I 

116TH CONGRESS 

1ST SESSION H. R. 4339 

To eliminate racial profiling by law enforcement, and for other purposes. 

IN THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES 

SEPTEMBER 16, 2019 

Ms. JACKSON LEE (for herself, Ms. ADAMS, Ms. BARRAGA ́N, Mrs. BEATTY, 

Mr. BISHOP of Georgia, Mr. BLUMENAUER, Mr. CARSON of Indiana, Mr. 

CARTWRIGHT, Ms. CASTOR of Florida, Ms. JUDY CHU of California, Mr. 

CICILLINE, Ms. CLARKE of New York, Mr. COHEN, Mr. CONNOLLY, Mr. 

CUMMINGS, Mr. DANNY K. DAVIS of Illinois, Ms. DEGETTE, Ms. 

DELBENE, Mr. DEUTCH, Mrs. DINGELL, Ms. ESHOO, Mr. ESPAILLAT, 

Mr. EVANS, Mr. GARCI ́A of Illinois, Mr. GREEN of Texas, Mr. HASTINGS, 

Mr. HECK, Ms. NORTON, Mr. HUFFMAN, Ms. JAYAPAL, Mr. JOHNSON

of Georgia, Ms. KELLY of Illinois, Mr. KENNEDY, Mr. LAWSON of Florida, Ms. LEE of California, Mr. LOWENTHAL, Ms. MCCOLLUM, Mr. 

MEEKS, Mr. NADLER, Mrs. NAPOLITANO, Mr. POCAN, Mr. PRICE of 

North Carolina, Mr. RICHMOND, Mr. RUSH, Mr. RYAN, Ms. SA ́NCHEZ, 

Mr. SARBANES, Ms. SCHAKOWSKY, Mr. SERRANO, Ms. SEWELL of Alabama, Mr. SMITH of Washington, Mr. SWALWELL of California, Mr. 

THOMPSON of Mississippi, Ms. VELA ́ZQUEZ, Mrs. WATSON COLEMAN, 

and Mr. WELCH) introduced the following bill; which was referred to the 

Committee on the Judiciary 

A BILL 

To eliminate racial profiling by law enforcement, and for 

other purposes. 

1 Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representa2 tives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, 


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1 SECTION 1. SHORT TITLE; TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

2 (a) SHORT TITLE.—This Act may be cited as the 

3 ‘‘End Racial Profiling Act of 2019’’. 

4 (b) TABLE OF CONTENTS.—The table of contents of 

5 this Act is as follows: 

Sec. 1. Short title; table of contents. 

Sec. 2. Definitions. 

TITLE I—PROHIBITION OF RACIAL PROFILING 

Sec. 101. Prohibition. 

Sec. 102. Enforcement. 

TITLE II—PROGRAMS TO ELIMINATE RACIAL PROFILING BY 

FEDERAL LAW ENFORCEMENT AGENCIES 

Sec. 201. Policies to eliminate racial profiling. 

TITLE III—PROGRAMS TO ELIMINATE RACIAL PROFILING BY 

STATE, LOCAL, AND INDIAN TRIBAL LAW ENFORCEMENT 

AGENCIES 

Sec. 301. Policies required for grants. 

Sec. 302. Involvement of Attorney General. 

Sec. 303. Data collection demonstration project. 

Sec. 304. Best practices development grants. 

Sec. 305. Authorization of appropriations. 

TITLE IV—DATA COLLECTION 

Sec. 401. Attorney General to issue regulations. 

Sec. 402. Publication of data. 

Sec. 403. Limitations on publication of data. 

TITLE V—DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE REGULATIONS AND 

REPORTS ON RACIAL PROFILING IN THE UNITED STATES 

Sec. 501. Attorney General to issue regulations and reports. 

TITLE VI—MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS 

Sec. 601. Severability. 

Sec. 602. Savings clause. 

6 SEC. 2. DEFINITIONS. 

7 In this Act: 


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1 (1) COVERED PROGRAM.—The term ‘‘covered 

2 program’’ means any program or activity funded in 

3 whole or in part with funds made available under— 

4 (A) the Edward Byrne Memorial Justice 

5 Assistance Grant Program under part E of title 

6 I of the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe 

7 Streets Act of 1968 (42 U.S.C. 3750 et seq.); 

8 and 

9 (B) the ‘‘Cops on the Beat’’ program 

10 under part Q of title I of the Omnibus Crime 

11 Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968 (42 

12 U.S.C. 3796dd et seq.), except that no pro13 gram, project, or other activity specified in sec14 tion 1701(b)(13) of such part shall be a covered 

15 program under this paragraph. 

16 (2) GOVERNMENTAL BODY.—The term ‘‘govern17 mental body’’ means any department, agency, special 

18 purpose district, or other instrumentality of Federal, 

19 State, local, or Indian tribal government. 

20 (3) HIT RATE.—The term ‘‘hit rate’’ means the 

21 percentage of stops and searches in which a law en22 forcement officer finds drugs, a gun, or other con23 traband that leads to an arrest. The hit rate is cal24 culated by dividing the total number of searches by 


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1 the number of searches that yield contraband. The 

2 hit rate is complementary to the rate of false stops. 

3 (4) INDIAN TRIBE.—The term ‘‘Indian tribe’’ 

4 has the meaning given the term in section 102 of the 

5 Federally Recognized Indian Tribe List Act of 1994 

6 (25 U.S.C. 479a). 

7 (5) LAW ENFORCEMENT AGENCY.—The term 

8 ‘‘law enforcement agency’’ means any Federal, 

9 State, local, or Indian tribal public agency engaged 

10 in the prevention, detection, or investigation of viola11 tions of criminal, immigration, or customs laws. 

12 (6) LAW ENFORCEMENT AGENT.—The term 

13 ‘‘law enforcement agent’’ means any Federal, State, 

14 local, or Indian tribal official responsible for enforc15 ing criminal, immigration, or customs laws, includ16 ing police officers and other agents of a law enforce17 ment agency. 

18 (7) RACIAL PROFILING.—The term ‘‘racial 

19 profiling’’ means the practice of a law enforcement 

20 agent or agency relying, to any degree, on actual or 

21 perceived race, ethnicity, national origin, religion, 

22 gender, gender identity, or sexual orientation in se23 lecting which individual to subject to routine or 

24 spontaneous investigatory activities or in deciding 

25 upon the scope and substance of law enforcement acVerDate Sep 11 2014 00:58 Sep 17, 2019 Jkt 089200 PO 00000 Frm 00004 Fmt 6652 Sfmt 6201 E:\BILLS\H4339.IH H4339

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1 tivity following the initial investigatory procedure, 

2 except when there is trustworthy information, rel3 evant to the locality and timeframe, that links a per4 son with a particular characteristic described in this 

5 paragraph to an identified criminal incident or 

6 scheme. 

7 (8) ROUTINE OR SPONTANEOUS INVESTIGATORY

8 ACTIVITIES.—The term ‘‘routine or spontaneous in9 vestigatory activities’’ means the following activities 

10 by a law enforcement agent: 

11 (A) Interviews. 

12 (B) Traffic stops. 

13 (C) Pedestrian stops. 

14 (D) Frisks and other types of body 

15 searches. 

16 (E) Consensual or nonconsensual searches 

17 of the persons, property, or possessions (includ18 ing vehicles) of individuals using any form of 

19 public or private transportation, including mo20 torists and pedestrians. 

21 (F) Data collection and analysis, assess22 ments, and predicated investigations. 

23 (G) Inspections and interviews of entrants 

24 into the United States that are more extensive 

25 than those customarily carried out. 


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1 (H) Immigration-related workplace inves2 tigations. 

3 (I) Such other types of law enforcement 

4 encounters compiled for or by the Federal Bu5 reau of Investigation or the Department of Jus6 tice Bureau of Justice Statistics. 

7 (9) REASONABLE REQUEST.—The term ‘‘rea8 sonable request’’ means all requests for information, 

9 except for those that— 

10 (A) are immaterial to the investigation; 

11 (B) would result in the unnecessary disclo12 sure of personal information; or 

13 (C) would place a severe burden on the re14 sources of the law enforcement agency given its 

15 size. 

16 (10) STATE.—The term ‘‘State’’ means each of 

17 the 50 States, the District of Columbia, the Com18 monwealth of Puerto Rico, and any other territory 

19 or possession of the United States. 

20 (11) UNIT OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT.—The term 

21 ‘‘unit of local government’’ means— 

22 (A) any city, county, township, town, bor23 ough, parish, village, or other general purpose 

24 political subdivision of a State; 


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1 (B) any law enforcement district or judicial 

2 enforcement district that— 

3 (i) is established under applicable 

4 State law; and 

5 (ii) has the authority to, in a manner 

6 independent of other State entities, estab7 lish a budget and impose taxes; or 

8 (C) any Indian tribe that performs law en9 forcement functions, as determined by the Sec10 retary of the Interior. 

11 TITLE I—PROHIBITION OF 

12 RACIAL PROFILING 

13 SEC. 101. PROHIBITION. 

14 No law enforcement agent or law enforcement agency 

15 shall engage in racial profiling. 

16 SEC. 102. ENFORCEMENT. 

17 (a) REMEDY.—The United States, or an individual 

18 injured by racial profiling, may enforce this title in a civil 

19 action for declaratory or injunctive relief, filed either in 

20 a State court of general jurisdiction or in a district court 

21 of the United States. 

22 (b) PARTIES.—In any action brought under this title, 

23 relief may be obtained against— 


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1 (1) any governmental body that employed any 

2 law enforcement agent who engaged in racial 

3 profiling; 

4 (2) any agent of such body who engaged in ra5 cial profiling; and 

6 (3) any person with supervisory authority over 

7 such agent. 

8 (c) NATURE OF PROOF.—Proof that the routine or 

9 spontaneous investigatory activities of law enforcement 

10 agents in a jurisdiction have had a disparate impact on 

11 individuals with a particular characteristic described in 

12 section 2(7) shall constitute prima facie evidence of a vio13 lation of this title. 

14 (d) ATTORNEY’S FEES.—In any action or proceeding 

15 to enforce this title against any governmental body, the 

16 court may allow a prevailing plaintiff, other than the 

17 United States, reasonable attorney’s fees as part of the 

18 costs, and may include expert fees as part of the attorney’s 

19 fee. 


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1 TITLE II—PROGRAMS TO ELIMI2 NATE RACIAL PROFILING BY 

3 FEDERAL LAW ENFORCE4 MENT AGENCIES 

5 SEC. 201. POLICIES TO ELIMINATE RACIAL PROFILING. 

6 (a) IN GENERAL.—Federal law enforcement agencies 

7 shall— 

8 (1) maintain adequate policies and procedures 

9 designed to eliminate racial profiling; and 

10 (2) cease existing practices that permit racial 

11 profiling. 

12 (b) POLICIES.—The policies and procedures de13 scribed in subsection (a)(1) shall include— 

14 (1) a prohibition on racial profiling; 

15 (2) training on racial profiling issues as part of 

16 Federal law enforcement training; 

17 (3) the collection of data in accordance with the 

18 regulations issued by the Attorney General under 

19 section 401; 

20 (4) procedures for receiving, investigating, and 

21 responding meaningfully to complaints alleging ra22 cial profiling by law enforcement agents; and 

23 (5) any other policies and procedures the Attor24 ney General determines to be necessary to eliminate 

25 racial profiling by Federal law enforcement agencies. 


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1 TITLE III—PROGRAMS TO ELIMI2 NATE RACIAL PROFILING BY 

3 STATE, LOCAL, AND INDIAN 

4 TRIBAL LAW ENFORCEMENT 

5 AGENCIES 

6 SEC. 301. POLICIES REQUIRED FOR GRANTS. 

7 (a) IN GENERAL.—An application by a State, a unit 

8 of local government, or a State, local, or Indian tribal law 

9 enforcement agency for funding under a covered program 

10 shall include a certification that such State, unit of local 

11 government, or law enforcement agency, and any law en12 forcement agency to which it will distribute funds— 

13 (1) maintains adequate policies and procedures 

14 designed to eliminate racial profiling; and 

15 (2) has eliminated any existing practices that 

16 permit or encourage racial profiling. 

17 (b) POLICIES.—The policies and procedures de18 scribed in subsection (a)(1) shall include— 

19 (1) a prohibition on racial profiling; 

20 (2) training on racial profiling issues as part of 

21 law enforcement training; 

22 (3) the collection of data in accordance with the 

23 regulations issued by the Attorney General under 

24 section 401; and 


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1 (4) participation in an administrative complaint 

2 procedure or independent audit program that meets 

3 the requirements of section 302. 

4 (c) EFFECTIVE DATE.—This section shall take effect 

5 12 months after the date of enactment of this Act. 

6 SEC. 302. INVOLVEMENT OF ATTORNEY GENERAL. 

7 (a) REGULATIONS.— 

8 (1) IN GENERAL.—Not later than 6 months 

9 after the date of enactment of this Act and in con10 sultation with stakeholders, including Federal, State, 

11 tribal, and local law enforcement agencies and com12 munity, professional, research, and civil rights orga13 nizations, the Attorney General shall issue regula14 tions for the operation of administrative complaint 

15 procedures and independent audit programs to en16 sure that such programs and procedures provide an 

17 appropriate response to allegations of racial profiling 

18 by law enforcement agents or agencies. 

19 (2) GUIDELINES.—The regulations issued 

20 under paragraph (1) shall contain guidelines that 

21 ensure the fairness, effectiveness, and independence 

22 of the administrative complaint procedures and inde23 pendent auditor programs. 

24 (b) NONCOMPLIANCE.—If the Attorney General de25 termines that the recipient of a grant from any covered 


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1 program is not in compliance with the requirements of sec2 tion 301 or the regulations issued under subsection (a), 

3 the Attorney General shall withhold, in whole or in part 

4 (at the discretion of the Attorney General), funds for 1 

5 or more grants to the recipient under the covered pro6 gram, until the recipient establishes compliance. 

7 (c) PRIVATE PARTIES.—The Attorney General shall 

8 provide notice and an opportunity for private parties to 

9 present evidence to the Attorney General that a recipient 

10 of a grant from any covered program is not in compliance 

11 with the requirements of this title. 

12 SEC. 303. DATA COLLECTION DEMONSTRATION PROJECT. 

13 (a) COMPETITIVE AWARDS.— 

14 (1) IN GENERAL.—The Attorney General may, 

15 through competitive grants or contracts, carry out a 

16 2-year demonstration project for the purpose of de17 veloping and implementing data collection programs 

18 on the hit rates for stops and searches by law en19 forcement agencies. The data collected shall be 

20 disaggregated by race, ethnicity, national origin, 

21 gender, and religion. 

22 (2) NUMBER OF GRANTS.—The Attorney Gen23 eral shall provide not more than 5 grants or con24 tracts under this section. 


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1 (3) ELIGIBLE GRANTEES.—Grants or contracts 

2 under this section shall be awarded to law enforce3 ment agencies that serve communities where there is 

4 a significant concentration of racial or ethnic minori5 ties and that are not already collecting data volun6 tarily. 

7 (b) REQUIRED ACTIVITIES.—Activities carried out 

8 with a grant under this section shall include— 

9 (1) developing a data collection tool and report10 ing the compiled data to the Attorney General; and 

11 (2) training of law enforcement personnel on 

12 data collection, particularly for data collection on hit 

13 rates for stops and searches. 

14 (c) EVALUATION.—Not later than 3 years after the 

15 date of enactment of this Act, the Attorney General shall 

16 enter into a contract with an institution of higher edu17 cation (as defined in section 101 of the Higher Education 

18 Act of 1965 (20 U.S.C. 1001)) to analyze the data col19 lected by each of the grantees funded under this section. 

20 (d) AUTHORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS.—There 

21 are authorized to be appropriated to carry out activities 

22 under this section— 

23 (1) $5,000,000, over a 2-year period, to carry 

24 out the demonstration program under subsection 

25 (a); and 


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1 (2) $500,000 to carry out the evaluation under 

2 subsection (c). 

3 SEC. 304. BEST PRACTICES DEVELOPMENT GRANTS. 

4 (a) GRANT AUTHORIZATION.—The Attorney General, 

5 through the Bureau of Justice Assistance, may make 

6 grants to States, local law enforcement agencies, and units 

7 of local government to develop and implement best prac8 tice devices and systems to eliminate racial profiling. 

9 (b) USE OF FUNDS.—The funds provided under sub10 section (a) shall be used for programs that include the 

11 following purposes: 

12 (1) The development and implementation of 

13 training to prevent racial profiling and to encourage 

14 more respectful interaction with the public. 

15 (2) The acquisition and use of technology to fa16 cilitate the accurate collection and analysis of data. 

17 (3) The development and acquisition of feed18 back systems and technologies that identify officers 

19 or units of officers engaged in, or at risk of engag20 ing in, racial profiling or other misconduct. 

21 (4) The establishment and maintenance of an 

22 administrative complaint procedure or independent 

23 auditor program. 

24 (c) EQUITABLE DISTRIBUTION.—The Attorney Gen25 eral shall ensure that grants under this section are awardVerDate Sep 11 2014 00:58 Sep 17, 2019 Jkt 089200 PO 00000 Frm 00014 Fmt 6652 Sfmt 6201 E:\BILLS\H4339.IH H4339

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1 ed in a manner that reserves an equitable share of funding 

2 for small and rural law enforcement agencies. 

3 (d) APPLICATION.—Each State, local law enforce4 ment agency, or unit of local government desiring a grant 

5 under this section shall submit an application to the Attor6 ney General at such time, in such manner, and accom7 panied by such information as the Attorney General may 

8 reasonably require. 

9 SEC. 305. AUTHORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS. 

10 There are authorized to be appropriated such sums 

11 as are necessary to carry out this title. 

12 TITLE IV—DATA COLLECTION 

13 SEC. 401. ATTORNEY GENERAL TO ISSUE REGULATIONS. 

14 (a) REGULATIONS.—Not later than 6 months after 

15 the date of enactment of this Act, the Attorney General, 

16 in consultation with stakeholders, including Federal, 

17 State, and local law enforcement agencies and community, 

18 professional, research, and civil rights organizations, shall 

19 issue regulations for the collection and compilation of data 

20 under sections 201 and 301. 

21 (b) REQUIREMENTS.—The regulations issued under 

22 subsection (a) shall— 

23 (1) provide for the collection of data on all rou24 tine or spontaneous investigatory activities; 

25 (2) provide that the data collected shall— 


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1 (A) be collected by race, ethnicity, national 

2 origin, gender, and religion, as perceived by the 

3 law enforcement officer; 

4 (B) include the date, time, and location of 

5 such investigatory activities; 

6 (C) include detail sufficient to permit an 

7 analysis of whether a law enforcement agency is 

8 engaging in racial profiling; and 

9 (D) not include personally identifiable in10 formation; 

11 (3) provide that a standardized form shall be 

12 made available to law enforcement agencies for the 

13 submission of collected data to the Department of 

14 Justice; 

15 (4) provide that law enforcement agencies shall 

16 compile data on the standardized form made avail17 able under paragraph (3), and submit the form to 

18 the Civil Rights Division and the Department of 

19 Justice Bureau of Justice Statistics; 

20 (5) provide that law enforcement agencies shall 

21 maintain all data collected under this Act for not 

22 less than 4 years; 

23 (6) include guidelines for setting comparative 

24 benchmarks, consistent with best practices, against 

25 which collected data shall be measured; 


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1 (7) provide that the Department of Justice Bu2 reau of Justice Statistics shall— 

3 (A) analyze the data for any statistically 

4 significant disparities, including— 

5 (i) disparities in the percentage of 

6 drivers or pedestrians stopped relative to 

7 the proportion of the population passing 

8 through the neighborhood; 

9 (ii) disparities in the hit rate; and 

10 (iii) disparities in the frequency of 

11 searches performed on racial or ethnic mi12 nority drivers and the frequency of 

13 searches performed on non-minority driv14 ers; and 

15 (B) not later than 3 years after the date 

16 of enactment of this Act, and annually there17 after— 

18 (i) prepare a report regarding the 

19 findings of the analysis conducted under 

20 subparagraph (A); 

21 (ii) provide such report to Congress; 

22 and 

23 (iii) make such report available to the 

24 public, including on a website of the De25 partment of Justice; and 


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1 (8) protect the privacy of individuals whose 

2 data is collected by— 

3 (A) limiting the use of the data collected 

4 under this Act to the purposes set forth in this 

5 Act; 

6 (B) except as otherwise provided in this 

7 Act, limiting access to the data collected under 

8 this Act to those Federal, State, local, or tribal 

9 employees or agents who require such access in 

10 order to fulfill the purposes for the data set 

11 forth in this Act; 

12 (C) requiring contractors or other non-gov13 ernmental agents who are permitted access to 

14 the data collected under this Act to sign use 

15 agreements incorporating the use and disclosure 

16 restrictions set forth in subparagraph (A); and 

17 (D) requiring the maintenance of adequate 

18 security measures to prevent unauthorized ac19 cess to the data collected under this Act. 

20 SEC. 402. PUBLICATION OF DATA. 

21 The Department of Justice Bureau of Justice Statis22 tics shall provide to Congress and make available to the 

23 public, together with each annual report described in sec24 tion 401, the data collected pursuant to this Act, excluding 


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1 any personally identifiable information described in section 

2 403. 

3 SEC. 403. LIMITATIONS ON PUBLICATION OF DATA. 

4 The name or identifying information of a law enforce5 ment officer, complainant, or any other individual involved 

6 in any activity for which data is collected and compiled 

7 under this Act shall not be— 

8 (1) released to the public; 

9 (2) disclosed to any person, except for— 

10 (A) such disclosures as are necessary to 

11 comply with this Act; 

12 (B) disclosures of information regarding a 

13 particular person to that person; or 

14 (C) disclosures pursuant to litigation; or 

15 (3) subject to disclosure under section 552 of 

16 title 5, United States Code (commonly known as the 

17 Freedom of Information Act), except for disclosures 

18 of information regarding a particular person to that 

19 person. 


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1 TITLE V—DEPARTMENT OF JUS2 TICE REGULATIONS AND RE3 PORTS ON RACIAL 

4 PROFILING IN THE UNITED 

5 STATES 

6 SEC. 501. ATTORNEY GENERAL TO ISSUE REGULATIONS 

7 AND REPORTS. 

8 (a) REGULATIONS.—In addition to the regulations re9 quired under sections 303 and 401, the Attorney General 

10 shall issue such other regulations as the Attorney General 

11 determines are necessary to implement this Act. 

12 (b) REPORTS.— 

13 (1) IN GENERAL.—Not later than 2 years after 

14 the date of enactment of this Act, and annually 

15 thereafter, the Attorney General shall submit to 

16 Congress a report on racial profiling by law enforce17 ment agencies. 

18 (2) SCOPE.—Each report submitted under 

19 paragraph (1) shall include— 

20 (A) a summary of data collected under sec21 tions 201(b)(3) and 301(b)(3) and from any 

22 other reliable source of information regarding 

23 racial profiling in the United States; 

24 (B) a discussion of the findings in the 

25 most recent report prepared by the Department 


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1 of Justice Bureau of Justice Statistics under 

2 section 401(b)(7); 

3 (C) the status of the adoption and imple4 mentation of policies and procedures by Federal 

5 law enforcement agencies under section 201 

6 and by the State and local law enforcement 

7 agencies under sections 301 and 302; and 

8 (D) a description of any other policies and 

9 procedures that the Attorney General believes 

10 would facilitate the elimination of racial 

11 profiling. 

12 TITLE VI—MISCELLANEOUS 

13 PROVISIONS 

14 SEC. 601. SEVERABILITY. 

15 If any provision of this Act, or the application of such 

16 a provision to any person or circumstance, is held to be 

17 unconstitutional, the remainder of this Act and the appli18 cation of the remaining provisions of this Act to any per19 son or circumstance shall not be affected thereby. 

20 SEC. 602. SAVINGS CLAUSE. 

21 Nothing in this Act shall be construed— 

22 (1) to limit legal or administrative remedies 

23 under section 1979 of the Revised Statutes of the 

24 United States (42 U.S.C. 1983), section 210401 of 

25 the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement 


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1 Act of 1994 (42 U.S.C. 14141), the Omnibus Crime 

2 Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968 (42 U.S.C. 

3 3701 et seq.), or title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 

4 1964 (42 U.S.C. 2000d et seq.); 

5 (2) to affect any Federal, State, or tribal law 

6 that applies to an Indian tribe because of the polit7 ical status of the tribe; or 

8 (3) to waive the sovereign immunity of an In9 dian tribe without the consent of the tribe. 

Æ 


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