Digital Assets Primer

December 2020
DISCLAIMER

This primer format is intended to be an educational tool regarding emerging 

fintech innovations. It is not intended to state the official policy or position of 

the CFTC, or to limit the CFTC’s current or future positions or actions. The 

CFTC does not endorse the use or effectiveness of any of the financial 

products or technologies in this presentation. The CFTC’s jurisdiction over any 

particular digital asset will depend on specific facts and circumstances. Any 

examples included in this Primer are illustrative only and do not indicate a 

determination by the Commodity Futures Trading Commission or its staff of 

jurisdiction. CFTC staff, including LabCFTC, cannot and will not provide legal 

advice. If you have specific questions regarding your activities and whether 

they conform to legal or regulatory requirements, you should consult with a 

qualified lawyer or appropriate expert. LabCFTC has no independent authority 

or decision-making power, and cannot independently provide, or create an 

expectation for, legal or regulatory relief. Communications from LabCFTC

shall not create estoppel against CFTC or other enforcement actions. Any 

formal requests for relief must be addressed by relevant CFTC staff or, as 

necessary, by the Commission. LabCFTC will work with entities on such 

requests with the appropriate offices through established processes.

2
CONTENTS

This Primer is a publication of LabCFTC. In service to the CFTC’s goal of encouraging 

innovation and enhancing the regulatory experience for market participants at home and 

abroad, LabCFTC’s mission is to promote responsible innovation among financial industry, 

stakeholders, and policymakers.

Overview of Digital Assets

Digital Asset Markets

Regulatory Response

Digital Assets and the CFTC

CFTC-Regulated Digital Asset Derivatives

Digital Assets Moving Forward

3
OVERVIEW OF DIGITAL ASSETS
What is a “Digital Asset”?

Digital assets continue to evolve. They 

vary in terms of design and application.

A single, widely-accepted definition of 

“digital asset” has yet to emerge. 

Conceptually, however, a digital asset 

can be understood as:

Anything that can be stored and 

transmitted electronically, and has 

associated ownership or use rights. 

* One of the world’s first digital scans produced by NIST’s Standards Eastern Automatic Computer 

in 1957, https://www.nist.gov/image/5940462465bca0791f6dojpg

Digital Photograph*

5

Smart Contract

Bitcoin
Key Features of Digital Assets

• A digital asset can represent physical or virtual assets, a value, or a use 

right/service (e.g., computer storage space). 

• Digital assets may take many forms and may utilize various underlying 

technologies, including distributed ledger technology (DLT). 

• Digital assets have a varied set of features and applications that touch a 

range of regulatory domains.

• Digital assets are created and maintained with software (code), and exist 

as data on a network. The software and network together enable digital 

asset transactions.

• Depending on its design, function, and use, a digital asset may be 

characterized differently, including as a commodity, swap or other 

derivative.

6
Digital Asset Ecosystem

• A digital asset ecosystem consists of those elements that enable the 

creation, propagation, and use of digital assets.

• At a minimum, this ecosystem must include a digital platform to build 

upon, developers to create and support the code that defines a digital 

asset, a network to enable the transfer of the digital asset, and entities to 

track and verify transactions.

• Additional ecosystem components can facilitate the use, trading, and 

functionality of digital assets, for example, by providing links or 

connectivity to the physical world.

7

• On-/Off-ramps

• Exchanges

• Custodians 

• Wallet providers

• Repositories

• Dealers

• Oracles

• Internet of Things 

(IoT) Sensors

Digital assets require basic technology building blocks to function 

and they are inextricably linked to a broader ecosystem.

7
Virtual Currencies

• A virtual currency is a digital representation of value that functions as a 

medium of exchange, a unit of account, and/or a store of value.*

• Launched in 2009, bitcoin was among the first virtual currencies to 

gain widespread public attention. 

• Public virtual currency systems like the bitcoin platform seek to 

provide “an electronic payment system based on cryptographic proof 

instead of trust, allowing any two willing parties to transact directly with 

each other without the need for a trusted third party.”†

• Bitcoin is described as “convertible” because it can be readily 

exchanged for fiat currency. Bitcoin remains the largest convertible 

virtual currency by market capitalization. 

* See Retail Commodity Transactions Involving Certain Digital Assets (Final Interpretive Guidance), 85 FR 37734 (June 24, 2020), 

available at https://www.cftc.gov/sites/default/files/2020/06/2020-11827a.pdf. † Satoshi Nakamoto, Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer 

Electronic Cash System (Oct. 31, 2008), available at https://bitcoin.org/bitcoin.pdf. 8
Digital Assets vs. Virtual Currency

• Virtual currencies – sometimes called “coins,” “native 

tokens,” or “intrinsic tokens” – continue to be an 

important part of the digital asset landscape, which 

include markets the CFTC oversees. A common 

feature of virtual currencies is their intended purpose to 

serve as a medium of exchange.

• Digital token refers to a digital asset that requires 

another blockchain network to operate and may serve a 

variety of functions beyond virtual currency, e.g., utility 

tokens.

• Digital asset is a broader term that encompasses 

additional applications, including ownership, transaction 

tracking, identity management, and smart contracts. A 

digital asset may express characteristics of a 

commodity or commodity derivative.

9

Digital Assets

Digital Tokens

Virtual 

Currency
DIGITAL ASSET MARKETS
The Digital Asset Marketplace

• In terms of market capitalization, 

bitcoin dominates. Its current 

market capitalization is many 

times that of other virtual 

currencies. 

• The number of digital assets is 

growing. Tokens have been 

developed to address a wide 

range of uses. Many now trade 

through a variety of platforms.

The bitcoin price is based on daily settlements for the most active 

CME bitcoin futures contract. Source: CME and CFTC. 

$0

$2,500

$5,000

$7,500

$10,000

$12,500

$15,000

$17,500

$20,000

$22,500

01 2019 04 2019 07 2019 10 2019 01 2020 04 2020 07 2020 10 2020

CME Bitcoin Futures: 

Jan. 2, 2019 to Nov. 30, 2020

11
Digital Asset Market Development

Interest in trading digital asset derivatives is growing. Nevertheless, as a class, 

digital asset markets remain small relative to other traditional assets.

Source: CFTC analysis of daily futures settlement data. 

BITCOIN, 

$0.97

CRUDE 

OIL, LIGHT 

SWEET, 

$88.05

CORN, 

$36.32 GOLD, 

$103.57

Futures Open Interest 

($bn avg notional value)

November 2020

$0.00

$0.40

$0.80

$1.20

$1.60

$0

$40

$80

$120

$160

Jan-19 Jun-19 Nov-19 Apr-20 Sep-20

Comparative Futures Open Interest

($bn notional value) 

Jan. 2, 2019 to Nov. 30, 2020

CORN

CRUDE OIL, LIGHT SWEET

GOLD

BITCOIN (right axis)

12
Measuring Digital Asset Markets

13

A variety of metrics can be utilized to evaluate digital asset markets. A 

non-exhaustive list of metrics includes:

– Digital asset values relative to currency or conventional 

assets.

– Number of digital asset users.

– Value of cash market and derivatives transactions.

– Transaction volumes in cash and derivatives markets.

– Overall market liquidity.

– Number of active or open digital asset derivatives contracts.

– Number of tokens and/or total value locked in smart contracts.

– Value of the marketplace (ecosystem) supporting digital 

assets.
REGULATORY RESPONSE
15

Digital Assets: Benefits and Risks

• Increased transaction speed, 

efficiency, and certainty. 

• “Democratization” of markets and 

financial inclusion.

• Automation through smart contracts.

• Simplified compliance.

• Enhanced security.

• Greater liquidity for assets.

• Market manipulation (e.g., insider 

trading, market corners, fraud).

• Lack of transparency, accountability 

and governance issues.

• Illicit transactions and activity.

• Cybersecurity, systems failure.

• Macroprudential economic risk.

• Resource consumption.

Digital assets offer significant potential. Yet, they also may present risks. 

Reflecting its commitment to encourage and keep pace with innovation, the CFTC has set a goal in its 

Strategic Plan to develop a holistic framework to promote responsible innovation in digital assets.*

Benefits Risks

* See CFTC Strategic Plan 2020-2024, Goal 3.4, available at

https://www.cftc.gov/media/3871/CFTC202024_2024StrategicPlan/download
Building Blocks for a 

Regulatory Framework

A number of elements may contribute to a robust regulatory framework for digital 

assets. These building blocks may include:

Native 

Governance

Mechanisms that 

determine how 

digital assets 

operate, including 

the coding process 

and the transaction 

verification process. 

Community 

Standards and 

Best Practices

Standards and 

best practices 

governing digital 

assets and their 

ecosystems 

established by the 

user community.

Legal

Agreements

Legally enforceable 

agreements 

between two or 

more parties that 

can facilitate the 

adoption and use of 

digital assets.

Government

Regulation

Principles, rules, 

and regulatory 

practice created 

and enforced by 

government 

authorities.

16
Key Builders: 

Government Authorities

• A variety of government authorities – federal, state, and international –

are contributing to the regulatory framework for digital assets. 

• In the U.S., many federal authorities are engaging. Examples include:

– Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC): Regulates futures and 

swaps markets, and certain other categories of commodity transactions.

– Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC): Regulates U.S. capital 

markets and enforces federal securities laws.

– Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN): Oversees money service 

businesses and enforces anti-money laundering laws.

– Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC): Regulates national and 

foreign banks operating in the United States.

– Federal Reserve System: Central Bank of the U.S. and regulates, among 

other areas, the payments industry.

. 

17
Key Builders:

Non-Government Stakeholders

• Working together with agencies like the CFTC, a variety of non-government 

stakeholders are contributing to the regulatory framework for digital assets.

• These stakeholders include a variety of representatives from within the 

digital asset industry as well as the broader financial services sector.

– Developers and Developer Groups.

– Digital Asset Businesses.

– Industry and Digital Asset Users.

– Financial Markets Participants.

– Trade Associations.

– Self-Regulatory Organizations.

18
Regulatory Engagement

• Regulatory authorities have a variety of tools to facilitate engagement: 

– Use of convening power to host internal, inter-agency, and public events.

– Participation in working groups, task forces, and similar initiatives.

– Contests, hackathons, and sandboxes. 

– Sponsored projects and partnerships.

– Regulatory guidance on jurisdiction and applicable requirements.

• Proactive engagement benefits both regulators and stakeholders and promotes 

responsible innovation. It can enable:

– Dedicated points of contact and mechanisms to provide non-binding guidance.

– Opportunity to keep pace with innovation; insight on new products, technology, 

and services.

– Understanding the existing regulatory framework and its application to digital assets; 

identification of potential friction points and risks.

– Improved coordination among regulatory authorities and stakeholder groups.

19
Regulatory Coordination

• Current rules largely originated before the advent of digital assets. Given 

their novel features and characteristics, digital assets expose gaps and 

overlaps in existing regulatory frameworks. 

• Digital asset markets are global.

• Regulatory coordination is necessary for effective oversight and for the 

development of a coherent, harmonized framework. 

• Effective coordination enables regulators to share information, advance 

common interests, and leverage resources. Coordination efforts also 

build trust and understanding among regulators.

• Mechanisms for coordination include formal agreements, inter-agency 

work groups, staff level initiatives, and multilateral organizations.

20
Classification of Digital Assets

• A deliberate evaluation of a digital asset can determine which 

regulatory frameworks may apply.

• The design, stated purpose, and observed use of a digital asset 

are each useful for an assessment.

 Do existing regulations adequately apply to a particular 

?

digital asset?

• A taxonomy can help distinguish different groups of digital 

assets based on these criteria, and structure a regulatory 

framework.

 Which digital assets or which aspects of their use should be 

subject to oversight? What rules or principles should apply?

 How should oversight be implemented? Should multiple 

regulatory frameworks apply to a digital asset at the same 

time? Should a single regulator have primary authority? 

21
DIGITAL ASSETS AND THE CFTC
CFTC + Digital Assets

• The Commodity Exchange Act (CEA) defines “commodity” broadly to 

include all “goods and articles, ... and all services, rights, and interests ... 

in which contracts for future delivery are presently or in the future dealt in.” 

7 U.S.C. § 1a(9).

• The statutory definition of “commodity” is not limited to tangible (physical) 

commodities.

• Under the CEA, the CFTC has regulatory authority over most categories of 

derivatives transactions.

• Depending on their structure and use, digital assets may be deemed to be 

a commodity, swap, or other derivative.

• The CFTC also oversees certain derivatives market participants (e.g., 

dealers and intermediaries) and market infrastructure (e.g., exchanges and 

clearinghouses).*

23 * Note that clearinghouses may engage third party custodians to safeguard customer assets. The CFTC 

does not regulate or supervise these entities.
CFTC’s Jurisdiction

• In 2015, the CFTC found: “Bitcoin and other virtual currencies are 

encompassed in the [commodity] definition and properly defined as 

commodities.” See In the Matter of: Coinflip, Inc., d/b/a Derivabit, and 

Francisco Riordan, CFTC Docket No. 15-29.*

• In 2016, the CFTC took action against a bitcoin exchange that was offering 

futures in the U.S. without registering with the agency. In the Matter of: 

BFXNA INC. d/b/a BITFINEX, CFTC Docket No. 16-19.Ϯ

• In 2017, the CFTC proposed guidance regarding its jurisdiction over certain 

types of retail transactions involving virtual currency. It finalized this guidance 

in 2020. See “Retail Commodity Transactions Involving Certain Digital 

Assets,” 85 FR 37734 (June 24, 2020). 

• In 2018, federal courts affirm the CFTC’s jurisdiction over digital assets in two 

cases, CFTC v. McDonnell, 287 F. Supp. 3d 213 (E.D.N.Y. 2018) and CFTC v. 

My Big Coin Pay, Inc. et al., 334 F. Supp. 3d 492 (D. Mass. 2018).

• In 2019, CFTC Chairman Heath Tarbert expressed his view that ether is a 

commodity, as defined by the CEA.†

24

* https://www.cftc.gov/idc/groups/public/@lrenforcementactions/documents/legalpleading/enfcoinfliprorder09172015.pdf Ϯ https://www.cftc.gov/sites/default/files/idc/groups/public/@lrenforcementactions/documents/legalpleading/enfbfxnaorder060216.pdf

† See, e.g., CFTC Press Release 8051-19, available at https://www.cftc.gov/PressRoom/PressReleases/8051-19.
Digital Asset Market Oversight

• To function as intended, digital asset markets must be transparent, safe, 

and resilient. A key objective of governance for digital assets is to 

promote and ensure market integrity.

• Market regulators like the CFTC have been committed to combatting 

fraud and abuse, as it relates to: 

– Unfair and deceptive sales practices.

– Market manipulation.

– “Pump and dump” and other fraudulent schemes.

• Digital asset stakeholders have also contributed by developing industry 

initiatives such as: 

– Codes of Conduct.

– Compliance Protocols and Tools.

– Market Surveillance Tools.

25
Joint Statement on Activities 

Involving Digital Assets

• Issued October 2019 by leaders of the CFTC, SEC, and FinCEN.*

• Reminder for entities engaging in digital asset transactions to comply 

with the anti-money laundering and countering the financing of terrorism 

(AML/CFT) requirements in the Bank Secrecy Act (BSA).

• The facts and circumstances of an entity’s digital asset-related activities 

is the key factor in determining whether and how that person must 

register with the CFTC, SEC, or FinCEN. 

• The Joint Statement notes “any person ‘registered with, and functionally 

regulated or examined by, the SEC or the CFTC,’ would not be subject to 

the BSA obligations applicable to MSBs, but instead . . . would be subject 

to the BSA obligations of such a type of regulated entity.”†

26 * See https://www.cftc.gov/PressRoom/SpeechesTestimony/cftcfincensecjointstatement101119. † Id. 

((citing 31 CFR § 1010.100(f)(8)(ii)).
Leveraged Retail Transactions

• In the Dodd-Frank Act, Congress extended CFTC jurisdiction to include 

leveraged retail commodity transactions entered into with, or offered to,

parties that are not Eligible Contract Participants (ECPs). 

• CEA Section 2(c)(2)(D) provides that such transactions, defined as "Retail 

Commodity Transactions," shall be treated as futures, except with respect 

to any contract of sale that results in “actual delivery” within 28 days.

• The Commission unanimously approved final interpretative guidance in 

March 2020 on the meaning of actual delivery for virtual currency 

transactions.†

– Actual delivery means the transfer of possession and control and the ability to 

use the virtual currency freely.

– Actual delivery would not be satisfied solely by a mere book entry by the 

counterparty seller or the offeror purporting to show delivery to the purchaser.

– Nor is actual delivery satisfied merely by rolling or offsetting the transaction or 

settling the transaction in cash or another virtual currency.

† Retail Commodity Transactions Involving Certain Digital Assets, 85 FR 37734 (2020), available at 

https://www.cftc.gov/sites/default/files/2020/06/2020-11827a.pdf. 27
CFTC-REGULATED 

DIGITAL ASSET DERIVATIVES
Digital Asset Derivatives

• As digital assets continue to develop, market participants may find 

derivatives useful instruments for:

– Hedging/Risk Management, e.g., a bitcoin miner or merchant that accepts bitcoin.

– Speculation, directional, or volatility trading.

• Digital Asset derivatives offer a variety of potential benefits:

– Provide a means to exchange value among different digital assets and fiat 

currencies.

– May be cash-settled, enabling price exposure without having to own the virtual 

currency.

– May be traded and cleared through CFTC-regulated platforms.

– Help establish relative prices of digital assets, both limiting price fluctuations and 

providing a means to hedge the risk of price fluctuations.

29
Digital Asset Listed Products

• Digital asset derivatives markets are developing alongside the 

growth of underlying digital asset markets.

• A number of CFTC-registered platforms have listed digital asset 

derivative products, primarily based on bitcoin.

– The first bitcoin derivative – a swap on its price – was listed for trading 

by TeraExchange in 2014. Other exchanges have also listed both cash 

settled and physically settled bitcoin derivatives.

– In 2020, ErisX listed for trading the first futures contract based on ether.

• The number of products, listing exchanges, and aggregate average 

daily trading volume for digital asset derivatives listed on CFTCregistered platforms has increased over time.

30
Product Certification and 

Review Process

• Given their novel features, the CFTC released a staff advisory in 2018 

that set out guidance for CFTC-registered entities seeking to list or clear 

virtual currency derivatives products.†

• That guidance stated trading platforms and clearinghouses should: 

1. Partner with spot market platforms that follow KYC/AML rules;

2. Have information sharing agreements with spot market platforms; 

3. Monitor price settlement data from spot markets and identify/investigate 

anomalies and disproportionate moves;

4. Set large trader reporting thresholds at five bitcoins or less; 

5. Regularly coordinate with CFTC surveillance staff and provide trade data; and

6. Allow CFTC staff to review initial and maintenance margin for virtual currency 

futures.

† CFTC Staff Advisory No. 18-14, available at 

https://www.cftc.gov/sites/default/files/idc/groups/public/%40lrlettergeneral/documents/letter/2018-05/18-14_0.pdf. 31
Self-Certification Process

• The Commodity Exchange Act provides designated contract markets 

(“DCMs”) and swap execution facilities (“SEFs”) with the option to either: 

– Submit a certification to the CFTC, or 

– Submit the contract for Commission approval. 

• DCMs/SEFs bring the vast majority of new products to market through the 

certification process. 

• When a DCM/SEF certifies a new contract it must determine that the 

offering complies with the CEA and Commission regulations, including 

that the new contract is not readily susceptible to manipulation (DCM/SEF 

Core Principle 3). 

• To date, all virtual currency derivatives have been self-certified by trading 

venues.

32 See CFTC Staff Advisory No. 18-14, available at 

https://www.cftc.gov/sites/default/files/idc/groups/public/%40lrlettergeneral/documents/letter/2018-05/18-14_0.pdf.
CFTC Staff Review of Listed 

Digital Asset Derivatives

For cash-settled digital asset derivatives, the primary focus is to ensure that the 

contract settlement prices are reliable. Among the issues, CFTC staff consider:

– What is the quality and liquidity of the underlying market and pricing data?

– Are there safeguards in place to ensure fraud and manipulation risk is mitigated?

– How robust is the methodology for calculating the settlement price?

For physically-settled digital asset derivatives, CFTC staff consider:

– Physical transfer and storage (custody). Are there appropriate protocols, 

safeguards, and security? Does the exchange have clear rules around the 

delivery process? Is it consistent with prevailing cash market practices?

– For cleared products, what is the role of the clearinghouse in the delivery process?

– What may be the impact of delivery on underlying cash markets? Could traders 

engage in squeezes, corners or other manipulative behavior?

– What protocols are in place to ensure fraud and manipulation risk is mitigated?

33

See CFTC Regulations, 17 CFR Parts 37, 38, 39, and Appendix C to Part 38; and CFTC Staff Advisory No. 18-

14, available at https://www.cftc.gov/sites/default/files/idc/groups/public/%40lrlettergeneral/documents/letter/2018-

05/18-14_0.pdf.
DIGITAL ASSETS 

MOVING FORWARD
Digital assets are still new and evolving rapidly. How will digital 

assets and their ecosystems develop over time? What impact 

might decentralized finance have?

Digital assets offer potential in a range of contexts, as well as 

challenges and vulnerabilities. What are the opportunities and 

risks? What safeguards and protections are appropriate? 

Good governance for digital assets is vital for their continued 

growth. What does an effective regulatory framework look like? 

Digital asset markets are also rapidly developing. How can 

regulators support transparent, liquid markets and help ensure 

their integrity?

35

Topics for Further Consideration
Questions? 

Contact Us

LabCFTC@cftc.gov 

www.cftc.gov/LabCFTC 

36