

a p p r o v a l i s s u e d p u r s u a n t t o t h i s C h a p t e r o r b y C i t y C o u n c i l :

( a ) I t i s u n l a w f

u l t o k n o w i n g l y s p o n s o r

, c o n d u c t

, o r p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n

o r s e r v i c e o f f

o o d a t a l a r g e g r o u p f

e e d i n g a t a p a r k o r p a r k f a c i l i t y o w n e d o r

c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e C i t y o f O r l a n d o w i t h i n t h e b o u n d a r y o f t h e G r e a t e r D o w n t o w n

P a r k D i s t r i c t w i t h o u t a L a r g e G r o u p F e e d i n g P e r m i t i s s u e d b y t h e C i t y D i r e c t o r o f

F a m i l i e s

, P a r k s a n d R e c r e a t i o n o r h i s / h e r d e s i g n e e

.

31( b ) I t i s u n l a w f u l t o f a i l t o p r o d u c e a n d d i s p l a y t h e L a r g e G r o u p F e e d i n g P e r m i t

d u r i n g o r a f

t e r a l a r g e g r o u p f

e e d i n g

, w h i l e s t i l l o n s i t e

, t o a l a w e n f o r c e m e n t

o f f i c e r u p o n d e m a n d

. I t i s a n a f f i r m a t i v e d e f

e n s e t o t h i s v i o l a t i o n i f t h e o f f e n d e r

c a n l a t e r p r o d u c e

, t o t h e C i t y P r o s e c u t o r o r t h e C o u r t

, a L a r g e G r o u p F e e d i n g

P e r m i t i s s u e d t o h i m / h e r

, o r t h e g r o u p

, w h i c h w a s v a l i d a t t h e t i m e o f t h e e v e n t

.

( c ) T h e D i r e c t o r o f F a m i l i e s

, P a r k s a n d R e c r e a t i o n o r h i s / h e r d e s i g n e e s h a l l i s s u e a

L a r g e G r o u p F e e d i n g P e r m i t u p o n a p p l i c a t i o n a n d p a y m e n t o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n f e e

a s e s t a b l i s h e d b y t h e C i t y

. N o t m o r e t h a n t w o ( 2 ) L a r g e G r o u p F e e d i n g P e r m i t s

s h a l l b e i s s u e d t o t h e s a m e p e r s o n

, g r o u p

, o r o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r l a r g e g r o u p f

e e d i n g s

f o r t h e s a m e p a r k i n t h e G D P D i n a t w e l v e ( 1 2 ) c o n s e c u t i v e m o n t h p e r i o d

.

( d ) A n y a p p l i c a n t s h a l l h a v e t h e r i g h t t o a p p e a l t h e d e n i a l o f a L a r g e G r o u p

F e e d i n g P e r m i t p u r s u a n t t o a p p e a l p r o c e d u r e i n S e c t i o n 1 8 A

. 1 5 w i t h w r i t t e n n o t i c e

t o t h e D i r e c t o r o f F a m i l i e s

, P a r k s a n d R e c r e a t i o n a n d w i t h a c o p y t o t h e C i t y C l e r k

.

32B A R K E T T

, C i r c u i t J u d g e

, d i s s e n t i n g :

T h e m e m b e r s o f O r l a n d o F o o d N o t B o m b s ( “ F o o d N o t B o m b s ” ) b e g a n 1

c o n d u c t i n g w e e k l y d e m o n s t r a t i o n s i n 2 0 0 5 a t a p u b l i c p a r k l o c a t e d i n t h e h e a r t o f

d o w n t o w n O r l a n d o i n o r d e r t o d r a w a t t e n t i o n t o s o c i e t y ’ s f a i l u r e t o p r o v i d e f

o o d t o

a l l a n d e x p r e s s t h e i r o p p o s i t i o n t o w a r

. T h e y d i d s o b y d i s p l a y i n g s i g n s a n d

w e a r i n g b u t t o n s a n d t

- s h i r t s w i t h t h e F o o d N o t B o m b s ’ l o g o a n d a n t i

- w a r

m e s s a g e s w h i l e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y d i s t r i b u t i n g f r e e f o o d t o h u n g r y a n d h o m e l e s s

p e r s o n s

. U n d e r w e l l

- e s t a b l i s h e d S u p r e m e C o u r t p r e c e d e n t

, F o o d N o t B o m b s h a s

r e a d i l y d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h i s c o n d u c t c o n s t i t u t e s e x p r e s s i v e c o n d u c t e n t i t l e d t o

F i r s t A m e n d m e n t p r o t e c t i o n a n d

, t h e r e f o r e

, I d i s s e n t

.

T h e m a j o r i t y c o r r e c t l y n o t e s t h a t

, t o d e t e r m i n e “ w h e t h e r p a r t i c u l a r c o n d u c t

p o s s e s s e s s u f

f i c i e n t c o m m u n i c a t i v e e l e m e n t s t o b r i n g t h e F i r s t A m e n d m e n t i n t o

p l a y

, w e [ a s k ] w h e t h e r a n i n t e n t t o c o n v e y a p a r t i c u l a r i z e d m e s s a g e w a s p r e s e n t

,

a n d w h e t h e r t h e l i k e l i h o o d w a s g r e a t t h a t t h e m e s s a g e w o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d b y

t h o s e w h o v i e w e d i t

. ” T e x a s v

. J o h n s o n

, 4 9 1 U

. S

. 3 9 7

, 4 0 4 ( 1 9 8 9 ) ( i n t e r n a l

q u o t a t i o n m a r k s a n d a l t e r a t i o n s o m i t t e d )

. T h e m a j o r i t y a l s o c o r r e c t l y a n s w e r s t h e

f i r s t q u e s t i o n i n t h e a f

f i r m a t i v e

, c o n c l u d i n g t h a t F o o d N o t B o m b s e s t a b l i s h e d t h e

Orlando F ood Not Bombs is an a ssociation of political ac tivist s aff iliated with the 1

international F ood Not Bombs movement. I t is undisput ed that its members a re oppose d to war

and violence and shar e the c ore be lief that food is a r ight whic h society has a r esponsibility

to

provide to all.

33r e q u i s i t e i n t e n t t o c o n v e y a p a r t i c u l a r i z e d m e s s a g e

. H o w e v e r

, t h e m a j o r i t y t h e n

a n s w e r s t h e s e c o n d q u e s t i o n

– w h e t h e r t h e “ l i k e l i h o o d w a s g r e a t t h a t t h e m e s s a g e

w o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d b y t h o s e w h o v i e w e d i t ”

– i n t h e n e g a t i v e

. I b e l i e v e t h i s i s a n

e r r o n e o u s c o n c l u s i o n b e c a u s e i t c a n o n l y b e r e a c h e d b y i g n o r i n g i n t e g r a l p a r t s o f

F o o d N o t B o m b s ’ c o n d u c t a n d a l l t h e r e l e v a n t S u p r e m e C o u r t p r e c e d e n t

.

T h e m a j o r i t y c l a i m s t h a t R u m s f e l d v

. F o r u m f

o r A c a d e m i c a n d I n s t i t u t i o n a l

R i g h t s

, I n c

. ( “ F A I R ” )

, 5 4 7 U

. S

. 4 7 ( 2 0 0 6 )

, r e q u i r e s t h a t w e l o o k o n l y t o t h e a c t o f

d i s t r i b u t i n g f

o o d a n d m u s t b e “ d e a f a n d b l i n d ” t o t h e p l a i n t i f f s ’ b u t t o n s

, t

- s h i r t s

,

a n d s i g n s t h a t w o u l d i n d i c a t e t o a r e a s o n a b l e o b s e r v e r t h a t F o o d N o t B o m b s w a s

e x p r e s s i n g a m e s s a g e

. B u t n o w h e r e i n F A I R d o e s t h e C o u r t h o l d

, s a y

, o r e v e n

i m p l y t h a t t h e a s p e c t s o f t h e c o n d u c t t h a t i n c l u d e s w o r d s

– t h e b a n n e r s

, s i g n s

, o r t

s h i r t s

– c a n n o t b e c o n s i d e r e d i n d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r c o n d u c t i s e x p r e s s i v e u n d e r

t h e F i r s t A m e n d m e n t

. I n d e e d

, F A I R d i d n o t i n v o l v e b a n n e r s

, s i g n s

, b u t t o n s

, t

s h i r t s

, w o r d s

, o r a n y o t h e r e x t e r n a l o b j e c t a t a l l t h a t w o u l d c o n v e y t h e m e s s a g e

.

T h e c o n d u c t a t i s s u e i n F A I R c o n s i s t e d o f a m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r c o n d u c t i n g i n t e r v i e w s

o n t h e u n d e r g r a d u a t e c a m p u s

, p e r i o d

. T h e r e w a s s i m p l y n o w a y a n o b s e r v e r 2

c o u l d t e l l b y s e e i n g t h e r e c r u i t e r o n a n u n d e r g r a d u a t e c a m p u s t h a t t h e l a w s c h o o l

The lawschools in FAI R wanted to “r estrict military rec ruiting on the ir ca

mpuses 2

beca use they object[ed] to t he policy

Congr ess ha[d] adopted with respec t to homosex uals in the

milit ary ” by

having milit ary

rec ruiters intervie w on under g radua te ca mpuses instead of on law

school ca mpuses. FAI R, 547 U.S. at 52-53.

34w a s a t t e m p t i n g t o s e n d a m e s s a g e b y e x c l u d i n g m i l i t a r y r e c r u i t e r s f r o m t h e l a w

s c h o o l c a m p u s w h i l e p e r m i t t i n g o t h e r s t o r e c r u i t t h e r e

. A s t h e S u p r e m e C o u r t

n o t e d

, t h e e x p r e s s i v e p u r p o s e o f l a w s c h o o l s r e q u i r i n g m i l i t a r y r e c r u i t e r s t o

i n t e r v i e w o f

f

- c a m p u s w a s n o t “ o v e r w h e l m i n g l y a p p a r e n t ” b e c a u s e “ [ a ] n o b s e r v e r

w h o s e e s m i l i t a r y r e c r u i t e r s i n t e r v i e w i n g a w a y f r o m t h e l a w s c h o o l h a s n o w a y o f

k n o w i n g w h e t h e r t h e l a w s c h o o l i s e x p r e s s i n g i t s d i s a p p r o v a l o f t h e m i l i t a r y

, a l l

t h e l a w s c h o o l ’ s i n t e r v i e w r o o m s a r e f u l l

, o r t h e m i l i t a r y r e c r u i t e r s d e c i d e d f o r

r e a s o n s o f t h e i r o w n t h a t t h e y w o u l d r a t h e r i n t e r v i e w s o m e p l a c e e l s e

. ” F A I R

, 5 4 7

U

. S

. a t 6 6 ( e m p h a s i s a d d e d a n d i n t e r n a l q u o t a t i o n m a r k s o m i t t e d )

.

F A I R d i d n o t h i n g t o c h a n g e t h e c l e a r l y e s t a b l i s h e d l a w t h a t t h e F i r s t

A m e n d m e n t r e q u i r e s u s t o c o n s i d e r c o n d u c t a s a w h o l e a n d i n “ t h e f a c t u a l c o n t e x t

a n d e n v i r o n m e n t i n w h i c h i t w a s u n d e r t a k e n

. . . . ” S p e n c e v

. W a s h i n g t o n

, 4 1 8

U

. S

. 4 0 5

, 4 1 0 ( 1 9 7 4 )

. R a t h e r

, t h e F A I R C o u r t ’ s d i s c u s s i o n o f e x p l a n a t o r y s p e e c h 3

c l a r i f i e s t h a t c o n d u c t c a n n o t b e t u r n e d i n t o p r o t e c t e d e x p r e s s i v e c o n d u c t i f i t s

m e s s a g e m u s t b e e x p l a i n e d a t a s e p a r a t e t i m e a n d d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e c o n d u c t i t s e l f

.

T h e t o t a l i t y o f t h e c o n d u c t i n F A I R w a s c o n s i d e r e d a n d f o u n d w a n t i n g

.

T o r e a c h i t s r e s u l t

, t h e m a j o r i t y d e c o n s t r u c t s t h e e x p r e s s i v e c o n d u c t a n d

s t r i p s i t o f e v e r y c o m p o n e n t s a v e t h e a c t o f h a n d i n g o u t f o o d ; b u t t h e S u p r e m e

This is because “the c ontext in which a sy mbol is used for purposes of expression is 3

important, for the c ontext may g ive meaning

to the sy mbol.” Spence, 418 U .S. at 410.

35C o u r t h a s t o l d u s t h a t w e m u s t a n a l y z e w h e t h e r c o n d u c t i s e x p r e s s i v e b y v i e w i n g

w h a t i s o b s e r v a b l e a s a w h o l e

– n o t b y d i v i d i n g a n d i s o l a t i n g i t i n t o p a r t s

. T o u s e

t h e S u p r e m e C o u r t ’ s e x a m p l e : t h e o n l y w a y t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e a p a r a d e o r a m a r c h

–

b o t h c l e a r l y p r o t e c t e d e x p r e s s i v e c o n d u c t u n d e r t h e F i r s t A m e n d m e n t

– f r o m a

g r o u p o f p e o p l e h e a d i n g t o w o r k o r s i m p l y w a l k i n g o n t h e s t r e e t i s t h a t a p a r a d e o r

m a r c h i n v o l v e s “ [ s ] p e c t a t o r s l i n e t h e s t r e e t s ; p e o p l e m a r c h i n c o s t u m e s a n d

u n i f o r m s

, c a r r y i n g f

l a g s a n d b a n n e r s w i t h a l l s o r t s o f m e s s a g e s

. . . . ” H u r l e y v

.

I r i s h

- A m e r i c a n G a y

, L e s b i a n a n d B i s e x u a l G r o u p o f B o s t o n

, 5 1 5 U

. S

. 5 5 7

, 5 9 1

( 1 9 9 5 )

. U n d e r t h e m a

j o r i t y ’ s v i e w

, t h e C o u r t i n H u r l e y w o u l d h a v e r u l e d t h e

p a r a d e u n p r o t e c t e d b e c a u s e t h e o n l y r e l e v a n t c o n d u c t w a s w a l k i n g

, a n d w a l k i n g i s

n o t p r o t e c t e d e x p r e s s i v e c o n d u c t

. O b v i o u s l y

, t h a t i s n o t t h e l a w a s H u r l e y

e x p r e s s l y d e m o n s t r a t e s

.

I n d e e d

, i n e v e r y c a s e p o s i n g t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r c o n d u c t i s p r o t e c t e d

u n d e r t h e F i r s t A m e n d m e n t

, t h e S u p r e m e C o u r t h a s v i e w e d o b s e r v a b l e c o n d u c t a s

a w h o l e

, r a t h e r t h a n i n i s o l a t e d p a r t s

. I n E d w a r d s v

. S o u t h C a r o l i n a

, 3 7 2 U

. S

. 2 2 9

,

2 3 5 ( 1 9 6 3 )

, t h e C o u r t c o n s i d e r e d n o t o n l y t h a t a g r o u p o f p e o p l e w e r e m a r c h i n g

b u t a l s o t h a t t h e y w e r e s i n g i n g t h e S t a r S p a n g l e d B a n n e r w h e n i t r e c o g n i z e d t h a t

t h e i r a c t i o n s “ r e f

l e c t [ e d ] a n e x e r c i s e o f [ ] b a s i c c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r i g h t s

. ” S i m i l a r l y

,

t h e a t e r i s n o t a n a l y z e d a s a p e r s o n o r g r o u p o f p e o p l e m o v i n g a n d t a l k i n g o r

36s i n g i n g

, b u t i s u n d e r s t o o d a s d r a m a

– a n d p r o t e c t e d b y t h e F i r s t A m e n d m e n t

–

w h e n t h e c o n d u c t i s v i e w e d a s a w h o l e

. S o u t h e a s t e r n P r o m o t i o n s

, L t d

. v

. C o n r a d

,

4 2 0 U

. S

. 5 4 6

, 5 5 7

- 5 8 ( 1 9 7 5 )

. L i k e w i s e

, i n S c h a c h t v

. U n i t e d S t a t e s

, 3 9 8 U

. S

. 5 8

( 1 9 7 0 )

, i n w h i c h t h e C o u r t s t r u c k d o w n a c o n v i c t i o n f o r u n a u t h o r i z e d u s e o f a

m i l i t a r y u n i f

o r m

, t h e C o u r t l o o k e d a t n o t j u s t t h e f a c t t h a t a p e r s o n w a s w e a r i n g a

m i l i t a r y u n i f

o r m b u t a l s o t h a t h e w a s d o i n g s o i n a t h e a t r i c a l p r o d u c t i o n c r i t i c i z i n g

t h e w a r i n V i e t n a m

.

H e r e

, i n “ t h e f

a c t u a l c o n t e x t a n d e n v i r o n m e n t i n w h i c h [ t h e c o n d u c t w a s ]

u n d e r t a k e n

, ” a r e a s o n a b l e p e r s o n v i e w i n g F o o d N o t B o m b s ’ d e m o n s t r a t i o n s w o u l d

o b s e r v e t h a t t h e y ( 1 ) t a k e p l a c e e v e r y w e e k

, ( 2 ) a t a c e n t r a l l y l o c a t e d p u b l i c p a r k

, 4 5

( 3 ) i n a n a f

f l u e n t n e i g h b o r h o o d

, ( 4 ) a r e v i s i b l y r u n b y a g r o u p w h o s e n a m e i t s e l f

, 6

I n 2005, to draw a ttention to “society ’s fa ilure to provide f ood and housing to eac h of 4

its members and to re claim public spac e,” F ood Not Bombs beg an conduc ting public f eeding s

ever y Wednesday

at 5:00 p.m. in L ake E ola Park.

L ake E ola Park, the c hosen loca tion by Food Not B ombs for its events, contributes 5

signific antly

to the expression of its messag e. The district court, there fore , rig htly rec og nized

that L ake E ola Park “ is a meaning ful location which, f rom time immemorial, has bee n the

traditional public forum for fre e spee ch.” T he City

does not dispute that L ake E ola Park, whic h

is repre sented on the City ’s sea l, is it s “sig nature park.”

The pa rk is located in a

middle- and uppe r-middle cla ss neig hborhood of c ondominiums 6

and businesses c omprised of the ve ry people F ood Not Bombs wishes to re ach w ith its messag e

– the fortuna te or privileg ed. As a Food Not B ombs member dec lare d, “shar ing f ood with those

who have so litt le in the midst of those who have so much except conc ern a nd compassion for

the least for

tunate among them” is a wa y of sending a messag e to the for tunate about the soc ial,

economic a

nd political inequalities that perva de socie ty . Cf. Hurley , 515 U.S. at 568 (noting that

para des ar e “public dr amas of soc ial rela tions” whose “de pendenc e on wa tcher s is so ex treme

that . . . if a pa

rade or demonstra tion rece ives no media c overa g e, it may as we ll not have

happene d”) ( citation and quotation omitted).

37F o o d N o t B o m b s

, c o n v e y s a n u n m i s t a k a b l e m e s s a g e

, ( 5 ) i n c l u d e a c t i v i s t s h o l d i n g

s i g n s o r b a n n e r s a n d w e a r i n g t

- s h i r t s a n d b u t t o n s t o r e i n f o r c e t h e g r o u p ’ s c e n t r a l

F o o d N o t B o m b s m e s s a g e

, a n d ( 6 ) i n v o l v e t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f f o o d t o t h e h u n g r y

a n d h o m e l e s s i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h F o o d N o t B o m b s ’ p u r p o s e

. G i v e n t h e t o t a l i t y o f

t h e a c t i v i t y t a k i n g p l a c e a t t h e p a r k

, a r e a s o n a b l e o b s e r v e r w o u l d u n d e r s t a n d t h e

i n t e n d e d m e s s a g e t h a t s o c i e t y s h o u l d u s e i t s r e s o u r c e s t o f e e d t h e p o o r r a t h e r t h a n

t o f u n d w a r s

. T h u s

, i t i s h a r d l y l i k e l y t h a t a r e a s o n a b l e o b s e r v e r m i g h t t h i n k t h a t

t h e c o n d u c t a t i s s u e c o u l d b e v i e w e d a s a “ f a m i l y h a v i n g a r e u n i o n

, a c h u r c h

i n t e n d i n g t o e n g a g e i n a p u r e l y c h a r i t a b l e a c t

, [ o r ] a r e s t a u r a n t d i s t r i b u t i n g s u r p l u s

f o o d

, ” a s t h e m a

j o r i t y s u g g e s t s

. 7

T h e c o n d u c t a t i s s u e i n t h i s c a s e i s n o t a m b i g u o u s

. T h e m e s s a g e c o n v e y e d

b y F o o d N o t B o m b s ’ i s “ o v e r w h e l m i n g l y a p p a r e n t ” t o a r e a s o n a b l e o b s e r v e r a n d

t h e r e f o r e F o o d N o t B o m b s ’ c o n d u c t i s p r o t e c t e d b y t h e F i r s t A m e n d m e n t

. 8

Fur thermore , without any

explanation, the majority dismiss es the a ct of shar ing f ood as 7

one that has no history

of sy mbolic expression. However , sharing food has sig nificant mea ning

both in this country ’s history (e.g ., Thankg iving) and in major wor ld relig ions (e.g ., Passover in

the J ewish tradition, Communion i n the Christian tradition).

Having deter

mined that the conduc t of Food N ot Bombs is protecte d by the Fir st 8

Amendment, I

also ag ree with the rea soning a nd conclusion of the district c ourt, rea ched a fter

conducting a trial, that the or dinance does not furthe r a substantial g overnme nt interest. See

First Va g abonds Church of God v. City

of Orla ndo, Fla., 578 F . Supp. 2d 1353, 1360-61 (M.D.

Fla. 2008)

.

38